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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY.

| BULLETIN No. 10.

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS

OF

EHDGAR RICHARDS,

ASSISTANT CHEMIST,

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
Ere - 1886.

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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
US. DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY.
BULLETIN No. 10.

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS

OF

Mott, ANALYSIS.

BmNIGAH RICHARDS,

ASSISTANT CHEMIST.

WASHING TON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1886.

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LETTERS OF TRANSMITTAL

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY,
Washington, D. C., April 2, 1886.

Sir: The numerous inquiries received at this office relating to the
methods and objects of soil analysis lead me to believe that an abstract
of the present knowledge possessed by scientists on this subject would
prove of interest to those engaged in scientific agriculture.

Quite a number of samples of soil having accumulated in the Labora-
tory awaiting examination, I requested Mr. Edgar Richards to conduct
the analyses and to collect the information which is hereby submitted.
The following report shows how well he has performed his work. The
analyst who desires information concerning the latest methods of analy-
sis will find the best authorities mentioned with references to their
works; while the reader wko is not a chemist will discover a valuable
fund of information about soils and their treatment.

Respectfully,
H. W. WILEY,

Chemist.
Hon. NORMAN J. COLMAN,

Commissioner of Agriculture.

———

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY,
Washington, D. C., March 31, 1886.
Sir: In submitting the following report an attempt has been made
to collect such information on the subject of soils, now scattered through
so many different books and periodicals, as will be of general interest ;
together with the chemical methods that I have employed in executing
the analyses of some soils from New York, Louisiana, and elsewhere,
during the past year.
Respectfully, yours,
EDGAR RICHARDS,

Assistant Chemist.
Dy ir W. WILEY,

Chemist.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

On the derivation and the formation of soil -- ......- 22. secs 22-2 -- one one
omposition of the soil. 2 -- 2-20. -2<ccs cere --- 4 2-n= s 2 - be ewe mawenn= -0- 2 - = 2
Goneratlclassiicavlom Of SOUS) 2.62.55 5 ls. se. cate ce woo cn ns ere ewense o--- 2 wane
Geological classification of soils........---. 0. +--+. ---- ---- 2 seen ee +22 ee eee
Difference between the soil and the subsoil ..........--..----. ------ s--- -----
Weathering of the rocks and formation of the soil .......--.---..-------------
The'soils formed by the different geological formations .........--------------
ERECT OULOh une rsOll eaves bcs s ose cee = we nisinle vicinaieiele = wid'- <ni6 os evmaeje n=
The quantity of soil swept away by the rain replaced by the decomposition of
Fee ea ee ete ee irs sia So cle ciuiaiele Siesta wa Se cumelsa os anise vinnie
The general fertility of the soils depends principally on their texture......---.
ER PVSICAl PrODeEilEs OMSOlS eos. c245 saeccc%s to c2s cc csse sete s cele cen sone ete's
Importance of a proper mechanical condition -.-.-.....---..----.---..--.----
Variations in the texture of soils influence their fertility...-....---...--------
The absorbent and retentive powers of soils.....----. ---...---..-------------
Absorption of ammoniacal salts by various soils ...-........--..------...-.---
General conclusions in regard to thése powers ...... 1... .-..-.-----+----+0----
mua power of rotainimg moisture im the soll .<. 22-22. - 22 eine aaes woes
PeUeReM Per TUNE OMUNe SOM fas cee ccc se Ries -Sec)-ences sco ncue cesses scaeecse
Fertility of the soil depends on climatic conditions .......-----..----..------.
atte ME EDIMMe SIO IMO Ol ers ta oe sie, ere eras aise ans s siete Seieie el aaa aiteee caseasewe ese
The average composition of ordinary farm crops....-.--..--..-...-------------
SERED ORIENE Ea DURE NT 52 NS ee ee ee ee a
PEC LEMpPOLIny AOc ub is ccccs 5 o-= cam So eco alo os oa lainey sass cise so5%
MARCO MO GIG NOM tes ac lacietce sc ccs cccde eocscesscel case safecatee tacces coews
Pera tm CAllamelynIs Ol SOU chs 2. cose ose sa So wecisinccavleeuee cuisines onb.cies
Objection to the mechanical analysis of a'soil .-.2-. 22.2. c422 cee. cece ee eae
Principle applied to most of the apparatus used for this purpose ...-..---.-.--
Schloesing’s method for the mechanical determination of clay .......-...-----
The effect, of various proportions of sand in the soil........----...-..-----.-.-
EEC HAC aENTONORLIES OL SOL: .o2.o2.c= 122s .-et oes cmin ee cea seeee sore esos east
Great care necessary in obtaining the sample for analysis.......--...-.-.----.-
tterenoraica MCOMMPOSIbIOM OF SOMS-.¢ sos dsc ssa foe cee ences «esses doe ce acne +
Bie Tino sre OLeL eye Mc eee oe Shee hone Sten aes ce oe ee elements Sere oe ee acts
Mhewnorcanic or miieral portion of the soil’. 2-22 22...-- 12+ --2--2-2-+ eee es 2 e
bE DE ce ie SET Sek lS 2 cult ee gd Pt Nee eR en ae a eee

Ss NTTERITG RES COUT SERS OR ES PDN Ee Selena ee che ees 25 een | = UE Od enn ee ae
TLRS) 2 tle SS a Ete Sete Ee tee Rat ed Ah a ihe taal pal ee pen Har!

Ca TTR eS. Vee er IAD ERIE RAs Aa ol aL Ale lenin cers ceed ices

nie AC andy COOLING seo eats hs Sk eee ot ans se. ASbe
DAME) enie Bille Th TSS ee ee el ot aA aE ie tee sees
Fertility depends on the minimum quantity be any necessary GAnNe end pres-
OME cent “Shel aa ses SES SERA eA SEO Sey oe ee eee ie eee a

ep anra@awvys*

Page.

(Rhenveight/ ot ay soll Per acre nse ces sce scot ool tl eeeorse isi Sale s's1s cl stn Seen cena 28
Questions often answered by the analysis of soils -....-.-...------+---------< 29
Objects and interpretationrof soil analysis: .---se-c-2- ss + -- <5 >= eee 29
The method of soil analysis........-. ---.. A SS A A EERE 32
Collecting; the saniple G22 22. ssn aes ote eee eee os So sna hoes eee 33
Preparatroniof the sam ple shee. sect omiecins ceteris ke) sarees eee eece See eeee 34
Determination of moisture and of volatile and organic matter .:.....--..----. 35
Treatment of the soil with dilute hydrochloric acid ....-.-..-2.-.---» ---- <2 35
Determination of theunsoluble reside rae soonest ee 7 ese eee ae 36
Determination. of the hydratedisilica:. 2 2.\.2- dec sec. ee aoe eee cig Sek oe 36
Deternimatvon- of the solublesilies 22.4 --0oec-co 2 - Seen eee ee eee 37
Determunahionjiof the aroneand alumina =e. -sasee cee soe eee ee eee 37
Determination of the ferric oxide by titration with Sehnestna permanganate. . 38
Preparation of the standard permanganate solution ......-.-.--...--.---- 39
DeterninvHGnsOL tae diMe: 4.45 en. .aleeheears Metis <a cane een en ee ee 40
Determinatronrol the macneslayoeo.s io eee toni, nace Ae Sens eee aerate 41
Separation of the alkalies from the other bases present .......---..-+-.----.- 41
Meteraunation of (he potash, 25). 4.8.2< aad lose coe onsa5t sa vh' dp) ee 42
Weterminahionsor the Sodaces-.- oss sasieacle se Seen eae cei cre ee 3
DEetennintonvon ble, suiliphumiciacid yeas epee eee os oa pe eye ee ee 43
ireatnient Of tire-soil with dilute nitric acid some. 2. sm. ls) 24 oe eee eee 43
DeSterminabion Of che phosphone acid — on) see. meee see oe eee ae eee 44
Preparation ot the reacentsitsedtitecss os eee = cetae eo ee ee eee eee 44
Weterminationpor Chlorine zee ss Sew. Soe eas hee ie ice a are) ae ee ee ee 45
Preparation of the silver nitrate solution .......- ci peetem Aa e eeeeee 45
Determination of the carbonic acid by absorption ........-.-----.------------ 45
Determination of nitrogen by combustion with soda lime. .-......---..------- 46
Determination of nitric acid by Schloesing’s method... .... ...- Re eee sacs: 47
BR OTITIS Bye otetasnitersre c Rieu cinistaye le wins eee teat hare hee es oli cya a ta ee ee 49
On the geological character and qoeihation of the soils in the United States-. 51
History of the’ sols analyzed in) thisidivision 2: 2... .22.2-2e eee oe oe eee 53
Analysesiafthe soils PAO. MiGs. Jaa ee os 3.2 ots heinsi dak. Sep oe eee eee 54

The following works have been consulted in the preparation of this
report:

Economic Geology, by David Page. Edinburgh, hee

Manual of Geology, by James D. Dana. New one 375.

Iowa Geological Survey. Vol. I, 1858.

Kentucky Geological Survey. Vol. III, 1857.

Vegetable mold and earth worms, by Charles Darwin. New York, 1882.

Tenth Census of the United States. Vol. V. Cotton production. Washington, 1884.

The Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society.

The American Journal of Science.

The Soil of the Farm, by John Scott and J. C. Morton. London, 1822.

The Chemistry of the Farm, by R. Warington. London, 1881.

Traité de Chimie Analytique appliquée a L’Agriculture, par Eug. Peligot. Paris,
1883.

Traité D’Analyse des Matiéres Agricoles, par L. Grandeau. Paris, 1877.

Quantitative Chemical Analysis, by Dr. C. Remigius Fresenius. Second American
edition. New York, 1883.

Quantitative Chemical Analysis, by F. A. Cairns. New York, 1881.

Volumetric Analysis, by Francis Sutton. Fifth edition. London. 1822.

Select Methods in Chemical Analysis, by Wm. Crooks, London. 187].

PRINCIPLES: AND METHODS OF SOIL ANALYSIS.

ON THE DERIVATION AND THE FORMATION OF SOIL.

All soils are the result of the natural disintegration of the rocks by
atmospheric agencies, mingled with decayed vegetable and animal mat-
ter in greater or less proportion. If natural agencies, such as glaciers,
rain, frost, wind, &c., did not come into play and wash and transport
the materials of soil to a greater or less distance from their sources,
the soil of every locality would be simply the decayed upper surface of
the underlying rocks. But in proportion to the slope of the ground and
the activity of the agents above mentioned, the soil is transported from
higher to lower levels, and in many cases a good soi] may be found cov-
ering rocks which of themselves would only vield a poor soil.

COMPOSITION OF THE SOIL.

Soil is a mixture of sand, either quartzose or feldspathic, clay, carbo-
nate of lime, and humus or organic matter, and on the preponderance
of one or more of these constituents the usual classifications of soils are
based.

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS.

Soils are usually classified as sandy, sandy or light loams, loams, clayey
loams, heavy or retentive clays, inarls, calcareous loains, and peaty soils.
This classification has reference chiefly to composition and texture, a
special chemical composition, siliceous, calcareous, &ec., being necessary
for the profitable growth of particular crops, and a certain mechanical
texture, friable, porous, &e., suiting best for the permeation of rain and
air, and the spreading of the roots of the plant.*

Loams, which may be considered as typical soils, are a mixture of
sand, clay, and humus, which are spoken of as light when the sand
predominates and as heavy when the clay is in excess. These terms,
light and heavy, do not refer to the actual weight of the soil, but to its
tenacity and degree of resistance it offers to the implements used in
cultivation. Sandy soils are, in the farmer’s sense of the word, the
lightest of all soils because they are the easiest to work, whilst in actual
weight they are the heaviest soils known. Clay, though hard to work

*Page’s Economic Geology.
gs Sy
7

8
on account of its tenacity, is comparatively a light soil in weight. Peaty
soils are light in both senses of the word, being loose or porous, and
having little actual weight.* (See Table III.)

GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS.

Whatever their composition and texture, soils are, from a geological
standpoint, mainly of two sorts: soils of disintegration and soils of
transport. Under the former are comprehended such as arise from the
waste and decay of the immediately underlying rocks, the limestones,
traps, granites, and the like, together with a certain admixture of vege-
table and animal débris; and which are directly influenced in their
composition, texture, and drainage by the nature of the subjacent rocks
from which they are derived. Under the latter are embraced all drift
and alluvial materials, such as sand, shingly débris, miscellaneous silt,
and clay, which have been worn from other rocks by atmospheric agencies
and transported to their existing positions by winds, waters, or ancient
glacial action.t

ae

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE SOIL AND THE SUBSOIL.

Besides the soils proper, which come immediately under cultivation,
there are in most places a set of subsoils, differing from the true soils:
and which cannot be ignored. The true soils are usually of a darker
color, from the larger admixture of humus, whilst the subsoils are lighter
in hue, yellow, red, or bluish, from the greater preponderance of the
iron oxides. The soils are more or less friable in their texture, whilst
the subsoils are tougher, more compact, and more largely commingled
with rubbly and stony débris. The soils are usually a little more than
mere surface covering, whilst the subsoils may be many feet in thick-
ness.t

WEATHERING OF THE ROCKS AND FORMATION OF THE SOIL.

All exposed rocks break up in course of time under the continued
action of atmospheric agencies, however hard and refractory they may
be; these agencies act both chemically and mechanically. The rain,
owing to the absorption of carbonic acid from the atmosphere, acts
chemically on the rocks by its solvent action, and also from its oxygeu
combining with substances not yet fully oxidized. Its mechanical ac-
tion appears in its washing away the finer portions of the disintegrated
rock or soil from higher to lower ground. The changes in temperature
have a loosening influence by causing alternate expansion and contrae-
tion. The atmosphere itself acts chemically upon the rocks by the
slow oxidization of those minerals which can absorb more oxygen, and
the production of carbonates and bicarbonates whose solubility still

“The Soil of the Farm.
tPage’s Economic Geology.

9

further aids disintegration. These disintegrating agencies are still
further aided by the root-growths of plants, by the burrowing of worms
and other earth-dwelling creatures, and in no small degree by the gen-
eration of organic acids, humic, crenic, &c¢., by organic decay.

From the hardest granites, basalts, and lavas, to the softest lime-
stones and marls, all are undergoing this disintegration; and the soils
to which they give rise will vary in depth, composition, and texture
according to the softness and mineral character of the rocks and the
length of time they have been subjected to these agencies.*t

According to Darwint the solid rocks disintegrate even in countries
where it seldom rains and where there is no frost. De Koninick, a
Belgian geologist, is of opinion that such disintegration may be attrib-
uted to the carbonic and nitric acids, together with the nitrates of am-
monia, Which are dissolved in the dew.

The rocks which weather most easily and rapidly do not always ey-
Libit most soil, very often the reverse. A pure limestone would exhibit
hardly any weathered band or soil, because the carbonic acid of the rain
would almost at once dissolve and remove the particles it acts upon.
Even in the case of igneous rocks, their composition nay be such that
those which weather the most rapidly would, likewise, show little of a
weathered band, owing to the same solvent action.{

THE SOILS FORMED BY THE DIFFERENT GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS.

The rocks of which feldspar is one of the constituents are the origins
of the clays and potash which are met with in all arable soils; feldspar
is a silicate of aluminium and potassium, which on disintegration forms
clay, a silicate of Wduminium, and a silicate of potassiun.

The primitive and igneous rocks yield soils rich in potash, and the
fossiliferous rocks those rich in phosphoric acid.

THE DENUDATION OF THE SOIL.

The same agencies which form the soils are also wasting and carry-
ing them away. During every rain storm transportation of soil goes
on, as the brooks and rivers show, after heavy long-continued rains, by
the vellow muddy color of their waters that tbey are carrying a vast
quantity of sediment towards the sea. The running streams bear along
the transported matter, and gradually deposit it.as the current dimin-
ishes in velocity, the very finest particles being carried as long as the
stream remains in motion. When a river reaches 2 flat or level tract
and over which its waters can flow in flood with a slow motion, the sus-
pended matter, cousisting principally of sand and mud, is deposited,
and constitutes the alluviwm, or new land, formed by such deposits at
the river’s mouth or along its banks.t

*Page’s Economic Geology.
t Darwin’s Vegetable Mold and Earth Worms, 1832, p. 235.
tThe Soil of the Farm.

10

THE QUANTITY OF SOIL SWEPT AWAY BY THE RAIN REPLACED BY
TEE DECOMPOSITION OF THE ROCKS.

Though the soil is thus continuously washed away, still it remains
nearly constant in quantity, since what is taken away by denudation
is made up from other causes, and this augmentation can proceed evi-
dently from nothing but the slow and constant disintegration of the
underlying rocks. The subsoils are likewise gradually being converted
into soil, and thus keep up the supply available for the nourishment of
plant life. The constant tillage aud plowing of the ground subjects it
more readily to the weathcring action than is the case with grass or
other lands protected by natural vegetation.*

THE GENERAL FERTILITY OF THE SOILS DEPENDS PRINCIPALLY ON
THEIR TEXTURE. .

From an agricultural standpoint, the soil, which is the natural store-
house and laboratory from whence plants derive their supply of food,
should present different qualities which according as they are more
or less developed, exert a considerable influence upon its fertility; it
should be firm enough to afford a proper degree of support for the
plants that grow on it, and yet loose enough to allow the delicate fibers
of the rootlets to extend themselves in all directions in search of the
food of which they are in need. It must be of such a texture as to al-
low the free access of air, without which plants cannot live; and it
must be close enough to retain, for a considerable time, the water which
falls on it, and yet porous enough to allow the excess to drain away.
In this respect, the nature of the subsoil and the depth of the surface
soil are both important. When a soil rests immediately upon a bed of
rocks or gravel, it will naturally be drier than wheu it rests on clay or
marl. On the other hand, a clay subsoil may be of great advantage
to a sandy soil, by enabling it to retain moisture longer in dry weather.
These qualities depend altogether on the state of division of the soil)
and of its geological origin, and it is important, consequently, to study
the arable soil under the two.standpoints of its physical properties and
of its chemical nature. (Peligot.)

THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS.

The physical properties of a soil may be considered in regard to its
texture, its absorbent powers, and its temperature.

Soils differ not only in chemical composition, but also in physical
characteristics, the aspect, elevation, depth, climatic conditions, drain-
age, &c., that enter into the problem and cause the variations in the
relative productiveness of two fields.

The knowledge of the inherent agricultural capabilities of the differ.
ent classes of soil is still very far from being perfect, though, by the re-

- *The Soil of the Farm.

Oa

searches of chemists since 1860, many important facts have been brought
to light which have led:to improvements in the cultivation of the land.

IMPORTANCE OF A PROPER MECHANICAL CONDITION.

It is not very difficult to adapt the plant or crop to the nature of the
soil when once we know what mineral ingredients are required by the
one and furnished by the other; but it demands very close observation
and study and a most diligent application of means to bring the physi-
cal or mechanical properties of the soil into the state best fitted for
plant growth.

The influence of mechanical operations become obvious, as the acces-
sibility of air, moisture, and warmth, which are essential to the devel-
opment of the changes that occur in the process of germinatiun, are
but slightly influenced by the chemical composition of the soil, being
all dependent on its mechanical condition. And this influence is not
contined to the first stages of growth and development of vegetation,
but is required all through the life of the plant, for they cannot avail
themselves of their full anount of food unless the state of the soil admits
of the free passage of air and moisture, and is favorable to the exten-
sion of the rootlets in all directions.*

VARIATIONS IN THE TEXTURE OF SOILS INFLUENCE THEIR FER-
ErLIry.

Soils may vary from the coarsest pebbles and loose sands to the finest
and most tenacious clays. Those soils are best adapted to agriculture
which consist of a mixture of sand with a moderate quantity of clay
and a little vegetable matter. When the sand or other coarse material
predeminates, the soil is easy to till, and will grow most of the crops
which are suitable to the locality; but it is deficient in the power of
retaining moisture, and the soluble and volatile parts of nanure. When
the clay is in excess, the soil is more difficult to till, and will probably
grow fewer crops, as it retains more moisture, is not easily warmed, does
not admit of free access of air, and consequently does not facilitate the
chemical changes in the soil and manure placed on it, which are so im-
portant to the proper nourishment of the plants.

If soils differed in nothing else than that of texture, the one which
contained the greatest amount of finely divided matter would possess
an advantage over those with coarser parts. One cause of this supe-
riority consists in the greater absorptive and retentive powers which
finely divided matter possesses, due probably to the immensely greater
quantity of surface exposed in a given bulk or weight of the more finely
divided soil.*

THE ABSORBENT AND RETENTIVE POWERS OF SOIL.

The observations of Sir H. S. Thompson,t on the absorbent and re-
tentive powers of soil, or the power possessed by a soil to decompose

* The Soil of the Farm.
+ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, vol. xi, p. 68.

“12

and retain for the subsistence of the plants the ammoniacal and other
salts which form the most valuable constituents of manure, and the
highly important investigations of Professors Way* and Voelckert on
this subject, have had a most important bearing on practical agricult-
ure, especially to the rational treatment and application of farm-yard
manure and the economical use of artificial manures.

The investigations of Professor Way have given a new direction to
the chemical study of soils, and the subject has been taken up by Liebig,
Knopp, Henneberg, Stohman, Brustlein, Peters, Voelcker, Warington,
and other chemists. [In the pages of the Journal of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England will be found the reports of many important
investigations undertaken in England to which the reader is referred for
more detailed information. |

These several investigations have shown that the property of absorb-
ing, retaining, and modifying the composition of manures belongs to
every soil in a greater or less degree.

