", THE PRACTICE OF FORESTRY CONCERNING ALSO THE FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION THE PRACTICE OF FORESTRY CONCERNING ALSO THE FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION BY PERCIVAL TRENTHAM MAW LATE PROFESSOR OF FORESTRY AT.THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, CIREM KSTKIL PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATE OF THE SURVEYORS INSTITUTION MEMBER OF THE LAND AGENTS SOCIETY HONORARY JOINT-EXAMINER IN FORESTRY AT THE SURVEYORS INSTITUTION FORMERLY LAND AGENT TO THE LATE A. C. PASS, ESQ., DEVON AND DORSET ESTATE LIBRARY FACULTY OF FORESTRY UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO T. FISHER UNWIN LONDON LEIPSIC ADELPHI TERRACE 1909 BY SERRATION -VICES OATF OCT 2*1991 M3 Printed in Great Britain. PREFACE IN the following pages I have endeavoured to write such a treatise on Forestry as will be found of universal use to Landowners, Land Agents, and all Students of the science of Forestry. It is very necessary to realise that a complete knowledge of the correct practice of Forestry can only be obtained by approaching the subject from a scientific attitude. There are many able foresters whose only school has been that of the lonely woodlands, but their ability is, nevertheless, the result of an unconscious scientific study. There is, however, a species of humanity — a class of self- styled experts — who advertise as being practical authorities on Forestry matters, and who boast that they eschew all that is scientific, but whose only passport is, in reality, that of garrulous ignorance, and an overweening confidence in their own inability. I cannot too strongly warn my readers against attaching any importance to the remarks or advice of such men as these. Now, whereas in the cultivation of field crops, a consider- able degree of proficiency may be acquired in an empiric manner, by merely watching the results of one's own practice, and without availing oneself of the lessons learnt by others, yet, in the case of Forestry, such would be impossible, for the life of mankind is far too short to admit of acquiring a complete knowledge of Forestry without studying the results of the actions of others, both of the present and past generations, and endeavouring to draw correct conclusions from observations so made. VI PREFACE Knowledge acquired in this way can only be the result of scientific study ; and this study may be greatly facilitated by a perusal of the current literature thereon. As regards Forestry education, I should like to express my opinion that British foresters can only learn their Forestry in this country. I scout any idea that a complete training in any contin- ental school can act other than most prejudiciously upon those who take such a course. For the practice in foreign countries is governed by different economic laws. And, although the main principles of correct continental practice are also applicable to this country, yet to pursue, in this country, much of the detail of such practice, would usually result in disaster, even if not in ridicule. Nevertheless, those who have had considerable experience in this country will find it an inestimable advantage to pay short visits to various continental forests. As regards the present volume, I have emphasised in black type a considerable number of words and sentences, as I feel that such a course will be of great benefit to a certain section of my readers. I would direct especial attention to that which I have said with regard to the choice of tree seeds (pp. 37, 38, 39, 194), the occurrence of and the susceptibility of trees to spring and autumn frosts (pp. 36, 37, 72, 73, 89) ; the preparation of land by ploughing, and subsequently planting with a plant- ing spike (pp. 67, 68, 118, 119, 132); and as to the partial clearance and underplanting of crops of timber (pp. 163 to 175)> So, also, on pp. 317 to 322, I have endeavoured to show the fairness or otherwise of the railway rates charged for the carriage of timber — at present such a debated point. In Chapter XI. I have stated what I believe to be the average yield of crops of timber upon certain qualities of soil. In Chapter XII. I have dealt, in as simple a manner as possible, with the complex technicalities of the financial PREFACE vii aspect of Afforestation, and on pp. 246, 247, 248 I have shown the maximum present-day rental equivalents that may be expected to accrue from planting land of a given quality with trees, provided a particular price can be obtained for the timber ; whilst in Chapter I. I have dealt, in a general way, concerning the advisability or otherwise of the afforestation of land. Also, I direct especial attention to the data (on pp. 235 to 237) showing the enormous debt per acre that exists upon any normally stocked area of forest land. The whole question of the financial results of affores- tation has hitherto received but little consideration ; and the majority of those who are responsible for woodland management are entirely ignorant of the subject. And yet, reduced to its lowest terms, is not economic forestry merely a question of £ S. D. ? That the yields of crops of timber and the prices that will be obtained therefor are factors of great uncertainty, no one will deny. Yet such is no defence for the failure to adopt correct actuarial principles when considering questions of Forestry finance. Rather is it a reason why a high rate of interest should be looked for instead of a low rate, which latter so many seem to think is justifiable. I have no hesitation in saying that a study of the finances of Forestry is of far more importance to those responsible for woodland management, than is the study of any of the Natural History sciences allied to Forestry, such as Entomology, or Botany, or the study of Fungi, interesting and important though these be. In another volume I hope to deal shortly with some of these subjects, and also with certain extraneous matter, such as the conversion and the technical qualities of timber ; and, so also, concerning the utilisation of coppice produce, and woodland industries connected therewith. But such subjects are beyond the scope of the present volume. viii PREFACE Lastly, I wish to express my thanks to Professor Pritchard of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, for having read through all my manuscripts (except Chapters I. and XII.), and for the many valuable suggestions which he has offered to me in connection with this work. And I thank M. Johannes Rafn, Seed Merchant, of Copenhagen, for much valuable information with regard to tree seeds and their germinative capacity. PERCIVAL T. MAW. NUTFIELD, SURREY, 1st January 1909. TABLE OF CONTENTS * CHAPTER I. AN INTRODUCTION. CONCERNING THE NATIONAL ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF WOODLANDS AND OF THE AFFORESTATION OF LAND. PACK The Effects upon Climatic Conditions and upon the Locality . 1-6 As regards the Temperature of the Air and Soil . . I As regards the Moisture in the Atmosphere ... 2 As regards Soil Moisture ..... 4 As regards Protection against Erosion and Denudation . 4 As regards Shelter and Protection from Storms . . 4 As regards the Salubrity of the Atmosphere ... 5 Conclusion ....... 5 The Effects upon the Labour Market . . . 6-9 As to the Direct Effects of Afforestation with respect to Labour 6 As regards Afforestation as a Means of affording Work for the Unemployed ...... The Financial Returns which Afforestation is likely to yield . 9-20 As to the Possibility of Permanent Advances in the Price of Timber ....... 13 Considerations in favour of General Afforestation Schemes . 14 Considerations which point to the Inadvisability of General Afforestation Schemes in this Country . . .15 ix a 2 x TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER II. FOREST SYSTEMS. PAGE Simple Coppice . .... 21 Coppice with Standards . . . . . .22 High Forest Systems ...... 22-27 (1) The Selection System . ... 23 (2) The Group System . .... 23 (3) The Compartment System ..... 24 (a) Compartments of Even-aged High Forest (b} Two-storied High Forest (c} High Forest with Coppice (d) High Forest with Standards The Choice of Systems . .... 27-31 CHAPTER III. THE NURSERY. Advantages of a Home Nursery ..... 32 Formation of a Nursery . . . . . -33-35 (1) Choice of Site ...... 33 (2) Size of Nursery ...... 34 (3) Laying out a Nursery ..... 34 Nursery Management ...... 35-55 (1) Seed Beds 36 (2) Liability to Frosts ...... 36 (3) Choice of Seed ...... 37 (4) The Storage of Seed ...... 39 (5) The Sowing of Seeds ..... 40 (6) Treatment of Seedlings ..... 47 (7) Other Methods of Raising Trees . . . • 52 (8) Stocking a Nursery with Purchased Plants . . 53 (9) The Pruning of Nursery Stock . . . .54 (10) Lifting the Plants for Planting Out . . . -55 Insect and Fungoid and other Enemies in the Nursery . . 55-57 TABLE OF CONTENTS xi CHAPTER IV. PLANTING. FENCING AND PRELIMINARY OPERATIONS. PAOB Fencing of Land ....... 58-64 Rabbit Fences ....... 58 Fences against Stock ...... 61 Cost per acre of a Rabbit Fence . . . .61 Drainage of Land ....... 64-66 Other Preliminary Operations . 66-69 Cleaning and Preparing the Land . . . .66 The great Advantages of Ploughing the Land . . .68 The Laying Out of Rides and Compartments . . .69 CHAPTER V. PLANTING — continued. AS TO THE CHOICE OF TREES TO PLANT. CONCERNING ALSO THE SPECIAL DEMANDS OF TIMBER TREES, AND THEIR HABITS, AND THE CONDITIONS SUITED TO THEIR GROWTH, AND THEIR FINANCIAL RETURNS. The Individual Demands of Trees as to Locality and Soil . 70-89 The Aspect ....... 71 The Influence of Aspect and Altitude on Frosts . . 72 Aspect and Altitude in reference to Gales . . -73 Altitude in reference to Tree Growth . . . -73 1. The Demands of Trees as to Moisture . . .74 2. The Demands of Trees as to Shelter and Protection from Gales and Frosts ...... 76 3. The Demands of Trees as to Depth of Soil . . . 78 4. The Demands of Trees as to the Mechanical Condition of the Soil ....... 79 As to Food requirements . . . • . ^ 80 As to Floods . . . . . . . ' 86 As to Fire ........ 87 Summary . . . . . . . . 88, 89 xii TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE, The Peculiarities of Growth and the Conditions suited to the Growth of Trees . . . . . 89-113 A. Concerning the Growth peculiar to Individual Trees : — (1) The Shape of the Crowns .... 90 (2) The Relative Height Growth . . . .91 (3) The Persistency and Vigour of Side Branches . 92 (4) The Shade-bearing or Light-demanding Qualities of Trees ....... 95 B. As regards the Conditions under which Trees may best be Grown : — (1) The Age and Distance apart at which Trees should be Planted .... .96 (2) The Merits and Demerits of Pure and Mixed Woods, and the Methods of Mixing . . . .97 (a) Even-aged Woods . . . . .100 (£) Uneven-aged Woods .... 103 Good or Fair Mixtures .... 103 Bad and Inferior Mixtures . . .105 Summary ...... 108 (3) The Choice of System . . . . .109 (4) The Advisability or otherwise of a Rotation of Crop- ping . . . . . . .no (5) The Season for Planting . . . . 1 1 1 As to the Financial Returns that may be anticipated by Planting one Species in preference to another . . . 114-115 CHAPTER VI. PLANTING— continued. PLANTING OPERATIONS. CONCERNING ALSO THE ARTIFICIAL SOWING OF CROPS OF TREES. The Different Methods of Planting Trees . . . 116-126 (1) Planting in Pits . . . . . .116 (2) Planting in Holes made with a Planting Spike . . 118 (3) Planting with a Curved Planting Spade . . .119 (4) Notching or Slitting . . . . . .120 (5) Dibbling . . . . . . .122 As to the Choice of Methods ..... 122 The Number of Trees per Acre ..... 123 Sundry matters relative to the Control of Planting Operations 124 TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii ; Some Notes on the Methods of Planting in Particular Cases 126-130 On Heather Land . . . . . .126 On Wet Peat Land . . . . . .127 On Clay Soils ....... 127 On Exposed Land . . . . . .128 Planting Frost Localities . . . . .128 Planting Shifting Sand and Sand Dunes . . .128 Planting Ornamental Trees . . . . .130 Estimates for Planting and Establishing . . . 131-136 7 The Artificial Sowing of Crops of Trees . . . 136-141 CHAPTER VII. THE TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST AND PRUNING. Cleaning and Tending Young Crops . . . 142-145 Thinning ....... 145-152 Pruning Trees ...... 153-158 (1) The Pruning of Green Branches .... 153 (2) Method of Pruning . . . . . .155 (3) Season for Pruning . . . . . .156 (4) The Effects of Pruning . . . . .157 (5) The Pruning of Dead Branches . . .158 Tables of Thinnings . . . . . 158-162 CHAPTER VIII. PARTIAL CLEARANCES AND UNDERPLANTING. Partial Clearances and Stimulation of Increment . . . 163 Necessity for Underplanting ..... 166 Trees used for Underplanting . . . . .167 Financial Result of Underplanting . . . . .169 Benefits resulting from the Retention of Humus owing to Under- planting ....... 170 Notes and Tables for Partial Clearances of Particular Species 172-175 xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER IX. NATURAL REGENERATION OF HIGH FOREST. PAGE The Selection System . . . . . 176-179 The Group System . . . . . . 179-181 Natural Regeneration of Whole Compartments of Even-aged High Forest ... . 182-187 (1) Preparatory Fellings . . . . . .182 (2) " Seed " or Regeneration Felling . . . .183 (3) Gradual Clearance of Mother Trees . . .184 The Natural Regeneration of Beech . . . 187-191 Under the Selection System . . . . .188 Regeneration of Whole Compartments . . . .189 The Natural Regeneration of Oak and other Trees . 191-193 Oak ........ 191 Ash ........ 191 Sycamore and Norway Maple ..... 192 Corsican and Scots Pines ..... 192 Larch ........ 193 The Natural Regeneration of the Shade-bearing Conifers 1 93-195 The Comparative Merits and Demerits of the Systems . 195-196 CHAPTER X. TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS. Simple Coppice ...... 197-202 Length of Rotations ...... 197 Reproductive Power from Stools . . . .198 General Management ...... 199 (1) Planting up the Land ..... 199 (2) Layering or Plashing ..... 201 Coppice with Standards ..... 202-210 Tables of Fellings ...... 204 Expenses of Management . . . . . 208 The Conversion of Coppice, or Coppice with Standards, into High Forest . . . . . .210 High Forest with Coppice ..... 211-214 Table of Fellings . . . . . . .212 TABLE OF CONTENTS xv CHAPTER XL AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND. PAOB Yield from High Forest ..... 215-225 Qualities of Soil . . . . . . .215 Oak 216 Beech . . . . . . . .217 Silver Fir and Norway Spruce . . . . .218 Scots Pine and Corsican Pine . . . . .219 Weymouth Pine ....... 220 Ash ........ 221 Larch ....... 222, 223 Douglas Fir ....... 224 Sitka Spruce, Cupressus macrocarpa. Willows and Poplars . 225 Yield from Standards over Coppice . . . . 226 Yield from Coppice ...... 227-230 CHAPTER XII. THE FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION. Fallacious Methods of Presenting Financial Statements . 232-234 Initial Outlay Credited with the Income which is Receivable only after a Period of Years .... 232 Correct Methods of Presenting Financial Statements . 234-263 Statement of Income obtained on Average Accumulated Capital Sunk in Normally Stocked Areas . 234 Statement of Gain in Capital after charging Compound Interest ....... 238 Statement of Rate of Compound Interest . . 239 Statement of Yearly Rental Principle . . 244 Tables of Rentals yielded by different Crops in High Forest . 246 Advantages of Annual Rental Principle . . .251 The Financial Aspect of Underplanting . . . 252-257 The Financial Aspect of Coppice with Standards . . 257-261 Comparison of Actual Land Rentals with the Net Returns from Normally Stocked Areas . . . 261-262 Conclusion ........ 263 xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER XIII. TIMBER MEASURING. PAGE Square of Quarter Girth Measurement . . . 264-276 (1) Measurement of Felled Timber .... 265 Fraudulent Girthing . . . . . . 268 Booking Measurements ..... 270 (2) Measurement of Standing Timber . . . .272 Booking Measurements ..... 273 Other Methods of Computing Contents . . . 276-283 True Contents ....... 276 Calliper Measure ....... 277 Die Square Measure ...... 278 Board Measure ....... 278 Table of Percentage Comparison of Contents computed by Various Methods .... 282 CHAPTER XIV. THE MARKETING, SALE, AND TRANSPORT OF WOODLAND PRODUCE. Coppice Areas. ...... 284-289 Conditions of Sale of Coppice . . . . . 286 Uses to which Coppice Produce is put . . . . 287 High Forest Areas ...... 289-304 (i) The Marketing of Thinnings . . . .289 (ii) The Marketing of Mature Timber .... 290 The Sale of Timber . . . . . . 290 The Choice between Sales by Auction, Tender, and Private Contract ....... 295 Conditions of Sale of Timber . . . . .298 The Marking and Lotting of Timber . . . .302 TABLE OF CONTENTS xvii PAOE The Felling of Timber . . ... . 304-311 Season for Felling ...... 307 Barking Trees ....... 307 Extraction and Transportation of Timber . . . 311-323 Cost of Haulage by Horses . . . . .312 Cost of Steam Traction . . . . . .312 Forest Roads ....... 313 Forest Tramway . . . . . .314 Timber Slides ....... 316 Transportation by Canals . . . . .316 Railway Carriage of Timber . . . . .31? The Uses and Prices of Timber .... 323-333 CHAPTER XV. SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES— BROAD-LEAVED TREES. Acacia ........ 334 Alder ......... 336 Ash 338 Beech ......... 342 Birch ......... 346 Cherry 348 Elm . . . . . . . . .349 Hawthorn ........ 352 Hazel ......... 353 Hornbeam ........ 354 Horse Chestnut ;...... 356 Lime or Linden Trees . . . . . .357 Oak 359 Plane Trees ........ 365 Poplars ........ 367 Spanish'Chestnut ....... 372 Sycamore and Norway Maple ..... 375 Tulip Tree . . 377 Walnut ........ 379 Willows 381 xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER XVI. SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES — continued. CONIFEROUS TREES. Cupressus ........ 386 Douglas Fir . . . . . . . . 389 Larch .... .... 392 Pines ......... 400 Silver Fir ........ 414 Spruce ........ 418 Thuya ..... . . 424 CHAPTER XVII. MEASUREMENTS FOR PURPOSES OF FOREST MANAGEMENT. Height of Trees . . . . . . 426 Basal Area ........ 427 Form Factor ........ 428 (1) Measurement of Sample Trees ..... 429 Weise's method ....... 430 Other methods . . . . . . .431 (2) Measurement of Sample Plots ..... 432 (3) Estimation by Reference to Average Yield Tables . . 434 CHAPTER XVIII. ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT ON CROPS OF TIMBER. 1. Increment in Cubic Contents ..... 437 Increment on Standing Timber . . . . .441 Pressler's Formula ...... 443 Schneider's Formula ...... 444 Maw's Formula . . . . . . . 446 Increment on Felled Timber ..... 448 Current Annual Increment ..... 459 Average Annual Increment . . . . .451 2. Increment in Quality . . . . . .451 3. Total Increment on Invested Capital .... 452 TABLE OF CONTENTS xix APPENDICES. PAOK APPENDIX A.— Height Tables ..... 459 APPENDIX B. — Tables of Contents by Quarter Girth Measurement 467 APPENDIX C.— Compound Interest Tables . . .477 APPENDIX D. — Tables of Basal Areas for given Diameters . 485 APPENDIX E.— Tables of Basal Areas for given Quarter Girths . 487 INDEX ........ 489 ERRATA Page 49, last line.— Read "culls" instead of "calls." „ 138, line 36.— Read " ditissima " instead of "ditissina." THE PRACTICE OF FORESTRY CONCERNING ALSO THE FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION CHAPTER I. AN INTRODUCTION CONCERNING THE NATIONAL ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF WOODLAND AREAS AND OF THE AFFORESTATION OF LAND. WITHIN recent years the study of Forestry in this country has received no little attention. Many landowners have displayed a lively interest in the welfare of their woodlands ; and not a few politicians and other public men have seriously considered the possibility and advisability of adopting, on behalf of the public, certain schemes of afforesta- tion on a large scale. The economic importance of woodlands, and the desira- bility of the adoption of works of afforestation in this country, may be considered under three main headings, namely : — (1) The Effects of Woodland Areas upon Local Climatic Conditions, and upon the Locality. (2) The Effects upon the Labour Market. (3) The Financial Returns which Afforestation is likely to Yield. THE EFFECTS UPON CLIMATIC CONDITIONS, AND UPON THE LOCALITY. As regards the Temperature of the Air and Soil. — The existence of large areas of woodland has an appreciable effect upon the temperature of the atmosphere within such A 2 AN INTRODUCTION areas, when compared to the temperature of the atmosphere in the open country. As a general rule, it may be stated that the average temperature throughout the year is less within woodlands than that which obtains in the open. And furthermore, that the average summer temperature is con- siderably less in woodlands than in the open ; whereas the average -winter temperature is usually about the same or very slightly lower than in the open. Then again, extremes of heat and cold are lessened within woodland areas. It has been found that during the hottest days in the year, the maximum temperatures registered within woodlands are always far below those registered in the open; and conversely, the minimum temperatures registered within woodlands during the coldest days of the year are never so low as those registered in the open ; especially is this so in the case of woodlands consisting of ever-green trees. So also, there are daily variations in the temperature of the air within woodlands, when compared to the temperature of the air in the open. Within woodland areas, the night temperature is practi- cally always warmer than, and never falls so low as, the tem- perature in the open ; whereas, during the daytime, the average atmospheric temperature within woodlands is always less than the average temperature in the open. The chief reason for these differences can be ascribed to the fact that the canopy of the trees prevents the soil from being rapidly warmed by the sun's rays ; and also, when once the soil has become warmed, the canopy of the trees prevents any rapid radiation of heat from the soil. And so, also, in the case of -woodland soils, it has been found that the average temperature of such soils is always less than that of soils in the open country. The greatest difference is observed in the summer months, whereas in the winter the difference is practically nil. As regards the Moisture in the Atmosphere. — The presence of woodlands probably does not materially affect the absolute humidity of the atmosphere if the neighbouring EFFECTS OF FORESTS UPON LOCALITY 3 country consist of pasture land, or if it be under cultivated crops, though the absolute humidity would be increased, if the neighbouring country were a dry, more or less barren, waste. Now, inasmuch as the average temperature of the air is less in woodlands than in the open country, it follows that the relative humidity of the atmosphere is much increased by the presence of woodlands ; especially does this increase take place in the summer and early autumn, when the difference in the air temperatures is at its greatest. Hence, on account of this increase in the relative humidity, there is always, cateris paribus, a greater likelihood of rain or mists occurring in a well-wooded area than in a treeless country. This tendency to an increased rainfall is usually only noticed at very high altitudes, or in dry, barren countries ; for in the former case the extremes of temperature by day and night are nearly always far greater than at low latitudes,1 and in the latter case the absolute humidity in the summer months, as well as the relative humidity, is generally much increased. Furthermore, when the surrounding country is dry and somewhat barren, the summer rainfall is more regular. So also, an increased dewfall may always be expected on grass-land or on crops in the neighbourhood of woodlands. Then again, as air rises and gets more rarified, it becomes cooled, and, if its relative humidity were already near the saturation point, the moisture contained therein will consequently be precipitated either as mist, dew, or rain. On the other hand, at low altitudes in fertile districts large unbroken stretches of woodland may actually tend to lessen the rainfall, for although the average relative humidity is generally greater, yet the relative humidity at night-time, in the summer months, is usually less in woodlands than in 1 However, at the lowest altitudes, or those relatively lowest in a locality, there are often greater extremes of temperature by day and by night, than are experienced at medium altitudes. Especially is this the case in the spring and autumn, when, in the lowlands and coombes, frosts are often experienced at night ; whereas, at somewhat higher altitudes, these frosts do not occur. 4 AN INTRODUCTION open ground, since the temperature by night in woodlands is higher. As regards Soil Moisture. — Woodlands exert a consider- able influence upon soil moisture. For the canopy of the trees and the layer of humus prevent rapid evaporation of soil moisture; and the layer of humus, which is hygroscopic, also absorbs moisture, as it were, like a sponge. On account of this latter property, the layer of humus, assisted also by the obstruction afforded by the roots and crowns of the trees, prevents the rapid disappearance of any rainfall ; and it prevents the consequent flooding of streams and rivers ; and it prevents also the washing away and denuda- tion of the soil. Consequently, the duration of the beneficial effects of rainfall is prolonged ; especially is this the case in the early spring, before active transpiration has begun. It should be noted that in the summer months, an area covered by trees will utilise a far greater quantity of water than is lost by evaporation from the surface of bare land. For although soil evaporation is less in woodlands than on bare, open land, an enormous quantity of water is transpired by the trees. Another effect produced by trees is that the water table is lowered ; and, for this reason alone, the liability to floods is lessened ; for a greater quantity of water must be absorbed before flooding can take place. As regards Protection against Erosion and Denudation. — The beneficial effect which trees exert with respect to any direct erosion by rainfall has just been noticed. But losses sustained by erosion and denudation from other causes, such as that characterised by landslips and caused by the action of underground water or other agencies, can often be avoided, or at any rate lessened, by the judicious planting of trees and shrubs ; for their roots will help to bind the soil together. In this connection, the planting of stoloniferous shrubs, or trees which shall afterwards be kept coppiced, will generally be more advantageous than if an attempt be made to grow mature timber. As regards Shelter and Protection from Storms. — The presence of woodland is often of the greatest value, in exposed EFFECTS OF FORESTS UPON LOCALITY 5 localities, to agricultural interests. It is most advisable that as much shelter as is possible should be provided for farms in exposed districts. As regards the Salubrity of the Atmosphere.— The atmosphere in woodlands is always more free from impurities than the atmosphere in more thickly populated districts. It usually shows a remarkable absence of bacteria and of carbonic acid gas ; and on the other hand, it usually contains more oxygen and ozone than the atmosphere near towns. Then again, in the neighbourhood of Pine woods or forests of Silver Fir or Douglas Fir, it is probable that the atmosphere will contain more ozone than is found in other forest areas, and there will usually be found also appreciable quantities of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), owing to the oxida- tion of turpentine. Conclusion. — Now, with reference to the foregoing, it is evident that afforestation may sometimes be judiciously carried out, even though there be no direct pecuniary returns by the sale of timber. For instance, the planting of water catchment areas is in practically all cases desirable, not only on account of any probable increase in the rainfall, but chiefly because any sudden floods are largely avoided and the water is more gradually drained from the land, and the supply is thus more constant And inasmuch as this is so, smaller reservoirs will suffice for any given supply ; and thereby the expenses of the whole undertaking can usually be greatly reduced. And then again, the planting of trees will often be advis- able in order to provide shelter for farms or houses in exposed localities. And so, also, afforestation may often advisedly be embarked upon in order to render the adjoining country fit for agricultural purposes. And though such opportunities are not very frequent in this country, partly on account of the moist climate which already naturally prevails, yet they do exist. In this connection, it may be well to note that in Belgium, and in other places in Europe, certain tracts of land, formerly useless for agriculture, have been rendered fertile in conse- 6 AN INTRODUCTION quence of the shelter afforded, and of the increased rainfall and humidity of the atmosphere, resulting from the afforestation of a part of the area. And on the other hand, the evil effects of the destruction of forests have in places been very evident. Districts which once were very fertile have become almost barren ; the rainfall in the growing season has almost vanished ; and the summer temperature has become greatly increased. Such examples are to be found in parts of Austria, in Cyprus, and the Russian Steppes. THE EFFECTS UPON THE LABOUR MARKET. As to the Direct Effects of Afforestation with respect to Labour. — When considering this aspect of the question, it is necessary to have regard to the annual cost of labour which a normally stocked forest area involves. This of course will vary a great deal, according to the cost of labour per day, the length of rotation under which the timber is grown, the kind of timber grown, etc., etc. But, on an average, it may be taken that normally stocked areas under high forest, which are regenerated artificially (by planting), will involve a minimum expenditure per acre per annum of 8s. 6d.1 for labour only ; and that normally stocked areas under coppice with standards, or high forest with coppice, will involve a minimum expenditure per acre per annum of us. Qd. for labour only. This latter price includes the " making up " of the underwood. In neither case, however, do these sums include the cost 1 The labour expenses in high forest are made up as follows : — General expenses in respect of ditches, roads, fences, thinning and pruning (labour only), etc. ,£023 Labour on planting, fencing, and cleaning young crops o i o Felling timber and making up cordwood and faggots ° 5 3 Equals ^086 Add, for Haulage 040 Total cost ^012 6 COST OF MANUAL LABOUR IN FORESTS 7 of labour spent in raising young nursery plants, nor the average labour cost per acre per annum, of hauling the produce to the merchants' yards or to the railway station, etc. Such extra cost for manual labour only would probably average about 43. per acre per annum, if the average distance along which the timber, etc., had to be hauled were from 3 A to 4-J- miles. Hence the minimum cost of all manual labour expenses incurred on nominally stocked areas of forest land (including haulage to market) may be reckoned at from 12s. 6d. to 15s. 6d. per acre per annum. Now these labour expenses per acre are very much below those which are incurred on an ordinary " mixed " farm, or even on a purely "grass" farm. And hence any afforestation of land (other than mere " sheep runs " ) which is at all adapted to farming, would result in diminishing the amount of labour that could otherwise be directly employed in the district. And on the other hand, the afforestation of purely waste land, or land used merely for sheep runs, would necessitate the permanent employment of additional labour. However, notwithstanding that a permanent loss of employment is incurred if afforestation be carried out on land now farmed in the ordinary manner, it may be advisable, if there be only a small area of woodlands in any neighbour- hood, to afforest a portion of such land. For, whereas the demand for labour on a farm is usually greatest during the summer months, and is very small during the winter months, the greater part of the work required to be done on forest areas can be executed in the winter, late autumn, and early spring. Hence regular employment all the year round, could be found for a given number of men ; and this con- dition of affairs is infinitely preferable to that of having a considerable number of men out of employment during the winter months, even though a somewhat greater number might find employment during the summer. However, the financial aspect of afforestation will usually have to be considered before such side issues as the effect upon the labour market. 8 AN INTRODUCTION As regards Afforestation as a Means of affording Work for the Unemployed. — Within recent years there has been some considerable discussion as to the advisability of adopting schemes of afforestation as a means of providing work in the winter months for those who may be out of employment. It has been urged that even if such schemes did not pay financially, they are justified and advisable, inasmuch as " relief works " of some sort must be embarked upon, and the planting up of land gives employment in the winter months. Now, apart from the financial losses which will probably result from most schemes of afforestation embarked upon in order to provide " relief works," a careful consideration of the whole matter should convince even the most enthusiastic supporter of such schemes, that the afforestation of land is singularly unsuited as a means of affording winter employ- ment for those who may be seeking work. Among the more important reasons why afforestation " relief works " cannot be considered advisable, may be mentioned the facts that the cost of the manual labour required in the winter months, in order to establish a crop on maiden land (including cleaning for the first few years), represents only about one-third 1 of the total outlay expended in planting, fencing, cleaning, etc. ; and that about an acre of land must be acquired for every £2 2 that can be distributed as wages in the winter months. Hence, supposing that land could be acquired for £8 an acre, and that the cost of planting, fencing, and cleaning the young crop, etc., were £6 per acre, then, for every £2 that can be distributed as wages in the winter months, a capital of £14 is required. So that, in order to provide 100 men with winter work for 16 weeks, at £i per week, it would be 1 This, however, must vary a great deal. 2 This depends upon whether planting be done in pits or by notching, etc. ; I acre to £2 in wages has been taken as an average, though if the notching of seedlings were adopted, a greater acreage would be required. On ordinary waste land trees should seldom be planted in pits. UNDESIRABILITY OF RELIEF WORKS 9 necessary to acquire 800 acres of land, and to expend a total sum of ;£n,2OO. And although ultimately some return on this money may be looked for, yet many years must elapse before any revenue is derived from the money thus expended. It is a sine qua non that the expenditure on any more or less unnecessary work, undertaken in the nature of "relief work," should be almost entirely on behalf of the cost of the manual labour required for such work. There are, moreover, several other objections to any schemes of afforestation undertaken in the nature of relief works, amongst the more important of which may be mentioned the following : — (1) In frosty weather, when the distress arising from unemployment is most severe, all planting operations must be suspended. (2) There is usually no suitable land for afforestation near the big cities and towns ; and if land be acquired at a distance, all expenses will be greatly increased, as, for instance, the cost of railway fares, living and sleeping accommodation, etc., etc. (3) If somewhat high-priced agricultural land be acquired in the vicinity of the cities or towns, the chances of obtaining any ultimate profit will be very much lessened ; and the amount of the annual labour, at present employed on such land, will be much reduced, thereby increasing rural depopulation and lack of employment for the doubtful benefit of providing employment for others for a few weeks in the winter months. (4) Planting requires considerable skill, and the casual labour of inexperienced " hands " can only be bene- ficially made use of to a slight extent. THE FINANCIAL RETURNS WHICH AFFORESTATION IS LIKELY TO YIELD. The Financial Aspect of Afforestation, on the assump- tion that the prices obtainable for timber will remain at their 10 AN INTRODUCTION present levels, is fully considered in another portion of this book (vide Chapter XII). It is there shown that if money be borrowed at 4 per cent, interest, a direct loss will usually be incurred by planting land, the soil and situation of which may be classed as Quality II., with such trees as Beech, Norway Spruce, Silver Fir, Scots Pine, Oak, and Weymouth Pine, and this even though the land could be acquired rent free. The losses are greatest in the case of the first mentioned trees. If, however, money could be borrowed at 3j per cent, interest, the losses would not be so great, and, in the case of Weymouth Pine, a small rental equivalent of is. 2d. per acre per annum would be returned for the land, if the cost of establishing the crop, including fencing and cleaning for the first few years, were £8 an acre. If, however, the cost of establishing the crops could be reduced to £5 an acre, small rentals could be earned by all the crops, except Beech. So, also, if money could be borrowed at 3 per cent, interest, still better results would be achieved. On the other hand, it is shown that such crops as Douglas Fir, Larch, and Ash, will, if all goes well, not only pay 4 per cent, interest on the cost of establishing the crops, but will yield in addition a handsome rental for the land. Other trees which pay well in most cases to grow at present prices are Black and White Poplars, Willows, for cricket bats, and Spanish Chestnut. Also, although their value in this country has not been proved, such trees as Black Walnut, Sitka Spruce, Tulip Tree, Thuya gigantea, Cupressus macrocarpa, Oregon Ash, and the White Ash, will probably yield excellent results ; although any planting of such trees must, at present, be looked upon in the light of an experiment. Furthermore, with reference to the yearly rents which crops of timber may be expected to return, as shown in Chapter XII., it should be noticed that these data have reference, for the most part, to crops grown on land, the soil and situation of which is classed as Quality II. If the soil and situation were Quality I., the crops would yield much FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS 11 better yearly rentals; but if the soil and situation were Quality III. or IV., the yearly rentals yielded would be much less, and any losses sustained would be much greater. And therefore, when contemplating afforestation, it is most important to accurately gauge the quality of the soil and situation. In this connection it may be stated that there is very little land which can be classed as Quality I. for any of the valuable trees, except the Pines, which is not already profit- ably employed for farming or otherwise. There are of course vast areas of " waste lands " in Great Britain ; but these, for the most part, are only suitable for the growth of coniferous trees, and must generally be classed as Quality II., or III., or IV. The total area of waste lands in this country which is at all suitable for tree growth, is purely a matter of conjecture. One writer 1 suggests about 2\ million acres in Great Britain, and f of a million acres in Ireland. But whatever the amount may be, any attqmpt at afforestation of waste lands on any large scale, must, if the present prices which are obtainable for timber remain unaltered, result in a colossal failure, unless indeed money can be borrowed at a very much lower rate of interest than is at present possible. Financed at 3 per cent, or 3^ per cent interest, such schemes can never pay with trees such as Scots Pine, Norway Spruce, Silver Fir, Weymouth Pine, Beech, or Oak. However, there are certain areas of waste land, especially on the northern aspects, which may often be profitably planted with Douglas Fir, Larch, Poplars, or Ash. Indeed, the Douglas Fir, along perhaps with Sitka Spruce or Thuya gigantea, may prove most valuable for planting extensively on waste lands, and will, in all probability, often render advisable the afforestation of land which could otherwise only be afforested at a great monetary loss. But, of the utility of these trees on the poorer classes of land, it is as yet too soon to speak; though it is certain that, unless indeed the atmosphere be continually very 1 Nisbet, in the Forester^ vol. i., p. 95. 12 AN INTRODUCTION moist, they will only succeed on fairly deep soil containing plenty of moisture. As regards the choice l of trees that may be planted on waste lands, it may be accepted as a general rule that land which is covered with heather, or at any rate on which the heather has long been established, is almost always too acid for the growth of any valuable broad-leaved trees ; and therefore the choice must be confined to the conifers. However, apart from the afforestation of waste lands, it will nearly always pay well, even at present prices, to replant any land from which a crop of timber has just been removed. For such land will generally be suitable for planting some of those species of trees which are very profitable, even though an unprofitable species may have just been cleared. And even if it be necessary to replant with a species which is not at present profitable if planted on maiden land, yet, if the land be clean, a profit may often be realised owing to the decreased cost of establishing the crop. Land from which a crop has been removed is usually practically worthless except for replanting ; for the cost of converting it into farming land is nearly always prohibitive. So also, there are large areas of land now let to farmers at low rents of about 53. to 73. an acre, which are very inferior for farming purposes, but which, if afforested, should easily return rentals equivalent to 93. or IDS. an acre, or considerably more, if suitable for the growth of Douglas Fir or Black Poplars. Considerable quantities of such land exist on most estates on the northern aspects, on which, it should be noted, tree growth usually flourishes best ; whereas land with a northern aspect is always inferior for farming purposes. Such land, also, usually exists in considerable quantities in districts where the surface soil is shallow, but where there is a very disintegrated subsoil rock. However, unless a rise in the price of home grown timber be assured, it is hardly likely that any considerable number of landowners will deem it expedient to sacrifice an existing present rental for the ] This matter is fully dealt with in Chapter V. FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS 13 equivalent of a small increased rental, the accumulated value of which can only be realised after the lapse of a considerable number of years ; since, until such time, a considerable capital must be locked up, without any yearly income being received. Furthermore, the profitable production of timber is penalised by the present incidence of local taxation ; the ever growing tendency to a rise in rates ; and the levying of charges for "extraordinary traffic," occasioned by the removal of timber. A consideration of the foregoing leaves little doubt that, generally speaking, there is little inducement from a financial point of view to afforest land on any large scale, except when such crops as Douglas Fir or Poplars, or (in many cases) Larch or Ash can be grown, unless, indeed, sub- stantial rises in the prices of timber should occur and be maintained. As to the Possibility of Permanent Advances in the Price of Timber. — Inasmuch as any great schemes, relative to the general afforestation of waste lands, must end in failure unless greater prices for timber be realised in the future than at present prevail, almost all advocates of such schemes have persuaded themselves, and endeavour to persuade others, that a timber famine is imminent, or at any rate a famine in coniferous timber ; and that, in the near future, the prices realised for home-grown timber will be infinitely greater than those which have prevailed for the last few years. Now, that there is some possibility of a general rise in prices, it is impossible to deny. But the whole question is such a very complicated one, and depends upon so many widely different circumstances, that it is at present impossible to arrive at any definite conclusion upon the subject. Nevertheless, this matter concerning the probable trend of prices and the available timber supply in the future, should receive the earnest attention of all who may be interested in the welfare of British Forestry. Stated briefly, the following are some of the chief con- siderations which may be urged on behalf of, and against, 14 AN INTRODUCTION the adoption of general schemes of afforestation, from a purely financial point of view : — Considerations in favour of General Afforestation Schemes in this Country : — (1) The climate of this country is admirably suited for tree growth. (2) This country at present imports enormous quantities of coniferous timber, which, if grown at home, would represent the yearly production of about 10 million acres of land. (3) The easily available supplies for export, in the chief exporting countries in Europe, are rapidly diminish- ing ; and European countries do not at present supply the total requirements of the whole of Europe ; and these requirements are continually increasing. (4) The prices of timber will probably rise when the produce of virgin forests is no longer forthcoming. (5) In the advent of a change in the fiscal policy of Great Britain, prices of home-grown timber would advance if an import duty were levied upon foreign timber. (6) As areas become afforested, so, it is asserted, will new local industries, utilising wood as their raw material, be established ; and thus, better prices should be obtained for timber. This, however, is very problematical, for it has not occurred in many well-wooded districts where there is a difficulty in marketing the timber. (7) Improved methods could be adopted to some extent in the marketing of timber ; thereby securing to the grower a better price. Such methods would include the semi-conversion of timber in the locality where grown. (8) The price of certain kinds of timber will probably rise considerably owing to special circumstances. For instance, Poplar wood,1 on account of its fire- 1 The non-inflammability of Poplar wood has long been recognised by land agents in hop districts, and used, in consequence, for the FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS 15 resisting properties, should be largely used for all internal boarding in house building — e.g. boards for flooring, lining, sarking, etc. Hence an increase in the price of the timber may be anticipated. Considerations which point to the Inadvisability of General Afforestation Schemes in this Country : — (1) The present forest area in Europe is far greater than is necessary to supply the amount of timber annually required in Europe ; and a small advance in present prices would enable the timber on immense areas to be profitably marketed. The same result would follow if increased facilities for transport were provided in districts from which it is impossible, at present, to profitably export timber. And moreover, apart from such industries as the manufacture of wood pulp, a woodland area of f of an acre, of average quality, per head of population will easily provide enough timber for all domestic requirements — the requirements of Great Britain are about one-half of this amount — and, on the basis of f of an acre per head of population, the forest area of Europe, exclusive of Russia and Finland, is more than sufficient. Furthermore, the forest area of Russia and Finland shows a surplus of 400 million acres of forest land, after deducting f of an acre per head of population of these countries ; how- ever, much of this forest in Russia and Finland is practically worthless, and must always remain in- accessible. (2) The forest area of Canada, producing, or capable of producing, good marketable timber, is about 300 million acres. This area, if properly managed and exploited, could perpetually supply, according to battens of the floors of hop oasts. It is greatly to be desired that the model bye-laws of the Local Government Board, and also the bye-laws of the Local Authorities of all big towns and cities, should specify the compulsory utilisation of Poplar wood, in preference to Deal and Fir, for use, wherever possible, in building construction. 16 AN INTRODUCTION present demands, all the timber required by the whole of Europe, in addition to Canada's domestic requirements. (3) The forest area of Siberia is immense, and must in future generations help to prevent any shortage in the world's timber supply. (4) The majority of waste lands in this country are far removed from all consuming centres, and, owing to the fact that the transport of timber must generally be by rail or road, the cost of marketing home- grown timber will, in many cases, exceed the cost of marketing in Great Britain that which is grown in foreign countries. For instance, Swedish timber, grown within two miles of the banks of one of the rivers flowing into the Baltic, will probably not have cost in transportation, from the place where the log was felled to any large British port, more than about 4d. to 5d. a cubic foot, and sometimes even less. But on the other hand, British grown timber will often have cost twice or thrice that amount before it can be delivered at a large consuming centre. For, often, the British grown timber has to be hauled 6 to 8 miles to a station, and then perhaps 50 to 60 1 miles to some large town ; whereas the Swedish grown timber, as instanced, would be taken on sleighs to the river's edge, or perhaps shot down a timber slide into the river, and then it would be floated down the river to the saw-mills, at an almost infinitesimal cost, and then shipped direct to a British port.2 So again, timber can be felled near the coast of British Columbia, or in parts of Vancouver Island, and can be delivered at a British port at a cost for 1 It should be noted that if large areas were afforested, any small local markets would soon be glutted, and the large consuming centres at a greater distance would have to be sought. 2 Timber can be shipped from a Baltic port to London at about 2^d. to 2^d. per cubic foot. FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS 17 transportation l which will not exceed that which is often incurred in the case of British grown timber. Furthermore, with reference to the cost of the importation of Canadian timber, there is every probability that, on the completion of the Panama Canal, the rates from the Pacific coast to Great Britain will be less than they are now. So also, much timber may, in the future, find its way to this country via Hudson's Bay, at a very low rate. (5) Even if a timber famine were certain, it would often be preferable, from a financial point of view, to re- afforest easily accessible areas in foreign countries than to afforest waste land at home. For, apart from the question of transportation already referred to, it will often be possible, especially in countries with a cold winter climate and a short growing season, or wherever the surface of old forest land is clean, to raise crops from seed at a minimum expense ; whereas, owing to the warm, moist winter climate in this country and the long growing season for most vegetation, it is usually very expensive, and often almost impossible, especially on maiden land, to raise crops from seed. And then again, in foreign countries there is often no necessity to fence a young crop from rabbits, whereas in this country it is practically always necessary. Now, a sum of 3os. per acre spent on fencing, will, at 4 per cent, interest, represent a debt on the crop of over £50 at the end of a 9O-years rotation ; this is equal to a tax of about 3d. per cubic foot on the final yield obtained from a crop of Scots Pine. (6) The growing popularity of the use of creosote as a preservative for timber, will tend to lessen the quantity of timber used for fencing, weather board- ing, etc., etc.; and it will also tend to raise the prices of inferior timber, or to reduce the prices 1 Timber can be shipped from Vancouver City to London at a cost of about 8^d. a cubic foot. B 18 AN INTRODUCTION of the more valuable timber. For instance, a creosoted fence of Poplar wood would last longer than, and for most purposes be as valuable as, an Oak fence made of untreated timber. (7) Except as already indicated, afforestation cannot pay unless the prices of timber advance substantially. But, as there is no guarantee that prices will advance, money spent in afforestation may only too often prove to be a very bad investment. (8) There is an ever-growing tendency for the rates and burdens on land to increase. The above represent a few of the facts relating to afforestation upon which it is possible to base an opinion upon the subject. But in view of the great uncertainty which prevails, and of the long period which must elapse before any returns can be anticipated, it would seem impossible to deny that afforestation, dismantled of its senti- mental clothing, is other than an hideous gamble in " futures " ; for, apart from fluctuations in the prices of timber, forests are liable to destruction by hidden dangers, such as insects, fungi, and fire, the number of which is legion. No doubt a fairly strong case, based merely upon statistics of the acreages under forest and of the imports and exports of timber into, and out of, various countries, can be made out in favour of afforestation. But such hastily formed advice, based upon a portion only of the facts of the case, is about comparable with the advice of those so-called "poultry experts" who rashly assert that egg production on a large scale must pay in this country ; and, to lend colour to their assertions, they never tire of quoting, with the greatest accuracy, statistics showing the imports of eggs from foreign countries ; and this, too, in spite of the fact that few, if any, have ever succeeded in making such a business, carried out upon a large scale, a commercial success. Advocates of afforestation maintain that the Government have a national duty to perform in aiding private and public enterprise in this direction. FINAN€IAL CONSIDERATIONS 19 Schemes have been suggested whereby it is proposed that the Government should lend money to landowners for planting, at a lower rate of interest, payable yearly, than they can borrow in the open market, and that a mortgage should be created upon any land so planted. But why, it may be asked, should the credit of the community be mortgaged in order to foster a private industry of a very risky nature? Others, again, suggest that the Government should advance money, the interest on which should be deferred and payable only after (say) fifty years, but that, as additional security, a sufficient mortgage be granted on land used for farming purposes only. If such a scheme were set on foot and largely made use of, it would, in all likelihood, result in the cry of the socialists, for the State ownership of Land, being at last realised, in respect of a considerable area. Similar schemes have been propounded, whereby county councils, municipal councils, and other corporate bodies could provide money to undertake works of afforestation on more favourable terms than is at present possible. Now, if in the future schemes are instituted for thus financing public bodies, it is earnestly to be hoped that no schemes, involving the deferred payment of all interest, be ever sanctioned. It will doubtless be urged that such are justifiable, inasmuch as the " profits " will be realised in the future. But supposing that, as is highly probable in so many cases, a direct loss were sustained, then a future generation must, nolens volens, inherit an undertaking in respect of which a heavy debt has accrued, and for which they are in no way responsible. What a legacy for one generation to leave another ! In conclusion, it may be pointed out that, if it be the duty of the Government to take steps to anticipate a possible timber famine, it would be far preferable for the Government to acquire extensive timber "limits" in Canada, in close proximity to the coast, instead of fostering and favouring schemes of afforestation in Great Britain. 20 AN INTRODUCTION By such means an investment would be made which would be immediately profitable, and which, if American history is going to repeat itself, would show an enormous capital appreciation in years to come. Would not a scheme such as this be infinitely more profitable than sinking large sums of money in works of afforestation at home ? And finally, it should always be remembered that, generally speaking, agriculture or husbandry is far more profitable at the present time than forestry, and also that husbandry necessitates a greater amount of labour per acre than can ever be profitably employed on forest areas. CHAPTER II. FOREST SYSTEMS. IN a general way, woods may be classified in three main classes, viz. : — (1) Simple Coppice, (2) Coppice with Standards, (3) High Forest, according to the methods adopted in bringing any area of forest land into a state of production. The system of high forest is capable of many variations, and can be still further subdivided into many distinct classes or systems. SIMPLE COPPICE. This system consists in growing trees and periodically cutting them over close to the ground at short intervals, usually of from 5 to 20 years. The growing stock thus found on the ground is often referred to as "underwood." The trees when thus cut over close to the ground are known as "stools," and the regeneration is said to be by " stool shoots." It is a method that can seldom, if ever, be conducted at a profit in the present day ; but it was formerly much in vogue for pure Oak coppice, which was grown for the bark it produced. Simple coppice of Ash and Spanish Chestnut is, how- ever, grown for hop poles in hop districts, and also in the potteries district for " crate " wood. 21 22 FOREST SYSTEMS COPPICE WITH STANDARDS. Under this system a combination of simple coppice and of high forest is produced. There is an overwood of " standards " or " stores," which are grown for mature timber, and an underwood which is produced by the periodic coppicing of a portion of the trees. The standards are not all of the same age, for a certain number are planted and others grow from seed at each time that the stools are coppiced ; hence the standards are distributed in age classes varying from each other by the number of years that elapse between each cutting of the underwood. The number of trees of each age class should vary according to their age ; being more numerous the younger the age class. Trees belonging to different age classes should be evenly distributed over the whole area ; there will therefore never be a clear felling of the standards over any large area. Where this system is adopted, only thinly foliaged trees can be grown as standards; for instance, Oak, Ash, Larch, Black Poplars, Black Walnut, and Acacia. For the underwood, the most suitable trees to grow are Spanish Chestnut, Ash, Hazel, Hornbeam, Sycamore, Norway Maple, and Alder. HIGH FOREST SYSTEMS. These embrace : — (1) The Selection System. (2) The Group System. (3) The Compartment System. And again, the compartment system may be further sub- divided ; thus, there may be compartments of:— (a) Even-Aged High Forest. (b) Two-Storied High Forest. (c) High Forest with Coppice. (d} High Forest with Standards. SELECTION AND GROUP SYSTEMS 23 1. The Selection System. To all intents and purposes, this is the system as adopted by nature. There are trees of practically all ages over the entire area ; and as they become marketable they are cut ; regeneration is practically continuous, and is almost always brought about by natural agencies. It is a system that should never be practised except in the case of shade-bearing trees ; and it is more suited for the growth of Beech than for any other kind of timber. Inas- much as the area is never clear cut, the system has much to recommend it on poor soils or in exposed situations, where the laying bare of the soil is avoided. Again, when sport- ing is a consideration, it will perpetually afford a certain amount of somewhat inferior covert for game preservation. It is, however, absolutely essential that rabbits should be exterminated, otherwise natural regeneration cannot take place. It is the system under which Beech are grown on the Chiltern Hills. In practice, mature timber will only be cut on the same area about once in every 10 to 20 years. 2. The Group System. This system is an expansion as it were of the selection system. It derives its name from the fact that fellings and regeneration are started in groups or patches. These groups or patches vary in size from about 20 yards diameter up to J to I acre. Its derivation from the selection system is very evident, for under the selection system, wherever a big tree is felled, a vacant patch is left ; and, for the greater part, the young trees that will cover this patch will all be of the same age. When one group or patch is regenerated, another is then felled and regenerated in its turn ; and so on, until the whole area is regenerated. The groups are seldom of similar shape, and usually they are seen as strips or bands encircling the various centres where the regeneration was begun. There is always a period of years 24 FOREST SYSTEMS between the felling of one group and its neighbour ; by this means only a small area is laid bare at a time, and the young trees are protected from wind and sun by the other trees adjoining. The regeneration is almost always brought about by natural agencies, and takes place from seed shed from the neighbouring trees. If the groups are large, it is advisable to leave a few trees on any group that is being felled, so as to insure a more even seeding. When dealing with any area under this system the usual plan is to endeavour to bring about the complete regenera- tion of the whole area in a period of from 30 to 45 years, after which it will be some 50 to 60 years, according to the length of the rotation, before the timber on the original group will be ready for the axe. It is a system that is only suitable to shade-enduring trees, which are fairly storm-proof. On the Continent, Silver Fir is often regenerated in this way, but the possibility of regenerating Silver Fir naturally in this country, seems to be confined to a few localities. The method should give good results with Douglas Fir or Sitka Spruce or Thuya gigantea. 3. The Compartment System. This system of high forest is capable of many variations, and will be considered under the subdivisions as already indicated. But there is a broad distinction between this system, including all its variations, and the two former systems described, which is evidenced by the fact that under the compartment system, fellings and regenerations are refer- able to compartments or large blocks of land of 5, 10, 20, or even 50 acres in extent ; whereas under the group system fellings and regenerations take place only on small groups or patches at a time, and under the selection system the opera- tions are still more sporadic. These compartments are preferably made rectangular in shape, with sides in the proportion of 3 : 2. The long side should always be at right angles to the direction of the pre- vailing winds, for by this means the danger from windfall in COMPARTMENT SYSTEMS 25 neighbouring compartments, owing to the felling of any particular compartment, will be much lessened. The compartments should be separated from each other by grass rides or roads. Narrow rides about 12 to 15 feet wide should run parallel to the longer side, and should be cut more or less at right angles by broad rides or roads 24 to 30 feet wide. However, from sporting considerations alone, it may be advisable to make the rides broader than this. (a) Compartments of Even-aged High Forest. — This is the most usual system adopted in growing timber, and the method practically explains itself. At the end of the rotation, the area is generally clear cut and replanted. Sometimes, however, regeneration is brought about naturally, either by a seeding from a light canopy of mother trees left standing over the area, which method is specially suited for the regeneration of beech, or else by a seeding from neighbour- ing trees, on to a cleared area, in which case the seed should be light and easily carried by the wind. This latter method is suited for the natural regeneration of Scotch Pine or Corsican Pine ; and in countries where the seed ripens sufficiently, Larch may be regenerated in this manner. These even-aged compartments may be either mixed or pure. All thickly foliaged shade-enduring trees may be grown pure, but thinly foliaged trees should not usually be grown pure, because as they approach maturity the canopy always becomes too thin, which results in an abun- dant growth of rank grass, brambles, bracken, and the like. However, under the following conditions, pure crops of thinly foliaged trees are admissible, namely, when — (1) High exposed elevations are being planted and shade- enduring trees would not be advisable ; (2) The rotation is very short ; (3) They are afterwards underplanted with shade-endur- ing trees. (£) Two-Storied High Forest. — Under this system there are, towards the end of the rotation, two crops of trees, of widely different ages, growing on the same land. It is brought about by underplanting or undersowing an 26 FOREST SYSTEMS existing crop, which has been heavily thinned. Only thinly foliaged trees, such as Oak, Ash, and Larch, should be underplanted, and the trees used for the undercrop should only be shade-bearing trees. Silver Fir, Beech, and Horn- beam will bear the greatest amount of shade, and then perhaps Thuya gigantea (T. plicata}. These trees will usually form the undercrop. If, however, the canopy is thin, Douglas Fir or Weymouth Pine, or Spanish Chestnut may be used. Norway Spruce cannot be recommended, as, in this country, it is not tolerant of much shade, and it robs the overwood of too much moisture. Under the orthodox method the two crops are harvested at the same time ; but there is no necessity for such a course. If desired, the older crop can be removed and the younger crop can be allowed to grow on, until of larger dimensions : for if the trees forming the older crop are well grown and have not unduly large crowns, little harm will be done to the younger crop, especially if it consists of good stout poles. Where Ash is underplanted, it must almost always be removed before the undercrop, as it comes to maturity so early, viz., from 60 to 75 years. (c] High Forest -with Coppice.1 — This system is some- what similar to the system of two-storied high forest, but it involves the periodic cutting over, at ground level, of the undercrop. The standards must consist of only thinly foliaged trees, such as Oak, Larch, Ash, Black Walnut, and Black Poplars. The most suitable trees for the coppice are Spanish Chestnut, Hornbeam, Ash, and Alder, and to some extent Beech, but the stools of the latter are not usually long-lived, and its produce, unless large, has not much value. The essential points in which this method differs from ordinary coppice with standards are, that the standards over a given area are all of one age, and thus height growth is 1 This system has been named and recommended by the author as a substitute in many cases for the more common system of coppice with standards. CHOICE OF SYSTEMS 27 stimulated, as they help to draw each other up ; there is a greater proportion of them per acre; and the well-being of the coppice, or otherwise, receives comparatively small consideration. (d) High Forest with Standards. — This is a system which is characterised by a small crop of standards, say, 15 to 30 per acre, growing over an undercrop of shade-bearing trees. It is rather similar to two-storied high forest, but it implies not only a small crop of standards, but also, usually, a crop of standards growing on for a second rotation so as to produce extra large timber. It is sometimes adopted in the growing of Oak timber. For instance, Oak may have been planted along with other trees, which have been harvested when mature, and then the Oak are underplanted and allowed to grow on for a second rotation. THE CHOICE OF SYSTEMS. It is very difficult to say which system is preferable to another ; so much will depend upon the given circumstances of any particular case. But there are certain merits and demerits appertaining to each of the systems to which due consideration should always be given. In cases where amenities for game preservation are of paramount importance some system of coppice will usually be decided upon ; but when financial results alone are con- sidered, the choice will often fall upon some system of high forest. In this latter connection, however, there is not that great difference in the nett financial returns as is usually supposed, if regard is had to the invested capital in each case. On really poor land no form of coppice should be attempted, for the periodic laying bare of the soil has a deteriorating in- fluence, and the coppice produce itself, which is young and sappy, removes a far greater quantity of plant food from the soil than is lost by the removal of an equal volume of mature timber. For financial reasons, simple coppice can hardly ever be 28 FOREST SYSTEMS recommended ; for its growth will usually result in a direct loss to the owner, owing to the low price that now obtains for coppice produce. Coppice with standards can be recommended as affording covert for game. Only the timber of thinly foliaged trees should, however, be grown as standards, viz. : — Oak, Ash, Larch, Black Poplars, and Black Walnut, and perhaps the Tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera), and the White Ash (F. Americana], and the Oregon Ash (F. Oregona), and the Picardy Poplar. The timber produced under coppice with standards will usually be of good girth, but it will not be so high, nor of such good technical quality as that produced under even- aged high forest ; especially is this the case with Oak. Furthermore, it will usually taper to a great degree. As usually practised, too much attention is paid to the welfare of the underwood, considering the low returns which it yields. It is with a view of increasing the nett returns, and the height, quantity, and quality of timber produced, and at the same time of preserving the amenities, which are presented by an undergrowth of coppice, that the system of high forest -with coppice is recommended in most cases in pre- ference to that of coppice -with standards. The same species of trees will be grown for timber as under coppice with standards, but they will be numerically somewhat greater. The value of the coppice may be practically nil, except that cut when the standards are only saplings, or when nearly mature, so that, apart from its value as covert, it must be looked upon simply as a natural means of pruning the young standards, and afterwards, as keeping the soil clean, and preventing the growth of rank grass and weeds, and thus ultimately enabling a new crop of standards to be raised at a minimum expenditure. The growth of the coppice can always be favoured as seems expedient ; it will suffer most when the standards are from 20 to 40 years old, but provided the stools are not killed, this does not matter. Near the edges of the rides it will CHOICE OF SYSTEMS 29 always be advisable to favour the growth of the coppice, and thus form an effectual screen and additional covert for game preservation. Another point in favour of this method is, that when the standards are finally felled, the raising of the new crop is confined to a minimum area, the whole of which, where rabbits are numerous, can be fenced en bloc at a cheaper rate per tree than is usually the case when the 'young trees are each separately surrounded by a piece of netting or tarred felt ; and also, the labour in looking after these young trees, and preventing suppression by the coppice, is very much less than where the trees are spread over a large area. The quantity and quality of timber that will be produced by this method is, so far as the overwood is concerned, about similar to that grown as the overwood in two-storied high forest. Under this latter system, however, the total quantity of timber produced will be greater and more valuable than the total quantity produced where coppice growth forms part of the crop. These three systems should only be attempted, however, when there is a sufficiency of moisture in the soil, for the existence of an undercrop demands more moisture in the soil than is necessary if such crop were growing in the open. Also, the soil itself must at any rate be of fair quality. Under two-storied high forest there are two periods in one rotation, when there is a young crop affording covert for game; hence, for this reason, it will often be preferred to compartments of even-aged high forest. When, however, it is desired to grow a maximum amount of timber which shall also be of the highest quality, the pre- ference must be given to even-aged high forest at any rate for the shade-bearing trees, and also for such trees as Scots Pine and Corsican Pine, which, until they approach maturity, require a very close canopy, and are quite unsuited for being systematically underplanted, although the latter may be underplanted if the rotation is a long one. Except in the early stages of their existence, these com- partments will afford no suitable covert whatever for game, if they have been properly managed. 30 FOREST SYSTEMS On poor, dry, exposed, sandy or gravelly soils, even-aged compartments of Scots or Corsican Pine grown on a short rotation are practically the only timber crops that can advisedly be grown. However, for the growth of Oak, Ash, and Larch, this method is not so suitable as two-storied high forest ; and if the land is too dry for underplanting, it is too dry for the growth of good Oak, Ash, or Larch, unless indeed the two latter are grown on a very short rotation. Even-aged mixtures of Oak, or Ash, or Larch, with the shade-enduring trees will give perhaps the greatest outturn in timber, but the shade-enduring trees must be such that they do not overtop or suppress the light-demanding trees. The system of high forest -with standards cannot be recommended. Financially, it will seldom prove remunera- tive to leave the trees for a double rotation. The only crop to which it is at all suitable is the Oak, but there is a great tendency for the trees to become stag-headed and to throw out numerous epicormic branches all along the stem. Now, on poor soil, or in exposed places or wherever the conditions for the growth of timber are inimical, some system should be adopted, if possible, which avoids clear cutting the whole area. With even-aged compartments of high forest, it is often possible to obtain natural regeneration under a shelter wood of mother-trees (or artificial regeneration may be adopted) ; but the greatest shelter and protection is obtained under the group system and the selection system. However, only shade-bearing trees can be grown under these two systems. Under the selection system, the maximum amount of shelter and protection is obtained, and there is at all times a certain amount of covert for game. But the timber produced will usually be somewhat tapering and not of very high technical quality. Under the group system, the advantages of shelter and soil protection which exist under the selection system, are retained, but there will be a larger proportion of trees of good technical quality, especially if the groups are large. CHOICE OF SYSTEMS 31 On the other hand, as the groups are enlarged, so will the protection from wind be lessened. The total quantity of timber produced under the group and the selection systems, does not vary materially from that produced under even-aged high forest. As these two systems depend upon natural regeneration, though artificial aid may be given, it is imperative that rabbits be exterminated, or the whole areas will have to be wired in. CHAPTER III. THE NURSERY. WHEREVER planting operations are annually carried out, it is almost imperative to raise the plants in a home nursery. And even if planting be only carried out occasionally, it will in many cases be advisable to make a temporary nursery for a year or two ; especially if the area which it is proposed to plant be of any considerable extent. In all cases, Haw- thorns or " Quicks " should always be raised for estate fencing purposes. The great advantages which are presented by the use of plants raised in a home nursery may be summarised as follows : — (1) There is no delay1 between raising the plants and planting them out. Plants in trade nurseries are often raised months before they are ordered, and " sheued " into lines, so as to have the land cleared. (2) They can usually be raised for a very much smaller sum than they can be bought for. (3) The exact treatment that the plants have received is known. (4) The quality and origin of the seed is usually known. (5) The plants can be accustomed to the soil and situa- tion in which they are going to be planted. (6) Plants can be sent out from the nursery as they are wanted day by day, and if a frost sets in, there need 1 If plants when ordered from a trade nursery are not in stock, they are obtained elsewhere, and a double railway journey is the result, as, for the sake of appearance, they will be dispatched from the nursery where ordered. 32 SITE OF NURSERY 33 be no plants that have been raised and await planting out, and thus the mortality among freshly planted trees is reduced to a minimum. (7) The risk of introducing insect and fungoid attacks is minimised. (8) No " culls " are ever used inadvertently.1 FORMATION OP A NURSERY. (1) Choice of Site. Generally speaking, a northern or north-western aspect is preferable for a forest nursery. On southern or eastern aspects the majority of trees will start into growth too early, and hence there is a great danger that they will suffer from late spring frosts ; and on eastern aspects there is the additional risk of the plants suffering from the effects of cold, dry, east winds. The actual altitude at which the nursery is situated is not a matter of very great importance in this country; though trees which are intended to be planted out at high altitudes should advisedly be obtained from nurseries at similar altitudes. The relative altitude, however, is a matter of the very greatest importance. A low relative altitude should never be chosen ; for late spring and early autumn frosts are far more frequent in valleys, dells and coombes, than on higher ground. For the same reason, a nursery site should never be chosen on a large expanse of level ground ; gently sloping ground is to be much preferred. Care should be taken that a very sheltered place is not selected ; in fact, if the greater part of the planting is going to be done on exposed land, the nursery itself should be somewhat exposed, and the seedling trees can artificially be given such shelter as may seem expedient. If possible and convenient, the nursery should be 1 In trade nurseries it is a common practice to transplant the vigorous plants from a bed, and to leave the weaklings or " culls " for another year. Such culls, the produce of weakly seed, are worthless, but they are unfortunately often used. C 34 THE NURSERY near the head woodman's cottage, and a plentiful supply of water should be at hand or capable of being easily laid on. On account of insect attacks, it should be far removed from the estate yard, where the unbarked timber forms a suitable breeding place for some injurious insects. And if possible, it should be away from old pasture-land, and areas of hardwood trees, for otherwise the ravages of the cock- chafer grub will probably be a constant source of trouble. And on account of beetles and pine weevils, it should not be near coniferous woods. The best soil to select for a forest nursery is a sandy loam. A clay soil should always be avoided, for fibrous roots are not easily formed in it, and the soil has a tendency to "run together" and "set," thus rendering the rearing of seedlings an impossibility except at great expense. A depth of about 1 8 inches of soil is almost essential, as the supply of moisture will be more constant and plentiful. (2) Size of the Nursery. This must depend upon the area that has to be planted annually, and also upon the size and the age at which the plants are going to be planted out. Roughly speaking, if 4-year-old plants are going to be planted at 4 feet by 4 feet, the area of the nursery should be about 8 or 10 per cent, of the area that is to be planted annually. Though, if only conifers are required, about 6 to 7 per cent, of the area to be planted annually would suffice. And, in ordinary estate nurseries, an additional space should be allowed to admit of the raising of ornamental trees and garden shrubs, and " Quicks " for fences. (3) Laying out a Nursery. When the site has been determined, the whole area must be carefully prepared and fenced off against rabbits,1 and stock if necessary. If the site is an old pasture, or if trouble is likely to result from wireworms or cockchafer grubs, a good dressing of gas-lime should be given, the soil then 1 Vide Chapter IV. LAYING OUT A NURSERY 35 trenched two spits deep, and another dressing of gas-lime given and left on the surface to wash in. When trenching, all stones should be carefully picked out for use on the paths or roads, and the earth well broken up. No plants can be put in the nursery until some months after the gas-lime has been applied, as the plants would be poisoned if put in before oxidation had taken .place. Any large nursery should be divided up into sections, of about i acre each, by hard roads about 12 feet wide, so that a horse and cart can be drawn along without doing damage. These sections should again be divided up by paths about 4 feet wide, so as to admit of the use of wheelbarrows or hand- carts. Then these smaller sections may be again divided up, as may seem convenient, by narrow trodden tracks 15 or 18 inches wide. About yV1 of the nursery will generally be devoted to the raising of seedlings ; and it is advisable to have this portion laid out in long, narrow beds, 4 feet wide, running north and south. These beds may then be weeded and tended from either side without being trodden upon. The broad roads can be made of broken brick, rubble, etc., and finished with a coating of ordinary road metal, and, for neatness, the earth should be kept off the sides by an edging of brick on end or of i inch creosoted boards ; but on economic lines, this latter expense is not warranted. NURSERY MANAGEMENT. A portion of the nursery should always be under a "cleaning" crop, as, for instance, potatoes or roots. And "green" manuring, especially with lupins, can always be recommended for any vacant part of the nursery. It is preferable never to use ordinary farmyard manure, as it contains so many weed seeds, but good leaf mould and the application of artificial manures will easily compensate 1 This presumes that some seed is sown broadcast and some in drills, and that the plants are planted out in the woods when 4 years old. 36 THE NURSERY for this. These manures should only be used on the cleaning crop, as, if applied directly to the trees, it might prove too stimulating, and the wood of the young trees would not get properly ripened. (1) Seed Beds. These must always have a very fine tilth, and a small amount of sifted rubble or ashes should be raked over the top soil, so as to prevent the soil from " running " together and forming a " cake," through which the seedlings of small seed would have great difficulty in piercing. Over such beds as require special protection, a screen of " peignon " or chestnut pale fencing may be stretched over a light frame-work about 2 feet 6 inches from the ground. This is by far the most convenient way of affording to tender species protection from late frosts in the spring or early frosts in the autumn, and also, provided the beds run north and south, of affording protection from hot sun. These screens can be very quickly rolled up, when their protection is not required. For instance, they might be rolled up every morning and unrolled every evening during the end of April and all through May as a protection against night frosts. A cheaper method of affording this protection, but one not nearly so convenient, is to place branches of birch, with the leaves on, across the bed from side to side. Under no circumstances should branches of conifers be used for this purpose. (2) Liability to Frosts. Silver Fir and Beech are perhaps more in need of this protection than any other common species. They are very sensitive to frosts in the spring and autumn and also to hot sun, at any rate for the first few years of their existence. Most young trees will succumb to or be seriously injured by late spring and early autumn frosts, but of those especially tender, besides Silver Fir and Beech, may be mentioned Black Walnut, Weymouth Pine, Acacia, Ash (all varieties), LIABILITY TO FROSTS 37 Spanish Chestnut, Larch (the Japanese perhaps more so than the European), Douglas Fir, Cupressus macrocarpa^ and Spruce (the Norway Spruce perhaps more so than the Sitka) and Oak. Whereas, those trees which are hardiest in respect of these frosts, and usually not injured thereby, are Scots Pine, Corsican Pine, Austrian Pine, Birch, White Poplar, Aspen Poplar, and Ctipressus sitchensis. But there are some trees which may be said to occupy an intermediate position in this respect, and they are : — Sycamore, Norway Maple, Alder, Thuya gigantea, Lime, Black Poplar and Black Italian Poplar, Hornbeam, Abies concolor and Elm. With reference to this matter, the date at which tender species break out into leaf is a most important point. For instance, Oak (j>edunculatd) often escapes because it is late in breaking into leaf, and Sessile Oak, which is more tender, is usually somewhat later in breaking into leaf. And so with Nordmann's Silver Fir, a very tender species, but one which usually escapes because it is so very late in starting its new growth. It will often happen that certain species of trees appear frost-hardy in one instance and not in another, and in order to account for these differences, it is necessary to ascribe them to the individuality of the particular trees, and the pre- disposition of certain seedlings to suffer, which have been raised from the seed of particular trees growing in particular localities ; whereas the produce of seed of the same species of tree, but obtained from another locality or another climate, may be perfectly hardy. (3) Choice of Seed. There can be no doubt that, generally speaking, the liability to spring frosts is very greatly increased in the case of seedlings of tender species, raised from seed which has been grown abroad in a country where there is a very short spring, and where there is a rapid transition from winter to summer, and where active growth is long delayed 38 THE NURSERY on account of the soil being frozen in spring and the roots consequently remaining inactive. Trees grown in this country from such seed will break into leaf early, as root activity will be stimulated by the mild winters and long springs. Also, a similar result would be expected if seed from trees growing at high elevations were sown at low elevations. It is for this reason that Scots Pine raised from seed grown on the Continent are less hardy than Scots Pine raised from home-grown seed. But it does not follow from the foregoing that home- grown seed of all species of trees is preferable where it can be procured. Such is very far from being the case. Home-grown seed of trees whose native habitat is in a country where there are cold winters and very hot summers, should never be used unless it is proved by generations of experience to be advisable or preferable. For, unripened seed or immature seed can never produce healthy, vigorous trees. On the other hand, though great caution is necessary, there is every reason to believe that trees whose native habitat is a country with a climate characterised by mild, wet winters and only moderately hot summers — a climate similar to that in this country — will, even when recently introduced, bear strong, healthy, and vigorous seed, for which, though produced in this country, there is every justification for using. Such trees would be those introduced from the coast region of British Columbia, namely, Sitka Spruce, Sitka Cypress, Douglas Fir, and Thuya gigantea. And, if seed of these trees be imported, it is very necessary, until experience may prove to the contrary, that the seed of such of these trees as also grow at high altitudes in the Rocky Mountains, should be obtained from the coast region, and not from the mountains. A brief consideration of the foregoing points to the advisability of using home-grown seed of Oak,1 Ash 1 The author has observed an unusual vigour in some seedlings of Sessile Oak raised in this country from seed obtained in the Darmstadt district in Germany. HOME-GROWN VERSUS FOREIGN SEED 30 (common Ash only), Beech, Birch, Alder, Scots Pine, Wych Elm, Hazel, and Hornbeam, and perhaps of Douglas Fir, Thuya gigantea, Sitka Spruce, and Sitka Cypress. But to use only foreign seed of Larch, Norway Spruce, Silver Fir, Cupressus viacrocarpa, Spanish Chestnut, White Ash, Oregon Ash, Austrian Pine, Corsican Pine, Weymouth Pine, Black Walnut, and Red Oak. With regard to this latter class, experience may prove the contrary to be the case. But conclusions should not be too hastily arrived at. It often takes generations before trees become acclimatised to new surroundings, and though the seed may be plump and the seedlings appear strong and vigorous, time alone can prove that this vigour will be main- tained to maturity. In all cases, only the best seed of healthy vigorous trees, should ever be used. It may not be out of place here to state that, when con- sidering the advisability and the suitability of the introduc- tion of any exotic tree, the very greatest regard should be paid to the conditions as to climate, soil, altitude, and aspect under which it thrives in its native habitat. The success of recently introduced conifers from the coast region of British Columbia may be anticipated with far greater confidence than can justly be placed upon the intro- duction of species from countries with a marked continental climate, and, though care is necessary, there is no need to anticipate any such calamity from fungoid disease, as that with which the growth of Larch in this country is now attended. (4) The Storage of Seed. All seed that is not going to be sowed directly it is ripe must be carefully stored. The seeds of Ash (the common Ash), Yew, Hawthorn, Holly, and Hornbeam, which do not germinate until the spring after they are collected, should be mixed with sand and stored in pits or " pies " in the open, where they should remain until about March a year hence, when, as soon as they show signs of sprouting, they should be sown in drills in carefully prepared beds. All other seed 40 THE NURSERY should be stored in the dry, and out of the reach of vermin. They must not, however, be allowed to become too dry and shrivelled. An ideal storehouse is one with an earthen floor and a thatched roof, similar to an apple house. Large seed, like acorns and beech mast, should be kept in barrels, and smaller seed spread over paper laid on shelves, though large quantities must be stored in bins and shovelled over at intervals to prevent them heating ; so also the barrels of nuts must be carefully looked over at intervals. No seed, how- ever, should be stored in bulk until it is properly dry, or it will quickly heat. Seed not artificially dried should be spread out thinly on a dry wooden floor of some building, and there allowed to dry naturally. (5) The Sowing of Seeds. The actual date at which it is preferable to sow seeds will vary according to circumstances, but, generally speaking, sowing in nursery beds should take place towards the end of April and in May. If the laws of Nature be followed, autumn sowing would generally be the case, but this latter method is open to several grave objections when practised in a nursery. When sown naturally in the forest, the mother trees afford shelter, the ground is kept cool until late in the spring, and thus growth is retarded and the danger from frosts minimised ; and even if these frosts do occur, the shelter of the trees will keep them off the young seedlings. But when sown in autumn in a nursery, there will usually be enormous losses incurred from late frosts, unless artificial protection is given. Then again, mice and vermin make inroads upon autumn sown seed-beds, and often cause serious loss. On the other hand, spring sowing is not without its objections. A proportion of the seed sown will often not appear until the year afterwards ; for the germinative power becomes weakened, and, in some cases, the germinative power of a large proportion of the seed is entirely destroyed. Hence, a consideration of this must modify the general rule. The seed of Silver Fir, Elm, Poplar, and Willow will lose THE SOWING OF SEEDS 41 its germinative power very quickly ; so also is this the case, though to a less extent, with Oak, Spanish Chestnut, Birch, Alder, Hazel, and Beech ; these latter trees retaining a good germinative capacity for about 6 months. And though other seed may keep for another year, it should never be used if newer seed can be obtained. The seed of Wych Elm, Poplars, and Willow must always be sown directly it is ripe — this will be at the end of May and the beginning of June — for its germinative power is lost in a few weeks. It should be noted that English Elm never ripens its seed in this country. The seed of Silver Fir, which is ripe in the autumn, should usually be sown at once, but it is absolutely impera- tive that the seed-beds should be protected from frosts, and also from hot sun in the summer. If sown in the spring the same germinative capacity cannot be expected. The seed of nearly all other trees is ripe in October ; though Birch ripens its seed at the end of August, and it is naturally shed up to about March. Alder ripens its seed at the end of September, and it is usually shed in mid-winter and early spring ; and Weymouth Pine ripens its seed about the beginning of September, and sheds it immediately. There is, however, no particular reason why seeds of any common tree, except Elm, Poplar, Willow, and Silver Fir, should not be stored for a few months and sown in the spring, so as to lessen the liability to damage from late frosts and from vermin. There is another advantage in spring sowing, and that is, that the surface of the seed-bed, prepared in spring, is in a far better mechanical condition for seedlings to break through, than can ever be the case with a seed-bed prepared in the autumn. Especially is this the case where small seed are concerned ; it would not much matter in the case of Oak, Spanish Chestnut, or Beech. Now, although spring sowing must be the general rule in nurseries, except as already stated, large seed such as Walnut, Spanish Chestnut, Oak, and Hazel whose cotyledons remain below the surface of the ground, are often sown in Autumn, though, in the case of the two former, the risks are very great ; 42 THE NURSERY and of these four, only the Oak and Hazel can ever advisedly be sown in autumn. Birch may often be sown in September, as it is so very hardy ; and, as its germinative capacity is not strong, this practice may with advantage usually be adopted, though naturally it is shed at a later date. The following table will show the average germinative capacity of good seed (spring germination, except for Elm and Silver Fir) : — Per cent. Sitka Spruce . \ to Norway Spruce . J Beech . Per cent. 50 Scots Pine . . "l Austrian Pine . | Corsican Pine . f 6* to ?° Hornbeam . . J Silver Fir . . . Larch (Japanese)* Larch (European) 40 } 35 Thuya gigantea . \ Oak . . . \ 60 to 65 Ash . . . 1 Douglas Fir . 30 Spanish Chestnut . 60 Lime . . . ~\ Alder . Wych Elm . } 25 Acacia (False) Norway Maple .