mijB §. p. pm ^tkarg ^artl| Carolina ^tate OJoIkge 55605 115 s of ers jmpany West Washington Square Philadelphia Price CLOTH ^1 NET NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY S01 944728 2 Date Due {^.."■''r^.. ^^^^^ ^tS^ ltl^r^p:'4C , , .. ~i SB805 — D3 ^ „ PeuglnftTty, Ii.-- a^ 19663 PxinciiaeB_ai-^economlc-^x>iJl=- PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY PART I Field and Laboratory Guide BY L. S. DAUGHERTY. M.S., Ph. D. PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, KIRKSVILLE, MO. AND M. C. DAUGHERTY AUTHOR WITH JACKSON OF "AGRICULTURE THROWJH THE LABORATORY AND SCHOOL GARDEN" PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY 1912 Copyright, 1912, by W. B. Saunders Company PRINTED IN AMERICA PRESS OF W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY PHILADELPHIA PREFACE A SATISFACTORY course in Zoology requires field, laboratory, and text-book work on a series of typical animals. This method will bring the student into contact with the animal world in its manifold relations. The teacher may follow any order which he prefers, but the studies in this guide are arranged with a view to seasonal supply. Insects are plentiful and easily obtained by the class in the fall, while fishes, frogs, and turtles may be kept in aquaria or purchased at any time from dealers in zoologic supplies. Also, the dissection of the vertebrate forms is less unpleasant in the winter. Earthworms and lower forms may be obtained in the spring. Zoology is a study of animals and not information about animals. As Ruskin says, '' the greatest thing in the world is for a man to see something and to tell clearly what he saw." It is intended that the student find his answers in the animal before him. Things he cannot get from the animal in the laboratory he should get from the study of the animal in the field, or, where this is impossible, from descriptive zoologies. ''Principles of Economic Zoology," Part II, is intended to supply this need. In the preparation of these studies, helpful suggestions have been used from time to time from various authors, but they are largely the result of many years' teaching of Zoology, of personal investigation, of travel and observation from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and in the best schools of Europe. The Authors. IviRKSViLLE, Mo., November, 1912. a^^\h^ T 19663 CONTENTS PAGE To THE Teacher 1 To THE Student 2 The Laboratory 3 Plan for Using Laboratory Studies of Typic Animals 5 Laboratory Studies Upon Typic Animals G General Preliminary Study, 0. — Ecologie or Environment Study, S. — Animal Behavior, 12. — Morphologic Study, IS. — Classification or Systematic Study, IS. — Final Oral or Written Study. IS. Crustacea 2S Study of Live Crayfish, 2S. — Morphophysiologic Study of the Crayfish, 32. — Mounting a Crayfish, 44. Arachnida (the Spider") 4S Morphophysiologic Study oi the Spider, 4S. Insecta o2 Collection of Insects Required of Each Student, 52. — Life- history, 62. — Spraj's and Spraying, 66. Insect Studies: The Grasshopper, 70.— The Butterfly. S6.— The Honey Bee or the Bumble Bee, 90.— The House Fly. 02. Hemiptera: The Squash Bug or the Cicada. 96.— The Beetle. 9S.— Systematic Study for Branch Arthropoda. 104. — Systematic Study for the Classes of Arthropoda. 104.— Ordinal Study for Class Insecta, 106.— Com- parative Systematic Study, lOS. Pisces (the Fish) 112 Study of a Live Fish, 112.— The Sunfish, 116. V VI CONTENTS PAGE Study of Chordate Branch Characteristics 128 Study of Chordate Class Characteristics, 128. Amphibia (the Frog) 132 Study of the Live Frog, 132. Reptilia (the Turtle) 152 Study of the Live Turtle, 152. Ayes (the Bird) 174 Study of Live Birds, 174. Mammalia (the Rabbit) 200 Study of a Live Rabbit, 200. — Systematic Study of the Rabbit, 218. Man 222 Morphophysiologic Study, 222. Protozoa 226 Morphophysiologic Study, 226. PORIFERA 230 Morphophysiologic Study, 230. CCELENTERATA 234 Morphophysiologic Study, 234. — Systematic Study, 238. Echinodermata (the Starfish) 240 Morphophysiologic Study, 240. — Systematic Study, 246. Annulata 248 Study of Live Earthworms, 248. — Morphophysiologic Study, 252. MOLLUSCA 260 Study of a Live Fresh-water Clam or Mussel, 260. — Morpho- physiologic Study of the Clam, 262. — Study of the Snail Shell, 270. — Systematic Study for Branch Mollusca, 270.— Systematic Study for Classes of Mollusca, 272. Index 273 PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY PART 1 FIELD AND LABORATORY GUIDE TO THE TEACHER The purpose of these studies is not to obtain a few facts about the structure and hfe-history of animals, but to lead the student to discover the principles which underlie these facts and to bring him to see that the same fundamental principles apply to all animal life, including man. The teacher is entreated not to fail to use the General Studies as indicated, especially upon the forms from Arthro- poda up, and not to be worried because of the repetition of the same questions for different animals. Study to see how these questions may or may not be applied, and why. Remember, we are after principles. The study of the live animal, both in the field and laboratory, will be found to give a new and vital interest to the subject. If you will persevere in the use of these studies as they have been planned, Zoology will grow to have a fascination for you and your students which mere facts, however abundant and accurate, can never give. It is not expected that all of these animals will be studied every year. Each teacher must determine the kind and amount of work he can undertake with his classes. He must find out what he can best use and what he can most easily obtain. One year some material may not be obtainable, and another year, easily obtainable; or lack of time or oppor- tunity may necessitate the omission of a certain suggested study. However, these changes will make the work new each year, and students cannot copy from the note-books of the previous year. 1 .«i :3 Is <5I ill 1 5 e i e < .Is"- l| 1-2 1 Number 7 Location 7 Character 7 How folded or arranged? Anterior and posterior pairs similar? Covering? j p 1 Hooked or Padded 7 Largo or small 7 H CO s Number 7 Location 7 Similarity? Strong or Weak 7 Special Adaptions 7 1 li £5 m Adapted for biting, suck- ing, or lap- ping? (D lis 11! a n t 2 1 i il z 1^ 1 5 1 110 PISCES (THE FISH) Take the Study of a Live Fish. Take all applicable points of General Studies, I, II, III. Take Special Morphophysiologic Study. Take Systematic Study for Branch Chordata and Class Pisces. See p. 128. Take Final Study. Give your best definition of a fish. Make an oral recitation of ten minutes on fishes. Write a theme on the fish, using, in connected form, the facts you have gathered in your studies. Illustrate with good sketches. STUDY OF A LIVE FISH 1. Collecting. If fishes are studied in a suitable season, each student should be required to capture and bring to the labora- tory at least one live fish, reporting on the following outline : (1) Habits and habitat. (a) Does the kind of fish you caught live in shallow or deep water? Why? (b) Does it live in still or running water? Why? (c) In clear or muddy water? Why? (d) Does it live near the surface, or at the bottom of the stream? (e) Does it move slowly or swiftly? (f) Is it a "game" fish or is it easy to capture? (g) Did you fish with pole or with trot-line? In the daytime or at night? (h) Is this fish solitary or gregarious? (i) What is a company of fishes called-? (2) Food. Use various kinds of bait. (a) What kinds of fish did you catch with each kind of bait? (b) Is this fish carnivorous, herbivorous, or omnivorous? 112 114 PISCES (the fish) (c) Does this fish feed in the daytime or in the evening and at night? (3) Concealment. (a) Where does this fish hide? (b) For what purpose or purposes does it hide? (c) Has it an}^ natural means of concealment? If so, what? (4) Senses. (a) What evidences have you as to whether or not fishes can hear? (b) Evidences that they can smell? (c) Evidences that they see? 2. Laboratory Study. (1) Locomotion. (a) Just how is locomotion accomplished by this fish? What fin or fins are most used in locomotion? (b) Experiment and find out the use of the paired fins. (1) Keeping the fish under the water, pass a rubber band over the pectoral fins so as to hold them close against the body.^ What effect does this '*' have upon the position of the body? (2) Same as (1) for the ventral fins. (2) Respiration. (a) Watch the movements of the mouth and gill covers. (b) Experiment and find out whether the water moves over the gills and out through the mouth, or in at the mouth and out over the gills. (3) Feeding. Try several kinds of food. (a) Does it have any choice? If so, by what sense does it choose its food? (b) Feed it at various times in the day or night. Results? (c) How does it take its food? (4) Senses. (a) Experiment and find out whether it sees or hears you first. Which of these senses is of the greatest value in warning it of danger? (b) What is its range of sight? (c) Does it ever close its eyes or wink? Why? (d) Has it any voice or song? Why? ^Colton's "Practical Zoology." 116 PISCES (THE fish) (e) Have you found any evidence that the fish can taste? (f) Where is the fish most sensitive to touch? Is it sen- sitive to a jarring or stirring of the water if there is no sound? (5) What means of defense has this fish? (6) Do fishes ever play? (7) Do they ever sleep? THE SUNFISH Morphophysiologic Study A. External Morphology 1. Shape? Use of this particular shape to the sunfish? 2. Length of sunfish from tip of nose to caudal fin? 3. Thickness. (1) Laterally? (2) Dorsoventrally? (3) Is it compressed or flattened? 4. Covering. Naked, ctenoid scales, or cycloid scales? 5. Dorsal surface. (1) Shape? (2) Color? 6. Ventral Surface. (1) Shape? (2) Color? Why this difference in color? 7. The Fins. (1) Paired Fins. (a) Number? (b) Use? (2) Unpaired Fins. (a) Number? (b) Use? (3) Caudal Fin. Is it homocercaP or heterocercaP ? 8. Nostrils. (1) How many nostrils has the sunfish? (2) Do they open into the mouth? (Thrust a tipped bris- tle or a flexible probe into the nostrils and see.) (3) Use of the nostrils to the fish? 1 See Glossary, Part II, " Economic Zoology." 118 PISCES (the fish) 9. The Eyes. (1) How many? (2) Location? (3) Parts of eye present as compared with your own? (4) Parts wanting as compared with your own? (5) Why these differences? 10. The Ears. (1) Do you find any evidences of external ears? (2) If not, why not? (3) Does the fish hear? State your proof. 11. The Mouth. (1) Size? (2) Shape? (3) Position? 12. The Gill Covers. (1) Position? (2) Use? 13. The Gill Openings. (1) Position? (2) Use? (3) Number? 14. The Scales. (1) Number of rows from dorsal to ventral edge? (2) Number in one row from side of head to caudal fin? (3) Estimate the total number of scales on the entire fish. (4) How are the scales fastened into the skin? (5) Are the scales naked or covered with a membrane? (6) Is the pigment in spots or is it uniformly distributed? Use of the pigment? (7) Are the scales ctenoid or cycloid^ ? (8) Examine a scale with hand lens or microscope. Sketch one (enlarged five or ten times) to show its structure. 15. The Lateral Line. (1) How do the scales of the lateral line differ from those of other parts of the body? (2) Use of lateral line? 16. Sketch. Turn the specimen with its unmutilated side toward you and sketch a side view of it, locating the mouth, iSee Part II, "Economic Zoology," Figs. 173, 174. 120 PISCES (the fish) nostrils, ear, eye, gills, fins, lateral line, and vent. Number these points in your sketch and write these numbers and the names below it. 17. The Skin. With sharp scissors cut through the skin, and with forceps peel off a portion of it so as to expose the flesh or muscles. (1) Is the skin thick or thin? (2) How is it fastened to the flesh? (3) Use? 18. The Muscles. (1) How are they arranged on the body? (2) Estimate what proportion of the whole fish is muscle. (3) Why so much muscle? (4) Are there any nerves in the muscles? Use? (5) Do you see any blood-vessels in the muscles? Use? 19. The Respiratory Organs. (1) Raise the gill cover and count the gills. How many? (2) Color? (3) How are the gills connected with the mouth? (4) How many gill arches? (5) How many gill filaments on one arch? How many in all? Use? (6) What does the fish breathe? How does it obtain it? (7) How does the water, with the air mechanically mixed with it, pass over the gifls; from the mouth back over the gills, or through the gill openings forward and out at the mouth? B. Internal Morphology 1. The Digestive Organs. Cut forward from the vent to the gills and remove the muscles from one side of the body, exposing the internal organs. Is the body-cavity large or small? (1) Peritoneum. (a) Color? (b) Surface rough or smooth? Why? (c) Use? 122 PISCES (the fish) (2) The Liver. (a) Size? (b) Shape? (c) Position? (d) Number of lobes? (e) Gall-bladder. (1) Size? (2) Location? (3) Use? (f) Use? (3) The Mouth. (a) Size? Large or small? (b) Shape? (c) Teeth. (1) Number? (2) Arrangement? (3) Position? (4) Use? (d) The Tongue. (1) Size? (2) Shape? (3) Relation to gills and other parts? (4) The Gullet, a short, wide tube leading to the stomach. Thrust a probe down the throat of the fish about two inches. (a) Are there any teeth in the gullet? (b) Are there any openings to or from the gullet? (5) The Stomach. (a) Position. (1) Is it in front or behind the gills? (2) Position with reference to dorsal fins? (3) With reference to pectoral fins? (4) To ventral fins? (b) Size? (c) Shape? (6) The Caeca are small, worm-like projections at the junc- tion of the stomach and the small intestine. They are not present in all species of fishes, (a) Size? 124 PISCES (the fish) (b) Shape? (c) Color? (d) Number? (e) Use? (7) The Intestines. (a) Are they straight or coiled? (b) If coiled, unravel them and compare their length with that of the whole fish. (8) The Spleen. (a) Location? (b) Use? 2. The Swimming Bladder — dorsal to the intestines. Use? 3. The Excretory Organs — the kidneys. (1) Location? (2) Use? 4. The Circulatory Organs.