ABSORPTION OF AMMONIACAL SALTS BY VARIOUS SOILS.

The ammonia floating in the atmosphere is continually being washed
into the soil, carried into it by the rains. The clay, oxide of iron, and
the organic matter contained in the soils, perform the important fune-
tion of absorption. This property of clay may be one of the reasons why
clay lands are more suitable to wheat than are sandy soils. Although
clay has this property of retaining more of these absorbed substances
than sands or loams, yet it is evident that these latter soils must receive
the same amount of fertilizing matter from the rains, only they have
less ability for retaining or storing it up.t

In regard to the absorption of ammonia and its salts by various soils,
the following summary is taken from Dr. Voeleker’s paper “On the
chemical properties of soils:Ӥ

(1) All of the soils experimented upon had the power of absorbing ammonia from
its solution in water.

(2) Ammonia is never completely removed from its solution, however, weak if may
be. On passing a solution of ammonia, whether weak or strong, through avy kind
of soil, a certain quantity of ammonia invariably passes through. No soil has the
power of fixing completely the ammonia with which it is bronght in contact.

(8) The absolute quantity of ammonia which is absorbed by a soil is larger when a
stronger solution of ammonia is passed through it, but, relatively weaker solutions
are more thoroughly exhausted than stronger ones.

(4) A soil which has absorbed as much ammonia as it will from a weak solution,
takes up a fresh quantity of ammonia when itis brought into contact with a stronger
solution.

(5) In passing solutions of salts of ammonia through soils, the ammonia alone is ab-

* Journ. Royal Agric. Soc., vol. xi, p. 313.
tIbid., vol. xiv, p. 808.

t The Soil of the Farm.

§ Journ. Royal Agric. Soc., vol. xxi, p. 125.

13

sorbed, and the acids pass through, generally in combination with lime, or when lime
is deficient in the soil, in combination with magnesia or other mineral bases.

(6) Soils absorb more ammovia from stronger than from weaker solutions of sul-
phate of ammonia, as of other ammonia salts.

(7) In no instance is the ammonia absorbed by soils from solutions of free ammonia,
or from salts of ammonia, so completely or permanently fixed as to prevent water
from washing out appreciable quantities of ammonia.

(8) Fhe proportion of ammonia which is removed in the several washings is small
in proportion to that retained by the soil.

(9) The power of soil to absorb ammonia from solutions of free or combined amimo-
nia is thus greater than the power of water to redissolve it.

It may be concluded from the ahove that in ordinary seasons no fears
need be entertained that occasional heavy rain storms will remove
much ammonia from ammoniacal top-dressings, such as sulphate of am-
monia, soot, guano, and similar manures, but in excessively rainy seasons,
or in districts that have a large rainfall considerable quantities may
be removed from land top-dressed with ammoniacal manure, even in the
case of stiff clay lands.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS IN REGARD TO THESE POWERS.

The general conclusions that may be drawn from the different inves-
tigations show that when surface waters charged with the products of
vegetable decay are brought into contact with argillaceous sediment,
they part to some extent with their potash, ammonia, silica, phosphoric
acid, and organic matter, which remains in combination with the soil;
whilst, under ordinary conditions at least, neither nitrates, soda, lime,
magnesia, sulpburie acid, nor chlorine are retained. The phosphates
are probabiy retained in combination with alumina or peroxide of iron,
and the silica and organic matters enter into more or less insoluble
combinations.*

‘The drainage waters from clay soils, especially if the soil is in a fine
state of division, are found to carry off the nitrates, sulphates, chlorides,
and carbonates of soda, lime, and magnesia.

THE POWER OF RETAINING MOISTURE IN THE SOIL.

The amount of moisture retained by a soil is generally in direct ratio
to its contents of organic matter and its state of division. A proper
degree. of fineness in the particles of the soil is very important to
obtain, especially if it is subjected to drought. During dry weather
plants require a soil that is both retentive and absorptive of atmospheric
moisture, and that soil which has this faculty will evidently raise a more
vigorous crop than one without it. The materials which are most in-
fiuential in soils may be arranged in the following order, when this con-
dition of retaining moisture is considered : Organic matter, marls, clays,
loams, and sands.

“The Soil of the Farm.

14
THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL.

The temperature of a soil depends very much upon its humidity, dry
lands absorbing more quickly and losing more slowly the heat than
wet lands. The temperature of drained lands is consequently higher
in summer than those which are undrained. The greatest difference
occurs in the spring between the temperature of the atmosphere and
that of the soil, as, owing to the moisture from the winter and spring
storms, the soil, in consequence of the evaporation required to dry it
sufficiently, but gradually acquires the proper temperature demanded
by the coming vegetation. After it is once thoroughly warmed it re-
tains a certain amount in reserve which is of benefit to the late ripen-
ing and gathering of certain crops. Dark colored soils absorb heat
more rapidly than those of lighter color.*

FERTILITY OF THE SOIL DEPENDS ON CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.

In this country the soils are fertile enough, for the most part, to raise
any crop desired, if the climatic conditions are favorable, and this is a
point that must not be lost sight of. As it is certain that the range of
the thermometer during the growing season of the year will affect the
productiveness of the ground, nothwithstanding a favorable compo-
sition and texture of the soil and an adequate rainfall, and disregard
of such local conditions as temperature, rainfall, elevation above sea
level, aspect, nearness to water, &c., will lead to very erroneous opin-
ions of the soil. Thus, in the case of the Northwest, for example, with
the severe winters and late springs and early falls, only such crops as
will mature early can be raised, notwithstanding the noted fertility of
its soil.

The amount of rainfall and the season of its descent determine the
nature of the crops raised, and exercise a considerable influence on the
fertility of the soil. The action of the rain carries the soluble ingredi-
ents which the plants require to their roots and supplies them with
the necessary moisture. The soil, however, must be permeable enough
to let the excess of water drain away; water-logged soils show imme-
diate improvement when properly drained.

THE BARENNESS OF SOIL. <

No soil is absolutely barren unless it contains substances poisonous to
plants, such as an excess of organic acids, alkaline salts, the sulphate of
iron, the sulphide of iron, or other injurious ingredients; but it may be so
considered when it will not produce such crops as the farmer may wish to
raise. Such a soil may, in many cases, be made productive by adding
to it the constituent of which it is in need ; but, if this cannot be done ex-
cept at a prohibitory cost, or one at which more fertile ground can be
procured, the soil may be regarded as practically worthless.

us The Soil of the Farm.

;

15
THE AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF ORDINARY FARM CROPS.

The amount of food taken from the soil by different crops is given in
the following table, taken from “ The Chemistry of the Farm,” pp. 38, 39.
This table gives the average composition of ordinary farm crops as
grown in England; and the annual produce of beech, spruce, fir, and
Scotch pine forests, felled for timber, the results of extensive investi-
gations made in Bavaria.

The quantities of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen present are omitted ;
also some of the smaller ash constituents. By ‘ pure ash” is meant the
ash minus sand, charcoal, and carbonic acid.

TABLE I.—The weight and average composition of ordinary crops in pounds, per acre.
(R. Warington.)

5 ABP AT TS 2
Sober le re / 3 |
OF = & | g
lit sae mu | | | ; =
2 Seeley s., | : & 5 :
oy eo ee aoe eee Pe eS | rece Peer ek:
See ee es |e me |e ee ae et Shy oe
Se PE A |Al| a) & Baty GaN Mee ue hear San
“ # ei. 3 = 7) eS SS i - 2ame z — = ae || - i ke == M ae
| | | | | |
Wheat: Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs.| Lbs. Lbs.| Lbs.; Lbs. | Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs.
Grain, 30 bushels...) 1,800 | 1,530} 31/ 33) 2.7) 9.7) 0.9) LO! 37) 143) O21) 0.5
RIMM iisa a ae) 5 - 3, 158 | 2,053 | 1538 | 12h) Sas 2 2. 5h 9 | 4.0 8.4 Leia kOe
Total crop ..-.... 4,958 | 4,183 | 189} 45| 7.8/27.9| 34,102) 7.7] 227) 1.9] 1111
Barley: | Ay mast | | | it
Grain, 40 bushels...| 2,080 | 1,747| 46| 35| 29! 9.8] 1.0] 1.3] 4.0]162] 04] 12.0
Rieu? 2th. 2t55-- 2,447 | 2,080} luo} 12! 32/216! 42) 85] 25] 44) 32] 5L5
a | eee ee —— — _- oo SO |
Total crop.......| 4,527) 3,827] 146) 47) 61/314) 52] 98] 65/206] 3.6] 63:5
Oats : mT Z. 5 aay Vil ibet | , ane Park iinet
Grain, 45 bushels.../ 1,890 | 1,625] 54] 38| 3.2] 85| 14] 20| 3.9/11.8]...... 24.8
Sn (a, rr tae 2, 835 2,353 | 140 | 14 | 4.8 | 29.6 5.9 9.8 Doe Ted 5.5 69. 3
Total crop ...-... 4,725 | 3,978 | 194; 52) 8.0] 381/ 73/118) 92/189| 55] 94.1
Meadow hay, 1 tous*..| 3,360 | 2,822 | 208) 49| 5.7 | 56.3 11.9 | 281|10.1|127|162 57.5

Red clover hay,2tons*.| 4,480 | 3,763 | 255| 102 9.4 87.4, 4.1 | 861) 30.9|251| 94, 6.8
Beans: alc esAGs, aCe | | (13, a | ae Pin gar
Grain, 30 bushels../ 1,920 1,613) 57) 77| 4.4 23.0) 0.8| 29 | Shei | Boa le de Bal tS
Straw, 30 bushels../ 2,240 1,848/ 130) 22) 4.9) 581/| 4.9/|30.2/103| 92/181) 69
Total crop ....... 4,160 | 3,461 | 187| 99} 93/811] 5.7|33%1)141| 315/196) 7.7
Turnips: Misses hi Saha lea 5 ;
Roots, 17 tons* ....| 38,080 | 3,126 | 218) 71 | 15.2 108.6) 17.0 25.5) 5.7] 224/109] 2.6
Leat, 17 tons*...... 11,424; 1531/1146 49) 5.7/1 40.2/ 7.5/485| 3.8|10.7/11.2) 5.1
Total crop ....... 49,504 | 4,657 | 364} 120 20.9 148.8 | 24.5 74.01 -95/|331|221, 7.
ee |) Se en =e —————} = =I
Swedes: | | |
Roots, 14 tons* ....| 31,260 | 3,349 | 163 | 74 | 14.6 | 63.3 | 22.8/19.7/ 68/169] 68) 21
Leaf, 14 tons* ... | 4 704 706 | 75] 28| 32/164] 92/227! 24] 48) 2 F
Total crop ...-..- | 36,064 | 4,055 | 238 | 102 17.8 | 79.7|320| 424) 92/21.7/351; 67
Mangels: ye en en Na hice | Loe
Roots, 22 tons* ....| 49,280 | 5,628 410) 96 4.9 191.1 | 75.4) 24.2 19.7) 34.0/ 40.6 16.4
ee ae 18,233 | 1,654 | 280] 51/ 91) 71.4 | 652 / 29.1 /27.2/151/1498) 9.2
. = a Pe eed ee eee
Total crop ....... 67,513 | 7,282 | 690 | 147 | 14.0 262.5 [140.6 | 53.3 | 46.9 | 49.1 | 90.4 25.6
Potatoes: ie eet Lee). ithe dy peed EIS Th ry ee oe
Tubers, 6 tons*....| 13,440 | 3,360/ 126] 47| 2.7|75.4/ 20) 29! 57/241) 35! 29
Haulmt...........| 4,274} 954| 50] 20) 21/ 11) 20/ 227/124) 27) 19) 21
| aed aS 2 saa Se Rin ak aaa a
Total crop...--.- | 17,714 | 4,314| 176] 67| 4.8| 765) 4.0/25.6/12.1/]268) 54] 5.0
*A ton of 2,240 pounds. +Caleculated from a single analysis only.

16

TABLE I.—The weight and average composition of ordinary crops, &c.—Continued.

2 5 | I |
Es S' z | | | io
oS nD ° oc |
ied Ge 2 eno : aS
oF i a a = N= | = 3 é
| 2 2s = Wagterhe = a 2 = He
A Ey mile} @ a é & ie g
So o e\|f/e/2]s)e e | 2) See
E E H\/2/| an | & | w }A)/ a) |S |e
Beech: Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs.| Lbs. i : . | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs.
WWiOOd ee Sos Fe Ree tiMaceediad 2, 822 26 Soe zane We : r 3.4 2s BY | fared pate 2.2
Leaf litter .-..-.-.-. ‘eros 2.975 | 166) |... ate K 4 1 LOSOi |” “Oren Sareea 53. 9
Total produce ...|........ 5,797 | 192 |.....| 1403 (11, Dee 56.1
Spruce fir: a ae <a rd | ony iis i
Wrowdi eee (iced ee 3,064 | 26 |.... | eee: dy etl | Se ee eee 2.9
Weafslitters. 25-2 =. - Jadeise se | 2,683) | 121 |.--.- . -5 | 64, 6529 |- Ob Tistceee 44.3
| a a ——— f Pa
Total produce ...|........ | 5,747 | 141 8.0) TOM eeeae | 47.2
Scotch pine: | : | a ead ay ~ i
Wrddeste seca. WANE Se Pm all Bog Pn | [me |.2:3 | 021-9 0)| 205 ene | 0.5
Leaf litter ......-.-. ee ere Ea 2, 845 Co ered ower ar 4.3 17 1658"), as3 BR ale sis 5.8
Total produce ...|.... . | 5,729 | 57 |.....|-.....] 6.6 1.9 25.8 ake eee | 638
| | | |

From the above table we can judge of the quantity of the different
soH constituents which various crops absorb from an acre of ground,
and how certain plants demand some one particular ingredient more
than others. In general, we may say that the cereal crops apparently
possess a capacity for feeding on silicates not enjoyed by other crops,
and contain a Jess amount of nitrogen than either the root or legumi-
nous crops; nevertheless, they respond the most readily to nitrogenous
manures. The amount of phosphoric acid is the most constant of all
the constituents of crops, being concentrated in the grain. The root
crops contain a large amount of potash, and are the most exhausting
to the soil in consequence; they take up more nitrogen than do the
cereals, besides other ash constituents, as phosphoric acid. The legu-
minous crops contain about twice as much nitrogen as do the cereals,
and the potash and lime occur in large proportions. Silica is nearly
absent. They respond most readily to potash manures.

The growth of forests is far less exhausting to a soil than are most
ordinary farm crops, especially where the leaves from the trees are left
to manure the ground by their decay.

PERMANENT FERTILITY.

The investigations of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert* in regard to the ex-
haustion of land by the same crops grown year after year on the same
field, left unnmanured, which they have been carrying on at Rothamsted,
England, for the past forty years, lead them to conclude that all lands
left unmanured for a longer or shorter number of years have a certain

* Journ. Agric. Soc.

» +“

=

a
¢

—

i

standard of natural fertility, varying within certain limits, according
to the character of the season and the management; which standard,
on a large scale, could practically neither be permanently reduced nor
increased by cultivation. Such lands are said to be “out of condi-
tion.”

Of course, it must be borne in mind that these observations apply to
actual English farm practice and the term must not be pushed to any
great extreme.

ACQUIRED OR TEMPORARY FERTILITY.

A land is said to be “in good condition” when by the application
of manure its permanent fertility is raised so as to produce larger crops,
due to the accumulation within the soil of suitable plant food derived
from the manure, which may be reduced or entirely withdrawn by the
crops. But siuce it is the minimum of any one essential ingredient
and not the maximum of the others which is the measure of fertility, a
soil may become exhausted for one plant yet still contain an abundant
food supply for another plant whose food requirements are different.
Thus a rotation of crops will defer the period of exhaustion. A poor
soil is sooner reduced to sterility than a rich one, a shallow soil would
fail sooner than a deep one, and a light soil sooner than a stiff one. As
only about 1 per cent. of a soil is in a fit condition at any moment for
plaut food, an immense store of nourishment is contained in most soils
in a passive condition, which gradually becomes available.*

IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL.

The improvement of the soil by tillage, drainage, irrigation, liming,
and the application of manures, does not enter iuto the subject of this
report, and the reader in quest of such information is referred to any
of the standard works on agriculture, where these subjects are treated

tin full detail.

THE MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOIL.

At one time great stress was Jaid upon the mechanical analysis of a
soil, and chemists were toid that more depended on it than on the chemi-
cal composition, but nowadays, whiist a knowledge of its physical con-
dition is a great help in studying the nature of a soil, still its chemical
analysis is of more importance.

Of the great number of apparatns proposed to effect the mechanical
analysis of soils, all labor under more or less objections, and the same
soil submitted to ditferent processes yields most diverse results.

* The Soil of the Farm.
13735—No. 10——2

; 18

An Italian chemist, M. Pellegrini, obtained the following results with
a clay soil of Orciano, near Pisa, on using the apparatus named: *

; a
Noeble’s. soe |Masure’s.
g’s.

| Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.

Sat ee aS Seer ASR SRE aeccs Amc rma orca mae TS OTOre ara 1.47 32. 07 13. 35
A giyes c 2h eee mete iaie io will = oie ese ie Cele seal ee gel See Slates amie a oat atateteteiee 87. Bi 37. 67 71.90
Harthy carbonates) 22. .2-- =~ -.= 92m sce eee ee ale emai mate ole nits |iaieieie ei 20.20)" |= eae
Organic and volatile matter.....-..-...------------ --------2-==-+------- 9. 66 10; 25 ||-2 ke are
Wndetermiuined o--se. eae ase esac en sa eete eee cee | ee tenia tee nee eters . || st eeenen 14.75
Solubletand loss 4.22), dean cece se nee ene eae ee oe sae on Sart ere ee era 1. 56 | |

100. 00 100. 19 100. 00

Whilst these differences are enormous, still the methods are hardly
comparable. That of Schloesing’s has for its object the separation-of
the clay, in almost a pure state, from the sand, lime, and other mate.
rials which accompany it. Masure’s, and Noeble’s apparatus make use
of the mechanical action of a stream of water to separate the soil into
more or less fine particles.

OBJECTION TO THE MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF A SOIL.

The objection most frequently urged against such mechanical analy-
sis is, that the lightest portion, most commonly called clay, contains, in
addition to that body, some very fine sand, some calcareous or felds-
spathic products, in addition to organic matter in a fine state of division.
This cause of error has long been pointed out by Boussingault, Gaspa-
rin, and other authors.

PRINCIPLE APPLIED TO MOST OF THE APPARATUS USED FOR THIS
PURPOSE.

The principle adopted in most apparatus used for this purpose is the
mechanical action of a stream of water flowing through the soil into a
succession of vessels, each somewhat larger than the one preceding,
and in which a certain amount of sediment is gradually deposited, be-
ginning with the coarsest and heaviest particles and ending with the
very finest. A weighed quantity of the air-dried soil is taken, and the
action of the water continued till it runs through the last vessel used
perfectly clear; the different deposits are collected, dried, ignited, and
weighed separately. The results obtained are only approximate, and —
differ in the same soil using the same apparatus.

A suceession of metal sieves, ranging from 10 to 100 meshes to the
square inch, are sometimes used for this purpose, a weighed quantity of
soil being taken and the portion remaining on each sieve being col-
lected and weighed. A

* Peligot, p. 154.

ee

a ee

ets

es)

SCHLOESING’S METHOD FOR THE MECHANICAL DETERMINATION OF
‘ CLAY.

The method adopted by Schloesing for the mechanical determination
of clay is as follows: Knead in a porcelain dish 5 to 10 grams of the soil,
previously separated from the gravel and organic matter, with a little
water into a firm paste; fill the dish half full of water, and rub the mass
with the forefinger; decanc without carrying over the sand; repeat the
washing by decantation until the sand yields nothing further to the
water. All the waters of decantation are collected together, making a
volume of 300 to 400 cubic centimeters of liquid; this is treated with
nitrie acid in small quantities at a time until the solution is acid to test
paper. This treatment has the effect of coagulating the clay and thus
clearing up the muddy liquid. The solution is transferred to a filter and
the mixture of fine sand and clay washed thoroughly with water until the
liquid goes through cloudy ; when the contents of the filter are washed
with dilute ammonia into a jar of 2 liters’ capacity, using about 150 ¢. ¢.
of the dilute ammonia for this purpose; then fill up the jar with pure
water, and let it digest for an hour, agitating it frequently. Set it
aside for twenty-four bcurs, and then siphon off the clayey liquid ;
the sand resting at the bottom of the vessel is dried and weighed in a
dish. This is the tine sand that is ordinarily mixed upin the clay... Its
weight deducted from that of the quantity of soil used will give the
¢lay. (Peligot, p. 153.)

- THE EFFECT OF VARIOUS PROPORTIONS OF SAND IN THE SOIL.