•• j- 55 Sycamore Weymouth Pine . . Cupressus macrocarpa . Birch . Cupressus sitchcnsis (?) - 15 tO 20 * This is extremely variable, some years only about 5 per cent, germinating, and other years 65 per cent. When seeds are bought, their germinative capacity should always be tested. It is a very easy matter. Three or four hundred seeds or more (carefully counted) should be placed on a piece of flannel spread over a soup plate ; the flannel must be kept moist by water in the plate, and the plate should be kept in the dark. After a time those seeds which fail to germinate should be accurately counted and their proportion estimated. Before sowing seeds in the spring, it is advisable to soak them in tepid water for some hours, so as to favour rapid and even germination. The seed-beds, having been prepared THE SOWING OF SEEDS 43 with a very fine tilth as already described, must be nice and firm ; a fine tilth on a loosely made bed is of no use whatever for small seeds. When seeds are sown they must be covered over with soil, and the thickness of this covering should not be more than twice the length of the seed. It will thus be seen that seeds like Birch, Alder, and Thuya gigantea require practically hardly any covering. Such very small seed will get a sufficient covering if sown on the surface, and " firmed " in with a light roller, and a little fine ashes or rubble sifted over the top, just enough to hide the seed. This grit or ashes should be first sifted free from dust ; it will prevent the surface soil from " caking." When sowing, seed may be either sown broadcast or in drills. If sown broadcast, the operation is quicker and cheaper, and a greater number of seedlings can be raised on any given area. On the other hand, the weeding of the seed-bed is rendered almost impossible except by cutting through any large weeds at ground level with a knife, for to attempt to pull them up would result in also pulling up many seedlings ; and then again, the danger of the seedlings being injured by frost lifting is very much increased. Any large seed, like Acorns, Beech nuts, or Chestnuts, or Walnuts, and so also any autumn sown seed, and any seed the seedlings from which are intended to be left for 2 years in the seed-beds, should invariably be sown in drills ; and so also should expensive seed. But in the case of other seeds, it is difficult to give preference to one method over another. Small seed, sown broadcast, should be lightly raked in, and if necessary, rolled, and have a little fine rubble or ashes sifted over the top. When sowing in drills, the drills should be made across the seed beds (which should not be more than 4 feet wide), so as to facilitate weeding. The drills for large seed like Oak and Spanish Chestnut should be about 8 inches to 12 inches apart, and the nuts placed 2 inches apart in the drills. The nuts of Spanish Chestnut should always be sown with the point of the nut 44 THE NURSERY downwards ; the reverse being the case with Horse Chest- nut. The drills for smaller seed should be about 6 inches apart, just sufficiently wide to enable a man to place his foot between two rows without damaging the young plants when weeding. These drills may be marked with a stick and line, or a special marking board may be used with advantage. This marking board, which is placed across the bed, has three strips of wood fastened on the under side, one down the middle and one down each edge. These strips are about J inch wide and J or J or J or I inch in depth, according to the depth at which it is intended to sow the seed. These strips are 6, 7, 8, or 9 inches apart, according to the distance which is required between the drills ; l the under surface of these strips may have a V-shaped notch all the way along, so as to leave a miniature ridge down the drill, and if the seed is dropped along that ridge, it will fall to either side and the drill will be more evenly seeded. The seed may be sown by hand or poured gently out of a "seed can," which has various cone-shaped nozzles to suit the size of various seeds. After the seed is sown, the drills are smoothed and the bed lightly rolled. Seed should never be sown when the land is wet, or the soil will get lumpy and perhaps form a paste and interfere with germination. In order to keep off birds, etc., it is a good plan to " pickle " the seed in red lead, mixed with water to the consistency of cream, or else to mix them with red lead after soaking them in water. It is a great mistake, and a great waste of seed to sow too thickly ; but the seeding must be relatively thicker if the germinative capacity of the seed is small, than when the reverse is the case. Speaking generally, broadcasting requires about 3 times as much seed as when the seed is sown in drills. The following table shows the number of seeds contained 1 Two boards may be used instead of one. In such cases, each board need have only two strips, which are placed away from each edge one- half of such distance as the rows are apart. THE SOWING OF SEEDS 45 in each pound, and the quantity required for sowing in drills per 50 feet run if the seed-bed be 4 feet wide : — Kind of Tree. Number of Seeds per Ib. about Quantity required per 50 feet run. Distance apart of Drills. Scots Pine .... 75,000 Lbs. • •4 Inches. 6 Corsican Pine 31,000 •5 6 Austrian Pine 25,000 •6 6 Weymouth Pine 27,000 •9 6 Norway Spruce 64,000 •4 6 Sitka Spruce .... 197,000 •15 6 Silver Fir .... 10,000 3 6 Larch (European) . 70,000 •8 6 Douglas Fir . 40,000 i 6 Thuya gigantea 341,000 •15 Broadcast Oak (Pedunculate) 130 6-5 8 Oak (Sessile) .... 155 5-2 8 Spanish Chestnut . Beech . 112 2,000 7 8 6* Ash 6,800 2 6 WychElm . Alder .... 60,000 320,000 •7 •8 6 Broadcast Birch . 800,000 .•5 to -C Broadcast Sycamore .... 5,500 o L*-' 5 3 6 Norway Maple 5,500 3 6 Hornbeam .... 14,000 i 6 Cupressus macrocarpa 73,500 i 6 Larch (Japanese) . 103,500 •5 6 Sitka Cypress 128,000 •8 6 * Sown about \ inch from each other in the rows. The following table shows the price per Ib. of seed, the 46 THE NURSERY number of plants that may be expected from sowing i Ib. of seed, and the price per 1000 of seedlings (for seed only) : — Kind of Tree. Price of Seed per Ib.* Number of Plants from 1 Ib. of Seed, if Seed not sown too thick.t Seed Cost (only) of 1000 Plants, about £ S. D. S. D. Scots Pine Corsican Pine 0 4 o -\ (Foreign) o 6 o f (Scotch) ) O26 12,000 8,000 i ° 4 1 o 6 o 4 Austrian Pine 036 7,000 o 6 Weymouth Pine . o 8 o 6,000 i 4 Norway Spruce 0 0 10 13,000 o OY Sitka Spruce .... o 16 o 35,ooo o 5^ Silver Fir .... 006 2,000 o 3 Larch (European) . o i 3 7,000 0 2 Larch (Japanese) . 060 9,000 o 8 Douglas Fir . o 14 o 6,000 2 4 Thuya gigantea I 12 O 64,000 o 6 Oak (Pedunculate) . O O I 7i I 2 Oak (Sessile) . O O I 88 I O Spanish Chestnut . 002 65 2 7 Beech 004 800 o 5 Ash OO4 2,500 0 1$ Wych Elm .... 004 9,000 o o-i Alder 008 35,000 0 O.J Birch Sycamore .... OO5 OO4 64,000 2,250 0 I (for 12,000) 0 2 Norway Maple OO4 2,250 0 2 Hornbeam .... 005 6,000 O I Cupressus sitchemis . 2 O O 7,000 5 9 Cupressus macrocarpa 050 5,000 I O * The price will always vary a good deal, according to seed years, Beech being very often unprocurable. t These results can only be expected with good seed, and if the weather is favourable. TRANSPLANTING 47 (6) Treatment of Seedlings. As a rule, most seedlings must be moved from the seed- beds when i year old ; in certain cases they may remain for 2 years (or even 3 years occasionally) before they are moved. Beech, Spruce, Silver Fir, Hawthorn, and Holly are usually left 2 years in the seed-bed ; Silver Fir occasionally 3 years. All other forest trees are usually transplanted when i year old. Corsican Pine, P. pinaster, Spanish Chestnut, Black Walnut, Oak, Norway Maple, and Sycamore should always be transplanted when i year old. Other trees, except as stated, should be transplanted at i or 2 years of age, according to the growth their roots have made. Any tree, unless it is going to remain permanently where sown, requires this transplanting, to induce the formation of fibrous roots. If left in the seed-bed, a long tap-root is generally formed and very few fibrous roots. If such a tree be dug up and planted, it will probably die. The trees are transplanted into lines about l 8 inches apart, and the trees 3 to 4 inches apart in the lines. Thus there can be about 100,000 to 125,000 to the acre. Before transplanting, any long tap-root must be cut off with a sharp knife to about 4^ inches in length. This will usually be necessary with Oak and Spanish Chestnut and Walnuts. The usual method in transplanting is to make a trench about 9 inches deep and with a vertical side ; the seedlings are then held against this side, and the earth put back over the roots, which must have a vertical position. It is most essential that the roots never get doubled up, as they will never straighten again. The trench must be deep enough to take the full length of the roots, and the roots of any seedlings more than about 7 inches in length should be cut off with a sharp knife. Instead of getting out a trench to plant the seedlings in, a wedge-shaped opening may be made with a broad (specially 1 The lines should never be further apart than is absolutely necessary, as the cost per 1000 for weeding is enormously increased if the lines are far apart. 48 THE NURSERY made) spade about 2 feet in width, the seedlings carefully lined in, and the soil then wedged back. Seedlings thus transplanted are generally allowed to remain for 2 years, after which they are usually planted out in the woods. But if they are not going to be planted out at the end of this 2 years, they should always, except in the case of Norway Spruce, which may remain for 3 years, be again transplanted into rows, which should be about 14 inches apart, and the trees placed 6 inches apart in the rows. Thus there can be about 35,000 to the acre. In cases where large trees are required for ornamental planting, they should be regularly transplanted in the nursery every other year, for otherwise they will suffer severely from the shock of removal. In order to save the expense of transplanting, the roots of young transplants are often cut through with a sharp spade dug in on either side of the rows ; such a method is admissible if it is desired to leave the plants for only one more year, but otherwise it is only a poor substitute for transplanting, and the growing trees will be found too close together in the rows. Some trees, as for instance, Black Walnut, Pinus pinaster, and Corsican Pine, should be transplanted every year without fail, if their success in planting out is to be guaranteed. A rotation, as it were, of cropping should be observed in the nursery. Hardwood trees should follow conifers, and vice versa, as this will minimise insect and fungoid attacks. Throughout their life in the nursery the young plants require constant attention. If dry weather sets in, watering is generally necessary. Hoeing and weeding are always necessary, and must be done 3 or 4 times a year. It is very expensive, especially the weeding of seed-beds. The weeds, in beds sown broadcast, must be merely cut through with a sharp knife ; to pull them up would disturb the seedlings. As regards the cost of nursery operations. — Hoeing and transplanting are the chief items of expense. There will not be much difference in the cost per 1000 plants, of hoeing seedlings, whether they were sown broad- COST OF HOEING SEEDLINGS 49 cast or in drills ; for although the weeding under the former method is very much more expensive per square yard or perch, yet there will be many more seedlings on that area. Weeding seedlings sown in drills 6 inches apart, in beds 4 feet wide, will cost 6d. per 50 feet run each time it is done, or 2s. per 50 feet run per annum (i.e. done 4 times). This is equal to 5d. per 1000 seedlings per annum for weeding, and may be taken as a fair price, whether broad- casted or in drills. Hoeing and weeding transplants, in lines 8 by 3 inches, will cost for doing three times, is. 3d. per 200 square feet or 50 feet run of 4-foot bed. This is equal to 2s. 2d. per 1000 plants. Hoeing and weeding plants twice transplanted into lines 14 by 6 inches, will cost for doing twice, ?d. per 200 square feet. This is equal to 33. Sd. per 1000 plants. The following table will show at a glance some of the expenses incurred in nursery work per 1000 plants, and per 50 feet run of a 4-foot bed, or per 200 square feet :— Per 50 feet run or per 200 sq. feet. Per 1000. Weeding seedlings f Broadcasted . (done four times) \Sown in drills • S. D. 5 o 2 0 S. D. o 5 0 5 Weeding transplants in lines 8x3 (done three times) inches \ i 3 2 2 Hoeing and weeding when twice transplanted^ in lines 14x6 inches (done twice) . J o 7 3 8 i 6 3 6 Lining out 3- or 4-year-old plants . • The following table will show the net cost on the average of raising nursery stock of various ages after debiting all other charges, such as general maintenance charges, rates, taxes, digging, and manuring the ground, watering, lifting seedlings and transplants, and carting from the nursery to plantations, and an allowance for failures in the nursery (all "cfljls" discarded), etc.:— D 50 THE NURSERY ft 0 vo 0 o o 0 O o o o o 0 0 o o !>fl£ 0? VO VO CO 0 oo VO CO ON ON H ^. 00 N ON 00 i-H C-1 -> VO CO ^ o M n cs CO cs N 00 — 1 <* 0 0 0 O O 0 0 0 0 O H O o - 0 d G co O ON O ON vo 0 ON CO 0 vo O vo ON vo ||1 * *- *- ON oo CO vo ON 00 00 O CO ON 0 t-H t- t-H -a . 00 CO r^ vo Tj- rl- vo vo vo i : : Jj{ 1^ 1 •g Q O O O vQ O vO vO 0s* O^ O «f» ll§ rf «• 0* 0 «* « M M «« «« M : : : I'olh ««l ^.-MHHOO OOOOO g cS 'Q 4> W Jj QCOCOVOCOO C^^cocoO III ^ f-t O "^ rt 4) £>>7! ^ JT . *** ^? s s ^^sss * * * l-g-2 rtoqft «rtOMOOOOOOOO B^ g" . is.- qC\vo OOO cocoO OO g 58| £ JjS O j^ ^ -C C5 rt O CC'CO'^-M t>.vO vOvO t^r^vO • I g ^ J^fc NrHE, «rtO>-» >>"""' tcCn^OOOvOvO vOVOvOvOvO 1 s*S *** SH *" rt ~"l «rtoOOOO OOOOO c*!, ||| a* blo o -+J ^c 1^1 |sl a vO O O co O O O^ co co O •S w ° o " ° °° " w § » ro r^) « 12 i O ^M ^ M ^ Tf |ll a'oOOcocO>-i >H O N N O •F fe ° o o .2 ^ M|£ o:'coooriHHO OO>HM>H o ^2 « w «^ 1 ^'wU T *J P-> 1) ^ w jC C C -u *-" rH ° I So-S3 JG ^ 3 2 *i O U 01 C C 1J § >J^ 1 0 0 'O it § "3 0 *B - « u J2 f. rt O ^> 1 ^->, to v v • • • • • • 5* « III Iff 1 gS^ M ^5 J5 c -5 « JO t) S S I "8 § ^s . W . o ^ S r I « -s s ^ P s •§ jj .^-S-^S.h^o^ O -j-. K < ^ < a rjo ^ ffi ™ ^ 3 ., 0 3 H l3i lij " ^CQi ^ rti ^ x g ^ 52 THE NURSERY (7) Other Methods of Raising Trees. Many trees are usually propagated by other means than from seed. These other methods are : — (1) by Suckers; (2) by Layers ; (3) by Slips or Cuttings. By Suckers. — By this means it is usual to raise White Poplars, Aspen Poplars, and Picardy Poplars. Small plants are dug up in the woods, the roots being severed from the parent trees with a spade. These roots are carefully trimmed with a sharp knife, and then the trees are planted in nursery lines and left there for one or two years. By Layers. — This is the usual method for propagating Lime and Elm. Certain trees are periodically coppiced, and long shoots of about 8 years' growth are layered.1 By Slips or Cuttings. — This is the usual method of propagating Black Poplar, Black Italian Poplar, Willow Privet, Laurel, and Box. The cuttings of the three former should be taken in the spring, just as the sap is rising ; when if not planted into lines at once, they should be left with their ends in water ; cuttings of Privet, Laurel, and Box are best taken in September. The cuttings of Poplars and Willow are usually obtained from coppiced stool shoots of about 4 years' growth, older wood should not be used. Sometimes, however, they are cut from uncoppiced trees, but it is not to be recommended, and it takes much longer to cut the "slips." A sharp knife must always be used. The usual practice is to cut truncated " slips " about j to 9 inches long; these are then lined out in the nursery, by pushing them into the soil, and leaving only about J of an inch showing above the ground. Great care must be taken not to skin the bark in pushing them in, and if the soil seems a little too stiff, it is absolutely 1 Layering or Plashing is described in Chapter X. THEE "CUTTINGS" 53 necessary to make a hole for each " slip " with an iron prong. These cuttings are left for one or two years, when they are ready to put out in the woods. These cuttings will throw out perhaps 3 or 4 shoots, but only the best one of each should be allowed to grow. Often, in the case of Poplars, which have a terminal bud, long cuttings, 6 to 10 feet long, are cut, and these placed out in the wood direct. The object in this case is to obtain a big tree in the shortest space of time possible, but such cuttings are very expensive to buy, and can only be used if procured at home. So also large cuttings of Willow (10 feet long) are often taken, so as to make a tree in the shortest possible time ; such long cuttings often pay, especially where there is any danger from frosts. Many other trees and shrubs can be raised from cuttings. Various species of TJmya and Cupressus are often raised by this means, but if it is desired to grow timber, the practice cannot be too strongly condemned ; for such trees will always assume a more or less branchy, shrubby habit of growth. The method, however, is the surest means of perpetuating any particular characteristic which it may be desirable to retain from an ornamental point of view. (8) Stocking a Nursery with Purchased Plants. Now, although the raising of seedling plants in any large home nursery is much to be preferred, it will often be deemed advisable to stock a small nursery with purchased seedlings, as sufficiently skilled labour will probably not be available. Very great care must be taken in the selection and purchase of the seedlings,1 and if obtained at a reasonable price, the method is likely to give very good results. 1 It is advisable never to use seedlings imported from foreign countries. Only recently the author observed a bed of seedlings which was badly attacked by a fungus common in Germany but not as yet very common in this country. An unnecessary risk is run if seedlings are imported. 54 THE NURSERY Even if planting is only done occasionally, it is far preferable, in most cases, to make a temporary nursery and school purchased seedlings for i or 2 years, rather than to buy older trees from a trade nursery ; for success in finally planting out will be much more certain, and if by chance a bad stock has been purchased, the loss is small and confined to a small area as compared to a failure when purchased stock is directly planted out. (9) The Pruning of Nursery Stock. This, in the case of conifers, should never be resorted to except that a double leader may be cut away, though often it will be preferable not to plant the tree at all ; for the risk of disease and insect attack is so very much increased. But some pruning of hardwoods will often be advisable. Whenever pruning is practised, a sharp knife should always be used. Any trees with long tap-roots should have these roots cut off, and a sloping cut should be made. This will often be the case with Oak, Walnut, and Spanish Chestnut, both when lining out seedlings and when the plants are raised for being planted out. So also, if any roots are injured, they must be cut off. If the roots are pruned, it is advisable to prune off some of the side branches up to half the length of the stem, so as to restore a correct balance and prevent the new leaves from wilting owing to lack of soil moisture. The small branches must be cut off quite flush with the main stem, not shortened back and leaving a snag. Such pruning of the side branches, up to one-half the total height of the tree, can always be recommended for hardwood trees, before they leave the nursery, though it adds to their expense. And, of course, any double leaders must be cut off. Any excessive pruning is very bad, for there will not be sufficient leaf surface to elaborate good material for the production of new roots. Excessively pruned trees become " mop " beaded and throw up suckers or stem shoots near the ground, owing to a state of hypertrophy which is induced. NURSERY PESTS 55 (10) Lifting the Plants for Planting Out. This must be done very carefully indeed. It is very essential that they be raised right up with a spade, before they are pulled away from the earth. If they are to a great extent pulled up, the greater part of the fibrous roots will be severed, and the trees will suffer accordingly. When "lifted," the plants are pruned as necessary, and should then be counted and tied in bundles, and the roots wrapped round with damp moss or straw and covered up with sacking, and immediately carted to the site where planting is to be done. They should then be unloaded, and their roots placed in a trench, and then some earth thrown over the roots. Only such plants as are wanted for one day's planting should be brought at a time, unless the nursery is a long way off. The roots must never be allowed to become dry, either from the effects of wind or sun. INSECT AND FUNGOID AND OTHER ENEMIES IN THE NURSERY. The chief trouble from insect enemies in the nursery is from cockchafer grubs and wireworms and the Pine weevil. The latter, though often doing enormous damage, chiefly to Spruce and Scots Pine when from 3 to 6 years old, is more prevalent in the forest, where it is attracted by freshly cut tree stumps. As regards the former pests, gas-lime on the fallow portion of the nursery is the best remedy, as already stated. Sometimes a system of trapping is practised for getting rid of the cockchafer grubs. Sods of turf are laid face down- wards here and there, or potatoes, cut in half, are hidden a few inches in the ground at intervals. The position of the latter should be marked by sticks, and the potatoes and the sods of turf should be examined constantly, and the grubs destroyed. A preventative remedy is to dust flowers of sulphur over the beds in May and June, which stops the beetle laying her eggs. Land badly affected must be summer fallowed and 56 THE NURSERY the surface raked over constantly when the grubs are near the surface ; they can then be collected and destroyed. The grubs bite right through small roots and gnaw the bark from larger roots. As regards damage by fungi, the most frequent cause of trouble is from Phytophthora omnivera, Hysterium pinastri, and Rosellinia quercina. The Phytophthora omnivera is the cause of the " damping off" of the cotyledons of seedling Beech. It also attacks Ash and Maples, and occasionally other seedlings. It is somewhat similar to the " Potato Disease." The cotyledons become black and rotten ; and wet, damp weather favours the disease. The Hysterium pinastri is the Leaf-shedding Disease. It is most common on Scots Pine when from 2 to 6 years of age, but it also attacks other evergreen conifers. Early in the autumn, black spots appear on the leaves ; these contain the mycelium of the fungus ; next spring, about April, the leaves become brown all over and are shed. It is most common in damp localities, and in crowded nurseries. The Rosellinia quercina is the Oak Root seedling fungus. It attacks the roots of Oak seedlings of I or 2 years of age, though occasionally when a few years older. The first signification of the disease is generally the sickly appearance of the leaves of the young plants. But an examination of the roots will probably decide the point. The diseased tap- roots will show small black pustules, about the size of a pin's head. This disease spreads very quickly from plant to plant. When discovered, a trench should be dug round the infected area, and the plants in that area pulled up and burnt, and quick-lime spread over the area and dug in ; and Oak should not be placed on such ground again for some /ears. Other diseases may be mentioned, such as Septoria parasitica on Spruce, Botrytis cinerea on most conifers, and Pestalozzia Hartigii chiefly on Spruce and Silver Fir. Wherever any of these three fungous diseases appear, the plants in the infected area should always be at once burnt, and the soil dressed with quick-lime. NURSERY PESTS 57 No delay in dealing with any diseases should ever be permitted. Apart from insects and fungi, much damage is often done in nurseries by mice. The best means to adopt is to poison1 them. Branches of gorse put round a bed will often keep them off. 1 In order not to poison game, the poison should be laid in drain tiles hidden just below the ground. CHAPTER IV. PLANTING. FENCING AND PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS. WHEN any planting operations have been decided upon, it will practically always be necessary to fence off the area against rabbits, and sometimes against stock, before planting can be started. And in the case of land being planted up for the first time, it will often be necessary to carry out a certain amount of land drainage, though, if more than a few shillings have to be spent per acre on such drainage, it will usually preclude any possibility of ultimately obtaining any reasonable return on the outlay, except under very ex- ceptional circumstances. FENCING OF LAND. Rabbit Fences. — Seldom, if ever, is it safe to make a new plantation without surrounding it with a rabbit-proof fence for the first 10 or 15 years; by which time the bark of the trees should be too thick for the rabbits to attack. The amount of damage done annually by rabbits in young plantations is enormous. A suitable rabbit fence, consisting of wire netting, wooden posts, and one row of wire at the top, will cost from 6d. to 8d. per yard run. The wire netting should be 4 feet wide ; I inch mesh, and the No. 1 8 gauge, galvanised wire. But, in order to save expense, it is sufficient if only the lower 2 feet of the netting be I inch mesh, and the upper 58 RABBIT FENCES 59 2 feet ij inch mesh. Such netting is often made; but, if there be any difficulty in procuring it, the manufacturers will thread together two 2 feet widths (of I and ii inch mesh); and this will be very much cheaper than having a single 4-foot width of i inch mesh. When two widths are thus threaded together, the i| inch mesh netting should be No. 17 gauge, otherwise it would be liable to tear. Before the netting is unrolled, it should be dipped in black varnish, taken out, and allowed to dry ; such a precaution will double the life of the netting, for otherwise its coating of zinc soon becomes defective in places. Such netting will cost about 193. per roll of 50 yards. The wooden posts or stakes should be 5 feet 3 inches long, and, by preference, may be split out of Oak, Spanish Chestnut, or Larch, with an average cross-section of about 5 by 3 (like an arris rail). Some smaller, intermediate stakes, should also be used, in order to cheapen the cost. These stakes and posts should be sharpened or pointed, and all bark stripped off, and, by preference, they should be creosoted ; but, failing that, they should be charred at ground level, and the charred portion should be painted over, whilst still hot, with boiling tar. However, it would be a great mistake to tar unseasoned stakes; for that would only hasten their destruction. Whether creosoted or not, all posts should be barked. The bigger stakes would be worth about ?d. each, and the smaller stakes 3d. each, sharpened and creosoted. The top wire should be No. 5 (or 6) 7-ply galvanised wire. No 5 costs about 155. a cwt., and there are about 392 yards of it in I cwt. Small straining posts, each with a strut, must be fixed about every 230 yards. In erecting the fence, it is very advisable to have the netting sloping from the ground outwards, away from the ground to be planted, as this will prevent rabbits from climbing over. The netting must also be let into the ground and turned outwards away from the land to be planted ; for this will prevent the rabbits from burrowing under. 60 PLANTING The posts should be driven into the ground, holes being made with a crowbar if necessary. They should be 10 feet apart (to 12 feet), and a small one should alternate with a big one. The row of wire should pass freely through staples at the top of the posts, and should only be rigidly fastened to the straining posts. Sometimes the staples are driven " home " and the wire thus pinched on to each post ; in that case, the straining posts may be dispensed with ; but the former is the better method ; and when no longer required, the fence is easily moved without injury. The netting should be fastened only to the top wire, to which it should be tied with wire. The top of the netting should be 3 feet 2 inches to 3 feet 3 inches from the ground, the remaining portion being turned under the ground. If it be desired to fasten the netting by staples to the posts, it will be necessary to drive the posts in a slanting direction ; but, in no case must the staples be driven " home," or the netting will be much torn when it is finally removed. For the sake of economy, the top wire is often dispensed with ; in that case, of course, the netting must be fastened direct to the posts ; but such a fence is easily torn down. The cost of such a fence may be estimated as follows : — For 250 yards. Posts 1 1 feet apart — 34 posts, 5 inches by 3 inches (arris section), creosoted, at 7d. each . . . . . . ^o 19 10 34 stout stakes, creosoted, at 3d. each . . 086 i small straining post and strut, creosoted . .046 i straining bolt, nut, and washer . . .0010 68 staples at is. 3d. per 100 . . . .0010 5 rolls of netting, i inch and i^ inch mesh, and Nos. 18 and 17 gauge, at 195. . . .4150 250 yards No. 5, 7-ply gal. wire, at 155. per cwt. . 096 Labour of erecting, haulage, dipping netting in black varnish, nails for strut, tying wire, supervision, etc. . . . . . . .150 Total for 250 yards . .^840 Equals nearly 8d. per yard run. A stepping-stile should always be made at various places RABBIT FENCES 61 over the fence, otherwise it will get damaged. A couple of big stones, one on each side of 'the fence, and a stake to catch hold of, is all that is necessary. Fences against stock are very much more expensive. Briefly, a 6-rowed wire fence with "J" iron standards, and a straining post every 250 yards, can be erected for about is. id. a yard run. If wire netting be required in addition, one row of wire may be omitted, and the additional cost will be about 4jd. a yard run. A morticed oak post and 4-rail fence will cost about 2s. ;d. a yard run. And a dwarf fence, with small split oak posts and 2 rails, erected on a small bank, will cost about is. 2d. a yard run. Cost per acre of a rabbit fence. — This will vary accord- ing as to whether the area to be fenced is large or small ; and also with the shape of the area. Any given area requires the smallest amount of fencing, if such area is confined within a circle ; also the fencing required for a square is less than that required for a rect- angle. Now, supposing that the area to be fenced is square, and that a rabbit fence costs Sd. a yard run (= 145. Sd. a chain), then the following will be the cost of fencing : — For 1 acre : — Number of chains* = ^10x4 Cost of fencing = \/ To x 4 x 145. 8d. = /9, 45. 6d. For 10 acres: — Number of chains = \/ioo x 4 Cost of fencing = Vioo x 4 x 145. 8d. 6s. 8d. For 40 acres:— Number of chains = \/4Qo x 4 Cost of fencing = \/4OO x 4 x 145. 8d. = /58, 135. 4d. * 10 square chains — I acre. 62 PLANTING For 100 acres : — Number of criains = >/ 1000x4 Cost of fencing = \/iooo x 4 x 145. 8d. = / 92, 9s. 9d. For 1000 acres : — Number of chains = \/io,ooox4 Cost of fencing = \/ 10,000 x 4 x 145. 8d. 6s. 8d. The following table shows the cost per acre according to the size of the plantation : — Area. Total Cost. Cost per acre. Acres. £ a. D. £ S. D. I 946 946 10 29 6 8 2 18 8 40 58 13 4 I 9 4 IOO 92 9 9 o 18 6 1000 293 6 8 o 5 loi- Now, when making calculations as to the financial returns to be obtained from timber growing, it will make an enormous difference to the results if the average outlay on fencing be taken at a large sum or a small sum per acre. For instance, the difference in the cost of fencing per acre of a 10 acre plantation and a 40 acre plantation, is about £it i os. per acre. Now, on an 80 years rotation, the outlay per acre of £2, 1 8s. 8d. on fencing a 10 acre plantation will have accumu- lated in 80 years at 3 J per cent, interest to £46 (nearly), or at 4 per cent, interest to £67^, and the crop per acre is a debtor to this amount at the end of the rotation for fencing only.1 1 This presupposes that the materials of the fence when removed in 10 or 15 years' time are worthless ; any value they may then have will, however, greatly reduce the debt. RABBIT FENCES 63 But the outlay per acre of £it gs. 46. on fencing a 40 acre plantation will only amount at 3^ per cent, interest to £23 (nearly), or at 4 per cent, interest to ;£33J, and thus, accord- ing to the rate of interest taken, the crop per acre at the end of the rotation is debtor for fencing to a much smaller amount, although even this is a considerable sum. And the difference of the accumulated debt per acre of the 10 acre and 40 acre plantation is £23 if 3^ per cent, interest be reckoned, and £33, 155. if 4 per cent, interest be reckoned. And if the rotation had been 100 years, the difference would have been £45, 153. (nearly) at 3^ per cent, interest, or £74 at 4 per cent, interest. Thus it will be seen how very important it is to keep down all expenses at the beginning of a rotation, whether such expenses be incurred in fencing, draining, planting, or otherwise. However, when making general calculations as to the returns from timber growing, some outlay for fencing must be provided. It would obviously be ridiculous to charge as for fencing I acre ; and it would be equally absurd, at any rate in the case of private estates, to estimate as for 1000 acres. For even if such an area were going to be planted, it will often be dissected by roads and bridle-paths and rights of way, across which the continuous fence could not be extended. Perhaps the fairest method, on the average, is to reckon as for 40 acres ; that is, about 303. per acre ; though on most private estates that area is too large, and £2 per acre, or £2, ios., would be a more accurate estimate. A very important point to remember when planting up large compact areas, in the course perhaps of the next 5 years, is the fact that, if there be no reason to the contrary, it will be far more economical to fence the whole area at once, than to make a separate fence each year for i of the area, or even to fence a larger area than will be actually planted in the next few years. For instance, if 10 acres, situated in 3 blocks on an area of 40 acres, are to be planted each year for 64 PLANTING the next 3 years, the following table will show the relative cost of fencing the whole area of 40 acres at once, or of making 3 separate fences for the three 10 acre plantations. The comparison must be made between the total capital invested in fencing at the end of the 2nd year when the last 10 acres is just completed. 10 aores at a time (SO acres in all). 40 acres at the beginning. Cost of fencing 10 acres in the present year £ S. P. 29 6 8 £ S. D. Cost of fencing 10 acres I year ago, ^29, 6s. 8d. amounts in I year* to . 30 7 o Cost of fencing 10 acres 2 years ago, ^29, 6s. 8d. amounts in 2 years* to 3i 8 3 Cost of fencing 40 acres 2 years ago, £$** i $s. 46. amounts in 2 years* to ... 62 16 6 Total £91 i ii ^62 16 6 * Interest reckoned at 3^ per cent, per annum. Thus, although 10 acres be fenced, "which is not going to be planted, there is a saving of £28, 5s. 5d., or nearly of £i an acre. DRAINAGE OP LAND. It may sometimes happen that a large area of land is at present valueless, because it is water-logged, but that a small outlay in providing means whereby the water may be carried off, will result in the whole area becoming sufficiently drained and capable of growing timber. In such a case, the cost per acre over the whole area will be small, and the work can advisedly be undertaken. It should be remembered that there are many soils, practically barren for agricultural purposes, which will grow good timber if only they be not too dry, or not too wet. Any drainage of forest land must always be by open DRAINAGE OF LAND 65 " cuts ; " any system of pipe drainage is of course out of the question. Any systematic "herring bone" drainage, as is adopted on agricultural land, can seldom, if ever, be adopted in forestry, if a profit be desired. Fortunately it is, generally speaking, only on stiff clay soils where such a course would ever be wanted. Now, supposing that open "cuts" be made 21 feet apart on flat stiff clay land, the cost per acre, including a contribution towards " mains " and culverts, would amount to about £4, i os. But this sum is prohibitive; for forest growth is very slow on stiff clay lands, and a profit would seldom be earned on this additional outlay. However, much benefit will often accrue on such land by making a certain number of channels, so as to lead superfluous water off as quickly as possible. Open ditches should be cut on one or both sides of the rides in such plantations, and branch channels at intervals should discharge at an acute angle into them. The branch channels dissecting the compartments should have an average depth of 3 feet, and should be about 1 5 inches wide, and cut with practically a vertical face ; and the main channels should have an average depth of 3 feet 6 inches. Culverts must be provided where these channels cross the rides ; they may be made " box-shaped " with 2-inch creosoted planks, or else concrete pipes, 12 to 24 inches diameter, may be used. These home-made concrete culverts are very much cheaper than purchased pipes of similar bore. The open ditches by the sides of the rides serve not only for carrying off water, but also as convenient points for com- bating forest " ground " fires. Cost of Draining. — The cost of making the " cuts " 3 feet deep, will on stiff clay soil be Sd. a rod ; and if the " cuts " be 3 feet 6 inches deep, lod. a rod. Now, if an area of 40 acres were divided up by channels into blocks 44 yards by 44 yards (i.e. just under half an acre each), there would be 40 rods of " cuts " or " ditches " to be E 66 PLANTING made per acre ; which, at Sd. a rod, would be £i, 6s. 8d. per acre; or, adding for culverts and mains (say) £iy IDS. per acre. In cases where land will grow a crop of some hardy, non- exacting species, but is too wet for some more exacting and more valuable species, it will usually be the better plan to grow the non-exacting species, without going to the expense of draining, rather than to drain the land and grow the more valuable species. This latter species will probably be able to follow on as a second crop at the end of the rotation ; for, it must be remembered that a crop of trees will drain the soil to a very great extent of superfluous moisture ; the water table will be lowered ; and the decaying roots of the previous crop afford little water channels to carry away water to the subsoil. The effect of drainage by trees is sometimes very marked ; the surface soil on peaty land often being lowered some 6 inches to i foot. When draining peat lands of any depth, it is preferable to effect the drainage by 2 or 3 operations, rather than by I operation ; for in the latter case it will often happen that the sides of the cutting will fall in. After draining, the peat will shrink to an extraordinary degree, and planting should not usually take place until the peat has fairly settled. There is another matter with respect to drainage, which is of great importance to have regard to, and that is, the extreme danger of draining land on which, or near to which, a crop of timber is growing. And especially is this the case if the crop be approaching maturity. Drainage effected for agricultural purposes has often been known to adversely affect a plantation near by. OTHER PRELIMINARY OPERATIONS. Cleaning and Preparing the Land. — It will almost always be advisable to burn off all rubbish and rank growth that may exist on the surface of the land. This will lessen PLOUGHING LAND 67 the danger of the young plants being choked ; it will provide a small quantity of easily soluble plant food, and it may lessen the danger of insect and fungoid attacks. When planting up, for the first time, land which is now covered with a thick matting of grass, it will generally be advisable, after burning it, to plough it over and bury the sod, though there are exceptions to this rule. There are, however, many foresters who are directly opposed to such a course, and who maintain that it is not only a needless expense, but that its adoption is likely to be followed by evil effects. It is asserted that, although the trees usually grow far better for the first few years, their roots penetrate deeper into the soil than would be the case if the surface were not ploughed, and that, as the surface soil becomes consolidated, these trees will suffer in consequence, owing to their roots having an insufficient supply of air. And, to support this contention, it is usual to instance the failure in early life of some particular crop which has been grown on arable land. Now, that certain crops, Scots Pine in particular, grown on old arable land, especially if of a stiff nature, do often succumb or show signs of failing before maturity is reached, is a fact beyond doubt. But there is not the slightest evidence to prove that it is due only to the effects of ploughing the land. When land is ploughed, it very soon gets consolidated again, and, in 12 months' time, before the roots of the young trees can have grown very much, the pressure of the surface soil will be just as great as though it had never been ploughed ; and this pressure will be far greater than the pressure exerted by the humous surface soil of land previously under a good crop of timber. Thus it is evident that the mere fact of ploughing cannot be followed by such detrimental results. It is quite possible that old arable land that has been richly manured may cause constitutional weakness in trees, and render them more susceptible to fungoid diseases ; but it must always be remembered that whenever the roots of 68 PLANTING trees descend into a subsoil unfavourable to them, whether it be a stiff, wet clay, or an impenetrable rock, or a barren sand, they will of necessity show signs of failing. But, that the ploughing of land will cause the roots, beyond the first season's growth, to descend into the subsoil, is highly improbable. The great advantages of ploughing ordinary pasture land are, that the young trees are more likely to become immediately established, as their fibrous roots have a plentiful supply of fine soil through which to push their way directly growth begins, and they have not to compete with a thick matting of turf for their food requirements and moisture. A soil covering of turf transpires far more moisture than is evaporated from the surface of bare land ; and it also prevents rain and moisture from reaching the roots of the trees, as may easily be realised by anyone who cuts a turf from a lawn after a heavy storm of rain in a dry summer. The dry state of the soil under the turf will often make it difficult to imagine that there has been any rain at all. Then again, the young crop will not require such attention in being kept clean and free from being choked, as would be the case if planting had been done direct on the turf, and smaller plants can be used ; thus very greatly lessening the expense of planting. On poor land the surface will remain fairly clean for 2 years or more, but on rich land a strong growth of weeds and grass will soon appear ; but even in such cases, it will generally be possible to use plants one year younger than would otherwise have been advisable. Furthermore, wherever grass can be prevented from growing, the danger from late and early frosts will be very much lessened;1 especially is this the case on southern aspects. Now, ploughing the land will, generally speaking, only be necessary when the soil is covered with grass; on heather soils, all that is necessary is usually to burn the surface. But there are, however, certain cases when a surface cover- ing of grass is not detrimental, and may even be beneficial. For instance, on exposed high altitudes, its shelter will 1 This is explained later on in Chapter V., pp. 72, 73. ROADS AND RIDES 69 0 benefit the plants ; but in such places the grass itself is not usually tall and rank ; and the turf has not a close, matted sod, like turf on good land ; nor is there the same com- petition for plant food and water. So also, there is not the same danger of late and early frosts during the growing season. And, furthermore, on poor shifting sands a loose covering of grass will be beneficial by binding the soil together. The Laying out of Rides and Compartments. — This matter has already been alluded to.1 The general rule was stated that the broad main rides or roads should be made parallel to, or in the direction of, the prevailing winds ; whilst only narrow rides should run at right angles to the prevailing winds, so as to minimise the danger of windfall, which is greatest in even-aged high forest and under the group system. But this general rule must sometimes be departed from on account of the natural features of the ground. The main ride or road should, on undulating land, be marked out with an easy, even gradient, where possible ; avoiding unnecessary bridges and steep inclines. When large areas are planted, it will often be advisable to convert some of the main rides into good hard metal roads. If stone can be quarried near by, the cost of metalling the roads will vary from 35. 6d. to 6s. a yard run. But such an outlay should never be undertaken at the beginning of a rotation ; as money would be needlessly spent without any benefit being obtained for a long term of years. When steep hillsides are planted, the main ride should be along the valley at the bottom, down to which the timber may easily be dragged ; or slides may be made to effect the same purpose. The proportion of any woodland area occupied by roads and rides is often very considerable ; and, when the land is valuable, it involves a direct loss of income ; a matter which should be taken into account when making financial calcula- tions. 1 Vide Chapter II. CHAPTER V. PLANTING— continued. AS TO THE CHOICE OF TREES TO PLANT. CONCERNING ALSO THE SPECIAL DEMANDS OF TIMBER TREES, AND THEIR HABITS, AND THE CONDITIONS SUITED TO THEIR GROWTH, AND THEIR FINANCIAL RETURNS. BEFORE describing the actual methods by which trees may be planted, it is necessary to discuss at some length : — (1) The individual demands of trees as to locality and soil. (2) Their peculiarities of growth, and the conditions suited to their growth. (3) The financial returns that may be anticipated from planting any particular species. For, without such knowledge, and without paying the very greatest attention to such considerations, it is impossible ever to carry out planting operations with success. An enormous sum of money is annually wasted by planting trees in localities and soils unsuited to them ; and also by making injudicious mixtures of trees which are otherwise suited to the locality. THE INDIVIDUAL DEMANDS OP TREES AS TO LOCALITY AND SOIL. The chief factors determining the possibility of trees grow- ing successfully, as far as locality and soil are concerned, are : — (i) The supply of moisture in the soil and atmosphere. 70 ASPECT 71 (2) The shelter and protection that exists from gales and from late spring and early autumn frosts. (3) The depth of the soil. (4) The mechanical condition of the soil ; its adhesiveness or otherwise, etc. To some extent, however, these factors are interdependent. Before, however, attempting to make a choice, a careful study of all trees in the neighbourhood should be made ; for, provided conditions be similar, the evidence of growing timber is far more reliable than any individual opinion. But, of course, the absence of certain trees in a locality does not necessarily prove that they will not succeed if planted. Then again, before the above considerations can be fully taken into account, it will be necessary to dig trial holes at intervals over the area to be planted, so as to satisfy oneself as to the nature of the soil and the moisture it contains, etc. Besides the four factors just mentioned, there are other considerations to which regard must be paid, such, for instance, as the requirements as to plant food and as to heat. And so, again, the possibility of floods, the likelihood of fire, and so on. Now, before considering how the various species of trees are affected by these factors, it is necessary to consider the manner in which the aspect and altitude will influence the locality and the soil. The Aspect exerts a far greater influence on the locality and over the welfare of tree growth than is usually supposed ; especially is this the case where young crops are concerned. In almost all cases the growth of trees is far better on northern, north-eastern, and north-western aspects, than on southern, south-eastern, or south-western aspects. In a general way, it may be said that southern aspects are hot and dry, and that northern aspects are cool and moist. The intensity of the sun's rays is greater on sloping land with a southern aspect than is the case on flat land ; and it is least on slopes with a northern aspect. This is a direct cause for both the soil and the atmosphere being drier on 72 PLANTING southern than on northern aspects. Now, inasmuch as the decay of leaves and humus, which hold moisture, as it were like a sponge, is very much more rapid on southern aspects, it follows that this loss of humus is accompanied by a corre- sponding diminution in the available amount of moisture for the crop. It is this lack of sufficient moisture which is usually responsible for the less vigorous growth of trees on southern aspects than is evidenced on northern aspects. The prevalence of, and the damage caused by, late spring and early autumn frosts, especially to young crops, is, to a very great extent, governed by the aspect of the locality ; or more correctly, by the aspect when considered along with the altitude. These frosts are a more frequent cause of the failure of young plantations than is commonly imagined. The Influence of Aspect and Altitude on Frosts. — In discussing this question, it is necessary to remember that these late spring and early autumn frosts are very local indeed. They occur usually on still, cloudless nights, when the air is very dry, and especially after a hot, sunny day. The area affected is usually very circumscribed ; and it is the lowest land in the locality, especially if wet, that is affected, to which the cold air sinks, and from whence it cannot find an outlet ; whereas the land a few feet higher will, as the cold air descends, and is therefore in motion, often escape. Hence it is that these frosts are far more common on southern aspects, where the air is dry, and at relatively low altitudes, where the cold air remains stationary. Then again, they are more common on stiff, wet land, which a hot sun has chilled by evaporation, than on well-drained land. They often extend over a large area of flat land, as, rela- tively, it is low-lying land ; whereas on undulating and on sloping land, the frost is confined to the valleys, dells, or coombes. Another very important point to remember is, that there is a greater liability to these frosts on maiden land covered with grass and weeds, than on land that is perfectly clean, or which has a good layer of humus covering it. For in this latter case, the rapid evaporation of water and radiation of heat is retarded ; whereas if there be a surface covering ALTITUDE 73 of grass, any moisture thereon is quickly evaporated, and the radiation of heat from the grass itself is very rapid, and thus a frost is often induced. Also, the free circulation of air, near the ground, is interfered with. The liability to damage by spring frosts is almost always more severe on southern aspects, because on such aspects the trees break into leaf much earlier than on northern aspects.1 So also the actual damage is usually more severe, as, so often, the bright morning sun rapidly thaws the twigs still covered with frozen rime. The slower that the twigs thaw, the less will be the damage that will be done. Aspect and Altitude in Reference to Gales. — It is necessary to consider these two factors together, for it does not necessarily follow that the higher the altitude the greater the damage that will be done by storms ; though such may be apprehended when the aspect faces the direction of the prevailing winds. Local knowledge is of great importance in this respect, but it will usually be found that the south and west of the country are more exposed to south-westerly gales, whereas the north and east are more exposed to north-easterly gales ; though any range of mountains or hills in the neighbourhood will greatly determine this question. Altitude in Reference to Tree Growth. — In this country any reference to the actual altitude above sea level at which trees will grow is liable to be very misleading ; especially if comparisons be made with data as to altitudes at which similar trees will grow on some big continent. The highest altitudes in this country are barren, wind swept, rocky peaks ; whereas the same altitudes on a big continent are often at a relatively low altitude. In Great Britain there is very little land above 1000 feet which is suitable for timber growing; and there is a great deal at a lower altitude even than this which is far too exposed and barren for timber growing. The relative alti- tude is the determining factor. 1 And on high altitudes the growing season is very much shorter, and spring activity much later than at low altitudes. 74 PLANTING 1. The Demands of Trees as to Moisture. The amount of moisture, both in the soil and in the atmosphere, is perhaps the most important consideration affecting tree growth. The majority of trees prefer a moist atmosphere ; especially is this the case with Sitka Spruce, Sitka Cypress, Norway Spruce, Silver Fir, Douglas Fir, Thuya gigantea> Ash (European), most Poplars, Alder, Cup- ressus macrocarpa, and Spanish Chestnut1 However, Scots Pine, Austrian Pine, and Corsican Pine prefer a dry atmo- sphere. Then again, the majority of trees require a plentiful supply of moisture in the soil for their healthy development and to make good the losses caused by transpiration. This is especially the case with the above class requiring a moist atmosphere, and so also with Tree Willows, White Poplar, Black Poplar, Black Italian Poplar (P. Canadensis], Peduncu- late Oak, Hornbeam, and Weymouth Pine. Trees such as Sycamore, Norway Maple, Beech,2 Sessile Oak, Larch, and Elm will succeed with rather less moisture. The White Ash (F. Americana) will thrive on soils far too dry for the Common Ash. So too, White Alder and Abies concolor, Aspen Poplars, and Walnut trees will grow on quite dry soils, and (perhaps) Sitka Cypress. The best trees for very dry soils are Scots Pine, Austrian and Corsican Pines, Acacia, Birch, and Mountain Ash. Those trees thriving on dry soils, will, generally speaking, thrive also on soils containing more moisture. Birch is the most accommodating tree of all, and will grow practically anywhere, even on sour, ill-drained soils. But, with the exception of Birch, no trees can grow on ill-drained land which is sour, or wet with stagnant water. A moderate excess of water, provided it be well aerated and is not stagnant, is not detrimental to Alder Willows, 1 Spanish Chestnut will grow in a dry atmosphere and on fairly dry soil, but the timber is then usually very shaky ; whereas, with sufficient moisture, and other conditions suitable, it is usually of very fine quality. 2 Beech will thrive with considerably less moisture, on chalk and other limestone soils, than otherwise appears necessary for its well-being. MOISTURE AND TREE GROWTH 75 Poplars, Sitka Spruce, or Norway Spruce ; though, as already stated, it is usually very difficult to get trees established on wet localities on account of the increased danger from frosts. To a great extent, a damp soil will afford conditions suitable for growing trees which on drier soils will only thrive if the air be moist. And vice versa, a moist air will make good the deficiencies of a dry soil ; x for the relative humidity of the atmosphere will determine, to a great extent, the degree of transpiration effected by any tree. Thus imported trees which are naturally found in high mountainous regions in their native country, where perhaps the soil is thin and not capable of holding much water, but where they are constantly shrouded in mist, will succeed, here in Britain, only on moist soils at low altitudes, or where the air is moist, such as in the neighbourhood of large sheets of water — the sea, or inland lakes. Such trees as Norway Spruce, and, to a less extent, Silver Fir, will usually succeed far better in high mountainous regions in their own country than they will in Great Britain. For though in this country they may be planted on moist soil, and though the summer rainfall may be far greater than is the case in their native home, yet the growing season is longer in this country and transpiration continuously more active. Whereas, in their native home the growing season is very short, and excessive transpiration is so often checked by mists and fogs, and on account of the short growing season, the total amount of moisture required is less than in this country. Norway Spruce is more suited for growth in Scotland than in England ; whereas, for Silver Fir, England is more suitable, on account of the warmer summers. From the foregoing, it will be evident that on southern aspects, where the air is dry and, in most cases, the soil also, care should be taken to plant only such trees as make slight demands for moisture. Though at high elevations, owing to the growing season being shorter and owing to active 1 Thus on dry soils a far greater choice of trees is possible on northern aspects than on southern aspects. 76 PLANTING transpiration being often retarded, a lesser degree of moisture will usually be admissible. Or perhaps a southern aspect will be advisable where otherwise a northern aspect would be indicated. 2. The Demands of Trees as to Shelter and Protection from Gales and Frosts. The necessity for considering the liability of trees being damaged or thrown by storms is far greater when planting maiden land than when planting well-managed forest land. In the former case, there is probably no shelter from other crops of trees ; whereas in the latter case, if fellings have been made in a direction opposite to that of the prevailing winds, the older compartments will protect the younger crops. Though on exposed steep hills this protection will be reduced to a minimum. The trees which are most likely to be thrown by the wind are Norway Spruce and English Elm. Sitka Spruce, how- ever, is a storm-proof tree, and has a much deeper root system than Norway Spruce. Douglas Firs are rather liable to have their tops blown off, but if planted over large areas this danger greatly dis- appears. Scots Pine is very liable to be broken by any weight of snow on its branches, as they are brittle. But it must none the less be considered as a very storm-proof tree. Although most trees, except Norway Spruce and English Elm, are firmly anchored to the soil by their roots, yet many of these must, for other reasons, be avoided in exposed places. The trees best suited to withstand ordinary gales are : — Austrian Pine, Corsican Pine, Scots Pine, Sycamore, and Norway Maple. Now, when planting up maiden land, it will often be necessary to plant shelter belts of these storm-proof trees. For such a purpose the Austrian Pine and Sycamore are perhaps the most suitable. These belts should be about 30 SEA COAST PLANTING 77 feet wide, and are, of course, more efficient if planted some years before the rest of the land. And they should always be heavily thinned so as to encourage the formation of bushy trees. Their efficiency is increased if evergreen shade-bear- ing bushes are also planted. Very few trees will thrive if subjected to gales and the salt spray of sea-water. The best trees to plant in such localities are the Austrian Pine, Maritime Pine (P. pinaster), Bank's Pine (P. Banksiana), Corsican Pine, Cupressus macro- carpa, and (probably) the White Spruce (Picea alba). Whereas, if conditions are a little more favourable, and also of course depending on the soil, the following trees may succeed : Sycamore, Norway Maple, White Poplar, Ever- green Oak, Turkey Oak, and Pinus insignis. And again, there are several shrubs which will stand sea-spray and exposure, the best being Sea Buckthorn (Hippopha rhamnoides), Escallonia, Tamarisk, Euonymus, Gorse, and Privet. The susceptibility of various trees to late spring and early autumn frosts has already been referred to.1 But it should be noted that there is often a distinct " frost-line," in many cases only a few feet from the ground, and that, when once tender trees are above this line, they will usually continue to grow without further injury. Now, as late frosts do not always occur every year, a quick-growing species, though tender, may sometimes succeed in a frost locality ; and some- times big trees are planted in such a locality in order that they may quickly grow above the frost-line. But, in any known frost locality, or where experience would lead one to anticipate these frosts, only frost-hardy trees should ever be planted. Such trees are Birch, Corsican Pine, Austrian Pine, Scots Pine, White Poplar, Aspen Poplar, and Sitka Cypress. Furthermore, it should be remembered that trees which have not recovered from the shock of planting are far more susceptible to damage than trees which are well-established and vigorous. 1 Vide Chapter III. 78 PLANTING 3. The Demands of Trees as to Depth of Soil. With reference to the depth of soil required by trees, the condition of the subsoil or the rock underneath the surface- soil is often one of the most important factors to be taken into consideration. If the subsoil consist of a disintegrated rock, a shallower surface-soil will suffice than would be the case if the rock were unbroken. So also, if the stratification of the rock be vertical, a shallower surface-soil will suffice than if it were horizontal. Deep soils are always more beneficial than shallow soils, even if the trees be shallow rooted species. For the roots of trees will have a greater space in which to find the food they require, and there will usually be a more constant supply of moisture. The trees requiring the greatest depth of soil in a finely divided state, are : — Oak, Spanish Chestnut, Ash, Black Walnut, Acacia, Silver Fir, Douglas Fir, Cupressus macro- carpa. Thuya gigantea, Weymouth Pine, and Sitka Spruce. Whereas, on very shallow soils of about 15 inches in depth, only Birch and Aspen Poplar will grow if the subsoil be impenetrable. Spruce would grow on such a shallow soil if there were sufficient moisture in the soil and air, but in this country such would rarely be the case. There are, however, some trees which naturally require rather a deep soil, but which will grow on shallow soils, if the subsoil rock be disintegrated. Thus Larch, Beech, Scots Pine, English Elm, Sycamore, and Norway Maple will grow on shallow clay soils overlying oolitic limestone. Beech will thrive well on thin soils overlying the chalk. Scots Pine, which naturally requires a deep dry soil, is very accommodating, and will succeed well on many quite shallow soils. Trees naturally requiring a deep soil, will usually, if grown on soil without sufficient depth, fall off greatly in height, and never reach maturity ; and any timber which may be grown will be of poor quality. On shallow soils, it is often possible to grow poles 30 STIFF SOILS 79 and 40 years of age, of such trees as require a deep soil ; whereas it would be quite impossible to grow mature timber of such trees. 4. The Demands of Trees as to the Mechanical Condition of the SoU. The soil best suited to the growth of most trees is a slightly stiffish loam with a deep soil covering of decaying humus. Very porous soils are usually dry, especially if shallow, and hence only suited to a comparatively small number of trees, whereas on very stiff soils the choice of trees is still more limited. In this latter case the roots have a difficulty in penetrating, and they do not obtain enough air, and the soil gets sour. The natural drainage on such soils is bad, and they are more liable to late and early frosts. Often, especially on sandy gravels on which only heather is growing, there will be a pan or a hard, thin, impenetrable layer a few inches below the surface of the soil. The roots of trees will never penetrate such a pan ; and if it be neces- sary to plant such land, the pan must be artificially broken up. So also in cases where the seedling growth of trees is required, it is most essential to have a few inches of the humous soil, for, apart from the extra amount of moisture assured on dry soil, it will enable the growth of seedling roots to proceed with little hindrance. Now, on the stiffest soils the best trees to plant are Norway Spruce, White Poplar and Pedunculate Oak, though the growth of all, and especially of the latter, will be very slow. But it must be remembered that very stiff soils are not at all suited to tree growth. Often, however, good Spanish Chestnut coppice is grown on stiff clays, and it would seem that many trees will succeed better on stiff soils when coppiced, than when grown for timber. On soils not quite so stiff, but, however, still classed as heavy land, the three trees just mentioned will thrive, and also Sessile Oak, Black Poplar, Black Italian Poplar, Sitka Spruce, Cupressus macrocarpa, Silver Fir, Thuya gigantea. Hornbeam, Spanish Chestnut, Sycamore, Norway Maple, and Beech, so also 80 PLANTING Scots Pine, Corsican Pine, and Douglas Fir; but it will often be found that a short rotation, especially for the last 3 species, will have to be adopted. Ash is the most particular of all trees, and will succeed best on really deep stiffish loams, though lighter land, especially moist humous soil, with a clay bottom about 4 feet below the surface, will also suit it. In a general way, it may be said that soil really suited for growing Ash is usually worth 303. to £2 an acre for farming purposes. Larch is also very particular if it is to be grown to perfection. Deep, stiff, adhesive clays are quite unsuited to it; so also are light, dry, porous soils, and thin soils over- lying chalk. It delights, however, in a stony, rocky soil, if it can obtain sufficient moisture. Thin clays with a disintegrated rocky or stony subsoil are very suited to it ; so also are good deep loams. When planted on stiff clays, chalk, or dry gravels, it usually becomes hollow or "pumped." On light, porous soils, the best trees to plant are Scots, Austrian, and Corsican Pines, Acacia, Birch, and White Alder. As to Pood Requirements. — The food requirements of trees are very slight when compared to the requirements of agricultural crops. Even the poorest soils can usually provide all the food material necessary, provided always that the fallen leaves be not removed from the soil. According to Ebermayer, the loss per acre of Lime, Potash, and Phosphoric Acid, occasioned by the removal of crops of timber, will amount on the average in Ibs. per acre per annum to — Lime, CaO. Potash, K2O. Phosphoric Acid, P20g. By removal of timber only . Lbs. 9 Lbs. 4 Lbs. 1-4 By removal of timber and leaves 62 II 8 Whereas cereal crops remove on the average about .4 28 21 SYMBIOSIS 81 It will thus be evident that most of the valuable mineral ash is determined to the leaves, and that the timber itself contains only a little. Hence the rapid soil deterioration, as far as mineral plant food is concerned, that takes place when leaves are removed from woodlands. The removal of leaves is, moreover, also accompanied by a loss of moisture and also a loss of nitrogen, for decaying leaves and humus afford the chief source of nitrogen in the form of nitric acid for the growing trees. Now, experiments have shown that the leaves of many trees, especially Beech, Hornbeam, and Poplars, will, as they decay, become associated with conditions under which the free nitrogen of the air is rendered available for plant food. The free nitrogen of the air is also utilised by leguminous trees such as Acacia (Robinia) by means of micro-organisms contained in nodules on their roots. There are also trees which are not leguminous, such as Alder, which have nodules on their roots containing a fungus, and which, by a process of symbiosis, manufacture and absorb nitrogenous substances, which are, in their turn, utilised by the tree. A somewhat similar condition prevails in the case of Oak, Spanish Chestnut, Beech, and some other trees, on whose roots are small mico-rhizas, the mycelial filaments of which absorb nitrogenous substances for the tree, and perhaps also manufacture them, thus utilising the free nitrogen of the air. So also, a symbiotic growth is witnessed when mixtures of Pinus montana and Spruce are made. In this case, it would seem that a fungus on the roots of the former aids in the provision of nitrogenous food material for the latter ; especially is this the case on poor sandy soils. The amount of nitrogen required by timber crops is very small when compared to the requirements of agricultural crops. The perpetual removal of mature timber from well- managed woodlands should never result in a loss of nitrogen to the soil. There will, on the other hand, often be an actual gain of soil nitrogen. The average amount of lime, potash, and phosphoric F 82 PLANTING acid lost by the removal of mature timber has already been noticed. But it is necessary to note that under coppice systems, the loss to the soil of mineral plant food and of nitrogen is more than double the loss sustained by removing mature timber. This is evident from analyses, which show that the percentage of Ash constituents in various parts of trees varies considerably, as is shown by the following table :— Per cent, of Ash varies from In Conifers. In Deciduous Trees. Large timber* •3 to -5 •3 to I -0 Twigs and small branches . I'O „ 2-O •8 „ 2-0 Bark .... 2-0 to 6-0 Leaves .... 1-5 ,, 3-o 37 „ 7-6 * The heartwood of a tree contains less ash than the sapwood ; also, most of the nitrogen in timber is found in the sapwood, there being hardly any in heartwood. In a general way, it may be said that broad-leaved trees remove more valuable mineral food from the soil than conifers, that Beech removes more than other deciduous trees, and that Silver Fir removes more than the Pines or Spruces. But the amount is so small that the artificial manuring with " cinereals " is not necessary. Though, were leaves habitually removed for litter, etc., the loss of plant food would soon be evident. It will be noticed that the annual requirements of trees for timber and leaves, amount, in the case of potash and phosphoric acid, to less than half of that removed per acre per annum by cereal crops, and that the amount of lime required for trees is nearly 5 times that removed by cereal crops, but that, as the leaves contain most of the lime, potash, and phosphoric acid, these minerals are annually returned to the soil in an available form. It should be remembered that any analysis of tree leaves PERCENTAGE OF ASH 83 is liable to be rather misleading if it be taken as a guide to the food requirements of any particular crop, or the amount of plant food returned per acre per annum by the fall of the leaves. For, before any correct conclusions can be arrived at, the total weight of leaves produced per acre per annum must be^ascertained. Analyses show that the percentage of Ash per unit of -weight is far greater in deciduous broad-leaved trees than in conifers. This is shown by the following table :— Per cent, of p er cent Ash per unit A sh per of weight, rf weigl about abou Ash . 7-6 Hornbeam . . A Beech .1 Black Poplar . •\ Birch .[ 4-0 7-o White Alder . . J Elm • } Common Alder 37 Lime . 6-5 Silver Fir 3'° Acacia . 6-0 Larch .... 2'5 Sycamore •} Aspen Poplar . '[ CO Spruce . . . .^ Willow . 5-o Weymouth Pine . . V 2-4 Oak J Scots Pine . . .J White Poplar . 4-6 Austrian & Corsican Pine 1-8 As far as the chemical constituents are concerned, the best trees to plant on really poor soils are : — Birch, Scots, Corsican, and Austrian Pines, Aspen Poplar, Acacia, Mountain Ash, and White Alder. The trees requiring most plant food are : — Beech, Hornbeam, Spanish Chestnut, Silver Fir, Ash, Elm, Oak, Sycamore, and Black Poplars. Some trees show a preference or a dislike to certain minerals in the soil. Thus, any excess of lime is usually detrimental to Douglas Fir, Weymouth Pine, Spanish Chestnut, Pinus 84 PLANTING pinaster, Plane trees, and Tulip trees. It seems to act as a poison to them. Whereas, Beech, Ash, Corsican Pine, Austrian Pine, Yew, Walnut, and Box distinctly prefer a calcareous soil. Larch usually prefers soils with plenty of lime in them, though it never thrives where chalk is near the surface ; this, however, cannot be attributed to the chemical com- position of the soil or subsoil. So again, any acidity in the soil usually acts as a poispn to trees. Land covered -with heather is usually too acid for the broad-leaved trees, except Alder and Birch, to grow well in, and only conifers should be planted, for the first rotation, on such land. Though, if the heather has not been long established, it would often suffice for broad-leaved trees. Such a case might occur where arable land had gone out of cultivation and the heather had only occupied the ground for a few years. It is the acid contained on heather land that is so often instrumental in forming a " pan." On these slightly sour soils, Birch, Alder, and the conifers will succeed, if there be a sufficiency of moisture, and not an excess of it. On the driest of such soils, only Birch, Scots, Corsican, and Austrian Pines should be planted. Usually speaking, trees are very intolerant of poisons in either the soil or the air. Near large towns and factories the atmosphere is often laden with poisonous compounds. In such a case, deciduous broad-leaved trees may often succeed when evergreen trees fail. The Plane tree (which sheds its bark), Elm, Lime, Acacia, Black Poplars, Horse Chestnut, and Sycamore are the best trees to plant when such conditions prevail. On the other hand, Beech, of the broad-leaved trees, is the most susceptible ; and of the conifers, Silver Fir. As to Heat and Warmth. — The effects of heat on tree growth are very varying ; for the determining point is so often the amount of available moisture. No locality in this country is too hot for tree growth, provided that there be a SOUTHERN ASPECTS 85 sufficiency of moisture in the soil. This, however, is seldom the case ; for the hotter the soil and situation, the less moisture will there usually be. With reference to this matter, it should be noted that southern aspects are the hottest, and that sandy soils are the quickest to heat, and, after them, chalky soils ; whereas northern aspects are the coolest, and clay soils are the slowest to become heated ; and that, as already stated, southern aspects and sandy soils are generally too deficient in moisture to be as favourable for timber growing as northern aspects, or soils with more moisture in them. There are, however, certain instances when the warmer southern aspects are preferable. For instance, on the stiffer soils with plenty of moisture, tree growth will sometimes be better than on the cooler aspects ; especially is this the case when the land is situated at a relatively high altitude, where the danger from late frosts is minimised. And again, where oak bark is of importance, that grown on the hottest aspects will contain the most tannin. Then again, it is very probable that only the hottest aspects and localities are suitable for those exotic trees which are accustomed to very hot summers, and which have a difficulty in ripening their wood in this country — such, for instance, as Black Walnut ; but care must also be taken that the locality has sufficient moisture, and that it is not specially subject to late spring and early autumn frosts. Spanish Chestnut does far better in hot localities, pro- vided there be sufficient moisture, which indeed is essential. It is a tree far more suited to the south-west of England than to any other part of Great Britain ; and the same may be said of Cupressus macrocarpa, though this latter requires a moist atmosphere as well as a moist soil. Another advantage that can be claimed for southern aspects and hot localities is that the extra warmth will generally be instrumental in the production of better seed ; especially is this the case with reference to such trees as Silver Fir and all other imported trees, in whose native countries hot summers are experienced. 86 PLANTING However, by way of a summary, it may be stated that these hot aspects are, especially if the soil be light, very much more difficult to plant and manage than cool, moist localities ; for growth in the spring starts early ; late spring and early autumn frosts are common ; the effects of dry weather in the summer are always more severe ; and the retention of a soil covering of humus is a more difficult matter. On such aspects, planting will often have to be confined to Scots and Corsican Pines, or merely to Austrian Pine for shelter. Another matter that should be mentioned is the injurious effect that a hot sun often has on young plants, especially when they have been recently planted out. Transpiration takes place at a greater rate than that at which the roots, which have not become established, can supply the necessary amount of water, and hence the young trees wilt, and often die. So also, a hot sun in early spring often induces transpira- tion before the root system has become active; and nearly all the evergreen conifers can be seriously injured, and sometimes killed, in this way ; the leaves turn brown and fall off. Silver Fir and Beech are always, when young, very in- tolerant of a hot sun, and protection from it is almost imperative ; and, for this reason, these two trees, which will bear intense shade, are far more suited for underplanting than for being planted on open ground, and this quite apart from their susceptibility to late frosts. Many other trees, such as Thuya gigantea and Douglas Fir, benefit from a little shade when young. As to Floods. — Any prolonged flooding of land is detri- mental to trees. The trees least injured are Alder, Willows, and Poplars, but even these would probably be killed if flooded during the time in which the buds were breaking out into leaf. In all cases where coppice areas are liable to become flooded, the stools should be cut some distance from the ground, as, otherwise, the latent buds, from which the new shoots would grow, will become rotten. FIRE 87 As to Fire. — The danger from fire is one of the greatest risks with which afforestation is attended. And when planting and tending crops, every means must be taken to minimise this risk as far as possible. The greatest damage is to be apprehended in the case of coniferous crops, and especially Scots and Corsican Pine. When planting such crops, all heather and rank growth on the surface of the land should always be burnt. And Fire belts or Fire lines ought generally to be planted. About every 40 acres should be surrounded by a fire belt ; and they should also be planted by the side of any much frequented public road, and on either side of railway lines. These fire belts should be about 40 feet wide, and should be composed of broad-leaved trees. The best plan is to keep them periodically coppiced, and thus have a very dense canopy, under which it is impossible for heather or grass to grow. Only one half of the width should be coppiced at a time, and the other half should be cut some 8 or 10 years later when that portion which was first cut is well grown up. Poplars are the least inflammable of any trees, but, as these fire belts are usually required on very dry Pine soils, probably the best trees to plant will be the False Acacia (Robinia\ White Alder, and Birch. On the better soils, fire lines may be made very much wider, and mature broad-leaved trees grown ; but care must be taken to keep the canopy always dense, and avoid clear cutting. Fire lines of barren sand are very effective, but their cost is usually prohibitive. Ordinary ditches, cut round the compartments, are, how- ever, convenient points at which to attempt to stop an existing fire. It is always very advisable to keep all grass on the rides cut, and have it removed, so that, when a fire occurs, it will not easily spread across a ride, 88 PLANTING SUMMARY. Having regard to all the foregoing, it will be very evident how difficult it is to make a correct choice of the trees to plant on any particular soil and in any particular locality. And, it is still more difficult to lay down any stereotyped rules for planting any particular class of land. But, by way of a summary, the following lists are given for trees suited to particular classes of land, without, reference, however, to the financial advantage of planting one species in preference to another. On very Stiff Clays (if deep). — Norway Spruce,1 White Poplar and Pedunculate Oak, and also for coppice (only), Spanish Chestnut, Hornbeam, and Hazel, On Clay Land, not quite so Stiff (if deep). — Norway Spruce,1 White Poplar, Pedunculate and Sessile Oak, Black and Black Italian Poplars, Sitka Spruce, Cupressus macrocarpa, Silver Fir, Thuya gigantea^ Common Alder, Hornbeam, Spanish Chestnut, Sycamore, Norway Maple, and Beech ; and also Scots Pine, Corsican Pine, and Douglas Fir, but these latter must be grown on a short rotation. Shallow Clay Soils, resting on Disintegrated Lime- stone Rock. — Larch, Beech, English and Wych Elm, Syca- more, Norway Maple, Scots and Corsican Pines, and Sitka Cypress. On Dry Sands and Gravels. — Scots Pine, Corsican and Austrian Pines, Birch, Acacia,2 and White Alder. On Soils not quite so Dry. — The same trees, and also White Ash and Abies concolor ; and, if a little more moisture, Beech, Silver Fir, Sessile Oak, Aspen Poplar, Sycamore, and Norway Maple. On Thin Soils overlying the Chalk. — Beech, Corsican and Austrian Pines, Yew, and Box. On Deep pure Peats. — Birch, Scots Pine, and Weymouth Pine ; and Norway Spruce, if the peat be not too dry ; and 1 Norway Spruce will also succeed on shallow clay soils. 2 Acacia will not succeed if the soil be sour. TREES FOR SPECIAL SOILS 89 also, probably, Nordmann's Silver Fir, Corsican Pine, Cupressus macrocarpa, and Thuya gigantea. On fairly Shallow Peat Soil l with Deep Mineral Subsoil. —The same trees, also Silver Fir, Douglas Fir, and Thuya gigantea ; and Alder, if moist enough. Sand Dunes on the Sea-Coast. — Austrian Pine, Pinus pinaster, Scots Pine, Corsican Pine, Pinus Banksiana, and (probably) White Spruce (P. alba). For Sea-Coast planting if the Soil be good enough. — The same trees, and also Cupressus macrocarpa ; and, if some- what sheltered, Sycamore, Norway Maple, White Poplar, Evergreen Oak, Turkey Oak, and Pinus insignis. And, as shrubs — Sea Buckthorn, Tamarisk, Escallonia, Euonymus, Gorse, and Privet. For Localities subject to late Spring and early Autumn Frosts (if the soil be suitable). — Scots, Corsican, and Austrian Pines, Birch, White Poplar, Sitka Cypress, and Aspen Poplar. And lastly, good deep loams with sufficient moisture are suitable to all trees. Ash is very particular, and prefers a deep, calcareous, marly loam. And in the case of Douglas Fir, Weymouth Pine, Pinus pinaster, Spanish Chestnut, and Tulip trees, any excess of lime seems to act as a poison. THE PECULIARITIES OF GROWTH AND THE CON- DITIONS SUITED TO THE GROWTH OF TREES. (A.) Concerning the growth peculiar to individual trees, the chief points to consider, exclusive of volume increment and financial returns, are : — (1) The Shape of the Crowns. (2) The Relative Height Growth. (3) The Persistency of Side Branches. (4) The Shade-bearing or Light-demanding qualities of different species of trees. 1 These soils will probably be too acid for broad-leaved trees. 90 PLANTING .} And as regards the conditions under which they may best be grown, it is necessary to consider : — (1) The Age and Distance apart at which trees should be planted. (2) The Merits and Demerits of Pure and of Mixed Woods, and the Methods of mixing. (3) The Choice of System under which the crops may preferably be grown. (4) The advisability, or otherwise, of a rotation in cropping. (5) The Season for Planting. (A) CONCERNING THE GROWTH PECULIAR TO INDIVIDUAL TREES. (1) The Shape of the Crowns. This is a matter to which due consideration must be given when planting mixtures of trees, or when contemplat- ing underplanting, etc. For the final development of the crowns will, to a great extent, determine the ultimate number of trees that may be left per acre for the final crop, and the individual growing space they require. All the broad-leaved trees and Scots, Corsican, and Austrian Pines naturally develop a wide branching crown as they grow old. Whereas Douglas Fir, Larch, Silver Fir, Spruce, and Weymouth Pine, never normally develop a large crown, but preserve their con- spicuous central axis even in old age ; though, if grown in the open, they will generally be clothed to the ground with a luxuriant growth of side branches. The Sessile Oak grows naturally with a much straighter stem than the Pedunculate Oak ; and it is less inclined to form a spreading crown. As regards those trees which naturally form large crowns, it may be mentioned that crown development should be suppressed until the principal height growth is attained, but that, after that period, it must be encouraged to a very con- siderable extent, or the trees will unduly suffer. HEIGHT GROWTH 91 (2) The Relative Height Growth. This is a very important matter indeed when con- templating planting a mixture. It is necessary to know not only the ultimate height growth of the different species of trees, but also the relative height growth of the trees when young. The fastest growing trees when young, and up to about 15 years of age, are, more or less, in the following order, provided that the soil and locality suit each tree : — CLASS I. < CLASS II. H 'Douglas Fir. Cupressus macro- carpa. Poplars. Tree Willows. Sitka Spruce. Birch. Norway Maple. Sycamore. /^Japanese Larch. Corsican Pine. Austrian Pine. Alder. Ash (F. Oregond}. Ash (F. Americana], Ash (European). Weymouth Pine. European Larch. '^Scots Pine. CLASS III/ CLASS IV.- Lime. Elm. Thuya gigantea. Spanish Chestnut. Norway Spruce. Hornbeam. Beech. Oak (Sessile). Oak (Pedunculate). CLASS V. /Silver Fir. I Yew. their Now, with reference to the above : — Poplars, Willows, and Birch very soon attain principal height growth, in from 20 to 30 years. Norway Spruce when about 8 years old, and Silver Fir when about 16 years old, begin to grow very quickly, and continue this rapid height growth until their principal height growth is attained. Japanese Larch when about 20 years of age will usually be caught up by the European Larch. Beech begins to grow fairly rapidly when about 20 years of age, if the canopy be close. 92 PLANTING Oak, especially the Sessile Oak, grows fairly fast when about 35 years of age. Corsican and Austrian Pines do not retain their very active growth for more than about 30 to 35 years. The ultimate height growth of trees, in soils best suited to them, is somewhat as follows : — 'Douglas Fir. ^White Poplar. CLASS I., Sitka Spruce. Black Poplar. Attaining Silver Fir. Black Italian Pop 120 feet and over/ under the best Norway Spruce. lar. conditions. European Larch. CLASS III., Spanish Chestnut. AVeymouth Pine. Averaging 85 to 105 feet, - Cupressus macro- when well grown, carpa. and on good soil. Ash. Sycamore. Norway Maple. Corsican Pine. ^Austrian Pine. ' Thuya gigantea. CLASS II., Averaging Sessile Oak. Beech. [Tree Willows. CLASS IV., Birch> 105 to 120 feet - when well grown, Pedunculate Oak. unYer^feft, 1 Hornbeam. and on good soil. Scots Pine. even under the Alrlpr best conditions. ' .Elm. lYew. (3) The Persistency and Vigour of Side Branches. This is a matter which seldom if ever receives the atten- tion it merits, and it varies very greatly in different species of trees. The side branches of shade-enduring trees are usually the most difficult to prune off naturally, as they remain alive even in very subdued light ; whereas, under similar circumstances, the branches of light-demanding trees would quickly die, and in most cases fall off. But even when the side branches are dead, some trees will retain their dead branches for a much longer period than other trees, and unless the dead branches of trees quickly fall off, the quality of the timber produced will be very much lowered. For when the tree is cut up, it will often contain loose dead " knots." SIDE BRANCHES 93 As regards the persistency of the branches, it may be stated that small dead branches drop off quicker than large branches. The side branches of Larch readily fall off, and give very little trouble ; and next in order come, perhaps, those of Ash, Birch, Poplars, and Willows. The side branches of Oak do not very readily fall off; and for the first 30 years of their life the trees should be grown very close together, so as to prevent any large branches ever being formed. The side branches of Spruce, and Scots, Corsican, Austrian, and Weymouth Pines, are, even when dead, very persistent, especially if they be more than an inch in diameter. On account of their shade-enduring qualities the side branches of Silver Fir, Beech, Hornbeam, Spruce, and Douglas Fir are not readily killed, and will not, if they become of any size, readily fall off It is very necessary to pay the greatest attention to this matter, when deciding on the distance apart at which planting should be done, or when deciding upon any particular mixture of trees, and the arrangement of that mixture. For the success of any even-aged mixture, or at any rate a mixture where every tree differs from its neighbour, or where the mixture is by alternate lines of trees, is, apart from soil and locality, almost entirely dependent upon their relative height growth and their mutual pruning effects. In many cases, these two considerations are entirely ignored ; and the effect produced is often exactly similar to the evil effects of planting trees too wide apart. For instance, suppose a mixture of Larch and Silver Fir were made by alternate trees, planted 4 feet apart. The Larch would grow much faster than the Silver Fir, and, for the first 25 years of the life of the crop, conditions would exist similar to planting pure crops of Larch or Silver Fir 8 feet apart each way ; for, practically speaking, neither of the trees would exert any pruning effects on each other until the space of 8 feet were bridged over. In the case of pure crops, the conditions for natural pruning 94 PLANTING are ideal, if the trees are planted at the correct distance apart ; and, when mixtures are made, the same ideal should be aimed at ; that is to say, the height growth and the persistency of the side branches should, as nearly as possible, be identical ; thus admitting of the growth of perfectly clean timber, pruned only by natural agencies. Larch and Ash will generally prune each other nicely, but they will not affect the pruning of side branches on any other trees to any appreciable extent; and any other trees - growing next to them in an even-aged mixture, will be of an inferior quality, unless artificially pruned. As regards other deciduous trees : — They will prune each other fairly well, provided their relative height growth be similar. The Pines will prune each other nicely, and so will the shade-bearing conifers, provided, in both cases,' the relative height growth be similar ; but, as regards the latter, there is usually a great difference in the height growth. And again, it may be stated as a general rule, that no deciduous trees will properly prune the evergreen conifers, even though the height growth be similar. It must be remembered, that the real efficiency of natural pruning is due to the fact that side branches are not allowed to develop. It is quite a fallacy to suppose that well-pruned trees can be grown, if large side branches have once developed, unless, indeed, artificial pruning be resorted to. It is impossible to prune their branches off naturally by means of some vigorous growing tree. For instance, any idea that badly grown Oak can be "pruned up with Beech" is quite fallacious. This question of the pruning of side branches is of far greater importance in woods artificially planted, at a distance of 3 or 4 feet apart, than it is in the case of woods raised naturally from seed. In the latter case, the trees are crowded from infancy, and the development of side branches is always suppressed. But, in artificial woods, the development of side branches is encouraged to start with ; for they grow for years, until SHADE-BEARING TREES 95 a canopy is formed, without interruption ; and, by the time natural pruning begins, these branches are already big and formidable. (4) The Shade-bearing or Light-demanding Qualities of Trees. It is very necessary to pay great regard to this matter. If a mixture be planted, it is imperative that, if the species chosen have not the same height growth, the species that grow the slowest are capable of withstanding the shade of the quicker growing species. So also, when underplanting is adopted, only the shade-bearing trees can be used. Any disregard for this question must result in absolute failure. Care must also be taken when underplanting, that the under- crop does not catch up the over-crop before it is desired to fell the latter. The most light-demanding trees are : — Larch, Birch, Scots Pine, Oak, Acacia (Robinia), Corsican Pine, Poplars, Willows, and Elm ; also, Ash and Spanish Chestnut when mature, though these latter too, and especially Spanish Chestnut, will bear considerable shade when young, or when grown as coppice.1 The trees that will bear the greatest amount of shade 2 are : — Silver Fir, Cupressus macrocarpa, Beech, Nordmann's Silver Fir, Hornbeam, Thuya gigantea ; and, next in order, come Sitka Spruce, Sitka Cypress, Douglas Fir, Weymouth Pine, Spanish Chestnut (when young), Hazel, and Lime. The Norway Spruce will only bear shade when the con- ditions for its growth are quite favourable ; otherwise it is quite intolerant of shade. The shade-enduring trees are all thickly foliaged, and their canopy is complete, and no soil deterioration should take place under them ; but the light-demanding trees are thinly foliaged, and, as maturity approaches, their canopy becomes broken, and the humus disappears and the soil becomes covered with a rank growth. The fall of leaves 1 As to the suitability of trees for coppice, vide Chapter X. 2 Vide also Chapter VIII. 96 PLANTING from Beech and Hornbeam is especially dense and valuable, and the condition of the soil is much improved by these species. Spanish Chestnut trees also produce very beneficial effects ; their canopy is, however, somewhat deficient towards the end of a rotation. (B) AS REGARDS THE CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH TREES MAY BEST BE GROWN. (1) The Age and Distance apart at which Trees should be Planted. These two considerations are largely interdependent. For, cceteris paribus, the larger the trees, the greater the distance apart at which they may be planted, and vice versa. As a rule, trees should never be more than 4 years old when planted out, though occasionally older trees are planted out as standards over coppice. However, the older the trees, the greater is their expense, and the longer they take, in nearly all cases, to become established. It is no uncommon occurrence for a plantation made with 2-year-old trees, planted close together, to be as far advanced in 10 years' time as a plantation made with 4-year-old plants planted at 4 feet or 4 feet 6 inches apart. For the young trees become more quickly established, and there is not the same energy of growth dissipated in the production of side branches. Owing to the great saving in expense, young I or 2 year seedling trees should always be planted where possible. This should always be possible on properly managed forest land from which a crop of timber has just been cleared ; for it should be perfectly clean. It will also be possible, almost invariably, on poor heather land ; but on maiden land where there is a covering of grass or other rank growth, it will not usually be advisable or possible, unless, by ploughing the land, it will remain fairly clean at any rate throughout the first summer. Wherever possible, a cleaning crop, such as potatoes, should be taken from such maiden land as is DISTANCE APART FOR PLANTING 97 good enough to prevent a loss of more than 153. an acre being incurred. For the loss will be refunded by the saving effected by planting younger plants. As a general rule, I and 2 year seedling plants should not be planted farther apart than 2 feet 6 inches to 2 feet 9 inches — that is, 7000 to 5800 plants per acre. For the extra expense of planting the large number of seedling trees is not very great ; and it is always most essential to obtain a close canopy as soon as possible ; and the necessity for filling up blanks is largely avoided. The actual distance apart at which trees should be planted, depends chiefly upon the persistency of the side branches and the vigour of each year's growth. The side branches must be naturally killed before they are too big to readily drop off; in other words, the trees must be planted so close that large side branches can never develop. The maximum distance apart at which trees three to four years old should be planted in even-aged high forest is as follows : — 5 feet apart 4 feet apart /Poplars. ' I Tree Willows. Larch. Douglas Fir. Cupressus macro- carpa. Ash. Norway Maple Sycamore. Hornbeam. Spanish Chestnut. Beech. ^ Thuya gigantea. 3 feet apart Austrian Pine. Corsican Pine. Scots Pine. Weymouth Pine. Spruce (Sitka), and up to 3 feet 6 inches apart. Spruce (Norway). 