^ (1) The Heart. (Note its pericardial cavity.) (a) Sinus venosus. Use? (b) Auricle. Use? (c) Ventricle. Use? (d) Bulbous arteriosus. Use? (2) The Arteries. Traced to what organs? Function? (3) The Veins. Traced to what organs? Function? (4) Use of pericardial cavity? (5) Make a diagram showing the principal parts of the cir-. culatory system. 5. The Nervous System. (1) Dissect away the muscles and bones along the dorsal side, and expose the brain,^ spinal cord, and main nerves. (2) Special Senses. (a) How many senses has the fish? (b) Name them. (c) Name those of man. ^See Fig. 160, "Principles of Economic Zoology." 2 See Fig. 161, " Principles of Economic Zoology." 126 PISCES (the fish) C. Summary 1. Skeleton (osseous or bony system). (1) Composition? (2) Use. (a) To the fish? (b) To man? (3) Compared with man's skeleton, what parts do you find lacking? Why lacking? 2. Muscular System. (1) Uses to the fish? (2) Uses to man? 3. The Skin. (1) Uses to the fish? (2) Uses to man? 4. The Digestive System. (1) Organs in man are (2) Organs in the fish are 5. The Circulatory System. (1) Organs in man? (2) Organs in the fish? 6. The Respiratory System. Compare with that of man. 7. The Excretory System. Compare with that of man. 8. The Nervous System. Compare with man's. 9. Special Senses. Compare with man's. 10. Why does the fish have these different systems? 11. Why is the fish more complex than the Amoeba? 12. Why is the fish aquatic, while the bird is aerial? STUDY OF CHORDATE BRANCH CHARACTERISTICS For guidance in arriving at a correct answer, ask yourself this question, ''Does this answer apply to all chordates?" If it does apply, then you have a branch characteristic. 1. The Skeleton. Of what does the endoskeleton consist? 2. The Body. (1) Two Body-cavities. (a) The upper one, or the neural cavity, contains what system? (b) The lower one, or the hemal cavity, contains what systems of organs? 3. The Paired Limbs. How many? 4. The Notochord. Is it present in the larval or in the adult stage, or in both? If it is not present in the adult stage, what has become of it? Its use? 5. The Gill-slits. When are they present, in the larval or in the adult stage, or in both? If they are not present in the adult stage, what has become of them? Their use? 6. The Nervous System. (1) Its position in the body? (2) Consists of what organs? 7. This animal belongs to Branch because it has the following characteristics of that branch. (Student name them.) STUDY OF CHORDATE CLASS CHARACTERISTICS 1. General shape of the body of this animal? 2. Exoskeleton or External Skeleton. Scales, feathers, hair, fur, none, or what? 3. Endoskeleton or Internal Skeleton. (1) Occipital Condyles — one or two? (2) Appendages. (a) Called what? (b) Clawed or not clawed? 128 130 STUDY OF CHORDATP] BRANCH CHARACTERISTICS (c) Position on body? (d) Number? (e) Use? 4. Respiration, by means of 5. Circulation. (1) Single or double? (2) Of how many chambers does the heart consist? Name them. (3) Is the animal poikilothermal or homoiothermal? 6. Digestion. What digestive organs found in this animal are peculiar to its class? 7. This animal belongs to Class because it has the following characteristics of that class. (Student name them.) 8. Consult descriptive zoologies for Classes. AMPHIBIA (THE FROG) (1) Follow suggested plan for the study of the fish, p. 112. (2) Then compare the fish and the frog, thus: The fish is covered with scales. The frog's skin is naked. Make your comparison tell what both animals pos- sess. Don't say the fish is covered with scales while the frog is not. You might infer that the frog was covered with feathers or fur. Make twenty compar- isons. (3) Define a frog. (4) Compare your definitions of fish and frog. What do you find they have in common? STUDY OF THE LIVE FROG 1. Collecting. Wear rubbers or rubber boots, and walk along the edge of a pond or stream where you have heard the croaking of frogs. (1) Do all of them croak? (2) Look for small ones in the grass and weeds along the bank. Catch them by sweeping the net along over the vegetation, and carry them back to the laboratory for the tank. (3) Observations. (a) What does the frog do which results in a ''splash" into the water? (b) How do they strike the water? (c) Do they stay near the surface all the time. If not, how often do they come to the surface and for what purpose? (d) How do boys get a chance to shoot frogs? (e) When a frog floats in the water, how much of it can you see? (f) Color. (1) How does the color of its upper surface compare with that of its surroundings? Purpose of this color? From what enemies does it protect it? 132 134 AMPHIBIA (the frog) (2) What color is the frog as seen by animals below it? Purpose of this color? (g) Eggs. Look among the leaves and trash in the edge of the water for the egg masses or spawn — lumps of jelly-like material containing the eggs. Take these to the laboratorj^, place them in water where there is no danger of their being eaten, and watch their development. (h) Take also large frog's, which may be captured with the hook if they cannot be gotten with the net. 2. Laboratory Study. Place a number of frogs in a tank or tub covered with a heavy wire screen, and containing an inch or two of water. (1) Try various kinds of food, as live insects, bits of meat, tadpoles, bread, grass, etc. (a) Which kind of food does the frog prefer? (b) How does it take its food? (c) Has it any special adaptation for catching insects? If so, what? (2) Observe its methods of locomotion. (a) In shallow water or in no water. (b) In deep water. (c) Can a frog walk? (d) How far can it jump? (e) What adaptations has it for jumping? (3) What is the position of a frog at rest? (4) How does it breathe? (5) Notice the pulsations of the ''lymph hearts" on each side near the end of the backbone. (6) What means of defense or escape has the frog? (a) Molest it from the front. What does it do? (b) Molest it from behind. What does it do? (7) Eyes. (a) Are there eyelids? If so, are the upper and lower lids alike? (b) Observe and describe the movements of the eyelid. (8) Voice. (a) Do the different species have different voices or calls? (b) Do they cry out in fright? In pain? 136 AMPHIBIA (the frog) (9) Color. (a) Keep one frog in the light, and another in the dark for several hours, and compare their colors. (b) Experiment and find out if changing the color of the surroundings affects the color. If possible, repeat this experiment with a little tree toad. (10) Wrap a wet towel about a frog and pour chloroform over it above the nostrils. Now spread the web of the foot out on a glass slide and study the circula- tion under the low power of the microscope. Morphophysiologic Study A. External Morphology 1. Size? Length in inches? 2. Shape. (1) Stout or slender? (2) Body divisions present? 3. The Head. (1) Size. Small, medium, large, or very large? (2) Shape? (3) Movement of lower jaw — vertical or horizontal? (4) The Eyes. (a) Position on head? (b) Shape? (c) Size? (d) Number of eyelids? (e) Color of iris? (5) The Ears. Back of the eyes find the tympanum. (a) Shape? (b) Size? Larger or smaller than the eyes? (c) Use? (d) Pass a needle through the tympanum into the mouth and trace the course of the Eustachian tube. (e) Why has the frog no external ear? (6) The Nostrils. (a) Where located on the head? (b) Are they near together or far apart? 138 AMPHIBIA (the frog) (c) Do they open into the mouth? Probe with a bristle and see. (d) Does the frog breathe through the nostrils, or does it swallow air, or does it do both? (e) Are the nostrils organs of smell only, or does the frog both smell with and breathe through its nostrils? 4. The Limbs. (1) The Anterior Limbs. (a) Number of digits? (b) Webbed or free? (c) Use? (2) The Posterior Limbs. Same questions as for anterior hmbs. (3) Compare the anterior with the posterior limbs. In what respects do they resemble each other? In what do they differ? Why? (4) Name the three modes of locomotion of the frog. How is each performed? When? Why? 5. The Skin. (1) Smooth or rough? (2) Why so loose on the body? (3) Remove the skin from the body. (a) Is it thick or thin? (b) Hold it up to the light. What do you observe con- cerning its color or color spots? Its blood-vessels? 6. The Muscles. (1) Determine the origin, insertion, and specific use of the muscles. (2) What do you observe concerning the muscles of the posterior limbs? What is the reason for this? B. Internal Morphology 1. Digestive Organs. Pin the frog, on its back with the limbs fully extended, in a wax-bottomed pan or on a soft pine board. Slit open the body-cavity from the posterior end of the abdomen to the breast bone, using great care not to injure the internal organs. On each side of the posterior end of this slit make another short one at right angles to it. Now pin back 140 AMPHIBIA (the frog) the flaps of the body walls, exposing the viscera. Insert a blow- pipe in the glottis and inflate the lungs, then tie a string tightly around the trachea to keep them inflated. Dissect under water, (1) The Mouth. (a) The Teeth. Open the mouth wide. Ascertain — (1) The number of the teeth. (2) Their arrangement. (3) Their location. (b) The Tongue. (1) Is it long or short? (2) Shape? (3) Where attached? Why? (4) Is the free end entire, slightly nicked, heart shaped, or deeply notched? (5) How and when is the food captured? (c) The Glottis. Find a longitudinal slit in the back of the floor of the mouth. Into what does it open? (d) The Pharynx. The posterior portion of the mouth may be considered as the pharynx, which opens into the esophagus, leading to the stomach. Thrust a probe down the esophagus to the stomach. (2) The Stomach. (a) Identify and describe it. (b) Shape? (c) Size? (d) Color? (e) Location? (3) The Liver is reddish brown and lies upon the stomach. (a) How many lobes? (b) Find the gall-bladder. (1) Shape? (2) Color? (3) Use? (4) The Pancreas is in the first fold of the intestine. (a) Shape? (b) Color? 142 AMPHIBIA (the frog) (c) Size? (d) Use? (5) The Mesentery is a thin membrane which holds the intestines in place. (a) Does it contain any blood-vessels? (b) From what source do they come? (c) To what do they lead? (6) The Spleen is a small round red body in the mesentery. (a) Find and identify it. (b) Use in man? (c) Use in the frog? (7) The Intestines pass from the stomach to the vent. (a) Carefully cut the mesentery and unravel the intes- tines. Are they coiled or straight? (b) Are they of the same diameter, or do they vary in different portions? Where, and how much? (c) Length as compared with that of the body? (8) The Cloaca. This is the enlargement of the intestine just before it reaches the vent. The intestines, kidneys, and reproductive organs open into it. (9) Sketch the alimentary canal from the mouth to the vent, properly locating and naming all its parts or organs. 2. The Respiratory Organs. (1) The lungs. How much of the body-cavity do the lungs fill when inflated? When not inflated? (2) The Trachea. Find the trachea and trace it to its branches, the bronchi, which lead to the lungs. (3) Sketch the respiratory organs and name all parts. 3. The Circulatory Organs. (1) The Pericardium, around the heart. Its use? Care- fully cut through the pericardium and find the heart. (2) The Heart. (a) The Ventricle. The pointed posterior portion of the heart is the ventricle. (1) Shape? (2) Color? (3) Size? (4) Use? 144 AMPHIBIA (the frog) (b) The Auricles. At the anterior and dorsal end of the heart, find the two auricles. (1) Shape? (2) Size? (3) Color? (4) Are the walls thick or thin as compared to the ven- tricle? (5) Use? (c) Conus Arteriosus. The conus arteriosus originates from the right side of the base of the ventricle, soon divides into two branches. Each divides into three, the posterior uniting in the dorsal aorta. (d) Dorsal Aorta. Trace the principal branches. (1) What organs or parts of the body do they supply? (2) Notice that these arteries are firm, elastic blood- vessels. (e) Veins. The flabby blood-vessels are veins. As you traced the arteries from the heart, now trace the flabby veins to the heart. (1) From what organs or parts of the body do they originate? (2) Where do they unite? (3) Where do they empty into the heart? (f) Sketch or make diagram of the circulatory organs, showing pericardium, ventricle, auricles, conus arteriosus, and the principal arteries and veins. Indicate upon each artery the organ supplied, and upon each vein the organ from which the vein comes. 4. Reproductive and Excretory Organs. (1) The Reproductive Organs. If the specimen is a female, the reproductive organs will appear as long coiled tubes, filled with eggs in the breeding season. If a male, the reproductive organs will appear as a pair of yellowish bodies just below the kidneys. Do not confuse the reproductive organs with the slender branched fatty bodies which are generally present. (2) The Excretory Organs. The kidneys are two flat bodies along the back-bone. 146 AMPHIBIA (the frog) (a) Color? (b) Length? (c) Trace the ureter from each kidney to the cloaca. (d) Sketch the kidneys, the ureters, and the openings into the cloaca. 5. The Endoskeleton. Carefully dissect off all the flesh and viscera and have the bony skeleton entire and uninjured. (1) The Skull. (a) Shape? (b) Size? (c) How many bones in the lower jaw? (d) How many occipital condyles, one or two? (2) The Spinal Column. (a) Number of vertebrae? (b) What vertebral processes are longest? Why? (c) Why has the frog no ribs? How does it breathe without either ribs or diaphragm? (d) Urostyle, the long bone at the posterior end of the spinal column. (1) Shape? (2) Is it segmented? (3) Use? (3) Bones of the Anterior Limbs. In man they are 1 hu- merus, 1 radius, 1 ulna, 8 carpals, 5 metacarpals, and 14 phalanges, or 30 bones in all. Compare the bones of the frog's anterior limb with those of man. (a) What ones are lacking, if any? (b) How many in the entire limb? (c) Any peculiarity of any bone? (4) Bones of the Posterior Limbs. (a) Name in order the bones in man's leg. (b) Name those in the frog's leg. (c) How do they agree? (d) How do they differ? (e) How do the bones of the posterior limb differ from those of the anterior limb in this specimen? Why? (5) The Pectoral or Shoulder Girdle. (a) Of how many parts does it consist? (b) Is it entirely of bone or partly of cartilage? 