According to Thaer (Peligot, p. 158), when the sand and clay are of
equal parts, or in the proportion of 46 of sand to 60 of clay, comprising
under this name the finest sand, W&e., as found in mechanical analysis,
the soil is fitted for al] kinds of crops; with more than 60 per cent. of
sand they are suitable to rye and barley, rarely for wheat; with 70 per
cent. of sand, the soil is suitable still for the cultivation of barley, and
especially for the cultivation of rye; it is easily worked, but the manures
are rapidly used up; with 90 per cent. of sand, the soil becomes dusty
in dry weather, and it becomes difficult to reap any benefit from it.
With less than 30 per cent. of sand, the very clayey soils are stiil fitted
for the cultivaticn of oats. When the proportion of sand is 30 per cent.
the barley raised is better than the wheat.

THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL.

A knowledge of the chemical composition of a soil is often of great
benefit to the farmer, as allowing him to judge whether it contains the
proper soil-constituents of which the crop he proposes to raise stands in
need, or, being deficient, what is likely to prove the best fertilizer to be
applied. Mere analytical results do not, in a great many cases, show
the agricaltural capabilities of a soil; thus, there are many soils whose

20

chemical composition is apparently similar, that is to say, that the nu-
merical results obtained by analysis show the like quantities of silica,
lime, magnesia, soda, potash, phosphoric acid, &c., and yet a certain
crop, clover for instance, will flourish on the one and not on the other.
The physical nature of such soils, their depth, character of subsoil, as-
pect, texture, climatic conditions, &c., have likewise to be taken into
account. Thus the many problems that enter into the study of soils
are so various that chemical analysis alone does not afford, in most cases,
a sufficient guide to an estimate of their agricultural capabilities, nor to
point out the particular manure that is adapted for the special crops
intended to be grown.

The most detailed chemical analysis usually gives only the proportion
of the different constituents, and without any reference to their state
of combination in which they exist in the soil or to their absorptive and
retentive powers.

GREAT CARE NECESSARY IN OBTAINING THE SAMPLIX FOR ANALYSIS.

On the care with which the soil is sampled, of course, depends the value
of the analytical results, and too much stress cannot be laid on the neces-
sity that exists to obtain a fair average sample, representing, as far as
possible, both the good and bad qualities of the soil that is to be submitted
to analysis. As the chemical analysis of a soil is a very long, tedious,
and delicate operation, and the difference of a one-thousandth of 1 per
cent. in any one constituent is equivalent to 20 or 30 pounds to the acre
lost or gained in that element, the importance of the sample truly rep-
resenting the soil is apparent.

THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SOILS.

Soil consists of an organic and of an inorganig or mineral part; the
former derived from the decay of plant life for many ages, together with
the dung and remains of animals, and the Jatter arising from the weather-
ing of the rocks.

THE ORGANIC MATTER.

This varies in different soils, being most deficient in sandy soils and
poor clays, and even in very fertile lauds occurring only in small quan-
tities. In the famous black soil of Russia, which is found in the prov-
inces of the Ural Mountains and in those that border them, it varies
from 5 to 12 per cent. In some of our own prairie soils the amount is
nearly as high. In leaf mold it occurs considerably higher and in peat
more than 50 per cent. very often. From its dark color it is a good ab-
sorbent of heat, its own specific heat being much above that of the soil
generally. It is hygroscopic and greatly increases the water-holding
power of sandy soil; besides, it has the power of absorbing and retain-
ingammoniaeal salts. By its decomposition it forms a source of carbonic

21

acid, which is readily absorbed by plant life. The mechanical condition
of a soil is much improved by its presence when in moderate quantities ;
but when present in excessive amount, it acts injuriously by deoxidiz-
ing ferric salts and in other ways.*

THE INORGANIC OR MINERAL PORTION OF THE SOIL :

Is, with the addition of alumina, composed of the same substances as
make up the inorganic portion of plants, and which form ‘their ashes
when burnt. The mineral soil constituents include the following sub-
stances: Silica, SiO,; alumina, Al,0;; lime carbonate, CaCO ;; ferric
oxide, Fe,0;; phosphoric acid, P,O; (phosphoric anhydride); potash,
K,O ; Soda, Na,O; magnesia, MgO; chlorine, Cl; sulphuric acid, SO;
(sulphuric avhydride).

These exist in very different proportions in different soils. The first
three, sand, clay, and lime, represent more than 90 per cent. of the
substance of most soils, and as one or the other predominates the soil
is said to be sandy, clayey, or caleareous. The most active constituents
of the soil, phosphoric acid and the two alkalies, potash and soda, occur
in very small quantities, as do the other and less important constituents,
magnesia, chlorine, and sulphuric acid.

Silica exists in different proportions in the various soils, mostly in an
insoluble state, and that most largely in the poorest sandy soils. ‘Fer-
tile soils contain generally a very small quantity of it in a soluble form.
Sandy soils contain from 70 to 90 per cent. of silica, even stiff clay soils
from 60 to 70 percent., and calcareous or lime soils and marls from 20 to
30 per cent.

Its value, as a source of plant food, consists in being in the form of
soluble silicates. In its insoluble state, like quartz sand, its action is
merely mechanical, making the soil lighter for cultivation. Those soils,
derived from rocks of which feldspar is one of the constituents, will
contain some silica in a soluble form, whilst those derived trom quartz-
ose rocks will contain it in the insoluble state. The hydrated silica,
in the analyses, represents that which is gradually avaliable for plant
food. . :

Alumina or clay is a silicate of aluminium, and is derived from the
disintegration of feldspathic rocks and other similar silicates; if ab-
Selutely pure it would furnish nothing for plant food; as, however,
this is seldom the case, it furnishes a supply of potash frequently in
considerable quantities. Clay has the important property of absorbing
and retaining phosphoric acid, ammonia, potash, lime, and other sub-
stances necessary for plant food. Clay soils contain on an average fiom
6 to 10 per cent. of alumina. In sandy soils it varies from 1 to 4 per
cent.; and in marls, calcareous soils, aud vegetable molds from 1 to
6 per cent.

* Versuchs Stationen Organ, vol. xiv, p. 248-300.

22

The presence of alumina in the soil is purely mechanical, as it is
never found in the mineral portions of plants, and the larger the per-
centage of it present the more difficult the soil becomes to cultivate,
offering a greater or less resistance to the implements of tillage.

The percentage of alumina, as found by the method of chemical an-
alysis used, is but an imperfect indication of the amount of clay in the
soil. The amount of alumina continues to increase long after the rest of
the important substances have been dissolved, if the digestion in hot
dilute acid be prolonged. If this was combined as a hydrous silicate
the amount of hydrated silica found, by boiling the insoluble residue
with sodium carbonate, should bear a certain ratio to the alumina pres-
ent. This, however, is seldom the case.

“It is but rarely that the amount of silica dissolved satisfies the re-
quirement for combining with the alumina into kaolinite, and in a very
few cases there is an excess of silica over that requirement. In numer-
ous cases the silica falls So far below the amount corresponding to the
alumina as to raise a serious question as to the combination in which
the latter occurs in the soil, the hydrate (Gibbsite) being almost the only
possible one, apart from zeolitic minerals. Perhaps this fact may serve
to explain some of the otherwise incomprehensible variations in the
physical properties of soils whose chemical and mechanical analysis
would seem to make them almost identical. Ii some of the Tertiary and
prairie soils of the Southern States, moreover, there seems to occur still
another amorphous mineral, related to or identical with Saponite, which
sometimes occurs in segregated masses, and imparts to these soils
very peculiar and unwelcome properties in tillage. Weare evidently,
as yet, very far from a full understanding of the mechanical constitu-
tion of soils.” (EK. W. Hilgard, Teuth Census U.S.)

The lime or calcareous matter, generally occurring in the state of ear-
bonate, varies in soils from about 90 per cent. and under in limestones
and marls, to mere traces in some otker soils. Clays and loams gener-
ally contain from 1 to 3 per cent. of the carbonate. Less than 1 per cent:
may be regarded as a defective quantity. In the lightest sandy soils
the percentage of lime should not fall below 0.100, in clay loams not
below 0.250, and in heavy clay soils not below 0.500. (Hilgard.) Where
a soil is deficient in lime, the little there is of it is present in combina-
tion with the organic acids, and is more abundant on the surface than
in the subsoil. It preserves the particles of clay in a seperate coagu-
lated condition, and thus allows them to exercise their absorbent powers
on various salts, which otherwise would escape their action. It also
promotes the decomposition of vegetable matter and the formation of
nitrates in the soil.

Most green crops are often subject to disease, when grown on soils
deficient in lime, even when they have been well manured. Up to a
certain stage the cereal or other crops appear to thrive well, but as the
season advances they sustain a check, and yield a poor harvest. This

i
'

Meee) Fl oe Me

23

is especially the case in poor sandy soils, and a good dose of lime or
marl, followed by barn-yard manure or guano has a most beneficial ef-
fect. By this means the valuable portion of the manure or guano, the
ammonia, potash, and phosphoric acid, are retained in the land, whilst
the others combine with the lime and are gradually washed out.

Ferric oxide is found in all soils, and causes the reddish color so very
common in a great many of them. To its presence is chiefly due the
retention of the phosphoric acid, an insoluble basic phosphate of iron
being produced. On its state of oxidation depends its favorable influ-
ence on the soil, that of ferric, sesqui, or per oxide, better known as the
red rust of iron, being the most suitable. In its less perfectly oxidized
forms, which are, however, soluble in organic acids, it exists very often
in the subsoil, and becomes peroxidized on exposure to the air. Its ac-
tion is both physical and chemical. The preference of farmers for “red
lands ” arises from their experience of its beneficial action in the soil.

From 1.5 to 4 per cent. of ferric oxide is ordinarily found in soils
but slightly tinted. Ordinary ferruginous loams vary from 3.5 to 7
per cent., highly colored ‘‘red iands” have from 7 to 12 per cent., and
ocvasionally 20 per cent. and more. The efficiency of the ferric oxide
depends upon its mechanical condition; when encrusting the grains of
sand, or occurring as nodules, whilst the chemical analysis may show a
large percentage of it present, it exerts little or no influence upon the
soil, but when in a state of fine division these advantages are realized.

Soils containing a large percentage of ferric oxide have generally a
low percentage of organic matter, bat, notwithstanding, are as a rule
very fertile. In clay lands especialiy its presence is very beneficial as
tending to made them easier for tillage ; its color tends to the absorp-
tion of heat and of oxygen. Such soils, however, suffer from floods or
bad drainage, the ferric oxide becoming reduced under such circum-
stances to the ferrous state. (Hilgard.)

Phosphoric acid is contained in all good soils, but in very small quan-
tities when compared with the other principal ingredients, and exists
in combination with lime, iron, and alumina, phosphate of lime being
its most common form. In general, even in the most fertile soils, it is
foundin very minute quantities, on an average less than a half per cent.;
in clay lands this may rise tol per cent. Its value in fertilizers de-
pends on its state of combination, whether it is soluble and immediately
available for plant food, as the superphosphates, or slowly soluble,
like the lime phosphates, forming a reserve store of food for the future.
It oceurs in all soils that have been formed from such rocks as the gran-
ites, gneisses, limestones, and dolomites, which contain it without excep-
tion; volcanic soils possess it in large quantity, whilst alluvial soils and
those lands that are periodically swept by floods are much poorer.
Soils containing less than 0.05 per cent. of it will be sterile and unfer-
tile, as a general rule, unless accompanied by a large amount of lime.

24

Potash.—Al\ soils suitable for cultivation contain potash in an avail-
able form, arising from the disintegration of feldspathic and other rocks.
In the majority of cases the natural supply of the soil is sufficient
to furnish to the plants the potash of which they are in need; a soil
containing 0.125 per cent. should furnish potash enough for a century,
without it being necessary to add to the manures used on such soils any
salts of potash. Besides this available potash the soil often contains
very considerable quantities of this element which the acids do not at-
tack, and which form the reserve for the future supply of the plants.
(Peligot.) .

The quantity of potash varies in the different soils from the merest
traces up to 1 and 2 per cent. Sandy and peaty soils and marls are
generally deficient in this alkali, whilst soils rich in alumina are, with
some exceptions, also rich in potash. It exists in the soil in combination —
with silica, forming a silicate, which is somewhat soluble in water.
Heavy clay soils and clayey loams vary from 0.8 to 0.5 per cent; lighter
loams from 0.45 to 0.30 per cent.; sandy loams below 0.3 per cent.; and
sandy soils of great depth may contain less than 0.1 per cent. consist-
ently with fertihty, depending ov the amounts of lime and phosphoric
acid with which it is associated. (Hilgard.) A high percentage of pot-
ash in a soil seems capable of making up for a low percentage of lime,
and conversely, a soil very rich in lime and phosphoric acid may be
very fertile notwithstanding a low percentage of potash. The average
annual consumption of potash for raising crops is 45 pounds per acre,
or about 0.002 per cent.

Soda.—This is a less important constituent in soil than potash, and
unless near the sea-coast, is present in even smaller quantities. Under
the form of common salt, however, its presence is a cause of sterility in
the soil when this exceeds 0.10 per cent. in quantity.

Magnesia is found in all fertile soils, in different proportions, often
amounting to amere trace. In the majority of cases the percentage of
magnesia is greater than that of the lime, but it does not seem capable
of performing to any appreciable extent the general function of lime in
soil improvement.

Sulphuric acid and chlorine occur very sparingly in most soils. From
0.02 to 0.04 per cent. of the former seems to be adequate to most soils.

There does not exist any affinity between the quantities of lime and
magnesia contained in soils and those of potash and phosphorie acid.

Nitrogen and nitrates—The natural sources of nitrogen in crops are
the nitrates and ammonia salts, which are seldom present in large quan-
tities, and should be used on or generated in the soil as rapidly as crops
require them. The process of nitrification, whereby inert or unassimil-
able nitrogen becomes converted into nitric acid, is thus of great im-
portance to agriculturists. This is due to a minute Bacterium, present
in all soils, whereby the humus and ammonia are oxidized and their
nitrogen converted into nitric acid. This process does not take place

25

unless the soil is moist and has free access of air, and some base, gen-
erally lime, is present with which the nitric acid can combine. Nitrifi-
cation is thus most active in summer and ceases apparently in winter.

Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert have for some years past been devoting
their attention to the sources of the nitrogen of crops, and in the pages
of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, and of the Jour-
nal of the Chemical Society, will be found their reports in full.

The following is the summary and conclusion which they have just
published in a long article on “Some points in the composition of soil,”
in the June number of the Chemical Society for last year, p. 420:

(1) The annual yield of nitrogen per acre in various crops, grown for many years
in succession on the same land without nitrogenous manure, was found to be very
much greater than the amount of combined nitrogen annually coming down in rain
and the minor measurable aqueous deposits.

(2) So far as the evidence at command enables us to judge, other supplies of com-
bined nitrogen from the atmosphere, either to the soil or to the plant itself, are quite
inadequate to make up the deficiency.

(3) The experimental evidence-as to whether plants assimilate the free nitrogen of
the atmosphere is very conflicting ; but the balance is decidedly against the supposi-
tion that they so derive any portion of their nitrogen.

(4) When crops are grown year after year on the same land, for many years in suc-
cession without nitrogenous manure, both the amount of produce per acre, and the
amount of nitrogen in it,decline in a very marked degree. This is the case even
when a full mineral manure is applied; and-it is the case not only with cereals and
with root crops, but also with Leguminose.

(5) Determinations of nitrogen in the soils show that, coincidentally with the de-
cline in the annual yield of nitrogen per acre of these very various descriptions of
plants, grown without nitrogenous manure, there is also a decline in the stock of ni-
trogen in the soil. Thusa soilsource, of at any rate some, of the nitrogen of the crops
is indicated. Other evidence pointed in the same direction.

(6) Determinations of the nitrogen as nitric acid,in soils of known history as to
manuring and cropping, and to a considerable depth, showed that the amount of n1-
trogen in the soil in that form was much less after the growth of a crop than under
corresponding conditions without a crop. This was the case not only with gramineous
‘but with Jeguminons crops. It was hence concluded that nitrogen had been taken
up as nitric acid by the growing crops.

(7) In the case ot gramineous crop soils, the evidence pointed to the conclusion
that most, if not the whole, of the nitrogen of the crops was taken up as nitric acid
from the soil.

(8) In the experiments with leguminous crop soils, it was clear that some at any
rate of the nitrogen had been taken up as nitric acid. In some cases, the evidence
was in favor of the supposition that the whole of the nitrogen had been so taken up.
In others this seemed doubtful,

(9) Although in the growth of leguminous crops year after year on the same land
without nitrogenous manure, the crop, the yield of the nitrogen in it, and the total
nitrogen in the surface soil, greatly decline, yet, on the substitution of another plant
of the same family, with different root habits and root range, large crops, containing
large amounts of nitrogen, may be grown. Further, in the case of the occasional
growth of a leguminous crop, red clover for example, after a number of cereal and
other crops, manured in the ordinary way, not only may there be a very large amount
of nitrogen in the crop, presumably derived from the subsoil, but the surface soil be-
comes determinably richer in nitrogen, due to crop residue.

(10) It was found that, under otherwise parallel conditions, there was very much
more nitrogen as nitric acid, in soils and subsoils down to a depth of 103 inches, where

' 26

leguminous than where gramineous crops had grown. The results pointed to the
conclusion that, under the influence of leguminous growth and crop residue, the con-
ditions were more favorable for the development of the nitrifying organisms, and, es-
pecially in the case of deep-rooting plants, of their distribution, thus favoring the
nitrification of the nitrogen of the subsoil, which so becomes a source of the nitrogen
of such crops.

(J1) An alternative was that the plants might take up at any rate part of their
nitrogen from the soil and subsoilas organic nitrogen. Direct experimental evidence
leads to the conclusion that fungi take up both organic nitrogen and organic carbon,
but there is at present no direct experimental evidence in favor of the view that
green-leaved plants take up either nitrogen or carbon in that form from the soil; whilst
there are physiological considerations which seem to militate against such a view.

(12) In the case of plots where Trifolium repens (white clover) and Vicia sativa
(tares or vetches) had been sown, each for several years in succession, on soil to which
no nitrogenous manure had been applied for about thirty years, and the surface soil
had become very poor in nitrogen, both the soil and subsoil contained much less ni-
trogen as nitric acid where good crops of Vicia sativa had grown, than where the
more shallow-rooted Trifolium repens had failed to grow ; and the deficiency of nitric
nitrogen in the soils and subsoils of the Vicia sativa plots, compared with the amount
in those of the Trifolium repens plot, was, to the depth examined, sufficient to account
for a large proportion of the nitrogen of the Vicia crops.

(13) It may be considered established, that much, if not the whole, of the nitrogen
of crops is derived from nitrogen within the soil, accumulated or supplied; and that
much, and in some cases the whole, of the nitrogen so derived, is taken up as nitrates.

(14) An examination ofa number of United States and Canadian prairie soils showed
them to be very much richer in both nitrogen and carbon, to a considerable depth,
than the surface soils of old arable lands in Great Britain, and about as rich, to a much
greater depth, as the surface soil of permanent pasture land.

(15) On exposure of portions of some of these rich prairie soils, under suitable con-
ditions of temperature and moisture, for specified periods, it was found that their
nitrogen was readily susceptible of nitrification, and so of becoming easily available
to vegetation.

(16) After several extractions, the subsoils almost ceased to give up nitric acid;
but on seeding them with a tenth of a gram of rich garden soil containing nitrifying
organisms, there was a marked increase in the rate of nitrification. This result af-
forded confirmation of the view that the nitrogen of subsoils is subject to nitrifica-
tion, if under suitable conditions, and that the growth of deep-rooted plants may
favor nitrification in the lower layers.

(17) Under favorable conditions of season and of cultivation the rich prairie soils
yield large crops; but, under the existing conditions of early settlement, they do not,
on the average, yield crops at all commensurate with their richness, when compared
with the soils of Great Britain which have been under arable culture for centuries.
But so long as the land is cheap, and labor dear, some sacrifice of fertility is unavoid-
able in the process of bringing these rich virgin soils under profitable cultivation.

(18) A comparison of the percentages of nitrogen and carbon in various soils of
known history, showed that a characteristic of a rich virgin soil, or of a permanent
pasture surface soil, was a relatively high percentage of nitrogen and carbon. On the
other hand, soils which have long been under arable culture are much poorer in these
respects; whilst arable soils under conditions of known agricultural exhaustion,
show a very low percentage of nitrogen and carbon, and a low proportion of carbon
to nitrogen.