2 feet 9 inches 2 feet 6 inches Oak.1 Silver Fir. 2. The Merits and Demerits of Pure and Mixed Woods, and the Methods of Mixing. As regards pure and mixed woods, there are many ad- 1 This close planting of Oak is very advisable, so as to induce height growth. Only a very small proportion of Oak trees originally planted, are ever worth leaving when 40 years of age. 98 . PLANTING vantages and disadvantages connected with each method. But, briefly, the advantages of pure woods are:— (1) They are very easy to manage, and thinning opera- tions require least skill. (2) The whole crop is ready to be cut at the same period. (3) Trees of the same species reciprocally prune the branches of each other, better than is the case with any mixture. (4) Natural regeneration of one species is more easily effected than that of a mixture. But on the other hand, pure woods are often open to grave disadvantages, namely : — (1) All thinly foliaged trees open out their canopy when the principal height growth has ceased, and they are no longer able to preserve the fertility of the soil ; rank grass and other growth will appear ; and the amount of moisture available for the trees will be much diminished. (2) The danger from particular insect and fungoid attacks is increased ; and, in the case of pure coniferous woods, the danger from fire is greater than when coniferous trees are mixed with broad-leaved trees.1 (3) Thinnings of some pure crops are often almost value- less. On the other hand, when mixed woods are grown, the disadvantages of pure woods are largely avoided ; and other advantages comprise : — (1) If some species not suited to the soil and locality .have been planted, they may be removed as thinnings, and other trees which are more suitable may be left for the final crop. (2) In the case of shallow rooted trees, the danger from storms and gales is largely avoided if they be mixed with deep-rooted trees. 1 Pure Larch, especially if grown on flat cold land or on southern aspects, is far more liable to Larch Disease than when grown on northern aspects, MIXED WOODS: ADVANTAGES 99 (3) Where the soil varies in particular spots, the trees best suited to such places can be planted, thus utilising the ground to the fullest advantage. (4) Where thinly foliaged trees, which alone cannot pre- serve the fertility of the soil, are mixed with shade- bearing trees, whose rate of growth must be slower, the latter, by their soil-improving qualities, cause a more vigorous and more prolonged growth of the thinly foliaged trees. For instance, Oak l or Larch, when mixed with Beech or Hornbeam or Spanish Chestnut, will grow far finer timber than were the Oak or Larch grown alone. (5) Mixtures of thinly foliaged trees with shade-bearing trees will, provided the latter never outgrow the former, yield a greater out-turn of timber per acre than pure crops of thinly foliaged trees, as a greater number of stems per acre is admissible and the thinly foliaged trees will have relatively a greater growing space. (6) A given soil can often supply sufficient plant food and water for a mixture of trees, whereas it might not be able to do so for an exacting pure crop. For different trees make different demands on the soil for plant food and water ; and as their root systems differ, some being deep-rooted and some shallow, the supplies can be drawn from a larger area. (7) More valuable thinnings will be realised by introducing species such as Larch, Ash, and Spanish Chestnut, than were a pure crop of Oak, Beech, or Silver Fir grown. (8) The original cost of forming a plantation can often be reduced by planting a proportion of cheap plants, which can be removed as thinnings. Whereas, the chief disadvantages of mixed woods in- clude the following : — (i) They are difficult to manage, and require great skill. 1 Oak must be given a start when grown with Beech, or it will be out- grown and suppressed in most cases. 100 PLANTING (2) The natural pruning of side branches is often very defective, and with many mixtures it is impossible to produce clean straight boles. (3) Maturity is reached with different species at different dates. Now, as regards the formation of mixed woods, the mixtures may be either : — (A) EVEN-AGED; UNEVEN-AGED. (A ) Even- Aged Mixtures : — There are very many ways of mixing trees in an even-aged mixture, the three chief ways being : — (i) By single trees : that is, in a sporadic manner. (ii) By alternate rows. (iii) By patches or groups. (i) and (ii) Mixtures by Single Trees and by Alternate Rows require the very greatest skill. Neither method will give good results for all the trees unless the height growth and the reciprocal pruning effect be similar. It is a common practice to plant alternate rows of some hardy, quick-growing trees along with some tender, slow-growing species ; the hardy species are regarded as " nurses," and are cut out when not required. But in such a case, the slow-growing, tender species will seldom be well pruned. A better plan is to plant at least 3 rows at a time (and often more) of the tender species, and then a row of nurses ; for by this means some of the tender species will be properly pruned, and the pruning will continue after the removal of the nurses. But, where possible, another excellent plan is to introduce any tender species which will bear shade — and many of them will — under the canopy of an existing crop of thinly foliaged trees, and so make an uneven-aged mixture and bring about the system of two-storied high forest. And if desired the over-crop can be gradually removed and an even-aged forest left. In such a case, however, it is imperative to plant a large number of seedlings, so as to discount any damage EVEN-AGED MIXTURES . 101 occasioned by the removal of the over-crop, at any rate if the latter be of any considerable size. In this connection, it may not be out of place to state that Birch are the best of all nurses. So again, mixtures by single trees, when every tree differs from its neighbour, will seldom be successful ; for even if the trees have relatively the same height growth, one class — that is, one-half the crop — will be of very bad quality if there be a great difference in the mutual pruning of each other. For instance, suppose a mixture of Larch and Corsican Pine be planted, and that one keeps pace with the other. The Larch will all be excellently pruned, but the Corsican Pine will, every one of them, be branchy and knotty, as the Larch will exert no effect upon them whatever. Often it is thought prudent to introduce into a mixture a valuable species whose success as a pure crop is doubtful. In such a case, it should be introduced sporadically, perhaps one tree every 1 6 feet apart, and the majority of the crop, known as the "ruling" species, should consist of trees which will prune the valuable species correctly, but will not overtop them. In such a case, the welfare of the valuable species is the chief consideration. Its success will more than counter- balance any loss in technical value of their neighbouring trees, which, even if the valuable species fail, will only form a small proportion of the whole crop, and can be removed as thinnings. For instance, it might be desired to grow some Larch on cold flat land, but the chances of disease are far too great to risk a pure crop. But, it would be a perfectly legitimate gamble to plant Larch at intervals of 20 feet, and to have all the rest of the area pure Scots Pine. The great difficulty of planting mixtures by single trees or by alternate rows, and at the same time obtaining good results for a fair proportion of the crop, cannot be too strongly insisted upon. The old-fashioned promiscuous " nurseryman's " mixtures must for ever be abandoned. The greater the number of 102 PLANTING trees introduced into a mixture, the more difficult does the task of correctly mixing them become. (iii) Mixtures by Patches or Groups. — However, a mixture by patches is as a rule the best method of forming an even-aged mixture. It is the easiest and safest method of forming a mixture, and any change in the character of the soil can be utilised to the fullest advantage. The patches may be of any size — J, J, J, or I acre, or even more. By such a method, any ill-effects produced by lack of pruning, or by difference in height growth, is confined only to the trees forming the outside rings of the patches. Therefore, the larger the patch, the less harm results from any indiscre- tion in this respect. Though if the patches be too large, they are, to all intents and purposes, small pure woods, and the disadvantages of pure wood have to be considered. It should be remembered that mixtures are found in natural virgin forest more often than pure crops. But Nature's method of mixing trees is to a great extent by patches, though the patches are often small. In the case of a mature forest, it will sometimes appear that the mixing has been by single trees. But this is not so in a general way. For an old tree dies and leaves a vacant space, which usually becomes very thickly seeded, and, although there may be many species seeded on this area, it will usually happen that in a year or so one species will have suppressed all others, and a pure patch grows up. And again, at other times, another patch may be seeded with another species, owing to differences in seed years and other causes. And so it happens that the fine, tall, clean trees so often to be found in virgin forest, have usually been drawn up and pruned by trees of their own species. And apart from this fact, it is very much easier for mixtures to be grown successfully when thick natural seed- ing has taken place, producing perhaps 100,000 plants to the acre, than when artificial planting at 3 or 4 feet apart has taken place ; for in the former case side branches hardly have a chance of developing. Again, it is an important .matter that, when planting GOOD MIXTURES 103 mixtures, provision should always be made, if possible, to insure that the trees removed as thinnings are easily saleable. The most saleable trees, when small, are usually Larch, Ash, and Spanish Chestnut. But, of course, very often they cannot be sacrificed. (B) Uneven-Aged Mixtures.1 — As regards uneven-aged mixtures, it is necessary to bear in mind that the younger trees must always be able to bear the shade of the older trees. The following are some notes on particular mixtures by single trees or alternate rows2 in even-aged high forest, unless otherwise stated, supposing that soil and situation be favourable ; and they have reference chiefly to the questions of relative height growth, and the mutual pruning of side branches ; leaving out of account financial considerations. Good or Pair Mixtures. Oak and Beech quite good. The Beech will often, how- ever, catch the Oak up ; therefore it is always best to grow the Oak pure, and to underplant, at about 45 years of age with Beech, and thus make a two-storied high forest. This should give most excellent results. Oak and Spanish Chestnut. — A very good mixture, if the Chestnut be coppiced before the Oak is surpassed ; then the Oak should be grown as high forest with coppice. The best plan with Oak, however, is to grow them pure, and underplant when from 40 to 55 years of age ; afterwards the undercrop may be coppiced if suitable. It must be re- membered that only a very small proportion of any Oak trees originally planted will be growing vigorously and be worth leaving at 40 years of age. Hence it is advisable to grow the crop pure, so as to have a large choice. For if the ultimate result is to be successful, only quick-growing, vigorous trees must be left. Hornbeam may take the place of either Spanish Chestnut or Beech, though it is not so profitable. 1 Vide Chapter VIII. 2 As already stated, the disadvantages can often be lessened or avoided by planting I row in 4 or 5, etc. 104 PLANTING Oak -with Alder makes an excellent mixture, but the Alder must be coppiced. Larch and Ash is quite good. However, one or other must be ultimately sacrificed ; and underplanting must take place with Beech or Spanish Chestnut before grass appears. Often, however, Douglas Fir or Sitka Spruce will be prefer- able for underplanting the Larch. Larch and Spanish Chestnut is a very good mixture. The Chestnut will not be well pruned ; and, by preference, they should be coppiced. Larch and Beech is a very good mixture, as far as the growth of Larch is concerned ; but the Beech will not be well pruned, and must be looked upon as an aid to growing good Larch. It is more preferable to grow pure Larch, if the risk can be taken, as, for instance, on a northern aspect ; or a mixture of European and Japanese Larch may be grown, and then either of these crops should be underplanted with Beech when about 30 years of age. Larch and Scots, Corsican, or Weymouth Pines. — This is admissible where pure Larch is deemed too risky, as on southern aspects, etc. But the Larch should only be planted sporadically, about every 12 to 20 feet apart If planted closer, there would be too large a proportion of the Pines of poor quality. Larch and Alder.1 — An excellent mixture, but the Alder must be coppiced. Ash and Spanish Chestnut make a very good mixture ; underplanting might ultimately be necessary, unless the Chestnuts were coppiced. The Ash will always be the better grown and cleaner trees. Ash and Alder is very good, but the Alder must be coppiced. Sycamore, Norway Maple, and Spanish Chestnut will make a very good mixture, but the former should only form a small proportion of the crop, as they are not usually very saleable when small. Weymouth, Corsican, and Scots Pines make quite a good 1 Larch, of course, is out of the question on ordinary Alder soils. BAD MIXTURES . 105 mixture ; especially the two former. Ultimately the Corsican will be outgrown, and pure Weymouth Pine can be left, or Weymouth Pine and Scots Pine. Douglas Fir and Sitka Spruce make a good mixture, but at present a very expensive one. Douglas Fir and Thuya gigantea will often be a good mixture ; the latter will ultimately be outgrown in most cases. Poplars and Japanese Larch, or Tree Willows and Japanese Larch, may be grown together, provided the Larch, which are grown merely to afford valuable thinnings, do not form more than half the crop. The Larch will soon be outgrown, and must be removed as thinnings ; and artificial pruning will probably be necessary. Underplanting with Douglas Fir or Sitka Spruce or other trees should then often be adopted ; and these will ultimately form a coniferous crop after the Poplars or Tree Willows are mature. Poplars or Tree Willows with Alder make an excellent mixture; but the Alder must be treated as coppice on (about) a 25-year rotation. Bad and Inferior Mixtures. As already indicated, the broad-leaved trees should seldom, if ever, be alternately mixed with the evergreen conifers. For the latter will, all of them, be coarse and inferior, and in many cases the broad-leaved trees also will be coarse and branchy, as when mixed with very slow-grow- ing conifers, as, for instance, Ash and Silver Fir. But even if the broad-leaved trees be well pruned, the large number of inferior conifers will render the mixture inadvisable. Hence all such mixtures as Oak with the Pines or Spruce, or Silver Fir, or Douglas Fir, are very objectionable ; so also are mixtures of Ash with these trees, etc. In most cases, also, the Oak will be outgrown. Oak and Larch is objectionable, because the Oak will soon be outgrown, and will also be unpruned. Oak and Ash is not good ; for the Ash will soon outgrow the Oak, and neither will be Well pruned. 106 PLANTING Ash and Beech is bad, as the Beech will surpass and suppress the Ash. It is, however, an excellent plan to underplant Ash with Beech. As regards the former case, it would be perfectly correct if the Ash were cut out before the Beech caught them up. This might be possible; but usually the Beech will begin to interfere with the Ash about 10 years before the latter are mature. Douglas Fir mixed with any common trees, except Sitka Spruce or Thuya gigantea, cannot be recommended. The result will always be similar to growing the Douglas Fir at great distances apart, for no other trees will prune them to any extent. Spruce and Corsican or Scots Pine had better be avoided, as the Spruce will usually be left behind for the first 20 years. But if it keep pace with these trees, it may be planted ; only, there is not much advantage in having the mixture. Ultimately the Spruce will outgrow the Pines. Silver Fir and Spruce or the Pines should be avoided, as the Silver Fir grow so slowly to start with ; and when they ultimately compete with the Spruce or Pines, both the Pines and the Silver Fir will be very coarse and branchy. Silver Fir and Douglas Fir is an even worse mixture. In fact, it is impossible to obtain good results by mixing Silver Fir alternately with any other trees, whether conifers or broad-leaved trees. Silver Fir should be almost invariably used for under- planting,1 and thus for forming uneven-aged mixtures. Larch and Douglas Fir cannot be recommended. The Larch are often planted to lessen the expense, but they will be outgrown and suppressed by about the twelfth to fifteenth year, and will then all have to be cut out. Furthermore, the Douglas Fir which have been next to them will not be well pruned. Larch and Spruce must be avoided. Though excellent Larch may be grown, the Spruce will all be inferior. Another great reason against the mixture is the fact that the Larch aphis and the Spruce aphis are an alternating generation 1 For further details as to underplanting, vide Chapter VIII. NURSES 107 of the same insect. And there is no doubt that the Larch aphis is an aid to the infection of the Larch Disease. Larch and Scots Pine is also a bad mixture, except as previously mentioned ; for the Scots Pine will all be of bad quality. Also the fungus of Larch Disease1 lives as a saprophyte on the bark of Scots Pine. The foregoing are, of course, only a few of the many possible mixtures. But they serve to illustrate the difficulty of achieving success when planting species alternately or by alternate rows. However, as already stated, the plan of having a row of nurses here and there is quite correct when necessary ; but these rows must not be too close together if an even-aged mixture is being planted. The nurses usually employed are Larch, Corsican Pine, and Scots Pine, which are quick- growing, cheap, and hardy. Birch, however, should usually be planted for nurses, as they grow quickly, are immune to late and early frosts, and their shade is very slight, and they will not have to be removed so early as the Pines. In most cases, the Birch should be given 6 to 8 years' start before the tender species are planted. The function of nurses is merely that of protection from inimical influences. Hence they should always if possible be grown as an overwood and the tender species introduced as a separate crop under the shelter of the nurses ; the latter should be removed when no longer required. No attempt should be made to effect any natural pruning by means of the " nurses " ; for such pruning can only be effected to the detriment of their efficiency as nurses. Then again, the Poplars should also, in many cases, be largely used for nurses, especially to trees that will bear shade ; however, artificial pruning will always be necessary. On clay land, Poplars planted every 16 feet apart, the rest of the area being pure Spruce, should give very good results ; or if the land be not too stiff and it be desired to grow Silver Fir, the Poplars may be given a few years' start, say 6 or 1 According to some authorities. 108 PLANTING 8 years, and the Silver Fir planted when a slight canopy is formed. In these cases the Poplars should be artificially pruned, like standards over coppice, and, when about 45 to 50 years of age, they should yield very fine timber. By way of a Summary, the following general rules should be observed : — As to Mixtures. In Even- Aged Woods : — (1) When mixtures are made, they should preferably be made by patches or groups. (2) Mixtures by alternate species of trees, or by alternate rows, will give good results in only a few cases, i.e. if the mutual pruning and height growth be similar. (3) Where quick-growing nurses are required, or where a mixture by rows is desired, there should be 3 to 8 rows of one species together, and then I or more rows of the other species, unless the mutual pruning effects be similar. (4) A greater degree of mixing is admissible with trees sown thickly than with trees artificially planted at comparatively great distances apart. (5) Evergreen conifers should never be alternately mixed with broad-leaved trees or with Larch. (6) Evergreen conifers may usually be alternately mixed with each other if their height growth be similar. (7) A valuable species may often with advantage be introduced sporadically at about every 12 to 20 feet apart, amongst other species, but artificial pruning will often be necessary, and, unless it be capable of bearing some shade, it must be quicker growing than the other species. In Uneven- Aged Woods : — (i) The younger trees must always be capable of bearing the shade of the older trees. PURE WOODS 109 As to Pure Woods. (1) All the shade-bearing conifers may be grown pure, and are usually preferably so grown, except when making a mixture by underplanting thinly foliaged trees. (2) The shade-bearing, broad-leaved trees, e.g. Beech, may be grown pure, but at present prices it will not usually be profitable except in a few districts. (3) Thinly foliaged, light-demanding trees should not be grown pure unless — (a) The rotation be very short (when the land will still be clean). (ft) Underplanting take place before the canopy has become too broken. (c) Soil and situation be only capable of growing some thinly foliaged trees, e.g. Scots or Corsican Pines, on poor, exposed places ; however, in such cases the rotation should always be short. Finally, the oracular advice may be given to ''always plant pure woods unless there be a reason to the contrary." 3. The Choice of System. This matter has already been dealt with.1 It is, how- ever, necessary, for the most part, to determine at the time of planting, the particular system under which the trees are to be grown, for certain trees are quite unsuited to some of the systems. But, briefly, it may be repeated that for thinly foliaged trees the best plan is to grow them pure 2 where possible, and then to underplant them later on, thus forming a two- storied high forest. Or they may be grown as standards over coppice, or preferably as high forest over coppice. Whereas for shade-bearing trees alone, even-aged high forest will usually give the best results. In the case of land now under timber, which it is intended 1 Vide Chapter II. 2 The extreme risks incurred in growing pure Larch have, however, already been referred to. 110 PLANTING to cut and afterwards to replant, the new crop should, if the conditions be not suited to the growth of timber, be intro- duced under a light shelter-wood, and clear cutting should be avoided. This, however, is only possible with shade- bearing species, unless the shelter-wood be very quickly removed. When planting large areas, it will seldom be advisable to plant with a view to the whole area being managed under the same system. For as the soil, situation, aspect, and altitude vary, so must the species of trees that should be planted, and so too, in many cases, must the system under which they should be grown. Thus on exposed places it may be advisable to grow shade-bearing trees under the selection system, unless the soil be too dry. If the soil be very dry and exposed, even- aged high forest of Scots Pine or Corsican Pine may be indicated. Then again, in some places, if not too exposed, the shade-bearing conifers may be grown under the group system. And on the best land, high forest with coppice, or coppice with standards, or two-storied high forest, will probably be indicated, and so on. 4. The Advisability or otherwise of a Rotation of Cropping. In a general way, there is no necessity to observe in forestry a rotation of cropping, as is necessary in the case of agricultural crops. For soil exhaustion will not follow in properly managed woodlands. However, it will often be possible and advisable to plant a more valuable species on land from which a less valuable species has just been removed. For instance, mistakes may have been made when the previous crop was originally planted, or originally the land may have been too poor, or the situation too unfavourable, for any valuable, exacting species ; but after the first rotation the soil is improved, so that a more valuable species will now grow ; or again, a tender species which it was not possible to ROTATION OF CROPPING 111 plant originally, may now be introduced under a slight shelter- wood of the old crop. Occasionally, also, the danger from insect or fungoid attacks will render a change of cropping necessary. For instance, it would be very indiscreet to replant with Larch, an area which is already very badly affected with Larch disease. Then again, on Scots Pine or Spruce areas, there is a great risk, in replanting with either of this species, of the whole area being destroyed by the Pine Weevil ; and as these two crops cannot usually be said to be remunerative (at present prices), it will be advisable, where possible, to follow on with some other species. If this be impossible, the area should be burnt over, and planting should be delayed for 2 or 3 years if the locality be subject to the pest. The continental method of pulling the roots out of the ground would not pay in this country. Furthermore, on stiff clay soils a change of cropping may often be advisable. For instance, pure Scots Pine or Spruce may have been originally planted, but at the end of the rotation, the soil will be in a far better condition, and a more valuable species can now be grown. For, to a large extent, the soil will have become drained, and the decaying roots of the old stumps will act as little water channels to assist in the natural drainage, and many trees will now thrive whose growth on maiden clay land is often inferior. 5. The Season for Planting. Much difference of opinion exists as to the best season for planting ; whether it should take place in the autumn or in the spring. Under certain circumstances one or other of the seasons has much to recommend it. The planting season extends from about the beginning of October to the end of April. In all probability, the most favourable time for planting 112 PLANTING trees is in the late spring, when the root system has become active, but before the buds have opened. The tree, then, as it were, appears to make use of suppressed energy ; and, on being planted, the root growth often continues its activity instead of being greatly checked, and gets quickly estab- lished. But the amount of this late planting must always be very limited, for it is only during an interval of about one week that these conditions prevail. Therefore, if a large area has to be planted, the merits and demerits of autumn or ordinary spring planting must be carefully considered. Though probably both autumn and spring planting will be adopted, so as to equalise the pressure of work. Now, when trees are planted in the autumn, their roots get established to some extent by the time that spring growth commences ; and this is a distinct advantage over ordinary spring planting. Another advantage in the case of evergreen trees is, that the ill-effects, which sometimes result in death, caused by a hot sun in the early spring inducing transpiration before the roots of spring planted trees can make good the loss of moisture, will often be avoided. Of course, this wilting may be sufficient to kill the autumn planted trees, but these will have a better chance of surviving than any spring planted trees, as their roots will have become somewhat established. This wilting in early spring is fairly common in the case of Silver Fir, Scots Pine, Thuya gigantea and Douglas Fir. However, autumn planting is open to many objections, amongst which the following may be mentioned : — (1) The plants are very liable to get lifted by the frost. (2) They get swayed to and fro by the wind. (3) On stiff land, the holes in which the trees are planted tend to become water-logged, and the roots of the trees may become rotten. PLANTING SEASON 113 On the other hand, these dangers are largely avoided when spring planting is adopted. In the majority of cases, it is nearly always preferable to dig the pits some weeks before the trees are planted, as the soil becomes more mellow and sweetened. However, on well-drained, moist, light soil, this does not much matter. But on any land inclined to be acid, it should be adopted. On stiff clay soils great care is necessary. It is generally a mistake to dig the pits in the autumn and plant them in the spring, as they will become filled with water, and will eventually dry with a " puddled," caked surface. They should be dug at about the end of March, and planted up a fortnight afterwards. As a general rule, it may be said that porous land in sheltered localities should be planted in the autumn, but that stiff land or exposed places should be planted in the spring. And any localities subject to late frosts should be planted as late in the spring as possible. So also, late spring planting should be adopted for trees which are difficult to transplant, such as Corsican Pine, Black Walnut, or tender species like Weymouth Pine. On the whole, perhaps, broad-leaved trees and Larch are more suitable for autumn planting than evergreen conifers. In mid-winter planting must generally be suspended on account of frosts. No planting should ever take place if there be the least frost in the air or on the ground. Damp, still, muggy days are the best for planting. It must be remembered that planting must always be finished earlier in the case of trees which flush their buds and leaves early, than where the reverse is the case. And it must be finished sooner in the South of England, than in the North of England or Scotland. H 114 PLANTING AS TO THE FINANCIAL RETURNS THAT MAY BE ANTICIPATED BY PLANTING ONE SPECIES IN PREFERENCE TO ANOTHER. This question of the financial returns is one of the greatest considerations affecting planting. The aim and desire must, in nearly every case, be to grow those trees which will yield the greatest pecuniary returns. But before the most valuable species can be determined upon its probable success must be assured ; and it is there- fore necessary to carefully weigh all the considerations that have been previously discussed in this chapter. The financial returns of crops of particular species are discussed hereafter.1 For the most part, the conclusions arrived at are refer- able to pure crops, but they should enable a valuable opinion to be formed as to the financial advisability of any mixture. It is, however, necessary to allow for differences due to the trees being grown under different systems; also, the enhanced value that certain species have over others as thinnings should not be lost sight of. And another important point to note is, that the soil may be of one quality for one species, and yet of another quality for some other species. For instance, the soil may be first quality for Scots Pine, and yet only third quality for Ash. However, the following table will show the order in which the different species stand, with reference to their pecuniary returns, if the soil and situation were equally suited to all, beginning with those that make the greatest return. It is presumed that the cost of planting, fencing, and cleaning the crop for the first few years is ;£8 per acre. It must be noted that many of the trees will often only be grown in mixtures. But it is imagined that a proportionate 1 Vide Chapter XI I. FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS 115 area is stocked with a pure crop; and that each species is grown on its most suitable rotation. If average Remarks. Order of Merit. price per foot equals S. D. If all money spent on planting, or re- Douglas Fir o 9 ceived for thinnings, etc., be calculated at 4. per cent, compound interest, then, Black Poplar I o 8 on average land, Douglas Fir should Black Italian Poplar . J return a rental for the land (after pay- c ,?, o 6 ing interest on planting, etc.), equiva- upressus maci ocarpa{.) lent to about £i, IDS. per acre ; Larch, White Poplar . o 6 8s. to los. ; Ash, 73. to 93. per acre Larch. I 0 per annum. Ash .... T 6 Spanish Chestnut I 0 Sitka Spruce (?) o 6i Thuya gigantea . o 7J There is very little difference in the Weymouth Pine. o 7i financial position of these trees ; and, if monies spent and received be cal- Corsican Pine o 6i culated at 4 per cent, compound Oak . i 9 interest, then there will usually be a direct loss, even though the land were Scots Pine . o 7 reckoned rent free, unless, as will often Silver Fir . O 6i be the case with the conifers, the cost N g _ Q ^ of planting, fencing, and cleaning the young crop be less than ^"8 per acre.* , Beech ... I o * Vide Chapter XII. Note. — Tree Willows will give a better return than Poplars if a large proportion of the timber can be sold at a big price, say, 33. to 6s. a cubic foot for cricket bats. CHAPTER VI. PLANTING — continued. PLANTING OPERATIONS. CONCERNING ALSO THE ARTIFICIAL SOWING OF CROPS OF TREES. THE DIFFERENT METHODS OF PLANTING TREES. AMONGST the more common methods adopted for planting, may be mentioned the following : — (1) Planting in Pits. (2) Planting in Holes made with a Planting Spike. (3) Planting with a Curved Planting Spade. (4) Notching : (a) With an Ordinary Spade ; (b) With Schlich's Spade ; (r) With a Wedge-shaped Planting Iron. (5) Dibbling with an Iron Dibble. 1. Planting in Pits. This is the most expensive method, but it is the only method admissible with large plants. The actual size of the pits must vary according to the size of the plants ; but they must be large enough so as to admit of the roots having a natural position, and sufficiently deep so as to prevent any roots from being doubled up. It is a very common error to make the pits too wide and not deep enough. Pits for 4-year-old plants should generally be dug 8 to 10 116 ' PIT PLANTING 117 inches wide, and 10 to 12 inches deep. If there be a soil covering of turf, it should be removed in two thin slices, and placed on one side. This is most easily done with a specially made spade, or iron, the exact width of the holes, with the blade set on at an angle to the shaft. After the turf is taken off, the holes are got out with a spade, using also a pick-axe if necessary ; the earth should be placed on the other side of the hole to that where the turf was put. When the time arrives for planting, each tree requires a man and a boy to plant it, if it is to be properly done ; one man, single-handed, cannot possibly plant any considerable quantity of trees in pits. A boy should hold the tree in the centre of the hole, whilst the man fills in the hole. When a little of the finest earth has been filled in, the boy should give the tree a gentle shake, so as to cause the earth to fall in between the rootlets, and at the same time he should gently draw it up, so that the " neck " of the tree is slightly above the level of the ground. Then the rest of the earth should be filled in and firmly trodden in by the man, but in doing so, he must take very great care not to injure the bark of the young tree with his boots. Also, the very greatest care must be taken to insure that, when finally planted, the tree stands exactly the same distance out of the ground as when in the nursery. If planted too deep, the tree will never thrive ; especially is this the case with Spruce and other conifers. When the planting is finished, the two pieces of turf should be placed, face downwards, on each side of the tree. The practice of putting the turf at the bottom of the hole must be condemned, as raw turf is apt to heat; and on the other hand, its effects, when placed on the surface, are most beneficial as evaporation of moisture is retarded. The cost of making the pits will be about iSs. to 2os. per 1000; but of course a great deal depends on the soil. The cost of planting the trees will be about 93. to i os. a 1000. However, the pits will not cost more than 153. or 175. per 1000, if the land has been previously ploughed. 118 PLANTING 2. Planting in Holes made -with a Planting Spike. This is a method which should be very much used ; it is suitable for all 3-year-old plants, and for many 4-year-old plants, and even older plants in some cases. The planting spike consists of a straight wooden handle or shaft inserted into a heavy iron head. The head should be about 14 inches long, and in section 5 inches square at the top. From this section it should taper down to a fine sharp point. This head may be hollow, and of cast iron, but the actual point should be of hardened steel. It is really like a crowbar with a very big head and a wooden shaft. Occasionally a cross "f-handle is provided, but it is better to have a plain shaft, for the cross handle causes the workmen's arms to get unduly jarred, and causes unneces- sary discomfort. When the holes are made, another man follows on and does the planting. He holds the trees in position with one hand, and, with a trowel in the other hand, scrapes to- gether some soil, and fills in the hole, and then treads it firmly. The cost of planting in this way will be from 6s. to Qs. per 1000. Where there is a soil covering of turf, it must first be removed, and then replaced face downwards. Also, in such a case, it will generally be necessary for a separate man to hoe up a little fine earth before the holes are made, with which the man who is doing the planting may fill in the holes, since he would have a difficulty in scraping together the earth with a trowel. This will considerably add to the expense. The cost of removing turf, hoeing up soil, and planting, will be from 133. to i6s. per 1000. This, however, compares very favourably with 273. to 303. a 1000 for making and planting in pits. Instead, however, of separately removing the turf, and hoeing up soil for each tree, it will be much cheaper to plough the land, when planting can then easily be done for SCOTCH PLANTING SPADE 119 6s. or 73. per 1000; and there will be the additional advantage that the land will remain more free from any rank growth for the first year or so. 3. Planting with a Curved Planting Spade. This is another cheap method of planting. It is suited to about the same sized trees as can be planted by means of the planting spike. The spade has an ordinary wooden handle, but a long, curious shaped blade. This blade is about 16 inches long, and the last portion, of about 8 or 10 inches of it, is curved slightly upwards. The head of the blade is about 7 inches wide ; it then rapidly becomes narrow, so that, at 8 inches away from the head, it is about 3^ inches wide ; from thence it tapers gradually to the end, where it is about 2j inches wide. Two men are required to plant a single tree, when this implement is used. One man carries the spade and another man the plants and also a small ordinary spade. The first man inserts the curved spade at an angle into the ground, at about 8 inches from the spot where it is desired to plant the tree. He then levers the soil up so that the curved blade comes near the surface. Then the other man cuts down with the ordinary spade on to the long, curved blade, at the spot where the tree is going to be planted. Here he parts away the soil, so as to make room for the tree. He is then handed a tree by the other man, which he inserts. The long, curved spade is then worked up and down, so as to shake earth about the roots; and then it is withdrawn, and the earth over the roots is firmly trodden in. Now, the removal of the long-bladed spade leaves a channel leading down to the roots of the tree. And it is most important to heel in the mouth of this channel, so as to prevent the air from drying up the roots of the plants Much harm will be done if this precaution be omitted. The cost of planting by this method will vary from us. to 1 6s. per 1000. 120 PLANTING This method could not be practiced if there be a thick soil covering of turf, unless the turf be first removed. It is chiefly suitable for light friable soil ; and it should not be tried on stiff land with clay near the surface. 4. Notching, or "Slitting." This is only suitable for I or 2 year seedling plants, or such seedlings as have no stout side roots. (a) When an ordinary spade is used, it is best to get an old, short spade, which is well sharpened. And it is very desirable that the blade be vertical, and in a line with the shaft. There are various ways of notching with the spade, but the L system is perhaps the best. The spade is inserted vertically into the ground ; it is then withdrawn, and then again inserted vertically at right angles to the end of the original cut, thus cutting an [_• Then the operator levers the ground up, and the tree is slipped in by a boy at the corner of the |__. The spade is then withdrawn, and the ground firmly trodden. In many cases the services of a boy, to assist the planter, are dispensed with. It is very essential that the tree should be in a vertical position after it is planted. And in order to effect this the planter should stand rather in front of, and to the side of the place where he is going to plant the tree. The spade should be inserted so that the first slit shows a somewhat convex, perpendicular face. This may be illustrated thus :— Spade ist slit I Spade faces I ^ faces 2nd slit Position — >. • of Other systems consist in making the cuts in the shape of a f> or by cutting a maltese cross, and then inserting the spade a third time, a little distance away, and thus opening up the centre of the cross. This slitting is only suitable if the soil covering does not fall to pieces during the operation. NOTCHING 121 The cost of thus notching or slitting will be from 45. 6d. to 53. 6d. per 1000. (^) Notching -with Schlich's Spade is an improvement on ordinary notching, and 3-year-old plants can often be notched by this means. The spade has rather a long blade, which, at the end, narrows in a great deal, and has a more or less pointed end. The centre of the blade is rather thick, and the end and sides taper to a feather edge. The spade is inserted quite vertically, and then swayed to and fro. By this means a wide opening is made at ground level, which, lower down, tapers in to a " neck," and then again broadens out. The spade is then withdrawn and the plant inserted care- fully by a boy and held in position. The man then inserts the spade vertically about 4 inches behind the original cut, but parallel to it ; he then works it to and fro, so as to close up the opening. Again he inserts it in front of the original cut, and again works it to and fro. By this means not only is the top of the opening closed, but also the wide opening at the bottom of the cleft. If the spade be only worked one way towards the tree, the bottom of the cleft will not be closed in. It is therefore most important to work it both ways. This working of the spade to and fro, to close the opening, effects an appreciable amount of cultivation of the soil. Finally, the ground must be firmly trodden round the tree. The cost of notching with a Schlich's spade will vary from 75. to 93. per 1000. (c) Notching with a Wedge-shaped Planting Iron. — This is suitable for the same sized trees as can be notched with Schlich's spade. The operation is performed in much the same way, but the earth is only pressed back from one side. The iron is a clumsy implement, and has nothing to recommend it. In all forms of slitting, great care must be taken that the roots never get doubled up. The roots of the trees should always be put right down to the bottom of the notch or slit, 122 PLANTING and then raised to the correct level. The boy inserting the plants should be provided with a long wooden spatula, similar to that used by navvies for cleaning their spades, only much longer. With this, the roots can be nicely pushed down without doing them any injury. It is most important never to adopt any kind of notching on stiff clay soils. For the sides of the notch or slit will dry with a hard-glazed surface, through which the young roots cannot easily penetrate. 5. Dibbling. This is a convenient and cheap method of planting seedlings on light soil. A one-handed iron dibble, or planting " peg," is used. A man inserts it into the ground, withdraws it, and then, with the other hand, places the tree in position. Then he inserts the dibble a little distance off, and closes the opening by pressing the soil back. In as much as the dibble is inserted with only one hand, it could not be used on any but very light porous soils. The cost will be about 43. per 1000. As to the Choice of Methods. This has been to some extent already indicated. A great deal will depend upon the nature of the land. Where possible, dibbling should be adopted, as it is the cheapest method. But where it is required to plant larger plants, such as 3-year-old plants, or, in many cases, 4-year-old plants, the planting spike can usually be recommended over any other method. It is cheap, and the young plants have fine soil, in which to start their growth, put into the holes. Thus they meet with far better conditions than if they be notched. In cases where there is no surface soil that can be scraped into the holes, notching may be a little cheaper ; but soil can easily be provided by turning over a furrow every 2 feet 6 inches or 3 feet, according to the distance apart at which the planting is to be done ; and, then, making the holes with the spike along the furrow. It may be argued that notching is less objectionable on TREES PER ACRE 123 clay soils than is the use of the spike, as the spike com- presses the clay on all sides ; but it must be remembered that the roots start to grow in fine soil put in the hole, and by a later period the compressed clay will have regained its normal pressure owing to the action of earth worms, etc. However, on really stiff clays, planting in pits is usually preferable ; and, of course, large trees must also be planted in pits. The Number of Trees per Acre. This will vary according to the distance apart at which the lines are made, and also according to the disposition of the trees in the lines. There are various methods of arranging the disposition of the trees over the area, but more commonly the trees are arranged by "squares" or by "equilateral triangles." In the latter case, each tree is the same distance apart from all its neighbours, but the lines are nearer together than the distance from tree to tree. In the former case, the lines are the same distance apart each way, but the trees are not the same distance apart from all their neighbours. The triangle system is a little more difficult to carry out, and it requires relatively a greater number of trees per acre, but close canopy is sooner formed, and natural pruning is much better effected. To calculate the number of trees for " square " planting : — Divide the number of square feet per acre by the square of the distance apart from tree to tree. Thus, for 4 feet planting, 43' 5 ° = 2722 trees per acre. 4x4 To calculate the number of trees per acre for "triangle " planting : — Divide the number of square feet per acre by the square of the distance apart from tree to tree, and multiply the result by 1-155. Thus, for 4 feet planting, x "I55 = 3'43' 124 PLANTING The following table shows the number of trees required per acre for "square " planting : — Distance apart in feet. Trees required per acre. Distance apart in feet. Trees required per acre. Ii 19,360 ta| 278 2 10,890 13 257 24 6,970 134 239 3 4,840 14 222 3i 3,S56 144 207 4 2,722 15 193 4i 2,151 154 181 5 1,742 16 170 Si 1,440 1 64 164 6 1,210 17 150 6* 1,031 174 142 7 889 18 134 rt 774 I8| 127 8 680 19 120 84 603 194 114 9 537 20 108 94 482 22 90 TO 435 24 75 104 395 26 64 II 360 28 55 "1 329 30 48 12 302 33 40 Sundry matters relative to the Control of Planting Operations. When holes are being dug, or when notching is being carried out, it is not of course possible in practice to dig them with mathematical accuracy as to their distance apart. CONDUCT OF PLANTING OPERATIONS 125 But where several men are working together, the most competent man should be responsible for keeping the line. Thus, if there be six men digging, this competent man will take every sixth row, and the line of this row should be marked or indicated by sticks. The position of these sticks is ascertained by carefully measuring the distance from the last row which this man dug. Then the other men take their line from this man as best they can. Each man should have a stick of his own, cut to the correct length of the distance from hole to hole, with which he should measure the distance from hole to hole along his line. When actually planting in pits, if a mixture is being planted, the head woodman should place the correct species in the holes, just in advance of the planters, so as to avoid confusion. When notching is being carried out, and a mixture is being planted, it is very difficult to keep the lines and avoid confusion with the mixture. But there should be sufficient men, so that one man plants all his rows, for the day, in a similar manner. When planting operations are taking place, great care is necessary that the roots of the trees are not left exposed to sun, frost, or dry winds, before they are planted. If there be a home nursery near, the plants required for each day may be brought daily to the centre of the day's operations. They should be laid with their roots in a trench, and a little soil and damp straw or moss thrown over them. If the nursery be some way off, two or three days' supply may be brought, but they should be properly " sheued " into trenches, and their roots covered up with soil. They should not lie too thickly in the trenches, other- wise air will get down in between them and dry the roots. In such cases, the plants required for each day's planting are carried every day to the centre of the day's operations, and protected with soil and wet moss, etc. Only sufficient plants should be given out at a time for about an hour's 126 PLANTING planting. These should be laid in baskets, and their roots covered with moss. When plants arrive from a trade nursery from a distance, they must usually be similarly treated. But sometimes they will arrive in a frost. In such a case, if the frost look like lasting, they should be unpacked and placed in a barn or cellar, and their roots covered with wet moss and straw. The frost must be kept from them at all costs. If they were not unpacked they would probably become heated, and thereby be injured. If they have been unduly long in arriving after they were dispatched, or if they appear to have been tampered with, they should be signed for, at the railway office, as " damaged." It may not be out of place to state that, when plants are brought from a trade nursery, they should be carefully chosen, and they should be inspected in the nursery, if possible, at the end of the summer, when the leaf is still on. A few should be dug up, and their roots carefully examined, and their age and treatment noted. In some cases it would pay to send the head wood- man to superintend the raising and dispatch of the plants. SOME NOTES ON THE METHODS OP PLANTING IN PARTICULAR CASES. It has already been noticed, that the planting up of maiden land is attended with far greater risks and more expense than the planting of land from which a good crop of timber has just been removed. Whenever planting is done on land with a surface cover- ing of rank grass, it will be imperative to use larger plants than should usually be used where the surface covering is of short growth, and such planting, with large plants, will necessitate planting them in pits. But, often, it will be preferable to plough the land, and plant smaller trees in holes made with a planting spike. On heather land, all that is usually required is to burn PEAT LAND 127 the surface covering and cut away any gorse after burning,1 and then either notch in seedlings, or plant 3-year-old trees with the planting spike. When thus planting a hillside, the best plan is to turn a furrow horizontally across the slope, and then to plant in the line of the furrow. This will help to catch any surfaced water as it comes down the slope. And when planting with the spike, it affords a supply of earth to fill in the holes with. Wherever a "pan" exists near the surface, it must be broken through. An ordinary crowbar will usually be the best means of doing this. Though subsoiling with steam tackle will do more efficient but more costly work. On -wet peat land, an excellent plan, after having cut open drains as previously described, is to dig out large squares of peat, and plant by means of the spike, or by notching, or dibbling, etc., on the top of these squares. This is known as " tumping ; " and it renders the surroundings of young seedlings drier than would otherwise be the case. It is always desirable to have mineral soil next to the roots of the young trees, for, as already stated, very few trees will grow in practically pure peat soils. If mineral soil exist near the surface, it can easily be obtained, and the holes made with the planting spike may be filled in with this soil. But otherwise, it will be advantageous to cart some soil on to the area, and place 2 or 3 handfuls into each small hole. It will also be very beneficial, on such land, if a little basic slag or ground lime be previously mixed up with such soil. On clay soils, if wet and very stiff, it is often advisable to adopt " tumping." 2 Big, square, deep sods are cut out and placed face downwards. This should be done in the autumn ; 1 If slow-growing trees be planted, it will probably be necessary to grub the gorse ; this, however, will be very expensive, and will add £i an acre or more to the cost, according to the quantity of gorse. 2 This tumping on stiff land was largely practised a century ago, or more, when planting apple trees on such land ; only, very large "tumps" were made. 128 PLANTING and then in the spring the small trees can be planted with a planting spike, etc. Birch should be used as nurses. On exposed land, when planting in pits, it will be advis- able to place the trees in one corner of the pit : namely, in that corner farthest away from the direction of the prevailing wind. By this means, the stem of the tree will not make such a big hole when it is swayed by the wind. Planting Frost Localities. — This has already been largely dealt with. It will often be advisable, where only a moder- ately hardy species is decided upon, to plant large trees so that they quickly get above the frost line. In the case of broad-leaved trees which have been planted some years, and which have become frost-bitten, excellent results will often follow if such trees be cut over in the spring close to the ground. Then, if in that spring late frosts be absent, the trees will often grow 4 to 8 feet, and so rise above the frost line. In such localities, wherever there is an existing crop of timber, it should never be clear cut. But a shelter-wood should be left, and then at any rate half-hardy species may be planted, if they will withstand the shade. It is necessary to be very suspicious of frosts occurring on low lying moist land, or on clay soils. A most excellent way of establishing a crop in frost localities is to plant pure Birch, and then to underplant them, some 8 to 12 years later, with the species that it is desired to grow ; but the latter must be able to withstand a little shade. Planting Shifting Sand, and Sand Dunes. — The first step to take, is to endeavour to bind the sand together, and to prevent it from being constantly shifted from place to place. Screens of wattled hurdles should be erected on the wind- ward side of the area to be planted. Against this a bank of sand will quickly be formed ; then the hurdles must be raised and the bank made higher. Thus, ultimately the land on the leeward side will be sheltered from the wind and storms. It is preferable to have two parallel rows of hurdles, near each other, so that the sand is caught between them ; and thus a wider bank is formed. SAND DUNES 129 In the case of sand dunes near the sea-shore, where the sand is salt, the surface of the sand must be bound together by planting or sowing various sand grasses, such as the Marram Grass1 (Psamma ( = Ammopktla) arenarid), Baltic Marram (P. Balticd], the Sea Lyme Grass (Elymus arenarius), and Sea Carex (Car ex arenaria). Until a soil covering of grass or the like be obtained — and it will often grow naturally — and until the sand has been washed free from all salt, the planting of trees should be deferred. When planting takes place, the marram grass, etc., should be forked up where each tree is to be planted. Then, as each tree is planted, it should be firmly trodden in, and the marram grass placed round it, so as to act as a mulch and keep off the sun. If the expense can be incurred, a handful of good stiffish loam, inserted with each tree as it is planted, will materially assist in assuring a good start. Any trees intended for planting on barren sands should have very fibrous roots ; and if 2- or 3-year-old plants (which are the most suitable) be planted out, they should have been transplanted every year in the nursery. They should be finally planted out in the months of March and April. It is advisable, if possible, to have a nursery near the sea and in a fairly exposed position, so as to acclimatise the trees. In the case of Inland Sand Dunes, similar protective methods must be adopted. The binding together of the sand can be effected by various grasses and plants, such as Couch Grass or Twitch, the Creeping Willow (Salix repens), Salix arenariay arid the Everlasting Pea (Lathyrus sylvestris). Sometimes Jerusalem artichokes are planted as " nurses " for the young trees, and to prevent the sand from blowing about. Another plan sometimes adopted is to partially cover the surface of the sand with faggots or other vegetable rubbish, such as cut reeds, etc., and then to sow tree seeds, or else to plant young trees. 1 The marram grass will soon die as the surface of the sand becomes stale. I 130 PLANTING So, again, the ground is often partially covered with sods of heather, in which pine or other seeds have been sown previously to the sods having been cut. This plan is expensive, but still it has given very good results. Planting Ornamental Trees. — Special care is usually called for when planting a few ornamental trees. They are often rather large, and will require to be firmly staked. The trees should be fastened to the stakes with bands of hay, in the figure-of-S fashion, and the ends of the bands tied with string. This will allow the tree to expand and prevent chafing. Small valuable trees planted in exposed places should be protected by screens of wattle hurdles. Often it will be advisable to plant shelter belts of quick-growing trees a few years before the more valuable trees are planted. The shelter belt should consist, partly at any rate, of broad-leaved trees, some of which should be coppiced after they have been planted 3 or 4 years, and thus a thick screen will soon be effected. When in the nursery, any trees intended for planting out when comparatively old, should be regularly transplanted every other year. When removed for planting out, the more earth that can be taken up with the roots the better. Sometimes it is desired to transplant a fairly large tree from one part of a garden to another. In such a case a deep trench should be dug all round the tree, at a distance of about 2 feet from the centre — or more according to the size of the tree — during the previous spring to that in which it is to be removed. This trench should be dug with a sharp spade so as to cut through any roots which are met with. The trench should then be tightly filled with straw, and the top just covered with earth. The tree must be kept well watered all the summer through, so as thus to induce the growth of new fibrous roots within the 2-feet radius. Then, when the tree is planted, it will not be so likely to die. PLANTING ESTIMATES 131 ESTIMATES FOR PLANTING AND ESTABLISHING. The following estimates will serve as useful guides. It is in all cases supposed that the trees are raised in a home nursery ; otherwise the expenses will usually be far greater. It is also presumed that an area of about 40 acres is fenced at a time, at a cost of 303. an acre. Supervision is not specially charged, as it is reckoned along with the annual outgoings of the whole area under forest management. The cost of weeding and cleaning, cutting out rank grass and replacing dead trees, is, however, included, thus giving the total cost of establishing a plantation. (1) Pure Douglas Fir. — On good deep loam now covered with grass ; 2 year 2 year plants used. Pit planting 4 by 4 feet apart : — Digging pits, 2700, at i8s. per 1000 . . .^290 Planting, at 93. per 1000 146 2750* 2 year 2 year, at 305. per 1000. . . 426 Planting only . £7 16 o Rabbit fencing ;£i 10 o Cutting-out, etc i 14 o 340 Total cost per acre . £11 o o (2) Douglas Fir. — Same as (i) (i.e. 2 year 2 year plants; 4 by 4 feet apart), but trees put in with a planting spike. The land first ploughed deeply once in the autumn :— i ploughing ........ £o 13 o Planting with spike and trowel, at 7s. per 1000 . 0190 2750 plants, at 305. per 1000 . . . . 426 Planting only . . £$ 14 6 Rabbit fencing ..... ^i 10 o Cutting-out, etc ..... i 10 6 - 306 Total cost per acre . .£8 15 o 1 To allow for waste. 132 PLANTING (3) Douglas Fir. — Same as (2), but ploughing omitted, and the turf removed at each place where a tree is to be planted, and also some earth hoed up to fill in the holes with : — Removing turf, hoeing, and planting, at i6s. per 1000 ^210 2750 plants, at 305. per 1000 . . . . 426 Planting only . -,£636 Rabbit fencing ,£1100 Cutting-out, etc. . . . . i 14 o 340 Total cost per acre . ^9 7 6 (4) Mixed Ash, Larch, and Spanish Chestnut. — On grass land ; planted 4 by 4 feet in small pits ; trees I year 2 year : — Digging pits, 2700, at 175. per 1000 . . .,£260 Planting, at 95. per 1000 146 looo Larch, i year 2 year, at 125. 6d. . . 0126 850 Spanish Chestnut, at 255. 6d. . . . 119 900 Ash, at us. 6d o 10 4 Planting only . . ^5 15 i Fencing ^i 10 o Cutting-out, etc. . . . .1150 3 5 o Total cost per acre .^901 (5) Mixed Ash, Larch, and Spanish Chestnut. — Same as (4), only the land ploughed and the trees planted with the planting spike : — I ploughing £o 13 o Planting, at 75. per 1000 o 19 o Plants (as before) 246 Planting only . ^3 16 6 Fencing ^i 10 o Cutting-out, etc i 1 1 6 Total cost per acre . ^6180 PLANTING ESTIMATES 133 (6) Pure Oak. — Planted in pits 3 by 3 feet apart ; i year 2 year plants used ; on stiff grass land : — Digging 4840 pits, at i8s. per 1000 . . £4 7 r Planting, at 95. per 1000 236 4900 Oak, at i8s. per 1000 . . . . 483 Planting only . . £10 18 10 Fencing j£i 10 c Cutting-out, etc. . . . .150 2 15 o Total cost per acre (say) . ^13 14 o (7) Pure Oak. — Same as (6), only 4 feet apart : — Digging 2700 pits, at i8s. per 1000 . Planting, at 93. per 1000 . • & I 8 A 6 9 2750 trees, at i§s. per 1000 . 2 9 6 Planting only Fencing . . . . . . £ Cutting-out, etc. .... I 10 0 i 15 o £6 2 3 3 5 0 Total cost per acre -^973 (8) Pure Oak. — Same as (6) (i.e. 3 by 3 feet apart, with I year 2 year plants), only on perfectly clean land from which a crop of timber has just been removed, and the trees planted with a planting spike : — Planting 4840 trees, at 8s. per 1000 . . . ^i 18 9 4900 plants, at i8s. per 1000 . . . . 483 Planting only . '£67° Fencing Cutting-out, etc Total cost per acre . ^8 12 o 134 PLANTING (9) Pure Oak. — Same as (8), only 4 feet apart : — Planting, 2700, at 8s. per 1000 . . . £i i 6 2750 plants, at i8s. per 1000 . . . . 296 Planting only . . ^3110 Fencing ^i 10 o Cutting-out, etc. . . . .126 2 12 6 Total cost per acre £6 3 6 (10) Pure Scots Pine. — Planted on grass land ; in pits 3 by 3 feet apart ; 2 year 2 year plants used : — Digging 4840 pits, at 1 8s. per 1000 . . .^471 Planting, at gs. per 1000 236 4900 plants, at 135. per 1000 . . . . 339 Planting only . £9 14 4 Fencing ^i 10 o Cutting-out, etc. . . . .100 2 10 o Total cost per acre (say) . £12 4 o (11) Pure Scots Pine, on grass land ; I year 2 year plants used ; 3 by 3 feet apart ; planted with a planting spike ; the land first ploughed : — i ploughing ^0130 Planting 4840 plants, at 75. per loco . . i 13 10 4900 plants, at us. per 1000 . . . . 2 14 o Planting only . . ^5 o • 10 Fencing ^i 10 o Cutting-out, etc. . . . .150 2 15 o Total cost per acre (say) . £7 16 o PLANTING ESTIMATES 135 (12) Pure Scots Pine. — Same as (u), only trees 4 by 4 feet apart : — I ploughing £o 13 o Planting 2700 trees, at 73. per 1000 . . . 0190 2750 trees, at ITS. per 1000 . . . . i 10 3 Planting only . • ;£3 2 3 Fencing ^i 10 o Cutting-out, etc. . . . . I 12 6 3 2 6 Total cost per acre (say) .^650 (13) Pure Scots Pine. — Planted 3 by 3 feet apart ; i year 2 year plants on heather land ; a furrow being turned for each line of trees, and a planting spike being used : — Burning the surface, and turning a furrow every 3 feet £056 Planting 4840 plants, at 75. per 1000 . . 11310 4900 plants, at us. per 1000 . . . . 2 14 o Planting only . .^4134 Fencing ^i 10 o Cutting-out, etc.1 . . . .046 i 14 6 Total cost per acre (say) .^680 (14) Pure Scots Pine. — Same as (13), only 2 year seedlings being used : — Burning the surface, and turning a furrow . £o 5 6 Planting 4840 plants, at 6s. per 1000 . . 190 4900 trees, at 2s. 6d. per 1000 . . . . 0123 Planting only . .^269 Fencing Cutting-out, etc.1 . . . 200 Total cost per acre (say) .^460 1 This will often be unnecessary. 136 PLANTING (15) Pure Douglas Fir. — 2 year seedlings ; on waste land ; planted with a planting spike ; 3 by 3 feet apart :— Burning and turning a furrow .... Planting 4840 plants, at 6s. per 1000 4900 plants, at los. per 1000 .... Planting only Fencing £i 10 o Cutting-out, etc.1 . . . .0100 Total cost per acre (say) . £6 3 o With reference to the above, the cost of planting Spruce will be a trifle under that of planting Scots Pine ; whilst that of Larch will be very slightly in excess of the cost of planting the Scots Pine. The great increase in the cost when trees are planted close together should be noted ; so also, should the saving in cost, which can be effected when planting land that is perfectly clean. And, as a general rule, it may be stated that even on foul land, it is cheaper and better to clean the land and to plant a large number of seedlings, and to keep them clean, than to plant a small number of larger trees, which may be big enough to escape injury from any rank grass. THE ARTIFICIAL SOWING OF CROPS OF TREES. Woods may sometimes be formed by direct sowing. But it will seldom be satisfactory to try and thus establish a wood on maiden land, as, owing to the rank growth of grass and weeds, the young crop will get choked. However, there are exceptions, which will be noted. Furthermore, sowing is uncertain, and in many cases, if the seed be expensive, it is considerably more expensive than planting seedlings, and should not be attempted. 1 This item may be much more, or perhaps even less, according to the soil covering. DIRECT SOWING 137 The sowing of acorns, even on rather rank land, is often successful, and so also is the sowing of the seed of Spanish Chestnut and Walnut, for these species have very large seed, with a large store of food material, and the seedlings possess great energy, and it is very probable that the best grown trees of these species will prove to be those that have been sown in situ. However, any direct sowing on foul grass land is almost sure to end in failure. If the land be clean, acorns may be either dibbled in, or sown broadcast and ploughed in with a light furrow. If the land be at all foul, it must be ploughed and cleaned, and then the acorns should be dibbled in lines 2 feet apart each way, and the acorns should be 6 inches apart in the lines. Heather land may easily be sown with the seeds of Scots Pine or Corsican Pine, provided that the heather be not too rank and be not mixed with much bracken, brambles, etc. Sometimes it will be preferable to burn the surface and sow the seed a year afterwards ; a small amount of heather gives very beneficial protection. On hillsides it will often be advisable to turn a furrow horizontally along the hill, about every 15 inches apart, and sow the seed along the furrow, lightly raking it in and firming the ground. The seed may be sown at the end of April, if a seed-bed be thus prepared. But, if it be sown broadcast, it should be sown much earlier, so as to let heavy rains wash the seed into the soil through the heather. A good fall of snow will effect the same purpose. Wherever seed are sown in lines on land that is at all foul or likely to become foul, it will often be advisable, in order to save expenses in connection with the cleaning of the young crop, to have the lines far apart, say 5 or 6 feet, and to sow the seed very close together in the lines. By this means the cost of hoeing and cleaning will be very much reduced. The seed in the lines may advisedly be sown in 3 parallel rows about 3^ to 4 inches apart from each other. Then 138 PLANTING when the trees grow, those in the centre row should be very well pruned trees, having been pruned by the two outside rows, which are retained until the trees in the centre rows are large enough to prune each other. This method, however, is open to the objection that the small trees planted so closely in the lines which are far apart, sway about a great deal, and chafe the stems of each other, and thereby increase the risk of diseases.1 The same plan may be adopted when dibbling in seedlings, but it is open to the same objection. Sowings may, however, often be made with advantage on clean land which is now growing timber. The new crop, if shade-bearing, may be sown and left as an under crop in two-storied high forest ; or else, if light-demanding, it may be sown under a very light canopy after most of the old crop has been removed. In the latter case, the shelter wood must not be retained for more than a year or so, but, owing to the covering of leaves, any rank growth of grass will be kept in check, and the young crop should easily hold its own. The season and manner for sowing has already been discussed.2 It should be remembered that stale seed should always be avoided. Direct sowings, however, should never be attempted unless the soil and situation be favourable, though Birch seed may be sown almost anywhere, except on rank grass, where the seedlings would be smothered. Generally speaking, seed is either sown broadcast, or in lines, or in patches. On ordinary clean forest land, all that is necessary is to rake it in, so that it reaches the mineral soil. If the land be not clean enough, patches or lines must be hoed up. These lines should be about 2 feet apart. On the average, only about half of the quantity of small seed necessary for sowing broadcast will be required for sowing in lines. 1 The author has observed a great prevalence of Nectria ditissitoa in Beech and Oak so grown. 2 Vide Chapter III. DIRECT SOWING 139 The cost of labour in sowing must vary greatly. On perfectly clean forest land, seed can be broadcasted, or sown in lines or patches, and raked in for about 43. 6d. an acre. But if it be necessary to hoe up lines and clear them of weeds, etc., the cost will be about £1 an acre ; though, if a plough can be worked, the labour should not be more than i os. an acre. Dibbling acorns, in rows 2 feet apart and acorns 6 inches apart in the rows, costs about I2s. an acre. For sowing small seed in rows, a seed-can is most useful, and will save a great deal of time. When the seed is sown in little patches, about 6 or 7 seeds, if small, should be sown on each patch. This, though, will depend upon the germina- tive capacity and other considerations. The following table will show the relative cost of sowing broadcast and sowing in lines about 2 feet apart, and also of dibbling I or 2 year seedlings at the rate of 10,000, 6000, and 4000 per acre (i.e. just over 2 feet, 2 feet 6 inches, and 3 feet 3 inches apart). It is assumed that the land is perfectly clean ; that unless otherwise stated, the cost of sowing and raking in is 43. 6d. an acre ; that, for sowing in strips, about half the amount of seed usually sown broadcast is necessary ; and that the cost of dibbling is 43. per 1000. Fencing against rabbits is not included. When comparing the cost of direct sowing with the cost of dibbling in seedlings, as shown in the following table, it must be noted. that nothing has been charged for keep- ing the sown crop clean. Thus, if any cleaning be neces- sary, it will materially add to the expense. If the land were foul with weeds, the cost of cleaning, for the first year, would vary from 8s. to £1, 5s. per acre, or even more. [TABLE. 140 PLANTING ?ll^ fi'oo-^-o o o-t-ooooo jm« rt d i ijlfl QOOOO O OOOOOOO i ?rt fO M w ro -i i 10,000 Seedlings, just over 2 feet apart. p'OO^j-oo O OOOOOOO fed 0 3 s - 1 r* \1 n lines et apart. a H M o> c3 QOO O O coO^oOOoo oot^O f^ oo vo ci M O (^ M aibbled in. fills Jg73 •£> -•>-< -t- \rt «rt N ^t1 w rO M M • M M ' '-. M M Seedlings IJIll S g~2** e4* P^OO O O vOOvO°OvDTl- aJt-O O O N O « »* *^ 00 trtf^t^ rt- vO fO-rj-MClMN «»-i to gMM I-H (-1 MMl-IMWM P ^ |i .S s * "rt -iJ 8 M d °-|«, ^§7 ° - i i ^5 |rj - ! : : i « w>:3 -<3J Sowing about 2 fe 1 J 0 ,0 cj fi JE ll 1 8J? ?l| -, : : : = | 8. 8. WS- S *?*; « S ^'-S S bb a 1 ^ "3^ i |S m «| 1 °.9'g g|2" ° M 0 0 vo »« £ ^1^ f5S ^ *S 2 ^ 2 ert^ rh£rt N 0000 0 « S g ^§ 5 ^s « 8-1 3 60 rj _^ JD 3 gw>cj OSwo^O O vnu^o M £w M O>Jio XO,r3 »^> ro rr M HI > O^^=; 1> ,U VO M M ^ sS- H M m 6§s, pOO M n ^ -^-rt-moo MVOO O O O OOOO «rtOM O O O OOOO Kind of Tree. • • • • ^ 'o- rt >> i. i • • -M 0 g X Is « « So JS « a E . o . « . . § b* -s 1 I 3 -a l^lll Gc^ O c/i P3 <3c/5CQ<3 CHAPTER VII. THE TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST AND PRUNING. CLEANING AND TENDING YOUNG CROPS. MOST young crops will in the early stages of their existence require a great deal of care. Much more so is this the case with young plantations on maiden land. It will always be necessary to cut annually all rank growth of grass, weeds, bracken, brambles, and the like, until all fear of the young crop being choked is passed : for serious harm will be done to the young crop unless it be thus kept clean. In a Pine district a short growth of heather is beneficial rather than otherwise ; and on exposed high altitudes a thin soil covering, even of grass, will often prove beneficial, provided it is not high enough to choke the plants. But, in all other cases, there is no doubt that young crops will thrive far better on land that is perfectly clean than on land that is covered with grass or weeds, even though the latter be kept down by cutting. The reason is somewhat obscure. To some extent it may be due to undue pressure on the roots and exclusion of air from them when the land is covered with grass, but the main reason is probably due to rapid changes of the temperature of the air near the ground level, and to the reduction in temperature of that air, owing to the presence of the covering of grass ; a reduction which in many cases will result in late spring and early autumnal frosts. In sylvi- culture it is impossible to incur the expense of hand or horse hoeing the young crops in order to keep them clean, 142 CLEANING YOUNG PLANTATIONS 143 as is done in the case of farm crops ; nor indeed would it be advisable, at any rate beyond the first year, for it is impossible to avoid injuring the young roots. All that can be done is to clean or " cut out " the young plantations until the young trees are sufficiently tall, so that there is no danger of their being choked. It should be done annually until the young trees are about 4 feet in height. Where very small trees are planted this cutting out will probably be necessary twice a year until the trees are about 2 feet 6 inches in height; after which, once a year will suffice. Each cutting out will cost from 43. to 6s. an acre. If the trees are very small and close together the larger amount will have to be paid, as cutting is then more difficult. This cutting out may be done with "fag hooks" or short " grubbing " scythes. A man will cut out about half an acre a day. The following will represent the expense incurred in cleaning young plantations and filling up "blanks" caused by the death of some of the trees, and " firming " or "treading in" plants that have been swayed by the wind. Case I. — Trees, 4 years old, 2700 per acre : — Cutting out once a year for first 3 years, at 45. 6d. per acre ...... £° 13 6 Replacing dead trees 1 ..... o 15 o Treading in trees swayed by the wind . . o i 6 Total . . i 10 o Case II. — Trees, 2 year seedlings, 7000 per acre : — Cutting out, first year twice, at 6s. . . . ^0120 „ second year twice, at 6s. . . o 12 o „ third, fourth, fifth year once, at 55. 015 o Total . . ;£i 19 o Note. — Replacing dead trees will not usually be necessary, as such a large number have been planted originally ; also, the trees being very small will probably not require any " treading in." 1 This item will often be very much more. 144 TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST, ETC. Now, much of this cleaning or "cutting out" could be avoided if the land had been ploughed and cleaned prior to planting ; and if good enough and suitable a " cleaning " crop such as potatoes taken from it. Often, when a young crop, consisting of a tender species up to 5 or 6 years, does not do well, it will be found very useful to plant rows of nurses every 16 feet or so, of Larch or Scots Pine or Birch ; these rows should usually be planted East and West so as to screen off the hot sun ; but often it will be advisable to put them at right angles to the prevailing wind. Such a plan can often enable a valuable crop to be grown where late frosts occur ; in such a case the nurses must be Birch or Scots Pine, preferably the former. The Larch would not succeed. These nurses should be removed when no longer required. It would, however, be futile to plant the nurses, if the tender crop were already permanently injured. Then again, backward plantations of broad-leaved trees can often be improved by cutting the trees back to the ground level 2 to 4 years after planting. ( Vide " Pruning " at end of this chapter.) Apart from the cleaning of a young crop and the cutting of rank grass in the first 2 or 3 years, some attention will often be necessary when from 7 to 10 years old. This is really another "cleaning" if that word should be used to express those cultural operations which do not pay for their cost, whereas the word " thinning " is usually applied only if the material cut will pay for the cost of the opera- tion. As already stated, the cost of cutting out rank growth until trees are 4 to 6 feet high should be considered as part of the original cost of forming the plantation ; but expenses incurred after that date should be considered along with the annual outgoings. This cleaning at 7 to 10 years of age is not always necessary ; but in the case of coniferous plantations it will always be wise to go over them and cut out, collect, and burn THINNING 145 dead and sickly trees ; with a view to aiding the suppression of insect and fungoid attacks, and of fire. Then again, in natural regenerations or when artificial sowing has taken place, it will often be necessary to clean out much of the young crop to prevent overcrowding and to prevent the seedlings from becoming too spindly, in which case, they might be unable to support their own weight when they were a few years older, and so get bent over by the wind. This cleaning on natural regeneration areas is some- times done by freeing individual trees, and sometimes by cutting narrow strips 2 feet wide ; in this latter case the trees on the edges of the strips become stronger and so free them- selves. THINNING. The primary object of thinning is to aid the more valuable trees in that struggle for existence, which results in the survival of the fittest, when Nature alone has her course. In the latter stages of a rotation heavy thinnings are often made in order to increase the quarter-girth measure- ment and for the production of timber of larger dimensions. Such thinnings are, however, really partial clearances.1 Now, with reference to thinnings in the early stages of a rotation : — After an area has been planted or raised from seed, there is always a period of risk and uncertainty, especially if there is no shelter-wood over the young crop, until the young crop has closed in overhead and close canopy has been formed. When this has taken place much anxiety is removed. From this time onwards the trees are struggling with each other for supremacy. If artificial aid is not forthcoming this struggle is continued to a dangerous extent ; the trees become too thin and lanky, and, when ultimately any thinning takes place, the trees left will be unable to with- stand gales of wind or heavy falls of snow. On poor soil this prolonged struggle is especially notice- 1 Vide Chapter VI 1 1. K 146 TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST, ETC. able ; on good soil individual trees are quicker to assert them- selves. In Nature the selection system is largely observed, and this danger is to a great extent averted in an uneven-aged wood growing under the selection system, for the patches of trees of the same age are small, and those on the outside avail themselves of more light and air. With reference to thinning, some foresters classify trees as : — (1) Dominating or Vigorous. (2) Dominated. (3) Suppressed. (4) Dead and Dying. Dead and dying trees should always be cut and removed from the forest, or the danger from insects, fungi, and fire is increased. For the same reason suppressed trees in conifer- ous woods should always be removed ; the vigorous and dominated trees, alone, being usually left. Though at each chinning, the vigorous trees should usually be individually considered and any dominated trees removed if likely to interfere with the growth of the former in the next few years. Some dominated trees must often be removed if inter- fering with each other. Sometimes from bad management or other cause the vigorous trees have an unduly large crown and branch development in proportion to the length of their stems ; such trees should always be removed : they occupy more ground than should be allotted to them. When, however, dealing with hardwood areas, and especi- ally shade-bearing hardwoods, it is often a good plan to leave all the suppressed trees, provided they be healthy ; for they will shade the soil, help to preserve the humus, and keep out the wind and sun. Beyond removing dead and sickly trees, all that is necessary is to free the best-grown trees from any undue competition with their neighbours, all else being left.1 An endeavour should be made to have vigorous quick- 1 This is termed by French foresters :— " Eclaircie par le haut." THINNING 147 growing trees with moderate-sized crowns evenly distributed over the whole area. One disadvantage of this method is that by leaving the suppressed poles whose increment is at a standstill, there is a small financial loss, as capital is left uninvested, but this is to a great extent compensated for by the fact that the soil is kept exceedingly clean, to the consequent benefit of the main crop. It is difficult to say for certain at what periods of their lives trees require thinning. Much will depend upon the quality of the soil, the situation, and the distance apart at which the trees were originally planted. But taking a general average with trees planted 4 feet apart, the first thinning should take place in the case of: — Years. Year Larch . . at 10 to 12 Scots Pine . jat 1 8 to Douglas Fir . 3» 12 33 15 Weymouth Pine J Ash . . . 33 13 33 16 Spanish Corsican Chestnut Pine . 3} )J 14 15 33 )) 16 20 Beech I- 18 „ Oak . . • . 3) 17 J> 22 Silver Fir . 3) 24 „ 32 All thinnings in the early part of a rotation should be slight, except under particular circumstances ; for example, an area under Larch which is badly diseased. " Thin little and often " is a sound saying. After the first thinning, the operation must be repeated every 5 to 10 years, according to the kind of crop and the density required ; though in the latter stages of a rotation when the principal height growth has ceased, the thinnings are often not so frequent — say, every 10 to 15 years. Provided other considerations admit of it, light-demanding trees require more frequent thinning than shade-bearing trees, and quick-growing trees than slow-growing trees. Trees whose side branches die quickly and easily fall off, as, for instance, Larch, can be thinned relatively more heavily, than trees whose side branches are very persistent, as, for instance, the shade-enduring trees ; and also Oak and Scots Pine up to the first 30 years at any rate. For this 148 TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST, ETC. reason, pure Scots Pine planted at 3 feet apart, and pure Oak at 2 feet 6 inches is far preferable to 4 feet planting ; so also Spruce planted at 3 feet and Silver Fir at 2 feet 6 inches will give better results than if planted at 4 feet apart. Until the principal height growth is attained thinnings should be slight, and the trees should be close enough together to cause all side branches to die and fall off, and thus clean timber will be produced. Light-demanding trees will usually require thinning in the pole forest stage about every 5 to 7 years, and shade- bearing trees every 8 to 12 years. After the trees are about 45 to 55 years old, very little thinning is necessary in conifer crops unless partial clear- ances are desired or natural regeneration cuttings are required. On good soil, or in sheltered positions, or on cool aspects, or at low altitudes thinnings must be begun earlier, and must be more frequent, and may be somewhat heavier than when the reverse is the case. On poor soil, or on hot aspects unless moisture is plentiful, or at high elevations, or in exposed places, forest growth is slower than when the reverse is the case, and therefore a greater number of trees per acre should be found of any given age, if a similar density of canopy is to be produced. In the Black Forest 5 per cent, more Beech were found on southern than on northern aspects. In exposed -places, the edges of the wood should be thinned heavily from the beginning, so as to encourage the growth of side branches and to get bushy trees which will form a good wind-break. Austrian Pine are often planted for this. Now, whereas it is obvious that some thinning is neces- sary, any severe interruption of the canopy in the early stages of a rotation should always be avoided, except in rare instances. A great mistake is often made by starting to thin woods too early ; some people are frightened when they see the branches interlacing, but the lower branches should inter- lace; the sooner they do the better, and under proper EPICORMIC BRANCHES 149 conditions they will kill each other off, and effect natural pruning ; there should be no need for artificial aid in pruning. Any severe thinning in the early stages of a crop encour- ages the expansion of the crown and growth of side branches, to the detriment of the height growth ; though the individual trees will increase their quarter-girth measurement to a greater extent than if the canopy is close. Trees taper unduly if too heavily thinned, especially during the pole forest stage. On the other hand, trees left unthinned too long, will probably lose even in height growth, for their vigour will be slight, and they will be liable to be blown over by the wind. With some trees, especially Oak and Chestnut, an unduly thick canopy will often cause, especially in the latter half of a rotation, the flushing of latent buds along the stem, and epicormic branches will be thrown out. The reason of this is because the crown is too small, and the root system is too vigorous in proportion, and hence the excess of soil nutrients and water cause the flushing of latent buds. On the other hand, a similar result often follows where stems grown in close canopy are suddenly exposed, especially in the case of Oak. In this case it is due to the stimulating action of sunlight on the trunks, the bark of which is com- paratively thin and tender when grown in close high forest, and also to a state of hypertrophy induced by an excess of soil nutrients. Other evil effects which usually supervene if a close-canopied young crop is suddenly thinned, may be traced to exposure of the tender bark and buds to inimical influences, such as frost, cold winds, and hot sun. Often, early spring growth will be induced, and the young foliage and shoots may be injured by a late spring frost. The thinning of pure Oak woods requires special care, partly on account of the liability of these trees to throw out epicormic branches, and partly because there is great diffi- culty in growing trees with tall clean boles and crowns of a moderate size. Up to the age of 30 to 35 years they must be grown very close to stimulate height growth, and to kill offside branches ; 150 TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST, ETC. after that age any undue struggle for existence must be avoided or the whole crop will be a failure. After the first thinning has been made, other very slight thinnings should be made every 5 to 8 years until the principal height growth is attained ; and directly the humus disappears and weeds begin to grow, underplanting or undersowing should take place. For this purpose, Spanish Chestnut or Beech, or a mixture of them, are the best trees to plant. It must always be remembered that the execution of thinnings and the density of the canopy will greatly affect the amount of moisture available for the crop. As far as the question of moisture alone is concerned, a serious interruption of the canopy will not be so harmful on fertile soils as it will be on poor soils, or wherever the condi- tions for the growth of timber are unfavourable. The soil will probably contain a maximum amount of moisture when the canopy is neither too thick nor too thin. With this object in view, the canopy should be as thin as is compatible with ihe retention of humus and dead leaves. For if the canopy is unduly thick, transpiration through the leaves is at its maximum ; so also is the interception of atmospheric precipitations, rain and dew ; whilst evaporation of moisture from the surface of the soil is reduced to a minimum. Now, if this canopy be somewhat broken, transpiration and interception are lessened, and, provided that humus does not disappear, evaporation of soil moisture will not be very much increased. But, if the canopy be still more broken, humus will disappear, and evaporation of soil moisture will be increased ; later on, grass and a rank growth of weeds will appear, and transpiration and interception of moisture will again take place, though this time, chiefly from the soil covering of grass and weeds, instead of only from the trees as in the former case. Having regard to this, it is obvious that the greatest care is necessary on dry soils or on hot southern aspects, where usually the soil is lacking in sufficient moisture. DENSITY OF CANOPY 151 Often under such conditions, especially towards the end of a rotation, it is found that only a limited number of trees can thrive, but though a heavy thinning will probably be indicated, the greatest care must be taken not to destroy the humus. It must be evident that the aspect upon which trees are growing is a matter of great importance in determining the degree of thinning that should take place. As already indicated, it will usually be necessary on a southern aspect to have the canopy as thin as is compatible with the retention of humus ; but on northern aspects the relative density of the canopy may usually be either greater or less. A denser canopy is admissible because, owing to the greater amount of moisture in the soil and air on northern aspects, tree-growth is more vigorous in spite of the fact that the light is less intense. This, however, would not be the case if there was plenty of moisture on any given southern aspect. Then again, on the other hand, the canopy may be thinner on a northern than on a southern aspect, because the humus will not disappear so quickly, and any rank growth of grass and weeds will be slower to appear. It will nearly always be preferable to have the thinner canopy, provided that the principal height growth of the crop has been attained, since the indivMual trees will put on a greatly increased increment ; and the money realised for that portion of the crop which is removed, should earn 3^ or 4 per cent, interest, .and perhaps more. And moreover, whenever the conditions for the growth of timber are favourable, though a somewhat thicker canopy is admissible than when the reverse is the case, it will usually be advisable to have a somewhat thinner canopy than is the case on poor soil, provided always that the principal height growth has been obtained, though not until then, for the evil effects of wind and insolation will not be so serious, and the trees will be quicker to form close canopy again. When thinning mixed woods, the requirements of 152 TENDING OF YOUNG HIGH FOREST, ETC. different species of trees must be considered ; light-demand- ing trees must have relatively more growing space than shade-bearing trees. If the shade-bearing trees catch up and surpass the light-demanding trees, one class or other must be removed. Care must always be taken to preserve the required mixture. If other considerations admit of it, remove as thinnings such trees as are valuable and saleable when small, and not small trees of those species which are more or less valueless. It should be noted that Ash, Spanish Chestnut, and Willow are valuable even when small, and are much used for split hurdles, etc. Small Larch are nearly always saleable, and are always useful for estate purposes. But often it would be most unwise to cut these out, as they will be required as mature timber. Finally, it may be stated that the general principles to be observed in ordinary thinning operations are, speaking generally, that thinnings should be so conducted that in the early part of a rotation the side branches are allowed to interlace and cause the death of each other, thus leaving all pruning to natural agencies and, at the same time, stimulating height growth ; and that in the latter part of a rotation, thinnings may be more severe, but, unless underplanting takes place, never so severe as to result in the disappearance of humus, and the conse<7 = 399 475 90 43 x 7 = 301 330 105 23 x 7 = 161 200 Thus it will be seen that, in the above case, the relative density is about correct ; the older age classes being some- what more thin on the ground. Now, if it be desired to perpetually retain this density at each felling, some of the trees in all the younger age classes must always be thinned out at the same time that the mature trees are cut. The correct principle to observe is to first remove from these younger age classes such trees as appear likely to form large crowns and are occupying more space than their BEECH: SELECTION SYSTEM 179 height growth merits, and also any visibly suppressed trees of any class. The following table, referable to the previous example, shows the number of trees that should be removed at each thinning and the number that should be left in order to attain this ideal standard : — TABLE FOR FELLINGS OF BEECH WOOD UNDER SELECTION SYSTEM. Rotation, 105 years. Average soil and situation. Age Class, Years. Just before a felling. Trees cut every 15 years. Trees left. 15 700* 343* 357 30 357 169 iSI 45 188 «5 103 60 103 46 57 75 57 H 43 90 43 20 23 105 23 23 * This number will obviously depend upon the efficiency of the previous regeneration. THE GROUP SYSTEM. This system must only be attempted in the case of shade- bearing trees which are also fairly storm proof ; for although the young crop has a maximum amount of shelter, the old trees exposed by the felling are liable to suffer unless indeed the groups are very small. It is a most excellent system to pursue on poor dry soils, in places not too much exposed ; for the young crop will obtain a maximum amount of moisture and shelter combined, as the side shade and protection will help to preserve humus, and diminish evaporation of moisture from the surface of the soil that would otherwise take place owing to direct heat and air currents. On very dry soil the groups must be larger than would be admissible on good land. 180 NATURAL REGENERATION Whenever an area is being dealt with under this system, it is advisable, if possible, to obtain from that area an equal yearly income ; as indeed is the case under all systems of forest management. Thus, supposing there be an area of 432 acres treated on the group system with a rotation for the timber of 72 years, and that an interval of 9 years between neighbouring groups is desirable, it could be treated in the following way : — The whole area may be divided into 18 compartments of 24 acres each, and the area may be considered as comprising two woods or blocks of 9 compartments each, one of which blocks, that to the leeward of the prevailing winds, should be regenerated in the first 36 years, and the other block in the next 36 years. Now, as regards this block of 216 acres, one method would be to take 54 groups of i acre each, at intervals throughout the whole block, and regenerate them in the first year ; then 9 years hence to make 54 fresh fellings by enlarging these groups ; then 9 years hence, and again 9 years after that, to repeat the operation, when the whole block will have been regenerated within the 36 years. But such a method would give an intermittent income from the area managed under this system. It would be far preferable to enter a different compart- ment each year for 9 years, and then to return to the original compartment. And this would insure an equal annual income from the whole area, and little difficulties arising over the rearing of game might be avoided, as only I compartment out of the 9 would be disturbed in any one year. Thus in the first year, 6 groups of i acre1 each (or 12 groups of J acre each) may be felled in Compartment No. I. ; in the 2nd year, 6 groups (or 12) in Compartment No. II.; and so on, until in the loth year, Compartment No. I, will again be entered, and the original groups enlarged by making fresh fellings. This scheme is continued until by the 36th year the whole 9 compartments have been 1 One acre groups will in many cases be too large. GROUP SYSTEM 181 regenerated, after which the other block will be treated in the same way. This method, however, of cutting groups somewhere in the wood every year, could not be adopted in the case of Beech, as it would be necessary to wait for the seed years, otherwise the vacant patches would become covered with a rank growth of weeds if a seed year were long delayed. This might, however, be avoided by artificial means, or possibly by making the groups very small, when practically the selection system would be adopted. The whole essence of the group system is that the cleared areas are small, and that the feelings of neighbouring groups are always intermittent. The great advantage of having small groups is that the young crop gets a very great amount of protection from the older trees, and in the case of conifers the danger of ravages from the Pine weevil (Hylobius abietis] is greatly lessened by having these intermittent fellings and small areas, and a good seeding is assured. In as much as rides or roads do not lead through all the groups — such a thing would be impossible — it is necessary that a long interval should elapse between the regeneration of outside groups and the time when the centre groups are again felled, for this will enable the timber from the centre groups to be drawn out through a crop which is at least 35 or 40 years old, and thus excessive damage is avoided. In cases where the groups are very large, some mother trees should be left overhead as a shelter wood ; but these very large groups must, to all intents and purposes, be considered as small irregular shaped compartments. The timber grown under the group system should be of higher technical value than that grown under the selection system, as there will be a smaller proportion of unpruned trees. This group system must not be confounded with the method of mixing trees by patches or groups, as is practised when planting mixtures in even-aged high forest. 