LE DEE OTL ES AEDES TVA LDR POTS Fis He, ao Smee ae @ 7 “ ‘ 1 7 > 1 ° 7 . - © ia me . a = - . . ' = = - rR & ‘ - 7 bd o- . 7 i t 7 . a = e gu 7 oS? - y = a a - - . : = : ‘ - 3 ; . a he ’ os . FS 4 : ia = ’ « “ i : t - : : = * 7 a® os, . > A Fe ’ : 5 5 > - - 7 me as og? Th. “es " 7 S i: - 7 . 7 : . : i se : - SZ x tad - > etree. 7 7 * i a : 7 i i 2 ~~ 4% _ > - = : z . ~ : . * = 7 - SS > i é 7 2 > a ‘ = e . ‘ Fa 7 = = a . bd = - + - ae . z : $ Z 7 ~ + Ss — - 7 PREHISTORIC EUROPE BY THE SAME AUTHOR. THE GREAT IGE -AGes, AND ITS RELATION TO THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. Second Edition, Revised. Demy 8vo, cloth, with Maps and Illustrations. Price 24s. PREHISTORIC EUROPE A GEOLOGICAL SKETCH By JAMES GEIKIE, LL.D. FBS. OF H.M. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF SCOTLAND AUTHOR OF THE ‘GREAT ICE AGE’ MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS LONDON EDWARD STANFORD, 55 CHARING CROSS, S.W. 1881 All rights reserved. Q \) ry sink online ; _ AL y | PREFACKH. —>—. THE object of these pages is to give an outline of what appear to have been the most considerable physical changes experienced in our continent since the beginning of the Pleistocene or Quaternary Period. Several general works, by some of our most accomplished geologists and archeologists, have already dealt with the subject in part, and it is impossible, therefore, that a new essay in Post-tertiary geology can avoid discussing certain evidence which is perhaps sufficiently familiar even to non- specialists. But none of the treatises referred to quite covers the ground I have endeavoured to occupy. While some of my predecessors have examined the evidence principally from the point of view of the archeologist, and others from that of the paleontologist, my aim has been to describe in a more system- atic manner than has hitherto been attempted that succession of changes, climatic and geographical, which, taken together, constitute the Historical Geology of Pleistocene, Postglacial, and Recent times. In a former work (The Great Ice Age) I have already dis- cussed some of the questions which form the subject-matter of the present volume, and to a certain extent, therefore, the latter may be considered as supplementary to its predecessor. The two works, however, are quite independent. The Great Ice vi _ PREFACE. Age is for the most part occupied with a somewhat detailed description of the Glacial deposits, and an exposition of the prin- ciples upon which these are interpreted. It gives only a meagre account of the cave- and river-accumulations which have yielded traces of man and the Pleistocene mammals, while the more recent deposits, with the exception of those of Scotland, are passed over with merely a few general remarks. This mode of treatment was necessitated by the object I had in view, which was to point out to English geologists that in their endeavours to arrange chronologically the ossiferous and Paleolithic accu- mulations sufficient attention had not been paid to the results which had accrued from a study of Glacial and Interglacial formations. And I sought by a rigid analysis of the evidence to show that the Paleolithic deposits, which had hitherto been classed by them as of Postglacial age, could not possibly belong to so late a period, but ought to be referred to Inter- glacial, and probably in part also to Preglacial, times. The plan of my former work, however, did not allow of so full a treat- ment of this part of the subject as its importance demanded, and the preparation of the present book was forthwith commenced, with the view of supplying such deficiency, and of still further illustrating and substantiating my general argument. Many questions, which hardly came within the scope of my previous essay, are here discussed at some length: Chief among these are the physical changes that characterised the Postglacial and Recent Period. Since the appearance of Edward Forbes’s well-known paper on the Geological Relations of the Fauna and Flora of the British Islands, great advances have been made in our knowledge of the later chapters of the geological record; and I have taken advantage of this fuller information to reconsider some of those questions of geographical and climatic change which the genius of Forbes suggested. The subject is extremely PREFACE, vii fascinating, and deserving of more attention than it has of late years received. But Mr. Wallace’s important and interesting work (Island Life), which has just appeared while I pen these lines, will doubtless give a fresh impulse to the study among naturalists, and should the present volume assist in the same direction, I shall feel well repaid for my labour. The reader will not, I hope, have any difficulty in under- standing the precise signification I attach to such terms as “Prehistoric,” “ Pleistocene,” “ Preglacial,” “Glacial,” “Inter- glacial,” “ Postglacial,” etc. But it may be as well to state here that I employ the term “Prehistoric” in the same extended sense as Professor D, Wilson, by whom “it was purposely coined to express the whole period disclosed to us by means of archzeological evidence, as distinguished from what is known through written records.” In the classification adopted by me, “ Pleistocene” or “ Quaternary ” includes the Preglacial, Glacial, and Interglacial deposits; while “ Postglacial” is restricted to those accumulations which belong to a later date than the last great extension of glacier-ice in Europe—a sense in which it has long been employed in Scotland, Scandinavia, Switzerland, and the Continent generally. This differs somewhat from the classification advanced by certain English geologists, who would include under the term “Postglacial” many accumulations of Pleistocene age, which it is the object of these pages to show are of Interglacial, and not Postglacial, date. To the many friends and correspondents at home and abroad, who have kindly satisfied my inquiries and favoured me with copies of their papers, I would here express my grateful thanks. I have also to acknowledge my indebtedness to Dr. J. Evans, who has courteously allowed me to copy from his great work on Ancient Stone Implements the illustrations which are given in Plate C. And to Professor T. Rupert Jones similar acknow- viil PREFACE. ledgments are due for permission to reproduce those illustra- tions of Paleolithic Implements which are taken from Reliquic Aquitanice, and which appear in Plate B. I have further to thank my friend Dr. Buchanan White for many important suggestions and much assistance while my work was in pre- paration. I have enjoyed the great advantage of discussing with him many of the questions which form the chief subject-matter of this volume, and his wide and accurate knowledge of the geographical distribution of plants and animals, which he generously placed at my disposal, has been of most essential service. PERTH, October 1880. CONTENTS. ee CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY : : : : . Pages 1-4 CHAPTER II. ARCH ZOLOGICAL PERIODS. Classification of Human Relics—Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age— Phases of Civilisation—Gradual transition from Stone Age into Bronze Age,and Bronze Age into Iron Age—Paleolithic and Neolithic Periods—Palzxolithic Implements—Classification of Paleolithic Cave- relics—Conditions of life in Paleolithic Period—Human Remains— Break in Succession between Paleolithic and Neolithic Periods. 5-24 CHAPTER III. CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD—TESTIMONY OF MAMMALIA. Geographical distribution of Mammals—Southern, Northern, and Tem- perate Group—Evidence of Mammalia as to Climate—Present climatic conditions in Europe, Northern Asia, and boreal regions of North America—Region of Tundras and Barrens—Arctic Forest Zone— Annual Migrations in Siberia—Similar migrations cannot take place in Europe—Influence of the Gulf Stream on European Climate —Probable effect of its withdrawal—Alternations of Climate during Paleolithic Period ; 2 : c : 25-43 x CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD, continuwed—TESTIMONY OF PLANTS AND MOLLUSCS. ‘ Preservation of land-plants exceptional—Plants in the Travertine of Massa Marittima in Tuscany—Plants in tufas of Provence ; in tufas of Montpellier, etc. ; in tufa of La Celle near Paris—Views of Count Saporta—Plants in tufa of Canstadt—Pleistocene lignite of Jarville near Nancy ; its plant and insect remains—Mr. Nathorst on Arctic flora in peat of Switzerland, Germany, etc. ; M. Tournouér on shells in tufa of La Celle—M. Bourguignat on shells in “ diluvium gris” of Paris—Shells in tufas of Canstadt ; in English Pleistocene deposits—Dr. Sandberger on shells and mammalian remains in léss of Wiirzburg—M. Locard on shells in Corsican breccias—Summary of evidence : : : : - Pages 44-68 CHAPTER V. CAVE-DEPOSITS OF THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. Caves of different kinds—Mode of their formation—Absence of Pliocene organic remains in European caves—General character of cave-accu- mulations—Commingling of human relics with remains of extinct mammalia—‘“ Break” between Paleolithic and Neolithic times— Stalagmite ; its formation and rate of growth—Mr. Pengelly’s obser- vations on stalagmitic accretion in Kent’s Cavern—Stalagmitic growth not continuous—Calcified earth, sand, and gravel in caves— Angular blocks, débris, and breccia in caves—Succession of deposits in Brixham Cave—Professor Prestwich on the geological history of that cave—Contemporaneity of man and the old mammalia—Ex- treme antiquity of Pleistocene Period . 2 - 69-89 CHAPTER VI. CAVE-DEPOSITS OF THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD—Continued. Succession of deposits in Kent’s Cavern—Conditions during their accumu- lation— Evidence for prolonged duration of Paleolithic Period — Hyena dens in England—Kirkdale Cave and Wookey Hole—Bone- CONTENTS. x1 caves never tenanted by man or wild beasts—Victoria Cave, near Settle in Yorkshire—Succession of deposits in that cave—Glacial bed associated with Pleistocene deposits—Bone-caves of Belgium— General succession of deposits in these—Trou du Sureau—Relative position of Neolithic relics : . : Pages 90-104 CHAPTER VII. CAVE-DEPOSITS OF THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD—Continued. Bone-caves of Belgium—The Trou Magrite—Contrast between lower and upper deposits—Trou de la Naulette—Human bones associated with remains of extinct animals—The Cavern of Goyet—The Trou du Frontal General conclusions as to caves—Evidence of progress during Paleo- Age of sepulchral cavity—Caves of Germany and France— lithic Period—Reindeer period in Belgium and France—Cold climatic conditions during the closing stage of Paleolithic Period— Alternations of genial and cold climates in earlier stages of same period—Break between Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages 105-120 CHAPTER VIII. RIVER-DEPOSITS OF THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. M. Boucher de Perthes’ discoveries—Professor Prestwich on origin of the Loss ossiferous and implement-bearing “ drifts”—Fluviatile origin of the so-called “ drift”—Erosion of river valleys during Pleistocene times —Time required for excavation of valleys—Professor A, Geikie on modern denudation—Flooded condition of Pleistocene rivers—Pro- fessor Prestwich on relation between ancient river-gravels and loams— Absence of well-marked river-terraces accounted for—River-ice and ice-floated erratics—Professor Prestwich on climatic conditions im- plied by Pleistocene river-deposits—Commingling of different groups of mammals—Sir C, Lyell’s views—Mr. Darwin on angular gravels of Southern England . : : ‘ - 121-142 CHAPTER IX. LOAMY DEPOSITS OF THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. of German geologists—Its distribution throughout Europe—Organic remains of the léss—Dr. Nehring on loamy deposits of Thiede and xli CONTENTS. Westeregeln—Mammalian and human remains in léss—Changes in composition of léss—River-gravels and lignite underlying léss—Léss of Northern France—lIts relation to Diluviwm gris and Diluvium rouge—Terre & briques and Limon grossier—Fossils of French loss— Belgian léss—Its organic remains—M. Dupont on Belgian léss and associated deposits—Tchernozem, or black-earth of Russia—Theories of the origin of loss—Views of Bennigsen-Férder, Hibbert, Giimbel, Lyell, Prestwich, Tylor, A. Geikie, Belt—Murchison on origin of black-earth—De Mercey on origin of French limon—D’Acy’s views on same—Baron Richthofen’s léss-theory—Mr. Pumpelly’s views. Pages 143-168 CHAPTER X. THE GLACIAL PERIOD. Early views of glacial phenomena—Agassiz’s glacial theory— Glacial phenomena of Scotland—Origin of rock-striz, roches moutonnées, till or boulder-clay, etc—Intruded till and great erratics—Direction of glaciation in Scotland—Glaciation of Ireland; of English Lake District ; of Lancashire ; Wales, etc.—Glacial phenomena of north- east of England; of Midland districts and East Anglia— Great erratics — Glaciation of Norway and Sweden; of Finland and Northern Russia ; of Germany—Contorted and disturbed rocks under boulder-clay—Great erratics—Direction of the northern mer de glace—Course followed by “ under-tow” of ice-sheet 169-206 CHAPTER XI. THE GLACIAL PERIOD—Oontinued. Ancient glaciers of north and south sides of the Alps, of the Jura Moun- tains, of the Black Forest, of the Vosges, of the Carpathians, of the Ural, of the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian Mountains, of Central and Southern Spain, of Corsica, of the Apuan Alps, of the Caucasus, of _ the Lebanon, of the Atlas Mountains—Erratics in the Azores— Limestone-breccias of Gibraltar—Breccias, etc., of Malta—Loam with flints of Northern France—“ Head” of maritime districts of the Channel area— Stanniferous gravels of Cornwall—Glacial phenomena of North America—Angular earthy débris of North Carolina—Volume of water discharged from ancient glaciers—Quantity of mud in water coming from glaciers—Origin of léss and loamy deposits of Rhine, CONTENTS. xiii Danube, etc., of Central Europe—Origin of the Tchernozem or “)lack-earth” of Southern Russia—Objections to Baron Richthofen’s l6ss-theory—Summary of conditions during Glacial Period. Pages 207-251 CHAPTER XII. INTERGLACIAL EPOCHS. Earliest recognition of interglacial deposits—Interglacial beds of Scotland —Sections at Hailes Quarry near Edinburgh—Alternating arctic and genial climatic conditions—Succession of glacial and interglacial deposits in England—Palzolithic implements in interglacial deposits at Brandon, Suffolk—Changes of climate during Glacial Period in British area—Glacial deposits of Scandinavia—Ancient strandlinier or horizontal rock-terraces of Norway—Theories of their origin— Their possible interglacial age—Interglacial deposits of Northern Germany—Section at Rixdorf on the Spree—Section at Démitz on the Elbe—Interglacial beds at Tempelhof—Boring near the Schwie- low-See—Traces of interglacial submergence—Glacial and interglacial deposits of Saxony ; of Holstein and Denmark—Sand, gravel, and superficial erratics of Northern Europe—Dr. Penck’s views of climatic and geographical changes—Preservation of beds under till or boulder- clay. , . 252-296 CHAPTER XIII. INTERGLACIAL EPOCHS—Continued. Interglacial deposits of Switzerland—lInterglacial river-terraces at Camis- chollas—Glacial and interglacial deposits near Thoron ; at Diirnten and Utznach ; at the Bois dela Batie—Interglacial beds of Northern Italy—Ancient glacier of the Lago d’Iseo—Lacustrine deposits of the Val Borlezza—Deposits in the basin of Gandino—Lignites of Leffe—Interglacial age of the lacustrine deposits of Val Borlezza and Val Gandino—Lacustrine deposits in Val Adrara and Val Forestro —Deposits in the Upper Val d’Arno—Interglacial deposits of Cen- tral France—Pumiceous conglomerate and associated deposits at Per- rier, near Issoire—Glacial and interglacial deposits in the valleys of the Ain and the Rhone—Successive glacial epochs in the Vosges mountains — Two glacial epochs in the Pyrenees — Interglacial deposits at Gibraltar—Probable interglacial age of similar deposits in Malta : ; ; : . 297-330 XIV CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIV. CLIMATIC AND GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD—-SUMMARY, Climatic and geographical conditions of Europe during Pliocene times— Gradual change of climate and commencement of Glacial Period— Modification of fauna and flora in glacial times—Geographical con- ditions in Pleistocene Age—Land-connection between Europe and Africa—Continental condition of British area—Dry land in the English Channel—Human relics in Pliocene strata—Cut bones in Italian Pliocene— Human relics in Miocene strata— Geographical conditions in Europe at the beginning of the last interglacial epoch— Migrations of plants and animals—Character of interglacial climate —Geographical conditions at climax of last interglacial epoch— Gradual deterioration of climate — Geographical conditions towards close of last interglacial and beginning of last glacial epoch—Last glacial epoch—NMigrations of plants and animals—Final disappearance of great glaciers, ete——Distribution of interglacial deposits—Inter- glacial age of Paleolithic man and mammalia of southern group. Pages 331-362 CHAPTER XV. NEOLITHIC, BRONZE, AND IRON AGES, Difficulty of ascertaining the relative antiquity of Neolithic relics—The Danish “ kitchen-middens” — Views of Worsaae, Steenstrup, and Lubbock—Fauna of the “ kitchen-middens ”—Neolithic man—Con- ditions of life—Shell-mounds of Britain and France—Lake-dwellings of Switzerland— Dr. Keller on various forms of lake-dwellings— Human relics—Remains of plants and animals met with in ruins of lake-dwellings — Conditions of life— Passage from the Neolithic through the Bronze into the Iron Age—Relics of Neolithic and later archeological periods in other regions—“ Long-heads” and “ broad- heads” of British barrows—Celtz, Belge, and Germani—Contrasts between Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages : : 363-380 CHAPTER XVI. POSTGLACIAL AND RECENT DEPOSITS OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS, Physical conditions of late glacial times— Scottish Postglacial beds— Raised-beaches—Estuarine and river-deposits— Organic remains— CONTENTS. XV Submarine forests and peat—Buried forest, etc., of Carse of Gowrie, ete.—Succession of deposits—Glacial and late glacial accumulations of 100-feet terrace—Postglacial river detritus—Ancient land-surface and vegetable remains under Carse-clays—Origin of Carse-clays— Connection of these clays with torrential gravels—Postglacial deposits of the Forth valley — Vegetable remains — Kitchen-middens of 45-50-feet beach — Postglacial deposits of the Montrose Basin—Suc- cession of changes—Date of last elevation of land Pages 381-406 CHAPTER XVII. POSTGLACIAL AND RECENT DEPOSITS OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS—Continued. Larger size of Scottish rivers in Postglacial times—Local glaciers then reached the sea-level—Recent glaciation in mountain-valleys of Scotland—Contrasts between glacial phenomena of the Ice Age and Postglacial times—Examples of postglacial moraines—Interval be- tween the close of the Glacial Period and the reappearance of local glaciers in Postglacial Period—Scottish raised-beaches—Peat-bogs of inland districts—Buried forests in peat-bogs—Correlation of these_ with the submarine forests and peat of the maritime districts—Age of the Scottish peat-bogs— Alluvial deposits of Scotland— Their organic remains—Correlation of archzological epochs with geological stages in Postglacial history of Scotland . . 407-429 CHAPTER XVIII. POSTGLACIAL AND RECENT DEPOSITS OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS— Continued. Submerged forests of English coast—Unconformity between Glacial and Postglacial accumulations—Submarine forests of Lancashire and Cheshire—Succession of deposits— General conclusions as to con- ditions of accumulation—Postglacial and recent deposits of Cornish coast—Section of Happy Union Works, Pentuan—Sections of Lower Pentewan Work—Section at Huel Darlington Mine—General con- clusion as to the succession of changes—Sunk forests and buried peat of the Fenland—Relation of Fen-beds to glacial deposits— Character of Fen-beds—General conclusions as to conditions under which they were accumulated : ‘ : 430-450 xvi CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIX. POSTGLACIAL AND RECENT DEPOSITS OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS—Continued. Correlation of English Postglacial accumulations—Résumé of the evidence —Raised-beaches of English coasts—Postglacial accumulations of inland districts—Their unconformability to Glacial and Paleolithic deposits— English rivers of larger volume in Postglacial times— Lacustrine alluvia and peat-bogs of England—Their organic remains —Succession of forest-layers in English peat—Arctic flora at Bovey Tracey—Postglacial mammals of England—Postglacial and recent deposits of Ireland—Submarine trees and peat—Raised-beaches— Neolithic kitchen-middens—Successive tiers of trees in bogs of inland districts—Mr. Kinahan’s observations on succession of changes which these imply—Human relics in Irish bogs—Postglacial mam- malia - : - : ; Pages 451-463 CHAPTER XxX. POSTGLACIAL AND RECENT DEPOSITS OF THE CONTINENT. Postglacial and recent deposits of Norway and Sweden—No direct pass- age from Glacial into Postglacial accumulations—Postglacial shelly clays, etc.—Character of the molluscan fauna—Contrast between shelly clays of the east of Sweden and those of Western Sweden and Norway—Height of Swedish and Norwegian shell-banks above sea- level— Postglacial freshwater and marine deposits of Finland—Un- fossiliferous clay and sand above shelly clays of Norway and Sweden —Postglacial erratics resting on shelly clays of Eastern Sweden— General conclusions—Submerged peat of Scania—Raised-beaches of same region—Submerged peat and trees of Denmark ; of Schleswig- Holstein ; of East Friesland and Holland ; of Flemish coast; of Somme Valley ; of Normandy and Brittany ; of Arcachon and Biarritz—Age of the submerged forests of the Channel area—Peat- bogs of Denmark ; of Norway—Rate of growth of peat—Arctic flora in Postglacial deposits of Southern Sweden, of Brandenburg, and other parts of Germany—Peat of Champagne, its organic remains— Peat-bogs in other regions of Europe—No trace of Paleolithic man in any Postglacial accumulations—Postglacial deposits of Spitzhergen. 464-498 CONTENTS. xvii CHAPTER XXI. CLIMATIC AND GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS OF POSTGLACIAL AND RECENT PERIODS—-SUMMARY. Genial conditions in Southern Scandinavia—Mediterranean molluscs in Northern Seas—Southern forms in Gulf of St. Lawrence—Condi- tion of Northern Sea in latest glacial epoch—Immigration of South- ern species in postglacial times— Migration of arctic flora in late glacial and early postglacial times—Edward Forbes on origin of British fauna and flora—Contrasts between Britain and Ireland— Large postglacial lake occupying bed of Irish Sea—lIreland derived its fauna and flora partly by way of Scotland—Genial climatic con- ditions—Former greater range of forests—Trees in peat of Ferdée Islands and Norway—Peat with pine on shores of Wellington Chan- nel— Origin of floras of Ferde Islands, Iceland, and Greenland— Former connection of those regions with Europe in postglacial times —Traces of former genial conditions in Kurland—Gradual disap- pearance of genial climate and submergence of land in north and north-west—Formation of 50-feet beach of Scotland—Local glaciers and swollen rivers—Cold and humid conditions, and increase of peat- bogs—Retreat of sea and amelioration of climate—Second great forest-growth—Second peat-forming period—The Present—Southern Europe in postglacial times—Date of advent of later Prehistoric races. Pages 499-538 CHAPTER XXIL CONCLUSION. Résumé of results—Identity of Pleistocene or Quaternary Period with Preglacial and Glacial times—Alternations of cold and genial climates in Pleistocene Period—Testimony of fauna and flora—Palzolithic man lived through the Pleistocene Period—Testimony of the Pleis- tocene river-deposits as to climatic conditions—Evidence supplied by cave-accumulations—Glacial and Interglacial accumulations contem- - poraneous with river-gravels, etc., and cave-deposits—Distribution of ossiferous and Paleolithic river-deposits—Last cold epoch of Glacial Period closes the record of Pleistocene times—Paleolithic imple- ments in Interglacial deposits at Brandon ; in Pliocene or early Pleistocene beds of St. Prest—Pliocene and Miocene man—What XVili CONTENTS. became of Paleolithic man—Professor Dawkins’s views—Objections to his hypothesis that the Eskimo are of the same race as Paleolithic man—Views of M. Quatrefages and other French savants—Climatic and Geographical conditions of Postglacial Period —Age of the archeological periods—Dr. Croll’s theory of the cause of glacial and interglacial climatic changes—Conclusion : Pages 539-562 APPENDIX. PAGE Note A.—Table of Sedimentary Formations : 5 . 563 Note B.—Map of Europe at the Climax of the Ice Age . . 564 Note C.—Europe in Early Postglacial Times (First Age of Forests) 568 LIST OF PLATES. PLATE A.—Patzo.itrHic IMPLEMENTS : . To face page 12 PLATE B.—Map or Guactat System or LAKE Iszo mp 304 PLATE C.—Nnro.itHic IMPLEMENTS : : i 372 PLATE D.—Map or Europe at THE CLIMAX OF THE Ick AcE . ; ‘ : 3 564 PLATE E.—Evrore in Earty PostauactaL Times (First AcE or Forzsts) . : =A 568 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. == CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. THERE is no chapter in the geological history of Europe more interesting than that which deals with the physical aspect and condition of our continent in prehistoric ages. What appear- ance did our mountains and valleys then present? Was Europe as extensive in those old times as it is to-day? Are the shores upon which our seaport towns are built the same as those along which wandered the earliest races of mankind ? With what tribes of animals and plants were our ancient predecessors associated, and under what conditions of climate did they live? To answer all these and other subsidiary questions as fully as one might, would involve the consideration of a much wider range of evidence than it is possible to discuss adequately in the compass of these pages; nevertheless such an outline of facts and inferences may be given as shall serve to afford some notion of the mode in which a geologist views the subject. It is as well to state at once, however, that there is a large class of facts which might properly enough come under our attention in a work like the present, but which I do not purpose to treat of specially. These have reference to the more or less local changes and modifications of the coast-line, brought about B 2 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. by the erosive and denuding action of waves, breakers, and tidal currents, and by the increase of deltas. Neither do I mean to give any account of those limited earth-movements, which have here and there raised and depressed certain mari- " time districts of no great extent. Such geographical changes as I shall refer to are those which have aided most considerably in producing the present distribution of our fauna and flora. And so with changes of climate, attention will be confined to those which can be proved to have been more or less general, and which in conjunction with great oscillations of the sea- level have left abiding traces, not only in the living world, but upon the features of the land itself. It is well known that when we try to trace the history of any nation back into the past, we sooner or later come to a period of myth and tradition, beyond which all seems impene- trably dark. If, for example, we take the case of Britain, how meagre, doubtful, and obscure, does the story become after it has carried us back to the days of the Romans! We may be able to determine with more or less probability whence the people came who were natives of Britain at the time of the Roman invasion; but beyond that, who can venture into the dark and hope to pick his way securely? It is just here, how- ever, where myth and tradition fail us, that the archeologist and geologist step forward to point out that all is not so irre- coverably lost as historians at one time believed. We know now that many long centuries before the advent of the Romans, our islands were occupied by a people whose knives and swords were fashioned of bronze; we know further that this people was preceded by a race or races ignorant of the use of metals, who lived during several considerable changes of climate and _ oscillations of the sea-level; and we have also learned that at a still remoter period, our country and the neighbouring parts of Europe were tenanted by tribes of yet ruder barbarians, during whose occupancy several extensive geological mutations occurred. It is from a consideration of the extraordinary vicissitudes of climate and the very considerable changes in the INTRODUCTORY. 3 configuration and outline of the land which have taken place within the human era, that geologists have been led to assign a far higher antiquity to man’s first appearance than the old chronologies would allow. When the announcement was made some years ago that rude stone implements of undoubted human workmanship had been discovered in certain alluvial deposits in the valley of the river Somme, under circumstances which argued for the human race a very great antiquity, geologists generally received the news with incredulity. That the advent of man was an occurrence merely of yesterday, as it were, and a matter to be discussed properly by chronologists and historians alone, most of us until lately were taught to believe. So ingrained, indeed, had this belief become, that although evidence of the antiquity of our race similar to those subsequent French discoveries, which succeeded at last in routing the sceptical indifference of geologists, had been noted from time to time in England, and especially by Schmerling in Belgium, yet it was only noted to be explained away, and in point of fact was persistently neglected as of no importance. : Doubt had been cast upon the conclusions drawn from certain evidence supplied by the English caves, and it was not till 1858, when Brixham Cave was explored under the auspices of the Royal and Geological Societies of London, that English geologists abandoned their preconceived notions as to the improbability of man and many extinct mammals having co- existed in Britain. Meanwhile, M. Boucher de Perthes, a zealous and enthusiastic French antiquarian, had been insisting for more than twenty years upon his discovery of “ antediluvian ” human implements and mammalian remains in undisturbed natural accumulations of loam, sand, and gravel near Abbeville. But all his insistence had been in vain—his fellow-countrymen paid little or no regard to his tale of wonder. It was not till 1859 that attention was at last directed to the enthusiastic Frenchman’s discoveries by Dr. Falconer, and later on by Mr. Prestwich, Mr. Evans, Sir C. Lyell, Sir J. Lubbock, and other 4 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. English geologists, who were enabled to confirm to the fullest extent Boucher de Perthes’ observations. It is curious to reflect now that while British geologists were flocking to the Somme valley to inspect the discoveries there, similar “finds” of human implements and associated mammalian remains had already been made in England ‘itself many long years before—namely in 1715, 1800, and 1836. But these had attracted no attention, and indeed had been completely forgotten. Let it be remembered also that to the late Dr. Schmerling of Liége belongs the honour of having been the first to show (in 1833), that man and the extinct mammalia were’ contemporaneous, although his work lay neglected and ignored for a quarter of a century. Such it would seem is the fate of those who publish “unwelcome intelligence, opposed to the prepossessions of the scientific as well as of the unscientific public.”* The Rey. Mr. MacEnery had arrived about the same time as Schmerling at similar results, and was engaged in the preparation of a memoir descriptive of his discoveries, when death cut short his labours, and his MS. was lost sight of for many years. Both Schmerling’s and MacEnery’s work was con- fined to cave exploration, but Boucher de Perthes we have to thank for opening our eyes to quite another line of evidence in favour of the great antiquity of our race. Since the recognition of the importance of his discoveries, rude stone implements commingled with the remains of extinct mammals have been found in British caves, and in certain ancient river-deposits in the south-eastern counties of England, as also in similar positions in many localities on the Continent; so that we no longer doubt that, in ages long anterior to our own, certain tribes of cave-dwelling savages, and many large mammalian animals, which are now either locally or wholly extinct, were - in joint occupation of Britain and the Continent. And the more closely the evidence is considered, the farther into the past does the period at which these cave-men lived seem to recede, 1 Lyell, Antiquity of Man, 4th edit., p. 71. ARCHEOLOGICAL PERIODS. 5 CHAPTER II. ARCHAOLOGICAL PERIODS. Classification of Human Relics—Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age—Phases of Civilisation — Gradual transition from Stone Age into Bronze Age, and Bronze Age into Iron Age—Paleolithic and Neolithic Periods—Palzolithic Implements—Classification of Paleolithic Cave-relics—Conditions of life in Paleolithic Period—Human Remains—Break in Succession between Palo- lithic and Neolithic Periods. EVERY one is aware that human relics of great antiquity occur, more or less abundantly, in many parts of Europe. Some of these can be referred to the early dawn of historical times; others have been hesitatingly assigned to still more remote periods, of which the only records that survive are supposed to be certain semi-mythic legends and poetical traditions ; and how much of these we should believe it is hard to say. There are many antiquities, again, that belong to a time so far removed from our own, that history and tradition alike fail to tell us anything about them. We find only the relics themselves, and from these, and their position and mode of occurrence in or upon our soils and subsoils, we are left to discover what we can of the life-history of the people to whose former presence they testify, and to gather what information we may in regard to the physical conditions under which these people lived, and the geological mutations that have taken place since they passed away. The antiquities referred to are of many kinds—dvwelling- places, sepulchral and other monuments, forts and camps, and a great harvest of implements and ornaments of stone and metal. In seeking to classify these relics and remains according to their 6 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. relative antiquity, archeologists have selected the implements and ornaments as affording the most satisfactory basis for such an arrangement, and they divide prehistoric time into three periods, which are termed respectively the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. Of these periods the earliest was the Stone Age, when implements and ornaments were formed ex- clusively of stone, wood, horn, and bone. The use of metal for such purposes was then quite unknown. To the Stone Age succeeded the Age of Bronze, at which time cutting- instruments, such as swords and knives and axes, began to be made of copper, and an alloy of that metal and tin, When in the course of time iron replaced bronze for cutting-instruments, the Bronze Age came to an end and the Iron Age supervened. This classification has received the strongest support from inde- pendent geological investigations, and is now generally accepted. But apart altogether from these and other considerations, the arrangement suggested by archeologists must commend itself to every one who shall give the subject any attention. Those at all events who believe in the progressive development and improvement of our race will readily admit that a long time must necessarily have elapsed before men acquired the art of reducing metals from their ores. It is most natural to suppose that in the earliest times stones chipped or ground to an edge would continue for an indefinite period to be used for all kinds of purposes. The smelting of ores implies a further advance on the road to civilisation. But it seems at first sight strange that the use of bronze should have preceded that of iron, the ores of which are so much more abundantly and widely diffused than those of copper and tin. The former, however, though more plentiful, are, as Sir John Lubbock remarks, much less striking in appearance than those of copper. Moreover, while copper is often found in the metallic state, iron very seldom occurs in that condition, being met with only in meteorites. The extreme malleability of copper would also be as much an advantage as the intractable nature of iron would be a disadvantage to the primitive makers of weapons and tools. ARCHHZOLOGICAL PERIODS. 7 How the alloy of tin and copper came first to be used we can only conjecture. Sir John Lubbock suggests that the ores of tin may have early attracted notice on account of their great heaviness. However this may be, it was probably quite by accident that an alloy of tin and copper came to be made. But when it was found that such a mixing of the metals produced a material much better adapted for cutting-instruments, we may be sure that the results of such a happy accident would soon become noised abroad. From the fact that implements of pure copper are rarely met with in Europe, it has been inferred that the art of making bronze was introduced into our continent before copper came to be used. The rarity of copper implements, however, may be partly owing, as General Lane Fox has suggested, to their having been subse- quently converted into bronze, when the advantageous properties of the alloy came to be generally recognised. Just as it might have been inferred that the age in which bronze implements were made would prove to be of more recent date than the primitive period when man fashioned all his weapons and tools of stone, horn, bone, and wood, so we might reasonably conclude that the art of working intractable iron would be acquired later on than that of beating native copper into shape, and of forming instruments of the easily-cast alloy of copper and tin. And this, as archeologists assure us, is pre- cisely what took place—an Age of Iron succeeded to one of Bronze. From these few remarks it will be seen that the archeological periods are simply so many phases of civilisation, and it is con- ceivable that Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages might have been contemporaneous in different parts of one and the same con- tinent. But although there is nothing inherently improbable in such a supposition, nevertheless it has been perfectly well ascer- tained that, so far as Europe is concerned, a true Stone Age to which the use of metals was quite unknown endured through- out the continent for a period so prolonged that we can but vaguely grasp its immensity. And it has likewise been proved 8 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. that long after the knowledge of bronze had become general in Europe, our ancient predecessors continued through many cen- turies perfectly ignorant of the use of iron. It is not to be supposed, however, that the close of the Stone Age was marked by the total abandonment of stone for bronze implements. On the contrary, stone continued to be used for some kinds of implements far on into the Bronze Age, and even down to historic times. Indeed the substitution of metal for stone cutting-instruments might have been very slowly effected in some parts of Europe; and one can readily believe that in certain countries bronze might come to be almost exclusively employed for such purposes, while elsewhere it remained much longer either only partially in use or quite unknown. One can hardly doubt, for example, that long after the natives of Southern Europe had commenced to cut and stab their enemies with bronze swords and daggers, and to decorate their own persons with trinkets of the same alloy, the inhabitants of the wild mountain-valleys of Scotland and its outlying islands might still be living in a “Stone Age.” It must be under- stood, therefore, that there was no abrupt transition from an age in which only stone implements were used to one in which bronze was exclusively employed. Moreover, it would be a mistake to suppose that the Stone and Bronze Periods of one country are necessarily strictly contemporaneous throughout with the similar stages in the archeological history of all other parts of Europe. It is quite possible that the closing scenes of the true Stone Age in North-western Europe may be synchron- ous with the earliest stage of the Bronze Period in the south- east of the Continent. This would necessarily follow if it be the case, as many archeologists believe, that the knowledge of metals was introduced from the East. The difference in point of antiquity, then, between the commencement of the Bronze Age in two such countries as Greece and Britain, let us say, would simply be measured by the length of time the natives of the latter country remained ignorant of bronze after those of the former had acquired a knowledge of that alloy. But that ARCHZOLOGICAL PERIODS. 9 time, however long it may have been, is much too trifling to be taken into consideration when periods of such duration as those of archeology are being dealt with. Moreover, the passage from the true Stone Age into the Bronze Age may have been actually somewhat sudden, if, as is not altogether improbable, metallurgical knowledge came in with one of those great folk- waves which have successively swept over Europe. But in whatever manner that knowledge was acquired it is certain that, long after cutting-instruments of bronze had come into use in every region of our continent, stone implements con- tinued to be employed for many purposes, and are found com- mingled with relics of bronze in the “finds” that belong to that period. Thus the presence of a single bronze weapon, if it occur along with relics of stone in such a way as to leave no doubt that it was buried along with them, is sufficient proof that the relics in question cannot pertain to the true Stone Age. And for the same reason we must not assign any assemblage of bronze implements to the Bronze Age, however numerous they may be, if a single iron implement has been found in like manner along with them. For just as stone implements were largely made use of long after the knowledge of casting bronze had been acquired, so bronze continued to be employed, especially for trinkets and ornaments, far on into the true Iron Age. With the aid of these ancient stone and metallic implements it has now become possible to ascertain the relative age of many other interesting objects of antiquity, such as stone circles, and other megalithic monuments, barrows, forts, camps, dwelling- places, and so forth. For example, if upon examining some sepulchral chamber, such as usually occurs in the so-called barrows, we should find only bronze implements, or a mixture of these with relics of stone, and if there was no appearance of the place ever having been disturbed since the stones and earth were heaped above it, we should conclude that the interment belonged to the Bronze Period. But if one or more instruments of iron occurred amongst the others we should refer the burial to Io PREHISTORIC EUROPE. a later age. Our conclusion would be still further strengthened if, after examining a large number of similar interments, we should find that they all possessed many features in common. Again, should our explorations discover not a trace of either iron or bronze, and should the implements and ornaments we come upon consist exclusively of stone, horn, and bone, the presumption will be in favour of the true Stone Age of the “find.” And this presumption will gather strength according to the number of those discoveries we make. It would be an additional argument in favour of such “finds” pertaining to the Stone Age if amongst the implements cutting-instruments were well represented. Of course there are other and additional methods of ascertaining the relative antiquity of these and pre- historic remains generally, but the methods referred to will necessarily come before our attention when we are considering the mode of occurrence of these remains from a geological point of view. With the Bronze and Iron Ages the geologist has compara- tively little to do; for we shall find in the sequel that the Europe of the later Bronze Period was very much the same as it is to-day. No great geological revolutions have come about in our continent since then, and hence these pages will be occupied chiefly with an account of the climatic and geographical changes which supervened during the true Stone Age. It has been found necessary within recent years to subdivide the Stone Age into two periods, called respectively the Old Stone and New Stone Ages ; or, to employ the terms suggested by Sir John Lubbock, and now generally adopted, the Palzo- lithic and Neolithic Periods. The stone implements belonging to the older of these periods show but little variety of form, * It must be borne in mind, however, that now and again a commingling of implements pertaining to two or more ages may have been brought about in cases where the same spot was utilised for interments at different times. Thus it is known that not unfrequently interments of the Stone Age have been disturbed by subsequent burials in the Bronze and Iron Ages. Hence sometimes we may have implements belonging to distant and distinct periods confusedly commingled in one and the same place, just as if they had all been contemporaneous. ARCHHZOLOGICAL PERIODS. II and are very rudely fashioned, being merely roughly chipped into shape, and never ground or polished. The weapons and instruments of the later period, on the other hand, are extremely varied in form. They are often beautifully finished, and fre- quently ground to a sharp point or edge, or polished all over. But the simplicity and rudeness of its implements are by no means the only distinguishing characteristic of the Paleolithic Period. We shall see in subsequent chapters that the relics of this earlier Stone Age are most frequently met with in positions that plainly argue for them a much greater antiquity than can be assigned to the oldest remains of Neolithic times. And not only so, but Paleolithic man was associated with many great mammals that became either locally or wholly extinct before the appearance of his Neolithic successor in Europe. The animals with which Neolithic man was contemporaneous, be- long, for the most part, to species that are still indigenous to our continent—the forms in short are familiar, although not a few of them are now locally extinct, such as the wild-boar, wolf, and beaver in Britain, all of which, as is well known, have vanished within historic times. Some characteristic forms of Palzolithic implements’ are shown in the accompanying Plate A, which may be compared with the drawings of Neolithic implements in Plate C, Chapter XV. Fig. 1 (Plate A) represents an implement from the lowest deposit in Kent’s Cave, Devonshire. It has been formed by operating on a well-rolled nodule of flint, a portion of the original surface of which is seen at the convex butt-end of the implement.” The other drawings (Figs. 2-8) represent various forms of Paleolithic implements. Fig. 2 is a flint implement found by Mr. Prestwich at a depth of about 20 feet in ancient river-gravel deposits at St. Acheul, near Amiens. It represents 1¥For a particular account of Paleolithic and Neolithic implements, see Dr. Evans’s well-known work on Ancient Stone Implements. Excellent figures are also given in Reliquie Aquitanice ; Sir J. Lubbock’s Prehistoric Times; Lyell’s Antiquity of Man ; and other general treatises. 2 This figure is copied from an interesting paper by Mr. Pengelly in the Journal of the Plymouth Institution, read in 1875. 12 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. a form commonly met with in those beds. Figs. 3 to 8 are all from caves in the Dordogne, and are copied from Reliquie Aqui- tanice. Fig. 3 was probably used as a drill for piercing holes. Fig. 4 may have been a lance-head; Fig 5 is a lanceolate tool or weapon of some sort; and Fig. 6 is evidently a saw. Fig. 7 is supposed to be a harpoon-head, “carved out of antler, broken at one end, and furnished with a lancet-shaped point (imperfect), and a single barb at the other.” The carvings represent a horse’s head, a deer (the head and neck alone being carefully executed), and what appears to be intended for a fish. Fig. 8 is the handle of a poniard, shaped as a reindeer. The original illustration in Reliquice Aquitanice shows the whole weapon—handle and blade—which are cut out of the beam of a reindeer’s horn. (With the exception of Fig. 1, which is half the size of the original, all the drawings represent the actual dimensions of the objects portrayed.) With regard to the mode in which these and others were used, only conjectures can be offered. Some may have been hafted like the stone axes of certain modern savages; while others may have been held in the hand, and used as scrapers for dressing skins, for smoothing wooden handles, and horns, and bones. With some, Paleolithic man may have grubbed up esculent roots, and others he may have employed as wedges for splitting wood; while some of the smaller ones, Dr. Evans suggests, may have been missiles. The larger ones (Fig. 1, Plate A), which occur sometimes plentifully in certain ancient river-gravels, have been supposed by Professor Prestwich to be possibly implements used for cutting holes in the ice when the rivers were frozen over, for the purpose of fishing or of obtaining water. Besides these worked tools, Paleolithic man also used certain stones, such as granite, indurated red sandstone, and quartzose grit, as hammers or pounders, probably for mashing roots, breaking and crushing bones, and other purposes. Such stones usually show the marks of battering on one or more faces. It is remarkable that nearly all the Paleolithic worked implements are formed of flint and chert, and chiefly of the PLATE.A PALAOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS ARCHAZOLOGICAL PERIODS. os former; the instances of any other kind of stone being extremely rare. In this respect they differ from those of Neolithic age, which are formed of many varieties of hard stone, although flint from its extremely tractable nature was still in general demand, especially for arrow-heads, and any instrument for which a cutting edge or sharp point was desired. Other implements of Paleolithic age are formed of bone and horn. Among these are harpoon-heads, barbed on one or both sides, awls, pins, and needles with well-formed eyes. But by + Fig. 1.—Etching of Cave-bear found in the Cave of Massat (Ariége), 4. far the most noteworthy objects of this class are the fragments of bone, horn, ivory, and stone, which exhibit outlined and even shaded sketches of various animals. These engravings have been made with a sharp-pointed implement, and are often wonderfully characteristic representations of the creatures they portray. The figures are sometimes single, in other cases they are drawn in groups. We find representations of a fish, a seal, an ox, an ibex, the red-deer, the great Irish elk or deer, the bison, the horse, the cave-bear (Fig. 1), the reindeer (Fig. 2), and the mammoth or woolly elephant. Besides engravings, we meet also with sculptures, a good example of which is shown in Plate A, Fig. 8. 14 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. Fig. 2.—Reindeer, engraved on antler, 3. From the Kesserloch, Schaffhausen (Heim). It is impossible to say to what use all these objects were put. Some of them may have been handles for knives, while others are mere fragments, and only vague guesses can be made as to the nature of the original implements. It is highly probable, however, that many of these works of art may have been designed simply as such, for the pleasure and amusement of the draughtsman and his fellows. A curious carved implement of reindeer horn, figured by M. Dupont, is termed by him a “ baton du commandement,” but is perhaps, as Professor Dawkins has suggested, an instrument used for straightening arrows, like the sculptured “arrow-straighteners” of the Eskimo. Besides these objects, “whetstones” have now and again been met with in Paleolithic “finds,” and these are supposed to have been used for imparting the final smoothing and polishing to the horn and bone implements, and for giving a sharp point to such as required it. Pieces of iron-ore (red hematite and oligiste), which occur now and again associated with Paleolithic remains, are supposed by some to have been used as pigments for painting the body. Other traces of personal decoration are found in the presence of shells and teeth of various wild animals, which have ARCHAHZOLOGICAL PERIODS. 15 been drilled evidently for the purpose of being strung and used as bracelets or necklaces. The implements we have been referring to unquestionably belong to very different stages of the Paleolithic Period. The simple forms and rude finish of the worked flints seem to indicate a low type of barbarism, but some are more primitive- looking than others. The more primitive forms are now and again found in cave-deposits in positions which prove them to belong to a very early stage of the Paleolithic Period, while weapons and tools of more varied design and better make occur at higher levels in the same caves. From this it may perhaps be inferred that some progress took place even in Paleolithic times. Attempts have indeed been made to classify the cave-relics according to their prevailing characteristics. Thus De Mortillet has arranged the caves of France in four groups, each of which is distinguished by certain features which are more or less peculiar to the imple- ments that belong to it. In his classification we find that the oldest group embraces those caves which contain what appear to be the most primitive-looking implements, and in which worked bones are rarely or never present. Each of the later groups has its distinguishing characteristics, but it is not needful for the purpose I have in view to mention these in detail. It is enough to say that, while implements of bone and horn are scarce, and no engraved objects occur in the second group, in the third group lance- or dart-heads and other instruments of horn and bone are not only far more numerous, but some of these are engraved with the representations of animals. In the fourth and youngest group of caves works of art are somewhat common. It is from the caves of this last group that the most interesting engravings and carvings have been obtained. Whether this classification will ultimately be accepted in its entirety may be doubted, but it appears in the main to be so reasonable that it has commended itself to many of the most eminent archeologists. But although it cannot be questioned that some of the tribes or races of Paleolithic times were a little farther advanced than 16 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. others—so far at least as the fashioning of their implements is concerned—it does not necessarily follow that the men who used the better-made instruments always succeeded in time to those whose implements are somewhat ruder. It is conceivable that they may have lived contemporaneously in different parts of the Continent. “For,” as Professor Boyd Dawkins remarks, “there is no greater difference in any two of the Paleolithic caves than is to be observed between those of two different tribes of Eskimos, while the general resemblance is most strik- ing. The principle of classification by the general rudeness assumes that the progress of man has been gradual, and that the rude implements are therefore the older. The difference, how- ever, may have been due to different tribes or families having co-existed without intercourse with each other, as is now generally the case with savage communities; or to the supply of flint, chert, or other materials for cutting-instruments being — greater in one region than another.” However this may be, it seems at first sight not unreasonable to believe that the artistic people, at all events, who occupied their leisure time in carving and engraving those’ wonderful life-like representations of animals, must belong to a later date than the savages who have left nothing behind them save flint implements of the rudest form and a few simple relics of bone. Nevertheless, it is not impossible that artistic and non-artistic tribes may have co- existed during Paleolithic times in Europe. Sir John Lubbock reminds us that “there are still instances among recent savages of a certain skill in drawing and sculpture being accompanied by an entire ignorance of metallurgy.” And he refers particu- larly to the case of the Eskimo, many of whose bone implements are covered with sketches, representing animals such as reindeer, geese, and dogs; hunting-scenes, houses, boats, and other sub- jects. The contrast between the artistic and non-artistic relics of the Old Stone Period, therefore, may point rather to ethno- logical peculiarities than to any difference in the relative anti- quity of the remains. But even with all these possibilities kept in view, there are certain other circumstances which lead to the ARCHAOLOGICAL PERIODS. 17 conclusion that the artistic tribe or people really pertained to the closing stage of the Paleolithic Period. The consideration of this question, however, must be deferred to a subsequent chapter. Fragmentary as are the relics of the Paleeolithic Period, they yet enable us to form certain conclusions as to the conditions of life in that far past age. The men who carved the bone and ivory implements appear to have been a race of fishers and hunters. The reindeer, the musk-sheep, the mammoth, and other animals, were slain by them in the chase, and they pro- bably clad themselves in the skins thus obtained. No trace of any vestment has been preserved, as indeed could hardly have been expected, but the presence of numerous bone needles shows that tailoring of some kind was in vogue. The bone awls were probably used for piercing holes in the tougher skins, an opera- tion for which perhaps the needles were hardly strong enough. The latter would thus be used simply for carrying the thread, which, on the analogy supplied by modern races like the Eskimo and the Lapps, we may reasonably conjecture was formed of sinews. “ A bone pin (3? inches long), which was found in Kent’s Cave, is supposed by Dr. Evans to have been employed’ as a fastener of the dress. It bears a high polish, he says, as if from constant use. It is probable also that the artistic tribes wore gloves, for we have what appears to be the representation of a long glove with three or four fingers, etched upon the canine tooth of a bear found in one of the caves of the Pyrenees. The earlier Paleolithic races—those who occupied North-western Europe before the appearance of the art-loving people—have left nothing to show that they were acquainted with the art of tailoring. All that we know of them in fact is that they used rudely-worked flints, and lived on the proceeds of the chase. We have good reason to believe that the Paleolithic carvers and draughtsmen, notwithstanding their artistic ability, yet lived in a low state of barbarism. There is nothing to indicate that they cultivated the ground, and they seem to have had no domesticated animals. Neither is there any unequivocal proof é 18 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. forthcoming that they were acquainted with the potter’s art. M. Dupont has indeed recorded the occurrence in certain Belgian caves of coarse unbaked pottery associated with Palzeolithic implements, while M. Fraas has described a similar occurrence in a cave near Blaubeuern in Wiirtemberg, and M. de Ferry has noted the like in the cave of Vergisson (Sadne-et-Loire). The caves of Chiampo and Laglio in the north of Italy are also said to have yielded Paleolithic pottery. It is probable, how- ever, that in all these cases the potsherds are accidentally pre- sent, and really belong to a later date than the Palzolithic implements. Certain it is that no trace of pottery occurs in the Paleolithic cave-deposits of England or of Périgord—and those of the latter have yielded the relics of the artistic people in greater abundance than elsewhere. In the caves of the south of France the carved and worked implements are not only very numerous, but they attain a considerably higher degree of finish than the similar relics which occur in the Belgian caves. It would be strange, therefore, if the occupants of the latter should have been familiar with an art which was totally unknown to the more advanced tribes in the south of France. Moreover, if it be true (as I will by and by endeavour to prove was the case) that the last occupation of the Belgian caves dates back to earlier times than that of the caves of Périgord—that, in fact, the artistic folk migrated southwards from England and Belgium to France, carrying their simple arts with them, it would be more than strange if they had left that of the potter behind. So useful an art once acquired was certain never to be lost again. For the present, then, it seems most reasonable to conclude with Sir John Lubbock and others that Paleolithic — man appears to have been unacquainted with the art in question. Whether the tribes of the Old Stone Period had any polity or social organisation we cannot tell. Some writers have indeed supposed that the more richly engraved and carved implements were state arms, and these, it has been conjectured, might belong to chiefs. But all this is mere guess-work. Again, it has been inferred from the fact that ornaments, implements, and arms ARCHAOLOGICAL PERIODS. 19 have been found in association with certain skeletons which seem to have been interred in late Paleolithic times, that the artistic people had some belief in a future state, and looked forward to happy hunting-grounds beyond the grave. It has even been suggested that some of the small perforated objects found in many Paleolithic deposits may have been worn round the neck as amulets, thus suggesting the existence of a belief in unseen powers; and M. Piette has gone so far as to conclude, from the appearance presented by the ornamentation on one of these “amulets,” which may possibly have been meant to repre- sent the sun, that the artistic folk of the Pyrenees worshipped that body. Whether these surmises are true or not future explorations may perhaps decide; but it is obvious that the simple facts admit at present of other and less elaborate explanations. Paleolithic man was unquestionably a true troglodyte, the caves which he is known to have inhabited being very numerous. In these we frequently come upon the old blackened hearths, round which the people gathered to cook and eat their meals; and the abundance of bones, split as only man could split them, testifies to the liking of the ancient savages for savoury marrow. No doubt, however, they did not live continually in caves, but in following the chase must often have camped out in the open field. And now and again such old camping-places have been detected, buried underneath more or less thick accumulations of flood-loam and sand. It is highly probable also that Palzeolithic man may have constructed rude huts or tents when caves were _not within reach, and on some occasions he may even have occupied temporary snow-houses, like those made by the Eskimo. We can hardly doubt that the character of his dwell- ings would be determined to a large extent by the nature of the climate. If this were mild and genial he may have wandered about during the greater part of the year in the pursuit of game—sheltering at night and during storms under trees or hastily improvised coverings of branches and rushes; while for the winter season he may have retired to some more permanent 20° PREHISTORIC EUROPE. . abode—and for this purpose caves would be well suited. But if the climate were severe—the summer being short and the winter prolonged—then of course a permanent dwelling-place would be more necessary. And it is evident from various circumstances that the artistic tribes, at all events, occupied caves as regular places of abode all the year round, issuing from them on hunting expeditions, and returning to them to feast upon the spoils. In bad weather they probably stayed at home and occupied their time in the manufacture of implements, as we may infer from the frequent presence in the cave-accumula- tions of numerous flint flakes, cores, and chips, and imperfect or unfinished tools. But the artistic folk sometimes at least wandered far afield. This is shown by the drawings of seals and a large cetacean which have been discovered in certain Pyrenean caves, and by the presence in the same caves of sea-shells, some of which have come from the Atlantic coast and others from the Mediterranean. We may therefore be quite sure that the Palzolithic reindeer-hunters occasionally visited the sea-shore, or carried on a kind of traffic with coast-dwellers. Of the people themselves we know comparatively little, for very few skulls and skeletons have been preserved. From this circumstance it has been supposed by some that Paleolithic man did not pay much respect to his dead—an inference which, whether true or the reverse, is certainly not entirely proved by the evidence. For, even if burial had been a common custom among the Paleolithic tribes, so many changes have taken place since their disappearance—the surface of the ground has been so greatly remodelled by the action of frost, rain, and running- water—that we could hardly expect now to meet with any trace of their remains, or the graves in which these may have been laid. The only places where bones or complete skeletons are likely to have been occasionally preserved are caves and lake- and river-deposits. But caves, as we have seen, were in request as dwelling-places, and it is only such as were unfitted for this purpose that would possibly be used for interments. Again, as man would naturally be more wary than the animals by which ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERIODS. 21 he was surrounded, he would only at rare intervals be drowned in lakes and rivers, or fall a victim to inundations. Considera- tions such as these should lessen our surprise that remains of Paleolithic man are not more frequently encountered. Isolated bones, and now and again skulls, and skeletons more or less complete, have been met with in a number of caves. Among the most famous of the crania is that found by Dr. Fuhlrott in a limestone-cave in the Neanderthal, near Hochdal, between Diisseldorf and Elberfeld, and the Engis cranium, dis- covered by Dr. Schmerling in a cave near Liége, where it was associated with bones of the cave-bear. Some French caves have more recently furnished similar remains. Of these the best known example is that of the rock-shelter of Cro-Magnon, in the valley of the Vézére, in which were found the bones of three men, a woman, and a child, described by MM. Broca and Pruner Bey. The complete skeleton of a man was likewise obtained by M. Riviere in a cave near Mentone, and M. Massé- nat made a similar discovery at Laugerie-Basse. MM. Lartet and Chaplain-Dupare also record the occurrence of a human skull along with Palzeolithic implements in the Cave of Duruthy, near Sorde, in the Western Pyrenees. In several of the Pyren- ean caves, as in that of Gourdan, human bones of Paleolithic age appear to have been not infrequently met with. Some of these were probably interred, others from their broken condition, and the marks upon them of blows and cuts or stabs, doubtless tell of violent death. Thus in the cave of Gourdan, M. Piette discovered several fragmentary skulls which bore evident indica- tions of such treatment, and he infers that they are probably the remains of men slain in fight, whose heads were cut off and brought to the cave, where the brains may have been taken out and mixed in some kind of pottage, as is the custom of certain modern savages. But there is no evidence to show that Paleolithic man was a true cannibal. Amongst the enormous quantities of bones of various animals which occur in the cave-deposits, and which have been split to extract the marrow, those of man are never found in that condition, a 22 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. strong proof that human flesh formed no part of a Paleolithic repast. In fluviatile and lacustrine alluvia remains of Paleolithic man are of much rarer occurrence than in caves, They have been recorded, however, by various observers from the ancient léss or flood-loam of the Meuse and the Rhine. Professor Crahay of Louvain, so far back as 1823, described a human lower jaw which was dug up along with abundant remains of mammoths during the process of excavating a canal between Maestricht and Hocht. The jaw occurred underneath a depth of nineteen feet of ancient river-accumulations. M. Ami Boué, in the same year, disinterred human bones from the undisturbed flood-loam of the Rhine at Lahr, and the same deposit at Eguis- heim, near Colmar, has yielded to the researches of Dr. Faudel a notable cranium, which was found at a depth of eight or nine feet. A human skull was got in flood-loam of the same age at Mannersdorf, and similar discoveries of human remains have been made at Clichy, in the valley of the Seine, and at Grenelle, in the valley of the Somme. Again, Professor Cocchi mentions that at Olmo, near Arezzo, in the valley of the Arno, a cranium was obtained, at a depth of nearly fifty feet, in lacustrine marl, and the tusk of an extinct species of elephant (Zlephas meri- dionalis) occurred a few feet higher up in the same deposits. Various and contradictory views have been held by anthro- pologists as to the character of the type or types of Paleolithic man, but, according to the recent researches of MM. de Quatre- fages and Hamy, two dolichocephalic (long-headed) races occu- pied Europe during the Old Stone Period. Of these the earliest to appear was what they term the “Canstadt race,” which is repre- sented by crania found in the Neanderthal, the Val d’Arno, the Pyrenees, etc. This race was characterised by the more or less extraordinary prominence of the superciliary ridges, and by a low, narrow, and receding forehead. The orbits were very large and almost circular, the nasal bones were prominent, and the nasal orifices wide, while the upper jaw projected and the chin retreated, “In short,” says M. de Quatrefages, “the face and ARCHAOLOGICAL PERIODS. 23 cranium of the Canstadt man must, as a rule, have pre- sented a strangely savage aspect. The body appears to have harmonised with the head. The few bones of the limbs, pre- served more or less intact, indicate a stature of only 1 m. 68 to 1 m. 72 (5 feet 6 inches to 5 feet 8 inches), yet their proportions are athletic.” The second race is called by the same anthro- pologist the “Cro-Magnon race”—the skull of the old man found in the rock-shelter at that place being taken as the type. This race was marked by its finely-proportioned skull, which is distinguished from that of the Canstadt type by its large and prominent forehead, and well-arched cranial vault, and by the absence of strongly-marked superciliary ridges. The upper part of the face was very broad in proportion to the lower, the nose projected boldly forward, as did also the upper jaw, and the slightly-triangular chin, The race was tall, and the bones indicate remarkable strength and muscularity. M. Hamy gives 5 feet 10 inches as the mean height. The Cro-Magnon woman measured 5 feet 5:3 inches, the old man of the same place 5 feet 11°6 inches, while the Mentone man was as much as 6 feet 0°8 inches. It is to this race that the artistic hunters of Périgord and the Pyrenees belonged. I have incidentally referred to the fact that Paleolithic _man was contemporaneous with the mammoth and other extinct or migrated species. The fauna of the Old Stone Period differed, as we shall see by and by, very much from that of the succeed- ing Neolithic Age. Among the animals were lion, hyena, elephant, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, mammoth, bear, musk-sheep, glutton, reindeer, urus, and others, which are either locally or wholly extinct. The Neolithic fauna, on the other hand, com- prised a group of animals essentially the same as that which now occupies Europe. Thus, the Paleolithic is marked off, as it were, from the Neolithic Period not only by the very distinct character of its human relics, but also by the strong dissimi- larity of its mammalian remains. We can trace a gradual passage from Neolithic times into the succeeding Bronze Age, but no such transition has yet been detected between the relics 24 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. of the New and the Old Stone Periods. The implements of the two periods in question are sharply contrasted. Even in the rare instances where the forms of the implements are analogous, a practised observer will readily detect a difference in the work- manship. In the exceptional cases referred to, “the difference is such,” as Dr. Evans remarks, “that though possibly a single spe- cimen [of Neolithic age] might pass muster as of Palzolithic form, yet a group of three or four at once strikes an experienced eye as presenting other characteristics.” Theimplements of the one period are never found commingled with those of the other, nor do the characteristic faunas of the two ages ever occur together in one and the same undisturbed deposit. This remark- able circumstance must be kept in view when we are speculating on the lapse of time that separates the Neolithic from the Paleo- lithic Age. It will be my endeavour in the sequel to point out what seems to me to have been the cause of that gap or hiatus, but before doing so there are many other lines of evidence which I have yet to indicate ; among these, not the least important is the question of climate. It is evident, indeed, that until we ascertain what kind of climate characterised the Paleolithic Period, we can form but a vague idea of the conditions under which the men of Canstadt and Cro-Magnon lived. In the two following chapters, therefore, I propose to discuss this ques- tion, taking for my data the mammalia and the land plants and mollusca which are found in those Pleistocene deposits to which Palzolithic man likewise belongs. CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 25 CHAPTER IIL CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD—TESTIMONY OF MAMMALIA, Geographical distribution of Mammals—Southern, Northern, and Temperate Group—Evidence of Mammalia as to Climate—Present climatic conditions in Europe, Northern Asia, and boreal regions of North America—Region of Tundras and Barrens—Arctic Forest Zone—Annual Migrations in Siberia— Similar Migrations cannot take place in Europe —Influence of the Gulf Stream on European Climate—Probable effect of its withdrawal—Alterna- tions of Climate during Paleolithic Period. AmonG the most remarkable animals which are now well known to have been contemporaneous with Paleolithic man in Europe are the lion, the hyena, the serval, the Caffer cat, the hippopo- tamus, the rhinoceros, the elephant, the mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the musk-sheep, and others. Besides these there were many species which still inhabit our Continent, but their range at present is greatly restricted as compared with what it was in the Old Stone Age. It is this latter circumstance, indeed, that forms one of the most remarkable characteristics of the mammalian fauna of Paleolithic times. We cannot doubt that the climatic conditions which permitted such a fauna to roam over Europe must have differed very much from those of our own day. And this will appear indisputable after we have taken a glance at the present geographical distribution of some of the more prominent species. The ossiferous remains occur in such abundance and in so good a state of preservation that osteologists have had no great difficulty in recognising those of a number of animals which still survive in extra-European regions ; and it is of the utmost importance, therefore, that we should 26 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. consider the present range of such species, as there can be no question that this will throw considerable ight upon our inquiry. The Lion (Felis leo)—This carnivore is at present confined to Africa and the south-west of Asia. Its range in Africa appears to have been within recent times co-extensive with that continent, but it has now disappeared from a large part of Egypt and the Mediterranean coast, and from the Cape of Good Hope, and the Gaboon and Niger districts. It even lived in Europe within historical times, for it is stated by Aristotle that the lions of Thessaly attacked the camels attached to the army of Xerxes, The maneless lion of Asia, which is only a variety of the African species, has also been considerably restricted in its range within recent years. It occurred at one time over wide areas in Central, West, and North-west India, but is now confined in Hindostan to the peninsula of Guzerat. It still livesin Asia Minor, and in Persia, along the borders of the Persian Gulf, it is common. The Cave-lion (Felis spelea) of the Paleolithic Period was of some- what larger dimensions than the living African species (F. leo), and was at one time believed to be a tiger. It had a very wide range in Europe, its remains occurring in many of the bone- caves of Sicily, Spain, France, Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, and England. The SABRE-TOOTHED TIGER or Lion (Machairodus latidens). —tThis is an extinct species, belonging to a distinctly southern type, which has been met with very sparingly in deposits of the Paleolithic Period. It occurs in what is called the Pliocene formation,' where it is associated with a number of species that indicate genial climatic conditions, from which it may be in- ferred that the climate of England was probably of this character at the time it lived in England. The CarFER Cat (Felis caffra) is met with in Egypt and West and South Africa. In Paleolithic times it was distributed over a wide area in Europe, extending from the borders of the Medi- terranean north as far as England. The Lzoparp (Ff. pardus) had a similar wide range in 1 See Table of Sedimentary Formations, Appendix A. CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 27 Paleolithic Europe; at the present day it ranges over all Africa, and Southern Asia, Sumatra, and Borneo. The SERVAL (Ff serval) is a South African species which has been met with in some of the bone-caves of the Mediterranean coast, as at Gibraltar. The Hyana.—There are two species of hyena, the striped hyena (Hyena striata) and the spotted hyena (H. crocuta). The former is distributed over a wide area in North Africa and South-western Asia, while the latter is restricted to South Africa. Both species have been recognised in the bone-caves of Europe—the remains of H. crocuta being especially abundant. The spotted hyzena of Paleolithic times (ZZ. spelea) was of larger size than its living representative. It ranged over a great part of Europe, from the Mediterranean up to Northern England, The ELEPHANT.—Several species of elephant have been met with in deposits of Paleolithic age. The African elephant (Z. africanus) has left its remains in Southern Europe, but no trace of it has yet been found north of the Pyrenees and the Alps. The remains of an extinct dwarf species (Z. melitensis) occur in Malta, Sicily, and Candia. It averaged four and a half feet or so in height at the shoulder.. Associated with this dwarf species there appears to have been a yet lesser pigmy elephant (Z. Falconert) as determined by Mr. Busk. The average height of this animal could not have exceeded two feet six inches to three feet. Remains of these pigmy species are very abundant in the eaves and rock-crevices of Malta. Dr. Leith Adams believes that Malta had even a third species of elephant (Z. mnazdrensis), the average height of which was about seven feet. An extinct species of large size (Z. antiquus) is met with frequently in the bone-caves and ancient river-gravels of Europe. It had a very wide range—from the Mediterranean north as far as Yorkshire. It also lived in North Africa. Another extinct form was JZ, meridionalis, met with in the preglacial deposits of Norfolk, and Pleistocene alluvia in France and Italy. A most characteristic species of Palzolithic times was the mammoth (Z. primigenius), now extinct, which had a most extensive range—its remains 28 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. having been found in nearly every country of Europe. They have not been met with farther south, however, than Spain and Central Italy. As every one knows, entire carcasses of this enor- mous animal have been preserved so perfectly in the frozen earth of Northern Siberia that we are very well informed as to its nature. It was of great size, much exceeding the largest of its modern representatives, and was provided with a covering of long black hair, mixed at the roots with a thick fleece of reddish wool. The Hippopotamus (H. amphibius) is confined to Africa, where its range has been considerably restricted within historical times, for it formerly abounded in the Delta of the Nile. It is common to most of the rivers in the south of the Continent, and is found in the Niger, the Senegal, and the Nile. A smaller species (HZ. liberiensis) occurs in the River St. Paul, in Liberia. The remains of a large species (H. major) which is believed to be identical with the African form (H. amphibius) have been found in ancient river-gravels and bone-caves in Europe as far north as Yorkshire. It is remarkable, also, that the bone-caves of Italy, Sicily, and Malta have yielded the remains of a small species of hippopotamus (H. Pentlandi) in great abundance. The Rainoceros.—The living species of rhinoceros are southern forms, being distributed over Africa south of the Sahara, and over wide regions in India, Burmah, and Sumatra. No fewer than four species, all of them extinct, have left their re- mains in the Pleistocene alluvia and bone-caves of our continent. Of these the most common is the woolly rhinoceros (R. ticho- rhinus) a carcass of which was found many years ago (1771) in frozen ground on the banks of the Vilni, a branch of the Lena. This rhinoceros had a range probably as extensive as that-of the mammoth, but hitherto its remains have not been met with south of the Alps and Pyrenees. Of the three remaining species, 2. hemitechus (h. leptorhinus, Owen) is the more common; it is found both in bone-caves and old river-gravels, and ranged north from the Mediterranean coast as far as Yorkshire. 2. megarhinus is of much less frequent occurrence, but it ranged north from Southern Europe into England. &. Merckii (Jaeger and Kaup) CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 29 occurs sparingly in Pleistocene deposits in Middle Europe. It is possible that two different species have been described under this name, M. Lartet having been of opinion that R. Merckii of De Meyer is the same as R. e¢ruscus, Fale., a species found in the Upper Pliocene. Professor Brandt, again, thinks that R. etruscus is merely a variety of R. Merckii, Jaeg. The Bear.