(19) Not only the facts adduzed in this and former papers, but the history of agri-
culture throughout the world, so far as it is known, clearly shows that, pre-eminently
so far as the nitrogen is concerned, a fertile soil is one which has accumulated within
it the residue of ages of natural vegetation, and that it becomes infertile as this resi-
due is exhausted.

a

The following table shows the character of exhausted arable soils,
of newly laid down pasture lands, and of old pasture soils at Rotham-
sted, England; of some other old arable soils; of some Illinois and
Manitoba prairie soils; and, lastly, of some very rich Russian soils, in
regard to their percentages of nitrogen and carbon, taken from the same

report, p. 419;

TABLE IL.—WNitrogen and curbon in various soils.

|

In dry-sifted soil.*
7 Date of soil Brat ‘Aaeteue
| sampling. | A +s Cn OLTUY
. oO s on
oo 3 Be
\ °o 5
| My 2 25
| 3E eS 5A
| A oO o
|
|
Rothamsted arable and grass soils. lis - a
er cent. er cent er cent. |
Roots, 1843-’52; Barley, 1853-’55; roots, | Apr., 1870 OVOSSE eae sa aes ae oo 2 Rothamsted.
1856-"69 ; mineral manures. |
Wheat. 1843-'44, and each year since; min-§ Oct., 1865 0.1119 1. 039 9.3: ; D
eval manures. | Oct., 1881 0.1012 1. 079 10.7 | es
Barley, 1852, und each year since; minerals! Mar., 1868 | 0.1202 |....-.. _.|.-.....-- | D
manures. | Mar., 1882, 0.1124 1.154 | 10.2 : ie
Arable laid down to grass (Fen acres), | Feb., 1882 (ie SS ee Sees Hla vep a Sees Do.
spring, 1879. |
Arable Jaid down to grass (Barn-field), | Feb., 1882 | 0.1509 |.......--.-).....---. Do.
spring, 1874. |
Arable Jaid down to grass (Apple-tree field), | Nov., 1881 OSLT40) Recker ele seecek tes
spring, 1863. H
Arable laid down to grass (Dr. Gilbert's | Jan., 1879 0. 2057 2.412 | mi (a Do.
meadow), spring, 1858.
Sica laid down to grass (High-field), spring | Sept., 1878 0. 1943 2. 403 12.4 Do.
2), 1838. |
; | Feb., 1876 = 0
Very old grass land (the Park).-........... ; Mar. 1876 ; 0. 2466 — 3. Out 1e.7 | Do.
Various arable soils in Great Britain. |
Mr, Prout’s farm; Broadfield, surface ......|..........-- [a PO) 70 Wetec ee aa heRe: oe) Fe -Voelcker.
Mr. Prout’s tarm; Blackacre, surface ..----|........--+- OetOGedlene ee ce a ENE ae Do.
Mr. Prout's farm; Whitemoor, surface .....).......-.--- lien oes Bees keys Do.
‘Wheat soil:
: Sect Mela geen oebiaainittac an shinee)! wera (ac eee 0. 220 Anderson.
PEMURNEME A Seis aie em ee haces ae aa/stee oe CR Aaa there 0. 130 Do.
EGR GUS DIN Gn ieieste ees cs 2 [a <ielele:= clea en aces lseccbelsede ct 0. 210 Do.
Resta ES NIN CUE 2 ra atnve ara Sicls. Swe Hes ie wicinme's Stl a iam oie weciss 0. 140 . be Do.
Red sandstone soil, England ........---.---. Saeees oe 0. 180 | | Voeleker.
‘ | |
United States and Canadian prairie soils. |
MAAS WUMITed States NO. Waisst nwnaces, -- |/saes cavum aee 23008 les eb F cee into Do.
ios: United States, No. 22. Jos0.6.62 2.52.) sce wesce- ON ZB0 Uh chine: oeealeneee seeks Do.
Diineis, United States, No: 8.......---......|-.-..2 «020. Bi DIO ht Ro. deb ied apf Set| Do.
Illinois, United States, No. 4..........-. -..|...--.------ HN OSSLDNG | Siaee cerned bis ate eer le Dos
Portage la Prairie, Manitoba, surface........|.....-.-.--- WSR EY OO SE Re Boece. Rothamsted.
Saskatchewan district, Northwest Terri- |..........- OO; S0R Tasco eh: Seneca] Do.
tory, surface. |
Forty miles from Fort Ellis, Northwest |........-.-. Wes ONZGOR eke sles nabaceee Do.
Territory, surface. |
Niverville, Manitoba, first 12 inches.........|....-....--- HO0n261, 4. 8,42 13.1 | Do.
Brandon, Manitoba, first 12 inches ....-...--|.........--- Onis | 2068 14, 2 Do.
Selkirk, Manitoba, first 12 inches............|....-.------ 0. 618 7.58 1248 Do.
Winnipeg, Manitoba, first 12 inches.........|..-.-...---. hie ith 428 5. 21 12.2 Do.
Russian soils. | |
ae ile 1p raat eaea ee eee eee codaa teeta Sas ise ac sece ONGUg) Uo os ss es eee C pobmadt:
FEePRMICHEN e-card locke Sadb ces Ral ao seeicecae Eg ee IE eee etl ie 2 ee ee | 0.
ORE APL ARCHES isi, holm ok cakes me ws, bb vscianre uo) ae cas mm etien eeu al ete cerereperns Hemera ere Do.
eee GIO ON sic 520 Fa ook teas eke cadetftees ies ser QUMSO Fa Se eeeea tes ee Do.
co}. [Ey IP “TCS AS te eee en | et ea a 02305 Heawe cece: eaeee = Do.
RIMMEL CHO tae cin aie «hacecclics cece act sistisawnc=e oS as¢ ONZB Es | Seococca cette ee Do.
AS fis MTG Ses, SARE See Sena eee | eee ie ed OFAG9)F | Maeeniet ae |e cae eke ai Do.

* Calculated on soil dried at 100° C.

28

FERTILITY DEPENDS ON THE MINIMUM QUANTITY OF ANY NECES-
SARY CONSTITUENT PRESENT.

As the soil is the source whence plants derive their mineral food, all
the elements required for this nourishment have, in a certain sense,
equal value; for if one of them is waating in the soil, or is present in a
form not readily available by the roots, the plant will not flourish; and
so its fertility depends on the minimum quantity of any necessary con- |
stituent present,

WEIGHT OF A SOIL PER ACRE.

The weight of soil on an acre of land is so enormous that even small
proportions of plant food may amount to very considerable quantities.
The weight varies with the porosity and the amount of sand and gravel
the soil contains.

The following table gives the specific gravity, the weight of 1 cubic
foot of different soils, dry and wet, taken from the table in Professor
Schiibler’s article “‘On the Physical Properties of Soil,” in the Journal
of the Royal Agricultural Society, vol. 1, p. 210; together with their
approximate weight per acre to a depth of 9 inches, equal to 32,670 cu-
bic feet, in tons of 2,000 pounds:

TABLE III.—Table showing the specific gravity, the weight of one cubic foot of different soils,
dry and wet, according Schiibler, and the approximate weight per acre to a depth of 9
inches (32,670 cubic feet).

| Weight one cubic Weight per acre,

| aP | foot. | 9 inches deep.
Kind of soil. Specific |
gravity. | : =|
Dry.) 7) Wet. Dry. Wet.
ee SES Ee \ a -
Siliceous sand, oceurring in almost every arable | Pounds. | Pounds. Tons. Tons.
HOU EES eR SE Oe aye ees See e er ee! and 2565S!) ) welds 136.1 | 1,818.0 2, 223.2
Calcareous sand, frequently occurring along with |
SiliGeausisandse.. a2) epee heen ee wanes eee 2. 722 113.6 141.3 | 1, 855.6 2, 308. 1
Sandy clay, a combination of 45 per cent. of fine
sand with 55 ELI CON One AVE te risen nto eet 2. 601 97.8 129.7 | 1, 59726 2,118.6
Loamy clay, a combination of 24 per cent. of fine
sand with 76 per cent. of clay....--..-. .-.-.---- 2. 581 88. 5 124.1 | 1,445.6 2, 027. 2
Stiff clay, a combination of 10 per cent. of fine sand
with’ 90 per ‘cent. of Clays: 2.c5-. eee ek es eee 2. 560 80.3 119) 6:\e oie 1, 953. 7
Clay, in its fine pure state. 58 per cent. of silica, |
36.2 per cent. of alumina with 5.8 per cent. of |
FOLVIC:GORIAG LI e Ss Bee ae eee see ee Sos 2.533 one, 115.8 ; 1,228.4 1, 891.6
Slaty mario. - seers cone seein wee Bee ee eee 2. 631 112.0 140.3 | 1,829.5 2, 291. 8
ELMS 33, Leh ee dee eee ce dae a eet 1. 370 34.8 81.7 568. 5 1, 334. 6
Hentile*rarden\mold) 25-bit cee wet ees ee ae 2. 332 68.7 102.7 | 1,122.2 1, 677.6
Common‘arable soil :c3.2.2322eceess peas aoe eee 2.401 | 84.5 119.1 | 1,380.3 1, 945. 5
{

Thus 0.10 per cent. of any constituent, such as phosphoric acid, potash,
&e., would amount to from 2,250 to 3,500 pounds in 1 acre of soil 9
inches deep.

29
QUESTIONS OFTEN ANSWERED BY THE ANALYSIS OF SOJLS.

The results of soil analysis frequently give decided and satisfactory
answers, according to Dr. Voelcker,* to the following questions :

(1) Whether or not barrenness is caused by the presence of an injurious substance,
such as sulphate of iron or sulphide of iron, occurring in peaty and clayey soils?

(2) Whether soils contain common salt, lands Hooded by sea water, nitrates or other
soluble salts, that are nseful to vegetation in a highly diluted state, but injurious
when they occur in Jand too abundantly ?

(3) Whether barrenness is caused by the absence or deficiency of lime, phosphoric
acid, or other important elements of plant food?

(4) Whether clays are absolutely barren, and not likely to be materially improved
by cnitivation, or whether they contain the necessary elements of fertility in an un_
available state, and are capable of being rendered fertile by subsoiling, deep cultiva-
tion, steam plowing, and similar mechanical means ?

(5) Whether or not clays are usefuliy burnt and used in that state as manure ?

(6) Whether or not the land will be improved by liming ?

(7) Whether it is better to apply lime, or marl, or clay, on a particular soil ?

(8) Whether special manures, such as superphosphates or ammoniacal salts, can be
used—of course, discreetly —without permanently injuring the land; or whether the

farmer should rather depend upon the liberal application of farm-yard manure, that
he may restore to the land all the elements of fertility removed in the crops?

(9) What kind of artificial manures are best snited to soils of various compositions?

According to the same authority,t chemical analysis cannot supply
any definite information in regard to barrenness of soil on the following
questions:

(1) Whether barrenness is caused by defective drainage ?

(2) To what extent sterility is affected by a bad physical condition of the land ?

(3) How far unproduciiveness is affected by the climate ?

(4) That a soil is barren simply because there is too little of it; or

(5) That it is unproductive simply because a thin surface soil rests on a stiff clay
subsoil of great depth ?

(6) What is the relative productiveness of different soils ?

OBJECTS AND INTERPRETATION OF SOIL ANALYSIS.

For a very full discussion of the objects and interpretation of soil anal-
ysis the reader is referred to an article on this subject in the American
Journal of Science vol. 22, pp. 183-197, by Prof. E. W. Hilgard, as well
as the report on ‘Soil Investigation,” by the same author, contained
in the “General Discussion of the Cotton Production of the United
States,” Tenth Census of the United States, 1880, Vol. V, pp. 67-81, of
which the following.is a summary :

The claim of soil analysis to practical utility has always rested on the general sup-
position that, ‘‘other things being equal, productiveness is, or should be, sensibly
proportional to the amount of available plant food within reach of the roots during
the period of the plant’s development ;” provided, of course, that such supply does
not exceed the maximum of that which the plant can utilize when the surplus simply
remains inert. This statement is, either tacitly or expressly, admitted by all those

~ Journ. Royal Agric. Soc., vo!. xiv, p. 338.
t Journ. Royal Agric. Soc., vol. 1, 1865, p. 129.

30

who have attempted to interpret soil analyses, and agrees with the accumulated ex-
periences of agriculturists.

Many attempts have been made to find solvents that shall represent correctly the
action of the plant itself on the soil ingredients, in order that conclusions might be
made as to the present agricultural value of a given soil. From sulphurie and hy-
drofluoric acids to water charged with carbonic acid, as used by Dr. D. D. Owen,
the acid solvents have all signally failed to sectire even an approximation to the re-
sult desired, viz, a consistent agreement between the quantitative determination of
the plant food found in the several soils, and the actual experience of those who cul-
tivate them.

The ultimate analysis of soils, as attempted by the German experiment stations,
under Wolft’s initiative, by the consecutive extractions with acid solvents of differ-
ent strengths, beginning with distilled water, and ending with boiling sulphuric or
hydrofluoric acids, affords little or no clew to their agricultural value.

Soil analyses do not, like the assay of an ore, interpret themselves to a layman; a
column of figures summing up to 100 or nearly so, opposite another column of unin-
telligible names does not convey much information to a farmer.

In Europe, and in the thickly settled portions of this country, the arable soils have
nearly all been at some time subjected to cultivation, and to the use of fertilizers,
thus veiling their original characteristics and rendering extremely difficult the taking
of any sample of soil that shall represent correctly, in all respects, the whole uf any
large field or district. In the greater portion of this country, however, we are able
to procure samples of the virgin soil that even the plow has not touched nor any
manures been applied. The virgin soil and its vegetation are the ontcome of long
ages of coadaption by the process of natural selection ; and the settler is afforded a
means of judging of the productiveness ‘and durability of the land based upon the
character of its vegetation.

A soil naturally timbered with a large proportion of walnut, wild cherry, or, as at
the South, with the “ poplar” or tulip tree, is at once selected as sure to be both
productive and durable, especially if the trees be large. ‘Lhe settler knows well that
the black and Spanish oaks frequent only ‘strong soils,” and an admixture of hickory
is a welcome addition; while the occurence of the scarlet oak at once lowers the Jand
in his estimation, and that of pine still more so.

Having obtained the percentage composition of a soil, how are we to interpret these
percentages to the farmer? What are ‘ high” and ‘‘low” percentages of each ingre-
dient important to the plant, whether as food or through its physical properties?

The first question is, naturally, whether all soils, having what experience proves
to be high percentages of plant food when analyzed by the method given elsewhere,
show a high degree of productiveness. This question can be unqualifiedly answered
in the affirmative in regard to virgin soils, provided only that improper physical con-
ditions do not interfere with the welfare of the plant. But it does not follow that the
converse is true, and that low percentage necessarily indicates low production.

For instance, we may have a heavy alluvial soil of high percentages and produc-
ing a maximum crop in favorable seasons. If this soil be mixed with its own weight,
or even more, of coarse sand, thereby reducing the percentages one-half or less; and
yet it will not only not produce a smaller crop, but it is more likely to produce the
maximum crop every year, on account of improved physical conditions. If we com-
pare the rout system of the plants grown in the original and in the diluted soil, we will
find the roots in the latter more fully diffused, longer, and better developed, not con-
fined to the crevices of a hard clay, but permeating the entire mass, and evidently
having fully as extensive a surface contact with the fertile soil particles as was the
case in the original soil. How far this dilution may be carried without detriment
would vary with different plants and soils, and must largely be a matter of experiment. .
A plant capable of developing a very large root surface can obviously make up by
greater spread for a far greater dilution than one whose root surface is in any case

31

but small. The former flourishes even on ‘‘poor, sandy” soils, whilst the latter sue-
ceeds, and is naturally found on ‘‘rich, heavy” ones only, although the absolute
amount of plant food taken from the soil may be the same in either case.

It is obvious that without a knowledge of the respective depths and penetrability of
two soils a comparison of the percentages of their plant constituents will be useless.
The surface soil, with its processes of nitrification, oxidation, carbonic acid solution,
&c., in full progress, must always be distinguished from the subsoil in which these
_ processes are but feebly developed, and where the store of plant food, in which it is
generally richer than the surface soil, is comparatively ivert. Hence the obvious im-
portance of samples correctly taken, and the necessity of intelligent and accurate
observations on the spot.

The concentration of the available portion of the plant food of soils in their finest
portions has become a maxim. A ‘strong soil” is invariably one containing within
reach of the plant the large amount of impalpable matter; although the reverse is by
no means generally true.

A comparison of the composition of soils of known productiveness, and character-
ized in theirnatural state by certain invariable features of plant growth, soon reveals
the existence of definite relations, not only to the absolute amounts of certain ingre-
_ dients present in the soil, but also to their relative proportions. No ingredient exerts
in these respects a more decided influence than /ime, its advent in relatively large pro-
portion, other things remaining equal, changing at once the whole character of vege-
tation, so as to be a matter of popular remark everywhere. Only it is not popularly
known, nor has it been definitely recognized by agricultural chemists thus far, that it
_ is the lime that brings the change. ‘

The amount of the different soil constituents which may be con-
sidered the minimum consistent with fertility has already been given.

- THE METHOD OF SOIL ANALYSIS.

The following method for the analysis of soils has been adopted by
this division, and is essentially the same as that described by Spren-
gel and Otto in Sprengel’s Bodenkunde, 1837, p. 370, depending on the
principle that in order to judge of the fertility of a soil, it is necessary
to determine not only what are its elementary constituents, but like-
wise the manner in which they are combined. With this view Spren-
gel and Otto treated a sample of the soil successively with water, dilute
hydrochlorie acid, strong sulphuric acid, and by fusion with an alkaline
carbonate. The constituents of the soil soluble in water were supposed
to be actually available as plant food; those which were soluble in
dilute acids as available for that purpose after being subjected to the
action of carbonic acid and the humous acids of the soil; the rest as
available only after the soil had been subjected for a considerable time
to atmospheric influences, assisted by the mechanical operations of till-
age. This mode of proceeding was originally based upon the suppo-
sition that the constituents of the soil which are to nourish the plant
must be presented to it in the state of solution, a view which can no
longer be regarded as correct. Hence the treatment of the sample of
soil with water, with strong sulphuric acid, and by fusion with an alka-
line carbonate, has not been followed, because it was considered that
the estimation of the constituents soluble in dilute acids was the most
important as showing the total amount of those constituents present in
the soil as readily available as plant food. This was formerly made on
the residue left after exhausting the soil with boiling water, but as this
mode of operation is no longer regarded as of much importance, the
soil is now directly treated with the dilute acids after the removal of
the stones and coarser particles.

The mode of operation pursued and the precautions to be observed
have been stated at length, as where such small quantities are obtained
the greatest care is necessary In all manipulations to obtain accurate
results. References have been made, in all cases, to Fresenius’s Quan-
titive Analysis. Results obtained from different portions of the same
sample of soil have been found to agree very closely, thus establishing
the accuracy of the methods employed, where all precautions are ob-
served.

The strength of the acids used and the time employed for digestion is
that found by Professor Hilgard, from investigations made by Dr. R.

32 '

.
a EEE EEE EO

i]

30

H. Loughbridge,* to exert the maximum effect after a water-bath di-
gestion of five days.

In determining the different soil constituents especial care must be
taken to subject them ia the various operations to as nearly similar

conditions as possible, as the principal object is to obtain comparative

results ; to this end the several soils are air-dried together, digested for
an equal time at nearly the same temperature in acids of uniform

strength, &e.

Owing, however, to the large amount of time demanded by such work,
the process of digestion in water containing carbonic acid was not em-
ployed, neither was any attempt made at a mechanic al analysis of the

soils received.
COLLECTING THE SAMPLE.

The collection of samples of soil is a delicate and important operation,
as it is on the average sample that the physical and chemical properties
of the soil are determined. They should represent, as far as possible,
the average of the bad and good qualities of the soil.

Select, in the field, four or five places, at least, per acre, taking care

ay that these places have an homogeneous aspect, and represent as far as
_ possible the general character of the whole ground. If the field, how-

ever, presents notable differences, either in regard to its aspect or its
fertility, the sample gathered from the different parts must be kept
separate.

The sampling of the arable soil should be made only after the raising
of the crop and before it has received any new mauure, in the following
manner :t

Have a wooden box made, 6 inches long and wide, and from 9 to 12 inches deep,
according to the depth of soil and subsoil in the field. At one of the selected places
mark out a space of 12 inches square; dig around it in a slanting direction a trench,
so as to leave undisturbed a block of soil, with its subsoil, from 9 to 12 inches deep ;
trim this block to make it fit into the wooden box, invert the open box over it, press
down firmly, then pass a spade under the box and lift it up and gently turn over the
box. :
In the case of very light, sandy, and porous soils, the wooden box may be at once
inverted over the soil and forced down by pressure, and then dug out.

Proceed in the same way for collecting the samples from all the
selected places in the field, taking care that the subsoil is not mixed
with the surface soil. The former should be sampled separately.

In preparing the plot for the gathering of the sample, take care to
have it lightly scraped so as to remove any dé ris which may be acci-
dentally found there.

The sample should be taken only from spots that have not been culti-
vated, where “ virgin soils” are concerned, and as a rule not from ground
frequently trodden on, footpaths, ‘roads, &c., nor from squirrel holes,

~ * Amer. Jour. of Science, vol, vii, p. 20.
+From the instructions for selecting samples, issued by the Royal Agricultural So-
ciety of England.
13755—No. LO—-—3

o4

stumps, and the foot of trees, nor from spots washed by streams or rain,
and are thus not a fair representative of the land. Avoid spots showing
unusual growths, whether in kind or quality. Note carefully the normal
vegetation, trees, herbs, grass, &c., the general character of the land,
whether hilly, rolling, flat, &c., the aspect, elevation, and such pecu-
liarities of the soil and subsoil, their behavior in wet and dry weather,
the character of the crops raised on the land,in fact, every circumstance
that can throw any light on their agricultural qualities or peculiarities,
Unless accompanied by such notes and memoranda samples of soils can-
not be considered as justifying the amount of time and labor involved
in their chemical examination.

The ‘‘soil” is that portion of the surface of the ground which is reached
by ordinary tillage operations, generally being from 6 to 9 inches deep ;
the “subsoil” is that portion which is ordinarily not touched in plow-
ing, lying beneath the soil.

It is always well to know what constitutes the nature of the founda-
tion of the soil to a depth of, at least, 36 inches, since the question of
drainage, resistance to drought, &c., will be influenced by the charac-
ter of the substratum.

The different samples thus procured are emptied on a clean, boarded
surface, and thoroughly mixed, so as to incorporate the different sam-
ples of the same field together. The heap is then divided into four di-
visions, and the opposite quarters are put one side, taking care to leave
the two remaining ones undisturbed; these are thoroughly mixed to-
gether, the heap divided into quarters, and the opposite ones taken away
as before. This operation of mixing, dividing into quarters and taking
away the opposite quarters, is continued until a sample is left weigh-
ing about 10 or 12 pounds.

Thus is obtained the average sample of the soil. Of course where only
a single sample is taken from the field this method of quartering is not
resorted to, but the bottom of the box is nailed directly on and sent to
the laboratory, where the soil is to be analyzed.

PREPARATION OF THE SAMPLE.

The sample of the soil to be analyzed, after it is received in the labora-
tory and given an index number, is immediately spread out in a thin
layer on a large shallow pan and fully exposed to the warm air of the
room, untilit is thoroughly dried at the common temperature, or, better,
in an air-bath at a temperature of 60° to 100° C. When it is dry and
friable it is carefully sampled, by the method of quartering, until a sam-
ple of about 150 grams is left. This is then rubbed up in a porcelain
mortar, taking care to avoid grinding up any of the gravel or fragments
of rocks, &c., which it may contain, and which are removed and esti-
mated, and the fine powder is then passed through a wire sieve of 25
meshes to the square inch. The object of this operation is to bring

ee

35

the whole sample of the soil to a state of uniform mixture, and to re-
move from it the coarser gravel and roots, &c., which it may contain.

DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE AND OF VOLATILE AND ORGANIC
MATTER.

Moisture.—Introduce from 2 to 5 grams of the air-dried soil into a pre.
viously weighed platinum dish holding about 10 ¢. ¢. and dry at 120°
C. in an air-bath for eight hours, cool in a desiccator, and weigh. Re-
peat the heating and weighing until the substance ceases to lose weight
or begins to increase, indicating incipient oxidation. From the lowest

weight thus obtained calculate the percentage of moisture. The differ-
ence between the first weight of the platinum dish and substance and
that found on drying represents the moisture, and this weight divided by
the quantity taken and the quotient obtained multiplied by 100 will give
the percentage. The results are only approximate, as the complete dry-
ing of a soil, especially if it contains much clay or organic matter, is very
difficult to effect. Some soils are very hygroscopic and rapidly absorb
the atmospheric moisture; for this reason the platinum dish should be
cooled in a desiccator containing fused calcium chloride and rapidly
weighed.

Volatile and organic matter.—The dried substance is then ignited at
a low red heat, in a muffle furnace, until the whole of the organic mat-

ter has been destroyed, care being taken that the heat is not raised
too high in order to avoid driving off any of the alkaline chlorides, &e.

The residue is ordinarily of a reddish color, owing to the sesquioxide
of iron which it contains. When the mass is cool it is treated with a
few drops, about 1 ¢. c., of a saturated solution of ammonium carbonate
or oxalate, and then gradually heated to about 150° C. in the air-bath,
avoiding all danger of loss by sputtering by a careful regulation of the
heat at the commencement. By this means any carbonates that may
have been decomposed by the ignition are reconverted.

The loss in weight represents the organic and other volatile matters.

TREATMENT OF THE SOIL WITH HYDROCHLORIC ACID (Sp. gr. 1.115).

In using the different reagents and distilled water especial care must
be taken that they are all chemically pure, in order that no foreign mat-
ter may be introduced into the analysis by them; for this purpose they —
must be carefully tested. It is hardly necessary to add that all the |
weighing of precipitates, &c., must be done on a delicate analytical
balance.

The hydrochloric acid used is made from the concentrated acid, C. P.,
by diluting with distilled water until it attains a specific gravity of
1.115 as shown by an hydrometer, or, better, taken in a specific gravity
bottle, and its weight compared with that of an equal volume of water
at the same temperature.

o6

Ten grams of the air-dried soil are treated with 200 ¢. e. of hydro-
chloric acid, specific gravity 1.115, for five days, on a steam-bath, at
100° C., in a large porcelain dish, covered with a clock-glass, keeping
up the volume by the addition of distilled water when necessary. At
the end of the five days the solution being, from time to time, stirred
with a glass rod during this treatment, is allowed to cool and settle
completely. Then filter off the solution and wash the residue of in-
soluble matter well with boiling water, allowing it to settle before de-
canting through the same filter. Repeat this washing by decantation
two or three times, not using more than 50 ¢. ¢. of boiling water at a time.
Finally transfer the insoluble matter to the filter, washing it thoroughly
out of the dish with hot water. It often happens that some portions
will remain sticking to the sides of the dish. These are removed by rub-
bing them with a rubber-covered glass rod, and washing them onto
the filter. A few drops of the’ wash-water are tested with argentic
nitrate, on a watch-glass, to see that all the soluble chlorides have been
washed out. This testing is not done until about 200 c. c. of water has
passed through the funnel. if any chlorides be present in the wash-
water a cloudiness is produced on the addition of the argentic nitrate
solution, in which case the washing of the insoluble residue is con-
tinued until, on testing, all the chlorides areremoved. (Fres.,§140, IT, a.)

The filtrate A. and washings should not exceed 500 c. c.

DETERMINATION OF THE INSOLUBLE RESIDUE.

Dry the filter containing the insoluble residue A in the air-bath at
120° C. When dry transfer it to a previously weighed platinum cru-
cible and ignite it carefully, at first, until the filter paper is consumed
and then raise the heat until the crucible and contents are at a bright
red and continue it until all the organic matter is consumed. The in-
soluble residue should become white, or nearly so, by this treatment.
Cool and weigh. The increase in weight gives that of the insoluble
and hydrated silica, plus the filter-ash, which must be deducted in all
cases. :

DETERMINATION OF THE HYDRATED SILICA.

To ascertain how much of the silica found exists in combination with
the bases of the clay, how much as hydrated acid, and how much as
quartz sand, or as a silicate present in the form of sand, proceed as fol-
_lows: The insoluble residue A, after it has been ignited and weighed,
is transferred, in small portions at a time, to a boiling, rather concen-
trated, solution of sodium carbonate, contained in a large platinum
dish holding about 200 ¢.¢.3; boil for some time, and filter off each
time, still very hot. When all is transferred to the dish, boil repeatedly
with the strong solution of sodium carbonate until a few drops of the
fluid remain clear on warming with ammonium chloride.

i be.
+.
%
:s

37

Wash the residue, by decantation, several times with hot water and
then transfer it to the filter, and to make sure of removing every trace of
the sodium carbonate which may still adhere to it, with water slightly
acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and finally with hot water.

This will dissolve the silica in combination with the bases of the clay,
and also the hydrated silica, and leave a residue of quartz sand and
silicates in the form of sand, e. g., feldspar sand, which is dried, ignited,
and weighed...

The difference between this last weight and that of the insoluble resi-
due A will give the amount of hydrated silica. Or this may be deter-
mined directly by acidifying the filtrate with hydrochloric acid, evap-
orating to dryness, and driving off the chlorine, taking up with dilute
hydrochloric acid, filtering, washing well, drying, igniting, and weigh-
ing the hydrated silica. (Fres., § 209.).

DETERMINATION OF THE SOLUBLE SILICA.

Evaporate the main solution A to dryness in a porcelain dish, adding
a little, about 2 c. ¢., of nitric acid to destroy the organic matter and
oxidize the iron. Then heat in the air-bath at 110° C. until the acid
fumes disappear. By holding a glass rod moistened with ammonia in
the dish and noting when the white fumes cease to be produced, an
easy means is afforded of telling when the hydrochloric acid is entirely
driven off.

After the mass is thoroughly dried moisten it with 25. ¢. dilute
hydrochloric acid, heat to a temperature just below boiling for twenty
or thirty minutes, and dilute with 50c¢. c. of hot water; everything
should be in solution except the silica. Filter this out, and wash with
hot water until the washings give no reaction for chlorine when tested
with argentic nitrate. Dry the precipitate on the filter at 110° C., and
transfer it to a weighed platinum crucible, and heat at a low temper-
ature until the paper is consumed. Care must be taken that the heat is
not too strong at first, as there is great danger of some of the silica pass-
ing off with the volatile matter. Gradually raise the heat until the
silica becomes white. Then cool the crucible and contents in a desic-
cator, weigh, and calculate the per cent. of soluble silica. (Fres., §140,
II, a.) :
DETERMINATION OF THE IRON AND ALUMINA.

Make the filtrate from the soluble silica up to 500 ¢. ¢., solution B.

To 200 ¢. e. of the solution, equal to 4 grams of the air-dried soil, add
ammonia to alkaline reaction, to precipitate the aluminium and ferric
hydrates, together with the phosphoric acid. Be careful not to add a
large excess, or time will be wasted in boiling it out, which will be
necessary, for the reason that aluminium hydrate is somewhat soluble
in excess of ammonia. Boil the solution until the vapors no longer
smell of ammonia, and do not turn turmeric paper brown. Allow the

38

precipitate to settle and decant the clear fluid on a filter. Then wash
with 50 ¢. ce. of boiling water, stir, allow to settle, and decant as before.
As some lime and magnesia may be carried down by the precipitation
of the hydrates, dissolve it in the beaker, with as little dilute hydro-
chloric acid as possible, reprecipitate by adding some ammonia and
boiling as before. Wash by decantation, three or four times, using 40
to 50 c. c. of boiling water each time. Finally transfer the precipitate
to the filter, with boiling water, and wash with the same, until a few
drops of the wash water, acidulated with nitric acid, do not show any
trace of chlorides when tested with argentic nitrate.

Dry the filter and contents in an air-bath at 110° C., and when per-
fectly dry ignite it in a weighed platinum crucible, applying the heat
gently at first, until the filter paper is consumed, and then more in-
tensely, cool and weigh. This weight, after deducting that of the cruci-
ble and filter ash, will be that of the aluminium and ferric oxides with
the phosphoric acid contained in the 4 grams of air-dried soil. (F res.
§105, a, §113, I, a.)

The weight of the phosphoric acid, determined by the method given
furtber on, is deducted from this weight, thus leaving the weight of the
two oxides.

DETERMINATION OF THE FERRIC OXIDE BY TITRATION WITH POTAS-
SIUM PERMANGANATE.

The ignited and weighed precipitate of the aluminium and ferric ox-
ides carrying the phosphoric acid is transferred to a small beaker, and
the crucible carefully washed with water to remove any adhering par-
ticles. Concentrated sulphuric acid is then cautiously added, about
10 ec. c. is sufficient, and digested on the steam-bath until all the sub-
stance is in complete solution. The solution is allowed to become
cold, and is then diluted with about 150 ¢. ¢. of water, and is passed
through a small filter into a 200 ¢. c. cylinder, and washed slightly.
The solution is made up to the mark and divided into two equal por-
tions of 100 c. c. each. —

Each of these two portions is transferred to a reducing bottle. Place
in each bottle a piece of amalgamated zine, and a piece of platinum foil
an inch wide and 4 or 5 inches long, add 2 ¢. c. concentrated sulphuric
acid, fill with water to the shoulders, cover with watch-glasses and allow
to stand twenty-four hours. A strong current of gas should be induced
by contact between the zine and the platinum. The zinc used must be
amalgamated, as it usually contains iron, which, in dissolving, it will
impart to the solution if this is not done. It has been found by experi-

ment that amalgamated zine will not give up the iron it contains to the -

solution until nearly if not quite all the zine is dissolved. Erlen-
meyer’s flasks, holding about 150 c. ¢., will be found very convenient
bottles for reducing the ferric oxide. The platinum foil should be eare-

|
:
q
:

39

fully cleaned, and, if new, rubbed with fine sand to roughen it and re-
move the grease, We.

When the ferric is reduced to ferrous oxide, which may be known by
the absence of a blood-red color on testing a few drops of the solution
removed by a glass rod to a watch-glass with ammonium sulphocya-
nide, empty one of the bottles into a large beaker, add 2 or 3 ¢. c. of
coneentrated sulphuric acid, and dilute to about 500 ¢. ¢.

Titrate with the standard permanganate solution in the same manner
as for standardizing. ‘he number of ce. c. of potassium permanganate
used, multiplied by the standard, gives the weight of metallic iron in
the solution treated. From this caleulate the per cent. of ferric oxide.
The two titrations should not differ more than two-tenths of a e. ¢.

The weight of the ferric oxide thus obtained deducted from the weight
of the combined oxides will give the weight of the alumina by differ-
ence.

PREPARATION OF THE STANDARD PERMANGANATE SOLUTION.

Dissolve 3.8 grams of pure crystals of potasium permanganate in 1
liter of distilled water, with constant agitation until all the crystals are
dissolved, decant the perfectly clear solution, and keep in a glass-stop-
pered bottle. .

There are several methods of standardizing the solution of perman-
ganate. (See Sutton Volumetric Analysis, §§ 31, and 32, 35, 59.) Of
these the method proposed by Marguerite, by means of iron, is to be
recommended.

In determining the iron by Marguerite’s method, the presence of hy-
drochlorie acid must be avoided, especially if the solution is at all warm,
since the permanganate under these circumstances will react upon the
hydrochloric acid liberating chlorine,as shown in the following reac-
tion:

K,Mn,.9V, + 16HCl = 2KCl 4+ 2MnCl, + 8H,0 + LOCI.

Some of the chlorine may convert the ferrous salt present into the
ferric state, but some will usually escape, and the results obtained will
consequently be higher than the truth.

For this purpose introduce into a small flask, having a Kroonig valve
in the stopper, 0.200 grams of cleaned piano-forte wire, containing 99.7
per cent. of iron; add 25 to 30 c. ec. of dilute sulphuric acid and heat to
incipient boiling. When the iron is dissolved allow the flask to cool
slowly. When the contents of the flask are cold empty them into a
large beaker, wash the flask out well, and add the washings to the main
solution, dilute with distilled water to about 500 ¢. ¢.; then drop in the
solution of permanganate to be standardized from a burette, having a
glass stop-cock, with constant stirring until the color, which disappears
rapidly at first and then more gradually, finally becomes permanent,
and remains so for one minute. The final color should be a light pink.
Note carefully the number of cubie centimeters of permanganate used,

40

and calculate the value of 1 ¢. ¢. thus: Number of ¢. ce. permanganate
used : 1 ¢. c.:: weight of iron used : 2; x is, therefore, caual to the value
of 1c.c. Multiply the result so obtained by 0.997 the weight of the
metallic iron contained in the wire.

The standardizing of the permanganate should be repeated once or
twice, and the quantity of permanganate used in the several trials
should not differ by more that one-tenth of a c¢. ¢.. The average may
, be taken as correct. (Fres., § 112, 2,4 aa. Crookes, p. 73.)

DETERMINATION OF THE LIME.

The filtrate and washings from the hydrates are concentrated to 100
c. ¢., if possible, and 1. c. c. of ammonia added. If the ammonia pro-
duces a precipitate other than aluminium and ferric hydrates, which
must be filtered out and added to the main precipitate of the hy-
drates, acidify the solution with hydrochloric acid, boil for a minute,
and then make alkaline again with ammonia. This is done to introduce
a sufficient amount of ammonium chloride to prevent the precipitation
of the magnesium hydrate, Then add 40¢. ¢. of a solution of ammonium
oxalate, saturated, enough to precipitate all the lime as oxalate, and con-
vert the magnesia also into oxalate ; a very soluble compound of magne-
sia, and easily washed from calcium oxalate, which remains in solution.
(Fres., p. 831. Exp. 92, 93.) Heat the solution to incipient boiling, and
then allow it to stand undisturbed several hours. After the precipitate
has settled perfectly, decant the clear fluid through a filter, wash by de-
cantation once with about 25 c. c. hot water. Then dissolve the precip-
itate of calcium oxalate, mixed with a little magnesium oxalate, in the
beaker, with as little hot dilute hydrochloric acid as possible. Should
any of the precipitate havé passed over on the filter, wash it back into
the acid solution, dilute with about 50 ¢. c. of hot water, make alkaline
with ammonia, and add 5 or 6 ¢. c. ammonium oxalate, stir, and allow
the precipitate to settle. When it has settled completely, filter through
the same filter into a fresh beaker, transfer the precipitate, and wash
it thoroughly with hot water. The water required to transfer the pre-
cipitate to the filter will wash it sufficiently. Dry the filter and contents
at a temperature not exceeding 100° C. to avoid making the filter brit-
tle. When the precipitate is dry brush it into a clock-glass, cleaning
the filter as thoroughly as possible. Burn the paper in a weighed pla-
tinum crucible until only a white ash is left. Then cool the crucible,
transfer the precipitate from the glass to the crucible, add enough con-
centrated sulphuric acid to cover the precipitate, place the lid on the eru-
cible, and apply a gentle heat to its edge until all the free sulphurie acid
isexpelled. Then ignite strongly for a few minutes, cool in a desiccator
and weigh. This weight, less that of the crucible and filter ash, will
give that of the calcium sulphate.

Never attempt to ignite the calcium oxalate before adding the sul-
phuric acid, as the ignition will convert it into calcium oxide or carbon-

4]

ate which effervesces violently when the acid is added, thus causing a
— loss of some of the substance.

It is a good plan to add to the weighed Sadtapreare more sulphuric oid
and proceed as before, until you get a constant weight. The weight of
the calcium sulphate found multiplied by 0.41158 will give the weight
_ of the calcium oxide, lime, and this divided by the weight of the soil
taken for analysis and multiplied by 100 will give the percentage of
lime present in the soil. (Fres., § 154, 6, a; and § 103, b, «.)

DETERMINATION OF THE MAGNESIA.

Make the combined filtrates from the calcium oxalate alkaline with
- ammonia, if not already so; add 30 ¢. ¢c. of a solution of hydro-di-sodie
phosphate. Agitate the contents of the beaker with a glass rod, tak-
ing care not torub the sides, as it will cause crystals of ammonium mag-
nesium phosphate to adhere to the sides very difficult to remove. Al-

_ Jow the solution to stand for twelve hours in a cool place. Filter off

the clear fluid through a weighed Gooch crucible ;* transfer the pre-
cipitate and wash with dilute ammonia, prepared by mixing one part
of the strong ammonia with three parts of distilled water. In case any
particles of the precipitate adhere to the sides of the beaker, rub them
off as much as possible with a rubber-covered glass rod, and’ wash them
onto the main precipitate in the crucible. Whatever cannot be so de-
tached are moistened with a few drops of: acetic acid, transferred to a
smaller beaker, made alkaline with ammonia, and set aside for six hours
for the pecoplate t to settle, and it is then added to the main precipi-
tate.

_ The precipitate is washed well with the ammonical water, the cruci-
ble and contents ignited gently at first and afterwards overa blast lamp.
By the action of the heat the ammonium magnesium phosphate is trans-
formed into magnesium pyrophosphate, Mg,P.,0;. Cool the crucible
and contents in a desiccator and weigh. The increase in the weight of
the crucible represents the weight of the magnesiuin pyrophosphate ; this
multiplied by 0.56024 will give the weight of magnesia, MgO, present,
from whence the percentage is readily calculated. (Fres.. § 154, 6, a.
§ 104, 2.)

SEPARATION OF THE ALKALIES FROM THE OTHER BASES PRESENT.

In 200 ¢. c. of the solution B, equal to 4 grams of the air-dried soil,
proceed to determine the potash and soda, in duplicate, as follows:
Evaporate each 100 c. c. of the solution nearly to dryness in order to
drive off as much free acid as possible; then dilute with about 75 e. ¢.
of warm water and heat on the steam bath for half an hour. Add am-
monia till the solution is nearly neutralized and then 25 c. ¢. of a sat-
urated solntion of barinm hvdrate, so that the fluid is strongly alkaline

*Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, 1373, p. 342

42

to test paper; boil, allow the precipitate settle, decant the clear fluid
on a filter, wash with 50 ¢. e. of hot water, by decantation, then trans-
fer the precipitate to the filter and wash well with hot water, until all
the chlorides are removed; testing a few drops of the wash-water with
argentic nitrate.

Evaporate the filtrate to about 75 ¢. ¢., and add 25 ¢. ¢c. of a saturated
solution of ammonium carbonate, sufficient to precipitate the excess of
barium present; boil, allow the precipitate to settle, decant the clear
fluid, wash by decantation with 50 ¢.c. hot water, transfer the precipi-
tate to a filter, and wash with hot water until all the chlorides are re-
moved.

Evaporate this filtrate to dryness in a platinum dish, and, when dry,
drive off the ammonium chloride at a low red heat. Cool, take up with
water, filter, and wash well to remove the carbonaceous matter, and
test the fluid with a few drops of the barium hydrate solution ; if this
produces a precipitate, add 10 ¢. ¢. more, or until the barium produces
no further precipitate; filter off the precipitate, and repeat the treatment
with ammonium carbonate.

Finally evaporate the solution to dryness in a weighed platinum dish
after adding a few drops of hydrochloric acid, expel any ammonium
chloride present at a low red heat, cool, and weigh the chlorides of
potassium and sodium.

DETERMINATION OF THE POTASH.