182 NATURAL REGENERATION NATURAL REGENERATION OP WHOLE COMPART- MENTS OP EVEN-AGED HIGH FOREST. The usual method of effecting natural regeneration under a shelter wood of mother trees is by making several fellings and gradually clearing the mother trees off the ground. It will be convenient to consider this method under three headings : — (1) Preparatory Fellings. (2) A " Seed Felling " or " Regeneration Felling." (3) Gradual Clearance of Mother Trees. (1) Preparatory Fellings. — These consist of very heavy thinnings, and may or may not be necessary, according to the state of the land and the density of the crop. The great object is to obtain a good seed-bed, and trees which will bear plenty of seed towards the end of the rota- tion, when it is desired to bring about the natural regenera- tion. If the trees are growing very close together, there will probably be a thick soil covering of undecayed leaves, or " raw " humus, as it is termed. Such a condition would be quite unsuitable for a germinating bed for tree seeds, supposing a "seed felling" were attempted at one operation. When such conditions prevail, it is necessary to make a preparatory felling, so as to cause the humus to decay more quickly. But in many cases, especially on very dry silicious soils, the land will have become acid or sour owing to the slow decay of dead leaves. Such surface soil would never produce a crop of seedlings of broad-leaved trees, as long as it remained sour. The mere opening up of the canopy will not suffice to sweeten the soil, but it will be necessary to cultivate the land and, in most cases, especially if Beech are to be regenerated, to apply lime. Furthermore, trees growing in close canopy would, if suddenly exposed, be liable to suffer from sunburn, and also to be thrown by the wind. And again, they would not be likely to bear much seed (if any) for some years to come. Hence one or more preparatory fellings, or partial clear- ances, are often necessary when the trees are approaching THE "SEED" FELLING 183 maturity, so as to induce the production of seed, to accustom the trees to isolation, and to form a good seed-bed. It will, however, often be found that the woods have already been sufficiently thinned, and that the humus has already disappeared, and the ground is covered with a growth of rank grass and weeds. In such a case, if natural regeneration be attempted, the grass must be broken up, and the seed-bed prepared, and the seed felling made immediately, or, in the case of Beech, when a good seed year comes. It is quite impossible to obtain a good regeneration while the land is covered with a mat of grass ; so also is it impossible on very " hard " land, even though clean. It is an excellent plan to turn pigs on to any area that is thus covered with grass, but their snouts should not be ringed ; for then they will root up the grass, and prepare an excellent seed-bed. If pigs cannot be procured, a forest plough must be used. It should be remembered that humus will disappear more quickly on southern aspects than on northern aspects, other conditions being similar. It will a'so decay quicker on soils containing lime than on other soils. Heat and moisture combined favour its decomposition, whilst exces- sive wet in the soil retards it. On exposed places, it will often be a good plan to dig or plough small surface trenches in order to catch the leaves and prevent them from being blown away. These surface trenches or ditches should be in short parallel lengths, and each series should alternate with a series crossing at right angles : — It must be remembered that the land always becomes hard unless the surface soil has a layer of decomposing leaves in it. (2) A Seed Felling or Regeneration Felling is made when a good seed year has come. As its name implies, it is the felling made for the actual regeneration of the area. 184 NATURAL REGENERATION It consists in the removal of all the trees except a few, which are left as mother trees, to seed the whole area ; and also, to form a light canopy or shelter wood for the young crop. In the case of those trees which bear an abundant crop of seed very frequently, there is no need to wait for a seed year ; but different areas may be felled annually, and thus worked so as to produce an equal yearly income. Scots Pine, Ash, Norway Maple, Sycamore, Douglas Fir, and Spruce bear abundant crops of seed every 2 or 3 years, and Oak every 3 to 5 years. But Beech produce good crops of seed very spasmodically, from every 5 to 12 years, and in their case it is always necessary to wait for a good seed year ; thus making it impossible to obtain an equal yearly income from any area under Beech only, though preparatory fellings and gradual clearances of mother trees tend to minimise this defect. The age at -which trees produce seed is a matter of very great importance. The best seed is generally produced about 10 to 20 years after the trees have completed their principal height growth. Seed from very young trees should not generally be used, and seed from very old trees that have long passed maturity should never be countenanced. Oak, Beech, and Silver Fir produce good seed from the 6oth year onwards. Most other trees bear seed very much earlier, say from the 1 5th to 3Oth year, and often very much earlier, when the conditions under which they may be placed are inimical to their proper growth and development, or when they enjoy a maximum amount of light and air, as when situated on the edges of rides, etc. When making a felling, great care should be taken that the seed trees should be distributed evenly over the whole area. (3) Gradual Clearance of the Mother Trees. — The dates at which the shelter wood of mother trees should be removed, will depend on the requirements of the young crop, and upon the soil, locality, aspect, altitude, and the rate of growth of the young crop, and many other considerations. The gradual clearance will usually begin in the 2nd or REMOVAL OF "MOTHER" TREES 185 3rd year after a good crop of seedlings appears on the ground, and will be continued about every 3 years up to the I5th year, or even longer in some cases. However, where the seedlings are intolerant of shade, the mother trees must be removed almost immediately. And even if the seedlings will bear shade, the majority at any rate should be removed when the undercrop is well established, and before it is more than 4 or 5 feet high ; then the young trees are supple and pliant, and little damage need be feared. Some of the young trees will be ruined, but with many thousands of young trees per acre this does not matter. However, the removal of any old trees when the young crop is from 20 to 35 feet high, must do a great deal of damage, for the latter are too stout to bend over without breaking. Hence, when old trees have still to be cut, it will probably be best to wait until the pole forest stage is advanced, when the poles will be capable of withstanding considerable weight. If the mother trees are removed too early, the young crop will not get that shelter from hot sun and late and early frosts which is so essential. If the seedlings are light- demanding and hardy, it is best to remove the shelter wood quickly : the reverse for slow-growing, tender species. On very dry soils, all trees require more light, and are less tolerant of shade than they would be if the supply of moisture were plentiful. And on high altitudes where the growing season is shorter, more light is necessary than at low altitudes. Therefore, other conditions being equal, on very dry soils, or at high elevations, the mother trees should be thinner on the ground, and should be removed when the young crop is smaller than when the trees are growing in good moist soil, or at low altitudes. A consideration of the aspect should also affect the density of the mother trees and the dates of their removal. Though southern aspects are hot and dry, the intensity of the light is greater than on northern aspects, which are cool and usually moist, and it will usually be found that a 186 NATURAL REGENERATION thinner canopy is admissible on northern aspects than on southern aspects, if other conditions are similar. There is a greater necessity for shelter on southern aspects than on northern aspects, for there is a greater liability to early spring and late autumn frosts ; and humus will disappear more rapidly, and the soil will more quickly get heated. But if there is a reasonable shelter wood, it will of itself, directly, afford protection from frosts, and also indirectly, by preserving humus, and thereby delaying the date of active vegetation in the spring. When, however, an area is well seeded, there should be no unnecessary delay in removing the mother trees, and the sooner their shade can prudently be dispensed with, the more moisture will the young crop obtain, in the shape of rain and dew, and also from the soil. But if the removal of the shelter trees were to cause the appearance of grass and weeds, there would be less moisture available for the young seedlings. However, when the young crop is once well established, and thick on the ground, it will of itself prevent much of the evil effect that would otherwise result to the soil on account of the removal of the mother trees. Natural regeneration sometimes fails owing to a rank growth of grass, which is either due to bad management, or to a seed year having been insufficient, or the quality of the seed being bad, or to some unavoidable circumstance. In such cases, artificial aid in the shape of soil preparation, and usually of planting seedlings, should be given. It is not easy to get an even natural regeneration over any large area. It will usually be necessary to complete the process by artificial means. Usually a wood is regenerated for one species only, but a mixture can be produced by introducing artificially other species, when the mother trees (or most of them) have been cleared. For instance, on an area naturally regenerated for Beech, quick-growing trees, such as Larch, Ash, Poplars, may be planted singly, or in groups or patches, but slow-growing "STRIP" SYSTEM 187 trees, like Oak, should only be planted in groups or patches ; for otherwise they would be outgrown before they were fit to fell. The system of natural regeneration under mother trees, with the gradual clearness of those trees, is only suitable for trees which are storm proof, and generally speaking, for those whose seedlings can endure shade. However, Oak may be thus regenerated, but the mother trees must be very thin on the ground, and must be very quickly removed. Scots Pine is sometimes treated in this way, but the method cannot be recommended. Occasionally, the system of high forest with standards is brought about by leaving some of the mother trees for a second rotation, but the method can never be recommended. There is a modification of the compartment system just described, which is sometimes referred to as the "strip" system of natural regeneration. By this method, a strip of a compartment is taken in hand, and regenerated under mother trees just as the whole compartment might have been. It is usual, however, to treat three adjoining strips at the same time. One strip being in the preparatory stage, another in the regeneration felling stage, and another in the stage at which the trees are being gradually cleared. By this method the possibility of an incomplete seeding is some- what lessened, and operations are more concentrated ; but in the case of certain conifers, the danger from injurious insects, especially the Pine weevil, are much increased. THE NATURAL REGENERATION OP BEECH. There is no doubt that it is far preferable to regenerate an area of Beech naturally along with the shelter of the mother trees, than to clear cut and resort to artificial planting. For, during the first few years of their existence, young Beech are very susceptible to late spring and early autumn frosts, and also to hot sun in the summer ; hence it is always most beneficial to have a shelter wood over the young crop. The same may be said of Silver Fir. And other trees — 188 NATURAL REGENERATION Spruce, Douglas, Thuya gigantea, Weymouth Pine, Ash, and Spanish Chestnut — find a little shade when young more beneficial than otherwise. On the other hand, Oak, Scots Pine, Corsican Pine, and Larch are always very light- demanding. Beech may be naturally regenerated under the three systems already referred to ; but in no case is the natural regeneration likely to be a success if the soil is in the least degree sour. So exacting is Beech in this respect, that it has been said that it will not naturally regenerate unless there be plenty of lime in the soil. This, however, is not strictly correct ; but there is no doubt that natural regeneration is far more certain on a soil which is distinctly calcareous. The selection system has already been dealt with in a general way. But it may be noted that unless the soil is good, a short rotation of about 90 years will usually give the best results, unless bigger timber is especially desired. Great care should be taken not to " overcut " the trees in the older age classes ; for such a course is equivalent to spending capital instead of income. The following table will show the number of trees under the selection system that should form the growing stock per acre, and the number that may be cut, if cuttings be made every 1 5 years, and if the oldest timber be cut at 90 years : — BEECH UNDER SELECTION SYSTEM. Rotation, 90 years. Average soil and situation. Years. Trees just before felliug. Trees cut every 15 years. Trees le't. 15 820* 407* 413 30 413 194 219 45 219 99 1 2O 60 12O 54 66 75 66 16 50 90 50 50 This must depend upon the efficiency of the previous regeneration. BEECH 189 If the rotation for mature timber be 120 years, and cuttings are to be made every 1 5 years, the number of trees will be as follows : — BEECH UNDER SELECTION SYSTEM. Rotation, 120 years. Average soil and situation. Years. Trees just before a felling. Trees cut every 15 years. Trees left. 15 Per acre. 620* 308* 312 30 312 148 164 45 164 74 90 60 90 4i 49 75 49 ii 3* 90 38 18 20 105 20 8 12 120 12 12 ... * This must depend upon the efficiency of the previous regeneration. Regeneration of Whole Compartments of Beech High Forest. — When regenerating an area consisting chiefly of Beech, all other species growing as a mixture are generally removed before the seed felling, and thus the Beech only are regenerated. Then, if a mixture be required, other trees, of which Larch is the most suitable, and also Ash, may be planted when the -gradual clearance is complete, or nearly so. Often there is an " advance " growth of seedlings. These, if healthy and thick on the ground, may be left ; if not more than about 8 years old. If older, they will usually have been suppressed, and may never develop into strong, healthy trees, even when the shade of the older trees no longer exists ; therefore, they must be removed in the first preliminary felling. In many cases no other felling or thinning will be necessary until a good seed year has come, but the particular conditions of the soil and crop will determine this. The edges of the wood should be left denser than the rest, 190 NATURAL REGENERATION especially if the area lie exposed to gales or dry winds. Now, suppose that up to no years old a wood has been merely thinned in the ordinary manner, and that there were found 210 trees to the acre, it would probably be advisable to cut out 60 of the smallest, leaving 150. If in 3 or 4 years' time the dead leaves have nicely decayed, well and good ; but if the admission of a little more light seems desirable, another 30 trees should be cut. Probably all can then go on until a good seed year comes ; then about 65 trees should be cut, leaving 55 on the ground. The biggest trees and those with big crowns should be cut, and clean-grown tall trees, about 12 feet quarter girth at breast height, should be left as seed and shelter trees. The gradual clearance should usually begin about the 2nd year after the fall of the seed, and should be made about every 3 years ; all the mother trees being removed by the i ith or 1 2th year, if possible. If the regeneration be more or less of a failure, it will often be necessary to postpone the gradual clearance, and to wait for another seed year. But the best plan is to resort to artificial means, and either to sow or to plant I or 2 year seedlings. It will be the cheaper method, for otherwise rank grass will make its appearance, and soil preparation will be necessary, and the crop will be uneven, and time will be lost. The utmost care is necessary in removing the mother trees. They should not be removed during a frost (unless there is deep snow) for the young crop is then very brittle. Again, they should always be removed by the home staff of workmen ; and, if cut into short lengths, they are more easily handled. With trees other than Beech, the various fellings are not so clearly defined. The seed years are more frequent ; and when once the surface soil is in good condition, seeding will probably soon take place, other conditions being fulfilled. Furthermore, the ground is not so likely to deteriorate if the 1st year fails ; it will have a chance of seeding the next year or the year after that. But, in the case of Beech it might be fallow for 10 years or more. OAK AND ASH 191 Good seed years can be foretold in the case of Beech, and to some extent in the case of Oak, by the thickening of the future flowering buds in the autumn and winter ; it is more common after hot summers. THE NATURAL REGENERATION OP OAK AND OTHER TREES. A pure Oak forest, mature and ready for the axe, will seldom be found in good forestry, but it will often be found mixed with Beech and other trees. If the Oak be evenly distributed, it may sometimes be advisable to attempt re- generation of a pure Oak wood. About 25 trees will be enough to leave per acre for the shelter wood ; but, when the young crop is covering the ground, they must be quickly removed, for the seedlings are intolerant of shade. By the end of 6 years, all the shelter trees should be removed. All big branchy Oaks should be removed at the seeding felling, leaving only those that have clean stems, and crowns which are not too spreading. Once in 3 or 5 years a good Oak seed year usually comes, and it is necessary that the acorns get well buried by I to 2 inches of soil covering. The removal of trees at the seed felling will effect this to a great extent ; otherwise raking by hand or other cultural operations must often be resorted to. It is an excellent plan to turn pigs on to the land for a few months. On soils of average or inferior quality, natural regenera- tion is often successful ; whereas, on the best soils containing more moisture, and on southern aspects, the growth of rank grass often proves too troublesome. If success is not achieved at the first good seed year, artificial means should be adopted at once. The Natural Regeneration of Ash is rare over any extensive area ; but in many cases it can be very profitably resorted to, as it produces abundance of seed very frequently. If, however, it has been grown in a mixed wood, it must often be cut before the other trees, as it is mature at about 65 to 70 years of age ; and if it has been grown pure and then 192 NATURAL REGENERATION underplanted with other trees, the undercrop will not be mature by the time the Ash has to be cut ; but when grown as a pure crop, it may often be partially cleared and an undercrop of Ash obtained naturally. Both crops can then grow as a two-storied high forest of Ash. When the older trees are ready to be felled, in say 30 years' time, it will be possible to obtain another undercrop of Ash in a few years' time. Thus a perpetual two-storied high forest may be grown. This natural regeneration of Ash will hardly be possible on very moist soils, as there is almost certain to be a strong growth of nettles and other weeds on such soils, however dense the overwood of Ash may be kept. Ash may also be regenerated under the selection or group systems ; and of these two, the latter is preferable. Sycamore and Norway Maple would seldom be profitable as pure woods or as forming the greater part of a mixture. They are not usually valuable enough when young ; there- fore they should only be introduced sparingly by planting. Each of these trees, however, produce abundance of seed, and readily regenerate naturally, if the soil be suitable. The Natural Regeneration of Corsican Pine or Scots Pine is rare under a shelter wood, and should not be attempted ; for the young trees are intolerant of shade, and do not require the shelter. Also, when growing under mother trees, they are very liable to fungus attacks of Hysterium pinastri — the leaf-shedding disease, — and of Botrytis cinerea. Then again, any seedlings that have once suffered from shade, never recover. If, however, it is attempted, only about 12 trees per acre should be left, and these must all be removed by the time the young crop is 3 or 4 years old. In most cases, the soil under a pure crop of Scots Pine will be covered with rank grass, unless the crop were only about 40 years old. This strong grass will appear even on soils, which, when originally planted, were so poor as to produce only heather ; since the soil will have become better aerated, and somewhat enriched in plant food. The best method of naturally regenerating Scots Pine CONIFERS 193 or Corsican Pine, is to clear cut strips of from 40 to 70 yards wide, and allow the seed to blow on to the cleared portions from trees on a neighbouring area. These strips should be to leeward, with respect to the prevailing winds, of the trees from which the seed is expected. As soon as one strip is well seeded, and free from the danger of the Pine weevil, another strip may be cleared, and so on. When grass and weeds appear, artificial aid must always be resorted to ; the cheapest plan to adopt is to notch in seedlings. If heather only cover the ground, it is not detrimental ; in fact, in moderation it is somewhat beneficial, unless, indeed, it grows very big. It will always be advisable to plant the edges of these strips, if they lie on the shady side of older trees, with some trees that will bear shade ; for this purpose, Weymouth Pine is often very suitable. Larch could be regenerated in the same way. It would be more likely to be successful on Northern aspects, but, generally speaking, the seed does not ripen sufficiently in this country to make it ever advisable. THE NATURAL REGENERATION OP THE SHADE- BEARING CONIFERS. In this category may be included Silver Fir, Nordmann's Silver Fir, Thuya gigantea, Douglas Fir, Cupressus macro- carpa, Norway Spruce, Sitka Spruce, Sitka Cypress, and Weymouth Pine. Before attempting the natural regeneration of these trees on any considerable scale, it is necessary that more informa- tion be forthcoming as to their seed-bearing capabilities in this country ; and also as to the quality of the seed they will bear. For, though all these trees may bear abundant crops of seed, it by no means follows that they will produce strong, healthy plants. It may require centuries of acclimatisation before some of them will produce seed in this country that can be relied upon. In reference to this matter, the greatest caution should be observed when contemplating the growth from home-grown seed of such trees, the climate, of whose native habitat, is N 194 NATURAL REGENERATION marked by very cold winters and very hot summers. In many cases, trees from such climates are shy of bearing seed in this country ; or even if they bear seed in abundance in this country, as many of them do, there is a great probability that only weakly and tender trees will be produced there- from. Whereas those trees introduced from a country where the climate is somewhat similar to that of this country, are far more likely to produce seed that will grow into strong, healthy, vigorous plants. A consideration of the foregoing may explain the reason why Silver Fir is often so shy of reproducing itself naturally in this country; and it will explain the inferiority of home-grown Larch seed. It is probably always preferable to obtain foreign seed of Silver Fir, Nordmann's Silver Fir, Norway Spruce, Wey- mouth Pine, and Cupressus macrocarpa. This latter produces abundance of seed in this country, but it would not be wise to use it largely, until more experience is gained with reference to trees produced from home-grown seed. On the other hand, there is every likelihood that home- grown seed of Thuya gigantea, Douglas Fir, Sitka Spruce, and Sitka Cypress will produce strong, healthy trees. There is, indeed, much young Douglas Fir, self-sown and otherwise, which, so far as present experience goes, is perfectly healthy and vigorous. When seed from these four species of trees is imported,1 it is very essential that it should have been collected in the damp regions near the coast in British Columbia. Such seed of Thuya gigantea and Douglas Fir would be far more likely to give better results altogether, than seed obtained from higher altitudes in the Rocky Mountains ; though experience may prove even the contrary to be the case. The natural regeneration, however, of these coniferous trees whose seed admit of it and make it desirable in this country, may, with the exception of Norway Spruce, be effected under either of the three systems. Norway Spruce is not suitable for natural regeneration, as 1 This matter of the importation of seed is also referred to in Chapter III. CHOICE OF SYSTEM 195 it is not storm proof, though it might be naturally regenerated in a mixture along with other shade-bearing conifers whose height growth is somewhat similar. It is sometimes thus regenerated along with Silver Fir on the Continent. The group system is peculiarly suited to the regeneration of these conifers, for their seed is light and easily carried by the wind, and as long as the felled patches remain free from grass, the young crop gets a maximum amount of moisture ; and the older trees give protection on all sides from cold winds, and thus lessen surface evaporation. If the soil be dry, the patches or groups must be larger than would otherwise be admissible ; though the danger from windfall will be increased. When the compartment system of regeneration under a shelter wood is resorted to, the procedure will be much the same as in the case of Beech. But Douglas Fir and Wey- mouth Pine will not bear so much shade, and the canopy must be thinner, and the mother trees removed earlier. In the case of Douglas Fir it is very essential to gradually accustom the future mother trees to isolation, otherwise they are rather liable to have their tops broken off by gales. For this reason the group system will usually be preferable. THE COMPARATIVE MERITS AND DEMERITS OP THE SYSTEMS. Compartment System : — Merits— (1) Operations are concentrated ; therefore supervision is easier ; and damage caused by the removal of timber is more cheaply repaired — e.g., roads. (2) Side shade is avoided ; therefore it is not so detrimental to light-demanding seedlings. (3) The greatest proportion of good timber is produced. Demerits — (1) Soil deterioration is quicker, both on account of side light and of dry winds. (2) In exposed places, windfall is to be feared. (3) If a seed year fails, a greater loss is incurred ; therefore the risks are greater. 196 NATURAL REGENERATION Group System: — Merits— (1) There is a greater amount of protection to the young crop and a maximum amount of moisture. (2) Soil deterioration is not so rapid. (3) It is the most suitable system for dry soils. (4) Side light and wind are excluded from the felled area. (5) There is a greater likelihood of success in the case of shade-bearing conifers. Demerits — (1) Operations are scattered ; therefore expenses are increased. (2) The older trees on the windward side of prevailing winds are liable to be thrown unless the groups are very small. Selection System : — Merits— (i) There is a maximum amount of protection to the soil and young crop from wind and sun ; therefore it is advantageous in exposed localities. Demerits — (1) Operations are very scattered. (2) It produces the least amount of timber of high technical quality; though the total production is about the same as under the other two methods. (3) It is not generally suited for very dry soils ; though Beech on thin calcareous soils is an exception. The regeneration of Scots Pine and Corsican Pine from neighbouring areas on to cleared strips, though the best method to adopt for the natural regeneration of these light- demanding trees, will not often give very uniform results, and artificial aid must generally be given. Usually the land quickly becomes covered with rank grass, and the soil thus quickly deteriorates. But if only heather appeared, the result would usually be satisfactory. CHAPTER X. TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS. SIMPLE COPPICE. THERE can be no doubt that the system of simple coppice must in the near future almost disappear, if not entirely so, unless some more profitable use for its produce should present itself than is at present in vogue. The treatment, however, may be considered in some detail, since the management of the underwood grown under the other coppice systems will be largely governed by the same principles. When dealing with an area under coppice, one of the most important points to settle is the length of the rotation that should be adopted. This will depend upon the species of coppice grown and the purposes to which it is intended that the produce should be put. The following will show some of the rotations that are suitable under certain circumstances : — Pure Oak coppice, grown for bark . Alder coppice (suitable on wet soils) Ash and Spanish Chestnut, for hop poles Ash and Spanish Chestnut, for split hurdles and crate wood ...... Ash and Spanish Chestnut, for barrel hoops . Hazel Coppice poles, for pit props .... Length of Rotation. Years. 16 25 to 30 14 „ 16 10 6 15 10 6 25 to 30 The reproductive power of trees when coppiced is a matter of much importance. 197 198 TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS This reproduction is usually from stool shoots, but in the case of Aspen Poplar, White Poplar, White Alder, and Acacia, it is chiefly from root suckers thrown out from the stoloniferous roots of these trees. Usually trees will only produce stool shoots when coppiced early in life; but they vary much in this respect. And the manner in which they have been coppiced, the quality of the soil in which they are growing, and the exposure of the stools to strong sunlight or otherwise, will greatly affect their reproductive powers. Generally speaking, Ash, Beech, Birch, Norway Maple, and Sycamore should not be grown on a longer rotation than 25 years, or they will not stool satisfactorily; though a longer rotation might sometimes be advisable for Alder, Spanish Chestnut, Oak, and Hornbeam. Spanish Chestnut is often found to produce vigorous stool shoots when trees 100 years of age are cut down. On good soil, or when exposed to sunlight, stools will produce shoots more readily than when the reverse is the case. Continual coppicing has usually a prejudicial effect on most trees, though Hornbeam and Oak stools will last for centuries. Stools of Ash, Birch, Willow, and Beech do not, as a rule, survive many rotations. After about 4 or 5 rotations their vigour has usually disappeared. Again, the stool shoots of Oak, Ash, Alder, and Spanish Chestnut are usually very vigorous whilst the stools are still healthy ; but the stool shoots of Beech are not possessed of the same vigour. The common conifers have practically no power of reproduction by stool shoots. Great care is necessary in coppicing the stools at the end of each rotation ; if badly done they will soon decay. They should always be cut sloping or pointed, so that water will easily run off ; for decay would soon set in if water were to remain on the surface. And the stools should also invariably be cut as close to the ground as possible, except on low land subject to floods. They should always be cut with a sharp instrument ; small coppice with a hand-bill, and larger stuff with an axe. When the area has been cut, it should be carefully looked CUTTING UNDERWOOD 199 over, and any stools carefully dressed with a hand - bill wherever they present a jagged or split face, or wherever the bark has become separated from the wood. An owner of coppice sometimes cuts and converts coppice produce, and puts it upon the market himself. But the usual practice is to sell the underwood unconverted to small dealers, who have a special knowledge of the retail market. But it is always preferable to have the coppice cut by the home staff of workmen, and not to allow the buyer to cut it as he chooses. The cost of cutting underwood per acre must vary con- siderably. It will be rather more for areas under simple coppice than for the smaller amount of coppice grown along with standards. But coppice 25 years old will cost about £1 per acre; 20 years old, i6s. per acre ; 16 years old, I2s. 6d. per acre ; 12 years old, IDS. per acre. The season for cutting does not usually matter very much provided the leaf is off. Oak coppice for barking will be cut when the bark will peel — i.e., the end of April or the beginning of May. In localities subject to late spring frosts the coppice should not be cut until somewhat late, as by so doing the young coppice shoots will be delayed in their growth, and thus may escape a late frost. Otherwise it is best to cut it in the autumn, for the sooner that it is cut, converted,. and removed, the better. As regards the general management of simple coppice, there is not a great deal that calls for special attention. It is the easiest of 'all systems to manage. Perhaps the most important point is to insure that a full stock of healthy stools is always present. There should be about 600 stools per acre, and thus on an average they should be about SJ feet apart. Any deficiency in this respect should be made good either (i) by planting, (2) by " layering " or " plashing." (1) Planting.— If planting is adopted it will generally be necessary to plant out about 100 trees every time the coppice is cut over ; though this will depend upon the species 200 TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS grown, and for Spanish Chestnut 50 should be ample. Four- or five-year-old plants should be used, and each must be protected from rabbits. Small guards of wire netting put round each tree and kept in place by a stake will cost about id. each. But a cheaper method is to make a similar guard of tarred felt, which will cost about |d. each, and be equally effective. Sometimes bigger trees are planted out with a view to lessening the liability of their being choked by the quick- growing shoots from the stools ; but there is really no advantage in this method. Large trees, say 7 feet high, usually make only a small growth until their roots are established and the extra expense of planting these large trees would be far greater than the expense incurred in cutting back any strong shoots that threaten the smaller trees after they have been planted out for 3 or 5 years. The cost of planting 100 4-year-old plants, each pro- tected with a piece of tarred felt, will be about IDS. 6d., or say ijd. each, provided the plants be raised in a home nursery ; except in the case of Spanish Chestnut, when the cost would be about I2S. 6d. per 100, or i^d. each. In many cases the wire netting or tarred felt is omitted, as it is not so serious if plants grown for coppice are bitten by rabbits as is the case if they have been planted for the production of timber ; but it is usually very indiscreet to omit this protection. The plants are sometimes cut over at the collar at the time of planting, with a view to numerous stool shoots being thrown out during the current rotation, but it is best generally to wait and cut them over at the beginning ' of the next rotation. Occasionally sowing is resorted to instead of planting, and in the case of Oak it has proved very successful. The acorns should be dibbled in, where the underwood is thin, during the autumn the underwood is cut ; and all underwood should be cleared off the area by the middle of April. It is usually impossible to get the underwood converted LAYERING 201 and removed in time to plant during -the current spring, but every effort should be made to enable the planting to take place as it is most important not to lose a year's growth. (2) Layering or Plashing. — This is a favourite means of increasing the growing stock of stools of Ash and of Spanish Chestnut ; it has been largely practised in Sussex and Kent. To effect this end, long stool shoots, not more than 2\ inches in diameter at the base are cut partly through close to the ground, bent over and pegged down at one or more points near where the soil has been bared, and then covered at these places with a small mound of earth. Longitudinal slits may be made in the bark to encourage the formation of roots. This layering should be done as early as possible and before the stools begin to flush their latent buds. It will usually be best to effect this layering during the autumn, when the underwood is cut, though often it is done about 6 years afterwards in places where the coppice appears unduly thin. The cost of thus layering stool shoots will be about 35. 6d. per 100 " mounds." Hence it is very much cheaper than planting ; but protection from rabbits cannot very well be given. Other details of management l include cleaning ditches, hedging, repairs to gates and dead fences, trimming and brushing rides, etc. Wherever coppice is grown, whether as simple coppice or otherwise, it will always be advisable to avoid having it mixed in a promiscuous manner. Oak, if grown, will usually be for its bark, and should always be so grown quite pure. Hazel is only suited to a very short rotation, and is therefore quite unsuited for being mixed with other species. Spanish Chestnut and Ash may be grown together and usually afford the most remunerative kind of underwood that can be grown. But the local markets must be studied, and buyers for a local industry involving the use of a particular species will give a relatively greater price for pure under- 1 The laying out and selling of coppice is dealt with in Chapter XIV. 202 TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS wood of that species than for mixed underwood ; for in the latter case they have to seek another outlet for produce they do not require. Alder coppice wood will almost invariably be grown pure ; not only on account of its special market, but also because the soil to which it is suited will not admit of the usual species being grown. The .cultivation of Osiers can hardly be regarded as a branch of forestry ; very useful information with reference to its cultivation will, however, be found in the Board of Agri- culture Leaflet, No. 36. COPPICE WITH STANDARDS. Having regard to the low prices that obtain for coppice produce, there can be no doubt that when dealing with an area under coppice with standards, every effort should be made to produce a maximum amount of standards, and to insure that they are of the highest quality that can be grown. The quantity of underwood that may be produced is a matter of small importance in comparison with the overwood. The underwood should be looked upon chiefly as a means of naturally pruning the young standards and of drawing them up ; of protecting the soil from the effects of wind and insolation ; and of affording sufficient covert for game. If strict attention be paid to this, an area under coppice with mixed standards of Larch, Ash, and Oak will prove far more remunerative than an equal area under even-aged high forest of Oak ; and very nearly as profitable as a similarly grown crop of Ash or Larch. With this object in view, it is imperative to have a long rotation for the underwood, especially in the case of Oak and Ash, otherwise these trees soon cease in height growth and develop crowns in early life. These latter trees can often be grown to perfection along with Alder coppice (on a long rotation). A rotation of from 18 to 26 years should generally be adopted to effect this end ; by such means the standards will be well pruned by the underwood to a height of about COPPICE WITH STANDARDS 203 40 feet. There will be an additional advantage in that the underwood being of big dimensions will generally fetch a relatively higher value and be more marketable ; though for certain purposes, as for instance, hop poles, the majority of it will be far too big; another advantage is the fact that the soil is not laid bare so frequently. One great disadvantage, however, in having a long rota- tion, is the fact that the young trees planted out at the last felling are very apt to get suppressed, and in the case of Ash to be too drawn up and to become too thin and lanky, as the underwood grows so much faster ; but this can easily be pre- vented by cutting back any shoots that threaten the young trees from time to time. This attention must never be omitted. Previous to each cutting over of the coppice, all healthy, well-grown seedling trees, known also as " Saplings," " Stores," " Standils," and also a few very clean, well-grown stool shoots, or "tellers," of Oak or Ash, should be carefully marked with a ring of white paint or otherwise, so that they are not cut over along with the coppice. When the coppice is cut, these may be thinned out to the required number, but a full stock of them should always be left. It is better to have too many than too few. When the underwood is all cleared off, the area must be restocked with young trees to form future standards, and also to replenish some of the worn-out stools. It will sometimes happen that many seedling plants appear; if this be the case, the necessary number of trees to plant may be perhaps only 70 Larch. But usually with a 2O-year rotation, 50 to 70 Larch, 50 Oak, and 50 Ash may be planted per acre for standards, provided of course the soil be suit- able ; and besides this, 60 Spanish Chestnut to replenish the underwood stools ; or these may be increased by plashing. If Spanish Chestnut is not suited to the soil, some more Ash may be planted, and some Sycamore and Norway Maple, or perhaps Hornbeam will be advisable. Generally speaking, Spanish Chestnut and Ash are the most valuable trees for coppice growth, and Alder on suitable soils. Trees 4 years old should be planted choosing of course the vacant spaces. No young tree should be planted nearer than 7 feet 204 TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS to any healthy stool, and the trees themselves should be planted 4 feet apart from each other, and in small pure patches of from 5 to 9 trees each; though the miniature groups of Larch may be fringed with Ash, especially if a stool is near, for the Ash will bear some shade when young, and may ultimately be coppiced if necessary. It is necessary to plant out many more trees than are wanted at the next cutting over of the coppice, because many will die and only exceptionally vigorous trees are required to grow on for mature standards in the future ; therefore a large number to select from is imperative. If the rotation is shorter than 25 years and it is intended to grow mature timber of the same age as when the under- wood is grown on a larger rotation, it will not be necessary to plant out so many trees at each felling, nor will so many trees of the various age classes be left per acre. The following tables will indicate the approximate density for various rotations, and results after their manner should be aimed at ; though it is impossible to obtain mathematical accuracy in forestry operations : — TABLE FOR OAK STANDARDS ONLY. Average soil and situation. Rotation of Standards, 100 years. Rotation of Underwood, 25 years. Years. Oak Trees just before a fall. Oak Trees cut. Oak Trees left. 25 Per acre, (say) 150 83 67 50 67 44 23 75 23 15 8 100 8 8 ... Total 248 ISO 98 Trees planted for standards „ „ coppice . Total 200 at each felling. _6o „ „ 260 trees. OAK STANDARDS 205 TABLE FOR OAK STANDARDS ONLY. Average soil and situation. Rotation of Standards, 100 years. Rotation of Underwood, 20 years. Years. Oak Trees just before a fall. Oak Trees cut. Oak Trees left. 20 (say) 125 55 70 40 70 40 30 60 30 17 13 80 13 7 6 IOO 6 6 ... Total 244 125 119 Trees planted for standards „ „ coppice . Total 170 at each felling. 60 „ „ 230 trees. TABLE FOR OAK STANDARDS ONLY. Average soil and situation. Rotation of Standards, 96 years. Rotation of Underwood, 12 years. Years. Oak Trees just before a fall. Oak Trees cut. Oak Trees left. 12 (say) no 40 70 24 70 22 48 36 48 20 28 48 28 12 16 60 16 5 II 72 n 3 8 84 8 4 4 96 4 4 ... Total 295 no 185 Trees planted for standards „ „ coppice . Total 140 at each fall. _JQ » » 190 trees. 206 TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS TABLE FOR MIXED LARCH AND ASH STANDARDS (in equal proportions). Average soil and situation. Rotation of Standards, 75 years. Rotation of Underwood, 25 years. Years. Larch and Ash just before a fall. Larch and Ash cut. Larch and Ash left. 25 (say) 150 100 5° 50 50 35 15 75 15 15 ... Total 215 150 65 Trees planted for standards „ „ coppice . Total 2OO at each felling. 60 „ „ 260 trees. TABLE FOR MIXED LARCH AND ASH STANDARDS (in equal proportions). Average soil and situation. Rotation of Standards, 80 years. Rotation of Underwood, 20 years. Years. Larch and Ash just before a fall. Larch and Ash cut. Larch and Ash left. 20 (say) 120 60 60 40 60 28 32 60 32 21 II 80 II II ... Total 223 1 2O 103 Trees planted for standards „ „ coppice . 170 at each felling. 60 Total 230 trees. MIXED STANDARDS 207 TABLE FOR MIXED OAK, ASH, AND LARCH STANDARDS. Soil and situation — Quality I. Rotation for Standards : Oak, 100 years ; Larch and Ash, 80 years. Rotation for Underwood, 20 years. Years. Just before a fall. Trees cut. Trees left. Oak. Larch and Ash. Oak. Larch and Ash. Oak. Larch and Ash. 20 (say) 40 (say) 64 2O 28 20 36 40 20 36 10 18 10 18 60 10 18 4 10 6 8 80 6 8 i 8 5 ... IOO 5 ... 5 ... .... ... Total . 81 126 40 64 41 62 207 104 103 Trees planted for standards Total standards . Trees planted for coppice Total Oak. Larch. Ash. 60 50 40 at each felling. 150 60 210 trees. About one or two years after the coppice is cut, all young standards should be pruned l which are in need of it ; and a year or two after that, the young trees just planted should be freed from any coppice shoots which threaten them. As regards the species of tree that may be planted for standards, they must always be thinly foliaged trees, and as already stated, Oak, Ash, and Larch are usually selected. But on clay soils Black Poplar and Black Italian Poplar will usually prove most valuable ; though they should never be grown in conjunction with Oak. The White Poplar may also be planted on very stiff clay soils, where it seems to thrive better than the other Poplars ; but generally it is not 1 See Chapter VII. 208 TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS so suitable, as it is rather more branchy and spreading in its habit, especially when young. The Picardy Poplar (probably a variety of P. canescens) is also admirably suited as a standard over coppice. Other trees which are admirably suited for standards over coppice are the Black Walnut, Tulip Tree, White Ash (F. Americana] and the Oregon Ash. These latter trees suffer much from early and late frosts, and there is no method so suitable for insuring success with tender species as to plant them over a coppice area. There is every probability that these trees, especially the Black Walnut and the Oregon Ash, would prove very remunerative; though it is impossible as yet to anticipate with what favour or otherwise their appearance upon the market would be regarded by timber merchants. The Tulip tree requires a stiffish soil, and grows rather faster than the Oak. The other three trees grow very rapidly, if not affected by adverse circumstances ; the Black Walnut has, however, much difficulty in ripening its wood when young, and is therefore very liable to be cut back by autumn frosts. The White Ash will probably succeed better than any other Ash on light soils lacking in moisture. The expenses of management of an area under coppice with standards are greater than those of an area under ordinary high forest. These expenses must vary a great deal ; but on a normally stocked area — that is, where all stages of the overwood and underwood are equally represented from youth up to maturity — the minimum net expenses will average about 6s. 3d.1 per acre per annum, or say 43. per acre per annum, over and above a sum of 2s. 3d. represented by the annual value of the sporting,2 provided the areas are large. This sum of 6s. 3d. includes, however, the average cost of replanting a certain number of trees every time the under- 1 This does not include the cost of felling the standards, or of haulage. 2 In many cases this will be too low a figure for the sporting ; but with large compact areas the sporting will be worth a much smaller sum per acre, than where the woods consist of small scattered coverts. AVERAGE EXPENSES 209 wood is cut, and also auction expenses ; so that it is hardly comparable with the average expenses incurred under high forest, which, as stated elsewhere, may be taken as 2s. per acre per annum, over and above a sum of is. 3d. represented by the value of the sporting.1 These minimum expenses on a normally stocked area may be detailed as follows : — Planting 250 trees at end of rotation of 20 years . ,£170 Expenses of sale, advertising, and half-year's * credit allowed to underwood buyers . . . . 0170 Cutting underwood 0160 Total . . ^300 Or, average per annum equals 35 ^° 3 ° Add — For hedging, ditching, brushing rides, and repairs to dead fences and gates (on large areas) . o i 8 Rates o o 10 Attention to young crop, pruning, general super- vision (on large areas), etc 009 Total per acre per annum . . £o 6 3 * This half-year's credit is included, as it must be deducted from the gross receipts when considering the net financial returns from coppice with standards ; though not properly speaking an outgoing. In the above estimate, nothing has been allowed for felling the standards, although it is far preferable that they be felled by the home staff of woodmen, yet the branch and cord wood, and faggots will about equal the cost of felling. It is almost always advisable to sell the standards separately from the underwood. With a view to increasing the sporting amenities of a wood, so-called " covert plants " are often planted. There is generally more necessity for planting these in woods grown under high forest systems than where coppice is grown, but their employment may be considered here. 1 The sporting value of land under ordinary high forest is never so great as is the case when the system of coppice with standards is followed. 210 TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS Even in well-managed coppice with standards, it will often be advantageous, especially on level ground, to have a thick screen of evergreen shrubs at the end of any area over which the pheasants are driven. This will hide the " guns " from view, and the birds are not so likely to turn back ; and in order to make them rise better this screen may be cut as a bank, starting from ground level about 40 feet within the boundary and sloping upwards, and the top of this sloping screen may be made still higher by planting one or two rows of trees on the very edge of the boundary. For such a screen, Laurel, Holly, and Rhododendron and Thuya gigantea may be recommended, provided the soil be suitable. These shrubs and trees, and so also Yew, Box, Privet, Snowberry, and Gaultheria (G. Shallori) — the latter a dwarf growing shrub of rambling habits — will bear a great deal of shade, and are very suitable to plant as affording " covert " in even-aged high forest, where the canopy is too dense for ordinary coppice trees. The Conversion of Coppice or Coppice with Standards into High Forest. There are many who advocate the conversion of coppice or coppice with standards into high forest, with a view to obtaining greater profits. There is no doubt that nearly all areas under simple coppice could produce a far greater income under some other system ; but the system of coppice with standards should not be too hastily altered for one of even-aged high forest. On very poor dry soils there is no doubt that an even-aged forest of conifers is far more suitable, since hardwoods, and especially the coppice shoots of such trees, require and extract from the soil far more food nutrients than coniferous trees. But on stiff clay soils an attempt to convert the area into an even-aged high forest, would, with timber at its present price, result in a great failure. On such soils coppice with standards of Oak or of Poplar will give better returns than any even-aged forest. Coppice with Larch and Ash standards will be about as HIGH FOREST WITH COPPICE 211 remunerative as, and far safer than, an even-aged high forest of pure Larch. It should be" noted that there are many soils too poor to grow mature standards of exacting trees such as Ash and Spanish Chestnut,1 but which will readily grow 30- or 4O-year-old poles of such trees, which are usually very saleable. The foregoing is often observed to be the case on shallow soils in which deep-rooted trees may be growing. Where conversion into even-aged high forest is deter- mined upon, it may be done : — (1) by planting the desired crop among the coppice stools ; or (2) by taking a short rotation of the best stool shoots and clear cutting the area when they have reached their maturity. In any case, if there are existing standards over the coppice they should be left unless nearly mature, or unless, for young trees, they have unduly large crowns. By the latter method of selecting the best stool shoots excellent results are often obtained, and at a minimum of expense. But it should not be tried if the majority of stools are old and enfeebled. When attempted, about 3 stools' shoots should be allowed to grow for the first 3 years to prove which is the most vigorous and valuable ; then the best should be selected and the other two removed. Any deficiency in the desired number of shoots should be made good by planting. HIGH FOREST WITH COPPICE. The great advantages of this system have already been referred to as a means of growing timber, of the thinly foliaged trees, of the highest technical quality, and still pre- serving the advantages that an undergrowth of coppice presents for game preservation. Plantations made de novo with this object in view might 1 To grow really fine timber free from shakes, Spanish Chestnut requires a deep loam with plenty of moisture. 212 TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS on suitable soil consist of a mixture in about equal propor- tions of Larch, Ash, and Spanish Chestnut. They should be gently thinned in the ordinary way, removing first of all the Larch that do not show exceptional vigour, until the twenty-fifth year, when all the Chestnut should be carefully coppiced and only the best Larch and Ash left. The underwood may then be treated on a rotation of 1 6 years or as may seem suitable, but it can hardly have any more pruning effect on the standards, as they will be out of its reach by the time it has grown up again. At this first felling of the underwood, no trees should be planted to increase the number of stools as the overhead canopy will be rather thick, and it is better to wait until just before grass begins to appear or until the next rotation, when about 100 to 150 should be planted and a like number the rotation after, if found necessary ; they will then grow vigorously, as the canopy will be much broken, and by the time the standards are mature at (say) 73 years, there should be about 500 vigorous stools per acre. Table for High Forest with Coppice. — Grown as even- aged high forest for the first 25 years ; then an overwood of Larch and Ash left, and an underwood of Spanish Chestnut and some Ash coppiced periodically every 16 years. TABLE FOR HIGH FOREST WITH COPPICE. Average soil and situation. Years. Trees just before a fall. Larch and Ash. Trees cut. Larch and Ash. Trees left. Larch and Ash. 25 800 400 400 41 400 240 1 60 57 1 60 105 55 73 55 55 ... At 4ist year (or previously) and at 57th* year, 150 Spanish Chestnut to increase coppice stools. * As may seem necessary ; but the Chestnut trees originally coppiced at the 2$th year may prove sufficient. HIGH FOREST WITH COPPICE 213 At the end of the rotation of the overwood there should be about 500 vigorous stools per acre, and amongst these about 650 Ash and Larch should be planted so as to per- petuate the system. They should be evenly distributed over the whole area ; no tree should be planted nearer than 6 feet to any healthy stool; and the trees should generally be in small groups of 5 to 9, each species kept separate and planted 4 feet apart from each other. A rotation of 14 to 16 years will be quite enough for the underwood,1 or the Larch and Ash will get suppressed, and even with this length of rotation the underwood must be very carefully kept from injuring the future overcrop. When the Ash and Larch are planted, it will be cheaper to fence the whole area against rabbits, provided it is over 10 acres in extent, and provided the trees were otherwise going to be protected with small wire guards, costing id. each. If guards of tarred felt could be erected at a cost of Jd. each, the fencing of the whole area would only be cheaper if it were 30 acres in extent or over. TABLE showing the working of above example in perpetuo. Years. Trees just before a fall. Larch and Ash. Trees cut. Larch and Ash. Trees left. Larch and Ash. 15 (about) 600 * 100 500 30 500 150 350 45 350 IQO 160 60 160 105 55 75 55 55 ... About 70 trees to be planted at the 3Oth year, and again at the end of each rotation of underwood, as may seem necessary in order to increase number of coppice stools. * This of course depends on the success of the previous planting. If, when the coppice is first cut over, it appears that the 1 A longer rotation is indicated for ordinary coppice with standards, as the standards are of various ages, and the trouble of freeing the youngest age class is comparatively little. 214 TREATMENT OF COPPICE SYSTEMS Larch and Ash have been unduly drawn up, a fringe of coppice should be left all round the area for some 4 or 5 years longer, as a protection from wind until the young standards have become strengthened; and, as a screen for game, the coppice should always be encouraged near the rides and roads. Where Oak are grown under this system, it will be necessary to plant, on existing coppice areas, a larger number of trees per acre (about 1000) ; as usually such a small proportion develop into strong, vigorous trees, and as they are slower growing, they must be present in greater numbers at the respective dates. The first rotation should not be more than 10 or 12 years, otherwise the trees will be suppressed. The subsequent rotations of the underwood may conveniently be 16 to 20 years or 25 years, though such a plan rather complicates the management. A similar plan may be adopted in the case of Larch and Ash, though it is not so essential. CHAPTER XI. AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND. THE following yields from particular crops may be expected on certain soils and situations, provided the crops escape damage from insects, fungi, and fire. As regards the values attached to the timber and the thinnings, it must be remembered that these are subject to great variation ; the value of thinnings has in many cases been placed somewhat low since they can usually only be disposed of locally, and any increase in the area under timber would probably be accompanied by a diminution in the amount per acre received for thinnings. The soil and situation are made referable to one of four qualities — Quality I. being the best, and Quality IV. the worst. Quality II. represents soil and situation of good average quality. The identical soil and situation may be of different quality for different species of trees. The number of cubic feet of thinnings is reckoned down to 2 inches quarter girth under bark, so that measurements may be compared with continental data which, for timber only, are reckoned down to 3 inches diameter over bark. The value placed upon the final yields, presupposes that the purchaser fells the timber ; whereas the thinnings are cut out by the home staff of woodmen. In all cases it is presumed that 3-year-old trees have been planted : — 216 AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND OAK.1 Close-Canopied High Forest. Soil and situation — Quality II. Years since planted. Thinnings removed. Cubic feet left to 2 in. q. g. Average per tree, cub. ft., 2 in. q. g. Cubic feet to 2 in. q. g. Value. £ 8. D. 20 ... ... ... ... 30 30 I O O ... ... 40 70 2 10 0 1060 2 50 150 5 10 o 1460 4 60 200 7 10 o 1890 7 75 450 17 o o 2340 13 90 480 24 o o 2730 21 105 460 34 o o 2930 29^ 120 Final crop, 100 trees. 3000 cub. ft. to 6 in. q. g. 35£ Value of final crop, 3000 cub. feet, at is. gd. = ^262, los. Total yield of thinnings = 1840 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. „ ,, final crop = 3550 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Total = 5390 Average annual increment = 120 = 45 cub. ft. Note. — Much more satisfactory returns would be obtained by making a partial clearance at about the 6oth or yoth year, and then under- planting, if such has not already taken place. The yield of Oak Bark is dealt with in Chapter XIV. YIELD FROM BEECH 217 BEECH. Close-Canopied High Forest. Soil and situation— Quality II. Years since planted. Thinnings removed. Cubic feet left to 2 in. q. g. Average per tree, 2 in. q. g. Cubic feet to 2 in. q. g. Value. £ S. D. 20 ... ... ... ... 30 ... ... 420 i 40 30 0 10 0 990 i 50 130 300 1660 «1 65 250 6 10 o 2500 <* 80 400 16 15 o 3400 Hi 95 500 23 o o 4000' 20 105 350 1600 4350 29 120 Final crop, 150 trees. 4800 cub. ft. to 6 in. q. g. 36 Value of final crop, 4800 cub. feet, at is. = £240. Total yield of thinnings = 1660 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. „ „ final crop = 5400 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Total = 7060 Average annual increment = ^ 120 = 58f cub. ft. 218 AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND SILVER FIR. Close-Canopied High Forest. Soil and situation — Quality II. Years since planted. Thinnings removed. Cubic feet left to 2 in. q. g. Average per tree, 2 in. q. g. Cubic feet to 2 in. q. g. Value. £ S. D. 30 ... ... ... ... 35 ... Nil 700 i 45 200 2 10 0 1400 ii 55 280 3 10 o 2550 4i 65 320 400 3900 ioi 77 360 600 5HO I8J 90. Final crop, 280 trees. 6050 cub. ft. to 6 in. q. g. 24 Value of final crop, 6050 cub. ft., at = (say) £164. Total yield of thinnings = 1160 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. „ „ final crop = 6700 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Total = 7860 Average annual increment =-- '- — = 87$ cub, ft. Norway Spruce. — The total yield of Norway Spruce will be rather less. The thinnings will yield rather more, and be begun earlier, but the final crop will not be so great. Usually a rotation of 70 to 80 years will be sufficient for the Spruce. Norway Spruce on an Soyear rotation should give an average annual increment of 80 cubic feet on soil and situation of Quality II. YIELD FROM SCOTS PINE 219 SCOTS PINE. Close -Canopied High Forest. Soil and situation — Quality 11. Years since planted. Thinnings removed. Cubic feet left to 2 in. q. g. Average per tree, 2 in. q. g. Cubic feet to 2 in. q. g. Value. £ S. D. 20 ... ... ... ... 30 30 0 10 0 1000 I* 40 200 2 10 0 1900 3i 50 220 400 2600 6 60 300 500 3080 91 70 300 650 3460 X3i 80 Final crop, 260 trees. 3450 cub. ft. to 6 in. q. g. 16 Value of final crop, 3450 cub. ft., at 7d. = ^100, I2S. Total yield of thinnings = 1050 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. „ „ final crop = 4150 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Total = 5200 Average annual increment = = 65 cub. ft. Corsican Pine. — The yield from Corsican Pine should be considerably greater, as much more will be yielded by thinnings ; the final crop may be expected to yield about the same. An average annual increment of 75 cubic feet should be given on Quality II. soil, on an So-year rotation. 220 AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND WEYMOUTH PINE. Close-Canopied High Forest. Soil and situation — Quality 1. Years since planted. Thinnings removed. Cubic feet left to 2 in. q. g. Average per tree, 2 in. q. g. Cubic feet to 2 in. q. g. Value. £ S. D. 20 ... ... ... ... 30 40 o 14 o IIOO Ij 40 260 3 5 o 2000 3i 50 300 500 2650 6| 60 350 6 10 o 3300 Id 70 400 9 15 o 4010 i$i 80 Final crop, 260 trees. 4270 cub. ft. to 6 in. q. g. 19 Value of final crop, 4270 cub. ft., at = (say) £133, IPS. Total yield of thinnings = 1350 cub. ft to 2 in. q. g. „ „ final crop = 4950 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Total = 6300 Average annual increment = - 80 = 79 cub. ft. YIELD FROM ASH 221 ASH. Close-Canopied High Forest. Soil and situation — Quality 11. Years since planted. Thinnings removed. Cubic feet left to 2 in. q. g. Average per tree, 2 in. q. g. Cubic feet to 2 in. q. g. Value. £ S. D. 13 ... ... ... 20 los. loo poles 3 10 o 27 2os. 100 poles 400 870 I* 35 5os. loo poles 5 10 o 1200 »i 45 430 21 IO O 1430 Si 55 700 35 o o 1440 12 70 Final crop, 120 trees. 1900 cub. ft. to 6 in. q. g. 20 Value of final crop, 1900 cub. ft., at is. 6d. = £142, IPS. Total yield of thinnings = 1 380 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. „ „ final crop = 2400 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Total = 3780 Average annual increment = ^— — = 54 cub. ft. Note.—\\. would be far preferable to partially clear the Ash from the 35th year onwards ; though, in the above case, the thinnings have been very heavy at the 45th and 55th years. 222 AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND LARCH. Close-Canopied High Forest. Soil and situation — Quality II. Years since planted. Thinnings removed. Cubic feet left to 2 in. q. g. Average per tree, 2 in. q. g. Cubic feet to 2 in. q. g. Value. £ S. D. 12 8s. 100 poles 200 ... ... 18 175. i oo poles 600 ... 25 80 500 870 I* 32 240 700 1380 n 40 275 800 1850 Si 50 309 900 2450 9i 60 450 1500 2800 14 70 Final crop, 200 trees. 3000 cub. ft. to 6 in. q. g. 17 Value of final crop, 3000 cub. ft., at is. Total yield of thinnings = 1360 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. „ „ final crop = 3400 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Total = 4760 Average annual increment = ^ = 68 cub. ft. Note. — In nearly every case more satisfactory results would be obtained by making partial clearances from about the 35th year and underplanting, than by keeping a close-canopied high forest. YIELD FROM LARCH 223 LARCH. Soil and situation — Quality 1. Partially cleared at the 35th year, and underplanted. Years since planted. Thinnings removed. Cubic feet left to 2 in. q. g. Average per tree, 2 in. q. g. Cubic feet to 2 in. q. g. Value. £ S. D. 12 ... 200 ... ... 18 25 700 ... ... 26 120 700 1050 If 35 375 II 0 0 1460 4i 45 332 10 0 0 2286 *i 55 1197 45 o o 2345 17* 65 1260 55 o o 1876 28 80 Final crop, 67 trees. 3200 over 6 in. q. g. 50 Value of final crop, 3200 cub. feet, at is. = £160. Total yield of thinnings = 3309 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. „ „ final crop = 3350 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Total = 6659 Average annual increment = - = 83^ cub. ft. Note. — The value of a cleaning at the 8th year has been taken as nil. 224 AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND DOUGLAS FIR.1 Close-Canopied High Forest. Soil and situation — Quality I. Years since planted. Thinnings removed. Cubic feet left to 2 in. q. g. Average per tree, 2 in. q. g. , Cubic feet to 2 in. q. g. Value. £ S. D. 14 ... ... ... 20 175. 1OO poles 500 I800 ii 27 540 900 3465 44 35 I080 17 jo o 5000 10 45 3OOO 75 o o 6750 27 55 1800 at gd.* 60 o o 8930 47 65 3000 at gel.* IOI O O 9180 7oi 75 Final crop, 1 30 trees. 11,200 cub. ft. to 6 in. q. g. 89 * For that which is over 6 inches quarter girth. Value of final crop, 11,200 cub. ft., at gd. = £420. Total yield of thinnings = 9,620 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. „ „ final crop = 11,570 cub. ft. at 2 in. q. g. Total = 21,190 Average annual increment 21,190 75 282^ cub. ft. 1 There are no mature crops of Douglas Fir in this country, but the author submits the above table after careful study of the rate of growth of young crops in this country, and also after careful study of the rate of growth in its native country, where in many cases the climate is very similar. WILLOWS AND POPLARS 225 Sitka Spruce is another very fast-growing tree, and though its height growth is somewhat similar to that of Douglas Fir, it will not probably increase in girth measure- ment at the same rate as Douglas Fir when growing under similar conditions. However, the out-turn per acre should be about half-way between that of Douglas Fir and of Silver Fir. Cupressus macrocarpa is another tree which in suitable localities should give a somewhat similar out-turn. Tree Willows and Poplars are very fast-growing trees, especially the Black Poplars. These will produce a greater quantity of timber in a short time than any other broad- leaved trees. With reference to all the previous tables, it may be stated that a greater final yield is in nearly all cases possible, by restricting the thinnings in the latter half of any rotation. But the adoption of such a course would result in committing the common continental error of striving after maximum final yields which, in most cases, results in a net monetary loss, when compared with the results of crops which have been somewhat heavily thinned, from the time that the principal height growth was attained. The above data may all be represented graphically, both as to volume or value, by dividing a circle into segments the area of which is proportionate to the volume or value of the thinnings removed at any time and of the final yield — the dates of the respective thinnings and their volume or value are marked, as also are particulars of the final yield, in their respective segments. [YIELD FROM STANDARDS OVER COPPICE. p 226 AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND YIELD PROM STANDARDS OVER COPPICE Standards, Mixed Oak, Larch, and Ash. Oak on a loo-year rotation. Ash and Larch on an 8o-year rotation. Coppice on a 2o-year rotation. Soil and situation — Quality 1. Cubic feet cut to 6 in. q. g. Standards felled. Age. Years. Average per tree, to 6 in. q. g. Oak. Larch. Ash. 155 ... 5 Oak . 100 31 16 320 99 I Oak \ 5 Larch \ . 3 Ash J 80 ( l6 ] 64 I 33 24 108 120 4 Oak ] 4 Larch >• 6 Ash J 60 f 6 \ 27 ( 20 5 45 36 10 Oak ) 9 Larch !• 9 Ash J 40 { > 200 473 255 Totals. Total yield every 2oth year = 928 cub. ft. to 6 in. q. g. which = 1091 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Average annual increment * for standards only from a normal area = j 20 * The contents of the young standards of 20 years' growth has been left out of account. Standards, Mixed Ash, and Larch. Rotation of Standards, 75 years. Rotation of Coppice, 25 years. Soil and situation — Quality II. Cubic feet cut to 6 in. q. g. Standards felled. Age. Years. Average per tree, to 6 in. q. g. Larch. Ash. 256 H7 8 Larch \ 7 Ash / 75 / 32 1 21 170 117 17 Larch \ iSAsh J 50 { \ ... ... 50 Larch\ 50 Ash / 25 { ::: 426 264 Totals. Total yield every 2$th year = 690 cub. ft. to 6 in. q. g. which = 980 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Average annual increment for standards only from a normal area ASH AND CHESTNUT COPPICE 227 YIELD PROM COPPICE. Any statement of the yield from various coppice areas in cubic contents will not be of much practical advantage, as it is all " small stuff." And it will vary not only with the soil and species of trees, but also with the length of rotation adopted. But on areas under simple coppice with a i6-year rotation it will vary on average soil from 50 to 70 cubic feet quarter girth measure (reckoning down to I inch diameter) for Ash and Spanish Chestnut, and 35 to 55 cubic feet for Oak. The yield from coppice growing under standards will not be so great, on account of the overshadowing by the standards. It is of far more importance to know the yield in money value that may be expected from coppice. This value, however, is subject to extraordinary variations ; much more so than the variations in the price of large timber. In many parts of the country coppice produce is almost unsaleable, while in other parts of the country £12 to £16 is still realised for the best coppice of Ash when about 1 6 to 20 years old. The prices obtained for coppice depend almost entirely upon local demand. So that unless there is a local demand, either from some local factory for some special purpose, or else from some large town for firewood, etc., only a nominal sum can be expected per acre by the sale of coppice. Pure Ash coppice is generally the most saleable, and then pure Spanish Chestnut or a mixture of Spanish Chestnut and Ash. But ordinary mixed coppice, consisting largely of Hazel, is almost unsaleable except near large towns. Alder coppice occasionally pays well per se, but not often ; it is, however, often extremely valuable as an aid for growing other trees, especially Oak or Ash. It will thus be seen that the value of coppice depends upon the uses to which it can be put. Buyers of coppice have to base their price upon the retail demand in the neighbourhood. The saleable value of the coppice will be represented by the 228 AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND difference in the value of the gross receipts for the " made up" produce and the working expenses, after deducting a fair profit for the underwood buyer. Thus, to take an example : — Some coppice under standards is for sale. It is 3 miles from an agricultural town. There is no market for hop poles or crate wood or hoops. It is 1 1 years old. What price will an underwood buyer give for it ? The Gross Receipts from the sale of the produce when made up are estimated to be : — i ioo faggots, at 8s. per 100 . . . .^480 30 bundles pea-sticks (25 in a bundle), at 3d. per bundle ....... 076 24 bundles bean-sticks (25 in a bundle), at 4^d. per bundle . . . . . . . 090 35 bundles Thatcher's rods for "spicks" and "ledgers" (50 in a bundle), at 3d. per bundle 089 16 bundles "glatting" rods for fences (25 in a bundle), at lod. per bundle . . . . o 13 4 2000 fencing stakes, at 35. 9d. per ioo . . 3150 4 cords of firewood (8 x 4 x 4), at 95. per cord . i 16 o The Expenses :— Cutting underwood ...... ^o 10 o Tying up i ioo faggots at 45. 6d.* per ioo. . 296 Cutting-out and tying (including withies) : — 30 bundles pea-sticks, at id. per bundle . 026 24 „ bean-sticks, at lid. per bundle . 030 35 „ Thatcher's rods, at i^d. per bundle 038 1 6 „ " glatting " rods, at 2d. per bundle 028 2000 fencing stakes, at 8d. per ioo . . 0134 Cording 4 cords of firewood, at 33. 6d. per cord 0140 £4 18 8 Plus a sum for buyers' profit, risk, bad debts, etc. . ..... 4 10 o Therefore, saleable value of coppice or (say) £2, IPS. * This includes withies. VALUE OF COPPICE PRODUCE 229 The above example shows the small value of coppice in the absence of any special market. If the underwood had been cut by the home staff, the saleable value would of course be increased by the IDS. reckoned for cutting it. So also, occasionally, an owner may convert his own coppice, and thus save the dealer's profit, but such a course will seldom be advisable, as it requires a life-long experi- ence to dispose of the made-up produce of coppice to the best advantage. It may be objected that £4, los. is a very large profit for the dealer, considering the small value of the gross receipts. But it must be remembered that it is not all profit, and that the dealer has consider- able risks, and would prefer not to be burdened with the trouble of converting unless he saw his way to obtaining a fair profit. In cases where the produce is more saleable, he would not look for a much greater profit — perhaps another pound or two — for he would be subjected to greater competition. Thus, when hop poles are required, it is still possible to obtain from £4. to £? an acre for 1 6-year-old coppice. So again, in the neighbourhood of turning factories, where toys, chair legs, etc., are made, from £6 to £10 an acre may be expected for well-grown coppice, 16 to i^ years old. Or, where pit props are in demand, £10 to £16 k»- acre may be obtained for coppice, 22 to 25 years old. However, all other things being equal, the distance from a consuming centre is the determining factor regulating the price. And in a general way it may be stated that if the produce has to be hauled by road, a depreciation will be witnessed amounting to 153. to £1 per acre for iS-year-old coppice, for every single mile by which the coppice area is separated from the consuming centre. In cases where there are large areas under coppice for which there is perhaps only a very poor sale, landowners could in many cases increase the demand by initiating or rendering financial support for the starting of some local industry ; such, for instance, as the manufacture from 230 AVERAGE YIELDS FROM FOREST LAND Spanish Chestnut of the so-called "cheap economic" split fencing.1 So also it is probable that the dry distillation of wood would also prove profitable.2 1 This manufacture of fencing has already been started by the Stanley Underwood Company. 2 The author hopes in another volume to give some details of investi- gations he has recently made in Sweden (1906). However, considerable capital would be required for the venture. In all probability, the best means would be to distil over once in portable retorts in the woods, and then to have a central plant (which is very expensive) where the crude product can be refined and thereafter fractionally distilled. CHAPTER XII. THE FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION. AN estimation of the exact financial position which attends the execution of any planting operations is one of the most important subjects relating to Sylviculture. It is unlikely that any extensive works of afforestation will ever be carried out, unless there be sufficient evidence to prove that a reasonable return may be anticipated on the outlay expended. Occasionally those who contemplate works of this nature seek expert advice as to the probable financial returns ; but, only too often, the advice tendered is absolutely worthless, and the estimated returns are never likely to be realised. In many cases, those tendering advice would appear to be happily ignorant of the elementary principles relating to actuarial calculations ; they often make the most random statements, which are usually accepted without a challenge ; whereas a moment's consideration should convince any thoughtful person that such hypertrophied estimates are merely the illusory product of the fond imagination of some over-zealous, self-styled expert. There can be no doubt that much of the advice given with reference to schemes of afforestation can only lead, if followed, to grave financial losses ; unless, indeed, the prices realised for home-grown timber should advance very con- siderably above those that obtain at present. Now, even if the estimate of the rate of growth of the timber, and the amount that can be removed as thinnings, and the value of the final crop, be quite correct, there are 231 232 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION several methods of presenting a statement showing the financial result of such a crop. Some of these methods are correct, but others, though plausible and often made use of, are, unfortunately, absolutely incorrect. FALLACIOUS METHODS OP PRESENTING FINANCIAL STATEMENTS. Initial Outlay Credited -with the Income -which is Receivable only after a Period of Years. — It is of no un- common occurrence for those who seek advice as to the probable profits that may be anticipated from any planting operations, to be advised of the annual revenue derived from continental forests, and to be told that a similar annual return may be expected on an outlay of only a few pounds, spent in planting and fencing. For example, an owner who contemplates planting is told that the revenue from some existing forest is £i, IDS. per acre per annum. Then he is advised that the cost of establishing a crop will be perhaps £& an acre ; that the land is now valued at £12 an acre; and that, on this proposed investment of £20 an acre, he may hope to secure the same returns. An increased rental of (say) £it with an additional capital expenditure of only £8 ! Over 12 per cent, interest! What more profitable undertaking can be embarked upon ? Another method, often employed, is to suggest that the net annual return on the initial outlay will be equivalent to the value of the final crop, divided by the number of years in the rotation, it being presumed that the various sums of money received from time to time from the sale of thinnings will be equivalent to the annual outgoings. And again, yet another method, often adopted, is to assume that the gross annual return on the initial capital invested per acre is equivalent to the value of the average annual production of timber per acre, and that, if from this sum a deduction of from 2s. to 43. be made, on account of rates and other annual outgoings, the remaining sum will be equivalent to the net annual return which the investment will yield. The following example will illustrate these two latter FALLACIOUS VALUATIONS 233 methods. It is intended to plant Scots Pine on grass land worth £10 per acre. It is estimated that the cost of establishing the crop, including cleaning for the first 3 or 4 years, and replacing dead trees, will be ,£8 an acre; and when 30 years old the thinnings will yield IDS. an acre ; at 40 years, £2, los. an acre ; at 50 years, £4 ; at 60 years, £$ ; at 70 years, £6, 53. ; and that, when 80 years old, there will be a final crop of 3450 cubic feet, over 6 inches quarter girth measure, which, at 7d. a cubic foot, will yield ;£ioo, I2s. ; also, it is assumed that, at the end of the rotation, the value of the land remains unaltered. The total number of cubic feet (down to 3 inches top diameter) which will be produced, is estimated at 5050 cubic feet, which gives an average annual production of 63 cubic feet. And the average annual outgoings, over and above any sum received as a sporting rent, are estimated at 2s. an acre.1 Now, by adopting the first of these two methods it would appear that the initial outlay of £18 would yield a net annual return of approximately £it 55. For the Value of final crop _ £100, I2s. Number of years in rotation 80 = £i, 5s. (nearly). This equals, apparently, nearly 7 per cent interest on the outlay of £iS. And by the second method, the average annual produc- tion of 63 cubic feet of timber would, at 7d. a cubic foot, be worth £i, 1 6s. pd. Hence — The gross annual return equals . . . ^i 16 9 Less, for annual outgoings . . . . 020 The net annual return equals . . . £i 14 9 Now, this £i, 145. Qd. equals, apparently, about 9§ per cent, interest on the initial outlay of £iS. Methods, such as these, though plausible, are absolutely 1 This does not include any sum representing the cost of felling the timber or making up cordwood, or of cleaning the young crop. 234 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION fallacious. They compare favourably with certain literature emanating from some financial " house " whose reputation is doubtful, and they should be as carefully avoided as are the latter's solicitations. The whole fallacy of the principle of the above valuations lies in the fact that it is assumed that money can be borrowed for 80 years without any interest ever being charged upon it, which, of course, is utterly absurd. In the above example, if all monies received or spent during the rotation be debited with 4 per cent, compound interest, the correct net annual rental that may be antici- pated is only 35. 2d. ; or if 3 per cent, interest be assumed, the net annual rental will be 6s. id. per acre. This is surely a poor return on an outlay of £iS. CORRECT METHODS OP PRESENTING FINANCIAL STATEMENTS :— Statement of Income obtained on Average Accumulated Capital which has been Sunk in Normally Stocked Areas. — In cases where it is desired to make a comparison with the returns obtained in continental forests, it must be remembered, that these returns represent the yearly income from a fully developed normally stocked area, which, of necessity, has a large capital debit account per acre ; and a net return of £i, los. per acre per annum will not usually represent a very high rate of interest. This capital debit sum will depend upon the original value of the land, the cost of planting, and the length of the rotation, etc. Thus, with reference to the previous example, where Scots Pine are grown on an 8o-year rotation, it will be necessary, in order to find the average capital sum per acre invested in a normally stocked area, to imagine that I acre is planted per annum until the 8oth year, and to calculate at compound interest, all the monies spent and received till the end of the 8oth year, and then to divide the total debt by Si.1 1 This is to allow of having I acre fallow, as, finally, when a crop is felled, the land is not planted till the year after. The cost of planting this i acre is accounted for in the average outgoings of the 8ist year. ACCUMULATED DEBT PER ACRE 235 Hence, calculating compound interest as 3 J per cent : — Debtor account to the end of the 8oth year : — i acre planted every year, for 80 years, involving an outlay of ,£18 per acre (land, ;£io ; plant- Dr. ing, £8) = ,£18x434 ..... ^7812 o o Value of i acre of land, taken at 8oth year * . 10 o o Outgoings at 2s. per acre per annum on all land planted up = 2s. x 10,114 • • • . ion 8 o £8833 8 o * This is to allow of having I acre fallow, as, finally, when a crop is felled, the land is not planted till the year after. The cost of planting this I acre is accounted for in the average outgoings of the 8 1st year. Creditor account to the end of the 8oth year : — Thinnings valued at los. received from off i acre, Cr. every year from the soth year= los. x 135-5 . £67 15 o Thinnings, £2, los. from i acre, every year from the 4oth year =^2, i os. x 87- 5 . . . 218 15 o Thinnings, £4 from i acre, every year from the 5oth year = ,£4x53-4 . . . . . 213 12 o Thinnings, £$ from i acre, every year from the 6oth year = ;£5 x 29-25 ..... 146 5 o Thinnings, £6, 55. from i acre, every year from the 7oth year = ,£6, 53. x 12 . . . . 75 o o Final crop, taken from the acre first planted, ,£lOO, I2S.* ....... 100 12 O ,£821 19 o * It is presumed that the cost of felling is defrayed by the sale of the branch wood and tops under 6 inches quarter girth. Now, the actual debt equals the difference between the debtor and creditor accounts : — ^8833 8 o Dr. 821 19 o Cr. ;£8o 1 1 9 o actual debt on the whole area. Therefore the average debt per acre in the example under consideration : — 81 = (say) £100.* * It is really somewhat more, if strict account be taken of the non-productive land occupied by rides and roads. 236 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION Now it will be quite correct, in principle, to state that the value of the average annual increment is equal to the gross annual revenue which is yielded on this average capital charge per acre of ;£ioo. E.g., the average annual production per acre is 63 cubic feet, that is (say) — 50* cub. ft, at 7d. = £i 9 2 13 cub. ft, at 3^d. = o 3 10 £i 13 o * It would not be correct to value the 63 cubic feet at yd., as a portion of this average annual increment is small "stuff" and therefore worth less per foot. « Hence, the gross return equals £it 133. and the net return is obtained by deducting the outgoings from the gross return. Now, the minimum outgoings per acre on a normally stocked area, will include the 2s. over and above any sum receivable as a sporting rent, as already described, and, also, an average sum per acre for replanting an area equal to that annually cut ; and also an average sum per acre to defray the cost of felling the final crop.1 Thus, the annual outgoings will be about as follows : — Per acre. Ordinary outgoings, as mentioned . . .^020 Proportionate charge for replanting . . . o i 6 * „ „ for felling . . . 021 Total net outgoings . . £o 5 7 Hence, the actual net return per acre equals . Less Net return per acre £i 7 $ * The cost of replanting the land just cleared, and establishing the crop, is placed at £6 an acre. 1 This is necessary, as, in arriving at the gross returns, the timber has been valued down to 3 inches diameter ; and the faggots, etc., made from any smaller "stuff" will usually only pay for the making up. ACCUMULATED DEBT PER ACRE 237 Hence, in the above example, the net return on the average accumulated capital per acre of £100 will only be £i, 75. 56. ; that is if per cent.1 ' From the foregoing, it will be evident that whenever afforestation is advocated, and the returns from fully stocked normal areas are instanced, as a proof of the profits that may be anticipated, it is always necessary to remember that these annual profits represent the annual income from a large accumulated capital per acre, and are not the im- mediate annual profits that may be looked for as arising from the initial outlay, represented by the value of the land and the cost of establishing a crop. The following table shows the average accumulated capital per acre expended in forming some normally stocked areas ; 2 all calculations being made at 3 J per cent. If Value of Land and Cost of establishing a Crop equals Average accumulated Capital per acre equals (about) Scots Pine.* /6 /35 8o-year rotation. 12 68 Soil and situation — 18 100 Quality 77. 27 156 Oak.t /6 £39 I2o-year rotation. 12 135 Soil and situation — 18 235 Quality 77. 27 400 * Vide table in Chapter XL t The area of land occupied by rides and roads has not been taken as exactly the same in all cases. 1 Assuming, as already stated, that, until the area be normally stocked, all monies received or spent are credited or debited with 3^ per cent, compound interest. 2 A normally stocked area presumes, here, that a succession of mature crops, of equal area and value, can be felled, annually, from the present date, onwards. 238 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION The above table will serve as a rough guide for estimating the average capital per acre that will accrue by the time that any area, which it is intended to plant, becomes normally stocked and capable of yielding a sustained annual yield, provided that the rotation be either 80 or 1 20 years ; and that the dates of thinnings and their value be somewhat similar to Scots Pine, if an 8o-year rotation be adopted ; or to Oak, if a i2O-year rotation be adopted. If, however, the accumulated value of thinnings and the final crop be respectively greater, the capital debt will be reduced, and vice versa. Statement of the Gain in Capital after charging Com- pound Interest. — Another method, occasionally adopted, for presenting a financial statement is to state that, after charg- ing compound interest on all monies, spent and received up to the end of the rotation, there will remain as additional profit a lump sum of £ — . For instance, a landowner is advised that on an outlay of £2$ (which includes the value of the land) he may, by plant- ing conifers on a 7O-year rotation, obtain compound interest at the rate of 2\ per cent., and, at the end of the 70 years should also have an extra profit of £105. Now, an ordinary individual will usually imagine that this extra £105 at the end of 70 years is equal to an additional profit of — = £1, i os. per annum; which, on the outlay of £2$, is equal to an additional interest of 6 per cent. Thus, without asking any further questions, he imagines that he may get 6 per cent. //?/.$• the 2j per cent, already accounted for, which equals 8£ per cent, altogether. In all probability, he will think this a good investment. And, though he may regard the suggested final yield from the crop as too optimistic, he feels confident that he may safely expect to get 5 or 6 per cent, on his outlay ; and forthwith gives instructions for the planting to be carried out. Needless to say, this line of argument on the part of one's client is absolutely fallacious. The extra £105 at the end of the 70 years, only equals about I is. 6d. per annum on the 2\ RATE OF COMPOUND INTEREST 239 per cent, tables ; or 75. 46. per annum on the 3! per cent, tables ; so that the investment is not nearly so good as it would appear at first sight. Now, although the advice tendered is quite correct, it is, as already explained, very mis- leading, and its adoption should never be countenanced by any one. Statement of the Rate of Compound Interest. — Another method, perfectly correct in principle, and advocated by many, is to state the rate of compound interest which any proposed investment in afforestation may be expected to yield, by the end of the rotation. Now, in order to find this rate of compound interest, it is necessary to add together the net value received for the final crop and the various sums of money received from time to time by the sale of thinnings, such sums being reckoned as accumulating at compound interest to the end of the rotation. From this gross credit sum must be deducted the accumulated value, at compound interest to the end of the rotation, of all the annual outgoings. Then, add the value of the original cost of the land,1 and the resulting sum will represent the increased value of the original outlay. Then, from tables,2 find the rate of com- pound interest at which the original outlay will amount at the end of the rotation to the present net credit sum. The rate of compound interest at which the value of the thinnings and the annual outgoings is reckoned will make a difference to the ultimate result. If a high rate be taken a better result will generally be shown than if a low rate be taken, unless, indeed, the thinnings be very slight, and their accumulated value is less than that of the annual outgoings. The above may be thus illustrated by reference to the data given for a crop of Larch (Soil and Situation, Quality II.) in Chapter XL, when, if the land cost £12 per acre; 1 It is presumed that the value of the land remains the same at the end of the rotation. The original cost of planting is left out, as it is capital lost for ever. 2 Vide Appendix. 