148 AMPHIBIA (the frog) (c) How many bones enter into the articulation at the shoulder-joint? (6) The Pelvic Girdle. Notice the two long bones (iha) one on either side of the urostjde. (a) To what is the anterior end attached? (b) What makes the "hump" on the frog's back? Of what use is this arrangement? (c) At the posterior end of the urostyle notice a wedge or disk-shaped body, partly bone and partly cartilage. This disk is formed by the union of the posterior extremities of the ilia and the fusing together of the two pubes and the two ischia. (d) For what bones do they form sockets (acetabula)? Are these acetabula far apart or very close to- gether? Why? (e) How close are the articulations of the thigh bone to the posterior end of the body? Why? (f) Mount this skeleton on a heavy card or a nicely planed pine board and save it for further refer- ence in the systematic studies. 6. The Nervous System. If it is desired to work out the nervous system, chloroform the specimen, slit open the abdomen and the skin along the dorsal side, and put it into 70 per cent, alcohol, or 2 to 4 per cent, formalin for about a week, then dis- sect out the nervous system. (1) Carefully remove the muscles and bones from the dorsal surface of the cranium and backbone with knife, bone-forceps, or strong forceps, bit by bit, until the brain and spinal cord are exposed, but left intact. Man's brain has three coverings: dura mater, pia mater, and arachnoid. Can you identif}^ these coverings on the frog's brain and spinal cord? (2) The Brain.i (a) The Cerebrum. Identify it with its two hemispheres between the eves. (1) Shape? (2) Size? (3) Is it convoluted or smooth? (4) Function? ^See Fig. 185, "Principles of Economic Zoology." 150 AMPHIBIA (the frog) (b) The Optic Lobes lie just posterior to the cerebrum. (1) Shape? (2) Size? (3) Function? (c) The Cerebellum is posterior to the optic lobes. (1) Shape? (2) Size? (3) Is it convoluted, smooth, or ridged? (4) Use? (d) The Medulla Oblongata lies posterior to the cere- bellum. It is widest anteriorly and gradually merges into the spinal cord. (e) For ventral view of the brain consult some good figure and identify the cerebral nerves. In a man there are twelve pairs. How many pairs in the frog? Name the pairs of cranial nerves in man and state their destination and use. Same for those of the frog. (3) The Spinal Cord. (a) Shape? (b) Length? (4) The Spinal Nerves. Place the frog ventral side up and carefully remove the viscera. In man there are thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves. How many can you identify coming from the spinal cord in the frog? (a) Are all these nerves of the same size when they leave the cord? (b) With what does the second pair (counting from the anterior end of the cord) unite? (1) What does this union then form? (2) What muscles does it supply? (c) What four other spinal nerves unite? (1) Do they subdivide? (2) Trace them down to their union in one large nerve, the sciatic. What muscles does it supply? (5) The Sympathetic Nerves. A small knotted nerve cord may be found along the side of the dorsal aorta. (a) Trace each nerve. (b) How many knots or ganglia do you find? (c) Use of the sympathetic nervous system? REPTILIA (THE TURTLE) (1) Follow plan of study for the fish, p. 112. (2) Compare the turtle and the frog. (3) How do you account for the turtle's carapace and plas- tron? (4) How do you account for the absence of limbs in the snake? Did they ever have limbs? Were snakes larger formerly than now? See your Geology on reptiles. (5) How do you account for the classification of snakes, turtles, aUigators, and crocodiles as Reptilia? STUDY OF THE LIVE TURTLE 1. Field Study. Protected by rubbers or rubber boots, go very cautiously along the banks of a secluded pond or stream. (1) Look upon fallen tree trunks or stumps for turtles basking in the sunshine. (a) What do they do if they become aware of your presence? (b) How do they become aware of it? (c) How do they get back into the water? (d) Wait quietly to see if they will return. (2) Fish for turtles with a hook and stout line. For bait use a short piece of fresh meat. (3) When one is caught, put it in the mud outside of the stream and watch it. (a) If it walks away, does it carry its body above the ground or does it creep along with its body dragging on the ground? (b) What does it do with the head and neck when walk- ing? 152 154 REPTILIA (the turtle) (c) Follow it very cautiousl}^ not losing sight of it until it stops. (d) How does it conceal itself in the mud? (e) Is its color of use to it in its natural environment? If so, of what use? 2. Laboratory Study. Place the turtle in the tank with about an inch of water. (1) Watch it, to see how it breathes. (2) Experiment with various kinds of foods, leaving them overnight in the tank. What kind or kinds does the turtle eat? (3) Leave it several days without food. Then offer it fresh meat. (a) How does it take its food? (b) Does it chew its food? Does it swallow it whole? (c) Of what use is its beak? (4) Neck. (a) Why is the neck so long? (b) Turn it over on its back. How does it turn over? (5) Locomotion. (a) Put the turtle on the ground or floor. Does it lift or drag the body when walking? (b) Put it in deep water. (1) Watch it swim. Describe. (2) What adaptations has it for swimming? (3) Can it dive? (6) Protection. (a) Can it withdraw its head and limbs into the shell? (b) What does it do with its tail? (c) Compare with a box-turtle, if you can get one. (7) Has it any means of defense aside from its shell? If so, what? (8) Eyelids. (a) How many? (b) Movements? (9) Voice. (a) Does it make say sound? If so, how? (b) For what purpose? 156 REPTILIA (the turtle) Morphophysiologic Study A. External Morphology 1. Size. With the animal lying on its back and extended, what is the length from the tip of its nose to the end of its tail? 2. Shape of the Body. (1) Stout or slender? (2) Body divisions present? 3. The Head. (1) Size. Small, medium, large, or very large? (2) Shape? (3) Measurements. (a) Length? (b) Width? (c) Depth? (4) Lower Jaw Movement. Vertical or horizontal? (5) Color? (6) Eyes. (a) Position on head? (b) Shape? (c) Number of eyelids? (d) Color of iris? (7) Ears. (a) Can the turtle hear? (b) Is there any external evidence of ears? (c) Why is this so? (8) Nostrils. (a) Where are they located on the head? (b) Are they near together or far apart? 4. The Neck. (1) Shape? (2) Length? (3) Color? (4) PecuHarity? 5. The Limbs. (1) The Anterior Limbs. (a) Number of digits? (b) Are they webbed or free? (c) Use? 158 REPTILIA (the turtle) (2) The Posterior Limbs. (a) Number of digits? (b) Are they webbed or free? (c) Use? (3) Compare the anterior with the posterior Hmbs. (a) In what respects are they ahke? (b) In what respects do they differ? (c) Give reasons for these resemblances and differ- ences. 6. The Skin. (1) Smooth or rough? (2) Thick or thin? (3) Where thickest? Where thinnest? AVhy? (4) Loose, hke the frog's skin, or tight? (5) Color? " 7. The Shell. The upper portion is the carapace, the lower portion is the plastron. (1) The Carapace. (a) Sketch it — one-half natural size. (b) How many marginal epidermal plates? Letter each of these in your sketch (a). (c) How many dorsal plates? Letter each (b). (d) How many costal plates (between marginal and dor- sal)? Letter (c). (e) Now write a brief description of these epidermal plates, stating the total number, and the shape, size, color, use, and arrangement of the different kinds. (2) The Plastron. (a) Sketch it. (b) Of how many epidermal plates is it composed? (c) What is their size, shape, color, and arrangement? (d) Compare plastron with carapace as to shape, size, and relation to other parts. B. Internal Morphology 1. Preliminary Work. (1) Killing the turtle. Take a firm hold of its head and open its mouth. Insert a blow-pipe into the glottis 160 REPTILIA (the turtle) at the base of the tongue. Put about a tablespoon- ful of chloroform into the blowpipe and blow it into the lungs. Now tie a string tightly around the neck to keep the air out of the trachea, and let the turtle lie fifteen or twenty minutes. Another method of killing preferred by some is simply to place the tur- tle on its back in the ^'killing box." Wrap a cloth well saturated with chloroform about its head. Close the lid tightly and allow the turtle to remain about twenty minutes, then tie a string very tightly around its neck. (2) Slit open the skin of the ventral side of the neck and expose the trachea, esophagus, and the strong mus- cles of the neck. (3) Remove the plastron by cutting through the skin along its margin and sawing or cutting through the plas- tron where it joins the carapace. With a sharp scal- pel dissect away the muscles from the inner surface of the plastron, cutting very close to it, so as to leave the internal organs uninjured and in place. (4) Cut away the pericardium, the semitransparent membrane covering the heart, taking care not to cut the blood-vessels. Observe the beating of the heart. What is the order of contraction — auricles and ven- tricle— or the reverse? (5) With a sharp scalpel cut the peritoneum along the middle line, beginning just posterior to the heart and continuing posteriorly. In doing this, place the point of the scalpel edge up under the membrane and cut outward, taking great care not to injure amj under- lying organs. (6) Cut the string about the neck. Insert a blowpipe in the glottis and inflate the lungs, and quickly tie a string tightly around the trachea to keep them in- flated. Now you are ready to begin the study of the internal organs. (7) First note their position in the body-cavity. (a) Where is the heart situated with reference to the di- gestive organs? 162 REPTILIA (the turtle) (b) What is the position of the lungs with reference to the heart and stomach? (c) Note the position of the large liver and make a study of it in its place. (1) Color? (2) Location? (3) Number of lobes? (4) Use? (5) Identify and locate the gall-bladder? Use? (6) Trace the bile-ducts to the duodenum or anterior loop of the intestine. 2. The Circulatory System. (1) The Heart. (a) Size? (b) Shape? (c) Parts present? (d) Pericardium. Use? (e) Ventricle. The pointed posterior portion of the heart is the ventricle. (1) Shape? (2) Color? (3) Size? (4) Use? (f) The Auricles. At the anterior and dorsal end of the heart find the two auricles. (1) Are their walls thick or thin as compared with those of the ventricle? (2) Shape? (3) Size? (4) Color? (5) Use? (2) Arteries. (a) Trace the two aortse from the heart to their union. (b) Trace arteries to the stomach and to other principal organs. (3) The Veins. The flabby blood-vessels are veins. As you traced the arteries from the heart, now trace the veins to the heart. 164 REPTILIA (the turtle) (a) From what organs or parts of the body do they originate? (b) Where do they unite? (c) Where do they empt}' into the heart? (4) Make a diagram of the circulatory organs, showing the pericardium, ventricles, auricles, and principal arteries and veins. Indicate upon each artery the organ supplied, and upon each vein the organ from which it comes. 3. The Digestive System. (1) The Mouth. (a) Shape? (b) Size? (c) Position, terminal or ventral? (d) How wide does the mouth of your specimen open? (1) How does it open so wide? (2) When? (3) Why? (2) The Teeth. What does the turtle have instead of teeth? Why? (3) The Tongue. (a) Is it long or short? (b) Shape? (c) Where attached? (d) Rough or smooth? (e) Use? (1) The Mandibles, or Jaws. (a) Size and strength? (b) Are the edges smooth or serrated? (c) Do they overlap, or do they close against each other? Why? (d) Use of the mandibles? (5) The Esophagus or Gullet. (a) Is it flabby and collapsed, or a rigid and open tube like the trachea? (b) Of what kind of tissue is it composed? (c) Thrust a probe down the gullet and ascertain its diameter. (d) Ascertain its length to the stomach. Why so long? 166 REPTILIA (the turtle) (6) The Stomach. Locate and describe, giving its shape, size, and color. (7) The Liver has been studied. (See (7) (c), p. 162.) (8) The Pancreas is in the first fold of the intestine. (a) Shape? (b) Color? (c) Size? (d) Use? (9) The Mesentery is a thin membrane which suspends the intestines. (a) Does it contain any blood-vessels? (b) From what source do they come? (c) To what do they lead? (10) The Spleen is a small dark red body in the mesentery. (a) Locate it. (b) Use? (11) The Intestines pass from the stomach to the vent. (a) Carefully cut the mesentery and unravel them. Are they coiled or straight? (b) Do they vary in diameter in different places? If so, where, and how much? (c) Length of turtle's intestines as compared with the length of its body? (12) The Cloaca. This is the enlargement of the intestine just before it reaches the vent. The intestines, kid- neys, and reproductive organs open into it. (13) Sketch the entire alimentary canal from the mouth to the vent, placing the various organs in their proper order and naming each of them. 4. The Respiratory Sj^stem. (1) The Nostrils. (a) Do they open into the mouth? Probe with a bristle and see. (b) Does the turtle l)reathe through its nostrils only, or does it swallow air also? (c) Does the turtle both breathe through and smell with its nostrils? (2) The Glottis. Find an opening in the base of the tongue leading to the trachea. 