—Three species of bear lived in Europe in Palzo- lithic times, of which only one is now indigenous, namely the brown bear (Ursus arctos), The others were the grisly bear (U. ferox), now confined to the west half of North America, and the great cave-bear (U. spelcus), now extinct, which was nearly allied to the brown bear. All these had a considerable range in our continent—the remains of the cave-bear occurring in most of the bone-caves of England, and being common also in those _ of Central Europe, while those of the grisly bear are met with in England, Belgium, Germany, and even as far south as Gibraltar and Sicily. The brown bear was also a common form in Central Europe, and its remains occur even in the caves of Palermo. The Musk-SHEEP (Ovibos moschatus) is a characteristic Arctic species, being restricted to Melville Island, Greenland, and the adjacent regions in North America. Formerly, however, it ranged into England, Belgium, Germany, and Southern France. The REINDEER (Cervus tarandus) ranges over a vast region in North America, Northern Europe, and Siberia, its southern limits corresponding very nearly to the isothermal line of 32°. It is gradually being driven north in Europe before the advance of civilisation, and there are some slight grounds for believing that it lived in the extreme north of Scotland down to early his- torical times. Its remains occur abundantly in Paleolithic deposits over a large part of Europe, even as far south as Aquitaine in France. The WOLVERENE or GLUTTON (Gulo borealis) inhabits all the northern parts of both hemispheres. It spread south in Paleolithic times to the shores of the Mediterranean (Mentone). The Arcric Fox (Canis lagopus) which, as its name implies, 30 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. is a truly boreal species, occupying the higher latitudes of Europe, Siberia, and North America, has been widely met with in Palzolithic deposits, and appears to have had a range hardly less extensive than that of the glutton. The Common Marmot (Arctomys marmotta) and the PoucHED Marmot (Spermophilus citillus) have a very wide range at the present day, stretching from Central Europe through Siberia to North America. They are generally found in mountainous dis- tricts, and often at lofty elevations, where the climate is neces- sarily severe. The pouched marmot lived in the low grounds of Europe as far south as Southern France in Paleolithic times, and its remains have been detected in English and Belgian caves, in the latter of which the common marmot also occurs. Remains of the marmot have also been got at Mentone and in the low grounds of Piedmont at the foot of the Moncalieri-Valenza hills. The Lemminc.—Three species of lemming have been re- corded from Paleolithic deposits, namely Myodes lemmus, Pall., the common or Norwegian lemming, J. torquatus, Pall, the torquated lemming, and JZ. obensis, the Siberian lemming. The first is a native of Russian Lapland, Norway and Sweden; the second occurs in circumpolar regions—in Siberia, North America, and Greenland; while the last-named is met with in Siberia and Arctic North America. In Paleolithic times lemmings ranged south to Bohemia, Saxony, Upper Franconia, and Central France. The Tarttess HARE or PiKA (Lagomys pusillus) is another living boreal species the remains of which are met with in bone- caves in England and Belgium. The form JL. corsicanus occurs in breccia in Corsica, and Z. sardus in cave-deposits in Sardinia. The [sex (Capra ibex) is found living in the Alps, and an- other species (C. pyrenaicus) inhabits the Pyrenees; an ibex is also met with in the mountains of Andalusia. The ibex lived plentifully in the region of the Jura, the south of France, and Northern Italy, in Paleolithic times. Great quantities of the bones of this animal also occur in the Gibraltar caves. The Snowy VoLE (Arvicola nivalis), now a native of the higher Alps, formerly lived in the low grounds of Lombardy. CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 31 The CHamois (Antilocapra rupicapra) is another species which is now restricted to the Alps and the Pyrenees. Its remains are met with in the bone-caves of Belgium and the south of France. Among other animals of the Paleolithic Period in Europe were the Lynx, the Wild-cat, and other living carnivores, and the Aurochs or Lithuanian Bison, the Urus, the Great Irish Deer, the Saiga, the Stag, the Roe, and so forth. Of these the Great Irish Deer, now extinct, was formerly widely distributed over Middle Europe, and survived the Paleolithic Period. It is even supposed by some writers to be referred to in the Niebe- lungen Lied as the “fierce schelch.” There can be little doubt that it lived under climatic conditions similar to those that characterise the temperate latitudes of Western Europe. The Aurochs or Lithuanian Bison is preserved by the Czar in one of the forests of Lithuania, otherwise it is no longer feral in Europe. It still lives, however, in the Caucasus. The Urus appears to be represented solely by the white cattle of Chil- lingham and Hamilton, but it exceeded these considerably in size. Among other species of Pleistocene times whose presence indicates a temperate climate are Otter, Beaver, Hare, Rabbit, Marten-cat, Stoat, Weasel, Wolf, Fox, Horse, and others, some of which have been already mentioned. Before we proceed to the discussion of the climatic and geographical conditions of Europe during the Old Stone Age, it may be well to summarise the results of our inquiries into the present geographical distribution of those species which are recognised as still living. We find, then, that the animals which were contemporaneous in our continent with Palzolithic man, may be grouped as follow :— 1. SourHeRN Group,’ comprising those species that are now found living in latitudes south of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean :— 1 To this group Professor Dawkins adds the porcupine, remains of which have been met with in the caves of Belgium. It is now a native of Southern Europe, but ranges south into Africa. 32 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. Hippopotamus. Serval. African Elephant. Caffer Cat. Spotted Hyzena. Lion. Striped Hyzena. Leopard." 2. NORTHERN AND ALPINE GROUP, comprising those species which are now met with only in northern latitudes, or in mountain-ranges where similar climatic conditions obtain :— Musk-sheep. Alpine Hare. Glutton. Marmot. Reindeer. Spermophile. Arctic Fox. Tbex. Lemming. Snowy Vole. Tailless Hare. Chamois. 3. TEMPERATE GROUP, comprising species which are char- acteristic of temperate latitudes :— Urus. Stoat. Bison. Weasel. Horse. Marten. Stag. Wild-cat. Roe. Fox. Saiga. Wolf. Beaver. Wild-boar. Hare. Brown Bear. Rabbit. Grisly Bear. Otter. Of the extinct species of elephant, we may reasonably infer that H. meridionalis, EL. melitensis, HE. Falconeri, EF. mnaidrensis, and LF. antiquus, belonged to the southern group of animals, while the hairy mammoth may be set down in the northern group, although it is highly probable that it ranged far into the territories occupied by the temperate group. The woolly rhinoceros is so frequently found in conjunction with the mammoth, that we must regard it also as being essentially a north-temperate species. The other three species of rhinoceros 1 For fuller details than I have been able to give, the reader is referred to Boyd Dawkins’s Cave-hunting and Early Man in Britain. CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 33 (R. megarhinus, R. Merckii, and R. hemitechus) were no doubt members of the southern group, as also were the sabre-toothed — tiger (Machairodus latidens) and the dwarf hippopotamus (HZ. Pentlandi). The Irish deer was most probably a temperate species, and the cave-bear is with some reason also relegated to the temperate group. Thus of these extinct species, not less than ten belonged to types whose nearest analogues at the pre- sent day must be sought for in southern regions. The animals that were contemporaneous with man in the Old Stone Age, form, as we have seen, a somewhat motley assemblage, comprising representatives from many widely separated zones. Arctic and boreal are strangely commingled with temperate and southern species, and we may search the whole living world in vain for any similar concourse of groups so discordant and unlike. If we confine our attention to the forms with which we are most familiar, we should say that they betokened climatic conditions not unlike those of our own and similar latitudes. But then we are confronted by the northern species, such as musk-sheep and reindeer, which in Paleolithic times were distributed over all Northern and Middle Europe as far south at least as Southern France. Now it is quite im- possible that these animals could have ranged to this low latitude unless the climate of prehistoric Europe had differed greatly from the conditions that now obtain. How could the climate of France have been other than cold and ungenial when the reindeer and the musk-sheep were hunted by Paleeolithic man in the low grounds of Aquitaine? We are reminded, however, that during the same Old Stone Age, the hippopotamus and its southern congeners visited England and North-western Europe ; from which we are surely to infer that those regions then experienced a mild and genial climate. Thus the evidence of one group seems to contradict that of the other. The con- tradiction, however, is only apparent. Europe, owing to its geographical position, enjoys what may be termed an insular climate. It is bathed along the whole western coast-line by the waters of the wide-stretching Atlantic, D 34 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. the mild and moist winds from which modify alike the heat of summer and the cold of winter. And this of course is more especially the case with the countries of Western and North- western Europe. As we recede from the Atlantic coast-line, and pass inland along the -same parallel of latitude to the central and eastern regions, we find that the difference between the seasons becomes more and more strongly marked, until when we cross into Asia we meet with the greatest contrast between summer and winter. The extremes of temperature experienced in Europe on the same or nearly the same parallel of latitude, are well shown by comparing the summer and winter temperatures of the following places :— : at E “a Difference be- Lat. N. Longit. eae ae a ew Westport .| 53°48’ | 9°29’ W.| 43-9 Fahr. | 58-1 Fahr.| 14:2 Liverpool .| 53 24 2 59 3978! as Gls wives 21°7 Bremen elle ei) 8 49 E. Pay te 646 ,, 35°1 Stettin Siieos te allan roe Zoe s. 64:20 36° Bromberg .| 53 9 |18 2 PAN se 65:3 4, 39°15 Svislotch .| 53 20 | 28 56 POT Se oe 64°38: = 42°3 Zamartin .| 53 39 30 8 as 66S V4.5 54°4 Penza . .| 53 15 | 44 57 7 (go ey 68° a) 60°7 In Northern Asia and the corresponding latitudes of North America, we encounter ranges of temperature which are greatly in excess of those that are experienced in Northern Europe. Thus at Jakutsk the mean temperature of July is + 62°8, while that of January sinks to —40°4, a difference of as much as 103°2; yet Jakutsk is in nearly the same latitude as Aalesund in Norway, where the July temperature only reaches + 54°5, and that of January does not fall below + 28°8, a difference of 24°°7. Again, at Fort Confidence on the shores of Great Bear Lake, the mean temperature of summer (June, July, and August), is + 48°2, and that of winter (December, January, and February) —22°9—a difference of 71°1, or taking the July and January temperatures, we have for the former + 52°9, and for the latter —26°°7, giving a range of 79°6. Now Fort Con- CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 35 fidence is in nearly the same latitude as Bodé in Norway, where the temperature of July is + 54°:5, and that of January + 26°6, a difference of only 27°9. This greater range of temperature in Northern Asia and North America naturally affects to a very considerable degree the vegetable and animal products. Thus, as every one knows, there are vast tracts in those regions which are subject to a climate that forbids the growth of trees. In these wide “barren grounds” mosses and lichens form the prevailing vegetation, and next to these come grasses, sedges, and rushes, and dwarf willows. This treeless zone presents a very irregular margin towards the south. Thus in North America it descends to Labrador in latitude 57°, from which, as we follow it across that continent, it gradually rises to higher and higher latitudes until it reaches the delta of the Mackenzie River in 69° N. lat. After leaving the Mackenzie, it trends more towards the south, and terminates on the shores of Behring Strait in 65° N. lat. On the opposite or Asiatic coast, the boundary line between the tundras or barrens and the region of trees begins in 63° N. lat., and sweeps away in a north- westerly direction till it reaches the Lena in 71° N. lat., after which it again extends more to the south and crosses the Obi a little beyond the Arctic Circle. It now sweeps farther and farther to the north as it traverses Europe, so that only a narrow fringe of “treeless ground” appears in Lapland and the north of Russia. Immediately south of the “barrens” of North America and the “tundras” of Siberia comes the belt of Arctic forests, which are composed almost exclusively of coniferous trees. These forests cover an immense territory, and extend with hardly any interruption across the three northern continents, forming a zone which is 15° to 20° in breadth. The limits of arboreal vegeta- tion are of course determined by climatic conditions, the area to the north being swept in winter by cold winds coming from the ice-laden Arctic seas, before the breath of which every green thing shrivels up. Vast areas of the barren grounds during that season are covered with thick snow—lake and river and 36 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. morass are frozen—and hardly a trace of animal life is to be seen. But soon after the return of spring, when the ground begins to thaw and the snow to vanish, lichens and herbs and grasses reappear, and the summer heat by and by becomes almost as intolerable as the winter cold. The tundras are now enlivened by the presence of great herds of reindeer and other animals, and by vast flights of wild birds which find a plentiful harvest of food in the waters of river and lake and sea. Thus, owing to the strongly-contrasted conditions of summer and winter in these Arctic regions, both birds and beasts are compelled to perform great migrations. In winter the reindeer seek the shelter of the woods, where they trespass upon the territory of the elk or moose-deer, and in which they frequently fall a prey to wolves and bears. As soon, however, as the milder weather begins, they return in large bands to the tundras and barrens, feeding on the lichens that are softened by the melting snow. The area over which the reindeer-migrations take place is vastly more extensive in America and Asia than in Europe, its southern limits corresponding very nearly to the isothermal of 32°. No doubt this area extended farther south in Norway within recent years; but even were the disturbing influence of man to be entirely withdrawn, we cannot believe that under present climatic conditions the reindeer would ever reach in Western Europe the same low latitudes that it now attains in Asia and America, for it ranges into Kamtschatka as far south as the parallel of 50° N. lat., which it will be remembered passes through the north of France. The climatic conditions that induce great migrations, like those of the northern regions of Asia and North America, do not obtain in the corresponding territories of North-western Europe. Our prevalent winds are westerly and south-westerly, and come to us laden with the warmth and moisture of the Gulf Stream, and thus, as I have said, we enjoy a kind of insular climate, with no great extremes of heat and cold. Such being the case, and it being perfectly well ascertained that during CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 37 Paleolithic times the European coast extended only a little distance farther into the Atlantic, we may well ask how the presence of the reindeer in the south of France and the hippo- potamus in the north of England can be accounted for. Owing to their geographical position, the north-western regions of our continent could not possibly have been subjected to a climate at all comparable with that of Siberia. The influence of the neigh- bouring Atlantic would effectually prevent the occurrence of strongly-contrasted seasons. We may therefore at once dismiss the hypothesis of great annual migrations which some writers have advanced to account for the startling association in Paleo- lithic deposits of such discordant species as reindeer and hippo- potamuses, musk-sheep and elephants. The fauna of Palo- lithic times comprised, as we have seen, not only northern and temperate forms, but a well-marked group of southern animals. According to the migration-hypothesis, therefore, we are to suppose that in summer huge pachyderms like the elephant and hippopotamus migrated from the south of Europe as far north as England, and that on the approach of winter they returned to their “head-quarters,” and were followed by the reindeer and its congeners as far as the foot of the Alps and the Pyrenees. Such a supposition, however, is manifestly unreasonable, inas- much as it is opposed to all that we know of the habits of hip- popotamuses, elephants, and rhinoceroses ; and the same might be said of several other species that belong to the southern group of Palzolithic times. How impossible, indeed, does it seem that those unwieldy pachyderms could in one year tra- verse the whole breadth of Europe, so as to trespass on the territory of the reindeer and the musk-sheep, and then retreat with sufficient rapidity to escape the severity of a winter before which the arctic mammals were forced to flee to the south of France. The anomalous commingling of northern, southern, and temperate forms points, not to one prolonged period character- ised by extreme summers and winters, but to changes of climate very gradually effected through a long course of time. We may 38 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. be quite sure that when arctic and alpine animals were living in the low grounds of France, the climate of all Europe, especially the middle and northern regions, was cold and ungenial, and that when hippopotamuses frequented the rivers of England, very different climatic conditions prevailed. Let us try and realise what those varying climatic conditions may have been. We have seen that the southern species are now restricted to regions where, as a rule, the yearly temperature is consider- ably in excess of that now experienced even in the south of Europe. We have no reason to suppose, however, that such a high temperature is absolutely necessary to their existence. Could we but get rid of the inclement winters of the north, so that no chilling frosts should affect the vegetation, it is evident that the Arctic forests would gradually invade and spread over the barrens and tundras, The north-temperate and temperate regions would also support a more abundant growth, and wide areas which are now incapable of cultivation, either by reason of their elevation or their high latitude, might readily be made to yield good harvests. It is quite possible, indeed, that Scot- land might, under certain conditions, acquire a winter tem- perature approximating to that of the south-west of France, A change like this might be brought about without any revolu- tion in the geographical position of our continent. Were the ocean currents that even now so greatly modify our winters to be very largely increased in volume, they would of course raise the general temperature of the Atlantic and Northern Oceans to a still higher degree, and so would effect a corresponding amelioration of the climate of the neighbouring lands over which the westerly winds distribute their warmth and moisture, There are many good grounds for believing that considerable changes in the volume of warm ocean currents have occurred in the past; and as, owing to various causes, such currents may be made to flow with a greatly increased breadth and depth, so, on the other hand, they may be reduced, and even turned out of their course and forced to go in some other direction. But no changes in the direction or the volume of ocean currents in CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 39 the North Atlantic could ever give rise to a Siberian climate in North-western Europe. Were the Gulf Stream, which so pro- foundly modifies the winter temperature of Europe, to be with- drawn, the winters in our islands would become colder than they are at present by more than 25°." Nor would this fall of temperature be counterbalanced, as it were, by a corresponding increase of temperature in summer. On the contrary, we might look for quite an opposite result. Superficial currents of cold water coming from the Arctic regions would cool the summer temperature along all the west coast of Europe, just in the same way as the Labrador Current affects the summer temperature of the coast lands of British America and the New England States. A glance at the following Table, in which are given the mean winter and summer temperatures of places in the same latitudes of North America and Europe, will show what effect the Gulf Stream has in modifying our European climate. Were that current to disappear, our coasts might well be washed by as cold water as that of the Labrador Current; and thus not only the winter, but the summer also, over all Western and North- western Europe would be considerably affected. Mean Mean Mean Mean East Coast of West Coast of N. eee: N. Lat. pee ee ORteope: oC N. Lat. ats ee Lichtenau . | 60° 30'| +23°5| +46-4| Bergen. . | 60° 23’| +32°6| +536 Hebron. .!| 58 16 -51| +4671) Wick . .|58 25 | +3885} +565 Killybegs . | 54 38 | +4174) +587 rose | 55 15: | 449- |) Newcastle || 54 58 | 438-7 | +58°1 Kénigsberg | 54 42 | +24:2} +62°8 St. John .| 47 27 | +23°5| +56° Nantes. .|47 13 | +41°2| +7171 Halifax. .| 44 39 | +22°6| +63°5| Bordeaux .| 44 50 | +41° | +6971 1 a a eS a a ee ee ieee ee ee 1 The normal temperature of the latitude of London is 40°, which is 30° higher than it would be were all oceanic and aerial currents to be stopped. And Dr. Croll calculates that the actual rise of temperature at London due to the influence of the Gulf Stream, over and above all the lowering effects produced by Arctic currents, is as much as 40°.—See Climate and Time, p. 43. 2 The winter temperature is that of the January isothermal line, which reaches the Labrador coast in lat. 55°. The July isotherm of 50° passes through lat. 53° 30', the July temperature of 49° given above being only approximate. The temperature for that month at Nain on the same coast, in lat. 56° 22’, is 48°-2; and the mean of January is 2°°4. 4o PREHISTORIC EUROPE. With a mild and genial winter prevailing as far north as Scotland and Norway, it is evident that the present distribution of flora and fauna would be very considerably affected. We might well have characteristic temperate forms, such as the stag, oxen, bisons, horses, and others living all the year round in Lapland, and even in the country of the Samoyedes, while the northern species were restricted to the lofty mountain-tracts, or banished out of Europe altogether. The climate of England and France under such conditions as we have supposed would sup- port a vigorous vegetation, and might readily be occupied by many animals that are now restricted to more southern latitudes. There is really nothing in the habits or mode of life of the hippopotamus, for example, that would lead us to suppose that for it a tropical climate is indispensable. A country that fur- nished plenty of succulent plants, and whose winters were suffi- ciently genial to keep the streams and lakes and rivers free from ice, might very well suit the hippopotamus and not a few of his present associates. Indeed, one might almost infer from the great size attained by many of the southern forms during the Old Stone Age that these animals throve better under the tem- perate climate of Europe than they do now in the warm regions of Africa. The large size of many of the temperate species— the cervine, bovine, and other animals that were contemporane- ous in our continent with the great pachyderms, and whose dwarfed descendants still live in these latitudes—is also remark- able. Many causes, certainly, may have combined to bring about this change in the size of these animals. They have all experienced more or less of a hard struggle for existence, and their feeding-grounds have been greatly limited since the time when they were hunted by Paleolithic man. It is doubtful, however, whether the diminished size of the pachyderms and their associates can be entirely accounted for in this way, and whether it may not be due in part to the less favourable climatic conditions under which they now live. It was certainly not under tropical conditions that the old pachyderms occupied our continent, The climate of all North- CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 4l western Europe at that time must have been essentially tem- perate, so that what we now call our temperate fauna ranged then from the shores of the Northern Ocean down to and even south of the Pyrenees and the Alps. Carnivorous animals like the lion, the hyena, and the leopard, would be also widely dis- tributed, finding abundant food in nearly every part of the Continent. Thus at the time hippopotamuses wallowed in the rivers of France and England, and great herds of cervine and bovine animals wandered from glade to glade, our caves and forests were haunted by fierce carnivores. The reindeer and its associates could not flourish under such climatic conditions, and ~ their range in Europe must therefore have been extremely limited. Marmots and lemmings would retire to the alpine heights, and reindeer might possibly linger upon the lofty plateaux of Northern Scandinavia. It is more probable, how- ever, that they lived beyond the precincts of Europe, and may have occupied territories that are now drowned in the icy waters of the Northern Ocean. For we know very well that Europe and Asia within a recent geological period have extended much farther into the Polar Seas, and that a wide stretch of Arctic land, of which Novaia Zemlia and Spitzbergen formed a part, has been recently submerged. We have now only to suppose that, after enduring for some prolonged period, such climatic conditions gradually changed. The warm ocean currents became more and more reduced in volume, and the winters in consequence waxed colder and colder. Such a change might have taken place at so slow a rate that generations might have come and gone before any decided difference in the climate could have been recognised. But as the winter cold increased, both flora and fauna would begin to testify to the change—the hippopotamus, and doubtless other animals, gradually disappearing from Britain and Middle Europe. Many of the hardier temperate forms, however, would continue for a time to tenant the lands which the bulky pachy- derms had vacated. But when the winters had become so intense as to favour the existence of reindeer and musk-sheep 42 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. in the south of France, we may well believe that the major portion of Middle and Northern Europe would be a dreary desert waste. The temperate fauna would be living in the southern districts of our continent and North Africa, but it is very doubtful whether the hippopotamus would be able to endure the winter cold which must then have characterised the shores of the Mediterranean. We have seen that archeologists have good reasons for thinking that the men who lived in the south of France in the latest stage of the Paleolithic Period were associated with the reindeer and the mammoth. The fact that the climate was then cold and ungenial is curiously illustrated by the circumstance pointed out by the late Mr. Christy that heaps of bones and other garbage could be safely left by the Palzolithic hunters to accumulate on the floors of the caves where they lived. Had the climate been other than frigid it is not likely that this would have been the case, for under a mild temperature such refuse- heaps would putrefy, and their exhalations become unbearable. Nor are the reindeer and the mammoth the only animals whose presence testifies to the former rigour of the climate in the south of France and North-western Europe. Small animals, such as marmots, lemmings, and tailless hares, occupied at the same time the low grounds of England, Belgium, and France; and whatever we may think of the evidence yielded by the reindeer, we cannot but admit that the presence of the smaller animals points to a settled occupation of the land that endured for a prolonged period. Even if we conceded the possibility of the reindeer having migrated from Norway and the Highlands of Scotland down to the south of France in one season, we should still be unable to allow that marmots and pikas could have per- formed the same annual journey. The lemmings of the Old Stone Age doubtless lived very much in the same way as their descendants in Lapland do at the present day, namely on roots, grass, the shoots of dwarf willow and birch, and largely on lichens, for which they burrow in winter time under the snow. They, with their congeners the marmots, tailless hares, arctic CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 43 foxes, musk-sheep, gluttons, and other alpine and northern species, were settled inhabitants of those low grounds of Europe that are now occupied only by the temperate group. It does not by any means follow, however, that the arctic or northern group of animals was distributed over all Europe, from the ex- treme north down to France, at one and the same time. The cold climatic conditions that forced them from their head-quarters must have come on gradually, pushing them slowly farther and farther to the south; so that when at last they came to occupy the low grounds of France and the south of England, it may well have been that the regions farther north were too inhospitable even for them. Indeed, we can hardly escape from this con- clusion when we bear in view the geographical position of North-western Europe. But to this point we shall return after we have considered certain geological evidence which will come before our attention in the sequel. 44 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. CHAPTER IV. CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD, continued—TESTIMONY OF PLANTS AND MOLLUSCS. Preservation of land-plants exceptional—Plants in the Travertine of Massa Marit- tima in Tuscany—Plants in tufas of Provence ; in tufas of Montpellier, ete. ; in tufa of La Celle near Paris—Views of Count Saporta—Plants in tufa of Canstadt—Pleistocene lignite of Jarville near Nancy; its plant and insect remains—Mr. Nathorst on Arctic flora in peat of Switzerland, Germany, ete. a M. Tournouér on shells in tufa of La Celle—M. Bourguignat on shells in ‘‘diluvium gris” of Paris—Shells in tufas of Canstadt ; in English Pleisto- cene deposits—Dr. Sandberger on shells and mammalian remains in loss of Wirzburg—M. Locard on shells in Corsican breccias—Summary of evidence. THE conclusions to which we have been led by a study of the mammalian groups characteristic of the Pleistocene Period are strongly supported by the evidence derived from an examina- tion of those plants and shells which from time to time have been discovered in freshwater accumulations belonging to the same age. Just as we found among the mammalia well-marked northern and southern species, together with many temperate forms, so we encounter amongst the groups of plants, and land- and freshwater-shells which we are about to examine, many species which could not possibly have lived side by side. Thus in Central Europe the Pleistocene deposits have in some places yielded arctic and northern plants, whilst in other places the flora they contain has a temperate or even a preponderating southern facies. And the same holds true of the mollusca, Let us glance for a little at some of the more interesting “finds” of land-plants, taking first in order those which appear to indicate mild and genial climatic conditions. It is generally only under exceptional circumstances that CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 45 land-plants are preserved; they occur far less frequently in a recognisable condition than the shells of molluscs and the hard parts of mammals. The fossiliferous Pleistocene deposits, as we shall learn in subsequent chapters, consist chiefly of river- gravels and loams, and of accumulations formed in caves and rock-fissures. But the river which carries along sand and gravel will as a rule sweep the débris of land-plants out to sea. The few plants which may now and then become embedded will often be macerated, rubbed, and water-worn, those tender parts upon which botanists chiefly rely for the determination of species being as a rule destroyed. Again, loose deposits of gravel and sand are not good preservers, for they allow water to soak through them more or less freely, and thus any plants they may contain will tend to decompose past recognition. Thus it is only now and then that plant-remains are found in the river-deposits of Pleistocene times, and these consist chiefly of water-worn sticks and logs. In cave-accumulations it is by the merest accident that plants could become preserved, and in point of fact almost the only traces that occur in such deposits consist of the more or less charred relics which mark the sites of ancient Palzolithic hearths. Occasionally, however, we come upon beds of vegetable matter buried under lacustrine accumu- lations, and from these much important evidence has been gathered. And not less noteworthy are those masses of cal- careous tufa or travertine which have been formed upon the borders of incrustating springs and cascades, for they have fre- quently preserved leaves, seeds, fruits, and other remains of plants, together with quantities of shells. Among the most interesting of those tufa deposits are those of Lipari and Tus- cany, described by M. Ch. Th. Gaudin ;? those of Castelnau and other places, near Montpellier, examined by M. G. Planchon ;? those of Provence, made known to us through the admirable 1 Mem. de la Soc. Helv. des Sci. Nat. t. xvii.; Bull. de la Soc. Vaud. des Sei. Nat., t. vi. p. 459. ? Bull. Soc. Bot. France, t. iv. p. 582; Etude sur les Tufs de Montpellier, 1864. 46 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. researches of Count Saporta,’ who, along with M. Tournouér, has recently given an interesting account of the fossiliferous travertine near Moret? (Seine-et-Marne). Another most im- portant tufa is that of Canstadt in Wiirtemberg, the shells of which have been studied by Klein,® and the plants by Professor Heer.* The travertines of Massa Marittima in Tuscany have yielded a number of plant-remains, amongst which we find indigenous species commingled with forms, some of which, although still European, are not now natives of Tuscany, while others are exotic, and yet others are extinct. Amongst these last are several well-known Tertiary species, such as Liguidambar ewro- peum, Al. Br., Platanus aceroides, Al. Br., Planera Ungeri, and Betula prisca, and some peculiar forms, as an arbor vite (Thuja saviana, Gaud.), allied to the living 7’. occidentalis, and a walnut (Juglans pavieefolia, Gaud.) One of the most noteworthy plants is the laurel of the Canary Islands (Lawrus canariensis, Webb), a variety of the common laurel (Lawrus nobilis). It does not now grow spontaneously in Italy, and until recently was believed to be an extra-European species. But Saporta describes it as growing wild on the banks of the Gapeau, near Toulon, on the French shores of the Mediterranean, where the orange is cultivated in the open air. Professor Marion has seen it in the gorges of Chiffa, near Blidah in Algeria, but its head-quar- ters are the Canary Islands, where it is found flourishing luxu- riantly in the woody regions with a northern exposure, between a height of 1600 feet and 4800 feet above the sea—regions which are nearly always enveloped in steaming vapours, and exposed to the heavy rains of winter. Snow, which falls now and then in an extra rigorous season, melts even at the upper limits of the 1 Compt. Rend. de la 33° Session du Congres Scientifique de France; Bull. Soc. Bot. France, t. xiv. p. 179; Annuaire de V Inst. des Provinces, t. xx. p. 9. 2 Saporta: Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 3° Sér., t. ii. p. 439; Compt. Rend. du Congres Internat. @ Anthrop. et Archéol. Préh., 1874, p. 80; Compt. Rend. Assoc. Frang. pour ? Avance. des Sci. 1876, p. 640° Tournouér: Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 3° Sér., t. ii. p. 443; t. v. p. 646. _ 8 Jahreshefte des Vereins fiir vaterl. Naturk. in Wiirttemberg, Bd. ii. p. 60. 4 Die Urwelt der Schweiz, 2te Aufl., p. 534. CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 47 district in question almost as soon as it appears. The temper- ature indeed keeps above 69° F. during the greater part of the year, in the winter months (November, December, and January) rarely falling below 59° or 60°, and only on the coldest days reaching 49°. The common laurel and the beech are frequently found associated in the Tuscan tufas, showing that they formerly grew side by side in that region. This, however, is no longer the case; the laurel requires more shade than it could find under present conditions, while the beech has retired to the northern flanks of the Apennines to obtain the fresh cool climate which is now denied to it in the low grounds of Tuscany. In the same deposits occur also the elm, the white-beam (Pyrus aria), the gray willow (Salia cinerea), the ivy, etc. Other species are evergreen oak (Quercus ilex), pubescent oak (Q. pubescens, Wild.), Greek -periploca (Periploca greca), laurustinus (Viburnum tinus), European nettle-tree (Celtis australis), fig- tree (Ficus carica), vine (Vitis vinifera), judas-tree (Cercis sili- quastrum), manna-ash (Fraxinus ornus), sarsaparilla (Smilax aspera), and various maples which still characterise the flora of the Mediterranean region. The tufas of Lipari are marked by a similar assemblage of species, amongst which the common laurel and its variety (Lawrus canariensis) are conspicuous ; but the Tertiary and extinct forms mentioned above are wanting. According to Saporta they are absent also from the tufas of Provence—the flora of which corresponds in all other respects with that of the Italian deposits. Among the species enumer- ated by him are the Canary laurel, which is associated, as in the Italian tufas, with the common laurel, European nettle-tree, fig-tree, vine, laurustinus, judas-tree, oak, hazel, white poplar, various willows and elms, Montpellier maple, common maple (Acer campestre), clematis, ivy, dogwood, spindle-tree, and fustic, a group very nearly the same as that which flourishes at present within the same limits. But commingled with these species are others no longer natives of Provence, such as Salz- mann’s pine (Pinus Salzmanni, Dun.), the Pyrenean pine (Pinus pyrenaica, Lap.), and the dwarf or mountain-pine (Pinus pumilio), 48 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. which have abandoned that region and sought refuge in the mountains, where they occupy limited areas often widely sepa- rated. Salzmann’s pine grows naturally now only in the Forest of Saint Guilhem, in a mountain-gorge situated at the foot of the Cevennes, beyond the zone of olives, at a distance of about twenty-five miles from Montpellier, while the Pyrenean pine has retired to a valley in the Pyrenees. The dwarf pine occurs in the mountainous regions of Central Europe, where it is found occupying calcareous soils at an elevation of 1300 to 2500 métres above the sea. It is a tree which prefers humid situations— growing in wet rocky ground, and even along the banks of streams in the bottoms of valleys. It is further noteworthy that these species are associated in the tufas of Provence with the lime (Zilia europea), a peculiar maple (Acer opulifolium), and raspberry (Rubus ideus), which, although still natives of Provence, are no longer really sponta- neous upon the margins of streams in the low-lying parts of that region. It is only in forest-clad hilly districts, and chiefly in situations with a northern exposure, where they can obtain in Provence the requisite shade and coolness. Saporta further calls attention to the fact that the Aleppo pine and the olive—species which demand considerable summer heat rather than a humid climate, and are so characteristic of the Mediterranean region of to-day—are entirely wanting in the tufas. Even the evergreen oak is absent from the deposits of Provence, and is very rare in the tufas of Southern Europe. The presence of the vine and the fig-tree further shows, according to M. Planchon, that these were formerly indigenous to France before they were reintro- duced by man as cultivated plants, a conclusion which Saporta thinks holds equally true of the walnut. The judas-tree occurs very sparsely at present in France, and appears chiefly in gar- dens, so that Saporta is doubtful whether it is really indige- nous. In Pleistocene times, however, it grew abundantly in Southern France, and, as we shall see presently, ranged even as far north as the neighbourhood of Paris. It is the same with the manna-ash (Fraxinus ornus), now confined to Corsica CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 49 and Italy, but formerly a widely-spread species in Southern France. The tufas near Montpellier have yielded much the same assem- blage of species as those of Provence; they evidently form part of one and the same flora, but Planchon mentions twelve species which Saporta has not yet detected in the tufas of Provence.” From the above summary it will be gathered that the most remarkable characteristic of the Pleistocene flora of Provence and Montpellier was the intimate association of still indigenous species with species which have ceased to be so—some of these last having retreated because unable to support the cold of winter, while others have retired to the mountains to escape the dryness of summer. We must therefore conclude with Count Saporta, that at the time when all those species lived together in the same region the climate must have differed from that of the present. It was necessarily somewhat cooler, or at least more equable, in order that Lawrus canariensis might flourish abundantly, and at the same time more humid to enable Salz- mann’s pine, the Pyrenean pine, the dwarf pine, the wych elm (Ulmus montana), the gray willow (Salis: cinerea), the beech, the 11 give here Count Saporta’s list of the plants discovered in the tufas of Pro- vence :— I. Cryprocamia.—Pellia epiphylla? Nées; Scolopendrium officinale, Sm. ; Adiantum capillus-veneris, L. II. Monocoryiepons.—Cyperacee ?—impressions of leaves like those of Carex maxima, L. ; Typha latifolia, L. Ill. DicoryLepons. —Pinus pumilio, Haenke; Pinus Salzmanni, Dun. ; Pinus pyrenaica, Lap. ; Corylus avellana, L. ; Ulmus campestris, Sm. ; U. mon- tana, Sm. ; Celtis australis, L. ; Ficus carica, L. ; Populus alba, L. ; Salix cinerea, L. ; S. alba, L. ; Lawrus nobilis, L. ; L. canariensis, Web. ; Fraxinus ornus, L. ; Viburnum tinus, L.; Hedera helix, L. ; Vitis vinifera, L. ; Cornus sanguinea, L. ; Clematis flammula, L.; Tilia ewropea, L. ; Acer opulifolium, Vil. ; 4. monspessulanum, L.; A. campestre, L. ; Ewonymus ewropeus, L. ; Juglans regia, L. ; Rhus cotinus, L. ; Pyrus acerba, D.C. ; Crategus oxyacantha, L. ; Rubus ideus, L. ; Cercis siliquastrum, L. '_M. Planchon gives a list of thirty species, amongst which the following have not been obtained in the Provengal tufas :—Fegatella conica, Cord. ; Pteris aqui- lina ; Smilax aspera; Alnus glutinosa; Quercus ilex ; Buxus sempervirens ; Phillyrea angustifolia ; P. media; Fraxinus excelsior ; Rubia peregrina ; Ilex aquifolium ; Cotoneaster pyracantha, It may be added here that the tufa of the valley Aygalades, near Marseilles, has yielded remains of Elephas antiquus, which were determined by Falconer and Lartet. E 50 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. lime, and others to live along with the laurel. In other words, the summers were not so dry, and the winters were milder. The flora of the Italian tufas betokens a similar climate. At the time when that flora occupied the low grounds of Central Italy the climate must have been exempt from extremes. It is well that the reader should keep these conclusions in mind. Had the Pleistocene Period been characterised by strongly-contrasted summer and winter seasons, as some geologists maintain, it is obvious that the tufas should have furnished us with a very different suite of plants. Coming north to the valley of the Seine, we find still more striking botanical evidence in favour of an equable climate having prevailed in Pleistocene times. Near the village of La Celle, not far from Moret, above the confluence of the Seine and Loing, occurs an accumulation of tufa which, from the char- acter of its fossil contents and from its relation to the Pleistocene river-deposits of the Seine which it overlies, is unquestionably of Pleistocene age. It has yielded to the researches of M. Chouquet many plant-remains and shells, the former of which have been described by Saporta, who gives this list of species :— 1. Scolopendriwm officinale. 10. Hedera helix, L., common ivy. 2. Oorylus avellana, L., common | 11. Clematis vitalba, L., clematis. hazel. 12. Buaxus sempervirens, L., box. 3. Populus canescens, Sm., common | 13. Acer pseudo-platanus, L., syca- white poplar. more. 4. Salix cinerea, L., gray willow. 14. Huonymus europeus, L., Euro- 5. Salia fragilis, L., brittle willow. pean spindle-tree. 6. Ficus carica, L., fig-tree. 15. Huonymus latifolius, L., broad- 7. Laurus nobilis, L., var. canari- leaved spindle-tree. ensis, Webb, Canary laurel. 16. Prunus mahaleb, L., perfumed 8. Fraxinus excelsior, common ash. cherry-tree. 9. Sambucus ebulus, L., Dane-wort | 17. Cercis siliquastrum, L., judas- or dwarf-elder. tree. This group, as Saporta proceeds to point out, indicates a former geographical distribution very different from that which now obtains, The fig-tree, the Canary laurel, the box, and others, are no longer indigenous to the region round Paris. In CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 51 France the box at present hardly passes north beyond the environs of Lyons, and certainly does not grow spontaneously north of the rocky plateau of the Céte d’Or,' the broad-leaved spindle-tree is arrested at the Jura, the judas-tree does not occur north of Montélimart, the fig-tree is not indigenous beyond Provence, and the Canary laurel exists in a wild state, as already stated, only near Toulon, in the most southern part of the Department of Var. Mingled with all these species are others which serve to distinguish the flora of Moret from that of the tufas of Southern France. Among these is the sycamore (Acer pseudo-platanus), a tree of Central and Northern Europe, which occurs in the Alps but does not extend south into the Mediter- ranean region, where its place is taken by Acer opulifoliwm, Vill. It is widely spread in the shady woods of Central and Northern France, of Switzerland, and Germany. This tree, the relics of which occur plentifully in the tufa of La Celle, cannot be grown successfully in Provence, where many attempts have been made to introduce it. It languishes under the hot dry summer of the south, and very rarely reaches an adult stage. The common ash is another of the trees which, like the syca- more, is no longer associated with those southern forms along with which it formerly grew in Northern France. It is almost excluded from the Mediterranean region, but abounds in Central France, and extends north to Southern Sweden. In the tufas of Southern France and Italy its place is taken by the manna- ash (Fraxinus ornus, L.) Now this very remarkable assemblage of plants tells a tale which there is no possibility of misreading. Here we have the clearest evidence of a genial, humid, and equable climate having formerly characterised Northern France. The presence of the laurel, and that variety of it which is most susceptible to cold, shows us that the winters must have been mild, for this plant flowers during that season, and repeated frosts, says Saporta, would prevent it reproducing its kind, It is a mild winter rather than a hot summer which the laurel demands, and the same may be said of the fig-tree. The olive, 1 According to Hooker the box is indigenous in Belgium. 52 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. on the other hand, requires prolonged summer heat to enable it to perform its vital functions. Saporta describes the fig-tree of the La Celle tufa as closely approximating, in the size and shape of its leaves and fruit, to that of the tufas in the south of France, and to those of Asia Minor, Kurdistan, and Armenia. But if the winters in Northern France were formerly mild and genial, the summers were certainly more humid and probably not so hot. This is proved by the presence of several plants in the tufa of La Celle, which cannot endure a hot arid climate, but abound in the shady woods of Northern France and Germany. It was, as Saporta remarks, a combination of clement winter with pronounced humidity, which accounts for the association at La Celle of the fig-tree, the Canary laurel, and the sycamore. We may note, however, that notwithstanding the equableness of the climate, the difference of latitude between Paris and Pro- vence is yet clearly evinced by the flora of the tufas. Thus the common ash and the sycamore, which are plentiful in the tufa of La Celle, are wanting in the travertine deposits of the south, where they are represented, as we have seen, by the manna-ash, now only indigenous in Corsica and South Italy, and by Acer opulifoliwm, which has retired from the low grounds of Provence and taken refuge in the hilly parts of the Mediterranean region. According to Professor Crié, the flora of the travertine deposits of Mamers (Sarthe), which likewise owe their origin to the action of incrustating water, approaches in character to that of La Celle. The deposits in question have not yet been exhaustively examined, but M. Crié mentions among the plants yielded by them the hornbeam (Carpinus betulus, L.), the elm (Ulmus campestris, L.), the oak (Quercus robur, L.), the gray willow (Salia cinerea, L.), the hazel (Corylus avellana, L.), and the hart’s-tongue (Scolopendriwm officinale, Sm.) Besides these there occurs the impression of a leaf, which appears to be that of the fig-tree. The general facies of the flora, the same observer remarks, implies a milder and more equable climate than now characterises the west of France.) 1 Les Anciens Climats et les Flores Fossiles de U Ouest de la France, p. 61. CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 53 The tufas of Canstadt, near Stuttgardt, have yielded the following species, which are common to the similar deposits of Southern Europe :— Scolopendrium officinale (hart’s-tongue). Quercus pedunculata (oak). Fagus sylvatica (beech). Corylus avellana (common hazel). = Ulmus campestris (elm). Populus alba (white poplar). Salix cinerea (gray willow). Cornus sanguinea (common dogwood). Acer pseudo-platanus (sycamore). Buaus sempervirens (box). Euonynvwus europeus (spindle-tree). Tilia grandifolia (lime). The total number of species is twenty-nine, of which three are extinct, namely the mammoth oak (Quercus mammouthit), a poplar (Populus Fraasti), and a walnut tree, which, according to Heer, resembles the American black walnut (Juglans nigra) and butter-nut (J. cinerea) in the toothed pinne of its leaves, With the exception of these extinct forms and the box, all the species met with in the tufa still occur in Wiirtemberg. The sycamore, however, and the whortleberry, which is also common to the tufa, are not found now in the neighbourhood of Canstadt, the former growing on the mountains and the latter in peat-bogs. Heer thinks that the climatic conditions implied by the flora of the tufa are similar to those now prevalent in the same locality, but Saporta points out that the difference between the Canstadt flora and that of Southern Europe in the Pleistocene Period was really much less than it is at present. Several species which nowadays are found in the Mediterranean region only in the mountains, such as the beech, the lime, the maple, the sycamore, etc., descended in Pleistocene times to the low grounds of Middle Italy. The vegetation of Wiirtemberg was distinguished from that of Southern Europe chiefly by the presence of firs, and by the absence of the more southern forms, such as vine, fig, judas- tree, laurustinus, etc. But, as we have seen, out of a total 54 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. number of twenty-nine species in the Canstadt tufa, no fewer than twelve are common to the tufas of the low grounds of Southern Europe. These facts indicate, as Saporta has main- tained, a climate more equable and humid than the present. In short, the facts are in perfect keeping with the conclusions to which the same botanist has come after a careful study of the Pleistocene floras of Northern France and the Mediterranean region. If, therefore, we were to draw our inferences solely from those tufa deposits, we should be compelled to conclude that the climate of our continent during the Pleistocene Period was singularly genial. The winters must have been very mild, and the atmosphere humid, to have permitted that peculiar distribu- tion of plants which is evinced by the tufas of Central and Southern Europe. But, as we shall learn presently, there are certain accumulations of Pleistocene age which appear to con- tradict these conclusions in the most emphatic manner. M. P. Fliche has described’ a lignite of Pleistocene age which occurs at Jarville, not far from Nancy, and thus as near as may be in the same latitude as the tufa of La Celle. In this lignite we not only find no trace of any southern species, but the whole flora has a markedly northern facies. The trees mentioned by M. Fliche are birch (probably Betula pubescens, Ehrh.), green-leaved alder (Alnus viridis, Z.), mountain- pine (Pinus montana, Du Roi), larch (Larix europea), spruce (Picea excelsa), Pinus obovata, and what seem to be juniper and yew— all species which occur in Middle Europe only at high elevations and in northern regions. The same lignite has yielded a number of remains of insects, which are likewise northern forms. They are Agonum gracile, Sturm; Bembidiwm nitidulum, Marsh. ; B. obtusum, Sturm; B. sp.; Patrobus excavatus, Mononychus pseudacori, Fabr.; Adimonia ? In Switzerland, near the railway station of Schwerzenbach (Canton of Zurich), a peat-bog has yielded a flora of a still more pronounced northern character.2. The peat itself is only a few z Comptes Rendus de 0 Acad. des Sciences, t. 1xxx. p. 1233. 2 Nathorst, Ofversigt af Kongl. Vetensk.- Akad. Forhandl., 1873, No. 6, p. 15. ~ CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 55 feet in thickness, and contains oak in its upper part, with pine lower down. Between the peat and the clay upon which it rests occur leaves of Betula alba and pine cones, and in the uppermost layers of the clay leaves of Myriophyllum, Dryas octopetala, dwarf birch (Betula nana), and Salices appear, along with wing-cases of beetles. A little lower down in the clay are found leaves of the netted-leaved willow (Salix reticulata) and Arctic willow (Salix polaris), the latter being a characteristic Spitzbergen plant. Certain peat-bogs of Bavaria have yielded similar evidence of colder climatic conditions, and we are sup- plied with still more remarkable testimony to the same effect by the well-known tufa and peat of Schussenried in Swabia.’ This peat contains northern and high-alpine species of mosses, such as Hypnum sarmentosum, which ranges north to Lapland and Greenland; H. aduncwm and H. fluitans var. tenwissiemum, which is a high-alpine and Arctic American form. Such a flora is quite in keeping with the character of the shells and the mammalian remains which occur in the tufa commingled with relics of Paleolithic man. The shells are well-known “1éss” forms, of which I shall speak later on, while the mammalian remains belong to reindeer, glutton, Arctic fox, ete. Mr. Nathorst,’ a well-known Swedish geologist, has followed the spoor of the old arctic flora from Southern Sweden into Denmark and England, and through Germany to Switzerland. ’ In Mecklenburg, as in Switzerland and Bavaria, he has detected in certain freshwater clay-deposits leaves of the dwarf birch (Betula nana), and the white or common birch (B. alba), associated with shells of northern forms. But the peat-bogs of Northern Europe belong to a somewhat later date than those lignites and turbaries of the central and southern regions to which I have specially referred, and they need not therefore be considered at present. The tufas of the south of Europe, as already described, give 10. F, Fraas, Wiirttemb. Jahreshefte, Bd. xxiii. (1867), p. 48; Archiv fir Anthropologie, Bd. ii. (1867) ; Compt. Rend. du Congres d’ Anthrop., 1869, p. 286. 2 Ofversigt af K. Vet.-Akad. Férh., 1873, No: 6, p- 11 et seq. 56 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. evidence of a more equable and humid climate than the present, which allowed certain trees, now banished to the uplands, to flourish in the low grounds, but they nowhere contain an arctic flora. Nevertheless, we are not without botanical testimony in favour of a colder climate having obtained in Italy in Pleistocene times, for trunks of the Siberian or Cembran pine (Pinus cembra) occur in the old peat-bogs of Ivrea, The same species has been found also in certain deposits near Mur in Styria. Again, the Scots fir (Pinus sylvestris) occurs in peat, beside Lake Varese, and in travertine in the Abruzzi, but nowadays it is well nigh restricted to dry localities in the Alps, that range from 300 to 2000 métres of elevation. But the testimony of the plants is supplemented by that of the mollusca, and the whole evidence leads up to one conclusion, from which, as it seems to me, there is no possibility of escaping. The tufas and marls of La Celle, which have yielded so interesting a series. of vegetable remains, contain also many shells which have been studied in detail by M. Tournouér, who gives the following list of species :—? * 2° 1, Limaz sp. ?; common. 2. Eges of . . ? ** 2 3. Hyalinia, sp.? Pea? 7A. — cf. & glabra, Stud. ?; common. *?2 5. — _— ef. H. dutaillyana, Mab.? 6. — radiatula, Alb. Up — erystallina, Mill. ** 8. Zonites acieformis, Klein ; common. 9. Helix (Patula) rotundata, Mill., var. 10. — (Anchistoma) obvoluta, Mill. ; rare. 11. — (Theba) pulchella, Mill. * 12. — (Petasia) bidens, Chemn. ; rare, 13. — (Trichia) hispida, Linné. * 14. — (Monacha) limbata, Drap. ; rare. ** 15, — (Lulota) chouquetiana, Tourn. ; common. 16. — (Chilotrema) lapicida, Linné ; rare. 1 Sordelli, Atti Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat., t. xvi. p. 350. * In this list those species which are preceded by an asterisk (*) are no longer indigenous ; two asterisks (**) signify that the species is extinct. CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 57 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. ek 94. 1 PAs 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. Sls 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. xe 40. 4l. 42, * «43. #7 44, 45. — (Arionta) arbustorwm, Linné ; abundant, — — — ___, var. — — — _, var. — (Pentatenia) nemoralis, Linné ; common. — _ — , var, _— — hortensis, Mill. — (Helicella) ericetorum, Miill., var. — (Candidula) Radigueli, Bourgt.? ; common. Bulimus montanus, Drap. ; rare. Zua lubrica, Mill. Pupa (Pupilla) muscorum, Linné. — (Sphyradiwm) doliolum, Brug. Vertigo sp. ?, Clausilia (Marpessa) laminata, Mont. — (Iphigenia) dubia, Drap.? ; rare. — — parvula, Stud. ; abundant. —- — — , var, Succinea putris, Linné, type ; rare. — — , var. — — , var. — — , var. limnoidea, Picard ; abundant. — — , var. gigantea, Baudon. — Pfeifferi, Rossm.?, var. contortula, Baudon. — joinvillensis, Bourg, ; rare. Limnea ovata, Drap. — sp. ? Pomatias septemspirale, Razoum. Cyclostoma elegans, Mill., var. lutetiana, Bourgt.?; abundant. —_— — _ , opercula, This list shows at a glance that the molluscous fauna of La Celle presents strong contrasts to that which is now charac- teristic of Northern France. The number of extinct forms, and of species and varieties which have emigrated, and the absence of certain forms which are characteristic of the fauna now occupying the same region—alike conspire, as M. Tournouér remarks, to present day. separate the fauna of La Celle from that of the The species are arranged by him in four groups as follows :— 1. Species still living in the district where the tufa occurs, 58 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. 2. Species which have retired from the district, but are still natives of France. 3. Species which do not now occur in France, but are living in other parts of Europe. 4, Species which are extinct or entirely exotic. The great majority of the shells belong to the first group, the most common and most characteristic by reason of its abundance being Helix arbustorum. Group 2 is represented by Helix limbata, which is common in the lower Pyrenean region, and in the south-west of France, but much rarer in the region of the Loire and Normandy. It has not been cited as occurring in the neighbourhood of Paris. Another migrated species is Bulimus montanus, which has retired to the hillier parts of France; it is found also in the Jura, the Alps, and the Pyrenees. Clausilia dubia has a similar distribution; Pomatias septemspirale has not been met with in the region round La Celle; it occurs, however, in the valley of the Oise, etc., and is common in all the hilly regions of the east. It is noteworthy, says M. Tournouér, that these three last-mentioned species have their present head- quarters rather towards the east, and outside of France than in France itself. Under the third group comes Helix bidens, a form which is no longer met with in Western Europe. It has been cited as occurring in the Alps, but M. Tournouér thinks this determination is more than doubtful. It is widely dis- tributed in Eastern and North-eastern Europe, from Croatia, Hungary, and Transylvania to Sweden and Russia. One of the most remarkable forms of the fourth group is the large zonites (Zonites acieformis). This shell belongs to a group which is foreign to Northern France and similar latitudes in Europe, and is no longer represented in the western regions of our continent. The forms to which it most nearly approaches (Zonites verticillus, Fer., and Z. croaticus, Partsch) are natives, the one of Austrian Tyrol, from which it extends into Bavaria, and the other of Croatia. Other extinct species are Succinea joinvillensis, Helix chouquetiana, H. Radigueli, Cyclostoma lutetiana, ete. The inferences drawn by M. Tournouér as to the climatic CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 59 conditions implied by the molluscan fauna of La Celle are precisely the same as those deduced by Count Saporta from a study of the flora. The geographical distribution of the shells, so different from that which now obtains, and the former wider diffusion of certain forms, lead to the conclusion that the climate of Northern France was formerly more equable, so as to permit species, now widely separated, to live together. That it was also a humid climate is proved by the general facies of the shells, nearly all of them terrestrial, and the great majority such as live in damp and shady places, some in humid woods about the foot of trees, others upon marsh-plants and mosses, under stones, or in moist earth. A somewhat similar suite of shells occurs in certain ancient river-deposits of the neighbourhood of Paris, which are known to geologists as “diluvium gris.” M. Bourguignat gives a list of 76 species, of which 36 are land-shells—the most abundant forms being Helix nemoralis, H. arbustorum, Helix pulchella, Succinea putris, Bulimus montanus, Pupa muscorum, etc., all of which occur in the beds at La Celle. They are associated as at La Celle with Succinea joinvillensis, Cyclostoma lutetiana, and other extinct forms, and with exotic species such as Helix bidens.' The calctufa and alluvial deposits of Canstadt in Wiirtem- berg, contain, according to Klein, 50 species of land-shells, and 21 of river-shells. Of these 50 species he recognises 36 as still living in the same region, 10 as occurring beyond it, but still indigenous to Europe, and 4 as extinct. The species which are most abundant are Helix arbustorum, H. nemoralis, H. obvoluta, H. pulchella, H. hispida, etc., Succinea putris, Bulimus montanus, Clausilia parvula, Pupa muscorum, Pomatias septemspirale, etc., which occur along with Helix bidens, and some extinct species, such as Zonites acieformis, and Succinea elongata, Braun,—a form closely approaching to S, joinvillensis, 1 For lists of shells in French river-deposits, see Mémoire sur le diluvium de Viry-Noureuil et les fossiles qwil renferme (Paris, 1864), by Abbé Lambert ; Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 2 Sér., t. xvii. p. 68; Belgrand’s La Seine, t. i. p. 202. 60 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. There is thus a strong analogy between the deposits at La Celle and Canstadt, as M. Tournouér has pointed out. Their faunas are characterised by the similar proportion of the same elements, and by the presence especially of the extinct Zonites and the Succinea, together with Helix bidens. In the Pleistocene fluviatile deposits of England occur three well-known river-shells, Cyrena fluminalis, Unio littoralis, and Hydrobia (Paludina) marginata, which are common also in the beds of the same age in northern France. None of those three species is extinct, but they have all disappeared from the living fauna of Britain. Cyrena fluminalis, indeed, is now no longer a native of Europe, but still lives in the Nile, the Lake of Tibe- Trias, and the streams of Cashmere. Unio littoralis is found in the waters of the Seine and the Loire, but Hydrobia marginata has forsaken the rivers of Northern France and retired to those of the south and south-west, and to the Jura and Switzerland. We have thus strong testimony furnished by the land- and freshwater-shells as to the former prevalence, during some part of the Pleistocene Period, of a more humid and equable climate than the present ; a climate characterised above all by the mild- ness of its winter. But just as an examination of the old flora has compelled us to admit that the climatic conditions were not continuously genial throughout Pleistocene times, so shall we be led presently to similar conclusions by a study of the mollusca. Professor F. Sandberger, who is a well-known authority in the study of land- and freshwater-shells, supplies us with a number of facts, which seem at first to be strongly at variance with the results obtained by MM. Klein and Tournouér. He has recently given an interesting account* of certain Pleistocene deposits in the neighbourhood of Wiirzburg, in Franconia, from which I take the following list of shells -— 1. Limneus truncatulus, Mill.; very rare. Living in Franconia, Europe generally, and Siberia ; in Heligoland it is the only snail, ? Verhandl. der physicalisch-medicinischen Gesselschaft in Wirzburg, N. F., Bd. xiv. 1879. ———EEEEE———os—‘_S_ CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 61 2. Pupa parcedentata, A. Braun; rare. Extinct ; akin to the high- alpine form, P. Sempronii, Charp. 3. Pupa muscorum, L. sp.; abundant. Living in Franconia. Europe generally and Siberia. 4, Pupa columella, G. v. Martens ; rare. High Alps, Lapland, and Russia. 5, Clausilia dubia, Drap. ; very rare. Living in Franconia. Middle Europe. 6. Clausilia pumila, Ziegl.; very rare. Living in Franconia. Middle Europe. 7. Clausilia parvula, Stud. ; abundant. Living in Franconia, Middle Europe generally, 8. Clausilia laminata, Mont.; very rare. Living in Franconia. Europe, with the exception of the Arctic Regions. 9. Cionella lubrica, Mill. sp. ; very rare. Living in Franconia. Europe generally and Siberia. 10. Chondrula tridens, Mill., sp. ; rare. Living in Franconia. Middle and Southern Europe. 11. Helix arbustorum, L.; abundant. Living in Franconia, Middle and Northern Europe. 12. Helix sericea, Drap. ; very abundant. Living in Franconia, Middle and South Germany (Alps). 13. Helix striata, Miill., var. nilssoniana, Beck ; rare. Middle and North Germany, Sweden ; the variety in Oeland. 14. Helix strigella, Mill. ; very rare. Living in Franconia. Europe generally, Siberia. 15. Helix pulchella, Mill. ; rare. Living in Franconia. Europe gener- ally, Siberia, North America. 16. Helix tenwilabris, A. Braun ; very rare. Siberia, Alps, Swabian Alb. 17. Helia fruticum, Mill. ; very rare. Living in Franconia. Europe (with the exception of British Islands), Ural, Altai. 18. Succinea oblonga, Mill.; very abundant. Living in Franconia. Rare in Middle Europe, with the exception of the higher mountains (Black Forest, Alps) ; very common in Scandinavia and Russia. 19. Succinea putris, L.; rare. Living in Franconia. Europe generally, and Siberia (here it attains its largest size). 20. Limaa agrestis, L. ; rare. Living in Franconia. Europe generally, Siberia, and North America. Of these twenty species there are seventeen which still live in Franconia; but many of the latter, Dr. Sandberger says, are varieties which differ greatly from those that characterise the 62 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. Pleistocene deposits (loss) of Wiirzburg. The Helix fruticum, for example, which now lives in Franconia, is much larger and has a thicker shell than the sub-fossil variety, and the same holds true of Helix strigella. On the other hand, Cionella lubrica and Pupa muscorum are now represented by smaller forms. It is only in high mountains and in northern latitudes that we meet with the varieties of these and other species which appear in the Wiirzburg deposits. But the cold climatic conditions thus implied are rendered still more apparent when we learn that Helix striata occurs only in the Swedish form, that Helix tenuilabris and Pupa columella are now restricted to northern regions, and that the extinct Pupa parcedentata comes nearest to a high-alpine species. Man is represented in the same deposits by only one small finger-bone, and the associated mammalian remains do not contradict the evidence supplied by the shells. Dr. Sandberger chronicles 36 species, which he arranges as follows :— Not yet sufficiently determined . - c : : . 8 species. Cervus tarandus (reindeer). Gulo luscus (glutton). Myodes obensis’ (Siberian lemming). Hyperborean » torquatus (torquated lemming). Arvicola ratticeps (northern field-vole). gregalis (Siberian social-vole). ” ” Spermophilus altaicus (Altai pouched-marmot) | East Alactaga jaculus (jerboa) European { Arctomys (? bobac) (marmot). \ He ( Hyena spelea* (cave-hyzena). Ursus speleus (cave-bear). Bos primigenius (urus). Bison priscus (extinct bison). Elephas primigenius (mammoth). Rhinoceros tichorhinus (Siberian rhinoceros), Living now or within historical times in Franconia . 13 Extinct + Added in MS. by Dr. Sandberger since the publication of his paper. * The cave-hyzna is believed to be the progenitor of the living Hyawna crocuta, from which it differs chiefly in size. CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 63 The same author has given us an account of the fauna discovered in the Pleistocene deposits of the Rhine valley." In that region the léss has yielded an assemblage of shells somewhat similar to that of the Wiirzburg list. Many of them are high- alpine and hyperborean forms, and the general facies of the group is decidedly northern. Mr. Prestwich, a number of years ago, drew attention to the fact that certam high-level river- deposits of Pleistocene age in the valleys of Southern England and Northern France furnish a group of shells which have not only a very wide range, but one more in a northern than a southern direction ; and he remarked that the general absence of southern species from the deposits in question was also not without its significance.’ M. Locard has recently shown that in the Quaternary or Pleistocene deposits of the neighbourhood of Lyons northern forms of molluscs preponderate, the boreal species being com- mingled with many which are still indigenous to that part of France.” 1 Ausland, 1873, p. 984; Geological Magazine, Dee. ii. vol. i. p. 215. 2 Philosophical Transactions, Part II., 1864, p. 279. 3 See Description de la Faune Malacologique des Terrains Quaternaires des Environs de Lyon. The species he mentions are as follows :— Limazx, species undetermined. H, hispida, L. Testacella haliotidea, Drap. H., locardiana, P. Fagot. Succinea putris, L. H. neyronensis, P. Fagot. S. elegans, Risso. H steneligma, Bourg. S. oblonga, Drap., var. ragnebertensis, H, elaverana, Mabille. Loe. HH. carthusiana, Mill. S. joinvillensis, Bourg. H. ericetorum, Mill. Hyalina lucida, Drap. HH. costulata, Ziegl. H. nitida, Mill. Hi. striata, Drap. H. septentrionalis, Bourg. H, unifasciata, Poiret. H. subnitens, Bourg. HH, lapicida, L. H. hyalina, Féruss. HT. arbustorum, L. H. crystallina, Mill. H. nemoralis, L. Helix rotundata,; Mill. H. hortensis, Mill. H. obvoluta, Mill. H. sylvatica, Drap. H. pulchella, Mill. ? H. pomatia, L. (very doubtful). ZH, costata, Mill. Bulimus montanus, Drap. H. fruticum, Mill. B. detritus, Mill. H. strigella, Drap. B. tridens, Miill. H, new species. ? B. quadridens, Mill. 64 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. I shall refer to only one other example—the fossiliferous breccias of Corsica, which have been described by the same author.’ He gives a list of nineteen land-shells as occurring in the breccias which extend along the east coast of the island, from Furiani, south of Bastia, to Cape Corso. Helix aspersa, Mull. » aperta, Born. » nuculoides, Debaux. » vermiculata, Mill. » LRaspailliri, Payr. » oreccardiana, Dutailly. » hospitans, Bonelli. » halmyris, Mab. » variabilis, Drap. apicina, Fér. They are :— Helix galloprovincialis, Drap. » hydatina, Fer. » hispida, Mull. Zonites obscuratus, Porro. », Blauneri, Shuttl. », lathyri, Mab. Pupa quadridens, Drap. »» cinerea, Drap. Claustlia Kusteri, Rossm. All these are still living in Corsica, but some of the species which occur very abundantly in the breccia are now met with sparingly in only a few limited localities. Thus, among others, Helix broccardiana, which is extremely common throughout the Ferussacia lubrica, Mill. Cecilianella acicula, Mull. Clausilia parvula, Stud. Pupa muscorum, I. P. frumentum, Drap. Vertigo columella, G. v. Martens. Carychium minimum, Miill. Planorbis albus, Mill. P. crosseanus, Bourg. P. nautileus, L. P. arcelini, Bourg. P. carinatus, Mill. P. marginatus, Mull. P. vortex, L. P. rotundatus, Poiret, var. rhodani- cus, Loe. P. contortus, L. Limneea auricularia, L. L. limosa, L. L. gerlandiana, new species, closely approaching L. frigida, Charp. L. peregra, Mill. LL stagnalis, L. L. palustris, Mull. L. truncatula, Mill. Ancylus lacustris, L. Cyclostoma elegans, Mill. Bythinia tentaculata, L. B. similis, Drap. Amnicola? sp. Valvata alpestris, Brauner. V. piscinalis, Mill. V. obtusa, Studer. V. arcelini, Bourg. . minuta, Drap. V. planorbulina, Palad. V. cristata, Mill. Neritina fluviatilis, L. Spherium corneum, L. Pisidium henslowianum, Shep. P. amnicum, Mill. P. casertanum, Poli. P. nitidum, Jenyns. P. pusillum, Gmel. 1 Archives de Muséum d Histoire Naturelle de Lyon, 1873; Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 3 Ser. t. i. p. 232, CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 65 breccias, is found at present only in a few cold and shady spots. The breccia at Toga has yielded also human bones associated with abundant remains of a pika or tailless hare (Lagomys corsicanus), a fact which strongly favours M. Locard’s view that the climate of Corsica during some part of the Pleistocene Period was colder and wetter. The bones of this lagomys are found at a height of less than 250 feet above the sea, yet it belongs to a family which is now restricted to boreal regions, or to the lofty mountains of warm and temperate climates. A few marine shells occur in the breccia, where they have evidently been left by man, According to M. Locard, the breccia of Bonaria, near Cagliari, in the south of Sardinia, in which Sig. Studiati has found Lagomys sardus similarly associated with marine shells, has been accumulated under precisely the same conditions as the breccia of Toga, . Thus a general review of the evidence afforded by the plants and molluscs of the Pleistocene deposits strongly supports the conclusions that seem forced upon us by an examination of the mammalia. We have distinct proofs that the Pleistocene Period was characterised by very considerable changes of climate. At one time the conditions were mild and genial, at another time they were very much the reverse. The hypothesis of violently- contrasted summers and winters which some writers have sup- ported! is thus seen to have no foundation in fact, Even if we could suppose it possible that hippopotamuses and reindeer might have wandered to and fro across the whole breadth of 1 See Lyell’s Antiquity of Many pp. 207-209. W. B. Dawkins: Popular Science Review, 1871, p. 388; Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxv. p. 192 ; xxviii. p. 410; Cave-hunting, p. 397. In later writings Professor Dawkins seems to have lost faith, to some extent, in the theory of seasonal migrations, and to have partially adopted that of secular migrations ; see especially Harly Man in Britain, p. 112, where, if I do not misunderstand him, he now endeavours to maintain both views at once. For additional arguments against the view of seasonal or yearly migrations, see Lubbock’s Prehistoric Times, 4th ed. p. 315; J. Geikie, Geol. Mag., vol. ix. p. 164; x. p. 49; Great Ice Age, chap. xxxviii. Professor Prestwich has maintained that the ossiferous and Paleolithic river-deposits were accumulated during colder conditions than the present—see Phil. Trans., 1864, p. 277,—while an opinion exactly opposite has been supported by several French writers, as by M. d’Archiac (Legons sur la Faune Quaternaire). F 66 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. Europe in one season, we should yet be compelled to admit that no such theory of migrations can account for the presence of two widely-divergent floras and molluscous faunas in the Pleistocene deposits of Middle Europe; they, at least, could not have in- dulged in such feats of travel. The flora and fauna of La Celle introduce us to conditions of climate such as are only par- tially reproduced now along the borders of Western France, where, in the same and even higher latitudes, thanks to the genial influence of the ocean, many southern species of plants are successfully cultivated. Thus we meet with the fig-tree of Brittany, the evergreen oak of Noirmoutier and of Quimper, and the arbutus of Vendée. Along the whole coast of Brittany, even as far as Brest, not only the fig-tree and the laurel, but the myrtle, grow in the open air, attain a good size, and ripen their fruits. The presence of the delicate Canary laurel at La Celle, however, shows that in Northern France the winter season of the genial period during which that laurel flourished must have been as clement as that of Var in the extreme south. Count Saporta has described a picturesque scene which met his view near Montmeilan (Var), where the Fontaine-l’Evéque tumbles into the Verdon. The conditions, he says, vividly recalled those which must at one time have obtained at La Celle. Wild fig-trees of small stature overhung the water, which threw itself down a rock decked with a rich vegetation. The leaves of this tree exactly resembled those of La Celle, and the figs which still remained on the wood of the preceding year were of small size, and dropped away at the least touch into the water. The group of plants around the waterfall closely approached to the flora of La Celle. Besides the fig-tree, Saporta noted common hazel, gray willow, elder-tree, ivy, clematis, box, and spindle-tree. The common ash and the sycamore, however, were both wanting, for neither occurs in that part of Provence at so low an elevation. The laurel (Lawrus canariensis) was also absent, its northern limit as an indigenous plant stopping much farther to the south. The genial climate which nourished the flora of La Celle extended, as we have seen, east into Germany, nor can there be any doubt CLIMATE OF PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. 67 that the climate of Europe generally at that time was equable and humid. Clement winters and cool summers permitted the wide diffusion and intimate association of plants which have now a very different range—temperate and southern species like the ash, the poplar, the sycamore, the fig-tree, the judas-tree, the laurel, etc., overspread all the low grounds of France as far north at least as Paris. It was under such conditions that the ele- phants, rhinoceroses, and hippopotamuses, and the vast herds of temperate cervine and bovine species ranged over Europe, from the shores of the Mediterranean up to the latitude of Yorkshire, and probably even farther north still; and from the borders of Asia to the Western Ocean. Despite the presence of numerous fierce carnivora—lions, hyeenas, tigers, and others—Europe at that time, with its shady forests, its laurel-margined streams, its broad and deep-flowing rivers,—a country in every way suited to the needs of a race of hunters and fishers——must have been no unpleasant habitation for Paleolithic man, This, however, is only one side of the picture. There was a time when the climate of Pleistocene Europe presented the strongest contrast to those genial conditions—a time when the dwarf birch of the Scottish Highlands, and the Arctic willow, with their northern congeners, grew upon the low grounds of Middle Europe. Arctic animals, such as the musk-sheep and the reindeer, lived then, all the year round, in the south of France ; the mammoth ranged into Spain and Italy; the glutton descended to the shores of the Mediterranean ; the marmot came down to the low grounds at the foot of the Apennines; and the lagomys inhabited the low-lying maritime districts of Corsica and Sardinia. The land- and freshwater-shells of many. Pleis- tocene deposits tell a similar tale; boreal, high-alpine, and hyperborean forms, are characteristic of these accumulations in Central Europe; even in the southern regions of our continent the shells testify to a former colder and wetter climate. It was during the climax of these conditions that the caves of Aqui- taine were occupied by those artistic men who appear to have delighted in carving and engraving. 