240 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION planting £8 ; and the net annual outgoings be 2s., and if 4 per cent, compound interest be reckoned : — £2 value of thinnings at I2th year will amount in 58 years* to ^2x97 . . . . = ^19 8 o £6 value of thinnings at i8th year will amount in 52 years to £6 x 7-7 . . . = 46 4 o ^5 value of thinnings at 25th year will amount in 45 years to ^5 x 5-8 . . . = 29 o o £*j value of thinnings at 32nd year will amount in 38 years to £7 x 4-4 . . . = 30 16 o ^8 value of thinnings at 4oth year will amount in 30 years to ,£8 x 3-2 . . . . = 25 12 o £9 value of thinnings at 5oth year will amount in 20 years to ^9 x 2-2 . . . . = 19 16 o value of thinnings at 6oth year will amount in 10 years to £1$ x 1-5 . . . = 22 10 o Value of final crop, 3000 cub. ft., at is. . . 150 o o (say) ^343 o o Deduct outgoings, 2s. per acre per annum (over and above any sum received as a sporting rent), for 70 years = 2s. x 364 1 (say) . 36 o o o o Add original value of the land . . . 12 o o Net Credit Sum . ^319 o o * If compound interest be reckoned at 4 per cent., £i amounts to 9*7 in 58 years, f £i per annum amounts to ^364 in 70 years. Therefore is. amounts to 3643. in 70 years. Now, the original outlay was £20 per acre. Therefore, £20 has amounted to £319 in 70 years; and £1 has amounted to 15-9 in 70 years. And by reference to tables * it is seen that, at 4 per cent, compound interest, £1 amounts to 15-57 m 7° years. Therefore, it follows that the rate of compound interest that has been yielded is just over 4 per cent. In the above case, if the sums received for thinnings, and the cost of the annual outgoings, had been reckoned at 3 J per cent, compound interest instead of 4 per cent, the net credit sum would have been ^292, which would have represented about 3f per cent, compound interest, on the original outlay. With reference to the former case, where the value of thinnings, and the cost of outgoings is calculated at 4 per 1 Vide Appendix. RATE OF COMPOUND INTEREST 241 cent, the following rates of interest will be yielded, varying according to the original value of the land : — If the land be Eate of compound interest worth yielded will be £i * 5& per cent. 5 4* „ Rotation, 70 years -j *g 4 » 22 3f !', 32 3i „ * Though good land will not be sold for such a sum, yet the soil value of land from which a crop of timber has been cleared can not for forestry investigations be put at a higher value, for generally it would cost £20 to ^30 to stub up the roots and convert it into agricultural land, and unless it were replanted it would only be worth about gd. to is. per acre per annum for rough shooting, unless indeed it had some other special value. In the above case, if the rotation had been prolonged to 100 years, when, at the 75th year, thinnings to the value of £16 might have been cut, and a final yield of 3800 cubic feet (over 6 inches quarter girth) attained, and worth, at is. a cubic foot, £ 1 90, the rates of interest yielded would have been as follows : — If the land be Kate of compound interest worth yielded will be per cent. 5 Rotation, 100 years •{ 18 08 » 22 3t 32 3 If, on the other hand, the Larch were to be grown on a short rotation of (say) 38 years for pit props, the results would be much better. The thinnings would be rather heavier, so as to encourage an early girth increment, and the following might be expected, on the same quality land : — Value of thinnings at the I2th year = £1. „ „ 1 8th „ = 7- 25th „ = 7- , 3ist „ 7- Final crop at the 38th year worth standing (say) £50. These results would yield the following rates of interest : — If the land be Rate of compound interest worth yielded will be f £\ 6 per cent. 5 5 Rotation, 38 years \ 12 4i „ I '* 2! " 242 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION In comparing the foregoing tables it would appear that, if a high price (e.g., £32) be paid for the land, it would be more advantageous to have a long rotation of 100 years, than a short rotation of 38 years. Such, however, is not the case. But it serves to illustrate the inadvisability of adopting this method of showing the comparative financial results of works of afforestation ; and it also shows how misleading calculations may be, unless all points be carefully considered. The two cases are not directly comparable. The apparent advisability of the long rotation is explainable thus : — In both cases the planting, etc., cost £8, and the land is worth £32, and up to the end of the 38th year the results are practically identical — i.e., 2f per cent, compound interest has been earned on the initial outlay. However, had the land been worth nothing, the £8 spent on planting and establishing the crop — which may be termed the " live " capital — would have earned over 6 per cent, compound interest; but the large proportion of "dead" capital in the land (e.g., £32) brings the interest earned down to 2f per cent, compound interest. Now, if the rotation be continued to the looth year, the interest earned for the next 62 years on the "live" capital, which is now a far greater sum than the value of the land, and which is represented by the value of the net credit sum, less the value of the land at the end of the 38th year, is very much more than 2f per cent. — say 5 per cent, for the next 20 years, then 4 per cent, then 3 per cent, and finally at the end of the rotation, perhaps only ij per cent, or 2 per cent — so that, as the proportion of dead capital is com- paratively small from the 38th year, an increased rate of interest beyond the 2f per cent, is shown on the total capital — both live and dead capital — by the end of the looth year. Now, in order that the two cases may be made directly comparable, it is necessary that the calculations should be spread over the same number of years. By this means, the result of a succession of 38-year rotations up to the looth year may be directly compared with the result of the single loo-year rotation. Thus, a succession of 38-year rotations for 100 years, on RATE OF COMPOUND INTEREST 243 land worth £i an acre, returns 4^ per cent, compound interest, and not 6 per cent, compound interest, as was yielded on a small capital in a single 38-year -rotation ; for with a succes- sion of 38-year rotations, it is only a small amount of the capital that is re-invested at 6 per cent. ; the rest is calculated at 4 per cent, the same rate as the value of the thinnings and the cost of the outgoings is reckoned at. The above compares with 4^- per cent, compound interest yielded by a single loo-year rotation ; and just over 4! per cent, compound interest yielded by a succession of /o-year rotations. In the above cases, the net credit sums at the end of the looth year are : — Net Credit Sums, i.e., * = Original outlay. + Accrued profits. - Accrued outgoings. With a succession of 38-year rotations /I070 ,» «> 70 „ 1015 With the loo-year rotations 737 Thus, there is only a little difference between the financial advantages of the 38- or /o-year rotations where monies can be borrowed or lent at 4 per cent. ; but the disadvantage of the long rotation of 100 years is very marked. The foregoing method of presenting the financial aspect of planting operations, i.e., by stating the rate of compound interest which it is anticipated may be yielded upon the initial outlay, is, while quite correct in principle, open to several grave objections, viz. : — (1) The results obtained by long and short rotations are not directly comparable. (2) The general public do not fully comprehend all that compound interest involves ; they do not realise the enormous difference in capital value, which a differ- ence of £ per cent, makes at the end of a long term of years ; and hence they may be misled. 244 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION (3) No data are provided which are in any way comparable with the ordinary methods of estimating the value of agricultural land. (4) The rate of interest yielded varies whenever the cost of planting or the value of the land varies, and thus, in each individual case, it is necessary to refer to tables before the rate of interest can be ascertained. (5) And since, cateris paribus, the interest varies along with the original outlay, it raises the presumption that, even in the case of the same species of tree, the annual income receivable is re-invested at different rates of interest, whenever the initial outlay differs. Statement on the Yearly Rental Principle. — By far the best method of presenting a financial statement of the profits likely to be realised by an investment in afforestation, is to state the equivalent yearly rental that could be obtained if the profits or net credit sum at the end of the rotation were discounted into a yearly payment. The yearly rental thus obtained from areas under even- aged high forest represents the yearly interest yielded upon the cost price of the land, and also upon the capital invested in planting and establishing the crop. In order, however, to admit of these rentals being directly compared with existing agricultural rents, it is necessary to make a further deduction, representing the yearly interest on the extra capital spent on planting. After such deduction has been made, the remaining sum will be equal to the "land rental" which will be obtained. The advisability or not of afforestation can thus generally be seen from a comparison of these " land rentals " with the existing rents obtained under agriculture, provided always that there be no appreciation or depreciation in the price per foot of timber. There may, however, be special reasons for afforestation when direct profits are not looked for, as for example, the planting of water catchment areas. Now, in order to find the net annual rental that any even-aged high forest crop will yield, the credit sum at the end of the rotation is found in the same way as already described when finding the rate of compound interest yielded, EQUIVALENT ANNUAL RENTAL 245 except that the value of the land is not added, and the original cost of planting and establishing the crop is deducted.1 Then, this net credit sum is discounted into a yearly payment, at the same rate of interest as is reckoned on monies received for thinnings or spent as outgoings. Thus, in the case of the Larch with a 38-year rotation : — The accumulated credit from the sale of timber = ,£9100 Less, accumulated outgoings * . . . . 8100 £82 10 o Less original cost of planting ..... 800 Total net credit sum to be discounted into a yearly payment ........ £74 10 o * The outgoings are taken to be 2s. per acre per annum over and above any sum received as a sporting rent. These outgoings do not include the cost of felling the final crop, or any sum for planting or cleaning the crop in the first year or so. Now, by reference to the 4 per cent, tables,2 it will be seen, that in 38 years £1 per annum amounts to £85-97 : — Hence, ,£85-97 = the accumulated value of £i per annum " /74.c - Hence, the yearly rental representing a rent for the land, and interest on the cost of planting and establishing the crop, is equal to 173. 4d. per acre, if the 4 per cent, tables be used. And if the 3! per cent, tables be used throughout, the net credit sum to be discounted is £72, 155., which is equivalent to an annual rental of i8s. lod. per acre. And if the 3 per cent. tables be used throughout, the net credit sum is £70, i6s., which is equivalent to an annual rental of £i, os. 5d. per acre. The following tables show the maximum rentals 3 that may be obtained from large areas under even-aged high forest. 1 The reason for this difference is, that the credit sum, which is to be discounted into a yearly payment, must include only deferred profits, after paying back the original sum spent on planting. 2 Vide Appendix. 3 These rentals are all referable to the data for crops given in Chapter XL, unless otherwise stated. 246 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION ^ s T< 1 . 31 : 1- : i : pj j: c bjQ rt j : : «8 1 i : i ': & 5^ SS to *1 « 0 •<*• O ^ vo O cd vo vo O O 0 to *>. vo : 5 . °!i ^ to 3*1 $ oS xr> x« 0 as oo N vo vo B to ^ to M 4g| Iff «rt to »-. O O O O O O o ? rt O 0 1? O O vo M O t^ C\ I-H to rt 0 OT HH (U to HH |j a M to to r-« r^ ^o «rt to w o O O O ^ to O O O ° 1 O O US'* p 2 * ° S ^ ^ M ^ 00 M hH ^gvl| oj r^ oo c* HI o i-rt OO OO vo : vO vo ISIS ^ tO « M M M 000 o O O j vr» O O O OO t-. OO t^ t^ to 80 o OO N ».« . O £gj *SI ^^ 1 ^ O fell O O\ O O VO +j - 0 ^ ON vo vo ^ O p1 rf 0 M HH M g-g M O >H O O O M V J 1 s * .S c "c 2 t-H "—I (5 ^ "o. p ..s ' uo CT> w « ON "1- •-< *j- CG t^ «0 w •*•* 'oo 1—1 "^ ^s §S ^ xo w t^ 00 VO « T*- tO W i M _ 2 *Ji <*l N M O O 0 O O O O O O +. 'a-*'* J O O Q* O N oo M to 2 "*• 2 " ^ M w |l| s M fO M VO VO VO B 03 C <4-l M M l-l I-. 00 g Hi ^ M M 0 0 0 O O O O O I en 00 ff * Q oo O •<*• ro M ^ HH ON ro ro M ^ w 0 O O O ON M to O » »-t O vO t— < t— t r^- o^ ^4" r^* *^ ^o ba _G p=MJ"f g. t^. r}- OO OO 00 to vo vo ^ | ^t- to -^ IHls « M M O O O O O O O O O 3 "S tJ g s 1 vo O O oo O t^ OO t-» *O !>. O O O O *<"> C O S H M bA c i c 41 "H. 1|| - •- M ! ° / ^—x -, O O O >-> -o q,> . J3 C _C 1 to Q-OO i- covQrt-C^OOoo oo S rt X M «3 xioooO i^-m^NC'i'-iOO O £a •^ fi »^ co <*o to "^* rf* o c*3 *** M M *M "^ 6 ^"S «rtWO O OOOOOOO O •0 sninjv < s HIM iv c jl'H'S*. O O M rJ-voOOOOO^Oi-i'-' CT' ajll x OO *^ **•» ^O ^^ »— * t-O CO *O tM n 1 H HH i r?t§ CS » O^ t*1** *O vO O O "P rn S »S 5 rt.H— ..-i-O.^iJ-^. 1 w O c3 rt rt to rt ^^ rt QJ ^ O q^ QhJ ,_} U<>-J!>Oc/}c/22;P3 EQUIVALENT ANNUAL RENTALS 249 The full rentals given, representing interest on the cost price of the land and upon the capital spent on planting and establishing the crop, presume that planting, etc., cost £8 an acre (the cost price of the land' is immaterial to the calcula- tions if it be worth the same at the end of the rotation as at the beginning). The rentals given for the land only, when planting costs £$ or £3, could also be approximately arrived at by deduct- ing the yearly interest on the cost of planting from the full rentals given. If the rotation be long, the difference from the actual land rental is very small, but on a short rotation of 50 years, the land rental would be (on the 4 per cent, tables) about 8d. per acre too little if the planting cost £3, and (say) 5d. if the planting cost £5 ; and about 3d. and 2d. respectively on a 7O-year rotation. On the 3 per cent, tables these deficiencies are rather greater. If, on the other hand, the cost of planting and establish- ing the crops be greater than £8 per acre, the land rentals obtained, after deducting interest on the cost of planting, would be slightly too great. In the foregoing tables, it is presumed that only 3-year- old trees are planted. Hence, when younger trees are planted, as when planting, fencing, etc., costs only £3 per acre, there will be a slight discrepancy, and the rentals, as stated, will be slightly too high, unless the extra density of the crops so planted makes good the advantage of the i or 2 years' growth which the older plants possessed at the time of planting. The same discrepancy presents itself when applying the tables to naturally regenerated areas, but the error is slight, in as much as thickly sown naturally regenerated areas will often when 20 years old show nearly as good growth as a plantation 20 years old made by planting 3-year-old trees. The error can, however, be eradicated by adding to the cost of planting, fencing, etc., 2 or 3 years' interest on such cost, and then considering the land rentals as referable to this increased cost of planting. 250 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION Furthermore, no allowance has been made for loss of capital in land occupied by rides. The rentals, as stated in these tables, are for crops grown in close canopy, except in the case of the Larch on the 8o-year rotation, and to a less extent in the case of the Ash. Better rentals will, however, always be shown, especi- ally in the case of Oak, whenever partial clearances or very heavy thinnings can advisedly be made. It is, in most cases, a great mistake to strive after obtain- ing maximum final yields, by leaving a maximum number of trees per acre. The rule to observe, though somewhat oracular, is : " Leave a minimum number of trees per acre, after the principal height growth has been attained, as is consistent with sound principles." Short Rotations. — The advisability of always having, in close-canopied high forest, relatively short rotations instead of long rotations, provided that there be no increase in the price per foot obtained for the timber, is very important, as is shown in the case of Larch in the above tables. So too, Douglas Fir grown on a rotation of 55 years, will, if pd. a foot can be obtained for the timber over 6 inches quarter girth, give a far better result than when grown on a 75-year rotation, the timber being sold at the same price per foot. Thus, adopting the data given in Chapter XL, the fol- lowing comparisons may be made for Douglas Fir grown on ist quality soil and situation. Interest Tables. Rotation. Full Rental, Cost of Land,* and Planting, etc. Land Rentals if Planting, etc., costs £8. £5. £3. £ S. D. £ S. D. £ s. c. £ S. D. 3 per cent, -j 55 75 3 16 o 3 7 10 3 II 2 330 3 13 5 3 5 o 3 14 ii 3 6 4 3i per cent. | 55 75 3 5 ii 2 17 3 304 2 II 8 329 2 13 II 3 4 5 2 15 5 4 per cent -j 55 75 2 17 O 280 2 IO 7 2 I 7 2 13 3 2 4 I 2 15 I 2 5 10 * If planting, etc., costs £8 per acre. EQUIVALENT ANNUAL RENTAL 251 Finally, it may not be out of place to summarise the great advantages which this method of finding the yearly rentals possesses over any of the other methods which are sometimes adopted for expressing the financial results of afforestation. Advantages of the Annual Rental Principle : — (1) Data are given which are directly comparable with existing agricultural rents, if from the full rental a sum be deducted as representing interest on the cost of planting. (2) The yearly rental shown on any given interest tables is practically the same (unless the rotations are very short) whatever the cost of planting may be ; and of course it is immaterial what the value of the land may be. (3) No other method presents the case in such an easily understood manner. (4) If the rental is stated, any person can easily (without reference tables) satisfy himself as to the advisability of the undertaking in various cases where the value of the land may differ : e.g., a rental of 8s. per acre can perhaps be anticipated by planting Weymouth Pine ; then, if the cost of the land and of planting were £8, a yearly interest of 5 per cent. l would be obtained. But if the land and planting cost £i6y a yearly interest of only 2% per cent.1 would be obtained, and so on. (5) The yearly interest receivable is presumed to be re- invested at the same rate of interest as is reckoned on any monies received for thinnings, or spent to defray annual outgoings ; whereas if the final result be expressed as yielding a certain rate of compound interest, the rate at which the yearly income is deemed to be re-invested will vary with the rate of compound interest yielded. 1 Each yearly rental being re-invested at 3^ per cent, or 4 per cent., according to the discount tables upon which the net credit sum is discounted. 252 FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION UNDERPLANTING. The financial result of underplanting may also be shown by stating the yearly rentals that may be expected. The method, however, of presenting these rentals is somewhat complicated, since unless both crops be felled at the same time, they are apt to be deceptive. If both crops be felled at the same time, there is no difficulty; the rental of the undercrop merely increases (or decreases) the rental of the overcrop, for such period as the undercrop has been planted. If, however, both crops be not felled at the same time, great care is necessary, if the exact financial position of the undercrop is to be accurately conveyed. Thus, supposing that a crop of Larch 35 years old be underplanted with Silver Fir, and that the Larch be all removed in 45 years time, and that the Silver Fir be allowed to remain on for another 45 years — that is, until they be 90 years old — and that the cost of planting and fencing will be (say) £4. an acre. The same yield may be expected as is given in Chapter XL for Silver Fir grown pure, except that at the 45th year 1400 cubic feet may be expected instead of 1600 cubic feet. These 140x3 cubic feet at the 45th year should be worth about £22. Hence, on the 4 per cent, tables, — By the 9O t^coco'^-OvO vn 'liJjjj * «rtOOWCON»HMC>»WMMMMI-lfXJ +-f ++ qOO w>O rj-coi-i O^O^N coO O W ^i- ertNH-OOOOOOOOOOOO snuiji * O * r3 E 0& vO Q O^ ^"w O O °- f10 O O VO O t^O>vo"vO t^O BB 0 M _V| M M j ^ »• M X H 0 M 0 0 0 M .* -g" § I ^43" O rt J ^ Hi vr>OOO Ooo O vr»O O O O voO O |a | V~>"" 53 43 43 |j (/} ..-t c/5 tn CO CO CO *I-H cfttOCOcOCOCOcOCO V S T3 0» -• I-" ^ >-• *-" OcUcS0 O O OcUrfO O O O O O O If 43 'cL,li 43 43 43 43 'SH'c 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 bflp^cjbfl bo oo b/)(^cjb/) b/i tuo hh b/) bio bio KU ZKhMffiQ_j KKKDnffiffiffi \ j | •S 1 , -s . | 1 E f 5 Jig • • - g . fa fr ^ ' a1 jr *s "S u f'S^^^^"^ Ortrtrtrttodrt^rt^Og^ QOt-Jt-)t-J o Jn 13 8 1 § 1 p o i I I0 * 1 c 1 CO p " CO CO c 00 1-4 CO a M w s- ON 9 ^ Jt 1 >* c O ON CO 5. 5, 0 CO 00 co ^7 21 0 CO t-H 1 § 00 H ON ON CO * rl- C* 276 TIMBER MEASURING OTHER METHODS OP COMPUTING CONTENTS. As regards other methods of measuring timber for various purposes, there are besides the quarter girth method just described, the following : — (1) True Contents Method. (2) Calliper Method. (3) Die Square Method. (4) Board Measure Method. True Contents. — This is the method almost universally adopted on the Continent when measuring " round " timber. It gives the true mathematical contents. It should be noted that on the Continent the contents of standing crops are nearly always calculated over bark. To arrive at the contents, the length in feet is multiplied by the superficial area of the mean section in feet. This mean sectional area is found, when timber is felled, by finding the mean diameter, and then : — (i) by reference to tables ; or (2) by the formula : area = r^ir when r = radius and TT = 3-141591 which gives the same result as ^X7r, when d = diameter. 4 The diameter is taken in inches, and must be reduced to feet before being multiplied by the length in feet. In order to take the diameter, the use of callipers is resorted to ; or sometimes a tree compass. In as much as the section of the majority of trees is not circular, but some- what elliptical, it is advisable to take two diameters at right angles to each other, and then to take the average of the two and calculate as for a circle. By this latter method the error in the true sectional area will only average about i or i | per cent., whereas if one diameter only be taken, the error may amount to as much as 4 per cent. By the formula — - the contents of a log are found thus : 4 (Mean diameter in inches)2 x length in feet 183 — For — x 144 (to reduce to feet) = 183. 4 TRUE CONTENTS 277 Then, again, practically the same result is obtained by the following : — (Mean quarter girth in inches)2 x length in feet H3 This is known as the quarter girth measure with 1 1 3 divisor, and is often adopted (under bark) by the railway companies. In order to find the mean sectional area of standing £/2X 7T timber by the formula - — , the sectional area is taken at 4 breast high, and then the mean sectional area is found by multiplying by the form factor,1 and hence the true contents may be found. Calliper Measurement. — This is a method used in the royal dockyards and elsewhere for "round" timber. It shows rather the stowage requirements, than the contents. For the contents, as computed by this method, give a result far greater than the true mathematical contents ; as it sup- poses, as it were, that the round timber is square, and that the side of the square is equal to the diameter of the round timber. To find the contents, the mean diameter is taken with the callipers and the contents are equal to : — (Mean diameter in inches)2 x length in feet ~~I44 The following figure illustrates the method : — Thus the shaded portion is included in the measurements though it does not exist. 1 Vide Chapter XVI I. 278 TIMBER MEASURING Die Square Measurement. — By this method, the contents are computed by multiplying the length of the log by the area of the greatest square that can be obtained out of the section of the log, either at its smallest end or out of its mean section. The contents of the rounded sides are left out of account. The contents may be found by the following formula : — (Quarter girth in inches)2 x length in feet 181 The following figure illustrates the method : — The shaded portion is not included in the measurement, although it exists. Board Measure. — This is the method in common use in America. The contents are computed according to the estimated number of superficial feet of i-inch boards that can be cut from a log, allowance being made for bark, waste from sawdust, etc. For logs not more than 40 feet in length, the following rule 1 holds good : — Deduct ij inches from the mean diameter in inches at the small end of the log ; square the result and multiply by — ( = 7854)- This gives the sectional area at the small end. Then deduct ^ths and divide by 12 to bring to board measure and multiply by the length of the log in feet. 1 British Columbia log scale. PERCENTAGE COMPARISONS 279 The following examples will show the percentage com- parison between the foregoing methods. A log is 28 J l feet long by 20 inches quarter girth (at half its length) over bark. Taper equals I inch quarter girth in 7 feet length. Then the True contents (over bark) : — by the 1 13 divisor = 2OX2QX28* or, by the formula = 100 cub. ft. J2 V7T 4 8o* 80 X X 77 x ^ 7T 7T 4 144 1600 x 28£ 7T 144 45200 45200 3.14159x144 452-38896 = loo cub. ft. (nearly). .- * p , _ circumference _ 80^ 7T 7T . True contents (under bark) : — = ioo-£ = 83^ cub. ft. This shows a deduction of i6f per cent, as compared with the true contents over bark. However, usually in practice ij inches would be deducted for bark on this particular log, and thus the contents would be:— I8^xi8^ x 28£ = 854 cub. ft. By Quarter Girth Measurement (over bark) : — Contents = 2OX2° x 28* 144 72 = 78^ cub. ft. (over bark). This shows a deduction of 2i£ per cent, as compared with the true contents. 1 This particular length is taken in order to bring the contents to 100. 280 TIMBER MEASURING By Quarter Girth Measurement (under bark) : — If an allowance for bark of I inch to I foot is made, the contents over bark must be reduced by Jth. Hence, the contents under bark equals 65T5^th cubic feet, i.e.y nearly 65^ cubic feet (under bark). This shows a deduction of 34! l per cent, as compared with the true contents (over bark). By Die Square Measurement out of section at the smallest end : — Contents = l6** l6^* x 28J lol = 42^ cub. ft. * As the taper is I in 7, the quarter girth under bark at small end equals i6J. This shows a deduction of 57 \ per cent, as compared with the true contents (over bark). By Die Square Measurement out of the average section : — Contents = l8*g l8** x 28* lol = 53^t cub. ft. * \\ inches deducted for bark, as in practice. t This is mathematically rather too much, as ij inches only had been deducted, instead of if, which should be adopted in order to show the correct percentage. 1 For quickly comparing the true contents over bark as found in continental tables, the deduction may be taken as 35 per cent. ; and then the true contents, if divided by 10 and multiplied by 6^, will give the quarter girth contents under bark. This, however, will usually be too great, as continental tables usually include all branchwood, or else down to 3 inches diameter. If it be required to compare the former with quarter girth contents down to 3 inches diameter, no definite rule can be given ; so also no definite rule can be given if it be required to compare the true contents of timber down to 3 inches diameter with the quarter girth contents down to 6 inches diameter, for so much will depend upon the size of the trees. In the latter case, if the trees be large, say 40 cubic feet quarter girth each, another 10 per cent, deduction might suffice, making 45 per cent, in all ; so that the true contents down to 3 inches diameter should be divided by 10 and multiplied by 5^ to bring to the quarter girth contents, down to 6 inches quarter girth, under bark. But if the trees are smaller the total deduction would be 55 per cent, or more. PERCENTAGE COMPARISONS 281 This shows a deduction of 46} per cent, as compared with the true contents (over bark). But if if inches, the correct bark allowance of i inch to I foot is allowed : — Contents == ^g18* x 28i = 52^ cub. ft. This shows a correct deduction of 47 J per cent, as compared with the true contents (over bark). By Calliper Measurement : — By formula d* (in inches) Contents = 144 11300 7TX7TX9 11300 88-826 = 127^ cub. ft. or (say) 127 cub. ft. This shows an excess of 27 per cent, over the true contents. By Board Measurement : — Mean diameter at smallest end equals 23 inches (not quite). /. 23— ij = 2ij inches. Sectional area = 2i^X2i|x- = 363-0511 Deduct -2-ths ( = 99-0138) 363-0511-99-0138 = 264-0373 •T- by 12 = 22-033 = (say) 22. Multiply by length, 28J x 22 = 621-5 .*. Contents = 62 1| feet (super) board measure. This is (say) 6^th times more than the true cubic contents. Thus, in the previous example, where the bark allowance was I inch to I foot, and the taper was I inch quarter girth 282 TIMBER MEASURING to every 7 feet length, the following percentages hold good when compared to the true contents (over bark) : — + or - per cent. Cub. ft . True contents, over bark .... IOO 0 it „ „ under bark 83J -i6§ n Quarter girth, over bark .... 78£ -2IJ »» „ „ under bark 65£ -Mi H Die square, from section at small end 42i -57i » „ from average section 52i -47i » Calliper measure • . . . . i27i + 27* Super. 62li / Say 6i times greater. In the same way the following percentages hold good when compared to the contents by quarter girth measurement (under bark) : — + or - per cent. Cub. ft. Quarter girth, under bark IOO 0 „ „ „ over bark .... 119! + 192 ,, True contents, over bark .... I52| + 52| „ Die square, from section at small end 64f -354 >» „ from average section 80 IQ4i -20 H-94i " Supe r. ft. Board measure 948^ { Say 9^ times greater. Stack Measure. — This, as its name implies, shows the contents of stacked wood. It is used for cordwood, etc. It gives far more than the actual true contents of timber as the interstices are measured in. CORDWOOD 283 In different parts of the country, cords of wood are made up to various sizes ; common sizes being : — 8x4x4 feet = 128 cub. ft., stacked measure 8x3x4 „ =96 „ „ 12x4x4 „ = 192 „ 1 6 ft. 4 in. x 2 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. 2 in. = 88| cub. ft., stacked measure. If it be desired to know the timber contents of a cord, it may be reckoned that a cord 8x4x4, containing 128 cubic feet stacked measure, will yield : — For P°les For very small Split Cordwood. Branches. ioo cubic feet down to 60 cubic Quarter Girth or 65 cubic feet „ 39 cubic feetj Measure { (under bark). A standard is a measure for converted timber. A St Petersburg standard contains 165 cubic feet (true contents.) CHAPTER XIV. THE MARKETING, SALE, AND TRANSPORT OF WOODLAND PRODUCE COPPICE AREAS. WHEN disposing of coppice, the first steps to take are to mark out the area into portions likely to suit the buyers. These portions are variously known as " lands," " drifts," or " hags." They should all be of a given width, as, for instance, I chain wide, and should run parallel right through the compartment from ride to ride. Thus the area of any given length is easy to reckon ; for 10 square chains are equal to I acre. Along each ride the boundary of each " hag " should be marked by a numbered stake so as thus to avoid confusion amongst the purchasers. It is very advisable that the coppice be cut by the home staff of woodmen, so that they may be cut close to the ground and with a sloping surface free from jagged edges. When cutting the coppice, the woodmen should throw the coppice, growing along the edge of a " hag," inwards, towards the hag to which it belongs, so as to avoid disputes between the buyers. Any large area of coppice should be cut early in the season, in order to ensure an early removal of the produce. However, before the coppice is cut, the approaching sale should be advertised, so that intending purchasers may inspect it and form their estimates of its value. It is very important that the woodward or forester should render every assistance in showing the lots and in giving all 284 MARKETING STANDARDS 285 information possible as to the roads that may be used for removal, date of removal, etc., etc. Where the coppice is growing under standards, all the tellers and saplings, which it is desired to leave, should be marked with a ring of white paint, rather near the ground, so that, when cutting the underwood, no mistake may be made. It is advisable to leave a maximum number, and then, after the underwood is cut, any superfluous ones can be cut out. Generally speak- ing, there will always be some standards and young trees of all the age classes to be cut out. Sometimes these are sold along with the coppice and felled by the purchasers. But, this is a plan that cannot be recommended. It is far preferable for the home staff to fell them and to sell them separately, as the greatest care is necessary not to injure the standards which are left growing ; and also, as a rule, buyers of coppice do not require big timber. When the standards are thus felled by the home staff, a reasonable time should be given to the underwood buyer for clearing his " stuff" up ; but, the conditions of sale should contain a clause stating that the standards will be felled on and after (say) I5th March, or later, of course, if there be Oak trees which it is intended to bark ; but that no compensation will be paid for any damage or inconvenience occasioned to the underwood buyer by reason of his not having cleared his area. Standards, thus felled, should also be " knotted," " corded," and "faggoted" by the home staff; and "tushed" out into the rides ready for loading up. Any poles, which may have been cut, may be placed in heaps in the rides and sold by the " heap " or the " load," etc. All standards and poles should be pulled out into the rides as soon as trimmed up, as much damage would be done if this were deferred until the stools had flushed their new shoots. As regards the actual selling of coppice, it is far preferable in nearly all cases, to sell it by auction, unless, indeed, it is only a small area when the expenses of advertising and printing would render it inadvisable. Underwood buyers are not so liable to form a " ring " amongst themselves as the 286 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE dealers in big timber who fully appreciate these advantages of co-operation, although, at an auction sale, such is illegal. And, it is reasonable, therefore, to anticipate more spirited bidding and better prices through a sale by auction than by any other method, provided always that there be a good local demand for the coppice. Where there are large areas of coppice in any neighbour- hood, it is very advisable to provide a lunch or dinner (by ticket only) for all likely purchasers ; and this should be advertised in the sale catalogue. Especially can this be recommended, if other owners of underwood do not offer it. The sale 'should take place after the dinner. Occasionally, however, the dinner is given after the sale, and is offered, only, to those who have bought one or more lots at the sale. If coppice be a drug on the market, and buyers be very scarce, it will often be possible to effect a sale by deferring the final payment until after the purchaser has realised ; but it will be necessary for the owner to take this risk, and not the auctioneer. The usual practice is for a deposit of 20 to 25 per cent, to be paid at the sale ; the balance to be paid in from 3 to 6 months' time ; and a bond or surety, approved by the auctioneer, to be given meanwhile. A considerable discount of 5 per cent, to 7| per cent, should, however, be offered for a cash payment of this balance. As regards the conditions of sale, they should be short and concise. They should stipulate, inter alia, that : — (1) No person advance less than IDS. at a time on any bidding. (2) How payment is to be effected. (3) A fine of £5 for every tree, teller, or store wrongfully cut. (4) No horse suffered to go at large upon any land under a fine of £>i for each offence. (5) No dogs 1 to be brought on the land, under a penalty. 1 Occasionally it is inserted that all dogs brought on will be shot. This is wrong and illegal ; a more rational stipulation would provide for the recovery of a heavy fine from the owner of the dog. COPPICE: CONDITIONS OF SALE 287 (6) No person shall cut withies except on payment to, and as directed by, the forester. (7) All coppice to be made up by 1st April (in many cases a month or two later), otherwise a fine of 2 \ per cent, on the purchase money. And if not made up and carried away1 by I5th April, a further fine of 2\ per cent, making 5 per cent, and so on for every fortnight's delay. (8) Only duly authorised roads and drives shall be used for the removal of the produce. (9) No responsibility is taken as to the accuracy of the sale catalogue. (10) If the purchaser fail to comply with the above terms, he shall forfeit his deposit money ; and his lots shall be resold ; and he shall be liable to make good any deficiency in respect of the original purchase price, occasioned by the resale, together with the expenses attached thereto. (n) Any purchaser found poaching on the land, or possessed of nets and other poaching tackle, shall forfeit his deposit money, and also his lots and the value of any labour he may have bestowed upon them, besides being liable to ordinary legal pro- ceedings. The following are some of the chief uses to which under- wood is put : — Spanish Chestnut — 12 to 1 6 years old : — Hop poles, split gate hurdles. 17 to 20 years old : — Straining posts for hop yards. 12 to 1 8 years old : — The patent split pale and wire fencing. 6 to 9 years old : — Best grade barrel hoops. Ash — 12 to 1 6 years old: — Hop poles, crate wood, split gate hurdles, chair legs, tool handles. 1 It is convenient to be allowed to stack the produce in the rides up till the ist of June, so as to await the demand for bean and pea sticks, etc. 288 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE Oak— 14 to 1 8 years old : — Hop poles, rustic fence work, gate hurdles, and (formerly) for its bark. Hazel — 6 to 8 years old : — Inferior hoops (e.g. for cement barrels), Wattle hurdles, Thatchers, " spicks," and " ledgers." Willow— 6 to 8 years old : — For wattle hurdles. 1 6 to 25 years old : — For gunpowder (must be barked). Alder— 16 to 25 years old: — For gunpowder (must be barked). Also broom heads, cigar boxes, clogs, toys, etc. These are only a few of the special uses. Larger poles can be put to many uses. For instance, 20 to 25 years old poles are saleable near collieries for pit props, Beech poles at the chair factories, Sycamore for turning fancy articles, and so on. Other general uses, not already mentioned, include clothes props, fencing stakes and bands, walking sticks, bean sticks, and pea sticks. However, the sale of faggots and firewood will often account for the disposal of a large pro- portion, and this is the final method by which any underwood, not otherwise saleable, is disposed of. As regards the General Arrangement of Felling Areas and the amount to be cut each year : — There is not the same necessity, so far as damage by wind and insects is concerned, to avoid cutting too large an area at any single time, or consecutive areas year after year, as exists in the case of coniferous high forest. It is, however, advisable to arrange that the cutting areas for each year are intermittent ; but, usually, the whole area, to be cut in any one year, should, if convenient, be in one block, as this facilitates supervision and entails least expense in repairs to roads, gates, etc., and, as a matter of principle the fellings should proceed in a direction opposite to that of the prevailing winds. MARKETING OF THINNINGS 289 As far as possible, an equal area, under the same rotation, should be cut annually. Thus, if the rotation is 20 years, the whole area may be divided by 20, and that will give the area to be cut annually. And, instead of cutting each year's fall in one long sequence, it is preferable to divide the area up into about 4 blocks and enter each block every 4th year ; and thus each annual fall will vary from its neighbour by four years. HIGH FOREST AREAS. (i) The Marketing of Thinnings. High Forest. — The marketing of thinnings is, when remote from a good centre, usually somewhat difficult. Any trees to be cut out should be marked by the forester 1 either with a handbill or a scribe ; this marking should never be left to the discretion of the ordinary woodmen. The trees should be cut as near the ground as possible, and then trimmed up, and the small " stuff" tied up into faggots. If there be big branches, there will also be some cordwood to make up. After the poles have been trimmed up, the best plan is to pull them out into the rides, and, unless they be very large, to sort them into heaps of 20 or 25 each, and then sell them, either by auction or privately, at so much a heap. An auction sale would only be admissible if there were large quantities. The larger trees, cut towards the end of a rotation, may, usually, be conveniently sold in little lots of 4 or 5 to each ; the trees of each lot being left in the rides close to each other. The trees should be pulled out by the home staff, so as to insure the least possible damage being done to the trees left standing. 1 This marking of thinnings may advisably be done in the summer when the leaf is on and when the forester has most spare time on his hands. T 290 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE However, generally speaking, it is not easy to sell thin- nings, and in most cases they must be used for estate purposes — fencing, etc. ; though near collieries they will sell for pitwood, and near large towns a considerable quantity, especially of Larch poles, can be disposed of for rustic garden work, fences, pergolas, etc. But the whole question of the profitable dis- posal of thinnings will depend upon the distance from the market. (ii) The Marketing of Mature Timber. Whenever arranging for the felling of mature timber, it is a matter of the greatest importance that all fellings proceed, from year to year, in a direction opposite to that of the prevailing winds ; and thus the danger from windfall, in the crops left standing, is minimised. And, also, the fellings on coniferous areas should always be intermittent ; that is to say, neighbouring areas should not be felled consecutively ; and an interval of from 5 to 7 years should elapse after a felling, before an adjoining area is felled ; for this will minimise the danger to be apprehended from the Pine weevil and other insects. Then again, where there is a large area under timber, an attempt should always be made to produce an equal yearly income from the woods ; and, therefore, to effect this purpose, an equally productive area should be felled annually. The Sale of Timber. There are three ways of effecting the sale of timber : — (1) By Auction (or Roup). (2) By Tender. (3) By Private Contract. In all three cases it may be sold in any of the following ways : — (a) Standing ; for a Lump Sum. (£) Standing ; at a Price per Foot ; the contents to be ascertained after it is felled. (c) Felled (by home staff) ; for a Lump Sum. SALE OF TIMBER 291 (d) Felled (by home staff) ; at a Price per Foot; the contents to be ascertained after the contract to purchase. In cases (a) and (b) it is usual for the purchaser to fell the trees ; but this should be clearly stated in the Conditions of Sale. And, in cases (£) and (d) it should be clearly stated who is to measure the timber, and what is to be measured as timber ; and an arbitrator should be appointed in cases of dispute. Now, before discussing the advantages and disadvantages of sales by auction, tender, or private contract, it will be advisable to discuss the merits and demerits of selling timber: — (i) Standing or Felled. (ii) For a Lump Sum ; or at a Price per Foot. As regards the former, in a general way it may be stated that mature timber (especially if large) should, usually, be sold after it has been felled. There are, however, exceptions to this rule. Now, if a timber merchant buy timber standing, he cannot be quite certain, even if he knows the locality well, how the trees will " come down." And, therefore, it would be decidedly indiscreet of him if he were to offer a "top" price, and allow himself no factor for safety. So that, if the trees be all sound, the owner will probably lose considerably. And then again, if a merchant, who perhaps does not know the locality, be once deceived by the timber, he is not likely to be a keen buyer on that estate in the future ; and, through his influence, the estate may get a bad name. If, on the other hand, the trees be felled by the home staff, he can gauge the quality easily, and a maximum price may be offered. However, when once the trees be felled, the owner has to sell ; and, to some extent, he is in the hands of the timber merchant, unless indeed, he converts, or partially converts, the timber himself. It should be remembered that, if timber be left unmeasured for any length of time, after it is felled, it shrinks considerably, and an appreciable loss will thereby be incurred by the owner. But, on large 292 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE estates, where a considerable amount of timber of good quality is annually put on the market, this chance of a failure to obtain a fair price is not much to be feared ; for, it would not be a sound policy on the part of the merchants to attempt to " squeeze " the owner of the timber. Such a policy might be described as an attempt to " kill the goose that lays the golden egg." However, the owner of an estate where timber is put on the market intermittently, is not in such a favourable position ; and, it will generally be best for him to sell the timber standing ; and, if he cannot obtain his price, he can wait for another year ; for, in as much as he will not have any methodical plan of fellings, this will not matter, unless indeed he requires the money. So also, hedgerow timber may often, with advantage, be sold standing, as it will seldom form part of any methodical plan of fellings, and will not therefore interfere with any general plan of management ; but, as already stated, a maximum price must not necessarily be expected. Then again, those timber trees which must be quickly removed from the woods after being felled, may, with advantage, be sold standing. Such trees include Ash, Beech, and Sycamore, whose colour deteriorates if left lying in the woods. The sale of timber while standing may also be practised in the case of crops which are clear cut when young ; as, for instance, 4O-year-old coniferous crops fit for pit props. In such a case, there is not the same likelihood of the timber of young crops deceiving a purchaser as is the case with more mature timber. In all cases, however, when timber is sold standing, a few sample trees should always be felled by the home staff so that the timber merchants may have a criterion upon which to base their estimates. Such a method will eliminate much of the uncertainty that attends the purchase of standing timber, and will often render it advisable to sell standing when otherwise such a method would not be admissible. It is often urged that timber should be sold standing, as the buyer then fells it ; and that the men whom he employs are more used to felling SALE OF TIMBER 293 timber than the home staff; and that it will be more economically and efficiently done ; and that the stools will be cut closer to the ground. This, however, cannot, generally speaking, be considered a sound argument. On very small estates, where the sale of timber is not frequent, it may be the case ; but, on large estates most of the woodmen should be good timber fellers, and the work should always be done by piece-work. The workmen should always be instructed to cut the trees as low as possible ; and, if it is done by piece-work, it will not usually be to their advantage to leave high stools, any more than it is for those who are working for the timber merchants. If the timber merchant buys for a lump sum, it is immaterial to the owner of the estate, whether the trees are cut low down or not. If, however, a price per foot has been agreed upon, the owner will often lose through the manner in which the trees have been cut by the timber merchant. Often big stools will be left; large boughs which are worth los. to 155. each, and which, at a cost of an extra is. or 2s., should have been lopped before the tree was felled, are splintered by the fall of the tree ; and, therefore, not measured. And, then again, much small timber, of 7 inches, 8 inches, 9 inches, and even of 10 inches quarter girth, is severed at these girths (instead of being severed at 6 inches quarter girth), and, if the tops are long, the mean quarter girth will perhaps be 5 inches, and the whole is claimed as tops, under timber size, and will not therefore be paid for, whereas, all over 6 inches quarter girth should properly be paid for (or according to the arrangement.) It is, therefore, always advisable for all timber to be felled by the home staff, unless it is sold standing for a lump sum. As regards whether timber should be sold for a lump sum or at a price per foot, there can be no doubt what- ever that, in nearly all cases, it should be sold for a lump sum. In some cases, locally, prejudice exists against this 294 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE method. It is claimed that every timber merchant, who desires to make an offer, has to measure the timber, and that, as only one can have the timber or any particular lot, the time spent by the others in measuring that timber is entirely wasted. This, however, is more in the nature of an excuse to avoid a little trouble, than a valid reason against the method ; for in all trades and businesses there is always a certain amount of unremunerative labour. Measurements and a valuation must always be made by the agent or forester ; and, in many cases, the estate measurements are given, and, often, when the estate is known, relied upon by the buyers (but at their own risk). When a lump sum has been offered and accepted, there is usually no more trouble between buyer and seller, except, perhaps, as to unnecessary damage done to roads, gates, and fences. But, if a price per foot has been agreed upon, and the contents have to be measured up, differences often arise, and there is usually cause for some dissatisfaction. It is only natural. If the timber is going to be sold by auction, it is often inserted that the auctioneer shall measure, and that his measure- ments shall be taken ; but, as he will not usually have had much experience in this business when compared to that of land agents, timber merchants, and foresters, it will not usually be satisfactory to either party. Then again, if the land agent or forester measure with the timber merchant, such questions arise as : — Who shall girth the trees? Is thick or thin string to be used? Is it right to stretch the string to its utmost, provided it does not break ? Can the use of the tape be refused for measuring the length? What is the allowance for bark? What allowance is to be made for inferior timber, frost shakes, and so on? What is to be measured as timber? etc., etc. And thus unpleasantness and friction arise, which could easily be avoided, if only the timber were sold for a lump sum. CHOICE OF METHODS OF SALE 295 The Choice as between Sales by Auction, Tender, and Private Contract. There is always much difference of opinion as to the best method to adopt in order 'to obtain a price for timber. In a general way, it may be said that sales by tender are infinitely preferable to any other method. However, the merits and demerits of each of the three methods may be briefly considered, along with a short description of each. Sale by Auction. — It is a sine qud non that the auctioneer employed be well up in this particular line of business. He must know the "Trade," and the "Trade" must know him ; otherwise, success cannot be anticipated. The success of the sale depends largely upon the auctioneer. He alone is responsible for the advertising, and the prepara- tion of the catalogue. If he be a good judge of timber and if he know the demands of the trade, the lotting may be left to him, but not otherwise ; and the conditions of sale must always be submitted to the agent of the estate for approval. A sale by auction encourages spirited bidding, and thus a better price may be obtained for the timber than if there be no competition. But auction sales render facilities for buyers to form a " ring," and thus defeat the desired competition. When a ring is formed, those in the ring do not bid against each other, but, after the sale, they usually meet together and have a " knock out " sale amongst themselves ; and divide the spoils of their ill-gotten gains. If the lots be large, there is always more likelihood of a successful ring being formed, than if the lots be small. For, in the latter case, the " big men " will not deign to admit the " small fry " into their confidence, and initiate them into the advantages of co-operation. It must be distinctly understood that the formation of a ring at an auction sale is quite illegal. But its existence is very difficult to prove. It is, however, a consolation to reflect that there are many buyers who will never, under any circumstances, enter, or join a ring. 296 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE It is said that a " Dutch " auction prevents a ring being successful. To some extent this may be so ; because, if there be a single buyer outside the ring, a bid from him will secure the timber, and he cannot be " squeezed " out of that particular lot. Another disadvantage of an auction sale is that the expenses are very great ; so that, if only a small quantity of timber is for sale, it is quite out of the question, for the cost of advertising alone would be prohibitive. And then again, the timber must be sold to the highest bidder, even though his presence on the estate may be undesirable. The auctioneer is bound to accept the offer of the highest bidder, unless, indeed, the owner reserves the right to bid, and buys the timber in. But such a course is usually disastrous. Another disadvantage is the fact that there is often considerable delay in getting the timber removed ; for the auctioneer, who is responsible for the money, will not, very properly, take the least risk ; and thus, in the case of buyers whose financial position is somewhat doubtful, there is often much delay ; whereas, had the timber been sold by tender or private contract, the offer of such a buyer would not have been accepted. Sale by Tender. — By this method, the almost universal plan is to sell the timber for a lump sum, either standing or felled. The sale may be made quite public by advertising, etc. ; or tenders may be invited from (say) 6 or 10 likely purchasers. The timber is sold either as a single lot, or it is divided into several lots. Any considerable quantity should always be divided up, as explained hereafter. It is the usual practice to prepare a printed form of tender, in which are given all particulars as to the number of trees and lots, and also the conditions of sale ; and a day should be specified by which the tenders are to be delivered. In some parts of the country, a room is hired in the nearest town and the tenders are handed in by the merchants them- selves, to the agent, and opened by the latter in their presence. This method, however, is to be deprecated as it renders the formation of a ring an easier matter than it is even at CHOICE OF METHODS OF SALE 297 an auction ; for the buyers can arrange matters amongst themselves half an hour before the appointed time. The better plan is to stipulate that all the tenders be sent by post to the land agent's office ; this will make it very difficult for a ring to be formed, as the buyers may not have discovered all those who are tendering. Other advantages are, that the method is not expensive ; the agent can refrain from accepting the tender of any person who is undesirable ; and the advantages of competition which may exist at an auction are also obtained. Sale by Private Contract. — This method is often advis- able, especially for small quantities of timber. It is the least expensive of any method, but, on the other hand, there is no competition. However, a local builder or wheelwright will often give a better price for a small quantity of timber than a merchant who resides at a distance. So also, it will often be advisable to sell privately to a local timber merchant, pro- vided that he offer a fair price. But large quantities should be sold by tender, and, in many cases, the local merchant will be able to tender the highest, owing to the small cost of the haulage of the timber to his yard. Now, in all sales of timber every assistance should be given to possible purchasers in showing them the timber. If the railway station is far off, arrangements should be made with some liveryman to meet any train, on receiving notice to do so, and this fact should be advertised. Then again, when merchants come to inspect and measure timber, which is to be sold for a lump sum, a woodman should be put at their disposal to assist in girthing the trees, etc., for this may save the merchant another day's visit, or at anyrate avoid the necessity of sending a foreman down to measure. In all cases instructions should be given to any woodman thus deputed to assist, and to others who come in contact with those who come to inspect the timber, not to be too loquacious and not to repeat the names of all those who have come to inspect and measure the timber. And thus, in cases of sales by tender, it will not be so easy for the buyers to form a ring if so minded. 298 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE Conditions of Sale of Timber. The following is an abstract of suitable conditions of sale of timber, by tender. Many of them are also applicable to conditions of sale by auction or by private contract. (1) All tenders must be upon the printed form annexed hereto, and must be signed by those tendering, who must also append their addresses. (2) All tenders marked outside " tenders for timber " are to be sent by post to " A.B." (here insert address of land agent), and are to be received not later than twelve o'clock on the day of , at which time the tenders will be opened and notice sent by post to each person whose tender is accepted. (3) The vendor does not bind himself to accept the highest or any tender. (4) If more than one lot is tendered for, a separate sum must be set against each lot so tendered for. And each of such sums shall be considered as a separate tender. (5) Each purchaser shall immediately upon the acceptance of his tender (or tenders) pay to the said " A.B.," a deposit of £2$ per cent, on the amount of the purchase money, and shall, within 14 days from the date of the acceptance of the tender (or tenders), deliver, at his own expense, to the said " A.B.," bills or promissory notes, endorsed by a responsible surety, approved by the said " A.B.," for the remainder of the purchase money, payable to the said " A.B." or his order, 4 months after the date upon which his tender (or tenders) was accepted. Until such security is given and accepted, no purchaser shall enter upon the land and fell or remove any part of the said timber or trees. If default is made in giving such bills or notes as aforesaid the deposit money shall be forfeited, and the property in the timber and trees, purchased by any person thus making default, shall revert to the vendor. Any purchaser may pay cash in lieu of giving the bills or notes, for the remainder of the purchase money, and he will thereupon be allowed dis- count at the rate of 4 per cent, per annum on any amount of such latter sum as he pays for in cash. CONDITIONS OF SALE 299 (6) (If sold standing).— All the trees are to be felled in a proper and workmanlike manner ; and these, together with all lop and top, cordwood faggots (and bark), are to be removed and cleared off the estate by the day of ; and any trees, or -the lop and top, or cordwood, or faggots, or bark remaining on the estate after that date shall be forfeited to and become the property of the vendor without compensation to the purchaser. (6a) (If sold when already felled). — Only those butts, limbs, and tops, which are marked with one or more bands of paint are included in the sale, and these are to be removed and cleared off the estate by the , etc. (7) The purchasers shall use all possible caution to pre- vent damage to lands, timber, fences, gates, or growing crops, in the felling and removal of the timber. All unnecessary damage occasioned to property, or damage caused by the negligence of any purchaser or those deriving authority under him, shall be compensated for and made good by such pur- chaser to the satisfaction of the said " A.B." And in the case of Hedgerow Timber, Park Timber, and the like : — (a) (If sold standing). — All those trees growing in any field, or on any meadow land — and such trees are marked with a white cross — shall be "grub" felled, and all large surface roots shall be extracted and the soil evenly filled in. (£) All timber felled on to any grass land or on to any arable field shall be removed along with all lop and top, etc., by the 1st day of April 19 l etc., as per sect. (6). Any damage occasioned to be made good as per sect. (7) ; and any claim that a tenant may make upon the vendor for damage sustained shall be satisfied by the pur- chaser occasioning such damage. 1 A later date must be allowed if Oak trees are to be barked ; those on grass land should be left until after hay harvest, unless removed immediately. 300 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE (8) (If sold standing). — Any purchaser wrongfully cutting down any tree, teller, or sapling, shall pay to the vendor treble the value of such tree, teller, or sapling. (9) No saw pits shall be made on the estate, nor engines or steam tackle used in the extraction of the timber without the written permission of the said "A.B.," and upon such terms as he may decide if his permission be given. (10) No horses shall be allowed to wander at large on any part of the estate ; and no dogs shall be brought on to the estate by any purchaser or those authorised by him. The purchaser shall pay to the vendor a penalty of 2Os. for every offence so committed. (11) The said " A.B." shall have full power to dismiss, from off the estate, any employee of any purchaser who shall be guilty of any gross negligence, or of drunkenness, or other act of gross misbehaviour, or of poaching, or if nets or other poaching tackle be found in his possession ; and such person shall not be again employed. (12) Only such private roads as are pointed out shall be used for the removal of any timber or other produce. (13) If any purchaser shall fail or neglect to pay the purchase money, or if he shall become bankrupt before the purchase money is paid, the vendor or his agents shall be at liberty to take and secure all timber and trees and other produce arising therefrom, purchased by such purchaser, and still remaining on the estate. The vendor shall be at liberty to sell and dispose of the same, and to retain so much of the proceeds of such sale as shall pay off the purchase money, together with all expenses connected with such seizure and sale, rendering the over-plus, if any, to such purchaser or those claiming under him. But such seizure and sale shall not discharge such purchaser or his surety or sureties from their respective liability upon any bill or note then unpaid, any further or otherwise than to the extent of the net proceeds arising from such sale. (14) Any matter of dispute, as between vendor and purchaser, arising out of this sale, or referable to these conditions of sale, shall be referred to " X.Z.," Esquire, of CONDITIONS OF SALE 301 (address), who shall act as arbitrator in this matter. But no mistake whatsoever in the particulars of sale shall invalidate the sale of the several lots or any of them ; and no compensation shall be paid or allowed by the vendor in respect of any such mistake or mis-statement. The following form" of tender should be annexed : — FORM OP TENDER. .the undersigned. of. hereby offer to purchase (fell) and carry away the lots mentioned in the Schedule annexed hereto, at the sums placed opposite to such lots, in accordance with the foregoing particulars and conditions of sale, to which hereby agree in all respects, as witness signature(s) hereunder. Dated this. .day of. 19... SCHEDULE. No. of Lot s mentioned in the foregoing particulars. Price to be paid for each Lot. Number. Lot £ s. D. Lot • . ' . Lot Lot Lot Lot Lot Lot ' Lot . . . Lot Lot Total . Signed. 302 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE The Marking and Lotting of Timber. The separate marking of timber, previous to the felling thereof, will often be unnecessary, as, for instance, where a whole area is to be clear felled. But, wherever there can be any doubt as to what is to be felled, marking must take place ; either the trees to be cut must be marked, or those that are to be left must be marked. In the former case, as, for instance, hedgerow timber or trees to be cut under the selection system, or thinnings to be removed, the trees may be simply blazed with a handbill. And in the latter case, when the marked trees are to be left, they should be marked by a ring of white paint, etc., since no harm must be done to the tree. It is very important that trees should be marked on both sides, as otherwise mistakes are often made. Where trees are to be sold standing, each tree to be felled should be marked with a ring of white paint, and should be separately numbered, unless the whole of a given area is to be felled and sold in one lot, or unless the excepted trees are marked and the remaining trees on the area are comprised in one lot. The Lotting of Timber is a matter that requires very great experience. It will almost always be necessary, and the folly of selling large lots of mixed timber cannot be too strongly condemned. The different species of trees should almost invariably be sold separately ; and, in many cases, separate lots should be formed for different qualities of the same species. For merchants continually get orders for some particular class of timber; and, on the other hand, they often have much difficulty in disposing of certain classes of timber; so that if they have a full stock of all kinds except the particular class for which they have a special order, they cannot possibly give a full price for a mixed lot in order to obtain some trees of the particular species they require. Then again, the lots should never be too large. Their actual size will depend upon the amount of timber to be sold and upon the local market. LOTTING OF TIMBER 303 Small local buyers should always be catered for; and if there is a probability that 8 or 10 lots of £10 to £15 a-piece would find a ready sale, such small lots should be made up ; but most of the lots in a big sale may conveniently range in value from £100 to £200. When lotting standing timber, the trees comprising any one lot should be fairly close together; and, except as previously stated, each tree should be marked in paint with the number of the lot to which it belongs, and, in many cases, the consecutive number of each tree in a lot is also added in paint, or it may be stamped on with a numbering hammer, a blaze having first been made on the bark. For example : — Lot 3 Lot 3 Lot 4 71 72 I Sometimes neighbouring lots may be marked with different coloured paints so as to assist in identification and avoid confusion. In cases where most of the trees consist of two or three species and there are a few trees of various other species here and there, it will often be convenient to assign the few odd species to one lot, as it would not be worth while to make separate lots for each of the miscellaneous species. Occasionally, lotting may be effected by area in the same manner that coppice is lotted by area. Such a procedure would be advisable in cases where young coniferous crops are sold standing for pit wood ; or where mature pure crops are being cleared and there is much uniformity in the quality of the timber. When lotting felled timber, the first question to decide is whether the timber or poles are to be left lying as they are felled or are to be drawn out to the rides and more or less assorted. A great deal of money is often wasted in unneces- sary lotting, or rather, in attempting to arrange the lots in a neat order. Trees cut under the selection system, or thinnings made in high forest, or standards cut when growing over coppice 304 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE should almost always be pulled out on to the rides by the home staff, as great care is required not to injure the trees left growing. They can then to some extent be sorted and arranged in lots. Quite small poles may be placed in heaps ; but it would not pay to drag bigger trees into neat heaps, as it were. Where an area is clear cut, or where, if not clear cut, the trees left standing are all big trees and not easily damaged, it will be best to leave the felled trees as they fall and not to pull them out to the rides, for, although they must ultimately be pulled out before being loaded up, the cost of so pulling them out is seldom recouped by the owner by any extra price obtained from the buyer. When lotting the timber, the trees should be marked at the butt end ; the number of the lot should generally be in paint, and the number of the tree may be stamped with a numbering hammer. The number of the lot should also be painted on the trunks, or some mark put so as to readily distinguish it from any neighbouring lot ; as by the use of different coloured paints, or one or more parallel bands across the trunks, etc. It must be distinctly understood that no pole or limb or top is included in any lot unless it be marked with paint ; for the vendor, who fells the timber, retains all cordwood and faggots. Occasionally, as described in some cases of standing timber, the lotting can be done by area ; when this is so, the trees on the boundary of any lot should be thrown inwards, towards the lot to which they belong, so as to avoid confusion on the boundary line. THE FELLING OP TIMBER. It has already been stated that trees should be felled as close to the ground as possible. Small trees up to about 6 inches quarter girth are felled with the axe only ; but larger trees are felled with the axe and saw. The axe is first " laid in " all the way round, as low down as possible, and then the rest of the butt is sawn FELLING TIMBER 305 through. As the sawing proceeds metal wedges are driven in behind the saw so as to preventt he saw becoming jammed, and, finally, to tilt the tree over. Usually the tree must be felled in the direction of its natural inclination ; but, occasion- ally for special reasons, it is thrown in another direction ; in such cases it must be pulled over with ropes, previously attached to the top of the tree, and assisted by driving in wedges. Wherever there are large valuable limbs or perhaps a double leader on the side on which the tree is going to be thrown, these should be first severed before the tree is thrown. For otherwise such limbs will be splintered ; and, for the sake of an extra 2s. or 33., about 153. or ;£Ys worth of timber is often thrown away.1 These limbs are cut by a hand-saw by a man who ascends the tree. This man, sometimes called the "jack," will usually put on climbing irons to assist him to get up. When felling on steep hillsides, the trees should, if possible, be thrown uphill as less damage will be done in the fall ; and, during gales, felling should usually be suspended, as it is decidedly dangerous. When small trees are being sawn through, 2 men can easily work the saw ; but, with large trees, 3 men are neces- sary and can well do the work with a good saw. However, in some parts of the country a cord is attached to the saw at either end and it is worked by 5 men, but though this method be slightly quicker, the cost of sawing will be more expensive per cubic foot. Strong, hard working men will, when on piece-work, usually work with 3 men on the saw. Three men should be able to lay in with the axe, and saw through an oak tree 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet diameter in about 2 hours. 1 When felling is by piece-work an extra is. besides the rate per foot paid for felling, should be paid for each limb thus severed, as it involves greater labour. The woodward or forester should previously indicate each three where he requires a branch or limb to be thus separately severed. U 306 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE It is very essential, however, to have a good sharp saw made of the best steel. A good saw should have : — (1) The cutting edge slightly convex; more so for soft woods than for hard woods. (2) The teeth should be more or less triangular, and should provide ample space for removing the sawdust. (3) The teeth should be well " set " to alternate sides ; and more so for soft woods than hard woods. (4) The back of the blade should be thinner than the front, so as to minimise jamming. After the trees are felled, they are " trimmed-up " or " squared-up " or " knotted " or " rounded-up." This con- sists in cutting off with the axe all the side branches flush with the trunks and trimming up the trees. The trees should not, as a rule, be cross cut, as this should be left to the purchasers, who may require particular lengths, etc. After rounding-up, all unsaleable timber, generally under 6 inches quarter girth, is made up into cordwood and faggots — the larger ''stuff" into cordwood and the small " stuff," or " browse," into faggots. The size of a cord varies in different parts of the country. Common sizes are : — 8x4x4 (feet) 12x4x4 „ 12x4x3 „ 16 ft. 2 in. x 2 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. 2 in. When the vendor fells the timber himself, he retains or sells separately the cordwood and faggots ; but if the timber merchant fell the timber, he is entitled to the cordwood and faggots, unless otherwise agreed. As a general rule, it may be taken that the profit on the cordwood and faggots will about pay for the cost of felling. The amount of cordwood obtained from trees must vary greatly ; but, in the case of well-grown tall Oak, it will average about I cord (12x4x4) to every no to 130 cubic feet, and in the case of inferior Oak, it will average about I cord to 65 to 75 feet, or even less. FELLING TIMBER 307 Prices for Felling, etc. — These are subject to great varia- tion, but the following is perhaps a fair average : — Felling and rounding-up broad-leaved trees $s. to 75. per 100 ft. „ „ conifers . . 33. 6d. to 55. per 100 ft. Cording (8x4x4) 35. 6d. a cord. „ (16 ft. 4 in. x 2 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. 2 in.) 2s. 6d. a cord. Faggoting (including withies) . . .33. 6d. to 43. 6d. per 100. The best Season for Felling. — Generally speaking, felling should be done in late autumn and winter ; for the less sap in the wood, the better for most purposes. Winter felled timber is always stronger and more durable, and shrinks less. However, where timber is sold by weight, as, for instance, pit wood, it should be felled when the sap is in it, provided that the same price per ton can be obtained for it. Then again, timber felled in the summer is usually easier to split ; and timber that it is required to steam and bend can be more easily treated when felled with the sap in it.1 If timber has to be barked, the felling must, of course, be delayed until the bark will " run." In forests of Spruce and Scots Pine, if the Pine weevil {Hylobius abietis] be very much to be feared, it is some- times advisable to fell the trees in the summer, and bark them immediately, but small rings of bark should be left on the stems, so as to minimise the danger of splitting and cracking. Barking Trees. The barking of timber is now almost confined to Oak trees, the bark of which is used for tanning hides. The bark of most other trees contains tannin; but it is seldom that any bark except Oak is used for tanning in this country. Other trees are sometimes barked for special purposes, as, for instance, Alder and Willow, which are going to be 1 It is very probable that green wood can be more easily impregnated with preservatives than seasoned wood or winter felled wood. But in all such cases where green wood is used, it must be treated immediately after being felled. 308 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE made into gunpowder ; and, as regards Alder, some of the bark at any rate should always be chipped off, soon after it is felled, so as to hasten the drying, and preserve the timber. As soon as the bark will " run " — about the end of April and beginning of May1 — the trees are felled and barked. Before being felled, each tree is tested to see if the bark will " run," and a strip of bark, about 3 feet long, is removed from all the way round the base of the tree ; then the tree is felled and the bark ripped off. At the time of barking, only such branches are trimmed off the trees as is necessary to enable the men to remove the bark. The trimming-up or rounding-up of the timber must wait until after barking operations are over ; for no time must be lost, as the bark will only run for a few weeks.2 The bark is cross cut with a handbill (one edge of which is straight, the other curved) all the way round the stem or branch at short intervals of about 3 feet if on the butts, and perhaps 18 inches on the smaller branches; and then one longitudinal cut is made along each section. Then a barking iron or chisel is inserted along the longitudinal cuts, and the bark ripped off. If the bark will not come away, it should be gently tapped with the " flat " of an axe or a wooden mallet. But the small profit in barking renders it impossible to spend much labour on bark that will not easily run. The less tapping the better, as it injures the bark. The bark always runs better during warm, damp, muggy weather ; and better in the morning and evening than during the daytime. Occasionally, as in the Forest of Dean, the trees are barked when still standing. In this case the men ascend by means of ladders, strip the bark and throw it down. The only advantage of this method is that the trees can be felled in the following winter, and so escape being felled when the sap is in them. But the extra expense involved, and also 1 This is in the South of England. In the North it will be much later. The sessile Oak is often a little later than the pedunculate. 2 There is, however, a second and third flow of sap at later periods ; but it is very rare for trees to be barked at these dates. BARKING 309 the risk of injury to the men, is hardly warranted ; and if standards growing over coppice were thus felled, considerable harm would be done to the coppice, which would have made a year's growth by the time the trees were felled. After the bark is stripped, it is stacked up. Occasionally, a regular staging is made of small poles supported by forked stakes, but unless the land is very wet, all that is necessary is to support a single long pole, at about 2 feet from the ground, by means of two or three forked stakes and then to pile the bark against this. Medium-sized pieces are placed face inwards against either side of this pole — their ends on the ground, and their tops resting against the pole — these two sides thus form an equilateral triangle with the ground. On the apex, as it were, of this triangle, the smallest pieces of bark are placed ; and then, above this row of small pieces, the largest slabs of bark from the trunk are placed, face downwards, so as to form a capping and keep the wet out The bark is then left like this for about 3 weeks l or until it be dry, when it is sent off to the tannery. Good bark, when dry, should be a pinky colour, and should snap easily when broken, and not bend or be pliant. The small thin bark of coppice shoots and young trees is more valuable than the coarse bark of older trees. And the bark of trees growing on hot southern aspects is more valuable than the bark of trees growing on cool northern aspects. The more quickly it has seasoned, the more valuable will it be. In drying, bark will lose about one-third of its weight when green. The amount of Bark obtained from Timber. — This will vary very greatly, but, on an average, it may be taken that : — One ton of bark will be yielded from : no to 130 cub. ft. (q. g.) of large hedgerow timber, I5° » J75 n » of mature high forest trees, 380 „ 500 3, ,, of coppice shoots, down to i in. diameter, the rotation being 12 to 15 years. It must be remembered that bark is usually sold by the ton of 21 cwt. 1 Sometimes the bark will season in about 10 days. 310 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE The Price of Bark is now very low indeed, compared to that which prevailed a few years ago. It fluctuates from year to year, but usually in a downward direction. This is largely due to imported tanning substitutes from foreign countries. The most important, perhaps, are preparations from Quebracho wood from Argentina ; and from the Ouercus Aegilops from the Mediterranean. An average price for Oak bark delivered at a tannery is at present 1 about £2, 5s. to £3 a ton. The Cost of Barking. — The usual custom is to pay a certain sum to include felling and barking and stacking-up the bark, and to pay a separate sum for rounding-up the timber afterwards. Large Oak trees are usually felled and barked for about £1, 55. to £it 75. a ton of bark. And the cost of rounding-up such trees will be about is. 6d. per 100 cubic feet; but the barking of coppice poles would cost from £2, 55. to £2, 155. a ton of bark, for the bark is thin and the labour much greater. Three men should, if the bark " runs " easily, peel and stack up about \ a ton of bark from a large tree in about 3 hours. A small gang of 6 or 7 men can very conveniently work together when felling and barking. If 4 men are barking, they can just about keep pace, in the case of large timber, with the 3 men who are felling the trees. Now in fine weather, if on piece-work, very good wages can be earned ; but on the other hand, the men may often be stopped for rain. The Advantages or otherwise of Barking. — There is, usually, still a small margin of profit on barking, and even if there were no direct profit, it must be remembered that the timber will often, as it were, be felled for nothing ; and, if the timber has to be sent by rail, there will be an additional saving in the cost of transportation. But, on the other hand, winter felled oak is better than that felled in the spring ; and if a better price can be obtained for the former, it will in many cases be the better policy to fell the oak in the winter. 1 1908. BARKING 311 No general rule can be laid down, as so much depends upon the distance away at which the tannery is situated. The following instance will show an advantage in barking : — If winter felled :— 150 cub. ft. of timber at is. 6d. . . . . £11 5 o Less, cost of felling and knotting, at 6s. 6d. per 100 cub. ft ......... 099 £10 J5 3 If spring felled :— 150 cub. ft. of timber, at is. 6d. . . ^11 5 o i ton bark, at ^2, us. at tannery . . 2110 16 o Less, cost of felling and barking, at £it 6s. per ton ...... £i 6 o Delivery ...... o u 9 Knotting, 150 cub. ft. at is. 6d. per 100 ft. 023 200 l6 O This shows a gain of £i, os. gd. on 150 cubic feet of timber, which equals a gain of ifd. per foot by barking. But, as the winter felled Oak will often be worth an additional id. per foot, the gain will only be fd. per foot. EXTRACTION AND TRANSPORTATION OP TIMBER. As already stated, the timber must almost always be dragged out from where it is growing on to the rides, where it can be loaded up. There is often a great waste of horse power in doing this. Quite small logs may be pulled out without any particular device being resorted to ; but, for large poles, a dragging shoe or sledge should be put under the forward end of each tree, and thus it will easily ride over the ground. For large trees, where the ground is always more open, a pair of " tushing " wheels, sometimes known as a timber "bob" or "janker," may be used. By this means the heavy end of the log is raised up off the ground, and 312 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE thus the draught is much lessened. Occasionally the trees can be loaded up, where they are felled, on to the timber waggons, but this will not be very often. When loading a timber waggon, a couple of " skids " or " leaders " are placed at an angle from the ground to the top of the waggon, and the logs are then pulled or rolled up by means of one or more horses pulling (on the other side of the waggon), on to chains which pass over the waggon and round each end of the log. As regards the Cost of Haulage by Horses. — If the timber is near a good hard road, and if the gradients are not very steep, a fair average is to allow id. to i|d. per foot quarter girth measurement for the first mile, and then £d. a foot up to 5 miles, and beyond this distance Jd. per foot per mile (i.e., 3 miles for id.). If, however, the trees lie in an inaccessible place, or the woodland rides be very wet and gradients bad, it may easily cost 2d. to 3d. a foot to haul for the first mile on to, perhaps, a good road. For it may require double the number of horses or more to do this first length of hauling, and sometimes the trees have to be "tushed" a long way before they can be loaded up. Then again, even if there be a good hard metalled road, the cost will be greatly increased if the gradients be bad, for extra horses must be used. But if there be only a bad gradient here and there, two waggon loads may proceed together, and when the bad gradient is reached, they must stop, and put all horses on to one waggon ; haul this up ; and then come back for the other waggon. This, of course, all means delay and extra expense. An extra id. a foot spent in hauling means something like £10 to £20 per acre; and hence the advantage of having good roads and rides on woodland areas cannot be too strongly insisted upon ; for timber merchants are not slow to accurately gauge the cost of extracting timber. The Cost of Steam Traction on roads is considerably less; though, in many cases, the timber will have to be " tushed " out for a much greater distance, on account of the engine and trucks not being allowed in the woods, or not FOREST ROADS 313 being able to approach so near to the felled area as the timber waggons. It must be remembered that heavy engines and loaded trucks will often do a great deal of damage to grass rides ; and, especially, to any culverts which may cross a ride. But when once on truck the cost of steam haulage by road may be put at TVd. per mile per cubic foot (/.*., 10 miles for id.).1 If traction engines are used, they should only be allowed in the woods during the summer season. Forest Roads. — The necessity for having good roads leading from the area upon which the timber is growing has already been noticed ; and it has been stated, that in large forest areas, it will generally be necessary to convert some of the main rides into hard roads, unless such areas be inter- sected by hard roads, either public or private. The making of metalled roads is, however, very expensive ; even if stone can be quarried close by and can be had for the labour of quarrying it. At 6s. a yard run, the cost per mile would be £5 28. It will seldom be possible to make a road at a less cost, and in many cases the cost will be very much more. To what extent such an outlay is advisable, is a matter requiring much consideration, and cannot be decided with mathematical precision. However, a calculation after the following manner will assist in arriving at a correct con- clusion. Thus, supposing that there be 1 500 acres of forest ; that it be normally stocked with all age classes ; that 20 acres a year of mature timber, averaging 60,000 cubic feet, can be cut ; that the average hauling distance from the centre of the area to the nearest metalled road be I mile ; that at present there be an indifferent grass track for this distance ; and that it be estimated that a saving in haulage of Jd. per foot for this mile could be effected if the track were made into a good metal road. Then the saving in haulage per annum would be £125 if 1 A somewhat smaller charge for very long distances, — about -^d. per foot per mile. 314 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE the road were metalled. But from this it would be necessary to deduct interest on the cost of making the road : — 5 per cent, on ,£528 equals (say) . . £26 o o and the annual upkeep of road (say) . 44 o o = total debit of . £70 o o per annum. Therefore, it would appear that the making of the I mile of road for the benefit of 1 500 acres would result in a gain of .£55 per annum ; or a gain of nearly 9d. per acre per annum, on a normally stocked area. In the above case, if the whole area were more mature and were to be all cleared in the next ten years, the whole cost of the road would be far more than paid for by the saving effected on the haulage during the first year. However, a decision, as to whether the money saved in the cost of haulage would find its way into the pocket of the owner of the estate, or the timber merchant, or the timber hauler, can only be arrived at in theory. Then again, it will often be possible and advantageous to make a private road connecting up two main roads, and thus, perhaps, effecting a saving of 3 or 4 miles haulage by making a short length of new road. But in this case the saving will not be at the same rate per foot, as the comparison is different. It may be that Jd. to ^d. per foot per mile will be saved if only horse traction be considered ; but, in the case of steam traction, the saving will perhaps be only -j^d. per mile. Forest Tramway. — Instead of making a hard road, the making of a forest tramway will sometimes be preferable. There is not a great difference in the actual cost, or in the upkeep, if depreciation on the rails and rolling stock be taken into account. If there be no levelling of gradients, etc., a good horse tramway, including 4 sets of two bogies each, will cost, laid complete, about ^300 to £400 per mile. The haulage, usually, will cost about fths of that of ordinary road haulage by horses ; but in cases where there is a long decline, the haulage will be very much less. FOREST TRAMWAY 315 However, unless the tramway leads to the place where the timber is to be converted, it will generally be preferable to make a hard road and rely upon ordinary haulage, unless the length of tramway is very long — at least over i mile. For, at the end of the tramway, the timber would have to be unloaded, and then reloaded on to waggons ; so that, unless the length of tramway be sufficient to more than pay for the cost of reloading, out of the saving effected by the cheaper cost of tramway haulage over ordinary road haulage, there will not be much advantage in having the tramway instead of a metalled road. The advantages of a tramway over a road are briefly : — (1) Haulage is very cheap. (2) The tramlines can be moved, and spurs are easily made right up to the nearest ride where the timber is growing. And the disadvantages are : — (1) That unloading and reloading on to waggons is usually necessary. (2) That the tramway lines are not serviceable for other vehicles of commerce (if so desired). In laying tramways, a gradient up to i in 13 is admissible, and curves with a radius of from 70 to 80 feet ; though, if only short lengths of timber are being removed, the radius of a curve may be much less. The rails should weigh about 5 Ibs. per foot, and there should be sleepers about every 3 feet 6 inches apart. Lighter metal will suffice if the sleepers be closer together. The most serviceable sleepers (or ties) are, for portability, those made of corrugated steel ; though creosoted wooden sleepers may be used. The usual gauge is 24 inches. Near dangerous places, as where a steep gradient must terminate in a curve, a short length of " run away lines " should be provided, if possible. These should lead up hill, so as to stop the bogies or trollies, and switch points will have to be provided, so as to turn the trollies off. This, however, would involve having a man stationed at these points. 316 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE The following specification has been given for a tramway 1 300 yards long.1 1300 yards light railway material, 24 in. guage, consisting of: — (1) 520 flat-bottom steel rails, 14 Ibs. per yard, in I5~feet sections, complete, with fish-plates, bolts, and nuts. (2) 1300 single corrugated steel sleepers, 30 in. long, 3^ in. wide, by £ in. thick, complete, with their necessary bolts and nuts for laying 3 feet apart, with riveted clips for 14 Ib. flat- bottom steel rails, with clutch bolts, 4f in. by J in., and with nuts and washers. The above at 2s. gd. per yard of line . . . . ^178 15 o Two sets of points at ^3 600 Four sets each of two bogies, with double screw brakes, swivel bolsters, chains, jacks, and all necessary fittings, complete 54 16 o 1300 creosoted Scots Pine intermediate sleepers, 3 ft. by 5 in. by ii in 11 14 o Labour on laying track and tarring rails . . . 35 o o Total . . .£286 5 o This equals 45. 5d. per yard run. Timber Slides. — Occasionally in this country the use of timber slides may be advantageous in extracting timber. As, for instance, when timber is grown on a high plateau and the descent down is very awkward. A slide is made of poles of timber ; it is trough shape in section ; and its surface must be free from projections. They are, however, very expensive, and do not last many years. The use of timber slides can never be of such common occurrence in this country as in many places abroad. Nor can the drifting or rafting of timber in streams and rivers often be resorted to in this country, although it is, where practicable, the cheapest means of transporting timber, and has the additional advantage of helping to season it. So, again, the sledging of timber on frozen tracks is out of the question. Transportation by canals in barges costs about id. per foot per 1 5 miles. The cost, however, is very variable, and is largely governed by local competition. 1 "A Forest Tramway," by F. Moon : Transactions of Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society ^ January 1908. RAILWAY RATES 317 Railway Carriage of Timber. — This is a matter of great importance to all who are interested in the production and utilisation of timber. For the cheaper the freight, the less local should be the market for timber; and, consequently, better prices might be anticipated in any sale of timber. The cost of transporting timber, whether by road or rail, to a consuming centre, is one of the chief factors in determining its price. The cost of carriage by rail is, roughly, id. per foot (q. g.) per 16 miles including the cost of loading, but not of unloading. It is, however, subject to very great variations governed by competition with other lines, facilities for loading, etc., etc. Within recent years much has been heard about the difference in railway rates on home-grown and imported timber ; and the railway companies are constantly accused of attempting to penalise the trade in home-grown timber, whilst fostering the trade with foreign countries. However, the case against the railway companies is not really so bad as some over-zealous champions of the cause for the home producer would lead one to believe. For the rates per measured "ton" in round timber and converted or squared timber are not directly comparable. But, that discrepancies per actual ton weight do arise, and often very considerable discrepancies, cannot be denied. Though to what extent they can be justified, on the ground of " through rates," or of having a large constant quantity to handle, or of being more easily handled, or of a given weight requiring less stowage room,1 (as is the case when converted timber is carried instead of " round " timber) is a very difficult question to decide, impartially. In order that this question may be more fully understood, it is necessary to consider, in some detail, the methods adopted by the railway companies in arriving at the weights of timber, and to contrast some actual rates per measured " ton " with the proportional rates per actual ton of foreign and home-grown timber. 1 There may, however, not be much difference if the round timber is green and the converted timber is seasoned. 