168 REPTILIA (the turtle) (3) The Trachea. Trace it to its branches, the bronchi, which lead to the lungs. (a) Is it long or short? Why? (b) Is it an open rigid tube or a flabby collapsed one? Why? (c) Of what kind or kinds of tissue is it composed? (4) The Lungs. (a) How much of the body-cavity do they fill when in- flated? (b) Estimate approximately their capacity in cubic inches. (5) Make a diagram of the respiratory organs and name each. 5. The Reproductive and Excretory Systems. (1) The Reproductive Organs. (a) If the specimen is a female, the reproductive organs will appear as long coiled tubes filled with eggs in the breeding season. (b) If a male, the reproductive organs will appear as a pair of yellowish bodies just below the kidneys. Do not confuse the reproductive organs with the slender branched fatt}^ bodies generally present. (2) The Kidneys are two flat bodies along the backbone. (a) Color? (b) Length? (c) Trace the ureter from each kidney to the cloaca. (d) Sketch the kidneys, ureters, and openings into the cloaca. 6. The Nervous System. Follow the directions given for the nervous system of the frog. How do the parts of the turtle's brain compare with the frog's as to size, shape, and appearance? 7. The Muscular System. (1) Find the origin and insertion of the muscles that pro- tract and retract the neck. What wonderful adap- tations for a specific purpose do you discover? (2) Dissect off all the muscles from the bones, leaving enough ligaments to hold the bones in their proper places. 170 REPTILIA (the turtle) 8. The Skeleton, or Osseous System. (1) The Head. Sketch it, naming the principal bones in it. (2) The Neck. (a) Number of vertebrae? (b) Shape of each? (c) Use? (3) The Pectoral Girdle. Sketch the girdle, locating and naming the coracoid, precoracoid, scapula, and a ligament connecting the distal portions of the cora- coid and the precoracoid. This ligament represents the epicoracoid of some reptiles. (4) The Front Limb. (a) Sketch, showing humerus, radius, ulna, the carpal and metacarpal bones, the phalanges, and the claws. (b) Why is the front limb so stout and paddle-like? (5) The Vertebral Column, from head to tail. (a) Of what does it consist? (b) Number of vertebrae? (c) Its- special modifications? (6) The Pelvic Girdle. Sketch the girdle, locating and naming the ilium, ischium, and the pubes. (7) The Hind Limb. (a) Sketch, locating and naming all the bones of the leg and foot, from the femur to the claws. (b) Use of web? (c) Use of long claws? (d) Compare the hind limb with the front limb as to shape, size, length, and use. (8) The Tail. (a) Number of vertebrae in the turtle's tail? (b) Use to the turtle? (c) Its pecuharity? (9) Remove the epidermal plates from one half of the shell. (a) Sketch the bony plates from the dorsal side of the carapace. (b) Sketch the bony plates from the ventral side of the carapace. (c) How many do you find? 172 REPTILIA (the turtle) (d) How many ribs? (e) How many ribs and bony plates united? Why? (f) How do the bony plates compare with the epidermal plates in size, shape, number, and arrangement? (g) Of what does the carapace consist? (h) Use of this complicated structure? (i) The Plastron. (1) Sketch it. (2) How many epidermal plates? Color? (3) How many bony plates? (4) Compare the plastron with the carapace as to shape, size, and relation to other parts. AVES (THE BIRD) Follow the plan for Pisces, p. 112. Compare birds and reptiles. How do you account for the presence of feathers on the bird? For the bird's ancestors, see your geology, Archseopteryx. See Chapman's ''Bird Life" for a plan for spring or fall study of birds. STUDY OF LIVE BIRDS A. General Study 1. Winter Birds. (1) Make a list of all the birds which remain in your locaUty through the winter. (2) Are they more warmly clad than the birds which go south in winter? (3) Why do they not migrate? (4) What is their food? Can they get a comfortable sup- ply in winter? 2. Migration. (1) What birds are the first to migrate? (2) What ones are the last to go? (3) What ones are the first to come back in the spring? DonH guess. Keep a record, giving the date for the first time you see each bird as it returns in the spring. Make several trips to the woods and streams to in- crease the list. (4) Which birds are gregarious? (5) Which come in pairs? (6) Can you give any evidence from your own observation of any birds returning to the same place to nest from year to year? 3. Movements on the Ground. (1) Make a list of the birds that hop. (2) Make a list of those that walk. 174 176 AVES (the bird) 4. Voice. (1) Make a list of those that sing. (2) Do you notice different calls or tones by the same bird? (a) Are they for different purposes? (b) What emotions or information do birds express by voice? (3) Give some of the names applied to the calls of various birds. 5. Nesting Habits. (1) Make a list of birds which build their nests upon the ground. (2) Of those that build in trees. (3) What general truth do you observe concerning the colors of birds which stay most of the time on the ground? Is this true of their color ventrally? B. Special Study Select one or two birds which you have an opportunity to watch closely, and report upon the following points: 1. Nesting Habits. (1) Which builds the nest, the male or the female? Or do both? (2) Does the male feed his mate or does he watch the nest while she gets her food? 2. Food. (1) What is their food? (2) Which feeds the young? What does it feed them? (3) Judging from this food, are they of use or harm to the farmer and fruit-grower? (4) When (what time of day or night) do they feed? (5) How do they secure their food? (6) What adaptations for securing food have they? (7) Name some adaptations for securing food which you have noticed in other birds. (8) Does this bird ever store its food? If so, how and where? If not, do you know of any bird which does? (9) How does this bird drink? Do all birds drink that way? (Watch the pigeon drink.) 178 AVES (the bird) 3. The Young. (1) How does this pair of birds defend its young? (2) Is there any recognition of the parent by the young? If so, by what means? Morphophysiologic Study Note. — If the teacher can supply the feathers, it will be well to take the study of a "contour" feather, and a "down" feather, before killing the bird. A common pigeon makes an excellent study, but an English sparrow may be used. Kill the bird by chloroforming it in the "killing can" for ten minutes. Then slit the skin of the neck and tie a string tightly around the trachea close to the head. One bird will be needed for the study of muscles, viscera, and nervous system, and another for the skeleton. If it is desired to mount the skeleton and material is scarce, two students may work together after the internal morphology is reached, so that all the material needed will be one bird for each student. If the student does not get ready the first day for the in- ternal morphology, insert a blowpipe in the bird's trachea and inflate the lungs (see B, 1 and 2), or they may become fixed so that they cannot be inflated. Place specimen in "preserving fluid" after class each day. A. External Morphology 1. Size. (1) What is the length from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail? (2) Weight of the bird with the feathers on? 2. Shape of its body? Why such a shape? 3. Body Divisions. Head, neck, body, tail. Length of each? 4. The Head. (1) Size. Small, medium, or large, compared with the body? (2) Shape? Why such a shape? (3) Covering of the head. (a) Parts feathered? (b) Parts naked? 180 AVES (the bird) (4) Range of motion of the head? (5) Eyes. (a) Shape? (b) Size? (c) Position on the head? Why so placed? (d) EyeUds. Are there two or three to each eye? Raise the upper Hd and look in the interior angle for the nictitating membrane. How does a bird wink? (6) Ears. (a) Shape? (b) Size? (c) Position on the head? (d) How protected? (7) Beak. (a) Length in inches? (b) Size? (c) Color? (d) Use? (e) Lips. Has the bird any lips? Why is this true? (8) Nostrils. (a) Number? (b) Position on the beak? (c) Openings. With a probe find out where the nostrils open into the mouth. (9) Mouth. (a) Tongue. Open the bird's mouth and examine the tongue. Describe it. (b) Glottis. Back of the tongue, find the glottis. What is its shape? What is its character? (c) Eustachian tubes. Pass a bristle through the tym- panum or ear-drum and see where it enters the mouth. Is there one or two openings into the roof of the mouth? 5. The Neck. (1) Length? (2) Covering? 6. The Exoskeleton. The feathers, claws, and scales form the exoskeleton. 182 AVES (the bird) (1) The Feathers. (a) Identify (1) the contour feathers, (2) the down feathers, (3) the pin-feathers, or undeveloped feathers, and (4) the filoplumes, or hair-hke feath- ers that remain on the bird after plucking. (b) Parts of the body covered with feathers? (c) Parts of the body not covered with feathers? Why? (d) Color, or color patterns, and how made? Are they bilaterally symmetric? (e) A Contour Feather. (1) Identify the quill (calamus), the shaft (rachis), and the vane, which is made up of barbs, barb- ules, and barbicels. (2) Sketch a contour feather, showing and naming all the parts. (f) A Down Feather. Compare with a contour feather and state parts lacking, if any. (g) A Filoplume. Compare with a contour feather, (h) Use of each kind of feathers to the bird? (i) Tail Feathers. (1) How many long quill feathers on the tail? (2) Shape of the tail when feathers are spread out? Shape when closed? (3) Symmetry of the vane? How do these feathers overlap? Why? (4) Color or color patterns when open? When closed? Why? (5) Number, color, and arrangement of the upper tail coverts? Of the lower tail coverts? (j) Wing Feathers. (1) Primaries on the pinion. Usually nine or ten. How many do you find? (2) Tertiaries on the upper arm. How many? (3) How many in all? How many upper coverts? Lower coverts? (k) Body Feathers. (1) Any contour feathers? If so, how man}^? (2) Any down feathers? Approximate number? 184 AVES (the bird) (3) Any filoplumes? (4) How are the body feathers arranged? (1) Of what use are feathers to the bird? To man? (m) Pluck off the feathers. (1) Where is the skin thin? Where thick? (2) Can you find apteria, or spaces which did not bear feathers? (3) What difference is there in the size of the bird before picking and after picking? (4) Weigh the plucked bird. Compare this weight with that first found. What is the difference between these weights, or the weight of the feathers? (2) Scales. Do the scales overlap? Are the anterior and posterior scales alike? (3) Claws. (a) How do they unite with the toes? (b) How do they compare in color and texture with the covering of the toes and legs? (c) Use of the claws? Are they sharp and strong enough to be successful weapons of defense? 7. The Muscles. Skin the bird and expose the muscles. Hold the skin up to the light. Do you see any blood-vessels? What is their arrangement? Their use? Demonstrate (sepa- rate out) the following muscles: (1) Those that move the wing as a whole. (2) Those that move the parts of the wing upon each other. (3) Those that move the neck. (4) Those that move the leg on the body. Bend the leg close up to the body and note the effect upon the toes. What difference is there in the position of the toes when the leg is straight from their position when the bird is on its perch? (5) Those that move the parts of the leg on each other. (6) Those that move all the toes at once. (7) Those that move each toe independently. (8) Remove the muscles from the sternum, noting the blood-vessels and nerves which enter them near the shoulders. 186 AVES (the bird) B. Internal Morphology 1. Carefully lift the abdominal wall, and, with the scissors, slit it from the posterior edge of the sternum to the anus. Now, make a transverse slit on each side along the posterior edge of the sternum and cut away the flaps of the abdominal wall. 2. Now make a tiny opening in the trachea below the string you tied about it, insert the blowpipe, and inflate the lungs and air sacs. Note (1) the paired abdominal sacs near the dorsal wall anteriorly, but the ventral wall posteriorly, (2) the axillary sacs under the wings, and (3) the branched interclavicular sac be- neath the anterior end of the sternum and the wish-bone, or clavicles. (4) Do you find other air sacs? (5) What part of the lung expands first in inflating? (6) Do you notice any movement of the appendages when you inflate the pigeon's lungs? (7) Explain how air blown into the lungs affects the bones. (8) Tie the trachea below the entrance of the blowpipe and keep the lungs inflated if you can. 3. Next, disjoint the coracoid bones from the scapulae, or shoulder-blades, and cut the ribs loose from the sternum. Remove the coracoids, clavicles, and the sternum, thus exposing the internal organs. Note the compactness with which the internal organs are placed. Why? 4. The Liver. (1) Color? (2) Location? (3) Number of lobes? (4) Use? (5) Identify and locate the gall-bladder. Use? (6) Trace the bile-ducts to the duodenum, or anterior loop of the intestine. 5. The Circulatory System. (1) The Heart. Locate and identify the heart with its pericardium, (a) Carefully remove the pericardium. 188 AVES (the bird) (b) Identify and describe the two auricles and the two ventricles. (c) Snip off the apex of the heart with a pair of scissors and observe the cavities of the two ventricles. Note the difference (1) in shape, and (2) in thick- ness of walls. Explain. 6. The Digestive System. (1) Mouth. (a) Size? (b) Shape? (c) Beaks for teeth. Why? (2) The Pharynx opens' into the gullet. (3) The Gullet. (a) Is the gullet, or esophagus, the same size all the way to the gizzard? Can the pigeon swallow with its head down? (b) What is the first enlargement called? Of what use is the crop? (c) The glandular stomach is the slight enlargement near the gizzard. What is its size compared with that of the crop? If the opening into the gizzard were closed, could fluids pass from the glandular stomach into the intestine? (4) The Gizzard. (a) Of what use is the gizzard, or muscular stomach? (b) Make a cross-section through the gizzard. (c) Of what does it consist? (d) Character of the lining? (e) What does it contain? (f) How many openings has the gizzard, and into what? (g) Can the opening from the glandular stomach be closed? (h) Is the gizzard cecal? (5) The Duodenum. The first loop of the intestine is called the duodenum. (a) How and by what is it held in position? (b) From what is the intestine suspended? (c) Note the veins and arteries in the mesentery. 