68 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. I have already pointed out that severe conditions supervened towards the close of the Pleistocene Period, so that a cold climate followed after one that had been eminently mild and genial, We are not to suppose, however, that the change was sudden, It was brought about, in all probability, in the most gradual and imperceptible manner throughout a long course of years. The climate would become slowly deteriorated, the southern flora retreating south, the arctic advancing from the north. Of the mammalia, the hippopotamus, we may reasonably suppose, would be amongst the first to retreat from the valleys of England, France, and Germany; but the hardier temperate forms would linger on so long as they had sufficient food-supplies, and where deer and oxen abounded, the carnivora would not be wanting. Some of the upholders of the migration-hypothesis lay much stress upon the circumstance that bones of the reindeer have been found with the marks of hyzenas’ teeth upon them. If these marks be really due to the hyzna and not to some other carnivore, the fact will only help to prove that the cave-hyzna was endued with the same elasticity of constitution as the lion and the tiger, and would be likely to occupy any territory where there was a good supply of beef and venison. We must now turn our attention to the more purely geo- logical evidence, when I hope to show that the conclusions we have now arrived at are not only not contradicted but amply supported by an impartial consideration of the physical conditions under which the Pleistocene deposits were accumulated. PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS, 69 CHAPTER V. CAVE-DEPOSITS OF THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. Caves of different kinds—Mode of their formation—Absence of Pliocene organic remains in European caves—General character of cave-accumulations—Com- mingling of human relics with remains of extinct mammalia—‘‘ Break” between Paleolithic and Neolithic times—Stalagmite, its formation and rate of growth—Mr, Pengelly’s observations on stalagmitic accretion in Kent’s Cavern—Stalagmitic growth not continuous—Calcified earth, sand, and gravel in caves—Angular blocks, débris, and breccia in caves—Succession of deposits in Brixham Cave—Professor Prestwich on the geological history of that Cave—Contemporaneity of man and the old mammalia—Extreme anti- quity of Pleistocene Period. HAVING glanced at the general character of the relics of the Old Stone Period, and acquired some knowledge of the various groups of animals which are believed to have been contem- poraneous with our Paleolithic predecessors, we may now proceed to consider the nature of the evidence upon which that belief is based. With this question is naturally involved that of the antiquity of the deposits in which the Old Stone imple- ments and mammalian remains are entombed. These deposits occur very frequently in caves and rock- fissures, and they are also met with covering considerable areas in certain river-valleys, both in this country and the Continent. We shall consider first the evidence supplied by the cave-accu- mulations, after which we shall be better prepared to understand what geologists have to tell us about the ancient fluviatile ac- cumulations of the Pleistocene Period. For my purpose it is not necessary to go into the subject of the formation of caves. Most of the large and important caves occur in calcareous strata, those which have been excavated in 70 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. other kinds of rock being as a rule of little consequence. Nearly all owe their origin to the chemical and mechanical action of the subaerial forces—rain, frost, and running-water, while a few have been formed in other ways. There are some rare instances, for example, where a lava-stream has flowed over and solidified above a mass of snow and ice, and the subsequent melting of the latter has left a hollow behind. Again, during earthquakes rocks are frequently rent asunder, and when these fall rudely together, irregular cavities are left between the disjointed masses. Similar results often take place when great landslips occur. But such cases are exceptional, and need not at present occupy our attention ; the caves which are of most interest to the student of Paleolithic times are those which have been more or less slowly excavated in the body of the rocks themselves. Caves of this character are of two kinds ;—there are some which have been formed at the surface and in the light of day, while others have been hollowed out at various depths by the action of under- ground water. Those of the former class are generally of smaller size than the others, and are typically represented by the hollows that occur at the base of many inland cliffs, and by the sea-caves that are so commonly met with along the present coast-line, and in the rocks at higher levels where the waves and breakers in former times have been busy at their work of erosion. Asa rule the hollows at the base of inland cliffs mark the outcrop of some softer or more easily disinte- grated rock than the others with which it is associated. When a hard unyielding stratum overlies a softer or more readily decomposed bed, the latter will crumble away and be worn back by the mere action of the weather, and hollows of this nature may of course occur either at the base of a cliff or steep slope, or at any intermediate level between the base and the top. Should such a soft rock happen to be washed by some stream a hollow of considerable size may be scooped out, and this will continue to be enlarged so long as the weather acts and the water flows, until the overhanging harder stratum gives way and topples down, and the cave is, for the time being, obliterated. For the PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. wa formation of such hollows, however, it is not necessary that the strata should consist of unequally-yielding materials. Cliffs of homogeneous composition are often undercut by streams, simply by mechanical erosion, but this action of the running-water is frequently much intensified by the influence of frost. Of the mode of formation of sea-caves it is not necessary to speak. They and the more or less shallow rock-shelters and hollows, that occur in the face and at the foot of inland cliffs and steep slopes, may of course be excavated in almost any kind of rock, The second class of caves includes all the most extensive underground galleries, many of which ramify in almost every direction, winding tortuously about, and often opening on either side into similar intricate hollows, which in like manner com- municate with lateral extensions of the same character. All these cavities owe their origin to the action of underground water. The chemical composition of mineral springs might have led us to expect that the more soluble strata must fre- quently be honeycombed and excavated to a very considerable extent, for the amount of mineral matter which many of those springs carry to the surface in solution is simply astonishing. We cannot be surprised therefore when we find that here and there the surface of the ground has subsided, the rocks having | been undermined by the continuous action of underground water, Subsidences of this nature are most commonly met with in districts where the prevailing strata are calcareous, but they also occur in regions where rock-salt is plentiful. But since cal- careous strata are more widely diffused, and as a rule occupy more continuous tracts than any other kind of readily-soluble rock, it is in countries where the former abounds that under- ground cavities attain their greatest development. These have been excavated by the chemical action of acidulated water, assisted doubtless in many cases by contemporaneous and sub- sequent mechanical erosion; that is to say, the cavities have been enlarged by the filing action of the sand and gravel which the underground streams have swept along. For a large pro- 72 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. portion of our great limestone-caves are simply the deserted channels of subterranean streams and rivers. Many such water- courses are well known at the present day, and the direction of some of them can be traced by the swallow-holes, chasms, and “sinks,” which indicate where the roofs of the cavities have given way, or have been pierced by acidulated water. In certain regions almost all the drainage is thus conducted underground— rivers after flowing for a considerable distance at the surface suddenly disappear below the ground, and follow a hidden course for it may be many miles before they reappear. Sometimes, indeed, they never come to the surface again, but enter the sea by subterranean channels. Should anything occur to interrupt such a system of underground drainage, and the streams and rivers be compelled into new channels, the old subterranean courses will then become more or less dry galleries, which may - be accessible by one or even by several openings. And although in time these entrances may become blocked by the fall of débris, yet atmospheric erosion—rain, frost, and running-water— will by and by open up new ones, either by the gradual disinte- gration and removal of rock, or by inducing more or less sudden falls and landslips. It would be interesting to ascertain, if that were possible, the age or date of origin of our great limestone-caves. But that, it is to be feared, we shall hardly be able to accomplish. We may indeed infer with much probability that some caves are older than others, but no geologist can say with certainty at what particular time the larger caverns in this and other countries were first open to the light of day, and fitted to become the resort of wild beasts and men. Ever since the limestones have been permeated by water trickling down from the surface, the excavation of caves has been going on, and there is no reason, therefore, why some of the underground galleries in the more ancient limestones (such as those of Devonian and Carboniferous age) may not date back to a period anterior to the deposition of the younger Tertiary formations. Nevertheless, it is remark- able that none of our great caverns has yet yielded deposits of PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 73 older date than the Pleistocene Period—that is to say, the time when Europe was tenanted by Paleolithic man and the old mammalia. We cannot doubt that those caves were in existence in the precéding Pliocene Age, and that many (perhaps most) were as open to the day then as in early Paleolithic times. Yet if this were so, why is it that they do not contain abundant remains of the old Pliocene mammalia, or even of the animals that were characteristic of the still earlier Miocene Period ? Professor Boyd Dawkins has suggested that the caves which were accessible in Miocene and Pliocene times may have been destroyed by the agents of erosion before the beginning of the Pleistocene Period, and certainly the thickness of rock, which has been peeled off the face of the country and carried in the form of gravel, sand, and mud into the sea since the close of the - Miocene Period, is so enormous that there may well be much truth in Mr. Dawkins’s suggestion. Indeed, as regards any bone- caves of Miocene age, it may be strongly doubted whether they could possibly have existed down even to Newer Pliocene times; for the denudation which can be shown to have taken place before the beginning of the Pleistocene Period would more than suffice to account for the total disappearance of many extensive caves, carved out of much more durable rocks than limestone. But I do not think that Mr. Dawkins’s hypothesis accounts equally well for the total absence from our caves of Pliocene bone-accumulations. The Pliocene Period was not separated by any prolonged interval from the succeeding Pleistocene Age. Quite the contrary, as we know, was the case, for some of the mammals of the former period lived on into the latter, and their remains are found commingled with those of typical Pleistocene species in the floor-deposits of the caverns, Although we admit as a possibility that the caves which were accessible in early Pliocene times may have disappeared prior to the advent of the great body of the Pleistocene fauna, yet we find it hard to believe that the same could have been the case with all the caves which may have been visited by the Pliocene mammals during the later stages of that period. It would be 74 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. very strange indeed if denudation should have removed every Pliocene cave, and at the same time opened out a completely new suite of caverns for the use of the Pleistocene fauna. The appearances presented by the oldest accumulations in our great limestone-caves shows that these latter were not only in exist- ence, but had attaimed pretty much their present dimensions before they were resorted to by Paleolithic man and his con- geners; and we can hardly resist the conclusion, therefore, that many of them must have been as accessible in Pliocene times as they subsequently became. And if they were thus accessible at that early period, it is almost certain that they must at one time have contained accumulations of Pliocene age. No trace of these, however, has yet been detected ; but this need not surprise us, because, as we shall presently learn, there is every reason to believe that the caves have frequently been invaded by running- water, and their floor-deposits broken up and swept away. Before the neighbouring valleys had been excavated to their present depth such accidents would be liable to occur whenever the streams and rivers rose in flood. We know that some of the valleys in question were deepened to the extent of fifty and even of a hundred feet and more during the Pleistocene Period, so that in the preceding Pliocene Age and in early Pleistocene times the caves opening into these valleys would be more exposed to irruptions of water than they were at a later date. When the Pleistocene Period was far advanced many of the caves seem to have remained permanently dry, and the accumu- lations of floor-deposits continued with little or no interruption. Had the rivers continued to flow at the same level all through the Pleistocene Period, it is more than probable that no con- siderable floor-deposits would have escaped destruction. In the sequel we shall find that there is abundant evidence to show that some of the older cave-accumulations have experienced no little denudation. The caves would appear to have been cleared out again and again. And if this has been the actual fate of Pleistocene accumulations, we need not wonder at the apparently entire absence of Pliocene cave-deposits. It is quite possible, PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 75 however, that some vestiges of these may yet be detected, when some of the larger caves have been exhaustively explored. The floor-accumulations present in most cases very much the same kind of phenomena. Lying at the immediate surface are usually found relics of modern and archaic times—tools, implements, and ornaments of iron, bronze, or polished stone; and with these are often associated remains of ox, deer, sheep, dog, horse, and other animals that are still indigenous to Europe. Such modern and archaic relics and remains frequently rest upon an undisturbed pavement of stalagmite, underneath which again often occurs a variable thickness of earth, more or less abundantly charged with the bones, teeth, and horns of extinct or no longer indigenous mammals, and now and again yielding Palzolithic implements in larger or smaller numbers. Occa- sionally the floor-deposits underlying the modern superficial layer may consist of a vertical succession of half-a-dozen different beds, lying perfectly undisturbed, one above another; in all of which Palzolithic implements and remains of the extinct mam- malia may be found. When a cave is completely filled up, the upper or more modern layer is often wanting. Sometimes the only deposit covering the floor of a cave consists of a rude breccia of limestone and earth, disseminated through which relics and remains of the Old Stone Age may be detected. But in each and every case where Neolithic, Bronze, or Iron implements are present they invariably occur at the very surface. It is true that now and again the cave-deposits have been disturbed in Neolithic and more recent times, and relics belonging to different periods have thus got mixed. But such cases are not so common as one might have expected, and with the wider experience we have now gained, they are always more or less easily detected. When the layers show no trace of disturbance the Paleolithic deposits invariably occur underneath those of Neolithic and later times, and not only so, but the one set of deposits is sharply marked off from the other. When we clear away the superficial layer with its Neolithic and more modern relics, and dig into the underlying Paleolithic deposits, we pass, as it were, into 76 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. quite a different world. The domestic animals—ox, sheep, dog, and horse—disappear, and we are confronted by elephants, rhinoceroses, hyzenas, mammoths, reindeer, and so forth. Thus in Britain and North-western Europe there appears to have been no gradual passage from Paleolithic into Neolithic times. We know that the men of the Old Stone Age occupied our continent along with many large pachyderms and carnivores, and that a time came when all these animals, together with Paleolithic man, vanished from the European area, and were abruptly succeeded by Neolithic man and the present indigenous fauna. There is thus a gap or hiatus in the cave-history,—the floor-accumulations contain apparently no record of the period that intervened after the departure of Paleolithic man and before the advent of his Neolithic successor. But this remark- able fact will come out more clearly as we further consider the evidence. The fact that human relics are commingled in many caves with the remains of extinct animals has long been known to geologists, But for a number of years it was a disputed point whether man had actually been. contemporaneous with such animals or not. And though several investigators, who had made careful examinations of the cave-accumulations, stoutly maintained that he had, yet geologists generally continued sceptical and unbelieving. But after such caves as that at Brixham (Torbay), and the still more famous cavern near Tor- quay, called Kent’s Hole, had been subjected to long and care- ful examination under the auspices of the Royal and Geological Societies, and the British Association, even the most sceptical hammerer threw aside his doubts. But while giving all due credit to the Exploration Committees for their admirable and exhaustive work, we must not forget that the main result of their labours has been merely to verify and confirm the conclu- sions arrived at by the earlier investigators. It is needless to say that those who have taken the most active share in cave- exploring are the readiest to admit this; and none more will- ingly than. Mr. Pengelly, who has personally superintended the PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 7 investigations carried on in the two famous Devonshire caves. It was in one of these (Kent’s Hole) that the first discovery in cave-deposits of the association of human implements with the remains of the extinct mammalia was made. This important “find” occurred to the Rev. J. MacEnery, who, between the years 1825 to 1841, seems to have explored Kent’s Cavern with great assiduity. It is not my intention, however, to enter into the history of discovery in this most interesting department of geo- logy. At present I am concerned merely with the general results arrived at. Those who are desirous of acquiring fuller details than can be given in these pages may consult the treatises men- tioned in the note below.’ In some of these works references will be found to the labours of the earlier investigators, and the reader will be able to form an opinion as to what extent the conclusions of such men as MacEnery, Buckland, Schmerling, Marcel de Serres, Christol, Tournal, and others have been borne out by the more detailed and systematic researches of later days. The mode in which human relics and mammalian remains are associated in the undisturbed floor-deposits of the caverns leaves one in no doubt that man and the extinct animals were actually contemporaneous—that is to say, that they occupied the European area during one and the same period. Human relics and mammalian remains occur commingled in certain cave-earths that are sealed up by an overlying, unbroken, and continuous layer of stalagmite. Below this upper cave-earth, 1 Buckland’s Reliquice Diluviane ; Lyell’s Antiquity of Man; Lubbock’s Prehistoric Times ; Dupont’s L’ Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre ; Lartet’s and Christy’s Reliquice Aquitanice ; Le Hon’s L’Homme Fossile en Ewrope, and Boyd Dawkins’s Cave-hunting. A general account of the English bone-caves is given in the last edition of Ramsay’s Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain. For more detailed accounts of the mode of occurrence of cave-accumulations, see Mr. Pengelly’s Annual Reports to the British Association on the excavations which are now being carried on in Kent’s Cavern; and Mr. Tiddeman’s Reports on the Victoria Cave, near Settle. Another most elaborate and valuable Report is that by Professor Prestwich on the exploration of Brixham Cave. See Philoso- phical Transactions, vol. clxiii. 1873, p. 471. Mr. MacEnery’s manuscripts were lost for a number of years; an abstract of them, however, was published in 1859 by Mr. Vivian, and ten years later so much of the MSS. as had been preserved was printed in full by Mr. Pengelly in the Transactions of the Devonshire Association. 78 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. again, may occur a second cave-earth containing similar relics and remains, and separated from the “earth” above by a second uninterrupted pavement of stalagmite. It is perfectly certain, therefore, that the caves were occupied alternately by wild beasts and savage men for longer or shorter periods. And as if to make assurance of their contemporaneity doubly sure, we have the strong evidence of the Palzolithic carvings and etchings, to which reference has already been made. No one now ques- tions the fact that man lived through all those remarkable geographical and climatic changes to which the old mammalia bear testimony. ‘This is one of the questions which has passed out of the category of mere ingenious conjecture and plausible inference into that of well-assured and demonstrated fact. I need not, therefore, pause to recontrovert the views of those who have maintained that the stone celts are mere natural produc- tions ; that the “worked flints” have been chipped into their present forms by the action of frost, or by knocking about in the beds of rivers, or by any of the manifold modes in which rocks are broken up and disintegrated by natural forces. To those who have been used almost daily during many years to handle naturally-broken stones of all kinds, and to break and chip them for themselves, such views necessarily appear futile and inconsequent, the peculiar chipping to which the flints have been subjected pointing unmistakably to man’s handiwork. “No man,” Professor Ramsay remarks, “ who knows how chalk- flints are fractured by nature would doubt the artificial character of these ancient tools or weapons.” Several eminent geologists, however, compassionating the difficulties of less experienced observers, have replied in detail to the objections which were at one time raised to the human origin of the “ worked flints.” That task having been accomplished, no one now doubts the artificial origin of these implements any more than one disbe- lieves that man’s hands made the bone-needles, awls, and har- poons, or etched the remarkable outline-sketches of mammoth and reindeer. Let us now glance at the evidence which the cave-accumu- as PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 79 lations furnish as to the prolonged duration of the Old Stone Age. I have mentioned the fact that frequently the floors of the great limestone-caverns are paved with a material called stalagmite, in and underneath which the relics of Paleolithic man and his congeners are often met with in abundance. The general appearance of this deposit must be familiar to most. It is a carbonate of lime which may be loose and friable in texture, or harder and more coherent, but in many cases it is dense and erystalline. It varies also in colour from creamy white to yellow and red, being stained by the oxides of iron and vegetable matter. The mode of its formation is very simple. Rain-water invariably contains some proportion of carbonic acid, and as it sinks through the soil, which is often enough charged with decaying organic matter, it may take up more before it reaches the underlying rocks. Such acidulated water filtering down- wards into the cracks and crevices that seam a bed of lime- stone, immediately attacks the rock, and carries away a certain portion in solution. By and by the now calcareous water oozes out on the roof of a cave, where as the drops gather and fall they are of course subject to evaporation. Thin shells or pel- licles are thus deposited on the roof, and corresponding accre- tions form on the floor. By the continual prolongation of the tiny shells from above long pendent stalactites are formed, while cakes and rounded bosses, domes and mammillated heaps, grow upwards, as it were, from the ground. If this process goes on uninterruptedly, the time comes when the stalactites and stalag- mites meet, so as to form fantastic pillars reaching continuously from floor to ceiling. In most cases these calcareous accretions are of slow growth, an inch or two requiring, asa rule, many years for their forma- tion, but sometimes they form more rapidly. A good deal depends upon the quantity and quality of the percolating water, and also upon the character of the limestone. Where the soil is well charged with organic matter, the water that finds its way down into the rocks being highly acidulated will dissolve limestone rapidly. But if the rainfall in such a case 80 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. be not great, then the dissolution of the rock may not take place so briskly as in another district where the percolating water, although less acidulated, is yet more plentiful. Again, owing to differences of composition and structure, all calcareous rocks are not equally acted upon by carbonated water, some being more readily dissolved than others. Hence it is evident that we cannot take the rate at which stalagmite accretes in one particular cave as a standard of measurement by which to judge of the time required for the accumulation of a certain thickness of stalagmite in any other cave, unless we are quite sure that the conditions are now and have for a long time been the same in both, which it need hardly be said is never likely to be the case, For instance, it is a well-known fact that, owing to the humidity of our climate, marble monuments exposed to the weather, especially in or near our manufacturing towns, are very soon corroded ; while in other countries, with more favour- able atmospheric conditions, the same stone may be subjected for a much longer time to the action of the weather without showing much appreciable wear. And if this be true of the calcareous rocks exposed at the surface of the ground, it must also hold good for the limestone, chalk, and marble that are buried below our feet. Were the climate of Britain drier than it is, there can be little doubt that our limestones would decay, and stalac- tites and stalagmites would form, more slowly than they do at present. But even under such conditions the calcareous rocks would weather away, and stalagmites would accrete at very diverse rates, owing, as I have said, partly to differences in the quantity and quality of the percolating water, and partly also to differences in the composition, porosity, and structure of the limestones, Observations have put it beyond doubt that the rate at which stalagmite increases is very variable. In some instances the drip has taken many years to forma mere thin glaze ‘the fraction of a line in thickness, while in one case (Ingleborough Cave) a layer nearly a quarter of an inch in thick- ness has accreted in one year. This latter, however, is probably very exceptional. Had stalagmitic accretions generally increased PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 81 at this rate, all our caves ought to have been long ago filled up with them. Obviously, therefore, no reliable conclusion can be drawn as to the rate at which stalagmites have grown in caves generally, from measuring the rate of growth in any particular cave at the present time. To form an adequate conception of the age of a given bed of stalagmite we ought to measure, if possible, the rate at which that individual bed is now accreting. This, if it be carefully determined, will not necessarily give us a perfectly true result; but when certain considerations, to be mentioned presently, are kept in view, it will enable us to make some approximation to that end. It is well known that during the exploration of Kent’s Cavern near Torquay a number of names and dates, carved upon the uppermost bed of stalagmite, have been detected, and some of these go back to the beginning of the seventeenth century. Yet,as Mr. Pengelly tells us, “though the stalagmitic matter has been continually accreting on them ever since, it has been at so slow a rate that the inscriptions are still perfectly legible.” On the surface of a large boss of stalag- mite which rises up from the general level of the floor, and thus marks a spot where the drip has been more continuous, and the growth, therefore, more rapid than in many other parts of the cave, there is this inscription, “ Robert Hedges, of Ireland, Feb. 20, 1688.” The film of stalagmite which has formed over it is not more than the twentieth of an inch in thickness, nor have we any direct evidence to show that the accretion of this parti- cular boss was more rapid in earlier times. The bed of which it forms a part is of very variable thickness, being hardly an inch in some places, while in others it swells out to as much as five feet. If, therefore, we took the rate at which the large boss in question has accreted during the past two centuries as a standard of measurement, we should infer that the upper layer of stalagmite began to form about 240,000 years ago, while the underlying layer, which occurs in the same cave and attains a thickness of twelve feet, would at a similar rate require some 576,000 years for its growth. But these rates are certainly ex- G 82 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. cessive, for they are based on the assumption that past climatic conditions did not differ from the present. As we shall see in the sequel, however, this is very far from having been the case, for we have every reason to believe that at certain epochs during the Pleistocene Period the rainfall was considerably greater than it is now. At present the rainfall near Torquay is about 35 inches, but in former times it may have been three or four times as much, or even greater still. With a rainfall of 140 inches the stalagmites would accrete, other things being equal, four times as rapidly, so that one inch might form in 1000 years. At that rate the upper stalagmite would require 60,000 and the lower bed 144,000 years respectively for their growth. In other parts of the cave, however, we have evidence to show that the stalagmite has sometimes accreted at a more rapid rate. Thus, overlying a superficial layer containing remains of Romano-Saxon times, we find a thin interrupted cake of stalag- mite which nowhere exceeds six inches in thickness, and is generally much thinner, or absent altogether. Assuming, there- fore, that six inches as a maximum have accreted in 2000 years, and using this comparatively rapid rate as a standard of measure- ment for the older stalagmitic pavements, we should still have a period of 20,000 years for the formation of the upper layer, and of 48,000 years for the lower. But on the supposition that, owing to an excessive rainfall, the stalagmites formerly increased four times more rapidly than they do now, the first period would be reduced to 5000 years, and that of the lower stalagmite to 12,000 years. We have no grounds, however, for believing that the Pleisto- cene Period was characterised throughout by such an excessively wet climate. I shall have occasion to refer in the sequel to the evidence bearing upon the former occurrence of a rainy climate, - and hope to be able to show that a succession of wet and less humid periods alternated during Pleistocene times. Now, although the rainfall in some of those wet periods may have been considerably in excess of what I have supposed merely for the sake of illustration, yet on the other hand it may have come PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 83 short of it, while the intervening drier periods might well have experienced a rainfall not much greater than that of the present. Thus it is evident that the present rate of stalagmitic accretion in Kent’s Cavern cannot be safely relied upon as a standard by which to judge of the time required for the formation of the old pavements, underneath which the Pleistocene cave-earths lie buried. The question of age, as we see, is not so easily settled, for we have to take into account the effects produced by previous climatic conditions; and as we can form only a more or less uncertain estimate of these effects, it is impossible that our con- clusions can be other than vaguely approximative. Even on the most extravagant assumption, however, as to the former rate of stalagmitic accretion, we shall yet be compelled to admit a period of many thousands of years for the formation of the stalagmitic pavements in Kent’s Cavern. There is another consideration, however, which must not be forgotten when we are endeavouring to form some adequate conception of the time required for the accretion of such stalag- mitic pavements. We have no reason to suppose that their growth has always been continuous; on the contrary, we know very well that in many cases the accretion on the floors has fre- quently been interrupted. Sometimes the caves were filled, or partially filled, with water, and their former occupants ex- pelled for prolonged periods, during which no growth of stalag- mite could take place. At other times, when the caverns were the frequent resort of large predatory animals like the bear, such pellicles of stalagmitic matter as formed upon the floor would often be trampled on and commingled with earth and clay, which might be readily removed when, now and again, flood-waters found access to the caves, so that any particular bed of stalag- mite can seldom or never represent the entire quantity of car- bonate of lime that dropped in solution upon the floor from the time when the stalagmitic pavement first began to accrete. This is clearly indicated by the structure of the stalagmitic pavements themselves. Sometimes these are remarkably pure and homogeneous, indicating a prolonged and perhaps continuous 84 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. period of deposition. Now and again, however, we find them showing numerous intercalations of earth—some of which cer- tainly point to the former presence of muddy water. An excellent example of this was met with during the exploration of Brixham Cave, in one part of which six or seven plates of crystalline, compact, soil-stained, finely-laminated stalagmite, varying from half an inch to upwards of an inch and a half in thickness, extended horizontally from wall to wall, one over the other, and alternated with an equal number of interstratified layers of earth of similar thickness. Again, stalagmites, so far from being always comparatively pure, are often so highly im- pregnated with earthy ingredients as to assume the character of calcified earths. Such impurities may have been introduced in various ways. Most limestones when they are dissolved in car- bonic acid leave a red residue behind, and there can be little doubt that much of the earthy matter in stalagmitic accretions is of this nature, and to that we may add the red earth, mud, and silt introduced by rains and freshets through fissures in the roofs and sides of caves, and even in many cases by their more open mouths. Some of the caves in the Rock of Gibraltar bear evident marks of having been invaded in this manner. The heavy rains that fall on the western slopes of that ridge rush down the rocky declivities, sweeping before them considerable quantities of red earth, derived from the subaerial decomposition of the limestone, and much of this muddy water escapes into underground cavities through narrow fissures, and now and then pours into the caverns by their chief entrances. Finally, when we conceive of the caves as having frequently been the actual _abodes during long periods of various wild beasts and men, we can have no difficulty in understanding how stalagmitic accre- tions might come to be soil-stained, even although rain and - freshets never found access to them at all. I have mentioned the fact that stalagmites often pass into what might be termed calcified earths, and from what has been said about the origin of such impurities the reader will be pre- pared to learn that frequently the floors of our old limestone- PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 85 caves are buried under considerable accumulations of gravel, sand, and earth or clay. The presence of these deposits shows that sometimes the caves after they had been resorted to by animals again became the channels of engulphed streams, either intermittently or for long continuous periods; while, in other cases, they were ever and anon liable to be inundated by floods carrying into them quantities of mud and silt. Moreover, it can be shown that sheets of stalagmite have occasionally been broken up and removed from certain caves, in whole or in part, so that we cannot always be sure that this may not have happened in the case of many other caves. Throughout all the cave-deposits occur, more or less fre- quently, large and small angular fragments of limestone that have evidently fallen from the sides and roof. Sometimes these are scattered pretty equally through the floor-accumulations, at other times they are perhaps more numerous at some levels than at others. They seem also to be present most abundantly in the chambers or galleries that open directly to the day, or which can be shown to have formerly had some such direct connection with the external atmosphere. It is also to be noted that the uppermost layer in which any traces of Pleistocene mammals and Palzolithic man are met with, is not unfrequently sprinkled with numerous fallen masses, and sometimes with a more or less thick breccia of large and small fragments of limestone, by which the mouth or entrance to the cave is occasionally blocked up. The fragments may have been detached from the roof in various ways. It cannot be doubted that, as Mr. Pengelly has pointed out,’ the gradual widening of the joints in limestone by the corrosive action of percolating water must occasionally loosen large blocks, and allow these to fall away ; and as percolation is always going on, such accidents as the sudden dislodgment of fragments may take place at any moment, in any part of a eave, and under any conditions of climate. Again, it is not improbable, as some have suggested, that the tremor of the ground during an earthquake might shake down many half- 1 Trans, Devon, Assoc., vol. vii. 1875, p. 315. 86 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. loosened blocks and fragments. But such will hardly account for all or even for any great proportion of the scattered blocks and thick aggregations of limestone-débris that are met with in so many caves. I am inclined to believe that very many of these fragments may have been dislodged by the action of frost, which at some epochs during the Pleistocene Period was cer- tainly more intense in our latitude than it is now. This would account for the more abundant presence of fallen blocks and débris at and near the entrances of caves, for in the deeper recesses the cold would necessarily be less intense, and less capable therefore of rupturing the limestone and detaching angular fragments. If the dislodgment of all these fragments had been due solely to the corrosive action of percolating water or to the vibrations of earthquakes, we should be at a loss to understand why the greatest falls should have so frequently taken place in those portions of the caves that are most acces- sible to the influence of the external atmosphere. Reference has been made to the fact that deposits of gravel, sand, and earth frequently occur in caves, sometimes underlying and not uncommonly intercalated with sheets or pavements of stalagmitic matter. The history of these accumulations often impresses us fully as much as that of the stalagmites themselves with the length of time required for their formation. One or two examples may suffice to show what is meant. The first I shall cite is that of Brixham Cave, which has been carefully explored by a committee of well-known geologists and arche- ologists.1 This cave occurs ona little hill overlooking the small fishing-town of Brixham, Torbay, and its entrance is about 95 feet above high water. The deposits met with consisted of the following accumulations, which are named in descending order:— 1. Stalagmitic Floor of irregular thickness, varying from a few inches to upwards of one foot. 2. Breccia, consisting of small angular fragments of limestone, cemented together by carbonate of lime. This deposit filled up the northern entrance 1 “Report on the Exploration of Brixham Cave, etc.,” by Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S., F.G.S., etc. Philosophical Transactions, 1874, p. 471. PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 87 to the cave, from which it thinned off rapidly inwards, so that its surface formed an inclined plane. 3. Black Bed; a thin layer of blackish matter, which Professor Prest- wich describes as “ peaty calcareous earth (or leaf mould 2.2” It contained some angular fragments of limestone, and did not exceed one foot in thick- ness. It was met with immediately under the breccia, but occurred nowhere else throughout the cavern. 4. Cave-earth, from two to four feet thick,—a reddish-brown, tenacious, clayey loam, with many angular and sub-angular fragments of limestone, which varied in size from very small bits up to blocks weighing a ton. Rounded pebbles of trap, quartz, and limestone, were also of common occurrence, and nodules of iron-ore were occasionally met with. Frag- ments of stalagmite, apparently portions of an old “ floor,” likewise appeared here and there. 5. Shingle, consisting mainly of pebbles of quartz, greenstone, orit, and limestone, mixed with small fragments of shale. With the sole exception of the limestone, all these pebbles are foreign to the hill in which the cave is excavated. Here and there the shingle is cemented into a con- glomerate. Throughout a considerable part of one of the main galleries appears what Mr. Pengelly has termed a “ stalagmitic ceiling,” which varies from six inches to upwards of a foot in thickness. It extends horizontally from wall to wall, and through the large holes that occur in it an unoccupied space of two feet or so is seen to separate it from the solid limestone-roof of the cavern. Firmly adherent to its under surface, were observed in several instances angular, sub-angular, and well-rounded fragments of old stalagmite, together with small pieces of quartz and lime- stone. With the exception of the black bed, all the other accumula- tions on the floor of this cavern proved to be more or less fossili- ferous, but the cave-earth was by far the richest repository of bones. Associated with the mammalian remains were found a number of “worked flints.” The bones belong, according to Mr. Busk, to twenty or twenty-one species, namely, mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, horse, great ox, shorthorn ox, great red-deer, rein- deer, roebuck, cave-lion, cave-hyzena, cave-bear, grisly bear, brown bear, common fox, common badger, hare, rabbit, lemming, water-rat, shrew. 88 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. Professor Prestwich, after carefully weighing all the evidence, comes to the following conclusions :—The shingle, which forms the basement-bed, may have been introduced by water flowing over the slates, grits, and shales that occur to the westward of Brixham. Owing to the small drainage-area and the impermeable nature of the rocks, this old stream would occasionally become dry ; and at such periods the remains of the mammoth, horse, and ox, which occur in the shingle, might have been brought in at intervals by lions and hyzenas and devoured on the spot—the bones showing evident marks of having been gnawed. At this period in the history of the cave, “the valley of Brixham and its tributaries, which then as now formed the channels of drain- age of the district, must have been from 70 to 80 feet less deep than at present.” “After the cave had become choked with shingle,” continues Professor Prestwich, “the stream, either from that cause, or from the deepening of the channels outside, kept more in the main valley, and a period of quiet succeeded, during which a first bed of stalagmite was deposited immediately upon the bed of shingle.” This is the stalagmite which Mr. Pengelly calls a “stalagmitic ceiling.” Ere long it was broken up and the surface of the shingle-bed, upon which it rested, was lowered to the extent of from six to ten feet—effects which may have been produced, according to Professor Prestwich, “either by an irruption of water carrying away part of the shingle, and so undermining the stalagmite, or by the breaking-up of the stal- agmite, and the settling-down of the shingle deeper into the fissures by earthquake-movements.” In whatever way the change took place, there can be no doubt that the succeeding accumulation of cave-earth bears witness to very different hydro- graphical conditions. No shingle-bearing streams now entered the fissures, but the cave was habitually dry. Occasionally, however, it was visited by floods from the main stream of the Brixham valley, which deposited their silt upon the floor, and thus during successive inundations the so-called “cave-earth” gradually accumulated. The breaking up of the first bed of stalagmite, and the lowering of the surface of the shingle-bed, PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 89 gave greatly increased room in the cave, and hence it became a place of resort for such animals as hyzenas and bears, and was occasionally visited by Paleolithic man. By and by, when flood-water no longer reached the cave, the formation of stalag- mite, which had been going on during the intervals between successive inundations, proceeded without interruption, and the remains of such predatory animals as continued to frequent the cave, together with the bones of their prey, became sealed up in the calcareous drip. Eventually, however, the entrances to the cave were closed with an accumulation of débris, and “from that time it ceased to be accessible, except to the smaller rodents and burrowing animals, and remained unused and untrodden until its discovery in 1858.” Here then we have evidence, first, of the contemporaneity of man and the old mammalia; and, second, of the extreme antiquity of the period during which they were in joint occupation of Southern England. At the time when the cave first began to be visited by the mammalia and Paleolithic man the valley of Brixham was 70 or 80 feet less deep than now; in other words, so long a time has elapsed since then, that the streams of that district have been able to excavate their beds in hard rock to a depth of not far short of 100 feet. ele) PREHISTORIC EUROPE. CHAPTER VI. CAVE-DEPOSITS OF THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD—Continued. Succession of deposits in Kent’s Cavern—Conditions during their accumulation— Evidence for prolonged duration of Paleolithic Period—Hyzena-dens in England—Kirkdalé Cave and Wookey Hole—Bone-caves never tenanted by man or wild beasts—Victoria Cave, near Settle in Yorkshire—Succession of deposits in that cave—Glacial beds associated with Pleistocene deposits— Bone-caves of Belgium—General succession of deposits in these—Trou du Sureau—Relative position of Neolithic relics. REFERENCE has already been made to the stalagmitic pavements in Kent’s Cavern, and we have learned something of what they have to teach us. Let us now glance for a little at the general succession of the beds amongst which those pavements are inter- calated, and we shall find that the earth and mechanical accumulations of this cave are not less eloquent of changes implying the lapse of time than the similarly-formed deposits at Brixham, In digging down into the floor-accumulations of Kent’s Cavern the following beds were passed through, beginning with the uppermost or newest :—* 1. A layer of Black Mould, consisting to a large extent of vegetable débris, and varying in thickness from three inches to twelve inches. This 1 This cave is being explored at the instance of the British Association, under the personal superintendence of Mr. Pengelly, to whose yearly reports (Brit. Ass. Reps. trom 1865) and other papers (published chiefly in the Transactions of the Devonshire Association) I am indebted for the notes given above. General accounts of the cave will be found in Lyell’s Antiquity of Man; Lubbock’s Prehistoric Times ; Evans’s Ancient Stone Implements of Britain ; Boyd Daw- kins’s Cave-hwnting ; and other works. PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. gt mould lay between and amongst large blocks of limestone, some of which rested upon it. 2. Granular Stalagmite, frequently containing large blocks of limestone. Thickness, one inch to five feet. 3. Black Band, four inches thick, consisting mainly of small fragments of charred wood ; occurred only in one part of the cave, where it occupied an area of about 100 square feet. : 4. Oave-earth; a light red clay, with many small angular fragments and some large blocks of limestone ; of variable thickness ; excavated to a depth of four feet. 5. Crystalline Stalagmite, reaching in places about twelve feet in thickness. 6. Breccia, composed of sub-angular and rounded pieces of dark red grit, with some quartz pebbles, embedded in a sandy matrix of the same colour. This is the lowest and oldest of the deposits so far as yet known, but its base has not yet been reached by the explorations. The uppermost deposit, the black mould, is of comparatively recent origin. It contains articles of stone and bronze, and remains of a number of animals, all of which are still found living in England. None of the human relics needs date much beyond Romano-British times, while many are certainly more recent. With the underlying beds, however, the case is very different. In the. granular stalagmite were found “stones of various kinds, shells of cockles and cuttle-fish, impressions of ferns, charcoal, bones and teeth of bear, elephant, hyzena, rhinoceros, horse, fox, and man, with flakes and cores of flint.” Human relics also occur plentifully in the black band, such as numerous flint tools and some implements of bone, namely an awl, a harpoon, and a needle having a well-formed eye. With these were associated burnt bones, and remains of ox, deer, badger, rhinoceros, hyena, etc. The cave-earth abounds in animal remains, both of extinct and living species, and it also contains numerous relics of man’s handiwork. Here occur bones and teeth of lion, bear, mammoth, rhinoceros, hyzena, etc., along with remains of reindeer, Irish elk, red-deer, wolf, fox, badger, glutton, beaver, and other animals. The crystalline stalagmite and the breccia have yielded numerous traces of the cave-bear, and in the latter deposit were found implements of flint and 92 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. chert, “much more rudely formed, more massive, and less symmetrical in form,” than those obtained from the cave-earth and black band. They have been made, says Mr. Pengelly, “by operating not on flakes, but directly on nodules, of which portions of the original surface generally remain.” (See Plate A, Fig. 1, p. 11.) A study of the mechanically-formed accumulations on the floor of Kent’s Cave reveals the fact that between the time of its earliest and latest known occupation by Paleolithic man and his congeners, considerable changes must have taken place in the drainage-features of the neighbourhood. The breccia tells us of a time when the cave was now and again occupied by bears, and occasionally visited by savage men. During that period it would appear that water, flowing from some of the adjacent higher hills, ever and anon carried into the cave many fragments of red grit—a rock which does not form any part of the hill into which the cave opens ; but before the crystalline stalagmite began to accrete, this process had altogether ceased—the drainage had been diverted, and no mechanical sediment found its way into the cave. Then, long subsequently, came a time of re-excavation, when the crystalline stalagmite was undermined to some con- siderable extent, and broken up—much, both of it and the underlying breccia, being carried away. After this the cave was again visited by predatory animals and by Paleolithic man; and now and then flood-waters, bearing fine mud and silt, found their way into the cave and spread their sediment over the floors of chambers and galleries. Such inundations were intermittent, and perhaps irregularly recurrent—long intervals of comparative quiescence allowing the drip from the roof to commingle with and calcify the floor-earth. During the slow accumulation of this earth, hyzenas seem to have occupied the cave for long periods, and it was certainly also the haunt of other predatory animals, such as lions, bears, and the extinct tiger-like machair- odus. Man was likewise at intervals a visitor, and possibly a resident while the cave-earth was forming. At all events he certainly was so during the accumulation of the black band—for PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 93 this bed is neither more nor less than the old hearth on which his wood-fire burned, where he cooked his meals and warmed himself. Mr. Pengelly is of opinion that the men of the black band and cave-earth were a race further advanced in civilisation than the barbarians whose implements are got in the old breccia. The former, he reminds us, “made bone tools and ornaments— harpoons for spearing fish, eyed needles or bodkins for stitching skins together, awls perhaps to facilitate the passage of the slender needle through the tough, thick hides, pins for fastening the skins they wore, and perforated badgers’ teeth for necklaces or bracelets.” But nothing of this kind occurs in the breccia; the only implements found at that low level consisting of flint or chert, and being of a much ruder character than the worked flints of the cave-earth. Thus all the evidence conspires to show the prolonged duration of the Old Stone Age, so far as that is represented in Kent’s Cavern. We have first to take into consideration the time required for the gradual introduction of the basement- deposits of red grit and sand by running-water; then we have to conceive of a change in the hydrographical conditions of the neighbourhood, when the stream that now and then entered the cave was no longer able to do so; next we have to realise as best we can the length of time that is implied by the thick crystal- line stalagmite. How many long centuries rolled past while that old pavement was slowly accreting no one can say, but that it represents a lapse of ages compared to which the time embraced by all tradition and written history is but as a few months, who that is competent to form an opinion can doubt? After a pro- longed period of quiescence, water once more entered the cavern and re-excavated the older deposits; and after this process had ceased, mud and silt were spread at intervals over the floor of the cave by intermittent inundations. From this time on to the accumulation of the upper bed of stalagmite, the cave, as we have seen, was frequented by many animals, whose remains are not met with in the old breccia, while the men who now and then occupied the place appear to have been further advanced 94 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. than the poor savages whose relics are found associated with the bones and teeth of bears in the bottom-deposits. All these changes imply time, and are indicative, perhaps, of great geo- graphical mutations. Mr. Pengelly thinks it probable that during the occupation of the cave by the great bears of the breccia, Britain was an island, and that the hyena and its con- geners came at a later date, when our country formed part of the Continent. This is a question, however, to which we shall return by and by. For the present I am content if I can aid the reader in realising the fact of the prolonged duration of the Palzolithic Period. I have made special reference to Brixham Cave and Kent’s Hole because they were the first to be investigated with such care and scientific caution as were required to set at rest the vexed question as to man’s contemporaneity with the extinct mammalia of Pleistocene times. Many other English caves have been examined, with the result of increasing our knowledge of the old mammalian fauna, and adding a few more touches to the picture of Palzolithic savage life. But the main features of the evidence may still be read in the successive floor-accumulations of the famous Devonshire caverns. We have seen that those caves now and again were occupied by hyznas, who dragged thither their prey, and left the floor encumbered with heaps of gnawed bones. Frequently their coprolites are very abundant, and now and again the walls of the narrower passages of a cave are rubbed smooth, as if by the constant passing to and fro of the hyenas, while the jaws and other bones that lay sunk in the floor are smoothed and polished by their tread. Hyzena-dens have been discovered in various parts of England, among which the - most interesting are Kirkdale Cave, described by Dr. Buckland,? and Wookey Hole, near Wells, on the south side of the Mendip Hills, of which a graphic account is given by Mr. Boyd Dawkins.? The latter cave furnished abundant evidence of the former pre- 1 Reliquie Diluviane, p. 38. 2 Cave-hunting, p. 295; see also Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xix. p. 260; Proc. Manch. Lit. and Phil. Soc., vol. ix. (1870), p. 181. PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 95 sence of Paleolithic man, who seems now and then to have driven out the hyzenas, and occupied their den. A number of rudely- chipped flint and chert implements, and two bone arrow-heads, were found, and ashes and carbonised bones indicated the place where fires had been kindled and food cooked. “One fragment of bone in particular, belonging to the rhinoceros, had been calcined, and its carbonised condition bore unmistakable testi- mony that it had been burnt while the animal juices were present.” During the alternate occupation of Wookey Hole by man and hyenas there appear to have been recurrent floods, which deposited mud upon the floor, and eventually completely blocked up the cave. It must not be supposed that all the bones in ossiferous caves have been introduced by man and wild beasts. In very many cases they have been washed in by water, and often enough some of the animals that roamed our country in Pleistocene times fell victims to natural pitfalls. For it must be remem- bered that subterranean galleries frequently communicate, by means of narrow crevices, pipes, and swallow-holes, with the surface, and in a country the rocks of which are largely calcare- ous such pitfalls are a fruitful source of loss to unfortunate cattle-owners in our own day. That many animals may have been trapped, as it were, in this way we may well believe, and the appearances presented by their remains is sometimes highly suggestive of such a fate. But as the subterranean cavities into which they fell were often swept either intermittently or conti- nuously by engulphed streams, it is not surprising that entire skeletons are but seldom met with, and that ossiferous accumu- _ lations in such cavities as could hardly ever have been occupied either by man or beast usually consist of a pell-mell and tumultuous débris of earth, stones, and bones, many of which ’ show traces of having been rolled about. It is by no means necessary to suppose, however, that all these have been introduced through natural pitfalls. It is a well-known fact that when beasts are sickly they often repair to streams to quench their thirst, and of course they often die there. Thus their bodies v 96 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. would frequently be floated off by the water in flood time, and carried into underground channels. Again, as we shall afterwards see, the Pleistocene Period was, at several epochs, characterised by extreme humidity, when all the small streams and larger rivers were subject to great inundations. Hence any remains lying loose at the surface would frequently be swept away and carried into subterranean channels, in the unequal depressions of which they would tend to accumulate. Afterwards, when such inundations became rare, or altogether ceased, and when, owing to changes in the drainage-system of a country, the old subter- ranean cavities were deserted for new channels, the ossiferous and earthy débris would gradually become sealed up by stalag- mitic accretions. e Before leaving the English caves reference may be made to the very interesting Victoria Cave, near Settle, in Yorkshire, which exhibits at least four stages or layers, each with its own peculiar character. It occurs at a height of about 1450 feet above the sea and 900 feet above the river Ribble, which flows at the foot of the hill in which the cave occurs. The deposits met with in this cave are as follow :—! 1. Romano-Celtic Stratwm, with Roman coins, pottery, and various objects of bone, such as spindle-whorls, beads, spoon-brooches, a tooth comb, etc., and numerous articles and ornaments in bronze, some of them enamelled in red, blue, yellow, and green. With these were associated bones of the Celtic shorthorn, goat, pig, horse, roedeer, stag, wild-duck, grouse, and domestic fowl. Professor Dawkins assigns this layer with much probability to the time of the evacuation of Britain by the Romans, when the Romanised Celts were forced to flee from their homes, “ with some of their cattle and other property, and were compelled to exchange the luxuries of civilised life for a hard struggle for common necessaries.” 2. Neolithic Layer.—“ Five or six feet of what had at one time been loose talus, but was now bound together, though not very firmly,” with calcareous matter. Underneath this old talus were found a bone harpoon, } The exploration of Victoria Cave has been conducted under the auspices of the British Association, and is reported on by Mr. Dawkins and Mr. Tiddeman. See British Association Reports, 1873 (by Mr. Dawkins), and 1874-1878 (by Mr. Tiddeman). See also Geol. Mag., vol. x. p. 11, and another paper by Mr. Tiddeman in Journ. Anthrop. Inst., 1878. PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 97 an ornamented bone bead, and three flint flakes—all of which are refer- able to the Neolithic Age. 3. Upper Cave-earth.—This is a buff-coloured, rather stiff clay, abundantly charged with angular blocks and small fragments of limestone and stalactite ; and here and there it contains beds of stalagmite. The animal remains in this deposit were those of fox, grisly bear, brown bear, badger, horse, pig, reindeer, red-deer, goat or sheep. 4, Laminated Clay, thin at the entrance of the cave, but thickening inwards to as much as twelve feet. It is worthy of note that glaciated or ice-scratched boulders have been found embedded in it. 5. Lower Cave-earth, having the same general character as the upper bed. Its mammalian remains represent the following : hyzena, fox, badger, brown bear, grisly bear, Hlephas antiquus, Rhinoceros leptorhinus, hippopo- tamus, Bos primigenius, bison, goat, red-deer. One bone met with in this bed has given rise to much discussion. On its discovery it was identified by Mr. Busk as a human fibula, and had its place of sepulture been Kent’s Cave, or indeed any cave but that in which it was found, perhaps Mr. Busk’s identification would never have been challenged. But as its position in Victoria Cave implied, according to Mr, Tiddeman and others, the existence of man in England before what is called the Ice Age or Glacial Period, grave doubts have been thrown upon its human character ; or, as Professor Ramsay remarks, “some eminent osteologists have lately declared that though they cannot assert that the fragment is not part of the bone of a man, on the other hand they cannot deny that it may just as well be part of the fibula of a bear.”! The former presence of man, however, is apparently indicated by the discovery of certain bones which look as if they had been hacked by some instrument. I have said that the cave-earths and intervening laminated clay occur inside the Victoria Cave, while the overlying Neolithic and Romano-Celtic layers were found just at the entrance, rest- ing partly on the older deposits, and partly on a talus of débris that obscures the truncated ends of the true Pleistocene beds. When this talus of blocks and rubbish, which had fallen down from the cliff and concealed the entrance to the cave, had been cleared away, it was found to rest upon a peculiar deposit called “glacial drift,” of which I shall have much to say in the sequel, From its position it was evident that this “glacial drift” was of younger date than the lower cave-earth, and was probably connected in its origin with the overlying laminated clay. 1 Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain. 5th edition, p. 466. H 98 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. The succession of changes which is evidenced by the phenomena exposed during the exploration of this interesting cave Mr. Tiddeman has shown to be as follows: First, we have the occupation of the cave by hyznas, and now and then by bears, by whose agency it is probable that most of the other bones found in the lower cave-earth were introduced ; for it may fairly be inferred, from the presence of hyzenas’ coprolites, and the abundant osseous remains of this animal and bears, that these were actual denizens of the cave. Since doubt has been cast upon the character of the fibula, which was at first believed to be human, Mr. Tiddeman rejects it altogether, but the pre- sence of the cut bones he holds to be a proof that man was a native of Yorkshire at this period. And as the bones met with in the lower cave-earth belong to species with which it has been demonstrated that man was certainly contemporaneous in many other parts of England and the Continent, it is in the highest degree probable that man did live in the north of England at the time the Victoria Cave was a den of hyznas. The “glacial drift” and laminated clay, according to Mr. Tiddeman, prove that after the cave had been the abode of hyzenas for a prolonged time, it was at last abandoned, and the valley of the Ribble was occupied by a large glacier or part of an extensive sheet of land-ice, which, creeping down the valley, deposited its morainic débris in front of the cave, while from the melting ice muddy water flowed into the cavern, and spread out the silt or laminated clay. By and by this glacier dis- appeared, and then the remains of another group of animals 1 Such laminated clays are frequently found in connection with boulder-clay or ‘‘glacial drift,” not only in the British Islands, but in Switzerland and Northern Italy. They represent the action of the water which is nearly always circulating underneath a glacier. The few ice-scratched stones which the lami- nated clays sometimes contain have been derived from the under-surface of the glacier. I have seen fine examples of these deposits at various places in the railway cuttings between Mendrisio and Balerna (Como and Lugano railway), and I have observed them also in the till of the valley of the Arve, and other places in Switzerland. They are extremely common in Scotland, and have been described by Scandinavian glacialists as being frequently met with in Sweden and Norway. They seem to be in like manner abundant in the glacial deposits of North America. PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 99 were introduced, and gradually accumulated in what is now the upper cave-earth. This upper bed is distinguished from the lower by the marked absence of such animals as hyena, elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus, and by the presence of certain animals which are confined to it, namely horse and pig. To these species peculiar to the upper cave-earth may prob- ably be added the reindeer, for it seems doubtful whether the remains of that animal said to have been obtained from the lower earth really belonged to that deposit. Remains of the reindeer, however, certainly occur in the upper bed. From the presence of the pig, and the absence of the more character- istic Pleistocene species that are common in the lower stratum, we seem justified in classing the upper cave-earth as of early Post-pleistocene age. The so-called Neolithic layer is separated from the Romano- Celtic stratum by some thickness of talus, showing probably that the cave had been unoccupied by man for some considerable time before the Romanised Britons were forced to take refuge there. The most interesting point in connection with the deposits of this cave is the evidence which shows that after the dis- appearance of the old Pleistocene fauna of Yorkshire—the hyeenas, elephants, rhinoceroses, and hippopotamuses, with which Paleolithic man was contemporaneous—there ensued a pro- longed period during which an intensely cold climate supervened, and thick glacier-ice filled the valley of the Ribble. When that ice had melted away, and the land again became fitted to support a mammalian fauna, it was not carnivores such as the hyzena, or pachyderms such as the elephant and hippopotamus, that immigrated thither, but an assemblage of animals more or less characteristic of Post-pleistocene and Neolithic times. The faunas of the two cave-earths could hardly in fact be more strongly contrasted. The caves of Belgium, Germany, France, and other countries, have yielded, speaking generally, very much the same kind of evidence as that supplied by the cavern-deposits of England. 100 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. In certain of the river-valleys in Belgium, particularly in those of the Lesse, the Molignée, and the Samson, which are tribu- taries of the Meuse, a number of fine caves and rock-shelters occur. They have all proved more or less interesting to the archeologist and geologist, and the evidence they furnish as to the contemporaneity of man and the old mammalia, and the prolonged duration of the Pleistocene Period, is most complete. Of late years they have been very carefully examined by M. Dupont, director of the Royal Museum in Brussels.' No fewer than forty-three caverns in the valleys of the Lesse and the Molignée have been scientifically examined, and of these twenty-five have yielded traces of man. M. Dupont’s con- clusions, therefore, based as they are upon such a broad founda- tion of personal experience, could hardly fail to be both interest- ing and suggestive. It is a very great advantage that so many caves should have been examined by one man, because he is able to say what features of the evidence are invariable, and what may be looked upon as accidental. Thus, if such an observer shall find that certain phenomena are present in every case, he will accord to these a due importance in his endeavours to arrive at the meaning of the evidence; while an equally careful observer, whose attention had been directed to only one or two caves, and these perhaps widely separated, might likely enough fail to give needful weight to some parts of the evidence, and even miss their meaning altogether. The caves described by M. Dupont vary considerably in size, some being large and roomy, and more or less easy of access, while others are mere narrow crevices and rock-shelters. They occur in the rocky escarpments at different levels above the streams, from a few yards up to nearly 200 feet. The floor- deposits consist generally of alternations of fluviatile sediment, with layers of stalagmite, and what we may term bone-beds, These are the more ancient accumulations, and they abound in relics and remains of the Paleolithic Period. Above the Palzo- ! The descriptions given above are taken from M. Dupont’s interesting volume already cited. PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. IOI lithic deposits comes a mass of yellow clay and angular stones, which is often covered with deposits of loam and brick-earth. Relics and remains of the Neolithic Age occur at and near the surface of these superficial accumulations, but are never met with in an underlying position. The yellow clay, therefore, takes its place in the series between the accumulations belong- ing to the Old Stone Age and those which mark the later or New Stone Period. M. Dupont recognises two stages in the Paleolithic Period, one of which is called the Mammoth period, and the other, which is the more recent, the Reindeer period. These names are also employed by French geologists to mark similar stages in the floor-deposits of the caves in their country, but they have never met with much acceptance in England. The names indeed are unfortunate, for it is quite certain that the reindeer occupied Belgium and France in the so-called Mammoth period, and we have no reason to doubt that the mammoth lived down to the very close of the Paleolithic Age. It is quite an open question whether it did not even survive in Europe to Neolithic times. But while the mere names may be cavilled at, there can be no doubt that M. Dupont and others have brought forward evidence sufficient to show that the closing stage of the Palzo- lithic Period was marked by the abundance of the reindeer and other northern forms, and by the presence of the extinct species in greatly reduced numbers. The implements belonging to the so-called Reindeer period of Belgium are also indicative, upon the whole, of more advanced conditions than obtained during the earlier phases of the Palzeolithic age, as these are repre- sented in the caves of that country. The fluviatile deposits which oceupy the floors of the Belgian caves have of course been carried into them by the streams, but many of the caves are now far removed beyond the reach of even the highest floods. It is clear then, according to M. Dupont, that such caves bear witness to the gradual erosion or excavation of the valleys, and that river-deposits which occur in caves at the highest levels must be the most ancient of the 102 PREHISTORIC EUROPE, Paleolithic series. Near Montaigle, for example, there are several caves the fluviatile deposits in which must belong to very different stages. Of this group the Trou de VErable occurs at a level of nearly 200 feet (60 métres) above the river Molignée, the Trous du Sureau, du Chéne, and .du Lievre, are between 98 feet and 115 feet (30 and 35 métres), while the Trou de Philippe is not more than 33 feet (10 metres). The loam that lies in the Trou de l’Erable was introduced at a period when the river was flowing at a very high level—at least 197 feet above the present stream. In the course of time the valley was gradually deepened, and the river was no longer able to flood the Trou de l’Erable, but just succeeded in now and then reaching the caves at the lower levels. The river’s bed had in fact been lowered in the interim by about 170 feet, and this of itself implies the lapse of a very long time indeed. Hence the loam in the Trou de VErable is justly considered to be much older than the similar deposit that forms the floor of the caves at a less elevation. Its contents show that man, mammoths, bears, hyzenas, reindeer, and other animals, were even at that distant date living in Belgium ; but it is in the caves at lower levels where the most numerous and interesting relics of the Paleolithic Period are found. One of these, the Trou du Sureau (108 feet above the river Molignée), appears to have been long occupied, at successive times, as a place of abode by Paleolithic man—the successive occupations being represented by old “surfaces,” or “floors,” which are marked by precisely the same kind of features. Each is made up of quantities of bones, split, broken, and burnt, com- mingled with which are flakes and fragments of flint—the débris resulting from the manufacture and breakage of stone imple- ments. Traces of fire were seen in the burnt or baked earth of the floor, and in the mixture of cinders and charcoal that appeared in the middle of the cave. The bones and implements were always most abundant in the vicinity of the old hearth. The flint implements are of rude make, and somewhat triangular in form. They consist of a poor kind of flint, got in the neighbourhood, and show usually one plane surface, the PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 103 other side being roughly chipped so as to obtain a more or less sharp edge. Along with these occurred pointed implements made of reindeer-horn, which are supposed to be javelin-heads. The animal-remains include those of mammoth, rhinoceros, horse, common stag, urus, aurochs, reindeer, chamois, great cave- bear, grisly bear, fox, wolf, lion, hyena. Remains of the cave- bear were most abundant. The old floors which have yielded all this débris of ancient life were separated from each other by deposits of stratified loamy silt, pointing to times of flood when the river swelled above its normal level and filled the caves with muddy water, from which a deposition of fine silt took place. Three floors separated by intervening accumulations of silt and mud were observed in this cave—all of them being referred by M. Dupont to the Mammoth period. Immediately overlying these older deposits were found flint implements, with bones of the reindeer, horse, wild-boar, roebuck, goat,’ badger, fox, dog, and hare. This accumulation is assigned to the Reindeer period. The bones were scattered about the floor of the cave,? and were covered over by an accumulation of yellow clay containing many stones and blocks. Above the yellow clay comes a loose débris of stones which have tumbled and rolled down from time to time. Amongst these have been detected polished stone implements and frag- ments of pottery, along with the bones of ox and badger. The 1 The goat is frequently mentioned by Dupont as occurring in the caves of Belgium. Other osteologists have doubted this determination—the goat never having been obtained in the Pleistocene deposits of France or England. Mr. Tiddeman, however, records it from the lower cave-earth of Victoria Cave, York- shire, in close proximity to Hlephas antiquus. 2 At one place opposite the principal entrance to the cave occurred a heap of bones belonging to several small mammifers, birds, batrachians, and freshwater fish. These M. Dupont also assigns to the Reindeer period, and the presence of lemming, lagomys, and Arctic fox seems in favour of this view. Many of the other bones belong to burrowing species, such as mole, field-rat, field-mouse, ete. There is some difficulty in accounting for such a miscellaneous collection. No flint implements and no remains of those animals which formed the food of the folk who occupied the Trou du Sureau in Palzolithic times, occur in the heap, which therefore probably does not owe its origin to man. 104 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. same is the case in another cave, the Trou du Chéne, where a mass of yellow clay with stones separates the deposits of Paleo- lithic age from those that contain the relics of Neolithic and more modern times. In the Trou de Pont-a-Lesse (which is a mere shallow rock-shelter, situated some little distance from the Trou Magrite, to be described in the following chapter) the same yellow clay with stones is found. It is overlaid with a loose superficial débris of fallen stones, amongst which occur two bone-beds containing human bones and relics, which are referred by M. Dupont to the Neolithic Age. PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 105 CHAPTER: VIE CAVE-DEPOSITS OF THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD—Continued. Bone-caves of Belgium—The Trou Magrite—Contrast between lower and upper deposits—Trou de la Naulette—Human bones associated with remains of extinct animals—The Cavern of Goyet—The Trou du Frontal—Age of sepul- chral cavity—Caves of Germany and France—General conclusions as to caves—Evidence of progress during Paleolithic Period—Reindeer period in Belgium and France—Cold climatic conditions during the closing stage of Paleolithic Period—Alternations of genial and cold climates in earlier stages of same period—Break between Palolithic and Neolithic Ages. In the valley of the Lesse, nearly all the caves occur towards the middle of the escarpment at a height of between 65 feet and 115 feet (20 and 35 métres) above the river. One of the most important is the Trou Magrite at Pont-a-Lesse. The deposits in this cave consist of a basement-bed, eight feet thick, of gravel and water-worn stones, over which comes the usual stratified silt, containing intercalated with it four distinct layers of broken bones, which evidently represent the débris or refuse strewed over the floor at so many successive periods when the cave was tenanted by man. The stratified silt that separates one refuse- heap from another indicates, on the other hand, the occurrence of so many inundations by which the human occupation of the cave was interrupted. There are some remarkable differences between the lower and upper “floors.” In the former, remains of the extinct animals are very numerous, while in the latter they are less so, those floors being characterised by the abundance of bones of reindeer and horse. Again, the stone implements in the lower 106 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. levels are analogous to those found at Montaigle; they are rudely shaped and finished, and half-finished specimens occur in large numbers. Many of these spoiled implements are made of the black marble of the district—the others are of flint. Points or arrow-heads fashioned of reindeer’s horn are also met with. The implements got in the upper bone-beds or “floors” are not of the rude form and finish of the Montaigle type, but consist of long well-shaped flakes of flint (so-called “knives ”). Others again are furnished with a “peduncle,” as if they were meant to be sunk into a shaft of wood and used for spearing purposes. Their workmanship indicates decidedly more skill than that of the implements obtained from the lower levels in the same cave. But the most remarkable “finds” in the upper floors consist of portions of reindeer’s horn showing etchings or engravings, which have been traced by some sharp point—no doubt, by a flint implement. One small bit of horn has been cut or scraped so as to present the rude outline of a human figure. Another of the more interesting caves that occur in the valley of the Lesse is the Trou de la Naulette, which has been -occupied at separate times by men and wild beasts. The en- trance to this cave is about 90 feet above the level of the river. The floor is covered with 36 feet of fluviatile silt—the lower portion of which was deposited at a time when the Lesse flowed at the level of the entrance, while the upper portion consists of flood-accumulations carried into the cave at a time when the river at its normal level had ceased to reach the entrance. These flood-accumulations consist of seven separate beds or layers which are separated by an equal number of stalagmitic pavements. The latter of course indicate periods of more or less duration during which there were no inundations, and the cave remained dry. Bones are met with above the first, second, and seventh stalagmitic floors. Those of the first layer indicate that the cave was at that time a hyzena’s den, which is proved by the presence of remains of that animal together with abun- dance of gnawed bones of various ruminants. The second bone- bed affords evidence that during its accumulation the Trou de PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 107 la Naulette was the abode of Paleolithic man. This is shown by the heaps of bones which have been split longitudinally for the sake of the marrow—many of them showing the marks of blows made doubtless with stone implements. Besides these were found a human lower jaw and other bones. The animal remains associated with them indicate a group of animals cha- racteristically Pleistocene. Among these were mammoth, rhino- ceros, horse, wild-boar, small-ox, goat, chamois, reindeer, common stag, roebuck, marmot, squirrel, mole, water-rat, hare, brown bear, pole-cat, wolf, fox, dog, wild-cat, and some birds, bat- rachians, and freshwater fish. The Pleistocene deposits are overlaid as usual with an accu- mulation of yellow clay charged with angular stones. The cavern of Goyet occurs in the valley of the Samson, another tributary of the Meuse, at a height of about 50 feet above the level of the stream. It contains five bone-layers alternating with six beds of alluvial deposits. The fifth or lowest level contained remains of the lion commingled with those of the cave-bear which occurred in great abundance. The fourth level indicated that during the time it formed the floor hyzenas and bears occupied the cave. The bones of their prey were those of man, lynx, pole-cat, wolf, fox, rhinoceros, mammoth, horse, chamois, wapiti, the great Irish deer, reindeer, and ox. Remains of the lion, hyzna, and cave-bear occurred in great abundance, and the evidence showed that these animals had occupied the cave at successive periods. During the accumula- tions of the fifth bone-bed it would appear that the lion was the first occupant, and that he was succeeded by the bear. In like manner during the formation of the fourth bone-bed the cave was first a hyzena’s den and afterwards became the haunt of bears. The third floor was occupied by Paleolithic hunters, the relics of whose feasts occur in abundance. The flint implements are of the primitive type found at Montaigle. The animal remains of this level belong to the following species—cave- bear, brown bear, badger, weasel or ermine, dog, wolf, common fox, blue fox, hyzena, lion, hare, marmot, rhinoceros, mammoth, 108 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. horse, goat, chamois, bouquetin, stag, roebuck, reindeer, ox, urus, and some birds. Human bones were found among the others, In the second layer occurred flint implements approaching in form the types found at Montaigle and in the Trou Magrite. Besides these were a number of implements and carved and or- namented objects formed of reindeer’s horn, resembling those discovered by MM. Larty and Christy in the caverns of Péri- gord. The animal remains of this level belonged to cave-bear, badger, wolf, common fox, blue fox, hyzena, lion, hare, rhinoceros, mammoth, horse, wild-boar, goat, chamois, stag, reindeer, ox, and birds. The first or highest level was rich in human relics in flint and horn, which evinced better workmanship than the similar relics found in the other caverns. The flint implements consisted principally of well-shaped blades and flakes; and there were numerous bodkins or awls, javelin- or arrow-heads, and harpoons in bone and horn, besides teeth of wolf, fox, stag, horse, and ox, which were drilled, as if for the purpose of being suspended by way of ornament. The species whose remains are met with in this upper level consist of cave-bear, brown bear, polecat, wolf, common fox, blue fox, hyzna, rhinoceros, mam- moth, horse, wild-boar, hare, goat, chamois, stag, reindeer, ox, and various birds. A few human bones were also found. I shall refer to only another Belgian cave—the Trou du Frontal, which occurs in the valley of the Lesse, near the village of Furfooz. M. Dupont gives a section of this cave, which is: here reproduced (Fig. 3). The lowest deposits consist of clay (4), over which come beds of gravel (3) and alluvial silt (2). These represent, of course, the older accumulations of the river. At H H were found many broken bones belonging to lemming, reindeer, lagomys, stag, urus, beaver, chamois, horse, and other animals ; and at F burnt bones and charcoal indicated an old hearth. A number of human skeletons occurred in what appears to have been a sepulchral cavity (S), the entrance to which had been closed by a slab of stone (D). At the entrance to the cavity was found an urn, along with flint implements, perforated shells, and a piece of fluorine, which was likewise PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 109 perforated, and had doubtless been used as an ornament. The human remains were confusedly mingled with clay and angular Fig. 3.—Section of Deposits in the Trou du Frontal. (Dupont.) stones, and a mass of the same materials (1) covered over the old hearth and the bone-debris (H H), and extended down the slope of the hill so as to dip underneath the modern alluvium of the Lesse. The bone-débris and the hearth must have been in existence before the stony clay began to accumulate, and M. Dupont has no doubt that the human skeletons are likewise of older date than that superficial covering. Indeed, he does not hesitate to connect the bone-débris at H H with the human remains in the sepulchral cavity, and is of opinion that the former are the relics of the feasts which took place at the burials. In this, however, he may be mistaken, and, as Pro- fessor Boyd Dawkins has pointed out, the burial-place may have belonged to one people, and the refuse-heaps outside the slab to another. We may suppose that the cavity was in use for a burial-place after the clay with stones had accumulated, and 110 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. that therefore it may belong to a much later date than the Paleolithic refuse-heaps at H H. Another objection to this sepulchral cavity with its contents being of Paleolithic Age is the character of the human remains and relics. “The form of the urn,” as Mr. Dawkins says, “is remarkably like some of those which have been obtained from the Neolithic pile-dwell- ings of Switzerland, and therefore may possibly imply that the interment is of that age.” The skulls also “seem to be of the same general order as the broad skulls from the Neolithic caves and tombs of France, and from the round barrows of Great Britain, as well as those from the Neolithic tombs of Borreby and Moen in Scandinavia.” From the foregoing descriptions of English and Belgian caves, the reader will gather a fair notion of the kind of evidence that Paleolithic cavern-deposits usually supply. A description of the cave-accumulations of France, Switzerland, and Germany would, in large measure, be a repetition of the same tale. It is not necessary for my purpose to do more than merely indicate the general gist of the evidence, and this may be done very briefly. The caves and rock-shelters which we have already passed in review contain, as we have seen, relics pertaining to different stages of the Paleolithic Period. The same holds true with the caves of France and other countries. ' French archeologists, indeed, have classified their caverns according to what they conceive is the relative antiquity of the relics and remains which they contain. In the oldest series are included those caves which have yielded remains of the cave-bear in greatest plenty, and in which the human relics of rudest form and finish occur; while the newer series comprises those caverns in which remains of the reindeer are most abun- dant, and where the human implements evince the greatest skill and perfection of workmanship. Among the former come such caves as that of Valliéres (Loir-et-Cher), discovered by M. de Vibraye, which contains bones of rhinoceros, hyzena, megaceros, urus, horse, etc. along with flint implements of the rudest types. Another example is that of the Grotte des Fées at PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. III Arcy-sur-cure (Yonne), in which M. de Vibraye discovered bones of mammoth, cave-bear, rhinoceros, and hyzna, with rude flint implements and a human vertebra. In the cavern of Pontit (Herault), the lower deposits contained remains of rhino- ceros, cave-bear, urus, etc., while in the upper layers were char- coal and implements of flint, bone, and horn, commingled with bones of horse, urus, etc. The uppermost layer was of Neo- lithic Age, and yielded polished stone implements, pottery, etc. But one of the most interesting caves is that of Moustier (Périgord), described by MM. Lartet and Christy. It has yielded remains of hyzena, cave-bear, and mammoth, with flint implements which approach in character to those discovered at Valliéres, and in certain ancient river-gravels at Abbeville, which will be referred to in the following chapter. The caverns and stations belonging to the later stage of the Paleolithic Period, or so-called Reindeer epoch, are the most abundant in France. They are especially numerous in the steep rocky banks and cliffs of the valleys of the Dordogne and the Vezére in Péri- gord, where they have been studied by the late MM. Lartet and Christy, who have furnished us with many most interesting details of the conditions that obtained during the closing scenes of Paleolithic times. From the caves of Périgord and some of those in the Pyrenees have come the most numerous and best finished examples of carved and engraved horns, and bones and ivory! The character of these and other human relics, and the fact that they are invariably associated with plentiful remains of the reindeer, show that the caves of Périgord and the lower val- _ leys of the Pyrenees were occupied towards the close of the Palzeo- lithic Period by a race of hunters and fishers who lived under cold climatic conditions; and the close analogy presented by these French caves to those of Belgium renders it in the highest degree probable that both belong approximately to the same age. Among the more important French caves and stations of this age are those of Massat (Ariége), La Vache, near Tarascon (Ariége), Bruniquel, on the borders of Aveyron (Tarn-et-Garonne), 1 Fine engravings have also been discovered in the Kesserloch, a Swiss cave. 112 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. Eyzies, near Tayac (Périgord), Laugerie (Périgord), La Made- leine (Périgord), Gourdan (Haute-Garonne), Duruthy (Pyre- nées), Sartenette and La Salpétriere in the lower valley of Gardon, etc. Although these caves are said to belong to the Reindeer period, it must not be supposed that the caves pertaining to the so-called epoch of the Cave-bear and the Mammoth contain no traces of the northern fauna. On the contrary, even those caves which are assigned by archzologists to the earliest stages of Paleolithic times often contain representatives from the northern, southern, and temperate groups. But in the older caves remains of the extinct forms predominate—such as cave-bear, mammoth, rhinoceros, etc.—while the reindeer and its immediate associates are less frequently met with. In the caves of the so-called Reindeer period, the extinct forms are less numerous, and the reindeer, on the contrary, very abundant. The caves of Germany and Switzerland have likewise sup- plied us with plentiful remains of the mammalian fauna of Paleolithic times. Among the best known are those of Gailen- ruth and Muggendorf in the valley of the Wiesent ; Baumanns- hohle, Bielshdhle, and others in the Harz; and those which occur in the limestone-districts of Westphalia between Diissel- dorf and Iserlohn. They are not uncommon in the northern part of the Jura Mountains (Franconian Alb), and they occur now and again in the same hilly tract between Schaffhausen and Coburg. The Kesserloch near Thiaingen, in the canton of Schaffhausen, and the cave of Veyrier, near Geneva, are famous Swiss caves in which relics of the Reindeer period occur in great abundance. The caves of Southern Europe are also rich in animal débris, but they differ from those of Central Europe in never having yielded remains of the reindeer or the musk-sheep. So far as we yet know, neither of these animals ever went south of the Pyrenees and the Alps. Certain other species, however, which are now confined to high latitudes or alpine elevations, appear at one time to have lived at low levels in the Mediterranean PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 113 regions. Thus M. Riviere has discovered the remains of the glutton in caves near Mentone,' and a lagomys or tailless hare is not uncommon in the breccias of Corsica and Sardinia.2, The marmot, which is now confined in the Alps nearly to the borders of perpetual snow, formerly lived, according to Gastaldi, at the foot of the southern slopes of the Moncalieri-Valenza hills, where its remains have been met with on several occasions. The mammoth also at the same time frequented Spain and Central Italy. But the general facies of the mammalian fauna in the ossiferous deposits of Southern Europe is, as we might have expected, rather southern than northern. We miss the reindeer and the musk-sheep, and at the same time encounter certain animals of southern habitat which are either wanting or very rare in the cave-accumulations of North-western Europe. It must be noted, however, that animals which are more or less characteristic of a temperate climate are plentiful. Red-deer, roe, fallow-deer, ibex, urus, horse, wild-boar, rabbit, cave-bear, brown bear, grisly bear, wolf, fox, etc., were associated in the same region with lion, leopard, lynx, Caffer-cat, serval, hyzna, rhinoceros (2h. hemitawchus), elephant (£. antiquus and africanus), hippopotamus (H. major and Pentlandi), etc. Although there is nothing, therefore, in the evidence furnished by the caves and breccias of the south that would lead us to infer that the Mediterranean region was ever subject to conditions as cold as those which obtained in Southern France during the Reindeer period, yet we are not without indications of a less genial climate than the present having formerly prevailed. The presence at low levels in Italy of such animals as tailless hares and marmots, and the occurrence of the glutton at Mentone and the mammoth in Spain and Italy, is in perfect harmony with the appearance of a northern fauna in Southern France. The more noted caves, ete., of Southern Europe are those of 1 Compt. Rend. Assoc. Frang. pour V Avance. des Sciences, Paris, 1878, p. 622; Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 3° Sér. t. vi. p. 621. 2 Locard: Archiv. du Mus. d’ Hist. Nat. de Lyon, 1873. ® *Intorno ad alcuni resti fossili di Arctomys e di Ursus speleus,” Atti R. Accad. Scienze, Torino, 1871. I 114 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. Gibraltar, Provence, Mentone, Sicily, and Malta. The Sicilian caves abound in remains of the pigmy hippopotamus, which occurs also very plentifully in the Maltese caves,’ where it is associated with species of dwarf or pigmy elephant. Remains of the pigmy hippopotamus have not until recently been obtained in situ on the mainland of. Europe. Professor Capellini, how- ever, now records them from the cave of Santa Teresa, near Spezia.? Human remains and relics and traces of man’s presence occur in various caves in Southern Europe, and there can be no doubt that the ossiferous deposits in those caves are of the same age as the similar accumulations in Central and North-western Europe. The facts now briefly passed in review enable us to arrive at certain conclusions which it may be well to sum up before we turn to the next stage in our inquiry. I have already dwelt with sufficient emphasis on the great antiquity of the cave- deposits. This is proved by a variety of considerations, such as the thickness of the stalagmitic pavements, the very considerable changes which were effected in the drainage-systems during the course of the Paleolithic Period, the great depth to which many valleys were eroded by their streams, so that caves which in early Pleistocene times were liable to constant or intermittent flooding became by and by quite dry, the streams, even when most swollen, being unable any longer to reach the openings into the caverns. Such are some of the more evident proofs of the antiquity of the Old Stone Age. But the changes of climate and physical conditions to which the mammalia bear witness are not less eloquent of the prolonged duration of that remark- able epoch. To whatever cause those climatic mutations may have been due, we cannot believe that they came upon our con- tinent all of a sudden, and then passed as rapidly away. Such great changes are only brought about very gradually, and there- fore they necessarily imply a long lapse of time. But, leaving 1 The Maltese breccias are referred to more particularly in Chapter XIII. 2 Mem. dell’ Accad. delle Scienze dell’ Istituto di Bologna, Ser. 3. tom. x. 1879, PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 115 these and other general considerations for the present, I would merely recapitulate a few points which seem to be of special importance. The first of these is the fact that in many bone-caves of Palzolithic age, the upper deposits contain relics which evince more skill, and, upon the whole, a -greater degree of advance than those that are common in the lower accumulations. Are we to believe that we have, in this case, proofs of a gradual advance in the same people from a very low state of savagery to a less barbarous condition? Or may the difference between the implements of the lower and upper deposits simply show that one tribe was dispossessed by another coming later in time into Western Europe? Again, have we any reason to believe that the cave-deposits of the so-called Reindeer period are, in all cases, of later date than those cave-accumulations which con- tain more abundant remains of the extinct species, and which are assigned by some archologists to what is called the Mam- moth period? May not.it be that one set of caves was inha- bited contemporaneously with the other; in other words, may not the men who fashioned the rudest flint implements have lived at the same time as the artistic tribes of the Dordogne and other places? I have already quoted some remarks made by Professor Dawkins to the effect that any attempt to classify cave- deposits according to the relative rudeness of their implements cannot be relied upon, because “the difference may have been due to different tribes or families having co-existed without intercourse with each other.” And the same osteologist has pointed out that the northern, southern, and temperate species of mammalia are so associated together in the Pleistocene deposits of Europe, that no classification can be founded upon the relative predominance or scarcity of any particular species in the caves. “The difference,” says Professor Dawkins, “between the contents of one Paleolithic cave and another, is probably largely due to the fact that man could more easily catch some animals than others, as well as to the preference for one kind of food before another. And the abundance of the reindeer, which 116 < PREHISTORIC EUROPE. is supposed to characterise the Reindeer period, may reasonably be accounted for by the fact that it would be more easily cap- tured by a savage hunter than the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, cave-bear, lion, or hyena.” ? There is much force in these remarks, and one cannot but feel that the considerations urged by Professor Dawkins would be to a great extent unanswerable if the relative antiquity of cave-deposits were to be decided solely by an appeal to the evidence which he calls in question. But when we discover, in such caves as contain a succession of several deposits, that the higher beds are frequently charged with human relics of better finish and more varied design than those of the lower strata, while the reverse appears never to occur, we cannot in such cases admit that his objections have much weight. We have seen that in Kent’s Cave the implements obtained from the lower stages were of a much ruder description than the various objects detected in the upper cave-earth and the black-band. And a very long time must have elapsed between the formation of the lower and upper Paleolithic beds in that cave. Precisely the same phenomena are met with in several of the bone-caves in Belgium and France, and the conclusion is forced upon us that in these particular cases the caves were tenanted in late Paleolithic times by tribes considerably farther advanced than the savages who occupied them at an earlier date. Whether the latest Paleolithic tribes were the same race as the latter, who in the course of the ages had gradually attained a somewhat more advanced stage; or whether, as there is some reason for thinking, they may have been immigrants from some other region who dispossessed the older inhabitants, we cannot yet say, but future discoveries will probably decide. Again, it may well be admitted that the mere abundance of the reindeer in the deposits of the so-called Reindeer period is no proof that the extinct mammalia such as mammoths, woolly rhinoceroses, and so forth, were not living in great numbers during that period. No doubt all those animals that were 1 Cave-hunting, p. 352. PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 117 capable of occupying the same feeding-grounds as the reindeer, might be as abundant in late Pleistocene times as they ever were at any earlier period. But when we find that the true southern species—the hippopotamus, the elephant, and the rhinoceros—are conspicuous by their absence from the deposits of late Paleolithic times, it seems more reasonable to suppose that their absence was due rather to changed climatic conditions than to any difficulty the old savages might have had in cap- turing them. All the evidence conspires to show that towards the close of the Old Stone Age the climate of Europe was cold and arctic, so that animals which are now met with only in northern regions, or at high altitudes in alpine districts, occu- pied the low grounds as far south as Périgord in France. The folk of that closing period lived very much in the same way as the Eskimo live now, fishing in the cold waters and hunting in the “barren grounds ;” the refuse of their feasts was allowed to accumulate on the floor of their dwelling-places, and they pro- bably suffered no more inconvenience from the presence of the unsavoury heaps than similarly-cireumstanced tribes in our own day. We can picture them to ourselves feasting round their fires on reindeer-flesh, or splitting up the bones and sucking the juicy marrow. At other times, when perhaps reindeer-hunting had proved unsuccessful, they were content to catch such fish as they could in the rivers, or to capture lemmings, weasels, water-rats, and other small animals, and birds. Their tastes do not seem to have been very eclectic, and from the relics of their feasts we gather a pretty fair idea of the mammalian fauna of the lands they lived in. But, as we have seen, they seem to have had no domestic animals, nor have we any reason to believe that they knew anything of agriculture. The potter’s art appears likewise to have been unknown. The most distinguishing characteristic of the reindeer-hunters, however, was their love of art, a characteristic which, as we know from the analogy of the living Eskimo, may co-exist with a very low state of civilisation, In the earlier stages of the Paleolithic Period we have 118 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. proof in the commingled remains of animals that belong to widely-separated zones of considerable changes of climate. Cold and genial conditions had alternated long before the time when the caves of Périgord were tenanted by the artistic reindeer-hunter ; for plentiful remains of northern, temperate, and southern species occur in deposits, that go back to much earlier dates. Whether we shall ever be able, from a study of the bone-caves alone, to discover how many such changes took place during the Old Stone Age, is extremely doubtful; we might even say, highly improbable. But there are various collateral lines of evidence, which, if followed up, will, I believe, greatly aid us in our endeavours, and eventually help us to decipher much that is at present enigmatical and obscure. Not only do the cave-deposits bear witness to past vicis- situdes of climate—to changes in the relative position of land and sea,—to considerable modifications in the physical features of our river-valleys—and to the prolonged duration of that period during which man was contemporaneous with the extinct or no longer indigenous mammalia,—but they also testify to the remarkable fact that the Old Stone Age did not graduate as it were into the New Stone Age. The records of the latter epoch are separated very markedly from those of the former. No sooner do we pass from the uppermost deposits of Pleistocene age to the more modern accumulations, than all at once we find ourselves in quite another world. The hyznas and lions, the rhinoceroses and mammoths, have disappeared, and we are now face to face with a group of animals that we recognise as being the common indigenous European forms of our own day. Paleolithic man has likewise vanished, and his place is supplied by races considerably farther advanced on the road to civilisation. Neolithic man was not only a hunter and fisher like his predecessors, but he possessed some knowledge of agriculture, and of the arts of weaving and making pottery. His implements show more variety of design and are upon the whole much better finished, being frequently ground at the edges, and often smoothed and polished. He was also accom- PLEISTOCENE CAVE-DEPOSITS. 11g panied by domesticated animals, and in some cases occupied well-constructed houses, which doubtless for security’s sake were built in lakes; and in many other respects he was decidedly in advance even of the artistic hunters of the Rein- deer period. The geological position in which the relics of Neolithic times are found, bears emphatic testimony to the lapse of time that separates the close of the Old Stone Age in Europe from the beginning of the succeeding New Stone or Neolithic Period. The implements belonging to the latter epoch occupy invariably a superficial position—they occur either lying loosely at the surface or embedded at no great depth, in accumulations which can be shown to be of very recent date, geologically speaking. In undisturbed cave-deposits they are never commingled with the relics of the older period, but are not infrequently separated from these by sheets of stalagmite, accumulations of earth and débris, or beds of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and other materials. Several good examples of this character have already been given. Thus in Kent’s Cave we have seen that the archaic and more modern remains rested upon a bed of granular stalagmite, in and underneath which only did Paleolithic implements and the bones of the extinct mammalia occur. All these had been sealed up and the cave had been long abandoned before it was again tenanted by man. In the interim many large and small blocks had fallen from the roof and accumulated upon the floor. Again, after the cave at Brixham had been for a long time open to the visits of Palzeo- lithic man and of hyenas and other animals of the period, it was finally deserted, and an accumulation of stones, dislodged by the action of the weather, gradually blocked up the entrance, so that the cave was never subsequently tenanted by man. But the evidence supplied by the Victoria Cave at Settle is still more remarkable, for we there discover that after the land had been for a long time occupied by hyzenas, elephants, hippo- potamuses, and other animals, a cold climate supervened, and a great glacier crept down the valley of the Ribble ; and it was 120 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. not till long after that glacier had melted away that Neolithic man entered Yorkshire. The Belgian caves in like manner afford abundant proof of the break or hiatus that divides in Europe the Paleolithic from the Neolithic Age. M. Dupont has brought forward _ copious evidence to show that a mass of yellow clay, more or less plentifully charged with large and small angular stones, separates the newest deposits of the Reindeer period from the Neolithic accumulations. This clay with stones, he says, is widely spread over the country, and he is inclined to attribute its formation to the action of a great débdcle or flood. Others again have suggested that it may owe its origin simply to the long-continued action of the weather. In whatever manner it was formed it undoubtedly indicates a period of longer or shorter duration. The Reindeer epoch came to a close, and, thereafter, the clay and stones began to accumulate, and the accumulation had apparently come to a close before Neolithic man appeared upon the scene, for his relics are now found resting either upon the surface of the clay or in the débris of loose stones that has subsequently gathered above it. Did space permit, reference might be made to other examples of caves, especially in Southern France, where the evidence of a distinct separation between Paleolithic and Neolithic times is more or less strongly pronounced. But those now given may suffice, more especially as I shall presently bring forward copious collateral proofs which have been furnished by certain river-deposits, both in this country and the Continent. Mean- while, such evidence as we have glanced at puts it beyond doubt that a considerable interval of time must have supervened after the departure of Paleolithic man and before the arrival of his Neolithic successor, PLEISTOCENE RIVER-DEPOSITS. 121 CHAPTER VIII. RIVER-DEPOSITS OF THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. M. Boucher de Perthes’ discoveries—Professor Prestwich on origin of the ossi- ferous and implement-bearing ‘‘drifts”—Fluviatile origin of the so-called ‘* drift””—Erosion of river valleys during Pleistocene times—Time required for excavation of valleys—Professor A. Geikie on modern denudation— Flooded condition of Pleistocene rivers— Professor Prestwich on relation between ancient river-gravels and loams—Absence of well-marked river- terraces accounted for—River ice and ice-floated erratics—Professor Prest- wich on climatic conditions implied by Pleistocene river-deposits—Com- mingling of different groups of mammals—Sir C. Lyell’s views—Mr. Darwin on angular gravels of Southern England. THE evidence we are now about to consider is in certain re- spects more satisfactory than that derived from the study of cave-deposits. The latter, indeed, teach us in the most impres- sive manner that the Paleolithic Age is separated from our own by a great interval of time—an interval that may well be measured by hundreds of centuries ; but taken by themselves alone they do not tell us to what particular stage in the geolo- gical record they ought to be referred. We have seen that their fossil contents have enabled geologists to class them as of Pleistocene age. But the term Pleistocene embraces a great variety of accumulations of diverse formation. Besides cave- deposits, there are lacustrine, fluviatile, and marine strata, some of which attain a considerable thickness, and spread over wide tracts of country. Again, there are enormous sheets and heaps of glacial detritus that cover a large part of the British Islands and Northern Europe, and gather abundantly upon the low grounds that sweep out from the base of every mountainous or 122 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. alpine region in our continent. All these varied deposits and accumulations are referred by geologists to the Pleistocene Period, and it is clearly a matter of importance to discover, if we can, to what particular stage of that period the ossiferous layers of our caves belong. Must we relegate them to the beginning, the middle, or the end of Pleistocene times? What relation do they bear-to the so-called Glacial Period or Ice Age? The only instance in which we find cave-deposits brought into actual contact with accumulations which are undeniably of glacial origin is that of the Victoria Cave, in Yorkshire. In that cave we have evidence to show that a cold climate, characterised by the presence of large glaciers in the north of England, super- vened after the departure of hyznas, elephants, and their con- geners. Does it follow, then, that all similar cave-accumula- tions in which the remains of these animals occur must belong to the same age as those of the Victoria Cave, or may not some be of earlier and others of later date ? It is clear that the caves themselves can give us no decisive reply to all these questions; they yield us no direct informa- tion as to the climatic and geographical conditions that obtained in Europe before the introduction and formation of their earths, silts, breccias, and stalagmites.| We have seen, however, that some caves certainly contain deposits of more recent Pleistocene age than others, and that the closing stage of the Paleolithic Epoch was characterised by an extremely cold climate. But we have still to learn what exact relation our cave-deposits as a whole bear to the Pleistocene Period. In a word, we have to ascertain whether the so-called Old Stone Age belongs to Preglacial, Glacial, or Postglacial times. Fortunately for geologists, the links in the evidence which the caves fail to supply have been discovered elsewhere. In England and the Continent the fauna so characteristic of the older cave-accumulations has left its remains in certain super- ? This is generally true, according to our present knowledge ; but there are exceptional cases, such as the caves of Gibraltar, in which the relation of the bone-bearing beds to deposits pertaining to the Glacial Period is clearly shown. See Chapter XIII. PLEISTOCENE RIVER-DEPOSITS. 123 ficial deposits of loam, sand, and gravel, the relations of which, both to older and younger geological formations, can be more or less distinctly traced. And along with these osseous remains have been found immense numbers of worked flints of the same general character. as those which occur in our caves. We must now for a little glance at the evidence of the ancient deposits in which these remarkable relics of primeval times lie entombed. It is to M. Boucher de Perthes of Abbeville that the honour must be assigned of having been the first to direct the attention of scientific men to the occurrence of worked flints along with bones of extinct animals in beds of undisturbed sand and gravel. His discoveries, however, were for long years neglected both by French and English geologists; and it was not until after the exploration of Brixham Cave had overturned our preconceived notions of the antiquity of man, and his contemporaneity with the extinct animals, that the investigations of the Abbeville antiquarian began to attract notice. Perhaps one of the reasons why the French discoveries were so long passed over by English scientific men was the general conclusion arrived at by Boucher de Perthes, that the flint implements and mammalian remains were entombed together by the waters of the Noachian deluge. By geologists in this country the idea of a general deluge had long been discredited; and so deeply had uniformitarian doc- trines been imbibed, that débdcles and deluges of any kind had come to be looked upon with considerable disfavour. It could be shown that the slow, continuous action of frost and rain and running-water was capable in time of effecting enormous changes on the surface of the globe; and it was considered un- philosophical to call in the agency of such accidents as débdcles and deluges to account for appearances which could be well explained without their aid. When an author, therefore, seemed 1 So far back as 1797, however, an English antiquarian, Mr. John Frere, had . described the occurrence of flint ‘‘weapons of war” and some ‘‘extraordinary bones” in undisturbed strata of gravel and sand at Hoxne, in Suffolk. Archio- logia, vol. xiii. p. 204. Mr. Frere’s interesting letter is given in extenso by Mr. Prestwich in the ‘‘ Author’s Copies” of his famous paper, read to the Royal Society in 1859, Philosophical Transactions, Part II., 1860, p. 277. 124 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. to ignore the common agents of change, and to rely chiefly upon the supposed occurrence of a tumultuous rush of waters in his endeavours to decipher the meaning of certain geological phe- nomena, it is perhaps not surprising that problem and solution alike failed to attract attention. Be that, however, as it may, it is unquestionably true that the chief reason for our neglect of the evidence of man’s antiquity lay in the simple fact that we were prejudiced against it. It was against their wills that most geologists were at last convinced, and numerous were the objections raised before the majority could divest themselves of their old persuasion, and accept the new views. But so cogent and abundant has the evidence now become, that the sole non- contents who venture to appear in print are writers who have merely a certain literary acquaintance with the subject, and whose objections often are, in a certain sense at least, un- answerable. It was Mr. Prestwich who some twenty years ago first drew the attention of English geologists to the discoveries made by Boucher de Perthes, and so admirably did he expound the phenomena that his conclusions at once made a profound im- pression. He completed a careful examination of many localities in the north of France and the south-east of England, and proved to demonstration that the flint implements were un- doubtedly the work of man’s hand, and had been buried in sediment contemporaneously with the remains of the Old Pleistocene mammalia. He showed, moreover, that the sand and gravel in which these relics lay entombed were not the result of any sudden débdcle or deluge, but had been formed and deposited by streams and rivers in the process of excavat- ing their valleys. He pointed out, moreover, that some of the sediments spoke to the former occurrence of intermittent or periodical floods of vast extent. In short, he interpreted the phenomena on uniformitarian principles, and so clearly and cautiously did he reason out his conclusions, that his views have deservedly met with very general acceptance. They were adopted by Sir Charles Lyell in his well-known work The PLEISTOCENE RIVER-DEPOSITS. 125 Antiquity of Man, and the example of this eminent geologist was of course soon followed by the greater number of his disciples. Extended observations and the evidence obtained during collateral inquiries have only tended to confirm the general truth of Professor Prestwich’s conclusions. My limits will not allow me, however, to give a detailed account of those investigations, which may be said to have revolutionised Pleis- tocene geology. All I can do is to sketch in outline the main features of the evidence, and to note the chief results arrived at. The occurrence of great sheets of gravel, loam, and sand on the slopes of many valleys in the south of England and the north of France had long been known to geologists, and many were the explanations, advanced from time to time, to account for their presence. Few could believe that such water-worn materials—often appearing at heights of more than 100 feet above the valley-bottom—could have resulted from the action of the present streams and rivers. It was thought possible that this might well be the origin of the gravel and sand at low levels, but the more elevated deposits were assigned some- times to the action of the sea, during a comparatively recent period of submergence, and at other times they were supposed to be due to the sweep of great cataclysmic rushes of water. Considerable doubt also existed as to the age of the gravels in different valleys, and even of those in one and the same valley. This uncertainty arose chiefly from the nature of the palzonto- logical evidence —the fossils appearing to indicate various ages. Thus, for example, it was thought that the deposits at Brent- ford, in the valley of the Thames, were newer than those of Grays. Professor Prestwich, however, had on physical grounds long been satisfied of the contemporaneity of these deposits, and contended for their posteriority to the “Boulder Clay.” In other words, he had come to the conclusion that they were posterior in date to the Glacial Period or Ice Age. This latter point I will not now consider, as it falls to be discussed in suc- ceeding chapters. For the present we are concerned simply with the origin of the valley-gravels—high- and low-level deposits 126 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. alike. These, Professor Prestwich was the first to show, all belong to one series, and the wide-spread “loss” or loam and brick-earth, he likewise included as part of the same pheno- mena. An exhaustive examination of the gravels and loams ina number of the valleys in the north of France and the south of England enabled this geologist to demonstrate that they had been formed by river-action. This was shown by the pebbles themselves, all of which had been derived from the strata in which the valleys are excavated. Not only so, but they had also travelled in the same direction as the present streams. The fluviatile origin of the gravels in question was still farther proved by the notable fact that land- and freshwater-shells were often met with in high- and low-level deposits alike, while marine remains, save in the immediate neighbourhood of the sea, were entirely wanting. From these old “ river-drifts” flint implements of undeniable human workmanship have been obtained in large numbers, and associated with them, in the same undisturbed strata of sand and gravel, numerous remains of the Pleistocene mammalia have been found. The observations of Boucher de Perthes have thus been verified by Professor Prestwich, as also by many French and English geologists. There can be no doubt, therefore, that man and his congeners, the extinct and no longer indigenous mammalia, were in joint occupation of France and Southern England during the deposition of the ancient valley-deposits whose origin we are now considering. One of the most remarkable characteristics of these gravel- and loam-beds is the height they frequently attain above the present levels reached by the streams and rivers. They are traced in patches and often in more or less continuous sheets up to a height in some cases of as much as 150 feet above the bottoms of the valleys. It-is evident, therefore, that the rivers at one time flowed’ at elevations which they do not now attain even during the heaviest floods. Professor Prestwich has shown very clearly how impossible it is that the formation of the higher PLEISTOCENE RIVER-DEPOSITS. 127 oravel-terraces can be due to the action of the present rivers under existing conditions. “The greatest flood of the Seine on record,” he remarks, “is that of the year 1658, when it rose to a height of 29 feet. Even in this case a flood of nearly sixty times that magnitude would be required merely to fill the valley to the level of the high-level gravels, without taking into con- sideration the more rapid discharge. But neither in this nor in the other cases of modern times are we aware of an increase in the volume of water, during floods in these regions, to many times the ordinary mean average, whereas we see that in a case such as is presented at Amiens a flood having a volume five hundred times that mean would be required to reach the beds of St. Acheul.”* The conclusion to which this sagacious observer came, therefore, was that the gravels had been laid down by the rivers during the gradual excavation of their valleys; that is to say that the gravels indicate the various levels at which the rivers formerly flowed. Thus the high-level terraces are those which the streams formed when they were flowing 100 or 150 feet, as the case may be, higher than at present, while the lower terraces on the slopes of the valleys mark out the various stages in the slow process of excavation. When we bear in mind the fact that, between the time when the higher terraces began to be formed, and the period when the deposition of the lowest-lying Pleistocene beds had been completed, the valleys were excavated in rock to depths ranging from 50 to 150 feet, and to widths that sometimes reach and even exceed a mile, we must be forcibly impressed with the protracted duration of the Pleistocene Period, and the extreme antiquity of its commencement. In the long time that has elapsed since the deposition of the lowest-level Pleistocene beds the valleys have suffered comparatively little denudation, and did we measure the rate at which they were deepened in Pleisto- cene times with that at which they are now being excavated, we should be compelled to infer for them an almost inconceivable age. There are abundant reasons, however, for believing that 1 Philosophical Transactions, 1864, p. 266. . 128 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. their excavation proceeded more rapidly in the past than at present. But even after all due allowance has been made on this score we must still concede for the process of excavation a very prolonged time indeed. It is true that the Cretaceous and Tertiary strata through which so many of the valleys in the south of England and the north of France are cut are by no means so durable as the older rocks of Wales, for example, and the north country generally. Nevertheless, it is obvious that the removal of a-mass of Chalk and overlying Tertiary beds, 50 to 150 feet in thickness, and a few yards to upwards of a mile in breadth, throughout the course of a valley 50 or 60 miles or more in length, must have occupied, even at the most rapid rate of denudation, an immense period. We have to conceive of the rocks being gradually undermined, and their fallen débris triturated on the bed of the river into gravel, sand, and mud, and rolled gradually seawards. The mere rounding of the flint pebbles, which form a large portion of the old gravel-beds, must of itself have taken a very long time. However rapid, therefore, we may suppose the former rate of excavation to have been, we cannot escape the conviction that the work effected implies an extremely old date for the commencement of the Pleistocene Period. Some idea of the rate at which a valley is excavated might be gathered by carefully estimating the quantity of sediment carried annually by its river into the sea. To get as near the truth as possible it would be necessary to measure first the mean annual discharge of water, and then to ascertain the amount of material held in chemical solution and mechanical suspension, together with that which the water pushed forward on its bed. Unfortunately only a few measurements of this kind have been made, but these, so far as they go, help us to form a more or less adequate conception of the rate at which denudation progresses under present conditions. My brother, Professor A. Geikie, has collected all the available data bearing upon this subject, and comes to the conclusion that those rivers, concerning which he has been able to obtain information, remove PLEISTOCENE RIVER-DEPOSITS. 129 one foot of rock from the general surface of their basins in the following ratio :— The Mississippi removes one foot in 6000 years. » Ganges iy Fe 235804; » Hoang Ho s Ps 1464 __,, » Rhone hy L528 In; » Danube Ao FS 6846. _,, LO 53 ze EZR ie: » Nith 5: cf PB aR The Mississippi, therefore, is lowering the surface of the great area it drains at the rate of one foot in 6000 years, which would give 100 feet in 600,000 years. At the rate at which the Po works 100 feet would be removed in 72,900 years. Of course it will be understood that the whole surface of a country does not suffer denudation to an equal degree. Some districts, owing to a variety of circumstances, such as differences in the composi- tion and geological structure of the rocks, inequalities of rain- fall, variations in the configuration of the ground, and so forth, are lowered at a more rapid rate than others, the chief amount of waste going on along the course of the valleys. According to the calculations, it appears that the mean annual quantity of detritus carried to the sea may with some probability be regarded as equal to the yearly loss of gopp of a foot of rock from the general surface of the land, the larger proportion of the loss being sustained by the valleys and sloping surfaces. To appor- tion this loss between the different parts of a land-surface can of course only be done in a rough-and-ready manner. For the sake of illustration we may assume, with my brother, that the erosion of the surface is nine times greater over the valleys than over the plains and tablelands ;—while the more level parts of the country have been lowered one foot, the valleys have lost nine feet. ‘“ Apportioning this loss over the surface in the ratio just given, we find that it amounts to 3 of a foot from the more level grounds in 6000 years, and five feet from the valleys in the same space of time. Then if 3 of a foot be removed from the level grounds in 6000 years, one foot will be removed in K 130 PREHISTORIC EUROPE, 10,800 years ; and if five feet be worn out of the valleys in 6000 years, one foot will be worn out in 1200 years. This is equal to a loss of only 74, of an inch from the tableland in 75 years, while the same amount is excavated from the valleys in 8} years.”! Hence at a rate which may with some reason be taken as the present mean average rate of erosion in valleys, a valley as deep as the Somme, say 150 feet, might be excavated in 180,000 years. But, as I have said, we have reason to believe that during certain periods of the past the erosion of valleys has proceeded more rapidly than at present, so that the Somme and other ancient river-valleys may have been scooped out in less time than the mean average rate of denudation now in progress would allow. There is abundant evidence to show that the rivers of the Pleistocene Period frequently flowed in much larger volume than the streams of to-day,—that they very often as- sumed a torrential character, and ever and anon rose in flood and inundated wide tracts of country. Their torrential character is shawn by the coarseness of much of the gravel—the flints being often very little rolled—by the absence of mud-sediment, and by the confused and irregular disposition of the bedding —all bespeaking the action of tumultuous waters that hurried along promiscuous heaps of stones and scattered them in confu- sion over the slopes and bottoms of the valleys, while the finer sediments were swept away in suspension. Where the water of the flooded river was in less commotion the finer sediment held in suspension would be deposited, and this, as Professor Prestwich points out, has doubtless been the origin of many of the so-called brick-earths and loss of such valleys as the Thames, the Somme, the Seine, and their tributaries. They are simply the flood-loams laid down by the same rivers that deposited the valley-gravels. Thus the higher deposits of brick-earth, which rise 60 or 80 feet above the upper gravel-terraces, were formed during floods, when the valleys were beginning to be excavated, 1 Student’s Manual of Geology, Jukes and Geikie, p. 430; see also Trans. Geol. Soc. of Glasgow, vol. iii p. 153, PLEISTOCENE RIVER-DEPOSITS. 131 while the similar deposits at lower levels were accumulated after the valleys had been deepened to a greater extent. Pro- fessor Prestwich illustrates his theory of the origin of the gravels and their accompanying flood-loams by a diagram which Fig. 4.—Diagram representing one side of a valley, with a series of gravel- and léss-beds. (Prestwich.) I borrow from his paper (Fig. 4). The diagram is meant to represent one side of a valley with a series of gravel- and brick- earth-beds. When the river flowed on the level d it formed the gravel-bed indicated by that letter. During flood-seasons, how- ever, when the water reached to the dotted line 0, its loamy mud was deposited at b. Lower down the slope, that is to say between the loamy mud 0 and the gravel-bed d, the scour of the river would prevent any of the finer sediment accumulating. By and by the river excavated its channel to a greater depth, and flowed at the level c, where of course another bed of gravel was formed. Being still subject to floods, it is evident that when such was the case, and the surface of the water rose to the dotted line n, a second deposit of loam (0) would be laid down upon the old river-bed d, and would slope up against the side of the valley to the level of the line n. The river still continuing to deepen its channel, a time would come when it would be flow- ing on the level ¢’, and when loam would be deposited at 0” on each occasion that the flood-waters rose to m, or to any point between ¢’ and m. Thus we see how a deposit of loam would eventually come to be spread over all the gravels from the highest to the lowest levels. It may be as well, however, to warn the reader that he 132 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. must not expect always, or even often, to meet in nature with the regular succession of beds that is indicated upon the diagram. Although it is common to speak of high-level and low-level terraces, the one series really passes down into the other. Neither do these terraces occur continuously on the valley-slopes, forming a series of broad steps or platforms ascending from lower to higher levels. On the contrary, it is often hard or even impossible to distinguish anything like a terrace either in the gravels themselves or in the Cretaceous or other strata upon which they chance to lie. It is doubtful, indeed, whether the gravels would often be spread out so equally as to form flat-topped terraces. It seems much more probable, judging from what we know of rivers that are subject to period- ical floods, that they would be distributed very irregularly over the valley-slopes and bottom, forming shoals here and banks there. We must remember, moreover, that while the lower terraces were being formed, the upper ones would tend to be- come partly obscured by the scouring action of flood-waters, and partly also by the deposition upon them of loam or brick- earth. Again, we should not forget that so long a time must have elapsed between the formation of the upper or oldest and lower or youngest valley-gravels, that the former, after they had ceased to be inundated by floods, would be subjected to the slow but continuous and therefore effective action of the atmo- spheric agents of waste. Thus, in course of time, it might well be that all trace of a distinctly-terraced feature would disappear, and the gravels would then be reduced to mere patches or interrupted sheets cloaking the slopes of the valleys. Notwith- standing all these changes, however, platforms excavated in the older strata and covered by Pleistocene gravels and loam may now and again be detected. The size of the stones and the quantity of the material constituting what are called high- and low-level gravels suf- ficiently indicate, as we have seen, the great transporting power of the Pleistocene rivers, while the brick-earths, with their delicate land-shells, covering all the gravels, and running PLEISTOCENE RIVER-DEPOSITS. 133 up the valley-slopes so as to cap the summits of hills far above the level reached by the highest river-gravels, proves the for- mer existence of floods, as Professor Prestwich has pointed out, of extraordinary magnitude. The same geologist has described the occurrence in the valley-gravels of large transported boul- ders or erratics, some weighing as much as four to five tons, which have been often carried for considerable distances ; and besides these he records many examples of contorted or con- fused bedding which seem to be confined to the higher gravels and loams. The erratics, he believes, have been transported by river-ice, and the disturbed bedding he ascribes to the action of masses of the ice running aground, and digging into the soft deposits upon the river’s bed. The fact that the river-ice was so thick as to be capable of carrying blocks of stone weighing several tons renders it more than probable that in Pleistocene times the winter temperature was sometimes at least severe. And this inference, Mr. Prestwich thinks, is further borne out by the character of the fossils met with in the old river-deposits. Thus in regard to the high-level drifts he is of opinion that although the shells which they have yielded have “ nothing suf- ficiently specific in the individual species to indicate a climate different from that of the present day, there is at the same time nothing to require restriction to an identical climate. If, further,” he continues, “we look at the group as a whole, we shall find it to have not only a very wide range, but one more in a northern than in a southern direction.” The few plant remains which have been met with in these higher beds afford somewhat similar evidence—they all belong to species which, although common in our latitudes, have yet a considerable northern range, and there appears to be an absence of southern forms. The evidence supplied by the mammalian relics (which include remains of the mammoth, Hlephas antiquus, the woolly rhinoceros, the horse, the urus, the reindeer, etc.) does not seem, according to the same authority, to militate against that fur- nished by the testacea and the land-plants. All the recent species of molluscs and plants “are such as are now to be found 134 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. within the limits of the temperate zone, but they appear to agree better with the fauna and flora of its northern than of its south- ern provinces. The fossil mammalia may also, from their general association and distribution, be considered to have inhabited cold countries, so that there is a balance in favour of a severer, but not of an extreme, climate.” As regards the low-level gravels the fossil evidence is some- what more abundant. The shells upon the whole maintain their general northern character, but the group contains a few more southern land and freshwater species, which seem to indi- cate a less extreme climate. “The profusion also of the land and freshwater testacea, and the greater variety and abundance of animal life, support this latter view.” The mammalian remains include the species mentioned above as occurring in the high-level gravels, as also Rhinoceros megarhinus, cave-bear, cave-hyzena, cave-tiger or lion, bison, musk-sheep, hippopota- mus, etc. Mr. Prestwich thinks that there is nothing in this assemblage of animals that would lead us to infer other than a rigorous climate. He suggests that the hippopotamus may have been furnished with a woolly coat to protect him against the cold, just as was the case with the mammoth and the ticho- rhine rhinoceros. I have already discussed the evidence of the mammalia as to the climate of Pleistocene times, and shown that all the animals could not have occupied the same feeding- grounds at the same time. One fatal objection to Mr. Prest- wich’s suggestion in regard to the hippopotamus is based upon the aquatic habits of the animal. It is hardly possible that it could live in a country whose rivers were liable to be frozen over every winter. The presence of the northern forms is clearly indicative of cold climatic conditions, during the continuation of which the vegetation must have been poor and scanty, not more varied and abundant than that which characterises the “barren grounds” of North America and the tundras of Northern Europe and Siberia. The hippopotamus was not likely to occupy a country with such a climate. Mr. Dawkins well remarks, “It could not have endured a winter sufficiently PLEISTOCENE RIVER-DEPOSITS. 135 severe to cover the rivers with a thick coating of ice without having its habits profoundly modified ; and such an alteration of habits would certainly leave its mark in other modifications in the fossil skeleton than those minute differences which have been observed when it has been compared with that of the living Hippopotamus amphibius.’* The occurrence of remains of the cave-haunting bears, lions, and hyznas, and of the bison and other herbivores, is further indicative of a climate capable of nourishing vegetation sufficiently abundant to sustain the herds of oxen, deer, and other animals upon which the great car- nivora preyed. And the truth of this inference is greatly strengthened, and even as it seems to me entirely confirmed, by the facts already set forth in regard to the land-plants and mol- lusca which have left their remains in such deposits as that of La Celle, which clearly belongs to the ancient Pleistocene accumulations of the Seine valley, overlying as it does the so- called diluviwm gris, or gray gravel, and belonging, according to M. Tournouér, to a late stage of the Pleistocene Period. In short, the evidence supplied by the old “ river-drifts”—those of high and low level alike—is of precisely the same character as that of the caves. It speaks to us of alternations of mild or genial and cold climatic conditions. If the evidence of a cold climate seems to predominate, it is only what we might have expected. It was during the continuance of such a climate that the rivers would be most energetic, ploughing into the rocks through which they flowed, and pushing enormous quan- tities of detritus down their valleys. As each spring returned, wide tracts of country would be inundated, and many animals might be drowned, and their disjointed skeletons eventually come to be entombed in silt and sand. In like manner such loose bones or other waifs as lay bleaching on the ground would often be swept away, with other débris, by the floods. For floods and inundations are the rule in all countries which are subject to severe winter cold; whereas they are the excep- tion in genial temperate climates. Hence the river-deposits of 1 Cave-hunting, p. 374. 136 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. a cold period would be thicker and more widely spread than those which were accumulated at a time when the climate was genially temperate. And again, the remains of arctic and northern animals would be distributed through a wider range of deposits, and might in some cases be relatively more abundant than those of southern and temperate species. It has sometimes been urged against these views that if the northern and temperate and southern species had occupied a country at different periods, their bones would always occur in separate and distinct deposits. We ought, it has been said, to meet with beds containing remains of the northern animals alone, overlying or underlying, as the case might be, strata in which only the relics of southern or of temperate species should occur. Now, if it were true that rivers did nothing but pile one layer of gravel, sand, or mud upon another—always depositing, and never rearranging what had already been laid down—we might well have looked for some such arrangement as that which I have referred to. Or again, if the period during which one group of mammalia occupied the ground was so pro- longed that the rivers were able to erode their valleys to a great depth, so as to leave the slopes covered with successive deposits charged here and there with animal remains, it might happen that, after the old group of animals had disappeared, and another group had succeeded, the last series of alluvial terraces would not contain a single relic of the former, but only remains of the latter. There is not the slightest reason, however, for believing that the alternations of climate were each of such protracted duration. Moreover, the rivers, even up to the close of Pleistocene times, were able to flood their valleys to a very great height, and so to bring the older gravel- deposits under their influence. No one who shall examine any well-developed river-deposits of Pleistocene age, such as those of the Thames, or of the valleys in the north of France, can fail to see that they all form part of one and the same series. They point to the long-con- tinued action of erosion and deposition, and doubtless the river PLEISTOCENE RIVER-DEPOSITS. 137 that transported the sediments, and spread them out where we now see them, behaved in precisely the same manner as any other river at the present day. Gravel was laid down here, sand there, and mud in some other place; then, owing to changes in the direction or velocity of the current, these de- posits were disturbed, broken up, wholly or partially, and their materials distributed over another part of the river’s bed. After a considerable accumulation of such deposits had taken place— many feet or even yards in depth,—the river might again gradually undermine and re-arrange them. The gravel would be pushed along and come to rest farther away, and so would it be with the sand and silt. Any animal remains, such as bones or teeth, which these older deposits may have contained would in like manner be rolled along and embedded in another position. Thus ina series of fluviatile strata like the Pleistocene gravels and sands, it is often quite impossible to tell whether the animal remains that lie side by side in the same stratuin belong to species that were exactly contemporaneous, in the sense of occupying the same country at the same time. Sir Charles Lyell has some remarks upon this subject which are so apposite that I cannot do better than quote them in full. He says :' “In attempting to settle the chronology of fluviatile sediments, it is almost equally difficult. to avail ourselves of the evidence of organic remains, or of the superposition of the strata, for we may find two old river-beds on the same level in juxtaposition, one of them perhaps many thousands of years posterior in date to the other. I have seen an example of this at Ilford, where the Thames, or a tributary stream, has at some former period cut through sands containing Cyrena fluminalis, and again filled up the channel with argillaceous matter, evidently derived from the waste of the Tertiary London-clay. Such shiftings of the site of the main channel of the river, the frequent removal of gravel and sand previously deposited, and the throwing down of new alluvium, the flooding of tributaries, the rising and sinking of the land, fluctuation in the cold and 1 Antiquity of Man, 4th edition, p. 206. 138 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. heat of the climate—all these changes seem to have given rise to that complexity in the fluviatile deposits of the Thames, which accounts for the small progress we have hitherto made in determining their order of succession, and that of the em- bedded group of quadrupeds. It may happen, as at Brentford and Ilford, that sand-pits in two adjoining fields may each contain distinct species of elephant and rhinoceros; and the fossil remains in both cases may occur at the same depth from the surface, yet may be specially referable to different parts of the Pleistocene Epoch, separated by thousands of years.” We cannot therefore infer from the occurrence of the horns of a reindeer and the remains of a hippopotamus, in juxtaposition in a Pleistocene deposit, that these animals have lived under similar climatic conditions. It must not be supposed, however, that such intimate commingling of strongly-contrasted species is the rule. Not infrequently we find remains of several northern animals lying associated in the same strata to the entire exclusion of any of the southern forms; and in like manner the latter often appear quite unaccompanied by any trace of the northern species. Thus at Gray’s Thurrock in Essex, the old Pleistocene alluvia of the Thames have yielded Elephas antiquus, Rhinoceros leptorhinus, Hippopotamus major, horse, bear, ox, stag, etc.,.but not a trace of any northern species. In the same beds occur Cyrena fluminalis, Unio littoralis, and Paludina (Hydrobia) marginata, which is no longer a British shell, but still lives in the south of France. But although it is unsafe to rely exclusively upon super- position as a test of the relative antiquity of fluviatile accumu- lations, yet as a general rule it still holds true that the beds which occupy the lower portion of any thick series will be, in the main, the oldest ; while, on the other hand, those at the top will commonly be the youngest. Again, in the case of those river-deposits that cloak the slopes of a valley, we may feel sure that those at the highest levels will be the oldest, and that the younger accumulations will occupy the lower levels; but the latter will frequently overlap upon the former, and the two will PLEISTOCENE RIVER-DEPOSITS. 139 even in many cases be inextricably commingled. Nevertheless, the general rule will still obtain, the high-level beds will in the main belong to the oldest stage of the series. Now as it would appear that remains of musk-sheep and reindeer, mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, hyena, lion, elephant, hippopotamus, bison, and other animals belonging to the northern, temperate, and southern groups, occur at all levels in the Pleistocene river- deposits, it seems only reasonable to conclude that these groups must have occupied the ground alternately throughout the whole of the Pleistocene Period. The general glance which we have taken at the more salient features of the evidence presented by our Pleistocene river- deposits, makes clear, as it seems to me, the following points :— 1. They are the products of fluviatile action, and were formed during the excavation of the valleys in which they lie. 2. They were laid down under varying conditions, some of the deposits indicating quiet and orderly accumulation, others bespeaking tumultuous torrential waters and vast inundations. But the wider spread of torrential gravels and flood-loams does not necessarily imply that a cold climate predominated during Pleistocene times. 3. Their fossil organic remains point to alternating climatic conditions—to periods more or less prolonged when the cold of winter was severe, and the land was occupied by northern and arctic forms, and to warmer periods (enduring, perhaps, for as long a time as the colder ones), when the winters were extremely mild and genial, so that laurels and fig-trees grew on the banks of the Seine, while an abundant mammalian fauna occupied the land, the hippopotamus being enabled to live as far north as the latitude of Yorkshire. 4, The depth and width attained by many of the valleys which were excavated during the Pleistocene Period, and the time required for great continental changes of climate, such as are implied by the presence of the old mammalia, are proofs of the long duration of the Pleistocene Period, and the remote antiquity of its commencement. 140 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. 5. During the prevalence of cold climatic conditions the erosion of valleys would proceed at a more rapid rate than is the case in our latitude at present, and any calculation of the antiquity of Pleistocene fluviatile deposits which should be based upon the rate of denudation now in progress would most pro- bably be exaggerated, not necessarily to such an extent, however, as might at first sight appear ; for, during the milder periods, or period when hippopotamuses lived in the north of England, de- nudation would proceed less rapidly than when the climate was arctic, and thus the one rate might to a certain extent balance the other. But while it may be admitted that the views so ably ex- pounded by Mr. Prestwich are capable of a wide application, and will explain the phenomena presented by the Pleistocene valley-gravels throughout Europe generally, yet they fail to account for the origin of certain gravelly accumulations which have yielded both mammalian remains and Paleolithic imple- ments. I refer to those sheets of coarse gravel and detritus which spread often continuously over wide districts in Southern England. They are not confined to valley-slopes, but sweep up and over hill-tops, valley-partings, and watersheds ; extend across plateaux and platforms between separate valleys ; and, in short, bear little or no relation to the present drainage-systems of the country. It is not possible that those gravels could have been laid down by rivers in the process of deepening their valleys,—their distribution and general appearance show that the surface had already received much of its present contour before the deposits were scattered broadcast over the country. I should mention that the deposits in question are frequently very coarse and rudely bedded. They often show a confused and tumbled appearance, consisting of sand, grit, angular débris and blocks, and well-rounded stones, promiscuously heaped and jumbled together. And what is particularly noteworthy, many of the stones are often standing on end, and not lying in the position they might have been expected to assume had they been laid down by ordinary river-action. PLEISTOCENE RIVER-DEPOSITS. 141 The origin of these gravels has always been a difficult ques- tion, but a suggestion which Mr. Darwin some years ago (1876) did me the honour to communicate gives what appears to be the true explanation of the somewhat puzzling phenomena. Having since had an opportunity of testing the value of the suggestion referred to, I have found it extremely helpful, and believe that my co-workers will agree with me in this opinion. Mr. Darwin, after remarking that his observations were made near Southampton, writes as follows:—“I need say nothing about the character of the drift there (which includes Paleo- lithic celts), for you have described its essential features in a few words (Great Ice Age, p. 506). It covers the whole country, even plain-like surfaces, almost irrespective of the present out- line of the land. The coarse stratification has sometimes been disturbed; and I find that you allude to ‘the larger stones often standing on end,’ which is the point that struck me so much. Not only moderately-sized angular stones but small oval pebbles often stand vertically up, in a manner which I have never seen in ordi- nary gravel-beds. This fact reminded me of what occurs in my own neighbourhood in the stiff red clay, full of unworn flints, over the chalk, which is no doubt the residue left undissolved by rain-water. In this clay flints as long and as thin as my arm often stand perpendicularly up, and I have been told by the tank-diggers that it is their ‘natural position’! I presume that this position may safely be attributed to the differential move- ment of parts of the red clay, as it subsided very slowly from the dissolution of the underlying chalk, so that the flints arrange themselves in the lines of least resistance. The similar but less-strongly marked arrangement of the stones in the drift near Southampton makes me suspect that it also must have slowly subsided, and the notion has crossed my mind that during the commencement and height of the Glacial Period great beds of frozen snow accumulated over Southern England, and that during the summer gravel and stones were washed from the higher land over its surface, and in superficial channels. The larger streams may have cut right through the frozen snow, and 142 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. deposited gravel in lines at the bottom. But at each succeeding autumn, when the running-water failed, I imagine that the lines of drainage would have been filled up with blown snow, after- wards congealed ; and that owing to the great surface-accumu- lations of snow it would be a mere chance whether the drainage, together with gravel and sand, would follow the same lines during the next summer. Thus, as I apprehend, alternate layers of frozen snow and drift in sheets and lines would ulti- mately have covered the country to a great thickness, with lines of drift probably deposited in various directions at the bottom by the larger streams. As the climate became warmer the lower beds of frozen snow would have melted with extreme slowness, and during this movement the elongated pebbles would have arranged themselves more or less vertically. The drift would also have been deposited almost irrespective of the outline of the underlying land. When I viewed the country I could not persuade myself that any flood, however great, could have deposited such coarse gravel over the almost level platforms between the valleys.” Mr. Darwin writes me again recently to say that subsequent observations near Southampton and elsewhere have only tended to strengthen him in his conclusion. Referring to the structure of his own neighbourhood (Beckingham, Kent), he says the chalk- platform slopes gently down from the edge of the escarpment (which is about 800 feet in height) towards the north, where it disappears below the Tertiary strata. “The beds of the large and broad valleys, and only of these, are covered with an immense mass of closely-packed, broken, and angular flints, in which mass remains of the musk-sheep and woolly elephant have been found. This great accumulation of unworn flints must therefore have been made when the climate was cold, and I believe it can be accounted for by the large valleys having been filled up to a great depth during a large part of the year with drifted frozen snow, over which rubbish from the upper parts of the platforms was washed by the summer rains and torrents, sometimes along one line and sometimes along another, or in channels cut through the snow all along the main course of the broad valleys.” PLEISTOCENE LOAMY DEPOSITS. 143 CHAPTER IX. LOAMY DEPOSITS OF THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. Liss of German geologists—Its distribution throughout Europe—Organic remains of the léss—Dr. Nehring on loamy deposits of Thiede and Westeregeln— Mammalian and human remains in loss—Changes in composition of léss— River-gravels and lignite underlying loss—Loss of Northern France—Its relation to Diluvium gris and Diluvium rouge—Terre a briques and Limon grossier —Fossils of French léss— Belgian ioss—Its organic remains—M. Dupont on Belgian léss and associated deposits—Tchernozem, or black-earth of Russia—Theories of the origin of loss—Views of Bennigsen-Férder, Hib- bert, Giimbel, Lyell, Prestwich, Tylor, A. Geikie, Belt—Murchison on origin of black-earth—De Mercey on origin of French limon—D’Acy’s views on same—Baron Richthofen’s loss-theory—Mr. Pumpelly’s views. ALTHOUGH Professor Prestwich’s observations are restricted to the old river-drifts of the south of England and the north of France, they nevertheless hold true, to a large extent, as I believe, for many similar accumulations in other countries. All the great rivers of Europe flow through valleys which are clothed more or less continuously with sheets of gravel, sand, and loam that rise to heights far beyond the reach of the heaviest floods of modern times. And the same is the case with very many of the tributaries of these rivers. Indeed, there is perhaps no considerable river-valley that does not bear evidence of having been subjected at some geologically recent period to inundations of much greater magnitude than are ever experienced now. The more widely- spread deposits, which are supposed to bear witness to these floods, are known under various names, such as ancient alluvium, loam, brick-earth, etc., in this country, liss, lehm, etc., in Germany, limon, terre a briques, etc., in France and Belgium. Mr. Prest- 144 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. wich, as we have seen, considers these sheets of loam as forming part and parcel of the ancient river-accumulations of the Pleisto- cene Period. But they attain so great a development in various parts of Europe, that many geologists have hesitated to accept this explanation of their origin. Nor can it be denied that the phenomena are sometimes produced on so grand a scale that even the most exaggerated river-action seems hardly to account for them. Geologists, therefore, have very generally discussed the question of the origin of the great loamy deposits of the Pleistocene Period apart from that of the ancient gravels, with which the former are usually associated in the valleys. I believe, nevertheless, with Professor Prestwich, that the expla- nation of the one set of phenomena is bound up with that of the other—that the loams and gravels in short are terms of one and the same series. For the present, however, I shall follow other geologists in considering the loamy deposits by themselves, and shall reserve what I have to say about their origin to a sub- sequent chapter. One of the most representative and typical of the accumula- tions now under review is the Jéss of German geologists. This may be shortly described as a yellow or pale grayish-brown, fine-grained, and more or less homogeneous, consistent, non- plastic loam, consisting of an intimate admixture of clay and carbonate of lime. It is frequently minutely perforated by long vertical root-like tubes which are lined with carbonate of lime —a structure which imparts to the loss a strong tendency to cleave or divide in vertical planes. Thus it usually presents upright bluffs or cliffs upon the margins of streams and rivers which intersect it. Very often it contains concretions or nodules of irregular form, which are known in the Rhine dis- trict as Lissmdnnchen or Lésspiippchen, and in that of the Danube as ZLésskindeln. Land-shells and the remains of land- animals are the most common fossils of the loss, but occasionally freshwater shells and the bones of freshwater fish occur. Such is the typical character of loss. It is not, however, always an unstratified mass, Often enough lines of bedding, a foot or PLEISTOCENE LOAMY DEPOSITS. 145 more apart, may be traced running horizontally across the face of a deep cutting; and now and again intercalated layers and laminze of sand make their appearance. Here and there too we may encounter stones either isolated or in little patches and groups, and in places where the accumulation abuts against a cliff or rock-slope, it not infrequently contains intercalated lines and layers of fragments which have evidently been detached from the adjacent rocks and embedded during its formation. Again the loss of some regions loses to a large extent its car- bonate of lime, becomes more argillaceous and passes into a plastic clay, in which condition it would cease to be called léss by sticklers for precise terminology. Or it may graduate into a loam, distinguished from loss merely by the paucity or absence of carbonate of lime. As the léss is a deposit of mechanical and not of chemical origin, we are prepared to meet with such changes in the character of the accumulation. The definition of the typical loss given above applies more particularly to that of Central Europe—to the great loss-deposits of the valleys of the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Danube. In northern France and in the south of England accumulations which occupy the same geological horizon often differ very considerably from the loss of the Rhenish districts, and the same is the case with vast sheets of loam that overspread the south of Russia. The one character which all these deposits have in common is their extremely fine texture. In other respects they frequently offer considerable contrasts. As a rule they form admirable soils, and it is to them that many of the most productive regions of Europe owe their fertility. Loss, as I have said, is typically developed in the regions watered by the Rhine and its tributaries. From the margins of the modern alluvial flats which form the bottoms of the valleys it rises to a height of 200 and 300 feet above the streams—sweep- ing up the slopes of the valleys, and imparting a rich productive- ness to many districts which would otherwise be comparatively unfruitful. From the Rheinthal itself it extends into all the tributary valleys—those of the Neckar, the Main, the Lahn, the L 146 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. Moselle, and the Meuse, being more or less abundantly charged with it. It spreads, in short, like a great winding-sheet over the country—lying thickly in the valleys and dying off upon the higher slopes and plateaux. Wide and deep accumulations appear likewise in the Rhone valley, as also in several other river-valleys of France, as in those of the Seine, the Saone, and the Garonne, and the same is the case with many of the valleys of Middle Germany, such as those of the Fulda, the Werra, the Weser, and the upper reaches of the great basin of the Elbe. It must not be supposed that the loss is restricted to valleys and depressions in the surface of the ground. It is true that it attains in these its greatest thickness, but extensive accumula- tions may often be followed far into the intermediate hilly districts and over the neighbouring plateaux. Thus the Oden- wald, the Taunus, the Vogelgebirge, and other upland tracts, are cloaked with loss up to a considerable height. Crossing into the drainage-system of the Danube, we find that this large river and many of its tributaries flow through vast tracts of loss. Lower Bavaria is thickly coated with it, and it attains a great development in Bohemia, Upper and Lower Austria, and Moravia —in the latter country rising to an elevation of 1300 feet. It is equally abundant in Hungary, Galicia, Bukowina, and Tran- sylvania. From the Danubian flat-lands and the low grounds of Galicia it stretches into the valleys of the Carpathians, up to heights of 800 and 2000 feet. In some cases it goes even higher —namely, to 3000 feet, according to Zeuschner, and to 4000 or 5000 feet, according to Korzistka. These last great elevations, it will be understood, are in the upper valleys of the northern Carpathians. In Roumania loss is likewise plentiful, but it has not been observed south of the Balkans. East of the Car- pathians, that is to say, in the regions watered by the Dniester, the Dnieper, and the Don, loss appears also to be wanting, and to be represented by those great Steppe-deposits which are known as “Tchernozem” or black-earth, and to which I shall refer presently. Continental geologists speak of “ hill-loss” and “ valley-léss,” PLEISTOCENE LOAMY DEPOSITS. 147 by which they indicate merely a difference of level and not of composition. All those tracts of léss which occur within the valleys proper come under the designation of valley-léss, while the term “hill-léss” is applied to those masses which are less closely connected with the valleys, and sometimes extend over plateaux and hilly ground between separate drainage-areas. As already pointed out, loss attains its greatest thickness in the valleys ; as we leave these and follow it up the slopes it becomes thinner, until it more or less suddenly disappears. Upon the higher slopes and plateaux it rarely exceeds a few feet in thickness. A list of léss-shells has been already given (see p. 60), and it may be taken as eminently characteristic. It will be remembered that the shells imply colder and wetter conditions ‘of climate than now obtain in Middle Furope. Amongst the mammalian remains which have been recorded from the léss are reindeer, glutton, lemming, various species of rat and mouse, jerboa, marmot, pouched marmot, horse, hyeena, cave-bear, urus, bison, mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, etc. As a rule these Species are represented by only detached bones, tusks, horns, etc. Perfect, or nearly perfect, skeletons of the larger animals seem rarely or never to occur. -But now and again some of the smaller species have been met with in a tolerably perfect condition, Among the most interesting discoveries of the kind are those recorded by Dr. Nehring from Thiede and Westeregeln} Thiede lies a little to the north-west of Wolfenbiittel in Bruns- wick, and Westeregeln about midway between Magdeburg and Halberstadt in Saxony. As the fauna obtained from those two localities may be considered typical of the loss, I shall give a brief digest of the facts which Dr, Nehring has made known. The deposits at Thiede show three stages, which in descending order are as follow :— 1. Uppermost Stage, extending from the surface down to ? “Die quaternaren Faunen yon Thieden und Westeregeln, nebst Spuren des vorgeschichtlichen Menschen,” Archiv fiir Anthropologie, Bd. x. and xi., 1878 Verh. der k.-k. geol. Reich., 1878, p. 261, 148 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. about fourteen feet. The beds of this series consist of loam with a general léss-like character, which is most strongly pronounced towards the bottom, where the colour of the deposit is bright yellow. At that horizon it is strongly calcareous, has the well- known tubular or capillary structure, is very fine in the grain, shows little or no trace of bedding, has very little or even no plasticity, and contains characteristic léss-shells, such as Pupa muscorum, Succinea oblonga, Helix hispida, etc. The uppermost portion, from one to nine feet down, is rendered more or less dark-coloured by the presence of carbonaceous matter ; some parts when wet are even quite black. About seven feet or so from the surface many pieces of oak occur, but other organic remains are not common. Lower down come remains of a large ox, lion, ete. 2. The Second or Middle Stage extends from the bottom of the overlying beds down to twenty-two feet from the surface, giving a thickness of eight feet. The beds of this stage are not true loss but rather calcareous clays, containing not a few rounded and angular stones, chiefly flint, but quartz, granite, and other varieties also occur, some of the fragments having evidently been derived from the so-called “Northern Drift,” of which I shall speak in a later chapter, while others may have come from the Harz Mountains and districts to the south or south- west. One fragment of red granite must have weighed over twenty pounds. The most abundant organic remains in this bed are those of the mammoth and woolly rhinoceros, and next to these are the horse and a kind of ox. The hyzna and the reindeer are rarer. 3. The Third or Lowest Stage, consisting of alternations of thin sandy and loamy layers, begins at about twenty-two feet from the surface, and extends to the bed-rock of the neighbour- hood at a depth of from thirty to thirty-five feet, and sometimes as much as forty feet from the soil. The line of demarcation between it and the clays of the overlying middle stage is clearly defined. The most abundant remains in this stage are those of lemmings—WMyodes lemmus (common or Norwegian lemming) PLEISTOCENE LOAMY DEPOSITS. 149 being particularly abundant in the upper layers, while JZ. tor- quatus (torquated lemming) predominates in the lower-lying beds. The other species associated with the lemmings are Arvicola gregalis (Siberian social-vole), and old and young individuals of the Arctic fox and reindeer. Confined to the upper part of the stage are Hquus caballus (horse), Arvicola ratticeps (Northern field- vole), A. amphibius (water-vole), and species of lagomys, sper- mophile, and bat. The beds contain a considerable admixture of lime, which often forms concretions round the bones, and now and again gravel-stones make their appearance. In this lowest stage occurred various relics of man—old hearths and flint implements. Although a clearly-marked line separates the lowest from the middle stage, it is to be observed that remains of the lemming occur sporadically in the lower portion of the mammoth-beds (Stage 2), while traces of the mammoth in like manner are met with in the upper portion of the lemming-beds (Stage 3). The section at Westeregeln also shows three stages, which, however, do not correspond precisely with those at Thiede. The upper and middle stages at the former locality consist of bedded deposits, which have a more or less loss-like appearance ; but they are generally coarser in the grain than typical loss. They contain, besides several characteristic loss-shells, a number of mammals, including Alactaga, Spermophilus, Arctomys bobac, La- gomys pusillus, and several species of Arvicola. These are most common at a depth of from 12 to 18 feet ; above and below this horizon they occur only at intervals. Along with the species just mentioned come also mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, and rein- deer, and other so-called “diluvial” animals. The lowest beds of Westeregeln, occurring at a depth of 20 to 30 feet, are dis- tinctly stratified, and consist of alternations of sand and clay. They contain such shells as Cyclas (cornea ?) and Planorbis cari- natus, and occasional stones. If we except their calcareous nature the beds have nothing apparently in common with true loss ; they have yielded remains of the lemming, but not so abun- dantly as the beds at Thiede. Other species associated with the 150 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. lemming at Westeregeln are woolly rhinoceros, horse, reindeer, hyena, and sometimes mammoth. Rodents and bats are rare. Nehring correlates the upper and middle stages at Westeregeln with the highest stage and the upper part of the middle stage at Thiede—the lowest stage at Westeregeln corresponding to the mammoth-beds of Thiede. He considers, therefore, that the lowermost stage (the lemming-beds) of Thiede has no represent- ative in the Westeregeln series. The lower beds at Westeregeln have yielded traces of man, such as flint-flakes, charred wood, and heaps of smashed and crushed bones of various animals. It is seldom that so rich a series of organic remains has been obtained from the léss of any one locality. As a rule mamma- lian relics occur only at wide intervals, and they are generally in a very fragmentary condition; but in the cases so admirably described by Nehring they are most abundant, and many of the skeletons are tolerably perfect, showing that they could not have come from any distance, an inference which is in keeping with the generally unrolled character of the stones, and the state of preservation of the fragments of wood. Mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, reindeer, horse, ox, etc., have been recorded from the léss of many other parts of Central Europe. Prinzinger and Czjzek mention mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, and Cervus dama gigantea as occurring in the loss of Upper and Lower Austria; Zeuschner has observed a similar fauna (mammoth, rhinoceros, and Bos priscus) im some of the valleys of the North Carpathians; according to Dr. Roemer, mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, Bison priscus, and urus occur in the loss of Silesia ; and Hauer and Stache state that the two pachyderms appear in association with the reindeer and the horse in the loss of Transylvania. The same species, along with ox, characterise, according to Dr. Littel, the loss and lehm of Bavaria, and a similar tale might be told of the equivalent accumulations in many other parts of the Continent. Dr. Sand- berger’s catalogue of the mammalian fauna from the loss of Franconia has been given above (see p. 62), and it may be taken PLEISTOCENE LOAMY DEPOSITS. I51 as typical of the loss of the Rhenish districts. The only relic of man, noted by Sandberger, is one of the bones of the finger ; but human remains were found many years ago by M. Ami Boué in the léss near Strasbourg, and the well-known “ Eguis- heim cranium” came from léss, in which it was associated with remains of mammoth, lion, stag, horse, etc. Again, a human jaw was obtained underneath loss near Maestricht, at a depth from the surface of 19 feet, and a human skull is said to have been obtained in loss near Mannersdorf. One of the most inter- esting discoveries of human relics in loss is that made by Count Wurmbrand near Zeiselberg, at the mouth of the Kamp valley. At that place the undisturbed loss yielded a rich deposit of bones, underneath which occurred a blackish stratum, abounding with fragments of charcoal and worked flints. The associated mammalian remains included mammoth, rhinoceros, reindeer, horse, ox, wolf, and bear ; and from the general appearance pre- sented by these and the human relics, it was evident that they could not have been transported from any distance. Such is the general character of the loss of Central Europe. In all the great valleys which directly or indirectly drain the Alps, the deposit is remarkably homogeneous and alike in almost every respect, and the same is to a large extent true of the loss in tributary valley-systems. But in the upper reaches of the latter some difference may often be detected. Thus in that of the Neckar, near Tiibingen, Lyell observed that the loss was very distinct in colour and composition from ordinary Rhenish loss, being mottled with red and green. These appearances are only explicable on the supposition that the main body of the loss of such valleys as the Rhine and the Danube has been derived in large measure from the wearing away of the Alps, the material obtained from other sources being commingled with and lost, as it were, in the superabounding detritus of Alpine origin. Only in the upper reaches of the tributary valleys does a local char- acter impress itself upon the loss. Its mottled appearance in the neighbourhood of Tiibingen, for example, is evidently due to the fact that it owes its origin in great part to the degradation 152 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. of certain variegated red sandstones which are common in that region. The loss almost invariably rests upon gravel. This is the rule in valleys, and these gravels are unquestionably of fluvia- tile origin. They are indeed of the same age and origin as the ancient river-gravels of Northern France, and have, like them, yielded numerous remains of the old mammalia, as at Mosbach near Biebrich, and Schierstein. More than this, we find that the fauna comprises representatives from all the three groups— northern, temperate, and southern. Now and again valley-loss is underlaid by a kind of lignite or brown coal. Here, for example, is a section of the loss and lignite-beds of Steinbach near Baden-Baden, as given by Dr. F. Sandberger :—* SrEcTIon, 200 feet above RHINE. Feet. Inches. 1. Loss with Helix arbustorum, and its var. alpestris, Helix hispida, Pupa dolium, P. columella, P muscorum, Clausilia dubia, Suceinea oblonga . Coarse sand . Yellow loam or clay . . Coarse sand . . Yellowish gray clay : j . Light grayish blue clay ; 10 “Moor coal,” with leaves, trunks, and iranelee of Betula pubescens, seeds and leaves of Men- yanthes trifoliata . ; ; reed 0 IO of w bo pooon SoomMNHO But when the loss is followed to levels higher than those reached by the highest valley-gravels, it may come to rest directly upon glacial deposits. The loss of the French river-valleys has a general resem- blance to that of the Rhine and other valleys of Central Europe. And this is more particularly the case with the Rhone, as we might have expected. In the north of France the léss, while retaining the character of a sandy calcareous loam, yet frequently 1 ‘Geol. Beschreibung der Gegend von Baden-Baden,” Beitr. z. Statistik der innern Verw. d. Grossh. Baden, Heft. xi. p. 7; Die Land- und Stisswasser-Conchy- lien der Vorwelt, p. 761. PLEISTOCENE LOAMY. DEPOSITS. 153 becomes more or less argillaceous, and even passes into a regular brick-earth. Or it may consist of a succession of alternate layers of brick-earth and calcareous loam or loss properly so called. In the valleys of the Seine, the Somme, and other streams in the north, it overlies those ossiferous and implement- bearing gravels, which are known to French geologists as dilu- vium gris and diluviwm rouge. The gray calcareous diluvium or gravel, as we may call it, from its prevailing character, differs from the overlying red non-calcareous diluvium chiefly in colour. In point of fact the red diluvium is often only the discoloured upper portion of the gray gravel. It is also certain that the so- called “red diluvium” which is found resting directly upon the chalk over wide areas in Northern France is not of fluviatile origin at all, but simply the insoluble residue of red earth and flint which has resulted from the long-continued action of acidulated rain-water upon the chalk. This “red diluvium” may be followed through extensive districts in every country where Cretaceous strata are well developed. But the reddish- coloured gravel and earth that overlie the gray diluvium of the valleys and valley-slopes are unquestionably fluviatile—their colour and present condition being simply the results of chemical changes, which have influenced the calcareous gray diluvium in the same way as they have acted upon the Creta- ceous strata. Sometimes, indeed, we may observe a similar dis- coloration in the upper part of the léss, which in these cases appears to be overlaid by a later deposit of red earth. This appearance, however, is deceptive, and like the others is due to the chemical action of acidulated water soaking into the loss from the surface. The line between the red earth and the yellow loss is generally very uneven, but occasionally it may approach horizontality, when the acid-water has been stopped in its descent by some lamina or layer of impermeable argillaceous matter.! Loss or loam may be said to cloak all the plains or plateaux of 1 On the origin of the red-coloured gravel or diluvium and léss of Northern France, see papers by MM. Meugy (Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 3° Sér, t. v. p. 226) and Vanden Broeck, Op. cit., pp. 298, 326. 154 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. the north and north-east of France up to heights of 600 or 700 feet above the sea. In the valleys, as I have said, it reposes upon gravels, but above the level to which these extend it lies either upon so-called “diluviwm rouge” or upon the basement-reck, which in those regions is generally chalk. The French loss usually consists of an upper very fine-grained, non-calcareous reddish portion (terre & briques), which is extensively used for brickmaking, and a lower lighter coloured portion (limon grossier) which is coarser, more or less calcareous, and seldom or never plastic or suitable for bricks. Frequently the under part of this limon grossier is charged with broken and cracked flints, which have not been rolled about, but are sharply angular, and have evidently not travelled far. The fossils of the French léss consist chiefly of land-shells, with here and there (in the valley-léss) a river-shell. Most of the species are still natives of Northern France, some, however, having now a more northerly range. The mammalian remains, like those of the German loss, are chiefly of temperate, boreal, and alpine forms, such as mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, horse, urus, saiga, reindeer, marmot, ibex, etc. Paleolithic implements have likewise been discovered in and underneath the loss of the Seine, the Somme, and other valleys. I may add that as a rule the loss or limon of the plateaux is poor in organic remains of any kind. Although the loss occurs upon the plateaux and hills up to a height of nearly 350 feet above the bottoms of the larger river-valleys, such as that of the Seine, it is yet always bounded, as Mr. Prestwich remarks, by higher hills flanking the plains and the lower ranges. Beyond its limits the only superficial accumulation we encounter is a reddish ochreous earth charged with flints, which is merely the decomposed upper surface of the Chalk, and to which the name of diluwviwm rouge has often been applied. Passing into Belgium we are confronted with similar pheno- mena. The ancient Pleistocene gravels with their mammalian remains are confined as in France to the valleys, where they are PLEISTOCENE LOAMY DEPOSITS. 155 overlaid by loamy deposits (Limon hesbayen), which sweep up to higher levels and extend across the plateaux. These latter con- sist of a lower yellowish, unstratified, fine-grained, calcareous loam or loss, from 6 feet to 30 or 40 feet in thickness, and an upper reddish or brown, unstratified, non-caleareous, and argil- laceous loam, which is often sufficiently plastic to be used for the making of bricks. Above the limits of the ancient valley- gravels these loamy deposits are often underlaid by sandy earth and stones, which correspond to the similar accumulations occupying a like position in the plateaux of the north of France. Occasionally also beds of coarse sand appear on the same horizon, but they are of little extent, and occur for the most part in depressions or hollows. The lower portion of the léss-beds has all the characters of Rhenish léss. It is yellow in colour, unstratified, and more or less calcareous, and it shows the characteristic vertical capillary structure; it likewise con- tains land- and freshwater-shells of the usual species, such as Helix hispida, Pupa muscorum, Clausilia laminata, Bulimus obscurus, Succinea oblonga, etc. The upper portion, as just stated, differs from the lower in colour and composition. It does not effervesce with acids and is frequently plastic, which is not the case with the lower. The shells it contains are chiefly helices, such as H. nemoralis, H. hortensis, H. lapicida, and H. rotundata. According to the Belgian geologists this upper clay is distin- guished by the presence of remains of the reindeer, while those of the mammoth occur in the lower or léssic portion. I may note also that Professor Malaise has recorded the discovery of Paleolithic implements under the loss in the neighbourhood of Spiennes, south-east of Mons. M. Dupont, it will be remembered, has described the occur- rence in certain caves in the province of Namur of clay with angular blocks. He likewise mentions the interesting fact that this stony clay is occasionally overlaid by loss, as in the following section, which gives the results obtained from an examination of several caverns :—? Bull. Acad. de Belg., 2° Sér. t. xx. —p. 284. 156 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. . Loss. . Yellow clay with angular fragments of limestone. . Stalagmite, . Argillaceous sand with thin layers of gravel. . Rolled stones, derived from the Ardennes. . Sand with peat. . Red clay. IS oO BP & WD eH The same geologist has correlated the deposits in the caverns with those which occur outside in the following manner :— Exterior. Caves. Stages. 1. Loss with or without 1. Léss with or without stones and blocks. stones and blocks. 2. Yellow clay with blocks. 2. Yellow clay with blocks, Upper or Rein- with remains of rein- deer Stage. deer, etc., flint imple- ments, etc. 3. Argillaceous sand, irre- 3. Argillaceous sand, irre- } gularly stratified, with gularly stratified, with intercalations of gravel intercalations of gravel and rolled stones ; cal- and rolled stones ; cal- Middle nace careous concretions and careous concretions ; re- bear iRtane land-shells. mains of cave-bear and ps flint implements. 4, Gravellysandwithriver- 4. Traces of sand. shells. 5. Rolled stones withmam- 5. Rolled stones. moth. Lower or Mam- 6. Gravelly sand. 6. Gravellysand with peaty f moth Stage. matter, The loss is thus of more recent date, it will be observed, than any of the other deposits with which it is associated in the caves. It occupies, in short, the highest level. From the facts now adduced it is evident that the loss of Central and Western Europe cannot be considered as a separate and independent formation. We find it again and again closely associated with river-gravels, and containing intercalations of clay, sand, and stones. It is true that in the Rhine valley it retains a remarkably homogeneous character throughout a wide PLEISTOCENE LOAMY DEPOSITS. 157 area, and a great thickness, and it is little wonder that geologists, whose theories of the origin of loss have been based chiefly upon the phenomena presented by that deposit in the larger valleys of Central Europe, should have held the view that loss is some- thing quite by itself, having little or no connection with the other Pleistocene accumulations with which it is associated. But, as we have seen, in Belgium, and more especially in Northern France, it loses much of its typical character, and this is still better exemplified in the valleys and low grounds of the south of England, where the ldss-beds are composed in large measure of brick-earth, in which sand, and even gravel, are frequently intercalated. In short, the volume and composition of the loss-beds are directly related to the extent of the drainage- areas in which these deposits occur, and to the geological cha- racter of the rocks from the degradation of which they have been derived. Great as is the extent of area in Central and Western Europe, which is covered by léss and brick-earth, it is yet inconsiderable when compared with the vast tracts which in Southern Russia are clothed with the “ Tchernozem” or black- earth—an accumulation which occupies the same geological horizon as the loss, and the origin of which is undoubtedly closely bound up with that of the former. The black-earth extends over the Steppes and low-lying plateaux that border on the Black Sea, the Sea of Asov, and the depressed area to the north of the Caspian, with a breadth from north to south of from 200 or 300 to nearly 700 miles. It may be said to con- tinue with little interruption from the regions watered by the Pruth and the Dniester to the foothills of the Ural Mountains, between Ufa and Orenburg, thus comprising an area of not less than 500,000 square miles. Throughout this wide tract the black-earth shows a singularly uniform character. Like the léss of Central Europe, it has an extremely fine texture, and is usually devoid of well-marked stratification. It varies in colour from dark brown to black, and in thickness from a foot or two up to twenty, and occasionally, it is said, even to sixty feet. 158 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. According to analyses by Phillips, Daubeny, and Payen, which are given by Murchison and his eminent associates Verneuil and Keyserling,' the black-earth is composed of siliceous sand (about 70 per cent), alumina, and other mineral ingredients (23 per cent) and organic matter (about 7 per cent), the latter con- taining nearly 2°5 per cent of nitrogen. A nearly similar result was obtained by Hermann from three analyses, the amount of organic substances being 10°42 per cent.? Professor Gcebel some years before had analysed two specimens of black-earth from the neighbourhood of Saratov.? One of these yielded 22 per cent of combustible and vegetable ingredients, and the other 23 per cent, the former yielding 6:25 per cent, and the latter 145 per cent of humic acid. The other ingredients consisted chiefly of silica and alumina, etc., but while one specimen contained only 4°50 per cent of carbonate of lime, the other showed not less than 30°12 per cent. Murchison and his colleagues state that the black-earth is wholly unfossiliferous, not a trace of any organism, either plant or animal, having been detected by them. Gebel, however, states that in subjecting one of his specimens to a mechanical separation he found, in one hundred parts, 9°7 per cent of stony ingredients with “coarse organic remains,” and 90°3 per cent of fine sifted earth. The other specimen contained neither stony ingredients nor “coarse organic remains.” Of the 9°7 per cent of coarse-grained matter, 4:19 was made up of vegetable débris, and 5°51 of clay. Unfortunately, Goebel does not tell us from what depth the specimens were taken, but it is probable that they were obtained at or close to the surface : he describes them indeed as being “ Ackerkrume” (mould). According to Murchison, etc., the black-earth “occupies the centre of a trough, large as an European empire, having the detritus of the crystalline and older rocks for its northern, and the low granite Steppes and Caspian deposits for its southern, 1 Geology of Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains, vol. i. p. 559. 2 Cited. by Bischoff, Elements of Chemical and Physical Geology (English edition, 1854), vol. i. p. 185. The reference there given is Journ. fiir pract. Chemie, Bd. xii, p. 290. 3 Reise in die Steppen des siidlichen Russlands, 1838, Bd. i., p. 297. PLEISTOCENE LOAMY DEPOSITS. 159 limits.” It is found at all levels up to heights of 300 and 400 feet above the valleys. In some places it overlies ancient river- gravels, while along its northern limits it appears to rest upon, and now and then to be covered by certain accumulations which are known as “Northern Drift,” and of which I shall speak farther on. Murchison and his associates state that the materials of this “drift,” consisting of stones derived from the north, are reduced to small size, and mixed with the débris of local rocks as they approach the northern margin of the black-earth, by which deposit they are succeeded if not overlapped. At one place, however, they observed “erratics” or travelled stones of northern derivation superimposed on the black-earth. Many theories have been advanced in explanation of the phenomena presented by the various accumulations—the loams, loamy clays, loss, and black-earth—which we have now passed in brief review. The léss of Central Europe especially has given rise to many speculations, and will probably continue to exercise the ingenuity of geologists for years to come. At one time it was supposed to be of marine origin, a view advanced by Bennig- sen Forder, but which has long been abandoned, and the lacustrine hypothesis in its various forms has shared no better fate. The earliest exponent of the latter was Hibbert,' who believed that the Rhenish loss had accumulated in a wide freshwater basin that formerly occupied the broad and open part of the Rhine valley above Bingen, prior to the time when the present outlet had been sufficiently deepened to permit any overflow in a northerly direction. The hypothetical lake was supposed indeed to have then drained to the south. After its bottom had received a great accumulation of fine mud, the Alps were, according to Hibbert, suddenly upheaved, and the drainage of the lake was thereby instantaneously reversed. The whole of its contents were now discharged in one enormous diluvial rush, and swept through the straits at Bingen, which were deepened as the 1 History of the Extinct Volcanoes of the Basin of Newwied on the Lower Rhine, chap. xxv. For an account of the reversal of the drainage in that region, see an interesting paper on the origin of the valley of the Rhine by Prof. Ramsay Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxx. p. 81. 160 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. débdicle passed; a large proportion of the muddy contents of the basin being carried far down the valley, and scattered over a wide area. Another view, suggested by Giimbel in his great work on the geology of Bavaria, endeavoured to account for the loss by a rapid melting of the extensive snow-fields and glaciers of the Alps, which was supposed to have taken place towards the close of the Glacial Period of geologists, and to have been induced by a sudden depression of the mountains. Vast volumes of water thus set free, descending in irresistible torrents and débdcles, strewed all the low grounds with sand and gravel, and soon forming a wide inland sea, allowed the deposition of fine mud (léss) to take place quietly and continuously. Sir Charles Lyell, on the other hand, was of opinion that the léss had been de- posited as a fine alluvial silt by the present rivers at a time when their fall was considerably lessened by a gradual sub- sidence of the Alps. Their power of transporting sediment being thus reduced, much of the mud and silt which they formerly carried to the sea was now allowed to accumulate in the valleys themselves, and this process is supposed to have continued until the rivers had deposited a thickness of several hundred feet of 16ss—until, in short, wide valleys like that of the Rhine above Bingen had become well-nigh filled up. The Alps and the upper reaches of the valleys having become subsequently re-elevated, the rivers re-excavated their loams, and cleared out the basins which they had previously filled to repletion. Each of the views now mentioned postulates the former occur- rence of some movement of the earth’s crust—a demand not in itself unreasonable if it otherwise satisfies all the conditions of the problem. But this is just what each of the theories fails to do. The geographical distribution of the loss and its associated de- posits, and the elevation often attained by them above the valleys are fatal not only to every form of the lacustrine hypothesis, but also to the ingenious view supported by Lyell. A depression of the Alps and the surrounding regions would doubtless diminish the fall of the rivers that take their rise in those mountains, PLEISTOCENE LOAMY DEPOSITS. 161 and cause them to accumulate much sediment in their valleys ; but we have no reason to believe that loss ever filled up the valleys in the manner supposed. On the contrary, all the evidence goes to show that the accumulation in question is a mere superficial covering, spread over the surface of the ground, the original features of which it disguises but does not conceal. There is no proof that the Rhine valley was ever filled across its whole breadth, and throughout its entire length, from Basel say to its mouth, with a depth of 300 or 400 feet of loss. The léss is a mere envelope which cloaks the slopes of the valleys, and was probably never much thicker than it is now. More- over, it is obvious that Lyell’s theory will not account for the presence of léss in valleys, the drainage of which could not have been affected by any subsidence of the Alps. To explain the occurrence of loss in such valleys we should on the same principle be compelled to suppose that the Pyrenees, the plateaux of Central France, the Vosges, the Thiiringer-Wald, the Erz mountains, and the Carpathians, had likewise been depressed with reference to the surrounding low grounds, and again elevated. And a similar inference would be necessitated for the limited and little elevated watersheds in the south of England. Nor would all these local movements of subsidence and re-elevation account for many considerable areas of loss, amongst which I may mention that narrow zone which extends in Northern Germany along the southern margin of the great “Northern Drift.” It is likewise obvious that we should still have to account upon some other principle for the enormous development of the black loamy deposits of southern Russia. There is one opinion upon which geologists are pretty generally agreed, namely, that the loss of the great valleys of Central Europe consists for the most part of glacial mud. It is believed to be the finely-levigated material derived from the grinding of glaciers upon their rocky beds, and transported to the low grounds by torrents and fluviatile action. And it is likewise admitted by most that this distribution of fine silt took place at a time when the mountain systems of our continent M 162 PREHISTORIC EUROFE. supported more extensive snow-fields and glaciers than are now met with in Europe. But as loss occurs in some valleys which do not appear ever to have contained glaciers in their upper reaches, the loss in such cases is believed to be the result simply of melting snow and a heavy rainfall. Mr. Tylor has indeed advanced the view that a Pluvial period accompanied and succeeded the disappearance of great snow-fields and enormous glaciers. Professor Prestwich, as we have seen, conceives the léss to be the result of river-floods commencing at the period of the highest valley-gravels, that is to say at a time when the present valleys were beginning to be excavated, and continuing down to the end of that of the lowest valley-gravel. Mr. Tylor, on the other hand, appears to be of opinion that both the gravels and the léss were laid down by vastly swollen rivers after the valleys had attained very nearly their present depth and breadth, and he would therefore draw no distinction as regards age between the high-level and low-level deposits. It is quite impossible, however, to conceive that any river-floods could have reached the enormous height which such an hypothesis demands. Professor Prestwich may have under-estimated the extent of the ancient floods, and my own observations have led me to believe in the former existence of inundations on a con- siderably more extensive scale than those to which he ascribes the formation of the loams of Northern France and the south of England; but all the evidence, so far as I am able to read it, appears to bear out his view that the hill-loss and high-level gravels, speaking generally, are of greater antiquity than the valley-loss and low-level gravels. The late Mr. Belt advocated a view of the origin of loss which I believe was first suggested by my brother, Professor A. Geikie, who pointed out to Dr. Croll that the excessive accumulation of loss in the Rhine valley may have been due to the presence in the North Sea of a great mer de glace which may have impeded the egress of the rivers to the north and caused them to flood wide regions in the Netherlands. Mr. Belt went farther than this, and maintained the opinion that PLEISTOCENE LOAMY DEPOSITS. 163 the advance of a great polar glacier or ice-sheet upon Northern Europe and Northern Asia blocked up the drainage of the rivers . flowing to the north, and converted the low grounds of Northern France, Southern England, the Netherlands, Northern Germany, vast areas in Russia, and all Northern Siberia, into wide inland seas of fresh water, in which extensive deposits of silt took place —an opinion which does not appear to have met with any sup- port. It is in fact contradicted by the evidence of the loss itself —the distribution and character of which refuse to be so explained. Nevertheless, it is highly probable that the Euro- pean rivers flowing north actually were impeded by the presence in those regions of a great ice-sheet, as I shall point out in suc- ceeding pages. But whether that obstruction gave rise to the loss of Central Europe is another question. Be that, however, as it may, it is certain that vast deposits of loss have been formed in regions where no such damming of the rivers can be supposed to have taken place. The great loss-deposits of the Missouri and Mississippi, for example, certainly cannot owe their origin to the ponding back of those rivers by glaciers. Neither can we account for the presence of the Russian “ Tchernozem” by any such hypothesis. Murchison and his colleagues maintained that the black-earth was accumulated in the sea by diluvial currents sweeping from the north—a view which does not receive support from the occurrence of any marine organic remains. In whatever manner it may have been formed— whether in the sea or in fresh water—it is clear that neither cur- rents nor rivers could have been dammed back as Belt supposed was the case with the rivers of Northern Europe and Siberia. M. de Mercey, after having for some time upheld the theory of the “diluvial” origin of the dimon of the plateaux of the north of France,’ has of late given up that view and advo- cated a very different one. He is now of opinion that the lower portion of the limon (limon biéfeux or limon grossier) is of glacial origin, and that it indicates the former existence in the 1 Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 2° Sér. t. xxii. pp, 75, 76, 84, 102. * Bull. Soc. Linn. du Nord de la France, t. ii.-p. 834. 164 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. north of France of an ice-sheet like that which covers Green- land. In proof of this he points to the fact that the limon bié- feux is abundantly charged with angular fragments of flint, besides a number of whole flint-nodules. But these last are so much cracked and fissured internally, that they generally fall into pieces while they are being extracted from the loam. Their cracked condition he attributes to the action of frost, and as they now lie buried beyond the influence of atmospheric changes, he infers that they must have been split by frost at the time of their entombment in the limon. Again, the loam which encloses them is composed of very unequally-sized grains, which he thinks could not have been deposited at one and the same time by water. Had the /imon been an aqueous accumu- lation, he believes that the coarser and finer granules would have been laid down at different times and in different places. The upper part of the deposit (¢erve & briques), on the other hand, is composed of uniformly-sized grains, and is thus in his opinion the result of aqueous levigation. It owes its origin to the washing and re-arranging of the limon biéfeux. The latter, he thinks, was accumulated in the state of clay, and along with the broken flints was formed by the action of frost and ice. It has been derived from the destruction of the rocks upon or near to which it occurs, and changes its character as these change theirs. M. de Mercey then points out that the flint-bearing loam pre- sents a very irregular surface of contact with the rocks upon which it reposes—this surface being quite unlike one which aqueous erosion would have produced. The Chalk and other strata have been irregularly trenched and excavated, so that the loam descends ever and anon into pockets and cavities. Again, he shows that the stony loam spreads like a sheet over the sur- face of the rocks, and is not disposed in terrace-shaped accumu- lations. It follows all the undulations of the ground—covering hollows, slopes, and elevations alike. He alludes further to the form of the ground, which frequently presents the appearance of parallel ridges and intervening hollows, of a character which -betokens some other mode of origin than that of erosion by the PLEISTOCENE LOAMY DEPOSITS. 165 waters either of the sea or of violent inundations and débdeles. In his opinion only glacier-ice could have produced the peculiar contour to which he refers. The limon biéfeux, he concludes, is a true glacier-mud which has been formed underneath ice and left lying upon the surface at the time when the glaciers or ice- sheet melted away. It is essentially of local origin, and in its composition always reflects the character of the strata in the immediate neighbourhood of which it occurs. The limon biéfeux of Picardy, according to M. de Mercey, corresponds to the yellow clay with stones and blocks which M. Dupont has described as covering certain regions in Belgium. The overlying brick-clay he would assign, as already mentioned, to the subsequent action of water, etc., washing, sifting, and re-arranging the mate- rials of the limon biéfeux. M. de Mercey’s views have been controverted at considerable length by M. E. d’Acy,' who maintains that both the lower and the upper loams of the north of France are the result of a ereat diluvial cataclysm, as M. Belgrand has maintained,? and that this cataclysm took place in Pleistocene times and after the valleys had been excavated. He appears to me to have shown that Mercey’s contention that the limon biéfeux is of the nature of a moraine profonde or subglacial mud is hardly well sup- ported, but he has not satisfactorily disposed of the evidence which, as M. de Mercey has indicated, goes to prove that the limon biéfeux was accumulated under cold conditions of climate. But to this point I will return in the sequel. An entirely novel view of the origin of loss has been ad- vanced by Baron Richthofen, and amply illustrated in his great work on China. A deposit similar in all respects to the Rhenish and Danubian léss covers vast areas in that country. It differs from the loss of Europe only in its greater vertical and hori- zontal extent. Richthofen describes it as forming cliffs or bluffs on the Yellow River, which in some places rise to a height of 1 Le Limon des Plateaux dw Nord dela France et les silex travaillés qu'il ren- Serme (1878). 2 La Seine, I. Le Bassin Parisien aux Ages Antéhistoriques, p. 216; Compt. Rend. Congr. Intern..d Anthrop., etc., Bruxelles (1872), p. 131. 166 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. 500 feet. In many places, he says, it reaches a thickness of 1500 feet. It extends inland over all the high plains, from the alluvial flats of the Gulf of Tshili over the Taihhang-shan Mountains up to plateaux 1800 metres high, and even to an elevation of 2400 métres above the sea in the Wu-tai-shan Mountains in Northern Shansi. It stretches south of the hilly grounds beyond the valley of the Yangtze, and up that valley in a westerly direction for an unknown distance. It can be followed up the course of the Han to the watershed of that river, and it is known to extend up the valley of the Yellow River without interruption into the province of Kansuh. This enormous deposit, according to Richthofen, is solely the result of atmospheric waste and wind-action; and he has brought forward a large body of interesting and important evidence to prove the correctness of his theory. The winds that blow across a great continent like Asia are to a large extent drained of their moisture by lofty mountains, elevated plateaux, etc., before they can reach certain regions in the interior, which as a consequence become desiccated and deprived of springs and rivers. The materials which are the result of atmospheric waste, and which in well-watered regions would eventually find their way to the sea, are allowed to accumulate upon the surface of such dry desert areas, and the rocks, bared of their vegetable covering, crumble away, more or less rapidly, to loose grit and sand. Occasional rains and torrents help to carry the products of superficial waste down to the lower grounds, where they become still further reduced in size, and are sifted by the action of the wind. Vast quantities of dust and fine sand are thus produced, and during storms these are swept up and scattered over extensive areas, and in this manner adjoining territories, such as the grassy steppes, are ever and anon receiving increments to their soil. The finely-sifted material thus obtained is highly fertile, and offers no impedi- ment to the growth of the grasses, which, on the contrary, con- tinue to flourish ; and so every addition brought by the winds becomes in this way fixed, and the Steppe-formation goes on PLEISTOCENE LOAMY DEPOSITS. 167 increasing in thickness. It is this continual growth of the grasses, keeping pace as it were with the periodical accumula- tion of soil, which, according to Richthofen, produces that peculiar porous capillary structure which has been described above as characteristic of typical léss. He also insists upon the fact that the organic contents of the Chinese loss pertain exclusively to terrestrial forms—to land-shells and land-animals—the remains of which occur at all depths in the accumulation. As the shells met with in the Chinese loss belong exclusively to living species, and the deposit is unquestionably of a recent geological age, this theory of its origin implies an amount of atmospheric disintegration and wind-transport and accumulation which it is hard to conceive could have taken place within the time required. Nor is this difficulty much lessened if we allow with Professor Pumpelly that the materials of the loss had already been prepared for the wind during the lapse of long ages by the action of rain and rivers, frost, snow, and ice ; so that all the wind has done has been merely to redistribute alluvial and other similar materials, and to remove the loose insoluble pro- ducts of a previously long-continued disintegration of the rocks. It may be that we have hitherto underestimated the action of winds as geological agents in dry continental areas like those of Central Asia, and that aerial currents have played a much more important réle in the past than has been generally supposed. “No one,” Mr. Pumpelly remarks, “can realise the capacity of wind as a transporter of fine material who has not lived through at least one great storm on a desert. In such a simoom the atmosphere is filled with a driving mass of dust and sand, which hides the country under a mantle of impenetrable darkness, and penetrates every fabric ; it often destroys life by suffocation, and leaves in places a deposit several feet deep.”* But such rapid accumulation occurs, I presume, only in the desiccated desert itself or its immediate neighbourhood. Deserts of shifting sand increase their bounds by a gradual encroachment, the dunes of the peripheral regions continually advancing in the direction of 1 American Journal of Science and Art, vol. xvii. (1879), p. 139. 168 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. the prevailing winds. The lighter dust, which is carried on the wings of the wind and frequently transported for distances of several hundred miles, leaves but a slight film upon the surface of the ground where it falls. And if this be so, one cannot but be amazed at the length of time required for the subaerial sifting of material, and for the transport from the dry central regions of Asia of that finest dust with which so large a portion of China eventually became covered to a depth varying from 50 or 100 feet up to 2000 feet. There are many other difficulties that seem to stand in the way of Richthofen’s theory of the origin of the Chinese loss, but these need not be urged ;’ and we may well admit that the accumulations so admirably described by him in his beautiful work have been very considerably modified by the action of winds. But however satisfactory his theory may be as an explanation of the loss of China, it appears to me to be quite inapplicable to that of Europe. Our loamy accumu- lations refuse, as I believe, to be so explained. My reasons for thinking so I shall venture to bring forward ; but before doing so, and in order to carry my reader with me, I must first give a rapid outline of the principal features of that remarkable epoch in the world’s history which geologists speak of as the Ice Age or Glacial Period. 1M. Abbé David has stated his objections to the theory in question.—See Journal de mon troisiéme voyage d exploration dans ’ Empire Chinois, t. i. p. 94 ; and Mr. Kingsmill has likewise combated Baron von Richthofen’s views. (See Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1871, p. 376; The Border Lands of Geology and History : an Inaugural Address, delivered to North China Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc., 1877). In place of the wind-theory Mr. Kingsmill will have it that the Chinese léss is a marine deposit, a view which seems on the face of it as difficult of belief as that which he opposes. THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 169 CHAPTER X. THE GLACIAL PERIOD. Early views of glacial phenomena—Agassiz’s glacial theory—Glacial phenomena of Scotland —Origin of rock-strie, roches moutonnées, till or boulder-clay, ete. —Intruded till and great erratics—Direction of glaciation in Scotland— Glaciation of Ireland ; of English Lake District ; of Lancashire ; Wales, etc. —Glacial phenomena of north-east of England ; of Midland districts and East Anglia—Great erratics—Glaciation of Norway and Sweden ; of Finland and Northern Russia ; of Germany—Contorted and disturbed rocks under boulder- clay—Great erratics—Direction of the northern mer de glace—Course followed by ‘‘under-tow” of ice-sheet. THROUGHOUT vast areas in the low grounds of Northern Europe, and in all the mountain-tracts of the central and southern regions of our continent, we encounter the clearest and most abundant evidence to show that a much severer climate than the present has formerly obtained. I have already adduced a number of facts which must have convinced the reader that towards the close of the Paleolithic Age the ancient inhabitants of Aquitaine lived under conditions such as now characterise only the higher latitudes. When the temperature in Central and Southern Europe was so depressed as to allow reindeer and musk-sheep to live in the low grounds that sweep north from the base of the Pyrenees, and the glutton, the marmot, and the tailless hare to frequent the shores of the Mediterranean, what, we may well ask, must have been the condition of those tracts to which these animals are now restricted? Fortunately we are able to give a very definite reply to this question. The evidence brings before our vision scenes that are in strangest contrast to the present— 170 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. vast regions of Northern Europe buried under perennial snow and ice, huge glaciers deploying upon the low grounds of France and Italy, and creeping down the mountain-valleys of southern Spain ; ice, in like manner, choking the upland valleys of Corsica; snow-capped mountains everywhere. Cold currents flowing out of the Polar Ocean then laved the shores of North- western Europe, bringing with them many arctic forms of life, which occupied the area vacated by the temperate species as these last found their way south to the coasts of Spain and the Mediterranean. The walrus, now one of the rarest visitors to Ultima Thule, frequented the English Channel,’ where ice-rafts were common, and into which rivers, flowing from perennial snow-fields and glaciers, discharged their muddy waters. To give an adequate description of the facts upon which these conclusions are based would lead me far beyond the scope of this work, and I can find space for only a meagre out- line of the subject. The history of the Glacial Period or Ice Age is read in certain peculiar markings upon rock-surfaces ; in the configuration of hills, the form of valleys, and the multi- tude of lakes in alpine and northern regions ; in the character of certain superficial accumulations of clay, gravel, sand, boulders, and débris, which in those regions are more or less abundantly developed ; in the presence of arctic and boreal shells and other marine forms in the clay-deposits of low latitudes like our own; in the appearance of high-alpine and hyperboreal plants in ancient peat-bogs ; and finally, in the present distribution of the flora and fauna of Europe. These phenomena and the mode in which they are interpreted have been discussed some- what fully in the work mentioned below,’ to which the reader who wishes to study the subject in detail may refer. The general results arrived at are all that I can attempt to give in this place. The more conspicuous traces of the great glaciers and seas of ice which formerly existed in Europe, are so prominent that 1 See a paper by M. G. A. Defrance, Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 3° Sér. t. ii. p. 164. paper by Pp 2 The Great Ice Age, etc., 2d ed. THE GLACIAL PERIOD. TPE they had long excited wonder before any serious attempt was made to account for them in a natural way. Numerous are the myths and legends connected with the great boulders of our own country. They are the “giant’s putting-stones,” the “deil’s burdens,” the “witch’s hearth-stones,” of the fanciful peasantry. Zealous antiquaries have occasionally claimed them as monuments set up by man in some long-forgotten age. In later times they have been ascribed by serious observers, amongst others by Deluc, to the underground forces of nature— the shattered fragments resulting from the explosion of im- prisoned gas. Others again have attributed them to the action of sudden torrential floods, pouring in vast volumes down mountain-valleys to the low grounds—a view which was speedily abandoned when the distances which the boulders must have travelled came to be better known. The enormous size attained by many of the blocks was also a difficulty which - this hypothesis could not remove. It was found, for example, that some of the great boulders lying upon the slopes of the ~ Jura, and which had come from the upper reaches of the Rhone valley, measured upwards of 10,000 cubic feet. The famous Pierre 4 Bot, above the Lake Neuchatel, is a block of granite estimated to weigh 1500 tons. It is needless to say that there is no river which could possibly move masses so enormous as these. The very general distribution of erratic blocks by and by suggested another explanation of their origin. They had been traced across uearly the whole breadth of Northern Europe, from Holland to St. Petersburg and Moscow— they swarmed upon the low grounds bordering on the Baltic,— they were hardly less abundant in Middle Germany, they were sprinkled plentifully over Scotland, Ireland, and a large part of England. Their occurrence in the alpine regions of Switzer- land and the Pyrenees was notorious, and they had been observed also as far south as Granada. The general directions in which they had travelled had likewise been ascertained. Thus it was known that many of the large blocks scattered over the surface of Northern Germany had been derived from 172 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. Scandinavia. The underground forces had been found altogether insufficient to account for those phenomena, and the idea of enor- mously-flooded: rivers had likewise failed to afford an adequate solution of the problem. The next theory was that of deluges or inundations which were supposed to have swept over the Continent. This view was ably supported by the well-known experimental geologist Sir James Hall, who, after carefully exploring the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, concluded that the direction of the débdele in Central Scotland had been from west to east. No one can read Hall’s interesting descriptions without being impressed with his penetration. He was not content merely with tracing out the trend taken by the stones, but he was the first to show that the markings on the rocks had been produced, and that the prominent features of the land itself gave evidence of having been greatly modified, by some force coming from the west. Similar observations carried on in other regions with as much care and intelligence as Hall bestowed upon his work, could hardly have failed to anticipate the theory with which the name of Agassiz is now indissolubly associated. As it was, they soon effected the demolition of the very view in support of which they had been adduced. The great difficulty was how to account for such deluges. Some were of opinion that the inundation was universal, and had its origin in the far north, from which a series of great waves were precipitated over Europe, sweeping large blocks and débris and everything before them. Others again, who knew that all the erratics had not travelled in one and the same direction, thought that instead of one great deluge there had been a number of smaller but still powerful irruptions of water. But where did the water come from? Some said from the sea, others, such as Lamanon and Sulzer, from lakes which had burst their barriers. But where had those lakes existed, the bursting of which could have scattered Scandinavian boulders broadcast over Denmark, Holland, and all Northern Germany? And how had the sea been compelled suddenly to forsake its bed and sweep in giant waves across the Continent? It was vaguely THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 173 suggested that perhaps some mighty earthquake-shock or sudden upheaval of a mountain-chain, or of the sea-bottom, had been the cause of the deluges. Few, however, had the boldness to enter into particulars, and in this respect they were more cautious than Pallas, who, in order to account for the presence of bones, tusks, skeletons, and carcasses of elephants, in the alluvial deposits of Northern Siberia, had made the extraordinary suggestion that a tremendous débdcle might have swept them north from India—a débdcle which he attributed to the great eruptions that had produced the Moluccas, Philippines, and other islands of volcanic origin in the Indian Ocean. But we must remember that a century has elapsed since Pallas wrote, and his theoretical notions, however wild they may appear to us, would not seem so to his contemporaries. In the many “theories of the earth” which were current in his time, one may read of still more startling hypotheses. We are told, for example, by St. Pierre, that the Deluge was caused by the simultaneous sudden melting of two vast and towering cupolas of ice that covered the Poles, the waters from which, rushing in two enormous débdcles from north and south, overwhelmed all the low grounds of the world. “Complete islands of floating ice,” he says, “loaded with white bears, ran aground among the palm-trees of the torrid zone, and the elephants of Africa were tossed amidst the fir-groves of Siberia, where their large bones are still found to this day.’ Ata more recent date we encounter another curious view advanced by the celebrated French geolo- gist, Elie de Beaumont, who accounted for the transport of erratic débris from the Alps by means of enormous currents derived from the sudden meltings of the snows upon the lofty heights of the Eastern Alps— qui ont di étre fondues en un instant par les gaz auxquels est attribude l’origine des dolomies et des gypses.”’ This strange notion also commended itself to Collegno, who endeavoured by similar means to explain the glacial phenomena of the Pyrenees.” 2 Sur les Revolutions de la Surface du Globe, p. 285. 2 Ann. des Sci. Nat., t. ii. p. 191; Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 1° Sér. t. xiv. p. 402. 174 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. It was not until Agassiz visited Scotland and pointed out the evidence for the former existence of glaciers in that country* that British geologists were put upon the right scent. For some years before this time, however, it had been ascertained that a cold climate had prevailed in Scotland during a very late Tertiary period. The late Dr. Thomas Thomson had discovered and described those beds of fossil mollusca on which so much of the evidence of the Glacial Era depends, and four years later appeared the first of a series of well-known papers by Mr. Smith of Jordanhill, in which the same phenomena are discussed, and an allusion made to Thomson’s discovery. After this time our knowledge of the glacial phenomena, thanks to the labours of Buckland,? Lyell, J. D. Forbes,’ Maclaren,’ Chambers,’ and others, rapidly increased. The theory of débdcles was laid aside, but a belief that a large part of the phenomena could only be accounted for by enormous submergences of the land continued for many years to hold possession of geologists, and still lingers on amongst some observers whose attention has perhaps been too exclusively confined to the low grounds of England. But the notion of “ waves of translation” has long disappeared. Those who still cling to the view that much of the clay with far- travelled stones which covers such wide areas in the lowlands of Britain and the Continent is of marine origin, readily admit the former existence of glaciers in the hillier regions ; but they maintain that a large proportion of the erratics and stony clay has been distributed during a period of submergence through 1 Proc. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. p. 827 ; Edin. New Phil. Jowr., vol. xxxiii. p. 217. 2 See Obituary Notice of Dr. Thomson by Sir Joseph Hooker, Journ. Royal Geogr. Soc., vol. xlviii. p. cxxxvii. Thomson’s paper appears in Records of General Science, vol. i. p. 131, February 1835. Glacialists are indebted to Sir Joseph Hooker for calling their attention to this paper, which has been quite overlooked. 3 Proc. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. pp. 382, 845 ; Hdin. New Phil. Journ. vol. xxx. pp. 194, 202. 4 Proc. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. p. 337 ; Edin. New Phil. Journ., vol. xxx. p. 199. 5 Edin. New Phil. Journ., vol. xl. p. 76. 8 Tbid. vol. xl. p. 125 ; vol. xlix. p. 333 ; Brit. Assoc. Rep., p. 90; and other papers. 7 Many papers in Edin. New Phil. Journ., Brit. Assoc. Rep., and Proc. Royal Soc. Hdin., from 1850. THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 175 the agency of floating-ice. It is not my intention to combat this view here ; it has already, as I believe, received the coup de grdce at the hands of many glacialists,' British and foreign, and may be allowed to die in peace. It has been abandoned in Switzerland, where all the phenomena of glaciation are so well developed; it has become equally extinct in Scandinavia. In our own country, notwithstanding our insular position and supposed affection for the sea, its supporters are rapidly diminishing in number ; and of American observers the same tale may be told. I would not have the reader to suppose, however, that modern glacialists have discarded the notion that any part of the land during the Glacial Period was submerged, or that they refuse to believe that any of our erratics have been transported by floating-ice. On the contrary, the evidence that large areas have been submerged is overwhelming, and not a few erraties occur at low levels in our maritime regions which there is every reason to suppose have been carried there by ice-rafts. But the more salient features of the phenomena, such as the rounded rocks, the smoothed, polished, and striated surfaces, we do not believe ice- bergs had any share in producing; and they are just as inadequate to explain the formation and distribution of those ‘vast sheets and mounds of stones, clay, gravel, sand, and erratics, of which I shall speak by and by. The spoor of the old glaciers, which formerly existed in the British Islands, has been followed successfully by a large band of enthusiastic observers, and the results they have come to are certainly, when baldly stated, enough to take one’s breath away. But however astonishing they may seem to those who hear of them for the first time, they are yet based upon abundant facts which are not local or confined only to a few isolated areas, but general throughout all Ireland, Scotland, and a large portion of England. Neither are these facts such as can be explained 1See Ramsay, Old Glaciers of Wales; Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xviii. p. 202 ; Jamieson, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xviii. p- 164; vol. xxi. p. 162; A. Geikie, Trans. Geol. Soc., Glasgow, vol. i. pt. ii. ; Croll, Climate and Time, p- 273; Dana, American Journal of Science and Art, 1873 ; Manual of Geology, 2d ed., p. 534. For other references see Great Ice Age. 176 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. in various ways. They lead only to one conclusion, and, as a recent writer has remarked,’ “correspond so wonderfully in every detail to this conclusion, and this only, as to amount to absolute demonstration.” Among the most remarkable pheno- mena are the smoothed and scratched rock-surfaces which are so common a feature in upland-valleys, and which are met with again and again upon hill-tops and hill-slopes, and on many exposed rocks in the low grounds. These markings agree pre- cisely, even to the smallest minutiz, with the similar appear- ances which have been observed underneath the overhanging sides of a glacier, and they are familiarly known upon the bottoms and flanks of every valley in the Alps, and many other regions which still support glaciers. No one doubts that such smoothed and striated rocks as one sees in the valley of the Unter Aar glacier and in the neighbourhood of the Grimsel, were produced by the grinding action of that glacier during some period of the past when it attained much larger proportions. The striae are engraved by the stones and grit which are rolled forward under the ice, and the rocks receive their smoothed and polished surface from the finer material—the sand and mud— which results from the grinding process itself. It was his familiarity with these facts, and his knowledge that the glaciers of Switzerland had in ancient times extended far beyond their present limits, which enabled Agassiz to discover the true meaning of the so-called “diluvial” phenomena in Scotland. Another feature which receives an equally satisfactory explan- ation is that of the rounded or mammillated rocks of our country. These correspond exactly to the roches moutonnées of Swiss geolo- gists, so called from their having a fancied resemblance, at a distance, to sheep lying down. One sees that they have been produced by some heavy body passing over them in a determi- nate direction. They represent what must once have been rugged tors and knobs and angular excrescences, which the abrading action of a glacier has softened down. Where they have not suffered too severely from the influence of the weather they 1 Quarterly Review, July 1879, p. 229. faa ee THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 177 exhibit parallel striz, ruts, and grooves, often in great perfection. It is also easy to tell from them in what direction the ice has moved ; for it is the side facing that direction which shows the most marked glaciation, and which, in allusion to the severe abra- sion it has experienced, is called by the Swiss geologists the Stoss- seite (lit. pushing- or thrusting-side). The leeside (Lce-seite) of roches moutonnées is generally less rubbed and worn, and, in many cases, is even quite rugged and free from glacial markings. Standing at the head of a valley in the Scottish Highlands and looking down, the hill-sides on either hand present a somewhat smooth and undulating surface, an appearance which vanishes when we walk down the valley and then turn to look back. The rocks which seemed rounded off when we viewed them from the upper reaches of the valley, now assume a much more broken and rugged aspect, a phenomenon which must be attributed to precisely the same cause as that which produced the planed and striated surfaces and the roches moutonnées. The observer in such a mountain-region soon becomes aware also of another appearance which is sufficiently remarkable. In some of our higher mountain-valleys he sees the striated rocks and the smoothed hill-slopes extending for a considerable distance up- wards until they reach a certain elevation, above which the mountains show no traces of abrasion, but all is harsh and severe. Reflecting upon these facts, he concludes that the val- leys have been at some period filled to a less or greater depth with ice, which flowed down towards the low grounds, smoothing and striating the rocks, removing asperities, and producing roches moutonnées after the very same manner as the glaciers of Switzerland and Norway. And by measuring the height to which the glaciated rocks extend, he is enabled to form an estimate of the thickness attained by the ice. By following out similar observations, we have now not only ascertained the thickness of the ice and the direction in which it flowed, but we have also acquired some definite notion of the degree at which its upper surface sloped away to the horizon. All the valleys of the Highlands and Southern Uplands N 178 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. of Scotland are now known to have contained glaciers. It is fur- ther known that those glaciers attained so great a thickness that in many cases their upper strata overflowed the limits of the valleys, and became confluent across the summits of the inter- vening high grounds, which are striated in precisely the same man- ner as the lower slopes. These unmistakable glacial markings have been traced up to a height of more than 3000 feet, and the general evidence shows that during the climax of the Ice Age only the highest hill-tops projected above the level of the great sheet of ice which overwhelmed all the mountainous regions of the country. More than this, glacial striz, furrows, and roches moutonnées have been traced throughout all the lowland districts, and the trend of these indicates, in a manner not to be mistaken, that the districts referred to have been ploughed over by glacier- ice coming from the more elevated tracts of the country. And the thickness of that ice may be inferred from the fact that isolated hills and hill-ranges, such as the Sidlaws, the Ochils, the Lomonds, the Pentlands, the Campsies, and the rolling trap- pean uplands of Lanarkshire and Ayrshire, are glaciated up to and across their highest summits. All Scotland, in short, was enveloped in ice, which levelled up the valleys, so that its higher strata were enabled to grind across the tops of hills that rise to within heights of 2000 and 3000 feet above the present sea-level. Now it is evident that a mass of ice so thick as that could not float off in shallow seas like those which immediately surround us. We might have expected, therefore, to find that the islands lying off our coast should afford some trace of glacial invasion. And such is actually the case. The island of Bute, for example, has been overflowed from end to end by ice streaming out from the mountain-land of Argyleshire. Colonsay, in like manner, disappeared underneath the glacier-ice that choked up the Firth of Lorne—in a word, not one of the Western Islands escaped. Even the Outer Hebrides were swept across by the massive mer de glace that pressed outwards to the ocean. The markings upon the rocks show us that, although all the hilly district of Central Scotland, and every island, were thus eS ee ee THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 179 smothered in ice, they yet greatly influenced the direction of the ice-flow. As we approach some prominent hill that stood fronting the glacial current, we find the strize begin to change their direction, bending round as it were to escape the obstruc- tion. These hills and the smaller islands appear thus to have played much the same part as large submerged boulders in the bed of a river. They turned aside the ice that beat against them, buried deep though they were beneath the upper surface of the mer de glace. It must be remembered that it is not only level or approximately level surfaces which bear the marks of glacial abrasion. Sloping faces and sometimes even vertical faces are distinctly striated by ice which has been pressed up and over them. Thus the flanks of the Sidlaws and the Ochils, which look towards the Highlands, are grooved and striated by ice which has crossed Strathmore and Strathearn respectively, and thereafter made its way up and over both ranges, forced forward by the ice continually advancing from behind. The direction taken by the ice, therefore, does not always coincide exactly with the configuration of the ground—minor features such as those I have mentioned were practically disregarded, although as already remarked they always influence the trend of the striz in a greater or less degree. The ice streamed out in all directions from the dominating ridges, and thus followed the line of what is still the main drainage of the country. For example, the general direction in the lowlands of Forfar, Perth, and Stirling was towards the south-east. In Linlithgowshire and Midlothian itis more easterly. The mer de glace from the Highlands encountered that which pressed northwards from the Southern Uplands, and thereafter the two streams united to flow east by way of Linlithgow, Midlothian, and Haddington, and south-west across the district that extends from the Clyde, near Hamilton, to the sea at Ayr. Deflections of the main current were thus produced by the conflicting motions of the great mer de glace itself. The most remarkable deflection of the kind, however, still remains to be noticed. But the evidence for this will be better appreciated after I have said something 180 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. about the most important member of the glacial deposits—the Till or Boulder-clay. The grinding of this enormous mass of ice, exceeding 3000 feet in its deeper parts, resulted in the general smoothing away of asperities and sharply-projecting rocks. And the result is seen now in the flowing contour which distinguishes all the hill-ranges of Central Scotland, the greater portion of the Southern Uplands, and all but the loftier peaks and ridges of the Highlands and mountainous islands of Arran and the Inner and Outer Hebrides. As a consequence of all this erosion and abrasion, immense quantities of stony débris gathered underneath the ice, and were slowly dragged and rolled forward. In the glacier-valleys of the Alps and Norway similar débris forms below the ice, but since a good deal of water circulates between that ice and the rocky pavement over which it flows, the finer sediment—the sand and mud—is washed out and carried away by the discoloured rivers that leap out at the terminal fronts of the glaciers. That similar streams and torrents and rivers flowed underneath the old mer de glace of Scotland admits of no doubt, for their water-worn gravel and shingle are here and there con- spicuous enough in the heart of the glacial deposits. There appear even to have been what we might call sub-glacial lakelets —hollows underneath the ice in which fine clay slowly acctimu- lated, and into which now and then stones were dropped from the over-arching roof of ice. But such streams and lakes pro- bably bore a smaller proportion to the area covered by the ice than the rivers and lochs of the present land-surface do to the dry ground over which they are distributed. And consequently the coarse débris and clay and sand were allowed in most places to accumulate undisturbed by the modifying action of water. The stones which were in this way forced along under- neath the ice came in time to have their angles rubbed off, and their faces smoothed, striated, and polished. The accompany- ing illustration (Fig. 5), which is drawn from nature by my friend Mr. B. N. Peach, represents a typical boulder-clay stone. It will be observed that the stone is smooth, and scratched principally THE GLACIAL PERIOD, 181 Fig. 5.—Striated Stone from Till or Boulder-clay. in the direction of its length. This is most usually the case with stones that are decidedly longer than they are broad. When they come to measure much the same in all directions, then the strize follow no particular trend, but cross and recross 182 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. each other at all angles. The reasons for this are obvious ; the stones which were being dragged forward under the ice would naturally arrange themselves in the line of least resistance, and this, in the case of the specimen here figured, would be length- ways. Now and again, however, such a stone would be turned over and get scratched to some extent in other directions. Stones that had no particular shape would not of course travel more easily in one position than another, and hence their irregular striation. The boulders seem to have received their finer polishing from being squeezed forward in the clay, which acted upon them like emery. And doubtless the pavement over which the stony clay was dragged was smoothed and polished by the same agent. Not only hard rocks like granite, but even soft black shales, which one may scratch with one’s finger-nail, have been rolled forward in their matrix of clay, and in this position have acquired a finely-smoothed surface upon which one may detect striz as delicate as the hairs of a pencil- brush. Now, if boulder-clay has been formed in the manner I have thus briefly described, we might expect that its origin should be clearly shown by the mode of its distribution, by its colour, and by the direction in which it has travelled. In rugged mountain-glens, and on steep hill-slopes and hill- tops—wherever, indeed, the ice moved with a quicker motion than it could in broad straths and upon the open Lowlands, we should certainly not meet with tillin any quantity. It should also be absent, or sparingly present, in all positions where, from the configuration of the ground, there must have been enormous force exerted by the ice. Thus, at the base ofa steep hill front- ing the direction from which the ice flowed, there should be little or none—for the same reason that sediment gathers sparingly in front of a boulder in the bed of a stream. But in the rear of such a hill as I speak of, it is clear that, if our theory be true, there ought to be a more or less considerable accumulation of glacial débris, just as we expect to find gravel and sand heaped up in the lee of boulders and submerged rocks in streams THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 183 and rivers. Again, it is evident that in great valleys like the basin of the Forth, and wide spaces like Strathmore, and the low-lying districts generally, the ice would have a sluggish motion, and would, in such places, tend to accumulate sub- glacial débris to a much greater extent than in regions where the slope of the ground was considerably greater. All these expect- ations we find fully realised throughout the length and breadth of Scotland,—the till is distributed exactly as it ought to be, upon the supposition that it marks the bottom-moraine of an old mer de glace. And, what is still more suggestive of its origin, it is frequently arranged in the form of long broad smoothly-outlined ridges or “drums” and “sow-backs,” as they are called, the trend of which exactly coincides with the direc- tion of the striz upon the underlying rocky pavement. These drums are especially conspicuous in the lower reaches of the Tweed in Roxburghshire and Berwickshire, and are well brought out upon the shaded one-inch map of the Ordnance Survey. The Drums of Nithsdale are also a fine example of the same phenomena. No one, however ignorant of glacial geology, can look at those maps without feeling convinced that the whole region has been acted upon by some great agent moving in one and the same determinate direction. In Teviotdale and Tweed- dale all the ridges, whether of boulder-clay or solid rock, are seen sweeping down the main valley in exactly parallel lines. Here and there are prominent hills shooting abruptly upwards, each showing a steep face towards the region whence the abrad- ing force moved, but sending out along and narrow sloping bank of detritus behind. The drums bore the same relation to the old-ice-sheet that the long ridges of gravel and sand in the bed of a river do to the current that heaps them up and is con- tinually modifying them. That boulder-clay consists of the débris of the rocks is sufficiently evident. The stones are the more or less worn and abraded fragments which have been detached during the grind- ing of the ice and the slow rolling-forward of its bottom- moraine. Many of these fragments have been carried a long 184 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. distance ; others have not travelled so far; while frequently we - may see blocks lying quite close to the parent mass from which they have been wrenched. I have described the rocky pave- ment over which the ice flowed as often showing a planed, smoothed, and striated surface. In many cases, however, we find, instead of all this planing and polishing, only a jumbled accumulation of large blocks and broken débris under the till. The bed-rock has been smashed and crushed, and large masses have been pushed out of place, the boulder-clay often appear- ing tightly rammed between the blocks. This frequently char- acterises much-jointed rocks, like certain sandstones and igneous rocks. And one can see that the dislocated fragments have been dragged along in the same direction as that followed by the trend of the glacial strie and drums of till in the same neighbourhood, Here we observe the beginning of the process of boulder-clay-making. As we follow the fragments of the same disrupted rock which occur in the till farther down the valley, we note how they become smaller in size; while the sharp corners at the same time get rubbed away, and the surfaces assume the characteristic glacial markings. The stones and boulders in the till thus vary much in size—from mere erit and small frag- ments no larger than a hazel-nut up to great blocks measuring many feet and even yards across. These last, however, are the exception, and are generally met with at no distance from their parent stratum. Large, far-travelled boulders in the till are always well abraded, and invariably consist of some hard, durable rock. Considerable lumps of soft sandstone and friable shale, on the other hand, have never been able to stand a long journey under the ice. They rapidly broke up into small pieces, and were ground and rubbed down into sand and clay. The enormous pressure exerted by the ice is well shown in these and other phenomena—more especially in the appearance which the till not infrequently presents of having been forcibly intruded into the strata over which it was dragged and rolled by the superincumbent ice. Veins and tongues appear squeezed between the interstices of the rocks, and sometimes sheets of THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 185 till seem as if actually interstratified with the old strata. Per- haps the most striking example of this peculiar phenomenon which has been recorded is that shown in the quarry of Links- field, near Elgin, which has been described by Captain Bricken- den.! This quarry has been opened in limestone underneath an overlying thickness of forty feet of Oolitic strata, which were separated from the limestone by a sheet of boulder-clay two to four feet thick. In order to raise the limestone it was found necessary to remove the boulder-clay and strata resting upon it, which, since the opening of the quarry up to the time when Captain Brickenden examined the place (1851), had been done to the extent of 120 yards in a direction at right angles to the course pursued in the excavation of the limestone, the transverse line or section of the quarry extending to 270 yards. Now, over all this area the boulder-clay maintained its position between the Oolitic strata above and the limestone below; and Captain Brickenden was “assured by an intelligent old man, who had visited the quarry very constantly since it was first opened, that at the distance of more than 100 yards from where it now is the clay was observed to be about the same depth, and overlaid, as now, by the same series of Oolitic strata in their undisturbed position. On the north-western boundary of the quarry the thickness of the intercalation increases consider- ably, and there can be little doubt that in this direction the clay obtained an entrance.” The surface of the boulder-clay and that of the strata between which it occurs is hardened, abraded, polished, and marked with striz, indicating the direc- tion in which the ice-movement took place, which is nearly from north-west to south-east. Captain Brickenden was of opinion that the boulder-clay had been intruded into its present position. It is more probable, however, that the whole mass of the Oolitic strata has been pushed out of place, and dragged forward bodily over a pavement of boulder-clay under the enormous mer de glace which pressed outwards by way of the Moray Firth and overflowed all the low grounds of Elgin. 1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. vii. p. 289. 186 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. The “carry” of the stones in till is another indication of the direction of ice-flow ; and the evidence thus supplied confirms ‘that afforded by all the phenomena of glaciation touched upon in the preceding paragraphs. The stones are scattered about promiscuously in the clay, but they nevertheless show a method in the mode of their occurrence, the meaning of which is ob- vious. We do not in the till of one place meet with an assem- blage of blocks and boulders which may have come from any and every part of the country. On the contrary, the contents of the accumulation bear a strict relation to the geology of the neighbourhood in which that deposit occurs. Thus, in a district composed of Carboniferous strata, most of the stones in the boulder-clay consist of fragments of sandstone, limestone, black shale, coal, and other rocks pertaining to the surrounding neigh- bourhood. And not only so, but the clay itself acquires a dark dingy gray or blue colour, just such a hue as those various members of the Carboniferous formation would assume were they all pounded up and mixed in a mortar. Hence, as we traverse the country we become aware that the colour, the tex- ture, and the stony contents of the till vary as we pass over different geological formations. If, for example, we set our- selves down, say at the head of the Tweed, in the heart of the Silurian Uplands, we find the till of that district crammed with fragments of Silurian rocks alone, and we note that the colour is generally a pale brown. Till of this character continues far down the valley, until, by and by, after we have passed certain of the lateral streams that enter the Tweed from the north, we encounter occasional boulders of sandstone and porphyrite which have come down the valleys of the Lyne and the Eddle- stone waters. But Silurian fragments continue to form the great bulk of the stones all the way down to where, a little beyond Galashiels, we enter upon the Old Red Sandstone area. Very soon after passing the boundary-line between the two formations, we notice that boulders of red sandstone make their appearance, at first sparingly, and then in rapidly increasing numbers. The clay at the same time gradually loses its grayish THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 187 brown tint, and acquires a redder hue, which by and by deepens into a red as pronounced as that of the Old Red Sandstone itself. Owing, however, to the superior hardness of the Silurian fragments, which could resist crushing and grinding much more effectually than the softer sandstones, the boulders derived from the regions above Galashiels are always present in large num- bers. As we continue on our way down the valley we pass numer- ous knolls, hills, and wider sheets of various igneous rocks, and no sooner do we pass one of these than fragments of it appear in the till. Search the whole wide valley from its source to its termination, and we shall not find a single example of a boulder-clay stone which has travelled wp the valley, or in any other direction than that followed by the trend of the strize and the drums. And the same holds true of every region in Scotland. There are many other facts connected with the stones in the till, and which all point to the same conclusion, namely, that the till is the bottom-moraine of the old ice-sheet ; but these I need not discuss in this place. I may merely refer in a word to the occurrence here and there, in and underneath the till, of patches and irregular layers and beds of coarse shingle, large boulders, earthy angular or sub-angular gravel, waterworn stones, sand, and laminated clay—all these point to the fact that during the accumulation of the till water circulated to some extent under- neath the ice. The deposits in question mark the sites of sub-glacial channels and lakelets which formed from time to time, and were doubtless often shifted by movements in the ice overhead. This is shown by the manner in which the beds are usually abruptly cut asunder, contorted, con- fused, bent back upon themselves, and even frequently coiled up and involved with the till in such a way as to prove that they have been rolled forward with the boulder-clay en masse. In remarking upon the fact that the direction of movement of the Scottish ice-sheet was determined by the form of the ground, I referred to a great deflection of ice-flow caused by 188 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. the meeting of the mers de glace of the Highlands and Southern Uplands. A much more striking example of this kind of deflec- tion remains to be mentioned. In Caithness the boulder-clay has yielded many broken sea-shells, not a few of which are finely striated. Perfect shells are rarely met with. The broken fragments are scattered about in precisely the same manner as the stones, and they belong to a heterogeneous mixture of arctic, boreal, and southern forms.'' For a long time the origin of this shelly clay was a puzzle, but the solution of the puzzle was at last furnished by my colleague Dr. Croll,? who pointed out that the clay was the bottom-moraine of a mer de glace which had overflowed Caithness from south-east to north-west, to do which it must first have traversed the Moray Firth, and hence came the shelly débris and certain stones that, so far as we know, could have been derived from no other direction. This bold suggestion met with considerable opposition when it was first made, for it involved a most remarkable conclusion. Dr. Croll showed that the ice which overflowed Caithness had been deflected out of its normal path by the presence of another immense mer de glace flowing outwards from Scandinavia, and he further maintained that the Islands of Orkney and Shetland, when they came to be thoroughly examined, would prove to be striated from east to west. This conclusion has been subse- quently borne out by the observations of my brother, Professor Geikie, and Mr. B. N. Peach, in Caithness,? and by a detailed examination of the Shetlands* by the latter in company with Mr. J, Horne, and similar results have been obtained by the same geologists in Orkney. Not only are the Shetlands striated across in a general east and west direction, but the till covering the western part of the islands is crammed with stones derived from the east. My friend, Mr. Amund Helland, of Christiania, has also visited these islands, and confirmed the observations made by my colleagues. The strize and the carry of the 1 See Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. (Jamieson), 1866, p. 261. 2 Geol. Mag., vol. vii. p. 209. 3 Great Ice Age, p. 179. 4 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., v. xxxv. p. 778. 5 Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges., Bd. xxxi. (1879), p. 63. THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 189 stones in the till along the whole eastern seaboard south from Aberdeenshire tell the same tale. They indicate the presence in the area of the North Sea of some obstacle to the outflow of the ice from Scotland, which, instead of going right out to sea, was deflected and compelled to hug the Scottish shores in a south-easterly direction.’ Thus are we driven to conclude that during the climax of the Glacial Period all Scotland was drowned in a wide-spread mer de glace, which coalesced in the north and east with a simi- lar sheet of ice that crept outwards from Scandinavia. To the west the Scottish ice, meeting with no impediment to its course, overflowed the Outer Hebrides to a height of 1600 feet, and probably continued on its path into the Atlantic as far as the edge of the 100-fathom plateau, where the somewhat sudden deepening of the sea would allow it to break off, and send adrift whole argosies of icebergs. The height reached by the upper surface of the ice that overwhelmed the Outer Hebrides enables us to ascertain the angle of slope between those islands and the mainland. This was 1 in 211, that is to say, the inclina- tion of the surface of the ice-sheet was about 25 feet in the mile—an inclination which would appear to the eye almost like a dead level.” I have been thus particular in my sketch of the salient features of the general glaciation of Scotland during the cul- mination of the Ice Age, because in describing them I am practically describing the similar glacial phenomena of Ireland, and a large part of England, of Scandinavia, Finland, Den- mark, and Northern Germany. It will, therefore, not be neces- sary to do more than give a brief sketch of the limits reached by the great mer de glace in Northern Europe, so far as these have been definitely ascertained by an appeal to such facts as those I have mentioned in connection with the glacial phe- nomena of Scotland. Glacial striz and boulder-clay have been followed over all Great Ice Age, p. 180. ? J. Geikie, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., v. xxix. p. 861. 190 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. Treland, and the admirable researches of a long list of Irish geologists, including Griffiths, Oldham, Portlock, Jukes, Hull, Du Noyer, Kinahan, Close, Hardman, Campbell, and many others, have conclusively established the fact that our sister island was buried under an ice-sheet hardly less extensive than that which overwhelmed Scotland. Two sketch-maps, showing the general trend of the striz in Ireland, have been published— the first by Rev. Maxwell Close, than whom no one has con- tributed more to our knowledge of Ivish glacial geology,’ and the second, which being the more recent, contains the largest amount of information, by Professor Hull.? From these maps we gather that the ice flowed off Ireland in all directions save to north-east in Antrim, upon the coast of which it encountered the Scottish mer de glace, which forced it to turn away to north- west and south-east ; but along the whole western and southern shores, where no obstacle to its passage intervened, it seems to have swept in one broad and continuous stream out, probably as far as that of Scotland, into the Atlantic. The thickness attained by the ice that flowed into the Irish Sea from Scotland, where it coalesced with the mer de glace coming from the eastern sea-board of Ireland, and also, as we shall presently see, with that creeping out from England and Wales, makes it quite certain that the area now occupied by that sea must at that time have been filled with glacier-ice. The phenomena of glaciation are well developed throughout extensive areas in England and Wales. Those of the Northern Lake District and Lancashire and Cheshire have been studied in great detail, and the movements of the ice, as determined by the direction of roches moutonnées and strie, by the distribution of the till, and by the carry of the stones in that deposit, have been well ascertained by many enthusiastic workers, following in the wake of Agassiz? and Buckland,* among whom are 1 Geol. Mag., vol. iv. p. 284. 2 Physical Geology and Geography of Ireland, p. 211. The general reader _who desires a well-digested summary of what is known of the old ice-movements in Ireland, would do well to consult this interesting treatise. 3 Proc. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. p. 328. 4 Thid., pp. 332, 345. THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 1g! Binney,' Bryce,” Hull,? Morton,* Mackintosh,> De Rance,® Tiddeman,” Ward,® Goodchild,? and others. Mr. Tiddeman gave the first connected account of the phenomena as developed in North Lancashire and adjacent parts of Yorkshire and West- moreland, and established the fact that the mer de glace which covered those regions was compelled to flow against the “ grain” of the country, crossing wide and deep valleys in a SSE. direction. This he showed was due to the fact that the great ice-stream flowing outwards from the Lake District barred the passage of the Lancashire ice in the direction of the basin of the Irish Sea. In short, as already stated, the Scottish, Irish, and English mers de glace coalesced. The course of this united ice-sheet is further indicated by the glacial phenomena of the Isle of Man, long ago studied by Rev. J. Cumming,” and by those of Anglesey, as described by Professor Ramsay.” This latter island is striated from N.N.E., and its boulder- clay contains stones which have come all the way from Cumberland. Turning our attention now to the north-eastern borders of - England, we find that the rock-strie, and the carry of the stones in the till of the maritime districts of Northumberland and Durham, tell the same tale as those of North Lancashire—the 1 Mem. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manchester, 2d Ser. vol. viii. p. 195. Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1850, pp. 76, 112; 1855, p. 80. * Edin. New Phil. Journ., 2d Ser. vol. ix. p. 31; Mem. Lit. and Phil. Man- chester, 3d Ser. vol..i. p. 181; Mem. Geol. Surv. Gt. Britain, 1864. 4 Proc. Geol. Soc. Liverpool, vols. xiv. (1860) p. 35 ; viii. (1867) p. 4; Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1870, p. 81. ° Geol. Mag., vols. ii. p. 299; vii. pp. 349, 445, 564; viii. pp. 250, 303; ix. p- 399; Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vols. xxv. p. 407 ; xxviii. p. 388; xxix. p. 351; xxx. p. 174; xxxi. p. 692. 5 Geol. Mag., vols. vi. p. 489 ; viii. ‘pp. 107, 412; Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxvi. p. 641. 7 Quart, Journ, Geol. Soc., vol. xxviii. p. 471. 8 Ibid., vols, xxix. p, 422; xxx. p. 96; xxxi. p. 152; ‘‘Geology of the Lake District,” Mem. Geol. Surv. England and Wales. ® Geol. Mag., Dee. ii. vol. i. p. 496; Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxi. p. 55. 1 Guide to the Isle of Man, p. 249. 1 Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc., vol. xxxii. p. 116. 192 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. ice to which they owe their origin, instead of flowing straight out to sea, kept on a S.E. course. In fact it flowed in a direction as near as may be parallel to the trend of the present coast-line. It will be remembered that along the eastern sea-board of Scot- land the ice was deflected from its path and compelled to flow in the same direction. Despite the pressure exerted by the massive sheet that made its way outwards from the Pennine Chain, the English ice could not escape into the basin of the North Sea, and consequently we find stones from Scotland, North- umberland, and Durham plentifully present in boulder-clay all along the eastern maritime districts of England. More than this, when we get as far south as the Humber, and follow the spoor of the ice as indicated by the carry of the boulder-clay stones, we are led across Lincolnshire into the Midland Counties, by Nottinghamshire and Leicestershire. The rocks in these districts are too soft as a rule to have preserved any strie, but the general trend of the stones is in the direction I have in- dicated. The North Sea was filled with a massive mer de glace continually advancing in a general S.S.W. direction—the pre- sence of which is distinctly traceable in the remarkable deflec- tion of the glaciation all along the sea-board of Scotland, from Stonehaven southwards. It was simply owing to the superior elevation and extent of the Scottish mountains that the narrow strip of low-lying ground in the eastern maritime districts of that country was not invaded by an alien ice-stream. When we pass into England the hills become lower, and the area of low eround between the hills and the sea increases in breadth. There was thus less and less opposition offered to the southward advance of the North Sea mer de glace as it pressed upon the eastern shores of England, until eventually it overflowed bodily and crept south-west across the Midland tableland on its way to the valley of the Severn and the Bristol Channel. This remarkable glacial invasion is proved not only by the carry of local stones, and stones which have come south from the northern counties and Scotland, but by the appearance in the till at Cornelian Bay and Holderness of boulders of two well-known Norwegian Scr ae ae Ye Re a ea THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 193 rocks, which were recognised by Mr. Amund Helland! And Mr. Plant mentions the occurrence in boulder-clay farther inland, at Leicester, of certain “hornblendic-looking masses, neither dolerite nor diorite, but fibrous or slaty rather than ”* which are possibly also of Norwegian origin. Doubtless, when the geologists of the Midland Counties have exhausted the investigation of the older glacial deposits of these districts, we may expect to hear of many similar “ finds.” The ice which would thus appear to have streamed trans- versely across England eventually coalesced with that which overflowed from the basin of the Irish Sea south-east through Cheshire, together with that which streamed east from the Welsh Uplands, and the united mer de glace thereafter made its way into the Bristol Channel. Here it joined the thick ice that flowed out to sea from the high grounds of South Wales— the bottom-moraine of which is conspicuous not only in the mountain-valleys of that region, but also upon the low-lying tracts that extend from the hills to the sea. In the south- eastern counties, so far as we know at present, the ice-sheet at the climax of the Glacial Period did not extend farther than the valley of the Thames, beyond which no trace of its bottom- moraine has been met with.’ The pressure exerted by the ice-sheet as it crept over England is well shown by the size of the great erratics of chalk, which are here and there enclosed in the boulder-clay of East Anglia. These have evidently been displaced and carried for- ward along with the sub-glacial débris with which they are associated. Some of the blocks referred to are so large that they have been quarried. Many occur in Norfolk, where they granular, 1 Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges., 1879, p. 67; Archiv Jor Mathematik og Natur- videnskab., 1879, p. 287. See further on this subject Appendix B. * Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1874, p. 197. % For fuller details I may be allowed to refer to Great Ice 4 ge, chaps. Xxviii.-xxx, where references will be found to various authorities for the facts upon which the above conclusions are based. Mr. 8. V. Wood’s papers on the glacial geology of East Anglia will be found particularly instructive, and I say this not the less readily, because I find myself compelled to dissent from some of his theoretical views. Oo 194 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. have long been known, but one of the most noted by reason of its great size is that which is exposed in the clay-pit, called Roslyn Hole, near Ely. This erratic is composed of a mass of Chalk, Gault, and Upper Greensand, and measures over 480 yards in length by 44 yards in width. The Rev. O. Fisher was the first to recognise its true character,’ Mr. Seeley having previously accounted for its presence by a fault or dislocation.’ But Professor Bonney has shown that Mr. Fisher’s interpreta- tion of the phenomena is correct *—a conclusion which is like- wise supported by the testimony of Mr. Skertchly, who states that he has seen boulder-clay underlying all the various rocks of which this enormous erratic is composed.* Similar large detached masses of marlstone are described by Mr. Judd as appearing in the boulder-clay of Lincolnshire,*® and Professor Morris mentions the occurrence in the drift of the same county of a large erratic of Oolitic rock measuring 430 feet long by 30 feet thick at its deepest part, which he saw exposed in the rail- way cutting at the south end of the tunnel (Great Northern Railway). The lower part of the boulder-clay in Cretaceous districts is frequently crammed with masses of chalk and chalk-débris, and these are so often crushed and kneaded together that it is diffi- cult sometimes to distinguish between the broken upper surface of the undisturbed chalk and the highly chalky till that overlies it. And not only so, but occasionally we find the till and the chalk appearing to alternate in successive irregular layers, some instructive examples of which were pointed out to me by Mr. Skertchly in the neighbourhood of Brandon and Thetford in Sussex. Nowhere in Europe are the old glacial phenomena developed on so imposing a scale as in Scandinavia. If we except the higher mountain-tops, the whole of the great peninsula has been wrapped in ice, the erosive effects of which are seen in the 1 Geol. Mag., vol. v. p. 407. * Lbid. vol. ii. p. 529. 3 Tbid. vol. ix. p. 408. 4 Geology of the Fenland (Mem. Geol. Surv. Engl. and Wales), p. 236. 5 Explanatory Memoir of Geol. Survey's Map (England), Sheet 64. 8 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. ix. p. 320. THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 195 severely glaciated aspect of the exposed rock-surfaces, and the massive sheets of boulder-clay which cover so large a portion of the low grounds of Sweden. The investigations of many geologists in Norway —of Keilhau,’ Durocher, Martins, Scheerer,* Horbye,® Kjerulf,° Sexe,’ Reusch,® Helland,’ 8, A.Sexe,!° Pettersen,!! and others, have familiarised us with the fact that the deep fiords of Norway were filled to overflowing during the Ice Age with vast glaciers. And the remarkable fact that the high grounds, which form the boundary-line between Norway and Sweden, were traversed in the region lying south-east of Trondhjemsfjord by ice flowing across the. watershed towards the north-west, was indicated more than twenty years ago by Horbye. This and many other facts have led to the conclusion that the whole Scandinavian peninsula was formerly enveloped in a great mer de glace, and the direction followed by the ice has been traced in sufficient detail to enable us to form a definite view of the principal movements. In the mountainous regions of Norway the ice flowed invariably in the direction of the main fiords and principal valleys—the irregularities of the ground giving rise, as in Scotland, to numerous local deflections. In Sweden the prevalent trend of the strize corresponds likewise with the average inclination of the ground, but as large tracts 1 Nyt Mag. for Naturvid., Bd. i. 1888 ; Tbid., iii. 1841; Tbid., iv. 1845. 2 Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 2° Séx. t. iii. p. 65; t. iv. p. 29 ; Comptes Rendus de U Acad. des Sci., t. xxi. p. 1158; t. xxii. p. 116; t. xxiii. p. 206; Voyages de la Commission Scientifique du Nord en Scandinavie, Laponie, etc. 3 Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 2° Sér. t. iii. p. 102; t. iv. p. 891; Hdin. New Phil. Journ., vol. xliii. p. 109. 4 Annalen der Physik und Chemie (Poggendorf), Bd. xvi. (1845) p. 269; Nyt Mag. for Natwrvid., Bad. vi. > Universitets-Program (Christiania), 1857. 6 Thid. 1860 and 1870 ; Udsigt over det sydlige Norges Geologi, 1879. ’ Universitets-Program, 1864 and 1866. 8 Vidensk. Selsk. Forhandl. (Christiania), 1868. q Ofversigt af Kongl. Vetenskaps- Akademiens Forhandlingar, 1875, p. 53 ; Om de isfyldte Fjorde og de glaciale Dannelser i Nordgrinland ; Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1877, p. 142 ; Archiv for Mathematik og Naturvidenskab, 1878, p. 387. 10 Universitets - Program (Christiania), for 1874; Archiv for Mathem, og Naturvid., 1877, p. 469. 1 Arch. for Mathem. og Naturvid., 1877, pp. 272, 318. 196 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. bordering on the Baltic have only a small elevation, the ice was enabled to traverse those regions in a direction that has frequently no reference to the present lines of drainage. Thanks to the labours of the older school of Swedish geologists, amongst whom Sefstrém? stood conspicuous, and to the later works of Holmstrém, A. Erdmann, Torell, Tornebohm, E. Erdmann, Nathorst, Hummel, Gumelius, Lindstrom, Holst, and others,” we know that the ice flowing from Scandinavia was sufficiently thick to fill up the basin of the Baltic Sea, and to override all the islands — Aland, Gottland, Oland, Bornholm, etc. The investigations of geologists in Finland and Northern Russia*® have further proved that the Scandinavian mer de glace advanced in force, and flowed south-east across Finland. Forchhammer long ago described the striated rocks of Faxé (Denmark), and Johnstrup’s® observations lead us to conclude that the great Scandinavian ice-sheet crossed from Sweden, and spread its bottom-moraine over Denmark. How far south the mer de glace extended into Germany no one until very recently has attempted to prove. So far back as 1 Konigla Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar, 1836, p. 141. 2 Holmstrom, “Jagttagelser ofver Istiden i sddra Sverige,” 1866, Lunds Univ. Arsskrift., t. iii. For an excellent résumé of Swedish glacial phenomena see Professor A. Erdmann’s Exposé des Formations Quaternaires de la Suéde, 1868. Papers of later date are numerous, see especially Torell, ‘‘ Undersék- ningar Ofver Istiden,” Ofversigt af K. Vet.-Akad., 1872 and later years; also papers by Tornebohm, Erdmann, Nathorst, Holst, and others, in Geologiska Féreningens i Stockholm Férhandlingar, Bd. i. -iv.; and various memoirs by members of the Swedish Geological Survey (Sveriges Geologiska Undersékning), —Gumelius, Ofver. af K. Vet. - Akad. Forh., 1871; Nathorst, Ibid., 1878 ; Hummel, Bihang till K. Svenska Vet. - Akad. Handlingar, 1874; Gumelius, Ibid., 1874 and 1876. 3 Bohtlingk, Edin. New Phil. Journ. (1841), vol. xxxi. p. 103; Nils de Nordenskiéld, Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Schrammen in Finland, 1863; Graf Keyserling, Bull. de ? Acad. des Sci. de St. Pétersbourg, t. v. p. 505 ; Schmidt, Ibid., t. viii. p. 348 ; Helmersen, Mem. de ? Acad. Imp. des Sci. de St. Péters- bourg, 7 Sér., t. xiv., No. 7; Comptes Rendus de I Acad. des Sci., t. Ixx. p. 51; Jernstrém, ‘‘Om Qvartarbildningarna,” Bidrag till Kannedom af Finlands Natur och Folk, No. 20. 4 Oversigt over det Kgl. Danske Vidensk.-Selsk. Forh., 1843, p. 103. 5 Beretningen om Méodet af 1lte Skandinaviske Naturforskerméde i Kjében- havn, 1873, p. 69; Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges., 1874, p. 533. THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 197 1832, however, Professor A. Bernhardi speculated on the pro- bability that the polar ice had formerly invaded Germany, and spread as far south as the most southerly limits reached by the glacial deposits, which he recognised as nothing less than the morainic detritus left behind it by the ancient mer de glace.) But this sagacious observer was nearly half-a-century before his time, and it is no wonder that his work should have remained buried in oblivion until it was recently unearthed by Professor G. Berendt. Agassiz likewise has speculated about the possi- bility of a mer de glace having overflowed Germany. He was of opinion, indeed, that the British Islands, Sweden, Norway and Russia, Germany and France, the mountainous regions of the Tyrol and Switzerland down to Italy, formed but one ice-field, the southern limits of which remained yet to be de- termined. My friend Dr. Croll in a sketch-map showing the path of the ice-sheet in the area of the North Sea has also indicated the Scandinavian ice as overflowing Germany farther south than Berlin.” Indeed the probability that the glacial detritus, so enormously developed in Northern Germany, is the product of land-ice rather than the random droppings of ice- bergs has often been suggested in conversation by glacialists in this country, and I gave expression to these surmises in the first edition of my Great Ice Age. But detailed proofs could not then be adduced in support of that view. Geologists had completely forgotten Bernhardi’s investigations, and those of Sefstrom and Naumann had likewise been overlooked. I believe it was generally understood, at least by British geologists, that no glacial strize had up till a year or two ago been detected anywhere in the low grounds of Northern Germany. Yet Sefstroém, as early as 1836, mentions that Professor Rose had informed him of the occurrence of a striated rock-surface in a limestone-quarry at Riidersdorf to the east of Berlin. The markings had been exposed upon the removal of some thickness of undisturbed superficial soil, and seem greatly to have as- 1 Leonhard and Bronn—Jahrbuch, 1832, p. 257. * Climate and Time, p. 449. 3 See pp. 390, 505. 198 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. tonished the intelligent overseer of the quarry. Unfortunately, before Rose arrived upon the scene the rock had been blasted and broken up, and so he missed the opportunity of being the first geologist to examine and describe glacial striz in Germany. This good fortune was reserved for Naumann, who some eight years later detected them near Wurzen in Saxony.’ This dis- covery, however, was soon forgotten, and German geologists continued to hold to the opinion that all the drift-phenomena of the low grounds were due to the action of icebergs and marine currents, until in 1875 Professor Otto Torell, recalling the observations of Sefstrém and Rose, boldly formulated the view that the whole of Northern Germany had been overflowed by the Scandinavian mer de glace.’ This theory met with much opposition, but it has had the desired effect of awakening amongst German geologists a livelier interest in the study of the glacial phenomena of their country. Those who know how thickly North Germany is clothed with drift-deposits, and how seldom the rock-surface is exposed, need feel no surprise that the true character of the boulder-clay of that region should have remained so long undetected, or that in such a country many geologists should still hesitate to admit the sufficiency of Torell’s theory. Early in 1879 Professor G. Berendt in an able paper® attempted to combine the glacier- and iceberg-theories, much in the same manner as geologists here have tried to do. He admits the existence of a great mer de glace covering Scandinavia and the high grounds of Finland at the same time that Northern Germany was submerged. With him the boulder-clay of the northern regions, which were covered by glacier-ice, is a true ground-moraine ; while the boulder-clay and other drift deposits of Germany represent the droppings of icebergs, and the work of marine currents. Very shortly afterwards, however, appeared a remarkable paper by Professor H. Credner,* in which he described the occurrence of 1 Neues Jahrbuch, ete., 1844, pp. 557, 561, 680. 2 Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges., 1875, p. 961. 3 Ibid., 1879, p. 1. 4 Tbid., 1879, p. 21. THE GLACIAL PERIOD. — 199 rounded and striated rocks in the vicinity of Leipzig. A few miles east and north of that town several bosses, knolls, and rounded ridges of quartz-porphyry project for some 30 or 40 feet above the general level of the surrounding flat country, which is everywhere clothed with boulder-clay and gravel, All these prominent knolls have evidently been subjected to glacial action, and show the characteristic rounded and smoothed surfaces. Not only so, but in some places, as upon the hill called Kleine Steinberg, there are polished faces exhibiting well- marked parallel strize and grooves, which point from N.N.W. to S.S.E. The boulder-clay of the neighbourhood contains many stones which could only have come from the north, and amongst them are fragments of certain characteristic Scandinavian rocks. Dr. Penck has also detected another similar knoll of porphyry (Dewitzer Berg) near Taucha, eight miles distant from that just referred to, which likewise shows a mammillated, polished, and striated surface—the scratches agreeing in direction with those upon the glaciated rocks nearer Leipzig. MM. Torell and Helland, who visited this locality in company with Professor Credner, agreed with him that the roches moutonnées, the polish- ing and striation, were undoubtedly the work of land-ice, and they had no difficulty in deciding from the position of the Stoss- seite that the glaciating agent had flowed into Saxony from the north-west. As to the character of the boulder-clay there could be just as little doubt. It was as usual an unstratified mass, crammed with angular and sub-angular stones, not a few of which could be certainly recognised as of Scandinavian origin. Credner, Torell, Helland, and Penck, were all agreed as to its having formed the bottom-moraine of a mer de glace. More recently glacial striz have been noticed on the Galgenberge near Halle (on the Salle), and on the Rainsdorfer Berge, and the Pfarrberg, near Landsberg. It is impossible to enter into details here, but I may refer very briefly to certain other facts which serve to confirm the view that the great boulder-clay deposits of Northern Germany 10, Luedecke : Newes Jahrbuch fir Min. Geol. und Pal., 1879, p. 567. 200 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. are true ground-moraines.' In many places the rock upon which the boulder-clay reposes, instead of being smooth and polished, shows a smashed and jumbled surface—precisely similar to that which I have mentioned in connection with the glacial pheno- mena of Scotland. The boulder-clay is, in fact, mixed up with the shattered rock, and in some places appears even to have been intruded between the strata, so as to assume the aspect of an intercalated bed. By far the most remarkable example of these striking phenomena which has yet been described is that of Méens Klint (Denmark). The wonderful exposure of chalk and boulder-clay which appears upon the north-east coast of the island of Méen has long excited the surprise of geologists. The phenomena have been described by Puggaard, and a résumé of the chief features of interest is given in Lyell’s Antiquity of Man. The island is composed of white chalk, for the most part horizontally bedded, and covered by a series of glacial deposits lying in a similar undisturbed position. But along the north-east coast, where the cliffs reach to a height of 400 feet, the most extraordinary contortions and displacements of the strata are exhibited. The chalk is fissured, dislocated, and dis- placed—twisted, bent, and convoluted from top to bottom, and the boulder-clay partakes of the same disturbance. At one place, according to Lyell, the folds of the strata are “so sharp that there is an appearance of four distinct alternations of the Glacial and Cretaceous formations in vertical or highly-inclined beds ; the chalk at one point bending over, so that the position of all the beds is reversed.”? Here and there irregular-shaped masses of boulder-clay are actually surrounded on all sides by chalk, and so striking indeed is the behaviour of the boulder- clay that Forchhammer may well be pardoned for having specu- lated upon its eruptive origin. Puggaard was of opinion that all 1 Two admirable papers (the one by A. Helland, and the other by A. Penck) on the glacial phenomena of Northern Germany, etc., appear in the same volume of the German Geological Society’s Journal as that last cited (1879, pp. 63, 117). “In these will be found an exhaustive account of all that is known upon this sub- ject, with many interesting proofs of the former existence of the great mer de glace. 2 Antiquity of Man, p. 391, 4th Edit. . THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 201 this confusion was due to movements of the earth’s crust—to convulsions and “faults” caused by the action of the subterranean forces, and in this view he was followed by Lyell. But Johnstrup has since reinvestigated the evidence and come to quite a different conclusion. He shows, in his interesting papers already referred to, that the disturbances can only be attributed to the enormous pressure and disrupting force of the Scandinavian mer de glace, which filled up the basin of the Baltic and overflowed Denmark. Chalk is just one of those rocks which would be most readily ruptured and displaced under the crushing weight of the advan- cing ice-sheet, and many good examples of this striking pheno- menon have been recorded. Chalk boulders of large size are met with in many districts in Denmark, Holstein, and Germany. Thus Bruhns describes a chalk erratic in the boulder-clay of East Holstein (Pariner Berg), which measured 86 feet in length, 10 feet in breadth, and 123 feet in thickness But even harder and less easily ruptured strata than chalk occasionally show a highly-broken surface below till. Thus, the limestone (Muschel- kalk) at Riidersdorf, near Berlin, is smoothed and striated in some places, while in other places it is much broken up, and the shattered débris and displaced blocks are incorporated in the bottom-part of the boulder-clay.?_ Similar appearances are met with in the till that overlies the hard Silurian greywacké of Saxony, as we shall see presently. But the phenomena cer- tainly occur on the largest scale with such strata as chalk and the various Tertiary formations, which yielded more readily to . the pushing and crushing of the ice-sheet. Thus, at Teutschen- thal, near Halle, in Saxony, the boulder-clay is described by Helland? as appearing often like veins and patches in the Brown Coal formation, underneath the main mass of the boulder-clay— the Tertiary strata are frequently bent and broken, the coal-beds being sometimes caught up and included en masse in the till. Here and there, also, large detached fragments of the Tertiary beds appear scattered through the boulder-clay in the same 1 Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges., Bd. i. p. 111. 2 Penck. Op. cit. 3 Zertschr. deutsch. geol. Ges., 1879, p. 72. 202 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. manner as other erratics, and some of these are veined with boulder-clay. More than this, wide stretches of the coal-bearing - strata appear intercalated in the glacial deposits as if they formed part and parcel of one and the same series, in which position they have actually been mined. Similar phenomena characterise the glacial deposits of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, as described by Professor F. E. Geinitz. He tells us that so large are some of tlie erratics of chalk which occur in the boulder- clay (Blockmergel), that they were at one time mistaken for protruding hillocks of the rock in place. Further examination of this province has proved that the Cretaceous strata are often much broken, disturbed, and displaced—the boulder clay appear- ing as if interstratified with the chalk in such a manner that a boring-rod passed down through the Cretaceous rocks would go through alternating beds of chalk and glacial deposits. Many borings in the chalk of the Diedrichshagener Bergen have proved that the Cretaceous strata there are underlaid by boulder-clay, and are thus themselves only a gigantic boulder. They have been pushed out of place, and dragged forward by the ice. Professor H. Credner, in a most instructive paper, has recently described many similar appearances in connection with the boulder-clay of Saxony. He shows that frequently the Silurian rocks are broken and ruptured, and the resulting débris enclosed in the lower part of the boulder-clay. The sections he gives as illustrations of this are sufficiently remarkable, but the most striking examples of disruption, contortion, and displacement are supplied, he says, by the Brown Coal formation (Oligocene). Boulder-clay and glacial gravel are confusedly commingled with the brown-coal beds, the latter being often crumpled up and contorted, and so squeezed that long tongues are seen protruding into the boulder-clay. The same phenomena, he shows, are characteristic of the gravel-beds associated with the till—they 1 Beitrag zur Geologie Mecklenburgs (Neubrandenburg, 1880), pp. 20,39. For another interesting example, see Boll’s description of the bed of chalk near Malchin, in Mecklenburg. This layer is some 35 feet in thickness, and rests upon a dark-coloured boulder-clay, which has been pierced in ome? to a depth of 43 feet. Geognosie der deutschen Ostseeldnder, 1846, p. 136. THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 203 are twisted, abruptly truncated, displaced, and fantastically jumbled, in such a way as to suggest that the deposits have been dragged forward under great pressure. In the sections given by him to illustrate the aspect assumed by the disturbed Oligocene strata, it may be observed that the contorted coal-beds are bent over in one determinate direction, thus indicating the path followed by the disturbing agent.’ These and other appearances bear testimony to the enormous pressure exerted by the ice-sheet, and are totally inexplicable on the iceberg-hypothesis. We have, in short, every reason for concluding that the northern mer de glace advanced as far south as the most southerly limits reached by the great “ Northern Drift.” Upon the map of Europe (Plate D) which accompanies this volume, I have indicated the area covered by the ice-cap—the southern boundary-line corresponding very nearly with that which Murchison and his colleagues have given,? as the ex- treme limits reached by the “erratic formation.’ The fine lines are meant to show the principal directions in which the upper strata of the ice flowed. These, as a rule, correspond to the average trend of rock-striations, roches moutonnées, and the carry of the stones in the till. In other words, the whole body of the ice pressed forward in certain general directions. Nevertheless, there is abundant evidence to show that the under strata of the ice, influenced by the configuration of the ground, frequently moved in directions quite at variance with what must have been the flow of the upper strata. The long bent red arrows upon the map indicate the trend of the lower strata in one or two places. Upon a larger map more might have been inserted, but those given will sufficiently illustrate 1 Zeitschr. deutsch. geol Ges., 1880, p. 75. Credner’s paper contains numerous references to the literature of this interesting subject, and gives by far the most complete account of the phenomena which has yet appeared. The facts brought forward by him appear to me sufficient of themselves to demonstrate the sub- glacial origin of the till, and to show that Saxony was formerly overflowed by the great mer de glace. 2 Geology of Russia and the Ural. 204 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. the phenomena in question. Let me briefly state the grounds for believing that the under strata of the mer de glace flowed round the south coast of Norway. At various points upon that coast, as near Dybvaag, at Bliksund between Lillesand and Christiansand, and even as far north as the district of Jederen, occur several erratics of zircon-syenite, and other rocks which could only have been derived from Skien, Laurvig, and Fred- riksveern in Langesundfjord near the opening into Christiania- fjord. These are the rocks which have already been referred to as having been obtained by Mr. Helland in the boulder- clay of Holderness. Now the Admiralty’s charts show that a deep hollow extends all round the south coast of Norway— the limits of which are indicated upon my map by the two dotted lines. In Bohus Bay, we find depths ranging from 700 up to nearly 2000 feet. Opposite Arendal the depth is even as much as 2580 feet. The trough seems to become shallower off the coast of Jeederen, where, however, it is still more than 1000 feet deep. In the Skaggerak, just outside of the trough, the sea does not average more than 150 feet in depth, so that in Bohus Bay the hollow is some 2400 feet deeper. Even as far west as Jederen the bed of the great hollow is still 700 or 800 feet below the average level of the sea-bottom immediately to the south and south-west. Now it is evident that the lower strata of the great mer de glace could not ignore this profound hollow, but would naturally tend to follow it in its course to west and north-west; and thus boulders and morainic material derived from the Christiania district would tend to travel in a direction at right angles to that followed by the upper strata of the ice which flowed (as the striz in the fiords and on the high grounds of Southern Norway attest) towards the south. Notwithstanding that westerly determina- tion of the under strata, however, the influence of the upper strata could not but be propagated to a great depth in the mer de glace, and thus the ice below would gradually tend to be 1 Kjerulf: Udsigt over det sydlige Norges Geologi, p. 31. THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 205 dragged up the southern slopes of the trough, until eventually it made its escape and flowed on with the general mer de glace of the North Sea. I have indicated the probable path of the bottom ice by the diverging arrows. A portion would spread away to north-west, while another part seems to have swept on with the ice that flowed south-west towards the English coast. It is by this circuitous route that I believe the Norwegian boulders in the till of Cornelian Bay and Holderness have come.' While such was the course followed by a portion of the bottom-ice that flowed from the Christiania district, there can be little doubt that this was only a local deflection due to . the configuration of the ground, and that the main mass of the ice, from base to surface, flowed S.S.W. from Christiania- fjord, and crossed Denmark into Germany, for we find erratics of the same origin as those above referred to, in Jutland, in the island of Laaland, in the island of Urk in the Zuider Zee, and at Hamburg. To support an ice-sheet extending over twenty degrees of latitude, and showing a width of little less than 3000 miles, great humidity and extreme cold were required. It is quite impossible that the vast sheet of ice which overwhelmed all Northern Europe could have been fed by the snows that fell upon the mountains of Scandinavia and the British Islands. The precipi- tation must have been excessive over the whole area, and the cold which enabled the snow to accumulate and become perennial upon the low grounds of England and Northern Germany could not have been other than severe in the extreme. Some geolo- gists have supposed that the great mer de glace poured down upon Europe from the polar regions. But this is disproved by the direction of the striz in the north of Norway, in the Shetland Islands, and the Outer Hebrides. The mer de glace must have * For further remarks upon the deflections of the European mer de glace, see Appendix, Note B. Ineed hardly remind the geological reader that in this chapter I refer only to the ice-sheet at the period of its greatest extension. Of the smaller ice-sheet of the latest glacial epoch I speak in a subsequent chapter. 206 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. terminated in a steep ice-wall facing the Atlantic. It did not, all events, reach the Ferde Islands, for, as Mr. Helland and I found during a recent visit, these islands supported a local and independent ice-sheet of their own, which flowed outwards in all directions into the surrounding ocean. i ai THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 207 CHAPTER XI. THE GLACIAL PERIOD—Continued. Ancient glaciers of north and south sides of the Alps, of the Jura Mountains, of the Black Forest, of the Vosges, of the Carpathians, of the Ural, of the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian Mountains, of Central and Southern Spain, of Corsica, of the Apuan Alps, of the Caucasus, of the Lebanon, of the Atlas Mountains—Erratics in the Azores—Limestone-breccias of Gibraltar—Brec- cias, ete., of Malta—Loam with flints of Northern France—‘‘ Head” of maritime districts of the Channel area—Stanniferous gravels of Cornwall— Glacial phenomena of North America—Angular earthy débris of North Carolina—Volume of water discharged from ancient glaciers—Quantity of mud in water coming from glaciers—Origin of léss and loamy deposits of Rhine, Danube, etc., of Central Europe— Origin of the Tchernozem or “hlack-earth” of Southern Russia—Objections to Baron Richthofen’s liss- theory—Summary of conditions during Glacial Period. Ir has long been a familiar fact that the glaciers of Switzerland formerly assumed gigantic proportions, and the first to recognise this was Venetz,' a Swiss engineer, whose observations date back so far as 1821, thus making him the father, as it were, of glacial geology. He was followed by a long line of illustrious men— Charpentier,” Agassiz,® Desor,* Guyot,’ Ch. Martins,° Escher von 1 Bibliotheque Universelle de Genéve, t. xxi.; Denkschr. der Schw. Gls. Sir die gessumt. Natwrwissensch., Bd. i., 1833. See also an interesting posthumous paper, ‘‘ Mémoire sur l’extension des anciens glaciers,” etc., Nowveaua Mémoires de la Soc. Helv. des Sci. Nat., 1861, vol. xxiii. 2 Essai sur les Glaciers et sur le Terrain Erratique du Rhéne, 1831, 3 Btudes sur les Glaciers, chap. xvii. 4 Comptes Rendus de 0 Acad. des Sci., t. xiv. (1842), p. 412; Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 1846, t. iii. p. 528; Jbid., 1851, t. viii. p. 64. 5 Bull. Soc. des Sciences Nat. de Neuchatel, 1847, t. i. pp. 477, 507. 8 Edin. New Phil. Journ., 1847, vol. xliii. p. 54. 208 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. der Linth,! and others—who succeeded in demonstrating that the low grounds of Switzerland during the Glacial Period were totally overwhelmed by great glaciers descending from every mountain-valley. The old glacier of the Rhone we now know covered all the area presently occupied by the Lake of Geneva, and reached to a height of very nearly 4000 feet upon the slopes of the Jura.2_ In some places, indeed, it even overflowed through passes in those mountains at a height of over 3000 feet, a long stream of ice advancing north-west through the French Jura by way of Pontarlier, and reaching to beyond Ornans in the valley of the Loue, a tributary of the river Sadne.® The main trunk of the Rhone glacier, as we learn chiefly from the researches of MM. Falsan and Chantre,* made its way out of Switzerland and flowed far south into the plains of France, its spoor having been traced down to Lyons and Vienne in the valley of the Rhone. In like manner all the valleys that open north from the Alps and the Tyrol were filled with great glaciers, which spread themselves far out upon the low grounds of Baden, - Hohenzollern, Wiirtemberg, Upper Swabia, and over wide areas in Upper Bavaria and Upper Austria.? 1 Ueber die Gegend von Ziirich in der letzten Periode der Vorwelt, 1852. 2 Professor Renevier has recently traced the frontal moraine of this ancient glacier, which is perfectly continuous, along the flanks of the Jura for a distance of six miles between Mauborget and Ste. Croix. It reaches a breadth that varies between 500 and 1500 métres, and attains a culminating point of 1233 métres.— Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sciences Nat., t. xvi. (81) p. 21. 3 Benoit: Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 3° Sér. t. v. p. 61. 4 Tbid., 2° Sér. t. xxvi. p. 860; Mem. de lV Acad. des Sciences, Belles-Lettres, et Arts de Lyon, 1869 ; Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve, 1870; Compt. Rend. Assoc. Franc. pour V Avance. des Sciences, 1873 ; Monographie géologique des anciens glaciers et du terrain erratique de la partie moyenne du bassin du Rhéne (1879). 5 For descriptions of glacial phenomena on north and east side of Alps— Baden, Wiirtemberg, Swabia, Upper Bavaria, Tyrol, and Austrian territories— see Gerwig: Verh. der naturw. Vereins, Carlsruhe, Bd. v. p. 89; Simony: Jahrb. der k.-k. geol. Reichsanst., Bd. ii. p. 153 ; Verh. der k.-k. geol. Reichsanst., 1869, p. 296 ; Mitth. des osterreich. Alpenv., Bd. i. (1863) p. 178; Denkschr. der k. Akad. der Wissensch. Wien, 1871, p. 501; Probst: Jahresh. des Vereins fir vaterl. Naturk. Wirttemberg, 1866, p. 45; Ibid., 1874; Steudel: Zbid., 1866, p. 104, and 1869, p. 40; Archives des Sciences Phys. et Nat., 1867, t. xxix. p. 209; Gredler: Programm der k.-k. Gymnasiums in Botzen, 1867-68; Trinker: Jahrb. der k.-k. geol. Reichsanst., 1851, Bd. ii. p. 74; Gotsch: Zertschr. des ea) eee A THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 209 Enormous ice-streams at the same time occupied all the main valleys on the southern side of the Alps, and, descending to the plains of Piedmont, Lombardy, and Venetia, piled up huge moraines of gravel, sand, blocks, and debris, some of which would in this country pass for considerable hills. The beautiful lakes of Northern Italy during the climax of the Ice Age had no existence, their basins being occupied by massive glaciers. From the Stura in the Maritime Alps of Sardinia, east as far as the Mur in Styria, we find abundant traces in almost every valley of the former presence of great glaciers! The ice-streams which descended from the northern slopes of the Alps appear in some cases to have become confluent upon the low grounds, so as to form a more or less continuous mer de glace, sloping outwards from the base of the mountains, and the same was the case with some of those which flowed towards the south, especially in Lombardy.” The smaller mountain-groups of Central Europe had also at the same time their perennial snow-fields and glaciers. Numer- ous moraines of local glaciers occur in the Jura, as was first indicated many years ago by MM. Pidancy and Lory,? and deutsch. wnd dsterreich. Alpenv., Bd. i. p. 583; Stark: Ibid., 1873, p. 67; Pichler: Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, etc., 1872, p. 193 ; Giimbel : Sitzungsb. der math. -phys. Klasse der kinigl.-bayerisch. Akad. der Wissensch. Miinchen, 1872, p. 224; Zittel: Ibid., 1874, p. 252; Hilber: Jahrb. der k.-k. geolog. Reichsanst., Bd. xxix. p. 537. A good general description and sketch-map of the ancient glaciers of Switzerland is given by Dr. F. Kinkelin, Bericht iiber die Senckenberg. naturforsch. Ges., 1874-75, p. 77 ; see also Heer’s Urwelt der Schweiz, and Fayre’s Recherches Géologiques, ete. 1 Dr. Pilar mentions that even in the Agram hills traces of glacial action are met with: Verhandl. der k.-k. geolog. Reichsanst., 1876, p. 233. * For descriptions of ancient glaciers of south side of Alps, see Martins and Gastaldi: Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 2° Sér. t. vii. p. 554; Omboni: Atti della Soc. Ital. di Scienze Nat. in Milano, vol. ii. p. 6, with map of the ancient glacier- system of Lombardy ; see also Op. cit., vol. iii. p. 337 ; Mortillet: Ibid., vol. iii. (1861) p. 44, with a general map of the ancient Italian glaciers ; Stopanni: G¢o- logia d'Italia, Pte. 2% The ancient glacier of the Drave is described by Hofer : Neues Jahrbuch fir Mineralogie, ete., 1873, p. 128 ; see also Dr. Taramelli’s paper : Atti Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat. Milano, -vol. xiii. (1870) p- 224. A general map showing the extent of glacial deposits on both sides of the Alps accompanies Riitimeyer’s paper: Ueber Pliocen und Eisperiode auf beiden Seiten der Alpen, 1876. 3 Ch. Martins: Annales de la Soc. d’ Emulation des Vosges, t. vi. (1847). A more detailed description of the glaciers of the Jura is given by Dr. Benoit : Actes P 210 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. there are similar accumulations met with in some of the valleys in the Black Forest.’ The moraines and the morainic gravels of the Vosges have been rendered familiar to geologists through the writings of Hogard, Collomb, Benoit, and Grad,? from whom we learn that those mountains were formerly covered with perennial snow-fields that nourished many important ice-flows, although, like the Black Forest and the Jura, their valleys now contain no glaciers, nor is there any tradition of their former existence. According to M. Grad, however, temporary glaciers now and again form in the upper cirques of the valleys in the Vosges between 1200 and 1300 métres of elevation*® Well- marked moraines are met with in the Carpathian mountains, showing that they also formerly supported ice-streams. Thus Professor Zeuschner* has noted the occurrence of moraines in the valley of Biaty Dunajee in the Tatra, and similar phenomena have been observed in the same part of the range by the Austrian Geological Survey.2 They have been recorded also from the Czerna Hora in the East Carparthians by MM. Paul and Tietze,’ and from the Theiss Valley by Messrs. R. L. Jack and J. Horne, who show that this valley has been filled with a glacier upwards of 45 miles in length.” Again, we learn from M. Poliakoff that the Ural Mountains, which were supposed to bear no trace of glacial action, do nevertheless show unmistakable rock-striations, moraines with scratched stones, and erratics. de la Soc. Helvétique des Sciences Nat. (Porrentruy) 1853, p. 231; Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 2° Sér. t. xx. p. 321. 1 C, Vogt and Dolfuss-Ausset: Cowrse dans la Forét-Noire en 1846 ; Ramsay : Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1862, p. 186 ; Gillieron: Archives des Sciences Phys. et Nat., 1876, p. 32; Platz: Neues Jahrbuch fir Mineralogie, etc., 1878, p. 56. 2 Hogard: Annales de la Soc. d’Emulation d’Epinal, 1840, p- 91; 1842, p. 524: Bull. Soc. Géol. France, t. ii. p. 249. Coup d Gil sur le Terrain Erratique des Vosges, 1851; Collomb: Preuves de 1 Existence d’ Anciens Glaciers dans les Vosges, 1847 ; Benoit: Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 2° Sér. t. xv. p. 688 ; Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. de Colmar, 1862; Grad: Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 3° Sér. t. i. p. 514. 3 Comptes Rendus del Acad. des Sci., t. xxiii. (1871), p. 390. 4 Sitzwngsb. der math.-naturw. Klasse der k. Akad. der Wissen., Bd. xxi. (1856), p. 259. > F. von Hauer: Geologie der ésterr.-ungar. Monarchie, p. 122. 8 Verh. der k.-k. geol. Reichsanstalt, 1876, p. 296; Ibid., 1877, p. 85; Ibid. 1878, p. 142, 7 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxiii. p. 673. Ee ee ae THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 211 He observed these in crossing the range by Ekaterinburg on his way to the Obi. Just before reaching Ekaterinburg many trainées of immense boulders running in parallel directions were conspicuous, while farther east, on the shores of the Obi (near to the mouth of the Irtysch), the superficial sands con- tained in their lower portions many well-polished and striated boulders. Still more remarkable, however, are the evidences of glacial action in Western and South-western Europe. MM. Collenot and J. Martin have shown that in the Morvan, near the sources of the Seine, there is an abundant development of rock-striations, striated stones, and erratics, which indicate the former presence of very considerable nappes of ice.2 Similar appearances show themselves in the plateau of Central France. Not only have many of the valleys of that region been filled with glaciers, but extensive sheets of ice have overflowed the low grounds at the base of the hills—scouring, striating, and polishing the rocks, and covering them with a thick deposit of moraine profonde. Large glaciers have descended from Mont Dore and the Puy de Dome, and from the heights of Cantal, and their terminal and lateral moraines are now conspicuous at the base of the moun- tains and in such valleys as those of Allagnon, the Couze d Issoire, the Couze de Champeix, the Dordogne, etc. Traces of the same nature occur in the neighbourhood of Clermont Ferrand, which bespeak the former existence of several glaciers of the second order, as in the valleys of the Auzon and of Romagnat. In short, it is evident that the great plateau of crystalline rocks “upon which are superposed the volcanic cones and masses of Auvergne, has been covered with a mer de glace from which glaciers protruded on all sides into the valleys. From the crests of Forez and Mezeuc, and from the basaltic plateaus of Aubrac and Vivarais, glaciers of more or less importance have descended.’ 1 Nature, 1877, p. 306. 2 Collenot: Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 2° Sér. t. xxvi. p. 173 ; Jules Martin; Ibid., 2° Sér. t. xxvii. p. 225. 3 For old glaciers of Central France, see Ch. Martins: Comptes Rendus de ? Acad. des Sci. t. xvii. p. 993; Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxv. p. 46; Lecoq: 212 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. Even the hills of La Madelaine, which drain into the Loire, are thought to have supported perennial snow and ice." But none of the old glaciers of Central France could vie with the great ice-flows of the Pyrenees, several of which attained colossal proportions, and deployed upon the low grounds at the base of the mountains. According to MM. Martins and Collomb, the ancient glacier of the valley of Argelés flowed from a height of about 3000 métres for a distance of 53 kilométres, and depo- sited its moraines upon the low grounds within 15 kilométres of Tarbes, at an altitude of only 400 métres. The ice was not less than 850 métres thick in a part of its course. The ancient elaciers of the valleys of La Pique and the Garonne, as described by M. Piette, were equally extensive, and their history, like that of the Argelés glacier, is read in striated surfaces, roches mouton- nées, perched blocks, lateral and frontal moraines, and wide- spread sheets of till or boulder-clay—the moraine profonde of the glaciers. On the Spanish side of the Pyrenees the glaciers did not apparently attain so great a development. I may add that the Cantabrian mountains, which are a continuation of the Pyrenees, exhibit in the valleys that open to the north many traces of considerable glaciers.” The mountains of Central and Southern Spain also con- tain relics of the Ice Age, glacial deposits having been noticed in the Sierra Guadarrama to the north of Madrid, and by MM. Schimper and Collomb in the Sierra Nevada, where large Les Périodes Geologiques de V Auvergne, 1867 ; Delanotie: Bull. Soc. Géol. France, t. xxv. p. 402; Julien: Phénoménes Glaciaires dans le Plateau Central, 1869 ; Marcou : Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 1870, p. 361; Das Ausland, 1872, pp. 460, 512; Fabre: Comptes Rendus de V Acad. des Sci., t. lxxyii. p. 495; Hooker : Nature, vol. xiii. p. 31; Symonds: Jbid., vol. xiv. p. 179. 1 Tardy : Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 2° Sér. t. i. p. 514. 2 For descriptions and notices of glacial phenomena of the Pyrenees see—Char- pentier : Essai sur les Glaciers, 1841; Bibliotheque Universelle de Genéve, t. ly. (1845), p. 126; De Collegno: Ann. des Sci. Nat., t. ii. p. 191; Garrigou: Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 2° Sér. t. xxiv. p. 577 ; Martins and Collomb : Jbid., 2° Sér. t. xxv. p. 141; Brit. Ass. Rep. 1866, p. 52; Piette: Buil. Soc. Géol. France, 3° Sér. t. ii. p. 498 ; Comptes Rendus de? Acad. des Sci., t. Ixxxiii. p. 1187. 3 Don Casiano de Prado: Descripcion fisica i geologica de la Provincia de Madrid, p. 164. a THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 213 erratics are so numerous and conspicuous that they long ago attracted the attention of travellers. Perhaps as striking as these glacial phenomena are those described by M. Desor as occurring in the Maritime Alps and the neighbourhood of Nice.’ And equally remarkable are the relics of the Ice Age in the island of Corsica, which were first noticed by Collomb nearly thirty years ago.” In the valley of the Tavignano he observed the moraine profonde of an extinct glacier, which, as the nature of the stones in the moraine showed, had de- scended from the slopes of Monte Rotonda (2763 métres). The moraine was deeply trenched and denuded, and occurred at a height of 430 métres. Six years later Mr. Pumpelly discovered polished rock-surfaces and roches moutonnées, together with large erratics and terminal moraines, in the valleys coming down from the mountain of Baglia Orba (2650 métres). The lateral moraines rose to a height above the bottoms of the valleys of 100 feet, and the frontal moraines were some 40 or 50 feet high.? Again, M. Tabariés de Grandsaignes detected moraines and huge erratics in the region of Monte Cinto, which testified to the former presence of two glaciers.* Seeing that Corsica has thus supported its snow-fields and glaciers, we might have expected that the Apennines could hardly fail to exhibit similar traces. A number of years ago (1866) Professor Cocchi stated his belief that glaciers had formerly existed in the Apuan Alps, and their moraines have been more recently described by Stopanni as_ being well 1 Compt. Rend. de V Acad. des Sci., t. 1xxxviii. (1879) p. 760; see also “ Sur les Terrains Glaciaires Diluviens et Pliocénes des Environs de Nice :” Bull. Soc. Nicoise des Sci. Nat. et Hist., 1879. * Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 2° Sér. t. xi. p. 66. 3 Tbid., 2° Sér. t. xvii. p. 78. ‘ Tbid., 2° Sér. t. xxvi. p. 270. Waltershausen notes the occurrence on the west coast of Elba of fragments of a peculiar kind of gabbro, which does not be- long to that island. Were these brought thither by tidal action from Corsica, or could they possibly have been transported by floating-ice —See Nat. Verh. Holl. Maat. Weten. Haarlem, D1. xxiii. ® Atti Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat., t. ii. (1866); Boll. R. Com. Geol. d'Italia (1872), t. iii. p. 187. 214 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. developed in the Val d’Arni* Professor Moro has likewise given an admirable account of the ancient glacier that formerly occupied the valley of the Serchio and covered a large part of Tuscany.” Even in the Apennines proper it would seem that glaciers have formerly existed, Sig. Ferrero having noted the occurrence in the vicinity of Monte Majella of moraines, glacial lakes, and huge erratics.2 That similar relics of the Ice Age will yet be discovered in other mountainous regions of our con- tinent which have not been particularly examined may be confidently expected. The Terek-thal and other valleys of the Caucasus, as we learn from M. Abich,* were formerly occupied by very considerable glaciers ; and, according to Palgrave, the mountains in the pro- vinces of Trebizond and Erzeroum likewise nourished glaciers of no mean size.” Coming farther south we find similar traces of former ice-action in the Lebanon—the famous cedars, as Dr. Hooker tells us,° growing upon old moraines; and on reading the accounts given by travellers in other parts of Asiatic Turkey, one cannot help surmising that in the mountain-regions of those countries glacial phenomena are probably more abundantly developed than is at present supposed.’ 1 Rendiconti del Reale Istituto Lombardo, t. v. p. 783 ; Atti Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat., t. xv. p. 183 ; Geologia d'Italia, pte. 2%, p. 127. * Il gran Ghiaccio della Toscana, 1872; see also Stefani, Boll. R. Com. Geol. @ Italia, 1874, p. 86; Ibid., 1875, p. 1. 3 Antico Ghiacciajo della Majella, 1862. * Mem. de V Acad. des Sci. de St. Pétersb., 6 Sér. t. vii. p. 515; Etudes sur les Glaciers actuels et anciennes du Caucasus, Tiflis, 1870; Bull. de ? Acad. Imp. des Sciences de St. Pétersb., 1871, p. 245. See also Freshfield’s Travels in the Central Caucasus and Bashan. 5 Nature, vols. v. p. 444; vi. p. 536, 6 Nat. Hist. Review, Jan. 1862. 7 The Rey. E. J. Davies, in Life in Asiatic Turkey, makes frequent reference to the occurrence of dome-shaped smoothed rock-surfaces, observed by him in the mountainous district of Marash. In one place (p. 111) he says: ‘‘ After an hour’s riding over rocky slopes of this kind (described as ‘sheets of smooth limestone lying at a considerable inclination’), we entered a district of stiff yellow clay, tenacious as pitch, and filled with great angular pieces of black lava, which rang like metal under the horses’ feet. Into this pudding-like mass of tenacious clay, mud, and stones, the horses plunged up to the knees, at times up to the belly.” Can this be a boulder-clay of glacial origin ? THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 215 In the Great Atlas terminal moraines 800 or 900 feet in vertical height were observed by Sir Joseph Hooker, and Messrs. Ball and Maw,’ at an elevation of 6000 feet. They describe also the occurrence of a remarkable series of ridges and rolling hum- mocks and masses of angular débris, 300 or 400 feet in height, and some 3000 feet above the sea-level, which extend along the base of the great escarpment that rises abruptly from the wide plains or table-lands of Marocco. The mounds do not rest directly against the escarpment, but occur as “isolated mounds 200 or 300 feet in advance, sloping down towards the escarp- ment in one direction, and in the other rolling away in great wave-like ridges and undulating sheets, which terminate at a well-marked line of demarcation, just where the level portion of the plain commences.’ Where the internal structure of those mounds was visible, the angular blocks of which they consisted showed a disposition in layers sloping away from the escarp- ment toward the plain. The stones had evidently been derived from the lofty escarpment (1000 feet), and Mr. Maw thought the mounds were “the result of glaciers covering the escarp- ment, leaving on their recession the intermediate depression.” More recently M. Ch. Grad noticed what he took to be moraines at the mouth of the gorge of El Kantara, on the southern side of the Atlas in Algeria. These he describes as accumulations of erratic débris, but he saw no polished rocks and no striated stones.2, I may note here in passing that Mr. Hartung observed in the Azores a number of erratics of granite, which have evi- dently been carried there by floating-ice. Even at the present day icebergs go as far south as the latitude of those islands, but they keep to the mid-ocean between the Azores and the Ameri- can coast. When northern erratics were transported to the Azores it is most probable that the Arctic Current extended farther to east than it now does.? 1 Journal of a Tour in Marocco and the Great Atlas. See also Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxviii. p. 85. ? Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 3° Sér. t. i. p. 87. 5 Origin of Species, 6th ed. p. 328. 216 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. But glacial moraines and rock-striz are not the only physical evidence of a former general refrigeration of climate in Europe. There are certain superficial phenomena which, although they cannot be referred to the action of glaciers, are yet sufficiently suggestive of colder conditions than the present. Of such a nature are those massive “ breccias” or agglomerations of angular débris, and those more or less loose heaps and sheets of earthy rubbish and rock-fragments, which occur in such bulk and in such positions, as to show that they could not have been formed under present conditions. A very good example of this is furnished by the massive limestone-breccias of Gibraltar, which have been described by Professor Ramsay and myself.’ The famous Rock is composed almost entirely of limestone-strata, which generally dip at a high angle. It rises, as is well known, ‘in the form of a narrow sharp ridge, that shoots nearly south into the Mediterranean. Inland it terminates in an almost per- pendicular wall that rises to a height of 1349 feet. To the east it presents “a bold escarpment, which is for the most part in- accessible, and in places almost vertical, the cliffs where they are lowest having a drop of not less than 300 or 400 feet, and of more than 1000 feet where they approach the sea on the north. From their base the ground falls rapidly away to the coast-line, at angles that vary from 30° to 40°.” The slopes facing Gibraltar Bay are not so steep, as will be seen from the accompanying section (Fig. 6), which gives the profile on a true horizontal and vertical scale. The dominating point of the Rock is 1396 feet. It will be observed that the limestone-strata (Z) dip steeply to the west, where they are succeeded by beds of shale and thin bands of grit and limestone at S. The “faults” or dislocations I need not consider, as they are of older date than the phe- nomena we are about to discuss. Resting upon the surface of the shale (S) will be observed a deposit marked B. ‘This con- sists of a heterogeneous accumulation of angular fragments and blocks of limestone, embedded in a matrix of calcareous grit 1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1878, p. 505. THE GLACIAL PERIOD. and earth, the whole forming a rock-mass as solid as the lime- stone of Gibraltar itself. It varies in thickness from a few feet up to 30 or 40 yards, and it may be thicker than that where it enters the sea, for the base of shale and limestone on which it rests is not there visible. It covers wide areas of the low grounds, especially in the dis- trict of Buena Vista and Rosia, and in the neighbourhood of the South Bar- racks, attaining its greatest thickness towards the sea, and thinning off as it ap- proaches the steeper slopes of the Rock. All round the Rock similar masses of breccia occur. There can be no possible doubt that these breccias have been ara’s Tower (1370 Ft.) OH New Mole Parade 1oag atti 500 1000 2000 2 = % derived from the Rock itself; they consist exclusively angular fragments of limestone, not a single stone foreign the place being visible. 217 Fig. 6.—Section across Rock of Gibraltar. of to It is also equally certain that what- 218 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. ever their origin may be, they are not now accumulating. On the contrary, since the time of their formation they have experienced very considerable “ denudation ;” they have been furrowed and worn and trenched by rain and torrents, in precisely the same manner as the limestone from which they have been derived. And not only so; but the sea during some period of submergence has carved out horizontal ter- races in them which are continuous with similar ledges ex- cavated in the highly-inclined calcareous strata. The breccias are obviously of subaerial origin, but they indicate the former existence of conditions very different from the present, for they can only be the result of severe frosts. It is evident that such were needed to wedge out the larger blocks that occur in the breccia, some of which measure several yards in diameter, and must weigh 20 or 30 tons at least. Moreover, the sharply- angular shape of the stones is further proof that these have not been subjected to the action of torrents or the sea. There was a time, then, in the geological history of Gibraltar when the winters were so severe that the limestone-beds were ruptured and shattered, and the slopes of the Rock became covered over with sheets of loose, angular débris and large blocks. But some force other than frost was needed to carry this débris down the gentler slopes, and to spread it over the low grounds that extend outwards to the sea. Hard frosts might no doubt dis- integrate the limestone, and scatter the fragments over the steeper slopes ; but the impetus with which these rolled down- wards would not suffice to carry them across the low grounds, a distance of 550 yards at least, over which the average inclina- tion of the ground is not more than 8° or 9°, while in some places the slope does not exceed 2° or 3°. What appears to be the true explanation of the phenomena may be observed in most alpine regions, where hard frost and heavy snowfalls occur. If we suppose that in former times thick snow mantled the slopes of the Rock, we shall have all the conditions neces- sary for the origin of rock-débris, and its translation over the low grounds to what is now the sea-bottom. The limestone 7 THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 219 would break up all along the sharp ridge, and the loose débris, falling upon the snow, would be slowly carried downward by the movement of the névé. Vast quantities of débris would thus tend to collect at the base of the Rock, and when the snow melted in summer, the rubbish, becoming saturated, would tend to move forward en masse, like the so-called “earth-glaciers ” of the Rocky Mountains.’ Thus in time all the low grounds would become more or less completely buried. Similar irregular masses and sheets of calcareous breccia and loose angular débris occur at low levels in other parts of the Mediterranean region, as in Corsica, Malta, and Cyprus, which are not now accumulating, but evidently belong to some past period, when the subaerial forces acted with more intensity than at present. Some of these have been attributed to de- vastating torrents, others to violent inroads of the sea, just in the same manner as it was formerly attempted to account for the erratic phenomena of alpine regions and Northern Europe. They deserve, however, to be reconsidered with the light which recent advances in our knowledge of the Glacial Period have thrown upon such questions. In the extremely interesting account of the Maltese breccias given by Professor Leith Adams,” we read of accumulations of great blocks, mixed with angular débris and fine loam, which it is difficult to believe can be due to the action of occasional deluges such as he attributes them to. When one remembers the limited drainage-area of the island and the small height of the watershed, it is hard to understand how torrents sufficiently powerful to sweep along blocks “fully fifteen feet in circumference” could have origin- ated in Malta, unless under very different conditions of climate. It is quite possible, however, that when Malta formed part of the Continent, it may have experienced winters as severe as those which cloaked the slopes of Gibraltar with heavy snow. 1 Hayden: Geological and Geographical Survey of Colorado, 1873, p. 46. The phenomena observed by Mr. Maw and his fellow-travellers at the base of the great escarpment of the Atlas, bear a strong resemblance to those of the Gibraltar breccias. May not they have a similar origin ? 2 Notes of a Naturalist in the Nile Valley and Malta, 1870. 220 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. At present the winter temperature (January) of Gibraltar is 54°7 F., while that of Malta is 54°5 F., so that it is not un- reasonable to suppose that during the Glacial Period heavy snow in winter may have covered the more elevated parts of Malta, and hard frost may have ruptured the rocks in the same manner as at Gibraltar. Much angular débris and masses of broken limestone and sandstone would thus tend to gather and be swept down into hollows and over the faces of cliffs, so as to form long, sloping taluses. In the same way I would account for much of that loose earthy rubbish with angular blocks which one may observe in the lower valleys of the Apennines and the Apuan Alps, and indeed in nearly every part of Europe. The quantities of more or less loose angular débris which one encounters almost uni- versally in districts where no such débris is now accumulating or travelling forward, speak to conditions of transport which now obtain only in more elevated and northern regions. “Such drifts deserve,’ as the Rev. W. S. Symonds has remarked,! “especial attention ;” and I quite agree with him that “they appear to owe their origin to a period when there was greater transportation of angular and sub-angular débris by rain-wash and melting snow, or névé, than there is at present.” It is highly probable, for example, that much (I do not say all) of that coarse loamy clay with angular flints which M. de Mercey has described as being so widely spread in Picardy may be due to the action of frost and the movement of heavy sheets of névé, which in some places, perhaps, may have passed into ice, and exerted considerable erosive action upon the rocks over which it crept. Of the Pleistocene age of this particular deposit there can be no doubt. But in other areas of Northern France we find similar wide-spread sheets of clay and sand which have been assigned by French geologists sometimes to the Pleistocene, and sometimes to Tertiary periods) Among the most remarkable examples of such superficial accumulations are those which overlie the Cretaceous strata of the Paris Basin. They have 1 Nature, vol. xiv. p. 179. THE GLACIAL PERIOD, 221 been frequently described, and their origin has been a much disputed question. M. de Cossigny has recently renewed the interest of French geologists in the subject, and presented them with a very clear description of the phenomena as displayed in the southern part of the Paris Basin, from which we learn that there are two separate layers of superficial débris—the lower one an unstratified clay with flints, and the upper a deposit of sand also containing flints. The lower bed, which rests immediately upon the chalk, consists of a confused mass of flints, the inter- stices between which are filled with a white or yellow clay, which, on account of its refractory properties, is much used for the making of the ovens or kilns in which porcelain is baked. All the flints come from the chalk—not only from the Lower Cretaceous strata which are now all that remain of the forma- tion in the region described by M. de Cossigny, but also from different stages of the upper division, as is proved by the fossils which the flints contain. “These flints,” he says, “are quite unaltered ; they have preserved their natural colour, their tex- ture, their white porous surface ; they are only, for the most part, more or less broken, but the fractures are always fresh, the angles perfectly sharp, and when they are washed and divested of the clay that adheres to their surface, a mineralogist could not distinguish between them and the flints recently extracted from one of the chalk-quarries of Normandy. This state of perfect preservation is due without doubt to the im- permeable nature of the clay in which they are imbedded, which has protected them from atmospheric influences, But what is most worthy of notice is the fact that they show no trace of wearing, and have evidently never been rolled about by water.” Those of a spheroidal form are frequently entire, while those of irregular shape have nearly always been divested of their projecting knobs and tubercles. Again, of those which are about the size of one’s fist, and which have not preserved their original shape, the greater number appear to have been reduced by having a succession of large flakes struck from them, which has caused them to assume a rudely 222 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. spherical form. It is the same, M. de Cossigny remarks, with the smaller fragments. Sharp splinters abound, and even the most minute débris is made up of little flakes and splinters, pointed and cutting. These fragments, he has no doubt, have been derived from the breaking and flaking of the larger flints, and as they are never reduced to the state of sand, he is of opinion that they cannot owe their origin to the action of impetuous torrents of water. The clay is not exactly plastic, but dry, and rather hard than unctuous to the touch. M. de Cossigny thinks it has been deposited in the interstices between the stones by the muddy water derived from the wash of strata, the demolition of which supplied the flints. He is of opinion that the accumulation cannot possibly be the result of torrents, currents, or the waves of the sea, and he likewise shows that it cannot owe its origin to chemical action, after the manner of the “pipes,” which are so frequent a phenomenon in Cretaceous regions, and which, as Mr. Prestwich and others have shown, are due to the percolation of acid water dissolving the chalk, and thus forming pipes and funnels into which the over- lying sand, gravel, etc., gradually sink. Rejecting these and other explanations, M. de Cossigny has not hesitated to suggest that the phenomena of the clay with flints may be the result of glacial action—that it may be the moraine profonde which col- lected between the ice and the superjacent rocks all the material produced by the grinding of the glacier—the clay that envel- opes the shattered stones being perhaps no other than a boue glaciaire. He points out that the appearances presented by the clay with flints are just such as would result from the action of a glacier, and that the absence of striz from the flints is not any real objection to this view. All the circumstances were unfavourable for striation,—the homogeneity and equal hardness of all the stones which came into contact, their tendency to give way or flake immediately under pressure, their surfaces often rough and irregular with concavities and knobs that were obstacles to slipping. M. de Cossigny enters into further details to show that all the physical features presented by ci Ril ht THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 223 this remarkable accumulation are more readily explained and accounted for by a glacial hypothesis than by any other view of their origin. The overlying sands with flints betray the action of water ; the flints are all more or less altered and discoloured, and their sharp angles have been removed. They are often indeed rounded. The deposit, according to Cossigny, is the result of torrential action. It is covered in turn by another sand-bed of much the same composition, but which contains here and there boulders of a Tertiary quartzose conglomerate, similar boulders being sprinkled over its surface. The position of this last bed shows that it was not laid down until after the other deposits had been much denuded,—until, in short, the surface had attained its present configuration. M. de Cossigny, as I have said, relegates all these deposits to the Tertiary Period, but the evidence upon which he relies is perhaps hardly conclu- sive. But whatever their age may be, it is certainly very remarkable to meet with accumulations of such a character in the low-lying regions to the south of Paris. Cossigny is of opinion that the glaciating agent, if such it were, must have come from the north, since there are no mountains or high- grounds in the neighbourhood of Paris from which glaciers could have flowed. But mountains are not necessary to the formation of an ice-sheet, neither are we compelled to infer that the ice was continuous with any great northern mer de glace. During a period of extreme glacial conditions it is probable that wide regions in the low grounds would be covered with massive sheets of snow and névé passing into glacier-ice, which would have a motion of their own. The dissolution of these local ice- sheets would give rise to more or less copious floods and tor- rents, to which we might attribute the origin of the sand with flints that overlies the older morainic accumulation. The more recent sand with erratics of conglomerate may pertain to some long subsequent epoch when fluvio-glacial conditions returned! 1 For accounts of these and similar accumulations, see Laugel : Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 2° Sér. t. xvii. p. 316 ; [bid., 2° Sér. t. xix. p. 153; Ebray : Ibid., 2° Sér. t. Xvil. p. 695 ; Hebert: Ibid., 2° Sér. t. xix. p. 445; Ibid., 2° Sér. t. xxi. p. 58; De Mercey : Lbid., 3° Sér. t. i. pp. 184, 193 ; De Cossigny : Jbid., 3° Sér. t. iv. pp. 230 224 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. Tn the maritime districts of Southern England and Northern France loose superficial accumulations attain a considerable development. They occur as more or less wide-spread cover- ings that vary in thickness from a few feet up to many yards, and extend from the sea-coast inland to a less or greater dis- tance. They were long ago noticed by Dr. Borlase, who described their essential features, and since his time they have given rise to some interesting discussions as to their origin. In the south of England they are known under the general - name of “head.” They consist of a more or less coarse agglom- eration of angular débris, and large blocks set in a matrix of earthy matter. Sometimes the “head” has an appearance of rude bedding, but not such as could be attributed to sub- aqueous arrangement. No included water-worn stones or pebbles, according to Mr. Godwin-Austen and others, are ever to be found, Asa rule, the deposit is quite unfossiliferous, but Mr. Prestwich has detected in the sections of it which are exposed in the neighbourhood of Weymouth several land- and freshwater-shells. The stones and blocks are all of local origin, and have generally not travelled far, Some, however, have evidently been carried farther than others, but not a single frag- ment belongs to other drainage-areas than that in which any given mass of the “head” occurs. Mr. Godwin-Austen, to whom we are indebted for a very interesting and suggestive description of this peculiar formation,’ reflecting upon the fact that no such accumulation is now taking place in the districts where it occurs, comes to the conclusion that the “head” has resulted from long-continued subaerial waste under severer conditions of climate than now obtain in regions bordering on the English Channel. To obtain such conditions he supposes the land to have been formerly elevated to such an extent as to bring the whole of the higher portions of this country into regions of excessive cold. 675; J. Martins: Ibid., 3° Sér. t. iv. p. 653 ; Collenot : Zbid., 3° Sér. t. iv. p. 656 ; Delafond : Jbid., 3° Sér. t. iv. p. 665; De Lapparent: Jbid., 3° Sér. t. iv. p. 671. 1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vols. vi. p. 97 ; vii. p. 121; xii. p. 40. THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 225 Mr. Prestwich, who has also furnished geologists with an admirable account of the “head” as seen in the neighbourhood of Weymouth," does not agree with “those who consider this an old talus, or with Mr. Godwin-Austen, who regards it as a talus formed at high altitudes under great cold.” He points out that “if the deposit were a mere subaerial accumulation it would in all cases be in close connection with the slope or cliff supplying the materials, would dip from it at a high angle, and never be carried far beyond the range which that angle would subtend ; whereas at Sangatte and Brighton, although the layers are turned up at a high angle against the old cliff, they are prolonged in a gradually diminishing angle to a considerable distance from it.” Thus at Chesilton, where the escarpment is 400 feet high, the angular débris spreads over the ground to a distance from the base of the cliff of 1600 feet, which, as Mr. Prestwich remarks, is “very far beyond that to which any materials falling from the cliff, had it even been originally double the height, could possibly have extended.” At Portland Bill this appearance is still more striking, for the angular débris in that neighbourhood extends south for a distance of nearly a quarter of a mile at the small angle of 4° or 5°. Such inclinations are so slight that we cannot but admit with Mr. Prestwich that they are quite insuffi- cient to keep loose rubbish and rocks in motion ; something more than the mere gravity of the stones was required to cause them to travel down slopes so gentle. Accordingly he tries to account for the phenomena by supposing that after the land had been subjected for some considerable time to the ordinary action of the weather, the low grounds bordering on the Channel were temporarily submerged, and that the “head” probably owes its origin to the inundations brought about during the subsequent more or less sudden emergence of the land. He infers, to use his own words, “that the emergence, at first gradual, was marked by short oscillations, which, according to their relative force and duration, swept down the soil with its land-shells and softer beds, alternately with the coarser materials and the bones of * Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1875, p. 29. Q 226 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. animals drowned by the inundation, spreading first one and then the other in irregular beds and lenticular masses ; while the final emergence, more sudden and consequently of greater effect, swept down the overlying débris.” “Or again,” he says, “it is possible that a succession of waves caused by earthquake-move- ments may have swept at short intervals over the adjacent land.” There are several objections which might be urged to this theory, not the least forcible of which is the fact that deposits similar in all respects to the “ head” occur in many places which are far enough removed from the sea. They are forming now in the Rocky Mountains and other alpine regions. Thick sheet-like accumulations of angular blocks, débris, and rubbish, which are not of morainic origin, may be observed covering low grounds in the Southern Uplands and Northern Highlands of Scotland in places where they have long ceased to accumulate. I have referred to the limestone-breccias of Gibraltar, and to the general abundance of angular débris and drift in many regions where no such deposits are now taking place. If we consider the fact that during the height of the Glacial Period all Northern Europe was covered with a vast ice-sheet, and that at the same time snow-fields and glaciers existed in almost every hilly region not only in the central but even in the southern regions of our continent, we need have little difficulty in accepting Mr. Godwin- Austen’s view that the “head” is due to the action of severe climatic conditions. The transport of the materials outwards from the base of the cliffs I would explain in the same manner as that of the angular débris which has travelled from the base of the Rock of Gibraltar and overspread the low grounds of Buena Vista and Rosia. Besides hard frosts, the “head” betrays the former action of névé, of melting snows and floods. It is quite in accordance with this view that we find on both sides of the Channel evidence of floating-ice during the Glacial Period. Several large erratics of granite, syenite, and other rocks, occur at Pagham, on the Sussex coast, which must have been transported to their present position by floating-ice coming from Brittany. And Dr. Barrois has described a coarse conglomerate at Kerguillé, THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 227 on the shores of the latter region, which, according to him, could only have accumulated at a time when those maritime districts were some 10 métres lower than at present, and when ice formed in the rivers and upon the coast of that part of France, and scattered along shore the various kinds of stone with which it was charged. M. Tribolet, indeed, is of opinicn that small glaciers actually existed in Brittany at that time,’ and the large erratics noticed by Mr. G. Doe? and Mr. Pengelly* in Devon, some of which measure from 500 to more than 3800 cubic feet, also testify to a former severe climate. It is true that these erratics have not travelled far, but this only shows that they could not have been carried by icebergs. Bearing these facts in mind, and keeping in view the conditions which prevailed generally throughout Northern Europe and in all the hillier regions of our continent, it seems to me unnecessary to suppose with Mr, Godwin-Austen that the severe climatic conditions which produced the “ head” on both sides of the Channel were brought about by an extreme elevation of the land. It is certain that at the time the “head” was formed the shores of England extended farther into the sea than now, for the deposit in question caps cliffs which are being assaulted by the waves. But we have no reason to believe that any such excessive eleva- tion as would be required to carry up the low maritime districts of the Channel into regions of extreme cold has ever taken place. It is also well worth remembering that the regions in which the “head” occurs are just those districts which were never over- flowed by the ice-sheet, and that consequently their subaerial deposits have been left undisturbed, while those of glaciated regions have been swept away ; the loose débris which occurs in such countries as Scotland being merely the subaerial waste which has accumulated since the ice vacated the low grounds and vanished from the mountain-glens, The “head,” therefore, is the representative, as Mr. Godwin-Austen has remarked, of the glacial deposits of the north.> 1 Ann. de la Soc. Géol. dw Nord, t. iv. p. 186, 2 Thid., t. v. (1878). 3 Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1876, p. 110. 4 Ibid., 1877, p. 85. > For descriptions of ‘‘ head” see Sir H. de la Beche’s Report on the Geology of 228 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. It is interesting to note that in Cornwall, where the “ head ” is well developed, we encounter at the base of certain post- glacial deposits, to be described in the sequel, torrential gravels which are well known from the fact that they have been long worked to get at the lumps of tin-ore which they contain. This tin-bearing accumulation is composed of a confused mass of sand, gravel, pebbles, blocks, and boulders, some of which have weighed as much as 200 lbs. and upwards. It is just such a deposit as might have been formed by torrents more or less suddenly discharged from melting snow and ice. Mr. Ussher has shown that it is posterior in age to certain ancient raised beaches upon which the “head” reposes, and it is therefore of approximately the same age as the “head ” itself. The latter, in short, will represent the angular débris moved forward by the action of frost, melting snows, etc., while the stanniferous gravels will denote that portion of the subaerial waste which was swept into gullies and stream-courses, and hurried along by the tumultuous waters of spring and summer. With the cause or causes that induced the Glacial Period we are not at present concerned, but we may at least conclude from the facts so briefly set forth in this and the preceding chapter, that whatever the origin of the glacial climate may have been, it certainly cannot be attributed to any mere elevation of the land. The phenomena are much too general to be thus accounted for. Not only has Europe passed through its Glacial Period, but abundant evidence is forthcoming to show that North America has experienced similar climatic conditions. A great ice-sheet covered all the northern regions of that continent and flowed as far south as the latitude of New Jersey, and still farther south in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri. At the same time the valleys of the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada were filled with gigantic glaciers, compared with Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset ; and W. A. E. Ussher’s papers on the ‘* Recent Geology of Cornwall” (Geological Magazine, 1879), in which copious references will be found to other sources of information. The same writer gives a further account of ‘‘ head” in his Post-Tertiary Geology of Cornwall. a ee THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 229 which their modern representatives are the merest pigmies. Even in regions far south of the limits reached by the ice-sheet of the north, great deposits, and wide-spread sheets of angular débris, rock-rubbish, and coarse gravel, are found occupying positions where no such deposits are now taking place, and which cannot possibly have been formed under present con- ditions. Very often remains of an ancient soil, with leaves, fruits, and stumps of trees in sitw, togther with elytra of beetles, squirrel-gnawed hickory-nuts, ete, are found buried under depths of 15 or 20 feet of these superficial accumulations in North Carolina, where they have been studied by the State Geologist, Mr. W. C. Kerr.'| They often mask to a considerable extent the contour of the underlying strata, so that the present ravines are excavated partly in the superficial drifts, and partly “along or across the crests of the old buried hills and rocky ledges.” Such is the general character of the gold-bearing beds which are extensively spread over the flanks and low ridges of the Uwharrie Mountains. Their position and the carry of their included rock-fragments, some of which have travelled six miles, shows that they must have descended from the mountains, “at whose bases or on whose lower and gentle inclines they are found.’ According to Mr. Kerr, the force which impelled them cannot have been water,—“ neither are they moraines— accumulations at the base of descending ice-masses.” They “have crept down the declivities of the hills and mountains,” he says, “exactly as a glacier descends an alpine valley, by successive freezing and thawing of the whole water-saturated mass, both the expansion of freezing and gravitation contribut- ing to the downward movement; and with each thawing and advance the embedded stones and gold particles dropping a little nearer the bottom. If these beds are followed down the slopes into the valleys and bottoms of the streams to the flood- plain, they will be found to have changed character with every rod of advance, all the gold having been dropped either on or near the foot of the slopes, the pebbles being more exclusively 1 Report of the Geological Survey of North Carolina, vol. i. p. 156. 230 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. quartz, and more and more rounded, and accumulated in a stratum at the bottom of the bed, or constituting the whole of it.”? The glacial phenomena of Europe are, in short, reproduced in North America. Similarly it is well known that in Asia the valleys of the Himalaya formerly supported enormous glaciers, and that traces of ice-action occur in China in regions which are certainly very far from being glacial now. All this, as I have said, points to some widely-acting cause, a conclusion in which geologists are now pretty well agreed. But while I reject the view that the Glacial Period of Europe, or of any portion of Europe, was directly induced by an elevation of the land, I do not doubt that here and there the intensity of glacia- tion may have been locally influenced in some measure by changes in the relative level of land and sea. Hitherto we have confined our attention to phenomena which are more or less directly due to the action of frost, of snow, and glaciers. We must now glance for a little at the general character of those aqueous deposits which we have every reason to believe were accumulated upon certain areas in the low grounds of Europe contemporaneously with the erratics, moraines, and angular débris of other districts. And among these must be included those angular gravels in the southern districts of England, which have been described and explained by Mr. Darwin. The fact that perennial snow and ice were so widely distributed over the northern latitudes of our continent, and that so many of the hilly regions, even in the extreme south, supported large glaciers, sufficiently proves that during the Glacial Period the winter must have been severe, but it also indicates the prevalence of great humidity. There must have been excessive evaporation, and a more copious distribu- tion of moisture, over the length and breadth of our continent i Mr. Kerr’s explanation of these superficial phenomena, it will be observed, does not differ greatly from that adopted by Prof. Ramsay and myself to account for the origin of the Gibraltar breccias. When our paper was written we did not know of Mr. Kerr’s investigations in this matter, otherwise we should have made special reference to them. THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 231 than is now the case, for many of the regions which were formerly covered with perennial snow have at present a very small rainfall. It is, therefore, to say the least, not improbable that during the Glacial Period the amount of heat received from the sun in summer may have been as great or even greater than it is now in that season ; in other words, the seasons may have been more strongly contrasted than they are at present—less heat reaching our latitudes in winter, but more in summer, than is now the case. The summers in Central and Southern Europe were probably very humid, and the abundance of snow and ice upon the mountains would tend to chill the air, so that although more heat may have been received directly from the sun, it is doubtful whether the climate during the warm part of the year would be, upon the whole, as genial as it is with us. Upon the mountains and in the regions covered by the ice-sheet, a large proportion of the moisture would be precipitated in the form of snow. Notwithstanding this we cannot doubt that in summer there would be copious rain, while enormous quantities of snow would be melted, and the rivers flowing from the ice-sheet and the local glaciers of the mountain-regions would be swollen to a prodigious degree. We might, therefore, from such considera- tions expect to find abundant traces of floods and inundations over all the low grounds of Europe to which the swollen rivers could find access. M. E. Collomb has made some interesting calculations which serve to give one some faint idea of the volume of water discharged from the glaciers of the Ice Age.’ These calculations are based upon the observations of MM. Dolfus and Desor on the Aar glacier in 1844 and 1854.’ These glacialists found that the amount of water discharged from this glacier between 20th July and 4th August averaged 1,278,738 cubic métres daily—the minimum being 780,000 cubic metres, and the maximum 2,100,000 cubic métres. The area occupied by the glacier is estimated at 52 square kilométres. Now, supposing that the old glacier of the Rhone (the area of which 1 Comptes Rendus de V Acad. des Sciences (1868), t. lxvii, p. 668 ; Cosmos, t. iii. (1868) p. 407. * Agassiz: Nowvelles Etudes sur les Glaciers, p. 370. 232 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. M. Collomb estimated at 15,000 square kilometres, but which is actually under the truth) discharged its water at the same rate, it must have yielded a daily supply of 605 millions of cubic metres. But if it be true, as all the facts would lead us to believe, that in the summers of the Glacial Period more heat was received directly from the sun,—then the daily discharge from such a glacier must have been greatly in excess of that amount. The rivers which escape directly from a glacier are invariably turbid and discoloured with the fine mud which they hold in suspension, this sediment being derived from the pounding and erinding of the rocks under the moving ice. MM. Dolfus and Desor found that a litre of water from the Aar glacier con- tained 0°142 gram. of fine mud, so that according to Collomb’s estimate of the area and daily discharge of the ancient Rhone glacier, the water escaping from the latter must in summer time have transported 86,000,000 kilogrammes, or about 8500 tons (English) per diem—an estimate which, considering the circumstances already referred to, is probably much under the actual truth.! Bearing all this in mind, we are prepared to learn that traces of water-action should be met with at very considerable heights 1 According to Helland the quantity of mud in the rivers that issue from the glaciers of Greenland is very variable, as may be seen from the table given by him, which is as follows :— Grams. of mud in 1 cubic métre of water. River of the glacier of Jakobshayvn . duly 9, 1875 : 104 5 - Alangordlek . dobaiieaie Page 0 ioe . 2374 - Py Tlardlek 5 SMT, 1 Es : 723 35 sf Tuaparsuit . = PAIS Gis fs A 678 3 ‘3 Umiatorfik . Fl eadays Os ea : 75 a, a3 Assakak . : ee De es, : 208 53 YF, Rangerdlugssuak .. oy Pal Spies : 278 Similar observations by the same geologist on the water issuing from the snow- and ice-field of Justedalsbreen likewise showed that the quantity of mud varied in the different streams, and even in the same river. The result of ten different observations in the months of June and July gave a mean of 147-9 grams. of mud in 1 cubic métre of water.—See Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc., 1877, p. 157 ; Om *de isfyldte Fjorde og de glaciale Dannelser i Nordgrénland, p. 53,; Geol. Féreningens 4 Stockholm Férh., Bd. ii. No. 7. THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 233 in all the great valleys that hold communication with snow- covered mountain-regions, and not only so, but that vast quan- tities of muddy deposits should be met with in places where the form of the ground is such as would admit of quiet deposition from inundating waters. Those great deposits of loss which cover such extensive areas and reach to such heights in the valleys of the Garonne, the Rhone, the Sadne, the Seine, the Rhine, the Danube, the Theiss, the Drave, the Save, and other rivers flowing from the mountains of Central and Southern Europe, represent the mud borne down by the great inundating waters that escaped from the ancient glaciers. But the accumu- lations which are known under the general terms of léss, lehm, brick-earth, etc, have not all been formed in the same way, Some are the result of mere subaerial waste—others have arisen from the chemical action of acidulated water upon Cretaceous strata—and superficial beds like these must frequently have been re-arranged, redistributed, and often washed down from higher to lower levels by rain and melting snow. It is not necessary, therefore, to suppose that every high-level accumula- tion of loam, silt, or clay, such as much of the brick-earth of Northern France, is of fluviatile origin. The severe winter frosts of the Glacial Period would penetrate some depth into the ground, and tend to disintegrate the rocks and render these more easily assailable by rain and melting snow. During spring and summer much water would be set free, and quantities of silt and loam would be transported down the slopes to accumu- late in the hollows and depressions. And in regions where the rock-bottom was composed of the same strata throughout, the superficial accumulations taking place at the surface would naturally assume a great sameness of character. But we cannot so account for the presence of the wide and deep masses of loss which characterise such valleys as those of the Rhine and the Danube. The considerable elevation attained by the deposits in question, and their vast extent, have led many geologists to believe that they could not have been laid down by flooded rivers, and an outline has been given (Chapter 234 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. IX.) of some of the more noted hypotheses which have been advanced to explain the phenomena. The old lacustrine theory has been generally abandoned, and the view advocated by Lyell has likewise proved insufficient. It is quite clear, in fact, that the theory, which shall ultimately be accepted, must take cognisance of all the more widely-spread loamy deposits de- scribed in Chapter IX. We cannot have a special explanation for the loss and lehm of each particular region. They evidently pertain to one and the same period, and must owe their origin to some widely-acting cause or causes. They occur in so many different regions that we are precluded from supposing that elevations and depressions of the land can have had any- thing to do with their formation. Do they owe their origin then to aqueous action, or can they be the result of great dust- storms as Baron von Richthofen maintains? The former of these views appears to me to harmonise most closely with the evidence, and the great bulk of the loamy deposits I would assign in common with the majority of glacialists to the action of vast inundations. I do not, however, deny that here and there the loss and other aqueous deposits pertaining to the Glacial Period may have been subsequently modified by the action of wind, but I can find no evidence which would lead me to suppose that any of our widely-spread sheets of loss have been accumulated by storms of wind transporting the finely- sifted materials from dry central regions. Some of the principal objections which may be urged against Richthofen’s theory I shall presently specify, but, meanwhile, what I take to be the actual origin of the loamy deposits will first be set forth, and as shortly as possible. According to Mr. Prestwich there are cogent reasons for believing that the loam of the plateaux and upper slopes of the valleys of Northern France have been laid down contempo- raneously with the high-level gravels. The loams in question are in short flood-deposits, which were accumulated at a time when the rivers flowed at a much higher level than they did in subsequent ages. I believe the same rule holds true for all the THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 235 great river-valleys of Europe, and that we are not called upon to suppose that the vast sheets of Rhenish and Danubian loéss only began to be accumulated after the valleys had been ex- cavated to their present depths. These deposits are the results of the great floods that took place doubtless at stated times all through the Glacial Period—those at the higher levels having been laid down at a much earlier date than the loams which we find overlying the low-level gravels towards the bottoms of the present valleys. But even with this consideration in view we are under the necessity of inferring the former frequent occurrence of floods and inundations, which it would be hard to parallel at the present day. I have referred to the suggestion made by my brother, and to the view supported by Mr. Belt, that when the great ice-sheet extended south as far as the latitude of the Thames, the large rivers that flowed north from Central Europe would be dammed back so as to inundate vast areas, which might thus become overspread with glacial mud. It is hardly possible to escape from this conclusion. But even without any such dam to the passage of the water northward, the valleys of the Rhine and similar rivers must have been filled to overflow- ing. The waters pouring in at the upper ends of these valleys, supplemented by the torrents and floods received from tributaries, and the water derived from melting snow on the low grounds and from excessive rains, could not escape at once in a great tumultuous current. The rivers frozen over in winter would themselves tend to choke a passage to the north, just as is the case with the great rivers of Siberia at present. Thick ice might continue to bind them in the north for some time after their icy covering had melted in the south: and wide areas in the upper reaches of the valleys would thus become inundated. Again, if we consider the enormous quantities of water which would be discharged from the melting snows in spring and summer, we must see that the valleys themselves would be insufficient to carry these waters immediately away. Even in our own little country we may observe how after unusually heavy rains all the rivers rise in flood, and wide areas become 236 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. inundated ; and this inundation-water is not a tumultuous raging torrent, but very frequently assumes the aspect of a wide lake-like expanse of quiet water, from which fine sediment is deposited, forming a film of mud more or less continuous. It is only here and there that we observe coarse sand and gravel strewn over the fields to mark the course taken by the thread of the current, which eventually succeeded in draining the flooded area. The homogeneous character of the Rhenish and Danubian loss is well explained by this theory of its origin. Composed in chief measure of the fine silt derived from the glaciers of the Alps, it is not surprising that it should show such a sameness in all the great valleys which were charged with water descending in vast volumes from the glaciated areas. The waters of the Rhine invaded the lower reaches of most of its tributary valleys, and deposited there the same kind of mud as that which accumu- lated in the main line of drainage. But farther up these lateral valleys the mud would assume more of a local character, com- posed as it would be of materials derived from the disintegration and denudation of the adjacent rocks. In other regions, such as the plateaux of Northern France and the low grounds of Southern England, mud and silt would likewise be widely dis- tributed, but these would be derived chiefly from the wash of the Cretaceous and other strata by rain, by the water coming from melting snow, and in the valleys doubtless by deeply- flooded streams and rivers. But it is in those regions that drained more or less directly from glacier-regions where we find the deepest and broadest accumulations of loamy deposits. The Garonne was flooded by the melting snow and ice of the Pyrenees, the Rhone by the waters coming from the vast ice- fields of the Alps, the Saéne by those derived from the Jura, the Seine by the dissolving snow and ice of the Morvan and neigh- bouring hilly tracts. Muddy inundations likewise choked many of the valleys of the Carpathians, and a like fate befell such valleys as those of the Drave and the Save that received the drain- age of the Eastern Alps. On the south side of the Alps there was THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 23% no space for the accumulation of.silt. The muddy waters carried down vast quantities of gravel and shingle, but the finer materials were swept right out to sea. It will of course be understood that in all the river-valleys of Central Europe enormous sheets of gravel and shingle were swept along the bottoms of the valleys, the loss only accumulating in places where the inundat- ing waters were comparatively tranquil. The occasional occurrence in the loss of sporadic stones and boulders, which are sometimes striated, points to transportation by river-ice ; and the presence of lines of gravel and sand, which here and there have been observed, indicate unquestionably the action of water ; and the same may be said of such alternations as those described by Dr. Nehring which occur at Thiede and Westeregeln, and of the bedded loss of Heiligenstadt, near Vienna, referred to by Dr. Jentzsch. Again, at Nussdorf and Hungelbrunn, in the same region, the loss, according to Th. Fuchs, contains freshwater-shells in a distinct bed ; at Nuss- dorf the bed was a bluish-green silt with Hypnum, while at Hungelbrunn it was a white marly deposit. Such instances of stratification, however, are not common in the ldss, which, like the flood-deposits (mud and silt) of rivers such as the Mississippi and the Ganges, generally shows little or no trace of bedding. The calcareous concretions of the léss also find their counterparts in the recent alluvia of the same rivers. The origin of the vertical capillary structure is less easily accounted for, Some writers believe that the minute tubes represent grasses and other plants which were gradually buried as the loss accumulated about them. But I am not aware that any trace of vegetable matter has ever been found in the tubes, and the capillary structure, like the concretions, may be of inorganic origin. Chemical analyses, at all events, have shown that léss contains little or no organic matter, which we might have expected to meet with in much greater abundance had plants given origin to the innumerable vertical pores which are so commonly pre- sent in the typical deposit of the Rhine and the Danube. The character of the shells and other organic remains found 238 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. in the loss is quite in keeping with the theory which attributes that deposit to the action of muddy inundation-waters, a view which is strongly supported by Professor F. Sandberger and others who have made a special study of the question. The shells, as Sandberger has shown, bespeak colder conditions of climate, and belong to species which for the most part occupy damp and shady places. They are just such forms, indeed, as may have lived in woods and meadows near the borders of streams, rivers, and lakes, and which therefore would be lable to be swept away during floods and inundations, Moreover, they probably represent only a fraction of the terrestrial molluscous fauna of the period. Thus in the lists given by F. Sandberger, A. Braun, Gysser, Leydig, and Heynemann, of shells obtained from the loss of the valleys of the Main, the Neckar, and the Upper Rhine, there is only one freshwater-shell (Lim- neus truncatulus) to some eighteen species of land-shells. Dr. Sandberger tells us that in the mud brought down by the flood- waters of the Main on February 19, 1876, he observed 52 species of shells, namely—land-shells, 38 species ; freshwater-shells, 14 species. The contrast was still more striking when the numbers of individuals were taken into account. Thus, while freshwater- univalves and bivalves numbered only 69 individuals, the land- shells were no fewer than 10,747. The species which were most abundantly represented were as follow :— Felix pulchella and H. costata : 4228 examples. Pupa muscorum : : < 3550 “ P. pygmea . ; . : 654, Cecilianella acicula . : - 5D Gaus Cionella lubrica , : : 574 aE Chondrula tridens . : 209; The smaller species are thus by far the most abundant in the inundation-muds of the present day, just as they are in the old valley-léss. The wide diffusion of these forms in the loss offers no difficulty. Their extreme lightness would insure their dispersion to great distances. Even larger species might under certain conditions be transported a long way. Captain Feilden, THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 239 for example, tells us that in the autumn of 1874, after a long continuation of rainy weather and north-west winds, he found in sheltered coves on the coast of Malta, facing the island of Sicily, great numbers of land-shells, which were certainly not indige- nous to Malta. ‘On examination they proved to be all dead shells, plugged at the mouth with a tenacious blue clay which converted them into floats. These had doubtless been washed down by the flooded rivers of Sicily, and discharged in vast numbers into the Mediterranean. The prevalent north-west winds had wafted them, along with fragments of pumice-stone and broken reeds, to the coast of Malta.”? The mammalian remains characteristic of the loss belong to the northern group, and accord perfectly with the facies of the mollusca. They betoken decidedly colder climatic conditions than are at present experienced in Central Europe, and may quite well have subsisted in regions exposed to severe winter cold and considerable humidity. The conclusion we come to, then, is simply this, that the loss of the great river-valleys of Central Europe is merely the flood-loam of the Glacial Period. The upland- or hill-léss belongs upon the whole to an earlier date than that which is found within the valleys themselves. It is the inundation-mud which was laid down by the rivers when they flowed at higher levels. After these rivers had succeeded in deepening their beds suffi- ciently, their flood-waters were unable to overflow upon the plateaux, and the deposition of loss was then confined to the valleys themselves, The ldss and the ancient river-gravels are therefore, as Mr. Prestwich has maintained, merely terms of one and the same series. Hitherto I have spoken only of the flooded rivers that descended from alpine regions ; but what about the water which must have escaped from the ice all along the borders of the massive mer de glace which extended in Germany down to the 50th parallel of latitude? It is extremely probable, nay, I will even venture to say, certain, that a very large proportion of the 1 The Zoologist, May 1879. 240 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. water derived from the melting of that ice-sheet in Northern Europe, would find its way by underground channels along the natural slope of the ground into the Polar Ocean and the basins of the Baltic and the North Sea. The phenomena of the till have disclosed the fact that streams and torrents flowed under- neath the ice, the general course of which, however much it might be influenced by the obstruction of the overlying ice, would nevertheless tend to follow the inclination of the ground. There would thus be many large sub-glacial streams and rivers running in directions quite opposed to that of the mer de glace. The sub-glacial representatives of the Messen and the Dwina, for example, would flow directly into the Arctic Ocean ; those of the Diina, the Nieman, the Vistula, the Oder, and other North German rivers, would go by way of the Baltic and the North Sea, as would also those of Sweden, Southern Norway, and East Britain. And thus I would infer that the water escaping into North Germany from the ice-sheet, however actually copious it might be, would yet be relatively small in amount. It would in fact be derived chiefly from the superficial melting of the ice-sheet. It is quite true that there would be an abundant flow of water all over the surface which would tend in the direction of the ice-flow; but much of it we may suppose would disappear in crevasses, or into such great holes as Nordenskiéld observed in the inland-ice of Greenland.’ So far as we know from observation, the quantity of water pouring from the surface over the terminal front of the Greenland ice is much less considerable than that discharged by such glacial rivers as the Mary Minturn described by Kane.” This river flows all the year round, but becomes greatly swollen in summer. The superficial streams, on the other hand, are sealed up at night in summer, and in winter they vanish entirely. Then, again, we must remember, that the water flowing upon the mer de glace would be distributed in myriads of little 1 Geological Magazine, vol. ix. p. 360. 2 Arctic Explorations: The Second Grinnell ge im Seunth of Sir J. Franklin, vol. i. p. 97. DHE GLACTAL PERIOD. 241 channels, which would have no permanency, while that under- neath the ice would tend to collect into larger currents which might keep an open course for themselves for long periods of time. Thus the water pouring off the surface of the ice would descend upon Germany in innumerable cascades, but would sel- dom or never discharge at any one point such enormous floods of water as those carried north by rivers coming from regions of alpine snows and glaciers. Moreover, we must remember that it would be comparatively pure water—it would hold in suspension an infinitely less amount of sediment than such rivers as the Rhine or the Danube. But the case would be very differ- ent with the water flowing out from under the ice-sheet in Russia. A glance at the map of Europe (Plate D) will show that a very large section of the extensive area which is drained by the Dnieper, the Don, the Volga, and their numerous affluents, was covered by the mer de glace. The ice-sheet flowed out of the Gulf of Finland, ascended the long slopes that drain towards the Baltic, crossed the water-parting, and thereafter pressed forward for a distance of not less than 300 miles in the direction of the Black Sea. South of the water-parting referred to, the sub-glacial drainage would therefore be in the same general direction as the present rivers. Consequently we should expect to find in Southern Russia abundant evidence of vast inundations—inun- dations on a much grander scale than any that could possibly have taken place in Middle and Western Europe. Large rivers and innumerable torrents, laden with glacial mud, would issue from the terminal front of the ice-sheet, and literally deluge the gently - undulating ground and low flats and plateaux which extend south to the Black Sea and the Caspian. In winter the waters would be greatly reduced in volume, while the rivers to the south of the ice-sheet would doubtless be frozen over. Snow might then gather over extensive areas in what are now the Steppes, and here and there be swept by violent winds into great heaps and wreaths, just as is the case at present in those regions and the tundras. When spring returned such wide sheets and hummocky masses of snow would begin to melt R 242 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. more or less rapidly, and thus add their quota to the vast volumes of water that poured southwards from the terminal front of the ice-sheet. Now it is precisely in the low-lying regions of Southern Russia that we encounter the most extensive deposits of loam in Europe. They form the subsoils of the Steppes—those vast grassy plains which, within the drainage-area of the Don, the Dnieper, and the Volga, comprise nearly 200 millions of acres. The soil is generally a more or less rich dark or black loam which yields heavy crops when it is cultivated, and which would no doubt support an abundant forest-vegetation were it not for the great droughts of summer, which scorch the ground and forbid the approach of trees; the principal vegetation of the Steppes, in short, consists of grasses which often grow to a height of five or six feet. Murchison and his colleagues, in their great work on the geology of Russia, were of opinion that the black-earth of the Steppes may have been to some extent “derived from the destruction of the black Jurassic shale, so uniform in its colour over all Northern and Central Russia.” They also pointed out, in proof of the correctness of this inference, the suggestive fact that the black-earth is absent to the south of certain tracts where there is reason to think the black Jurassic shale never existed. “In truth,” they remark, “the black-earth is in this respect exactly like the Northern Drift of Russia, which invari- ably contains many materials of the formation immediately north of it.” According to the same authors it is wholly unfossiliferous, but chemical analyses show that it contains organic matter and traces of humic acid. Goebel states that he detected vegetable débris in the black-earth, but the specimens examined by him appear to have been taken from the surface, which may also account for the quantity of carbonate of lime found by him—a substance which, according to other analyses, would appear usually to be wanting in the black - earth. Bischoff is of opinion that the view held by Murchison and his associates is very probably correct, inasmuch as the black THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 243 Jurassic shale contains a large amount of bituminous matter, which would account reasonably enough for the considerable percentage of organic substance met with in the black-earth. It is not improbable, however, that here and there the blackness of the earth may have arisen from the decomposition of grasses and other plants. But if this were so, it is strange that traces of vegetable débris should appear to be so completely absent from the deposit. The absence of plant-remains, however, is quite in keeping with the non-appearance of shells or animal relics of any kind, and is readily explicable on the theory of the aqueo-glacial origin of the black-earth. It is hardly likely that either plant- or animal-life would be well represented in those low-lying regions of Southern Russia which were liable to be more or less completely inundated every spring and summer, and which in winter must have experienced an excessively cold climate. The black-earth would appear never to reach the great thickness attained by the léss of the Rhine and the Danube. This is what we might have expected from the configuration -and position of the regions over which it is distributed. The wide open valleys and broad plateaux would not permit of the same heaping-up and ponding-back of the flood-waters as must have taken place again and again in Central Europe. The route to the south lay open, and the inundation-waters would thus be drawn off more rapidly than if they had been discharged in a northerly direction, where the outflow was impeded not only by the presence of glacier-ice, but by the freezing-over of the rivers themselves. Some geologists have suggested a marine origin for the black-earth, but no one has ever succeeded in discovering in this deposit a single trace of any marine organism. And those who hold that the Northern Drift with its large erratics has been transported southwards by means of icebergs and currents are equally at a loss to account for the sudden disappearance of boulders not far from the northern limits of the Steppes, If icebergs during the Glacial Period sailed over the watersheds 244 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. of the great rivers that flow into the Black Sea and the Caspian, and even floated for some 300 miles farther south, why should their journey have been so suddenly arrested? Why should not they be scattered over the whole breadth of the Steppes, or disclosed to view in the beds of the numerous rivers by which those wide regions are intersected ? In the foregoing remarks upon the origin of the loss and other loamy deposits pertaining to the same or approximately the same period, I have dwelt upon various phenomena which seem to me to bear strongly against the wind-theory advanced by Richthofen. There are many other objections which might be urged to that view, but I shall specify only one or two. 1. The physical conditions of our continent during Pleis- tocene times would not permit of the existence of a desiccated central area, like those arid deserts of Asia referred to by Richthofen. The loss unquestionably forms part and parcel of the glacial accumulations, and the climate at the time of its deposition, as its shells alone prove, must have been not only colder, but more humid than the present. Even if Europe generally had stood at a higher elevation then than now, still that could not have converted any part of our area into a dry desert. In point of fact, as we shall see in the sequel, genial and humid conditions prevailed generally throughout Europe at a period when the land stretched considerably farther into the Atlantic, the British Islands then forming part of the Continent, and the area of the Mediterranean Sea being con- siderably reduced. The dry sandy tracts of Central Asia and of the great basins and plains in the Western Territories of the United States have no analogues in Europe. We have nothing here comparable with the phenomena of wind-erosion described by Mr. Clarence King and others as characteristic of the sandy plains of Western America, where the wind has undercut and gradually demolished masses of rocky strata by the filing action of the sand driven before it. Mr. King informed Mr. Pumpelly that the prevailing westerly wind, carrying sand, has carved and polished the rocky crest of the Sierra Nevada, and formed long we Ss ai aia THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 245 “wind-stream deltas” which extend as lofty sand-ranges from each pass in the mountains eastward far out on the desert. If we except the dunes of our coast-regions, the only considerable areas of wind-driven sand which occur in Europe are those of Olkucz, Schiewier, and Ozenstockau in Poland, around which stretches a seemingly boundless wilderness of shifting sand. During storms this sandy plain appears like a tumbling and rolling sea, the sand-hills rising and dipping like the waves of the ocean.? These sands are part of the Northern Drift, and were deposited by the flood-waters descending from the mer de glace at the time of its retreat. Occasionally, also, in the Russian Steppes patches of drifting sand appear, and doubtless there are many other sandy tracts in Europe which might drift under the action of the wind were they not fixed by vegetation. But these expanses of sand have not been transported by wind from one part of the Continent to another. Most of them are flood-deposits of the Glacial Period, while others represent the lake-bottoms and sea-beds of Tertiary times. They are, in short, proofs rather of former humidity than aridity. 2. The geographical distribution of the loss is incomprehen- sible on the supposition that it owes its accumulation to the action of wind. Why should it occur so commonly in the valleys, and die off upon the plateaux? And why, as Dr. Jentzsch has asked,® should it be wanting in the Erzgebirge, the Thiiringerwald, and other hilly districts of Middle Germany, while the regions on either side are more or less thickly covered with it? The same geologist refers to the occurrence of that narrow zone of loss which fringes the southern borders of the Northern Drift in Northern Germany, and in places attains a considerable thickness; and he asks how it is possible to believe that dust-storms could have worked only within that narrow zone. In point of fact the distribution of loss in Europe bears no relation whatever to the track of prevalent winds. On 1 Amer. Jour. of Science and Arts, vol. xvii. (1879), p. 139. * Naumann’s Geognosie, Bd. ii. p. 1173. 3 Verh. der k.-k. geol. Reichs. (1877), Bd, xxvii. p. 254. 246 PREHISTORIC EUROPE. the supposition of its zeolian origin, we should be compelled to believe that the winds blew outwards in all directions from the mountain-regions, and were careful to confine themselves as much as possible to the valleys ; we should further be forced to conclude that they accumulated loss just in those very areas which were liable to inundations of muddy water during the Glacial Period, and that at the same time they neglected to strew with dust those particular districts in which, for many good reasons, glacial mud could not be deposited. 3. The mammalian remains in the loss do not indicate a dry climate. It is true, as Dr. Nehring has shown, that the fauna of Thiede and Westeregeln has a prevalent steppe-character, but commingled with pouched marmot, marmot, pika, jerboa, and other animals characteristic of the Steppes occur hyzena, lion, lemming, Arctic fox, reindeer, mammoth, and rhinoceros. These, it is true, are represented by only a few remains, while relics of the true steppe-fauna abound ; but mammoth and woolly rhin- oceros, reindeer and other northern and cold-temperate forms, are the most common forms met with in the léss generally, and we cannot, therefore, look upon their occurrence at Thiede and Westeregeln as exceptional. The presence of lion and hyzna does not militate against this view. These carnivores may have lived wherever their prey was in sufficient abundance. MIOCENE. formation of Germany = Oligocene of Beyrich) FE NOZ OTs . Upper Hovene . Middle Kocene . Lower Eocene . Maestricht Beds ane Faxt EOCENE. CRETACEOUS. SECONDARY OR JURASSIC. MESOZOIC. . Lias 4 . Rheetic or Penarth Beds.” . Keuper . , Musehelizalle . Bunter Sandstein TRIASSIC. 564 APPENDIX. 28. Permian : : . PERMIAN. 29. Coal-measures 30. Carboniferous agnestone. ee 31. Lower Limestone Shale, ee PRIMARY ete: ei 32. Devonian Beds a. Ola DEVONIAN & OLD OR Red Sandstone . . RED SANDSTONE. 33. Upper Silurian SILURIAN. PALAOZOIC. 34. Lower Silurian : 35. Cambrian z : . CAMBRIAN. 36. Fundamental Gneiss . LAURENTIAN. Norte B. PLATE D.—Map or Evropr AT THE CLIMAX OF THE Ick AGE. THIs map shows the centres of local glaciation, and the area covered by the northern mer de glace at the climax of the Glacial Period. For the line indicating the southern limits reached by this ice-sheet I have taken the boundary of the “ Northern Drift and Erratics,” as defined by Murchi- son and his colleagues, with a few modifications adopted from the map of “Europa waihrend der beiden Eiszeiten,” by H. Habenicht (Petermann’s Geographische Mittheilungen, 1878). The thin red lines are intended to represent the principal directions followed by the superficial strata of the mer de glace. These, as a rule, corresponded with the trend of the lower strata also, but now and again, owing to the form of the ground and other causes, the ice at the bottom was impelled out of the course pursued by the strata at a higher level. I have given in the text (p. 203) an exaniple —the long red arrows that radiate from Christianiafjord being the inferred directions followed by certain erratics derived from that region. Mention has been made of the fact that Scandinavian erratics occur in the boulder-clay of Saxony, and since this last is a true moraine profonde, it follows that the erraties in question must have been dragged over the bed of the Baltic and across the low grounds of Germany before they could have reached their present position. Again, at Lyck in East Prus- sia, at Trebnitz and Steinau in Silesia, at Meseritz in Posen, and at Ber- lin, we find fragments of Silurian rocks which are recognised as having come from the island of Gottland in the Baltic. All these might quite well have been rolled forward under one and the same ice-sheet, but how are we to account for the presence in the boulder-clay of Gréningen in Holland of boulders of the same rocks? It is evident that hese last must have come down the basin of the Baltic and crossed the route fol- lowed by the others nearly at right angles. Nor are these cases altogether exceptional, for we learn that erratics “from Esthonia have been detected in boulder-clay at Hamburg, and that fragments derived from the island of Oland are met with in the till of Faxé in Denmark. The probable routes followed by these erratics are indicated by the long continuous blue PLATE D. To facepage 564. MAP OF EUROPE Showing extent of THE GLACIATED AREAS at the climax of 2 THE ICH AGE / Anat | el iva MAR ay trae ANA MAP OF EUROPE Showing extent of THE GLACIATED AREAS aL the climax of THE ICK AGE Landon; Edward Suusford,65, Charing Cross, SW APPENDIX. 565 arrows, while the interrupted blue arrows show the course taken by the Gottland boulders that went to south-east and south. It is hardly possible that all these erratics could have been transported by one and the same ice-flow ; they are more likely, as Mr. Helland has remarked, to have travelled at different times. When the mer de glace attained its maximum development we know that it reached down to Silesia and Saxony, and at that time the stones carried forward with the moraine profonde from the Baltic provinces of Russia would spread towards 8.E., S., and §.S.W. In like manner boulders from Gottland would have a tend- ency to moye to SS.E., 8. and S.W. But when the mer de glace had become much reduced, and no longer flowed so far south, the lower strata of the ice in the Baltic would be to a great extent confined to that hollow, and hence the bottom-moraine would tend to be pressed and rolled for- ward down the trough towards the Kattegat and the North Sea. In this manner fragments detached from the rocks of Esthonia and the islands in the Baltic might well come to be scattered through the drift deposits of Hamburg, Gréningen, and Denmark. And that this is not a mere un- supported conjecture is shown by the fact that the striz in Gottland, in the southern extremity of Sweden, and in Zealand, clearly evince that the ice has flowed in different directions. Thus in Gottland most of the striz point to S.W., but another set of glacial groovings goes towards S. and S.S.E. In the south of Sweden, again, while one series of striz indicates a glaciation in an approximately southern direction, another set proves an ice-flow towards S.W. At Faxé the direction varies from N.W. to W. and S.W. But even at the period of maximum glaciation, considerable oscilla- tions in the direction of the mer de glace may have been induced by varia- tions in the thickness of the ice itself. If the precipitation of snow were to become abnormally great in some particular region, so as to give rise to a local thickening of the ice-sheet, this of itself would tend to modify the direction of the ice-flow, and so bring about a corresponding modifica- tion in the trend of the stones and rubbish travelling forward at the bottom. And such local changes, being repeated at different times and in different areas, might eventually give rise to some of the cases of abnormal distribution of erratic blocks referred to above. But oscillations of this kind are not required to account for the fact that rock-fragments, detached from some particular district of small extent, are often distributed over a very much wider area to the south. A glance at the map will show that the mer de glace, as it flowed on towards its terminal line, gradually spread itself over a wider and wider area. And this being so, the same must have been the case with its bottom-moraine. It is not surprising, there- fore, that stones derived from Gottland should have been distributed by one and the same ice-sheet over a considerable area to §.,8.W., and S.E. of that island. There is yet another cause which may have played no unimportant part in the distribution of erratics under the ice-sheet. I have endea- voured to show (see page 239) that subglacial rivers must have existed, and that these in Northern Germany would follow the general slope of the land, and would thus often flow in directions opposed to the course of the mer de glace. We can hardly doubt that quantities of morainic débris 566 APPENDIX. would find their way into such subglacial streams, and thus stones, and even boulders of some size, might come to be carried often for long dis- tances out of the route they had followed when imprisoned in the moraine profonde. Indeed, it is quite possible that now and then portions of the ice itself, charged with rock-fragments, might fall into subglacial waters and travel many miles in the most contrary directions. We have now only further to conceive some change taking place in the course of the subglacial channels—caused probably by modifications in the ice-flow overhead—when the bed of the subglacial river would be invaded and its detritus become commingled with the unmodified drift or boulder-clay of the moraine profonde. In this manner erratics from widely-separated dis- tricts might occasionally become mixed up in one and the same subglacial accumulation. But the most potent cause of all remains to be mentioned. It has been shown that the direction pursued by the ice in the basin of the Baltic was different at different periods. When the mer de glace reached down to Saxony and Silesia, boulders and smaller stones, derived from Sweden, were dragged over the bed of the Baltic, and carried south to the farthest limits reached by the ice-flow. But when the mer de glace was on the wane, and had melted away over a large part of Germany, the ice in the Baltic basin followed the direction of that trough towards the south- west. Now, as we have seen, the great mer de glace invaded the low grounds of Germany three times at least. And these epochs of glaciation were separated by long intervals of milder conditions, during which the ice disappeared, and left the land to be reclothed and repeopled by plants and animals. With each successive advance and retreat of the ice, there- fore, fresh accumulations of boulder-clay would be formed, but we cannot doubt that the moraine profonde would in many places consist to some extent of the rearranged morainic materials which had been left behind during the disappearance of each preceding mer de glace. The modifica- tions which must have been brought about by this means are more than sufficient to account for all the abnormal cases of “erratic distribution” which have been referred to. Indeed, the wonder is that these are not more numerous than they appear to be. It is highly probable that, when the work of correlating the various boulder-clays of Germany and the adjacent regions has been worked out in detail, it will be possible to map out the area covered by the ice-sheet during each separate glacial epoch, and not only so, but to determine approximately the prevailing directions followed by the separate ice-flows. Already, indeed, it has been observed that the upper and lower boulder-clays of one and the same place often contain very different percentages of stones and boulders. Thus, accord- ing to Harting, the upper boulder-clay in the island of Urk contains only 22 per cent of flints, while the lower dark-gray till shows 38°5 per cent. I have made special reference to these cases of abnormal distribution 2 of which I have been speaking, because they have been held by some as 1 Mr. Helland has given an interesting and useful summary of a number of the more remarkable examples in his very able paper descriptive of the glacial deposits of the low grounds of Northern Europe (Zeitschr. der deutsch. geol. Ges., 1879, p. 63), to which, and to Dr. Penck’s paper (Op. cit. p. 117), I would refer the reader for a much fuller discussion of the subject than I can enter upon in this place. APPENDIX. 567 tending to prove the improbability of the boulder-clays of Northern Ger- many, etc., having been accumulated and distributed underneath a mer de glace. To me they appear to tell a very different tale, and are just such as one might have expected to meet with. In spite of these excep- tions, which are comparatively rare, the distribution of the great mass of stones in the boulder-clays that occur towards the southern margin of the Northern Drift indicates that during the climax of the Ice Age, when the mer de glace attained its greatest development, it flowed in the general directions shown upon the map. The boulder-clays of Northern Germany, etc., like those of other countries, are composed in large measure of the débris of local rocks. They always, in short, reflect the character of the strata upon which, or to the immediate south of which, they lie. More- over, commingled with débris of such local origin, fragments derived from greater distances to the north are invariably present, in less or greater abundance. In a word, the phenomena of the German boulder-clays are the exact counterpart of the appearances presented by the boulder-clays of Northern Italy, Switzerland, Scandinavia, Finland, and the British Islands. For the termination of the ice-sheet west of the British Islands I have taken the line of 100 fathoms, as indicated upon the Admiralty’s charts, but I have followed my friend Mr. Helland in drawing the line off the west coast of Norway in deeper water Of course these boundaries are only conjectural. We cannot tell how far the ice-sheet flowed out into the Atlantic, because we do not know whether the land stood then at a lower or higher level than it does now. We may safely say, however, that with the sea at or about its present depth, the Scottish ice, which over- flowed the Outer Hebrides, could hardly have reached beyond the line of 100 fathoms. But it may well be that the ice streaming out from Nor- way was massive enough to advance considerably farther into the bed of the Atlantic. The direction and extent of the glaciation of the Ferée Islands were determined by Mr. Helland? and myself.3 The ice which covered those islands formed one compact nappe, which flowed outwards in all direc- tions, and, with the sea at its present depth, must have extended as far from the coast as the 100-fathoms line of soundings. The marks of glacial abrasion were traced up to a height of 1600 feet, and as the fiords are here and there 100 fathoms deep, we must add this to the other measurement to get the maximum thickness of the ice (2200 feet) that flowed out from the islands. It is most likely that when the glacial phenomena of Iceland come to be better known, we shall find that this island also has supported an ice- sheet, which would flow outwards upon the bed of the sea in the same manner as the local and independent ice-cap of the Ferées. I have, how- ever, simply coloured the area of Iceland green, like the local centres of glaciation in Central and Southern Europe. 1 Zeitschr. der deutsch. geol. Ges., 1879, p. 716. 2 Op. et loc. cit. 3 Proc. Royal Soc. Edin., 1880, p. 495. 568 APPENDIX. NOTE C. PLATE E.—Evrope In EarLy PosTGLAciAL TIMES (First AGE oF FORESTS). THis map shows the probable extent of land that obtained in early Postglacial times when the climate was mild and genial, and the Ferée Islands and Iceland received their floras from the European mainland. Of course the line given for the land extending from the Ferée Islands to Iceland is conjectural. The soundings upon the charts are few in number and wide apart, and, doubtless, the coast would be much more irregular than is here indicated. For the coast of the mainland from Spain to St. Kilda I have followed the line of 100 fathoms, and from St. Kilda north- wards that of 500 fathoms, which is also that of the Icelandic area. I have endeavoured to show that before this great extension of land took place there had been a considerable increase in the volume of warm water flowing from the South into the Northern Ocean, accompanied by the immigration of many southern forms of life into the Norwegian Seas. An elevation of the land and consequent retreat of the sea afterwards super- vened, as may be inferred from the fact that the Ferée Islands, Iceland, and even Greenland, have received their floras from Europe ; and the immigration of those floras necessitates the existence of a continuous, or nearly continuous, land-connection. The larger depressions of the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic, the deep trough between Denmark and Norway, the long hollow in the bed of the Trish Sea, and some of the deep excavations in the sea-bottom between the Hebrides and the Scottish mainland, are represented as freshwater lakes. The rivers shown upon the now submerged areas follow the lines of deeper soundings. PLATE E. To face page 568. in early Postglacial Times (First Age of Forests) | eve 40 = Stanfordis Geog" Estab® London. PLATE ~ E To Face pays 568 EoA Noh Cape —~«EUROPE | in early Postglacial Times \ (First Age of Forests) London, Edwan! Stanford. 55. Charing Cross SW. 40. Ss og eed Lain, INDEX. — AAR glacier, volume of water discharged from, 231 ; mud in water flowing from, 232. Aberaeron, submarine forest at, 431. ABICH on ancient glaciers of Caucasus, 214, Abruzzi, travertine of the, 56. Acer campestre, 47, 49; A. monspessula- num, 49; A. opulifolium, 48, 49, 51, 52; A. pseudo-platanus, 50, 51, 53, 299, 305; A. tribulatum, 309. Acteon, 502. Acy, D’, on origin of French Zimon, 165. Apams, Leith, on breccias, etc., of Malta, 219, 327; on mammals of Ireland, 512. ApuiMAR on rise of sea-level, 525. Adimonia, 54. Admiralty’s charts of Mediterranean, 337. Adrara, silted-up lake in valley of, 304. Aisculus hippocastanum, 309. African elephant, 27, 32. AGARDH cited, 497. Agassiz, L., cited, 173, 176, 190, 197, 206. Age of forests, 393, 455, 530, 537. Agonum gracile, 54. Ain, interglacial deposits in valley of the, 321. Ajuga chamepitys, 510. Alactaga jaculus, 62, 149. Albert, peat of, 480. Alca impennis, 367. Alder, 54, 420, 432, 436, 448, 480, 487, 494, Aleppo pine, 48. Algeria, raised-beaches of, 355. Allagnon, moraines in valley of, 211. Allier, interglacial deposits in valley of the, 318. Alluvia, English postglacial, 455, » of Continent, 495. » Telative position of Pleistocene and postglacial, 455, 495. Alluvia, remains of Paleolithic man in, 22. », Scottish postglacial and recent, 407, 425. Alnus glutinosa, 49, 487. Alpine hare, 32. Alps, extent of glaciation on north side of, 208. Altai pouched marmot, 62. Amber in bed of the Elbe, 477. Anodonte, 299. Ancylus fluviatilis, 470. Androsace septentrionalis, 518. Andromeda polifolia, 493. Angermiinde, freshwater clay at, 492. Anglesey, glaciation of, 191. Angular débris of last glacial epoch, 352. Antilocapra rupicapra, range of, 31. Antiquities, prehistoric, 5; classification of, 6; relative age of, how ascertained, (See Alder. ) Apennines, range of beech in, 47 ; ancient glaciers of, 213. Aporrhais pes-pelicani, 468. Apuan Alps, glaciation of, 213. Arbor vite, 46. Arbroath, raised-beaches near, 418. Arcachon, submerged trees at, 481. Arca raridentata, var. major, 467. Archeological periods, 5. ARCHIAC, D’, cited, 65. Arctic-alpine plants, in peat of Switzer- land, 54; migrations of, towards close of Glacial Period, 352 ; in English post- glacial deposits, 456; below Danish peat bogs, 485; in clay below Swedish bogs, 491 ; below peat of Mecklenburg, 492; below peat of Bavaria, 493; in peat of Champagne, 493. Arctic flora, in Pleistocene peat-bogs, 55, 262 ; in glacial beds, 262, 335; retreat of, in postglacial times, 505. Arctic forests, 35. Arctic fox, 27, 30, 32, 42, 55. Arctic willow. (See Salix polaris.) 57° Arctomys bobac, 62, 149; A. marmotia, range of, 30. Arctostaphylos alpinus, 353; A. uva- urst, 456. ARENDs cited, 479. Arezzo, human remains in Pleistocene deposits near, 22. Argelés, glacier of, 212. Ariége, Neolithic cave-relics of, 377. Arno valley, human remains in Pleistocene deposits of, 22. Arvicola amphibius, 149; A. gregalis, 149; A. nivalis, 30; A. ratticeps, 62, 149; A. sp., 309. As, sar, 469, 470. Ash, 50, 51, 320, 420, 432, 487. Aspen, 469, 485. Asturian flora, 508. Atlas, moraines of the, 215. Aubrac, ancient glaciers of, 211. Aurillac, worked flint from Miocene of, 345. Aurochs, 31, 103. (See Bison.) Auvergne, glaciation of, 211. Auzon valley, moraines in, 211. Aveluy, peat of, 480. Aygalades, tufa of, 49. Ayrshire, raised-beaches of, 418. Azalea procumbens, 353. Azores, erratics in the, 214. Bapcer, 87, 91, 97, 103, 107, 108, 480, 493. Baglia Orba, ancient glacier of, 213. Balenotus, 343. Balanus, 284. Balene-whale, 480. Ballantrae, rock-terraces at, 275. BALL on flora of the Atlas, 353; cited, 215. Ballyalbanagh, human relics in peat-bog of, 462. Baltic Sea, occupied by glacier-ice, 196 ; condition of, in interglacial times, 340; postglacial deposits on Swedish shores of, 468 ; freshwater terraces in islands of, 470; fish-fauna of, 471; depres- sion in northern regions of, 471; er- ratics carried by floating ice in, 472; peat on Prussian shores of, 476. Binderthone, 284. Barbary, raised-beaches of, 355. Barnstaple, submerged forest at, 431. BaRROIs on erratic conglomerate of Ker- guillé, 226. Barrows or tumuli, 375. Barsebick, raised-beach at, 475. Bastekille, arctic plants in peat of, 491. Baumannshohle, 112. Bavaria, peat of, 55, 493. Bay of Fresnaye, submerged forest of, 481. Bay of St. Anne, submerged forest of, 481. INDEX. Bear, 24, 25, 62, 87, 91, 1388, 151. Bear Island, 335. Beaumont, Elie de, on origin of ‘‘er- ratic ”’ phenomena, 173. Beaver, 31, 32, 108, 262, 367, 373, 427, 449, 456, 480, 494. Beech, 47, 49, 53, 436, 487. Beech forests of Denmark, 487. BELCHER, Sir E., on vegetable remains on shores of Wellington Channel, 516. Belfast Lough, Neolithic implements in shell-beds on shores of, 461. Belgae, 376. Belgian Caves. (See Caves.) Belgium, peat on coast of, 479. BELT on origin of loss, 162. Bembidium nitidulum, 54; B. obtusum, 54. Benghisa Gap, section of deposits in, 328. BENNIE cited, 256. 5 BENNIGSEN-F ORDER cited, 159. Benorr cited, 209. BERENDT on glacial phenomena of North Germany, 198, 277; on boring near Schwielow-See, 280; on shell-beds be- tween boulder-clays, 281. Berlin, glacial deposits near, 284. BERNHARDI, A.,'on invasion of Germany by polar ice, 197. Berwickshire, till of, 183. Betula alba, 55, 299, 456, 492, 493; B. nana, 55, 456, 485, 492, 493, 497; B. prisca, 46; B. pubescens, 54, 152, 494; B. verrucosa, 487. BEYRICH cited, 283. Bry, Pruner, cited, 21. Biarritz, submerged trees near, 481. Bideford Bay, submerged forest of, 431. Bigbury Bay, submerged forest of, 431. Biaty Dunajee, ancient glacier of, 210. Bielshohle, 112. Binney cited, 190. Birch, 54, 420, 482, 448, 488, 494. Bird-remains, in Danish kitchen-middens, 367; in Swiss lake-dwellings, 373 ; in Flemish peat, 480; in peat of Champagne, 494. Birsthal, interglacial deposits of the, 302. Bison, 32, 40, 134, 373, 456. Bison priscus, 62, 150. Bithynia tentaculata, 280, 475. BiscHorF cited, 242. Black alder, 302. Black-earth of Russia, 157 ; distribution and extent of, 157 ; analyses of, 158 ; Murchison on, 158 ; origin of, 241. Black-Forest, ancient glaciers of, 210; two glacial epochs in, 321. Blackpool, submerged forest at, 431. Blankenese, trees in bed of Elbe, near, 477. INDEX. Blaubeuern Cave, pottery from, 18. BiEAv’s Atlas cited, 425. BLOMSTRAND, M., cited, 497. Blue fox, 107, 108. Buytt, A., cited, 421; on succession of changes evinced by peat and buried trees in Norway, 488; on rate of growth of Norwegian peat, 489; on absence of arctic-alpine plants under Norwegian peat-bogs, 505 ; on distribu- tion of plants in Norway, 515; on wet and dry periods in postglacial times, 527, 530; on successive forest-growths in Norway, 528. BodGe, range of temperature at, 35. Bog-bean, 302. Bog-whortleberry, 302. Bohuslin, marine fauna of, 467. Bois de la Batie, interglacial beds at, 301. Bott cited, 201. Bonaria, breccia of, 65. Bone implements, 13. Bones, carried into caves, etc., by running water, 95. Bordeaux, range of temperature at, 39. Boring near Schwielow-See, 280. Boruasé cited, 223. Bornholm, submerged peat of, 476. Bos etruscus, 317; B. longifrons, 404, 426, 447, 449, 456, 463 (see also Ox) ; B. primigenius, 62, 97, 284, 299 (see also Urus) ; B. priscus, 150; B. tau- rus, 494. Bovuk, Ami, on human remains in Rhenish léss, 22; cited, 151. Boulder-clay. (See Till.) Bouquetin, 108. Bourgeois, Abbé, on worked flints of St. Prest, 343; on Miocene implements, 345. Bourauienat cited, 151. Box, 50, 53, 320. Brachycephali of Bronze Age, 376. Bracklesham, submerged forest at, 431. Brancaster Bay, submerged forests at, 450. Brandon, interglacial beds of, 263.. BRANDT cited, 29. Bravy, A., cited, 237. BRAVARD cited, 318. Break between Paleolithic and Neolithic Periods, 28, 120, 554. Breccia and Blocks, in caves, 85; how accumulated, 85 ; in Brixham Cave, 86 ; in Kent’s Cave, 91; of Corsica, 64; of Sardinia, 65; origin of, 215, 218; of Gibraltar, 325, 327. Brentford, Pleistocene deposits of, 125, 138. Brick-earth, origin of, 130. 57 reputed Paleolithic } Bridlington, interglacial beds near, 264. Bristol Channel, occupied by glacier-ice 192 ; submerged forests of, 431. Britain, continental condition of, during last interglacial epoch, 266; submer- gence of, near close of last interglacial epoch, 266; condition of, during ad- vance and retreat of last ice-sheet, 267 ; connection of, with Continent in early postglacial times, 507, 509; insulation of, in postglacial period, 524. British area, geographical condition of, in Paleolithic times, 339. Brittany, erratics in England derived from, 226 ; traces of glaciation in, 227 ; sub- merged forests of, 481. Brittle willow, 50. Brixham Cave, 3; deposits in, 86 ; not occupied in Post-pleistocene times, 119. Broadheads, Neolithic, 376. Broca cited, 21. Brockdorf (Holstein), marine peat at, 478. Bronze Age, 6, 7, 8; in Switzerland, 374 ; in Britain, 375; in Scotland, 428 ; in Treland, 463; in Denmark, 487 ; geo- logical date of commencement of, 537. Broughty Ferry, submerged peat at, 390. Brown bear, 29, 32, 87, 97, 107, 108, 449, 456. Bruuns cited, 200. Buccinum grenlandicum, 467 ; B. hum- phreysianum, 502; B. wndatum, 277, 334, 399, 467. Buckuanp cited, 77, 94, 174, 190. Bulimus montanus, 57, 59; B. obscurus, 155. Bulla, 284. Buried forests of Tay and Earn, 386, 390 ; of Scotland, 419, 422; of Lancashire, 434; of Cornwall, 438; of Fenland, 448 ; of Ireland, 461. Busk, list of mammalia i in Brea eral Cave, 87. Bute, glaciation of, 178. Buxus sempervirens, 49, 50, 538, 3805. (See also Box.) Buzzard, 480. thickness of sub- CacHALot, 480. Cecilianella acicula, 238. Cecum glabrum, 467. Caermarthen Bay, submerged forest of, 431. Caffer-cat, 25, 26, 32, 43. Cagliari, breccia near, 65. Cairndoon, raised-beach at, 418. Caithness, shelly till of, 188, 267. Caledonian bull, 427. Callista convexa, 502, 503. BRICKENDEN on glacial phenomena at | Calvados, submerged forests and peat of, Linksfield quarry, 185. 481. 572 INDEX. Camischollas, interglacial and glacial de- posits at, 298. CAMPBELL, J. F., cited, 190. Campanula glomerata, 510. Canary Islands, range of laurel in, 46. Canary laurel, 46, 47, 50. Canis lagopus, 30. Cannibalism, no trace of, in Paleolithic accumulations, 22 ; supposed evidence of, in Neolithic times, 377. Canoes in Scottish postglacial deposits, 392,399 ; in Fenland deposits, 449. “* Canstadt race,” 23. Canstadt, tufa of, 46, 53, 59. Cantabrian Mts., ancient glaciers of, 212. Cantal, glacial remains of, 211 ; mammoth- remains in, 320. Cape La Hougue, submarine trees near, 481. CAPELLINI discovers remains of pigmy hippopotamus at Spezia, 114; on cut bones in Italian Pliocene, 343; cited, 346. Capereailzie, 367. Capra ibex, 30; C. pyrenaicus, 30. Cardigan, submerged forest of, 431. Cardium edule, 277, 281, 284, 399, 434, 440, 441, 469, 475; C. elegantulum, 466. Carlingford Bay, Neolithic implements in shelly deposits at, 461, Carne cited, 440. Carnoustie, raised-beach at, 418. Carpathians, glaciation of the, 210. Carpinus betulus, 52. Carse-clay of Tay valley, 394 ; erratics in, 395 ; conditions of deposition of, 396 ; area of, 397. Carse-deposits merge inland into river- gravels, 394, 401. Carse of Falkirk and Stirling, 383, 399. Carse of Gowrie, 383, 386. Carvings, Paleolithic, 13. Carychium minimum, 302. Casco Bay, southern colonies in, 503. Castelnau, tufa of, 45. Castor ewropeus, 309. Castro, gorge of, 305. Caucasus, ancient glaciers of the, 214. Cave-bear, 62, 87, 103, 107, 108, 111, 134, 147, 151, 261, 262, 321. Cave-bear epoch, 112. Cave-deposits of Pleistocene Period, 69, 90, 105. Cave-earth, 84, 87, 91, 97. Cave-hyzna, 62, 87. Cave-lion, 87, 91, 108, 107, 108, 113, 134, 151, 325. Cave of Santa Teresa, 114. Caves, formation of, 69; varieties of, 70; age of, 72; absence of Pliocene deposits in, 73; destruction of deposits in, 74 ; floor-accumulations in, 75; contempo- raneity of man and extinct mammalia of, 77 ; Neolithic accumulations in, 377. Caves of Belgium, 100; general succes- sion of beds in, 100; fluviatile deposits in, 101; break between Paleolithic and Neolithic deposits in, 120. Caves of France, 110; Valliéres, 110; Grotte des Fées, 110; Pontit, 111; Moustier, 111; Massat, 111; La Vache, 111; Bruniquel, 111; Eyzies, 112; Laugerie, 112; La Madelaine, 112; Gourdan, 112; Duruthy, 112; Sarten- ette, 112; La Salpétriére, 112; Boui- chéta, 323 ; Sorde, 552. Caves of Germany (Gailenruth, Muggen- dorf, Baumannshohle, Bielshohle), 112. Caves of Southern Europe (Gibraltar, Mentone, Sicily, Malta), 114. Caves of Switzerland (Kesserloch, Veyrier), 112. Celtz of Bronze Age, 376. Celtis australis, 47, 49. Cembran pine, 56. Central France, volcanoes of, 320. Ceppo, origin of, 316. Cercis siliquastrum, 47, 49, 50. Cervus sp., 309; C. alces, 299, 427; C. dama gigantea, 150; C. dicranios, 317, 336; C. elaphus, 299; C. mega- ceros, 318, 427, 436, 512; C. pectinatus, 318; C. polignacus, 262, 336; C. tarandus, 29, 36, 62, 87. (Sce also Elk, Irish deer, Red-deer, Reindeer, Roebuck. ) Chalky boulder-clay of East Anglia, 194. CHAMBERS, Robert, cited, 174, 411, 519. Chambéry, interglacial beds of, 303. Chamois, 31, 32, 103, 107, 108. Champagne, peat of, 493. Channel Islands, submarine trees of, 482. CHANTRE cited, 208. . Chara, 425, 485. Charnwood Forest, glaciation of, 268. CHARPENTIER cited, 207. Chenopus pes-pelicani, 284. Cherbourg, submarine forest near, 481. Chert implements, Paleolithic, 12. Cheshire, glaciation of, 189, 192; lower boulder clay of, 265; submerged forests of, 431, 432, 452. Cheviots, local moraines of, 413. Chiampo Cave, reputed Paleolithic pottery in, 18. China, loss of, 165. Chondrula tridens, 61, 238. CHOUQUET cited, 50. Christianiafjord, erratics from, in Jederen, England, Denmark, Holland, etc., 203, 204. CHRISTOL cited, 77. Curisty, H., cited, 42. Cionella lubrica, 61, 238. Classification of cave-relics, 15. aS —————— a INDEX. Clausilia dubia, 57,61; C. Kusteri, 645 C. laminata, 57, 61; C. parvula, 57, 61. Clay-with-flints, origin of, 220. Clematis, 47. Clematis flammula, 49; C. vitalba, 50. Clermont-Ferrand, ancient moraines near, 210. Cleveland, Ohio, interglacial beds near, 294. Climate, changes of, independent of changes in relative level of land and sea, 521; Dr. Croll’s theory of, 521. Climate of Pleistocene Period, 25, 44; changes of, 39, 40, 331, 540; genial, 653 arctic, 67. Climate of postglacial period, 514, 526, 627, 529, 554, 555. Climatic and geographical conditions of Pleistocene Period, 331 ; of postglacial and recent period, 499. Clonea, near Dungarvan, submarine peat of, 460. CtosE, Rev. M., cited, 190. Clupea harrengus, var. membras, 471. Clyde, late glacial marine beds of the, 270 ; river alluvia of valley of the, 410. Coccui cited, 22; discovers glacial mor- aines in Apuan Alps, 213. Cod, 367. Copprineton, T., cited, 341. CocEzs, P., on borings in Belgium, 507. ComLEGNO, De, on glacial phenomena of Pyrenees, 173. CoLLENOT cited, 211. Cottomp, E., cited, 210, 212; on ancient glaciers of Corsica, 213 ; on volume of water discharged from glaciers of Ice Age, 231; on two glacial epochs in the Vosges, 322; on glacier of Argelés, 322. Colonsay, glaciation of, 178; beaches of, 418. Common dogwood, 302. Common maple, 47. Como, morainic deposits near, 324. Conditions of life, in Paleolithic times, 17 ; during formation of Danish shell- mounds, 368. Conglomerate of Leffe, origin of, 310. Contemporaneity of man and extinct mammalia, 77. Contentin, submarine forests of, 481. Continental condition of Britain in early postglacial times, 507. Contorted beds of Glacial Period, 279. (See Till.) Coot, 373. Copper implements, rare, 7. Corbula gibba, 469. Cornelian Bay, Scandinavian erratics at, 192. Corinth, Isthmus, raised-beaches of, 355. raised- 573 Cornus sanguinea, 49, 53. Cornwall, submerged forests of, 431; raised - beaches and submerged forests of, 437, 452. Correlation of English postglacial de- posits, 451. Corsica, breccias of, 64; glaciers of, 213; depression of, in glacial times, 355. Corylus avellana, 49, 50, 52, 53, 299, 309. (See also Hazel.) Cossieny, De, on clay-with-flints of Paris Basin, 227. Cotoneaster pyracantha, 49. Corta cited, 283. Cottus scorpius, 469. Courtmacsherry Bay, submarine peat of, 460. Courtrai, borings at, 507. Couze de Champeix, moraines of, 211. Couze d’Issoire, moraines of, 211. CrAHAY discovers human remains in Pleistocene of the Meuse, 22. Cranberry, 302. Crane, 373. Crania, Paleolithic, 21. Crannoges of Ireland, 463. Crateegus oxyacantha, 49. CREDNER, H., on glacial phenomena of Saxony, 199; on broken strata under till, 202 ; cited, 283, 301. Crete, supposed former connection of, with Continent, 338. CRIE on flora of Mamers travertine, 52. Criquebeuf, submarine forest of, 481. CroLu, J., cited, 39; on Caithness till, 188 ; on extent of northern ice-sheet, 197 ; theory of changes of climate, 254, 559 ; on rise of sea-level, 525, Cro-Magnon, human remains in rock- shelter of, 21. “* Cro-Magnon-race ” (Paleolithic), 23. Cromer boulder-clay, 261, 263. CrossKEY, Rev. H., cited, 384, 385, 501. Crow, 373. Cummine, Rev. J., cited, 191. Cut-bones, in Pliocene, 343; in Miocene, 346. Cyclas, species of, in Swiss interglacial beds, 302; C. cornea, 149, 425, 434, 448. Cyclopterus lumpus, 471. Cyclostoma, species of, 57, 59. Cygnus musicus, 494. Cyprina islandica, 266, 281, 282, 284, 355, 399, 403, 497. Cyprus, raised-beaches of, 355. Cyrena fluminalis, 60, 137, 138, 264, 266. Cystopteris fragilis, 508. Cythere lutea, 284. Cytheridea torosa, 493. Daao, freshwater beds in, 470. Dalserf, trees in peat near, 421. 574 Danewort or dwarf alder, 50. Danzig, glacial deposits of, 2845; peat near, 476. Dargschichten, 477 ; formation of, 479. Darwiy, C., on Southampton gravels, etc., 141. DaTHE cited, 283. DAvUBENY cited, 158. Davip, Abbé, cited, 168. Daviss, Rev. E. J., cited, 214. Dawkins, W. Boyd, on Paleolithic ar- row-straighteners, 14; on classifica- tion of cave-relics, 16, 115; cited, 31, 65 on absence of Pliocene bone-accu- mulations in caves, 73; on Wookey Hole, 94; on deposits in Victoria Cave, 96 ; cited, 109 ; on Pleistocene hippo- potamus, 134; on changes of level in Mediterranean area, 338 ; on cut-bones in Italian Pliocene, 345; on later pre- historic races, 376 ; on contrast between fauna of Paleolithic and Neolithic times, 380 ; on cause of “ break in succession ” between Paleolithic and Neolithic ages, 547 ; on relation of Paleolithic man to Eskimo, 548. Débacles, theory of, 172; of last glacial epoch, 352. DEBRAY on Flemish peat, 479; on peat of Somme, 480. Débris, angular, origin of, 216, 224; of Scotland, 226 ; of North Carolina, 229 ; of last glacial epoch, 230. Decay of peat-bogs, 532. Decksand, 286. Dee, submerged forests of the, 431, 432. Deflections of ice-sheet in Scotland, 178, 188. DEFRANCE cited, 170. DEGNER cited, 483. Detaunay cited, 346. Detvc cited, 171. Denbighshire, submerged forests of, 431. Denmark, interglacial deposits of, 283, 284; kitchen-middens of, 365; sub- merged peat of, 476 ; peat-bogs of, 485 ; arctic plants in, 485; succession of trees in bogs of, 485; human relics in bogs of, 487. Dentalium abyssorum, 467, 502. Denudation, rapid rate of, in Pleistocene Period, 127; modern, 128; A. GEIKIE on, 128. Depression, area of, in North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, 524. DESNOYERS on cut bones in deposits at St. Prest, 343. Desor, E., cited, 207, 213; observations on Aar glacier, 231; on Pliocene glaciers, 824; cited, 346. Devonshire, erratics in, 227 ; interglacial submergence of, 266; submerged forests of, 431; flora of, 508. INDEX. DEWALQUE on Sable Campinien, 507. Differential motion of ice-sheet, 288. Diluvium gris and diluvium rouge, 153. Diluvium, upper and lower, of Germany, 280; of Holstein and Denmark, 283. Disentis, glacial deposits near, 298. Dos, G., cited, 227. Dog, 103, 107, 367,427, 463, 480, 494, 507. Dogwood, 47, 53, 302. Do.Fus, observations on Aar glacier, 231. Dolichocephali, Paleolithic, 23 ; Neolithic, 375. Dol, submerged forests of, 481. Domesticated animals in Swiss lake-dwell- ings, 373. Domestic fowl, 480. Démitz, interglacial deposits near, 279. Donacie, 480; Donacia crassipes, 494 ; D. discolor, 299; D. sericea, 299. Dordogne, Caves of the, 12,111; moraines in valley of the, 211. Dormouse, 510. Dorset, interglacial submergence of, 266. Drance, gorge of the, glacial deposits in 298 Drawings, Paleolithic, 13. Dreissena, sp., 281, 282. Drumkelin Bog, log hut in, 462. Drums of till, 182. Dryas integrifolia, 497; D. octopetala, 55, 485, 492, 493, 497. ; Dublin County, kitchen-middens on shores of, 461. Ducks, 373, 480. Duncan’s Flow Bog, ancient roadway in, 462. Dundee, raised-beaches near, 418. Dungarvan, submerged peat near, 460. Dunkeld, morainic gravels at, 414. Dunworly Bay, submerged peat in, 460. Duparc, Chaplain, cited, 21; on rock shelter of Sorde, 552. Dupont cited, 14 ; on Paleolithic pottery, 18; on Belgian caves, 100; on Trou du Frontal, 108 ; on position of loss in Belgian caves, 155. Durham, glaciation of, 191. DURHAM on buried forest and peat of Tay valley, 390. Diirnten, interglacial bed at, 298. DUROCHER cited, 195. Duruthy, cave of, 21. Dust storms, 166, 167. Dwarf birch, 55, 485. nana.) Dwarf pine, 47, 49. Dwina, valley of, arctic shell-bed in, 471. (See also Betula EARN valley, postglacial deposits of, 385, 390. Eastbourne, submerged forest of, 431. East Finmark, former wooded condition of, 488. INDEX. 575 East Kilbride, large oaks in bog near, 421. | European nettle-tree, 47. Eccentricity of earth’s orbit, 559. Keliptic, obliquity of the, 560. Eel, 367. Eguisheim, human skull in léss of, 22. EHRENBERG, polythalamic in Dargschich- ten, 478. Ekaterinburg, glacial remains near, 210. Elbe, trees in bed of, at Blankenese, 477. Elephant, 24, 25, 26, 37. Elephas africanus, 27,113; EH. antiquus, 27, 32, 49, 113, 133, 188, 299; #. Fal- coneri, 27, 32; E. melitensis, 27, 32; LE. meridionalis, 22, 27, 32, 309, 317, 318, 320, 321, 336 ; H. mnaidrensis, 27, 32 ; E. primigenius, 62. (See also Elephant and Mammoth.) Elm, 47, 52, 53, 320, 448, 494. Elgin, ice-sheet in, 185. El Kantara, moraines at, 214, Ely, large erratic near, 193. Engis cranium, 21. England, succession of glacial and inter- glacial deposits in, 261; conditions of, during last interglacial epoch, 266 ; conditions of, during advance and re- treat of last ice-sheet, 268; kitchen- middens in, 369 ; submerged forests of, 430; raised beaches of, 453 ; peat-bogs of, 454. Enewer on peat-flora, 495; on distribu- tion of plants in Europe, 534. English Channel, traces of interglacial submergence on borders of, 266; geo- graphical conditions of, in Paleolithic times, 341; evidence of recent sub- mergence on French coasts of the, 479- 482; dry, in postglacial times, 509. Enk6pings 4s, shell-bank on, 469. Equisetum arvense, 494,508 ; £.limosum, 299, 469; E. variegatum, 509. Equus caballus, 149 ; H. Stenoni, 317. Erpmann, A., on Swedish postglacial deposits, 465 ; on shell-bank at Enk6- ping, 469 ; on raised-beaches of Scania, 474; on ancient hut at Sddertelge, 474. Erpmany, E., cited, 195, 270; on raised- beaches of Scania, 475; on littoral shell- bed at Gothenburg, 506. Eriophorum, 493; #. angustifolium, 508. Ermine, 107. Erratics, 107, 133, 148, 171, 285, 386, 395, 472; abnormal distribution of, 203, 564. Errol, arctic shells in clay at, 387. ERTBORN, Baron y., on borings at Menin and Courtrai, 507. Eskimo, supposed relation of, to Palxo- lithic man, 547. Estuarine flats, 383, 394, 417. Etchings, Paleolithic, 13. Euonymus europeus, 49, 50, 538; Z£. latifolius, 50. Europe, climate of, 33; impossibility of great annual migrations of mammals in, 36; temperature of certain places on west coasts of, 39; climate of, in Pleis- tocene Period, 40 ; conditions of, during melting of last ice-sheet, 347 ; condi- tions of, during last interglacial epoch, 348 ; conditions of Central, in post- glacial period, 5223; conditions of Southern, in postglacial period, 533 ; central and north-west regions of, pro- bably not occupied by man in late glacial and early postglacial times, 553. Evans, J., cited, 8; on probable uses of Paleolithic implements, 12; remarks on bone-pin from Kent’s cave, 17; on contrasts between Paleolithic and Neo- lithic implements, 24; cited, 341, 345. Evergreen oak, 47, 48. Excavation of valleys in Pleistocene times, 88. FmHROE IsLanps, glaciation of, 206, 504, 567; peat and buried trees of, 514; present flora of, 518. Fagus sylvatica. (See Beech.) Falcon, 373. FALconer cited, 3, 49, 457. Fallow-deer, 113, 427. Falmouth, submerged forest near, 431. Fausan, A., cited, 207 ; on shells in mor- aine of Rhone glacier, 327. Falsterbo, submarine peat and raised-beach near, 473. FAUDEL cited, 22. Fauna. (See Birds, Fish, Insects, Mam- malia, Mollusca. ) Favre on deposits at Bois de la Batie, 301. Fax6, interglacial and glacial deposits of, 285. Fegatella conica, 49. Felis caffra, 26 (see also Caffer Cat) ; F. leo, 26; F. pardus, 27 (see also Leopard); &. serval, 27 (see also Serval); Felis spelea, 26 (see also Cave-lion). Fenland, traces of interglacial submer- gence in, 266; sunk forests and peat of, 445, 452. FERRERO on glaciation of Apennines, 213. FERRY, De, on reputed Paleolithic pot- tery, 18 ; estimate of antiquity of Neo- lithic Age, 558. Festuca ovina, 508. Ficus carica, 47, 49, 50. Fig-tree, 47, 48, 50, 52. FinHoL on Neolithic relics in Pyrenean caves, 377. Fine, valley of the, 344. 576 Finland, glaciation of, 196; postglacial deposits of, 470. Fir, 469, 480. Firth of Forth, shell-mounds of, 369; post-glacial deposits of,. 399; raised- beaches of, 418. FisHer, Rev. O., on erratic in Roslyn Hole, near Ely, 194. : Fish, in interglacial beds of Val Borlezza 305 ; in Danish kitchen-middens, 367 ; of Swiss lake-dwellings, 373 ; of Baltic Sea, 471; in Flemish peat, 480. Flemish coast, peat of, 479. Fricur, P., on Jarville lignite, 54; on peat of Champagne, 493. Flint implements, early discoveries of, in England, 4 ; Paleolithic, 12. Floating-ice, evidence of, in Carse-clays, 396 ; traces of, in Scandinavian post- glacial deposits, 472. Flood-deposits, interglacial, 264 ; glacial, 269 ; of last glacial epoch, 352. Floods, of Glacial Period, 232, 235 ; effects of, upon deposits of last interglacial epoch, 359. Floor-accumulations in caves, 75. Flora. (See Plants.) Flounder, 367. Flustra, 447. Fluviatile alluvia, remains of Paleolithic man in, 22, Fluvio-glacial deposits covering accumu- lations of last interglacial epoch, 359. Folliculites newirthianus, 309. Forbes, E., on geological relations of British fauna and flora, 508 ; on former land - connection of Ferde Isles and European continent, 518. Forsss, J. D., cited, 174. FoRCHHAMMER cited, 366 ; striated rocks of Faxo, 196 ; submerged peat of Den- mark, 476. “ Forest-bed ” of Norfolk coast, 261, 334. Forests, of Arctic regions, 35; first great extension of, in genial postglacial period, 522 ; second extension of, in later post- glacial period, 528; decay of, in his- torical times, 530. Forfarshire, shell-mounds of, 369. Fort Confidence, range of temperature at, 34. Fort-William, shell-bed at, 385. Forth, late glacial marine beds of the, 270. Fox, 31, 32, 87, 91, 97, 103, 107, 108, 113, 262, 367, 373, 427, 449, 463. Fox, Arctic. (See Arctic fox.) Fox, General Lang, cited, 7. Fox, Rev. Mr., cited, 341. Fraas cited, 18, 346. France, caves of, 15; plains of, invaded by Swiss ice, 208; evidence of glacial action in Northern, 223; Central, INDEX, glaciation of, 211; clay-with-flints of, 220; supposed kitchen-middens in, 369. Franconia, list of shells in léss of, 61; list of mammals in léss of, 62. Fraxinus excelsior, 49, 50; F. 47, 48, 49, 51. FRERE, J., cited, 123. Freshwater shells in bed of Elbe, 477. Frisches Haff, glacial deposits near the, 281, Frogs, 373. Fucus, Th., cited, 237. Fucus canaliculatus, 497. FUHLROTT cited, 21.:: Fulda, loss in valley of the, 146. Funen, submerged peat of, 476. Fustic, 47. ornus, Gadus morrhua, 471. Gailenruth Cave, 112. Galium palustre, 299. Gallican flora in Southern England, 509. Gandino, lignites near, 306 ; damming of basin of, 307. Garavallen, 473. Garonne, loss in valley of the, ancient glacier of the, 211, 323. GARRIGOU on two glacial epochs in Pyre- nees, 323; on Neolithic relics in Pyre- nean caves, 3773 on hiatus between Paleolithic and Neolithic ages, 554. GASTALDI cited, 113. GauDIN cited, 45. “ Geest,” 477. GEIKIE, A., on modern denudation, 128 ; on origin of loss, 162; on glacial strie in Caithness, 188 ; on interglacial deposits, 253. GEINITZ, F. E., on glacial phenomena in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 202, 279. Geographical changes in Pleistocene Period, 331; in last interglacial epoch, 348. Geographical conditions during last glacial epoch, 350; during postglacial and recent period, 499. Geotrupes putridarius, 494; Gt. sterco- rarius, 260; G. vernalis, 494. Gerdauen, sand of, 287. Germani, 376. Germanic flora, 508. German Ocean. (See North Sea.) Germany, caves of, 112. Geschiebesand, 286. Gibraltar, breccias of, 216; interglacial beds of, 324. GILLIERON, estimate of antiquity of Neo- lithic Age, 358. GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS cited, 456. GIRARD cited, 283. Gironde, submerged forests of, 481. Girvan, raised-beach near, 418, 146; INDEX. Glacial epoch, the last, deposits of, 285 ; conditions during, 350 ; extent of glaci- ation during, 503. Glacial Period, 169; general conditions of Europe during, 247 ; climatic condi- tions of, 248; a phase of Pleistocene Period, 250; man contemporaneous with, 250; succession of changes dur- ing, in Germany, 286; conditions at close of, 354; identity of, with Pleis- tocene Period, 539. Glacial phenomena, description of, 174 ; smoothed and striated rocks, 175; roches moutonnées, 176 ; Stoss-seite and Lee-seite, 177 ; upper limits of glacia- ieee 1773 deflection of glacial stria, 178. Glacial shelly clays of Norway and Sweden, 467. Glen Beansdale, glacial phenomena in, 416. Glen Brora, postglacial moraines of, 411. Glen Iorsa, moraines at mouth of, 411. Glen Messan, moraines of, 411. Glen Turret, moraines of, 413. Gloves, Palzolithic, 17. Glutton, 24, 29, 32, 55, 62, 113, 147. Goat, 103, 107, 373, 427, 463. GOEBEL cited, 158, 242. GoDWIN- AUSTEN on “head” of Corn- wall, etc., 224; cited, 442, 507, 509. Golden eagle, 373. GOODCHILD cited, 190. Goose, 373. Gottland, erratics from, 282. Gourdan, cave of, 21, 22. Goyet, cave of, 107. GRaD, Ch., temporary glaciers in Vosges Mountains, 210; moraines at El Kan- tara, 215. GRANDSAIGNES, T. de, ancient glaciers of Corsica, 213. Gravels, high- and low-level, 132; coarse angular, in south of England, 140. Grays, Pleistocene deposits at, 125, 138. Gray willow, 47, 49,50. (See also Salix cinerea. ) Great auk, 367. Great chalky boulder-clay, 263. Great Grimsby, submerged forest near, 431. Great ox. (See Urus.) Greek periploca, 47. ' Greenland, mud from glaciers of, 231; immigration of flora of, 519. Green-leaved alder, 54. GREENWELL, Rev. W., on supposed evi- dence of cannibalism in Neolithic time, 377. Greflunda, arctic-alpine flora in peat of, 491. GREPPIN on interglacial deposits of the Birsthal, 302. GREWINGK on red-deer in Kurland, 496. 577 GRIFFITHS, Sir R., cited, 189. GRISEBACH on peat of East Friesland, 478 ; cited, 531. Grisly bear, 29, 32, 87, 97, 103. Grouse, 373. Gulf of Bothnia, formerly a freshwater lake, 470. Gulf of Finland, formerly a freshwater lake, 470. Gulf of St. Lawrence, southern colonies in, 502. Gulf Stream, 39 ; former larger volume of, 503. Gull, 373. Gulo borealis or luscus, 29, 62. also Glutton.) GUMALIUS cited, 195. GUMBEL, on origin of léss, 160. : Gute Herberg, peat on Baltic coast at, 476. Guyot cited, 207. GYSSER cited, 238. (See HAILEs QUARRY, interglacial deposits at, 256. Hatt, Sir J., cited, 172. Hamilton, white cattle at, 427. Hammers, Paleolithic, 12. Hampshire gravels, 341. Hamy on types of Paleolithic man, 23 ; on human remains at Sorde, 552. Hanover, submerged peat of, 476. Hardman cited, 190; on submerged peat of Tramore Bay, 459. Hare, 31, 87, 97, 103, 107, 108. Hartlepool, submerged forest near, 431. Hart’s-tongue. (See Scolopendrium offi- cinale.) Hartune cited, 215. Harz, caves of the, 112. Hastings, submerged forest near, 431. Haver, F. V., cited, 150. Hayle, submerged forest near, 431. Hazel, 47, 50, 52, 53, 302, 420, 482, 435, 438, 448, 480, 487, 494. (See also Corylus avellana.) “Head” of Cornwall, 224, 225, 227, 437. Heath-lands of Northern Germany, 484. Hedera helix, 49, 50, 515. Hedgehog, 321, 367. Heer cited, 46; on flora of Canstait tufa, 53 ; on Diirnten lignite-beds, 298, 3800 ; on interglacial beds of the Birs- thal, 302; on cereals in Swiss lake- dwellings, 373; on postglacial flora of Bovey Tracey, 456; on arctic-alpine flora of Switzerland, 495. Herm, A., cited, 301. Heleocharis multicaulis, 515. Helix, lists of species of, 56, 59, 61, 64, 148, 152, 155, 302. Hetptanp, A., cited, 188; on Scandi- navian erratics in Holderness, 192; on broken rocks, etc., under till of Saxony, 2P 578 201; on glaciation of Ferée Isles, 206, 504 ; on mud in glacial rivers of Green- land, 232; on Norwegian strandlinier, 272; cited, 514, 566, 567. Helsingborg, raised beach near, 475. Helston, submerged forest near, 431. Hercynian Forest, reindeer in, 535. Heron, 373. Herring, 367. Hessle, interglacial beds of, 265 ; boulder- clay of, 266. HEYNEMANN cited, 237. Hrseert on origin of Rhenish léss, 159. Hill-loss, 146. Hill-ranges of Central Scotland, contour of, 180. Hinper, G. J., on interglacial deposits near Lake Ontario, 293. Hinlopen Strait, mussel-beds of, 497. Hippopotamus, 24, 25, 32, 97, 113, 134, 261; pigmy, 114, 338. Hippopotamus amphibius, 28, 336; H. liberiensis, 26; H. major, 26, 113, 138, 317, 320 (see also Hippopotamus) ; H. Pentlandi, 26, 38, 113 (see also Hippopotamus, pigmy.) HIsINGER on ancient hut at Sédertelge, 474. Hoernes cited, 355. Horr, A. V., cited, 538. Hocarp cited, 209. Holderness, Scandinavian erratics in, 192. Holopleura victoria, 299. Holme, submarine forests at, 450. Holland, peat and buried forests of, 477. Hotmsrrom cited, 196, 270. Holstein, interglacial deposits of, 283 ; submerged peat of, 476. Holyhead, submarine peat near, 431. Hooker, Sir J. D., moraines of Lebanon, 214; moraines of the Atlas, 215; on pine from Wellington Channel, 516; on postglacial genial period, 517 ; on flora of Greenland, 518. HOrsBye on glaciation of Norway and Sweden, 194. Hordeum distichwm, 403 ; H.heaastichon, 373. Hornbeam, 52, 302, 320. Horne, J., on glaciation of Orkney and Shetland, 188; on glacier of Theiss valley, 209; on late glacial marine deposits on borders of Moray Firth, 270. Horse, 31, 32, 40, 87, 97, 103, 107, 108, 133, 138, 147, 148, 149, 151, 261, 321, 825, 427, 480, 507. HowpeENn on glacial and post-glacial de- posits near Montrose, 403. Huel Darlington mine, section of, 440. Hu cited, 190, 191; on glacial de- posits of north-west of England and Ireland, 265, Human relics in Scottish peat-bogs, 424. INDEX. Human remains, rarity of, in Paleolithic accumulations, 20; in léss, 151; in Pleistocene of Olmo, 318 ; in Scottish postglacial beds, 402 ; in English post- glacial beds, 438, 439, 440 ; in Irish peat, 461 ; in French peat, 480. Humber, glacial and interglacial deposits in valley of the, 264 ; submerged for- ests of the, 431. Hume, Rev. Dr., cited, 432. Humid climate and submergence of land, connection between, 452. Humid climate in Glacial Period, 280 ; in postglacial period, 527, 529. HumMeEt cited, 195. Hungelbrunn, léss of, 237. Hvitaby, arctic flora in peat of, 491. Hyena brevirostris, 321; H. crocuta, 27; H. spelwa (cave-hyxna), 27, 62, 91, 103, 107, 108, 111, 118, 114, 147; H. striata, 27. Hyena-dens, 94, 98, 107. Hyena, species of, 27. Hyalinie, list of, 56. Hydrobia marginata, 60; H. ulve, 384. Hylobius rugosus, 299. Hymenophyllum Wilsoni, 515. Hypnum aduncum, 55, 494; var. poly- carpon, 494; H. cordifolium, 485; H, cuspidatum, 492; H. fluitans, 450, 492, 494; vars. falcatuwm and sub- mersum, 494; var. tenuissimum, 55 5 HT. gigantewm, 492, 494; H. ligni- torum, 299; H. pratense, 494; H. priscum, 299; H. sarmentosum, 55 ; H. scorpioides, 492, 496; H. twrges- cens, 262, 335. TIBERIAN flora in Ireland, 508, 509, 514. Ibex, 30, Iceberg theory of glacial deposits, 174. Iceland, glaciation of, 519; connection of, with European continent in post- glacial times, 520. Ice-sheet, of Northern Europe, 205; of last interglacial epoch, 267 ; retreat of, in British area, 269; morainic débris, etc., in Germany of last, 285; preser- vation of deposits below, 288 ; differen- tial motion of, 204, 288 ; effect of, upon preglacial and interglacial beds, 289 ; of last glacial epoch, 350; effect pro- duced by, on deposits of last inter- glacial epoch, 356. Ilex aquifolium, 49. Ilford, Pleistocene deposits of, 137. Implements, Paleolithic, 11; Neolithic, 366, 368, 372. Inches of Tay valley, 387. Infusoria-earth, interglacial, 279. Insects of Swiss interglacial beds, 299 ; of English postglacial beds, 440; of Flemish peat, 480. INDEX. Interglacial fauna and flora identical with those of Pleistocene alluvia, etc., 540. Interglacial deposits, of Scotland, 255, 291; at Hailes Quarry, 256; of Eng- land, 261 ; of Brandon, 263 ; of Hol- derness, 264; of Ireland and north- west of England, 265 ; of last inter- glacial epoch, 266; of Scandinavia, 270; of Rixdorf, 278; of Kreuzberg, 279 ; of Domitz, 279; of Tempelhof, 280; of Province of Prussia, 281 ; of Elbing, 281; of Saxony, 282; of Fax6, 285; general succession of, in Germany and Denmark, 286; preser- vation of, under till, 288, 316; of Switzerland, 297 ; of the Drance, 298 ; of Diirnten and Utznach, 298; of Bois de la Batie, 301 ; of the Birsthal, 302 ; of Chambéry, 303 ; of Italy, 303 ; of Val Borlezza, 304; of Val Gandino, 306; of Leffe, 306; of Val Adrara and Val Foresto, 315; of Upper Val d’Arno, 317; of Perrier, 318; of the Valley of the Ain, 827; of the Rhone Valley, 321; of the Black Forest, 321 ; of the Vosges, 322; of the Pyrenees, 321 ; of Gibraltar, 324 ; of Malta, 327 ; effect of last ice-sheet upon, 356 ; effect of floods upon, 359 ; buried under loss, 359. Interglacial epochs, earliest recognition of, 252; Morior on, 252, 297; Ramsay on, 253; A. GEIKIE on, 253 ; volcanoes of Central France active during, 320. (See also Interglacial Deposits.) Tnundations. (See Floods.) Ipswich, interglacial beds at, 263. Treland, glaciation of, 189; glacial and interglacial deposits of, 265 ; submer- gence of, in last interglacial epoch, 266 ; kitchen-middens in, 369 ; raised-beaches of, 458; former connection of, with Scotland, 512; postglacial submer- gence in, 526. Trish deer or elk, 31, 91, 107, 261, 262, 427, 435, 442, 449, 456, 463. Trish Sea, depths in, 339; dry land in area of, in postglacial times, 509; large lake-basin in bed of, 511. Tron Age, 6, 7,9; in Denmark, 487 ; in Britain, 538, 556. Isle of Man, glaciation of, 191. Isle of Wight, formerly joined to main- land, 341. Tsocordia cor, 467. Italy, reputed Paleolithic pottery in caves in, 18; caves of, 114; glaciation of Northern, 209 ; ‘interglacial deposits of, 303 ; reputed Pliocene glaciers of, 324 ; traces of submergence in, during Glacial Period, 355. Ivy, 47, 50. Sie Jack, R. L., on glaciation of East Car- pathians, 209, Jederen, erratics in, 204; peat of, 489. Jakutsk, temperature of, 34, JAMIESON, T. F., on shells in Carse-clays, 395. Jaravallen, 473. Jarville, lignite of, 54. Jasione montana, 515. JEFFREYS, Gwyn, on shell-bed at Fort- William, 385; cited, 467, 502, 506, 509. JENTZSCH cited, 237, 245; on German glacial deposits, 277, 281 ; on stones of southern derivation in till of Saxony, 283. Jerboa, 62, 147. JOHNSTRUP on glaciation of Denmark, 196; on glaciation of Méen, 200. Jokulsfjord, strandlinier in, 274. Judas-tree, 47, 48, 50. Jupp, J. W., cited, 194. Juglans bergomensis, 309; J. pavicefolia, 46; J. regia, 49. Juxkess, J. B., cited, 190. JuiEn, A., cited, 317, 318 ; on deposits of Mont Perrier, 318; on two glacial epochs in the Pyrenees, 323. Juncus triglumis, 353. Juniper, 54, 420, 494, 514. Jura Mountains, caves of, 112; invaded by ancient Rhine glacier, 208; extinct glaciers of, 209. Jutland, recent submergence in, 367; submerged peat of, 476. KALAMAKI, raised-beaches of, 355. Kamp valley, Paleolithic remains in, 151. Kane cited, 240. Kattegat, kitchen-middens on shores of, 365, 369. KEILHAU cited, 194. KELLER on lake-dwellings, 370; on pass- age from Neolithic into Bronze Age, 374; on earthenware crescents, 375. Kellia rubra, 467. Kennet valley, postglacial remains in, 457. Kentish type of flora, 508. Kent’s Cave, implement from lowest deposit in, 11; bone pin from, 17; early researches. in, 77; rate of stalag- mitic accretion in, 81; succession of deposits in, 90; human relics and mammalian ’yemains in, 91; “break in succession ” in, 119. Kerguillé, erratic conglomerate at, 226. Kerrera Sound, raised-beach in, 418, Kerr, W. C., on angular drift of North Carolina, 229, Kesserloch, etching of reindeer from, 14. Kilcredane Point, submarine peat at, 460. Killybegs, range of temperature at, 39. 580 Kilroot, Neolithic implements at, 461. KinaHan cited, 190; on Irish peat-bogs, 461; on rate of growth of Irish peat, 490; cited, 528. Kincardine Moss, 422, 424. Kine, Clarence, cited, 243. KqNGsMILL cited, 168. Kirkdale Cave, 94. Kitchen-middens, Danish, 365; men of Danish, 368; in Scotland, England, Treland, and France, 369; in Carse of Falkirk, 400; in Ireland, 461. KsERuLF cited, 195; on Norwegian strandlinier, 271 ; on heights reached by Norwegian glacial shell-beds, 271 ; on postglacial shell-beds of Norway, 465 ; on unfossiliferous postglacial clay of Norway, 471. KLEIN, shells of Canstadt tufa, 46, 59. “ Knick,” 477. Kolbermoor, peat of, 498. Konigsberg, range of temperature at, 39. Korzistka cited, 146. KRaPOTEIN, on postglacial beds of Fin- land and Northern Russia, 470. Kreuzberg, interglacial deposits of, 279. KountH on German glacial deposits, 277. LABRADOR current, 39. La Celle, tufa of, 50, 56. Lacuna divaricata, 385. Lacustrine alluvia, postglacial, 425. Lago d’Iseo, ancient glacier of, 303. Lagomys, 108, 113, 149. (See also Tailless Hare.) Lagomys corsicanus, 80; L. pusillus, 30; L. sardus, 30. Lahn, river, loss of, 145. Lake district (Northern England), glacia- tion of, 190. Lake-dwellings, 369. Lake, former, in bed of Irish Sea, 511. Lake of Bienne, silting up of, 558. Lake of Onega, height of, above sea, 471. La Madelaine Mountains, glaciation of, 212. LaMANON cited, 172. LAMPLUGH on interglacial beds near Brid- lington, 264. Lancashire, glaciation of, 190; lower boulder clay of, 265; submerged peat of, 431, 432 ; postglacial beds of, 451. Land - connections between Europe and Africa in Pleistocene times, 337 ; dis- appearance of, 523, 533. Land, great extension of, in early post- glacial times, 505, 509, 518, 518. La Pique, glacier of, 212. Larch, 54. Largo, submarine peat at, 401. Larix ewropea, 309. Larter cited, 21, 29, 49, 111, 552. LasarD cited, 283, INDEX. Late glacial deposits in Tay and Earn valleys, 386. Laurus nobilis (laurel), 46, 47, 49 ; var. Canariensis (Canary laurel), 46, 47, 49, 50. Laurustinus, 47. Leda arctica, 281, 387, 408, 471; LZ. pernula, 467. Lee-seite, 177. Leffe, lignites of, 306. Lehm. (See Liss.) Leipzig, striated rocks near, 198. Lemming, 30, 82, 40, 42, 62, 87, 108, 147, 149. Leopard, 27, 32, 40, 113, 325. Lepidoptera, distribution of alpine species of, in Britain, 511. Lepus timidus, 510. (See also Hare.) Leuchars, raised-beach at, 418, Lewis, island of, 268, LEyYDIG cited, 237. Lignite, of Steinbach, 152; interglacial, 298, 303. Lillemose, peat-bog of, 485. Lima excavata, 467. Limax agrestis, 61. Lime-tree, 48, 53. Liimneea, 425, 449; L. limosa, B ovata- normalis, 475,493; L. minuta, 302; LL. ovata, 57, 470; L. peregra, 264. Limon grossier (Limon biéfeux), 154, 163. Limon hesbayen, 155, 507. Lincolnshire, submarine peat of, 431, 450. LINDEBERG on successive tiers of trees in bogs of Sweden, 488. Linpsay, Lauder, cited, 518. LinpstTr0m cited, 195. Lintu, E. v., cited, 206. Lion, 26, 32. (See Cave-lion.) Liparis barbatus, 171. Lipari, tufa of, 45, 47. Liquidambar europeewm, 46. Lithuanian bison, 31. LitTEt cited, 150. Little Sole Banks, trace of submerged littoral deposits at, 509. Littorina, 284; L. litorea, 399, 469, 497, Littorinella, 284. Loamy deposits of Pleistocene Period, 143. Local glaciers, postglacial, 526 ; in Scot- land, 398, 411; deflection of, 415. Locarp on shells in Pleistocene at Lyons, 635 on shells in Corsican breccias, 64 ; on breccia of Bonaria, 65. Loch Skene, moraines at, 412. Looes, submerged peat near the, 431. London, submerged peat at, 431. ‘*Longheads,” Neolithic, 375. Lory cited, 208. Loss, human remains in, 22; composition INDEX. of, 144; concretions in, 1443; fossils in, 144 ; vertical capillary structure of, 144, 237; traces of bedding in, 144, 237; Rhenish and Danubian, 145, 236; passes into clay and loam, 145 ; distribution of, in Europe, 145 ; mam- malian remains in, 147, 150, 239; de- posits of, at Thiede and Westeregeln, 147; human remains and relics in, 150; character of, near Tiibingen, 151 ; deposits underlying, in river-valleys, 152; section of, at Steinbach, 152 ; character of, in French river-valleys, 152; appearance of, in Northern France, 153, 236; fossils in French, 154; Belgian, 154 ; nota separate and independent formation, 156; theories of origin of, 130, 159, 233; marine and lacustrine theories of, 160; Mr. Bett’s theory of, 162; De MrErcrY on French, 163; RicHTHOFEN on, 165; of China, 165; Pumprnty on, 167; sporadic stones in, 237 ; shells in, 237. Loésskindeln, Lossmannchen, Losspiipp- chen, 144. Léss-shells, list of, 60. Lovén on former direct connection of Baltic with Arctic Ocean, 470. Lower Pentewan work, section of, 439. Llandrillo Bay, submarine forest at, 431. Lussock, Sir J., on Danish kitchen- middens, 366. Lumaki, raised-beaches of, 355. Luncarty, river-gravels at, 386. Lusitanian- Mediterranean mollusesin Nor- wegian shell-beds, 468. LYELL, Sir C., cited, 3, 124; on Pleisto- cene of Thames valley, 137 ; on loss near Tiibingen, 151; on origin of loss, 159; on glacial phenomena in Méen, 200; on recent submergence of Jut- land, 367; cited, 457; on erratics at Upsala, 472 ; on buried hut at Sdder- telge, 474. Lymfjord, kitchen-middens in, 365. Lynx, 31, 107, 113, 367. Lyons, list of shells in Pleistocene of, 63. MacEnery, Rev. J., discoveries in Kent’s Cave, 4; cited, 77. Machairodus latidens, 26, 33, 262, 336. MacxrintosH, D., cited, 191. MAc.LaREN, C., cited, 174, 411. Mactra elliptica, 502; MW. solida, 277, 281; M. subtruncata, 284. Magnolia, sp., 305. Mainporth, submerged forest at, 431. Main, river, loss of, 145 ; flood-deposits of, 238. Magsor, Forsyth, on mammalian remains in Leffe lignite, 309, Malaga, raised-beaches at, 355. Mato cited, 467. 581 MALMGREN on fish of Baltic, 471; on shell-beds of Spitzbergen, 497. Malta, rock-fissure of, 114; breccias of, 219, 327. Mamers (Sarthe), travertine of, 52. Mammalian fauna of genial postglacial period, 523. Mammals of Pleistocene Period, 25; com- mingling of northern, southern, and temperate groups of, 33, 37 ; large size of, 40 ; list of, in Franconian loss, 62 ; in Brixham Cave, 87 ; in Kent’s Cave, 91; in Victoria Cave, 97; in Belgian caves, 103, 107 ; in caves of Southern Europe, 113; in river-gravels, 133, 134; in Pleistocene of Thames valley, 138 ; in loss, 147, 148, 149; in Forest- bed of Norfolk, 261, 334, 336; in German interglacial beds, 279; in la- custrine deposits of Pianico, 304; in Leffe interglacial beds, 309 ; in deposits of Val d’Arno, 317 ; in Gibraltar caves, etc., 325; in Danish kitchen-middens, 867; in Swiss lake-dwellings, 372; in Scottish postglacial deposits, 426 ; in English postglacial and recent de- posits, 486, 438, 439, 440, 447, 456; in Irish postglacial deposits, 463 ; in Flemish peat, 480; in French peat, 480, 493. Mammoth, 17, 24, 25, 32, 42, 62, 87, 91, 103, 107, 108, 111, 118, 133, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 262, 507; post- glacial, 457. Mammoth oak, 53. Mammoth period, 101, 112. Manna ash, 47, 48, 51, 52. . Map of Europe at the climax of Glacial Period, 564. Map of Europe, during First Age of Forests, 568. Maples, 47, 48, 53. Marash, stony clay of, 214. Marazion Marsh, section of buried forests, etc., in, 440. Margarita costulata, 466 ; M. undulata, 466. MaRION cited, 46. Maritime Alps, extinct glaciers of, 212. Mark Brandenburg, interglacial deposits of, 280. Marmot, 30, 32, 40, 42, 62, 107, 113, 147. Marocco, morainic mounds on plains of, 214. Marseilles, tufa near, 49. Marten, 81, 32, 367, 373, 449. Marti, J., cited, 210. Martins, Ch., on origin of flora of peat- bogs, 495; cited, 195, 207; on Ar- gelés glacier, 212. Massa Marittima, travertine of, 46. MasseEnar cited, 21, 582 Mastodon arvernensis, 317 ; M. Borsoni, 321; I. longirostris, 317. Mayer on Pleistocene of Val d’Arno, 317; on so-called Pliocene glacial de- posits, 324. Maw, G., on glacial phenomena of the Atlas, 215. Mawnan, submarine forest near, 431. Meath, kitchen-middens in, 461. Mecklenburg, arctic plants in freshwater clays in, 55. Mecklenburg-Schwerin, glacial deposits of, 202; interglacial deposits of, 279. Mediterranean, effect of, on migration of plants and animals, 335 ; land-passages across, in Pleistocene Period, 337; depths in, 838; greater extent of, in late glacial times, 354 ; supposed former communication of, with North Sea, 468 ; mollusca of, in northern seas, 501. Mellby, arctic flora in peat of, 491. Menin, borings at, 507. Mentone, human remains in cave near, 21, 23; marmot in caves of, 30; glutton in caves of, 113. Menyanthes trifoliata, 152, 299, 494. Mercey, De, on origin of French limon, 163, 220. Mer de glace, slope of surface of, in Scot- land, 189; Scottish, Irish, and English, coalescent, 190; English, coalescent with that of North Sea, 192; Scandi- navian, effect of, upon chalk of Méen, 200 ; deflections of under strata of, 203. (See also Ice-sheet. ) Mersey, submerged forests of the, 431, 432. Metals, introduction of knowledge of, 378. Mevey cited, 153. Meuse, Paleolithic remains in flood-loam of the, 22 ; loss in valley of the, 146. Migrations of mammals, in Northern Hemisphere, 35 ; in Pleistocene Period, 86, 347, 352; theory of seasonal or annual, 65. Millendreth Bay, submerged forest in, 431. * Miocene, of Central France, 320; plants of, 352; implements in, 345; man of, 546. MOstus cited, 284. Moen, glacial phenomena of, 200; suc- cession of changes evinced by glacial and interglacial deposits of, 285; sub- merged peat of, 476. Mohn Island, freshwater beds in, 470. Moun on Norwegian strandlinier, 271. Mole, 107, 262, 510. Molignée, caves in valley of the, 100. Mollusca, in La Celle tufa, 56; in dilu- vium gris near Paris, 59; in cale-tufa of Canstadt, 59; in English Pleistocene, INDEX. 60; in léss near Wurzburg, 60; in Pleistocene of Lyons, 63; in léss-beds at Thiede, 148; in loss at Steinbach, 152; in Belgian loss, 155; in inter- glacial beds of the Birsthal, 302; in Leffe interglacial beds, 310; in Scottish raised - beaches, 384, 385, 399; in Scottish alluvia, 425 ; in English post- glacial deposits, 434; in Irish raised- beaches, 459; in postglacial beds of Sweden and Norway, 466, 467, 469; now living round coasts of Norway and Sweden, 467; in peat of Champagne, 494 ; southern species of, in northern seas, 501. Moncalieri-Valenza Hills, merly lived at foot of, 30. Mononychus pseudacori, 54. Montaigle, caves near, 102. Montchalm, erratics from, 319. Monte Cinto, ancient glacier of, 213. Monte Majella, glacial phenomena of, 214. Monte Mario, shell-beds of, 355. Monte Rotonda, ancient glacier of, 213. Mont Dore, ancient glacier of, 211; erratics from, 319. Montpellier maple, 47. Montpellier, tufas of, 45, 49. Mont Perrier, glacial and interglacial deposits of, 318. Montrose, glacial and postglacial deposits of, 403. Moorwort, 493. Moraines, contrast between late glacial and postglacial, 412. Moray Firth, shell-mounds of, 369. Morcu, O. A. L., cited, 501, 502. Morea, raised-beaches of, 355. Morecambe Bay, submerged peat of, 431, 432. Moret, tufa near, 46, 50. Morlaix, submarine forest near, 481. Mortot, on interglacial deposits, 252, 297; estimate of date of Neolithic Period, 557. Moro on glacier of Serchio, 214. Morris on large erratics, 194. Mortillet, De, on classification of French caves, 15; cited, 346, 546. Morton cited, 191. Morvan, glaciation of the, 211, Mosand of Sweden, 472. Moselle, léss in valley of the, 146. Mosses, arctic and alpine species of, 55; in peat, 492, 494. Mouligna, river, submerged trees at mouth of, 481. Mountain avens, 485. petala.) Mountain pine, 47. Mount’s Bay, submerged forest of, 431, 440. Mouse, 367. marmot for- (See Dryas octo- INDEX. Mud in glacial rivers, 232. Muggendorf Cave, 112. Mulgedium alpinum, 353. Mourcuison on Russian Tchernozem, 158, 163, 242; cited, 203. Murex lamellosus, 502. Musk sheep, 17, 24, 25, 29, 32, 39, 40, 134. Mya, 284; MW. truncata, 334, 466, 475. Myodes lemmus, 148 ; M. obensis, 62 ; M. torquatus, 62, 149. (See also Marmot.) Myriophyllum, 485, 492. Myrtillus uliginosa, 493. Mytilus edulis, 284, 399, 469. Narn (N. America), range of temperature at, 39. Nancy, Pleistocene lignite near, 54. Nantes, range of temperature at, 39. Nar-valley beds, 268. Nassa, 502; N. reticulata, 278, 281. Natica grenlandica, 467. Nartuorst on arctic flora of Pleistocene deposits, 55; on arctic flora below peat, 54, 485, 491; on plants of Nor- folk forest-bed, 262, 335; on Swedish interglacial beds, 270; on postglacial flora of Bovey Tracey, 456; on raised- beaches of Scania, 475. Naumann detects striated rocks in Sax- ony, 198. Necera cuspidata, 467 ; N. rostrata, 502. Neanderthal cranium, 21, 23. Neckar valley, loss of, 145, 151. Newrine on loss-beds of Thiede and Westeregeln, 147 ; cited, 245. Neolithic Age, contrasts between, and Paleolithic, 11,13, 28, 378; difficulty of ascertaining relative antiquity of relics of, 363; kitchen-middens of, 365; lake-dwellings of, 369; imple- ments of, 372; fauna of, 373; cereals of, 373 ; passage from, into Bronze Age, 874 ; people of, 374, 376; rude stone monuments of, 375; long barrows of, 875; caves of, 376; traces of canni- balism in, 377; in Denmark, 487; commencement of, in postglacial period, 534, 535; duration of, 557. Neolithic and Paleolithic deposits, break between, 446, 449, 481, 496, 547, 553. Neolithic implements below Jiravallen, 473 ; in Flemish peat, 480 ; in peat of Somme valley, 480; in Danish peat, 487 ; in peat of Troyes, 493. Neolithic man in Scotland, 428. Neolithic remains, relative position of, in cave-deposits, 75, 119, 120. Newcastle, range of temperature at, 39. New Stone Age. (See Neolithic Age.) Nitsson on Jaravallen, 473. Nithsdale, drums of, 183. 583 NORDENSKIOLD, Prof., cited, 497. Norfolk, great erratics in, 193. North America, extremes of temperature in, 34; migrations of mammals in, 36 ; temperature of east coast of, 39; Glacial Period in, 228. Northern Asia, extremes of temperature in, 343; migrations of mammals in, 36. Northern field-vole, 62. Northern France, loss of, 153. Northern Germany, interglacial deposits of, 276. North Sea, path of mer de glace in, 192, 203; depths of, 204, 339; dry land during interglacial epochs, 340; dry land in early postglacial times, 509. Northumberland, glaciation of, 191. North-west Europe, former geographical changes in, 339. Norway, glaciation of, 195 ; carry of er- ratics in south of, 204 ; strandlinier of, 271; postglacial shell-beds of, 465, 466 ; glacial shell-beds of, 466 ; unfos- siliferous postglacial deposits of, 466, 471; peat-bogs of, 487; former wooded condition of, 488. Norwegian lemming. (See Lemming.) Nova Scotia, southern colonies round coasts of, 502. Novaia Zemlia, 41, 340. Nucula tenuis, 467. Nussdorf, shells in léss of, 237, Oak, 47, 52, 58, 148, 320, 420, 432, 435, 436, 438, 448, 461, 469, 480, 486, 487, 494. Obliquity of the ecliptic, 560. Ochils, 178, 179; flood-gravels from, 387. Odostomia albella, 467; O. plicata, 467. Oerzenhofs, peat with arctic-alpine plants at, 492. OLBERS on tiers of trees in peat of Sweden, 528. OLDHAM cited, 190. Old Stone Period. (See Paleolithic Age.) Olive, 48, 51. Olmo, human cranium in Pleistocene of, 22, 318. Omautius, D’, cited, 346. Onega, height of, above sea, 471. Ontario, Lake, glacial and interglacial deposits on shores of, 293. Ophiura Sarsti, 467. Orkney Islands, 188. Orne, river, submerged trees at mouth of, 481. Oronsay, raised-beaches of, 418. OrtH cited, 283. Osterfjord, strand-lines of, 273, 275. Ostrea cochlear, 502; 0. edulis, 399, 468 ; O. virginiana, 508. Otter, 31, 32, 367, 449, 494. 584 INDEX. Outer Hebrides, glaciation of, 178, 189 ; kitchen-middens in, 369. Ovibos moschatus, 29, 279. sheep. ) Owl, 373. Ox, 40, 107, 108, 188, 148, 150, 151, 367, 373, 456, 463, 480, 494. Oxycoccus palustris, 493. (See Musk- PaLZOLitHIc AGE, implements of, 10 ; conditions of life during, 17 ; progress during, 115; cold climate in latest stage of, 116; conditions of life to- wards close of, 1173; alternations of climate during, 117 ; no passage from, into Neolithic Age, 118; geographical changes during, 337 ; extent of British area in, 339 ; hiatus between, and Neolithic Age, 378, 446, 449, 481, 547, 553 ; deposits of, their general distri- bution, 544. Paleolithic man, implements of, 10 ; ar- tistic work of, 13 ; personal decoration and ornaments of, 14; conditions of life of, 17 ; a fisher and hunter, 17 ; acquainted with tailoring, etc., 17; not a cultivator of the ground, 18 ; prob- ably unacquainted with potter’s art, 18 ; conjectures as to polity and be- liefs of, 19; a troglodyte, 19; his hearths and refuse-heaps, 19; camp- ing-places of, 19 ; visited Mediterran- ean and Atlantic coasts, 20; no proof that he disrespected the dead, 20 ; re- mains of, in caves, 21, 87, 91, 98, 100, 102, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111; not a cannibal, 22 ; types of, 22; re- lative position of remains of, in caves, 75, 119, 1203; relics of, under léss, 149, 151, 154, 155; relics of, under boulder-clay, 263 ; relics of, in Swiss interglacial beds, 300 ; implements of, not found in beds younger than those of last interglacial epoch, 860; no trace of, in Scotland, 428; no trace of, in postglacial deposits, 443, 449, 496, 547 ; fate of, 546. _ PALGRAVE on ancient glaciers of Trebi- zond and Erzeroum, 214. Pauas on débacles, 173. Paludella squarrosa, 492. Paludina balthica, 469; P. diluviana, aids 278, 280, 281; P. marginata, Panther. (See Leopard.) Paseng, 494. Patina, 502. Patrobus excavatus, 54. Pavt cited, 210. PaYEN cited, 158. Pracu, B. N., on glaciation of Caithness, Orkney, and Shetland, 189 ; on Carse of Falkirk, 399 ; on kitchen-middens, 400. Peacock, R. A., on recent extensive sub- mergence in Channel area, 482. Peat, of Schwerzenbach, 54 ; of Bavaria, 55; submarine, of Tay and Earn Val- leys, 385 ; of Falkirk Carse-deposits, 399 ; of Scotland, 419 ; submarine, of England, 430 ; of coast of Lancashire, etc., 434; of coast of Cornwall, 438 ; of Fenland, 446 ; of inland districts in England, 454 ; submarine, in Ireland, 459; with buried trees, in Ireland, 461; submarine, on coast of Scania, 473 ; of Danish coasts, 476 ; of Prus- sian shores of Baltic, 476 ; of Dutch coasts, 477; of Friesland, 478; of Belgian coast, 479 ; of Somme Valley, 480 ; of Albert and Aveluy, 480 ; of Normandy and Brittany, 481; of Arcachon and Biarritz, 481 ; treatises on, 483; of Northern Europe, 483 ; varieties of, 485; of Denmark, 485; of Norway, 487; rate of growth of, 489; Arctic plants below, 491; of Champagne, 493; of Central and Southern Europe, 495; present decay of, 532. Pecten grenlandicus, 387, 403 ; P. irra- dians, 502, 503; P. islandicus, 385, 466, 467; P. vitrews, 467. PeEncg, A., on glaciation of Saxony, 199 ; on shells in boulder-clay, 278; on succession of glacial deposits in Ger- many, 281, 286; on glacial deposits of Prussia, 281; on drift deposits of Saxony, 282; on glacial deposits of Denmark, etc., 284; on succession of changes evinced by glacial deposits of Moen, 285. PENGELLY cited, 76; on stalagmitie ac- cretion in Kent’s Cave, 81; on forma- tion of cave-breccia, 85; on “stalag- mitic ceiling’ in Brixham Cave, 87 ; on implements in Kent’s Cave, 91; on Paleolithic man of Kent’s Cave, 93 ; on geographical changes evinced by phenomena of Kent's Cave, 94 ; erratics noticed by, in Devonshire, 227; on deposits of Bovey Tracey, 456; on mammoth-remains in peat, 457. Pentewan Work, section of, 440. Perch, 373. Perfumed cherry-tree, 50. Périgord caves, no trace of Paleolithic pottery in, 18. Periploca greca, 47. Perran Porth, submerged forest at, 431. Perrier. (See Mont Perrier.) Perth, buried forest at, 391; river-ice in Tay at, 397. PERTHES, B. de, cited, 3, 4, 123. ‘ = ea eee INDEX. Peterborough, postglacial deposits near, 447, PETTERSEN, K., cited, 195; on strand- linier, 274. Pevensey Level, submerged forests of, 431. Phacidium buat, 305. PHILiirs cited, 158. Phillyrea angustifolia, 49; P. media, 49. Pholas candida, 468; P. crispata, 467. Phragmites communis, 299. Physa hypnorum, 302. Pianico, lacustrine deposits at, 304. Picea excelsa, 54. Pipancy cited, 209. Pierre 4 Bot, 171. PIETTE on beliefs of Paleolithic man, 19 ; on skulls in Cave of Gourdan, 22, 551, 554; on two glacial epochs in Pyre- nees, 323; on Pliocene glaciers, 324. Pig, 97, 373, 427, 494. Pigeon, 373. Pika. (See Tailless Hare.) Pike, 373. Piuar cited, 209. Pine, 420, 432, 435, 436, 448, 461, 469, 485, 486, 494. Pinus abies, 298 ; P. (Abies) alba, 516 ; P.cembra, 56; P. lariz, 299; P.mon- tana, 54, 299; P. obovata, 54; P. pyrenaica, 47, 49; P. pumilio, 47, 49; P. Salzmanni, 47, 49 ; P. sylves- tris, 298, 302, 391, 448, 485. Pisidiwm, 449, 492; P. amnicum, 280, 299; P. pulchellum, 493. PLANcHON, G., cited, 45, 48, 49; list of plants in tufa, 49. Planera, 46. Planorbis, 449 ; P. carinatus, 149, 302 ; P. complanatus, 310, 475; P. spiror- bis, 203; P. vortex, 302. Pant, erratics at Leicester, 193. Plants, rare in Pleistocene deposits, 45 ; in tufa of La Celle, 50; in travertine of Mamers, 52; in tufa of Canstadt, 58; in lignite of Jarville, 54; in peat of Schwerzenbach, 55; in Bavarian peat, 55, 493; near Montmeilan, 66 ; of Norfolk forest-bed, 262; of Swiss interglacial deposits, 298; in inter- glacial beds of the Birsthal, 302; in lacustrine deposits of Val Borlezza, 304; of Leffe lignite, 309 ; in inter- glacial deposits of Mont Perrier, 320 ; migrations of, during last interglacial epoch, 348; migrations of, during last glacial epoch, 352; list of arctic-alpine, 353 ; in Swedish postglacial beds, 469 ; in Swedish peat, 492; in peat of Mecklenburg, 492; in peat of Cham- pagne, 494; list’of Norwegian, 515 ; list of, common to Spitzbergen, Ger- many, etc., 508, 585 Platanus aceroides, 46. Pleistocene Period, mammals of, 25; climate of, 33; plants and molluscs of, 44; river deposits of, 121; mam- mals of, their early arrival, 261 ; fauna and flora of, same as interglacial, 540 ; identity of, with Preglacial and Glacial Period, 539; strongly contrasted cli- mates of, 540 ; date of, 559. Pliocene Period, reputed glaciers of, 324 ; flora of, 8382; physical and climatic conditions of, 332 ; first traces of ap- proaching Glacial Period in deposits of, 333; passage from, into Pleistocene Period, 334; incised bones in, 348 ; worked flints in, 344; man of, 546. Pleuronectes flesus, 471; P. platessa, 471. Plewrotoma carinatum, 502; P. turri- cula, 385. Plouescat, submarine forest near, 481. Pox pratensis, 508. Poggiarone, cut bones in Pliocene of, 344. Poland, drifting sands of, 245. Polecat, 107, 108, 373, 480, 510. Polgavie, buried forest at, 395. PoLIAKOFF on glacial phenomena in the Ural Mountains, 210. Polygonum hydropiper, 299. Polystichum spinulosum, 494. Pomatias septemspirale, 57, 59. PoMEL cited, 320. Pomerania, glacial deposits of, 284. Pouched marmot, 30. (See Spermophitus. ) Populus alba, 49; P. canescens, 50, 53 ; P. Fraasii, 53; P. tremula, 485. (See Aspen. ) Porcupine, 32. Porlock, submerged forest at, 431. Porpoise, 367. Portcounan, raised-beach at, 418. Porthleven, submarine forest at, 431. PorTLOcK cited, 190. Postglacial and recent deposits, of British Islands, 381 ; of Scotland, 383 ; of Eng- land, 430; of Ireland, 458 ; of Norway and Sweden, 465; of Finland and Northern Russia, 470; of Denmark, 476; of Baltic coast (Germany), 476 ; of Holland and East Friesland, 477 ; of West Friesland, 479; of Belgian coast, 479; of French shores of Channel, 479 ; of Somme valley, 480 ; of Central and Northern Europe, 482; of Southern Europe, 495. Postglacial climate of Central Europe, 522. Potamogeton, 485, 492. Pottery, reputed Paleolithic, 18 ; no trace of Paleolithic, in English and French caves, 18; Neolithic, 368, 372, 376; Gallo-Roman, in Flemish peat, 480; in peat of Champagne, 493. 586 Potsdam, interglacial deposits at, 280. Pozzuoli, raised-beaches of, 355. Preglacial and Glacial Period, identity of, with Pleistocene Period, 539. Preglacial deposits, 261. Preglacial man, 545. Prehistoric Period, Later, commencement of, 534. Preservation of beds under till, 288, 316, 356. Prestwich cited, 3, 11, 12; on shells in river-drifts, 63 ; cited, 65 ; on succes- sion of changes evinced by phenomena of Brixham Cave, 88; on loss at high levels in France, 154; on river-drifts, 124 ; on geological position of Thames- valley river-drifts, 125 ; confirms obser- vations of B. de Perthes, 126 ; on fluvia- tile origin of river-drifts of Southern England and Northern France, 127 ; on origin of brick-earth and léss, 130; on flooded condition of Pleistocene rivers, 132; on evidence of river-ice in Pleistocene gravel-beds, 133; on clim- atic conditions under which river-drifts were deposited, 133 ; cited, 222, 234 ; on “head” of Weymouth, 224; on origin of “head,” 225; objections to his views, 225. Privet, 302. Provence, tufa of, 45, 47. Prunus mahaleb, 50. Psammobia ferroénsis, 384. Pteris aquilina, 49. Pubescent oak, 47. PUGGAARD on glacial phenomena of Moen, 200. Pumiceous conglomerate of Mont Perrier, 318. PUMPELLY, on dust-storms, 167; on Corsi- can moraines, 213. Pupa cinerea, 64; P. columella, 152; P. doliolum, 57, 152; P. marginata, 302; P. muscorum, 57, 59, 61, 64, 148, 152, 155, 238; P. parcedentata, 61; P. pygmea, 238 ; P. quadridens, 64; P. secale, 302. Purging buckthorn, 494. Purple boulder-clay, 264. PuRVES cited, 256. Puy de Dome, glaciation of, 211. Pyrenees, caves of, 20, 21, 377 ; ancient glaciers of, 212 ; two glacial epochs in, 823. Pyrus acerba, 49; P. aria, 47. QUATREFAGES, De, on types of Palxolithic man, 22; on Miocene and Pliocene man, 346; on ethnical affinities of Paleolithic races, 552. Quercus ilex, 47, 49; Q. mammouthii, 53; @. pedunculata, 53, 494; Q. pubescens, 47; Q. robur, 52, 299, 448 ; INDEX. Q. sessiliflora, 486, 515. (See also Oak.) Rassit, 31, 32, 87, 113. Races, Paleolithic, 23, 552. Raised-beaches, or strandlinier of Nor- way, 2713; of Gibraltar, 326 ; of Medi- terranean, 355; of Scotland, 383, 402, 417, 418, 428, 525; of England, 453 ; of Ireland, 460; of Sweden, 473; absence of, in north of Scotland, 524. Ramsay, A. C., on flint implements, 78 ; on glaciation of Anglesey, 191; on Gibraltar breccias, 216, 324; on two periods of glaciation in Wales, 253. Rance, De, cited, 191, 432; on post- glacial deposits of Lancashire, ete., 434 ; on sand-dunes of old coast-line in Lan- cashire, 435; on Neolithic implements in Lancashire, 436. Raspberry, 48. Rat, 480. READE, T. Mellard, cited, 432. Red-deer or stag, 31, 32, 40, 87, 91, 103, 107, 108, 113, 138, 151, 262, 367, 373, 426, 438, 449, 463, 480, 496. Reindeer, 17, 24, 29, 32, 36, 55, 87, 91, 103, 107, 108, 133, 147, 148, 150, 151, 279, 427, 449, 456, 463. Reindeer migrations, 36, 41. Reindeer period, 101, 112, 1163; stations of, in Central France, 320. Reindeer, rarity of, in postglacial deposits, 458. RENEVIER on frontal moraine of ancient Rhone glacier, 208 ; cited, 324. ReEvuscH# cited, 195. Rhamnus catharticus, 494. Rhine valley, Paleolithic remains in léss of, 22; fauna in Pleistocene of, 63; loss of, 145, 159. Rhinoceros, 28 ; Rhinoceros etruscus, 28 $ R. hemitechus, 28, 33, 304; R. leptor- hinus, 28, 33, 97, 138, 309, 317, 320; R. megarhinus, 28, 38, 134, 309; R. Merckii, 28, 33,299; R. tichorhinus, 28, 62, 103, 107, 108, 151 (see also Siberian Rhinoceros). Rhodes, raised-beaches of, 355. Rhone glacier, volume of water and amount of mud discharged from the ancient, 231. Rhone valley, interglacial deposits in the, 321. Rhus cotinus, 49. Rhynconella psittacea, 466. RIBEIRO, C., discovers Pliocene and Mio- cene implements, 345. RICHTHOFEN, Baron v., dust-storm theory of loss, 165; objections to his theory, 244, Rink cited, 501. River-deposits of Pleistocene Period, 121 ; INDEX. first discoveries of flint implements in, 123; Perrues on diluvial origin of, 123 ; PRESTWICH’S Views on, 124 ; former un- certainty as to relative antiquity of, 125; origin of, 126; high- and low- level, 126; great antiquity of, 127 ; rate of modern denudation, 128 ; tor- rential character of, 130; flood-loams associated with, 131; terraces of, not often preserved, 131 ; erratics in, 133 ; PRESTWICH’S views of climatic conditions during accumulation of, 133 ; evidence of alternate cold and warm climates during accumulation of, 135 ; mode of determining relative age of, 137 ; Dar- WIN’s views of origin of coarse angular gravels of, 141. Rivers, of Glacial Period, 233, 234 ; dam- med back by northern ice-sheet, 235 ; subglacial, in Northern Europe, 239 ; torrential deposits of, 396 ; former larger volume of, 398, 407, 455. RrvikrsE cited, 21. Rixdorf, interglacial deposits of, 278. ROBERTSON on unconformity between glacial and postglacial deposits in Scot- land, 385. Roches moutonnées, 176. Rock-surfaces, glaciated, 176 ; broken and confused under till, 184, 193, 200. Rock-terraces, Norwegian, 271 ; Scottish, 275. Rodeven, submarine forest at, 481. Roebuck, 31, 87, 103, 107, 108, 113, 262, 867, 373, 427, 442, 449, 480. Roemer cited, 150. Romagnat valley, moraines in, 211. Romans, destruction of trees by, 530. Rosa rubiginosa, 515. Roslyn Hole, great erratic of, 194. Ross cited, 197. Rora# on German glacial deposits, 277. Roxburghshire, till of, 183. Rubia peregrina, 49. Rubus corylifolius, 515; R. ideeus, 48, 49, 299; R. Lindebergit, 515; R. radula, 515; R. thyrsoideus, 515; R. Wahlbergit, 515. Riidersdorf, glaciated rocks at, 197, 201. Russia, treeless regions of, 35; glaciation of Northern, 196 ; inundations in Southern, during Glacial Period, 241 ; postglacial deposits of Northern, 470. RUTIMEYER on relics of man in Swiss interglacial beds, 300; objection to Pliocene age of moraines, etc., near Como, 324 ; cited, 312. SaBLE Campinien, 507. Sabre-toothed tiger or lion, 26, 33. (See also Machairodus latidens.) Saiga, 31, 32. Sagina Linnet, 353. 587 St. Acheul, flint implements from, 11. St. Andrews Bay, shell-mounds of, 369. St. Andrews, raised-beaches at, 418. St. Bertrand-de-Comminges, moraine at, 323. St. Bride’s Bay, submarine forest at, 481. St. Jacob, interglacial deposits near, 302. St. Leonards, submarine forest near, 431. St. Malo, submarine forest at, 481. St. Michel-en-Lherm, shell-mounds at, 369. Saint-Pierre-Quilbignon, submarine forest at, 481. St. Prest, cut bones and flint implements in deposits at, 343. Salix alba, 49; S. aurita, 302; 8. cinerea, 49, 50, 52, 58, 302, 456; S. Sragilis, 50, 494; S. herbacea, 353, 485, 492, 493; S. myrtylloides, 456 ; S. polaris, 55, 262, 335, 485, 492, 497 ; S. repens, 456; S. reticulata, 55, 353, 485, 492; S. retusa, 497. Salzmann’s pine, 47, 49. Sambucus ebulus, 50. Samson, river, caves in valley of, 100, 107. SANDBERGER on mollusca in Pleistocene of Wiirzburg, 60 ; on mammalian fauna of Franconian loss, 62 ; on Pleistocene fauna of Rhenish loss, etc., 63 ; on Stein- bach lignite, 152 ; on shells in loss, 238 ; on shells in modern flood-deposits of Main, 238. Sands, drifting, 244. Sansino, 317. Santa Luce, cut bones in Pliocene near, 344. Santa Teresa Cave, 114. Saporta, Count, on flora of tufas in Pro- vence and Tuscany, 46; list of plants in tufas of Provence, 49 ; cited, 50, 51, 52, 53; on flora of Canstadt tufa, 53 ; on present flora of Montmeilan, 66; on Pliocene flora, 332. Sardinia, breccias of, 65. Sarsaparilla, 47. Sars, G. O., cited, 468, 492. Sars, M., on shells in shell-beds of Nor- way and present seas, 467, 468. Savoy, interglacial lignite of, 303. Saxicava norvegica, 334; S. rugosa, 466. Saxony, glacial phenomena of, 198; broken rocks under till of, 201; drift- deposits, succession of, in, 282. Scania, kitchen-middens on coasts of, 369 ; submarine peat of, 473. Scandinavia, mer de glace of, confluent with Scottish ice-sheet, 188 ; ice-sheet of, invades Eastern England, 192; glacial phenomena of, 194 ; interglacial beds of, 270; late glacial deposits of, 270; condition of, in late glacial times, 355 ; postglacial and recent deposits of, 464; condition of, in postglacial times, 500. 588 Scandinavian flora, 508, 510, 518. Scharfenort, peat of, 476. SCHEERER cited, 195. Scheldt, submarine peat near mouth of, 477. SCHIMPER cited, 212. Schleswig, submarine peat of, 477. SCHMERLING cited, 3, 4, 21. Scumipt on postglacial beds of Finland and Northern Russia, 470. Schiissenried, tufa and peat of, 55. Schwielow-See, boring near, 280. Schwerzenbach, peat-bog near, 54. Scirpus lacustris, 299. Scolopendrium officinale, 49, 50, 52, 53. Scotland, extent of ice-sheet in, 189; slope of surface of ice-sheet in, 189; interglacial deposits of, 255; submer- gence of, in last interglacial epoch, 266 ; condition of, during advance and re- treat of latest ice-sheet, 267; late glacial marine beds of, 270 ; interglacial rock-terraces of, 275; buried river- valleys in, 341; condition of, in late glacial times, 3553; shell-mounds of, 369; postglacial and recent deposits of, 383; raised-beaches of, 383, 418; submarine forests and peat of, 385; peatbogs of inland districts in, 406, 419; former larger size of rivers in, 407 ; traces of postglacial glaciers in, 411 ; ancient forests in, 420; postglacial lake-alluvia in, 425; postglacial mammalia of, 426; relics of Neolithic man in, 428; partial submergence of, in postglacial times, 410 ; date of Later Prehistoric periods in, 428; former connection of, with Ireland, 512; post- glacial submergence of, 525. Scots fir. (See Pinus sylvestris, and Pine. ) Scrobicularia piperata, 384, 395, 404, 434, 448. : Seal, 367, 449. Sections : Brixham Cave deposits, 86 ; Kent’s Cave deposits, 90; Victoria Cave deposits, 96; Trou du Frontal, 109; loss-beds of Thiede, 147 ; loss- beds of Westeregeln, 149 ; Steinbach lignite, 152 ; Belgian caves, etc., 156 ; Gibraltar, 217, 326; Hailes Quarry, 257, 258; Rixdorf sand-beds, 278; Wendisch-Wehningen brick-works, 279; Schwielow-See, 280; lake-deposits of Pianico, 305; Leffe lignite, 308, 311; Mont Perrier, 320; Benghisa Gap, Malta, 328; Carse of Gowrie, 386 ; Montrose, 403; Scottish postglacial and recent deposits, 408; Scottish alluvia, 425; Lancashire postglacial, 434; Happy Union Works, 438; Lower Pentuan Work, 439; Pentewan Work, 440; Huel Darlington Mine, INDEX. 440; Tramore Bay, 459; Norwegian postglacial beds, 466; Jiravallen, 474 ; Scanian raised-beaches, 475 ; Helsing- borg, 475 ; Barsebiick, 475 ; peat-beds near Danzig, 476; peat-beds of East Friesland, 477, 478 ; peat of Flemish coast, 480; of peat with arctic plants (Sweden), 491. SEELEY on erratic at Roslyn Hole, 194. SEFsTROM cited, 195, 196, 197. Seine valley, human remains in Pleisto- cene of, 22; ldss of, 153. Serio, river, fluvio-glacial detritus of, 307. Serres, Marcel de, cited, 77. Serval, 25, 32, 113, 325. Settle, cave near, 96, 119. Seule, river, submerged trees at mouth of, 481. SEXE cited, 195. SExE, 8. A., cited, 195; on Norwegian strandlinier, 272, 273. Sharpness, submerged forest at, 431. Sheep, 373, 427, 463, 480, 494. Shell-beds of Norway and Sweden, 465, 467, 474. Shell-marl, 449. Shell-mounds. (See Kitchen-middens. ) Shells, crushed and striated, in till, 188 ; in flood-deposits of Main, 238 ; trans- ported by sea, 238; in German glacial and interglacial deposits, 277, 278, 280, 281, 282; in interglacial beds of Hol- stein and Denmark, 284; in Danish kitchen-middens, 3867; in Scottish raised-beaches, 384, 387; in clay at Errol, 386 ; in Scottish postglacial and recent deposits, 399, 425; in English postglacial and recent deposits, 439, 449, (See also Mollusca. ) Shrew, 87. Siberian or woolly rhinoceros, 62, 87, 133, 147, 148, 150. (See also Rhinoceros tichorhinus.) Siberian pine, 56. Sicily, caves of, 114. Sierra Guadarrama, ancient glaciers of, 212. Sierra-Nevada, ancient glaciers of, 212. Silene cretica, 373. . Siphonodentalium vitreum, 467. Sison amomum, 510. Skegness, submarine forests near, 431, 480. SKERTCHLY, S. B. J., on erratic at Roslyn Hole, 194; on broken strata under till, 194; on Brandon interglacial beds with Paleolithic implements, 263 ; on Fenland, 445. Sleaford, postglacial deposits near, 447. Smilax aspera, 47. SmitH, Ecroyd, cited, 435, 436. Smirg (of Jordanhill), cited, 174. Snow, accumulation of, in river-valleys of Pleistocene Period, 141. INDEX. Snowy vole, 30, 32. Soédertelge, buried hut at, 474. Solent, the, formerly a land-valley, 341. Solway Firth, raised-beaches of, 418; submarine peat of, 431. Somme (Department), peat of, 480. » valley, loss of, 153; peat in, 480. Sonnaz, interglacial lignite of, 303. SORDELLI on plants in deposits of Val Borlezza, 305; on plants of Leffe lig- nite, 309. Sorde, rock-shelter of, 552. Sound of Jura, raised-beaches of, 418. Southampton Water, formerly a land-val- ley, 341. Southern Europe, caves of, 112; physical conditions of, in postglacial times, 533. Southern mammals of Pleistocene, 32. South Wales, glaciation of, 193. * Sowbacks” of till, 182. Spermophilus citillus, 30; S. altaccus, Spezia, cave near, 114. Sphagnum, 493; S. cymbifolium, 299. Spiennes, Paleolithic implements under loss near, 155. Spindle-tree, 47, ELuonymus. ) Spitzbergen, postglacial deposits of, 496 ; plants of, 508; connection of, with Europe in postglacial times, 521. Spotted hyena, 27, 32. Spruce fir, 54, 494. Squirrel, 107, 510. STacHE cited, 150. Stag. (See Red-deer.) Stalagmite, composition and origin of, 79 ; rate of accretion of, 79, 80, 83; in Kent’s Cave, 81, 91, 92; impurities in, 84; sheets of, broken up and removed, 85; in Brixham Cave, 86. SranitEy, Hon. W., mammoth remains in peat at Holyhead, 457. Stannergate, Dundee, buried land-surface at, 390. Stanniferous gravels, 438, 442. Starling, 373. STEELE cited, 531. STEENSTRUP cited, 346; on kitchen- middens, 366; on Danish peat, 485 ; on rate of growth of peat in Denmark, 491. : STEFANI cited, 345; on marine deposits of glacial age in Italy, 355. Steinbach, lignite of, 152. Steppes, black earth of, 157 ; inundation of, in Glacial Period, 240. Stoat, 31, 32. Stone Age, 6. STOPANNI on moraines of Val d’Arni, 213; on glacial lake of Val Borlezza, 304 ; of lake deposits at Leffe, 310; on Plio- cene glaciers, 324, 50, 53. (See also 589 Stork, 373. Stoss-seite, 177. Straits of Dover, 339, 341. Strandlinier of Norway, 271. Strathcluony, successive buried forests in peat of, 421. Stream-tin gravels, 227. Striated rock-surfaces, 176. Striated shells in till, 277. Striated stones, 180. Striped hyena, 27, 32. SrupraTi cited, 65. Sturgeon, 480. Stuttgardt, tufas near, 53. Subglacial rivers, etc., 239. Submarine plateau of 100 fathoms, 339. Submarine trees and peat of Scotland, 385, 390, 399, 403; of England, 430- 453 ; of Ireland, 458; of Scania, 473- 475 ; of Denmark, Holstein, Hanover, and Prussian coasts of Baltic, 476 ; of the Elbe, 477; of Holland and East Friesland, 477; of Flanders, 479; of French coasts of Channel, 480. Submarine trough off southern coast of Sweden and Norway, 515. Submergence, of British area during last interglacial epoch, 266; in late glacial times, 355; connection between, and humidity of climate, 452; postglacial, of Scandinavia, 465, 472; of Channel area in postglacial and recent period, 481; postglacial, 525. Succinea, 449; species of, in La Celle tufa, 57; in diluviwm gris of Paris, 59; in Canstadt tufa, 59; in Wiirz- burg loss, 61; at Thiede, 148; in Steinbach loss, 152; in Belgian loss, 155; in Potsdam interglacial sands, 280 ; in Swiss interglacial beds, 302. SULZER cited, 172. Sunderland, submarine forest near, 431. Sus scrofa ferus and palustris, 494. Swan, 373, 494. Sweden, glaciation of, 195; interglacial beds of, 270; postglacial shell-beds of, 465, 468; unfossiliferous postglacial sands of, 472; submarine peat and raised-beaches of, 473; arctic-alpine plants below peat of, 4915; postglacial changes in Southern, 505. Switzerland, caves of, 112 ; glaciation of, 207; interglacial deposits of, 297; lake-dwellings of, 369; arctic-alpine flora of, 495. Syeamore, 50, 51, 53. Symonps, Rey. W. §., cited, 220. Taaus valley, implements in Miocene and Pliocene of, 345. Tailless hare or pika, 30, 382, 42, 113, 147, 149, 59? Tapes decussatus, 468 ; 468; TZ. virginea, 467. Tapi, 321. Tarascon, two glacial epochs in valley of, 323. Taraxacum palustre, 508. TarDy on deposits of Bois de la Batie, 301; on deposits in Ain and Rhone valleys, 3821; cited, 346. Tatra, extinct glaciers of the, 210. Tavignano valley, extinct glacier of, 213. Taxus baccata, 299, 305. (See also Yew.) Tay valley, late glacial marine beds of, 270; postglacial deposits of, 386, 388. Tchernozem. (See Black-earth.) Tellina balthica, 284, 384, 469; 7. cal- carea, 266; T. incarnata, 384; T. myopsis, 387. Tempelhof, interglacial deposits of, 280. Temperate group of Pleistocene mammals, 32. Temperature, range of, at various places in Europe, 34. Tenby, submarine forest at, 431. Terek-thal, extinct glacier of, 214. Terraces, postglacial fluviatile, 407. Terre a briques, 154, 164. TETENS cited, 477. Teucrium scorodonia, 515. Thames valley, extension of ice-sheet to, 193 ; Pleistocene deposits of, 125, 137; submerged forest of, 431. Thessaly, lions formerly infested, 26. Thickness of extinct glaciers, how ascer- tained, 177. Thiede, loss-beds at, 147, 246. Thoron, glacial and interglacial deposits at, 298. THomson, T., his discovery of arctic shell-beds in Scotland, 174 ; cited, 518. THOMSON, Sir Wyville, on southern forms in northern seas, 501. Thuidium antiquum, 299. Thuja saviana, 46 ; T. occidentalis, 46. THURNAM cited, 377. TIDDEMAN cited, 97 ; on deposits in Vic- toria Cave, 98; on glaciation of Lanca- shire, 191. _ TIETZE cited, 210. Tiger, sabre-toothed. (See Machairodus.) Tilia europea, 48, 49; TZ. grandifolia, 53. Till, 180; stones in, 180; distribution of, 182; parallel ridges or banks of, 183; broken rocks under, 184, 193, 200; “carry” of stones in, 186, 191 ; colour and texture of, 186; aqueous deposits in, 187 ; shells in, 188, 267. Tiniére, cone of the, 557. Tin-grayels, 438, 442. Toga, breccia of, 65. Torbay, mammoth-remains in submarine forest at, 457. INDEX. T. pullastra, | ToRELL cited, 196; on invasion of Ger- many by Scandinavian mer de glace, 198, 199 ; on buried hut at Sddertelge, 474; on shell-beds of Spitzbergen, 497. Torquated lemming, 30, 62. TORNEBOHM cited, 196 ; on postglacial and recent raised-beaches of Scania, 474, TOURNAL cited, 77. ToURNOUER cited, 46; on mollusca of La Celle tufa, 56, 135. Tralee Bay, submarine peat of, 460. Tramore Bay, submarine peat of, 459. Trapa natans, 299, 309. Travertine, of Massa Marittima, 46; of Provence, 47 ; of Montpellier, 49; of La Celle, 50, 56; of Mamers, 52; of Canstadt, 53, 59 ; of Southern Europe, 55. Trebizond, extinct glaciers of, 214. Treeless zone, 35. Trees, in Scottish peat, 420; large size of, 420; often lie all one way, 424, 479; marks of fire on, 424, 479; of English submarine forests, 432, 433, 438, 439, 440, 448; successive tiers of, in peat, 421, 423, 434, 438-440, 448, 451, 461, 485, 487, 488 ; in shell- bank of Enkopings 4s, 469 ; in peat of Champagne, 494. (See also Forests and Peat. ) TREVELYAN cited, 518. TRIBOLET on traces of extinct glaciers in Brittany, 227. Trifolium minus, 515; T. procumbens, 515. Tripoli of Val Borlezza, 304, Triticum turgidum, 373. Tritoniwm Sabinii, 466. Trochus, 502; T. granulatus, 502. Trophon clathratus, 399, 467. Trou de la Naulette, 106. Trou de l’Hrable, 102. Trou de Philippe, 102. Trou de Pont-a-Lesse, 104. Trou du Chéne, 102, 104. Trou du Frontal, 108, Trou du Lievre, 102. Trou du Sureau, 102, Trou Magrite, 105. Troyes, peat of, 493. Tufa. (See Travertine. ) TULLBERG, 8. A., cited, 492. Tumuli, skulls in Danish, 368; or bar- rows, 375. Tundras, 35. Tunis, raised-beaches of, 355. Turin, erratics on hills near, 317. Turritella communis, 434. Tuscany, tufas of, 45, 46 ; extinct glaciers of, 213. : Tweed valley, till of, 186. TyLor, A., cited, 162. INDEX. 591 Tyrol, glaciers from, invade low grounds | Vosges Mountains, glaciers of, 210; two to north, 208. Ulmus campestris, 49, 52, 58, 105; U. montana, 49. Unconformity between glacial and post- glacial deposits, 382, 385, 432, 465. Unio littoralis, 60, 138. Upsala, erratics at, 472. Ural Mountains, glaciation of, 210. Ursus arctos, 29, 367, 474; U. arver- nensis, 262, 363; U. etruscus, 317 ; U. ferox, 29, 463; U. speleus, 29, 62, 299, 463. (See also Cave-bear.) Urus, 24, 31, 32, 62, 87, 103, 108, 133, 147, 150, 261, 262, 378, 435, 436, 442, 456, 494, UssHER on post-tertiary deposits Cornwall, 441, 443, 445. Utznach, interglacial beds at, 298. of Vaccinium vitis-ideea, 299. Vaches-Noires, submarine forest near, 481. Val Adrara, glacial lake of, 315. Val Borlezza, ancient lake of, 304. Val Cavallina, extinct glacier of, 304. Val Concosola, 311. Val d’Arno, 22, 23, 317. Valentia, dredging forty miles off, 501. Val Foresto, glacial lake of, 315. Val Gandino, lignites of, 306 ; lacustrine deposits in, 308. Vallebiaia, traces of marine beds of glacial age in, 355. Val Camonica, ancient glacier of, 303. Valley-loss, 146. Valliéres, cave of, 110. Val Seriana, extinct glacier of, 304. Valvata, sp., 282, 284; V. depressa, 299; V. obtusa, 299; V. piscinalis, 277, 280, 310. VANDEN Broeck cited, 153. Varese, peat near, 56. VENETZ cited, 207. Venus ovata, 284; V. mercenaria, 502. Vergisson Cave, 18. Veronica alpina, 353; V. saxatilis, 353. VERRIL on southern colonies in Gulf of St. Lawrence, etc., 502. Verticordia abyssicola, 502. Veyrier, cave of, 112. ViprayYe, De, cited, 110, 111. Viburnum tinus, 47, 49. Victoria Cave, 96, 119. Villers, submarine forest at, 481. Vine, 47, 48. VircHow cited, 346, Vitis vinifera. (See Vine.) Vivarais, ancient glaciers of, 211. Volcanic eruptions in Central France be- fore close of Paleolithic Age, 320. Voles, 62, 149. glacial epochs in, 322. Waldheimia septigera, 467. Wales, glacial deposits of, 253; submer- gence of, 266 ; beaver in, 456. Walnut-tree, 46, 48, 53, 309. Walrus, 170, 449. WALTERSHAUSEN on trees in peat of East Friesland, 479; on glaciation of Ice- land, 519. Wapiti, 107. Warb, J. Clifton, cited, 191. Warten, section of peat-beds at, 477. Wash, The, submarine forests of, 431; postglacial and recent deposits on borders of, 445. Watchet, submarine forest at, 431. Water-rat, 87, 107, 367. Weasel, 31, 32, 107. Wellington Channel, shores of, 516. W endisch - Wehningen, posits of, 279. Werra valley, liss of, 146. Weser valley, loss of, 146. Westeregeln, loss-beds at, 149, 246. West Friesland, peat of, 479. Wexford Harbour, submarine peat of, 460. Whale, 399, 401, 438, 440, 449, 480. WHITAKER, W., cited, 274. Whitebeam, 47. White birch, 302. Waitt, BucHanay, cited, 391; on immi- gration of British flora, 507 ; on distri- bution of alpine lepidoptera in Britain, 511. White poplar, 47, 50, 53. Whortleberry, 302. Wigtonshire, raised beaches of, 418. Wild boar, 32, 103, 107, 108, 262, 325, 367, 373, 449, 480, 494. Wild cat, 31, 32, 107, 367, 373, 427, 456. Willows, 47, 50, 320, 420, 448, 469, 485, 494. (See also Salix.) Wind, absence of violent, in high latitudes during genial postglacial period, 523 ; erosion by, 244. Wolf, 31, 32, 91, 103, 107, 108, 151, 262, 325, 367, 373, 427, 449, 456, 4638, 480. Wolfenbiittel, léss-beds near, 147. Woodsia hyperborea, 353. Woop, 8. V., cited, 193; on succession of boulder-clays in England, 261; on sands and gravels of East Anglia, 263. Wookey Hole, 94. Woolly rhinoceros. ceros.) Wolverene. (See Glutton.) Wormit Bay, submarine peat and trees of, 390. Worsaak cited, 346; on kitchen-mid- dens, 866. buried trees on interglacial de- (See Siberian rhino- 592 INDEX. WURMBRAND, Count, cited, 151. Ystad, submarine peat and raised-beach Wiirtemberg, Pleistocene flora of, 53. of, 473. Wych elm, 49. ZEALAND, submarine peat of, 476. Yew, 54, 436, 448, 461, 480, 494. ZEUSCHNER cited, 146, 210. Yoldia arctica, 281, 467, 471 (see also| Zipplau, peat of, 476. Leda arctica); Y. pygmea, 403; Y.| Zrrren cited, 493. pygmea, var. gibbosa, 466, 467; Y. | Zoarcus viviparus, 471. pygmea, var. intermedia, 467. Zonites acieformis, 56, 59; Z. Blaunert, Youghal Bay, submarine peat of, 460. 64; Z. lathyri,64; Z. obscuratus, 64. Youne, J., on glaciers of Loch Skene, | Zua lubrica, 57. 412. Zurich, interglacial deposits near, 298. THE END. Printed by EDWARD STANFORD, 55 Charing Cross, London, S.W. EDWARD STANFORD’S REeCENt PUBLICATIONS: LIFE AND HER CHILDREN. Glimpses of Animal Life from the Ameba to the Insects. By ARABELLA B. 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The lecturers are all gentlemen who have devoted special attention to this department of science, which may be said to owe its origin to the facilities afforded by the electric telegraph for the rapid accumulation of facts. As with most lectures, the style is popular.” —Dazly News, LONDON: EDWARD STANFORD, 55 CHARING CROSS, S.W. RECENT PUBLICATIONS. THE “PROGRESS OF THE WORED IN ARTS, AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, MANUFACTURES, INSTRUCTION, RAILWAYS, AND PUBLIC WEALTH, SINCE THE BEGINNING OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. BY MICHAEL G. MULHALL, F.S.S., Author of ‘‘ The English in South America,” ‘‘ Handbook to the River Plate Republics,” ** Handbook to Brazil,” &c. Crown 8vo, cloth, 570 pp., 12s. 6d. ‘‘This is in many ways a remarkable book. It gives statistical information in a highly con- densed form respecting every country of the world whence such information can be obtained. The statements given are well arranged and clear. The topics dealt with include almost every subject of material interest to the welfare of mankind. It would be difficult, if not impossible, to name another book which gives so much information of the same description in so small a space.” —L£conomist. STUDIES IN ENGLISH LITERATURE. By JOHN DENNIS, Editor of ‘‘ English Sonnets: a Selection from 1 547,” &c. Crown 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d, CoNTENTS :— Pope— Defoe— Prior—Steele— The Wartons—John Wesley — Southey—English Lyrical Poetry—English Rural Poetry—The English Sonnet. ‘* One of the best books upon poetry which we have had for a very long time.”— Westminster Review.” ** An excellent book. It has the charm—quite captivating in these days—of being entirely void of affectation, extravagance, or any ‘trick of singularity ;’ and it displays sound judgment, both moral and zsthetic, and a thorough mastery of the subjects with which it deals.” —Sectator. THE DEFENCE OF GREAT AND GREATER BRITAIN. SKETCHES OF ITS NAVAL, MILITARY, AND POLITICAL ASPECTS. ANNOTATED WITH EXTRACTS FROM THE DISCUSSIONS THEY HAVE CALLED FORTH IN THE PRESS OF GREATER BRITAIN. By Captain J. C..R. COLOMB, F.S.S., F.R.G.S., And Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Demy 8vo, cloth, with Map. Price 8s. 6d. ‘*This book may be taken as a kind of handbook of the question of which it treats. There can be no doubt it contains a great deal of valuable information, and puts forward suggestions which are of great practical importance.” —Pall Mall Gazette. LONDON: EDWARD STANFORD, 55 CHARING CROSS, S.W. ‘RECENT PUBLICATIONS. STANFORD’S COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. FOR GENERAL READING. BASED ON HELLWALD’S “DIE ERDE UND IHRE VOLKER.” With Ethnological Appendices by A. H. KEANE, B.A. A Series of Volumes descriptive of the Great Divisions of the Globe. Large post 8vo. “« «Stanford’s Compendium of Geography and Travel’ promises to be one of the most important works on general geography published in this country for many years.” —7imes. AFRICA. EDITED AND EXTENDED BY KEITH JOHNSTON, F.R.G.S. Author of ‘* Physical, Historical, Political, and Descriptive Geography ;” late Leader of the Royal Geographical Society’s East African Expedition. Second Edition, large post 8vo, with 16 Maps and Diagrams and 68 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 21s. CENTRAL AMERICA, THE WEST INDIES, AND SOUTH AMERICA. EDITED AND EXTENDED BY H. W. BATES, Assistant-Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society ; Author of ‘The Naturalist on the Amazon.” Large post 8vo, with 13 Maps and 73 Illustrations. Cloth gilt, 21s. AUSTRALASIA. EDITED AND EXTENDED BY ALFRED R. WALLACE, F.R.G.S. Author of “The Malay Archipelago,” Geographical Distribution of Animals,” &c. Second Edition, large post 8vo, with 20 Maps and 56 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 21s. “BUROPH,” “ASIA,” and “NORTH AMERICA,” Ln the Press. LONDON: EDWARD STANFORD, 55 CHARING CROSS, S.W. AD Fs XO See ah Bale 51S ¥ 4 4 , ad ” 4 5 ; eee RN ON, ASSN Senne SS = \ SN SS MWA SON SSSA SS SS SSX SERRA SY \ ee N S SSS . eS 2, W SY SS SAAN) Gt