318 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE Briefly, the conditions of the railway companies are as follow : — (1) For squared timber the 144 divisor1 is used. (2) For round timber — string under bark and 113 divisor (or if measured over bark, an allowance for bark to be made). Includes loading. But on (i) Scotch railways, (2) or from Scotch railways to England or Wales, (3) or from North- Eastern Railway stations — Tape over bark, and 144 divisor, and loading2 is not included. (3) The companies reserve the right to charge separately for bark when measuring with string under bark and 113 divisor. (4) Timber, in pieces over 6 tons, is charged 25 per cent. over usual rates. (5) The weights of timber are ascertained from the measurements on the assumption that : — Acacia Ash Beech Hornbeam Oak Elm (if string under bark, and 113 divisor) And that :— Alder Birch Spanish Chestnut Elm (tape over bark, and 144 divisor) Fir Hemlock Larch Pine Spruce Maple Plane Poplar Sycamore Walnut 1 Vide Chapter XIII. 2 Tape over bark rates are not the same as string under bark rates. In nearly all cases, tape over bark rates may be agreed upon by the sender. 40 cub. ft. (as measured) equal i ton. 50 cub. ft. (as measured) equal i ton. RAILWAY RATES 319 (6) Rates for round timber do not include unloading. (7) When round timber is consigned, the number of cubic feet must be declared by the sender ; or else an extra charge will be made. (8) For pieces of timber, of less than four tons weight, which, owing to their length, require more than I truck, a minimum charge of I ton per truck is made for each truck so used, whether carrying part of the load or used as a safety waggon only. (9) Pitwood for mining purposes is charged at measure- ment weight and tape over bark with 144 divisor. (10) Except between stations on Scotch railways, the following special conditions hold good, and special rates per ton are quoted for 2 tons and upwards : — (a) Fir and Pine deals, battens, and boards (unprepared, and not exceeding 4 in. in thickness, post and rails, Fir cut square for fencing (and not exceeding 4 in. in thickness) 66 cub. ft. (as measured) equal I ton, and special rates. 40 or 50 ft. per ton (vide sect. (5)), but special rates. (b) Planks, sawn or hewn square, or waney-edged logs of Alder Ash Beech Birch ~. Chestnut Elm Fir Larch Pine Spruce Hornbeam Plane Poplar Sycamore (c) Pitwood and telegraph poles (consigned direct to a mine), ordinary measurement weight, but special rate, viz., 20 per cent, over rate for deals, battens, and boards. With reference to the above, it may be stated, by way of a summary, that (i) Battens, deals, and boards of Fir and Pine are carried 320 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE at a special rate, and 66 cubic feet (actual or true contents) are reckoned to I ton. (2) Planks or square baulks of all timbers are carried at the same special rate, and 40 or 50 cubic feet (actual or true contents) are reckoned to one ton. (3) Round Timber at ordinary rates and I Quarter girth measurement over bark, 144 divisor;' Or true contents under bark,1 113 divisor, are reckoned to I ton. Thus, it is evident that Fir or Pine (only), battens, deals, and boards are given a preference over planks or square baulks of Fir or Pine ; for 66 cubic feet (true contents) are carried to the ton instead of 50 cubic feet (true contents). This preference for the battens, deals, and boards is equivalent to an import duty on the planks or baulks ; hence, merchants are not likely to employ home labour to saw planks, etc., into scantlings, when they have the extra railway freight to pay.2 Now, before comparing any rates between square timber (whether imported or not) and round timber, it is necessary to note the difference between the two forms of measuring timber in the round ; and to compare their measurements with the true contents. With a bark allowance of I inch to I foot, a log containing 78^ cubic feet over bark with 144 divisor, will give nearly 83 J cubic feet under bark with the 113 divisor. So that the latter gives just over 6 per cent, more contents. But in the above case the true contents, measured over bark, would be 100 cubic feet. Thus, by the tape over bark method, each measured 1 The rates per measured ton are not necessarily identical for the two forms of measurement ; and loading is only included in the 113 divisor case. 2 But probably they could not saw up so cheaply as is done abroad, even if all timber, good and bad, were imported in baulks. RAILWAY RATES 321 "ton" contains rather more cubic contents than ij "tons" of square timber. So that, cczteris paribus> a rate of 145. a ton for timber in the plank would be equal to a rate of 173. lod. a ton for timber in the " round " ; l therefore, an increase of 2/f per cent, on the rate for square timber should be made for round timber. But, in order to make a perfectly impartial comparison between rates on imported planks or baulks and home-grown timber in the round, it is necessary to make some allowance for the difference in the weight per foot of the same kind of timber, owing to the home-grown timber being consigned in a green state and the imported timber being more or less seasoned. This cannot be determined with mathematical accu- racy, as every individual case differs ; but, in a general way, there is a striking difference in the weight per foot (true contents). Without entering into too much detail, the following may be taken as a rough average of the weights per foot (true contents) of the heavy timbers and of the conifers, both in the green state and when seasoned : — Weight per foot (true contents) in green state. Weight per foot when seasoned. Oak .... ' Beech . Hornbeam . 63 Ibs. 46 Ibs. Acacia. Elm .... Ash .... 55 Ibs. Conifers 47 Ibs. 31 Ibs. But, as the home-grown timber may not be absolutely green, and as the imported timber will not be absolutely 1 This presumes that the weight of wood and bark is equal (per volume), and that the timber is not barked. X 322 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE seasoned, the following average weights may be taken, in order to effect the comparison : — Weight per foot (true contents) in more or less green state. Weight per foot in more or less seasoned state. Oak . ' ' Beech .... Hornbeam . 59 Ibs. 50 Ibs. Acacia. Elm . J Ash .... 53 Ibs. J Conifers 45 Ibs. 34 Ibs. Thus, in the case of Oak or the other heavy woods, except Ash, there is an actual increase in weight, owing to carrying green timber, instead of more or less seasoned timber, of 18 per cent. And in the case of conifers, the increase amounts to 32^ per cent. So that it would seem that the railway companies are justified, when carrying home-grown timber in the " round," in adding to their rate per ton for square timber. In the case of the heavy woods,* 27-4% + 18% = (say) 45% „ conifers, 27-4% + 32-3% = „ 59% * Except Ash, when it should be 27-4 per cent, plus 6 per cent., equals (say) 33 per cent. Thus, for given rates per ton in the plank, the rates for timber in the round, tape over bark, should be as follow : — Heavy Hardwoods. Conifers. Rate in round should be If rate per ton in plank equals Rate in round should be £ S. D. £ S. D. £ S. D. I 0 4 0 14 0 I 2 3 I 9 o I 0 0 I II 9 i i 9 o 15 o I 3 10 o n 7 080 o 12 9 and so on. RAILWAY RATES 323 And then again, in fairness to the companies, it must be admitted that the timber in the round occupies a great deal more space per actual cubic foot than square timber. It is urged by some that the bark should be carried free of charge, but there seems no justification for such an assertion. Having regard to the foregoing facts, it would seem that, speaking generally, the railway companies' charges are perfectly fair, except in the preference given to foreign boards, battens, and deals, and also the preference on pitwood (consigned direct to a mine), and on telegraph poles, scaffold poles, etc. (in many cases). THE USES AND THE PRICES OP TIMBER. In dealing with the prices obtained for timber in the wholesale market, it is impossible to give more than an approximate estimate of the value ; for so much depends upon the local markets, the distance from a converting and manufacturing centre, the accessibility of the timber, the quality of the timber, and so on. Then again, it is of great importance to have a good knowledge of the various uses to which timber is put ; for this will often reveal the demand, or otherwise, of any particular timber in any particular locality. In all cases the cost of haulage and extraction must be carefully considered. With reference to the prices quoted hereafter for timber, for which the general market has no special demand, such, for instance, as Oak burrs, Walnut, Box, Lime, Cherry, it will invariably be the better plan for the vendor's agent to endeavour to place such timber in its special market, and so to obtain a better price. It involves much extra trouble, but such extra trouble will be amply repaid. Occasionally, also, it will pay to place some of the more common timbers in the hands of the converters. For instance, good Beech might be "slabbed" and sent to the chair-making districts, and so on. The following list will show some of the chief uses to which timber is put, and also the prices that may be expected, 324 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE if there be a reasonable market within a reasonable distance. In all cases the higher prices indicate the best quality timber, and usually that of large dimensions ; whereas, the lower prices are for small or inferior timber : — OAK (Pedunculate or Sessile) : — Uses. — High-class building work, window- and door-sills, coffins, panelling, church fittings, ship-building, cask staves, furniture, railway and other waggon building, spokes, parquet flooring, ladder rungs, railway " keys," posts, piles, groynes, gates, and fencing, and, in fact, wherever great strength and durability are required. Note. — The pedunculate is the stronger and harder wood of the two. "Brown" Oak. — In some cases, when Oak are felled, they are seen to be " Brown," though apparently healthy, and the timber is quite sound. Such Brown Oak have a great value, though not now so highly prized as formerly. The timber is cut into veneers, and used for ornamental furniture, picture frames, cabinets, fancy boxes, etc. Oak "burrs,"1 and Pollard Oak.— Often large " burrs," or cushion-like excrescences, from which a mass of small twigs are growing, are found on the trunks of Oak trees (and other trees), and after the same manner, large cushions are found at the top of the trunks of Pollard Oaks, where they have been periodically pollarded. These burrs or cushions are of great value. They are very ornamental, and are cut into veneers, which present an appearance some- what like " Bird's eye " Maple, owing to the partial development of a mass of latent buds. The veneers are used for ornamental furniture, etc. 1 The primary cause of these " burrs " must generally be ascribed to various errors in sylvicultural management, which result in the flushing of latent buds ; whereas the secondary cause, which prevents normal development, is most usually due to spring and autumn frosts ; though there are other causes, such as repeated damage by deer or cattle ; fungous disease of the young twigs (? Myxoderma\ etc., etc. OAK: PRICES AND USES 325 OAK — continued. Prices. — Good quality Oak (pedunculate or sessile) is worth is. 6d. to 2s. per foot for butts over 12 inches1 quarter girth; one-half that price, i.e., 9d. to is. per foot, for trees under 12 inches quarter girth, or for tops. Or, sometimes different prices are paid, according to the total number of feet in a tree, e.g. : — For trees containing 10 cub. ft. or under, 90!. to is. per foot. For trees containing over 10 cub. ft. and under 20 cub. ft., is. 3d. to is. 6d. per foot. For trees containing over 20 cub. ft. and under 30 cub. ft., is. 6d. to is. Qd. per foot. For trees containing over 30 cub. ft., is. Qd. to 2s. per foot. Brown Oak is worth from fs. to 143. a cubic foot according to quality and demand. Oak " Burrs "or " Pollards " are worth from 2s. 6d. to IDS. per foot super, for every I inch in thickness. TURKEY OAK:— Uses. — This timber is very inferior to the pedunculate or sessile Oak. It is a quick-growing tree, and has not the same strength ; nor has it such a well- marked " grain." It may be used for panelling or any interior work, where great strength is not required, furniture, etc. It might be used extensively in place of much of the imported oak from Austria and elsewhere. Price. — 5d. to 9d. per cubic foot. RED OAK (Q. rubra):— This timber is superior to that of the Turkey Oak. There is, however, no home-grown timber on the market. It would be reasonable to anticipate a price of lod. to is. 2d. per cubic foot. 1 When timber is bought or valued on this plan, the average quarter girth of the butt, or of any length from stop to stop, is taken as determining whether full price or half shall be paid. No artificial stops are made ; as, for instance, by measuring a length up to the exact spot where the tree or bole ceases to be 12 inches quarter girth. 326 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE ASH:— Uses. — Wheelwrights' work, coach building, agricultural implements, shafts, furniture, chair legs, tool handles, oars, and wherever elasticity is of importance. The timber should not be more than about 70 years old when cut. English grown Ash is superior to im- ported Ash for nearly all purposes. Prices. — Large sound butts, is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. a cubic foot. Small trees, if sound, is. to is. 6d. SPANISH CHESTNUT:— Uses. — It is an excellent substitute for Oak in many cases. It is quite as durable as Oak, but not so strong. It is used for gate posts, fencing, furniture. Good sound Chestnut free from shakes, as for instance, that grown in the South-West of England, can be substituted for Oak in most house-building work ; and for the out- side timber work of old " half-timbered " houses and cottages. The timber should usually be cut before it is more than 65 years old, though in the South-West of England slightly longer rotations are admissible. Prices. — icd. to is. 6d. for butts 12 inches quarter girth and over; 6d. to is. for tops, or trees under 12 inches quarter girth. ELM (English) : — Uses. — Coffins, tin plate boxes, seats of wooden chairs, weather boarding, wheelbarrows, cart bottoms, pulley blocks, keels of ships, boarding for stall partitions in farm buildings, naves for wheels, etc. Prices. — For sound butts 12 inches quarter girth and over, 8d. to is.; under 12 inches quarter girth and tops, 4d. to 6d. ELM (Wych) :— This wood is tougher than English Elm. Uses. — It is used for the same purposes as English Elm ; but for many purposes it is a more valuable wood. Young Wych Elm poles are often used for shafts instead of Ash, though they are heavier. ELM— BEECH— SYCAMORE— POPLARS 327 ELM (Wych)— continued. Prices. — About the same as for English Elm. But in some parts of the country 2d. or 3d. a foot extra can be obtained, especially for young Wych Elm. BEECH : — Uses. — Furniture, and especially the legs and backs of wooden chairs, piano making, backs of hair brushes, boot and shoe trees, plane boxes, and other carpenters' tools. Keels of ships (sometimes). Frames of butter churns, cider presses. It lasts well under water and is used for planking (under water). Prices. — These are very variable. Usually lod. to is. 4d. for butts 21 inches quarter girth and over; and 5d. to /d. for trees under 12 inches quarter girth and tops. But if near a chair factory or other manu- facturing centre, up to 2s. a foot may be expected for large good butts, and is. to is. 6d. for smaller trees. NORWAY MAPLE AND SYCAMORE :— Uses. — Furniture, dairy utensils, bread-platters, and, generally, for turning toys, reels, etc. Large girthed clean butts have a special value as rollers in calico mills; but they must be over 18 inches quarter girth. Prices. — lod. to is. 4d. a foot for fairly large timber, 5d. to lod. for small timber. If large enough for mill rollers, 33. to 55. a foot. POPLARS (Black and Black Italian and White):— Uses. — Packing cases, bottoms and sides of carts, brake blocks for railway and other carriages, floor boards. It is the least inflammable of any wood. It makes excellent pulp wood. Black and Black Italian Poplar have a special use for butter boxes or cases, as their timber is the least odorous of any timber. 328 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE POPLARS — continued. Prices. — If near a good market, 8d. to is. 3d. But ordinarily, 6d. to Qd. In London large butts fetch from is. 3d. to is. 6d. As a rule the Black Poplars are worth id. to 2d. a foot more than the White Poplar. The Lombardy Poplar is of little value, and is usually a drug on the market at 3d. a foot. TREE WILLOWS : — Uses. — Packing cases, bottoms and sides of carts, floor boards, charcoal for gunpowder, toy making. There is a special market for cricket bats, for which pur- pose the " close-barked " trees x are the best. Prices. — 6d. to lod. a foot. But if suitable for cricket bats, up to /s. a foot may be obtained. HORNBEAM :— Uses. — Cog-wheels and other woodwork in machinery, pulley blocks, wooden screws and nails, turnery, and various minor purposes. The wood is very hard. Prices. — lod. to is. 3d. LIME : Uses. — Piano sounding boards, cabinet work, turnery, packing cases, leather cutting boards. Prices. — pd. to is. 3d. Occasionally a big price is obtained for special butts in a special market. WALNUT :— Uses. — Furniture, carving, gun stocks. Note. — Most of the walnut used is of foreign origin ; and English-grown timber is not easily saleable at a good price. Gun stocks are imported roughly shaped, and home-grown timber cannot compete with them ; but home-grown timber should sell readily for furniture. .Walnut "Burrs," are very valuable, and are cut into veneers. This trade, however, is almost entirely confined to France. Vide Chapter XV. WALNUT— BIRCH— ALDER— ACACIA 329 WALNUT — continued. Prices. — Walnut Timber (Juglans regia\ is. 3d. to 2s. 6d. (or more) a cubic foot. The Black Walnut should be worth considerably more — (say), 2s. to 33. a cubic foot. Walnut " Burrs " are bought by weight in the "trade," at from £2$ to £40 per ton. BIRCH : — Uses. — Furniture and cabinet making. Bobbins, staves for cheap barrels, clogs, turning, pudlocks, charcoal for gunpowder. Note. — Many of the pudlocks used in London scaffolding consist of imported Birch. In America, thin layers of wood are skimmed off round the circumference of a log and used as seats for tramcars, railway station seats, garden seats, etc. Prices. — 4d. to 8d. a cubic foot. ALDER : — Uses. — Clogs, cigar boxes, broom heads, toys. The timber will last well when entirely underground or when always under water, and is occasionally used for wooden drains. It is one of the best woods for charcoal for gunpowder. Prices. — 5d. to pd. a cubic foot. HORSE CHESTNUT: — Uses. — Rollers for cotton mills (if large), pattern making (for castings), bottoms of carts, packing cases, turning. Prices. — 6d. to 8d. a cubic foot ACACIA (False Acacia) :— Uses. — Gate and fence posts — (it is very durable), — tree nails, and by cabinetmakers, for it is a very hand- some wood. On the Continent it is used for cart shafts and for spokes of wheels. It is a very elastic wood. Prices. — Probably is. to is. 6d. ; but the timber is seldom on the market. PLANE : — Uses. — Furniture, turning. Prices. — About is. a foot; but it is rarely on the market. 330 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE BOX:— Uses. — Mathematical instruments and foot-rules, turn- ing, wood-engraving blocks. Prices. — Probably 2s. to 6s. a cubic foot ; but home-grown timber is seldom on the market. It is generally bought by weight — say, £4. to £12 a ton. HOLLY :— Uses. — Much the same as for Box ; it is also stained in imitation of Ebony. Prices. — Probably 2s. to 53. a cubic foot, if over 4 inches quarter girth ; or say £4 to £10 a. ton. CHERRY :— Uses. — Furniture, cabinet making, interior decorative work in houses, wooden block flooring, turning, musical instruments. Prices. — 6d. to is. 3d. a cubic foot. LARCH :— Uses. — Sleepers, pit props, for strutting and shoring tunnel work, etc., gates, fencing, straining poles in hop gardens, bridge building, and for general estate work. The timber is very durable, but has a tendency to warp and twist, and is not very suitable for ordinary building construction. Prices. — If large and sound, lod. to is. 5d. Small trees and poles, 6d. to lod. SCOTS PINE:— Uses. — The timber, if well grown and free from side branches, can be used for all the purposes for which the " Red " Deal of commerce is used. For instance, general building purposes — joists, rafters, trusses, doors, and door frames, window frames, etc., pit timber, telegraph and telephone poles, scaffolding, etc. Note. — Unless, however, it be grown in very close canopy when young, the preference will always be given to imported timber. Prices. — 4d. to 8d. a foot for large clean timber ; 2d. to 4d. for small or badly grown trees. PINES— DOUGLAS FIR— SPRUCE 331 CORSICAN PINE is used for the same purposes, and worth the same price. But Austrian Pine is much inferior in quality and value, and is always coarse and knotty. WEYMOUTH PINE:— Uses. — This is the " Yellow Pine " of commerce, and is used for high-class joinery, shelves, door panels, cup- boards, etc., packing cases. Prices. — 6d. to 8d. a foot for clean grown trees. DOUGLAS FIR:— Uses. — This is the " Oregon " Pine of commerce. The heart wood is very strong and durable, and may be used wherever strength is necessary. In constructive building work — joists, rafters, trusses, quarter parti- tions, bridge building, sleepers, pit props, masts and spars of ships. The sap wood may be kiln dried, by which means the " figure " of the wood is brought out, and it can be used for all interior house decorative work : — e.g., panelling, skirting, window boards, match lining, stair treads and risers, newels, handrails, shelves, etc. Prices. — There is no home-grown timber on the market at present ; but it is quite reasonable to expect $d. to is. 3d. a cubic foot for closely grown timber, since home-grown timber is of excellent quality in all respects. NORWAY SPRUCE :— Uses. — This is the "White Deal" of commerce. The white Christiana flooring boards are cut from this tree. It may be used for the same purposes as the imported timber, though it will seldom be of the same quality, except that grown in Scotland Its uses embrace : — floor boards, inferior joinery, skirting, mouldings, packing cases, scaffold poles, pit props. It makes excellent pulp wood. Prices. — 4d. to /d. a cubic foot. 332 SALE AND TRANSPORT OF PRODUCE SILVER FIR :— Uses. — It can be used for the same purposes as Spruce. The imported timber is often known as "White" Pine. Prices.— 4d. to ?d. a cubic foot. THUYA GIGANTEA:— Uses. — The timber is very durable and, in its native habitat, the timber is very valuable, and is used for gate posts, " shingles," outside weather boarding, and also largely in house construction and interior work, though it is not so suitable as the Douglas Fir for this purpose. The timber could be used as a substitute for Larch in many cases. Prices. — It seems reasonable to anticipate a price of 6d. to lod. a cubic foot. PIT TIMBER FOR PROPS, ETC. : — Almost any kind of timber can be used for such purposes ; though coniferous timber is more frequently used than the timber of broad-leaved trees. Almost any tops or poles down to 2j to 3 inches diameter at the small end can be used, if they are straight. They are used in various lengths from 2 feet 2 inches and upwards. Prices. — Poles suitable for pitwood are usually sold by the ton weight, or by the load, etc. The actual price in the forest will chiefly depend upon the distance from a colliery. About £i, 2s. a ton is paid by some collieries for suitable poles delivered at the colliery ; so that, the price in the forest would be about £i, 2s. a ton, less the cost of haulage, say is. a ton per mile (for road haulage) if there were no middleman's profit to be allowed for. RAILWAY SLEEPERS :— Within recent years foreign timber has been almost exclusively used for this purpose, but formerly home-grown Larch was chiefly used, and sometimes Oak. CORDWOOD AND FAGGOTS 333 RAILWAY SLEEPERS — continued. Fairly large timber is necessary for cutting into railway sleepers, which are 9 feet long by 10 inches by 5 inches. If two sleepers are to be cut out of one length, the small end of the log must be 12 inches quarter girth under bark. But if only one sleeper is to be cut, the small end need only be 8| inches quarter girth under bark. Prices. — The timber will be bought at so much a foot, in the ordinary way. CORDWOOD is used chiefly for firewood, though some kinds are burnt for charcoal, and there are other minor uses. Prices. — This will depend upon the size of the cord and the vicinity to a good market, etc. In well-wooded districts a cord 8 by 4 by 4 feet is worth from 8s. to IDS. ; a cord 16 feet 4 inches by 2 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 2 inches is worth from 43. 6d. to 6s. 6d. ; though if near large towns another 25 per cent, or 50 per cent, may be added to these prices. These prices are equal to about 53. per ton weight, and as the heating power of wood is about half of that of good coal, the price compares very favourably with that of coal, in spite of the more or less unavoidable waste in burning more wood than is required. FAGGOTS :— Prices.— These vary largely, according to the size of the faggots and the demand, etc. Small faggots of " browse " — i.e., tops of coniferous trees — (about 5 feet long) are worth about 53. to 6s. 6d. a 100. Small faggots (about 5 feet long) of coppice or hardwood trees, 8s. to los. 6d. a 100. Large faggots of coppice or hardwood trees, 135. to 1 8s. a 100. CHAPTER XV. SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES — BROAD-LEAVED TREES. ACACIA (False Acacia). Robinia pseudo- Acacia = The Acacia (False) or Locust Tree. IT is not a native tree to this country. As to Seed. — The seed ripens in early autumn in England, but it rarely ripens in Scotland. Home-grown seed should generally be avoided. Spring sowing is to be recommended, but the seed should be kept in the pod until the season for sowing arrives, other- wise its germinative capacity rapidly deteriorates. The germinative capacity is about 55 per cent. One pound of seed contains about 22,000 seeds. The timber is very hard and durable and elastic. It is the most durable (when felled young) of any timber that can be grown in this country. It is an easy timber to work, but often causes sores to those engaged in working it ; apparently, on account of some poisonous properties inherent to it. It is largely used for making long wooden pegs or nails for use in shipbuilding. Soil and Situation. — A light, deep, dry soil is the most suitable for it. It will not thrive on wet soils or stiff clays. On poor, deep, dry soils, it grows quite well, where other broad-leaved trees, except Birch or White Alder, would absolutely fail. It requires considerable summer warmth, and is very tender as to spring and autumn frosts. Southern aspects suit it best, provided frosts are avoided. 334 ACACIA 335 Cultivation, etc. — It is a very light-demanding, thinly foliaged tree. Its roots are stoloniferous and extend over a large area, and it throws up innumerable suckers. It is a very rapid-growing tree, but generally becomes rotten at the heart when more than 40 to 60 years of age, at which period it should be felled. Occasionally it may be planted as standards over coppice ; but there is at present very little market for its timber, and its chief use should be for estate fences, gate posts, etc., for which purpose, however, it will not pay to grow it separately. It is valuable for planting as a fire belt on dry sandy Pine soils, in the same way that White Alder and Birch may be planted ; but, otherwise, it is of little sylvicultural interest, until a greater price can be obtained for its timber in the open market. It shoots very well from the stool, when coppiced. It is the only large leguminous tree that has been planted for timber in this country ; and on poor soil the nodules on its roots are instrumental in rendering the free nitrogen of the air available for the use of the tree. 336 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES ALDER. Alnus glutinosa = Common Alder. Alnus incana = The White Alder. The Common Alder is a native tree to this country. As to Seed. — The seed ripens at the end of September, and the germinative capacity is about 25 per cent. One pound of seed contains about 320,000 seeds. Trees 25 years old give good crops of seed, and good seed years occur every 2 or 3 years. The timber is soft and splits easily, and is of a reddish- brown colour. It lasts for a long time under water, but otherwise soon decays. If logs are not converted at once, they must be barked, or strips of bark must be taken off, so as to help it to dry ; otherwise, it very quickly deteriorates. Soil and Situation. — A moist soil is essential. It will grow in the wettest of soils, provided there be no stagnant water. It is very sensitive to drought. A moderately deep soil is necessary. It is fairly hardy as to late frosts. Cultivation, etc. — It is a light-demanding tree ; but will bear considerable shade when young or when coppiced, pro- vided the soil be sufficiently moist. It is an excellent tree for coppice on very wet soils. It grows very rapidly from the stool and lends itself to a long rotation as underwood, coppice poles 25 years old often being 40 feet high, and very straight and clean. The stools are long-lived. Short rotations are harmful to it. It is not a very profitable tree to grow by itself; and the market for its timber is not very good in most localities. It is most useful as coppice under Poplars, Willow, Ash, or Oak. The White Alder grows well on the same kind of soil as the Common Alder. But it will also thrive on very dry soil ; and it can bear a considerable amount of shade. It is very quick growing when young. It has stoloniferous roots, and throws out innumerable suckers. ALDER 337 It has been used successfully to bind together spoil heaps, consisting of the waste from stone quarries. Planted at considerable distances apart, the ground soon gets completely covered ; and the barren spoil heap, formerly an eyesore, presents a pleasing spectacle. It is also most useful for forming fire belts of coppice on dry barren sands, where most other hardwoods would fail. Of Insects. — A saw-fly, Crcesus septentrionalis, often does considerable damage by defoliating the trees. 338 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES ASH. Fraxinus excelsior = The Common Ash or European Ash. Praxinus Americana = The "White Ash or American Ash. Fraxinus Oregona =The Oregon Ash. Fraxinus viridis = The Green Ash. The Common Ash is a native tree to this country, and is one of the most valuable trees that can be grown. It produces seed freely and constantly from about the 3Oth year onwards ; or earlier if grown in the open. As to Seed. — The seed ripens in October, but does not germinate until the second spring. The seed should be kept, meantime, in pies of moist sand, and finally sown in drills in April of the 2nd year. An average germinative capacity of the seed is about 60 to 65 per cent. ; and I Ib. of seed contains about 6800 seeds. The timber quickly deteriorates if left in the forest ; it loses less weight in seasoning than any other hardwood timber. The timber is very valuable ; and is usually worth as much per foot, or more, than the best English Oak. It is the most elastic of any British-grown timber, and is far superior to all imported European Ash. Soil and Situation. — A deep marl (if not too stiff) or a good loam with some lime in it, is the most suitable soil for Ash ; and a constant, plentiful supply of moisture is essential ; but wet soils should generally be avoided, as spring frosts are far more common on such soils. Shallow soils, or stiff soils, or light dry soils are quite unsuited to it.1 A thick humus soil covering is of great advantage. The tree is very susceptible to late spring and early autumn frosts, and the greatest caution is necessary when planting it. Fortunately, it is usually rather late in coming into leaf. It likes moist air; and succeeds far better on northern than on southern aspects. Where late frosts are 1 However, Ash poles, up to 20 or 30 years old, can be grown on stiff clays and on other soils which are quite unsuitable for mature timber. ASH 339 feared, the young crop should be raised under a light shelter wood. Cultivation, etc. — The Ash is a very thinly foliaged tree, and pure crops of Ash are quite unable to keep the soil clean or preserve soil moisture for more than a few years. The trees are very light-demanding after they are about 20 to 30 years of age ; but, up to that period, they will bear slight shade ; so also will young coppice poles. Young self- sown Ash will bear far more shade than planted trees. The trees grow very rapidly when young ; and are not usually checked very much by being transplanted, as is the case with Oak and Beech and Spanish Chestnut. Any newly planted trees which do not grow rapidly should be cut over at the ground level, and the best shoot only allowed to grow. Ash is peculiarly suited to being cut over in this manner, and the resulting growth is generally very clean and straight, and possesses less tendency to forked growth. The cutting over may be done at the time of planting, but it is best to wait one, two, or more years.1 The forked growth is often caused by the young leading shoot being nipped by frost and the subsequent development of two opposite buds lower down.2 Ash make excellent standards over coppice. In high forest they may, advisably, be grown pure and underplanted, with seedling shade-bearing trees, before the land has got in a foul state. Again, Ash can often be easily regenerated, naturally ; and the shelter of the mother trees affords beneficial protection to the young crop from frost. This natural regeneration will not usually be possible on very moist soils, as the young crop will get choked by weeds. 1 An instance occurred where some Ash, which had been planted 14 years and were not thriving, were thus cut over, and then grew 1 1 feet in one season. 2 All the lower buds open later than the bud of the leading shoot ; hence the leader is more likely to suffer. In Germany a forked growth is often caused by the larva of the Ash bud moth attacking the bud of the leading shoot. 340 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES But on fairly moist soils, it is often very easy and very profitable. Ash naturally regenerated may be perpetually grown as a two-storied high forest, the upper storey being removed when necessary. Larch and Ash grow well as a mixture for about 30 years ; after that, one or other of the species should usually be cut out (as the Larch will surpass the Ash), and underplanting should take place. Ash and Spanish Chestnut is another very good mixture ; though the Chestnut, thus grown, will be rather coarse ; but they can advisably be coppiced. Ash is peculiarly suitable for the system of high forest with coppice. And for being partially cleared from the 35th year onwards. Usually, when Ash is grown in a mixture, in high forest, it should be planted in small pure groups or patches ; for its side branches will have little pruning effect on any other trees except Larch, with which it may be mixed by single trees. The thinnings of Ash and small poles are most valuable. Young Ash standards in coppice should, if the rotation be a long one, be freed from time to time of any growth of coppice which threatens them, otherwise they will be unduly drawn up, and will be unable to support their own weight when the coppice is cut. Rotation. — This must be short — from 65 to 75 years.1 Average Returns from pure crops in high forest should be per acre : — Thinnings . . . 1380 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Final yield (at 70 years) . 1900 „ 6 Total production . . 3780 „ 2 Average annual increment, 54 cub. ft. Equivalent net rental2 for land only ) at 3% = 17$. (from date of planting) J at 4% = 93. 3d. 1 Thus, seldom can any undercrop be felled at the same time. - After deducting interest on ^8, the cost of planting and establish- ing the crop ASH 341 Of Fungi. — The Canker Fungus (Nectria ditissiitia) causes cankerous spots on the bark, and the timber becomes blackened, and acquires a most unpleasant smell. Various species of Polyporus (or Bracket fungi) attack the stems and branches. Fomes igniarius causes white rot. Of Insects. — The Ash Bark Beetle (Hylesinus fraxini] attacks the upper branches of healthy trees, and often kills them. -This beetle, together with H. crenatus, is very common on sickly trees. The Ash Branch Bark Beetle (H. oleiperda] also occasion- ally does damage. Cockchafer grubs gnaw the roots of young trees. Of other Pests. — Rabbits are, perhaps, more fond of eating the bark of Ash than of any other tree. The American Ash, or White Ash, and the Oregon Ash have probably a great future in this country. Though, until their success be proved by time, any planting of them must be regarded somewhat in the light of an experiment. There is, however, every probability that the Oregon Ash will prove a most valuable tree in this country ; and may, possibly, rival the Common Ash. Both grow very quickly, and they are peculiar in that their seed germinates during the first year. They are usually rather later in coming into leaf than the Common Ash, and so often escape a spring frost when the common variety suffers. The White Ash will grow on rather dry, sandy soils, such soils being far too dry for the Common Ash. It is therefore worth an extensive trial on such soils. It is the quickest growing of any variety of Ash. The Green Ash is not likely to be of much value, as it does not usually grow to a large size. 342 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES BEECH. Fagus sylvatica = The Common Beech. This tree is a native tree to England, but not, apparently, to Scotland. As to Seed. — The seed ripens in the autumn. From the 6oth year onwards the Beech produces good crops of seed. But seed years are very intermittent ; a really good year occurring about once in every 5 to 1 2 years. An average germinative capacity of the seed is about 50 per cent. And i Ib. of seed contains about 2000 seeds. The timber is not very strong, nor is it durable when exposed to inimical influences ; though it will last well under water. It lends itself to being steamed, and then bent ; and it takes creosote very well. It is very liable to be worm eaten. It must be quickly removed from the forest, as it soon deteriorates if left, and loses its colour. If felled when the sap has risen, the timber invariably becomes inferior in colour, and streaked with black markings. Soil and Situation. — Beech will thrive on a very great variety of soils, but, generally speaking, a fairly deep soil is necessary. It delights in a calcareous soil, and will thrive on shallow soils resting on chalk, or on shallow clay soils resting on disintegrated limestone rock. It is not suited to very stiff clays ; but, on moderate clays, if the situation be not too wet, it will succeed admirably. Any prolonged flooding of the land is usually fatal to it. Very dry soils are not suited to it ; but, on deep light land of fair quality it usually succeeds well. It should not be planted on land that has long been covered with heather, as such land is nearly always too acid, even if well drained, for the growth of Beech, or any broad-leaved trees, except Birch or Alder. Beech are very susceptible to late spring and early autumn frosts, and the former danger is intensified, inasmuch as the trees usually break out early into leaf. Young Beech are very susceptible to hot sun ; and, for the first few years of their existence, overhead shade and BEECH 343 shelter is very beneficial to them. Northern aspects are far more suitable for their growth than southern aspects. Cultivation, etc. — The Beech is a very densely foliaged tree, and can bear a very great amount of shade. Its side branches are not easily pruned off by other trees. It is of slow growth when young ; but, ultimately, grows to a great height provided it be crowded, and provided its strong tendency to form a crown be delayed. It receives a consider- able check on being transplanted ; and it is very impatient of pruning until it has become well established. If any plants be cut over, at ground level, at the time of planting, as may be done with Ash, Norway Maple, or Sycamore, they are almost sure to be killed. Even when well established, the tree will not usually stand being coppiced for more than a few times ; and, after about the second cutting, its vigour is lessened each time it is coppiced. Beech makes an excellent hedge, and will stand trimming well ; and, when thus treated, the leaves, though dead, are retained all through the winter. Its dense foliage and thick fall of leaves enables it to protect and improve the soil in an extraordinary manner. For this reason it is a very desirable tree in most mixtures. It may be grown pure, as even-aged high forest, or under the group or selection systems. It is most valuable for mixing with other broad-leaved trees, or with Larch. It is, however, far preferable to use it in uneven-aged mixtures than in even-aged mixtures ; for, in the latter case, it will ultimately outgrow and overtop most broad-leaved trees, and, owing to its slow growth when young, it will fail to prune any other trees unless they, also, are slow growing. And then again, if planted on open land, the young trees suffer from late frosts and hot sun. However, if attempted, even- aged mixtures should nearly always be by patches, though Beech and Larch may be otherwise mixed; but unless the Beech form the greater proportion of the crop, they will be very coarse. The Beech is admirably suited for underplant- ing ; and, if the land be clean enough, I year seedlings can be dibbled in at a very small cost. However, none but 344 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES thinly foliaged trees should be underplanted, except under rare circumstances. Natural regeneration is very easy, provided the land be clean and be not at all acid or sour,1 and also that rabbits be kept down. But the " seed " felling must be delayed until a good seed year comes. Thinnings are usually necessary from about the 25th year onwards. Rotation. — 90 to 130 years for even-aged high forest. But on poor land or under the selection system a rotation of 85 to 100 years will usually give the best result. Average Returns from pure crops in close-canopied high forest should be per acre : — Thinnings . . . 1660 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Final yield (at 120 years) 4800 „ 6 „ Total production . . 7060 „ 2 „ Average annual increment, 58! cub. ft. Equivalent net rental2 for land only | at 3%= is. id. (from date of planting) j at 4% = minus 45. 8d. Of Fungi. — Phytophthora omnivera often destroys beds of seedlings in the nursery, causing the well-known "damping off." It is somewhat similar to the potatoe disease. Nectria ditissima causes a canker on the stem. Beech is also attacked by various species of Polyporus and Pomes or Bracket fungi, e.g., Fomes fomentarius^ Fomes igniarius, Polyporus sulphureus. Agaricus melleus is a very common saprophyte on the decaying stumps of old Beech trees. Of Insects. — The Pelted Beech Scale — Cryptococcus fagi — is very common, and often does great damage to trees. It is recognised as a white felt-like substance on the bark of the trees. The weevil (flrchestes fagi) attacks the leaves of trees. 1 For this reason natural regeneration is far more common and far easier to effect in cases where the soil contains much lime, than where there is little or no lime in the soil. 2 After deducting interest on £8, the cost of planting and establishing the crop. BEECH 345 The Aphis (Philaphis fagi) attacks the leaves, and causes the so-called blight. Cockchafer Grubs gnaw through the roots of seedlings and young trees ; and often do great damage. The foliage is eaten by the larvae of the Hop Dog Moth (Bombyx pudibunda). 346 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES BIRCH. Be tula alba = The Common Birch. Be tula papyracea = The Paper Birch. Betula lutea =The Yellow Birch. There are two distinct varieties of the Common Birch : — (i) The smooth bark variety = Betula alba pub escens. (ii) The rough bark variety = Betula alba verrucosa. The Common Birch is a native tree, but not the others. As to Seed. — It produces much seed when about 25 years of age ; and good seed years are very frequent. The germinative capacity of the seed is only about 20 per cent. One pound of seed contains about 800,000 seeds. The seed ripens about the end of August. The timber is moderately hard, and does not split well. It is a very handsome wood. Occasionally large " burrs " are met with which are very valuable for cutting into veneers. Soil and Situation. — Birch will grow on almost any soil, but it seems to avoid chalky soils. It springs up naturally on water-logged land and on dry barren sands. It is quite immune to late spring and early autumn frosts. Cultivation, etc. — It is a very light-demanding tree. As a timber producer it is of little value in this country ; but it is the best " nurse " which exists. Where it is desired to plant a frost tender species in a locality subject to late spring and early autumn frosts, the growth of Birch affords a ready means of effecting this purpose. Two year seedling Birch may be dibbled in, and the tender species planted in about 10 years' time. Such tender species must be able to withstand some shade ; but the canopy of Birch is very light and thin. After the same manner, a few Birch growing over young crops of Silver Fir or Beech, will afford welcome protection, not only from frosts but also from hot summer sun. Birch may also be planted as fire lines on very dry sands, BIRCH 347 but it is not so efficient as White Alder, as it is not so dense, nor will it submit to much coppicing ; for most of its reserve nutriments go to form seed. The Paper Birch may possibly prove superior to the Common Birch in many cases. It grows quicker and taller, and endures more shade than the Common Birch ; but it appears to be much more exacting. The Yellow Birch grows up to 100 feet in its native country, and is much used for furniture. 348 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES CHERRY. Prunus avium = The Common -wild Cherry or Gean or Mazzard. Prunus padus = The Bird or Black Cherry. As to Seed. — The seed or "stone" should be sown as soon as it is ripe, about the beginning of July ; otherwise, its germinative power is quickly lost. The timber is hard and not very heavy ; and the heart- wood is of a beautiful brownish-pink or brownish-yellow colour, and takes a very fine polish. It is valuable to furniture- and cabinet-makers, and is used for parquet flooring, and for ornamental wooden block floors. It is also sometimes used for the heads of wooden golf clubs. Soil and Situation. — The trees grow on almost any soils, though a fairly deep soil is necessary for their proper develop- ment. They will grow on thin soils if the subsoil rock be disintegrated. They delight in calcareous soils and prefer a fairly dry soil. Stiff wet soils are not suited to them. Cultivation, etc. — The trees are quick growing, thinly foliaged, and light-demanding; though the Prunus padus will bear very slight shade. Both species will coppice well. The Prunus avium (or Gean) makes the taller and better tree, and its timber is rather darker than the Bird Cherry. The Gean is only suitable for a short rotation of 60 to 70 years, as it is apt to become rotten at the heart, though apparently sound when standing. It will probably pay to plant on many rather poor soils ; and it might be grown as standards over coppice. The present market for its timber is small and unremunerative ; but if the timber became better known, it should find a ready market. For there is an increasing tendency for furniture- and cabinet-makers to work up some of the less common kinds of timber ; and, with a little patience and trouble, a good market might be created. ELM 349 ELM. Ulmus campestris = The Common or English Elm. Ulmus montana =The Wych or Scots Elm. Ulmus Americana = The American Elm or The White Elm. The Scots Elm is native to this country, but the other two varieties have been introduced. As to Seed. — The seed of the English Elm never ripens in this country ; but the Scots Elm seeds freely and frequently. The seed is ripe in about the first week in June, and should be sown immediately. The germinative capacity of the seed is about 25 per cent, and i Ib. of seed contains about 60,000 seeds. Good seed years are very frequent. The English Elm is propagated by root-suckers. The timber is not very strong as regards resistance to weight, tension, and shearing. But it is very difficult to split ; and it is very durable. The timber of the Scots Elm is stronger and more elastic than the Common Elm ; and, when young, is often used in the place of Ash. In many parts of the country, it is worth about 3d. a foot more than the Common Elm, provided it be cut when quite young. The heartwood of the English Elm is reddish-brown in colour, but that of the Scots Elm is not conspicuous in this manner. Soil and Situation. — Elm require a considerable amount of moisture. They will grow in a great variety of soils ; but, dry sandy soils, or thin chalky soils, or very stiff clays, are quite unsuited to them. Clays that suit the Sessile Oak will also generally grow good Elm ; and Elm will grow on soils which are far too stiff for Ash. Generally speaking, Elm require a deep soil, but they will thrive very well on quite thin clay soils, provided that the subsoil rock be disintegrated. Stoney subsoils seem to suit them, as is the case with Larch. The Elm are fairly hardy as regards late and early frosts ; and they are one of the few trees which seem to grow equally 350 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES well on southern aspects. The Wych Elm does not require so much warmth as the English Elm, and will grow well in the North of England and Scotland, whereas the English Elm thrives best in the South of England. Cultivation, etc. — Both trees are very light-demanding. The Scots Elm, unless grown in close canopy, tends to form a large crown in early life, whereas the English Elm is a straighter growing tree. Both trees ultimately develop very large boughs, which often break off and split down the trunk. The Wych Elm is more storm-proof and deeper rooted than the English Elm ; and it grows faster than the latter. The English Elm is one of the least storm-proof trees there are. Both trees coppice very well and grow vigorous stool shoots even if the trees are 40 or 50 years old. Both trees also produce an abundance of suckers. They may be grown in even-aged high forest, or as hedgerow timber. The English Elm may, possibly, be grown as standards over coppice. It makes the better hedgerow tree of the two, as it forms a taller and straighter bole, though its roots are very spreading. It will, however, seldom be advisable to plant Elm in the South of England, for there is an abundance of it in the hedgerows ; and the supply is quite equal to the demand ; and, furthermore, after severe gales enormous quantities are often, of necessity, thrown upon the market with a corres- ponding diminution in price. In the North of England and Scotland, the Wych Elm will often prove more profitable than most trees, when grown upon suitable soil. On a long rotation of 25 years, Wych Elm forms very valuable coppice ; and the stools last a long time. Of Fungi. — Various species of Polyporus and Pomes attack the tree through wounded surfaces. Of Insects. — The Elm Bark Beetle — Scolytus destructor — is often very destructive. It, generally, first attacks the ends of branches and tops, and works down the tree, separat- ing the bark from the wood. ELM 351 The American Elm. — May prove very valuable in this country; but it is too early at present to form an opinion. When young it is very quick growing, transplants well, and seems decidedly hardy as to late frosts. Also, it appears to bear rather more shade than the English or Scots Elms. 352 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES HAWTHORN. Cratsegus oxyacantha = The Common Hawthorn or " Quick." This is of interest as being the most common species to plant for hedgerows ; and it forms the best fence against stock that can be grown. As to Seed. — The seed or " haws " are ripe in November. They should be immediately mixed with dry sand, and stored for about 16 months in a heap or pie out in the open. By this means the outside pulp is rotted off, and the seed is then fit for sowing, which should take place in the beginning of March. Soil and Situation. — It will grow almost anywhere ; except on very wet soils or on very dry soils, where its growth is unsatisfactory. It delights in deep marly soils. It is extremely hardy as to spring and autumn frosts. HAZEL 353 HAZEL. Corylus avellana = The Hazel This is more a shrub than a tree, and is found largely in coppice. It is native to this country. As to Seed. — One pound of seed contains about 420 nuts. Soil and Situation. — It will grow on almost any soil, but not on swampy ground. It is little injured by spring and autumn frosts. Cultivation, etc. — It is invariably treated as coppice ; the stool shoots are vigorous and the stools last a long time. It will bear considerable shade. Hazel coppice has now very little value, and should seldom, if ever, be planted. Where it predominates, it should be grown on a short rotation of 6 or 7 years, when the produce is more easily sold than if left until older. 354 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES HORNBEAM. Carpinus Betulus = Common Hornbeam. It is native to England, and possibly to parts of Scotland. As to Seed. — It produces seed freely when about 40 years of age ; and seed years are very frequent. The germinative capacity of the seed is about 65 to 70 per cent, and i Ib. of seed contains about 14,000 seeds. The seed does not germinate until the second spring, and must be kept in sand, as is done in the case of Ash seed. The timber is very hard, heavy, and tough, but not very durable when exposed to inimical influences. It is very liable to be cross-grained. Soil and Situation. — Hornbeam is found naturally on rather stiff clay lands, but it will grow on almost all soils, provided they be deep. It is distinctly hardy as regards spring and autumn frosts, and will, therefore, often succeed where Beech must fail. It will grow on much heavier clay soils than Beech could possibly succeed upon. Cultivation, etc. — Hornbeam is densely foliaged, and will bear a great amount of shade, but not so much as Beech. Like the Beech, it is a great soil improver. It grows quicker than Beech when young, but later on it is surpassed by Beech. It never grows into very tall trees, like Beech ; but has a strong tendency to form a branched crown. The Hornbeam may be grown and cultivated in a similar manner to the Beech; but its smaller out-turn usually renders the latter preferable wherever it can be grown. However, in cases where underplanting has been decided upon, and only a short rotation is desired for the undercrop, it will often be preferable to underplant with Hornbeam instead of Beech ; as the former more quickly grow into saleable timber. Hornbeam makes excellent coppice, and the stools last for centuries. It is quite probable that, in view of the low price of coppice produce, the Hornbeam will prove one of HORNBEAM 355 the best trees to grow for coppice; for it will bear great shade, and there will not be the same expense in keeping the ground fully stocked. Hornbeam is admirably suited for the coppice in the system of high forest with coppice. The Hornbeam may be cut over at ground level the year it is planted ; but it is best to wait for another year. The tree is not much checked by being transplanted, and grows rapidly when young. Of Fungi. — Nectria ditissima causes a canker on the stems. Of Insects. — Cockchafer grubs do much damage to seedlings and young plants. The larvae of the Winter Moth (Geometra brumata) some- times devour the foliage. 356 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES HORSE CHESTNUT. hippocastanum = The Common Horse Chestnut. It is not a native tree ; and is said to have been introduced about 1629. The Timber is soft and not durable, and is of small market value. Soil and Situation. — A fairly deep soil is necessary, but the tree is not very particular, though it will not thrive on very stiff wet clays. It appears to like calcareous soils. It is fairly frost hardy, even though it breaks out very early into leaf. Cultivation, etc. — The tree is quick growing, but of little sylvicultural value, and the market for its timber is bad. It is able to bear a fair amount of shade. When sown in the nursery, the nuts should be placed with the scar downwards; a very vigorous growth is made the first year; seedlings I year old being often over 12 inches high. Of Fungi. — Nectria cinnabarina often does great damage to the crowns of the trees. LIME TREES 357 LIMB OR LINDEN TREES. Tilia Europea = Tlie Common Lime, or Linden, Tree. There are several varieties of the European Lime, but none of them are native to this country ; though the tree is said to have been introduced by the Romans. Of these varieties may be mentioned : — Tilia grandifolia = The large or broad-leaved Lime. Tilia parvifolia — The small-leaved Lime. Tilia rubra. Tilia intermedia. As to Seed. — The seed ripens in this country in October ; and the best trees can only be grown from seed ; though, usually, the trees are propagated by layers. One pound of seed of the broad-leaved variety contains about 5000 seeds ; and I Ib. of the small-leaved variety about 15,000 seeds. The germinative capacity of both varieties is about 55 per cent. The seed should usually be sown as soon as ripe, and the beds protected from frosts as the seed germinates. If sown in the spring, the seed should be stored in rather damp sand (but not wet sand) ; for, if stored in the dry, much of the seed will not germinate until the second spring. The timber is white, soft, and close-grained, and is lighter in weight than that of any other common broad-leaved species. Like all white-wooded trees, it should be quickly removed from the forest after being felled. Bast is obtained from the bark. Soil and Situation. — The Lime will grow upon almost any soil provided that it be fairly deep and not too dry ; and, on the other hand, not too wet. It is often found growing upon thin dry soils overlying disintegrated limestone rock. It usually requires a fairly sheltered situation. The trees are tender as to spring and autumn frosts, and also as to drought. 358 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES The broad-leaved species is rather more exacting than the other species. When grown for ornament in towns, or when the atmos- phere is impure, a smooth-leaved variety (e.g., T. intermedia} should be planted, as its leaves are washed clean by each heavy shower of rain. Cultivation, etc. — The trees grow fast, especially the broad-leaved variety ; and on good soil they are capable of withstanding considerable shade. They suffer little from being transplanted, and get established almost at once. They stand pruning very well ; but, as is the case with all soft-wooded trees, only small branches should be pruned, on account of the danger from fungous attacks. The trees coppice well, and the stools are long-lived. Lime may be used for underplanting thinly canopied crops, and may often be useful where other species, except Hornbeam, might outgrow the overwood before the latter were ready to be felled. The trees are thickly foliaged, and their fall of leaves can well protect the soil. Trees raised by layering appear to have a greater tendency to throw out side branches and to develop a mass of latent buds along the stem and at the base of the tree than is the case with those trees raised from seed. Owing to the limited market for the timber, the planting of lime can hardly be recommended. A limited number of trees can often be sold well if the retail market be sought out; but, otherwise, there is only a poor market for the timber. If, however, the timber could be sold for about is. 6d. a cubic foot, it would probably pay to plant it, especially the broad-leaved variety. Of Fungi. — Nectria ditissima sometimes causes a canker on the bark of the stems and branches. Nectria cinnabarina, the Coral Spot Fungus, causes a canker on the branches. Of Insects. — The larvae of the Winter Moth (Cheimatobia brumata) devour the foliage. OAK: PEDUNCULATE AND SESSILE 359 OAK. Quercus pedunculata = The Pedunculate Oak. Quercus sessiliflora = The Sessile Oak. Quercus cerris =Tlie Turkey Oak. Quercus rubra =The Red Oak. Quercus ilex =The Evergreen or Holm Oak. Of these varieties the Pedunculate and Sessile Oak are of the greatest sylvicultural importance in this country. They are both native trees. As to Seed. — Seed is produced freely from about the 6oth year onwards, and good seed years occur about every 3 to 6 years. The seed ripens in October. It is of the greatest importance that only the best seed should ever be used. Seed should be collected from strong, vigorous trees, and also from such as show a predisposition in youth to form a long leading shoot, and to grow a clean stem free from side branches.1 Such trees should be specially marked as " seed " trees. The germinative capacity of the seed is about 60 to 65 per cent. ; and I Ib. of acorns of the pedunculate variety contains about 1 30 acorns, whereas I Ib. of the sessile variety contains about 155 acorns. The timber is very strong and durable, and most valuable. The timber of both species has the same market value ; though the pedunculate is rather the better. Soil and Situation. — Both these Oak prefer a deep, moist, stiffish loam for their best development. However, they will both grow on stiff clays. The pedunculate Oak will grow on very stiff wet clay soils if not sour ; but, on such land, the growth is very slow indeed. The sessile Oak is not suited to very stiff clays ; but it will thrive well, and is found naturally on rather dry soils, provided they be fairly deep, such soils being far too dry for 1 The absence of side branches is not always entirely dependent upon the adoption of correct sylvicultural methods ; for, occasionally, trees growing in the open show a pronounced tendency to grow with a clean stem free from side branches. 360 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES the pedunculate Oak. The sessile Oak will also thrive at higher elevations than the pedunculate Oak. Both trees are susceptible to late spring frosts ; but, as they are amongst the latest trees to break into leaf, they often escape damage, when other trees suffer. In this connection it should be remembered that the sessile Oak is sometimes rather later in breaking into leaf than the pedunculate Oak. Severe winter frost is harmful to these Oaks ; and much damage is often done to the timber by frost cracks, a bole often splitting all the way down. These trees will succeed better on southern aspects than most other species ; they have a deep root system, and are very storm-proof trees. Cultivation, etc. — Both trees are very light-demanding, and both have a strong tendency to form large crowns, and to develop and retain side branches. In this respect the sessile variety is rather more tolerant of slight shade, and does not possess such a strong tendency to form large crowns, and it will usually grow with a longer bole than the pedunculate variety. The foliage of the trees is not dense ; and pure crops, when about 40-60 years of age, will fail to keep the surface- soil clean, and the supply of moisture will be lessened. Only a very small proportion of the trees planted on any area will ever develop into clean, quickly-growing trees, as compared to crops of other species. Therefore, when grown in high forest, it will usually be preferable to plant pure Oak, at a distance of 3 feet apart each way, and then to under- plant the crop when the canopy is getting broken at (say) 50 to 60 years of age. By this means, there will be a large number of trees to choose from, as the whole crop left at (say) 50 years, should consist of only strong, healthy, vigorous trees. After about the 7Oth year, the crop should be partially cleared at intervals. Close-canopied mature crops of Oak are never profitable, with the timber selling at its present price. The thinnings may usually be left to nature, till the trees are about 20 feet high. The thinnings and partial OAK: PEDUNCULATE AND SESSILE 361 clearances should be made very gradually in close-canopied crops, otherwise epicormic branches will be thrown out, and the trees may become stag-headed. The undercrop, if suitable, may be periodically coppiced, thus constituting high forest with coppice. Even-aged mixtures with Oak are usually not very satisfactory, as the Oak will generally be outgrown, unless indeed the other trees be coppiced. Where, however, mixtures are attempted, the oak should be planted (pure) in patches, unless indeed the mixture consist of Oak and Hornbeam. In this case, however, it will often be necessary to give the Oak artificial aid during the first 30 or 40 years. One of the best uses for Oak is as standards over coppice. They should be planted close together in little groups of about 5 or 7, so as to insure having I good tree in each group. The young standards must be pruned of side-branches at each cutting over of the coppice. Five-year-old plants (i.e., I year 2 year 2 year) should usually be planted as standards ; but for ordinary planting 3-year-old plants should generally be used. Some of the best crops of oak have been raised by sowing acorns in situ. On arable land the acorns may be sown broadcast, and ploughed in with a light furrow. When crops are raised by artificial sowing, another good plan is to sow in lines about 5 to 6 feet apart, and to have about 3 rows of acorns in each line. By this means a saving is effected in the labour cost of cleaning; and the close sowing in the rows ensures having some clean grown plants to choose from when thinnings are made. Any young crops that do not show vigorous growth during the 2nd and 3rd summer after being planted out, should be coppiced over at the actual ground level, and, finally, the best shoot selected to grow into a tree. The best time to cut such trees over is in May. Oak may sometimes be naturally regenerated under a very light canopy of mother trees. About 20 tall, well-grown trees are enough to leave per acre, and most of these must be removed in about 2 years' time, and the remainder by the 362 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES 4th or 5th year, operations being governed by good seed years. Rotation. — This should be from 90 to 1 30 years on good soil. Average Returns from pure crops in close-canopied high forest should be per acre : — Thinnings . . . 1840 cub. ft. down to 2 in. q. g. Final yield (at 1 20 years) 3000 „ „ 6 „ Total production . . 5390 „ „ 2 „ Average annual increment, 45 cub. ft. Equivalent net rental1 for land only2} at 3% = 35. 3d. f at (from date of planting) at 4% = minus 35. Of Fungi. — Rosellinia quercina causes root rot in seedlings and young nursery plants, and often causes great damage. Nectria ditissima causes a canker on the bark of the stems and branches. Various species of Polyporus and Fomes (Bracket Fungi) attack the stems through wounded surfaces — e.g., F. igniarius and Fomes fomentarius^ both pro- ducing white rot. White rot is also produce by Hydnum diversidens and by Stereum hirsutum. P. sulphureus produces a red rot. Of Insects. — The larvae of the Tortrix viridana often defoliate the trees ; and the larvae of the Cockchafer grub (Melolontha vulgaris) do considerable damage to the roots of trees — often killing them — in nurseries and young plantations. Wherever Cockchafer grubs cause trouble in a nursery, it is an excellent plan to grow a few broad-leaved trees near the boundaries of the nursery, and to keep these trees cut back to a height of about 12 feet. When the beetles emerge, they will fly to these trees to feed upon the foliage. They can then be shaken down, collected, and destroyed. The larvae of the Oak Boring Bark Beetle (Bostrichus dispar) often kills young trees. The larvae of the Small Black Weevil (Orchestes querci), 1 Vide Chapter XI I. 2 After deducting interest on ^8, the cost of planting and establishing the crop. THE TURKEY OAK 363 and of the Winter Moth (Cheimatobia brumata]^ and of the Brown tail Moth {Bombyx chrysorrhced), and of the Lackey Moth (Eombyx neustrid], attack the foliage. Various species of Gall Wasps (Cynips) cause galls of various kinds. C. querci produces the " Oak Apple Galls." C. kollari produces the Oak Marble Galls, etc. The Turkey Oak. — This is a tree of little value sylvi- culturally, unless it should increase considerably in market value. Its timber is not durable, nor is it so strong or tough as the common Oak. However, for internal decorative house- work and for furniture, it might be largely used, as it is a handsome wood when properly converted. It shrinks much on seasoning, and has a great tendency to crack and split. The tree is hardier, less exacting, and of quicker growth than the common Oak. The acorns, with their moss-covered cups, do not ripen until the second autumn. The Red Oak or American Oak. — This is an extremely fast-growing tree, and should be given an extensive trial in this country. The tree thrives on somewhat light dry soil, provided it be deep ; it is not so successful on stiff clays. The timber is not likely to prove very durable or of great value. But the rapidity of its growth will compensate for its low price per foot. The timber will probably prove very suitable for all internal house construction, for furniture, barrel staves, etc. The trees coppice very well. They might with advantage be grown as standards over coppice. The acorns take 2 years to ripen. The Evergreen or Holm Oak. — This must be regarded only as an ornamental tree, as it is a very slow-growing tree indeed. It is less injured by salt spray and sea breezes than probably any other broad-leaved tree, and can be strongly recommended for seaside planting if the soil be sufficiently deep. It prefers a little lime in the soil. It is a difficult tree to transplant, since it makes a long naked tap-root. The timber is very heavy and hard, and very durable, 364 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES and is marked with a most beautiful grain, and takes a very high polish. It shrinks much on seasoning, and takes a long time to season. For high-class furniture and interior decorative work, it is of the greatest value, though usually unprocurable. The acorns take 2 years to ripen. WESTERN PLANE 365 PLANE TREES. Platinus orientalis = The Eastern Plane Tree. Platinus occidentalis = The Western Plane Tree. The Eastern Plane is little grown in this country ; though a variety of it, the London Plane = P. orientalis acerifolia, is very common, and may be treated in the same way as the Western Plane. The Western Plane : — As to Seed. — One pound of seed contains about 93,000 seeds. When grown from seed, it is always preferable to use foreign seed. It is, however, very easily grown from cuttings or " slips," and may also be propagated by layers. The Timber is fairly hard, yellowish-white in colour, handsome, and ornamental ; the best of it is often cut into veneers. There is little on the market in this country, but there is every reason to anticipate a ready sale at remunera- tive prices if any constant supply were available. Soil and Situation. — A deep, rather moist, loamy soil is necessary ; but the tree also grows, when once established, on rather stiff clay soils, if well drained. Dry soils, or very stiff clays, or soils containing an excess of lime, are quite unsuited to it. It requires rather a sheltered locality, and is tender as to spring and autumn frosts. Owing to the habit it has of shedding its bark, it is admirably suited for planting in or near towns, or wherever the atmosphere is smoky or impure. Cultivation, etc. — The tree is light-demanding, and the foliage usually not quite so dense as that of Sycamore. It is a fairly quick-growing tree, and should prove profitable to plant, if the timber could be sold for is. 6d. a cubic foot. Owing to its demands for shelter, it may be grown as standards over coppice, though as an ideal standard its foliage is much too dense; but, considering the usual low price for coppice, this is a minor consideration. 366 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES The Western Plane is usually of more rapid growth than the Oriental Plane, and also, generally forms a taller and straighter bole. Of Fungi. — The Plane-Leaf Fungus attacks the foliage, and causes the premature fall of the leaves. BLACK AND BLACK ITALIAN POPLARS 367 POPLARS. Populus nigra = The Black Poplar. Populus Canadensis =The Canadian Poplar, or Black Italian Poplar. Populus alba =The White, or Abele, Poplar. Populus canescens =The Grey Poplar. Populus tremula =The Aspen Poplar. Populus pyramidalis = The Lombardy Poplar. THE BLACK AND THE BLACK ITALIAN POPLARS. These are very much alike in all respects, and demand much the same conditions, and may be considered together. Neither of these two trees are native to this country. The latter is said to have been introduced in 1769, but the former was probably introduced by the Romans. As to Seed. — The seed of both ripens at about the end of May or beginning of June, and it must be sown at once, as its germinative capacity is very quickly lost. The seed is collected along with the downy mass surrounding it. Both trees are, however, best raised from cuttings. The timber is white, soft, and tough, and does not easily fracture. It is more nearly fire-proof than any other timber ; and, for this reason, should be often used for floor boards. It is used for the battens in hop oasts on account of its fire-resisting qualities. The timber is also nearly free from smell ; and is, for this reason, used for butter boxes. By some, the timber of P. Canadensis is considered superior to that of all other varieties. Soil and Situation. — Good deep moist loams are the best kind of soil for the growth of the Black Poplars. But they will also thrive on stiff clays, but not on the very stiffest. Sour soils, or water-logged soils, are quite unsuited to them ; and they should never be planted on very dry soils. They are slightly sensitive to late and early frosts — P. Canadensis being harder than P. nigra in this respect. Cultivation, etc. — The trees grow very rapidly when 368 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES young, averaging about 2 feet 6 inches or rather more each year. The trees sometimes take a year or two before they get established, as the roots are not very fibrous, but they have great recuperative power, and, in many cases, grow quickly from the actual date of transplanting. It will often be advisable to cut the trees over close to the ground I or 2 years after planting out ; this should always take place if the trees do not seem to be growing well, or if they have been injured by frost The trees should not usually be pruned, except as to quite small branches, since fungous attacks may supervene. All Poplars are very light-demanding, and their foliage is thin ; and,/^r se, they will never protect the soil. The Black Poplars are very profitable trees to plant, and good butts always sell well in the London market. Poplars may be grown as standards over coppice, or as the standards in high forest with coppice, or they may be grown in ordinary high forest. It is almost impossible, unless artificially pruned, to mix them by single trees or alternate rows with any other species except the tree willows, as their growth is so fast that neither the Poplars, nor their neighbouring trees, will ever be properly pruned. On estates, where there is a creosoting plant, Poplars might be grown pure, planted 4 feet 6 inches to 5 feet apart each way ; and the thinnings can then be creosoted, and used for estate fencing, etc. ; but, unless creosoted, small Poplar poles have practically no value at all. Small willows are much more saleable, as they can be used for split gate hurdles ; and, when barked, can be sold, where there is a market, for the best quality charcoal. Now, in order to provide valuable thinnings, Larch may be mixed with Poplars, the latter planted sporadically over the area. The Japanese Larch is preferable to the European Larch for this purpose, owing to its more rapid growth when young. The Japanese Larch is, however, rather expensive. In all these cases the Poplars must be artificially pruned THE WHITE POPLAR 369 if necessary, in spite of the risk of disease ; the Larch will exercise no pruning effect on the Poplars. Poplars and Spanish Chestnut form an excellent mixture in the proportion of about I to 10, though the Poplars will have to be artificially pruned. In many cases it will be advisable to coppice the Chestnut about every 25 years ; though on good Chestnut soils the two should be able to grow to maturity. There is a good deal of simple coppice on clay soil consist- ing chiefly of Chestnut, which should most certainly be planted up with Poplars, as standards in high forest with coppice. Then again, over simple Alder coppice, Poplars should be planted largely in many cases, and the quick-growing Alder coppice shoots will naturally prune the Poplars. So also, Poplars over Ash coppice should be grown as high forest with coppice on many soils, which are too stiff for mature Ash. It should be noted that the necessity for artificial pruning is largely avoided when Poplars are planted over existing copice areas, owing to the very rapid growth of the coppice shoots. Rotation. — This should be short — about 50 to 60 years. An average annual increment at the rate of 100 cubic feet (q. g.) per acre is often grown. THE WHITE POPLAR OR ABELE. This is a native tree to this country. As to Seed. — The seed ripens about the end of May ; but the trees are, however, best raised from suckers, dug up in the forest. Layering may also be adopted, but the best trees are grown from suckers. Cuttings are not to be recommended. The timber is white and light, but not quite as good as that of the Black Poplars just described. It is rather liable to have " ring " shakes. Soil and Situation. — The tree will grow on similar soils to those described for the Black Poplars. 2 A 370 SYLVICULTdRAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES But it will also grow on the very stiffest of clay soils ; and, on such soils, it is probably the most profitable tree to plant. The tree appears quite immune to spring and autumn frosts, and hence is of the utmost value in many cases. Cultivation, etc., is similar to that described for the Black Poplars. The tree throws out innumerable root suckers, and spreads naturally by such means. Rotation. — This should be from 50 to 60 years. THE GREY POPLAR. This is not a native tree. It is probably an hybrid between P. alba and P. tremula. It is very similar in all respects to the White Poplar ; and thrives under the same conditions. It is raised from suckers, which are developed in great profusion. It will grow in rather drier localities than the Black Poplars or the White Poplar ; and like the White Poplar, it is very frost-hardy. THE ASPEN POPLAR. This is a native tree to this country. As to Seed. — The seed ripens about the end of May, and, like all Poplar seed, must be sown at once. It is generally raised from root suckers, and sometimes by layering. Cuttings are not very successful. The timber is white and brittle, and is inferior to that of the White Poplar, being worth from J to f as much. Soil and Situation. — It will grow on any soils suited to the other Poplars just described. But it will also grow on drier soils than the other Poplars will grow upon ; and also on more shallow soils. It can exist on very dry soils, but its growth is then poor. It is very frost-hardy. Cultivation, etc. — The Aspen must usually be regarded as a weed. It may be used in the place of Birch, as a pro- POPLARS: FUNGI AND INSECTS :J7t tecting species in frost localities on dry soils ; but, on moist soils, the White Poplar is much more valuable. The Aspen is often very difficult to get rid of, and its quick-growing root suckers often interfere with more valuable trees. THE LOMBARDY POPLAR. This is not a native tree. The timber is of less value than all the other Poplars described, and the stem is usually somewhat corrugated, and there is much waste in conversion. It should never be planted from a sylvicultural point of view. Of Fungi. — Melampsora pinitorqua produces a rust on the leaves of Aspen Poplars, and sometimes on the leaves of the White and Grey Poplars. Little harm is directly occasioned thereby, but this Melampsora is an alternate generation of the Caeoma Pine- torquum, which injures the leading shoots of Scots Pine. Other species of Melampsora produce a rust on various Poplars : e.g., M. larici tremulce (on Aspens), or M. larici populina (on Black Poplars), which is the alternate generation of Cceoma laricis. Polyporus sulphureus causes Red Rot in the timber of Poplars. Of Insects. — The larvae of the Cossus Ligniperda, or Goat Moth (so named on account of its vile odour), damages the timber. The timber is also much damaged by the larvae of the Large Longicorn Beetle ( Cerambyx carcharias). The larvae of the Small Poplar Longicorn Beetle — (C. populnea) — attacks the branches. The larvae of the Satin Moth (Bombyx salicis] and the beetles and larvae of the Red Poplar Leaf Beetle (Lina populi) and of the Aspen Leaf Beetle (L. tremula) feed upon the foliage. Mistletoe is very frequently found on Poplars. 372 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES SPANISH CHESTNUT. Castanea vulgaris = Spanish Chestnut. The Spanish Chestnut is not a native tree to this country. As to Seed. — The seed rarely ripens properly in this country ; and home-grown seed should not be used. The germinative capacity of the seed is about 60 per cent. ; and I Ib. of seed contains about 112 nuts. The timber is of excellent quality, fairly hard, strong, and very durable. It also splits very well. The timber is, however, very liable to " cup " or " ring " shakes ; though, if grown on a deep loam with sufficient moisture it is usually quite sound. There is only a small proportion of sapwood ; and the sapwood quickly changes to heartwood. Soil and Situation. — A deep soil is necessary with a fair amount of moisture. Soils with more than a small amount of lime in them are quite unsuited to its growth ; so also are very wet soils. The tree will grow on dry sandy soils, but the timber is invariably shaky. Very stiff clays are not suit- able for growing mature timber ; but, Chestnut coppice often succeeds well on such land. The tree suffers from severe winter frosts ; and is very susceptible to late spring and early autumn frosts ; and thus, it is very difficult to establish on cold clays or on land subject to late frosts, unless indeed it be used for underplanting. A considerable amount of summer heat is necessary, in order that the wood may be properly ripened ; and thus it succeeds far best in the south-west of England, where, on northern aspects, its growth is all that can be desired. Elsewhere in this country it often succeeds better on southern aspects, where it obtains the necessary warmth. Cultivation, etc. — The Spanish Chestnut will bear con- siderable shade until about 25 years of age; afterwards, as maturity is approached, it must be considered as a light- demanding tree. It is usually somewhat slow-growing until SPANISH CHESTNUT 373 it has been planted out 3 or 4 years, for transplanting checks it ; but, after then, its growth is very rapid in suitable local- ities. The tree has a great power of reproduction from stools, and the stools are very long-lived. It also throws out suckers to a considerable extent. The side branches are rather persistent ; and a close canopy is necessary, in order to effect natural pruning, and to prevent the development of side branches. The tree, even when well grown, has a very considerable taper ; more so than any other tree grown under similar conditions. The foliage is fairly dense, and the leaves form good humus, and improve the soil ; and pure forest is usually quite admissible. It is one of the most profitable broad-leaved trees that can be largely planted, coming next to Black Poplar and Ash. Permanent even-aged mixtures by single trees will not usually give satisfactory results for the whole mixture. Chestnut and Ash, or Chestnut and Larch, makes a very good mixture, however mixed ; though the Chestnut will be coarse, and should, in most cases, be periodically coppiced. By this means (under the system of high forest with coppice), the soil will be kept very clean, and the best Ash or Larch will be grown, if only the locality be suitable. Spanish Chestnut coppice is, along with Ash, the most valuable. Spanish Chestnut is very suitable for underplanting Oak, or Ash, or Larch. The thinnings may usually be left to natural agencies, until the trees are 25 feet high. The thinnings are amongst the most saleable and valuable of any species, and should therefore be included in many mixtures by single trees, even if they are not required for the final crop. They will prune all their broad-leaved neighbours (except Poplars) very well. They are, however, an expensive tree to plant. Rotation. — In high forest 70 years. Though, in moist climates and on good soils the rotation may be somewhat 374 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES longer, as, under the best conditions, the timber is quite sound. The average annual increment is about 65 cubic feet. The tree is remarkably free from fungoid and insect attacks. However, a Bark Beetle sometimes kills the trees. SYCAMORE AND NORWAY MAPLE 375 SYCAMORE AND NORWAY MAPLE. Acer pseudo-platamis = Sycamore. Acer platanoides = Norway Maple. Acer campestris = The Field Maple. Neither of these trees are native to this country. As to Seed. — They both produce abundant crops of seed from about the 35th year onwards; and good seed years are very frequent. The germinative capacity of both Sycamore and Norway Maple is about 55 per cent. ; and I Ib. of seed of either Sycamore or Norway Maple contains about 5500 seeds. The timber of both species is fairly hard and whitish ; but not very durable in the open. Large clean butts are in great demand ; otherwise, the market is not usually good. The timber should be quickly removed from the forest, as, like all white timbers, it deteriorates if left. Soil and Situation. — Both trees will grow on almost any soil, except very dry sandy soils, provided they be fairly deep, or that the subsoil be disintegrated. The Norway Maple is even more accommodating than the Sycamore. Both trees are very storm-proof and grow fairly well by the seaside, especially the Norway Maple. They are somewhat susceptible to late spring frosts. Cultivation, etc. — On moist deep soils the trees will bear a fair amount of shade when they are young. The foliage is fairly dense, but pure crops will seldom be advisable. Gener- ally, they should be planted, sporadically, in even-aged high forest, or in little groups of 3 or 5, when they should be allowed to grow to maturity, which is reached at about 100 years. As coppice, the stools do not last very long, but the stool shoots are vigorous ; those of the Norway Maple more so than the Sycamore. Both trees grow very rapidly when quite young, averaging 1 8 inches to 2 feet 6 inches a year; and very little shock is experienced in being transplanted. In fact, these two trees, 376 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES Alder, Birch, Ash, and Hornbeam suffer less from transplant- ing than almost any other valuable timber trees, and grow more rapidly from the start. If desired, Sycamore and Norway Maple may be cut over at the ground level, at the time of planting ; though it would be better to wait for one year. But usually there is no need to cut the trees over, as their natural growth is vigorous and straight. Rotation. — This should be about 90 to 100 years. Of Fungi. — Rhytisma acerinum causes the familiar black blotches on the leaves, but little harm is done thereby. Phytophthora omnivera sometimes causes " damping off" in the young seedlings. Nectria cinnabarina (showing reddish pustules on the bark of fairly young wood, when dead) often causes great damage to the living trees. Various species of Polyporus (the Bracket Fungi) attack the stems through wounded surfaces. Of Insects. — Cockchafer grubs gnaw through the roots of seedlings and young trees. The Field Maple is of little sylvicultural importance. It is a native tree, and grows wild amongst coppice and in hedgerows. It never grows to any great size, and, except as inferior coppice growth, should be regarded as a weed. THE TULIP TREE 377 TULIP TREE. Liriodendron tulipif era = The Tulip Tree. This tree, known variously as " Canary Wood," " Yellow Poplar," and "White Wood," is native to Canada and the United States of America. As to Seed. — It flowers profusely in this country, but home-grown seed is generally useless. One pound of seed contains about 10,000 seeds. Seed sown in spring will often take a year before it appears ; hence autumn sowing is to be recommended, but the seedlings must be protected with screens, etc. The timber is soft, and, when recently felled, is usually a crimson red colour, but afterwards it becomes a greeny-white colour. It is an easily worked wood, and is used by furniture- and cabinet-makers. It is largely used for the "backing" or " blind " wood upon which veneers are set. Soil and Situation. — Deep soils, with plenty of moisture, are essential. It will thrive on clay lands if not excessively stiff. It avoids calcareous soils, and very dry soils. It is very tender as to late spring and early autumn frosts, and hence many clay soils are too cold for its growth. Southern aspects suit it best, if spring and autumn frosts can be avoided. Cultivation, etc. — It is a thinly foliaged, light-demanding tree. It requires considerable summer warmth, in order to ripen its wood before autumn frosts set in. It should be grown as standards over coppice, or as standards in high forest with coppice ; for, under such circumstances, the danger from late and early frosts is minimised. It should, generally, be avoided in even-aged high forest, as the risks are too great. The Tulip tree is rather slow-growing when young, and makes a long tap-root ; it must therefore be transplanted frequently, so long as it remains in the nursery. 378 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES It is not a very good tree to transplant ; and hence trans- planting should be done very late in the spring. The tree begins to grow fairly rapidly when about 10 years old ; and, when grown closely, will form a clean, straight bole free from branches for about 50 feet in height. On account of its demands for summer heat, it should only be grown in the south of England. There is, however, a risk that the home-grown timber will not sell well, though it be of excellent quality. The expensive " Tulip " wood, used for veneers, is not the timber of this tree. THE BLACK WALNUT 379 WALNUT. Juglans regia = The Common Walnut. Juglans nigra = The Black or American Walnut. Neither of these trees are native to this country. Imported seed of Black Walnut should always be used. The timber of both species is valuable, and of a dark brown colour, the sapwood being white. The Black Walnut, however, grows the finest timber, and, for timber production, should be grown in preference to the Common Walnut. The timber of the common variety is very liable to " heart " shakes, and is not of such a fine colour as that of the black variety. The sapwood is very liable to be worm-eaten. Any burrs on the trunks are very valuable indeed, if of any considerable size. Soil and Situation. — A deep, light, rather dry loam is the best soil for Walnuts, especially if it rest on a chalky or marly subsoil. Cold, stiff, clay soils or subsoils are quite unsuited to it Any excess of moisture is very harmful to its growth. Both species, and especially the American variety, are very susceptible to late spring and early autumn frosts. A considerable amount of summer heat is necessary, in order to ripen the wood ; especially is this the case with the American variety. The American variety should only be planted in the south of England. Southern aspects suit it best, if spring and autumn frosts can be avoided. Cultivation, etc., of the Black Walnut. — The tree is very light-demanding and thinly foliaged. It forms a very long tap-root, but will transplant readily if properly schooled in the nursery. Wherever possible, however, it should be sown in situ. In order to effect this, the best method is to germinate the seed in a heap, and then to dibble the already sprouted nuts into the land. It is a very fast- growing tree. On account of the great damage done by frosts, it should 380 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES only be planted over existing coppice areas ; either as standards over coppice, or as standards in high forest with coppice. It is usually too risky to plant it in even-aged mixtures. Rotation. — This should be 80 to 100 years. The financial return from planting it should be good, even if only is. 6d. a cubic foot were realised for its timber. If, however, the timber were to realise 53. to 73. a cubic foot — the price obtained for the best imported timber — the tree will prove to be one of the most profitable that can be planted. However, time alone can prove the market value of any considerable quantity of home-grown Black Walnut. And, though extensive planting can be recommended on suitable land in the south of England, it must be looked upon in the nature of an experiment. TREE WILLOWS 381 WILLOWS. Salix alba =The White Willow.1 Salix alba caerulea. Salix viridis.2 Salix fragilis = The Crack WiUow. Salix viminalis =The Osier. Salix caprea = The Goat WiUow or SaUow. Of the above mentioned trees, the first four are tree Willows of considerable importance. Salix viminalis is the Osier which is cultivated for the production of basket material ; 3 but S. caprea — a small broad-leaved tree — is of little sylvicultural value, and practically worthless. Salix caprea is a native tree to this country ; so also, in all probability, is Salix alba and its varieties ; but S.fragilis&ttA S. viminalis have been introduced from foreign countries. The propagation of Willows is effected by means of " cuttings " or " sets," which should be obtained from stool shoots or from the young branches of pollarded trees. Such cuttings will produce a far more vigorous growth than cuttings taken from the young wood, at the ends of the old branches, on ordinary standard trees. The cuttings should be taken when the sap is rising in the spring, and, if not immediately planted out, they should be left with their ends in water. The Timber of the tree Willows is light in weight, soft, and very tough, and, as a general rule, can be used for any of the purposes for which Poplar timber is used. The economic value of the cultivation of tree Willows lies chiefly in the use of the timber for the manufacture of 1 S. alba is also sometimes known as the Huntingdon Willow. 2 S. viridis has also been known as S. Russelliana or the Bedford Willow ; but, locally, these names are also applied to 5. fragilis. Therefore, in order to avoid confusion, local names should be aban- doned. 3 For further information about Osiers and their cultivation, vide Board of Agriculture Leaflet^ No. 36. 382 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES cricket bats. Except for such purposes, the cultivation of tree Willows will not prove nearly so remunerative as the cultivation of Black Poplars. The Planting of Willows for the Production of Timber for Cricket Bats.1 Whenever it is desired to grow Willow timber for the manufacture of cricket bats, the greatest care is necessary, in order to obtain the right kind of stock. The best timber is produced by Salix alba cczrulea and that of Salix viridis ; '2 and Salix alba ranks next. On the other hand, the timber of Salix fragilis or its varieties is quite unsuited for any except the cheapest kinds of bats, and is usually difficult to sell. The trade requirements demand a " close bark," or fairly smooth bark, with branches somewhat erect or fastigiate ; whereas trees of Salix fragilis and its varieties which have a coarse open bark and a spreading crown, are always avoided by trade buyers. In this connection it has been noticed that the female trees are more erect and fastigiate than the male trees ; and, therefore, until the contrary may be proved, cuttings obtained from female trees of the proper varieties should alone be planted ; and, furthermore, these cuttings should be taken from a stock obtained from trees growing in the counties of Essex, Herts, or Suffolk, where alone the best bat Willow is at present to be found. The timber of S. alba, S. alba ccerulea, and ,S. viridis is white, soft, tough, not easily split, and light in weight. The timber of 5. alba ccerulea is the lightest of all, and hence is 1 For further information on this subject, vide " Bulletin No. 8, 1907, The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew ; " also an article by A. E. Pratt in the Quaterly Journal of Forestry , October 1907. 