190 AVES (the bird) (6) The Pancreas, a yellowish, slender, glandular organ, lies within the loop of the duodenum. Find the pan- creatic ducts leading to the right limb of the loop of the duodenum. (7) The Spleen, a small, flat, red body, lies to the right of the glandular stomach. Do you find any duct leading from the spleen? (8) The Intestine continues from the duodenum, its ante- rior part, to the cloaca, the enlargement at its poste- rior end. (a) Is it coiled, looped, or straight? (b) Is it the same size all the way? (9) The Rectal Ceca are two lateral sacs or branches of the intestine at the end of the small intestine. How long are they and how do they end? Use? (XO) The Rectum, or large, straight intestine, leads from the entrance of the ceca to the cloaca. How long is the rectum? (11) The Liver. (See B, 4.) (12) Sketch the Alimentary Canal, name all its parts in order, and state the use of each part in the work of digestion. 7. The Respiratory System. (1) The Glottis. Look at the base of the tongue for the opening into the trachea. (a) Does the food pass over it in entering the esophagus? (b) If so, how is it prevented from passing into the wind- pipe? (2) The Trachea. Trace the trachea down to its divisions. (a) Is it the same size all the way? (b) The enlargement at its anterior end is the larynx and the one at its posterior end is the syrinx, or voice-box. (3) The Bronchi are the branches, or divisions, of the trachea. Do they differ in size? (4) Remove the alimentary canal and sketch the respira- tory organs. 192 AVES (the bird) 8. The Excretory Organs. Find two dark-colored organs, the kidneys, close along the back. Trace a ureter from each to the cloaca. 9. The Reproductive Organs, paired in the male and single in the female, also open by ducts into the cloaca. 10. The Nervous System. (1) The Brain. (a) Carefully cut away the upper part of the skull and expose the brain. (b) Is it smooth or convoluted? (c) Identify and describe the cerebrum, cerebellum, the two olfactory lobes in front of and below the cere- brum, anterior to and below the cerebellum. (2) The Spinal Cord. (a) Remove the bone along the cervical vertebrae and expose the spinal cord until the brachial plexus is reached. (b) Trace nerves to the wings. (c) Continue to expose the spinal cord until the lumbar plexus is reached. (d) Trace the nerves from the lumbar plexus to the thigh, /e) Continue exposing the spinal cord till the sacral plexus is reached. (f) Trace the sciatic nerves to the legs. (g) If possible, continue exposing the spinal cord until the plexus pudendus, which supplies the tail, is reached. (3) Sketch the brain and spinal cord, showing the princi- pal plexuses. State the use of each part of the brain. Tell what part of the body is supplied with nerves from each plexus. C. The Endoskeleton ^ Clean away the flesh from the bones of the unmutilated bird, leaving all parts articulated. Weigh. What per cent, of the bird is bone? Why are the bones so light? ^See Fig. 216, " Principles of Economic Zoology." 194 AVEs (the bird) 1. The Skull. (1) Note the quadrate bone, to which the lower jaw is attached. (2) Note the large posterior opening, the occipital foramen, in the base of the skull. (3) Are there one or two little knob-like projections (occipital condyles) which fit into the atlas, or first cervical vertebra? (4) Are the bones of the skull compact and heavy, or spongy and light? (5) Are the bones completely ankylosed together, or can you distinguish the sutures between them? The sutures are less plainly visible in an old bird than in a young one. 2. The Vertebrae. (1) Notice how the first and second vertebrae fit together. (2) How many vertebrae are there between the skull and the first pair of ribs articulating with the sternum? (3) How many vertebrae bear ribs? (4) The Sacrum. Fourteen or fifteen vertebrae are fused together to form the sacrum which supports the pelvic girdle. Note the openings through which the spinal nerves pass. (5) How many free caudal vertebrae do you find? (6) Note the terminal bone, the pygostyle, formed from the fusing together of several vertebrae. 3. The Ribs. (1) How many ribs do not articulate with the sternum? (2) How many ribs articulate with the sternum? (a) In what direction does the vertebral, or dorsal, por- tion of these ribs extend? (b) In what direction does the ventral or sternal portion extend? (c) How do they meet? At an angle or in a straight line? (d) What is the advantage of this arrangement? 4. The Pectoral, or Shoulder Girdle. (1) On each side, it consists of a scapula, or shoulder-blade, a stout coracoid bone reaching from the scapula to the sternum, or breast-bone, and the slender clavicle. 196 AVES (the bird) (2) The two clavicles are ankylosed together at their ventral ends, forming the 'Vish-bone." (3) How is this end joined to the keel of the sternum? (4) To what do the proximal ends articulate? 5. The Sternum, or Breast-bone, is the somewhat triangular bone below the body-cavit3^ (1) What is its shape next to the viscera? Why? (2) What is the purpose of the keel which projects on its ventral side? (3) What bones are attached to the sternum? 6. The Wings. (1) Compare the bones of the wing with those of the arm of man. (2) Name and describe the bones of the proximal and distal portions. (3) In what direction from its proximal attachment does each of these portions of the wing extend? (4) The distal portion of the wing is made up of the bones of the carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges, which are much modified, fused, degenerate, or lacking. (5) Compare your specimen with some good figure of it and find two free carpal bones, the radial and the ulnar, the carpometacarpus, a long curved bone formed by the fusion of the distal carpal bones with the first three metacarpals, and the first three digits, the third consisting of but a single bone. 7. The Pelvic Girdle consists of a right and left innominate bone, each of which is formed by the fusion of the ilium, ischium, and pubis, at the union of which is the acetabulum, or depression for the head of the femur. See if you can distinguish these bones. 8. The Legs. (1) The femur, or thigh bone, fits into the acetabulum at its upper end. (a) What is its length? (b) In what direction does it extend from its upper at- tachment? (2) The middle portion of the leg is composed of two bones; the tibiotarsus or long bone, formed by the fusion 198 AVEs (the bird) of the tibia with the proximal tarsal bones, and the fibula, a tiny, slender bone sometimes fused with the large bone. (3) The distal portion consists of the bones of the foot. (a) The shaft, or tarsometatarsus, is formed by the fusion of the distal tarsal bones and the second, third, and fourth metatarsals. What direction, then, does the sole of the foot take? (b) The toes. (1) Upon what does the pigeon walk? (2) How many toes are present? (3) In what direction do they extend? (c) Make a sketch of the right leg, showing all the bones in their natural positions when the bird is standing. Name each. MAMMALIA (THE RABBIT) Follow plan suggested for the study of the fish, p. 112. Compare the fish, frog, turtle, bird (used), and rabbit (or mammal used). Make ten comparisons. What branch (chordate) structures do you find they have in common? Library report on domesticated mammals, from reading list assigned by teacher. . Compare your definitions of a fish, a frog, a turtle, a bird, and a mammal. STUDY OF A LIVE RABBIT Study the rabbit in the field if possible. If not, cage a wild rabbit and study it in the laboratory, or visit some one's pet rabbit. If none of these are available, then study any live mammal, as the cat, guinea-pig, white rat, squirrel, prairie-dog, or even a horse or cow, making your own outline. Field Study. Go at morning, noon, and evening, cautiouslj^ and repeatedly, along the hedges or neglected roadsides in the spring, and look for rabbits. (1) At what time of day do 3^ou find one at home? At what time of day do j^ou find one feeding? (2) What does the rabbit do when it becomes aware of your presence? (3) What seems to be its first impulse for protection? (4) What are its adaptations for concealment? (5) In what position are its ears when it is squatting? (6) Does it change the direction of its ears when listening? Whistle to it while you watch. (7) Does it see or hear you first? (8) Can it see in all directions without turning its head? (9) Does it sleep in the daytime? 200 202 MAMMALIA (THE RABBIT) (10) Do rabbits play together? When? (11) What are its modes of locomotion? (12) How far can it jump? (13) How high can it jmnp? (14) Can it swim? (15) When chased by dogs, why does it ''circle" on its tracks? (16) Did you ever hear a rabbit make a cry or sound? When? Why? (17) What is a rabbit's food? (18) What harm do they do? (19) In what kind of nests do they rear their young? When? (20) Are the young rabbits helpless, naked, and blind, or covered with hair, active, and can see? Morphophysiologic Study A. External Morphology 1. Size. (a) Length in inches? (From tip of nose to tip of last vertebra of tail.) (b) Stout or slender in body? Diameter from side to side? Dorsoventrally? 2. Shape of Body? 3. Head. (1) Size. Small, medium, or large? (2) Cause of such a shape? (3) Eyes. (a) Shape? (b) Size? (c) Position on head? (d) Number of eyelids? (4) Ears. (a) Shape? (b) Size? Length in inches? Why so large? (c) Position on head? (5) Upper Lip. (a) Shape? Why such shape? (b) Use? 204 MAMMALIA (tHE RABBIT) (6) Lower Lip. (a) Shape? (b) Use? (7) The Tongue? (a) Shape? (b) Size? (c) Surface? (d) Use? (8) The Teeth. (a) Incisors. (1) Number of incisors in each jaw? (2) What is their particular shape? Why? Are they just alike in the upper and lower jaw? (3) What portion of these teeth is covered with enamel? Why is not their whole surface covered? (4) Upon what do the lower incisors fit against when the mouth is closed? (5) Why the space back of the incisors? (6) What teeth are lacking? (7) How does the rabbit obtain its food? (8) How does the rabbit chew its food? (9) Is the movement of the lower jaw vertical, or hori- zontal, or both? Feed one and watch the jaws move. (b) Premolars. (1) Shape? (2) Number in each jaw? (3) Use? (c) Total number of teeth? (9) Cheeks. Hairy or smooth inside? Why? (10) Vibrissse or ''Whiskers." (a) Where situated? (b) Number on a side? (c) Color? (d) Use? 4. The Neck. (1) Shape? (2) Length? (a) Length compared with head? (b) Compared with body? 206 MAMMALIA (THE RABBIT) 5. The Tail. (1) Shape? (2) Length? (3) Why so short? (4) Color? (a) Dorsally? (b) Ventrally? (c) Why this difference in color? 6. The Limbs. (1) The Anterior Limbs. (a) Length? (b) Number of digits? (c) Length of each digit? (d) How many are clawed? Why clawed? (e) Are the feet padded with hair or naked? Why? (2) The Posterior Limbs. (a, b, c, d, e) Same questions as for anterior limbs. (f) How much longer are they than the anterior limbs? Why so much longer? (3) Locomotion. (a) Is the rabbit digitigrade or plantigrade? Which are you? (b) Indicate the way a rabbit makes tracks when running. (c) How great a distance, in feet, will, the rabbit jump when running? How man}' feet high will it jump? (d) Did you ever see a rabbit walk? Swim? Climb? 7. The Skin. Remove the skin from the limbs. About the quickest way is to make a slit in the skin around the center of the body and to have two persons pull the skin both ways at once. (1) Is the skin thick or thin? (2) Use to the animal? To man? 8. The Muscles or lean meat. (1) Determine the origin, insertion, and use of ten muscles. Consult human physiology. Use of so much muscle? (2) Demonstrate the workings of the muscles in the poste- rior foot. 208 MAMMALIA (tHE RABBIT) B. Internal Morphology In your dissections, be careful not to injure the sternum, ribs, or any other bones, as you will need them in your study of the skeleton. Cut through the abdominal muscles along the median line from the pelvis to the sternum. From the middle of this slit, make a short one on each side at right angles to it, and turn back the muscular flaps, exposing the internal organs. How do the abdominal muscles compare in thickness with those on other parts of the body? Why? Before proceding with the dissection, or putting the specimen into formaldehyd, insert the blowpipe in the trachea, inflate the lungs, and tie a string tightly about the trachea below the blow- pipe. 1. Peritoneum, or lining of the body cavity. Its surface and appearance? 2. The Diaphragm. A muscular partition divides the body into two portions, the anterior, containing the heart and lungs, and the posterior, containing the abdominal viscera. 3. Note the position of the organs in the body cavity? 4. The Circulatory System. (1) The Pericardium. (a) Identify and describe it. (b) Use? (c) Contents? (2) The Heart. (a) Shape? (b) Size? (c) Use? (d) Number of auricles? (1) Position? (2) Use? (e) Ventricles. (1) Number? (2) Use? (3) The Arteries. (See Physiology.) Identify the firm, elastic aorta and its branches, and trace them to the organs which they supply. 210 MAMMALIA (tHE RABBIT) . (4) The Veins. (See Physiology.) Identify the flabby veins and trace them from their origin in the organs from which they carry the blood to the ascending and descending vense cavse, and to their junction with the heart. (5) Trace the blood from the left ventricle to all parts of the body, naming the principal branches of the aorta, and the principal veins back through the lungs to the starting point, the left ventricle. See some good figure in physiology for the names of arteries and veins. 5. The Digestive System. (1) The Mouth. (a) Shape? (b) Size, large or small? (c) Contents? (d) Use? (2) The Pharynx. (a) Shape? (b) Size? The pharynx leads into a dilatable, muscular tube, the esophagus. (3) The Esophagus. Thrust a probe down the rabbit's throat. Cut along the neck and follow the esopha- gus. Note the windpipe or trachea, and its position as related to the esophagus, but do not injure it. (a) Shape? (b) Size, length, and diameter? (c) Opens into what? (d) Use? (4) The Stomach. (a) Shape? (b) Size? Which end is the larger? (c) How many openings? (d) Use? (5) The Liver is a large dark-colored organ. (a) Shape? (b) Size? (c) Number of lobes? 212 MAMMALIA (tHE RABBIT) (d) Location? (e) Use? (f) Gall-bladder. (1) Identify it and trace its duct to the intestine. (2) What is the function of the bile? (6) The Omentum. Behind the liver is a broad fold of transparent membrane, the omentum. It is sus- pended from the posterior border of the stomach and contains fat. (a) What is the use of the omentum? (b) What lies behind it? (7) The Small Intestine. (a) The Duodenum. Joined to the pyloric or posterior end of the stomach is the duodenum. (1) The Pancreas is in the loop of the duodenum. De- scribe it. Its use? Trace the duct or ducts. Into what do they lead? (2) The Mesentery holds the folds of the intestines in place. Describe it, noting any blood-vessels. To what is it attached? Of what is it a fold or continuation? (3) The Spleen is a small red organ in the mesentery, near the cardiac or anterior end of the stomach. Identify it. What is its use? (b) The Ileum. From the duodenum to the entrance of the cecum is the ileum. Cut the mesentery and unravel the small intestine until you find the place where it joins the large one. (1) How many inches or feet long is it? (2) Why so long? (8) The Cecum is a very large portion of the intestine, ending blindly. (a) How long is it? (b) Why so large? (9) The Large Intestine. Trace it to the vent. (a) How does it compare in size and length with the small intestine? (b) Total length of the alimentary canal? Why so long? (c) Does the rabbit eat vegetable or animal food? 214 MAMMALIA (tHE RABBIT) (10) Sketch the ahmentary canal. Name in order all its parts. 6. The Respiratory System. Draw out the tongue and look behind the epiglottis, down into the larynx, and find the vocal cords. The slit between them forms the glottis. (1) The Trachea. (a) Its structure? (b) Into what does it divide before reaching the lungs? (2) The Lungs. Cut through the diaphragm. (a) Size? (b) Shape? (c) Capacity? (3) Sketch the respiratory organs and name the parts. 7. The Excretory System. (1) The Kidneys. Remove the digestive organs and identify the bean-shaped kidneys. (a) Size? (b) Arrangement, alternate or opposite? Any advantage from this arrangement? (2) The Ureters. Identify the tube leacUng from each kidney to the bladder. 8. The Reproductive Organs now remain. These may be easily identified. 9. The Osseous System or Endoskeleton. Carefully dissect off all the flesh and viscera, and leave the bony skeleton entire, clean, and uninjured. By the use of wires and double-pointed tacks, mount this skeleton in its proper position on a nicely planed pine board. Consult some good figures and name all the bones. (1) The Skull. (a) Are the bones distinct or fused together? (b) Notice the edges of the contiguous bones. Are these wavy, zigzag, or straight? (1) What are such joints or unions called? (2) How are the bones of the human skull united? (See human skeleton or Physiology.) 216 MAMMALIA (tHE RABBIT) (2) The Spinal Column. (a) Number of cervical or ribless vertebrae just posterior to the skull? (b) Number of thoracic or rib-bearing vertebrae? (c) Number of lumbar vertebrae — separate vertebrae following the ribs? (d) Number of sacral vertebrae fused together? (e) How many caudal (tail) vertebrae? (f) Note the shape of the vertebrae in different regions. What differences in the length of their spinous processes? Of their transverse processes? Why these differences? (3) The Ribs. (a) How many true ribs, that is, articulated with the sternum? (b) How many false ribs? (c) Total number of ribs? How many in man? (d) Use of the ribs? (4) The Pectoral Girdle. (a) Complete or incomplete? (b) What bones present? (5) Fore Limbs. (a) Name the bones. (b) Which is the longer, the humerus or the ulna? (c) Radius. (1) Notice its articulations. (2) Is the proximal end internal or external to the ulna? (3) The distal end? (4) Can the rabbit carry its food to its mouth as a squirrel does? Why? (d) The Foot. (1) What part of the front foot rests upon the ground in locomotion? (2) How many carpal bones? (3) Metacarpals? (4) Phalanges? 218 MAMMALIA (tHE RABBIT) (6) The Pelvic Girdle. (a) Identify the three bones, ilium, ischium, and os pubis, in each side of the pelvic girdle. (b) Why are these bones so firmly ankylosed together? (c) Function of the pelvis? (7) The Hind Limbs. (a) Which segment is longest? (b) How long is the tibia, compared with the fibula? (c) How are they united? (d) With what is the fibula united below? (e) What part of the hind foot does the rabbit rest upon the ground when in locomotion? 10. The Nervous System. If it is desired to work out the nervous system, take a fresh specimen. Skin it, remove the internal organs, and follow the directions under the Nervous System in the study of the frog. SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF THE RABBIT For study of Branch and Class characteristics, see studies of Chordate Branch and Class Characteristics, p. 128. Study of Ordinal Characteristics Have for reference several different species of the order to which this animal Ijelongs. If not present for reference, name and have in mind several different species of the order. 1. The Exoskeleton or Covering. (1) Do you discover any ordinal modifications of the class covering? If so, what? (2) Of what use is it to this order of animals? 2. The Head. What ordinal peculiarities do you discover as to the size, shape, or appendages (horns, tusks, etc.) of the head? 3. The Teeth. (1) Present or absent? (2) Kind of teeth present (incisors, canines, molars)? (3) What does the kind of teeth indicate as to the food and feeding habits of this order? (4) If it has no teeth, what substitute does it possess? 220 MAMMALIA (tHE RABBIT) 4. The Limbs. (1) What modifications, if any, of the anterior Umbs? or digits? (a) Digits clawed or unclawed? (b) For what are they adapted? (2) What modifications, if any, of the posterior hmbs? For what are they adapted? Digits? (3) Is the animal plantigrade, or digitigrade, or neither? 5. The rabbit (or mammal used) belongs to Order because it has the following characteristics of Order (Student name them.) MAN Habitat. — How does man's habitat differ from that of any other animal? Why? Food. — Take 4, General Preliminary Study. Locomotion. — What is peculiar regarding the position and locomotion of man? What methods of moving from place to place does man have which other animals cannot have except through the agency of man? Why? Self Defense. — Is man naturall}^ so well fitted for self defense as some other animals? If any other animals have better adap- tations, name them. Explain this. Rivalry. — What means of rivalry has man? Do we find any mimicry? Are there warning or alluring colors among men and women? If so, give examples. Parasitism. — What parasites has man? Did you ever see a parasitic man? What was the effect? Environment. — Are man's activities influenced by the weather and by climate? How? If man's environment does not suit him, what may he do in- stead of migrating or hibernating? Name some environment influences that tend to make man migrate. Distribution. — Geographic? Geologic? (See Geology.) Barriers to distribution? Why so few? MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC STUDY Of what does the dermal system of man consist? Does man molt? How does man's locomotory system compare with that of other animals? Is it surpassed by that of any other animal? If so, how? 224 MAN Trace the development of the circulatory organs from Amoeba to and including man. In same manner trace the development of the digestive or- gans. Trace, likewise, the respiratory organs. Trace the nervous system also. Trace each sense organ from its ifirst appearance to its highest stage of development. Which of these are more highly developed in other animals than in man? In what animals? Mind. — Use the Animal Behavior Study, making necessary modifications or omissions. The Moral Nature. — Do animals have a code of morals? Does a horse or dog ever steal, as he views it? Classification. — Classify man, naming branch, class, order, and scientific name, and giving reason for each step in the classification. Conclusion. — What do you conclude man has in common with other animals? In what is he superior? Inferior? PROTOZOA Suggestions for Laboratory Work. — Specimens of Amoebae may be found upon the slimy coating of stems which have been standing for some time in water, or upon submerged leaves, or "on the slimy ooze upon the mud at the bottom of standing water," upon the under side of lily pads or along their stems, or from the scum found on the inside of old water- barrels. The Paramsecium may be obtained by soaking in pond water, for a week, in a warm place, hay which has been cut in pieces. A scum will appear. With a pipette place a drop of this scum under the microscope and follow the outline given below, or verify the points mentioned in the text. MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC STUDY 1. The Body is one-celled. (1) Shape? (2) Size? (3) Fixed or free? (4) Naked (as in Amoeba), or covered with cilia, or with a shell? 2. Appendages of the body. If any, called what? 3. Motion. In the higher forms, motion is carried on by means of (1) the muscular system, and (2) the skeleton. How are motion and locomotion carried on by this one-celled pro- tozoan? 4. Nutrition of the Body. Digestion, circulation, respiration, excretion — how are these processes carried on, since this is a one- celled animal and has no organs? 5. MultipHcation. Is it asexual, sexual, or does it multiply both asexually and sexually? 226 228 PROTOZOA 6. The Nervous System. Since it is a one-celled animal, it has no differentiated nerve cells. (1) Has it irritability? How shown? Use? (2) Automatic actions. Name those of this animal. Why automatic? (3) Reflex actions. Name those of this animal. Why reflex? 7. Sketch an Amoeba, showing its pseudopodia. 8. Classification of Amoeba. Consult descriptive zoologies for the branch and class of Amoeba. PORIFERA MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC STUDY Laboratory exercise on the Bath Sponge. Suggestion. — Select ^'hard head'' sponges that have been mutilated as little as possible. 1 . The Body is many celled and has an inner and outer germ- layer, and a middle, undifferentiated one, the mesoglea. (1) Shape? (2) Size? (3) Color? (4) Sessile or free? Can you tell from your specimen whether or not it has been fixed to some object? (5) Naked or covered? If covered, what is the covering called? (6) Skeleton. With a compound microscope, examine some of the fibers of the sponge. Do you find any spicules?^ 2. Appendages. If any, called what? 3. Motion and locomotion. The sponge is free in its larval state. Hov/ is locomotion then carried on? 4. Nutrition. (1) Cut from the osculum to the cloaca, the large interior space, and count the canal systems. The number of oscula indicates the number of individual sponges. (2) Is there any connection between the small inhalent pores and these canals? Why? (3) As it has no well-defined systems, how are the processes of digestion, circulation, respiration, and excretion carried on? (4) What is its food? How obtained?* 5. Multiplication. (1) Asexual? If so, by what? Budding, fission, etc. (2) Sexual? If so, are the sexes separate, or is the sponge hermaphroditic? 1 See Part II, "Economic Zoology," page 11. 230 232 PORIFERA 6. The Nervous System. It has no differentiated nerve cells. (1) Has it irritability? How shown? Use? (2) Automatic actions. Name those of this animal. (3) Reflex actions. Name those it has. 7. Make a sketch of one complete canal system. 8. See text for Summary of Branch and Class characteristics of Porifera. CGELENTERATA MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC STUDY Suggestion. — This study may be adapted for the study of any Coelenterate by omitting some questions and enlarging upon others. The Hydra is probably the most easily obtained, and makes a good study of this branch. CoUect from quiet streams or ponds, duck-weed or other water plants. Place them in a large glass jar and put the jar where the light will shine upon it. The hydras will collect on the hghted side, as they are positively heliotropic. Break off a tiny piece of stem or leaf supporting a hydra. Place it upon a slide with a little water and watch it for several minutes. Does it change its position? When it is extended, touch it with a needle. What does it do? 1. The Body. (1) Is it one celled or many celled? (2) Size. How long is your specimen? (Length in inches or fraction of an inch.) (3) Shape. Is it tubular, or what shape is it? Broad or slender? (4) Is the body fixed or free? If fixed, by what portion of the body? How? Is it temporarily or permanently attached? Carefully push it loose with the handle of your scalpel. What does it do? (5) Closed or open? If the body is open, describe its opening and give its position on the body. (Use the hand lens for this, or, if necessary, place your specimen on a slide in a drop of water, put a thread or tiny broom straw on each side of the hydra, and cover it with a cover-slip, resting the edges of the cover upon the threads or straws to avoid injuring the specimen, and continue your study under the low power of the microscope.) (6) Color. What is the color of your specimen? Is it of uniform color on all parts of the body? 234 236 CCELENTERATA (7) Symmetry. Is this animal asymmetric, radially or bilaterally symmetric, or is it both radially and bilaterally symmetric? 2. The Appendages, or Tentacles. (1) Number? (2) Shape? (3) Are they hollow or solid? (4) Where and how are they arranged? 3. Locomotion and Motion. In the Coelenterates there is a differentiation of muscle-cells and unstriped muscle-fibers. (1) Has this animal any locomotion? If so, how is it accomplished? By body movement, or by move- ment of appendages, or by both? Describe accu- rately the successive steps in locomotion. (2) What motions — aside from locomotion — has this animal? Place a tiny particle of meat on the tip of a tentacle. What does the tentacle do? Put the meat at the base of the tentacle. What happens? (3) The skeleton is the passive system of motion and loco- motion in the higher forms. (a) Does this animal have a skeleton? If so, of what does it consist? (b) What is its purpose? 4. The Nutrition of the Animal. (1) What is its food? How is it obtained? (2) Is there any vestige of a tube or gullet dipping down from the mouth into the body cavity? (3) Are there any divisions of the gastrovascular cavity? Do the tentacles have any communication with the cavity? (4) How and where are the processes of digestion, circula- tion, and respiration carried on? Where is the waste ejected? (5) Is there any advancement in the work of nutrition over that in the Amoeba and sponge? If so, what? 5. Multiphcation. (1) The hydra is hermaphroditic. Near the tentacles, look for small, conical projections. These are the sper- 238 c(elentp:rata maries. Sometimes, by careful work with the mi- croscope, the sperm cells may be made out in the spermary, or breaking through into the water. (2) Look for buds. In what different stages do you find them? Sketch. 6. The Skin or Dermal System in the higher forms. The skin is an organ of respiration and excretion. (1) Does this animal possess a skin? If so, of what use is it to the animal? (2) Are there any growths of the skin? (if it has a skin), such as cilia, scales, feathers, hair, etc. 7. The Nervous System. (1) Of what does it consist in this animal? (2) Use to the animal? (3) What special senses have you observed this animal use? (4) Prove that it has a sense of touch. (5) Prove that it has either smell or taste. 8. Organs of Defense or Offense. Look for tiny swellings of the ectoderm, especially of the tentacles. These are the nema- tocysts or stinging cells. Place a drop of acetic acid under the cover-slip and watch these cells. What takes place? SYSTEMATIC STUDY 1. Body segmented or unsegmented? 2. Symmetry? 3. Plan of structure of body and appendages of this animal? 4. MultipHcation? 5. Means of defense? 6. The Coelenterate belongs to Branch Coelenterata, for it has the following branch characteristics common to sea-anem- one, hydra, coral, polyps, and jelly-fish: (Student fill blanks 1-5.) (1) As to body, (2) As to appendages, (3) As to plan of structure, (4) Multiplication, by (5) Defense, by means of 7. Remark. — The object of this systematic study is to dis- cover the Coelenterate Branch Characteristics. ECHINODERMATA (THE STARFISH) MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC STUDY A. External Morphology 1. General Shape? Use of this shape to the starfish? 2. Symmetry. (1) Radial or bilateral? (2) Advantage of this? 3. Arms or Rays. (1) Number in your specimen? ■ (2) Size? 4. Aboral Surface. The surface upon which the mouth is situated is called the oral surface, and the surface opposite the mouth, the aboral surface. (1) Shape of the aboral or upper surface? Use? (2) Aboral Spines or Projections. (a) Shape? (b) Number? (c) Use? (3) Madreporic Plate. Look between the bases of two of the rays for a wart-like or sieve-like plate. (a) Color? (b) Use? (c) Into what do its perforations lead? (4) Pedicellarise or pinchers. These are soft, flexible projections among the spines. Scrape off a httle of the spiny mass. Mount it in water on a sUde, and examine under the microscope (X 100). (a) Estimate the number on one ray. (b) Position? (c) Structure? (d) Use? (5) Sketch the aboral surface (1), naming all parts studied. 240 242 ECHIXODERMATA (tHE STARFISH) 5. The Oral Surface. (1) Shape of the oral surface as compared with the aboral surface? Why this difference? (2) Spines. (a) Shape? (b) Position? (c) Arrangement? (d) Use? (3) Ambulacra, or tube feet. In the groove of each arm or ray observe soft disk-shaped structures. (a) Shape? (b) Size? (c) Number of rows? (d) Number in each row? (e) Total estimate for the entire animal? (f) How are these tube feet used? These tube feet will be further studied in the internal dissection. 6. The Nervous System. Find a whitish or yellowish cord in the ambulacra! groove of each ray. (1) Trace it to its termination distally. (2) Trace it to its termination proximally. With what does it here unite? (3) Senses. Find the ' 'eye-spot" at the distal end of each ray. (a) Color? (b) Use? (4) Sketch plan of nervous system. 7. Skeleton. Examine a dried specimen or, lacking that, dry a portion of a ray for two or three days, then find the calcareous plates and sketch the plan of structure for the skeleton. B. Internal Morphology Cut along both edges of each ray. Lay each flap back, or re- move it, taking care not to injure the delicate organs or the madreporic plate. Dissect under water. 1. The Digestive System. (1) The Mouth. On the oral or under side, find the mouth, (a) Size? 244 ECHINODERMATA (tHE STARFISH) (b) Shape? (c) Any teeth? (2) The Stomach is a large sac-Uke organ filUng most of the disk. Inflate it or fill it with water to distend it. Does any part of the stomach reach out into the rays? (3) Hepatic Ceca, digestive glands or livers. In each arm find elongated, branched brown or green bodies or organs. (a) Size? (b) Shape? (c) Position? (d) Number in each arm? (e) Where do they unite? (f) Into what do they empty? (g) Use? (4) The Mesentery. Trace it as it holds the ceca together and suspends them from the aboral wall. (5) The Extensor Muscles. Find them along the center of a flap of a ray which you have turned back. (a) Shape? (b) Color? (c) Size? (d) Use? (6) The Intestines are slender and short, leading from the stomach to the vent. (a) Why are they so short and weak? (b) How does the starfish feed? (c) What is its food? 2. The Reproductive System. The reproductive organs or gonads are found along with the hepatic ceca in the floor of each ray. They are usually smaller and more grape-like. (1) Shape? (2) Size? (3) Color? (4) Number? (5) Where do they unite? (6) Use? 3. Sketch the plan of the digestive and of the reproductive systems. 246 ECHINODERMATA (tHE STARFISH) 4. The Water Vascular or Am]:)ulacral System is the means of locomotion. (1) The Ampullae. Along the floor of each ray of an in- jected specimen find numerous vesicles or sacs. (a) Shape? (b) Size? (c) Color? (d) Number of rows? Number in each row? (e) Total number for the ray? Estimated number for the starfish? Use? (f) How are these ampullae connected with the tube feet? (g) How are they (the ampullae) connected with each other? (2) Sketch plan of the ambulacral system. SYSTEMATIC STUDY FOR BRANCH ECHINODERMATA 1. Plan of Structure. Look carefully at the sea-urchin and sea-cucumber and others for the plan of five in the divisions or organs of the body. 2. Symmetry. Radial, or bilateral, or both? 3. Water Vascular System. Present or absent? 4. The (animals examined) have the following branch characteristics: (Student name them.) Hence they belong to Branch Echinodermata. SYSTEMATIC STUDY FOR THE CLASSES OF ECHINODERMATA Use a starfish, a sea-urchin, a sea-cucumber, or good pictures of the representatives of other classes. 1. Is this animal fixed or free? 2. Body with central disk and pentameral rays, globular with- out rays, long and cylindric, or with an acorn-like top on a lonp; flexible stalk? 3. Arms or rays. (1) Number? (2) Are the cecal processes contained in the arms? 4. Tentacles present or absent? 5. This animal has the following characteristics : hence it belongs to Class Remark. — Consult descriptive zoologies for Classes of Echinodermata. ANNULATA STUDY OF LIVE EARTHWORMS 1. Collecting. (1) Habitat. Dig for earthworms in various kinds of soil — loose and open, compact, rich, poor, wet, and dry soils. (a) In which soil are the earthworms most numerous? (b) How do their depths in these soils vary? (2) Homes or burrows. (a) In what direction do the burrows extend? Is there any connection between them? (b) Are they lined? If so, with what? (c) Do the earthworms stop up the entrances to their holes? If so, with what? (d) How large are their holes? Why are they of this size? (e) Is there any food stored up in these burrows? If so, what? (f) Carefully dig up a cubic foot of soil where you find the earthworms numerous, let it dry thoroughly, then break it in two. (1) Trace the burrows. (2) Sketch a section, showing several. (3) How many openings do you find at the surface on a square foot? How many would there be at the same rate in an acre? (3) Activities. (a) Do you find the earthworms active in the daytime? (b) Take a lantern and look for them at night, going very quietly. (1) Do you find them out of the burrows at night? Look carefully and see if they are entirely out of them. Try to pull one out. What does it do? How? 250 ANNULATA (2) What are they doing outside of the burrows? (3) Try experiments by making different kinds of noises, such as halloaing, clapping the hands, beating tin-pans, etc., to find out if they can hear. Do not get so close as to jar them. (c) Now try stamping the ground near them, or otherwise jar them strongly. What do they do? How? 2. Laboratory Study. (1) Take a wide-mouthed jar (candy, museum, or battery jar), nearly fill it with black soil, and firm it down well. Keep it cool and moist, not wet. Put thirty or forty earthworms on top of the soil and watch what they do. Cover the jar with fine wire screen and allow it to stand undisturbed until night. (2) Foods and Feeding. (a) In the evening place small bits of various kinds of vegetables, lean and fat meat, etc., on the surface of the soil, to find out whether they are carnivorous, herbivorous, or omnivorous. (b) Do they choose their food by taste, smell, or feeling? (c) Where do they feed? In or out of the burrows? (d) When do they feed? (3) Influence of light. Set the jar where one-half of it will be in a bright light, and the other side in the dark, or cover one side. Which side of the jar do the earth- worms prefer, the light or the dark side? (4) Locomotion. (a) Lay the earthworm on a wet paper and note its motions. (b) Does it accomplish any locomotion? How? (c) Can it move backward? If so, just how? (d) Try (a), (b), and (c) again, this time placing the earthworm on a clean piece of glass. Results. Turn it over on its back. What does it do? How? (5) Sensitiveness. (a) What portion of the surface of the body is most sen- sitive to light? (b) Most sensitive to touch? Is any portion not sensitive to touch? 252 ANNULATA MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC STUDY A. External Morphology 1. Shape? Use of this shape to the animal? 2. Size. (1) Length of earthworm when quiet? When extended? (2) Thickness laterally? Dorsoventrally? (3) How^ does the thickness compare with the length? 3. Covering. Is the skin naked or covered? If covered, with what? 4. Surfaces. (1) Shape and color of the dorsal surface? Use? (2) Shape and color of vental surface? (3) Do these surfaces differ in shape and color? If so, why? 5. Somites or Segments. (1) Number? , (2) Are they similar in different regions? Why? 6. Cingulum, Girdle, or Clitellum — a swollen region near the anterior end. (1) Over how many somites does it extend? (2) Does it extend entirely around the body? (3) Use to the earthworm? 7. Setse or Feet on ventral side. Use hand lens or feel them along the ventral surface. (1) How many to each somite? (2) Upon how many somites are they found? (3) How many rows in all? (4) How many setae on the entire earthworm? (5) Use of these setse? 8. Openings in the Body Wall. Identify as many as you can with the hand lens. (1) Mouth at anterior end. (2) Vent at posterior end. (3) Seminal receptacles. Look for them with hand lens about the 9th-llth somites. (4) Oviducts. Look for them about the 9th somite. (5) Vas deferens, about the 15th somite. (6) Dorsal pores — along the dorsal surface. (7) Nephridial openings — one pair to each somite. 254 ANN U LATA B. Internal Morphology 1. Pin a dead worm on a wax-bottomed pan or on a sheet of cork, or on a soft pine board, and sink it in the water. With sharp scissors cut through the body wall along the median dorsal line. Spread out and pin down the body wall, exposing the internal organs. 2. Body Wall. (1) Thickness? (2) Of how many layers does it consist? (3) Use of each layer? 3. Body Cavity or Coelom. Between the body wall and the alimentary canal is a great cavity divided into compartments by the muscular partitions. 4. Circulatory Organs. (1) In a live specimen, find (with the hand lens) the dorsal blood-vessel along the dorsal side. (a) In what direction does the blood flow? (b) Extent of this tube? (c) Its branches— how many? These are called ''hearts'* or aortic arches. (Segments 6-10.) (2) Ventral blood-vessel. Below the alimentary canal, find another vessel. How does the blood flow in this blood-vessel — forward or backward? (3) Sketch the internal organs, using red for blood-vessels, yellow for alimentary canal, and blue for nerves. Make a sketch one inch in diameter, or draw it on the board. 5. Alimentary Canal, or Digestive Organs. Parts in order: Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, stomach-intes- tine. (1) The mouth — in somites one and two. (a) Shape? (b) Size? (c) Use? (d) Any teeth? (2) The pharynx — in somites 2-7. (a), (b), (c) as for mouth. (3) The esophagus — about somites 6-15. (a), (b), (c). 256 ANNULATA (4) The crop — about somite 15. (a), (b), (c). (5) The gizzard — about somite 17. (a), (b), (c). (6) The stomach-intestine — from about somite 17 to end of body. (a) Shape? (b) Size? (c) Use? (d) Length? (e) Diameter? (f) Straight or coiled? (g) Pouched or straight? (h) Color? (i) Contents? (j) Typhlosole, or longitudinal ridge in the intestine (a). Shape? (7) What is the function of the alimentary canal? (8) What is the specific function of each of its parts? Do not say "aids digestion," but tell just what part in the work of digestion each organ performs. 