Dissolve the mixed chlorides in 25 ¢.c¢. of warm water, filter, if nec-
essary, and transfer to a small lipped porcelain dish, add 2 ¢. ¢. of dilute
hydrochloric acid and 8 ¢. ¢. of platinum tetrachloride solution, pre-
pared by dissolving one part by weight of the platinum tetrachloride in
ten parts of distilled water, and evaporate to a pasty consistency on
the water-bath. Then pour into the dish about 50 ¢. ¢. of 85 per cent.
alcohol, without removing the dish from the bath, and heat for two or
three minutes. Care must be taken that there are no ammoniacal fumes
floating about in the air of the laboratory, as they would form a precipi-
tate with the platinum tetrachloride, thus increasing and vitiating the
result. Allow the precipitate to settle, and the fluid shows by its yel-
low color that a sufficient amount of the platinum tetrachloride has been
used; decant the clear fluid through a weighed Gooch crucible, transfer
the precipitate to the crucible, and wash well with 85 per cent. alcohol.
(Crookes, p. 2.)

Dry the crucible and contents in the air-bath at 100° C., cool, and weigh
the potassium platinum chloride. This weight multiplied by 0.30559
will give the weight of potassium chloride present. The weight of the
potassium chloride is deducted from the weight of the mixed chlorides,
leaving the weight of the sodium chloride present. (Fres., § 152, La, §§
97, 98.)

=~) eS

43

The weight of the potassium chloride multiplied by 0.65190 will give
that of the potash, K,O, in the 2 grams of air-dried soil.

The weight of the sodium chloride present multiplied by 0.53045 will
give that of the soda, Na,O, present in 2 grams of air-dried soil.

The weights of the potassium platinum chlorides found in the dupli-
_ eate analysis should agree to a tenth of a milligram.

Care must be taken that the barium hydrate used does not contain
either of the two alkalies, potassium or sodium.

DETERMINATION OF THE SODA.

The soda may be determined directly, instead of by difference, as —
_ follows: Evaporate the filtrate and-washings from the precipitate of
potassium platinum chloride to dryness on the water-bath, and when dry
burn at alow red heat. The solution contains the sodium platinum
chloride, with the excess of the platinum tetrachloride used. <A mixt-
ure of platinum and of sodium chloride is thus obtained; on dissolving
_ in warm water and filtering, the sodium chloride present is washed out.
The filtrate is evaporated to dryness on the water-bath in a weighed
_ platinum dish, dried at 100° C. in an air-bath, cooled in a desiccator, and
weighed. The increase in weight is due to the sodium chloride present
in the 2 grams of air-dried soil. This is calculated to soda, as above.

DETERMINATION OF THE SULPHURIC ACID.

In the remaining 100 c. c. of solution B, equal to 2 grams of the air-
dried soil, the sulphuric acid is determined as follows: Heat the solu-
tion to boiling, and add 10 ¢. ¢. of barium chloride, prepared by dis-
solving 1 part by weight of barium chloride in 10 parts of distilled
water, and continue boiling three or four minutes. Allow the precipi-
tate to settle, decant the clear fluid on a weighed Gooch crucible, pour
_, 50 ¢.¢. of boiling water on the precipitate, allow to settle, and decant
as before. Finally transfer the precipitate of barium sulphate to the
— erucible, and wash well with hot water. Dry, ignite strongly, cool, and
weigh. The increase in weight is due to the barium sulphate. This
weight multiplied by 0.34331 will give the weight of the sulphuric acid,
__8O,, present in the 2 grams of air-dried soil. (Fres., § 132, L.)

TREATMENT OF THE SOIL WITH NITRIC ACID (Sp. gr. 1.20).

Treat 10 grams of the air-dried soil, previously burnt to destroy or-
ganic matter, with 200 ¢.c. of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1.2, in a porcelain
dish, heated to 100° ©. on the steam bath for five days, and proceed in
the same manner as already given in the treatment with hydrochloric
acid, p. 35, to separate the insoluble residue, and then the soluble
silica, taking care to wash the residue well with hot water.

Make the filtrate from the soluble silica up to 500 ec. e.

4a

DETERMINATION OF THE PHOSPHORIC ACID.

The following solutions are used in the determination of phosphorie
acid; 1, ammonium molybdate; 2, acid ammonium nitrate, and 3 mag-
nesia mixture.

PREPARATION OF THE AMMONIUM MOLYBDATE SOLUTION,

Dissolve 75 grams of ammonium molybdate in 500 ¢. ec. of distilled
water, adding the water in small quantities at a time, and filter into
500 c. c. of nitric acid of a specific gravity 1.20. One e. ec. of this
solution is equivalent to 0.001 grams of phosphoric acid.

PREPARATION OF THE ACID AMMONIUM NITRATE.

Add to 325 ¢. ¢. of nitric acid, specific gravity 1.2, 200 ¢. ¢. of a mixt-
ure of equal parts of ammonia, specific gravity 0.96, and water. Allow
to cool, and keep in a glass-stoppered bottle.

PREPARATION OF THE MAGNESIA MIXTURE.

Dissolve 125 grams of crystallized magnesium sulphate and 125 grams
of ammonium chloride in 1 liter of water; when all is dissolved add 500
c. c. of ammonia, specific gravity 0.96.

The determination of phosphoric acid is made in duplicate.

Add to 200 c. ¢. of the solution, equal to 4 grams of the air-dried soil,
50 c. c. of ammonium molybdate and 10 ec. ¢. of acid ammonium
nitrate, and heat on the water-bath at 80° C., with frequent stirring for
four hours. Allow the precipitate to settle, and decant the clear fluid
on a sinail filter, wash the precipitate with about 25 ¢. ce. of acid ammo-
nium nitrate, decant the clear fluid, and then transfer the precipitate to
the filter, washing it with the same.

Set the filtrate aside for twelve hours in a warm place, after adding
10 c.c. of ammonium molybdate to insure the precipitaticn of all the
phosphoric acid. Ifa precipitate should occur, which rarely happens,
filter it off and add to the main precipitate.

Dissolve the precipitate through the filter, into the same beaker,
with warmed dilute ammonia, 1 of ammonia to 3 of water, and as there
often remains upon the filter a small quantity of iron, arising from the
phosphate of that metal which the dilute nitric acid has disolved, re-
pass the ammoniacal liquid through the filter several times. To the
solution is added enough hydrochloric acid to make it decidedly acid,
and then enough ammonia to render it decidedly alkaline and to redis-
solve the precipitate formed, and finally 5 ¢. c. of magnesia mixture.
The latter is not to be added, however, until the solution becomes cold,
After adding the magnesia mixture set the solution aside in a cool
place for twelve hours, to allow the crystalline precipitate of ammonium
magnesium phosphate to thoroughly settle. Filter by decantation,

ea.

45

- through a weighed Gooch crucible, wash with dilute ammonia, and pro-
ceed as in the determination of magnesia, p. 41.
_ The increase in weight represents that of the magnesium pyrophos-
phate. This weight, multiplied by 0.63976, will give the weight of the
- phosphoric acid in the 4 grams of air-dried soil. (Fres., § 134, I, b, 2, 2.)
_- Fresenius advises adding to the weight of the magnesium pyrophos-
phate 0.0018 grams, to compensate for the loss which results from the
e feeble solubility of the ammonium magnesium phosphate in the wash
_ waters,
zi DETERMINATION OF CHLORINE.

Wash 10 grams of the air-dried soil on a filter, with boiling water,
P using about 500 ¢. c. before testing a few dione of the wash water,
~ acidulated with nitric acid, with argentic nitrate to see that all the
chlorides are washed out.

When all the chlorides are removed, concentrate the washings to 200
¢. &., filter if necessary, and divide into two equal parts, determining
the chlorine volumetrically by means of a standard solution of argentic
nitrate, using potassium chromate as an indicator. The determination
_ is made by first adding to the 100 ec. ¢. of solution, equal to 5 grams of
air-dried soil, 3 drops of a saturated solution of paransien chromate,
and then dropping in the silver solution from a burette, and noting
- when the red color of silver chromate appears. The number of ¢. ¢. of
_ silver nitrate solution used, multiplied by the value of 1 ¢. ¢., will give
the amount of chlorine present in the 5 grams of soil. (Fres., § 141, b, a.)

PREPARATION OF THE ARGENTIC NITRATE SOLUTION.

_ Dissolve 8.5 grams of pure argeutic nitrate in 1 liter of distilled water;
_1e.c. of the solution is equal to 0.001775 grams Cl. To standardize
_ the solution, dissolve 1 gram of pure fused sodium chloride in 1 liter of
_ distilled water, take exactly 10 c. ¢. of the solution and dilute to 100. ¢.
_ with water, add 3 drops of a satuated solution of potassium chromate,
and drop in from a burette the silver solution until the red color of
silver chromate appears. The known quantity of chlorine in the 10 ce. e.
of salt solution, divided by the number of e. ¢. of silver solution used,
will give the value of 1 ¢. ¢. of the latter.

DETERMINATION OF THE CARBONIC ACID BY ABSORPTION.

; For this purpose an absorption apparatus, such as that described by
_ Fresenius, under the head of carbonic acid, may be used. (Fres.,§ 139 e,
» § 182.)

_ This consists of: (1) A small tube filled with fused chloride of calcium,

46

filled with pumice stone, boiled in concentrated sulphuric acid, together
with some sulphuric acid. This absorbs any moisture that may be driven
off by the heat. (5) This connects again with another U-tube, % of which
is filled with granulated soda lime, the remaining 4 in the upper part of
the second limb contains chloride of calcium. (6) An aspirator completes
the apparatus.

For the analysis, weigh the absorption tube 5, closed at both ends
with small pieces of glass rods in rubber tubing, introduce about 5 to
10 grams of the air-dried soil into the decomposing flask, put the appa-
ratus together, having previously tested it to see that it does not leak,
close the stop-cock of the funnel tube, and attach the aspirator. The
substance can best be weighed in a small piece of glass tubing sealed
at one end, into which the soil is placed, and the weight noted; then, by
shaking as much of the substance as possible into the flask, and again
reweighing, the difference between this weight and the former will rep-
resent the amount of the soil taken for the determination.

When the aspirator has produced a partial vacuum, introduce the
30 c. c., about, of dilute hydrochloric acid contained in the funnel into
the decomposing flask. As soon as all the acid is in close the stop-
cock and apply a gentle heat until the liquid begins to boil. Then re-
move the heat, attach the guard tube 1, open the stop-cock, and draw
air through the apparatus slowly until the liquid is cool; about 2 liters
is sufficient.

Weigh the absorption tube; the difference between this weight and
the first weight of the tube is equivalent to the carbonic acid contained
in the quantity of soil taken.

DETERMINATION OF NITROGEN BY COMBUSTION WITH SODA LIME.

To determine the total nitrogen present in the soil proceed as follows:
Select a tube of hard glass, 15 to 18 inches long, draw one end of it to
a fine point, and to the other end fit tightly a cork, through which is
passed a tube bent at right angles, the other end of which passes through
a cork closing tightly one arm of a bulbed U-tube. Into the combustion
tube first slip a loosely-fitting plug of asbestus, previously ignited, and
then some 3 or 4 inches of dry soda-lime. Weigh out 1 gram of the

air-dried soil, and mix it in a porcelain mortar with some finely pulver-

ized soda-lime, and introduce the mixture into the combustion tube,
forcible pressure being carefully avoided. The mixture is followed by
a layer of the soda-lime, used to rinse the mortar. Enough granulated
soda-lime is then added to fill the tube to 1 or 2 inches of the open end;
place another plug of ignited asbestus at the end, and close with the
cork carrying the tube. <A free passage is formed for the evolved gases
by a few gentle taps, and it is then ready to be placed in the combus-
tion furnace, after first ascertaining that the apparatus is air-tight.
Introduce from a burette into the U-tube 10 ec. of fifth normal oxalic
acid, equal to 0.028 gram of nitrogen. This is prepared by dissolving 12.6

a ee Se ee

oth

47

grams of crystallized oxalic acid in 1 liter of distilled water. Add 5c.
ec. of cochineal solution as an indicator. Prepared by grinding to a fine
powder about 3 grams of good cochineal and macerating it with fre-
quent shakings with 250 c. c. of a mixture of 4 volumes of distilled
water and 1 volume of alcohol, 95 per cent., and filtering through Swe-
dish paper, and keep the solution in closed bottles.

Introduce the prepared combustion tube into the furnace, letting the
open end project a little so as not to burn the cork, supporting the U-
tube byaclamp. The tube is then gradually heated, commencing at the
fore part, nearest the cork, and progressing slowly towards the tail.
Care must be taken to keep the fore part of the tube at a moderate red
heat throughout the process. Avoid heating the end that is drawn to
a point lest the internal pressure causes it to blow out. The combus.
tion should be conducted so as to obtain a steady and uninterrupted
flow of gas. When the tube is ignited throughout its whole length and
the evolution of the gas has ceased, attach the aspirator to the other
limb of the U-tube and startit slowly. Then break off the point of the
combustion tube; at the same time put out the gas. Draw a slow cur-

rent of air through the apparatus for a few minutes, in order to sweep

all the rest of the ammonia into the acid.

Remove the combustion tube, together with the U-tube, from the
furnace when the aspiration is completed, and break the combustion
tube close to the cork by allowing a fine stream of cold water to fall on
it. Remove the corks from the U-tube, and run in from another burette,
holding fifth normal soda solution, and determine how much of the fifth
normal oxalic acid solution used has been neutralized by the ammonia
thus obtained from the soil. From the data thus obtained the percent-
age of nitrogen contained in the soil may be calculated. (Ires., § 185.)

DETERMINATION OF NITRIC ACID BY SCHLOESING’S METHOD.

The following is the method adopted at the Rothamsted Laboratory
by Mr. R. Warington : *

It is very important that the sample of soil should be immediately
dried when received in the laboratory, as, if this is not done, the quan-
tity of nitric acid found may greatly exceed that existing in the original
soil, as nitrification will be continually in progress whilst the soil re-

mains damp. The temperature at which the soil is dried has a marked

effect on the result. If a wet soil be dried in an air-bath at 100° C. the
nitrates present will be more or less destroyed, whilst drying by mere
exposure to the air is equally likely, in the case of surface soils at least,
to occasion a gain in nitrates.

The tollowing course has been adopted at Rothamsted :

PREPARATION OF THE SAMPLE.

The soil is broken up immediately it is received from the field, and spread in trays,
in layers about 1 inch in thickness; the trays are then placed in a stoveroom, kept

* Journ. Chem. Soc., Vol. XXXvili, p. 468, and Vol. xli, p. 345-360.

48

at about 55° C.; the drying is usually completed in twenty-four hours. As the tem-
perature of the room is one at which nitrification by an organized ferment does not
oceur, it is probable that very little production 9f nitric acid takes place during the
operation. After drying, stones and roots are removed, and the soil is finely powdered
and placed in bottles. Soil samples thus prepared are not absolutely dry, but the
small amount of water present is apparently insufficient to allow of organic change.

PREPARATION OF THE WATERY EXTRACT. i

From 200 to 500 grams of the dry powdered soil are taken, according to the sup-
posed richness of the soil in nitrates, and introduced on a large filter fitted for filtra- —
tion under pressure. (Fres.,§ 53, a.) The filter is previously moistened, the dry
soil introduced, and if the latter be of a loose texture, it is shaken firmly together,
but with a clay soil this is better avoided, The flask is connected with the air-pump,
the soil is kept moistened with water, and when 100 ¢. c, have run through, it may be
concluded that all the nitrates are washed out. This operation lasts from ten to forty-
five minutes, depending upon the nature of the soil.

The watery extract thus obtained is placed in a small porcelain dish, the flask
washed well with water, and evaporated nearly to dryness on the water-bath. As
soon as cool, it is mixed with 1 ¢.c. of a cold saturated solution of ferrous chloride
and 1 ¢..c. of hydrochloric acid, both reagents having been boiled and cooled imme-
diately before use. The mixture is then ready to be introduced into the retort.

DESCRIPTION OF THE MODIFIED SCHLOESING’S APPARATUS.

The apparatus consists of a bulb retort 12 inches in diameter, the tubular of which
has been bent near its extremity to make a convenient juncture with the delivery
tube, which dips into a trough of mercury on the left; the long supply tube attached
to the receiver is of small bore, and is easily filled by a half c.c. of liquid. The short
tube in the cork of the retort is also of small bore, and is connected by a piece of rub-
ber tubing fitted with a clamp to an apparatus for the continuous production of pure ©
carbonic acid. A long funnel tube, likewise passing through the cork of the retort,
completes the apparatus.

The apparatus for the generation of the carbonic acid used is so arranged that the
marble, which must previously be well boiled in water to remove as much of the
oxygen present as possible, is contained in a lower reservoir into which the hydro-
chlorie acid used, previously boiled, is introduced from a higher reservoir; thus the
former is always under internal pressure, and leakage of air from without cannot
occur. The hydrochloric acid, after it has been well boiled, has dissolved in it a
moderate quantity of cuprous chloride, and is then introduced into the upper reser-
voir and covered with a layer of oil.

The presence of the cuprous chloride insures the removal of any dissolved oxygen,
and gives an indication by its change of color when this condition is exceeded ;.as
long as it remains of an olive-green tint oxygen will be absent, but should the acid
become of a clear blue-green, it is no longer certainly free from oxygen, and more
cuprous chloride must be added.

The reagents used must be freshly boiled and employed in as small a quantity as
possible. In boiling the hydrochloric acid it is well to add a few drops of ferrous
chloride, to be sure of removing any dissolved oxygen.

The mode of conducting the operation is as follows:

The apparatus previously described is fitted together, the long funnel tube attached
to the bulb retort being filled with water. Connection is made with the glass stop-
cock of the carbonic acid generator by means of a short, stout rubber tube, provided
with a pinch-cock. The pinch-cock being opened, the stop-cock is turned till a mod-
erate stream of bubbles rises in the mercury trough; the stop-ccck is left in this po-
sition, and the admission of gas is afterwards controlled by the pinch-cock, pressure

A9

on which allows a few bubbles to pass at atime. ‘The heated chloride of calcium bath
is next raised, so that the bulb retort is almost submerged; the temperature, shown
by a thermometer which forms part of the apparatus, should be 130° to 140° C. By
boiling small quantities of water or hydrochloric acid in the bulb retort in a stream

of carbonic acid the air present is expelled; the supply of carbonic acid must be stop-

ped before the boiling has ceased, so as to leave little of this gas in the retort. Pre-
. vious to very delicate experiments it is advisable to introduce through the funnel
tube a small quantity of nitre, ferrous chloride, and hydrochloric acid, rinsing the
tube with the latter reagent; any trace of oxygen remaining in the apparatus is then
- consumed by the nitric oxide formed, and after boiling to dryness, and driving out
the nitric oxide with carbonic acid, the apparatus is in a perfect condition for a quan-
titative experiment.

The mixture of the extract with ferrous chloride and hydrochloric acid is introduced
through the funnel tube, and rinsed iu with three or four successive half cubic centi-
meters of hydrochloric acid. The contents of the retort is then boiled to dryness, a
little carbonic acid being from time to time admitted, and a more considerable quan-
tity used at the end to expel any remaining nitric oxide.

The gas is collected in a small jarover mercury. The gas analysis is of a simple
character; the gas is measured after absorption of the carbonic acid by potash, and
again after absorption of the nitric oxide, the difference giving the amount of this gas.
For the absorption of nitric oxide, a saturated solution of ferrous chloride was for some
time employed. This method is not, however, perfectly satisfactory when the highest
accuracy is requred, the nitric oxide being generally rather underestimated, except
the process of absorption is repeated with a fresh portion of ferrous chloride. The
error is greater in proportion to the quantity of unabsorbed gas present. The use of
ferrous chloride as an absorbent for nitric oxide has now been given up, and the oxy-
gen method substituted. All the measurements of the gas are now made without
shifting the laboratory vessel; the conditions are thus favorable to extreme accuracy.

The chief source of error attending the oxygen process lies in the small quantity
of carbonic acid produced during the absorption with pyrogallol; this error becomes
negligible if the oxygen is only used in small excess. The difficulty of using the oxy-
gen in nicely regulated quantity may be removed by the use of Prof. G. Bischof’s re-
cently invented ‘ gas-delivery tube.” This may be made of a test tube, having a
smal] perforation half an inch from the mouth. The tube is partly filled with oxy-
gen over inercury, and its mouth is then closed by a finely perforated stopper, made
from a piece of wide tube, and fitted tightly into the test tube by means of a covering
of rubber. When this tube is inclined, the side perforation being downward, the
oxygen is discharged in small bubbles from the perforated stopper, while mercury
enters through the side opening. Using this tube, the supply of oxygen is perfectly
under control, and can be stopped as soon as a fresh bubble ceases to produce a red
tinge in the laboratory vessel. The trials made with this apparatus have been very
satisfactory. >

REMARKS.

Where such a complete analysis of a soil is not required, as that for
which the directions are given in the preceding pages, the estimation
of potash, soda, phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and lime will give valuable
information for judging of its fertility.

The following qualitative tests may be applied in case only a very
preliminary examination is required.

Test the slightly moistened soil with litmus paper; if this should show
an acid reaction, the presence of an excess of humic acids, or small
quantities of sulphate of iron, may be suspected. All good and fertile

13735—No. 10——4

50

soils have generally no effect on litmus paper, or show only a slight al-
kaline reaction.

Make a water solution of the soil, and test the solution for lime with
ammonium oxalate; for sulphuric acid with barium chloride, after acid-
ulating with hydrochloric acid; for iron, with ammonia; and for chlorides
with silver nitrate. An excess of any of the three latter would indicate -
that the soil contains injurious quantities of them.

Boil some of the soil with nitric acid, and after filtering off the in-
soluble residue, test the solution with ammonium molybdate for the

‘presence of phosphoric acid.

In a hydrochloric acid solution of the soil the different bases may be
tested for as in the quantitative analysis. Ifan effervescence is produced
on adding the acid to the soil, the presence of carbonate of lime is indi-
cated, but should none occur, but analysis show that lime is present, it
is probably in the state of sulphate or gypsum.

ON THE GEOLOGICAL CHARACTER AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SOILS
IN THE UNITED STATES.

While there is a vast variety of detail in the character of the soils of
this country in regard to both their physical properties and chemical
composition, still they may be classified under the two heads of soils
of transport and soils of disintegration, geologically speaking.

Soils of transport include, as has been previously stated, all drift and
alluvial materials which have been worn from other rocks by atmos-
pheric agencies and transported to their existing positions by ancient
glacial action, by winds, and by waters. These embrace the majority
df all soils occurring in the United States.

Drift soils —These occupy the principal portion of the States lying
north of the Ohio and east of the Missouri Rivers. According to Pro-
fessor Dana, they occur ‘over all New England and Long Island,
New York, New Jersey, and part of Pennsylvania, and the States west,
to the western limits of Iowa and Minnesota. Beyond the meridian of
98° W., in the United States, they are not known. They have their
southern limit near the parallel of 39°, in Southern Pennsylvania,
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Lowa, whilst their northern is undetermined.
South of the Ohio River they are hardly traceable.” *

Without going into the details of the theory of ancient glacial action,
which has given rise to a large amount of study and an extensive litera-
ture, the term drift, as it is commonly employed in geology, includes
the sands, gravels, clays of various composition and texture, and bowl-
ders, more or less water-worn, all mingled in various proportions and of
various degrees of fineness, which have been transported from places
in higher latitudes by glacial action and deposited on the country rock
in varying thickness.

The soils of this drift are usually gravelly, often stony, of variable
fertility, from the noted fertile lands of Ohio and Western New York
to the barren portions of New England. As a whole, these soils grow
finer as they go further southward and westward from New England
and Western New York. When overcropped and worn out, as often
happens, they recover when allowed to rest fallow several years by
the decomposition of the mingled materials of which they are composed.

Alluvial soils.—These are formed from the deposits of the fine earthy
materials, sediment, silt, or detritus, by running streams and rivers,
of which we have such a notable example at the Mississippi’s Delta.

The amount of transportation going on over a continent is beyond calculation ;
streams are everywhere at work; rivers, with their large tributaries and their thou-
sand little ones, spreading among all the hills and to the summits of every mountain.

And thus the whole surface of a continent is on the move toward the oceans. The
word detritus means worn out, and is well applied to river depositions. The amount

*Dana’s Geology, p. 528.

52
of silt carried to the Mexican Gulf by the Mississippi, according to the Delta Survey

bulk; equivalent for an average year to 812,500,000,000,00 pounds, or to a mass 1
square mile in area and 241 feet deep.*

These constitute the “bottom lands,” as they are called in the West.
The Red River region, which has become famous as a wheat producing
country, lying partly in Minnesota and partly in Dakota, occupies the
bed of an ancient lake, known to geologists as Lake Agassiz, and is
composed of a black sedimentary soil, exceedingly fine in texture, and
very fertile and deep. This tract extends southward to Lake Traverse,
on the Red River, widening as it proceeds northward and extending on
both sides of the river 50 or 60 miles wide where its bed leaves this
country, and expanding to much greater width in Manitoba.

The further westward soils of this class are found the less the amount
of organic matter they contain, although the soils are not necessarily
less fertile, until in some places in the valleys of California are found
soils of great fertility which contain an exceedingly small amount. Of
course such soils, as those of California just mentioned, are deficient in
the faculty of storing up water for future use, and, however rich they
may be in mineral constituents, yet in a dry region or one subject to
periodical droughts, irrigation would have to be resorted to in order to
get large yields of crops.

Soils of disintegration.—These occupy the undulating parts of this
country lying south of the drift, possessing every variety of character,
both in regard to their chemical composition and physical properties,
as their mode of formation indicates, arising from the disintegration
of the subjacent rocks by atmospheric agencies.

Where the underlying rock has been an impure limestone, containing
much insoluble matter, the carbonate of lime has been slowly dissolved
out by the action of the carbonic acid eontained in the rain, leaving the
insoluble matter behind. Such soils as that of the ‘‘ blue grass” regions
of Kentucky are so formed, and are often of extreme fertility. (See
the *‘ Kentucky Geological Reports” for further details about this re-
gion, including the chemical analyses of its soils.)

Professor Whitney states that some of the prairie soils of Lowa, par-
ticularly those where the soil is almost of impalpable fineness, have
been produced by the slow action of atmospheric agencies on beds of
limestones which formerly occupied their places. In the course of time
the soluble carbonate of lime was gradually dissolved out and carried
away by the rivers and streams to the ocean, and a small amount of
insoluble residue was left, forming the thick prairie soil of the region,
which has since become blackened by the decay of subsequent abundant
vegetation on it.t

In the table-lands of Oregon and Washington the underlying rock is
volcanic, and thesoil arising trom its disintegration is very finein texture,

* Dana’s Geology, p. 648.
t lowa Geological Survey, Vol. I, 1858.

es 53
dark in color, of great fertility, and, judging from the soils of similar
‘ origin found in the Rhine region and the Mediterraneans in Europe,
a which have supported vineyards for many years, will probably prove
pe TERy enduring and produce a great variety of crops.
These two classes of soils run into each gore by insensible grada-
“tions
The term “ prairie soils” is most indefinite, as commoniy used, includ-
E . Pie soils of various origin. The prairie region of the West occupies a
% vast extent of country, extending over the eastern part of Ohio, Indiana,
the southern portions of Michigan and Wisconsin, nearly the whole of
- Tilinois and Iowa, and the northern portion of Aptana e and gradually
oe passing, in aan and Nebraska, into the plains, or the arid and desert
‘ ~ region which hes at the base of the Rocky Mountains. West of the
parallel of 97° and 100° the country becomes too barren to be inhabited
af and worthless for cultivation.
The region of the greatest cereal production of this country includes
the most noted of the prairie soils. and is nominally in the drift region
: of geologists. Light clays and heavy loams are the best for wheat,
_ though very heavy clays often produce good crops, both as to yield and
_ quality; the lighter soils may yield a good quality, but deficient in quan-
tity; moderately stiff soils produce generally the best crops.

HISTORY OF THE SOILS ANALYZED BY THIS DIVISION.

During the past year over thirty-six soils were analyzed by this divis-
ion, thirty of which were done completely and the results obtained will
be feund in Table IV. The remainder were only partially analyzed,
and are not tabulated.

‘ This table is presented in the following pages, and the history of each
_ soil, as far as known, is appended, to be found under its respective
serial numbers

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me 57
PRAIRIE SOILS FROM DAKOTA.

1611-1613. These soils were forwarded to the Department in July,
1882, unaccompanied by any letter or other means of indentification
from the person who sent them; their analysis was begun in expecta-
- tion that some information concerning them would come to hand before
they were finished, but all attempts to find ous the sender have, so far,
proved unavailing.

SOILS FROM THE UNITED STATES LAND OFFICE, WALLA WALLA, WASH.

The seven samples of soil were sent by Hon. Joseph Jorgenson, United
States land office, Walla Walla, January 5, 1884.

They were taken from various points of a section of unsettled country, lying be-
_ -tween the Yakima and Coluwbia Rivers, and west of Wallula, on the Northern Pacitic
Railroad, comprising about 1.300 square miles of gently rolling plateau—from 500 to
1,000 feet above sea Jevel—the only drawback being a lack of running streams of
water on any part of it, and but few natural springs. Water is reached at varying
depths, from 14 to 80 feet. It is covered, however, with a fine bunch grass, which is
accepted here as indnbitable proof that_the smaller grains will grow to maturity
and perfection. This year (1885) there are some fine crops of wheat on it.

.The samples were taken from “1 to 5 feet” in depth, the soil being a
“decomposed basalt from 3 to 100 teet deep,” and the subsoil is * ba-
saltic rock.” No timber is found on it, the prevailing growth being
* buneh grass and sage bush.”

1656. Sandy soil from 5 miles northwest of Umatilla, reg.

1657. Surface soil in Grant’s Ranch, See. 24, T. 11, Rk. 24.

1658. Two feet of surface soil in Grant’s Ranch, See. 24, T. 11. BR. 25.

1659. Soil from T. 8, R. 26.

" ~ 1660. Soil from Sec. 26, T. 7, R. 26.
1661. Soil from middle ‘of T. 8 N., R. 27, between the Yakima and Co-
lumbia Rivers.

1662. Soil from Sec. 12, T. 8, BR. 28.

These are samples of virgin soils, and contain a large amount of the
most important soil constituents, as phosphoric acid, lime, potash, We.,
and should produce abundant crops under favorable climatic conditions.
___In their contents of nitrogen, however, they are, with the exception of
§ Nos. 1660 and 1661, somewhat deficient; and this would indicate that
ammoniacal manures would have to be applied in the future, if, by ex-
cessive cropping, the soil should become unproductive.

7

“4
;
(

SOIL FROM N. E. SMITH, UNION PIER, BERRIEN COUNTY, MICHIGAN.

2550. The sample of soil was sent by Mr. Smith December 10, 1883.
The sample was taken to a depth of “10 inches from a portion of the
inverted furrow.” The field is “flat” and the depth of the soil ‘ like

_ sample is from 8 to 30 inches.” The subsoil, “to a depth of 2 feet, is
sand filled with the infiltration of the surface; this sand in places has
many small flat stones resembling pieces of broken oyster shells in

t
ay,
an?
od
(

58

shape but flinty in character.” The timber was “ yellow pine and larch,
filled with a dense growth of alders, tag and black, and blueberries ;
the surface was covered with moss 2 feet deep.” The following crops
have been raised :

Oats, good straw, light grain. Buckwheat, 25 to 30 bushels to the acre. Corn, not
a success. Potatoes, one hundred and one in a hill, but none larger than a walnut.
Cabbages, radishes, melons, squashes, and beans have succeeded. My largest ex-
perience is with onions from the seed ; the first year, after getting 2inches high, many
turned yellow on top and finally died; second year they were better, and third year
good.

In regard to manure used:

In plats as follows: First year, ashes and lime, fresh slaked; ashes 200 bushels to
the acre, lime 2 tons to the acre; crop failed. Same plat, second year: Hen droppings
at the rate of 10 eubic yards per acre, composited with plaster, and just previons to
application mixed with twice their bulk of white-ash ashes. Yield, 300 to 400 bushels~
per acre. Third year: ‘‘ Garden City phosphate,” 1,000 pounds per acre. Yield im-
proved. This year (1885) applied nitrate of soda, 150 pounds, ‘‘Garden City phos-
phate,” 800 pounds per acre; the crop is of fair promise in the main, but there are
spots where a good stand has disappeared; in these barren spots there will be found
small patches of fine onions marking the spot of a fire. The original plat, treated this
year as above, now (July) promises a fine crop. This year I have taken in new ground
with the above stated result.

‘The sample was dried to make it more secure when sent through the mail.

This sample, as the most casual inspection of the analysis will show,
contains an enormous amount of organic matter, and to this may be at-
tributed the poor success met with in raising crops; as nothing is more
injurious than the action of the organic acids, arising from the decay of
the organic matter in the soil, on vegetation when they are present in
excess. For, however fertile the soil may be in other respects, until
this excess of humic acids is neutralized or otherwise got rid of, the
prospect of raising remiunerative crops is very slight. The remedy for
such a state of affairs is a heavy dressing of lime, from 2 to 5 tons of
quicklime per acre, depending on the quantity of organic matter present,
that is, from 0.05 to 0.5 per cent., by weight, of the cultivated soil; the
lime or marl used has the power of neutralizing the humicacids. Burn-
ing might also be resorted to, but the use of lime will probably, in such
cases, prove more beneficial. The lime should be used as a top dress-
ing, as it has a strong tendency to sink into the subsoil, and so it should
not be plowed in, but kept as near the surface as possible. The
ground should be plowed first, then the lime spread and simply har-
rowed in. This dose of lime must not be repeated yearly, but at inter-
vals of six or eight years 1 to 2 tons of lime made into a compost may
be used. It is best applied’ in the early winter, so that the lime may
work into the surface before the spring growth commences.

The amount of nitrogen and of phosphoric acid is very large, and that
of lime, of potash, and soda is abundant for the raising of any crop when
the excess of organic acids has been destroyed. With the exception —
noted the analysis shows this soil to be a very fertile one, containing
an abundant supply of all the necessary plant constituents.

59

4
SOIL AND SUBSOIL FROM JESSE H. BLAIR, LEBANON, BOONE COUNTY,
INDIANA.

2551, 2552. The samples were sent January 5, 1884, having been
taken on September 12, 1583, from ‘ what is popularly called a prairie
region, but what is thought to have once been a lake, in the northern
part of Hendricks County ; it was dry and very difficult to get a good
sample.” The sample of soil was taken “by digging a hole an inch
square, then shaving a slice downward, about 6 inches deep.” The
sample of subsoil was taken from the ‘‘ next 6 inches below the surface
sample.” The soilis “rich, solid, and about 18 inches deep, and in a
meadow of timothy grass.” The subsoil is ‘tough clay, about 3 feet
deep, then sand or gravel.” “No timber, a swamp or wet prairie, avd
lately redeemed.” No manure has been used. The following crops
were raised: ‘Corn, 75 bushels per acre; large yield of broom corn,
then a large yield of hay.” ‘It produces a heavy crop of grass; wheat
does fair; the corn is not as good as clay lands yield.”

The analyses show that an abundant supply of the necessary plant
constituents are present, and that. the soil should be very fertile. The
amount of nitrogen in the soil is very large.

SOILS FROM WILLIAM CARTWRIGHT, OSWEGO, N. Y.

2553-2561. Samples taken from three distinct fields on which an acre
of sugar-beet was grown: in 1883, and were sent December 24, 1583.
Samples Nos. 2553-2556, marked “ A 1, 2, 3, and 4,” were taken from “a
square two-thirds acre plot at different points, SE., SW., NE., NW.
of the field.” Samples Nos. 2557-2559, marked * B. 5, 6, and 7,” were
from “a triangular one-third acre plot,” taken at the different angles.
The two remaining samples, Nos. 2560 and 2561, marked “ C. 8, and 9,”
were from ‘a field of sugar-beet a mile distant ” from the other two fields,

~—“eultivated by another party, on a rectangular plot of half an acre; the

samples being taken at the ends, E. and W., of the rectangle.”

The general character of all the fields was a gentle slope, enough to turn water
readily. The samples were cut out with a spade, a couple of weeks after the crop
was gathered, each about 6 inches wide and deep; the soil of field A was 8 to 10 inches
deep; that of field B probably 1 foot; field C was rather stony, soil 8to 12 inches deep
The subsoil of all the fields was hard-pan, with large stones and bowlders imbedded.
A subsoil plow was used in preparing fields A and B. No timber was grown on the
fields; the woods adjacent, I believe, were maple. The laud had been under cultiva-
tion for years. Fields A and B had been heavily manured in the spring of 1852 with
barn-yard manure, and an excellent crop of corn and beans gathered that year. A
succession of rotating crops had been taken previously from these two fields, but I
have not the statistics concerning them. No manure was directly applied previous

to beet planting on A and B, but I was informed that on field C barn-yard manure

was strewn midway between the beet rows, which were 30 inches apart. In fields
A and B, after harrowing and rolling, the seed, sugar-beet seed was sown, part by
hand and part with a wheelbarrow drill, in rows 18 and 20 inches apart, on the 4th
and 9th of May, 1883. All work after hoeing, thinning, and weeding was entirely by
hand. The crop weighed nearly 18 tons.

‘60

The analysis of the beets grown on these different fields is as follows: *

Analyses of beets from William Cartwright, Oswego, N. Y.

of
of

tae NS the 2 ae
he i=] <= | ~ | nD = Q
a). 6 eh Te aaa ee @ rene
aE pate Be: Pe se lees poms k=
Variety. Se ae -E Sin Vt. gest az ela ys =
as s2 = re Om $s = Pe fo]
ee = 3 | = 7 S a of he sa | g e
ane o é 5) |
4 |\4°?] «€ = By A ven ea)
| Kilos.* | Kilos.* | |
Improved, south field, north end. -. 1 5 | 2.838 | Not taken.| 12.12 0.29 | 1.022 | 74.6
Improved, south field, south end... - 5 | 2.457 | 2.238 15. 34 0.17, 0.775 | 83.0
Improved, north field, north end-.. 5 5 | 2.776 2.610 | 15.32 0.16 0. 862 85. 0
Improved, north field, south end .. 6 5 | 2.795 2. 540 15. 20 0.12 | 1. 061.| 82.0
RT Omvrtart a Meld = S25 cee aoe 11 5 2. 915 2.810 | 12.74 0. 40 0. 897 79.0
|

*A kilogram is equal to 2.2 pounds.

The analyses of these soils show the great difficulty of obtaining a
sample of soil from a field which shall represent its average quality,
unless the greatest care is taken.

In regard to the analysis, No. 2553-2556, taken from the south field
at different corners of the plot, the three samples, A 1, 2, and 4, eon-
tain practically the same amount of coarse sand and gravel, whilst A 3
has about 10 per cent. less. All four samples show that the soil is de-
ficient in phosphoric acid and lime, and probably would be much bene-
fited by the use of a lime phosphate or similar fertilizer; its contents
of other soil constituents are ample for fertility.

The samples, No. 2557-2559, taken from the north field, show that
this soil is likewise deficient in phosphoric acid, but is richer in its con-
tents of lime and nitrogen and in other constituents similar to that of
the south field. The content of gravel also varies in the different
samples.

The two samples, No. 2560 and 2561, taken from Hart’s field, differ in
their contents of coarse gravel, but contain an abundance of phosphoric
acid and other soil constituents.

For the purpose of comparing soils on which such sugar-producing
plants as sorghum and sugar beet have been grown, the following an-
alyses, made by Mr. Clifford Richardson, first assistant chemist of this
Department, in 1882-’83, are given:t

ANALYSES OF SOILS.

The character and composition of the soils best adapted to the cultivation of sor-
ghum for sugar production, as, also, the proper method of fertilization necessary for
the best results, are obviously matters of fundamental importance.

At present our knowledge is very limited, and the number of carefully ascertained
facts so small as hardly to warrant more than conjecture.

In many respects the habits of the sorghums and their demands upon climate and
soil are almost identical with those of the several varieties of maize, and yet there ©
appear to be in certain respects marked differences. It is known that when fairly

* Chemical Division, Bulletin No. 3, 1884, p. 26.
t Investigation of Sorghum as a Sugar-producing Plant; season of 1882. Special
Report, pp. 58-64.

ie G4

ee OP

oe eee ee ee

61

established the sorghums as a class are capable of sustaining a period of drought
which would prove fatal to maize, and not only this, but that such drought and the
accompanying high temperature results in the development of an unusual amount of
sugar in the plant. (See Annual Report of Department of Agriculture, 1881~’R2, p.
456.)

It will be seen by consulting the results of our experiments as to the effect of fer-
tilizers upon the sugar content and ash in the juices of the several sorghums (see
Annual Report, 1880, pp. 118, 125) that, although a very large number of determina-
tions were made, the average result of all was such as to leave the matter wholly un-
settled.

To those who may desire to aid in these and similar investigations, a careful study
of these results above referred to may be helpful as showing the extreme danger of
hasty generalizations; for any half dozen of the analytical results, selected at random
and considered alone, would, in most cases, warrant a conclusion, more or less decided,
which the increase of testimony renders less and less probable.

The results of the past year at Rio Grande, N. J. (where they produced 320,000
pounds of sugar, and where, upon fields identical in character, there was great vari-
ation in the amount of crop produced), were suchas to awaken great interest in these
questions of soils and fertilization. Besides, the juices of the sorghums there grown
proved to be remarkably pnre, comparing well even with the best sugar-cane juice.
Therefore, average specimens of the soils from the several fields were obtained, and
a record of the yield of crop and the fertilizers applied to each was also secured from
the president of the Sorghum Sugar Company, George C, Potts, Esq., of Philadelphia,
Pa.

Rio Grande is a small bamlet some 6 miles north of Cape May, N. J., in latitude 39
degrees north and longitude nearly z degrees east fron. Washington. It is situated
upon a sandy peniusula, about 5 miles in breadth, with the Atlantic upon the east
and separated from the mainland by the Delaware Bay, at this point about 2/ miles
wide. Average samples of soil from six fields were selected for analysis, viz :

A. Harne farm.—This field received an application of 300 pounds of Peruvian guano
per acre. The average yield of stalks was 34 tons per acre.

B. Richwine farm.—This farm also had 309 pounds Peruvian guano per acre. The
average yield was 54 tons of stalks per acre.

C. Hand farm.—This field received an application of 300 pounds of Peruvian guano
and 30 bushels of lime per acre. The average yield was 7} tons of stalks per acre,

D. Neafie farm.—This field received same amount of guano and lime as C, Average
yield per acre, 8 tons stalks.

E. Uriah Creese farm.—Same amount of guano and lime as C and D. Average
yield per acre, 15 tons stalks.

F. Bennett farm.—Same amount of guano and lime as C, D, and E. Average yield
per acre, 17 tons stalks.

From the above results it will be seen that the application of the expensive fertil-
izer Peruvian guano was without any apparent benefit, while the application of lime

seems to have been beneficial, although it is to be regretted that we have not the

data for comparing the yield of these fields with and without the application of fer-
tilizers.

With the exception only that the amount of pebbles of an appreciable size, one-
twentieth to one-quarter inch in diameter, was more in some of the samples than in
others, there was to the eye no noticeable difference in the character of the six.

The samples were passéd through sieves of 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 meshes to the
inch, and the following results obtained: The column marked residue consisted of
pebbles which would not pass through a sieve of twenty meshes to the inch, or rather
of one-twentieth inch diamcter. The column marked 20 was that portion which,
passing meshes of one-twentieth inch, would not pass those of one-thirtieth, &c.

62

Besides these six samples of soil from Rio Grande, N. J., analyses have been made
of several other soils upon which serghum was grown the past year, as follows :

G. Grounds of the Department of Agriculture.—The recent treatment of this plot is
given in the annual reports of the past three years. The sample for analysis was
taken November, 1882.

H. Soil No. 1—Great Bend, Kans.—This soil has been cultivated for six years. The
yield was 10} tons stalks per acre. No fertilizer used.

I. Soil No. 2—Great Bend, Kans.—This soil was plowed for the first time. The yield
per acre was 8 tons of stalks. No fertilizers were used.

J. Soils from Rising City, Nebr., upon which 18 tons per acre of sugar-beets were
grown, which gave, on analysis, an average of 12 27 per cent. of sugar in the juice.

K. Soil from Hutchinson, Kans.—Yield of sorgiium, 6 tons stalks per acre.

L. Soil from Sterling, Kans.—Under cultivation for three years in cereal crops. A
black, sandy loam. Average yield per acre, 7 tons stalks.

M. Soil from Sterling, Kans.—A black, sandy*loam. Under cultivation for seven
years with crops of cereals. Crop very promising, but destroyed by hail.

N. Soil from Sterling, Kans.—Black, sandy loam. Under cultivation for five years
in cereal crops. Average yield per acre, 12 tons of stalks.

O. Soil from Sterling, Kans.—A strictly sandy soil; in cereals for five years. Aver-
age yield per acre, 10 tons of stalks.

Per cent. of soils passed through sieves.

| }
“Residue. 20. | 30. | 40. | 50. | 60. 70. | 80. | 90. | Total.
| | | | |
< ee a 1 ERE GEER ae KI
GaSe SEN, aC se geht | 27.8) 4.2] 5.9) 36] 25] 30) 431 39/4408 100
Lae ae Ry eee aor ce ee | 227) 81] 89) 78] 50] 60] 112) 64] 269 100
EAs ek iin TM ii eG malta e | 3.0 | 67|17.6|/165| 88| 88 bogey. 16.6} 100
Pee Wea ASR Ue cect iee | 6.7 | 72/167 13.6) 9.6| 82) 98/120) 17.2 100
sank RS SN Ms Bar | 3.2| 62/1221 871 7.5| 69| 98] 83] 822 100
Seal eae ae ee See ee | 55| 69|186|)125| &7| 94| 97| 80| 207 100
Gee i ik Be edeP Het en caces. 5.5] 1.6| 66| 7.2| 39} 36| 51| 79] 586 100
see lt 5a MO ep ere Oo 22] 21| 29! 33] 37] 261 7.3) 68 lao 100
jets, BE Ree yeaa aaa ee | 0.3/0.3] 0.9| 10) 1.2] 07] 22) 4.5] 88.9 100
Tee ee ete cat ee | 0.2| 0.5] 01] 01] 0.1] 06] 11] 1.5] 95.8 100
OD eee ne oot, 07-| 0.3) 8] LO| 07] 09| 21) ote 100
be BAA 45 AIOE, te re A | 18| 30h 74! 56] 51] 31] 46| 46| 648 100
Mie Sees Scape bana netar 2: 4.9] 1.4| 33] 822] 21h 27) 421 3.3) Weg 00
i pirate Spam cea hi oe |e | 10| 0.9| 33! 75| 65| 42] 96/129 | 541 100
Dr abigs ele Mak Rd eeee eee | 0.9| 1.6) 9.2 4.6) 11.8 | 9.3 | 14.6 | 14.7 2048 100
\ | |

So far as the partial mechanical analysis goes it quite fails to throw any light upon
the cause of the very wide difference in the crops grown upon the Rio Grange soils.

For example, the soils C, D, F are very much alike, and jet their respective yields
per acre in tons of stalks were 74, 8, and 17, It is obvious that much of this might
have been due to difference in cultivation, but it does not appear that there was prac-
tically any difference in this respect.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE SOILS.

The following table shows the results of the chemical analysis of the several soils,
The absence of other than mere traces of chlorine in the Rio Grande soils is remarkable,
in view of the fact that these fields were lying within a few hundred yards of the
ocean. It is possible that the heavy fall rains had leached such compounds below the
surface, from which alone the samples were taken for analysis. It isintended to make
still further examination of the subsoils of these several fields, for it may be that sorg-
hum, being through its root system a deep feeder, will account for good crops of cane
upon land which failed to grow good crops of other kinds:

Percentage of— A. B. C. D E. F. G.
ies Cano. womewetttos ome . 830 - 680 | -190 | . 850 - 430 . 180 | 1.140
> Organic matter........-. .-.. 4.730 3. 500 1. 290: | 2.180 2.420 | 1.780 | 4. 690
Insoluble matter ............. 87. 008 92.243 | 96.910 93.837 | 93. 167 95, 297 | 84. 670
OE a eee er SBD Aline is Lap 040 1.110 1.500 | 1.445 3. 440
MEA tala -ipietole = avai aiaiateimn 4.110 | 1.640 | . 550 1.765 | 1.805 | 1. 060 | 4. 360
RM De odie afalclatotars weet 315 . 805 225 375 460 | . 505 . 860
_, 2330s oe. eee . 390 | . 290 | .147 . 185 | . 180 . 190 . 367
Res, coe . 238 . 124 | - 061 . 085 | 7122) | . 074 . 894
Ben hia ee Gita efaiort ok Trace. ABs ely SUTACE. (se peceecel| . 012 Trace. | F023
eee Neon (niacin eisininis vies wal s . 088 . 047 . 024 . 034 | - 043 | 026 | . 265
Ses ene sc cece cass Trace. | Trace. Trace. Trace. | Trace.) Tracv. | Trace.
one OSE ae . 044 | . 009 . 003 . 004 | . 005 OU | . 009
RPM Finis Geis eas ainin ee A0 NSS 230 ets Sees oe LU ee aoe Trace. | Trace.
_— oO — —| or ren | —
RG 100.308 | 100.636 | 100.340 100.055 100.144 | 100.560 100. 228
BRMOPETEDOU ON. <. 2-2-2 - 128 | . 067 | 045 | 045 - 078 | . 062 . 146
7 | | |
= - —— = = =: = = — = eee "z = | se oT =
Percentage of— H. I. J. 1 IS FPR RY A O.
a. +.) enema 12 | a) SEK eel eT
Dt) Pa See 1. 000 - 300 1.140} .33 400 | _.470 300 - 360
. “Organi¢ mnatter ...-...--- > 4. 320 5.620 | #820 | 4.830)! 4.310 |} 5.150) 2.520 1. 330
Memubnsoluble matter......-.-.--- 85, 250 84,625 | 78. 162 | 86.2-2 | 87.792 | 81.832 | 91.544 94. 231
Oe 3. 605 3. 330 | 4,550 | 8.270 | 2.775 | 3.270 | 2. 330 1.775
RISO aes <\e snmisiarss aces sesame 3. 575 | 3. 890 5. 805 3. 885 3. 005 3. 665 1. 835 1. 465
Oe BASSE Eras Ss . 710 - 760 | -715| . 565 .660 | 2.685 | .450 505
DREN UN eese cscig' stale crete, “sais Steams . 325 ~ 450 . &20 . 095 | 380 | .690 |) .390 woo
EOIN fot ig nc bic one tans op . 524 538 | . 686 437 |. .482 Pio 1 Cian memes {8 et
lly NO 3 Sees SUES sai 2A 2 0 | ea Trace. | 059 | Trace., 042 | .050 | Trace
BsOnyrt =. 6 ng eee ES Se ae 0 . 047 . 046 | SAD tg 026.) SOLO OMT | 5. oe O24. .017
WE oS NE ea a Trace. .115| Trace. | .050 | Trace. |} .044 | . 036 . 041
SRE eae: ed tote BN so | . U4 . 019 O17 | 2.007 SOZT i LOLI) “2019 -017
AU, oe SS ae ecieee POET OF [oc OCet Mew Moet eee ats Lekota TE GUS Woe Sacre lll no eee
——— — —— — ———
99. 360 99.893 |. 99.257 | 99.836 | 99.941 | 99. 976 | 99. 799 | 100. 228
OUT00 Aa - 151 . 190 ~2380) . .162 -140) .146) .0384 . 050
: | |

For purpose of comparison, analyses are given of two sugar-cane soils from a pam-
phlet on the agricultural chemistry of the sugar cane by Dr. T. L. Phipson.

A is soil from Jamaica, under cane for the first time.

B is soil from Demerara which has been steadily under cane for 15 years.

A. B.

— Per cent. | Per cent.
Moisture ...-....-.-..---.- <2 22 one ee eee eee nee et eee cence better eee ee een Re 18.72
_ Boma Team arii COMPING WWtEl cc <n'2 200 cen ay nial damn cee ee Selena bie win eimemee es 15. 36 6. U3
RCRA H COIS DO) cone Ce ccccd cc sci nec ose seers sd oon tetennw Ss aaldnte ch tomitieedeis 48. 45 68. 89
PERRIS Hee eran pyaar ey ia. Seid di Sadia En Seagate. 2 0} Settee chlo t 13. 80 2. 50
SORRMEA EOI .o a eee noe = wis Skee Wee wd ne, wiae nia = ace omsel abit jad Ailentee ti o's 6. 72 2, 60

ee aoe SEARS See Ree ie a) Slee 2 a a a Ae ar RL ar iek AE an pa 99 . 08
Ses Toei So cn coe ae ae sate ai <0 7 Lalvab casio enh coach ue debiek + hese . 29 25
1134) ee 0 5 ee ee ete oe oon eee aera a! . 10
Per es acetates Pian eee em fh Le a ees eek, boieelsas, Weak .70 .09
ST TOL be saat iG 8 co eM eal a ya cates Sis oo Goth tee RAR eosin Se aen ee . 10 . 03
khan ie LNT seagate RES reo Be eel ee a Se . 30 . 03
eT ne hone eR eS ee (OF Tn 2 Soe eidlc cw mie bye ae oe ems aE Rea ce Bares *. ol.) race:

Oxide manganese, carbonic acid, and loss in analysis...--..-- .-.---.------- --- -42 . 68

: 100. 00 100. 00
Perea TGR MSE IAGCOL yon ctestatnis vase axinde coun cea es ee tee csenecepinis nee else = 31 05

* This quantity of chlorine is unusually high, and is accounted for by the proximity of a salt spring.

Dr. Phipson calls attention to the greater amount of organic matter, nitrogen, lime,
and phosphoric acid in A, and to the important fact that the quantity of lime, .08, in
B is far below that of the magnesia, .25. This he regards as a very bad sign in cane
soil. He deduces from the results of a numerous series of analyses made by him that
the degree of exhaustion which a cane soi] has suffered may be determined by com-
paring the relative amounts of lime and magnesia present in them.

In support of this view, he gives analyses of four samples of cane soils from Guiana,

04

A and B having been cultivated from ten to fifteen years and C and D having been
cultivated over sixty years:

wots BEA Ie | $s
sat : | |
TAM cpa so kOe a Le oe AeA ot oN eae enters Sans noe per cent... .44 ie . 64 | -11| .40
Magnesia ...-.......-- (nn GeeRe sas S0ga ect cates BERS ACe en sonecteor aee do... -.))- 382 | 50.) .36 | .51
I |

In view of the above facts, it is not improbable that a similar explanation will suffice
for the remarkable results obtained at Rio Grande, N. J.

In the following tuble the crop of stalks produced, with the per cents of lime and
magnesia in the several soils, is given for purpose of comparison with ratio of lime to
magnesia :

Tons | Per cent. | Per cent. . Ratio lime to

| stalks. lime. | magnesia.) magnesia.

TP EEe i RRO ore Sek rote Ta nai: Sa). | | ;

UNE SS BE rps anR AROF Osea a BUSES e ecu ao ee goss tet e | 38 | B15 |! -390 100 124
Boe S tothe iste fol 9 set cee late $358 Stobber Poche Je | DA, » 805 | -290 | 100 95
OES. cI le Be ber a Re Ie Cy NOM | eaeenee ics 1147/1005
2a ete ae, Peat NC rhe ane ee erat ECE OERS eysae ere ae 8 | 375 | -185 | = 100 49
LOPS SRP: OS Ae Rees Seen nd Sion Ras Ae Bee teak Cee 15 | 460 | - 180 | 100 39
1S apap RR rea | RR Na Td eg GE EL i Re Da A 17 | . 505 | . 190 | 100 38

It will be remembered that while each of the above soils had received an application
of 300 pounds of Peruvian guano per: cre, the soils C, D, E, and F had, in addition,
received 30 bushels of lime peracre. It is also very interesting to observe that as the
relative amount of magnesia compared with lime in the above soils fell off the crop.
of cane increased.

For purposes of comparison, the tons of stalks produced per acre, with the per cents
of the lime and magnesia, and their ratio, is given for the other soils analyzed:

; | * Fi e to
oe Lime. Magnesia. ‘Ratio Time

Gree See gas aes eit, Asin Pee ean! 2 Cet ee GRAS 15 | . 860 . 367 | 100 43
1: epee Bed LOLS esi EL Sa et peat a = 104") 20 tad .325| 100 46
Ovo Ss Fie aos Nene kecbe ei tenis betes ee eee | 10 . 505 . 230 | 100 46
| Dip A pe Bae He Ie Weer ees Wat tee tee ian ee a ae BA eX, ft . 660 . 880 | 100 58
BD scrakahar sian aera es ec one GEV STE a Eee alate ee | 8 . 760 | . 450 | 100 59
Bet ON Te IE oR LCL Fee en Eas | 125) . 450 . 390 100 87
BG Seaton a Ub Sa ee peony ope ae it eres Seay A ie ee 6 | 565 ; Bes 100 =: 105

In the above list the order of arrangement is according to the ratio of lime to mag-
nesia, and it will be seen that the crop from soil N is the only one which is fairly ex-
ceptional to the conelusions laid down by Dr. Phipson in his examinations of sugar-
cane soils. The ratios of L and I are almost identical, and there is but a ton differ-
ence in the yield per acre; alsothe actual amount of lime present in Lis greater than
that in L.

The results at Rio Grande, N. J., in the use of lime show the importance of deter-
mining the question asto what fertilizers are best suited for sorghum, not in increasing
the crop, but in improving the quality of the juice as to content of sugar and coeffi-,
cient of purity.

Especially are experiments desirable in the application of the various lime fertil-
izers, as Superphosphates, sulphate of lime, quick lime, and powdered limestone.

SOILS FROM RAPIDES PARISH, Lt, UISIANA.

2574-2577. Soils from the cotton plantation of F. Seip, situated on
Bayou Rapides, near Alexandria, Rapides Parish, Louisiana:

» All these four samples were taken from the same plantation, and their differences
simply arise from the greater or less distance from the water course in which the

65

plantation lies ; near the stream the soil is lighter or sandier; as it recedes it becomes
heavier, until finally the red clay soil is reached. The land isa part of what is
known as the ‘‘ bottom” or alluvial lands of the Red River Valley. These lands are
level, having but a slight elevation above tide water, and in their native state covered
by a growth of heavy timber or forest. They lie near the Red River, and are drained
_ by smaller streams or bayous running into the Red. The principal timber growth is
sweet gum, various kinds of oak, ash, hackberry, sycamore, elm, mulberry, pecan,
cotten-wood, &c. Trees are often from 3 to 6 feet in diameter, and a height of 75 feet
isnot uncommon. Some of theland has been recently cleared, whilst other parts have
been for many, seventy or more, years in cultivation.
The samples were, in every instance, taken to a depth of 6 inches and 6 inches
square, or as near that as practicable The character of the soil for some 10 feet or

“more is principally a red clay, with an occasional mixture of clay and sand. The

surface for a few inches is a black mold, arising from the decay of vegetable matter,
- the leaves of the forest, &c. Beneath the red clay is generally found a blue or
grayish clay.

The crops grown consist of corn and cotton, the latter principally. The yield
would average in the past five years 250 pounds of lint cotton per acre ; under favor-
able conditions of weather and good culture, 500 pounds and over were obtained. Corn
would average about 25 to 30 bushels per acre. No manure was used.

2574. This sample was taken from a ‘field of some 8 or 10 acres but
one year cleared, the remainder, 300 acres in extent, being heavily
timbered, but of a similar formation.”
2575. “This soil has been twenty years in cultivation and proved very
fertile, and is a sample of medium or ‘ chocolate’ land.”
2576. This soil has been longer in cultivation than either of the two
preceding, viz, “‘thirty years,” and is a specimen of the fertile “red clay.”
2577. This is a sample of the “front and sandy alluvial lands, and
has been fifty years in cultivation, producing a somewhat smaller crop”
than No. 2575.
2579-2580. Soils from Mrs. William Waters, samples collected by Mr.
)

H. R. Cummings, Alexandria, La.:
2579. This is a sample of what is known as “creek bottom land”, hav-

ing been taken from “‘ Flaggan Creek,” near Alexandria, La.
P The term is applied to the narrow belts of land bordering on each side of the small

creeks in the Pine Hills. In this particular locality the formation extends on both
sides of the creek over a thousand acres. Owing to its slight elevation the land
is subject to overflow; the ground is slightly undulating, and situated within a
few hundred yards of the creek, into which it easily drains. The soil is generally
thin, not more than 12 inches deep. The subsoil is stiffer and soon becomes a thick
bluish clay, intermingled with sand and gravel. The principal forest growths are
white oak, hickory, beech, ash, and magnolia.

This sample was taken from a “field of 20 acres, which has been six-
; teen years in cultivation, in corn, cotton, and oats. Yield from 30 to

40 bushels of corn, and from 200 to 300 pounds of lint cotton. No ma-
nure has been used except by planting peas in the corn.”

2580. This was taken from a “field in the Pine Hills, back of the
‘creek lands, and is a fair specimen of these lands, which embrace
three-fourths of the area of this parish. The lands are high, rolling,
and heavily timbered with pines, Pinus palustris, and are not much

13735—No, 10———5

—

KH.

66—

valued for cultivation. The lands being hilly are easily and naturally
drained into the creeks. The field from whence the sample was taken
has been cultivated in corn, cotton, and oats, with light yields. In
good seasons not more thau 10 to 15 bushels of corn and 100 to 125
pounds of lint cotton per acre have been produced. The soil is only a
few inches deep, and the subsoil consists of sand, gravel, and clay.”

2581 and 2582. Soils from the plantation of William Harris, on Bayou
Robert, near Alexandria, La. :

These soils are of the same formation as those taken from Mr. Seip’s
plantation, and possess similar characteristies, being “alluvial bottom
lands” of the Red River Valley.

In regard to the analyses, No. 2574 and 2576, the samples agree very
closely in their contents of the more important soil constituents, viz,
phosphoric acid, potash, lime, &c., though the amount of nitrogen in
the former is nearly double that in the latter, which might be expected
from a virgin soil.

No. 2575 and 2577 show a less amount of potash, phosphorie acid,
and nitrogen than No. 2574, owing to their having been under cultiva-

tion for a longer period, and no attempt having been made to keep up.

the supply by the use of manures. As far as chemical analysis is con-
cerned, all these soils are rich enough in all the necessary soil constit-
uents fur the continued raising of abundant crops, though the continued
cropping, year after year, without the use of manure is not to be recom-
mended if an abundant yield is to be naintained. A moderate appli-
cation of farm-yard manure, or the ashes of the cotton plant and seeds
mixed with lime, would certainly result in an increased yield.

The sample of ‘creek buttom jand” No. 2579, is deficient in its con-
tents of lime, aud the application of this fertilizer would undoubtedly
increase the productiveness of the land. In other respects it is suffi-
ciently rich.

The analysis of the sample of ‘‘ Pine Hill land,” No. 2580, shows the
complete absence of phosphoric acid, and a great deficiency of lime; in
fact, it is nearly all pure quartz sand. It would seem to be a hopeless
task to bring such soils to any degree of profitable fertility, as there is
such a general deficiency of the most important plant constituents. The
continued application of such fertilizers as South Carolina phosphates,
coutainivg both lime and phosphorie acid, and farm-yard and cotton-seed
manures, with the admixture of sume of the *‘red clay” soils, would in
course of time greatly improve such lands; and as they cover nearly
three fourths of the area of this parish, some such course as above in-
dicated will have to be adopted. The mere application of Jime in lib-
eral quantities would have a beneficial effect.

The application of lime to the soils, Nos. 2581 and 2582, from Mr.
William Harris, would increase their fertility, as they are somewhat de-
ficient in their contents of lime.

c

{b O 07

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1), 2 Oe a

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