2 Salix viridis is an hybrid between S. alba and S. fragilis. It is very variable in its habit ; sometimes it resembles very nearly the habit of S. alba or S. alba cffrulea; but at other times it resembles the 5. fragilis. It is, however, only when it approaches the S. alba or its varieties in its habits, that it produces a good timber for the manufacture of bats. WILLOWS FOR CRICKET BATS 383 the most valuable of all the bat Willows. The quicker the trees are grown and the wider the annual rings, the more valuable is the timber for bat making. So again, the greater the amount of sapwood, the more valuable the timber ; for, any heartwood is darker in colour, heavier, and more apt to split. The timber of Salix fragilis and its varieties is darker in colour than that of the trees just mentioned ; and it is also heavier and more readily split. Hence, therefore, its inferiority for the manufacture of cricket bats. Soil and Situation. — Willows require a deep, moist soil. They should never be planted on dry soils, or on shallow soils, or on soils where there is stagnant water. They are found naturally on the deep, rich, silty soils near the banks of streams. But they may be planted with every chance of success in nearly all deep, moist soils, provided there be no stagnant moisture. Very stiff clay soils are, however, not suitable; though they usually succeed well on fairly stiff clay soils. The trees are tender as to spring and autumn frosts ; and a fairly sheltered position is preferable. Cultivation, etc. — The trees are very light-demanding. They should usually be grown pure, when the young trees or the " sets " may be placed 5 to 6 feet apart from each other. Sometimes Larch may be mixed with them, so as to afford more valuable thinnings. In such cases the Larch and Willow can be mixed in almost equal proportions, the trees being planted 4 feet to 4 feet 6 inches apart from each other. In most instances the Willow trees will grow very much faster than the Larch, but the latter should generally attain a fair size before being suppressed, and will then be readily sale- able in most districts. Before, however, the Willows are planted, a choice must be made between planting large " sets " (or cuttings) — about 10 to 1 5 feet long — and between planting young trees raised from small " sets," and schooled for a year in a nursery. If the " sets " have to be bought, the latter method will generally be preferable, since the long " sets " are very expensive to buy. But in cases where the " sets " can be 384 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES taken without payment, the use of long " sets," planted out directly, can nearly always be recommended, provided enough long " sets " can be taken. The advantages of using long " sets " are that :— (1) A mature tree is obtained in the shortest possible time ; and the labour cost of planting the " sets " is only about I2s. per 1000. (2) The expense of schooling in a nursery is avoided. (3) The expense of planting out1 young trees in pits at a cost of say £i, 8s. per 1000 is avoided ; so, also, is the cost of cutting out any rank grass from amongst the young trees. (4) The large " sets " will often be above the frost line ; whereas small trees might be cut over by frosts. (5) Hedgerow Willows can thus be easily grown without any fear of being choked. The young trees must be carefully tended ; all double leaders must be cut away ; and the boles kept free of side branches for three-fifths of their length. As soon as a clean bole, 20 feet in length, has been attained, the trees should be given ample growing space so that a maximum girth expansion may take place. It must be remembered that heartwood is not required, and that the broader the annual rings, the more valuable is the timber for bat making. Timber under 1 1 or 12 inches quarter girth is of no value for bat making, as it is not large enough to be split up into pieces from which bats can be made ; for the face of a bat is a longitudinal radial section, and does not contain any of the "core "of the log. Any length of timber 2 feet 3 inches2 long, or some 1 These large " sets " should be inserted about 2 feet in the ground, so that they may not be swayed by the wind. A hole should be made with a crowbar, the "set" inserted, and earth then filled into the hole and firmly trodden in. On no account must these long "sets" be pushed in, or the bark will become injured. 2 Bat lengths are 2 feet 2 inches long ; 2 feet 3 inches is taken to allow a margin for safety. WILLOWS FOR CRICKET BATS 385 multiple of 2 feet 3 inches, would be saleable if it were of good enough quality, and n or 12 inches quarter girth at its smaller end. Rotation. — As a general rule, it will be found that the trees should be cut when from 30 to 35 years of age. Financial Returns. — In cases where most of the timber can be sold for bat making, at the current price of 53. to 6s. 6d. per cubic foot, the growth of tree Willows is by far the most profitable sylvicultural undertaking that can be embarked upon. Of Fungi. — Various species of Melampsora having a change of generation in a Caeoma form (probably often on conifers) produce a rust on the leaves. Polyporus sulphureus produces red rot in the wood. Fomes igniarius produces white rot. Of Insects. — The larvae of various Longicorn Beetles, especially Cerambyx carcharias, bore into the sapwood. The larvae of the Goat Moth — Cossus Ligniperda — bore into the timber. So also do the larvae of the Willow Wood Wasp— Sirex dromedarius. The foliage is attacked by the larvae of various Spinner Moths — e.g., Bombyx antigua and Bombyx salicis^ and also by the beetles and larvae of the leaf beetles Lina populi and Lina tremula. The bark is attacked by a scale insect, Coccus salicis, which appears as a felted white scale. A weevil, Cryptorhynchus lapathi^ gnaws the bark of the young shoots of trees, whilst its larvae burrow into the wood and form small galleries. 2 B CHAPTER XVI. SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES — continued ' CONIFEROUS TREES. CUPRBSSUS. Cupressus macrocarpa. Cupressus Sitchensis = The Sitka Cypress. CUPRESSUS MACROCARPA. THIS is native to California, and is said to have been introduced in 1838. As to Seed. — It ripens seed in this country, but home- grown seed should never be used except experimentally. One pound of seed contains about 73,500 seeds, and the germinative capacity is about 15 to 20 per cent. The tree can be raised from cuttings, but such trees are inadmissible from a sylvicultural point of view. The timber is somewhat soft, but of good quality ; and should be equal in value to that of Norway Spruce. Soil and Situation. — Moist, deep soils are essential for its maximum development. On dry soils, or on shallow soils, it will not thrive. It succeeds on stiff clay soils if it escapes spring and autumn frosts, to which it is rather susceptible. It is a very storm-proof tree, and withstands salt sea breezes and gales. It prefers a moist atmosphere, and is often much injured by cold, dry east winds. On light, deep, moist, humous soils resting on clay, it succeeds admirably, if only the atmosphere be moist enough. CUPRESSUS MACROCARPA 387 Cultivation, etc. — It is a very rapid-growing tree when young; and trees which have been planted out 10 years are often 20 to 30 feet high. Seedlings grow rapidly, and are often 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet high at the end of the second summer. The tree will bear a great amount of shade ; and a close canopy is necessary, in order to suppress and kill off the side branches. The foliage is very dense. It is admirably suited for underplanting or undersowing. It may be grown as even-aged high forest, either as a pure crop, or else mixed by patches. Mixtures by alternate trees or rows of trees would, how- ever, succeed in the case of: — Cupressus and Douglas Fir. Cupressus and Sitka Spruce. Cupressus and Thuya gigantea. On suitable localities the tree could also be grown under the selection or group systems. Any planting of this tree must be looked upon as an experiment ; but if its timber were saleable at 6d. to 8d. a cubic foot, it would be one of the most profitable trees that could be grown, coming near to Douglas Fir and Black- Poplars. CUPRESSUS SITCHENSIS. This is sometimes called the C. Nootkatensis, or the Sitka Cypress or the Alaska Cypress. It is a native to the west coast of North America. It is said to have been introduced in 1850. As to Seed. — One pound of seed contains about 128,000 seeds, and the germinative capacity is about 1 5 to 20 per cent Home-grown seed should prove quite satisfactory. Plants raised from cuttings should never be used, if the production of timber be desired. Cultivation, etc. — This tree may be experimented with and grown in the same manner as C. macrocarpa. Its timber is of excellent quality, but it will not prove so remunerative as C. macrocarpa, as its growth is not nearly so rapid. 388 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES It is, however, a hardier tree than the C. macrocarpa ; and is, usually, not much injured by spring or autumn frosts. It prefers deep, moist, humous soils, but will also grow fairly well on thin clay soils resting on broken calcareous rock ; it will succeed on drier soils than the C. macrocarpa. The Sitka Cypress is expensive to raise, and it is hardly likely to prove a remunerative tree to plant in this country, unless there be a substantial rise in the prices of timber. VANCOUVER DOUGLAS FIR 389 DOUGLAS FIR. Pseudotsuga Douglasii = The Douglas Pir or Oregon Pine. There are several varieties of this tree, the two chief varieties being those known as : — (1) The Vancouver or Oregon variety. (2) The Colorado or glaucous variety. Only the Vancouver variety will be considered, as there is nothing to recommend the glaucous variety, which is very much slower growing ; and any assertion that it is hardier or stands a colder climate, is quite unfounded, for the Vancouver variety thrives high up in the Rocky Mountains as well as at the sea coast. The Vancouver Douglas Fir is native to the west coast of North America, and grows to perfection on the coast regions of British Columbia. It is said to have been introduced in 1828. As to Seed. — Good crops of seed are produced from about the thirtieth year onwards, and there is every prob- ability that home-grown seed will prove quite as good as any imported seed, provided that it be collected from trees raised from seed grown upon the coast regions of British Columbia. One pound of seed contains about 40,000 seeds, and the germinative capacity is about 30 per cent. The timber is fairly hard and resinous, and very strong, provided it be grown in close canopy. It forms heartwood earlier in youth than most other trees. It is a handsome timber, especially the sapwood, if the latter has been kiln-dried. It makes most excellent timber for all interior carpenters' and joiners' work ; but it is not very durable for outdoor work, unless painted or preserved in some way. Soil and Situation. — A deep, rather moist, though well- drained soil is necessary. It succeeds admirably on a deep, porous soil with a cool bottom. It will grow on stiff clay soils, but its development is not very good under such 390 SYLVICTJLTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES circumstances, and a short rotation of about forty to fifty years will usually then be indicated. Chalky soils or those containing an excess of lime, seem very inimical to it in most cases. It should never be planted on such soils unless there be abundant proof that it is likely to succeed. It should be avoided on very dry soils. It prefers a damp atmosphere, and will succeed better in the west than in the east of England. It is tender as to spring and autumn frosts, and on exposed localities the trees are apt to lose their leaders ; though, in crowded pure plantations, this latter danger is minimised to the greatest extent. Cultivation, etc. — The tree is thickly foliaged, and a moderate shade bearer, and its side branches require a close canopy in order to prevent their development. It bears pruning very well indeed. It is a very rapid-growing tree, and soon surpasses practically all other trees which may happen to be planted with it. In its native country it often attains the enormous height of 300 feet and over. It may be used for underplanting thin-foliaged trees, provided the canopy be not thick. In this respect it is necessary to take into consideration its rapid height growth, as the over crop would have to be cut directly it is caught up. It may well be grown in even-aged high forest, but must, usually, be grown quite pure, or else mixed by patches, on account of its very rapid growth. Possibly an even-aged mixture of Douglas Fir and Corsican Pine, planted 3 feet 6 inches apart, would give good results ; but the pines should all be removed as thinnings. Douglas Fir and Thuya gigantea occur naturally together, but the Douglas Fir usually soon outgrow the Thuya. Japanese Larch will sometimes keep pace for a time with Douglas Fir, but finally they will have to be removed ; and they will not have exerted any pruning effect on the Douglas Firs. Douglas Fir and Sitka Spruce is a very good mixture. Douglas Fir can also be grown upon the selection VANCOUVER DOUGLAS FIR 391 system or the group system, provided that home-grown seed prove satisfactory in every respect. Rotation. — This, in even-aged high forest, is about 55 to 75 years. Average Returns from pure crops in even-aged high forest should, on Quality I. soil, amount per acre to : — Thinnings . . . 9,620 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Final yield (at 75 years) . 11,200 „ 6 Total production . .21,190 „ 2 „ Average annual increment, 282^ cub. ft. Equivalent net rental1 for land only ") at 3% = .£3, 35. od. (from date of planting) 1 at 4% = £2, is. 7d. Of Fungi. — Many of those enumerated as attacking other conifers will also attack Douglas Firs ; but up to the present there is not sufficient evidence to detail any complete list of fungi which can be considered very frequent in this country. The tree is by no means free from fungous attacks, and it should on that account be planted only in localities suitable to its growth. The Honey Fungus and Trametes radiciperda ( = Fomes annosus) attack it. Phoma pithya causes a canker on the twigs, branches, and small stems. Botrytis cinerea ( = B. Douglasii) attacks the foliage and young shoots of the current year's growth. Pestalozzia Hartigii causes a bark canker on the twigs and stems of seedlings and young plants. Of Insects. — Many of those attacking other conifers will, in all probability, also attack the Douglas Fir. The Pine Weevil ( = Hylobius abietis), and Cockchafer grubs attack young plants. 1 After deducting interest on ,£8, the cost of planting and establishing the crop. 392 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES LARCH. Larix Europea = The European Larch. Larix leptolepis = The Japanese Larch. Larix occidentalis = The Western Larch. Larix Kurilensis = The Kurile Larch. Larix Siberica = The Siberian Larch. None of these trees are native to this country. EUROPEAN LARCH. This is a native to the mountains of Central Europe, the Bavarian Alps, and the Tyrol. As to Seed. — It ripens seed in this country, but home- grown seed should never be used. One pound of seed contains about 70,000 seeds, and the germinative capacity of the seed is about 35 per cent. The timber is hard, tough, and durable, but it is liable to twist and warp, and, therefore, should not be used in house construction. But it is a most valuable timber, and makes the best railway sleepers, and is largely used for general estate purposes. It makes excellent fencing material, and the wood, even when quite young, is hard and durable ; hence, thinnings from young Larch plantations are nearly always saleable. The wood splits fairly well. Soil and Situation. — For its successful growth Larch is very particular ; a deep, well-drained loam with a fair amount of moisture, is quite suitable to it. Dry, sandy, or gravelly soils are quite unsuited to it ; so, also, are thin soils resting on chalk, or stiff clay soils, or any badly-drained soil. On stiff clay soils it often grows well, but the trees, even if they look healthy, are usually hollow or " pumped." On dry soils the timber is always brittle, and very often decayed, such timber being termed " foxy " in the incipient LARCH: EUROPEAN 393 stages of the disease. Trees grown on thin, chalky soils or dry soils are also often quite hollow or " pumped." This hollow condition can be detected by tapping the trees with a stick, when, if hollow, the sound emitted will disclose the fact. Larch succeeds admirably on shallow clay soils overlying disintegrated limestone rock. It appears to delight in very stony soils ; and, in all probability, its failure on certain soils is due to a lack of air to the roots. A free circulation of air is very necessary for its success ; hence, on flat sheltered localities it will often prove a failure. Northern aspects are almost always preferable to southern aspects, for its well-being. The trees suffer a good deal from late frosts, but this largely depends upon the extent to which the leaves have developed. If the leaves have been unfolded about a week, little damage is usually done, but if a frost occur just previous to this, irreparable damage will often be done. Cultivation, etc. — Larch is a very thinly foliaged, light- demanding tree, and pure crops are quite unable to protect the soil. It is quick growing until the principal height growth has been attained ; but it often suffers a considerable check on being transplanted, unless, indeed, quite small plants are used. The side branches easily drop off, and are readily pruned by all other trees whose rate of height growth is similar. But the side branches of Larch have practically no pruning effect on the side branches of other trees. On account of the ease with which Larch cleans itself, pure crops may be planted from 4 feet to 4 feet 6 inches apart, and the thinnings may at all times be more severe (provided there has been no previous overcrowding), than would be judicious with any other species of tree. It is, however, a very risky proceeding to plant Larch pure, on account of the extraordinary damage wrought by the Larch disease. When forming plantations the probability of ravages from this disease should always be very carefully considered. Pure plantations of European Larch should certainly 394 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES seldom be made on any but the very best localities, where, if fortunate, the disease will not make its appearance. Some- times, however, an owner is willing to take the risk of loss from Larch disease ; and, if at the end of 20 to 25 years there be 200 sound trees per acre, these can be underplanted and should give most profitable returns ; and the small diseased poles, which have been cut out, can be used for rustic work, fencing, etc. On northern aspects, at a somewhat relatively high altitude, Larch will often remain free from disease if the soil be really suitable for its growth. But the disease is almost certain to occasion immense damage wherever the conditions are unsuited to its growth ; as, for instance, on unsuitable soil, on southern aspects, on flat land, or on land liable to spring or autumn frosts. In many cases the disease is noticed on trees planted on maiden land, whereas it may be absent on similar localities from which a crop of timber has been removed, where the soil is left well aerated and covered with a good layer of humus. Then again, the disease is always more prevalent in crowded plantations which need thinning, and where the free circulation of air is impeded. However, in cases where it is particularly desired to grow pure Larch to start with, as in places where the thinnings are very saleable, a mixture of European and Japanese Larch should be planted, for the latter have so far proved to be more or less free from disease. By this means the risk is lessened. In as much as pure crops of Larch are unable to protect the soil, they must be underplanted before the land gets foul. But it will almost always be preferable if they be first parti- ally cleared from about the 3Oth to 4Oth year, and often much earlier ; for the trees cannot have too much light and air as they approach maturity. Beech, Spanish Chestnut, Douglas Fir, Thuya gigantea and Silver Fir may be used for this underplanting. But Beech or Spanish Chestnut are particularly suitable, as the soil improves so much under their thick fall of leaves ; and LARCH: EUROPEAN 395 much finer Larch can be grown than if no underplanting had taken place, unless, indeed, the soil be very rich and deep. The Spanish Chestnut will prove more remunerative than the Beech. Often, however, owing to very heavy thinnings having been made on account of Larch disease, underplanting has to be resorted to at a much earlier date; in such cases, the Douglas Fir should not be used, as it will catch up the Larch before they are ready to be felled. Where Larch are mixed with other trees, they should usually be planted sporadically, at considerable distances apart (say 12 to 16 feet), or else in little sporadic groups of 3 or 5, so as to ensure obtaining one good tree in each group ; and thus they will only leave a few badly pruned neighbours. If they be mixed by alternate trees or alternate rows, their neighbouring trees will nearly always be branching and badly pruned, unless artificial pruning be resorted to. However, they may be thus mixed with Ash (forming about half the crop), for the young Ash will grow clean enough up to about 20 years of age, even when next to Larch ; after that date, if a permanent mixture be required, the thinnings should be conducted so that a mixture by patches is left ; and underplanting must be resorted to directly the land shows signs of becoming foul. The mixture of Larch and Beech is very much recom- mended, but it is really only suitable for an uneven-aged mixture ; unless, indeed, only a few Larch be planted amongst a practically pure crop of Beech. If an even-aged mixture, in about equal proportions, be attempted, it will not be very successful. The Beech will all be coarse, as they are very slow growing when young, and both species will practically be growing like separate crops planted 8 feet apart. Larch form excellent standards over coppice, and should be planted in little groups of 3 or 5, so as to ensure having one good tree from each group. They require much protection from the vigorous coppice shoots, as they are very impatient even of side shade. 396 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES Larch, also, can advisedly be grown as standards in high forest with coppice ; new plantations under this system can be formed by planting Larch and Spanish Chestnut alternately, and subsequently coppicing the Spanish Chestnut. Rotation. — The rotation should be from 70 to 80 years, though shorter rotations often prove very profitable for pit timber. Average returns from pure crops in high forest should be, per acre : — Thinnings . . . 1360 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Final yield (at 70 years) . 3000 „ 6 „ Total production . . 4760 „ 2 „ Average annual increment, 68 cub. ft. q. g. Equivalent net rental l for land only | at 3%= I7s. 2d. (from date of planting) j at 4%= ios. Of Fungi. — The Dasyscypha calycina (or Peziza Will- kommii) = The Larch Disease or Larch Blister Disease, does immense damage to young crops, especially up to about the 2Oth year. On account of this disease, the growing of European Larch is now a most risky undertaking ; the Japanese Larch has, however, hitherto proved more or less immune. In order to combat the spread of the disease, great care should be taken that all seedlings be raised from seed obtained from strong, healthy trees ; for, the individual vigour of trees is hereditary. The produce of sickly trees has a predisposition to be attacked, though the disease is probably not actually hereditary. In this connection the use of home-grown seed should always be tabooed, as the summer heat in this country is not sufficient for the production of the finest seed. Phytophthora omnivera sometimes kills young seedlings. Agaricus melleus = The Honey Fungus, characterised by its black rhizomorph strands and its cluster of mushroom-like 1 After deducting interest on ,£8, the cost of planting and establishing the crop. LARCH: JAPANESE 397 sporophores, attacks the roots of young and old trees, and usually very rapidly kills them. Trametes pini attacks the stems, usually when more than 20 years old ; it decomposes the heartwood, but does not affect the sapwood. The trees gradually become hollow or "pumped." Polyporus sulphurous produces red rot in the timber. Tramates radiciperda (Fouies annosus) attacks the roots. It produces a red rot, and causes the base of the stem to become hollow. Of Insects. — Argyresthia laevigatella(or Tinea Icevigatelld) hollows out and destroys the leading shoot and also the side shoots. Coleophora (or Tinea) laricella = The Larch Mining Moth, burrows into the needles and kills much of the foliage of the trees. The attacked foliage looks as though it were frost- bitten. Chermes laricis = the Larch Bug or Larch Aphis, often does great damage, especially in plantations up to about 20 years of age. The sap is sucked from the leaves. In late spring and early autumn the trees often look as though covered by pieces of cotton wool ; for the young lice, on hatching out, soon get covered with a white fluffy down. This Aphis is the sexless form of Chermes abietis. Hence, this is another reason against having mixtures of Larch and Spruce. THE JAPANESE LARCH. The Japanese Larch is native to the central part of Japan, and was introduced about 1861. As to Seed. — One pound of seed contains about 103,500 seeds, and the germinative capacity of the seed is about 35 per cent. The latter, however, varies very considerably from year to year, in some years being almost nil, whilst in other years it is as much as 60 to 65 per cent. Cultivation, etc. — The tree is very similar to the European Larch in most of its requirements. It grows, however, con- 398 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES siderably faster when young, but, usually, gets caught up by the European species after about the 2Oth year. When quite young, it will often keep pace with Douglas Fir or Poplars. Up to the present time, it has proved much more immune to insect and fungous attacks than the European variety, and, as already stated, it has hardly ever been attacked by the Larch disease or canker. Its foliage is flushed early, and it is even more liable to be injured by spring frosts than European Larch. The chief advantage in growing Japanese Larch lies in the fact that they very quickly afford valuable thinnings ; and, if necessary, mature trees can be grown, even though the European Larch would fail owing to disease. However, the Japanese Larch is more expensive to raise from seed than the European Larch. An excellent plan is to grow a mixture of the two species, and if disease do not make its appearance, the European variety should be left ; for these trees will, as mature timber, give far better returns. The Japanese Larch grow faster when young, but usually they will not seriously interfere with the European Larch. OTHER LARCHES. The Western Larch is a tree native to British Columbia. Little, however, is known concerning its growth in this country. It should be largely experimented with, as there is every possibility of its proving most successful indeed. In its native country it grows to a great height, and the boles are usually very clean. It is peculiar in possessing a very thick bark, which often enables it to resist destruction by forest fires. The Kurile Larch is native to the Kurile Islands, in the north-east of Japan. It is of little sylvicultural value in this country, as it does not ultimately form such a large tree as the European variety, and it is very expensive to raise. It is usually very quick growing when young, and is said LARCH: SIBERIAN 399 to be hardy as to spring and autumn frosts, and also as to drought. The Siberian Larch is native to Siberia. It is not, how- ever, suited for growth in this country. As might be expected, it comes into growth very early in the spring, and is ex- tremely tender as to late frosts. 400 SYLVICULTURE NOTES ON TIMBER TREES PINES. There are many varieties ; and these may be classified according to the number of needles contained in each sheath. The following Pines contain 2 needles in each sheath : — Pinus sylvestris = The Scots Pine. Pinus Austriaca = The Austrian Pine. Pinus laricio = The Corsican Pine. ( The Star, or Cluster, or Plixus pinaster ( Maritlme pine. ( Bank's Pine, or the Scrub, Pinus Banksiana = -J _ . _. ( or Jack Pine. Pinus Mugho. Pinus pinea = The Stone or Umbrella Pine. The following Pines contain 3 needles in each sheath : — Pinus ponderosa. Pinus insignis = The Remarkable Pine. Pinus rigida^ sometimes called Pitch Pine.1 Pinus sabiniana. The following Pines contain 5 needles in each sheath : — Pinus strobus = The Weymouth Pine. Pinus excelsa. Pinus cembra = The Swiss Stone Pine. Pinus Lambertiana. The above are only a few of the many varieties that are sometimes met with in this country ; but, only those of sylvicultural interest in this country will now be considered. SCOTS PINE. The Scots Pine is a native tree to this country. As to Seed. — The tree produces seed freely, and good crops are obtained from the 3Oth year onwards. Good seed years are very frequent, and occur every two or three years. 1 The Pitch Pine timber as imported is the wood of the Pinus Palustris. SCOTS PINE 401 Home-grown seed from strong, healthy, vigorous trees is far preferable to any imported seed. One pound of seed contains about 75,000 seeds, and the germinative capacity is about 65 to 70 per cent. The timber is rather soft, durable (especially when grown in close canopy), and resinous. However, unless the trees be grown in close canopy, the timber is possessed of wide annual rings; such timber is then very soft and not durable. The red Baltic deals and battens are cut from this tree. The timber is extensively used for the carpentry and joinery in house construction. Home-grown timber, especially that grown in Scotland, is quite as good as the imported timber, provided always, that the former has been grown under correct sylvicultural principles. Soil and Situation. — Scots Pine is very accommodating as to the soils it will grow upon. Though, naturally, liking a deep gravelly loam, it will grow on stiff clays, or on very dry, practically pure, sands. It will accommodate itself to rather shallow soils, though not so shallow as those upon which the Norway Spruce will thrive. It will succeed on wet peaty soils, provided the water be not stagnant. It is extremely hardy as to spring and autumn frosts ; and trees raised from home-grown seed are practically never injured, though those produced from continental seed do not seem so hardy in this respect. The trees are also very storm-proof1 and hardy as to drought. As a pioneer crop Scots Pine is most valuable. On heather land it can often advantageously be raised in situ from seed. On hot, dry, southern aspects this and the Corsican Pine are often the only trees that are likely to thrive and produce valuable timber ; though their best growth is seen on cool northern aspects. Cultivation, etc. — The trees are very light-demanding during all stages of their existence. Their side branches are 1 Heavy falls of snow break off many branches, which are brittle ; and the crowns of trees often suffer considerably. 2 C 402 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES very persistent ; and the canopy for the first 30 years must be very close, so as to prune them off naturally and prevent them from attaining any considerable size. The plants grow quickly from the seedling stage onwards, and small plants, not over 4 years old, suffer but little check in being transplanted. On ordinary heather land, with which the trees are naturally associated, I- or 2-year-old plants will be quite big enough to plant out. On grass land 3- and 4-year-old plants must usually be planted. Provided the heads of the plants be free, Scots Pine suffer less than most trees from a soil covering of grass. This is also the case with Corsican Pine, Hornbeam, Birch, Sycamore, and Norway Maple. The foliage of Scots Pine is compara- tively thin, and pure crops cannot usually protect the soil after about the 4Oth year. However, they are not very suitable for being underplanted ;x and, if the land be good enough to grow an undercrop, it will seldom be advisable to plant Scots Pine, except where it is used as a pioneer crop, as in frosted localities on good soil, where it may be planted, so as to render possible the introduction of a more valuable species at a later date. Generally speaking, Scots Pine should only be grown as even-aged high forest. It is quite unsuited for standards over coppice. Where Scots Pine must be grown, it will generally be advisable to grow it pure ; for, mixed crops, except the mixtures be by patches, are seldom satisfactory. There are, however, one or two mixtures by alternate rows, etc., that can be recommended. Scots and Corsican Pine may be grown together, especially if it be desired to have a mature crop of Corsican Pine, and if the success of a pure crop of Corsican Pine be doubtful. The Corsican Pines grow much quicker when young than the Scots Pines ; so that the latter must be removed if the 1 The necessary partial clearances may result in the production of unduly wide annual rings to the detriment of the technical quality of the timber. SCOTS PINE 403 former succeed. It is, however, preferable not to mix them unless there is any special reason for so doing. Scots and Weymouth Pine may, in the same way, be advisable if the success of pure Weymouth Pine be doubtful. Scots Pine often pay well when grown on short rotations of 35 to 40 years, if there be a market for pit wood. The land is left clean at the end of a short rotation, but is very foul at the end of a long rotation, if a pure crop has been grown. The natural regeneration of Scots Pine should only be attempted by leaving strips of trees, and allowing the seed to blow on to a vacant area. Wherever heather land exists, a young crop can usually be easily established from seed. But it will seldom be possible, except, perhaps, on northern aspects at high altitudes, to obtain natural regeneration on land from which a crop has just been cleared ; for, though originally heather land, it will, in most cases, be found to be covered with grass, owing to the soil improvement that has taken place. Such would not, however, usually be the case in dry continental climates. Rotation. — This should be about 80 to 90 years for large mature timber. Average returns from pure crops in high forest should be, per acre : — Thinnings . . . 1050 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Final yield (at 80 years) . 3450 „ 6 „ Total production . . 52O° » 2 » Average annual increment, 65 cub. ft. Equivalent net rental1 for land only ) at 3%= is. 3d. (from date of planting) ) at 4% = minus 35. 4d. Of Fungi. — Phytophthora omnivera attacks seedlings. Hysterium pinastri ( = Lophodermium pinastri), known as the Leaf-shedding disease, attacks young trees, especially those from I to 7 or 8 years of age. Botrytis cinerea attacks the foliage and young shoots, 1 After deducting interest on ^8, the cost of planting and establishing the crop. 404 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES often doing very great harm to young trees and nursery stock. Agaricus melleus ( = the Honey Fungus) characterised by its black rhizomorph strands on the roots, and its mush- room-like fructifications, attacks the roots. The needles of infected trees turn pale, and the trees soon die. Trametes radiciperda ( = Femes annosus), and known as the Red Rot Root Fungus, often attacks trees of all ages, which, when once attacked, usually quickly die. The needles of trees, when attacked, turn pale ; and at the base of the stem, or on the roots just below the soil, the bracket-like fructifications may be found. These appear as somewhat flat, corky incrustations or brackets with wrinkled margins ; at first they are of a yellowish-white colour, but later on they turn dark brown on the top, being snow-white underneath. Trametes pini attacks the boles of trees, usually after they are about 35 years of age. Bracket-like fructifications appear on the stem ; the heartwood rots away, and the tree becomes hollow. The sapwood of Pines and also of Larch is not affected, but the sapwood of Spruce and Silver Fir is decomposed just like the heartwood. Peridermium pini acicola = The Pine Needle Blister, or Bladder Rust, attacks the foliage of Scots and other Pines. Young trees up to 12 years of age are most frequently attacked, though often older trees. New foliage is never attacked, but only needles I or 2 years old. In the spring, small orange vesicles or blisters may be seen on the leaves. Peridermium pini corticola = The Pine Bark Blister or Canker, often does immense damage to Scots and other Pines, especially on southern aspects. Young trees up to about 1 5 years of age are chiefly attacked ; if it occur in older trees, the attack is confined to the younger wood, the bark of which is thin. It is characterised by the appearance on the smooth young bark, of bladder-like pustules filled with yellowish-red spores. Caeoma pinitorquum, known as the Pine Shoot-twisting SCOTS PINE 405 fungus, is the Cceoma form of Melampsora pinitorqua, which causes a well-known rust on the leaves of Poplars. The Caoma chiefly attacks Scots and Weymouth Pines up to about 12 years of age. Yellow Cceoma pustules appear on the bark of the current year's shoots, causing a cankerous appearance, and the shoots become twisted and bent. Cerastoma piliferum, a saprophyte, causes the bluish dis- coloration of Scots Pine and other coniferous timber. Of Insects. — Scots Pines are perhaps more liable than any other trees to insect attacks. Cockchafer grubs (the larvae of Melolontha vulgaris) gnaw through the roots of young trees, especially in new plantations made on grass land or on land recently ploughed. Nursery stock also often suffers from the ravages of the grubs, and also from wire-worms (the larvae of Agriotes lineatus}. The Pine Weevil ( = Hylobius abietis), sometimes known as the large brown Pine weevil, gnaws the bark off the stems of young conifers, usually from 2 to 7 years old, and consequently kills them. Scots Pine and Spruce are chiefly attacked, but also other conifers ; and, occasionally, broad-leaved trees. On account of the great damage done by this insect, the fellings in Scots Pine and Spruce woods should never be consecutive, but should be arranged intermittently. Also, when replanting Scots Pine or Spruce areas with coniferous crops, it is advisable, where possible, to burn the area over or to wait for 2 or 3 years before replanting ; the latter method, however, should be avoided if possible. Bark traps should be laid to catch the weevils. The Small Brown Pine Weevil ( = Pissodes Notatus), attacks Scots, Corsican, and Weymouth Pines in particular, and, occasionally, Spruce and Larch. The weevils prick the bark through and suck the sap. The young trees look as if pricked with pins, and little beads of resin ooze out. Young plantations of 3 to 8 years old are attacked. The insect is chiefly confined to Scotland. The Large Pine Beetle = Hylesinus (or Hylurgus) pini- 406 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES perda, attacks Scots Pine in particular, though, occasionally, other Pines and Spruce. Trees of any age may be attacked. Attacks are often worse along the edges of rides or roads, or in woods near timber yards. The eggs are laid along a " mother gallery " under the bark of recently felled timber, or of sickly trees. The damage is occasioned by the beetles (not by the larvae), and they are generally beetles of the second generation in any year, which bore into the tops of Pine shoots, just below the buds and feed on the pith, thus hollowing out the shoots, which break over with the first storm of wind. The Crutch Pine Beetle ( = Hylesinus palliatus), is chiefly confined to Scotland, where it attacks Scots and other Pines and conifers. The Pine Sawfly ^ — Lophyrus pint], attacks Scots and Austrian Pines chiefly. The leaves are eaten by the larvae or caterpillars. The young caterpillars eat the edges of the leaves, leaving the midrib. But as they get older they eat the whole of the leaves. The Fox-coloured Sa.wf\y = (Loflkyrus rufus], also does much damage, in the same manner as the L. pini. The Pine Shoot Tortrix or Twig Twister = Retinia (Tortrix) buoliana, chiefly attacks young Scots Pine up to 12 years of age, though other Pines are sometimes attacked. The attack is especially prevalent on southern aspects. The larvae or caterpillars bore into the buds and there hibernate during the winter. Next spring, as the buds develop, the larvae feed on and hollow out the young twigs, which only partially develop and then fall over and die. Of other Pests. — Squirrels do much harm by eating off the bark high up in the trees. AUSTRIAN PINE. This is not a native tree to this country. As to Seed. — One pound of seed contains about 25,000 seeds, and the germinative capacity is about 65 to 70 per cent, CORSICAN PINE 407 The timber is soft, resinous, and durable, but is coarse and very knotty, as usually grown in this country. Soil and Situation. — The tree delights in calcareous soils, and even thrives on poor thin soils resting upon chalk. Generally speaking, it prefers a deep dry gravelly loam. It will succeed on ordinary clay soils, but not on very stiff wet soils. It is very storm-proof, and very hardy as to drought and as to spring and autumn frosts. Cultivation, etc. — It is a very light-demanding tree, though not so much so as Scots Pine ; and its foliage is a little denser than that of Scots Pine. Its side branches are very vigorous and persistent, and a very close canopy indeed is necessary in order to kill off these branches. Trees, planted 3 feet apart, need not, usually, be thinned till they are 25 to 30 feet high. It is only suitable for even-aged high forest, and, in most respects, may be similarly grown as Scots Pine ; but it is much faster growing when young. It stands sea breezes well, and can be used for planting sandy tracts along the sea coast. Except for such purposes, or as shelter belts, it will seldom be advisable to plant it, as the Corsican Pine, which is similar in most respects, will, in this country, grow timber of higher technical value. The trees do not transplant well, and should be moved every year whilst in the nursery. They should be planted out late in spring. Of Fungi and Insects. — Speaking generally, the fungi and insects which attack the tree are the same as those which attack Scots Pine. CORSICAN PINE. The Corsican Pine is not a native tree, and is said to have been introduced about the year 1815. As to Seed. — One pound of seed contains about 31,000 seeds, and the germinative capacity is about 65 to 70 per cent. The trees can produce good crops of seed from the 3Oth year onwards ; but it is not advisable to use home-grown seed. 408 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES The timber is light, soft, resinous, and durable. It is very similar to that of Austrian Pine, but is, when grown in this country, of greater technical quality and possesses fewer knots. It is worth as much per foot as Scots Pine. Soil and Situation. — Deep dry soils suit it best ; but it is not very exacting in respect of soil. Like Austrian Pine, it succeeds on soils overlying chalk, but, in such cases, it requires rather more surface soil than Austrian Pine. It thrives quite well on moderately stiff clay land. How- ever, nursery stock should always be raised on dry friable soil ; for, on stiffish land, the seedlings will never form good root systems. Very wet soils are quite unsuited to it. In its early existence, say up to 3 years old, it is much injured by continual wet weather in the growing season. It prefers a dry atmosphere. It is very hardy as to drought, and, also, as to spring and autumn frosts. It is, also, a very storm-proof tree. It stands sea-spray very well, and is one of the best trees to plant on sandy, seaside tracts. Cultivation, etc. — The tree grows very quickly when young ; a good deal faster than Scots Pine. It is very light- demanding. Its side branches are very persistent, and a close canopy when young is very necessary in order to prevent their development. It has a deep root system, and nursery plants must be transplanted every year until planted out, say at 2 or 3 years old, otherwise they will be devoid of fibrous roots. Corsican Pine is, perhaps, the most difficult tree to trans- plant. It should be planted out late in spring, just as the buds are expanding. It is far easier to transplant 2-year- old trees than 3- or 4-year-old trees. On heather land it is one of the best pioneer crops, as it grows so quickly ; but, on grass land, Scots Pines may be preferable, as larger plants are necessitated, and the Scots Pines transplant readily. Corsican Pine is only suitable for even-aged high forest. If its success be undoubted, it will generally be preferable to plant it pure — 3 feet apart each way. CORSICAN PINE 409 Corsican and Scots Pines may be evenly mixed when the success of the Corsican Pine is doubtful. Corsican and Weymouth Pines make a good mixture in cases where the success of a pure crop of Weymouth Pine is doubtful. The Corsican Pines must be removed as thinnings, for the Weymouth Pines will surpass them. Corsican Pine and Douglas Fir is an admissible mixture where a final crop of Douglas Fir is desired, and the expense of planting a pure crop is considered too great. Rotation. — The best rotation is about 80 years, though, as with most coniferous crops, quite short rotations often pay very well for pit timber. Average returns from pure crops in high forest should be, per acre : — Thinnings . . . 1680 cub. ft. to 2 in q. g. Final yield (at 80 years) . 3600 „ 6 „ Total production . . 5500 „ 2 „ Average annual increment, 75 cub. ft. Of Fungi and Insects. — The fungous and insect attacks are similar to those mentioned as affecting Scots Pine. Of other Pests. — Rabbits, usually, will not persistently attack Corsican Pine. But, in hard winters, if they can find nothing else to eat, they will readily feed on the bark. In cases where only a few Corsican Pines have been planted, they are often attacked by rabbits, who, out of ignorance, like to sample the bark, but soon come to the conclusion that it is distasteful. Squirrels do much harm by " ringing " the trees near the top. THE STAR, CLUSTER, OR MARITIME PINE. This is not a native tree, and is said to have been intro- duced in 1596. The timber is coarse, resinous, and rather heavy. It is very inferior to Scots Pine timber. The tree never grows with a straight bole. Soil and Situation.— It prefers deep, dry, sandy soils; 410 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES but it will grow on a variety of soils, provided they be deep. Chalky or any calcareous soils are quite unsuited to it ; so also are wet soils. It is tender as to frosts ; but it is a storm- proof tree, and has been very successfully planted on sandy dunes by the sea-shore. It stands the sea blasts very well. Cultivation, etc. — The tree is very light-demanding ; and is of a coarse branchy habit, the ends of the branches turning somewhat upwards. Like Corsican Pine, it is a very difficult tree to transplant. Nursery stock should be transplanted every year without fail, until planted out at, say, 3 years old. The planting out should take place late in the spring. The tree has a very long tap-root, and very few fibrous roots. Hence, where possible, it should be raised in situ from seed. Except for sea-coast planting, there is little to recommend the cultivation of the tree. BANK'S PINE. This is a native tree of Eastern America. The timber is of very little commercial value ; and on poor soil the trees are only from 15 to 25 feet high. Soil and Situation, etc. — It will grow on almost any soil ; and its value lies in the fact that it may succeed on dry, nearly barren, rocky soils, where almost all other trees will fail. It is very hardy as to frosts, and will also withstand sea breezes very well. It has been successfully planted on sand dunes ; and, in Denmark, is so planted on the coast along with the White Spruce (P. alba). PlNUS INSIGNIS. The P. insignis is native to California, and is said to have been introduced in 1833. Soil and Situation. — It prefers light, dry, deep soils, and is very tender as to spring and autumn frosts. Dry, cold, easterly winds are also detrimental to it. WEYMOUTH PINE 411 Generally speaking, it has no sylvicultural value in this country ; but on the west coast of England, it has been used with success in planting dry shifting sand in localities much exposed to the sea blast ; though their development is small under such circumstances. The buds of the trees are not so liable to be pierced and riddled by the blowing sand as are the buds of most other Pines. WEYMOUTH PINE. The Weymouth Pine is not a native tree; but it was introduced from Eastern North America in 1705. As to Seed. — Trees, 30 years old, produce good crops of seed ; and good seed years occur every 2 or 3 years ; the seed usually ripens in October in this country ; and, if it be required, it should be collected at once, as the seed is almost immediately scattered. However, home-grown seed should not be used, except experimentally. One pound of seed contains about 27,000 seeds, and the germinative capacity is about 5 5 per cent. The timber is white, light, soft, and contains but little resin. It is one of the lightest woods when seasoned ; and it shrinks very little in seasoning, and does not warp. It is not durable when exposed to inimical influences, but is very suitable for all interior joinery ; and it make's excellent pulp wood. The White or Yellow Pine of commerce is cut from the Weymouth Pine. Soil and Situation. — Deep, sandy loams, with a good supply of moisture, suit the tree best of all. Calcareous soils in most cases seem quite unsuited to it. It often grows well on peaty soils, provided they contain no stagnant water ; and, also, on clay soils, but under such cir- cumstances, they are often difficult to establish, on account of spring and autumn frosts, to which the Weymouth Pine is very susceptible. On dry, sandy soils the tree will often thrive well, but it is 412 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES rather liable to become diseased wherever the conditions for its growth are not favourable. In all cases a deep soil is essential. It prefers fairly sheltered situations, and cold, dry, east winds are inimical to it. Cultivation, etc. — The tree is capable of withstanding considerable shade, especially if the soil be moist ; and its foliage is denser than that of most Pines. It grows very fast when once it is established. It is rather shy of transplanting ; but, if this be done late in the spring, there is not much danger to fear. Its side branches are very persistent, and a very close canopy is necessary in order to prune them off. The tree is peculiar in transpiring an enormous amount of moisture, and, for this reason, the greatest care is necessary if it be used for underplanting. It may be grown pure as even-aged high forest ; but, as it is rather liable to fungous attacks, it is less risky to plant a mixture. Thus, Weymouth and Scots or Corsican Pines may be evenly mixed, the Weymouth Pines being left for the mature crop, if all goes well. They should be planted 3 feet apart each way. It is rather difficult to make any other mixture by alternate rows or trees, unless the inferior growth of one of the species be not objected to. However, Weymouth Pine and Sitka Spruce might give good results, though it would be a very expensive mixture ; for both species are expensive to raise. But, as is the case with most species, the most satisfactory manner of forming mixtures is, generally, by groups or patches, when, if fairly large groups be made, almost any species can be mixed, provided the soil be suitable. Weymouth Pine is admirably suited for underplanting crops of Larch or Ash, provided that the soil be not too dry. The light overhead canopy will afford the Pines the shelter they require from frosts ; and the cost of raising a crop can be very much reduced by planting 2-year-old plants. Rotation, — The best rotation is about 80 years. WEYMOUTH PINE 413 Average returns from pure crops in high forest should be, per acre : — Thinnings . . . 1350 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Final yield (at 80 years) . 4270 „ 6 „ Total production . . 6300 „ 2 „ Average annual increment, 79 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Equivalent net rental l for land only } at 3% = 45. id. (from date of planting) ) at 4% = minus is. $d. Of Fungi. — Many of those attacking Scots Pine also attack the Weymouth Pine. Agaricus melleus and Trametes radiciperda very frequently cause much damage. Peridermium strobi, sometimes called P. ribicolum, is the Weymouth Pine Bark Blister. It often does enormous damage to young crops. It is characterised by pinky red, bladder-like vesicles, which appear on the stems. Other fungi attacking the Weymouth Pine are : — Hysteriurn pinastri, Botrytis cinerea, Cseoma pinitor- quum, Trametes pini, and Peridermium pini acicola. Of Insects. — Most of those attacking Scots Pine will also, occasionally, attack Weymouth Pine ; though, generally speaking, the tree is not nearly so subject to insect attacks as the Scots Pine. Pissodes notatus is, however, fairly common in Scotland. 1 After deducting interest on ^8, the cost of planting and establishing the crop. 414 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES SILVER PIR. Abies pectinata = The Common Silver Pir. Abies Nordmanniana = Nordmann's Silver Pir. Abies concolor. Abies grandis. The Common Silver Pir is native to the mountains of Central Europe; and is said to have been introduced in 1603. As to Seed. — Good crops of seed are produced from about the 65th year onwards, in its native habitat. It bears seed in the warmer parts of this country ; but home-grown seed should never be relied upon, except for experimental purposes. One pound of seed contains about 10,000 seeds, and the germinative capacity is about 40 per cent. The timber is white, soft, and light ; and, if grown in close canopy, is of excellent quality. It may be used for the same purposes as Spruce. It is easily worked, and splits well. Strasburg Turpentine is obtained from this tree. Soil and Situation. — A deep soil is essential, and a fair amount of moisture. On dry, sandy, or gravelly soils it will not, usually, succeed. It is extremely tender as to spring and autumn frosts ; and, also, as to hot summer sun, when the plants are young. It will thrive on stiff clay soils, if it can get established ; but, except when used as an undercrop, it will so often be killed by frosts, that it should seldom be planted in the open on such soils. It likes a fairly moist atmosphere, and a warm climate ; and it succeeds best in the south and south-west of England, or in the neighbourhood of the sea or inland lakes ; and it prefers northern aspects. It has a deep root system and is a storm-proof tree. Cultivation, etc. — The tree is rather a bad " transplanter." SILVER FIR 415 and, like most conifers, succeeds best if planted out late in the spring. It is very slow growing when young, trees 12 years old being often only 6 or 8 feet high. It bears an immense amount of shade; more even than the Beech. Its side branches are not readily killed ; and a very close canopy must be retained until the trees are 50 feet high. In the latter part of its rotation, its growth is very rapid indeed. It may be grown in even-aged high forest ; but it should almost invariably be raised under a light shelter-wood, so as to protect the young crop from frosts and sun. It should be grown pure, or else mixed by patches or groups ; for, its slow growth will prevent it being pruned by practically any other trees ; nor will these other trees be pruned by the Silver Fir, for the vigorous growths of the latter will be too late to effect the desired end. Silver Fir should, however, as a general rule, be used only for underplanting, for which purpose it is admirably suited. As the undercrop in two-storied high forest, it will generally give a better financial return than if grown as even-aged high forest. When used for underplanting, the overcrop can be removed when the Silver Fir are about 40 years old, and the latter should then be allowed to grow on to maturity. Also, apart from the question of the advisability of raising crops from home-^rown seed, Silver Fir can be grown under the group and selection systems. Natural regeneration is very easy in its native country, and it is often found in the south and west of England, and in Ireland; but, it is doubtful if these trees will retain the vigour of, or produce as good seed as, their parents. For experimental purposes, the seed from these self-sown English trees should be carefully collected, and the young trees raised therefrom should be carefully watched. Ultim- ately, a generation of acclimatised trees might be reared, whose seed could be relied upon, and which would, probably, then be preferable to any imported seed ; and the extreme tenderness as to frosts might thus be eradicated. Rotation. — The best rotation is from 80 to 100 years. 416 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES Average returns from pure crops in high forest should be, per acre : — Thinnings . . . 1160 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Final yield (at 90 years) . 6050 „ 6 „ Total production . . 7860 „ 2 „ Average annual increment, 87 J cub. ft. Equivalent net rental l for land only } at 3% = is. lod. (from date of planting) j at 4% = minus 33. 6d. Of Fungi. — Phytophthora omnivera causes " damping off" of seedlings. Pestalozzia Hartigii produces a canker on the bark of young stems in nurseries and young plantations. The attack is generally near the ground level. Agaricus melleus = the Honey Fungus, and Trametes radiciperda (Femes annosus) = The Red Rot Root Fungus, attack the roots. Trametes pini attacks the boles of trees, after the age of about 35 years, and decomposes the heartwood and also the sapwood ; though in Pines and Larch the sapwood is not attacked. -ascidium elatinum produces "Witches Broom." This aecidium is the resting spore stage of Melampsorella cerastii. It is characterised, in the early stages, by annular swellings which appear on the twigs and branches. Truhosphceria parasitica = rFhQ Silver Fir Needle Blight Fungus, attacks plantations when about 20 to 40 years old. The young twigs are attacked and the needles turn brown and hang down. Phoma abietina causes a canker on the twigs and branches of small Silver Firs. Lophodermium nervisequum = The Silver Fir Leaf Scurf, attacks 2-year-old needles in the spring of their 3rd year. It takes the form of a rust, and afterwards causes leaf- shedding. 1 After deducting interest on £8, the cost of planting and establishing the crop. NORDMANN'S SILVER FIR 417 Of Insects. — On the whole these are not very destructive. Cockchafer grubs gnaw the roots of young plants. The Giant or Yellow Wood Wasp ( — Sirexgigas), bores into the boles of the Silver. Fir, and also of Larch and Spruce. Hylobius abietis sometimes gnaws the bark of young stems, up to about 7 years of age. Nordmann's Silver Fir. — This is native to the mountains in the south-east of Europe, and is said to have been intro- duced in 1845. It is of about similar value to, and may be cultivated in the same manner as, the Common Silver Fir. It has the advantage of being less liable to be injured by spring frosts, as its growth in spring starts very much later than the common variety. According to some writers, it can endure more shade even than the Common Silver Fir. Abies concolor is well worth an extensive trial. It trans- plants better than most of the other Silver Firs ; and the trees are quicker growing when young than most of the other varieties. It is less injured by spring frosts ; and will grow on considerably drier soils than any other of the Silver Firs. Abies grandis is recommended by some. It appears to be somewhat hardier, and rather quicker growing when young, and, also, more easy to transplant than the Common Silver Fir. 2 D 418 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES SPRUCE. Picea excelsa = The Norway Spruce. Picea Sitchensis = Sitka Spruce. Picea alba = The White Spruce. None of the Spruces are native trees. NORWAY SPRUCE. The Norway Spruce is said to have been introduced about 1550. As to Seed. — Good crops of seed are produced from about the i$th year onwards; and the seed years are frequent. However, it is a difficult question to decide whether home-grown seed should be used. One pound of seed contains about 64,000 seeds, and the germinative capacity is about 70 to 75 per cent. The timber is white, light, and soft, but is not durable when exposed to inimical influences. It is the tree from which the white Christiana deals are cut. It makes excellent pulp wood. Soil and Situation. — The Spruce will grow in a great variety of soils, but any dry soil is quite unsuited to it. It thrives on stiff clay soils, and also on peaty soils, provided they are not water-logged. It requires a less depth of soil than almost ary other tree, provided it can obtain sufficient moisture. It prefers a very moist atmosphere, and hence succeeds better on northern aspects. As explained elsewhere, its growth in England is seldom satisfactory, except on tablelands at high elevations, or on northern aspects, or where there is really a great deal of moisture in the soil. However, the climate in Scotland is much more suited to its growth. The tree likes a short grow- ing season with a rapid transition from winter to summer ; and it delights in being frequently shrouded in mist and fog. NORWAY SPRUCE 419 It is rather susceptible to late spring frosts ; and is very liable to be thrown by the wind. Cultivation, etc. — It is a thickly foliaged tree. It is very fibrous rooted, and will transplant easily, but it generally takes a few years to become established after being planted out, after which it makes a rapid height growth, and, like Silver Fir, Larch, and Douglas Fir, preserves a straight central stem. Its side branches are very persistent and are very difficult to prune off naturally, so that a close canopy, when young, is very essential. It bears a good deal of shade where the conditions for its growth are really suitable ; but, generally speaking, it is a very inferior shade bearer in most parts of England. Even on good moist soils, its utility for underplanting is of doubtful value, for it transpires a very great amount of water in the spring, and robs the overcrop of its due supply, and hence often does more harm than good. If planted under Oak, it will often cause the latter to become "stag- headed." The best timber will be grown, if it be planted pure in even-aged high forest. Mixtures, except by groups or patches, are very difficult to arrange. Norway Spruce and Weymouth Pine should give good results ; but, if the soil be suitable for Weymouth Pine, it will not usually be profitable to plant Spruce. Leaving out of consideration the advisability of the growth of trees from home-grown seed, and also the expense of protection against rabbits, Spruce may be grown under the selection system ; though the quality of the timber will not be very good. And it may also be grown under the group system ; but the groups must be small, as the tree is not storm- proof. All thinnings must be very slight until the principal height growth has been attained. Rotation. — The best rotation on average land is from 75 to 85 years. 420 SYLVICULTURE NOTES ON TIMBER TREES Average returns from pure crops in even-aged high forest should be, in cubic feet, per acre : — Thinnings . . . 1000 cub. ft. to 2 in. q. g. Final yield (at 80 years) . 5000 „ 6 „ Total production . . 6400 „ 6 „ Average annual increment, 80 cub. ft. to 2 .in. q. g. The rental equivalents will be about the same as those given for Silver Fir. Of Fungi. — Phytophthora omnivera often causes the "damping off" of large quantities of seedlings. Pestalozzia Hartigii produces a kind of canker or blister on the bark of the smooth stems of Spruce, and also of Silver Fir and other trees in nurseries, and in young plantations. The attack is generally near the ground level, and the trees wilt and die. Septoria parasitica attacks the leading shoots of seedlings and young trees of Norway Spruce and Sitka Spruce. The base of the young shoots is generally affected in about June ; they hang down, wither, and die. Later on, black fungous specks can be seen on the bark and the needle cushions of the attacked shoots. Agaricus melleus ( = the Honey Fungus) and Trametes radiciperda (Fomes annosus) = the Red Rot Root Fungus, attack the roots. Trametes pini attacks the boles of trees after about the age of 35 years, affecting the heartwood and also the sap- wood and causing the bole to become hollow. Lophodermium macro sporum (= the Spruce Leaf Scurf), attacks the leaves of 2-year-old shoots of young trees, generally from 10 to 30 years of age. It either merely pro- duces a rust, or else causes actual leaf shedding. Botrytis cinerea attacks the foliage of young trees and nursery stock. Nectria curcubitula produces cankerous patches on the bark cf small stems and branches. Chrysomyxa abietis (= the Spruce Needle Rust or Blister), produces a rust on the current year's needles only. SITKA SPRUCE 421 It is most frequent in plantations from 10 to 30 years of age. Polyporus vaporarius attacks the stems through wound surfaces. Of Insects.— Hylobius abietis ( = the Pine Weevil) gnaws the bark of 2- to /-year-old trees. As mentioned, when dealing with Scots Pine, the fellings should always be inter- mittent, so that neighbouring Spruce areas differ by 6 to 8 years. If possible, Spruce should not be planted on areas from which a crop of Spruce or Scots Pine has just been removed. Bark traps should be laid. Pissodes notatus ( = the Small Brown Weevil), Hylesinus (or Hylurgus) piniperda ( = the Large Pine Beetle), and Cockchafer grubs, also do much harm. Chermes abietis ( = the Spruce gall Aphis), is the sexual form of the sexless Larch Aphis. It attacks young Spruce from about 10 to 20 years of age. The lice suck the sap of the young shoots, and a cone-like gall results. SITKA SPRUCE. The Sitka Spruce, sometimes known as Menzies Spruce, is native to Sitka Sound and the coast region of British Columbia ; it is said to have been introduced in 1831. As to Seed. — One pound of seed contains about 197,000 seeds, and the germinative capacity is about 70 to 75 per cent. There is every reason to anticipate that home-grown seed will prove equal in every respect to that which is imported ; but great caution is necessary until this be proved by generations of experience. The timber of well-grown trees is of excellent quality ; it is soft and white, and may be used for the same purposes as that of Norway Spruce. Soil and Situation. — Deep soils are essential ; so also is a plentiful supply of moisture, and a damp atmosphere, if its maximum development is to be attained. On very stiff clay soils it shows promise of being one of the most profitable trees that can be planted. It delights in a deep, moist, 422 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES humous soil resting upon a cool stiffish bottom. Shallow soils, or very dry soils are quite unsuited to it. But it will succeed on deep, somewhat dry soils, especially if the aspects be north. It has a deep root system and is a storm-proof tree. Cultivation, etc. — It is capable of bearing considerable shade if the soil be moist enough ; and it may be used for underplanting, where the overhead canopy is light. It transplants readily, and is a very quick growing tree ; and, in some cases, it will practically keep pace with Douglas Fir. Its side branches are vigorous, and a close canopy is necessary in order to effect natural pruning. It may be grown in even-aged high forest, when it is best grown pure. Mixtures by alternate rows or single trees are difficult to arrange. Sitka Spruce and Douglas Fir, or Sitka Spruce and Weymouth Pine will grow excellent timber ; but, both these mixtures are very expensive. Sitka Spruce and Thuya gigantea should give very good results. In order to lessen the expense, a mixture of Sitka Spruce and Corsican Pine may be planted, all the latter being removed as thinnings. Sitka Spruce will also, in all probability, succeed well under the group or selection systems. It is very suitable for underplanting, if the overhead canopy be light. Like all thickly foliaged trees, it is quite unsuited for standards over coppice. Rotation. — The best rotation is from 70 to 75 years. Average returns from crops grown in this country have yet to be proved. But it will, in all probability, prove rather more profitable than Weymouth Pine. Of Fungi and Insects which will attack it in this country, it is somewhat premature to treat of; but, many of those enumerated when treating of Norway Spruce and Scots Pine have already attacked the Sitka Spruce. WHITE SPRUCE 423 Wherever the conditions are not really suited to the growth of the tree, it is almost certain to fall a prey, sooner or later, to attacks of fungi or insects. Some species of fungus affecting the foliage seems very prevalent on young trees planted on dry land. As to other Pests. — The needles of Sitka Spruce are very prickly, and to a great extent they afford protection against deer and other animals which like to feed on young trees. WHITE -SPRUCE. The White Spruce is a native tree to North America. Though it is of little importance as a timber producer in this country, it may possibly prove to have a great value for planting on exposed sand dunes on the sea coast. It appears extremely hardy in every respect. It has been very successfully planted, along with the Banksian Pine, on exposed, sandy tracts on the coast of Denmark. 424 SYLVICULTURAL NOTES ON TIMBER TREES THUYA. Thuya gigantea =The Giant Arborvitse, or the Red "Cedar" of British Columbia. Thuya occidentals = The American, or Common Arborvitae. Only the Thuya gigantea will be considered, as the T. occidentals is of little sylvicultural importance in this country. The Thuya gigantea is a native tree to British Columbia, and grows most luxuriantly near the damp Pacific Coast. It is said to have been introduced in 1854. As to Seed. — It bears abundant crops of seed from about the 3Oth year onwards. Home-grown seed is likely to prove satisfactory in all respects. Imported seed from European continental countries is likely, in time to come, to cause some disappointment, and may with advantage be avoided. All seed should be obtained from near the sea coast of British Columbia. One pound of seed contains about 341,000 seeds, and the germinative capacity is about 60 to 65 per cent. The timber is soft and very resinous, brownish in colour, and splits well. It is a very durable timber, and, for outdoor fencing, gate posts, etc., is invaluable. In its native country, huge quantities of the timber are split or sawn into " shingles," which take the place of roofing tiles or slates. It is largely used for weather boarding. It is not much used for interior house work, except for " match lining." The value of its timber on the British market has yet to be proved ; but it should be worth about 6d. to pd. a cubic foot, according to the current level of prices. Soil and Situation. — A moist, porous soil is most suitable for its growth. It will succeed on almost any soils, except very dry or water-logged soils. It grows fairly well on stiff clay soils, or on thin clays resting on disintegrated limestone rock, though in such localities its development is not rapid. It is a storm-proof tree, and fairly hardy as regards spring and autumn frosts. It is apt to be much injured by a hot THUYA GIGANTEA 425 sun inducing transplantation in the early spring. It possesses, however, an extraordinary recuperative power ; and often survives the bad effects of the most inimical influences. It prefers a moist atmosphere, and succeeds best on northern aspects. Cultivation, etc. — The tree is very thickly foliaged, and bears a great amount of shade on moist soils. It transplants fairly well, but takes a few years to become established, after which it makes a very rapid growth, often being 40 feet high when 25 years old. It does not, however, retain this rapid growth after the tree is about 55 feet high ; but it still increases rapidly in girth measurement. A close canopy is necessary, in order to prune off the side branches when young. The Thuya gigantea is admirably suited for underplanting crops of thinly foliaged trees. It may also be grown in even- aged high forest, either quite pure, or mixed by patches. If mixtures by single trees be required, Thuya and Wey- mouth Pine, or Thuya and Douglas Fir, or Thuya and Sitka Spruce may be planted. In the two latter cases it will usually be finally suppressed, and will have to be cut out as thinnings. The tree could also be grown under the selection or group systems. Rotation. — The best rotation in even-aged high forest will be about 70 to 80 years. Average returns. — An average annual increment of 80 to 85 cubic feet (to 2 inches quarter girth) may be anticipated. The question, whether the cultivation of this tree will prove remunerative, will depend upon the reception of its timber in the open market. It ought to sell readily ; but, until this be proved, any plantations that may happen to be made by planting this tree, must be looked upon in the light of an experiment. The tree seems remarkably free from attacks by fungi or insects. CHAPTER XVII. MEASUREMENTS FOR PURPOSES OF FOREST MANAGEMENT. THE ordinary method of measuring standing timber has been dealt with in another chapter. But, for certain investigations into the growth of crops where large areas have to be measured and great accuracy is required, the ordinary method is not suitable; for it would require a very great deal of time, and, moreover, the actual height of the tree is more or less of an uncertainty. Continental foresters adopt another method. It is very much quicker, and insures greater accuracy ; and, where a large area under timber is being measured, their usual custom is to assess the total true mathematical contents measured over bark, including, also, branch wood. It will be instructive to note their methods of measuring standing trees or whole crops of timber, as, to a great degree, their methods will be found indispensable in this country, when making scientific investigations ; although quarter girth measurements should usually be adopted instead of true con- tents measurements. Now, the true contents of standing timber are found by multiplying together, the exact height, the basal area at breast high, and the form factor. The exact height of standing trees may be found by the use of various height measures, of which an instrument known as Brandit's Hypsometer is, perhaps, the best. It is some- what like a miniature telescope containing a dial with angles marked upon it. This dial is pivoted and can be released by pressing a button ; and becomes again fixed when the 426 BRANDIT'S HYPSOMETER 427 pressure on the button is withdrawn. On fairly level ground the upward angle, from a line horizontal with the observer's eye to the very tip of the tree, is first ascertained, by looking through the eye-piece and releasing the dial by pressing the button ; when the cross wires cut the top of the tree and the dial is steady, it should be fixed by taking the pressure off the button. The angle can then be read ; and, having measured the horizontal distance from the centre of the tree to the observer, the height of the tree, from a point in a line horizontal with the eye, can be ascertained by reference to tables.1 To the height thus ascertained must be added the length between the ground level and a point on the tree in a line horizontal with the observer's eye. This will give the correct height of the tree. If the observer be standing on much higher ground than that upon which the tree is growing, it will be necessary to measure the tree in two lengths, and add the two together. The first length is from a line horizontal with the observer's eye to the top of the tree, and the second length is from the same horizontal line to the bottom of the tree.2 The sum of these two will give the height of the tree. There are other hypsometers, such as Weise's, Faust- mann's, Konig's, which may be preferred by some. The principle of all is that of trigonometrical relations. The basal area at breast high is obtained by taking the diameter over bark at 4j feet above the ground. The basal area is the product of: — (Diameter)2 x — . 4 The diameter is taken in inches by means of callipers, or of a tree compass. Callipers are preferable to the tree compass, as the latter is usually heavier and is apt to give too small a diameter. For very great accuracy, two diameters at right angles to each other should be measured, and the mean of 1 Tables for use with this instrument will be found in Appendix A. The hypsometer may be obtained from Herr Max Woltz, Bonn, Germany. - The downward angle being read. 428 MEASUREMENTS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT the two diameters taken ; for trees often present a broader face one way than another. As the height is taken in feet, the basal area must there- fore be reduced to feet, and the two multiplied together, e.g., D2 (in inches) TT - x — x height in feet. 144 4 In practice this will be obtained from tables. This will give the true contents of a cylinder equal to the total length of the tree, and having a diameter, all the way up, equal to the diameter at breast high. Thus the contents as found will be far too great. The correct contents are only a fraction of this amount. The pro- portion which the actual contents bear to this cylinder is known as the form factor. It is, therefore, necessary to multiply the product of the height and basal area (at breast high) by the form factor, in order to arrive at the actual contents. The tables of average form factors in general use are all calculated on measurements taken at breast high ; there- fore, in applying them, it is very necessary to be strictly accurate in taking the measurements at breast high, or the results will not be correct. These form factors are usually referable, either to the total contents, including all small branches, or else to such contents as have a diameter of 2\ inches1 and upwards, over bark. It is only these latter that are of any practical applica- tion in this country. It must be clearly understood that these average form factors cannot be taken in order to find the accurate contents of any single particular tree. They are the average form factors obtained from measurements made on innumerable trees growing in close-canopied high forest. Therefore, if only a single tree or a small number of trees is being measured, it is not correct to apply the form factor from average tables. Under such circumstances, the mean diameter (for timber only) must be estimated by the eye, just as the taper of a 1 7 centimetres. FORM FACTORS 429 tree is estimated in the British method of measuring stand- ing timber ; and the height up to the timber limit must also be ascertained, and the contents of timber will be : — Timber height (in feet) x (mean diameter)* ^ 144 4 Hence it will be seen that the continental method has no advantage over the British method, where a single tree, or only a small number of trees, is being individually measured, except that the height is measured more accurately if an hypsometer be used. The form factor is really the proportion which the basal area of a cylinder, having the contents of and being as long as a given tree, bears to the basal area of that tree at breast high. If trees have the same height, the form factor will nearly always be different in the case of trees having different diameters ; though all trees, whatever their height or diameter, would have the same form factor if the degree of taper from the tip of the tree to the ground were uniformly even. In well-grown, close-canopied high forest, it is found that the girth of trees of the same species will usually vary accord- ing to the height, during the period in which active height growth is taking place ; and the form factor, as found in average tables, is usually made referable to the height of a tree. Now, if a crop of timber were not uniform in any respect, it would be necessary to measure every tree individually, and no use could be made of average form factors or any other average data. But, where crops are fairly uniform, the contents of any area, whether large or small, may be found through the use of average data by the following methods : — (1) Measurement of Sample Trees. (2) Measurement of Sample Plots. (3) By estimation from Average Yield Tables. 1. Measurement of Sample Trees. This excellent method involves, in its simplest form, the finding of the true average stem and multiplying the contents 430 MEASUREMENTS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT of that stem by the number of trees on the area. If the area be very large, the average tree and the number of trees, on a comparatively small measured area, are first ascertained, and the contents completed ; and from this the contents of the large area are calculated. The initial difficulty is to find the average stem. An excellent method is that adopted by Weise, in which every stem is counted and assigned to a diameter class (each class usually varying I inch in diameter). When all the stems are thus counted and classified, a count back up to 40 per cent, of the total number of stems is made, beginning with the stems in the biggest diameter class. The diameter class into which this count back leads, will contain the true average stem which is required. Thus if an area contained 3000 trees classified thus : — Diameter. Inches. Number. 8 51 9 159 10 345 ir 685 12 764 13 500 14 336 15 122 16 38 Total . 3000 Then a count back of 40 per cent. — 40 x 3000 IOO = 1200 — equals 1200 trees from the 1 6-inch diameter class; this would lead into the 1 2-inch diameter class. WEISE'S METHOD 431 Hence by this rule the average tree is one of 12 inches diameter. Having ascertained this, the height of several trees having this diameter is accurately measured, and the average height arrived at ; then the average form factor, for the species of tree having this height, is ascertained from tables ; and then the contents of this average stem are found, e.g.t basal area x height x form factor ; and the contents of the whole area are equal to the contents of the average stem x number of stems on the area. If the crop be mixed, the species of trees must be kept separate ; and their contents separately computed. Whenever there is no objection to the contrary, a few of the average stems should be felled, and their contents accu- rately measured ; for by this means, still greater accuracy will be obtained, and the use of an average form factor dispensed with. A method giving still greater accuracy is to find the basal area and height for each class ; and then the contents of all the trees in each diameter class ; and finally the contents, on the whole area, by adding the contents of each class together thus : — Diameter. Inches. Number of trees. Basal area, in feet. Height, in feet. Form Factor. Timber only. Contents in cubic feet. Per stem. Whole class. 8 51 •349 17-799 44 •45 352-420 9 159 .441 70-119 48 .46 1,548-227 10 345 •545 188-025 51 •47 4,506.959 ii 685 •659 45I'4I5 54 -48 11,700-547 12 764 •785 599740 56 -48 16,078-011 13 500 •921 460-500 58 -48 12,820-320 14 336 1-069 359-I84 60 •47 10,128-876 15 122 1-227 149-694 62 •47 4,361-966 16 38 1-396 53-048 63 -46 1,537-331 3000 Total . 63,034-657 432 MEASUREMENTS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT Now, by Weise's method, the average sample stem is 21-1008 cubic feet, and the contents per acre = 21- 1008 x 3000 = 63,302-400 cubic feet, a difference of less than J per cent. Various other methods have been evolved for determin- ing the contents of an area by the estimation of sample trees. These, for the most part, divide the total number of trees into classes of equal numbers, and take one or more sample trees for each class, and thus arrive at the total contents. By Draudt's method, a constant proportion (usually I per cent.) of the number of trees in each class is taken for samples ; the I per cent, being reckoned roughly on every hundred, or fraction of a hundred over fifty; and two or more diameter classes, if containing under 50 trees, are grouped together. By Urich's method, one sample tree is taken for every 100 trees, and is considered to have the diameter of that class from which most of the trees making up that 100 are drawn. But Weise's method, and that of finding the contents of each diameter class, are far preferable for ordinary use. 2. Measurement of Sample Plots. By this method, several plots of about one-half or one acre each are selected and measured at various spots over the whole area ; their contents computed ; and then the con- tents of the whole area found according to the proportion the total area bears to the plots. This method has to some extent already been indicated when describing the method of selecting sample stems on a single given measured area if the total area be very large. But the method now under consideration presupposes the taking of several small plots ; and it will often be expedient to measure every tree on each of the plots, or the contents may be found by the taking of sample trees as previously described. In selecting the plots, care should be taken that they are FORM FACTORS 433 as nearly representative of the whole area as possible ; and they should never be taken (or only a very small proportion of them) on the edges of rides or roads, as, in such places, the growth and development is usually greater than elsewhere. The principle involved in these two methods of measure- ing large areas of timber should certainly be adopted largely in this country. If the true contents over bark be com- puted, the contents by quarter girth measurement under bark (allowing I inch to I foot) will be approximately 65 per cent.1 The quarter girth measurement contents can also be found by using a reduced form factor when finding the contents by the true basal area method, i.e., by taking the diameter. Thus, in the case of a crop of Beech, the reduced form factors would be as follows, if the average form factors in continental tables, according to the height of trees, were : — Height of Tree. Feet. Form Factor. True Contents. For Timber only. Reduced Form Factor. For Quarter Girth Content*. under bark if diameters were takeu over bark. 45 •35 •23 50 •40 •26 60 •45 •29 90 •50 •32 100 •50 •32 However, in most cases it will be preferable to take the quarter girth measurements at breast high, and then to use the unreduced form factors direct, if form factors are going to be used at all. But the application of continental form factors must at present be used with great caution in this country ; for, speaking generally, crops of timber are not raised in this country in the same density as was the case with the crops from which the average form factors have been taken. There- fore, it will be wise to omit the use of form factors, at any 1 Vide Chapter XIII. 2 E 434 MEASUREMENTS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT rate, until their efficiency has been assured by collecting the average form factors for innumerable crops of normal density in this country. At present the average sample trees must be measured in the ordinary way, except that an hypsometer should be used for accurately gauging the height. Where possible, the sample trees should be felled and accurately measured, and their form factors ascertained, and a careful record of them kept for future use. 3. Estimation by Reference to Average Yield Tables. This is a method which will give approximately correct results if average yield tables be obtainable. It is, therefore, very useful in the making of working plans, or in drawing up a report on any woodland area, especially for estimating the contents of the younger crops. But, when great accuracy is necessary, their use cannot be recom- mended. There are no average tables in general use, at present, for crops grown in this country.1 Any attempt to apply con- tinental tables cannot be expected to give more than a rough estimate, as the conditions under which they are grown, both as to culture and climate, vary very greatly from those that obtain in Great Britain. The application of the tables to an existing crop is not an easy matter. It is necessary to know the age of the crop and the quality of the land for the species of crop that is growing. In order to ascertain the age of a crop, it is necessary to fell a few trees and count the annual rings, except that, in the case of young coniferous crops, it is nearly always possible to count the annual whorls, thus avoiding the necessity of felling any trees. The quality of the land is much more difficult to estimate. It is, of course, necessary, because the average yield tables are referable to land of a particular quality for the particular crop under consideration. For practical application there ought to be average yield 1 But vide Chapter XI. QUALITY OF SOIL AND SITUATION 435 tables for at least three and by preference five qualities of land. It should be noted that the quality of the land is refer- able to its quality for a particular crop. Thus, any given area may be second quality for one particular crop, but only third quality for another. One of the best guides as to the quality of land is the height of the crop at different ages ; or, at any rate, the height considered in conjunction with the quarter girth measurement. If the crop be of normal density, the height alone would usually be a sufficient guide in the case of crops approaching maturity ; though, in the case of younger crops, it is often found that up to a certain age a somewhat inferior soil may show as good height growth as a soil of better quality. If a crop has been unduly thinned, increment in girth takes place to the detriment of height growth ; and regard must always be paid to this fact when applying yield tables. Various attempts have been made to assess the quality of the soil according to a scale, allotting points for different attributes somewhat after the method adopted in judging live stock in the show ring. But this method cannot be recommended. It may have an academic interest ; but that is all. It is of no more use in judging the quality of forest land than it would be in judging agricultural land for farming purposes. Experience alone can determine the quality of the land. In this connection it will be of great advantage to have a few trial holes dug so as to inspect the nature of the subsoil. Then again, due regard must be paid to the nature of the natural surface vegetation, the altitude, the aspect, and many other considerations which present themselves to an ex- perienced eye. But even when the quality of the land and the age of the crop have been determined, the tables are not easy of applica- tion, for it will seldom be found that the number of trees per acre corresponds exactly with the number indicated in the tables for the particular age. To some extent the contents may be computed by taking an amount proportionate to the indicated number and the actual number; but this cannot 436 MEASUREMENTS FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT give a very accurate result, because the individual trees of the crop, the density of which is below normal, will, owing to their increased growing space, have a greater cubic contents per tree than the trees of the normal crop. Thus it is evident that great experience is usually necessary in order to obtain a fairly accurate estimate. CHAPTER XVIII. ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT ON CROPS OF TIMBER. IT is a matter of the very greatest importance, for those responsible for the management of woodland areas, to be able to correctly gauge the increment or increase in value of the timber crops under their charge. For, an accurate know- ledge of the increment that is taking place in any crop, in any given year, or that is likely to take place during the next few years, affords, when compared with the present capital repre- sented by that crop, the only data which can show, for the time being, the financial return that is being obtained from the invested capital. Whenever this increment in value falls short of the returns that could reasonably be obtained by investing the capital elsewhere, it will seldom be in accordance with the true principles of forestry, to allow the crop to con- tinue growing in its present condition. In many cases it will indicate that the whole crop should be clear felled ; in other cases, perhaps, a partial clearance of the crop will be indicated, in order to admit of an increased increment on the trees left, which may prove very remunerative. The increment in value of any crop may be expressed as the sum of the increment in cubic contents and the increment in the price per cubic foot. 1. Increment in Cubic Contents. One method of ascertaining this increment is to accurately measure the total contents of any crop at two different 437 438 ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT periods, when, provided no thinnings have taken place, the difference in the total contents will give the increment over the period taken. To be of any real value, the measurements must be very accurate ; and to avoid complications the con- tents just after a thinning should be known and compared with measurements taken before another thinning is made. Now, suppose that a crop, after being thinned, contained 1500 cubic feet of saleable timber, and that 10 years after- wards the saleable contents were computed at 2200 cubic feet. Then the increment for the period will have been 700 cubic feet, and the average annual increment for that period will have been 70 cubic feet. Possessed of these data, it is quite easy to show at what rate of interest the volume of the crop has been increas- ing; this information of course being most valuable. It is most important to reckon the rate of compound interest (and not simple interest), for the result is the same whether one is reckoning in cubic feet or in £ s. d. The easiest way to find this rate of interest is to find the proportionate amount to which I cubic foot has increased in the 10 years, and then to refer to interest tables l showing the amount of I (£) at different rates per cent, for different periods. Now, 1500 amounts to 2200 in 10 years. Therefore, i - = 1-46. 1500 Hence, on referring to tables, it is found that I amounts to 1-46 in 10 years at 3f per cent, or 3-75 per cent. It is, of course, absolutely fallacious to argue that On 1500 the gain is 700 in 10 years ,,ioo „ 46-6 „ 10 „ Therefore, in I year the gain per cent, is 4-66. The true rate of compound interest as already found by reference to tables, can also be found in the following way, which is given here, because it will help to explain some of 1 Vide Appendix C. COMPOUND INTEREST FORMULA 439 the formulae usually adopted in scientific forestry investiga- tions : — Let a = present contents of the crop „ A = former contents „ „ n = the number of years between the two measurements „ p = the rate per cent, yielded. Hence, the increment = a- A and the average annual increment = a~ . n Now, if n be only I year, loo :p :: A : a- A ..'