6. Respiratory System. Respiration is carried on through the whole body surface. The skin is filled with a network of blood-vessels. These vessels take up the necessary oxygen and give off the waste matters to the air. Is the earthworm poikilo- thermal or homoiothermal? Why? ■ 7. Nervous System. Below the intestines is found the nerve cord. (1) Trace it to the posterior end of the body. (a) Is it a double or a single cord? (b) Do you find a ganglion to each somite? (2) Trace it to the anterior end of the body. (a) Do you find one or two ganglia to each somite? (b) Does the nerve cord continue as a single cord to the end of the body? (c) If it divides, where? What is the destination of each branch? (3) Cerebral Ganglia. Look for them on the dorsal side, about the second or third somite. Trace their branches. 258 ANNULATA (4) Sketch the nervous system of the earthworm. What is its use? (5) Special Senses. 8. Excretory System. The Nephridia. Look for Httle white, coiled tubes between the septa. (1) Trace one. (a) Where does it open? (b) Use? C. Cross-section 1. Dorsal Wall. (1) Cuticle — thin, iridescent. (2) Epidermis. (3) Dermis. (4) Circular muscles. (5) Longitudinal muscles. 2. Coelom or Body Cavity. 3. Dorsal Blood-vessel. 4. Alimentary Canal. 5. Ventral Blood-vessel. 6. Nerve Cord. 7. Ventral Wall. (1) Longitudinal muscles. (2) Circular muscles. (3) Dermis. (4) Epidermis. (5) Cuticle. Sketch this cross-section and show all the parts 1-7. MOLLUSCA STUDY OF A LIVE FRESH-WATER CLAM OR MUSSEL 1. Collecting. (1) Mussels may be found in the shallow water of our ponds and streams, where they are often partly embedded in the sand or mud. (2) They may sometimes ''be obtained by a long-handled rake from the shore or from a boat."^ But the surest plan is to don rubber boots and wade out after them. (3) As soon as they are captured place them in water and carry them to the laboratory, and put them in the tank with a few inches of sand and several inches of water in the bottom. 2. Laboratory Study. (1) Locomotion. (a) Watch carefully to discover just how a clam moves itself along. (b) Does it leave a track? If so, describe it. (c) What is the direction of its progression? (d) What is the rate of its progression? (e) Place your finger in the sand across the path in front of the mussel and, by allowing it to pass over your finger, find out how the "foot" is used. (f) Quickly pick up a mussel in locomotion. Note its foot. What does it do? (g) Lay a clam on its side on a piece of glass or smooth wood. (1) What does it do? (2) Can it resume its natural position and creep away? Explain. ^ Galloway's " Zoology." 260 262 MOLLUSCA (2) Siphons. Notice the fringes of the posterior margins of the mantle. Place a tiny drop of ink above the opening of the siphon and note the direction of the current of water. (3) Sensitiveness. (a) Gently touch the margins of the siphons. Are they sensitive to touch? What do they do? (b) Find out, by experiment, if they are sensitive to light. (c) Find out if they are sensitive to jars or to currents of water. MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC STUDY OF THE CLAM A. External Morphology 1. The Shell externally. (1) Shape? Use of this shape to the clam? (2) Length? (3) Depth (dorsoventrally)? (4) Width (laterally)? (5) Weight of clam with shell? (6) Weight of clam without shell? (7) Shell is what per cent, of weight of whole clam? (8) Why so much shell? Advantage? (9) Why so little body? Advantage? (10) Disadvantage of so much shell? (11) Covering of the shell. (a) Color? (b) Use? (12) Hold the shell in your left hand with the two projec- tions (umbones) from you. The valve in your left hand is the left valve, the one in your right hand is the right valve. (a) How do the valves agree? (b) How do they differ from each other? (13) Concentric lines of growth about the umbones. (a) How many? (b) Age of your specimen? (c) Do you find other ridges in the shell? (d) Use? 264 MOLLUSCA (14) The Hinge Ligament. The anterior end of the shell is blunter than the posterior, the dorsal is thicker than the ventral. Identify the hinge ligament dorsally between the valves. (a) Color? (b) Structure? (c) Use? (15) Sketch one valve externally and indicate all the points so far made out. 2. The Shell internally. (1) Color? (2) Structure? (3) Surface? (4) Any pearls? Theory of the formation of pearls? (5) Any lines? (6) Teeth of the shell. (a) How many in right valve? In left? (b) Use of these teeth? (7) Muscle scars. (a) How many? (b) Where are they found? (c) Use? By what muscles? (8) Sketch inside of the shell and indicate all markings. B. Internal Morphology Kill the clam in water gradually heated to about 140° F. The muscles relax, the foot protrudes, and the clam is easily exposed to view for study. The clam may be killed by inserting a strong knife between the valves near the anterior end of the shell and severing the muscles which hold the shell closed. 1. The Clam inside the shell. (1) The mantle is found covering the body and adhering to the valves of the shell. Separate the mantle from one valve by inserting a scalpel between them. (a) Shape? (b) Attachment? (c) Use? (2) The gills are leaf-like organs under the mantle. 266 MOLLUSCA (a) Number? (b) Attachment? (c) Use? (d) Young. One pair of gills may be much enlarged and filled with young clams, called Glochidia. If present, examine under low power of the microscope. (3) The Labial Palpi. These are small leaf-like organs anterior to the gills. (a) Number? (b) Size? (c) Use? (4) The Siphons. The mantle is modified posteriorly into two tubes or siphons. The upper one is the excur- rent and the lower is the incurrent one. A live clam placed in a vessel containing sand covered with water will show the incurrent and the excurrent stream of water, especially if a little coloring-matter is cau- tiously added. Use of these siphons? (5) The Body. The soft body with its projecting foot is now exposed. (a) Shape? (b) Size? (c) Structure? (d) Segmented or unsegmented? (6) The Foot. Identify it. (a) Shape? (b) Size? (c) Structure? (d) Use? (e) How does the clam use it? (f) Where must it live to use it? 2. The Internal Organs. (1) The Digestive Organs. (a) The mouth is between the palps. Insert a small probe. (1-) Teeth? (2) Tongue? (b) The Esophagus leads from the mouth into the stomach. 268 MOLLUSCA (1) Size? (2) Length? (c) The Stomach. (1) Size? (2) Shape? (3) Use? (d) The Intestines. Find their beginning at the poste- rior end of the stomach, trace them through the heart, thence throughout the body. Are they coiled or straight? (e) The Liver or Digestive Gland is lobed and surrounds the stomach. (1) Size? (2) Use? (f) The Excretory Organs are the kidneys or organs of Bojanus. These organs are dark colored and lie near the pericardial cavity. (1) Size? (2) Use? (g) Sketch and name the digestive organs. (2) The Respiratory Organs, the gills, have been studied. (3) The Circulatory Organs. The heart may be seen to pulsate slowly in a specimen just opened. It is on the dorsal side and may be seen through the mantle, lying in the pericardial cavity. The heart consists of the rather lengthy ventricle, through which runs the intestine. The ventricle is joined by two lateral thin-walled, triangular auricles which receive the blood from the gills. The arteries carry the blood to all parts of the body. (a) Identify and show your teacher the organs of circu- lation. (b) Sketch and name all parts. (4) The Nervous System is rather difficult for beginners, but may be made out in an alcoholic specimen. (a) Demonstrate to the teacher the following: The cerebral ganglia. Look between the labial palpi at their bases, identify these ganglia, and trace a nerve to the pedal ganglia in the foot near the 270 MOLLUSCA mouth. Trace a nerve to a third center, the vis- ceral or the posterior gangUa, near the posterior adductor muscle, (b) Sketch the plan of the nervous system of the clam. (5) The Special Senses. Do you find evidence of special senses? If so, of what ones? A STUDY OF THE SNAIL SHELL 1. Is the shell univalved or bivalved? Whj^? 2. Is the shell right-handed (dextral) or left-handed (sinis- tral)? 3. Is the spiral a flat one or a long narrow one? 4. Identify the apex. It is homologous with the umbo of the clam. 5. Identify the lines of growth. 6. How many whorls in your shell? 7. How many sutures has your shell? 8. What gives color to the outside of the living shell? 9. Why are dead shells white? 10. Compare the shell of the clam with that of the snail, giving five points of similarity and five points of difference. 11. Do you see any reason why the clam has a bivalve, the snail, a univalve, and the slug, none, or merely the vestige of a shell? 12. Sketch the snail shell and name all parts present. SYSTEMATIC STUDY FOR BRANCH MOLLUSCA 1. The Skeleton. (1) External, internal, or none? (2) If it has a skeleton, of what does it consist? 2. The Body. Segmented or unsegmented? 3. Appendages or Limits. (1) Segmented or unsegmented? (2) Number? 4. This animal belongs to Branch Mollusca because it has the following characteristics: (Student name them.) 272 MOLLUSCA SYSTEMATIC STUDY FOR CLASSES OF MOLLUSCA 1. Has it a distinct head? 2. If it has a shell, is it a bivalve or a univalve? 3. This animal belongs to Class because it has the following characteristics: (Student name them.) 4. Consult descriptive zoologies for Classes of Mollusca. NDEX Abdomen of crayfish, 36 of grasshopper, 78 of spider, 50 Ameba, 226 Amphibia, 132 Animal behavior, 12 Annulata, 248 Arachnida, 48 Aves, 174 Bee, 90 Beetle, 98 Bird, 174 air sacs of, 186 brain of, 192 ceca of, 190 circulatory organs of, 186 cloaca of, 190 crop of, 188 digestive organs of, 188 ears of, 180 endoskeleton of, 192 excretory organs of, 192 exoskeleton of, 180 eyes of, 180 feathers of, 182 field study of, 174 kidneys of, 192 legs of, 196 morphology of, 178 muscles of, 184 nervous system of, 192 reproductive organs of, 192 18 Bird, respiratory organs of, 190 skeleton of, 192 voice of, 176 wings of, 196 Bumble bee, 90 Butterfly, 86 Carapa("e of crayfish, 32 of turtle, 158 Ceca of bird, 190 of fish, 122 of grasshopper, 70 of starfish, 244 Cephalothorax of crayfish, 32 of spider, 4S Chordate, branch, 128 class, 128 Cicada, 96 Clam, 260 Ctt'lenterata, 234 Condyles of bird, 194 of frog, 146 Crayfish, 28 abdomen of, 36 antennae of, 32 antcnnules of, 34 aciuarium study of, 28 arteries of, 38 body divisions of, 32 circulatory organs of, 36 collecting of, 28 development of, 30 digestive organs of, 40 27;i 274 INDEX Crayfish, ears of, 42 eyes of, 32 field trip, 28 mounting of, 44 muscular system of, 42 nervous system of, 42 respiratory organs of, 40 sensation of, 44 special senses of, 42 Crustacea, 28 Dissection of bird, 178 of clam, 262 of crayfish, 32 of earthworm, 252 of fish, 116 of frog, 136 of grasshopper, 70 of rabbit, 202 of starfish, 240 of turtle, 156 Earthworm, 248 activities of, 248 body cavity of, 254 brain of, 256 cerebral ganglia of, 256 circulatory organs of, 254 collecting of, 248 digestive organs of, 254 excretory system of, 258 foods of, 250 girdle of, 252 kidneys of, 258 locomotion of, 250 nephridia of, 258 nervous system of, 256 oviducts of, 252 respiratory system of, 256 segments of, 252 setae of feet of, 252 typhlosole of, 256 Emotions, 16 Fish, 112 air bladder of, 124 arteries of, 124 brain of, 124 ceca of, 122 circulatory organs of, 124 collecting of, 112 digestive organs of, 120 ear of, 118 excretory organs of, 124 eye of, 118 fins of, 116 food of, 112 gill covers of, 118 heart of, 124 kidneys of, 124 muscles of, 120 nervous system of, 124 respiratory organs of, 120 scales of, 118 skeleton of, 126 skin of, 120 special senses of, 124 spleen of, 124 Frog, 132 aorta of, 144 arteries of, 144 circulatory organs of, 142 cloaca of, 142 collecting of, 132 digestive organs of, 138 ears of, 136 endoskeleton of, 146 excretory organs of, 144 eyes of, 136 heart of, 142 kidneys of, 144 limbs of, 138 morphology of, 136 muscles of, 138 nerves of, 150 nervous system of, 148 INDEX Frog, reproductive organs of, 144 respiratory organs of, 142 skeleton of, 146 skin of, 138 spinal cord of, 146 Grasshopper, 70 Heart of bird, 186 of clam, 268 of crayfish, 28 of earthworm, 254 of fish, 124 of frog, 142 of grasshopper, 80 of rabbit, 208 of turtle, 162 Hemiptera, 96 Honey bee, 90 House fly, 92 Hydra, 234 Insect case, 52 net, 56 Insecta, 52 Insecticides, 68 Insects, collecting, 54 field trip, 58 life-history of, 62 spraying of, 66 sprays for, 66 Instincts, altruistic, 14 egoistic, 14 Kidneys of bird, 192 of clam, 268 of crayfish, gg, Fig. 1, 38 of earthworm, nephridia, 258 of fish, 124 of frog, 144 of rabbit, 214 of turtle, 168 Killing bottle, 54 Lungs of bird, 186 of frog, 142 of rabbit, 214 of turtle, 168 Mammalia, 200 Man, 222 MoUusca, 260 Mussel, 260 Nutrition of coelenterata, 236 of porifera, 230 of protozoa, 226 Orthoptera, 70 Pisces, 112 Porifera, 230 Protozoa, 226 Rabbit, 200 arteries of, 208 circulatory organs of, 208 digestive organs of, 210 ears of, 202 excretory organs of, 214 eyes of, 202 field study of, 200 heart of, 208 kidneys of, 214 limbs of, 206 locomotion of, 20<) mori)hology of, 202 nervous system of, 218 reproductive organs of, 214 respiratory organs of, 214 skeleton of, 214 skin of, 206 systematic study of, 21S Reptilia, 152 Scales, ctenoid, 116 cycloid, 116 of bultcrflv, 88 276 INDEX Scales of fish, 116 Skeleton of bird, 192 of frog, 146 of rabbit, 214 of turtle, 170 Snail shell, 270 Spider, 48 Sponge, 230 Sprays, 66 Squash bug, 96 Starfish, 243 Sunfish, 116 Turtle, 152 arteries of, 152 Turtle, circulatory organs of, 162 digestive organs of, 164 ears of, 156 eyes of, 156 field study of, 154 heart of, 162 kidneys of, 168 limbs of, 156 morphology of, 156 muscular system of, 168 nervous system of, 168 reproductive system of, 168 respiratory system of, 166 shell of, 158 skeleton of, 170 n^ t^;:"^ 0^