. t- *=± x :oo and a = Ax i-op. But, if n is for a greater period than i year, a = A x i-opn This formula will give the true rate of compound interest But it is not very readily applicable for ordinary use. It may, however, be simplified with results approximately correct by expressing the per cent, as equal to the per cent. that the average annual increment for the period bears to the mean contents during that period. Now, the mean contents are a and the average increment n Hence : — » a-A loo a + 2 I00 x Z x n « + A a- A. 200 _ . n 440 ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT This formula gives a rate of compound interest very slightly lower than the true rate of compound interest. It will readily be seen that where data are available, this formula is applicable for general purposes, whether a per- centage increase in cubic feet or in money value is being considered ; andx whether it is the percentage that has occurred in the past or will occur in the future. For general purposes the formula might be expressed thus :— _ 200 Increment ' n Contents or value now + contents or value at period of n years In the example given above the rate of interest that took place during the last 10 years is given ; but, speaking generally, it will be found that it is of far more importance to be able to gauge the probable rate of interest that is likely to take place in the future, or is taking place at the present moment. In this connection it is necessary to have regard to the fact, that, in crops of normal density, any change in the rate of height growth, or of the width of the annual rings for a short period of years, is nearly always very gradual, and when once the principal height growth has been attained the total increment per acre, from year to year, or fro'm one short period to another, does not usually vary suddenly. Hence, the increment that may be expected in the immediate future may be considered as about the same as that which has just accrued. Perhaps a little more, or a little less, according to the vigour and density of the crop, and as other circumstances shall dictate. But the rate per cent, that will be yielded will not usually be so high, for the increment has to be reckoned as a per- centage on a much greater capital. When, however, investigating the rate of growth of crops, it will not usually be found that any accurate measurements of that crop have been previously taken ; hence, it will often be necessary to gauge the increment of the crop without previous measurements for comparison. This may be done by finding the increment on average sample trees, and then calculating the increment per acre. FUTURE INCREMENT 441 It is difficult to calculate the past increment for a whole crop for more than just a year or so by this means, as owing to the removal of trees by thinning it is difficult to estimate what are fair average sample trees of the crop that existed prior to the thinning. And, also, the trees that are selected will, owing to the increased growing space, have wider annual rings than the true average for the past period. But this difficulty is not presented in reckoning the pre- sent or the future increment, except that in the latter case the annual rings will get narrower as the trees again require to be thinned, or if the trees are already mature ; in these cases, however, any change will be very gradual. In order to find the future increment the present contents are deducted from the estimated future contents ; and in order to find the future contents, it is necessary to know what will be the increase in height, and in girth or diameter ; and, as already indicated, this is taken as equal to the rate of increase in height and diameter that has just recently taken place. Thus, if measurements be taken at breast high, and if D = diameter in future (under bark) d = present diameter (under bark) H = height in future h — present height F/ = form factor The increment will equal : — Now, -while timber is still standing, the average in- crease in height may be guessed ; but the increase in diameter can only be found by finding the width of the recent annual rings ; and this is best done by the use of a boring tool, known as Pressler's borer. With this tool a hole is bored about an inch or two inches into the stem, and a round spill of wood is extracted, whilst the borer is still left in the tree. This spill of wood will show the width of a certain number of annual rings, and by this means the diameter increase is ascertained. For purposes of greater accuracy, it 442 ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT is well to make two borings at right angles to each other and to take the average between them. The boring should always be done in a horizontal plane and directed towards the centre of the tree. If the rings be not distinct, an alcoholic solution of aniline will usually make them more visible. Now, since the average width of the annual ring is the average annual radial increase, it follows that the average annual increase of diameter is twice the width of this ring. Hence, it is easy to estimate the future diameter 5 or 10 years hence ; and, in practice, it is not advisable to exceed the latter number of years. For example, supposing a tree be 10 inches diameter under bark at breast high, and that it be 45 feet high (to the top), and that the form factor for saleable timber be 0-4, and that it be required to find the increment that will take place in the next 8 years. It is reckoned that the tree will be 9 feet higher in 8 years' time, and, as found with a Pressler borer, the last 6 years' growth show I inch radius. Therefore, in 8 years' time the diameter will be increased by 2-66 inches. Hence, it will be 1 2-66 inches ; and the form factor may be taken as the same as previously. Hence, by the formula given, the increment will be, in feet :— ("^Sr X 54 X >4)~VU4x7 X 45 X '*) /i6o-27 x 22 x 54 x 4 \ Aoo x 22 x 45 x -4\ V 144x4x7x10 )~\ 144x4x7x10; = 18-8-9-8. = 9 cub. ft. And the percentage increment, if obtained by a formula already explained, will be : — 200 18-8-9-8 * "7T c 18-8+9-8 200 9 '• * T X ^6 225 " 28-6 = 7-86 per cent. PRESSLEITS FORMULA 443 Now, in order to shorten and simplify the calculations, various formulae have from time to time been suggested for readily obtaining the percentage increment on standing timber. But in most cases it is necessary to assume that the height is the same for both periods, and so also the same form factor. Now, the assumption of the same height will not materially affect the results obtained. But, the assumption of the same form factor as well, will, in most cases, give results which are materially defective. However, if the height and form factor are the same at both periods, the cubic contents at both periods are respectively proportionate to the basal areas at both periods ; and so also to the square of the diameters at both periods. Hence, the rate of compound interest can be found by reference to the square of the diameters only, at the respective periods. Hence, if D = future diameter (under bark) d = present diameter (under bark) n = number of years in period p — the percentage and this is Pressler's formula. Now, this formula has been still more simplified, thus : — This latter simplification musf, however, be used with very great care. It gives practically the same result, provided D and d are very nearly equal; but if there be a big difference, then the rate per cent that is indicated will be far too great. Hence, with this method, n must never represent a large number of years ; and, the smaller the diameter of the tree, the greater will be the error. If, however, n be taken for only one year, the percentage will be very slightly too much, if the percentage for the coining year is under consideration. If the formula be 444 ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT applied for the percentage increment for the past year, the past diameter increment for the single year equals twice the breadth of the last annual ring; equals D — */, if D = present diameter, d = diameter one year ago ; and D + d may be taken as equal to twice the breadth of the present diameter, although this is really somewhat too great, and therefore gives too small a percentage ; but, except with trees of small diameter, it will not materially alter the result. Hence : — . Breadth of last ring in inches x 2 400 Present diameter x 2 I . __ Breadth of last ring 400 Diameter I Now, in order to obtain a true average ring, the number of rings forming the last inch of radius should be counted, and the above formula divided by this number. Thus, if n = number of rings in last inch of radius D = diameter (at breast high), Then p = ^ x 4°° Dxn i Dxn This is Schneider's formula, and it gives the percentage l increment for the coming year that will take place on the basal area at breast high. This formula may be represented in terms of quarter girth measurement thus : — _ e Quarter girth x n (years in i in. radius)' Now, as already mentioned, the percentage as indicated by applying the above formulae to data obtained from measurements made at breast high on standing timber, is not, generally speaking, correct. It assumes that the height and form factor remain the 1 This percentage is slightly too high ; and in the case of trees with small diameters the discrepancy is increased. Though for the past year, the percentage will be slightly too little. SCHNEIDER'S FORMULA 445 same for both periods. This, however, is a wrong assumption if the width of the annual rings be the same all the way up the stem. For, in such a case, if the height be the same, the form factor must be greater ; and conversely, if the form factor be the same, the height must be greater. The application of the formulae as above described will, on an evenly tapering tree, only give correct results if the width of the recent annual rings at half-way up the stem is in reality one-half of the width of such rings at ground level. But this should never be the case with trees that are growing under correct sylvicultural management. In trees approach- ing maturity the annual rings will usually be widest at the top of such part of the bole as is clean and free from branches, and therefore in the case of well -grown timber it is obvious that the percentage as indicated by the formulae, when measurements are taken at breast high, is far too small. Now, the assumption of the same height growth in trees approaching maturity will not materially affect the result ; the chief error lies in the assumption of the same form factor. In the application of Schneider's formula this error may be corrected by multiplying the percentage as indicated at breast high by Diameter at breast high Diameter at half-way up any evenly-tapering tree' if the width of the rings at half-way up be taken as the average width over the stem. But the diameter half-way up the stem is an unknown quantity ; it is, however, equal to A/(Diameter at breast high)2 x form factor. Therefore, if p = percentage as indicated at breast high by Schneider's formula, D = diameter at breast high, the true percentage increment is equal to D <4 1642 1925 112 144 - 14-66 - 13-37 = 1-29 cub. ft. And the percentage equals : — 200 x 1-29 i 28-03 = 9.2 per cent. This percentage is slightly too low, as the increase in height growth for I year has been left out of account. Similarly, the increment can be expressed as a percentage on the contents of that which is timber only, after such con- tents have been ascertained. Thus, if in the above example the length of the tree to 3 inches diameter be 36 feet, and the mean diameter of that length be 8 inches. Then the timber contents equals : — (8)2x7rX36 144x4 64x22x36 144x4x7^ = 12-6 cub. ft. And the percentage equals :— 200 v. 1-29 i * 12-6+13-89 = 9-74 per cent. In many cases a certain degree of accuracy, in obtaining the percentage increment on timber only, can be obtained by applying Schneider's formula, and using a somewhat smaller diameter than the average diameter. Similarly also, as already described, the percentage of compound interest for a period of 5 or 10 years, or the increment for a period, may be ascertained, on felled timber, 2 F 450 ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT by measurements taken at half the length of the tree ; and, in the making of working plans, some such calculations should always be accurately made for crops approaching maturity. For purposes of greater accuracy, the increment, or the percentage increment, may be obtained from data referable to trees belonging to different diameter classes in the crop ; instead of from data referable only to the average diameter class. Attempts are often made to estimate the percentage that is taking place in any crop by reference to average yield tablea This is a method, however, that cannot be recommended. It is almost impossible to obtain an accurate result, unless the crop under consideration correspond almost exactly with the data yielded in the tables. For instance, supposing that on a soil of medium quality a smaller growing stock were found than was indicated by the tables, for a soil of similar quality, and that an attempt were made to assess the increment by taking a proportionate amount of that indicated in the tables, the result would be very inaccurate ; inasmuch as, the actual crop, having been more heavily thinned than is indicated in the tables, will, owing to the greater amount of growing space allotted to the individual trees, increase at a greater rate per cent, than the normal crop as found in the tables. Where, however, the tables are used for this purpose, care should be taken that the increment, for any period, be not expressed as a percentage on any stock, which includes an amount which should properly be removed as thinnings at the commencement of the period and before the calculations are made. Current Annual Increment. Another matter, which should receive a forester's attention, and by which much valuable data can be obtained, is the making of a comparison of the current annual increment per acre, or the current average increment for short periods in the life of a crop, with the average annual increment through- out the entire life of the crop. CURRENT ANNUAL INCREMENT 451 Now, in the pole forest stages of any crop, the current annual increment per acre almost invariably far exceeds the average annual increment. But the current annual increment per acre will usually reach its maximum towards the end of the pole forest stage, after which it decreases ; it will continue longer in the case of shade-bearing trees which can be left thicker on the ground than is the case with light-demanding trees which, as the principal height growth is attained, require to be freely thinned. On good soil the maximum current annual increment per acre is attained sooner than on poorer soil. The culmination of the current increment per individual tree is attained long after the culmination of such increment per acre. It is most necessary to avoid confusion on this matter, and to remember that the latter is largely governed by the number of trees per acre. However, the average annual increment attains its maximum a long time after the date of the culmination of the current increment ; and it will continue to rise for so long as the current annual increment exceeds the average annual increment. But the current increment, when it ceases to be equal to the average annual increment, decreases annually much more quickly than the average annual increment. Practically speaking, however, the percentage increment is of far more value than the mere amount of the current or the average annual increment, if the treatment of any particular crop is under consideration. Now, besides the increment, or the percentage increment in contents, that is taking place, or is likely to take place in the near future, it is of the greatest importance to consider, also, the increment in quality or in the price per foot cube that may be anticipated. 2. Increment in Quality. The increment in quality or money value per foot, may be conveniently expressed as a percentage on the present price. 452 ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT Thus, to take a previous example, if, 10 years ago, a crop contained 1500 cubic feet of saleable timber worth 8d. a foot, and is now estimated to contain 2200 cubic feet of sale- able timber worth lod. a foot : Then the percentage of increment in money value will have been = 20° x IO~S 10 18 200 i - x — = 2-22 per cent. 10 9 Now, the percentage increment in contents has already been shown to have been 3-75 per cent. Hence the total increment in value will have been 5-97 per cent. This is the percentage of increment, both in quality and contents, which in the above example will have been yielded on the capital value represented by the present crop of timber. For practical purposes, such an estimate is invaluable. It will help, along with other sylvicultural considerations, to govern the treatment which any particular crop is to receive. For crops approaching maturity, the percentage arrived at, as indicated above, may be taken as approxi- mately equal to the percentage that will actually be earned by allowing the present crop to stand for the period under consideration. 3. Total Increment on Invested Capital. To be strictly accurate, the percentage will not be quite so great, as the value of the land must be taken into consider- ation, thus increasing the capital upon which the return is obtained. And, so also, the return will be lessened by the annual outgoings in respect of the land and crop. Therefore, it is necessary to find the total increase in value and to express this as a percentage on the total capital represented by the crop and the land. However, in- order to arrive at the exact percentage increment, the outgoings must also be taken into account by increasing the capital, by such a sum as represents the net annual outgoings (i.e., total INCREMENT ON INVESTED CAPITAL 453 annual outgoings less any annual sum represented by a sporting rent, etc.) capitalised at 25 or 28 years' purchase, or as may be deemed expedient. Now, it is difficult to assign any particular value to the land over and above its capitalised sporting value, for, as stated elsewhere, when once planted, it has practically no value as agricultural (farming) land, and can only be profitably utilised by replanting. If the sporting be worth is. 6d. an acre (and this is ample if a large area of high forest be under consideration), the total capital value of the land may be usually taken at from ;^3 to £7 an acre for planting purposes.1 If very great accuracy be required, the particular rental value obtainable for the land only,2 after interest is charged on the cost of establishing the crop, should be added to the annual sporting value, and the sum of these capitalised at 25 to 30 years' purchase. By this means the value is made to depend upon the species of the crop that can be grown and its estimated rental value for land only. Therefore, taking the previous example, in which 1 500 cub. ft., at 8d. = ^50 (present value of crop) 2200 cub. ft., at lod. = .£91-6 (future value of crop in 10 years), and the increment in value is £41-6 ; and supposing that the land, including the sporting value, be worth £$ ; and that a capital of £4 will provide for the annual outgoings over and above any sum received as a sporting rent : The rate of compound interest yielded for the period of 10 years = 200 x 41-6 To" 50+5+4+91-6+5+4 = ^ x 4I'6 TcT ' 159-6 = § = 5'21 per Cent< 1 This assumes the capitalised sporting value to be (say) £2. and the capitalised rental value for planting to be £i to ^5. 2 Vide Chapter XI I. 454 ESTIMATION OF INCREMENT In this instance, the difference in the percentage thus indicated, after taking into consideration the value of the land and the annual outgoings, is somewhat large ; but, this difference is very much less when the value of the crop largely exceeds that of the land only ; and becomes less as the value of the crop becomes larger. In cases where a thinning has taken place during the period under consideration, it will be necessary to ascertain the sum to which the money value of that which was thinned out will amount at compound interest (say 3^ per cent.) by the end of the period, and to add this sum to the increment in value of the rest of the crop, and also to the mean capital as found by the formula. Thus, taking the previous example, let it be supposed that in 4 years' time £6 worth be removed by a thinning. This £6 will amount, in the remaining 6 years of the period at 3i per cent, compound interest, to ^7-37. Hence the percentage will be 200* x 41-6+7-37 n 59 +100-6 + 7-37 = 200 x m g 10 166-97 * Wherever the -^ formula is used, the percentage shown will be slightly n less than the true mathematical percentage yielded. Finally, it is well to remember that, when considering the treatment that any crop should receive, conclusions should not be hastily drawn from actuarial data alone. It is necessary to consider the particular demands of the species of trees, the quality of the timber, the condition of the soil, local markets, and many other details, which the circum- stances of the case may suggest. But, after giving due weight to all other considerations, actuarial calculations must largely govern the treatment that is meted out to any particular crop. When the increment in quantity and value on any crop s not sufficient, it is imperative that some action should be INCREMENT ON INVESTED CAPITAL 455 taken. It may be that only a thinning is necessary, or a partial clearance, in which case the increment of the crop which is left may be greatly stimulated, and may show a very high rate of interest on the capital upon which it is being earned. On the other hand, it may be that a total clearance will have to be effected. A particular practice may be correct though actuarial data have not been considered ; but, that is no proof that they are unnecessary. Indeed, they alone will often afford the chief, if not the only, evidence that a particular practice is wrong. . NOTE. — These Tables may be obtained from Messrs WALTER AND WALTER, Heatherside, Brockenhurst, Hants, bound separately. Price, is. 6d. net. APPENDICES OF FOREST TABLES 2 G APPENDIX A TABLES TO BE USED ALONG WITH BRANDIT'S1 HYP- SOMETER FOR ASCERTAINING THE HEIGHT OF TREES EXPLANATION The measurer first reads the upward 2 angle to the top of the tree. This upward angle will be the angle formed by a line horizontal with the observer's eye, and by a line from the observer's eye to the top of the tree. The observer must move backwards or forwards until the angle, as read, is equal to one of the angles for which tables are given. When such angle is ascertained, the horizontal distance from the observer to the centre of the tree must be measured, and the height then ascertained from the tables. To this, however, must be added 3 the height from the ground-level to the place where a line, horizontal with the observer's eye, cuts the trunk of the tree. For instance, an angle of 38° is read, and the horizontal distance from the observer to the centre of the tree is 50 feet, and the vertical distance from the ground-level to a horizontal line from the observer's eye is 5 feet 6 inches. Then, on reference to the tables, a height of 39-06 feet is obtained. To this must be added the 5 feet 6 inches. Hence, the total height of the tree = 39-06 + 5-5 feet = 44-56 feet. 1 Or other instrument for measuring the angle. 2 Vide Chapter XVII. 3 This presumes that the observer's eye is not below the level of the base of the tree. 459 HEIGHT TABLES 30° 35 38° 40 Base. Height from level of observer's eye, the angle being Base. 30° 35° 38° 40° 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 ii 12 13 H 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4i 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 0-58 MS i-73 2-31 2-89 0-70 1-40 2-10 2-8o 3-50 0-78 1-56 2-34 3-13 3-9i 0-84 1-68 2-52 3-36 4-20 I 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 ii 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4i 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 3-46 4-04 4-62 5-20 5-77 4-20 4.90 5-60 6-30 7-00 4-69 5-47 6-25 7-03 7-81 5-03 5-87 6-71 7-55 8-38 6-35 6-93 7-5i 8-08 8-66 7-70 8-40 9-10 9-80 10-50 8-59 9-37 IQ. 16 10-94 11-72 9-23 10-07 10-91 n-75 12-59 9-24 9-81 10-39 10-97 n-55 1 1 -20 11-90 1 2 -60 I3-30 I4-OO 12-50 13-28 14-06 14-84 15-62 13-43 14-26 15-10 15-94 16-78 12-12 12-70 13-28 13-86 14-43 14-70 15-40 16-10 16-80 I7-5I 16-41 17-19 17-97 18-75 19-53 17-62 18-46 19-30 20-14 20-98 15-01 15-59 I6-I7 16-74 I7-32 18-21 18-91 19-61 20-31 21-01 20-31 21-09 21-87 22-66 23-44 21-81 22-66 23-49 24-33 25-17 17-90 18-48 19-05 19-63 20-21 21-71 22-41 23-11 23-81 24-51 24-22 25-00 25.78 26.56 27-34 26-01 26-85 27-69 28-53 29-37 20-78 2I-36 21-94 22-52 23-09 25-21 25-91 26-61 27-31 28-01 28-13 28-91 29-69 30-47 31-25 30-21 31-05 31-89 32-72 33-56 23-67 24-25 24-83 25-40 25.98 28-71 29.41 30-11 30-81 31-51 32-03 32-82 33-60 34-38 35-16 34-40 35-24 36-08 36-92 37-76 26-56 27-14 27.71 28-29 28-87 32-21 32-91 33-61 34-31 35-01 35-94 36-72 37-50 38-28 39-06 38-60 39-44 40-28 41-12 41-96 460 HEIGHT TABLES Base. Height from level of observer's eye, the angle being Base. 30° 35° 38° 40° 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 1? 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 29-44 30-02 30-60 31-18 si-75 35-71 36-41 37-n 37-8i 38-51 39-85 40-63 41-41 42-19 42-97 42-79 43-63 44-47 45-31 46-15 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 7i 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 9i 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 32-33 32-91 33-49 34-o6 34-64 39-21 39-91 40-61 4i-3i 42-02 43-75 44-53 45-31 46-10 46-88 46-99 47-83 48-67 49-51 50-35 35-22 35-8o 36-37 36-95 37-53 42-71 43-41 44-11 44-81 45-51 47-66 48-44 49-22 50-00 50-78 5I-I9 52-02 52-86 53-70 54-54 38-11 38-68 39-26 39-84 40-41 46-21 46-91 47-6i 48-31 49-01 5I-56 52-35 53-13 53-91 54-69 55-38 56-22 57-o6 57-90 58-74 40-99 41-57 42-15 42-72 43-30 49-71 50-41 51-12 51-82 52-52 55-47 56-25 57-03 57-82 58-60 59-58 60-42 61-25 62-09 62-93 43-88 44.46 45-03 45-61 46-19 53-22 53-92 54-62 55-32 56-02 59-38 60-16 60-94 61-72 62-50 63-77 64-61 65-45 66-29 67-13 46-77 47-34 47-92 48-50 49-07 56-72 57-42 58-12 58-82 59-52 63-28 64-07 64-85 65-63 66-41 67-97 68-81 69-65 70-48 71-32 49-65 50-23 50-81 5I-38 51-96 60-22 60-92 61-62 62-32 63-02 67-19 67-97 68-75 69-53 70-32 72-16 73-00 73-84 74-68 75-52 52-54 53-12 53-69 54-27 54-85 63-72 64-42 65-12 65-82 66-52 71-10 71-88 72-66 73-44 74-22 76-36 77-20 78-04 78-88 79-71 55-43 56-00 56-58 57-i6 57-74 67-22 67.92 68-62 69.32 70-02 75-00 75-78 76-57 77-35 78-I3 8o-55 81-39 82-23 83-07 83-91 30° 35 38° 40' 461 HEIGHT TABLES 42° 44° 45° 46° 48° Base. Height from level of observer's eye, the angle being Base. 42° 44° 45° 46° 48° I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ii 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3i 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4i 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 0-90 i -80 2-70 3-60 4-50 0-97 i-93 2-90 3-86 4-83 I-OO 2-OO 3-oo 4-00 5-oo 1-04 2-07 3-n 4-14 5-18 i-ii 2-22 3-33 4-44 5-55 I 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 ii 12 13 H 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4i 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 5-40 6-30 7-20 8-10 9-00 5-79 6-76 7-73 8-69 9-66 6-00 7-00 8-00 9-00 10-00 6.21 7-25 8-28 9-32 10-36 6-66 7-77 8-88 IO-OO II. II 9-90 10-80 11-71 12-61 13-5* 10-62 ii-59 12-55 13-52 14-49 II-OO 12-00 13-00 14-00 15-00 n-39 12-42 13-46 14-50 15-53 12-22 13-33 14-44 15-55 16-66 14.41 I5-3I 16-21 17-11 1 8 -oi 15-45 16-42 I7-38 18-35 I9-3I 1 6 -oo 17-00 18-00 19-00 20-00 16-57 17-60 18-64 19-68 20-71 17-77 18-88 19-99 21-10 22-21 18-91 19-81 20-71 21-60 22-51 20-28 21-25 22-21 23-I8 24-14 2 I-OO 22-00 23-00 24-00 25-00 21-75 22-78 23-82 24-85 25-89 23-32 24-43 25-54 26-65 27-77 23-4I 24-31 25-21 26-11 27-01 25-11 2607 27-03 28-00 28-97 26-OO 27-00 28-00 29-OO 30-00 26-92 27.96 28-99 30-03 31-07 28-88 29-99 31-10 32-21 33-32 27-91 28-81 29-71 30-61 3I-5I 29-94 30-90 3I-87 32-83 33-80 31-00 32-00 33-oo 34-oo 35-00 32-10 33-H 34-17 35-21 36-24 34-43 35-54 36-65 37-76 38-87 32-41 33-31 34-22 35-12 36-02 3476 35-73 36-70 37-66 38-63 36-00 37-oo 3800 39-oo 40-00 37-28 38-31 39-35 40-39 41-42 39-98 41-09 42-20 43-31 44-42 36-92 37-82 38-72 39-62 40-52 39-59 40-56 4I-52 42-49 43-45 41-00 42-00 43-oo 44-00 45-oo 42-46 43-49 44-53 45-56 46-60 45-54 46-65 47.76 48-87 49.98 4I-42 42-32 43-22 44-12 45-02 44-42 45-39 46-35 47-32 48-28 46-00 47-00 48-00 49-00 50-00 47-63 48-67 49.71 50-74 5I-78 51-09 52-20 53-31 54-42 55-53 462 HEIGHT TABLES Base. Height from level of observer's eye, the angle being Base. 42° 44° 45° 46° 48° 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 e 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 7i 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 Bl 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 9i 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 45-92 46-82 47.72 48-62 49-52 49-25 50-22 51-18 52-15 53-u 51-00 52-00 53-oo 54-oo 55-oo 52-81 53-85 54-88 55-92 56-95 56-64 57-75 58-86 59-97 61-08 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 e 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 7i 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 9i 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 50-42 51-32 52-22 53-12 54-02 54-o8 55-04 56-01 56-98 57-94 56-00 57-oo 58-00 59-oo 60-00 57-99 59-03 60-06 61-10 62-13 62-19 63-30 64-42 65-53 66-64 54-92 55-83 56-73 57-63 58-53 58-91 59-87 60-84 61-80 62-77 61-00 62-00 63-00 64-00 65-00 63-17 64-20 65-24 66-27 67-31 67-75 68-86 69-97 71-08 72-19 . 59-43 60-33 61-23 62-13 63-03 63-74 64-70 65-67 66-63 67-60 66-00 67-00 68-00 69-00 70-00 68-34 69-38 70-42 71-45 72-49 73-30 74-41 75-52 76-63 77-74 63-93 64-83 65-73 66-63 67-53 68-56 69-53 70-50 71-46 72-43 71-00 72-00 73-oo 74-00 75-oo 73-52 74-56 75-59 76-63 77-66 78-85 79-96 81-07 82-19 83-30 68-43 69-33 70-23 7I-I3 72-03 73-39 74-36 75-32 76-29 77-26 76-00 7700 7800 7900 80-00 78-70 79-74 80-77 81-81 82-84 84-41 85-52 86-63 87-74 88-85 72-93 73-83 74-73 75-63 76-53 78-22 79-18 80-15 81-12 82-08 81-00 82-00 83-00 84-00 85-00 83-88 84-91 85-95 86-98 88-02 89-96 91-07 92-18 93-29 94-40 77-43 78-34 79-24 80-14 81-04 83-05 84-01 84-98 85-95 86-91 8600 87-00 88-00 89-00 90-00 89-06 90-09 9I-I3 92-16 93-20 95-51 96-62 97-73 98-84 99-96 81-94 82-84 83-74 84-64 85-54 87-88 88-84 89-81 90-77 91-74 91-00 92-00 93-oo 94 -oo 95-00 94-23 95-27 96-30 97-34 98-38 101-07 102-18 103-29 104-40 105-51 86-44 87-34 88-24 89-14 90-04 92-71 93-67 94-64 95-6o 96-57 96-00 97-00 98-00 99-00 100-00 99-41 100-45 101-48 102-52 103-55 106-62 107-73 108-84 109.95 111-06 42' 44 45° 46 48° 463 HEIGHT TABLES 50° 52 55° 60' Base. Height from level of observer's eye, the angle being Base. 50° 52° 55° 60° I 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 ii 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4i 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 1-19 2-38 3-58 4-77 5-96 1-28 2-56 3-84 I"11 6-40 1-43 2-86 4-28 5'7i 7-14 i-73 3-46 5-20 6-93 8-66 I 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 ii 12 13 H 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3i 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 7-15 8-34 9-53 io-73 11-92 7-68 8-96 10-24 11-52 12-80 8-57 lO'OO 11.42 12-85 14-28 10-39 12-12 13-86 15-59 17-32 13-11 14-30 15-49 16-68 17-88 14-08 I5-36 16-64 17-92 19-20 15-71 17-14 18-57 20-00 21-42 19-05 20-78 22-52 24-25 25-98 19-07 20-26 21-45 22-64 23-84 20-48 21-76 23-04 24-32 25-60 22-85 24-28 2571 27-13 28-56 27-71 29-44 31-18 32-91 34-64 25-03 26-22 27-41 28-60 29-79 26-88 28-16 29-44 30-72 3200 30-00 31-42 32-85 34-28 35-70 36-37 38-11 39-84 41-57 43-30 30-99 32-18 33-37 34-56 35-75 33-28 34-56 35-84 37-12 38-40 37-13 38-56 40-00 41-42 42-84 45-03 46-77 48-50 50-23 51-96 36-94 38-14 39-33 40-52 41-71 39-68 40-96 42-24 43-52 44-80 44-27 45-70 47-13 48-56 49.98 53-69 55-43 57-16 58-89 60-62 42-90 44-09 45-29 46-48 47-67 46-08 47-36 48-64 49.92 51-20 5i-4i 52-84 54-27 55-70 57-13 62-35 64-09 65-82 67-55 69-28 48-86 50-05 5I-24 52-44 53-63 52-48 53-76 55-04 56-32 57-6o 58-55 59-98 61-41 62-84 64-27 71-01 72-75 74-48 76-21 77-94 54-82 56-01 57-20 58-40 59-59 58-88 60-16 61-44 62-72 64-00 65-69 67-12 68-55 69-98 71.41 79-67 81-41 83-14 84-87 86-60 464 HEIGHT TABLES Base. Height from level of observer's eye, the angle being Base. 50° 52° 55° 60° 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 7i 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 9i 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 IOO 60-78 61-97 63-16 64-35 65-55 65-28 66-56 67-84 69-12 70-40 72-83 74-26 75-69 77-12 78-55 88-33 90-07 91-80 93-53 95-25 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 8 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 7» 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 IOO 66-74 67-93 69-12 70-31 7i-5i 71-68 72-96 74-24 75-52 76-80 79-98 81-40 82-83 84-26 85-69 96-99 98-73 100-46 102-19 103-92 72-70 73-89 75-08 76-27 77-46 78-08 79-36 80-64 81-92 83-20 87-12 88-54 89-97 91-40 92-83 105-66 107-39 109-12 110-85 112-58 78-66 79-85 81-04 82-23 83-42 84-48 85-76 87-04 88-32 89-60 94-26 95-69 97-11 98-54 99-97 114-32 11605 117-78 119.51 121-24 84-61 85-81 8700 88-19 89-38 90-88 92-16 93-44 94-72 96-00 101-40 102-83 104-25 105-68 107-11 122-98 124.71 126-44 128-17 129-90 90-57 9I-76 92-96 94-15 95-34 97-28 98-56 99-84 101-12 IO2-4O 108-54 109-97 111.39 112-82 114-25 131-64 133-37 135-10 136-83 138-56 96-53 97-72 98-92 IOO-II 101-30 103-68 104-96 IO6-24 107-52 I08-80 115-68 117-11 118-54 119-96 121-39 140-30 142-03 I43-76 145-49 147-22 102-49 103-68 104-87 106-06 107-26 IIO-O7 in-35 112-63 113-91 115-19 172-82 124-25 125-68 127-10 128-53 148-95 150-69 152-42 I54-I5 155-88 108-45 109-64 110-83 112-02 H3-2I 116-47 H7-75 119-03 120-31 121-59 129-96 131-39 132-82 134-25 I35-67 I57-62 159-35 16108 162-81 164-54 II4-4I II5-60 116-79 II7-98 II9-I8 122-87 124-15 125-43 126-71 127-99 137.10 138-53 139.96 I4I-39 142-81 166-28 16801 169-74 171-47 173-21 50 52 55 60 465 2 G 2 APPENDIX B TABLES SHOWING THE CONTENTS OF TIMBER, EITHER ROUND OR SQUARE, BY THE QUARTER GIRTH MEASUREMENT Thus, a log 17 feet long by 9 inches quarter girth will, on reference to the tables, be found to contain 9 cubic feet and 6 inches. Note. — According to custom, any fraction of a cubic foot is multi- plied merely by 12 and expressed as inches — 12 of such inches equal I cubic foot. Thus, in the above example, the correct cubic contents equal 9i^r cubic feet = 9 cubic feet 972 cubic inches. But, in order to facilitate the use of the tables in practice, the fraction j^y of a cubic foot is multiplied by 12, and the result, f£, expressed as 63% ; or, leaving out fractions of an inch, merely as 6 inches — that is, one-half a cubic foot. 467 CONTENTS OF TIMBER, QUARTER GIRTH MEASUREMENT 5, 6, 7 inches Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Bark. Length Length in in feet. feet. 5 SJ 6 64 7 7i ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 6 0 I 3 I 6 I 9 2 0 2 4 6 7 2 i 5 I 9 2 O 2 4 2 8 7 8 4 i 8 2 0 2 4 2 8 3 i 8 9 6 I 10 2 3 2 7 3 o 3 6 9 10 9 2 I 2 6 2 II 3 5 3 ii 10 11 i ii 2 3 2 9 3 2 3 9 4 3 11 12 2 I 2 6 3 o 3 6 4 i 4 8 12 13 2 3 2 8 3 3 3 9 4 5 5 i 13 14 2 5 2 II 3 6 4 i 4 9 5 5 14 15 2 7 3 i 3 9 4 4 5 i 5 10 15 16 2 9 3 4 4 o 4 8 5 5 6 3 16 17 2 II 3 7 4 3 5 o 5 9 6 7 17 18 3 i 3 9 4 6 5 3 6 i 7 o 18 19 3 3 4 o 4 9 5 7 6 5 7 5 19 20 3 5 4 2 5 o 5 10 6 9 7 9 20 21 3 7 4 5 5 3 6 2 7 i 8 2 21 22 3 10 4 7 5 6 6 5 7 6 8 7 22 23 4 o 4 10 5 9 6 9 7 10 8 ii 23 24 4 2 5 o 6 o 7 o 8 2 9 4 24 25 4 4 5 3 6 3 7 4 8 6 9 9 25 26 4 6 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 10 10 2 26 27 4 8 5 8 6 9 7 ii 9 2 10 6 27 28 4 10 5 10 7 o 8 2 9 6 10 II 28 29 5 o 6 i 7 3 8 6 9 10 ii 4 29 80 5 2 6 3 7 6 8 9 10 2 ii 8 30 31 5 4 6 6 7 9 9 i 10 6 12 I 31 32 5 6 6 8 8 o 9 4 10 10 12 6 32 33 5 8 6 ii 8 3 9 8 II 2 12 10 33 34 5 ii 7 i 8 6 9 ii ii 7 13 3 34 35 6 i 7 4 8 9 10 3 II II 13 8 35 36 6 3 7 6 9 o 10 6 12 3 14 o 36 37 6 5 7 9 9 3 10 10 12 7 14 5 37 38 6 7 8 o 9 6 ii i 12 II 14 10 38 39 6 9 8 2 9 9 ii 5 13 3 15 2 39 40 6 ii 8 5 10 o ii 9 13 7 15 7 40 468 CONTENTS OF TIMBER, QUARTER GIRTH MEASUREMENT Average Quarter Qirth (in inches) under Bark. Length in Length In feet. in feet. 8 •i 9 9J 10 10| ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 6 2 8 3 o 3 4 3 9 4 2 4 7 6 7 3 I 3 6 3 ii 4 4 4 10 5 4 7 8 3 6 4 o 4 6 5 o 5 6 6 i 8 9 4 o 4 6 5 o 5 7 6 3 6 10 9 10 4 5 5 o 5 7 6 3 6 ii 7 8 10 11 4 10 5 6 6 2 6 10 7 7 8 5 11 12 5 4 6 o 6 9 7 6 8 4 9 2 12 18 5 9 6 6 7 3 8 i 9 o 9 ii 18 14 6 2 7 o 7 10 8 9 9 8 10 8 14 15 6 8 7 6 8 5 9 4 10 5 ii 5 15 16 7 i 8 o 9 o 10 o ii i 12 3 16 17 7 6 8 6 9 6 10 7 ii 9 13 0 17 18 8 o 9 o 10 I ii 3 12 6 13 9 18 19 8 5 9 6 10 8 ii ii 13 2 14 6 19 20 8 10 10 o ii 3 12 6 13 10 15 3 20 21 9 4 10 6 ii 9 13 2 14 7 16 i 21 22 99 II O 12 4 13 9 15 3 16 10 22 28 10 2 ii 6 12 II H 5 15 ii 17 7 28 24 10 8 12 O 13 6 15 0 16 8 18 4 24 25 ii i 12 6 14 o 15 8 17 4 19 i 25 26 ii 6 13 0 H 7 16 3 18 o 19 ii 26 27 12 0 13 6 15 2 16 ii 18 9 20 8 27 28 12 5 14 o 15 9 17 6 19 5 21 5 28 29 12 10 14 6 16 3 18 2 20 I 22 2 29 30 13 4 15 o 16 10 18 9 20 10 22 II 80 81 13 9 15 6 17 5 19 5 21 6 23 8 81 82 14 2 16 o 18 o 20 0 22 2 24 6 82 88 14 8 16 6 18 6 20 8 22 II 25 3 88 34 15 i 17 o 19 i 21 3 23 7 26 o 84 85 15 6 17 6 19 8 21 II 24 3 26 9 85 86 16 o 18 o 20 3 22 6 25 o 27 6 86 87 16 5 18 6 20 9 23 2 25 8 28 4 87 38 16 10 19 o 21 4 23 9 26 4 29 i 88 39 17 4 19 6 21 II 24 5 27 i 29 10 89 4O 17 9 20 i 22 6 25 I 27 9 30 7 40 8, 9, 10 inches 469 CONTENTS OF TIMBER, QUARTER GIRTH MEASUREMENT 11, 12, 13 inches Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Bark. Length Length in in feet. feet. 11 llj 12 12J 13 13i ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 6 5 o 5 6 6 o 6 6 7 o 7 7 6 7 5 10 6 5 7 o 7 7 8 2 8 10 7 8 6 8 7 4 8 o 8 8 9 4 10 I 8 9 7 6 8 3 9 o 9 9 10 6 ii 4 9 10 8 5 9 2 IO O IO IO ii 9 12 8 10 11 9 3 10 I II O ii ii 12 II 13 ii 11 12 10 I II O 12 0 13 o 14 I 15 2 12 18 10 II II II 13 o 14 I 15 3 16 5 13 14 ii 9 12 IO 14 o 15 2 16 5 17 8 14 15 12 7 13 9 15 o 16 3 17 7 18 II 15 16 13 5 14 8 16 o 17 4 18 9 20 3 16 17 H 3 15 7 17 o 18 5 19 ii 21 6 17 18 15 i 16 6 18 o 19 6 21 I 22 9 18 19 15 H 17 5 19 o 20 7 22 3 24 o 19 20 16 9 18 4 20 0 21 8 23 5 25 3 20 21 17 7 19 3 21 0 22 9 24 7 26 7 21 22 18 6 20 2 22 O 23 10 25 10 27 10 22 28 19 4 21 I 23 o 24 II 27 o 29 i 28 24 20 2 22 0 24 o 26 o 28 2 30 4 24 25 21 0 22 II 25 o 27 I 29 4 3i 7 25 26 21 IO 23 10 26 o 28 2 30 6 32 ii 26 27 22 8 24 9 27 o 29 3 31 8 34 2 27 28 23 6 25 8 28 o 30 4 32 10 35 5 28 29 24 4 26 7 29 o 31 5 34 o 36 8 29 80 25 2 27 6 30 o 32 6 35 2 37 ii 30 81 26 o 28 5 31 o 33 7 36 4 39 2 31 82 26 10 29 4 32 o 34 8 37 6 40 6 32 83 27 8 30 3 33 o 35 9 38 8 4i 9 33 34 28 7 31 2 34 o 36 10 39 ii 43 o 34 35 29 5 32 i 35 o 37 ii 4i i 44 3 35 36 30 3 33 o 36 o 39 o 42 3 45 6 36 37 31 i 33 ii 37 o 40 i 43 5 46 10 37 38 31 ii 34 10 38 o 41 2 44 7 48 i 38 39 32 9 35 9 39 o 42 3 45 9 49 4 39 40 33 7 36 9 40 o 43 5 46 ii 50 7 40 470 CONTENTS OF TIMBER, QUARTER GIRTH MEASUREMENT Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Bark. Length Length in in feet. feet. 14 14J 15 15J 16 16i ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 6 8 2 8 9 9 4 10 0 10 8 II 4 6 7 9 6 10 2 10 II II 8 12 5 13 2 7 8 10 10 ii 8 12 6 13 4 14 2 15 I 8 9 12 3 13 I 14 o 15 o 16 o 17 o 9 10 13 7 14 7 15 7 16 8 17 9 18 ii 10 11 14 ii 16 o 17 2 18 4 19 6 20 9 11 12 16 4 17 6 18 9 20 0 21 4 22 8 12 13 17 8 18 ii 20 3 21 8 23 i 24 7 13 14 19 o 20 5 21 IO 23 4 24 10 26 5 14 15 20 5 21 10 23 5 25 o 26 8 28 4 15 16 21 9 23 4 25 o 26 8 28 5 30 3 16 17 23 I 24 9 26 6 28 4 30 2 32 i 17 18 24 6 26 3 28 i 30 o 32 o 34 o 18 19 25 10 27 9 29 8 3i 8 33 9 35 ii 19 20 27 2 29 2 3i 3 33 4 35 6 37 9 20 21 28 7 30 8 32 9 35 o 37 4 39 8 21 22 29 II 32 i 34 4 36 8 39 i 4i 7 22 28 3i 3 33 7 35 ii 38 4 40 10 43 5 28 24 32 8 35 o 37 6 40 o 42 8 45 4 i 24 25 34 o 36 6 39 o 4I 8 44 5 47 3 25 26 35 4 37 ii 40 7 43 4 46 2 49 2 26 27 36 9 39 5 42 2 45 o 48 o 5i o 27 28 38 i 40 10 43 9 46 8 49 9 52 ii 28 29 39 5 42 4 45 3 48 4 5i 6 54 10 29 80 40 10 43 9 46 10 50 0 53 4 56 8 30 81 42 2 45 3 48 5 5i 8 55 i 58 7 81 82 43 6 46 8 50 o 53 4 56 10 60 6 32 88 84 44 ii 46 3 48 2 49 7 5i 6 53 i 55 o 56 8 58 8 60 5 62 4 64 3 38 34 85 47 7 5i i 54 8 58 4 62 2 66 2 35 86 49 o 52 6 56 3 60 o 64 o 68 o 36 87 50 4 54 o 57 9 61 8 65 9 69 ii 87 38 89 5i 8 53 i 55 5 56 ii 59 4 60 ii 63 4 65 o 67 6 69 4 71 10 73 8 38 39 40 54 5 58 5 62 6 66 9 71 I 75 7 40 14, 15, 16 inches 471 CONTENTS OF TIMBER, QUARTER GIRTH MEASUREMENT 17, 18, 19 inches Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Bark. Length Length in in feet. feet. 17 17* 18 18i 19 194 .ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 6 12 0 12 9 13 6 14 3 15 0 15 10 6 7 14 o 14 10 15 9 16 7 17 6 18 5 7 8 16 o 17 o 18 o 19 o 20 o 21 I 8 9 18 o 19 I 20 3 21 4 22 6 23 9 9 10 20 I 21 3 22 6 23 9 25 I 26 5 10 11 22 23 4 24 9 26 i 27 7 29 o 11 12 24 25 6 27 o 28 6 30 i 3i 8 12 18 26 27 7 29 3 30 10 32 7 34 4 13 14 28 29 9 31 6 33 3 35 i 36 ii 14 16 30 31 10 33 9 35 7 37 7 39 7 15 16 32 34 o 36 o 38 o 40 i 42 3 16 17 34 36 2 38 3 40 5 42 7 44 10 17 18 36 38 3 40 6 42 9 45 i 47 6 18 19 38 40 5 42 9 45 2 47 7 50 2 19 20 40 42 6 45 o 47 6 50 i 52 9 20 21 42 i 44 8 47 3 49 ii 52 7 55 i 21 22 44 2 46 9 49 6 52 3 55 2 58 8 22 23 46 2 48 ii 5i 9 54 8 57 8 60 5 28 24 48 2 51 o 54 o 57 o 60 2 63 4 24 25 50 2 53 2 56 3 59 5 62 8 66 o 25 26 52 2 55 3 58 6 61 9 65 2 68 8 26 27 54 2 57 5 60 9 64 2 67 8 7i 3 27 28 S6 2 59 6 63 o 66 6 70 2 73 ii 28 29 58 2 61 8 65 3 68 ii 72 8 76 7 29 80 60 2 63 9 67 6 71 3 75 2 79 2 80 81 62 2 65 ii 69 9 73 8 77 8 81 10 81 82 64 2 68 o 72 o 76 o 80 2 84 6 82 88 66 2 70 2 74 3 78 5 82 8 87 i 38 84 68 3 72 3 76 6 80 9 85 3 89 9 84 85 70 3 74 5 78 9 83 2 87 9 92 5 85 86 72 3 76 6 81 o 85 6 90 3 95 o 86 87 74 3 78 8 83 3 87 ii 92 9 97 8 87 88 76 3 80 9 85 6 90 3 95 3 100 4 88 89 78 3 82 ii 87 9 92 8 97 9 102 II 89 40 80 3 85 i 90 o 95 i 100 3 105 7 40 472 CONTENTS OF TIMBER, QUARTER GIRTH MEASUREMENT Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Length in Bark. Length in feet. feet. 20 20i 21 21J 22 22J ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. it. in. 6 16 8 17 6 18 4 19 3 20 2 21 I 6 7 19 5 20 5 21 5 22 5 23 6 24 7 7 8 22 2 23 4 24 6 25 8 26 10 28 I 8 9 25 o 26 3 27 6 28 10 30 3 3i 7 9 10 27 9 29 2 30 7 32 I 33 7 35 2 10 11 30 6 32 I 33 8 35 3 36 ii 38 8 11 12 33 4 35 o 36 9 38 6 40 4 42 2 12 13 36 i 37 ii 39 9 41 8 43 8 45 8 18 14 38 10 40 10 42 10 44 ii 47 o 49 2 14 15 41 8 43 9 45 ii 48 i 50 5 52 8 15 16 44 5 46 8 49 o 51 4 53 9 56 3 16 17 47 2 49 7 52 o 54 7 57 i 59 9 17 18 50 0 52 6 55 i 57 9 60 6 63 3 18 19 52 9 55 5 58 2 61 o 63 10 66 9 19 20 55 6 58 4 61 3 64 2 67 2 70 3 20 21 58 4 61 3 64 3 67 5 70 7 73 10 21 22 61 i 64 2 67 4 70 7 73 ii 77 4 22 23 63 10 67 I 70 5 73 10 77 3 80 10 23 24 66 8 70 o 73 6 77 o 80 8 84 4 24 25 69 5 72 II 76 6 80 3 84 o 87 10 25 26 72 2 75 10 79 7 83 5 87 4 9i 5 26 27 75 o 78 9 82 8 86 8 90 9 94 ii 27 28 77 9 81 8 85 9 89 10 94 i 98 5 28 29 80 6 84 7 88 9 93 i 97 5 101 II 29 30 83 4 87 6 91 10 96 3 100 10 105 5 80 31 86 i 9° 5 94 ii 99 6 104 2 108 n 81 32 88 10 93 4 98 o 102 8 107 6 112 6 82 33 91 8 96 3 101 0 105 ii no n 116 o 33 34 94 5 99 2 104 i 109 i H4 3 119 6 34 35 97 2 102 I 107 2 112 4 117 7 123 o 35 36 TOO O 105 o 1 10 3 115 6 121 O 126 6 86 87 102 9 IO7 II H3 3 118 9 124 4 130 i 87 38 105 6 110 10 116 4 121 II 127 8 133 7 88 39 108 4 H3 9 H9 5 125 2 131 i 137 i 89 40 in i 116 9 122 6 128 5 134 5 140 7 40 20, 21, 22 inches 473 CONTENTS OF TIMBER, Q. G. MEASUREMENT 23, 24, 25 inches Length Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Bark. Length in in feet. 23 23i 24 24J 25 25J feet. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 6 22 0 23 o 24 o 25 o 26 o 27 I 6 7 25 8 26 10 28 o 29 2 30 4 31 7 7 8 29 4 30 8 32 o 33 4 34 8 36 I 8 9 33 o 34 6 36 o 37 6 39 o 40 7 9 10 36 9 33 4 40 o 41 8 43 5 45 2 10 11 40 5 42 2 44 o 45 10 47 9 49 8 11 12 44 i 46 o 48 o 50 0 52 i 54 2 12 13 47 9 49 10 52 o 54 2 56 5 58 8 18 14 5i 5 53 8 56 o 58 4 60 9 63 2 14 15 55 i 57 6 60 o 62 6 65 i 67 8 15 16 58 9 61 4 64 o 66 8 69 5 72 3 16 17 62 5 65 2 68 o 70 10 73 9 76 9 17 18 66 i 69 o 72 o 75 o 78 i 81 3 18 19 69 9 72 10 76 o 79 2 82 5 85 9 19 20 73 5 76 8 80 o 83 4 86 9 90 3 20 26, 27, 28 inches Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Bark. Length Length in in feet. 26 26J 27 27J 28 28J feet. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 6 28 2 29 3 30 4 31 6 32 8 33 10 6 7 32 10 34 i 35 5 36 9 38 I 39 5 7 8 37 6 39 o 40 6 42 o 43 6 45 i 8 9 42 3 43 10 45 6 47 3 49 o 50 9 9 10 46 ii 48 9 5o 7 52 6 54 5 56 5 10 11 5i 7 53 7 55 8 57 6 59 10 62 o 11 12 56 4 58 6 60 9 63 o 65 4 67 8 12 18 61 o 63 4 65 9 68 3 70 9 73 4 18 14 65 8 68 3 70 10 73 6 76 2 78 ii 14 15 7o 5 73 i 75 Ji 78 9 81 8 84 7 15 16 75 i 78 o 81 o 84 o 87 i 90 3 16 17 79 9 82 ii 86 o 89 3 92 6 95 10 17 18 84 6 87 9 91 i 94 6 98 o ioi 6 18 19 89 2 92 8 96 2 99 9 103 5 107 2 19 20 93 10 97 6 ioi 3 105 o 108 10 112 9 20 474 CONTENTS OF TIMBER, Q. G. MEASUREMENT Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Bark. Length Length in In feet. 29 29J 30 30J 31 31J feet. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 6 35 o 36 3 37 6 38 9 40 o 41 4 6 7 40 10 42 3 43 9 45 2 46 8 48 2 7 8 46 8 48 4 50 o 51 8 53 4 8 9 52 6 56 3 58 i 60 o 62 o 9 10 58 5 60 5 62 6 64 7 66 9 68 II 10 11 64 3 66 5 68 9 71 o 73 5 75 9 11 12 70 i 72 6 75 o 77 6 80 i 82 8 12 13 75 ii 78 6 81 3 83 n 86 9 89 7 13 14 81 9 84 7 87 6 90 5 93 5 96 5 14 15 87 7 90 7 93 9 96 10 IOO I 103 4 15 29, 30, 31 inches Length Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Bark. Length in in feet. 32 32J 33 33J 34 34^ feet. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 6 42 8 44 0 45 4 46 9 48 2 49 7 6 7 49 9 51 4 52 ii 54 6 56 2 57 10 7 8 56 10 58 8 60 6 62 4 64 2 66 I 8 9 64 o 66 o 68 o 70 i 72 3 74 4 9 10 71 I 73 4 75 7 77 ii 80 3 82 8 10 11 78 2 80 8 83 2 85 8 88 3 90 ii 11 12 85 4 88 o 90 9 93 6 96 4 99 2 12 18 92 5 95 4 98 3 TOI 3 104 4 107 5 13 14 99 6 102 8 105 10 109 i 112 4 115 8 14 15 106 8 110 0 H3 5 116 10 120 5 123 ii 15 32, 33, 34 inches Length Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Bark. Length in in feet. 35 35J 36 36J 37 37| feet. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 6 5i o 52 6 54 o 55 6 57 o 58 7 6 7 59 6 61 3 63 o 64 9 66 6 68 4 7 8 68 o 70 o 72 o 74 o 76 o 78 i 8 9 76 6 78 9 81 o 83 3 85 6 87 10 9 10 85 i 87 6 90 o 92 6 95 i 97 8 10 11 93 7 96 3 99 o 101 9 104 7 107 5 11 12 102 I 105 o 108 o III 0 114 i 117 2 12 13 no 7 H3 9 117 o 120 3 123 7 126 n 18 14 119 i 122 6 126 o 129 6 133 i 136 8 14 15 127 7 131 3 135 o 138 9 142 7 146 5 15 35, 36, 37 inches 475 CONTENTS OF TIMBER, Q. G. MEASUREMENT 38, 39, 40 inches 41, 42, 43 inches 44, 45, 46 inches Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Bark. Length Length in in feet. 38 38J 39 39i 40 40J feet. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 6 60 2 61 9 63 4 65 o 66 8 68 4 6 7 70 2 72 o 73 ii 75 10 77 9 79 8 7 8 80 2 82 4 84 6 86 8 88 10 91 i 8 9 90 3 92 7 95 o 97 6 IOO O 102 6 9 10 ioo 3 IO2 II 105 7 108 4 III I 113 II 10 11 no 3 113 2 116 2 119 2 122 2 125 3 11 12 120 4 123 6 126 9 130 o 133 4 136 8 12 18 130 4 133 9 137 3 140 10 144 5 148 i 13 14 140 4 144 i 147 10 151 8 155 6 159 5 14 15 150 5 154 4 158 5 162 6 166 8 170 10 15 Average Quarter Girth (in inches^ under Baik. Length Length in in feet. 41 41 i 42 42J 43 43J feet. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 6 70 o 71 9 73 6 75 3 77 o 78 10 6 7 si 8 83 8 85 9 87 9 89 10 91 II 7 8 93 4 95 8 98 o ioo 4 102 8 105 I 8 9 105 o 107 7 no 3 112 10 115 6 Il8 3 9 10 116 9 119 7 122 6 125 5 128 5 131 5 10 11 128 5 131 6 134 9 137 ii 141 2 144 6 11 12 140 i 143 6 147 o 150 6 154 I 157 8 12 18 151 9 155 5 159 3 163 o 166 n 170 10 18 14 163 5 167 5 171 6 175 7 179 9 183 ii 14 15 175 i 179 4 183 9 188 i 192 7 197 i 15 Average Quarter Girth (in inches) under Bark. Length Length in in feet. 44 44J 45 45J 46 46 i feet. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 6 80 8 82 6 84 4 86 3 88 2 90 I 6 7 94 I 96 3 98 5 ioo 7 IO2 IO 105 I 7 8 107 6 no o 112 6 115 o 117 6 120 I 8 9 121 0 123 9 126 6 129 4 132 3 135 I 9 10 134 5 137 6 140 7 143 9 146 n 150 2 10 11 147 10 151 3 154 8 158 i 161 7 165 2 11 12 161 4 165 o 168 9 172 6 176 4 180 2 12 18 174 9 178 9 182 9 186 10 191 o 195 2 18 14 188 2 192 6 196 10 201 3 205 8 210 2 14 15 201 8 206 3 2IO II 215 8 220 5 225 2 15 476 APPENDIX C TABLES SHOWING THE CAPITALISED VALUE OF £1 AND OF £1 PER ANNUM, AT VARIOUS RATES OF INTEREST EXPLANATION OP TABLES These tables may be used for a variety of purposes. And to all who may seek to express an opinion upon the financial aspect of afforestation, their use is almost indispensable. For example, ^10 is spent per acre in planting and fencing. What will be the debt per acre in 90 years time on the 4 per cent, tables ? By reference to the tables — £i amounts at 4 per cent, to 34-119 in 90 years. •'• ;£io „ „ „ 34-119x10 = £34i, 3s. iod. Or again, is. a year has been paid per acre for rates on a wood for the last 95 years. What sum of money does this represent at the present time on the 4^ per cent, tables ? By reference to the tables — £i per annum will have amounted to ,£1432-684 1432-684 • '• Is< » » » & 2o = £71, i2s. ;d. Or again, at the end of a rotation of 80 years there is a net credit sum of ;£i20 per acre, which may be looked upon as deferred profits, after paying for all outgoings, etc. What yearly net rental is this equivalent to on the 3^ per cent, tables ? By reference to the tables, it is seen that— ^419-306 is the accumulated value of ^i per annum. • *• xjl » » " & 419-306 y I X 120 • • ;6I2° jj » » •& 419.306 120X20 shlllmgs- = 55. 8d. net rental per annum. 477 CAPITALISED VALUE OF £1 AND £1 PER ANNUM In Years. 2f per cent. 3 per cent. In Years. £1 amounts to £1 per annum amounts to £1 amounts to £1 per annum amounts to I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ii 12 13 H 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4i 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 1027 1-055 1-084 •114 •145 I-OOO 2-027 3-083 4-168 5-282 1-030 I -060 1-092 1-125 I-I59 1-000 2-030 3-090 4-183 5-309 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ii 12 13 H 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 % 49 50 •I76 •209 •242 •276 •311 6-427 7-604 8-813 10-056 H-332 1-194 1-229 1-266 1-304 1-343 6-468 7-662 8-892 10-159 11-463 •347 •384 •422 .461 •502 12-644 13-992 I5-376 16-799 I8-26I 1.384 I-425 1.468 1-512 1-557 12-807 14-192 15-617 I7-086 18-598 •543 •585 1-629 1-674 1-720 19-763 21-307 22-893 24-523 26-197 1-604 1-652 •702 •753 -806 20-156 21-761 23-4H 25-116 26-870 1-767 1-816 1-866 1-917 1-970 27-917 29-685 3I-50I 33-368 35-285 -860 •916 •973 2-032 2-093 28-676 30-536 32-452 34-426 36-459 2-024 2-080 2-137 2-196 2-256 37-256 39-280 4I-360 43-498 45-694 2-156 2-221 2-287 2-356 2-427 38-553 40-709 42-930 45-218 47-575 2-318 2-382 • 2-447 2-515 2-584 47-951 50-269 52-652 55-100 57-6i5 2-500 2-575 2-652 2-731 2-813 50-002 52-502 55-077 57-730 60-462 2-655 2-728 2-803 2-880 2-959 60-199 62-855 65-583 68-387 71-268 2-898 2-985 3-074 3-167 3-262 63-275 66-174 69-159 72-234 75-401 3-041 3-124 3-210 3-299 3-389 74-228 77-269 80-394 83-605 86-904 3-359 3-460 3-564 3-671 3-78i 78-663 82-023 85-483 89048 92-719 3-483 3-578 3-677 3-778 3-882 90-294 93-777 97-356 101033 104-811 3-895 4-01 1 4-132 4-256 4-383 96-501 100-396 104-408 108-540 112-796 478 AT DIFFERENT HATES OF INTEREST In Yeais. 2f per cent. 3 per cent. In Years. £1 amounts to £1 per annum amounts to £1 amounts to £1 per annum amounts to 51 52 53 54 55 56 11 59 60 3-989 4098 4-2 1 1 4-327 4.446 108-694 112-683 116-781 120-993 125-320 4-5I5 4-650 4-790 4-934 5-082 117-180 121 -696 126-347 I3I-I37 136071 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 7i 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 9i 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 4-568 4-694 4-823 4-955 5-092 129-767 134-335 139-029 I43-853 148-809 5-234 5-391 5-553 5-720 5-891 I4I-I53 146-388 151-780 157-333 I63-053 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 7i 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 9i 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 5-232 5-376 5-524 5-675 5-832 153-901 I59-I33 164.509 170-033 175-709 6068 6-250 6-437 6-631 6-829 168-945 I75-OI3 181-263 187-701 194-332 5-992 6-157 6-326 6-500 6-679 181-541 I87-534 193-691 201-017 206-518 7-034 7-245 7-463 7-687 7-917 201-162 208-197 215-443 222-906 230-594 6-862 7-05I 7-245 7-444 7-649 213-197 220-060 227-112 234-357 241-802 8-155 8-400 8-652 8-911 9-178 238-5II 246-667 255-067 263-719 272-630 7-«59 8-076 8-298 8-526 8-760 249-452 257-312 265-388 273.686 282-212 9-454 9-737 10-030 10-330 10-640 281-809 291-264 301-002 3II-032 32I-363 9-001 9-249 9-503 9765 10-033 290-973 299-975 309-224 318-728 328.493 10-960 11-288 11-627 11-976 12-335 332-003 342-964 354-252 365-880 377-856 10-309 10-593 10-884 11-183 11-491 338-52I 348-836 359-429 370-3I3 381.497 12-505 13-086 13-497 13-883 14-300 390-I92 402-898 4I5-985 429-464 443-348 11-807 12-131 12-465 12-808 13-160 392-988 404-795 416-927 429-393 442-201 14.729 I5-I7I 15-626 16095 16-578 457-649 472-378 487-550 503-176 519.272 13-522 13-894 14-276 14-669 15-072 455-362 468-884 482-779 497-055 5II-724 17-075 I7-587 18-115 18-658 19-218 535-850 552-925 570-513 588-628 607-287 2|% 3% 479 CAPITALISED VALUE OF £1 AND £1 PER ANNUM 4% In Years. 3J per cent. 4 per cent. In Years. £1 amounts to £1 per annum amounts to £1 amounts to £1 per annum amounts to I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ii 12 13 H 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3i 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4i 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 1-035 1-071 •108 •147 -187 I-OOO 2-035 3-io6 4-214 5-362 1-040 I -08 1 -124 •169 -216 I-OOO 2-040 3-I2I 4-246 5.416 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ii 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 -229 -272 •316 •362 •410 6-550 7-779 9-051 10-368 11-731 -265 •315 •368 •423 •480 6-632 7-898 9-214 10-582 12-006 •459 •5ii •563 •618 •675 13-141 14-601 16-113 17-676 I9-295 •539 •60 1 •665 •73i -800 13-486 15-025 16-626 18-291 20-023 •733 •794 •857 -922 1-989 20-971 22-705 24-499 26-357 28-279 1-872 1-947 2-025 2-106 2-191 21-824 23-697 25-645 27-671 29-778 2-059 2-131 2-206 2-283 2-363 30-269 32-328 34-46o 36-666 38-949 2-278 2-369 2-464 2-563 2-665 31-969 34-247 36-617 39-082 41-645 2-445 2-531 2-620 2-711 2-806 4I-3I3 43-759 46-290 48-910 51-622 2-772 2-883 2.998 3-n8 3-243 44-311 47-084 49.967 52-966 56-084 2-905 3-006 3-iii 3-220 3-333 54-429 57-334 60-341 63-453 66-674 3-373 3-508 3-648 3-794 3-946 59-328 62-701 66-209 69-857 73-652 3-450 3-571 3-696 3-825 3-959 70-007 73-457 77-028 80-724 84-550 4-103 4-268 4-438 4-616 4-801 77-589 81-702 85.970 90.409 95-025 4-097 4-241 4-389 4-543 4-702 88-509 92-607 96-848 101-328 105-781 4-993 5-I92 5-400 5-616 5-841 99-826 104-819 IIO-OI2 II5-4I2 121-029 4-866 5-037 5-213 5-396 5-584 110-484 II5-350 120-388 125-601 130-997 6-074 6-317 6-570 6-833 7-106 I26-870 132-945 I39-263 I45-833 152-667 480 AT DIFFERENT RATES OF INTEREST In Years. 3J per cent. 4 per cent. In Year*. £1 amounts to £1 per annum amounts to £1 amounts to £1 per annum amounts to 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 7i 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 9i 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 5.780 5-982 6-192 6-408 6-633 136-582 142-363 148-345 I54-538 160-946 7-390 7-686 7-994 8-313 8-646 159-773 167.164 174-851 182-845 191-159 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 g 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 9i 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 6-865 7-105 7-354 7-611 7-878 167.580 174-445 181-550 188-905 196-516 8-992 9-351 9725 10-115 10-519 199-805 208-797 2i8>i49 227-875 237-990 8-153 8-439 8-734 9-040 9-356 204-394 212-548 220-988 229.722 238-762 10-940 11.378 n-833 12-306 12-798 248-510 259-450 270-828 282-661 294-968 9-684 10-023 10-373 10-737 II-II2 248-119 257-803 267-826 278-200 288-937 13-310 I3-843 14-396 14.972 15-571 307.767 321-077 334-920 349-317 364-290 11-501 11-904 12-320 12-752 I3-I98 300-050 311-552 323-456 335-777 348-530 16-194 16-842 I7-5I5 18-216 18-945 379-862 396-056 412-898 430-414 448-631 I3-660 I4-I38 I4-633 IS-HS I5-675 361-728 375-389 389-527 404-161 419-306 19-703 20-491 21-310 22-163 23-049 467-576 487-279 507.770 529-081 55I-244 16-224 16792 17-379 17-988 18-617 434-982 451-206 467.999 485-379 503-367 23-971 24-930 25-927 26-965 28-043 574-294 598-266 623-197 649-125 676-090 19-269 19-943 20-641 21-364 22.112 521-985 54I-254 561-198 581-840 603-205 29-165 30-331 31-545 32-807 34-H9 704-I33 733-299 763-631 795-176 827-983 22-886 23-687 24-516 25-374 26-262 625.317 648-203 671-890 696-406 721-780 35-484 36-903 38-379 39-9H 41-511 862-102 897-586 934-490 972-869 1012-784 27-l8l 28-I32 29-II7 30.136 3I-I9I 748-043 775-224 803-357 832-475 862-611 43-I7I 44.898 46-694 48-562 50-504 1054-296 1097-467 1142-366 1189-061 1237-623 481 CAPITALISED VALUE OF £1 AND £1 PER ANNUM 5% In Years. 4J per cent. 5 per cent. In Years. £1 amounts to £1 per annum amounts to £1 amounts to £1 per annum amounts to I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ii 12 13 H 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 . 38 39 40 4i 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 1-045 1-092 1*141 1-192 1-246 I-OOO 2-045 3-137 4-278 5-470 1-050 I -102 I-I57 MI| 1-276 I-OOO 2-050 3-I52 4-310 5-525 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ii 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3i 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4i 42 43 44 45 46 ? 49 50 1-302 I-360 1-422 1-486 1-552 6-716 8-019 9-38o 10-802 12-288 1-340 1-407 1-477 i-55i 1-628 6-801 8-142 9-549 11-026 12-577 1-622 1-695 1-772 I-85I 1-935 13-841 15-464 I7-I59 18-932 20.784 1-710 1-795 1-885 1-979 2-078 14-206 I5-9I7 17-712 19-598 21-578 2-022 2-II3 2-208 2-307 2-4II 22-719 24-741 26-855 29063 3I-37I 2-182 2-292 2-406 2-526 2-653 23-657 25-840 28-132 30-539 33-065 2-520 2-633 2-752 2-876 3-005 33-783 36-303 38-937 41-689 44-565 2-785 2-925 3-071 3-225 3-386 35-7I9 38-505 41-430 44-502 47727 3-140 3-282 3-429 3-584 3-745 47-570 50-711 53-993 57-423 61-007 3-555 3-733 3-920 4-116 4-321 5i-ii3 54-669 58-402 62-322 66-438 3-9I3 4089 4-274 4-466 4-667 64.752 68-666 72-756 77-030 81-496 4-538 4-764 5-003 5-253 5-5i6 70-760 75-298 80-063 85066 90-320 4-877 5-096 5-326 5-565 5-8x6 86-163 91041 96-138 101-464 107-030 5-791 6 -08 1 6-385 6-704 7-039 95-836 101-628 107-709 114-095 120-799 6-078 6-351 6-637 6-936 7-248 112-846 118-924 125-276 I3I-9I3 138-849 7-39* 7-76i 8-149 8-557 8-985 127-839 I35-23I I42-993 I5I-I43 159-700 7-574 7-9I5 8-271 8-643 9-032 146-098 I53-672 161-587 169-859 178-503 9-434 9-905 10-401 10-921 j r"467 168-685 178-119 188-025 198-426 209.348 482 AT DIFFERENT RATES OF INTEREST In Years. 4J per cent. 5 per cent. In Years. £1 amounts to £1 per annum amounts to £1 amounts to £1 per annum amounts to 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 7i 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 9-439 9-863 10-307 10-771 11-256 I87-535 196-974 206-838 217-146 227-917 12-040 12-642 13-274 I3-938 I4-635 220-815 232-856 245.498 258-773 272-712 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 7i 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 11-762 12-292 12-845 I3-423 14027 239-174 250-937 263-221 276-074 289-497 I5-367 16-135 16-942 I7-789 18-679 287-348 302715 318-851 335-794 353-583 14-658 15-318 16-007 16-727 17-480 303-525 318-184 333-502 349-509 366-237 I9-6I3 20-593 21-623 22-704 23-839 372-262 39I-876 412-469 432093 456-798 18-267 19-089 19-948 20-846 21-784 383-7I8 401-985 42I-075 44I-023 461-869 25-031 26-283 27-597 28-977 30-426 480-637 505-669 531-953 559-550 588-528 22-764 23-788 24-859 25-977 27-146 483-653 506-418 530-207 555-066 581-044 31-947 33-545 35-222 36-983 38-832 618-954 650-902 684.447 719-670 756-653 28-368 29-645 30-979 32-373 33-830 608-191 636-559 666-205 697-184 729-557 40-774 42-813 44-953 47.201 49.561 795.486 836-260 879073 924027 971-228 35-352 36-943 38-605 40-343 42-158 763-387 798-740 835-683 874-289 9I4-632 52-039 54-641 57-373 60-242 63-254 1020-790 1072-829 1127-471 1184-844 1245087 44-055 46038 48-109 50-274 52-537 956-790 1000-846 1046-884 1094.994 II45-296 66-417 69-737 73-224 76-886 80-730 1308-341 1374758 1444.496 1517.721 1594-607 54-901 57-371 59-953 62-651 65.470 1197-806 1252-707 1310-079 1370-032 I432-684 84-766 89005 93-455 98*128 103-034 I675-337 1760-104 1849-109 I942-565 2040-693 68-416 71-495 74.712 78-075 81-588 I498-I55 1566-572 1638-067 1712-780 I790-855 108-186 H3-595 119.275 125-239 131-501 2143-728 2251-914 2365-510 2484-785 2610025 483 APPENDIX D TABLE SHOWING THE BASAL AREA FOR TREES OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS, AND, FOR COMPARISON, THE BASAL AREA ACCORDING TO QUARTER GIRTH MEASUREMENT OF THOSE TREES 485 TABLE OF BASAL AREAS Diameter (in inches). True Basal Area. Square feet. Quarter Girth (in inches). Basal Area according to Quarter Girth Measurement. Square feet. 3 4 1 7 0-049 0-087 0-136 0-196 0-267 2-35 S-H 3-92 4-71 5-49 0-038 0-068 0-107 0-154 0-209 8 9 10 ii 12 0-349 0-441 Q-54S 0-659 0-785 6-28 7-07 7-85 8-64 9.42 0-274 0-347 0-428 0-518 o«6i6 13 14 15 16 17 0-921 1-069 1-227 1-396 1.576 IO-2I 10-99 11-78 12-57 13-35 0-724 0-838 0-964 1-097 1-238 18 19 20 21 22 1-767 1-968 2-181 2-405 2-639 14.14 14-92 I5-7I 16-49 17-28 1-388 1-546 1-714 1-888 2-073 23 24 11 27 2-885 3-141 3-408 3-687 3-976 1 8-06 18-85 19.63 20-42 21-20 2-265 2-467 2-676 2-895 3-I2I 28 29 30 3i 32 4-276 4-586 4-908 5-241 5-585 2 1 -99 22-77 23-56 24-35 25-»3 3-357 3 -60 1 3-855 4-117 4-385 33 34 11 37 5-939 6-305 6-681 7068 7-466 25-92 26-70 27.49 28-27 29-06 4-665 4-950 5-248 5-549 5-846 38 39 40 4i 42 7-875 8-295 8-726 9.168 9-621 29-84 30-63 31-41 32-20 32-99 6-183 6-516 6-851 7-200 7-566 43 44 s 47 48 10-084 iQ-559 11-044 11-541 12-048 12-566 33-77 34-56 35-34 36-13 36.91 37-70 7.919 8-294 8-673 9-065 9.461 9.870 486 APPENDIX E TABLE SHOWING THE BASAL AREA BY QUARTER GIRTH MEASUREMENT FOR TREES OF DIFFERENT QUARTER GIRTHS 487 TABLE OF BASAL AREAS Quarter Girth. Inches. Basal Area by Quarter Girth Measurement. Square feet. Quarter Girth. Inches. Basal Area by Quarter Girth Measurement. Square feet. In decimals. Fractions. In decimals. Fractions. 2* 0-027 * 19 2-51 »i 3 0-062 TV '9i 2-64 ... 4 O-III i 20 2-78 5 0-173 i 20| 2-92 ... 6 0-25 * 21 3«o6 3rV 6i 0-29 aii 3-21 ... 7 o-33 i 22 3-36 7i o-39 ... 22£ 3-52 Si 8 0-44 ... 23 3-67 H 0-50 £ 23i 3-84 ... 9 0-56 ... 24 4-00 4 9i 0-63 ... Hi 4-17 10 0-69 § 25 4-34 ... I0| 0-77 25i 4-52 ... II 0-84 ... 26 4-69 ii| 0-92 ... 26^ 4-88 12 I-OO I 27 506 SiV I*i 1-09 ... 27i 5-25 ... 13 1-17 ... 28 5-44 ... isi 1-27 I| 28^ 5.64 ... 14 1-36 ... 29 5'84 ... i4i 1-46 ... 29* 6-04 6 I4l i-5i ii 30 6-25 64 i5 I.56 ... 3i| 7-00 7 IS* 1.67 ... 34 8-02 8 16 1.78 i| 36 9-00 9 rfi 1-89 ... 39 10-56 wA 17 2-01 2 42 12-25 m iyi 2-13 ... 45 14-06 i*A 18 2-25 ... 48 1 6-00 16 IS* 2.38 ... 5i 1 8-06 iW * Two inches quarter girth under bark equals approximately 2| inches diameter over bark, the measurement down to which timber is included in continental tables (7 centimetres). 488 INDEX Abies (vide Silver fir), notes on, 414-417 conco/or, 417 grandis, 417 Acacia, prices and uses of timber, 329 seed of, 42, 334 soils for, 74, 88, 334 sylvicultural notes on, 334, 335 timber of, 334 Accumulated debt on normal areas, 234-238 Acer platanoides (vide Norway Maple), notes on, 375, 376 pseudo-platanus (vide Sycamore), notes on, 375, 376 Acidity in soils, 84 Acorns, sowing of, in woods, 137 Advantages of annual rental principle, 251 of good roads, 312-314 of mixed woods, 98 of pure woods, 98, 99 dEcidium elatinum^ 416 &sculus (vide Horse Chestnut), notes on, 356 Afforestation, considerations in favour of, 14 financial aspect of, 231-263 reasons showing inadvisability of, 15-18 relief works, 8, 9 schemes, may result in disaster, 19 schemes, proposals for Government aid, 19 Agaricus melleus ( = Honey Fungus), 344, 391, 396, 404, 413, 4i6, 420 Age classes under selection system, 177, 178, 188, 189 489 Age for planting trees, 96, 97 of seed production, 184 when thinnings commence, 147 Agriotes lineatus ( = wireworm), 405 Alaska cypress (vide Cupressus Sitchen- jw), notes on, 387, 388 Alder coppice, 197, 301-203, 227 coppice, use of, 288 prices and uses of timber, 329 seed of, 39, 41, 42, 45, 46, 336 soils for, 74, 88, 89, 336 sylvicultural notes on, 336, 337 timber of, 336 Allowance for bark, 269, 270 Alnus (vide Alder), notes on, 336, 337 Altitude, influence of, 72, 73, 185 relative, 33 American Ash, 341 Elm, 351 White wood, 377 Annual increment, 450, 451 rental principle, 244-262 ring, effected by pruning, 157 Aphis, 345 Argyresthia l&vigatella^ 397 Arrangement of coppice felling areas, 288, 289 of fellings, group system, 180 Artificial sowing of crops of trees, 136-141 Ash, American, 74, 341 average annual increment, 221, 340 bark beetle, 341 branch bark beetle, 341 coppice, 197, 201, 227 coppice, use of, 287, 288 cutting over at ground level, 154 2 H 490 INDEX Ash, Green ( = /I viridis}, 341 height of, 91, 92, 1 60 high forest over coppice, 212-214 (mineral) percentage of, in leaves, 83 (mineral) percentage of, in timber, 8 2 natural regeneration of, 191, 192 Oregon, 208, 341 partial clearance of, and underplant- ing, 1 66, 167, 174 planting estimates for, 1 32 prices and uses of timber, 326 rental yielded by, 246-248, 260, 262, 340 returns from, 221, 340 rotation for, 340 seed of, 38, 39, 41, 45, 46, 338 soils for, 74, 78, 80, 84, 89, 338, 339 standards over coppice, 202, 203, 206, 207 sylvicultural notes on, 338-341 thinning of, 1 60 timber of, 338 two-storied high forest, 174, 192 yield table, coppice with standards, 226 yield table, high forest, 221 Aspect, 12, 183, 185, 186 influence of, 71, 72 in relation to thinnings, 148, 151 of nursery, 33 Aspen leaf beetle (L. tremula>\ 371, 385 Poplar, notes on, 370, 371 Atmospheric moisture and tree growth, 74-76 moisture within woodlands, 2 temperature within woodlands, 2, 3 Auction sales of coppice, 285, 286 sales of large timber, 295, 296 Austrian pine, height of, 91, 92 seed of, 39, 42, 45, 46, 406 soils for, 74, 76, ^7, 88, 89, 407 sylvicultural notes on, 406, 407 thinning of, 162 Autumn planting, objections to, 1 1 2, H3 wood, 164, 170 Average annual increment, 450, 451 annual increments of various trees, 216-224, 226, 227 yields from forest land, 215-230 Average yield tables, application of, 434-436, 450 BAD Mixtures, 105-107 Bank's pine (vide P. Banksiand), notes on, 410 Bark, allowance for, in measuring, 269, 270 price of, 310, 311 Barking, 307-311 Barrel hoops, 287, 288 Basal area, ascertaining, 426, 427 Bean sticks, 228 Beech, average annual increment, 217, 344 financial result of underplanting with, 25S-257 height of, 91, 92, 159 natural regeneration of, 176-179, 187-191 partial clearance of, 166, 175 prices and uses of timber, 327 rental yielded by, 246-248, 256, 257, 262, 344 returns from, 115, 217, 344 rotation for, 344 seed of, 39, 41-43, 45, 46, 342 seed years, 184, 191 selection system, 177-179 sylvicultural notes on, 342-345 thinning of, 159 timber of, 342 yield table, 217 Betula (vide Birch), notes on, 346, 347 Birch, direct sowing, 138 for frost localities, 128 nurses, 101, 107, 144 prices and uses of timber, 329 seed of, 39, 41-43, 45, 46, 346 soils for, 74, 78, 88, 89, 346 sylvicultural notes on, 346, 347 timber of, 346 Black Poplars, notes on, 367-369 Walnut, 208 Walnut (vide Walnut), notes on, 379, 380 Bladder rust, 404 Board measurement, 278-282 Bombyx antigua, 385 chrysorrhaea (= Brown tail moth), 363 INDEX 491 Bombyx neustria ( = Lackey moth), 363 pudibunda* 345 salicis, 371, 385 Booking measurements, felled timber, 270, 271 measurements, standing timber, 274, 275 Bostrichus ditpar^ 362 Botrytis cinerea, 56, 192, 391, 403, 404, 413, 420 Douglasii (cinered), 391 Box, 86, 88, 210, 323 prices and uses of timber, 330 Bracket fungi, 341, 344, 362, 376 Branches, removal of, if large, 156 Brandit's hypsometer, 426, 427 Broad-leaved trees, pruning of, 154. 155 Brown Oak, 324, 325 tail moth, 363 Burrs, 323-325, 328 Cceoma laricis, 371 pinitorquum, 371, 404, 413 Calcareous soils, tree growth on, 83, 84 Calliper measure, 277. 281, 282 Canada, forest area of, 15 Canadian Poplar, notes on, 367-369 timber "limits," acquisition by Government, 19, 20 Canal, transport by, 316 Canary wood, 377 Canopy, density of, 150, 151 Capital in normally stocked areas, 234- 238 Carpinus (vide Hornbeam) notes on, 354, 355 Castanea (vide Spanish Chestnut), notes on, 372-374 Catchment areas, 5 Ceramhyx carcharias, 371, 385 populnea, 371 Cerastoma piliferum, 405 Chalky soils, trees for, 88 Cheimatokia brumata (vide Geometrd), 355 358, 363 Chcrmes ahietis, 397, 421 laricis, 397 Cherry, 323 prices and "uses of, 330 sylvicultural notes on, 348 Cherry, timber of, 348 Choice of forest systems, 27-31, 109, no methods of planting, 122, 123 seed, 37 39 system of Natural Regeneration, 195, 196 Chrysomyxa abielis, 420 Clay soils, digging holes, 113 planting of, 127, 128 replanting, 1 1 1 trees for, 88, 207 under coppice with standards, 210 unsuited for notching, 123 Cleaning and preparing land for plant- ing. 66-69 young crops, 142-145 Clearance of " mother " trees, 184-187, 190, 191 Clogs, wood for, 288 Cluster Pine (vide P. pinaster), notes on, 409, 410 Coccus salicis, 385 Cockchafer grubs, 55, 341, 345, 355, 362, 376, 391. 405, 417, 421 Coleophora laricella, 397 Comparison of cost of sowing and planting, 140, 141 percentage of various measurement?, 282 Compartment system, 24-27 Compartments, regeneration of, 182- 187, 189-192, 195 Compound interest, ascertaining, 438- 454 yielded on planting, 239-244 Conditions of sale of coppice, 286, 287 of sale of timber, 298, 301 Conifers, pruning of, 153, 154 Conversion of coppice or coppice with standards into high forest, 210, 211 Coppice, felling arrangement, 288, 289 sale of, 284-286 simple coppice system, 21 systems, 21, 197-214 with standards, 22, 28, 202-210 with standards, financial aspect of, 257-261 Coppicing stools, 198, 199 492 INDEX Coral spot disease (M cinnabarind), 356, 358, 376 Cord, size of, 283, 306 Cordwood, 306 prices of, 228, 333 Corsican Pine, average annual incre- ment, 219, 409 height of, 91, 92 natural regeneration of, 192, 193, 196 prices and uses of timber, 330 returns from, 115, 219, 409 rotation for, 219, 409 seed of, 39, 42, 45, 46, 407 soils for, 74, 76, 77, 80, 88, 89, 408 sowing of direct, 137 sylvicultural notes on, 407-409 thinning of, 162 timber of, 408 underplanting of, 167 yield of, 219 Corylus (vide Hazel), notes on, 353 Cossus ligniperda, 371, 385 Cost of annual outgoings, coppice with standards, 6, 7, 208, 209 annual outgoings, high forest, 6, 7, 236 bark and barking, 310, 311 canal transport, 316 cleaning or "cutting out" young plantations, 143 cleaning sown areas, 139 cording, 307 cutting coppice (underwood), 199, 228 dibbling, 122, 139 dibbling acorns, 141 drainage, 65, 66 faggoting, 307 felling trees, 307 forest tramway, 314, 316 hoeing up lines for sowing, 139 horse haulage, 312 labour in sowing, 139 layering or plashing, 201 making up underwood produce, 228 manual labour in forests, 6, 7 notching (a) with ordinary spade, 121 notching (<5) with Schlich's spade, 121 nursery operations, 48, 49 Cost of planting in pits, 1 1 7 planting seedlings, 140, 141 planting trees (per 100) in coppice areas, 200 planting with curved planting spade, 119 planting with planting spike, 118, 119 planting various crops, 131-136 rabbit fence, 60 rabbit fence per acre, 61-64 railway transport, 317, 322 road making, 69, 313, 314 rounding up felled timber, 310 seedlings and transplants, 50, 51 shipping timber from Baltic ports, 16 shipping timber from Vancouver, 17 slitting (vide notching), 121 sowing (direct) crops of trees, 139- 141 steam traction, 312 treading in young plants, 143 underplanting, 168, 169 Couch grass, 129 Covert, absence of, 29 plants, 209, 210 Cratewood, wood for, 287 Creeping willow, 129 Cricket bat willows (vide Willow), 382- 385 Croesus septentrionalis, 337 Crowns, shape of, 90 Crutch pine beetle, 406 Cryptococcus fagi, 344 Cryptorhynchus lapathi, 385 Cupressus macrocarpa, seed of, 37, 39, 42, 45, 46, 386 soils for, 74, 77, 78, 88, 89, 386 sylvicultural notes on, 386, 387 timber of, 386 yield, 115, 225 Nootkatensis (vide C. Sitchensis"), 387, 388 Sitchensis, seed of, 39, 42, 45, 46, 387 Sitchensis^ sylvicultural notes on, 387, 388 Current annual increment, 450, 451 Cutting coppice, 198, 199, 284, 285 over recently planted hardwoods, 144, 154,155 Cuttings or slips, 52, 53 INDEX 493 Cynips kottari, 363 querci, 363 "DAMPING OFF" of seedlings (vide Phytophthora), 56, 344 Dasyscypha calycina (Larch Disease)) 396 Dead branches, pruning of, 158 Decaying leaves and nitrogen, 81 Density of timber, 164 Denudation (vide erosion), 4 Depth of soil and tree growth, 78, 79 to plant, 117 Destruction of forests, evil effects of, 6 Diameter classes, 431 Dibbling, 122 Die square measurement, 278, 280, 282 Direct sowing of crops of trees, 136-141 Direction of fellings, 290 Distance apart for planting, 96, 97 Distillation of wood, 230 Divisor, " 113," " 144," 264, 318, 319 Douglas Fir, average annual increment, 224, 391 height of, 91, 92, 162 natural regeneration of, 193-19$ planting estimates for, 131, 132, 136 prices and uses of timber, 331 pruning of, 153 rental yielded by, 246-248, 250, 262 returns from, 115, 224, 246-248, 262, 391 rotation for, 224, 250, 391 seed of, 37-39, 42, 45, 4&, 389 soUs for, 74, 76, 78, 80, 86, 88, 89, 389, 390 sylvicultural notes on, 389-391 thinning of, 162 timber of, 389 yield table, 224 Drainage of land, 64-66 Draudt's method of measuring, 432 Drifting timber, 316 " Drifts," size of, 284 Dry soils, trees for, 88, 89 EASTERN PLANE, notes on, 365 " Eclair tie par le haut," 146, 147 Effects of drainage on trees, 66 of forests upon labour market, 6-9 of pruning, 157, 158 Effects of thinning upon humus, 150, 151 of trees upon climatic conditions, and upon the locality, 1-6 Elm bark beetle, 350 prices and uses of timber, 326, 327 seed of, 39-42, 45, 4^, 349 soils for, 78, 88, 349 sylvicultural notes on, 349-351 timber of, 349 Epicormic branches, 149 Erosion and denudation, prevention of, by trees, 4 Estimates for planting, 131-136 Estimation of increment in cubic con- tents, 437-451 of increment in value or quality, 451-454 European Larch (vide Larch), notes on, 392-397 Even-aged high forest, compartments of, 25 mixtures, 100-103 Everlasting pea, 129 Expenses of management, coppice with standards, 6, 7, 208, 209 of management, high forest, 6, 7, 236, 245, 258 Exposed land, planting of, no, 128 Extraction of roots, in FAGGOTS, 228, 306 price of, 333 Fagus (vide Beech), notes on, 342- 345 Fallacious estimates concerning forestry, 232-234 Felled timber, lotting of, 303, 304 measurement of, 265-271 sale of, 291-293 Felling standards over coppice, 209 season, 307 timber, 304-307 Fellings, direction of, 290 under group system, 180 Felted beech scale, 344 Fences against stock, 61 Fencing rods, 228 stakes, 228 trees against rabbits, 29 Field Maple, 376 494 INDEX Financial aspect of afforestation, 10-20, 231-263 aspect of coppice with standards, 257- 261 aspect of underplanting, 169, 252- 257 position of various trees, 115 Fire lines, 87, 346, 347 Floods, 86 Femes, 350, 362, 385 annosus {=Trametes radiciperdd), 39i> 397, 404. 413, 4l6, 420 fomentarius, 344 igniarius, 341, 344 Food material, resources of, 1 64 requirements of trees, 80-83 Foreign seed, when advisable, 39, 194 Forest roads, cost of, 313, 314 tramway, 314-316 Form factor, 428, 429, 433 Formulae for compound interest, 439, 443, 444, 446, 447 Fox-coloured sawfly, 406 Fraudulent girthing, 268, 269 Fraxinus (vide Ash), notes on, 338-341 Frost line, 77 localities, planting of, 128 localities, trees for, 77, 89 Frosts, in relation to aspect and altitude, 72,73 susceptibility of trees to, 36, 37 GALES, liability to, 73 Gall wasps, 363 Gauttheria, 2IO Geometra (Cheimatobia) brumata, 355, 358- 363 Germination capacity of seeds, 42 Giant arborvitae (vide Thuya gigantea), notes on, 424, 425 wood wasp, 417 Girth increment, 163-166 Girthing, fraud in, 268, 269 Goat moth, 371, 385 Good mixtures, 103-105 Graphic representation of yield tables, 225 Grass land, frosts on, 68, 69 soil covering of, 142, 171, 186, 192 Green Ash, 341 Grey Poplar, notes on, 370 Group system, 23, 179-181, 195 Groups, mixtures by, IO2 Gunpowder, wood for, 288, 308 " HAGS," size of, 284 Hard tissue, 164 Haulage by horses, 312 by steam traction, 312, 313 of timber (annual cost per acre), 6 Haws, 39, 352 Hawthorn, seed of, 352 sylvicultural notes on, 39, 352 Hazel coppice, 197, 201 coppice, uses of, 288 notes on, 353 seed of, 39- 4ii 353 Heat and tree growth, 84-86 Heather land, acid, 84 land, planting of, 127 land, sowing of direct, 137 pan, 79, 127 soil covering of, often beneficial, 142 Height, ascertaining exactly, 426, 427 growth, 91, 92 measurement of, 272, 274 of Ash, 91, 92, 160 of Beech, 91, 92, 159 of Douglas Fir, 91, 92, 162 of Larch, 91, 92, 161 of Oak, 91, 92, 159 of Scots Pine, 91, 92, 161 of Silver Fir, 91, 92, 160 of Spruce 91, 92 of Weymouth Pine, 91, 92, 162 High forest systems, 22-27 wiih coppice, 26-29, 167, 211-214 with standards, 27, 30 Hillsides, planting of, 127 sowing of, 137 Hoeing in nursery, 49 Holly, 210 prices and uses of timber, 330 Home-grown seed, 38, 39, 194. Honey fungus ( = Agancus melleus\ 391 , 396, 404, 413, 416, 420 Hoops (barrel), wood for, 287, 288 Hop dog moth, 345 Hop poles, wood for, 287, 288 Hornbeam, prices and uses of timber, 328 seed of, 39, 42, 45, 4^, 354 INDEX 495 Hornbeam, soils for, 74, 79, 88, 354 sylvicultural notes on, 354, 355 timber of, 354 Horse chestnut, notes on, 356 prices and uses of timb'er, 329 haulage, 312 Hot aspects, trees for, 85 Humus, decay of, 182, 183 effects of, 170, 171 with reference to soil moisture, 150, 170 Hurdles, wood for, 287, 288 Hydnum diver sid ens, 362 Hydrogen peroxide, 5 Hylesinus crenatus^ 341 fraxini, 341 oleiperda, 341 palliatus, 406 piniperda, 405, 406, 421 Hylobius abietis (vide Pine Weevil), 181,307, 391,405,417,421 Hylurgus ( = Hylrsinus) piniperda, 405, 406, 421 Hypsometers, 436 427 Hysterium (= Lophodermiuni) pinastri, 56, 192, 403, 413 INCOME from normally stocked areas, 236, 262 Increment, average annual, of crops, 216-224, 226, 227 in cubic contents, 437-451 in girth, 157 in value, 165, 451, 452 on felled timber, 448-450 on invested capital, 452-454 on standing timber, 441-448 stimulation of, 163-166 Inland sand dunes, 129. 130 Interest yielded on planting, 239-244, 258 Intermittent fellings, 181, 290 JANKER, 311 Japanese Larch (vide Larch), notes on, 397, 398 Juglans (vide Walnut), notes on, 379, 38o KUKILE Larch, 398, 399 LACKEY MOTH, 363 Land, drainage of, 64-66 rentals, 244-248, 253, 254, 260, 262 " Lands," size of, 284 Larch aphis, 397 blister (= larch disease), 396 bug (—larch aphis), 397 European, average annual increment, 222, 223. 396 European, height of, 91, 92, 161 European high forest over coppice, 212-214 European, natural regeneration in- advisable, 193 European, partial clearance and underplanting, 166, 167, 173, 174 European, planting estimates, 132, 136 European, prices and uses of timber, 330 European, returns from, 246-248, 260, 262, 396 European, rotation for, 222, 223, 241, 247, 396 European, seed of, 37, 39, 42, 45, 46, 392 European, soils for, 74, 78, 80, 84, 88, 392, 393 European, standards over coppice, 202, 203, 206, 207 European, sylvicultural notes on, 392- 397 European, thinning of, 161 European, timber of, 392 European, underplanting, finance of, 252 254 European, yield table, coppice with standards, 226 European, yield table, high forest, 222, 223 Japanese, notes on, 397, 397 Japanese, seed of, 37, 39, 42, 45, 46, 397 Kurile, notes on, 398, 399 mining moth, 397 Siberian, notes on, 399 Western, notes on, 398 Large longicorn beetle, 371, 385 Pine beetle, 405, 406, 421 Larix (vide Larch), notes on, 392-399 496 INDEX Late spring planting, 112 Laurel, 210 Layering or plashing, 201 Layers, 52 Laying out rides or roads, 69 Leaf shedding disease, 56, 192, 403, 413 Leaves, retention of, 183 Light-demanding trees, 95, 188 demanding trees, thinning of, 147- 149, 152 Lime, 323 prices and uses of timber, 328 seed of, 42, 357 sylvicultural notes on, 357, 3$8 timber of, 357 (CaO), a poison to some trees, 83, 89 (CaO), in soil and tree growth, 83, 84 Limestone soils, trees for, 88 Linapopuli, 371, 385 tremulce, 371, 385 Lining out seedlings and transplants, 49 Liriodendron tulipifera (vide Tulip Tree), 377, 378 Lombardy Poplar, notes on, 371 London Plane, notes on, 365 Long rotations, inadvisability of, 241- 243, 250 Lophodermium macrosporum, 420 nerviseguum, 405, 406, 421 pinastri, 56, 403, 413 Lophyrus pini, 406 rufus, 406 Loss of plant food by tree growth, 80 Losses in respect of timber growing, 10 Lotting timber, 302, 304 MARKETING of mature timber, 290-304 of thinnings, 289, 290 Marking timber, 302 Maritime Pine (vide P. pinaster), notes on, 409, 410 Marram grass, 129 Maw's formula, 446, 447 Measurement by board measure, 278- 282 by calliper measure, 277, 281, 282 by die square, 278, 280, 282 Measurement by quarter girth, 264-275, 279, 280, 282 by true contents, 276, 279, 282 of felled timber, 265-271 of sample plots, 432-434 of sample trees, 429-432 of standing timber, 272, 273 Mechanical condition of soil and tree growth, 79, 80 Melampsora, 371, 385 larici tremulce , 371 pinitorquua, 371, 405 populina, 371 Melampsorella cerastii, 416 Melolontha vulgaris ( = Cockchafer), 341, 345, 355, 362, 376, 39i, 405 Method of pruning, 155, 156 Methods of mixing trees, 100-103 Mice, damage done by, 57 Mico-rhizas, 8 1 Micro-organisms and tree growth, 8 1 Mistletoe, 371 Mixed coppice, 201 woods, merits and demerits of, 98-100 woods, thinning of, 151, 152 Mixtures, natural regeneration of, 186 of trees, 100-108 rules for, 108 Moisture, demands of trees as to, 74-76 in soil, 170, 179 Moor pan, 79 Mother trees, 181 gradual clearance of, 184-187, 190, 191 Mound planting (vide "tumping), 127 Mutual pruning effects, 93, 94 Myxoderma, 324 NATURAL REGENERATION, 176-196 Nectria cinnabarina, 356, 358, 376 curcubitula, 420 ditissima, 341, 344, 355, 358, 362 Net expenses in forests, 236, 245, 258 Nitrogen, utilization of, and require- ments, 8 1 Nordmann's silver fir, notes on, 417 Normal growing stock, coppice with standards, 226 growing stock, high forest, 216-224 Normally stocked areas, capital in- vested in, 234-237 INDEX 497 Normally stocked areas, revenue from, 234-237, 262 Northern aspects, pay to plant, 12 Norway maple, natural regeneration, 192 prices and uses of timber, 327 rotation for, 376 seed of, 42, 45, 46, 375 soils for, 74, 76-78, 88, 89, 375 sylvicultural notes on, 375, 376 timber of, 375 Norway spruce, average annual in- crement, 2 1 8, 420 height of, 91, 92 natural regeneration of, 193-195 partial clearance of, 166, 174, 175 prices and uses of timber, 331 rotation for, 2 1 8, 419 returns from, 115, 2 1 8, 246-248, 262, 420 seed of, 39, 42, 45, 46, 418 soils for, 74-76, 79, 88, 89, 418, 419 sylvicultural notes on, 418-421 thinning of, 160 timber of, 418 yield of, 218 Notching or slitting, 120-122 Number of trees from I Ib. of seed, 46 of trees per acre to plant, 123, 124 Nursery, advantages of home nursery, 32, 33 pests, 55-57 plants, weeding and transplanting, 49 seed beds, 36 site of, 33 size of, 34 "Nurses," 100, 101, 107, 108, 144, 346 OAK apple galls, 363 Oak average annual increment, 216, 362 bark, 307-311 boring bark beetle, 362 burrs, 323-325 coppice, 197, 201, 227 coppice, uses of, 288 height of, 91, 92, 159 high forest over coppice, 214 Holm Oak, 363, 364 invested capital in normal areas, 237 marble galls, 363 Oak, natural regeneration of, 187, 191 partial clearance of, and underplant- ing, 166, 167, 172, 173 planting estimates for, 133, 134 prices and uses of timber, 324, 325 Red Oak, 363 returns from, 216, 246-248, 260, 262, 362 root seedling fungus, 56 rotation for, 246-248, 262, 362 seed of, 38, 41-43, 45, 46, 359 soils for, 74, 77-79, 88, 359, 36o standards over coppice, 202-205, 207 sylvicultural notes on, 359-364 thinning of, 149, 159 timber of, 359 Turkey Oak, 363 underplanting, finance of, 255-257 yield table, coppice with standards, 226 yield table, high forest, 216 Objections to statement of rate of com- pound interest yielded, 243 to very close sowing, 138, 145 Orchestes /agi, 344 qucrci, 362 Oregon Ash, 208, 341 Pine, 331 Pine (vide Douglas Fir), notes on, 389-391 Ornamental trees, nursery management of, 130 Osiers, 202 Outgoings ("net minimum), 236, 245 Ozone, 5 PAN, 79, 127 Paper Birch, 347 Partial clearances, 163-175 advisability of, 250 tables for, 173-175 Patches, mixtures by, 102 Pea sticks, 228 Peat land, planting of, 127 Peaty soils, trees for, 88, 89 Pedunculate Oak, notes on, 359-363 Percentage increment on felled timber, 448,449 increment on invested capital, 452, 454 increment on standing timber, 441, 448 498 INDEX Peridermium pini acicola, 404, 413 pini corticola, 404 ribicolum (/°. strobi), 413 Persistency of side branches, 92-95 Pestalozzia Hartigii, 56, 344, 376, 391, 416, 420 Peziza Willkommii, 396 Philaphis, 345 Photna abietina, 416 pithy a, 391 Phytophthora omnivera, 56, 344, 376, 396, 420 Picea (vide Spruce), notes on, 418-423 Pine baik blister (= Canker), 404 needle blister, 404 Pine saw-fly, 406 shoot tortrix, 406 shoot twig twister, 406 shoot twisting fungus, 404 weevil, 55, 290, 307, 391, 4Q5, 4*7, 421 Pine weevil, influence of, on replanting, in, 181 Pines, sylvicultural notes on, 400-413 Pinus (vide Pines), sylvicultural notes on, 400-413 Banksiana, notes on, 410 Banksiana, soils for, 77, 89, 410 insignis, notes on, 410, 411 insignis, soils for, 77, 89, 410, 411 pinaster ( — Star Pine), notes on, 409, 410 pinaster, soils for, 77, 84, 89, 410 Pissodes notatus, 405, 413, 421 Pit timber, prices for, 332 Plane leaf fungus. 366 tree, prices and uses of timber, 329 tree, soils for, 365 tree, sylvicultural notes on, 365, 366 Planting clay soils 127, 128 estimates, 131-136 exposed places, 128 financial considerations, 115 foul land, extra cost of, 169, 170 frost localities, 77, 89, 128 heather land, 127 in pits, 116, 117 iron, 121, 122 modus operandi, 125 ornamental trees, 130 peat land, 127 Planting sand dunes and shifting sand, 128, 129 season, 111-113 up coppice areas, 199, 200 with curved planting spade, 119 with planting spike, 118 Plashing ( = Layering), 201 Platanus (vide Plane), notes on, 365, 366 Ploughing land, before planting, 67, 68 Poisoning vermin, 57 Pollards, 324, 325 Polyporus, 341, 344, 3$o, 362, 376 (= Fames') fomentari us, 362 (= Fames) igniarius, 362, 385 sulphureus, 344, 362, 371, 385, 397 vaporarius, 421 Poor soils, trees for, 83 Poplar (Black), average annual incre- ment, 369 height of, 91, 92 returns from, 115, 225, 369 rotation for, 369 soils for, 74, 79, 88. 367 Poplar nurses, 107, 108 seed of, 41, 367, 369, 370 sylvicultural notes on, 367-371 timber, 367, 369, 370 timber, non-inflammability of, 14, 15 prices and uses of, 329 Poplar (White), soils for, 74, 77,79, 88, 89, 369, 370 Populus (vide Poplar), notes on. 367-371 Preparatory fellings, 182, 183, 190 Pressler's borer, 441, 442 formula, 443 Prices of cordwood, 333 faggots, 333 pit timber, 332 timber, 323-333 timber, probability of advances in, 13, H Private contract, sales by, 297 Privet, 210 Prolongation of rotation, 165 Pruning, 153-158 by natural agencies, 93, 94 effected in mixtures, 100, 101 green branches, 153-155 large branches, 156 nursery stock, 54 INDEX 499 Pruning standards over coppice, 207 Prunus avium (vide Cherry), notes on, 348 "Pumped" larch, 80 Purchased plants, receipt of, 126 Pure coppice, 201 woods, merits and demerits of, 98 woods, rules for, 109 QUALITY of increment, 451-454 bark, 309 of soils, 213 Quarter girth measurement, 264-275, 279. 280, 282 Quercus (vide Oak), notes on, 359-364 RABBIT fences, 58-64 specification for, 60 Rabbits, 341, 409 Rafting timber, 316 Railway carriage of timber, 317-323 sleepers, 332, 333 Rates for railway carriage of timber, 321, 322 " Raw" humus, 182 Red Cedar (vide Thuya gigantea), notes on, 424, 425 deal, 330 Oak, 325 Poplar leaf beetle (Z. populi), 371, 385 rot, 362, 371, 385 rot root fungus, 391, 397, 404,413, 416, 420 Regeneration felling, 183, 184, 190 Relative height growth, 91 humidity of woodland atmosphere, 3 Remarkable Pine (/*. insignis), notes on, 410, 411 Removal of mother trees, 184-187, 190, 191 Rental of sporting, 208 Rentals yielded by afforestation, 246- 248, 250, 260, 262 Reproductive power of trees, 197, 198 Reserves of food material, 164 Retention of leaves, 183 Retinia buoliana, 406 Revenue from normally stocked areas, 262 Rhododendron, 2IO Rhytisma acerinum, 376 Rides and roads, laying out, 69 Ring-pored trees, 164 Roads, cost of, 313, 314 Robinia (vide Acacia), notes on, 334, 335 Rosellinia quercina, 56, 362 Rotation, length of, 341-243, 246-248, 250, 262 of cropping, no, III prolongation of, 165 Rotations for coppice, 197, 198, 202, 212, 214 Rules for mixed woods, 108 pure woods, 109 SALE by auction, 295, 296 by private contract, 297 by tender, 295-297 conditions of, 298-301 of mature timber, 290-304 of thinnings, 289, 290 of timber, choice between standing and felled, 291-293 Salix (vide Willow), notes on, 381-385 Salt spray and tree growth, 77 Sample plots, measurement of, 432-434 trees, measurement of, 429-432 Sand dunes, planting of, 128-130 trees for, 89 Sand grasses, 129 Sandy soils, 88, 89 Stplings, 203 Sapwood, of Douglas fir, 331 Satin moth (#. salicii), 371, 385 Saw for timber, 306 Schlich's spade, 121 Schneider's formula, 444 correction for standing timber, 445 Sclerenchyma, 164 Scolytus destructor, 350 Scots elm (vide Wych Elm), notes on, 349, 350 Scots Pine, average annual increment, 219,403 height of, 91, 92, 161 invested capital in normal areas, 234. 235, 237 natural regeneration of, 187, 192, 193, 196 planting estimates, 134, 135 500 INDEX Scots Pine, prices and uses of timber, 330 returns from, 219, 236, 246-248, 262, 403 rotation for, 219, 246-248, 403 seed of, 37, 39, 42, 45, 46, 400, 401 soils for, 74, 76-78, 80, 88, 89, 401 sowing of direct, 137 sylvicultural notes on, 400-406 thinning of, 161 timber of, 401 underplanting of, 167, 174 yield table, 219 Sea Carex, 129 Sea coast, trees for, 89 Sea Lyme grass, 129 Season for, barking, 308 cutting underwood, 199 felling, 307 planting, 1 1 1-113 pruning, 156, 157 Seaside planting, 77 Seed bed in forest, 182, 183 Seed beds, 36 "can," 44 choice of, 37-39 "felling," 183, 184, 190 germination capacity, 42 home grown, 38, 39, 193, 194 marking board, 44 number of, per lb., 45 price per lb., 46 production, age at which, 184 quantity to sow in nurseries, 45 quantity to sow in forest, 139 storage of, 39, 40 sowing of, 40-44 years, 184, 191 Seedlings, cost of, 50, 51 treatment of, 47-49 Selection system, 23, 176-179 Septoria parasitica, 56, 420 Sessile Oak, notes on, 359-363 Shade-bearing conifers, natural regene- ration of, 193-195 trees, 23-26, 95, 167, 187, 188 trees, rate of growth, 91, 92, 168 trees, thinning of, 147, 148, 152 Shallow soils, trees for, 78, 79 Shingles, 332 Short rotations, advisability of, 250 interest yielded by, 241-243 Side branches, effect of thinnings upon, 148, 149, 152 vigour of, 92-95 Silver fir, average annual increment, 218, 416 financial return of underplanting with, 252-254 height of, 91, 92, 1 60 leaf scurf, 416 natural regeneration of, 193-195 needle blight fungus, 416 (Nordmann's), notes on, 417 partial clearance of, 166, 174, 175 prices and uses of timber, 330 returns from, 115, 218, 246-248, 252- 254, 262, 416 rotation for, 218, 246-248, 415 seed of, 39-42, 45, 46, 4H soils for, 74, 75, 78, 79, 88, 89, 414 sylvicultural notes on, 414-417 thinning of, 160 timber of, 414 yield table, 218 Simple coppice, 21, 197, 202 Sir ex dromedarius, 385 gigas, 417 Sitka Cypress (vide CupressusSitchtnsis), notes on, 387, 388 Sitka Spruce, natural regeneration of, 193-195 returns from, 115, 225, 422 seed of, 38, 39, 42, 45, 46, 421 soils for, 74, 76, 78, 79, 88, 421, 422 sylvicultural notes on, 421-423 timber of, 421 Sleepers, railway, 332, 333 Slips or cuttings, 52, 53 Small black weevil ( O. querci}^ 362 brown pine weevil (JPissodes notatus), 405, 413, 421 Poplar longicorn beetle, 371 Snow berry, 2IO Soil covering of grass, 142, 171 moisture, 170-172 moisture, effects of woodlands on, 4 temperature within woodlands, 2 Sour soils, 84 owing to decay, 182 Sowing acorns, 137 acorns in coppice areas, 200 direct, crops of trees, 136-141 INDEX 501 Spanish Chestnut, average annual in- crement, 374 coppice, 197, 201, 203, 227 coppice, uses of, 287 planting estimates, 1 32 prices and uses of timber, 326 returns from, 115 rotation for, 373 seed of, 39, 41-46, 372 soils for, 74, 78, 79, 83, 88, 89, 372 sowing of, in woods, 137 sylvicultural notes on, 372-374 timber of, 372 Sporting rent, 208 Spring frosts, 36, 37, 68, 89, 128, 142, 170 planting, 112 wood, 164, 170 Spruce (vide also Norway Spruce) (vide also Sitka Spruce) gall aphis, 421 leaf scurf, 420 natural regeneration of, 193-195 needle rust, 420 notes on, 418-423 partial clearance of, 166, 174, 175 planting estimates for, 1 36 "Square" planting, 123, 124 Squirrels, 406, 409 Stag-headed trees, produced by prun- ing, 157, 158 Staking trees, 130 Standard (a), 283 Standards over coppice, felling and removal, 285 financial aspect of, 257-261 land rentals for, 260 number of trees to plant, 203-207 pruning of, 153, 154 sale of, 285 suitable trees for, 22, 207, 208 tables for, 204-207 "Standils," 203 Standing timber, increment on, 441-448 lotting of, 303 sale of, 291-293 Star pine (vide P. pinaster), notes on, 409, 410 Stereum hirsutum, 362 Stiff clay soils, 210 soils, trees for, 79, 80 Stimulation of increment, 163-166 of trees by pruning, 157 Stocking a nursery, 53, 54 Stool shoots, reproduction by, 198 Storage of seed, 39, 40 " Stores," 203 Storm-proof trees, 76 St Petersburg standard, 283 String, use of, when measuring, 267, 268 Strip system, 187 Suckers, 52 reproduction by, 198 Summer wood, 164, 170 Sycamore, natural regeneration of, 192 prices and uses of timber, 327 rotation for, 376 seed of, 42, 45, 46, 375 soils for, 74, 76-78, 88, 89, 375 sylvicultural notes on, 375, 376 timber of, 375 Symbiosis, 81 TABLE of invested capital in normal areas, 237 Tables for partial clearances, 173-175 of thinnings, high forest, 159-162 of thinnings, high forest with coppice, 212, 213 of thinnings, standards over coppice, 204-207 of yield, coppice with standards, 226 of yield, high forest, 216-224 Tannin, 307 Tape, use of, when measuring, 267 Tarred felt (tree guards), 29, 200 Tellers, 203 Tender, sales by, 295-297 Thatcher's rods, 228 Thickly foliaged trees, 95, 96 Thinly foliaged trees, 22, 25, a6, 28 treatment of, 166, 167 Thinning, 145-152 selection system, 179, 188, 189 tables for, 159-162, 204-207, 212, 213 Thinnings, sale of, 289, 290 value of, when small, 152 volume of, removed, 216-224 Thuya gigantea, natural regeneration of, 193-195 prices and uses of timber, 332 502 INDEX Thuya gisantea, returns from, 115, 425 rotation for, 425 seed of, 38, 39, 42, 45, 46, 424 soils for, 74, 78, 79, 88, 89, 424, 425 sylvicultural notes on, 414, 425 timber of, 424 Thuya occidentalis, 424 Tilia (vide Lime), notes on, 357, 358 Timber bob, 311 felling, 304-307 lotting, 302-304 marking, 302 saw, 306 slides, 316 strap, 272 supply, consideration of the world's supply, 14-17 Tinea laricella, 397 Icevigatella, 397 Tortrix huoliana^ 406 viridana, 362 Tracheids, 164 Trant'tes pini, 397, 404, 413, 416, 420 radiciperda, 391, 397, 404, 413, 416, 420 Tramway in forests, 314-316 Transplanting large trees, 130 seedlings, 47, 48 Trees for coppice, 22, 26 high forest over coppice, 212 standards over coppice, 22, 207 208 per acre to plant, 123, 124 "Triangle" planting, 123 Trichosph&ria parasitica, 416 True contents measurement, 276, 279, 282 Tulip tree. 208 soils for, 84, 89, 377 sylvicultural notes on, 377, 3 '8 "Tumping." 127 Turkey Oak, prices and uses of timber, 325 sylvicultural notes on, 363 Tushing wheels, 311 Two-storied high forest, 25, 26, 167, 174, 192, 340 ULMUS (vide Elm), notes on, 349-357 Underplanting, 166-169 effects of, 171, 172 financial aspect of, 252-257 Underplanting Oak woods, 150 Undersowing, 166 Underwood (vide Coppice) Underwood, sale of, 284-286 Unemployed in reference to afforesta- tion, 8, 9 Uneven-aged mixtures, 103 Urich's method of measuring, 432 Uses of coppice produce, 197, 287, 288 timber, 323-333 Utilisation of free nitrogen, 81 VALUE of coppice produce, 227-239 of final crops of timber, 216-224, 226 of thinnings, 216-224 Vancouver Douglas Fir (vide Douglas Fir), notes on, 389-391 Veneers, 324, 328 Vermin, poisoning, 57 Volume of final crops of timber, 216- 224, 226 thinnings, 216-224 WALNUT, 323 prices and uses of timber, 328, 329 rotation for, 380 seed of, 39, 41, 379 sowing direct in words, 137 sylvicultural notes on, 379, 380 timber of, 379 Waste lands, acreage of, 1 1 general afforestation of, a failure, n Water catchment areas, 5 demands of trees as to, 74-76 in soil, effect of thinnings upon, 150, 170-172 Weeding nursery stock, 49 Weight of timber per foot, 318-322 Weise's method of measuring, 430-432 Western Larch (vide Larch), notes on, 39* Plane, notes on, 365, 366 Weymouth Pine, average annual incre- ment, 220, 413 bark blister, 413 height of, 91, 92, 162 natural regeneration, I93-T95 prices and uses of timber, 331 returns from, 115, 220, 246-248, 262, 413 rotation for, 220, 246-248, 412 INDEX 503 Weymouth Pine, seed of, 39, 41,42, 45, 46,411 soils for, 74, 78, 88, 411, 412 sylvicultural notes on, 411-413 thinning of, 162 timber of, 411 yield table for, 220 White Alder, notes on, 336, 337 White Ash, 208, 341 deal, 331 Poplar, notes on, 369, 370 rot, 362, 385 Spruce, notes on, 89, 423 Width of annual rings, 164, 165 Willow coppice, uses of, 288 prices and uses of timber, 328 propagation of, 381, 383 returns from, 225 rotation for, 385 soils for, 74, 383 sylvicultural notes on, 381-385 timber of, 381-383 Willow coppice, wood wasp, 385 Winter moth, 355, 358, 363 Wire netting, 29 tree guards, 200 Wireworm, 55, 405 Witches broom, 416 Wych Elm, sylvicultural notes on, 349, 350 Xyleborus (vide Bostrichus) dispar, 362 YELLOW Birch, 347 Pine, 331 wood wasp, 417 Yew, 86, 88, 210 Yield from coppice, 227-230 Yields from forest land, 215-230 Yield of bark. 309, 311 tables, coppice with standards, 226 tables, graphic representation of, 225 tables, high forest, 216-224 PRINTED BT OLIVER AND BOYD, EDINBURGH SD 409 M3 Maw, Percival Trentham The practice of forestry Forestry PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY LIBRARY FACULTY OF FORESTRY UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO