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PREFACE.
..
IT is probable, that the original design and principal motive of every teacher, in publishing a School-Book, is the improvement of his own pupils. Such, at least, was the immediate object of the present compilation ; which, for brevity of expression, neatness of arrangement, and comprehensiveness of plan, is, perhaps, superior to any other book of the kind. " My chief end has been to ex- plain the general principles of Grammar as clearly and intelligibly as possible. In the definitions, therefore, easiness and perspicuity have been sometimes preferred to logical exactness."
Orthography is mentioned rather for the sake of order than with a view to instruction : for the pupil may be supposed to have mastered its practical details before he commences the study of Grammar.
On Etymology I hare left much to be remarked by the teacher, in the time of teaching. My reason for doing this is, that children, when by themselves, labour more to have the words of their book imprinted on their memories, than to have the mean- ing fixed in their minds ; but, on the contrary, when the teacher addresses them viva voce, they naturally strive rather to compre- hend his meaning, than to remember his exact expressions. In pursuance of this idea, the first part of this little volume has been thrown into a form more resembling Heads of Lectures on Grammar than a complete elucidation of the subject. That the teacher, however, may not be always under the necessity of hav- ing recourse to his memory to supply the deficiencies, the most remarkable Observations have been subjoined at the bottom of the page, to which the pupils themselves may occasionally be referred.
The desire of being concise has frequently induced me to use very elliptical expressions ; but I trust they are all sufficiently perspicuous. I may also add, that many additional and critical remarks which might have, with propriety, been inserted in the Grammar, have been inserted rather in the Key; for I have studiously withheld everything from the Grammar that could be spared, to keep it low-priced for the general good.
The Questions on Etymology, at pages 174 and 175 will speak for themselves : they unite the advantages of both the usual methods, viz. that of plain narration, and that of question and answer, without the inconvenience of either.
Syntax is commonly divided into two parts, Concord and Gov- ernment ; and the rules respecting the former, grammarians in general have placed before those which relate to the latter.
4
I have not, however, attended to this division, because I deem it of little importance ; but have placed those rules first which are either more easily understood, or which occur more frequently. In arranging a number of rules, it is difficult to please every reader. I have frequently been unable to satisfy myself ; and therefore cannot expect that the arrangement which I have at last adopted will give universal satisfaction. Whatever order be pre- ferred, the one rule must necessarily precede the other ; and since they are all to be learned, it signifies little whether the rules of con- cord precede those of government, or whether they be mixed, pro- vided no anticipations be made which may embarrass the learner.
In connexion with the Rules of Syntax, I have introduced " Exercises to be corrected " as well as " Exercises to be parsed and construed ; " and in the case of the former I have generally compressed into a single page as many faulty expressions as some of my predecessors have done into two pages of a larger size. Hence, though the book seems to contain but few exercises on bad grammar, it really contains so many that a separate volume of exercises is quite unnecessary.
Whatever defects were found in the former editions in the time of teaching have been carefully supplied.
On Etymology, Syntax, Punctuation, and Prosody, there is scarcely a Rule or Observation in the largest grammar in print that is not to be found in this ; besides, the Rules and Defini- tions, in general, are so very short and pointed, that, compared with those in most other grammars, they may be said to be hit off rather than made. Every page is independent, and though quite full, not crowded, but wears an air of neatness and ease invitingly sweet, — a circumstance not unimportant. But, not- withstanding these properties, and others that might be men- tioned, I am far from being so vain as to suppose that this com- pilation is altogether free from inaccuracies or defects ; much less do I presume that it will obtain the approbation of every one who may choose to peruse it ; for, to use the words of Dr. John- son, " He that has much to do will do something wrong, and of that wrong must suffer the consequences ; and if it were possible that he should always act rightly, yet when such numbers are to iudge of his conduct, the bad will censure and obstruct him by malevolence, and the good sometimes by mistake."
fS*ir Tliose pupils that are capable, of writing, should "be requested to write the plural of nouns, <&c., either at home or at school. The Exercises on Syntax should be written in their corrected state with a stroke drawn under the word corrected.
£. means Key ; the figures refer to the No. of the Key, not the page.
•-O ' Qtf
OP
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing the English Language with propriety.
It is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthog- raphy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
ORTHOGRAPHY treats of Letters, Syllables, and the spelling of Words.
THERE are twenty-six letters in English.
Letters are either Vowels or Consonants.
A Vowel is a letter, the name of which makes a full open sound.
A Consonant is a letter that has a sound less distinct than that of a vowel.
The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y.
The Consonants are I, c, d, f, g, li, j, Jc, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z.
W and y are consonants when they begin a word or syllable ; in every other situation they are vowels.
A Diphthong is the union of two vowels ; as, ou in out.
A proper Diphthong is one in which loth the Vowels are sounded ; as, oy in loy.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
An improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the two vowels is sounded ; as, o in boat
A Triphthong is the union of three vowels ; as, eau in beauty.
A Syllable is as much of a word as can be sounded at once ; as, gram in grammar.
A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable ; as, house.
A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables ; as, household.
A Trisyllable is a word of three syllables ; as, householder.
A Polysyllable is a word of many syllables.
Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper letters.
EXERCISES ON ORTHOGRAPHY.
Tell the Vowels in
Ball, cellar,. dine, folly, home, James, kitchen, lambkin, mulberry, popgun.
Tell whether w and y are Vowels or Consonants in Awry, beware, blowy, downy, fowl, grayling, hay, Jewry, lawfully, wayward, witty, yearly.
Tell which are proper and ivhich improper Diphthongs in
Boil, cook, death, faith, gown, hawk, loud, mean, pour, queen, roar, toy.
Tell how many Syllables are in the following words : — Aaron, barbarian, circular, diamond, extra- ordinary, firefly, goatherd, heavenward, Lao- dicea, latitudinarian, noteworthy, Utopia.
OBSERVATIONS.
In every syllable there must be at least one vowel. Any vowel except w can make a syllable by itself.
ETYMOLOGY.
ETYMOLOGY.
ETYMOLOGY treats of the different sorts of Words, their various modifications , and their derivation. THERE are nine parts of Speech ; — Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Pre- position, Conjunction, and Interjection.
Of the ARTICLES.
An Article is a word put before a noun, to show the extent of its meaning ; as, a man.
There are two articles, a or an and the. A is used before a consonant; as, a day. — An is used before a vowel, or silent h / as, an age, an hour.
A is called the indefinite, and the the definite article.
EXERCISES ON THE ARTICLES.
Prefix the indefinite article to the following words: —
Army, ass, boot, coat, door, elm, eye, river, garden, hair, heir, honour, house, island, nation, orange, serpent, umpire, union, upstart, valley, week, yard.
Correct the following errors: — A error, an hen, an hill, a hour, a inkstand, an handful, an ewe, an useful book, an history, an yewtree, an hedge, a honest man.
OBSERVATIONS.
A is used before the long sound of u, and before w and y ; as, A unit, a ewe, a week, a year.
A noun without aii article to limit it, is taken in its widest sense ; as, Man is mortal ; namely, all mankind.
A is used before nouns in the singular number only. It is used
before the plural in nouns preceded by such phrases as A few ; a great many ; as, a few books ; a great many apples.
The is used before nouns in both numbers : and sometimes before adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree ; as., The more I study grammar the better I like it.
ETYMOLOGY.
Of NOUNS.
A Noun is the name of any person; place, or thing • as, John, London, book.
There are two kinds of Nouns, Proper and Common.
Proper Nouns denote the names of individuals only ; as, James, Edinburgh, Ben Lomond.
Common Nouns denote a whole kind or class ; as, boy, city, mountain.
EXERCISES ON NOUNS.
Tell which of the following words are Nouns, and whether the nouns are Proper or Common : —
The boys are at school. John has been sent by his father to London. Stirling is a town on the river Forth. The Alps are the highest mountains in Europe. My cousin has a ship called the Rover ; it carries passengers and goods between Liverpool and New York. The sun never sets on the empire of Queen Victoria. Waverley is the name of a novel written by Sir Walter Scott. My brother Tom has a ter- rier called Snap. My sister has a fine pansy which she calls Victoria. The ship of Nelson at the battle of Trafalgar was the Victory. The shortest day is in the month of December.
Nouns are varied by Number, Gender, and Case.
OBSERVATIONS.
Collective nouns are nouns that signify many ; as, Multitude, crowd.
Abstract nouns are the names of qualities abstracted from their sub- stances ; as, Wisdom, wickedness.
Verbal or participial nouns are nouns derived from verbs, as, Reading.
Proper nouns have the plural only when they refer to a race QT family; as, The Campbells ; or to several persons of the same name ; as, The eight Henrys ; the two Mr Bells ; the two Miss Browns ; (or -without the numeral) the Miss Roys ; but, in addressing letters in which both or all are equally concerned, and also when the names are different, we plu- ralize the title (Mr or Miss), and write Misses Brown; Misses Roy; Messrs (for -»i jssieurs, Fr.) Oliver and Boyd.
NOUNS.
Of NUMBER.
Nouns have two numbers ; the Singular and the Plural. The singular denotes one, the plu- ral more than one.
The plural is generally formed by adding s to the singular ; as, Book, books.
To this general rule there are many exceptions : —
1. Nouns in ss, sh, ch soft, x, and in i and o preceded by a consonant, form the plural by adding es; as, Miss, misses; brush, brushes; church, churches; fox, foxes; alkali, al- kalies ; hero, heroes.
Ch hard, and o preceded by a vowel, take s only ; as, Stomach, stomachs ; folio, folios.
2. Nouns in y preceded by a consonant change y into ies in the plural ; as, Lady, ladies ; but y preceded by a vowel follows the general rule ; as, Day, days.
3. Nouns in/ or/e, change/ or/e into ves in the plural ; as, Loaf, loaves ; life, lives.
The following words follow the general rule, viz. — Brief, chief, fief, grief, handkerchief; hoof, proof, reproof, roof; dwarf, scarf, wharf; gulf; turf; cliff, sheriff, skiff, whiff; cuff, muff, puff, ruff, snuff', stuff; fife, strife; safe.
4. Some nouns, including all that end in man, take the Saxon en in the plural ; as,
Ox oxen Footman footmen
Child children Seaman, seamen
Man men Statesman statesmen
Alderman aldermen Woman women
Englishman Englishmen Workman workmen
5. Nouns which have two meanings have sometimes two forms of the plural. Thus : —
Brother has brothers in the plural to denote sons of the same parent, and brethren to denote members of the same- society ; Die, a stamp for coming, has dies ; die, a little cube used in games, dice ; Genius has geniuses when signifying persons of genius, genii when denoting aerial beings ; Index has indexes when it means a table of contents, and indices when it denotes the exponent of an algebraic quantity ; Pea has peas for single seeds, and pease for seeds in the mass ;• Penny has pennies when penny-pieces are intended, but pence when mere value is denoted.
A2
10 ETYMOLOGY.
6. A few nouns are entirely anomalous in the formation of the plural. Thus :—
Foot feet Louse lice Cow kine Tooth teeth Goose geese Mouse mice Sow swine
7. A few nouns are used alike in both numbers ; as, Deer, sheep, swine; the singular being distinguished from the plural by the article a; as, A deer, a sheep, a swine.
EXERCISES ON NUMBER.
Write, — or tell, — or spell, the Plural of
Fox,* book, leaf, candle, hat, loaf, wish, fish, sex, kiss, coach, inch, sky, army, duty, knife, echo, loss, cargo, wife, story, church, table, glass, study, calf, branch, street, potato, peach, sheaf, booby, rock, stone, house, hope, flower, city, difficulty, distress.
Day, boy, relay, chimney, journey, valley, needle, enemy, an army, a vale, an ant, a sheep, the hills, a valley, the sea, key, toy.
Monarch, tyro, grotto, nuncio, punctilio, ruff, muff, reproof, portico, handkerchief, gulf, hoof, fife, multitude, people, meeting, John, Lucy.
OBSERVATIONS.
Nouns which have been adopted without change from foreign languages generally retain ttyeir original plurals. Thus : — From the Greek.
Antithesis Automaton Basis Crisis Criterion Ellipsis |
antitheses automata bases crises criteria ellipses |
Hypothesis Metamorphosis Miasma Phasis Phenomenon Thesis |
hypotheses metamorphoses miasmafta phases phenomena theses |
* What is the plural of fox? Foxes. Why? Because nouns in ss, sh, ch
soft, x, i, or o, form the plural, by adding es. What is the plural of
book f Books. Why ? Because the plural is generally formed by adding 3 to the singular. What is the plural of leaf 9 Leaves. Why? Be- cause nouns inforfe change /or fe into ves in the plural. What is
the plural of army 1 Armies. Why ? Because nouns in y, preceded by
a consonant, change y into ies in the plural. What is the plural of
day f Days. Spell it; d, a, y, s. Why not d, a, i, e, sf Because y with
a vowel before it is not changed into ies : it takes s only. What is the
difference between adding and changing? — K. No. 37, 40, 41.
NOUNS.
11
Addendum •
Animalculum
Apex
Appendix
Arcanum
Axis
Calx
Datum
Desideratum
Dictum
Effluvium
Erratum
Focus
Fungus
Genus
Cherub Beau
Bandit
Banditto
Cognoscente
From the Latin.
Ignis-fatuus
Lamina
Larva
Magus
Medium
Memorandum
Momentum
Nebula
Oasis
Radius
Stimulus
Stratum
Terminus
Vertex
Vortex
ignes-fatui
laminae
larvae
magi
media
memoranda
momenta
nebula?
oases
radii
stimuli
strata
termini
vertices
vortices
addenda
animalcula
apices
appendices
arcana
axes
calces
data
desiderata
dicta
effluvia
errata
foci
fungi
genera
From the Hebrew. cherubim Seraph seraphim
From the French.
beaux Monsieur messieurs
From the Italian.
Conversazione conversazioni Dilletante dilletanti
cognoscenti Virtuoso virtuosi
Proper names have necessarily no plural. But there are also com- mon nouns which want the plural ; among which the chief are — Names of metals ; as, /row, gold: Names of grains ; as, Rye, wheat : Names of liquids ; as, Beer, wine : Names of arts and sciences ; as, Music, astronomy : and names of abstract and moral qualities ; as, Warmth, meekness.
It is only when the names of metals, grains, liquids, &c., ex- press varieties of the substances denoted by them that they take a plural.
There are some common nouns, on the other hand, which have no singular ; such as nouns descriptive of objects which have a plurality of parts, or which nature or art has made double. The following are examples : —
j >• banditti
Annals
Archives
Ashes
Bellows
Billiards
Bowels
Breeches
Compasses
Drawers
Entrails
Folk
Lungs
Measles
Morals
Nuptials
Oats
Pincers
Riches
Scissors
Snuffers
Thanks
Tidings'
Tongs
Trousers
Vespers
Victuals
Vitals
Wages
Alms, news, odds, pains, are generally used in the singular number.
The names of sciences ending in ics, as, Etliics, mathematics, politics, &c., admit of being used in either number, according as they are conceived to express unity or plurality.
Horse suiAfoot, meaning cavalry and infantry, are used in the singular form with a plural verb.
12
ETYMOLOGY.
Of GENDER.
There are three genders ; the Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter.
The Masculine denotes the male sex ; as, A man, a ~boy.
The Feminine denotes the female sex ; as, A woman, a girl.
The Neuter denotes whatever is without sex ; as, Milk.
Tliere are three ways of distinguishing the sex. 1. By different words ; as,
Male. |
Female. |
Male. |
Female. |
Bachelor |
maid, spinster |
Hart |
roe |
Beau |
belle |
Horse |
mare |
Boar |
sow |
Husband |
wife |
Boy Bridegroom |
girl bride |
King Lord |
queen lady |
Brother |
sister |
Man |
woman |
Buck |
doe |
Master |
mistress |
Bull |
cow |
Milter |
spawner |
Bullock |
> , ._ , w |
Monk |
nun |
Ox or steer |
j- neiter, hej-er |
Nephew |
niece |
Cock |
hen |
Ram |
ewe |
Colt Dog |
bitch |
Singer |
f songstress ( or singer |
Drake |
duck |
Sir |
madam |
Earl |
countess |
Sloven |
slut |
Father |
mother |
Son |
daughter |
Gaffer |
gammer |
Stag |
hind |
Gander |
goose |
Uncle |
aunt |
Gentleman |
lady |
Wizard |
witch |
OBSERVATIONS.
NEUTER means neither, and therefore intimates that the nouns so called are neither masculine nor feminine.
Some nouns are either masculine or feminine : such as, Parent, child, cousin, infant, servant, neighbour, &c.
Some nouns, naturally neuter, become, when personified, either mas- culine or feminine ; as, when we say of the sun, He is setting ; and of the moon, She is eclipsed.
NOUNS.
13
2. By |
a difference |
of termination ; as, |
|
Male. |
Female. |
Male. |
female. |
Author |
authoress |
Mayor |
mayoress |
Baron |
baroness |
Patron |
patroness |
Count |
countess |
Peer |
peeress |
Dauphin |
dauphiness |
Poet |
poetess |
. Deacon |
deaconess |
Priest |
priestess |
Giant |
giantess |
Prince |
princess |
Heir |
heiress |
Prior |
prioress |
Host |
hostess |
Prophet |
prophetess |
Jew |
Jewess |
Shepherd |
shepherdess |
Lion |
lioness |
Viscount |
viscountess |
Abbot |
abbess |
Marquis |
marchioness |
Actor |
actress |
Master |
mistress |
Adulterer |
adulteress |
Protector |
protectress |
Benefactor |
benefactress |
Seamster |
seamstress |
Duke |
duchess |
Songster |
songstress |
Emperor |
empress |
Sorcerer |
sorceress |
Hunter |
huntress |
Tiger |
tigress |
Lad |
lass |
Traitor |
traitress |
Administrator |
administratrix |
Heritor |
heretrix |
Executor |
executrix |
Testator |
testatrix |
Czar |
czarina |
Landgrave |
landgravine |
Hero , |
her-o-me |
Margrave |
margravine |
Infant |
infanta |
Sultan |
sultana |
Widower widow
3. By prefixing another word ; as,
Cock-sparrow hen-sparrow Male-child female-child He-goat she-goat Man-servant maid-servant
EXERCISES ON GENDER.
Tell the Gender of
Child, egg, father, garden, girl, horse, house- maid, inkbottle, kinsfolk, lamb, mankind, navy, Peter, Eussia, ship, sovereign, star.
Name and spell the words opposite in Gender to
Abbot, bride, duke, earl, empress, goose, hero, lady, landgrave, madam, milkmaid, moorcock, peahen, ram, roe, steer; widow.
14 ETYMOLOGY.
Of CASE. ,
Nouns have three cases; the Nominative, Possessive, and Objective.
The Nominative and Objective are always alike.
The possessive is formed by adding an apos- trophe and s to the Nominative ; as, JoVs.
When the plural ends in s, the possessive is formed by adding only an apostrophe : thus,
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.
Nom. Man Men Lady Ladies
Poss. Man's Men's Lady's Ladies'
Obj. Man Men | Lady Ladies
EXERCISES ON CASE.
Tell the Cases (and also the number and gender} of the following Nouns : —
* Father, brothers, mother's, boys, book, loaf, wife, sisters' bride's, the horse's hoof, John's boots, eagles' wings, a girls' school. Tell the possessive of
Charles, child, children, duchess, father, fathers, footman, leaf, leaves, life, mistress, negro, negroes, owner, owners, postchaise, prince, princess, princesses.
OBSERVATIONS.
Case denotes the relation which a noun bears to any other word with which it is connected.
The Nominative merely denotes the name of a thing.
The Possessive denotes possession ; as, Ann's book. Possession is
often expressed by of as well as by 's. K. 57 to 63, also 194 and 195.
The Objective denotes the object upon which an active verb or a pre- position terminates.
* One method of using the above exercises is as follows :
Father, a noun, singular (number), masculine (gender), the nominative (case), plural, fathers. Brothers, a noun, plural, masculine, the nomina- tive. Mother's, a noun, singular, feminine, the possessive. Spell it. K. 44.
By parsing in this manner, the pupil gives a correct answer to the questions. What part of speech is father t What number f Wh&t gender 7 What case 1 without obliging the teacher to lose time to no purpose in asking them. The pupil, however, should be made to understand that he is giving answers to questions which are always supposed to be asked.
As the Nominative and Objective are alike, no inaccuracy can result from the pupil's being allowed to call it always the nominative, till he come to the verb. Case may be altogether omitted till that time, tho cases of pronouns excepted. — See Notes, page 37.
ADJECTIVES. 15
Of ADJECTIVES.
An Adjective is a word which expresses the quality of a noun ; as, A good boy.
Adjectives have three degrees of comparison ; the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative.
The comparative is formed by adding r or er to the positive ; as, Wise, wiser ; sweet, sweeter ; and the superlative, by adding st or est ; as, Wise, wisest; sweet, sweetest.* — K. 67.
When the positive ends in a single consonant, preceded by a < single vowel, the consonant is doubled before er and est; as? Sad, sadder, saddest.
When the positive ends in y preceded by a consonant, the y is changed into i before er and est; as, Happy, happier, happiest.
OBSERVATIONS.
* The Positive expresses the simple quality; the Comparative a higher or lower degree of the quality ; and the Superlative the highest or lowest degree.— K. 68, 72.
Adjectives of one syllable are generally compared by adding er and est ; and those of more than one by prefixing more and most ; as, More numerous, most numerous ; or by less and least ; as, Less merry, least merry.
Some adjectives are compared by adding most to the comparative; as, Upper, uppermost ; lower, lowermost ; nether, nethermost.
Nouns are often used as adjectives ; as, a gold ring, a silver cup.
Adjectives often become nouns ; as, Much good.
Some adjectives do not properly admit of comparison ; such as, True, perfect, universal chief, extreme.
Much is applied to things weighed or measured ; Many to those that are numbered. — Elder and eldest to persons; older and oldest to things.
16 ETYMOLOGY.
The following Adjectives are compared irregularly : —
Positive. |
Comparative. |
Superlative. |
Bad, evil, or ill |
worse |
worst |
Far |
farther |
farthest |
Fore |
former |
foremost or first |
Good |
better |
best |
In |
inner |
inmost or innermost |
Late |
late or latter |
latest or last |
Little |
less |
least |
Many or much |
more |
most |
Near |
nearer |
nearest or next |
Nigh |
nigher |
nighest or next |
Old |
older or elder |
oldest or eldest |
Out ' |
outer or utter |
uttermost or utmost |
Up |
upper |
upmost or uppermost |
EXERCISES ON ADJECTIVES.
Point out the Nouns and Adjectives in the following phrases : —
A good scholar, a bright sky, deeds unjust and cruel, a sharp knife, an old hat and a new coat, wintry weather, dreary winter.
Prefix appropriate Adjectives to the following Nouns: — Boy, castle, desk, fig, ghost, grapes, highway, island, lily, memory, navy, passenger, rose, thunder, voice.
Compare the following Adjectives, and give the spelling : —
.Able, beautiful, crafty, gay, glad, hardy, little, manly, many, precious, red, severe, testy, worthy, zealous.
Point out the Adjectives which cannot be compared: —
Eternal, external, extreme, holy, human, ill, large, matchless, perpendicular, right, square, supreme, unchangeable, wooden, yearly.
PRONOUNS.
17
'Of PRONOUNS.
A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; *$, John is a good boy ; he obeys the master.
There are three kinds of pronouns ; Personal, Relative^ and Adjective.
Of PERSONAL PRONOUNS. The Personal Pronouns are /, thou, he, she, it. They have number, gender, and case, and are thus declined :—
Person. |
Ge,nder. Case. |
^Singular. |
Plural. |
|
Nom. |
I |
We |
||
First, |
Mas. or Fern. |
Poss. |
Mine |
Ours |
Obj. |
Me |
Us |
||
Nom. |
Thou |
Ye or ] |
||
Second, |
Mas. or Fern. |
Poss. |
Thine |
Yours |
Obj. |
Thee |
You |
||
Nom. |
He |
They |
||
Third, |
Mas. |
Poss. |
His |
Theirs |
Obj. |
Him |
Them |
||
Nom. |
She |
They |
||
Third, |
Fern. ^ |
Poss. |
Hers |
Theirs |
Obj. |
Her |
Them |
||
Nom. |
It |
They |
||
Third, |
Neut. |
Poss. |
Its |
Theirs |
Obj. |
It |
Them |
Exercises on Personal Pronouns. I, thou, we, me, us, thine, he him, she, hers, they, thee, them, its, theirs, you, her, ours, yours, mine, his, I, me, them, us, it, we.
OBSEKVATIONS.
Hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, should never be written, her's, it's, our's, your' s, their' s ; but hers, its, ours, &c.
The compound personal pronouns, Myself, thyself, himself, &c. are commonly joined either to the simple pronoun or to any ordinary noun to make it more remarkable. See K. 80, 96.
These pronouns are generally in the same case with the noun or pro- noun to which they are joined; as, " She herself said so;" " They them- selves acknowledged it to me myself." " The master himself got it."
Self, when used alone, is a noun; as, " Our fondness for self is hurtful to others." K. 96.
In some respectable grammars the possessive case of the different personal pronouns stands thus : 1st, my or mine, our or ours — 2d, thy or thine, your or yours — 3d, her or hers, their or theirs. I see no impropriety in this method; the one I have preferred, however, is perhaps less liable to objection.
18 ETYMOLOGY.
Of RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
A Relative Pronoun is a word that relates to a noun or pronoun before it, called the an- tecedent ; as, The master who taught us, &c.
The simple relatives are who, which, and that.
Who and which are thus declined : —
Singular and Plural. Sin< ular and Plural. Nom. Who which
Poss. Whose whose
Olj. Whom which
Who is applied to persons ; as, The boy who.
Which is applied to inferior animals, and things without life ; as, The dog which barks ; the book which was lost.
That is often used instead of who or which, and is applied to persons, animals, or things ; as, The boy that reads ; the book that was lost.
What is a compound relative, including both the relative and the antecedent; as, This is what I wanted ; that is, the thing which I wanted.
OBSERVATIONS.
In asking questions, Who, which, and what, are called interrogatives ; as, Who said that? What did he do? K. p. 84. Note.
The Relative, is always of the same gender, number, and person, as its antecedent, but not always in the same case. K.p. 43. &.|
The Relative sometimes refers to a whole clause as its antecedent; as, The Bill was rejected by the Lords, which excited no small degree of jealousy and discontent ; that is, which thing, or circumstance, ex- cited, &c.
Who is applied to inferior animals, when they are represented as speaking and acting like rational beings. K. p. 43.* I.
What and which are sometimes used as adjectives ; as, " I know not by what fatality the adversaries of the motion are impelled;" which things are an allegory. Which here is equal to these. Page 69, b.
Whoever, whosoever, and whoso, are compound relatives equal to He who; or, The person that. K. 88, 89.
PRONOUNS. 19
Of ADJECTIVE PEONOUNS.
There are four sorts of Adjective Pronouns.
1. The Possessive Pronouns, My, thy, his, herj our, your, their, its, own.
2. The Distributive, Each, every, either, neither.
3. The Demonstrative, This, that, with their plurals, these, those.
4. The Indefinite, None, any, all, such, whole, some, loth, one, other, another ; the last three are declined like nouns.
OBSEEVATIONS.
Mine and thine are sometimes used before a vowel or a silent h ; as, "Blot out mine iniquities." "If thine eye offend thee." "Mine hour is not yet come."
His and her are possessive pronouns, when placed immediately before nouns ; but when they stand by themselves, his is accounted the posses- sive case of the personal pronoun he, and her the objective of she.
Yon, with former and latter, may be called demonstrative pronouns, as well as this and that. See Syntax, R. 28, b.
That is sometimes a Relative, sometimes a Demonstrative pronoun, and sometimes a Conjunction. K. 90.
That is a Relative when it can be turned into who or which, without destroying the sense ; as, " The days that (or which) are past are gone for ever."
That is a Demonstrative pronoun when it is placed immediately before a noun, expressed or understood; as, "That book is new." " That is not the one I want."
That is a Conjunction when it cannot be turned into who or which; but marks a consequence, an indication, or final end ; as, " He was so proud, that he was universally despised." " He answered, that he never was so happy as he is now." " Live well, that you may die well."
All the indefinite pronouns (except none), and even the demonstrative, distributive, and possessive, are adjectives belonging to nouns either ex- pressed or understood ; and in parsing I think they ought to be called adjectives. None is used in both numbers ; but it cannot be joined to a noun.
The phrase none other should be no other. Another has no plural.
20 ETYMOLOGY.
EXERCISES ON PRONOUNS.
Point out the Pronouns, and tell for what Nouns they are used : —
You are hungry, and I am thirsty. Mary lost her cap, but the maid found it and brought it to her. The soldiers told their officers that they had done as they had ordered them.
What kind of a Pronoun is
Mine, that, what, whosoever, her, every, both, these, another, whose, either, any, all, them- selves, myself? *
Tell the per son, number, gender, and case of
She, its, ours, them, us, hers, they, thine, thou, me, ye, you, thee, yours, theirs, it, him, her.
Point out the Relatives and their antecedents : — The rain which fell last night. A man whose name is Smith. The book that you sent me was lost by the boy who carried it. The person with the white hat, whom you met yesterday, was the master of the ship that went down in the bay.
Put the Relative who, or which, instead of that : —
The dog that you bought is dead. The maid that he hired is from Wales. The horse .that I bought at the fair was much admired by all that saw it there.
Is that a Eelative or a Demonstrative in the following sentences : —
I abhor the tongue that flatters. Give me that rose. Tell that boy not to touch the flower that grows on the wall.
* The personal pronouns, Himself, herself, themselves, &c., are used in the nominative case as well as in the objective; as, Himself shall come.
Mr. Blair, in his Grammar, says, they have only one case, viz., the nom- inative; but this is a mistake, for they have the objective, too. K. 80.
VERBS. 21
Of VERBS.
A Verb is a word which expresses being, doing, or suffering • as, I am, I love, I am loved.
Verbs are of three kinds. Active, Passive, and Neuter.
A verb Active expresses action passing from an actor to an object; as, James strikes the table.
A verb Passive expresses the suffering of an action, or the enduring of what another does; as, The table is struck.
A verb Neuter expresses being, or a state of being, or action confined to the actor • as, I am, he sleeps, you
Verbs are inflected, to express Number, Per- son, Mood, and Tense or Time.
Verbs have two Numbers, the Singular and the Plural ; as, He is, they are.
Verbs have three Persons ; as, / love, thou lovest, he loves.
OBSERVATIONS.
Active verbs are called transitive verbs, because the action passed from the actor to the object. K. p. 58. NOTE.
Neuter verbs are called intransitive, because their action is confined to the actor, and does not pass over to an object. Children should not be troubled too soon with the distinction between Active and Neuter verbs.
Neuter, when applied to verbs, intimates that they are neither active nor passive.
22 ETYMOLOGY.
Of the MOODS of VERBS. Verbs have five moods ; the Indicative, the Potential, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive.
The Indicative mood simply declares a thing ; as, He loves ; he is loved / or it asks a question ; as, Lovest thou me ?
The Potential mood implies possibility, lib- erty, power, will, or obligation ; as, The wind may blow ; we may walk or ride ; I can swim ; he would not stay ; you should obey your parents.
The Subjunctive mood represents a thing under a condition or supposition, and is pre- ceded by a conjunction, expressed or under- stood, and followed by another verb ; as, If you wish prosperity, deserve it.
The Imperative mood commands, exhorts, or entreats ; as, Do this ; deal honestly ; deliver my soul.
The Infinitive mood expresses the meaning of the verb in a general manner, without distinc- tion of number or person, and commonly has the word to before it ; as, To love.
Of TENSES, or TIME.
Verbs have six tenses, the Present, the Past, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the Future, and the Future Perfect.
Explanations of the moods and tenses of verbs are inserted here for the sake of order ; but it would be highly improper to detain the learner so long as to commit them to memory ; he ought, therefore, after get- ting the definition of a verb, to proceed to the inflection of it without delay ; and when he comes to the exercises on the verbs, he can look back to the definition of a verb active, &c., as occasion may require.
VERBS. 23
The Present tense expresses what is going on just now ; as, I love you ; I strike the table.
The Past tense represents the action or event either as past or finished ; as, He broke the bottle, and the brandy was spilt.
The Perfect tense implies that the action or event has just now been finished ; as, John has cut his finger ; my horse has run off.
The Pluperfect tense represents a thing as past before another event happened ; as, All the judges had taken their places before Sir Roger came.
The Future represents the action as yet to come ; as, He will return next week, and you shall see him.
The Future Perfect intimates that the action will be fully accomplished at or before the time of another future action or event ; as, I shall have learned my lesson before ten o'clock.
The Participle is a verbal adjective, which partakes of the nature of both a Verb and an Adjective, and expresses the meaning of the Verb after the manner of an Adjective ; as, Loving all men while he lived, he died, loved by all men.
OBSERVATIONS.
The Participle in ing represents a thing going on, but not finished ; as, The boy is learning his lesson. It is not confined exclusively to the Active voice, but is often legitimately used by the bsst authors in a Pas- sive sense; asr Silks are selling fast; Houses are letting -well. Some, however, prefer using the past participle with the auxiliary being; as, Silks are being sold fast ; Houses are being let well. The first mode is perhaps the more simple and elegant, — the second is sometimes ren- dered necessary in order to prevent ambiguity or circumlocution.
The Participle in ed denotes that a thing is done and completed ; as I have mended my pen.
The Perfect Participle "having loved, is common both to Active and Pas-- sive verbs, and states the completion of what took place before something else ; as, Having shot the hare, he went to lift it. ,
24 ETYMOLOGY.
Remarks on some of the Tenses.
ON THE PRESENT.
1. The Present tense is used to express a habit or custom; as, lie snujfs; She goes to church. It is sometimes applied to persons long since dead, when the narration of their actions excites our passions; as, "Nero is abhorred for his cruelty." " Milton 18 admired for his sublimity."
2. In historical narration, it is beautifully used for the Past tense; as, "Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy with five thousand men." — It is sometimes .used with fine effect for the Perfect; as, " In the book of Genesis, Moses tells us who were the descendants of Abraham," — for has told us.
3. When preceded by such words as when, before, as soon as, after, it expresses the relative time of a, future action ; as, W^ien he comes, he will be welcome — As soon as the post arrives, the letters will be delivered.
4. In the continuate, progressive, or compound form, it ex- presses an action begun and going on just now, but not complete ; as, I am studying my lesson. He is writing a letter.
ON THE PAST.
The Past tense is used when the action or state is limited Jby the circumstance of time or place; as, "We saw him yes- terday." " We were in bed when he arrived." Here the words yesterday and when limit the action and state to a particular time. — After death all agents are spoken of in the Past tense, because time is limited or defined by the life of the person ; as, " Mary Queen of Scots was remarkable for her beauty."
This tense is peculiarly appropriated to the narrative style; because all narration implies some circumstance; as, " Socrates refused to adore false gods." Here the period of Socrates's life, being a limited part of past time, circumscribes the narra- tion.— It is improper then to say of one already dead, " He has been much admired: he has done much good:" but, "He was much admired ; he did much good."
Although the Past tense is used when the action is circum- stantially expressed by a word or sentiment that limits the time of the action to some definite portion of past time, yet such words as often, sometimes, many a time, frequently, and similar vague intimations of time, except in narrations, require the perfect, because they admit a certain latitude, and do not limif
VERBS. 25
the action to any definite portion of past time ; thus, " How often have we seen the proud despised."
ON THE PERFECT.
The Perfect tense chiefly denotes the accomplishment of mere facts without any necessary relation to time or place, or any other circumstance of their existence; as, Philosophers leave endeavoured to investigate the origin of evil. In general, however, it denotes,
1. An action newly finished; as, I have heard great news. The post has arrived, but he has brought no letters for you.
2. An action done in a definite space of time (such as a day, a week, a year), a part of which has yet to elaspse ; as, I have spent this day well.
3. An action perfected some time ago, but whose consequences extend to the present time ; as, We have neglected our duty, and are therefore unhappy. „
Duration or existence requires the perfect ; as, He has been dead four days. We say, Cicero has written orations, because the orations are still in existence; but we cannot say, Cicero has vjritten poems, because the poems do not exist ; they are lost; therefore, we must say, " Cicero wrote poems."
The following are a few instances in which the Perfect is im- properly used for the Past. u I have somewhere met with the epitaph of a charitable man, which has very much pleased me." Spect. No. 177. The latter part of this sentence is rather war- rative than assertive; and therefore it should be — which very much pleased me, that is, when I read it. — u When that the poor hath cried, Caesar hath wept." Shaksp. The style is here narrative; Csesar was dead. It should therefore be, " When the poor cried, Csesar wept." — " Though in old age, the circle of our pleasure is more contracted than it lias formerly been ; yet, &c." Blair, Serm. 12. It should be, " than it formerly was ;" because in old age, the former stages of life, contrasted with the present, convey an idea, not of completion, but of li- mitation, and thus become a subject of narration, rather than of assertion. " I have known him, Eugenius, when he has been going to a play, or an opera, divert the money which was designed for that purpose, upon an object of charity whom he has met with in the street." Spect. No. 177. It should be " When he was going," and " whom he met with in the street ;" because the actions are circumstantially related by the phrases, when going to a play and in the street.
13
ETYMOLOGY.
ON THE FUTURE PERFECT.
Upon more careful reflection, it appears to me, that the Se- cond Future should have will or shall in all the persons, as in the first. Mr. Murray has excluded will from the first per- son, and shall from the second and third, because they appear to him to be incorrectly applied; and in the examples which he has adduced, they are incorrectly applied; but this is not a sufficient reason for excluding them altogether from every sen- tence. The fault is in the writer ; he has applied them wrong, a thing that is often done with will and shall in the first future, as well as in the second.
If I am at liberty to use will in the first future, to intimate my resolution to perform a future action, as, "I will go to church, for I am resolved to go," why should I not employ will in the second future, to intimate my resolution or determination to have an action finished before a specified future time? Thus, " I will have written my letters before supper :" that is, I am determined to have my letters finished before supper. Were the truth of this affirmation, respecting the time of finishing the letters, called in question, the propriety of using will in the first person would be unquestionable. Thus, You will not have finished your letters before supper, I am sure. Yes, I will. Will what ? " Will have finished my letters."
Shall, in like manner, may with propriety be applied to the second and third persons. In the third person, for instance, if I say, " He will have paid me his bill before June," I merely foretell what he will have done ; but that is not what I in- tended to say. I meant to convey the idea, that since I have found him so dilatory, I will compel him to pay it before June ; and as this was my meaning, I should have employed shall, as in the first future, and said, "He shall have paid me his bill before June."
It is true that we seldom use this future ; we rather express the idea as nearly as we can, by the first future, and say, " He shall pay his bill before June ;" but when we do use the second future, it is evident, I tsust, from the examples just given, that shall and will should -be applied in it, exactly as they are in the first.— See I Cor. xv. 24.— Luke xvii. 10.
ON THE AUXILIARY VERBS.
The auxiliary verbs, as they are called, such as, Do, shall will, may, can, and must, are in reality separate verbs, and were originally used as such, having after them, either the Past Participle, or the Infinitive Mood, with the to suppressed, for
VERBS. 27
the sake of sound, as it is after bid, dare, &e. (see Syntax, Rule VI.) Thus, I have loved. We may to love. We will to speak. I do to write. I may to have loved. We might to have got a prize. I would to have given him the book. All must to die. I shall to stop. I can to go.
These verbs are always joined in this manner either to the Infinitive or participle ; and although this would be a simpler way of parsing the verb than the common, yet, in compliment perhaps to the Greek and Latin, grammarians in general con- sider the auxiliary and the following verb in the infinitive or participle as one verb, and parse and construe it accordingly. .
Several of the auxiliaries in the Potential mood refer to pre- sent, past, and. future time. This needs not excite surprise; for even the present Indicative can be made to express future time, as well as the future itself. Thus, " He leaves town to-morrow.11
Present time is expressed in the following sentence, " I \vish he could or would come just now."
Past time is expressed with the similar ,i- ixiliaries ; as, "It w as my desire that he should, or would come yesterday." " Though he was ill he might recover."
Future. — I am anxious that he should, < r would come to- morrow. If he come I may speak to him. If he would delay his journey a few days, I might, could, wouli/, or should accom- pany him.
Although such examples as these are commonly adduced as proofs that these auxiliaries refer to present, past, and future time, yet I think it is pretty evident that mi<jkt, could, would, and should, with may and can, merely express liberty, ability, will, and duty, without any reference to time at all, and that the pre- cise time is generally determined by the drift or scope of the sen- tence, or rather by the adverb or participlb that is subjoined or understood, and not by these auxiliaries.
Must and ought, for instance, merely imply necessity and obligation, without any necessary relation to time ; for when I say, " I must do it," must merely denotes the necessity 1 am under, and do the present time, which might easily be made future, by saying, " I must do it next week :" Here future time is expressed by next week, and not by must. If I say, " I must have done it:" Here must merely expresses necessity as be- fore, and I have done the past time. " These ought ye to do." Here ought merely denotes obligation, and do the present time.
28 ETYMOLOGY.
*' These ought ye to have done :" Here ought merely expresses duty or obligation, as before ; but the 'time of its existence is de- noted as past, by to have done, and not by ought, as Mr. Murray and many others say.
As must will not admit of the objective after it, nor is even preceded or succeeded by the sign of the infinitive, it has been considered as an absolute auxiliary, like may or can, belonging to the Potential Mood.
Ought, on the contrary, is an independent verb, though de- fective, and always governs another verb in the infinitive.
Of WILL and SHALL.
W til, in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolution and promising ; as, I will not let you that house unless you give me a higher rent. We will go. I will give you a handsome watch.
Will, in the second and third persons, commonly foretells; as, He will reward the righteous. You, or they, will be very happy there.
Shall, in ihe first person, only foretells ; as, I, or we, shall go to-mor- row. In the second and third persons, Shall, promises, commands, or threatens; as, They, or you, shall he rewarded. Thou shalt not be dishonest. He that steals shall be disgraced.
But this must he understood of affirmative sentences only; for when the sentence is interrogative, just the reverse commonly takes place ; as, Shall I send you a little of the pie? i. e. will you permit me to send it ? Will James return to-morrow ? i. e. do you expect him ?
When the second and third persons are represented as the subjects of their own expressions, or their own thoughts, SHALL foretells, as in the first person ; as, " He says he shall he a loser hy this bargain." " Do you suppose you shall gol" and WILL promises, as in the first person; as, " He says he will bring Pope's Homer to-morrow." You say you will certainly come.
Of Shall it may he remarked, that it never expresses the will or resolu- tion of its Nominative : Thus, 7 shall fall ; Thou shalt love thy neighbour ; He shall be rewarded, express no resolution on the part of /, thou, he.
Did Will, on the contrary, always intimate the resolution of its Nom. the difficulty of applying will and shall would be at an end ; but this can- not be said; for though will in the first person always expresses the re- solution of its Nom., yet in the second and third person it does not al- ways foretell, but often intimates the resolution of its Nom. as strongly as it does in ihe first person; thus, Ye will not do your duty, that you may prosper. He will not shoot his dog though he sees he is mad. Deut. xxv. 7. see also verse 9. Accordingly would, the past time of will, is used in the same manner ; as, He would not listen to his father's advice.
Should and would are subject to the same rules as shall and will; they are generally attended with a supposition ; as, Were I to run, I should soon be fatigued, &c.
Should is often used instead of ought to express duty or obligation ; as, We should remember the poor. We ought to obey the laws.
YE11BS. 29
The verbs Be, do, have, sliall^ will, may, can, are called Auxiliary or helping verbs, because they are usually combined with other verbs in order to indicate number, person, mood, or tense.
The auxiliary verbs are thus inflected : — TO BE.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. lam 1. We are
2. Thou art or you are 2. Ye or you are
3. He, she, or it is 3. They are
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I was 1. We were
2. Thou wast or you were 2. Ye or you were
3. He, she, or it was 3. They were
Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I have been 1. We have been
2. Thou hast been 2. You have been
3. He has been 3. They have been
Pluperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I had been 1. We had been
2. Thou hadst been 2. You had been
3. He had been 3. They had been
Future Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall or will be 1. We shall or will be
2. Thou shalt or wilt be 2. You shall or will be
3. He shall or will be 3. They shall or will be
B2
30 ETYMOLOGY.
Future Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1 . I shall or will have been 1 . We shall or will have been
2. Thou shalt or wilt have 2. Ye or you shall or will
been have been
3. He, she, or it * shall or 3. They shall or will have
will have been been
Potential Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may* or can be 1. We may or can be
2. Thou mayst or canst be 2. Ye or you may or can be
3. He, she, or it may or can be 3. They may or can be
Past.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, &c. be 1. We might be
2. Thou mightst be 2. Ye or you might be
3. He, she, or it might be 3. They might be
Perfect.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may* or can have been 1. We may or can have been
2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have
been been
3. He, she, or it may or can 3. They may or can have
have been been
Pluperfect.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might have been 1 . We might have been
2. Thou mightst have been 2. Ye or you might have been
3. He, she, orit might have been 3. They might have been
* See Note, p. 35.
VERBS. 31
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. if I be* 1. If we be
2. If thou or you be 2. If ye or you be
3. If he, she, or it be 3. If they be
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I were 1. If we were
2. If thou wert or you were 2. If ye or you were
3. If he, she, or it were 3. If they were
Imperative Mood.
Singular. , Plural.
Be, or be thou Be, or be ye or you
Infinitive Mood.
To be.
PARTICIPLES.
Present, Being Past, Been
TO DO.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I do 1. We do
2. Thou doest or dost, or you do 2. Ye or you do
3. He, she, or it does, doeth, or doth 3. They do
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I did 1. We did
2. Thou didst or you did 2. Ye or you did
3. He, she, or it did 3. They did
Imperative Mood.^>f
Singular. Plura]& V
Do, or do thou Do, or do ye or you
Though, unless, excevt. whether, &c., may be here used as well as if.
32 ETYMOLOGY.
Infinitive Mood.
To do.
PARTICIPLES.
Present, Doing Past, Done
TO HAVE.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I have 1. We have
2. Thou hast or you have 2. Ye or you have
3. He, she, or it has or hath 3. They have
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I had 1. We had
2. Thou hadst or you had 2. Ye or you had
3. He, she, or it had 3. They had
Infinitive Mood.
To have.
PARTICIPLES.
Present, Having Past, had
SHALL. Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall 1. We shall
2. Thou shalt or you shall 2. Ye or you shall
3. He, she, or it shall 3. They shall
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I should ' 1. We should
2. Thou shouldst or you should 2. Ye or you should
3. He, she, or it should 3. They should
VERBS 33
WILL.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I will 1. We will
2. Thou wilt or you will 2. Ye or you will
3. He, she, or it will 3. They will
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I would 1. We would
2. Thou wouldst or you would 2. Ye or you would
3. He, she, or it would 3. They would
MAY. Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may 1. We may
2. Thou mayst or you may 2. Ye or you may
3. He, she, or it may 3. They may
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might 1. We might
2. Thou mightst or you might 2. Ye or you might
3. He, she, or it might 3. They might
CAN.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I can 1. We can
2. Thou canst or you can 2. Ye or you can
3. He, she, or it can 3. They can
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I could 1. We could
2. Thou couldst or you could 2. Ye or you could
3. He, she, or it could 3. They could
Be, do, have, and will, are uot always auxiliary but often principal verbs.
Must, which is held by many to be an auxiliary verb, is not inflected. Be is often used in the Scriptures for the Present Indicative ; as, We be true men.
34 ETYMOLOGY.
CONJUGATION OF THE ACTIVE VERB TO LOVE.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1 . person I love 1 . We love
2. Thou lovest 2. You* love
3. He loves or loveth 3. They love
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I loved 1. We loved
2. Thou lovedst 2. You loved
3. He loved 3. They loved
Perfect Tense.
Its signs are have, Tiast, has, or hath. Singular. Plural.
1. I have loved 1. We have loved
2. Thou hast loved 2. You have loved
3. He has or hath loved 3. They have loved
Pluperfect Tense.
Signs, had, hadst. Singular. Plural.
1. I had loved 1. We had loved
2. Thou hadst loved 2. You had loved
3. He had loved 3. They had loved
Future Tense.
Signs, shall or will. Singular. Plural.
1. I shall or will love 1. We shall or will love
2. Thou shalt or wilt love 2. You shall or will love
3. He shall or will love 3. They shall or will love
* You has always a plural verb, even when applied to a single individual.
VERBS. 35
Future Perfect.
[See page 26.] Singular. Plural.
1. I shall or will have loved 1. We shall or will have loved
2. Thou shalt or wilt have 2. You shall or will have
loved loved
3. He shall or will have 3. They shall or will have
loved loved
Potential Mood.
Present.
Signs, may, can, or must. Singular. Plural.
1 I may or can* love 1. We may or can love
2. Thou mayst or canst love 2. You may or can love
3. He may or can love 3. They may or can love
Past.
Signs, might, could, would, or should. Singular. Plural.
1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or
should love should love
2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. You might, could, would,
wouldst, or shouldst love or should love
3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, wouldt
or should love or should love
Perfect.
Signs, may, can, or must have. Singular. Plural.
1. I may or can* have loved 1. We may or can have loved
2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. You may or can have
loved loved
3. He may or can have 3. They may or can have
loved loved
* Must, although it belongs as properly to the present and perfect potential as may or can, has heen omitted for want of room; but in going over these tenses with the auxiliaries, one by one, it is easy to take it in thus : I must love thou must love, &c. See 2d note, p. 40.
36 ETYMOLOGY.
Pluperfect.
Signs, might, could, would, or should have. Singular. Plural.
1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, -would, or
should have loved should have loved
2. Thou mightst, &c., have 2. You might have loved
loved
3. He might have loved 3. They might have loved
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I love 1. If we love
2. Ifthoulove 2. If you love
3. If he love 3. If they love*
Imperative Mood.
Singular. Plural.
2. Love, or love thou, or 2. Love, or love ye or you, do thou lovef or do ye love
Infinitive Mood.
Present, To love Perfect, To have loved
PARTICIPLES. Present, Loving Past, Loved Perfect, Having lovedj
* The remaining tenses in the Subjunctive mood are, in every respect, similar to the corresponding tenses of the Indicative and Potential, with the addition to the verb of a conjunction expressed or implied, de- noting a condition or supposition.
t The Imperative Mood is not entitled to three persons. In strict pro- priety it has only the second person in both numbers. For when I say, Let me love, I mean, Permit thou me to love. Hence, let me love is con- strued thus : let thou me (to) love, or do thou let me (to) love. To, the sign of the infinitive, is not used after let. See Syntax, R. VI. No one will pay that permit (me to love) is the first person singular, imperative mood : then, why should let, (me to love), which is exactly similar, be called the first person ? The Latin verb wants the first person, and if it has the third, it has also a different termination for it, which is not *he case in the English verb. K. 118. J See Key, No. 208-211.
VERBS. 37
Exercises on the Verb Active.
* We love him ; James loves me ; it amuses him ; we shall conduct them ; they will divide the spoil ; soldiers should defend their country ; friends invite friends ; she can read her lesson ; she may play a tune ; you might please her ; thou mayst ask him ; he may have betrayed us ; we might have diverted the children ; John can deliver the message.
I love ; to love ; love ; reprove thou ; has loved ; we tied the knot ; if we love ; if thou love ; they could have commanded armies ; to love ; to baptize ; to have loved ; loved ; loving ; to survey ; having surveyed ; write a letter ; read your lesson ; thou hast obeyed my voice ; honour thy father.
The TAacher, if he chooses, may now acquaint the learner with the difference between the Nominative and the Objective.
The Nominative acts ; the Objective is acted upon ; as, He eats apptes. The Nominative commonly comes before the verb, the Objective after it.
Concerning pronouns, it may be observed, that the first speaks; the second is spoken to ; and the third (or any noun) is spoken of.
* We may parse the first sentence, for example. We love him; We. the first personal pronoun, plural, masculine, or fern, the Nominative; love, a verb active, the first person, plural, present, Indicative; him, the third personal pronoun, singular, masculine, the Objective.
QUESTIONS which should be put to the pupils.
How do you know that love is plural? Ans. Because we its nom. in plural. How do you know that love is the first person ? Ans. Because we is the first personal pronoun, and the verb is always of the same number and person with the noun or pronoun before it. K. 102, li>4.
Many of the phrases in this page may be converted into exercises of a different kind : thus, the meaning of the sentence, We love him, may be expressed by the passive voice ; as, He is loved by us.
It may also be turned into a question, or made a negative ; as, Do we love him? &c. We do not love him.
These are a few of the ways of using the exercises on a single page , but there is no limit to the variety of methods that every ingenious and diligent Teacher may invent and adopt to engage the attention aud improve the understanding of his pupils.
C
38 ETYMOLOGY.
CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VERB
TO BE LOVED.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. Am loved 1. Are loved
2. Art loved 2. Are loved
3. Is loved 3. Are loved
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. Was loved 1. Were loved
2. Wast loved 2, Were loved
3. Was loved 3. Were loved
Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. Have been loved 1. Have been loved
2. Hast been loved 2. Have been loved
3. Has been loved 3. Have been loved
Pluperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. Had been loved 1. Had been loved
2. Hadst been loved 2. Had been loved
3. Had been loved 3. Had been loved
Future Tense.
Singular. |
Plural. |
||
1. |
Shall or will be loved |
1. |
Shall or will be loved |
2. |
Shalt or wilt be loved |
2. |
Shall or will be loved |
3. |
Shall or will be loved |
3. |
Shall or will be loved |
$«??• A Passive Verb is formed by putting the Past Participle of any Active verb after the verb to be through all its Moods and Tenses. K. 126, 127.
VERBS. 39
Future Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1 . Shall or will have been loved 1. Shall or will have been loved
2. Shalt or wilt have been loved 2. Shall or will have been loved
3. Shall or will have been loved 3. Shall or will have been loved
Potential Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. May or can be loved 1. May or can be loved
2U Mayst or canst be loved 2. May or can be loved
3. May or can be loved 3. May or can be loved
Past.
Singular. Plural.
1. Might, &c. be loved 1. Might be loved
2. Mightst be loved 2. Might be loved
3. Might be loved 3. Might be loved
Perfect.
Singular. Plural.
1. May, &c. have been loved 1. May have been loved
2. Mayst have been loved 2. May have been loved
3. May have been loved 3. May have been loved
Pluperfect.
Singular. Plural.
1. Might, &c. have been loved 1. Might have been loved
2. Mightst have been loved 2. Might have been loved
3. Might have been loved 3. Might have been loved
40 ETYMOLOGY.
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1 . If* I be loved 1. If we be loved
2. If thou be loved 2. If you be loved
3. If he be loved 3. If they be loved
Past.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I were loved 1. If we were loved
2. If thou wert loved 2. If you were loved
3. If he were loved 3. If they were loved
Imperative Mood.
Singular. Plural.
2. Be thou loved 2. Be ye or you loved
Infinitive Mood.
Present, To be loved Perfect, To have been loved
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. Being loved Past. Been loved Perf. Having been loved
* The Pupil may at times be requested to throw out if and put unless, though, whether, or lest, in its place.
4§f After the pupil is expert in going over the tenses of the verb as they are, he may be taught to omit all the auxiliaries but one, and go over the verb thus : Present Potential, I may love; thou mayst love; he may love, &c. ; and then with the next auxiliary, thus : I can love ; thou canst love ; he can love, &c. ; and then with must, thus : I must love ; thou must love ; he must love, &c. \, and then with the auxiliaries of the Past Potential, thus: 1 might love; thou mightst love, &c. — Sec also Key, No. 112, p. 55, and Nos. 113, 114, p. 56.
VERBS.
Exercises on the Verb Passive.
They are loved ; we were loved ; thou art loved ; it is loved ; she was loved ; he has been loved ; you have been loved ; I have been loved ; thou hadst been loved ; we shall be loved ; thou wilt be loved ; they will be loved ; I shall have been loved ; you will have been loved.
He can be loved ; thou mayst be loved ; she must be loved ; they might be loved ; ye would be loved ; they should be loved ; I could be loved ; thou canst have been loved ; it may have been loved ; you might have been loved ; if I be loved ;* thou wert loved ; we be loved ; they be loved. — Be thou loved ; be ye loved ; you be loved. — To be loved ; loved ; having been loved ; to have been loved ; being loved.
Promiscuous Exercises on Verbs and Cases of Nouns and Pronouns.
Tie John's shoes ; this is Jane's bonnet ; ask mamma ; he has learned his lesson ; she invited him ; your father may commend you ; he was baptized ; the minister baptized him ; we should have delivered our message ; papa will reprove us ; divide the apples ; the cap- tain had commanded his soldiers to pursue the enemy ; Eliza diverted her brother ; a hunter killed a hare ; were* I loved ; were we good, we should be happy, f
* A conjunction is frequently to be understood here, •j See Exercises of a different sort, page 54.
42 ETYMOLOGY.
An Active or a Neuter Verb may be conjugated through all its moods and tenses, by adding its Present Participle to the verb To be. This is called the Progressive form ; * because it expresses the continuation of action or state : Thus,
Present. I am loving Thou art loving He is loving, &c.
Past.
I was loving Thou wast loving He was loving, &c.
The Present and Past Indicative may also be conjugated by the assistance of Do. This is called the Emphatic/orm : Thus,
Present. I do love Thou dost love He does love, &c.
Past.
I did love Thou didst love He did love, &c.
RULE I.
Verbs ending in ss, sh, ch, x, or o, form the third person sin- gular of the Present Indicative, by adding ES: Thus,
He dress-es, march-es, brush-es, fix-es, go-es.
RULE II.
Verbs in y, change y into i before the terminations est, es, eth, and ed ; but not before ing ; — Y, with a vowel before it, is not changed into i : Thus,
Pres. Try, triest, tries or trieth. Past, tried. Part, trying. Pres. Pray, pray est, prays or pray eth. Past, prayed. Part, praying.
RULE III.
Verbs accented on the last syllable, and verbs of one syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the jinal consonant before the terminations est, eth, ed, ing ; but never before s : Thus,
Allot, allottest, allots, allotteth, allotted, allotting. Blot, blottest, blots, blotteth, blotted, blotting.
* A Passive verb has NO Progressive Form ; such as, I am being loved — / was being loved — / have been being loved — / had been being loved — / shall be being loved — I shall have been being loved. — Potential — / can be being loved, &c. through the whole verb.
VERBS. 43
IRREGULAR VERBS.
A regular verb is one that forms its past tense »and past participle by adding d or ed to the present ; as; Love, loved, loved.
An irregular verb is one that does not form both its past tense and past participle by add- ing d or ed to the present ; as, Present. Past. Past Participle.
Abide abode abode
Am was been
Arise arose arisen
Awake awoke R* awaked Bear, to bring forth bore,f bare born
Bear, to carry bore, bare borne
Beat beat beaten or beat
Begin began begun
Behold . beheld beheld or beholden
Bend bent R bent R
Bereave bereft R bereft R (K- 136->
Beseech besought besought
Bid?>/e>r- bad, bade bidden
Bind, un- bound bound
Bite bit bitten, bit
Bleed bled bled
Blow blew blown
Break ' broke broken
Breed bred bred
Bring brought brought
Build, re- builtf built
* Those verbs which are conjugated regularly, as well as irregularly, are marked with an R. \ Bore is now more used than bare.
J Build, dwell, and several other verbs, have the regular form, b dwelled, &c. See K. No. 135.
ETYMOLOGY
Present. Past. |
Past Participle. |
Burst burst |
burst |
Buy bought |
bought |
Cast . cast |
. cast |
Catch caught R |
caught R |
Chide chid |
chidden, orchid |
Choose chose |
chosen |
Cleave, to adhere, clave R |
cleaved |
Cleave, to split clove, or cleft cloven, or cleft
Cling clung |
clung |
Clothe clothed |
clad R |
Come, be- came |
come |
Cost cost |
cost |
Creep crept |
crept |
Crow crew R |
crowed |
Cut cut |
cut |
Dare, to venture durst |
dared |
Dare, to challenge is R dared |
dared |
Deal dealt R |
dealt R |
Dig dug, or digged dug, or digged |
|
Do, un-* did |
done |
Draw, with- drew |
drawn |
Drink drank |
drunk |
Drive drove |
driven |
Dwell dwelt R |
dwelt R — 2?.43 b |
Eat atef |
eatenf |
Fall, Be- fell |
fallen |
Feed fed |
fed |
Feel felt |
felt |
Fight fought |
fought |
* The compound verbs are conjugated like the simple, by prefixing the syllables appended to them ; thus, Undo, undid, undone.
t I have excluded eat as the Past and Past Participle of this verb, foi though sometimes used by Milton and a few others, the use of it does not rest on good authority, and this verb is sufficiently irregular already.
VERBS.
Present. |
Past. |
Past Participle. |
Find |
found |
found |
Flee,yrow a foe |
fled |
fled |
Fling |
flung |
flung |
Fly, as a bird |
flew |
flown |
Forbear |
forbore |
forborne |
Forget |
forgot |
forgotten, forgot |
Forsake |
forsook |
forsaken |
Freeze |
froze |
frozen |
Get, be- for- |
got* |
got, gottenf |
Gild |
giltR |
giltR |
Gird, be- en- |
girt R |
girt R |
GivQjfor- mis- |
gave |
given |
Go ' |
went |
gone |
Grave, en- R |
graved |
graven |
Grind |
ground |
ground |
Grow |
grew |
grown |
Hang |
hung |
hungt |
Have |
had |
had |
Hear |
heard |
heard |
Help |
helped |
holpen R |
Hew, rouqh- |
hewed |
hewn R |
Hide |
hid |
hidden, or hid |
Hit |
hit |
hit |
Hold, be- with- |
held |
held |
Hurt |
hurt |
hurt |
Keep |
kept |
kept |
Kneel |
knelt R |
knelt |
Knit |
knit R |
knit, or knitted |
Know |
knew |
known |
* Gat and begat are often used in the Scriptures for got and begot. t Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound forgotten is still in good use. J Bang, to take away life by hanging, is regular ; as, The robber was hanged, but the gown was hung up.
C 2
4G
ETYMOLOGY.
Present. |
Past. |
Past Participle. |
Lade |
laded |
laden |
Lay, in- Lead, mis- |
laid led |
laid led |
Leave |
left |
left |
Lend |
lent |
lent |
Let |
let |
let |
Lie, to lie down |
lay |
lain, or lien |
Light |
lit R |
lit R |
Load |
loaded |
loaden R |
Lose |
lost |
lost |
Make |
made |
made |
Mean |
meant |
meant |
Meet |
met |
met |
Mow |
mowed |
mown R |
Pay, re- |
paid |
paid |
Pen, to shut up |
pent |
pent |
Put |
put |
put |
Quit |
quit, or |
quitted quit R |
Bead |
read |
read |
Rend |
rent |
rent |
Eid |
rid |
rid |
Eide |
rode |
ridden |
King |
rang, or |
rung* rung |
Eise, a- |
rose |
risen |
Eive |
rived |
riven |
Eun |
ran |
run |
Saw |
sawed |
sawn R |
Say |
said |
said |
See |
saw |
seen |
Seek |
sought |
sought |
* Where the Past might be either ang or ung, &c., I have given ang the preference, which it certainly ought to have.
VERBS.
47
Present. |
Past. |
Past Participle. |
Seethe |
seethed, or sod |
sodden |
Sell . |
sold |
sold |
Send |
sent |
sent |
Set, be- |
set |
set |
Shake |
shook |
shaken |
Shape, mis- |
shaped |
shapen R |
Shave |
shaved |
shaven R |
Shear |
shore R |
shorn |
Shed |
shed |
shed |
Shine |
shone R |
shone R |
Shoe |
shod |
shod |
Shoot |
shot |
shot |
Show* |
showed |
shown |
Shred |
shred |
shred |
Shrink |
shrank, or shrunk |
shrunk |
Shut |
shut |
shut |
Sing |
sang, or sung |
sung |
Sink |
sank, or sunk |
sunk |
Sit |
satf |
sitten, or sat$ |
Slay |
slew |
slain |
Sleep Slide |
slept slid |
slept slidden |
Sling |
slang, or slung |
slung |
Slink |
slank, or slunk |
slunk |
Slit |
slit, or slitted |
slit, or slitted |
Smite |
smote |
smitten |
Sow |
sowed |
sown R |
Speak, 'be- |
spoke, spake |
spoken |
* Or Shew, shewed, shewn— pronounced show, &c. See Note, next page.
t Many authors, both here and in America, use sate as the Past time of sit ; but this is improper ; for it is apt to be confounded with sate, to glut.
J Sitten is preferable, though obsolescent.
ETYMOLOGY.
Present.
Speed Spend, mils- Spill Spin Spit, be- Split
Spread, be- Spring
Past. sped spent spilt R
span, or spun spat, or spit split R spread
Past Participle.
sped
spent
spilt R
spun
spitten,or spit*
split R
spread
sprang, or sprung sprung
Stand,W^-&c.stood stood
Steal stole stolen
Stick stuck stuck
Sting stung stung
Stink stank, or stunk stunk
Stride, be- strode, or strid stridden
Strike struck
String strung
Strive strove
Strew, f be- strewed
Strow strowed
Swear swore, or sware
Sweat sweat
Sweep swept
Swell swelled
Swim swam, or swum
Swing swang, or swung swung
Take, be- &c. took taken
Teach, mis- re-taught taught
Tear tore or tare torn
Tell told told
struck,or stricken strung striven strewed, or strown, strowed sworn sweat swept swollen R swum
* Spitten is preferable, though obsolescent.
t Strew and shew are now giving way to straw and show, as they are pronounced.
VERBS.
49
Present. |
Past. |
Past Participle. |
Think, be- |
thought |
thought |
Thrive |
throve R |
thriven |
Throw |
threw |
thrown |
Thrust |
thrust |
thrust |
Tread |
trod |
trodden |
Wax |
waxed |
waxen R |
•Wear |
wore |
worn |
Weave |
wove |
woven |
Weep |
wept |
wept |
Win |
won |
won |
Wind |
wound R |
wound |
Work |
wrought R |
wrought, worked |
Wring |
wrung R |
wrung |
Write |
wrote |
written |
Defective verbs are those which want some of their moods and tenses.
Present. Can, May, Must, Ought, |
Past. Past Participle. |
Present. Past. Past Participle. Shall should |
J?:~iJ |
Will would |
|
Wis wist |
||
ought, |
Witorl |
|
nuoth. |
wot, rwot> |
EXERCISES ON THE IRREGULAR VERBS. Name the Past Tense and Past Participle of
Take, drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, bring, arise, catch, bereave, am, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, get, give, go, feel, forsake, grow, have, hear, hide, keep, know, lose, pay, ride, ring, shake, run, seek, sell, see, sit, slay, slide.
50 ETYMOLOGY.
Of AD VERBS.
An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an adjective , or another adverb, to express some quality or circumstance respecting it ; as, Ann " speaks well; John is remarkably diligent.
Adverbs may be divided into classes, viz. :
1. Adverbs of Time; as, Ago, already, always, daily, early, hourly, immediately, never, now, presently, sometimes, soon, then, to-day, to-morrow, yesterday, when, while.
2. Adverbs of Place; as, Above, apart, asunder, back- ward, below, downward, elsewhere, far, forth, forward, hence, here, hither, near, off, thence, there, thither, up, upward, whence, where, whither, within, without, yonder.
3. Adverbs of Number ; as, Once, twice, thrice, first, secondly, again, often.
4. Adverbs of Quantity ; as, Almost, enough, exceedingly, fully, more, much, most, nearly, too, very.
5. Adverbs of Quality ; as, Badly, cleverly, correctly, how, ill, poorly, quickly, slowly, softly, sweetly, well, wisely.
6. Adverbs of Affirmation, Negation, and Doubt; as, Ay, certainly, doubtless, haply, nay, not, nowise, peradventure, perhaps, surely, truly, undoubtedly, yea, yes.
OBSERVATIONS.
Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, as adjectives qualify nouns.
In many instances, adverbs admit of degrees of comparison like adjec- tives. Some are compared by adding er and est ; as, often, oftener, oftenest ; some by prefixing more and most ; as. wisely, more wisely, most wisely ; some are compared irregularly; as, ill, worse, worst; much, more, most ; well, better, lest.
Most of the adverbs which end in ly are formed from adjectives by adding ly ; as, foolish, foolishly ; and they are usually compared by pre- fixing more and most.
Some adverbs are formed from nouns or adjectives by prefixing a, as a-shore, a-far.
When more and most qualify nouns they are adjectives; but in every other situation thev are adverbs.
ADVERBS. 51
EXERCISES ON ADVERBS.
He went off immediately. I then wept bit- terly. He is here now. She went away yes- terday.* They came to-day. They will per- haps depart to-morrow. He will soon go away. She sung sweetly. Cats soon know how tof catch mice. Maria rose up hastily. They that have enough J may soundly sleep. Cain wick- edly slew his brother. I saw him long ago. He is a very good man. Sooner or later all must die. You read too little. They talk too much. Always act wisely. How many lines can you repeat ? You ran hastily. He speaks fluently. Then were they happy. He fell fast asleep. She should not hold her head awry. The ship was driven ashore. No, indeed. They are all alike. Those that were thirsty drank freely. The oftener you read attentively, the better you will remember.
OBSERVATIONS.
* To-day, yesterday, and to-morrow, are also nouns, for they are parts of time ; as, Yesterday is past, to-day is passing, and we may never see to-morrow. — When these words answer to the question when, they are governed by a preposition understood; as, When will John come home? (on) to-morrow, for he went away (on) yesterday. Much is used, 1. as an adverb; as, It is much better to live well than not.
2. as an adjective ; as, In much wealth is much care.
3. as a noun; as, When much is promised, much is expected. In strict propriety, however, much can never be a noun, but an adjec- tive ; for were the question to be asked, Much what is given ? it would be necessary to add a noun, and say, Where much grace is given, much gratitude is required.
t To, before flie infinitive of verbs, is an adverb, according to Johnson , and according to Murray, a preposition. The two together may be called the infinitive.
I Enough (a sufficiency) is here a noun. Its plural, — enow, is applied like many, to things that are numbered. Enough, an adj. like much, should perhaps be applied only to things that are weighed or measured.
62 ETYMOLOGY.
Of PREPOSITIONS.
A Preposition is a word put before nouns and pronouns, to show the relation between them ; as, He sailed from Leith to London in two days.
A LIST OF PREPOSITIONS.
To be got accurately by heart.
About, above, across, after, against, along, amid, amidst, among, amongst, around, at, athwart. Before, behind, below, beneath, be- side, besides, between, betwixt, beyond, by. Down, during. Except. For, p- 53> b- from. In, into. Near, nigh. Of, off, on, over. Round. Save, since. Through, throughout, till, to, to- wards.* Under, underneath, unto, up, upon, With, within, without.
OBSERVATIONS.
Every preposition requires an objective case after it. When a
preposition does not govern an objective case, it becomes an adverb; as, He rides about. But in such phrases as, cast up, hold out, fall on, the words up, out, and on, must be considered as a part of the verb, rather than as prepositions or adverbs.
Some words are used as prepositions in one place, and as adverbs in another, thus, before is a preposition when it refers to place ; as, He stood before the door ; and an adverb when it refers to time ; as. Before that the boy called thee, I saw thee. The word before, however, and others in similar situations, may still be considered as prepositions, if we supply an appropriate noun ; as, Before the time that the boy, &c.
* Towards is a preposition, but toward is an adjective, and means " Ready to do or learn ; compliant with duty ; not fro ward." Toward is sometimes improperly used for towards.
The inseparable prepositions are omitted, because an explanation of them can impart no informatiou without a previous knowledge of the radical word. Suppose the pupil told that con means together, will this explain convene to him? No: he must first be told that vene signifies to come, and then con, together. Would it not be better to tell him at •nee that convene means to come or call together f
CONJUNCTIONS. 53
Of CONJUNCTIONS.
A Conjunction is a word which joins words and sentences together; as. You and I must go to Leith ; but Peter may stay at home. ~
Conjunctions are of two kinds — Copulative, which join words and connect their meanings ; and Disjunctive, which join words, but disjoin their meanings.
The Copulative Conjunctions are — Also, and, as, because, both, for,* if, since, that, then, therefore, too, wherefore.
The Disjunctive Conjunctions are — Although, but, either, except, however, lest, neither, nor, notwithstanding, or, than, though, unless, whe- ther, yet.
EXERCISES ON CONJUNCTIONS.
Love your master : for it is your duty. Some children have neither father nor mother alive : notwithstanding this, they are as happy and healthy as many that have both : because the Divine Being has put it into the hearts of others to take care of them. If you study diligently, then you may expect to acquire much knowledge: but unless you study, you cannot know much.
OBSERVATIONS.
* When for can be turned into because, it is a conjunction.
Several words which are marked as adverbs in Johnson's Dictionary are in many Grammars marked as conjunctions ; such as, Albeit, else, •moreover, likewise, otherwise, nevertheless, then, therefore, wnerefore.
But in some cases is an adverb ; as, " We are but (only} of yesterday and know nothing."
Sometimes the same words are used as conjunctions in one place, and as prepositions or adverbs in another place; as, Since (conj.) we must part, let us do it peaceably ; I have not seen him since (prep.) that time. Our friendship commenced long since (adv.)f
f As many distinctions, however proper in themselves, may prove more hurtful than useful, they should not be made till the learner b« perfectly acquainted with the more obvious facts.
54
ETYMOLOGY.
Of INTERJECTIONS.
An Interjection is a word which expresses some emotion of the speaker ; as, Ok, what a sight is here ! Well done !
A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS.
Adieu ! ah ! alas ! alack ! away! aha ! begone ! hark ! ho ! ha ! he ! hail ! halloo ! hum ! hush ! huzza! hist! hey-day! lo! 0! oh! strange!
0 brave ! ^shaw ! see T well-a-day ! &c.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
1 saw a boy which is blind.* I saw a flock of gooses.
This is the horse who was lost. This is the hat whom I wear. John is here, she is a good boy. The hen lays his eggs. Jane is here, he reads well. I saw two mouses. The dog follows her master. This two horses eat hay. John met three mans. We saw two childs. He has but one teeth. The well is ten foot deep. Look at the oxes.
We was not there.f I loves him. He love me. Thou have been busy. He dare not speak. She need not do it. Was you there ? You was not there. We was sorry for it. Thou might not go. He dost not learn. If I does that. Thou may do it. You was never there.
The book were lost. This horse will let me ride on her. Thou will better stop. I can stay this two hours. The horses was sold.
I have two pen-knifes. The boys was reading.
My lady has got his fan. I teaches him grammar.
Two pair of ladies's gloves. He are not attentive to it.
Henry the Eighth had six wifes. Thou shall not go out. I saw the man which sings. If I bees not at home.
We saw an ass who brayed at us. Thou can do nothing for me. They will stay this two days. There is only two of us, John and you.
* These exercises will at once amuse and improve the pupil. See Syntax, Rules 14 and 15. \ Syntax, Rule 1.
PARSING.
ON PAESING.
HAVING the exercises on Parsing* and Syntax in one volume \vith the •Grammar, is a convenience so exceedingly great, that it must be obvious. The following set of exercises on Parsing are arranged on a plan new and important.
All the most material points, and those that are apt to puzzle the pupil, have been selected, and made the subject of a whole page of exercises, and where very important, of two. By this means, the same point must come so often under his eye, and be so often repeated, that it cannot fail to make a deep impression on his mind ; and even should he forget it, it will be easy to re- fresh his memory by turning to it again.
To give full scope to the pupil's discriminating powers, the exercises contain all the parts of speech, promiscuously arranged, to l»e used thus :
1. After the pupil has got the definition of a noun, exercise him in going over any part of the exercises in parsing, and point- ing out the NOUNS only. This will oblige him to exercise his powers of discrimination in distinguishing the nouns from the other words.f
2. After getting the definition of an adjectives exercise him in selecting all the adjectives from the other words, and telling why they are adjectives.
3. After getting all the pronouns very accurately by heart, let him point out them, in addition to the nouns arid adjectives.
4. Then the verb, without telling what sort, or what number, or person, or tense, for several weeks, or longer, till he can dis- tinguish it with great readiness.
5. Then the definition of an adverb, after which exercise him orally with many short sentences containing adverbs, and then on those in the book.
6. Get all the prepositions by heart, for it is impossible to give such a definition of a preposition as will lead a child to dis- tinguish it with certainty, from every other sort of word.
a need besides an article and a noun, no exercise is given to the pupil s judgement at all; for in every sentence he finds only an article and a noun; and in the next se.t only an article, an adjective, and a noun, and so on. There is no room for discrimination here, and yet discrimina- tion is the very thing he should be taught.
66 PARSING.
7. Get all the conjunctions by heart. They have been alpha- betically arranged, like the prepositions, to facilitate the com- mitting of them to memory.
8. After this, the pupil, if very young, may go over all the exercises by parsing every word in the most simple manner; viz. by saying such a word — a noun, singular, without telling
its gender and case such a word, a verb, without telling its
nature, number, person, tense, and mood.
9. In the next and last course, he should go over the exer- cises, and tell every thing about nouns and verbs, &c., as shown in the example below.
JST In the Exercises on Parsing, every sentence is numbered in the Grammar; but in the Key, many sentences are not noticed at all,
because they are easy. Under No. a, for instance, the 2d sentence is
noticed in the Key, p. 75, but not the 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th, because there is nothing difficult in any of them.
The small letters refer to the Nos. For example, p, in the first sen tence of No. a, directs the learner to turn to No. p, page 7ft, and remark that it says, " The verb to be or to have is often understood;" intimating to him by this reference that to be is understood after man in the first sentence of No. a, and teaches us in the second.
A Specimen of Parsing. 0 how stupendous was the power,
That raised me with a word ; And every day and every hour,
I lean upon the Lord.
0, an. interjection — how, an adverb — stupendous, an adjective, in the positive degree, compared by more and most, as, stupendous, more stu- pendous, most stupendous — was, a verb, neuter, third pers. singular, past, indicative (^agreeing with its nominative power, here put after it) — the, an article, the definite— power, a noun, singular, neuter, the nominative — That, a relative pronoun, singular, neuter, the nomina- tive, here used for which; its antecedent is power — raised, a verb, active, third person, singular, past, indicative (agreeing with its nominative that) — -me, the first personal pronoun, singular, masculine, or feminine, the objective (governed by raised) — with, a preposition — a, an article the indefinte — word, a noun, singular, neuter, the objective (governed by with) — And, a conjunction — every, a distributive* pronoun — day, a noun, singular, neuter, the objective (because the preposition through or during is understood)— and, and every, as before, — hour, a noun, sin- gular, neuter, the objective (because day was in it, and conjunctions couple the same cases of nouns, &c.) — I, the first personal pronoun, singular, masculine, or feminine, the nominative — lean, a verb, neuter, first person, singular, present, indicative — upon, a preposition — the, an article, the definite — Lord, a noun, singular, masc. the obj. (governed by upon). For Construction, see p. 120.
* Omit the words within the ( ) till the pupil get the rules of Syntax.
EXERCISES. 57
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
A few easy sentences intended as an Exercise chiefly on the Active Verb; but to be previously used as an Exercise on Nouns and Adjectives.
No. a.
A good conscience and a contented mind will make a man^ happy1. Philosophy teaches us to endure afflictions, but Christianity^* to en- joy them, by turning them into blessings2f. Virtue ennobles the mind, but vice debases it3. Application in the early period of life renders labour and study easy in succeeding years4. True courage fears nothing but sin5. Devotion strengthens virtue ; calms the temper; and fills the heart with gratitude and praise6 An irreligious man dislikes prayer, neglects tht, Bible, profanes the Sabbath, and prefers his own wicked desires and devices to the will and service of God7.
If we give the reins to our appetites and passions, and lay no restraint upon them, they will hurry us into guilt and misery8. Good sense stamps a value upon all our other quali- ties ; it teaches us to make a proper use of our acquirements, and to turn our opportunities to advantage : it shows itself in all our words and actions, and in every occurrence of life9. Shame and disappointment follow sloth and idleness10. The darkness, which follows sunset, hides the earth, but reveals the heavens11.
* Supply teaches us. as a reference to No. p intimates.
t See the O" on the preceding page. See also Key, p. 75 &c.
58 PARSING.
EXERCISES, Chiefly on the Active Verb, — continued from last page.
No. a.
Example exerts greater influence than pre^- cept12. Gentleness Ought to mark our temper, colour our manners, regulate our speech, and diffuse itself over our whole behaviour13. Know- ledge makes our being? pleasant to us, fills the mind with entertaining views, and provides us with sources of perpetual gratification14. Meek- ness controls our angry passions ; candour? our severe judgments15. Perseverance in labour will surmount every difficulty16. He that* takes pleasure in the prosperity of others, enjoys part of their good fortune17. Eestlessness of mind disqualifies us both for the enjoyment of peace, and for the performance of duty18. Sadness contracts the mind ; mirth dilates it19.
We should subject our fancies to the govern- ment of reason20. Self-conceit, presumption, and obstinacy, blast the prospects of many a youth21. Mere affluence may giver2 us import- ance in the eyes of the vulgar • but it will not recommend us to the wise and good22. A man of cheerful temper brings sunshine with him wherever he comes ; a querulous man creates discontent, and makes others as cross as him- self23. Many lose their labour, because they do not prosecute to the end the good work which they have begun24. Envy and wrath shorten life ; and anxiety bringeth age before its time25. Men do not gather grapes of thorns, nor figs of thistles26.
EXERCISES.
Chiefly on the Neuter Verb, including t
No. I.
It is better to live on a little712 than to out- live'1 a great deal1. A good education is a better inheritance than a great estate^2. It would be well for some men, if they were penniless3. Friendship can scarcely exist where virtue is not the foundation4. He that* swells in pros- perity, will shrink in adversity6. He who despairs of good is sure to fall into evil6. From idleness arises6 neither pleasure nor advantage : we must flee therefore from idleness^, the cer- tain parent of guilt and ruin7.
You must not always rely on promises8. The peace of society dependeth on the due ad- ministration of law and justice9. He that walketh with wise men shall be wise10. He that* sitteth with the profane is foolish11. The coach arrives daily12. The mail travels fast13. Rain falls in great abundance here14. He sleeps soundly15. She dances gracefully16. I went to York17. He lives soberly18. He huried to his house in the country19. They smiled20. She laughed21. He that* liveth in pleasure is dead while he liveth22. To a lover of truth nothing appears to be™ so low and mean as lying and dissimulation23. Vice is its own punishment, and virtue is its own reward24. Industry is the road to wealth, and virtue^ to happiness25. A message flies with the speed of lightning along the telegraphic wires26.
60 PARSING.
Chiefly on the Passive Verb. — See Page 38, bottom.
No. C.
An accomplished man is admired ; an amiable man is loved1. You may be deprived of rank and riches against your will ; but** not of virtue without your consent2. Bad habits should be amended, and good ones acquired3. Many are brought to ruin by extravagance and dissipa- tion4. The best designs are often ruined by unnecessary delay5. Only such recreations should be pursued as are innocent and health- ful6. Almost all difficulties may be overcome by diligence7. Old friends are preserved and new ones are procured by a grateful disposi- tion8. Words are like arrows, and should not be shot at random9.
A desire to be thought learned* is charac- teristic of the smatterer rather than of the true scholar10. Great merit is sometimes concealed under the most unpromising appearances11. Some talents are buried in the earth, and others are properly employed12. Much mischief has often been prevented by timely consideration13. True pleasure cannot be tasted by the wicked.; it is only to be found in the paths of virtue14. Thatf friend is highly to be valued at all times, whose friendship is shown in the time of our adversity15.
* Learned here, is an adjective ; and should be pronounced learn-ed in two syllables; but when a verb, in one. t Concerning that, see Notes p. 19 and Key, No. 90 ,p. 46.
EXERCISES. 61
EXERCISES,
Chiefly on the Passive Verb,— continued. No. C.
Beneficence is accompanied with such an inward satisfaction, that the duty is sufficiently rewarded by the performance16. The mind should be stored with knowledge, and^ culti- vated with care17. A pardon was obtained for him from the king18. Sanguine prospects have often been blasted19. Too sanguine hopes of any earthly thing should never be entertained20. The table of Dionysius the tyrant was loaded with delicacies of every kind, yet he could not eata21. We are taught in the Scriptures that the afflictions of this life will be overpaid by that eternal weight of glory which awaits the righteous71222.
Greater courage is displayed in ruling one's own spirit than in taking a city23. Riches and honour have not always been reserved for the good24. King Alfred is said to have divided the day and night into three parts • eight hours were allotted for meals and sleep, — eight were allotted for business and recreation, and eighth for study and devotion25. All our actions should be regulated by religion and reason26. The ship would have been swamped, and the whole crew lost, if the leak had not been discovered in time27. These two things cannot be dis- joined ; a holy life and a happy death28. As the thermometer cannot indicate temperature, when the mercury is frozen ; so conscience can- not show us our duty, when hardened by sin'*'.
D
82 PARSING.
EXERCISES On different sorts of Verb in the Imperative.
No. d.
Forget the faults of others, and remember your own1. Study universal rectitude, and cherish religious hope2. Suit your desires to things, and not things to your desires3. Never lie, nor steal, nor covet, but always follow the law of truth, of integrity, and of contentment4. Practise humility, and avoid everything in dress, carriage, or conversation, which has any appearance of pride5. Allow nothing to inter- rupt your public or private devotions , except the performance of some humane action6.
Learn to contemn all praise betimes, For* flattery is the nurse of crimes7.
Recollect that you are a member of the human family ; and deem nothing which7* regards hu- manity unworthy of your notice8. Presume6 not in prosperity, and despair6 not in adversity9. Be kind and courteous to all, and never either give or take offence without just reason10. Be- ware* of the beginnings of evil habits ; they creep6 upon us insidiously, and often become our masters before we are aware11.
Oh man, degenerate man, offend no more ! Gof learn of brutes, thy Maker to adore12 !
Let no one persuade you that the work of pre- paration for heaven is inconsistent with an hon- ourable discharge of the duties of active life13. Let your words { agree with your thoughts, and let both be ruled by the law of the Lord14.
* See Note First, p. 53. Go and learn are both iii the imperative. J See Note, next page.
EXERCISES. 63
EXERCISES On different sorts of Verb in the Imperative, — continued.*
No. d.
Let the favour of God be preferred to the friendship of men, and the testimony of a good conscience to the applause of the world.15 Let your first waking thoughts be given to God ; and let no evening close without a devout obla- tion of prayer and thanksgiving16.
Let no opposition or obloquy from men make you* swerve from your duty to God ; the frowns of the world are nothing to the smiles of heaven17. Let reason go before enterprise, and counsel before every action18. Hear Ann read her lesson19. Bid her get it better20. You needf not hear her again21. I see her weep22. I feel it pain me23. T dare not go24. You be- hold him run25. We observed him walk off hastily26.
And that tongue of his, that bade the Romans Mark* him, and write his speeches in their bosks, Alas ! it cried — give7"2 me some drink, Titinius27.
Deal with another as you'd have
Another* deal with you ; What'' you're unwilling to receive,
Be sure you never do28.
Be not overcome of evil, but overcome evil with good.29. Be angry and sin not ; let not the sun go down upon your wrath30.
* The next verb after bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, let, behold, observe, have, and known, is in the Infinitive, having to understood : as, "The tempest-loving raven scarce dares (t:>) wing the dubious dusk.' — I have known him (to) divert the money, &c. To is often used after the compound tenses of these verbs ; as, Who will dare to advance, if I say — stop? Them did he make to pay tribute.
t Sent. 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26, have no Imperative in them.
64 PARSING.
EXERCISES.
The Nominative, though generally placed 'before the verb, is often placed after it; especially when the sentence begins with Here, there, &c., when if or though is understood, and when a question is asked.
No. e.
Of all burdens the heaviest is a guilty con- science1. Among the best and most healthful sports, may be reckoned bowls, curling, golf, and cricket • among the most dangerous, foot- ball and boating2. Then were they in great fear3. Here stands the oak4. On the heels of folly treadeth shame, and at the back of anger standeth remorse5. Then shall thy light break forth as the morning6. Then shalt thou see clearly7. Where is thy brother8? Is he at home9 ?
There are in most of our great towns hun- dreds who can neither read nor write10. Were he at leisure, I would wait upon him11. Had he been more prudent, he would have been more fortunate12. Were they wise, they would read the Scriptures daily13. I would give more" to the poor were I able14. Could we survey the chambers of sickness and distress, we should find them** peopled, in very many instances, with the victims of intemperance, sensuality, and self indulgence15. Were he to assert it, I would not believe it, because he told a lie be- fore16. Gaming is a vice*7 pregnant with the greatest evils ; to it are often sacrificed wealth, reputation, and everything virtuous and valu- able17. Is not industry the road to wealth, virtue^ to wellbeing18 ?
EXERCISES. 65
EXERCISES. The Nominative is often at a great distance from the verb.
No./ _
James Watt, who, by his invention of the steam-engine, conferred such inestimable bene- fits on his country and the world, was a man as remarkable for his modesty as for his genius1. That fortitude* which has encountered no dangers, that energy which has surmounted no difficulties, that integrity which has never been exposed to temptation, — can at best be considered but as gold not yet0 brought to the test, of which, therefore, the true value cannot be assigned2.
It is quite possible that that little boy, so mean in his attire, and so peasant-like in his look and manners, whom his richer and gayer schoolmates despise for his humble birth and homely aspect; seldom inviting him to share in their sports, and often treating him with dis- dain, and even with rudeness, as if he were the dust beneath their feet, may, by his superior talents and diligence, outstrip all of them in the race of learning, and ultimately rise to a posi- tion in society, which they, with all their ad- vantages of birth, and wealth, and patronage, shall be unable to reach3. He whose constant employment is detraction and censure ; who looks only to find faults, and speaks only to puo- lish them ; will be dreaded, hated, and avoided4.
He', who through vast immensity can pierce, See worlds on worlds**2* compose one universe, Observe how system into system runs, WhaU* other planets circle other suns, What varied being peoples every star, May tell why Heaven has made us as we are8.
D2
66 PARSING.
EXERCISES.
The infinitive, or part of a sentence, being equal to a noun, is often the nominative to a verb.
No. g.
To be ashamed of a course of life which^ con- science approves from a fear of the censure of the world,* is the mark of a feeble and imper- fect character1. To bear ill usage with meek- ness, and misfortune with equanimity, bespeaks true nobility of soul2. To rejoice in the welfare of our fellow-creatures, is, in a degree, to partake of their good fortune ; but to repine at their pros- perity, is only to punish ourselves, and prove how unworthy we are of the success which we envy3.
To eat bread in the sweat of his face, till he return unto the ground out of which he was taken, is part of the doom entailed on man by the fall4. To satisfy all his wishes, is the way to make your child^ truly miserable5. To prac- tise virtue is the sure way to love it6. To be at once merry and malicious, is the sign of a corrupt heart and a weak understanding7. To love them who love us is commendable ; but to love our enemies, and do good to them that hate us, is the height of wisdom8. To instruct the igno- rant, relieve the needy, and comfort the afflicted f, are duties which it is at once a privilege and a pleasure tq perform9. To dread no eye, and sus- pect no tongue, is18f the prerogative of innocence10.
* When nothing hut an infinitive precedes the verb, then it is the in- finitive that is the nominative to it: as, To play is pleasant. ..But when the infinitive has any adjuncts, as in the sentence, To drink poison is death, it is the whole clause that forms the nominative ; for it is not to drink that is death ; but to drink poison.
. f Two or more infinitives usually require a verb in the plural. See also R. 18. M
EXERCISES. 67
EXERCISES.
Usually the relative which or that is the nominative to the verb,
when it stands immediately before the verb. When not
close to the verb, it is usually in the objective, and governed either by the verb that comes after it, or by a preposition.*
No. Ji.
The lesson which you get with difficulty is longer remembered than that which you learn with ease1. The veil which covers from our sight the sorrows of future years, is a veil0 which the hand of mercy has woven2. Most of the misfortunes that "befall us in life may be traced to vices or follies which we have committed3. Bewared of those sins in youth which cause self-reproach in riper years4. True charity is not a meteor which occasionally glances, but a luminary which,* in its orderly and regular course, dispenses a benignant influence5.
We usually find that to be the sweetest fruit, which the birds have pecked6. Nothing can make that ^great, which the decree of nature has ordained to be little7. The force that raises the lid of the tea-kettle, when the water is boil- ing, is the same which propels the mightiest steamship8, True religion will show its in- fluence in every part of our conduct ; it is like the sapf of a living tree? which pervades the most distant boughs9.
There is a tide in the affairs of men,
Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune™.
* An adverb or a clause between two commas, frequently comes be- tween the relative and the verb. The rule at the top is but a general
rule ; for in Poetry, in particular, the Relative, though not close to the verb, is sometimes in the nominative. — See first line of Poetry, page 65.
t Sap, the olj. governed by to understood after like, and antecedent to which.
68 PARSING.
EXERCISES.
When the antecedent and relative are loth in the nominative, the relative is generally the nominative to the verb next it, and the antecedent is generally the nominative to the second verb.
No. t .
He who performs every part of his business in its due place and season, suffers no part of time to escape without profit1. He that does good for its own sake, seeks neither praise nor reward, though he is sure of both at the last2. He that commends a wicked action, is equally guilty with him that commits it3. He that overcomes his passions, conquers his greatest enemies4. The consolation which is derived from a reliance upon Providence, enables us to support the most severe misfortunes5.
In our climate, fruit-trees which blossom late are surer to repay the gardener's care than those which blossom early6. The same sun which shone on your cradle, shall shine on your grave7. A wrong which is inflicted on us unintentionally, leaves no room for resentment8. The objects which we most value, are not always those which are most valuable9. The impressions which we receive in youth are always deeper and more lasting than those of after-life10. Per- sons who are ingenuous and kind hearted in youth, but become selfish, morose, and miserly in old age, may be not unfitly likened to those mountains which have a carpet of verdure and flowers at their base, while their summit is covered with ice and snow11.
EXERCISES. 69
EXERCISES.
WJiat is equal to — that which — or the tiling which — and repre- sents two cases ; — sometimes two nominatives ; — sometimes two objectives ; — sometimes a nominative and an objective ; — and sometimes an objective and a nominative. — Sometimes it is an adjective.
No./
Regard the quality, rather than the quantity of what you read1. If we delay till to-morrow what ought to be done to-day ,p> 51> b- we over- charge the to-inorrow with a burden which belongs not to it2. Choose what is most fit : custom will make it the most agreeable3. Fool- ish men are more apt to consider what they have lost, than what they possess, and to turn their eyes on those who are richer than themselves, rather than on those who are under greater difficulties4.
What cannot be cured, must be endured5. Attend to what you are about, and take pains to do it well6. *What a dolt not to know what part of speech what is7 ! Mark Antony, when under adverse circumstances, made this interest- ing remark, " I have lost all, except what I gave away8." Mark what it is his mind aims at in the question, and not merely what* words1* he utters9.
By what* means shall I obtain wisdom ? See what* a grace was seated on his brow10 !
* What here, and generally in questions, is an adjective, like many in " many a flower." Sometimes it is an Interjection, as, What I
What is sometimes used as an adverb for partly: thus, What with thinking, what with writing, and what with reading, I am weary.
70 PARSING.
EXERCISES.
The compound relatives, — whoever and whosoever — are equal to
— he who. — See also page 18, last note. Whatever and whatsoever are equal to — the thing which, — arid,
like what on the preceding page, represent two cases.
Whatever gives pain to your neighbour, ought to cause pain to yourself*1. Whoever tells you your faults from a desire for your amendment, is your true friend and benefactor2. Whatso- ever is good, that you should do3. Wherever you are, and in ^whatever circumstances you are placed, remember that the eye of God is upon you4. Whosoever committeth sin, trans- gresseth also the law ; for sin is the transgres- sion of the law5. Whatever is worth doing, is worth doing well6.
* By whatever arts you may at first attract the attention, you can hold the esteem, and secure the hearts of others, only by amiable dispositions, and the accomplishments of the mind7.
Whatever brawls disturb the street, There should be peace at home8.
Good advice, by whomsoever given, should be thankfully followed ; and enticements to evil should be strenuously resisted, whatever the at- tractions of the enticer9. ^Whatever insult you receive, try to bear it meekly : revenge it in no circumstances whatever10.
* Whatever is an adjective here, for it qualifies arts, &c. ; and where no noun is after it, it agrees with thing understood. Thus, Whatever may be the motive, &c., that is, Whatever thing may be.
EXERCISES. 71
EXEECISES.
Do, did, have, had, are auxiliary verbs when joined to another verb; when not joined to another verb, they are principal verbs, and, like the verb to love, have auxiliaries.
No. I
He who does not perform what he has prom- ised, is a traitor to his friend1. Earthly happi- ness does not flow from riches ; but from content of mind, health of body, and a life of piety and virtue2. Fine clothes do not make a gentleman3. Though you have not yet succeeded in taking the prize, do not be discouraged from trying again4. If you have not done all you could, why do you wonder at your failure5? John did not tell me that he had gained the gold medal6. Did you see my book7 ? Do you go to-morrow8 ? I do not think \ip proper to play too long9. What is this that thou hast done10 ? Had they studied the map, they might have saved themselves a long journey11. Do not lightly throw away what you have gained with difficulty12. Wis- dom does not make a man^ proud13.
Principal. — He who does the most good,* has the most pleasure14. Instead of adding to the afflictions of others, do whatever* you can to alleviate them15. To him that hath shall be given16. If thou canst do anything, haved com- passion on us, and helpd us17. He did his work well18. Silver and gold have I none ; but such as I have give I thee19. Did you do what7' I re- quested you to do20 ?
* Have, hast, has, hath, had, and hadst, are auxiliaries only wnen they have the Past Participle of another verb after them.
72 PAESING.
EXERCISES.
The verb to be has very often an adjective after it ; and some adjectives seem so closely combined with it, as to lead young people to suppose that they have got a passive verb.
No. m.
Piety and rectitude are productive of true peace and comfort1. If the powers of the mind were duly cultivated,* mankind would at all times be able to derive pleasure from their own breasts, as rational as it is exalted2. Learning is preferable to riches ; but virtue is preferable to both3. Men who are severe in judging them- selves are usually charitable to the faults of others4. We were all afraid of the lions5 : for we heard them2^* roar6. A man may be well instructed without being also instructive7.
Although ten were eligible, only one was chosen8. To study without intermission is im- possible : relaxation is necessary ; but it should be moderate9. The Athenians were conceited on account of their own wit, science, and polite- ness10. We are indebted to our ancestors for our civil and religious liberty11. Gold would be less valued, if it were more abundant12. An idle person is a kind of monster in the creation, because all nature is busy about him13. Be careful to speak with reverence of all that is sacred14. He was unfortunate, because he was inconsiderate15. He who is self-confident is less likely to excel than he who is conscious of his deficiencies16. I am ashamed of you17. She is quite forlorn18.
* Were cultivated, a verb passive.
EXERCISES. 73
EXERCISES.
1. Active and neuter verbs are often conjugated with their Present Participle, joined to the verb to be.*
2. A noun is always understood, when not expressed, after Adjectives, and Adjective Pronouns: such as,/ew, many, this, that, all, each, every, either.— See p. 147, under They, those.
No. n.
1. While I am reading, you should be listen- ing to what I read1. He was delivering his speech when I left the house2. They have been hearing a lecture on botany3. He might have been preparing his lesson4. I have been writing a letter, and I am just going to send it away5. She was walking by herself when I met her6. We are perishing with hunger; I am willing therefore to surrender7. We should always be learning8. A good man is always studying to be better9. We were playing at cricket yester- day10.
2. Those only are truly great who are really good11. Few set a proper value on their time12. Those who* despise the admonitions of their friends, deserve the mischiefs which^ their own obstinacy brings upon them13. Of the many who contended for the prize, most were quite undeserving of it, and only a few made a toler- able appearance, though each expected to be the successful competitor14. Love no interests but those of truth and virtue15. Such as are diligent will be rewarded16. I saw a thousand17. Of all prodigality, that of time is the worst18. Some are naturally timid ; and some bold and active ; for all are not alike19.
* Many words both in ing and ed are mere adjectives.
£
74 PAESING.
EXERCISES.
The Past Participle has uniformly either a relative or personal pronoun, with some part of the verb to be, understood before it.*
No. o.
Make the study of the sacred Scriptures? your daily practice and concern; and embrace the doctrines contained in them, as the real oracles of Heaven, and the dictates of that Spirit that cannot lie1. Knowledge softened with modesty and good "breeding, will make a man beloved and admired2. Gratitude and thanks are the least returns which children can make to their parents for the numberless obligations conferred on them3. Precepts have little influence when not enforced by example4. He is of all human beings the happiest, who has a conscience untaintedf by guilt, and a mind so well regu- latedf as to be able to accommodate itself to whatever the wisdom of Heaven shall think fit to ordain5. Mere external beauty is of little estimation ; and deformity, when associated with amiable dispositions and useful qualities, does* not preclude our respect and approbation6. True honour, as defined by Cicero, is the con- current approbation of good men7. Modesty seldom resides in a breast not enriched with nobler virtues8.
* It is often difficult to supply the right part of the verb to be. An adverb is often understood. The scope of the passage must determine what part of to be, and what adverb, when an adv. is necessary, should be supplied : for no general rule for this can be given.
^" The Past Tense has always a nom. either expressed or easily un- derstood : but the Past Part, has no Nom.— See Key, p. 81. No. 163.
t Untainted and regulated are adjectives here.
EXERCISES. 75
EXERCISES. On the Past Participle, — continued from last page.
No. o.
An elevated genius, employed in little things, appears like the sun in his evening declination ; he remits his splendour, but retains his mag- nitude ; and pleases more, though he dazzles less9. Economy, prudently and temperately conducted, is the safeguard of many virtues ; and is, in a particular manner, favourable to the exercise of benevolence10.
The lovely young Lavinia once had friends, And fortune smiled deceitful52 on her birth ; For, in her helpless years, deprived of all, Of every stay, save* innocence and Heaven, She, with her widow'd mother, feeble, old, And poor, lived in a cottage, far retired Among the windings of a woody vale ; By solitude and deep surrounding shades, But more by bashful modesty concealed11.
We find man^ placed f in a world where he has by no means the disposal of the events that happen12. Protected by its wooden walls, Britain is safer from invasion than many a country which has its whole frontier barricaded by impregnable fortresses13. Children often labour more to have the words in their booksf imprinted on their memories, than to have the meaningt fixed in their minds14.
* Save may be considered a preposition here. — See Key, No. 140.
t In many cases, the infinitive to be, is understood before the Past Participle. Though the verb that follows have, dare, &c., is in the In- finitive, to is inadmissible, and where to is inadmissible, the be that follows A is inadmissible also. — Man to be placed — Means to be left, &G. See Syn. R. 6.
76 PAUSING.
EXEECISES.
Supply all the words that are understood. The infinitive to be or to have, is often understood. — Not supplying what is under- stood after than and as, is frequently the cause of error.
No. jtf.
Disdain** every form of falsehood, nor allow even the image of deceit a place in your mind1. Some who seem Iborn only to serve others rise by their integrity and fidelity to places of com- mand ; and some who commence life with all the advantages of birth and fortune, forfeit their position by their vices, and find themselves re- duced in after-life to servitude or beggary2. They lost their mother when very young3.
For contemplation he, and valour form'd ; For softness she, and sweet attractive grace4.
Is not her husband elder than she5? Thy brother is a more diligent student than thou6. We were earlier at church than they7. I have more to do than he8. He is as diligent as his brother9. I love you as well as him10. How opposite in their worldly circumstances were these two — Dives and Lazarus — the one rich, the other poor ; the one clothed in purple and fine linen, the other in rags; the one faring sumptuously every day, the other desiring to be fed with the crumbs which fell from the rich man's table ; yet, though Dives in his lifetime received his good things, and Lazarus evil things, the latter had really the better portion, and the former the worse; for in the world beyond the grave the beggar was to be com- forted, and the rich man tormented11.
EXERCISES. 77
EXERCISES.
1. The objective after an active verb, especially when a relative, is often understood.
2. Sometimes the antecedent is omitted, and must in parsing be supplied.
No. q.
1. He that moderates his desires, enjoys the best happiness this world can afford1. Few reflections are more distressing than those we make on our own ingratitude2. The modest flower we overlook is often more fragrant than the flaunting one we admire3. It is not easy to love those we do not esteem4. Our good or bad fortune depends on the choice we make of our friends5. Over-anxiety to avoid the evils we dread only makes us a broader mark for their sharp arrows ; and not a few of our mis- fortunes are brought on, or at least accelerated, by the very means we use to avert them6. He eats regularly, drinks moderately, and reads often7. She sees and hears distinctly, but she cannot write8. Lay up a part of what you daily acquire, that you may have to give to him that is poor9.
2. There are in this loud stunning tide
Of human care and crime,
With whom the melodies abide
Of the everlasting chime10.
There have been that have delivered themselves from their misfortunes by their good conduct or virtue11.
Who live to nature rarely can be poor ;
Who live to fancy rarely can be rich12.
Who steals my purse steals trash13. I expect you to make progress in your educa- tion in proportion to the advantages you have, and not according to those you have
78 PARSING.
EXERCISES.
1. The objective generally comes after the verb that governs it : but always when it is a relative, and often in other instances, it comes before it.
2. When two objectives follow a verb, the thing is governed by the verb, and the person by a preposition understood.
No. r.
1. jVle ye have bereaved of my children1. Them that serve me faithfully I will reward2. Mine* offence I trust you will forgive3. Him whom ye recommend I shall prefer4. Those that kindly reproved you, ye basely insulted5. Those who have laboured to make us wise and good, are the persons whom we ought particu- larly to love and respect6. Whom having not seen ye love7. Those curiosities we have im- ported from China; these from Japan8. The two letters I now give you are letters of intro- duction: — this you may send by post; that you must deliver in person9.
2. Give him bread10. Give her her due11. Who gave you that book12? My father has sent me a valuable present13. Friend,f lend me thy horse14. Give her assistance15. Buy me a pair of globes16. Teach thy sister the alpha- bet17. Sell me meat for money18. I will send you corn19. Tell me thy name20. He taught me grammar21. If any of thy friends offend thee, tell him his fault, and try to convince him of it22. Bring me a candle23. Get him a pen24. Write him a letter25. Tell me nothing but the truth26.
* Mine, a possessive pronoun, used here for my, as thine is for thy. t Friend is the nominative, for he is named. Supply the ellipsis thus, 0 thou who art my friend, lend me, &c.
EXERCISES. 79
EXERCISES.
1. The poets often use an adjective as a noun; and sometimes join an adjective to their new-made noun.
2. They sometimes improperly use an adjective for an adverb.
3. Though the adjective generally comes before the noun, it is sometimes placed after it.
No. s.
1. And where He vital breathes there must be joy1.
Who shall attempt with wandering feet
The dark, unbottom'd, infinite abyss,
And through the palpable OBSCURE find out
His uncouth way, or spread his aery flight,
Upborne with indefatigable wings,
Over the vast ABRUPT, ere he arrive*
The happy isle2 ? Paradise Lost, b. ii. 404.
2. Thus Adam his illustrious guest besought : And thus the god-like angel answer 7d mild?>. The lovely young Lavinia once had friends, And fortune smiled deceitful on her birth4. When even at last the solemn hour shall come To wing my mystic flight to future worlds,
I cheerful will obey ; there, with new powers,
Will rising wonders sing5.
The rapid radiance instantaneous strikes
The illumined mountain6. Gradual sinks the
Into a perfect calm7. [breeze
Each animal, conscious of some danger, fled Precipitate the loath' d abode of man8.
3. But I lose myself in Him, in light ineffable^.
• Pure serenity apace
Induces thought and contemplation still10.
* The poets often very improperly omit the preposition. It should be, " Ere he arrive at the happy isle." And again, " Here he had need all circumspection," for, need of all circumspection.
&- After this, the Preface, the Exercises on Punctuation, p. 159, and the Figures of Speech, p. 172, with many other parts of the Gram- mar, may be used as additional exercises on Parsing.
80
GRAMMATICAL TERMS.
A short Explanation of some of the Terms used in the Grammar.
Abbreviation, shortening.
Affirmative, yes, asserting.
Ambiguity, double meaning.
Annexed, joined to.
Antecedent, the word going before.
Auxiliary, helping.
Cardinal* principal, or fundamental
Comparative, a higher or lower de- gree of a quality.
Comparison, a comparing of qualities.
Conjugate, to give all the principal parts of a verb.
Contingency, what may or may not happen ; casualty, accident.
Copulative, joining.
Defective, wanting some of its parts.
Demonstrative, pointing out.
Disjunctive, disjoining.
Distributive, dividing into portions.
Ellipsis, a leaving out of something.
Euphony, an agreeable sound.
F^re\ Umetocome. Futurity, }
Governs, rules or acts upon. Imperative, commanding. Indefinite, undefined, not limited. Indicative, declaring, indicating. Infinitive, without limits. Interrogative, asking. Intervene, to come between. Intransitive (action), confined to the
actor ; passing within. Irregular, not according to rule. Miscellaneous, mixed, of various
kinds. Mood, form or manner of a verb.
Negative, no, denying.
Nominative, naming.
Objective, applied to the case which follows an active verb or a pre- position.
Obsolete, gone out of use.
Obsolescent, growing out of use.
Omit, to leave out, not to do.
Ordinal,] numbered in their order, . Paradigm, example.
Participle, partaking of other parts.
Past, the time past.
Perfect, completed, finished, past.
Personal, belonging to persons.
Pluperfect, more than perfect, quite finished some time ago.
Plurality, more than one.
Possessive, possessing, belonging to.
Positive, the quality without excess.
Potential, having power, or will.
Preceding, going before.
Prefixing, placing before.
Present, the time that now is. Promiscuous, mixed. Query, question. Regular, according to rule. Relative, relating to another. Subjunctive, joined to another under
a condition. Superlative, the highest or lowest
degree of a quality. Tense, time of being, acting, or suf- fering.
Transitive, passing to an object. Unity, one — several acting as one. Universal, extending to all.
* The Cardinal numbers are, One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, &c. ; from the first three are formed the adverbs once, twice, thrice.
t The Ordinal numbers are, First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, nineteenth, twentieth, twenty-first, twenty-second, &c.
From thpse come adverbs of order ; as, Firstly, secondly, thirdly, fourthly,fifthly,sixthly,seventhly,eighthly,ninthly,tenthly, eleventhly, twelfthly, thirteenthly, fourteenthly, fifteenthty, sixteenthly, seven- teenthly, eighteenthly, nineteenthly, twentiethly, twenty - firstly, twenty-second ly, &c.
SYNTAX. 81
SYNTAX.
SYNTAX treats of the proper arrangement and construction of words in sentences*
A sentence is an assemblage of words making complete sense ; as, God made the world.
Sentences are either simple or compound.
A simple sentence contains but one subject and one finitef verb ; as, Life is short.
A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences connected by one or more conjunctions ; as; Time is short } BUT eternity is long.
A. phrase is two or more words used to ex- press a certain relation between ideas, without affirming any thing ; as, In truth / to le plain with you.
The principal parts of a simple sentence^ are, the subject (or nominative), the predicate (or verb), and the object.
The subject is the thing spoken of 5 the predi- cate is the thing affirmed or denied ; and the object is the thing acted upon by the subject.
* Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord and Government.
Concord is the agreement which one word has with another, in num- ber, gender, case, or person.
Government is that power which one part of speech has over another in determining its mood, tense, or case.
t Finite verbs are those to which number and person appertain. The Infinitive mood has no respect to number or person.
% The subject of "Analysis of Sentences" is treated fully in the APPENDIX, p. 181,
82 SYNTAX.
RULE I. A verb must agree with its nomi- native in number and person / as; Thou readest ; lie reads ; we read.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
The birds sing sweetly.* Thou art the man. Of the metals platinum is the heaviest, gold the most prized, iron the most useful. The train of my ideas was interrupted. Almost thou per- suadest me to be a Christian. In spring the ice melts and the fields become green. The number of pupils that attend our school has greatly in- creased since last vacation.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
I loves reading. I is going to London. A clearf and approving conscience make an easy mind. There remains three things more to be considered. His conduct in public and private life entitle him to the esteem of his friends. By good conduct thou might engage fortune on thy side. Frequent commission of crimes harden the heart. The Pyramids of Egypt has stood more than three thousand years. A judicious arrange- ment of studies facilitate improvement. A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons.
J Him and her were of the same age.
* Example of Construction :— The birds sing, a verb agrees with its nominative. Thou art, a verb agrees with its nominative. — See first note, next page ; also full example of Construction, p. 120.
I Rule. An adjective agrees with a noun in gender, number, and case ;
as, A good man. As the adjective, in English, is not varied on account
of gender, number, and case, this rule is of little importance.
j Rule. The subject of a verb should be in the nominative: Thus, Him and her were married ; should be, He and she were married.
3^° All those Notes at the bottom that have Exercises in the text are to be committed to memory and applied like the rules at the top.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 83
RULE II. An active verb governs the objective case ; as, We love him • he loves us.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
* He enjoined me to tell the whole truth, and I obeyed him. If thou bringest her to school, I will teach her and reward thee. Whom do you think I found in the garden? Me thou hast deceived by breaking the promise which thou madest.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He loves we. He and they we know, but who art thou ? Let thou and I the battle try.
Esteemingf theirselves wise, they become fools. Upon seeing I he turned pale.
Who did you bring with you ? They are the persons whoj we ought to respect.
§ Repenting him of his design he hastened him back. It will be very difficult to agree his conduct with the principles he professes.
I shall premise with two or three general observations. He ingratiates with some by traducing others.
* The pupil may construe thus : — He enjoined, a verb agrees with its nominative — enjoined me, an active verb governs the objective case — I obeyed, a verb agrees with its nominative — obeyed Mm, an active verb governs the objective case — and so on in going through the Rules of Syntax, the pupil applying such of them as he may have learned which bear upon the Exercises, or only the individual Rule under which the lesson stands.
t The participle being a part of the verb, governs the same case with the verb.
\ Note. When the objective is a relative, it comes before the verb that governs it. (Mr Murray's 6th rule is unnecessary. — See No. h, p. 67.)
Sometimes the objective after an active verb is a clause ; as, I know —what that is. (See last Note, p. 101.)
% Rule I. Neuter verbs do not admit of an objective after them : Thus, Repenting him of his design, should be, Repenting of his design.
(1 Rule II. Active verbs do not admit of a preposition after them: Thus, I must premise with three circumstances, should be, I must premise three circumstances.
For Neuter verbs in the Passive form, see Note, p. 128,
84 SYNTAX.
RULE III. Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, To whom much is given, of him much shall "be required.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
To whom did you send the money ? On me, not on her, let the blame fall. John and I went to sea on the same day ; "but he outstripped me in seamancraft, and got the command of a ship before me. Water rises in vapour from the sea, forms clouds in the air, and then falls in showers on the earth.
Earth's highest station ends in " Here he lies." EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Will you go with I ? Withhold not good from they to who it is due. Who do you live with ? Great friendship subsists between he and I. They willingly, and of theirselves, endeavoured to make up the difference. He laid the blame upon somebody, I know not who, in the company.
* Who do you speak to? Who dost thou serve under? Flattery can hurt none, but those who it is agreeable to. It is not I who thou are engaged with. Who didst thou re- ceive that intelligence from ?
f He is quite unacquainted with, and conse- quently cannot speak upon, that subject.
* Rule I. The preposition should be placed immediately before the rela- tive which it governs ; as, To whom do you speak ?
The preposition is often separated from the relative; but though this is perhaps allowable in familiar conversation, yet, in solemn com- position, the placing of the preposition immediately before the relative is more perspicuous and elegant.
t Rule II. It is inelegant to connect two prepositions, or one and an active verb, with the same noun ; for example, They were refused entrance into, and forcibly driven from, the house; should be, They were refused
entrance into the house, and forcibly driven from it. 1 wrote to, and
warned him ; should be, I wrote to him and warned him.
f§£" Prepositions sometimes govern a sentence or clause ; as, For want of attending to his duty he lost his place. ,
RULES AND EXERCISES. 85
RULE IV. Two or more singular nominatives, coupled with AND, require a verb and pronoun in the plural • asr James and John are good boys ; for they are busy.*
Two or more singular nominatives separated by OR or NOR, require a verb and pronoun in the singular • as? J ames or John is aux.f
EXEKCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
Demosthenes and Cicero were the greatest orators of antiquity. Faith, hope, and charity, are the three chief graces of the gospel. Town or country is equally agreeable to me. Neither the captain nor the pilot has yet come on board. The king as well as the beggar is mortal. It is either my uncle or my aunt that has sent me this gift. Intemperance slays more men in a week, than the sword or the musket does in a month. Is the lark or the thrush the better singer?
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He and I meets often. Life and death is in the power of the tongue. The time and place for the conference was agreed on. Out of the same mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing.
Neither precept nor discipline are so forcible as example. Either the boy or the girl were present. It must be confessed that a lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or mur- der. Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move merely as they are moved.
* And is the only conjunction that binds the agency of two or more into one; for, as well as, never does that; but merely states a sort of comparison ; thus, " Caesar, as well as Cicero, was eloquent." With is sometimes used for and. — See Miscellaneous Obs. p. 143 and 144.
] Or and nor are the only conjunctions applicable to this rule.
86 SYNTAX.
RULE V. Conjunctions couple the same moods and tenses of verbs ; as, Do good and seek peace.
Conjunctions couple the same cases of nouns and pronouns : as, He and / are happy.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
The prisoner was tried, but acquitted. He will neither go himself nor allow me to go. Scripture commands us to fear God and honour the king. Strike, but hear me. The master called up you, Harry, and me : he punished you and him, but not me. The man who reads God's word and obeys it, is a godly man.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He reads and wrote well. He or me must go. My brother and him are tolerable gram- marians. If he understands the subject, and attend to it, he can scarcely fail of success. Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreated* thee to forgive him ? And dost thou, a pious man, live in extravagance, and bringest* me who am one of thy creditors to ruin ? Professing regard, and to act differently, mark abase mind. If a mam pro- fesses a regard for the duties of religion, and ne- glect those of morality, that man's religion is vain.
j* Rank may confer influence, but will not nec- essarily produce virtue. He is not rich, but} is respectable. Our season of improvement i s short ; and, whether used or not,f will soon pass away.
The same/orm of the verb must be continued.
t Conjunctions frequently couple different moods and tenses of verbs; but in these instances the nominative is generally repeated ; as, He may return, but he will not continue.
| The nominative is generally repeated, even to the same mood and tense, when a contrast is stated with but, not, or though, &c., as in this sentence.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 87
»_, ;
RULE VI. One verb governs another in the infinitive mood ; as, Forget not to do good.*
To, the sign of the infinitive, is not used after the verbs bid^ dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, let, perceive, behold, observe, have, and know.f
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
The tenant was ordered to leave the farm. It is more blessed to give than to receive. I have no wish to travel. Make the multitude sit down. I dare not tell a lie. Bid him sheathe the sword and spare his country. I beheld Satan as lightning fall from heaven. I saw him fire the gun. He was seen to fire the gun.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
They obliged him do it. We ought forgive injuries. It is better live on a little, than out- live a great deal.
They need not to call upon her. I dare not to proceed so hastily. I have seen some young persons to conduct themselves very discreetly. We heard the thunder to roll. The thunder was heard roll over our heads. I bid my steward to do his duty, and he doeth it. The sound made him to tremble. He was made tremble by the sound.
* The infinitive mood is frequently governed by nouns and adjectives ; as, They have a desire to learn ; worthy to be Itfved. For, before the Infinitive, is unnecessary.
Let governs the objective case ; as, Let him beware.
I To is generally used after the Passive of these verbs, except let ; as, He was made to believe it ; he was let go ; and sometimes after the active, in the past tense, especially of have, a principal verb ; as, I had to walk all the way.— See p. 63, b.
The infinitive is often independent of the rest of the sentence ; as To proceed; to confess the truth, I was in fault.
SYNTAX.
RULE VII. When two nouns come together signifying different things, the first is put in the possessive case ; as, John's book; on eagles' wings.
When two nouns come together signifying the same thing, they agree in case ; as, Cicero the orator ; the city Edinburgh.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
I have a copy of Shakspeare's plays. In- valids are sometimes ordered to drink asses' milk. Lennie's Grammar was printed in Oliver and Boyd's printing-office.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Pompeys pillar. A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, are natures gifts for mans ad- vantage. For Jesus Christ his sake.
* Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen. He asked his father, as well as his mother's advice.
Mosesf rod. For conscience's sake.
* Rule. When several nouns come together in the possessive case, the apostrophe with s is annexed to the last, and understood to the rest ; as, Jane and Lucy's books.
When any words intervene, the sign of the possessive should be annexed to each ; as, This gained the king's, as well as the people's approbation.
t To prevent too much of the hissing sound, the s after the apostrophe is generally omitted when the first noun has an s in each of its two last syllables, and the second noun begins with s ; as, Righteousness' sake, For conscience' sake, Francis' sake : but we say, The witness's sake.
It has lately become common, when the nominative singular ends in s or 55, to form the possessive by omitting the s after the apostrophe ; as, James' book, Miss' shoes, instead of James's book, Miss's shoes. This is improper. Put these phrases into questions, and then they will appear ridiculous. Is this book James' f Are these shoes Miss' f Nor are they less ridiculous without the interrogatory form ; as, This book is James', &c.— K. 195-6-7.
We sometimes use of instead of the apostrophe and s ; thus we say, Thr> wisdom of Socrates, rather than Socrates' s wisdom. In some instances we use the of and the possessive termination too ; as, It is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's, that is, one of Sir Isaac Newton's discoveries. A pic- ture o/my friend, means a portrait of him : But a picture of my friend's, means a portrait of some other person, and that it belongs to my friend.
As precise rules for the formation of the possessive case, in all situa-
KULES AND EXERCISES.
RULE VIII. When a noun of multitude con- veys unity of idea, the verb and pronoun should be singular / as, The class was large.*
When a noun of multitude conveys plurality of idea) the verb and pronoun should be plural / as, The people of Great Britain enjoy privileges of which they ought to be proud.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
The meeting was well attended. The con- gregation met, but were soon dismissed. When the nation complains, the rulers should listen to its voice. His family is neglected, and his friends are disgusted. What an immense fleet — it fills the whole bay : no harbour in the world could contain it.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
The court of Spain have often done very fool- ish things. The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the object of the shepherd's care. The regiment consist of a thousand men. The Parliament are dissolved. The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. This generation are far more intelligent than the last. The shoal of herrings were immense. The remnant of the people were persecuted. The army are march- ing to Cadiz. Some said the navy were suffi- ciently strong, others said they were not.
tions can scarcely be given, I shall merely subjoin a few correct ex- amples for the pupil's imitation ; thus, I left the parcel at Smith's the bookseller ; The Lord Mayor of London's authority : For David thy fa- ther's sake ; He took refuge at the governor's the king's representative ; Whose glory did he emulate ? He emulated Ccesar's, the greatest gen- eral of antiquity.— See last note under Rule XII., also Rule XXX. * Which, and not who, is applied to collective nouns.— See p. 153, mid.
90 SYNTAX.
KULE IX. The verb TO BE should have the same case after it that it has before it ; as; I am he; I understood it to be him.*
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
It is I. Whom did your tutor take me to be ? Were I he, I would act a very different part. His fellow-soldiers declared him to be a coward. Thou shalt be governor over my house, and thy word shall be law to my servants. Their motto was, " No surrender." When they saw him walking upon the sea, they supposed him a spirit. Simon was sumamed Peter.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
It was me who wrote the letter. It was him who got the first prize. I am sure it was not us that did it. It was them who gave us all this trouble. I would not act the same part again, if I were him. Though he was suspected of forging a letter, yet it could not be him, for he never could write his own name.
Let him be whom he may, I am not afraid of him. Who do you think him to be ? Whom think ye that she is ? Was it me that said so ? I am certain it was not him. It was either him or his brother that got the first prize.
* When the verb to be is understood, it has the same case after it that it has before it ; as, He seems the leader of a party. I supposed him a man of learning : that is, to be the leader, &c., to be a man, &c.
Part of a sentence is sometimes the nominative both before and after the verb to be ; as, His maxim was, " Be master of thy anger."
The verb to be is often followed by an adjective. — See No. in.
Passive verbs which signify naming, and some neuter verbs, have a nom- inative after them ; as, He shall be called John. He became the slave of irregular passions. Stephen died a martyr for the Christian religion.
Some passive verbs admit an objective after them ; as, John was first denied apples, then he was promised them, then he was offered them.
RULES AND EXEECISES. 91
RULE X. Sentences that imply contingency and futurity require the Subjunctive Mood; as, If he be alone, give him the letter.
When contingency and futurity are not BOTH implied, the Indicative ought to be used ; as; If he speaks as he thinks, he may safely be trusted.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
If he acquire riches, he may find that he is no happier than before. Though he fall from his horse, I trust he will not be hurt. Let him that standeth take heed lest he fall. If he fol- lows the course he has promised to take, he is sure to succeed.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
If children are neglected, till vice has become habitual to them, they are hardly ever reformed afterwards. Though he be in an elevated sta- tion, yet he is never proud. If thou be a Chris- tian, act like one. If he does promise, he will certainly perform. Oh ! that his heart was tender.
* Despise not any condition, lest it happens to be thy own. Take care that thou breakest not any of the established rules.
f If he does but intimate his desire, it will produce obedience. If he be but in health, I am content. If he but asks to be forgiven, his father will pardon him.
* Rule I. Lest and that annexed to a command require the Subjunc- tive Mood; as, Shun bad company, lest you be ensnared and ruined. Avoid suretyship, that you may not lose your money and your friend.
t Rule II. If, with but following it, when futurity is denoted, requires the Subjunctive Mood; as; If a boy but try to leam, he will succeed. But when future time is not expressed, the Indicative ought to be used.
In the subjunctive, the auxiliaries shall, should, &c., are generally un- derstood ; as, Though lie fall, i. e. though he should fall. Until reflection compose his mind, i.e. until reflection shall compose. See K. 256.
92 SYNTAX.
RULE XI. Some conjunctions have their cor- respondent conjunctions / thus,
Neither requires Nor after it ; as, Neither he nor his brother was in.
Though Yet; as, Though he is poor, yet he is respectable.
Whether Or Whether he will do it or not, I cannot tell.
Either Or* Either she or her sister must go.
As As Mine is as good as yours.
As So As thy diligence, so shall thy success be.
/Sbf ..As He is not so wise as his brother.
So That I am so weak that I cannot walk.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. Teach us so to number our days, as to apply our hearts unto wisdom. Is he as good a reader as you ? You can go to London either by land or by sea. As the tides obey the moon, so should our passions bend to our judgment. Whether we live or die, we are the Lord's. Neither hath this man sinned, nor his parents. He ran so fast, that I could not overtake him.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
It is neither cold or hot. The one is equally deserving as the other. I must be so candid to own, that I have been mistaken. He was so angry as he could not speak. He is not as faith- ful and trustworthy as I could wish him to be. Neither despise the poor, or envy the rich. As far as I am able to judge, the book is well written. Though she was poor, she was not discontented.
* The poets frequently use Or— or, for Either— or ; and Nor— nor for
Neither — nor. In prose not — nor is often used for neither — nor.
The yet after though is frequently and properly suppressed.
Or does not require either before it when the one word is a mere explanation of the otter; as, 20s., or £1 sterling, is enough.
t See K. No. 204.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 93
RULE XII. When the present participle is used as a noun, it requires an Article before it, and Of after it ; as, The sum of the moral law consists in the obeying of God; and the loving of our neighbour as ourselves.*
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
By the exercising of our faculties we improve them. The preparing of the necessary materials requires time. Your voice is drowned by the rushing of the waters. The sea rose with the rising of the wind.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
By observing of these rules, you may avoid mistakes. This was a betraying the trust re- posed in him. The not attending to this rule is the cause of a very common error.
t Our approving their bad conduct may en- courage them to become worse. Your sending of an answer will oblige .$ What is the reason of this person's dismissing of his servant so hastily?
* These phrases would be right, were the article and o/both omitted ; as, The sum of the moral law consists in obeying God and loving our neighbour, &c. This manner of expression is, in many instances, pref- erable to the other. In some cases, however, these two modes express very different ideas, and therefore attention to the sense is necessary ; as, He confessed the whole in the hearing of three witnesses, and the court spent an hour in hearing their deposition. — Key, No. 208, &c.
t The present participle with a possessive before it sometimes admits of Of after it, and sometimes not ; as, Their observing of the rules pre- vented errors. By his studying the Scriptures he became wise.
When a preposition follows the participle, of is inadmissible ; as, His depending on promises proved his ruin. His neglecting to study when young rendered him ignorant all his life.
t Rule. A noun before the present participle is put in the possessive case ; as, Much will depend on the pupil's composing frequently.
Sometimes, however, the sense forbids it to be put in the possessive case ; thus, What do you think of my horse running to-day ? means, Do you think I should let him run ? but, What do you think of my horse's running f means, He has run, do you think he ran well ?
94 SYNTAX.
RULE XIII. The past participle is used after the verbs have and be ; as, I have written a let- ter ; he was chosen.*
$g" The Present participle of an Active verb, and not the Perfect, is generally used after the verb to be, to express the continued suf- fering of an action ; as, The house is building, — not is being built.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
The British flag is respected in every land. If they had not left the ship, they might have been saved. I saw you before I was seen by you. The wind has ceased, but the sea is still tossing. Though the ball was extracted a week ago, yet he is still suffering severely from the wound.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He has wrote his copy. He had mistook his true interest. All the gloves that were stole last night were wove ones. His resolution was too strong to be shook by slight opposition. The horse was stole. The Rhine was froze over. She was showed into the drawing-room. The grass was trode down. The work was very well execute. His vices have weakened his mind, and broke his health.
* He soon begun to be weary of having noth- ing to do. He was greatly heated, and he drunk with avidity.
The bending hermit here a prayer begun.
A second deluge learning thus o'errun ;
And the monks finish'd what the Goths begun.
* The past participle must not be used instead of the past tense : It is Improper to say, he begun, for he began ; he run, for he ran.
KULES AND EXERCISES. 95
RULE XIV. Pronouns agree in gender , num- ber, and person, with the nouns for which they stand ; as, John has lost his boo'k. Every tree is known by its fruit.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
James accompanied his mother in her journey to London. The man who loves his country will risk his life for its defence.
Night, sable goddess ! from her ebon throne In rayless majesty now stretches forth Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
They which are diligent in learning will im- prove. She which is most diligent should be rewarded. A horse is a useful animal, and well is she worthy of her food. Manure the garden with ashes, for it is an excellent manure for it. Can any one, on their entrance into life, be fully secure that they shall not be deceived ?
* I have not seen him this ten days. Those sort of people fear nothing. The chasm made bv the earthquake was twenty foot broad. There is six foot water in the hold. I have no interests but that of truth and virtue. What a dense crowd ! we shall not be able to force our way through them.
* Rule. Nouns and numeral adjectives must agrqp in number accord- ing to the sense ; thus, This boys, should be these boys, because boys is plural; aud six/oo«, should be six feet, because six is plural.
Whole should never be joined to distributive nouns in the plural ; thus, Almost the whole inhabitants were present ; should be, Almost all the inhabitants; but it may be joined to collective nouns in the plural; thus, Whole cities were swallowed up by the earthquake.
SYNTAX.
RULE XV. The relative agrees with its ante- cedent in gender j number , and person ; as, Thou who readest ; the book which was lost.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
The money which the miser hoards in his cof- fers might feed and clothe hundreds of his "breth- ren who are in need. Tell, thou who art a father, how poignant is the anguish which the miscon- duct of a child produces in the parental bosom.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Those which seek Wisdom will certainly find her. Blessed is the man which walketh in wis- dom's ways. The child which* was lost is found,
f The tiger is a beast who destroys without pity. Who of those men came to his assistance ?
J It is the best which can be got. Solomon was the wisest man whom ever the world saw. It is the same picture which you saw before. All which I have is thine. The lady and lap- dog which we saw at the window.
* It does not appear to me that it is harsh or improper, as Mr. Murray says, to apply who to children, because they have little reason and reflec- tion ; but if it is, at what age, should we lay aside which and apply who to them? That seems preferable to either. In our translation of the Bible, who and that are 'both applied to children, but never which. See 2 Sam. xii. 14, 15. Matt. ii. 16. Rev. xii. 5.
t Which is applied to inferior animals, and also to persons in asking questions.
+ Rule. THAT is used instead of WHO or WHICH.
1. After adjectives in the superlative degree,— after the words Same and All, and often after Some and Any.
2. When the antecedent consists of two nouns, the one requiring Who and the other Which ; as, — The man and the horse that we saw yesterday.
3. After the interrogative Who; as, — Who that has any sense of re- ligion would have argued thus ?
There seems to be no satisfactory reason for preferring that to who after same and all, except usage. There is indeed as good authority for using who after all, as for using that. Addison, for instance, uses all who several times in one paper.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 97
RULE XVI. When the relative is preceded ~by two antecedents of different persons, it and the verb generally agree in person with the last ; as, Thou art the boy that was dux yesterday.*
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
I am the man who commands you. Your unknown benefactor was I, who am still ready to help you. Thou art the friend who has so often assisted me. I am the Lord thy God, who have brought thee out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage.f
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Thou art a pupil who possesses bright parts, but who hast cultivated them but little. I am a man who speak but seldom. Thou James, art he that taughtest me that industry is a good estate,
$ The king dismissed his minister without any warning or inquiry, who had never before been known to treat his advisers with other than the utmost consideration and kindness.
* Sometimes the relative agrees with the former antecedent ; as, I am verily a man who am a Jew. Acts xxii. 3.
The propriety of this rule has heen called in question, because the relative should agree with the subject of the verb, whether the subject be next the relative or not. This is true, but it is also true that the subject is generally next the relative, and the rule is calculated to pre- vent the impropriety of changing from one person of the verb to another, as in the 3d example of errors to be corrected.
t When we address the Divine Being, it is, in my opinion, more point- ed and solemn to make the relative agree with the second person. In the Scriptures this is generally done. See Neh. ix. 7, &c. In the third person singular of verbs, the solemn eth seems to become the dignity of the Almighty better than the familiar es ; thus, I am the Lord thy God who teacheth thee to profit; who leadeth thee by the way that thou shouldst go : is more dignified than, I am the Lord thy God who teaches thee to profit ; who leads thee.
| Rule. The relative ought to "be placed, next its antecedent to prevent ambiguity : thus, The boy beat his companion, whom everybody believed incapable of doing mischief; should be, The boy, whom everybody be- lieved incapable of doing mischief, beat his companion.
F
98 SYNTAX.
RULE XVII. When singular nominatives of different persons are separated by OR or NOR, the verb agrees with the person next it; as, Either thou or I am in fault ; I, or thou, or he, is the author of it.*
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
Neither my sister nor I have been taught to dance. James and you were always attentive to your studies. Either my brother or I am to go. Either thy cousin or thou hast betrayed my secret. I, or you, or the boy who sits be- side us, is sure to be blamed for overturning the inkbottle.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Either I or thou am greatly mistaken. He or I is sure of this week's prize. John or I has done it. He or thou is the person who must go to London on that business. Either he or I has done it. Neither my tutor nor I has been able to solve the problem. John and I am to sleep together. Neither you nor he are so fond of books as you ought to be. Either you or George were present when Robert and I was invited to the concert. Why didst thou and thy brother both remain silent when either thou or he shouldst have spoken in my defence?
* The verb, though expressed only to the last person, is understood in its proper person to each of the rest, and the sentence, when the ellipsis is supplied, stands thus, " Either thou art in fault, or I am in fault;" and the next sentence, Either I am the author of it, or thou art the author of it, or he is the author of it.
Supplying the ellipsis thus would render the sentences correct ; but so strong is our natural love of brevity, that such a tedious and formal attention to correctness would justly be reckoned stiff and pedantic. It is better to avoid both these forms of expression when it can be con- veniently done.
RULES AND EXERCISES.
RULE XVIII. A singular and aplural nomi- native, separated by Oil or NOR, require a verb in the plural; as, Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved.*
The plural nominative should be placed neoct the verb.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
Neither poverty nor riches are injurious to a man whose heart is right with God. Whether one or more were concerned in the business, does not yet appear. Neither this man nor his parents have sinned. The hardships of the campaign, or the shame of defeat, have brought him to a premature grave.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He or they was offended at it. The cares of this life, or the deceitfulness of riches, has choked the seeds of virtue in many a promising mind. Neither the king nor his ministers de- serves to be praised.
f His meat were locusts and wild honey. His chief occupation and enjoyment were con- troversy.
J Thou and he shared it between them. You and he are diligent in reading their books, therefore they are good boys.
* The same observation may be made respecting the manner of sup- plying the ellipsis under this rule, that was made respecting the last. A pardonable love of brevity is the cause of the ellipsis in both, and in a thousand other instances.
t Rule I. When the verb TO BE stands between a singular and a plural nominative, it agrees with the one next it, or with the one ivhich is more naturally the subject ofit; as, "The wages of sin is death."
% Rule II. When a pronoun refers to two words of different persons, coupled with and, it becomes phtral, and agrees with the First person when I or We is mentioned ; and with the Second, when 1 or We is not men- tioned; as "John and I will lend yon our books." "James and you have learned your lessons "
100 SYNTAX.
RULE XIX. It is improper to use loth a noun and its pronoun as a nominative to the same verb ; as, John he is come home ; — *omit he.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
The king he is just. The night it was dark, and the wind it was high. My banks they are furnished with bees. The mate having per- suaded the crew to mutiny, he was put in irons. That the soul be without knowledge, it is not good.
The golden rule,f if itf had been observed, the bankrupt who lost his means without any fault of his own, he would not have been so harshly treated by his creditors. J Health, thougli it is a blessing of such worth, that money, and rank, and fame, are mere baubles in comparison, yet its true value is never known till it is impaired or lost. Whoever forms his opinion of religion from the bad conduct of many of its professors, he will form a very erroneous opinion of it indeed.
§ The modest man thoushouldst patronize him.
The friends thou hast, and their adoption tried, Grapple them to thy soul with hooks of steel.
* In some cases where the noun is highly emphatical, the repetition of it in the pronoun is not only allowable but even elegant; as in 1 Kings xviii. 39; see also Deut. xxi. 6.
t Eule and it are the two nominatives; but, contrary to the remark made at page 152, " That every noni. should belong to some verb, ex- pressed or implied," the word r^le stands by itself without having any verb with which it might agree. The same remark applies to health in the next sentence.
t It ought to be, If the golden rule had "been observed, &c.
J It ought to be, Thougli health is a blessing of such worth, &c.
% Rule, It is improper to use both a noun and its pronoun as an objectivt after the same verb ; thus, I saw her the Queen at Windsor ; omit her.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 101
RULE XX. Where the infinitive mood or a part of a sentence is the nominative to a verb, the verb should be in the third person singular / as, To err — is human, to forgive is divine.* His being idle was the cause of his ruin.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
To be temperate in eating and drinking is the best preservative of health. To take ill usage meekly marks a noble spirit. That you should be content to stand at the foot of the class surprises me.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
To be wickedly intent on doing mischief are death, but to be devoutly intent on doing good are life. To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required of all men. That warm climates should accelerate the growth of the human body, and shorten its duration, are very reasonable to believe. That it is our duty to submit to reproach, insult, and all manner of suffering, rather than do the slightest thing we know to be wrong, admit not of any doubt. His hearing no evil of a friend, nor speaking any of an enemy, were an evidence of his charity.
* The infinitive is equal to a noun ; thus, To play is pleasant, and boys love to play ; are equal to, Play is pleasant, and boys love play, p. 66, b.
The infinitive is sometimes used instead of the present participle : as, To advise ; to attempt ; or advising, attempting ; this substitution can be made only in the beginning of a sentence.
Note. Part of a sentence 'is often used as the objective after a verb: as, " You will soon find that the world does not perform what it pro- mises." What will you findl Ans. That, the world does not perform what it promises. Therefore the clause, that the world does not perform, &c., must be the objective after find. Did I not tell (to) thee, that thou wouldst bring me to ruin? Here the clause, that thou wouldst bring me to ruin, is the objective after tell.
F2
102 SYNTAX.
RULE XXL Double comparatives and super- latives are improper / thus. Mine is a more better book, but John's is the most best ; should be, Mine is a better book, but John's is the best.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
That was the most unkindest cut of all. A more happier day I never spent. All men are, in a greater or lesser degree, foolish. I am more inferior — you are more superior. He is the chiefest* among ten thousand.
His assertion was most untrue. His work is perfect ; his brother's more perfect ; and his father's the most perfect of all.
Promiscuous Exercises.
I have not heard whether he has accepted the invitation. This is certainly an useful in- vention. The time will come when no op- pressor will be able to screen themselves from punishment. The cavalry and infantry was mingled together in the utmost confusion. If thou be sure that the ice shall not break, you may slide upon it. A taste for music is more universal in Italy and Germany than in this country. A great crowd was assembled in the street, but they dispersed on the appearance of the military. The forty-second regiment suf- fered much at Waterloo, and vast numbers assembled in Edinburgh to witness their return.
* Chief, universal, perfect, true, &c., imply the superlative degree without esf, or most. In language sublime or passionate, however, the word perfect requires the superlative form to give it effect. A bride- groom enraptured with his bride would naturally call her the most perfect of her sex. Superior and inferior always imply compari- son, and require to after them.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 103
RULE XXII. Two negatives in the same sen- tence are improper /* thus, I cannot by no means allow it ; should be, I can by no means allow it, or I cannot by any means allow it.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
I cannot drink no more. He 'cannot do no- thing. I never did no harm to you. He will never be no taller. They could not travel no farther. Covet neither riches nor honours, nor no such perishing things. Nothing never affected her so much. Do not interrupt me thyself, nor let no one disturb me. I am re- solved not to comply with the proposal, neither at present, nor at any other time.
Promiscuous Exercises.
The barracks for the troops are now being built. If the applicants for relief are only ten in number, I shall be able to supply their wants. She was gayer than the gayest of the ladies which adorn the Queen's court. James and I am cousins. Thy father's merits sets thee forth to view. Extravagance, as well as parsimony, are to be avoided. Prayer does not consist in mere bowing of the knee and uttering of solemn words. His shoes were quite wore out. The whole pupils of the school were present at the examination. Neither the engine-driver nor the stokers was to blame for the accident.
* Sometimes the two negatives are intended to be an affirmative ; as, Nor did they not perceive him ; That is, they did perceive him. In this case they are proper.
When one of the negatives (such as dis, in, un, im, &c.), is joined to another word, the two negatives form a pleasing and delicate variety of expression: as, His language, though simple, is not inelegant; that is, It is elegant.
104 SYNTAX.
RULE XXIII. Adverbs are, for the most part, placed before adjectives, after verbs active or neuter, and between the auxiliary and the verb ; as, He is very attentive : She behaves icell, and is much esteemed.*
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
Mary is remarkably tall. Ann reads cor- rectly, and writes elegantly. The prince seldom sleeps as soundly as the peasant. Our blessed Lord, after being cruelly scourged, was igno- miniously crucified.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He unaffectedly and forcibly spoke., and was heard attentively by the whole assembly. In the proper disposition of adverbs, the ear carefully requires to be consulted as well as the sense.
f The women contributed all their rings and jewels voluntarily to assist the government. Having! not known, or having not considered, the measures proposed, he failed of success. It was on his own account solely that I went ; and to see him chiefly. I state merely the facts. I have no horses ; I only have a mule. He not only was wise, but good.
|| Ask me never so much money for it.
* This is but a general rule. For it is impossible to give an exact and determinate one for the placing of adverbs on all occasions. The easy flow and perspicuity of the phrase ought to be chiefly regarded.
t The adverb is sometimes placed with propriety before the verb, or Rt some distance after it : as, The women voluntarily contributed all their rings and jewels, &c. They carried their proposition farther.
Adverbs of inference, affirmation, and contingency are generally placed at the beginning of a sentence ; as, Therefore I conclude. Doubtless he will come : Perhaps he will not.
t Not, when it qualifies the present participle, comes before it.
| Never is often improperly used for ever; thus, "If 1'walk nevtr so fast," should be " ever so fast."
EULES AND EXERCISES. 105
RULE XXIV, Adjectives should not be used as adverbs j nor adverbs as adjectives y as, Remarkable well, for remarkably well ; Thy often indisposi- tion? for thy freauent indisposition; or,
Adverbs qualify adjectives and verbs. — Adjectives qualify nouns. EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
They are miserable poor. They behaved the noblest. He fought bolder than his brother. He lived in a manner agreeably to the dic- tates of reason and religion. He was extreme prodigal, and his property is now near ex- hausted. They lived conformable to the rules of prudence. He speaks very fluent, reads excellent, but does not think very coherent. They came agreeable to their promise, and conducted themselves suitable to the occasion. They hoped for a soon and prosperous issue to the war.
* From hence it follows. From whence come ye? We went from thence to Oxford. Where f are you going ? Bid him come here immediately. We walked there in an hour. He drew up a petition wherej he too frequently represented his own merit. He went to London last year, since when I have not seen him. The situation where I found him.
* Rule I. From should not be used before hence, thence, and whence, because it is implied. — In many cases, however, the omission of from would render the language stiff and disagreeable.
t Rule II. After verbs of motion, hither, thither, and whither, should be used, and not here, there, and where.
J Rule III. When should not be used as a noun, nor where, for in which, &c. For while, see Key, 235.
Some adjectives are occasionally used to modify the action of verbs, and to express the quality of things connected with the action where adverbs would not do : as, Plow deep. Put him right. — Pronounce that vowel short. — Cut close. Such phrases are deemed good English.
106 SYNTAX.
RULE XXV. The comparative degree, and the pronoun other, require than after them, and such requires as ; as, Greater than I ; — No other than he ; — Such as do well.*
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
Gold is softer than silver, but harder than tin. No other than a fool would make such a rash promise. Such a studious boy as Charles is sure to take a higher place than Henry, though the latter is the cleverer of the two.t
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He has little more of the scholar besides the name. Be ready to succour such persons who need thy assistance. They had no sooner risen but they applied themselves to their studies. This is none other but the gate of paradise. To trust in him is no more but to acknowledge his power.
f James is the wisest of the two. He is the likeliest of any other to succeed. Jane is the wittier of the three, not the wiser. Of two evils choose the least. Which of these two roads is the shortest? Which is the greater poet, Homer, Virgil, or Milton ?
Of two such lessons why forget The noblest and the manliest one ?
* Such, meaning either a consequence, or so great, requires that ; as, His behaviour was such, that I ordered him to leave the room. Such is the influence of money, that few can resist it.
t Rule. When two objects are compared, the comparative is generally used; but when more than two, the superlative: as, This is the younger of the two ; Mary is the wisest of them all.
When the two objects form a group, or are not so much opposed to each other as to require than before the last, some respectable writers use the superlative, and say, " James is the wisest of the two." " He is the weakest of the two." The superlative is often more agreeable to the ear; nor is the sense injured. In many cases a strict adherence to the comparative form renders the language too stiff and formal.
RULES AND EXEECISES. 107
RULE XXVI.. A pronoun after than, or as, either agrees with a verb, or is governed by a verb or preposition understood ; as. He is wiser than I (am) ; she loved him more than (she loved) me.*
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
You praise my cousin more than me, but he is not more deserving than I. They have bet- ter abilities than we ; and the prize would have been gained by them, not us, if they had been as diligent as we.'
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
John can write better than me. He is as good as her. Thou art a much greater Joser than me by his death. She suffers hourly more than me. They know how to write as well as him ; but he is a better grammarian than them. They are greater gainers than us. She is not so learned as him. If the king give us leave, we may perform the office as well as them that do.
t Who betrayed her companion ? Not me. Whom did you meet ? He. Who bought that book ? Him. Whom did you see there ? He and his sister. Whose pen is this ? Mine's.
* When who immediately follows than, it is used improperly in the objective case ; as, " Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned ;" — than whom is not grammatical. It ought to be, than who; because who is the nom. to was understood — Than whom is as bad a phrase as, "He is taller than him.1' It is true that some of our bes£ writers have used than whom; but it is also true, that they have used other phrases which we have rejected as un grammatical ; then why not re- ject this too ?
f Rule. — The word containing the answer to a question must:le in the same case with the word which asks it: as, Who said that?- I (said it). Whose books are these? John's (books).
108 SYNTAX.
RULE XXVII. The distributive pronouns, each, every, either, neither, agree with nouns and verbs in the singular number only ; as, Each of his brothers is in a favourable situation ; Every man is accountable for himself ; Either of them is good enough.*
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
Every face has its own peculiar expression. Either of the two is at your disposal. Neither of the combatants was prepared for so hard an encounter.
Each look'd to sun, and stream, and plain, As what he ne'er might see again.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Let each esteem others better than them- selves. Every one of the letters bear date after his banishment. Each of them, in their turn, receive the benefits to which they are entitled. Neither of them seem to have any idea that their opinions may be ill-founded. Are either of these men your friend ?
f The giant had on every hand six fingers, and on every foot six toes.
J The king of Israel and the king of Judah sat either of them on his throne.
* Each relates to two or more objects, and signifies loth of the two, or every one of any number taken singly.
t Every relates to more than two objects, and signifies each of them taken individually. — It may be followed by a plural noun when the objects are taken collectively. Thus, it is quite correct to say, Every six months.
Either signifies the one or the other, but not loth. Neither imports not either.
\ Either is sometimes improperly used instead of each ; as, The city London stands partly on either side of the river Thames ; instead of, on each side of the river.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 109
RULE XXVIII. When two persons or things are contrasted, that refers to the first mentioned, and this to the last; as, Virtue and vice are as opposite to each other as light and darkness ; that ennobles the mind, this debases it.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Wealth and poverty are both temptations ; this tends to excite pride, that discontentment. Religion raises men above themselves, irreli- gion sinks them beneath the brutes ; that binds them down to a poor pitiable speck of per- ishable earth, this exalts them to the skies. Honesty and dishonesty are opposite qualities ; this enhances a man's character, that degrades it. Black and white are opposite colours, and produce opposite effects ; the latter absorbs heat, and is therefore cold : the former reflects it, and is therefore warm : — hence we use shirts and sheets of white, because they keep the heat better.
* Moses and Solomon were men of the highest renown ; the latter was remarkable for his meekness, the former was renowned for his wisdom. I have always preferred cheerfulness to mirth ; the former I consider as an act, the latter as a habit of the mind. Body and soul must part ; the former wings its way to its almighty source, the latter drops into the dark and noisome grave.
* Former and latter are often used instead of that, and this. They are alike in both numbers.
That and this are seldom applied to persons ; but former and latter are applied to persons and things indiscriminately. In most cases, however, the repetition of the noun is preferable to either of them.
G
110 SYNTAX.
RULE XXIX. In the use of verbs and words, that in point of time relate to each other, the order of time must be observed ; for example, I remember him these many years, should be, I have remembered him, &c.*
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
I know that worthy family more than twenty years, and they continue to honour me with their friendship all that time. The next new- year's day I shall be at school three years. The court laid hold on all the opportunities which the weakness or necessities of princes afford it, to extend its authority. He studies hard that he might have a well informed mind. His sickness was so great, that I often feared he would have died before our arrival. It has long been known that the ford could be safely taken only in summer.
f I always intended to have rewarded my son according to his merit. We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. From the little conversation I had with him, he appeared to have been a man of letters. It was a pleasure to have received his approbation of my labours.
I intended to have written you last week.
J I have been at London last year. He has been told three months ago not to tell lies. He has done it before. He has lately lost an only son.
* The best general rule that can be given, is To observe what the sense necessarily requires.
t Rule. After the Past Tense, the present infinitive (and not the per- fect) should be used; as, I intended to write to my father, and not, I in- tended to have written: — for however long it now is since I thought of writing, to write was then present to me, and must still be considered as present when I bring back that time, and the thoughts of it. J See page 25, Middle.— Key, p. 121.
RULES AND EXERCISES. Ill
UULE XXX. It is improper to place a clause of a sentence between a possessive case and the word which usually follows it ; thus, He slept at the Duke's, as it is called, Arms ; should le, He slept at the Duke's Arms, as it is called.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
They very justly condemned the prodigal's, as he was called, senseless and extravagant conduct. They implicitly obeyed the protec- tor's, as they called him, imperious mandates. Beyond this, the arts cannot be traced of civil society. These are David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish people's psalms. This is Paul's, the Christian hero, and great apostle of the Gentiles' advice. The last month, as you know, of the year is December.
* Howsoever beautiful they appear, they have no real merit. In whatsoever light we view him, his conduct will bear inspection. On whatsoever side they are contemplated, they appear to advantage. Howsoever much he might despise the maxims of the king's ad- ministration, he kept a total silence on that subject. No man should voluntarily go in the way of temptation, howsoever high his previous attainments in virtue.
t Whoso is habitually idle will at last feel sorrow and regret.
* Rule. Whichsoever and whatsoever are often divided by the inter- position of the corresponding word ; thus, On whichsoever side the king cast his eyes : Should be, On which side soever the king, &c.
I think this rule unnecessary, if not improper. — It would be better to say, However beautiful, &c. See my reasons, Key, p. 123, Nos. 247-8-9.
f Whoso is an old word used instead of he that ; as, Whoso is indolent will never be happy ; it should be, He that, &c.
112 SYNTAX.
RULE XXXI. Before names of places.
To— is used after a verb of motion ; as, We went to Spain.
At — is used after the verb to be ; as, I was at Leith.
In — is used before names of countries and large cities ; as, I live
in England, in London.
At — is used before villages, towns, and foreign cities ; as, He resided at Gretna Green ; at Leeds ; at Home.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
They have just arrived in Leith, and are going to Dublin. They will reside two months at England. I have been to London, after having resided at France ; and I now live in Bath. I was in the place appointed long be- fore any of the rest. We touched in Liver- pool on our way for New York. He resides in M avisbank in Scotland. She has lodgings at George Square.*
t Ah ! unhappy thee, who are deaf to the calls of duty and of honour. O happy t us, surrounded with so many blessings. Woe's he, for he is a confirmed drunkard.
* One inhabitant of a city, speaking of another's residence, says, He stays in Bank Street; or if the word number be used, at No. — Princes Street.— K. 195-6.
f Rule. The interjections Oh f and Ah I &c. generally require the objective case of the first personal pronoun, and the nominative of the second; as, Ah me! O thou fool! O ye hypocrites! Woe's thou, would be improper; it should be, Woe's thee; that is, Woe is to thee.
J Interjections sometimes require the objective case after them, but they never govern it. In the first edition of this Grammar, I followed Mr Murray and others in leaving we, in the exercises, to be turned into us • but that it would be we, and not us, is obvious ; because it is the Norn, to are understood; Thus, Oh happy are we, or Oh we are happy (being) surrounded with so many blessings.
As interjections, owing to quick feelings, express only the emotion of the mind, without stopping to mention the circumstances that produced them ; many of the phrases in which they occur are very elliptical, and therefore a verb or preposition must be understood. Me, for instance, in 'Ah me, is governed by befallen or upon understood; Thus, Ah* what mischief has befallen me, or come upon me.
Oh is used to express the emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise.
0 is used to express wishing, exclamation, or a direct address to a person.
RULES AND EXERCISES.
113
RULE XXXII. Certain words andphrases must be followed with appropriate prepositions ; such as,
Accuse of Abhorrence of Acquit of Adapt to Agreeable to Averse to — see P- 115> 6- Bestow upon Boast or brag of* Call on or for — P- 114» b- Change for Confide mf Conformable to Compliance with
Exception from
Expert at or in
Fall under
Free /row
Glad o/or at — P- 115' b-
Independent of or on
Insist upon
Made of
Marry to
Martyr for
Need of
Observance of
Prejudice against
Profit by
Consonant to
ConversantwzYA, in— P-115»J- Provide with
Dependent upon — P-114>&- Reconcile to
Derogation from Reduce under or to — P- 115-
Die o/or by Regard to,
Differ from Replete with
Difficulty in Resemblance to
Diminution of Resolve on
Disappointed in or of— P- 151- Swerve from
Disapprove of \
Discouragement to
Dissent from
Eager in
Engage in
Taste for or o/— P- 152- Think of or on — P- 114» True to Wait on Worthy o/§
* Boast is often used without of; as, For if I have boasted anything.
t The same preposition that follows the verb or adverb generally fol- lows the noun which is derived from it: as, Confide in, confidence in; disposed to tyrannize, a disposition to tyranny; independently of.
t Disapprove and approve are frequently used without of.
$ Of IB sometimes omitted, and sometimes inserted after worthy.
Many of these words take other prepositions after them to express other meanings ; thus, for example, Fall in, to concur, to comply. Fall off, to forsake. Fall out, to happen. Fall upon, to attack. Fall to, to begin eagerly to eat ; to apply himself to. Fall /row, to revolt from.
114 SYNTAX.
EXERCISES ON EULE xxxn.
He was totally* dependent of the papal crown. He accused the minister for betraying the Dutch. You have bestowed your favours to the most deserving persons. His abhorrence to gaming was extreme. I differ with you. The English were very different then, to what they are now. In compliance to his father's advice. I dissent with the judgment of the court. It is no discouragement for the authors. The wisest princes need not think it any dimi- nution to their greatness, or derogation to their sufficiency, to rely upon counsel. Is it con- sonant with our nature? Conformable with this plan. Agreeable with the sacred text. Call for your uncle.f
The river abounds with trout. He had no regard for his father's commands. Thy pre- judice to my cause. It is more than they thought for.J There is no need for it. Re- conciling himself with the king. No resem- blance with each other. Upon such occasions as fell into their cognizance. I am engaged with writing. We profit from experience. He swerved out of the path. He is resolved in going to the Persian court. Expert of his work.
* Dependent, dependence, &c. are spelled indifferently with a or e in the last syllable.
t Call for — is to demand, to require. Call on, is to pay a short visit; to request ; as, While you call on him — I shall call for a bottle of wine.
£ The authorities for think of and think on are nearly equal. The latter, however, abounds more in the Scriptures than the former; as, Think on me when it shall be well with thee : Think upon me for good: Whatsoever things are true, &c. think on these things. But think o/ia perhaps more common in modern publications.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 115
EXERCISES ON KULE xxxn.
Expert on deceiving. The Eomans reduced the world* to their own power. He provided them of every thing. We insist in it. He seems to have a taste in such studies.
He died for thirst. He found none on whom he could safely confide. He was accused for it. It was very well adapted for the purpose. He acquitted me from any imputation. You are conversant f with that science. They boast in their great riches. Call of James to walk with you. When we have had a true taste for the pleasures of virtue, we can have no relish for those of vice. I rejoic in your success. He is glad of accidents.:): She is glad at his company. A strict observance after times and fashions. This book is replete in errors. These are exceptions to the general rule. He died a martyr to Christianity. This change is to the better. His productions were scrupulously exact, and conformable with all the rules of correct writing. He died of the sword. She finds a difficulty of fixing her mind. This prince was naturally averse § from war. A freeholder is bred with an aversion from subjection.
* Reduce under is to subdue. In other cases to follows it; as, To reduce to practice, to fractions, &c.
t We say conversant with men in things. Addison has conversant among the writings of the most polite authors, and conversant about worldly affairs. Conversant with is preferable.
| Glad of is perhaps more proper, when the cause of joy is something gained or possessed; and glad at, when something befalls another; as, Jonah was exceedingly glad o/the gourd; He that is glad at the misfor- tunes of others rarely escapes misfortune himself.
% Averse and aversion require to after them rather than from ; but both are used, and sometimes even by the same author.
116 SYNTAX.
RULE XXXIII. All the parts of a sentence should corres- pond to each other, and a regular and dependent construction throughout be carefully preserved.* For example, the sen- tence, " He was more beloved, but not so much admired, as Cinthio," is inaccurate ; because more requires than after it, which is nowhere found in the sentence. It should be, He was more beloved than Cinthio, but not so much admired.
A proper choice of words, and a perspicuous arrangement, should be carefully attended to.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
The reward is his due, and it has29 already, or will hereafter, be given to him. He was guided by interests always different32, some- times contrary to those of the community. The intentions of some of these philosophers, nay of many, might29 and probably were good. No person was ever so perplexed11, or sustained25 mortifications as he has done to-day. He was more bold and active25, but not so wise and studious as his companion. Ye will not study your lessons diligently, that ye might29 be esteemed, commended, and rewarded. Sincerity is as valuable11, and even more valuable26, than knowledge. The greatest masters of critical learning differ32 among one another.
But from this dreary period the recovery of the empire was become desperate ; no wisdom could obviate its decadence. He was at one time thought to be a supposititious child.
* This rule is scarcely of any value as a rule ; for every sentence on this page, except the last two, may be corrected by the preceding rules, as the reference by small figures will show ; but it has been retained, because, where two words require a different construction, it will tend to correct the common error of forgetting the construction of the former word, and adhering to that of the latter.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 117
RULE XXXIV. Of tlie ARTICLES. A or an is used before nouns in the singular number only. The* is used before nouns in both numbers.
The article is omitted before a noun that stands for a whole species ; and before the names of minerals, metals, arts, &c.
The last of two nouns after a comparative should have no article when they both refer to one person ; as, He is a better reader than writer.
To use the Articles properly, is of the greatest importance : but it is impossible to give a rule applicable to every case.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Reason was given to a man to control his passions. The gold is corrupting. A man is the noblest work of the creation. Wisest and best men are sometimes betrayed into errors. We must act our part with a constancy, though reward of our constancy be distant. The odour or the smell of a body is part of the body itself. Purity has its seat in the heart : but extends its influence over so much of outward conduct, as to form the great and material part of a cha- racter. At worst, I could but incur a gentle reprimand. The profligate man is seldom or never found to be the good husband, the good father, or the beneficent neighbour.
f He has been much censured for paying a little attention to his business. So bold a breach of order called for little severity in punishing the offender.
* The is used before an individual representing the whole of its species, when compared with another individual representing another species ; thus, The dog is a more grateful animal than the cat; i. e. All dogs are more grateful than cats.
t A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by the use or omis- sion of the article a. If I say, he behaved with a little reverence; I praise hira a little. If I say, he behaved with little reverence ; I blame him.
G2
118 SYNTAX.
RULE XXXV. An ellipsis, or omission of some words, is fre- quently admitted. Thus, instead of saying, He was a learned man, he was a wise man, and he was a good man ; we say, He was a learned, wise, and good man.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
A house and a garden. The laws of God, and the laws of man. Avarice and cunning may acquire an estate; but avarice and cun- ning cannot gain friends. His crimes had brought him into extreme distress, and ex- treme perplexity. He has an affectionate brother and an affectionate sister. By pre- sumption, and by vanity, we provoke enmity, and we incur contempt. Our duties require to be impressed on us by admonition, and to be recommended by example. He is temperate, he is disinterested, he is benevolent. Per- severance in laudable pursuits will reward all our toils, and will produce effects beyond our calculation. He went, not by the road, but through the fields, in the hope of thereby shortening his journey. Destitute of principle, he regarded neither his family, nor his friends, nor his reputation. He insulted every man and every woman in the company. The temper of him who is always in the bustle of the world, will be often ruffled and will be often disturbed.
* He regards his word, but thou dost not regard it. They must be punished, and they shall be punished. We succeeded, but they did not succeed.
* The auxiliaries of the compound tenses are often used svlone : as, We have done it, but thou hast not ; i. e. thou hast not done it.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 119
RULE XXXVI. An ellipsis is not allowable when it would obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be attended with an im- propriety; for example, " We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen," should be, We speak that which we do know, and testify that which we have seen.
EXERCISES.
* A noble spirit disdaineth the malice of fortune ; his greatness of soul is not to be cast down. A house andf orchard. A horse and ass. A learned and amiable young man. I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me. A taste for useful knowledge will provide for us a great and noble entertainment when others leave us. They enjoy also a free constitution and laws. The captain had several men died in his ship of the scurvy. I must, however, be so candid to own I have been mistaken. The sacrifices of virtue will not only be rewarded hereafter, but recompensed even in this life. Oh, piety ! Virtue ! how insensible have I been to thy charms ! That is a property most men have, or at least may attain. There is nothing men are more deficient in, than knowing their own characters. Why do some men injure their own reputation by doing that which is not law- ful to do? Neither has he, nor any other per- sons, suspected so much dissimulation.
* A noble spirit disdaineth, &c. should be, A man of a noble spirit disdaineth, &c. This will render the sentence consistent with the rules of grammar and with common sense ; to talk of the soul of a spirit is ridiculous.
t The article being once expressed, the repeiition of it becomes un- necessary, except when a different form of it is requisite ; as, A house and an orchard ; and when some peculiar emphasis requires a repeti- tion ; as, Not only the year, hut t?te day and the hour, were appointed.
120 SYNTAX.
CONSTRUCTION.
The four folio-wing lines are construed by way of example. They were parsed at page 66. They are construed here, because the pupil should now be able to apply the Rules of Syntax.
Oh how stupendous was the power That raised me with a word ;
And* every day and every hour, I lean upon the Lord.
How stupendous, adverbs are for the most part placed before adjec- tives, &c. A power ia understood thus ; stupendous a powerj an adjective agrees with a noun. A power, the article a is used before nouns in the singular number only — the power, the is used before nouns in both numbers — the power was, a verb agrees with its no- roinative — the power that, the relative agrees with its antecedent, &c. That raised, a verb agrees with its nom. liaised me, an active verb governs the objective case — With a word, prepositions govern the objective — A word — A is used before nouns in the singular, &c. (During is understood) during every day, prepositions govern the objective case — Every day, an adjective agrees with a noun — Day and hour, conjunctions couple the same cases of nouns and pronouns; for hour is governed by during understood again — Every hour, an adjective agrees, &c. I lean, a verb agrees with its nominative — Upon the Lord, prepositions govern the objective case.
The possessive pronouns, My, Thy, His, Her, Our, Tour, Their, and Its, must be construed exactly like nouns in the possessive case, for a pronoun is an exact resemblanca of a noun in every thing but one; namely, it will not admit of an adjective before it like a noun. His is equal to Johris, and her to Ann's, and their to the men's, in the following sentences.
John lost his gloves, t. e. John lost John's gloves. Ann found her book, t. e. Ann found Ann's book. The men took off their hats, i. e. the men took off the men's hats. The garden is productive, and its fruit is good, i. e. the garden's fruit. In all these cases, and in such phrases as, my house, thy field — our lands — your estates — their pro- perty— whose horse — the rule is, " When two nouns come together, signifying different things, the first is put in the possessive case."
* It is impossible to construe bad grammar. And here is so very vaguely used, that the rule, " Conjunctions couple the same moods and tenses of verbs, and the same cases of nouns and pronouns," will not apply in this passage.
f Or, how stupendous the power was ; but it is certainly better to sup- ply a power, thus ; 0 how stupendous a power was the power that raised me with a word.
EXERCISES. 121
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON THE RULES OF SYNTAX.
John writes pretty. Come here, James. Where are you going, Thomas ? I shall never do so no more. The structure of plants are highly curious. Was you present at last meeting ? He need not be in so much haste. He dare not act otherwise than he does. Him whom they seek is in the house. George or I is the person. They or he is much to be blamed. The troop consist of fifty men. She has been ill this two months. A pillar sixty foot high. His conduct evinced the most ex- treme vanity. These trees are remarkable tall. He acted bolder than was expected. This is he who I gave the book to. Eliza always ap- pears amiably. She goes there to-morrow. From whence came they ? Who do you lodge with now? He was born at London, but he died in Bath. If he be sincere I am satisfied. Her father and her were at church. The mas- ter requested him and I to read more distinctly. It is no more but his due. Flatterers flatter as long and no longer than they have expectations of gain. John told the same story as you told. This is the largest tree which I have ever seen.
122 SYNTAX.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
Let he and I read the next chapter. She is free of pain. Those sort of dealings are unjust. David the son of Jesse was the youngest of his brothers. You was very kind to him, he said. Well, says I, what does you think of him now? James is one of those boys that was kept in at school, for bad behaviour. Thou, James, did deny the deed. Neither good nor evil come of them- selves. We need not to be afraid. He ex- pected to have gained more by the bargain. You should drink plenty of goat milk. It was him who spoke first. Do you like ass milk ? Is it me that you mean ? Who did you buy your grammar from ? If one takes a wrong method at first setting out, it will lead them astray. Neither man nor woman were present. I am more taller than you. She is the same lady who sang so sweetly. He was a member of the most strictest society of Christians I ever saw. Is not thy wickedness great? and thine iniquities infi- nite ? There was more sophists than one. If a person have lived twenty or thirty years, he should have some experience. If this were his meaning, the prediction has failed. Fidelity and truth is the foundation of all justice. His associates in wickedness will not fail to mark the alteration of his conduct. My father and my mother they set me a good example.
EXERCISES. 123
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
The crowd were so great that the Lord Mayor and Aldermen with difficulty made their way through them. Why find fault with a man if he have done thee no harm ? I wrote to, and cautioned the captain against it. Every mem- ber of the body, every bone, joint, and muscle, lie exposed to many disorders. He acted in- dependent in the transaction. It is not me who he is in love with. He which commands him- self, commands the whole world. Nothing is more lovelier than virtue.
The peoples happiness is the statesmans honour. Changed to a worser shape thou canst not be. I have drunk no spirituous li- quors this six years. He is taller than me, but I am stronger than him. Solid peace and contentment consists neither in beauty or riches, but in the favour of Heaven. After who did you run in so much haste? I met your father, than who a worthier man is not to be found. Abuse of mercies ripen us for judge- ment. Peter and John is not at school to-day. Three of them was taken into custody. To study diligently, and behave genteelly, is com- mendable. The enemies who we have most to fear are those of our own hearts. Eegulus was reckoned the most consummate warrior that Rome could then produce. Suppose life never so long, fresh accessions of knowledge may still be made.
124 SYNTAX.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
Surely thou who reads so much in the Bible, can tell me what became of Elijah. Neither the master nor the scholars is read- ing. Trust not him, whom, you know, is dishonest. I love no interests but that of truth and virtue. Every one of the rebels were banished from his native country. No one can be blamed for taking due care of their health. If I had known the distress of my friend, it would be a pleasure to me to relieve him.
I have read Popes Homer, and Drydens Virgil. He that is diligent you should com- mend. There was an earthquake which made the earth to tremble. A simile and a metaphor is figures of speech which nearly resembles each other. I cannot commend him for justi- fying hisself when he knows that his conduct was so very improper. He was very much made on at school. Wisdom and virtue is undoubtedly a better inheritance than gold and silver. If he is alone, tell him the news ; but if there is anybody with him, do not tell him. They ride faster than us. Though the news be strange, it is not unworthy of credit. If he does but approve my endeavours, it will be an ample reward. Was it him who came last ? Yes, it was him.
For ever in this humble cell,
Let thee and I, ray fair one, dwell.
Before the discovery was made of America30.
EXERCISES. 125
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
Every man should act suitable to his char- acter and station in life. His speech was de- livered very distinct. I only spoke three words on that subject. The ant and the bee sets a good example before dronish boys. Neither borrow, neither lend, lest thou lose thy loan and friend. I expected to have found him better. Hannibal was one of the greatest generals whom the world ever saw. The middle station of life seems to be the most ad- vantageously situated for gaining of wisdom.
These are the rules of grammar, by the ob- serving which you may avoid mistakes. The king conferred on him the title of a duke. My exercises are not well wrote, I do not hold my pen well. Grammar teaches us to speak proper. She accused her companion for hav- ing betrayed her. I will not dissent with her. Nothing shall make me swerve out of the path of duty and honour. Who shall I give it to ? Who are you looking for ? It is a diminution from, or a derogation of his dignity. It fell into their notice or cognizance. He writes as well as me, but I read better than him. That is a book which I am much pleased with. I have been to see the coronation, and a fine sight it was. That picture of the emperor's is a very exact resemblance of him. Every thing that we here enjoy, change, decay, and come to an end. It is not him they blame so much.
126 SYNTAX.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
No people has more faults than they that pretend to have none. The laws of Draco is said to have been wrote with blood. It is so clear, or so obvious, as I need not explain it. She taught him and I to read. The more greater a bad man's accomplishments are, the more dangerous he is to society, and the more less fit for a companion. All have their faults, and each should endeavour to correct their own. Let your promises be few, and such that you can perform.
His being at enmity with Caesar and An- tony were the cause of perpetual discord. Their being forced to their books when out of school and tired with study, have been the reason why many have hated books all their lives. There was a coffee-house at that end of the town, in which several gen- tlemen used to meet of an evening. Do not despise the state of the poor, lest it be- comes your own condition. It was his duty to have interposed his authority in an affair of so much importance. He spent his whole life in the doing good. Art thou the traveller who discoveredst these interesting remains? The winter has not been so severe as we expected it to have been. When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune overtake us, the character and kindness of our friends is put to the test. Whoever said so, he has told a falsehood.
EXERCISES. 127
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
. A lampoon, or a satire, does not carry in them robbery or murder. Neither you nor she were mistaken in her conjectures. My sister and I, as well as my brother, are employed in their respective occupations. He repents him of that indiscreet action. It was me, and not him, that wrote it. A clock cannot go without a weight or spring. I shall take care that no one shall suffer no injury. Both Luther and Melancthon were sincere and zealous Re- formers ; but Luther was the most intrepid. This jackanapes has hit me in a right place enough. Two times two is four. Ten times ten is one hundred. It is her riches, not her beauty, that attracts so many suitors. To do to others as we would that they should do to us, it is our duty. This grammar was pur- chased at Ogle's the bookseller's. The council was not unanimous.
Who spilt the ink upon the table? Him. Who lost this book ? Me. Whose pen is this ? Johns. There is in fact no impersonal verbs in any language. He differs very much in opinion with his brother. Had I never seen ye, I had never known ye. The ship Mary and Ann were restored to their owners. If we consult the improvement of mind? or the health of body, it is well known exercise is the great instrument for promoting both. A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read them in a poem.
128 SYNTAX.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
I had no sooner placed her at my right hand, by the fire, but she opened to me the reason of her visit. A prudent wife, she shall be blessed. The house you speak of, it cost me five hundred pounds. Steady application, as well as genius, are necessary to eminence in the fine arts. Not only the counsel's and attorney's, but the judge's opinion also fa- voured his cause. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot, to suffer great calamities. Leaves serve the same purpose in the vegetable world, which lungs do amongst animals. This palace had been the grand Sultan's Mahomet, This clock is seldom or ever right. Though he behave never so well.
* I am purposed. He is arrived. They are deserted from their regiment. Whose works are these ? They are Cicero, the most eloquent of men's. The mighty rivals are now at length agreed. The time of Wil- liam making the experiment at length arrived. Let them be whom they may, we will boldly confront them. The group of islands were soon in sight. This picture of the king's does not much resemble him. These pictures of the king were sent to him from Italy. He who committed the offence, thou shouldst correct, not I, who am innocent.
* Rule. It is improper to use a neuter verb in the passive form. Thus, I am purposed — He is arrived : should be, I have purposed — He has
arrived. From this rule there are a number of exceptions ; for it
ie allowable to say, He is coine. She is gone, &c.
EXERCISES. 129
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
But Thomas, one of the twelve, called Di- dymus, was not with the disciples at that time. These are observations, that a long and chequered pilgrimage have enabled me to make on man. After I visited Europe, I returned to America. To us is now ad- dressed in the gospels our blessed Saviour's words. In his conduct was treachery, and in his words faithless professions. The ora- tors did not forget to enlarge themselves on so popular a subject. He acted conform- able with his instructions, and cannot be censured justly.
No person could speak stronger on this subject, nor behave nobler, than our young advocate, for the cause of toleration. They were studious to ingratiate with those who they believed to be the chief men of the tribe. The house framed a remonstrance, where they spoke with great freedom of the king's pre- rogative. Neither flatter or contemn the rich or the great. Many would exchange gladly their grandeur and riches, for that more quiet and humbler station, which thou art now dis- satisfied with. He esteemed it a high honour to have been allowed to converse with the princes. Many persons will not believe but what they are free from prejudices. It is very masterly done. This word I have only found in Spenser. The king being apprized of the conspiracy, he fled from Jerusalem.
130 SYNTAX.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
A too great variety of studies dissipate and confuse the mind. James was resolved to not indulge himself in such a cruel amuse- ment. They admired the rustic's, as they called him, candour and uprightness. The pleasure or pain of one passion differ from those of another. The court of Spain, who* gave the order, were not aware of the con- sequences. There was much spoke and wrote on either side of the question, but I know not which of the contending parties were in the right.
Religion raises men above themselves; ir- religion sinks them beneath the brutes ; that binds them down to a speck of perishable earth ; this gives them wings to soar to the skies. Every element seemed to conspire towards the destruction of the ship. There were rugged precipices on either side of the river. This task was the easier performed, from the cheerfulness with which he em- barked on it. It is easier to build two chimneys than maintain one. As his mis- fortunes were the fru,it of his own obstinacy, a few persons pitied him. To these terms he had no objections to comply. Riches is the bane of many, and a blessing only to a few. I wrote to my brother before I received his letter.
* Which is applied to collective nouns composed of men. — See p. 153, mid.
EXERCISES. 131
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
When Garrick appeared, Peter was for some time in doubt whether it could be him or not. Are you living contented in spiritual darkness ? The company was very numerous. Every office of authority should be intrusted to persons on whom the public can confide. The shepherd was observed ascend the hill. You did not acquaint me with what you in- tended to have done. There remains but two obstacles to be surmounted. Nor let no com- forter delight my ear. She was six years elder than him. They were obliged to contribute more than us. The Barons had little more to rely on, besides the power of their families. The sewers (shores) must be kept so clear, as the water may run away. Such among us who follow that profession. Nobody is so sanguine to hope for it. She behaved un- kinder than I expected. Agreeable to your request I send this letter. Thomas is not as docile as his sister. There was no other book but this. He died by a fever. Every man's heart and temper is productive of much joy or bitterness. What avails professions of sanctity without a holy life ? The army were drawn up in haste. The public is respectfully informed, that, &c. His uneasiness, not to say his apprehensions, were shared by his follow- ers. Who art thou who would oppose the king ? Henry, though at first he showed an unwil- lingness, yet afterwards he granted his request.
132 SYNTAX.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
Him and her live very happily together. She invited Jane and I to see her new dress. She uttered such cries that pierced the heart of every one who heard them. Maria is not as clever as her sister Ann. Though he promises ever so solemnly, I will not be- lieve him. The full moon was no sooner up in its brightness, but she turned the dark waters of the lake into a mirror of silver. It rendered the progress very slow of the new invention. This book is Thomas', that is James'. Socrates's wisdom has been the subject of many a conversation. Fare thee well, James. Who, who has the judgement of a man, would have drawn such an inference ? George was the most diligent scholar whom I ever knew. I have observed some children to use deceit. He durst not to displease his master. I trust I shall profit from your advice and by your example. Several of our English words, some centuries ago, had different mean- ings to those they have now. Take not away the life36 you cannot give. With this booty he made off to a distant part of the country, where he had reason to believe that neither he nor his master were known. You should be happy ; for yours is health, wealth, and wisdom too. I have been at London. Which is likely to tell the true time — the railway clock or your watch? Thompson, the watchmaker and the jeweller, from London were of the party.
EXERCISES. 133
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
Which of the two masters shall we most esteem ? He who commends his scholars when they are diligent, and strives to inspire them with a generous emulation, or another who will lash them severely for every mistake or blunder, however slight, into which they have fallen? The doctor, in his last lecture, said that fever always produced thirst. Every person who was consulted were of this opinion. Mankind is more united by the bonds of friendship at pres- ent than it was formerly. The most perfect pleasures in this world are always mingled with some bitterness. The excellence of many dis- courses consist in their brevity. If you are reproved for your faults, be not angry with him that reproves you ; but thank him for it. Your peace will be more unbroken.
She always behaved with great severity to her maids ; and if any of them were negligent of their duty, or made a slip in their conduct, nothing would serve her but burying the poor girls alive. He had no master to instruct him ; he had read nothing but the writings of Moses and the prophets, and had received no lessons from the Socrates's,* the Plato's, and the Con- fucius's of the age. There is no disease as dangerous as the want of common sense.
* The Possessive cote must not be used for the plural number. In thia quotation from Baron Haller's Letters to his Daughter, the proper names should have been pluralized like common nouns ; thus, From the Sn- crateses, the Platoes, and the Confuciuses of the age.
H
134 SYNTAX.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
If it were not for the Bible and the pulpit, most of us would be still as ignorant of the true God and eternal life, if not more ignorant, than the idolaters of ancient Greece and Rome.
Every man that counts his minutes, and lets no part of time pass, without making a right use of it, him shalt thou imitate.
The Duke had not behaved with that loyalty as was expected.
Milton seems to have been well acquainted with his own genius, and known what it was that nature had bestowed upon him more boun- tifully than upon others.
John did not meet us at the hour he himself had appointed. We were shocked at his want of punctuality, and would afterwards have asked the cause.
He sought delights of a much more inferior and unprofitable nature. I saw nobody there which I knew, though, agreeable to your in- structions, I have been constantly observant of all around me.
Here rages force, here tremble flight and fear, Here storm'd contention, and here fury frown'd. The Cretan javelin reach'd him from afar, And pierced his shoulder as he mounts his car.
He only* promised me a loan of the book for two days. I was once thinking to have written a poem.
* This sentence expresses one meaning as it stands. It may be made to express other four by placing only after me, or loan, or book, or days.
EXERCISES. 135
PEOMISCUOUS EXEECISES.
A slow but attentive child will often be found to get lessons by heart as soon as, nay some- times sooner, than one who, though ten times as clever, is less industrious.
In his writings there are not only beauty of style, but originality of thought.
No man is likely to prove either an instruc- tive or an agreeable companion, if he be re- served and taciturn ; if he be fretful and peevish ; if he be positive and dogmatical in his opinions ; if he be given to self-display ; if he affect wit, and is full of puns, or quirks, or quibbles.
Though he has neither books or the means of buying them, still, as far as I can judge, he is equal to most of us in general information.
Then finish, dear Chloe, this pastoral war, And let us. like Horace and Lydia, agree ;
For thou art a girl as much brighter than her, As he was a poet sublimer than me.
There are many more shining qualities in the mind of man, but there is none so useful as discretion.
We need not to leave home and to traverse distant lands, to find marvels. Mr. Locke having been introduced by Lord Shaftesbury to the Duke of Buckingham and Lord Halifax, these three noblemen, instead of conversing with the philosopher on literary subjects, in a very short time sat down to cards.
136 SYNTAX.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. Bad Arrangement.
They proposed to divide equally the spoil.
To man has been given the power of speech only.
It is your light fantastic fools, who have nei- ther heads nor hearts, in both sexes, who, by dressing their bodies out of all shape, render themselves ridiculous and contemptible.
And how can brethren hope to partake of their parent's blessing that curse each other?
The superiority of others over us, though in trivial concerns, never fails to mortify our van- ity, and give us vexation, as Nicole admirably observes.
Noah, for his godliness, and his family, were the only persons preserved from the Flood.
What hinge could the most skilful workman contrive that might be used as often and for so long a term of years without being disordered or worn out, as our elbow-joint.
The sun is larger greatly than this whole earth, though seemingly smaller than the dial it illuminates.
A great stone that I happened to find, after a long search, by the seashore, served me for an anchor.
It is true what he says, but it is not appli- cable to the point.
On going to bed, we feel the blankets warm, on a winter night, and the sheets cold.
EXEECISES. 137
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. Bad Arrangement.*
Tlie senate of Rome ordered that no part of it should be rebuilt ; it was demolished to the ground, so that travellers are unable to say where Carthage stood at this day.
Thus ended the war with Antiochus, twelve years after the second Punic war, and two after it had been begun.
Upon the death of Claudius, the young Emperor, Nero, pronounced his funeral ora- tion, and he was canonized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of a man.
Galerius abated much of his severities against the Christians on his death-bed, and revoked those edicts which he had formerly published, tending to their persecution, a little before his death.
The first care of Aurelius was to marry his daughter Lucilla once more to Claudius Pompeianus, a man of moderate fortune, &c.
But at length, having made his guards ac- complices in their designs, they set upon Maxi- min while he slept at noon in his tent, and slew both him and his son, whom he had made his partner in the empire, without any opposition.
Aurelian defeated the Marcomanni, a fierce and terrible nation of Germany, that had in- vaded Italy, in three several engagements.
* The exercises on this page are all extracted from the octavo edition of Goldsmith's Roman History, from which many more might be got. It is amazing how mauy mistakes even our most popular authors have made.
H2
138 SYNTAX.
AMBIGUITY. You suppose him younger than I.
This may mean, either that you suppose him younger than I am, or that you suppose him to be younger than I suppose him to be.
Parmenio had served with great fidelity Philip, the father of Alexander, as well as himself, for whom he first opened the way into Asia.
Here we are apt to suppose the word himself refers to Parmenio, and means that he had not only served Philip, but he had served himself at the same time. This however is not the meaning of the passage. If we arrange it thus, the meaning will appear. " Parmenio had not only served Philip the father of Alexander with great fidelity, but he had served Alexander himself, and was the first that opened the way for him into Asia.
Belisarius was general of all the forces under the emperor Justinian the First, a man of rare valour.
Who was a man of rare valour? The emperor Justinian, we should suppose, from the arrangement of the words ; but this is not the case, for it was Belisarius. The sentence should have stood thus, u Belisarius, a man of rare valour, was general of all the forces under the emperor Justinian the First."
Lisias promised to his father never to aban- don his friends.
Whether were they his own friends or his father's whom Lisias promised never to abandon? If his own, it should be, "Lisias promised and said to his father, I will never abandon my friends. If his father's, it should be, Lisias promised and said to his father, I will never abandon your friends."
EXERCISES. 139
TAUTOLOGY.
Tautology, or the repetition of a thought or word, already fully expressed, is improper.
EXAMPLES.
The f latter end of that man shall be peace. Whenever I try to improve, I f always find I can do it. I saw it in here — I saw it here. He was *f in here yesterday when I spoke to him. Give me both of them hooks — Give me both those hooks.* They both met— They met.
I never fail to read, whenever I can get a hook — When. You must return f back immediately. First of all I shall say my lesson — First I shall say, &c. Before I do that, I must -j- first finish this. He plunged "f down into the water. Read from here to there — From this place to that. Lift f up your hook. He mentioned it f over again. This was the luckiest accident of all •}• others. 1 ran after him a little way ; hut soon returned f back f again. I cannot tell f/or why he did it. Learn f/rora hence to study the Scriptures diligently. Where shall I begin -ffrom when I read. We must do this last f o/f all. Hence f therefore, I say. I found nobody f else but him there. Smoke ascends f up into the clouds. We hastily descended f down from the mountain. He raised *f up his arm to strike me. We were f mutually friendly to each other. It should f ever be your constant study to do good. As soon as I awoke I rose •}• up and dressed myself. I leave town in the f latter end of July.
<£g* Avoid the following vulgar phrases. — Behoof, behest, fell to work, wherewithal, quoth he, do away with, long winded, chalked out, pop out, must needs, got rid of, handed down, self same, pell mell, that's your sort, tip him the wink, pitched
upon. Subject matter is a tautological phrase. /Subject is
enough ; as, The subject of this discourse : and not the subject matter — which is harsh and vulgar.
t The word immediately after the dagger is to be omitted, because it is superfluous. * These) if the person has them in his hand.
140
SYNTAX.
IMPROPER |
EXPRESSIONS. |
My every hope, — should be, |
All my hopes. |
Frequent opportunity. |
Frequent opportunities. |
Who finds him in money ? |
Who finds him money ? |
He put it in his pocket. |
He put it into his pocket. |
No less than fifty persons. |
Nofeiver than fifty persons. |
The two first steps are new. |
The first two steps are new. |
The three last verses. |
The last three verses. |
Be that as it will. |
Be that as it may. |
About two years back. |
About two years ago. |
He was to come as this day. |
He was to come this day. |
They retreated back. |
They retreated. |
It lays on the table. |
It lies on the table. |
I turned them topsy turvy. |
I overset them. |
I catch'd it. |
I caught it. |
How does thee do ? |
How dost thou do ? |
Overseer over his house. |
Overseer of his house. |
Opposite the church. |
Opposite to the church. |
Provisions were plenty. |
Provisions were plentiful. |
A new pair of gloves. |
A pair of new gloves. |
A young beautiful woman. |
A beautiful young woman. |
Where do you come from ? |
Whence do you come ? |
Where are you going ? |
WhitJter are you going ? |
For such another fault. |
For another such fault. |
Of consequence. |
Consequently. |
Having not considered it. |
Not having considered it. |
I had rather not. |
I would rather not. |
For good and all. |
Totally and completely. |
This here house, says I. |
This house, said I. |
Where is it? says I to him. |
Where is it ? said I to him. |
I propose to visit them. |
I purpose to visit them. |
He spoke contemptibly of me. |
He spoke contemptuously of me. |
It is apparent. |
It is obvious. |
In its primary sense. |
In its primitive sense. |
I heard them pro and con. |
I heard both sides. |
I an't hungry. |
I am not hungry. |
I want a scissors. |
I want a pair of scissors. |
A new pair of shoes. |
A pair of new shoes. |
I saw him some ten years ago. |
I saw him ten years ago. |
I met in with him. |
I met with him. |
The subject matter. |
The subject. (Seep. 139 near lot.) |
I add one more reason. |
I add one reason more. |
He was in eminent danger. |
In imminent. |
EXERCISES. 141
IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS.
Do you mind how many chapters are in Job ? — remember. His public character is undeniable — unexceptionable. The wool is cheaper ; — but the cloth is as dear as ever — omit the
in both places.
They gained five shillings the piece by it — a-piece. It is not worth a sixpence — sixpence. A letter conceived in the following words — expressed. He is much difficulted — at a loss; puzzled. He behaved in a very gentlemany manner— gentleman-like. The poor boy was ill-guided — ill-used. There was a great many company — much company. He has been misfortunate — unfortunate. A momentuous circumstance — momentous. You will some day repent it — one day repent of it. Severals were of that opinion — several, i. e. several persons. He did it in an overly manner — in a careless. He does everything pointedly — exactly. An honestlike man — A tall good-looking man. At the expiry of his lease — expiration, If I had ever so much in my offer — choice. Have you any word to your brother ? — message. The cock is a noisy beast— -fowl. Are you acquaint with him ? — acquainted. Were you crying on me ? — calling.
Direct your letters to me at Mr. B.'s, Edinburgh — address. He and I never cast out — never quarrel. He took a fever — was seized with a fever. He was lost in the river — drowned (if the body was got). That militates against your doctrine — operates. If I arn not mistaken — if I mistake not. You may lay your account with opposition — you may expect. He proposes to buy an estate— purposes. He pled his own cause— pleaded. Have ye plenished your house ?— furnished. I shall notice a few particulars — mention. I think much shame — / am much ashamed. Will I help you to a bit of beef ?— shall. They wared then* money to advantage— laid out. Will we see you next week ? — shall. She thinks long to see him — She longs to see him. It is not much worth — it is not worth much. They are all at issue — at variance.
142
SYNTAX.
IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS.
Is he going to the school ? — to school.
He has got the cold — a cold.
Say the grace — say grace.
I cannot go the day — to-day.
A four square table — a square table.
He is cripple — lame.
Get my big coat — great coat.
Hard fish— dried fish.
A novel fashion — new fashion.
He is too precipitant — hasty.
Roasted cheese — toasted.
Go over the bridge — across.
Sweet butter— fresh.
I have a sore head — headache.
A stupenduous work — stupendous.
A tremenduous work — tremendous.
I got timous notice — timely.
A summer's day — summer day.
An oldish lady — elderly.
A few broth — some.*
I have nothing ado — to do.
Ass milk— ass's.
Take a drink — draught.
A pair of partridges — a brace.
Six horse — horses.
A milk cow — milch.
Send me a swatch — pattern.
He lays in bed till nine— lies.
I mind none of them things — those.
Give me them books — these.
Close the door — shut.
Let him be — alone.
Call for James— on— p. 114 t b.
Chap louder — knock.
I find no pain— feel.
I mean to summons — summon.
Will I help you?— shall.
Shall James come again ? — will.
He has a timber leg — a wooden.
I an't angry—/ am not.
That there house— that house.
1 differ with you— from.
I have ate enough — eaten.
Call for your uncle — upon.
He has risen the price — raised.
That is not mine's — mine.
Go and pull berries— gather.
Pull roses— pluck or gather.
To harry a nest — rob.
He begins to make rich — grow.
Mask the tea — infuse.
I was maltreated— ill used.
He mants much — stammers.
I see'd him yesterday — saw.
A house to set— to be let—K. p. 86. &
Did you tell upon him — inform.
Come here — hither.
A house to sell— to be sold—K . p. 86
I knowed that— knew.
That dress sets her — becomes.
She turned sick — grew.
He is turned tall — grown.
This here boy — this boy.
It is equally the same — it is the same.
It is split new — quite.
That there man — that man.
What pretty it is I— how.
His is far neater — much.
That's no possible — not.
I shall go the morn — to-morrow.
I asked at him — asked him.
Is your papa in ? — within.
He was married on — to.
Come in to the fire — nearer.
Take out your glass — off.
I find no fault to him — in.
Cheese and bread — bread and cheese.
Milk and bread — bread and milk.
Don't sit on the door — near.
Come, say away — comet proceed.
Do bidding — be obedient.
He is a widow — widower.
He stops there — stays, dwells,lodgea.
Shall they return soon ? — will.
Will we go home now ? — shall.
He misguides his book — abuses.
He don't do it well — does not.
That stone lays well — lies.
I dissent with you— from.
I will stay at home — shall.
See that he does it— do it.
Where did you lay all night — lie.
* Broth is always singular — Powdered beef is beef sprinkled with salt to preserve it for a few days. Salt beef is beef properly seasoned with salt.
OBSERVATIONS. 143
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
Additional Remarks under the Ath Rule of Syntax.
1. When and is understood, the verb must be plural; as wisdom, happiness, (and) virtue, dwell with the golden mediocrity.
Some think, that when two singular nouns, coupled with and, are nearly the same in meaning, the verb may be singular ; as, Tranquillity and peace dwells there. Ignorance and negligence has pro- duced this effect. This, however, is improper ; for tranquillity and peace are two nouns or names, and two make a plural ; therefore the verb should be plural.
2. Two or more singular nouns coupled with and, require a verb in the singular number, when they denote only one person or thing; as, That able scholar and critic has been eminently useful.
3. Many writers use a plural noun after the 2d of two numeral adjectives ; thus, the first and se- cond pages are torn. This I think improper; it should rather be, The first and second page, i. e. the first page and the second page are torn : — are, per- haps ; because independently of and, they are both
in a torn state. Generation, hour, and ward are
singular in Exodus xx. 5. Matt. xx. 5. Acts xii. 10.
And and Not.
4. When not is joined to and, the negative clause forms a parenthesis, and does not affect the con- struction of the other clause or clauses ; therefore, the verb in the following and similar sentences should be singular. Genuine piety, and not great riches, makes a death-bed easy ; *, e. Genuine piety
144 SYNTAX.
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
makes a death-bed easy, and great riches do not make it easy. Her prudence, not her possessions, renders her an object of desire.
Every, And.
5. When the nouns coupled with and are qua- lified by the distributive Every, the verb should be singular ; as, Every man and woman was astonished at her fortitude. Every boy and girl was taught to read. — See Rule xxvn.
With and And.
6. When a singular noun has a clause joined to it by with, it is often difficult to determine whether the verb should be singular or plural, especially as our most reputable authors use sometimes the one and sometimes the other : for example, some would say, My uncle, with his son, was in town yesterday. Others would say, My uncle, with his son, were in town yesterday.
If we take the sense for our guide, and nothing else can guide us in a case of this kind, it is evident that the verb should be plural ; for both uncle and son are the joint subjects of our affirmation, and de- clared to be both in the same state.
When we perceive from the sense that the noun before With is exclusively the real subject, then the verb should be singular ; thus, Christ, with his three chosen disciples, was transfigured on the mount. Here the verb is singular, because we know that none but Christ was transfigured ; the disciples were not joint associates with him ; they were mere spec- tators. There seems to be an ellipsis in such sen- tences as this, which, if supplied in the present,
OBSERVATIONS. 145
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
would run thus : Christ (who was attended) with his three chosen disciples, was transfigured on the mount.
Mr. Murray, however, thinks that the verb should be singular in the following and similar sentences. " Prosperity, with humility, renders its possessor truly amiable." " The side A, with the sides B and C composes the triangle." In my opinion, on the contrary, the verb should be plural. For, in the first sentence, it is not asserted that prosperity alone renders its possessor truly amiable, but prosperity and humility united, and co-operating to produce an effect in their joint state, which they were incapable of achieving in their individual capacity.
If true, as Mr. Murray says, that " the side A" in the second sentence, is the true nominative to the verb, then it follows, of course, that the two sides, B and C, have no agency or no share in form- ing the triangle, and consequently that the side A alone composes the triangle. It is obvious, how- ever, that one side cannot form a triangle or three- sided figure, and that the sides B and C are as much concerned in forming the triangle as the side A, and therefore the verb should be plural
Upon the whole, we may venture to give the two following general rules.
1. That wherever the noun or pronoun after With exists, acts, or suffers jointly with the singular no- minative before it, the verb should be plural ; as, " She with her sisters are well." " His purse with its contents were abstracted from his pocket." " The general with his men were taken prisoners." In these sentences the verb is plural, because the words after With are as much the subject of dis-
i
146 SYNTAX.
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
course as the words before it — her sisters were iv ell, as well as she ; the contents, as well as the purse, were abstracted ; and the men, as well as the gene- ral, were taken prisoners. If, in the first example, we say — is well, then the meaning will be, she is well when in company with her sisters ; and the idea that her sisters are well will be entirely excluded.
2. When the noun after with is a mere involun- tary or inanimate instrument, the verb should be singular • as, The captain with his men catches poor Africans and sells them for slaves. The squire with his hounds kills a fox. Here the verb is sin- gular, because the men and hounds are not joint agents with the captain and squire ; they are as much the mere instruments in their hands as the gun and pen in the hands of He and She in the fol- lowing sentences. He with his gun shoots a hare. She with her pen writes a letter.
Of the Articles, with several Adjectives.
A or the is prefixed only to the first of several adjectives qualifying one noun ; as, A meek and holy man: but the article should be repeated, before each adjective, when each adjective relates to a ge- neric word applicable to every one of the adjectives. For example, "The black and white cows were sold yesterday ; the red will be sold to-morrow."
Here cows is the generic word, applicable to each of the adjectives, black, white, and red, but for want of the before white, we are led to sup- pose that the black and white cows mean only one sort, which are speckled with spots of black and white; and if this is our meaning, the sen-
OBSERVATIONS. 147
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
tence is right ; but if we mean two different sorts, the one all black and the other all white, we should insert the article before both; and say, The black and the white cows, i. e. The black cows and the white cows were sold.
Some think this distinction of little importance ; and it is really seldom attended to even by good writers ; but in some cases it is necessary, although in others there cannot, from the nature of the thing, be any mistake. In the following sentence, for in- stance, the repetition of the before horned is not necessary, although it would be proper. " The bald and horned cows were sold last week." Here there can be no mistake, two sorts were sold ; for a cow cannot be bald and horned too.
The same remark may be made respecting the Demonstrative pronouns that has been made re- specting the articles; as, " That great and good man," means only one man : but that great and that good man would mean two men ; the one a great man, the other a good.
They—Those.
They stands for a noun already introduced, and should never be used till the noun be mentioned. Those, on the contrary, points out a noun not pre- viously introduced, but generally understood. It is improper therefore to say, They who tell lies are never esteemed. They that are truly good must be happy. We should say, Those who tell lies, and those that are truly good ; because we are pointing out a particular class of persons, and not referring to nouns previously introduced. A noun when not
148 SYNTAX.
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
expressed after this, that, these, and those, is always understood.
Another — One — Every.
Another corresponds to one ; but not to some nor to every. Thus, " Handed down from every writer of verses to another,11 should be, From one writer of verses to another. " At some hour or another,1' should be, At some hour or other.
One is often used in familiar phrases (like on in French) for we or any one of us indiscriminately ; Thus, One is often more influenced by example than by precept. The verb and pronoun with which one agrees should be singular. Thus, If one take a wrong method at first, it will lead them astray : should be, It will lead one astray, or it will lead him astray.
That and those.
It is improper to apply that and those to things present or just mentioned. Thus, " They cannot be separated from the subject which follows; and for that reason/7 &c., should be, And for this reason, &c. " Those sentences which we have at present before us : " should be, These, or the sentences which we have, &c.
As Follows^; as Appears.
As is often used as a Personal or Relative pro- noun, and in both numbers, and in these cases it should be construed as a pronoun ; as, " His words were as follow," that is, His words were those which follow. Here as is plural, because words, its antecedent, is plural. His description was as follows. Here as is singular, because description, its antecedent, is singular; that is, His description was this which follows.
OBSERVATIONS. 149
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
This account of as, though in unison with Dr. Crombie's, is at variance with that of Dr. Campbell and Mr. Murray. They explain the following sen- tences thus : " The arguments advanced were nearly as follows ;" " The positions were, as appears, in- controvertible." That is, say they, " as it follows," "as it appears." What it? The thing. What thing? — It, or thing, cannot relate to arguments, for arguments is plural and must have a plural pro- noun and verb. Take the ordinary method of find- ing out the nominative to a verb, by asking a ques- tion with the verb, and the true nominative will be the answer : Thus, What follows ? and the answer is, The arguments follow. It must be obvious, then, that it cannot be substituted for arguments, and that as is equal to those which, and that the verb is not impersonal but the third person plural, agreeing with its nominative which, the last half of as. In the second example, as appears, is a mere parenthesis, and does not relate to positions at all ; but still the as is a pronoun. Thus, the positions, it appears, were incontrovertible.
They say, however, if we use such before as, the verb is no longer impersonal, but agrees with its nominative in the plural number ; as, " The argu- ments advanced were nearly such &$ follow." " The positions were such as appear incontrovertible." This is, if possible, a greater mistake than the for- mer: for what has such to do with the following verb ? Such means of that kind, and expresses the quality of the noun repeated, but it has nothing to do with the verb at all. Therefore the construction must be the same with such that it is with as, with
SYNTAX.
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
this difference in meaning, that when such as is used, we mean of that kind which follows.
When we say " His arguments are as follow" we mean those arguments which follow are verbatim the very same that he used. But when we say, " His arguments were such as follow/' we convey the idea, that the arguments which follow are not the very same that he used ; but that they are only of the same nature or kind.
Their position, however, that the verb should be plural, can be made out by a circumlocution, thus : " His arguments were nearly such arguments as those which follow are:" but this very solution would show the error into which they have fallen in such phrases as, as follows, as appears, for they will not admit of similar solutions. We cannot say, " His arguments are nearly as the arguments which follows is."*
This means, $c.
The word means in the singular number, and the phrases, By this means, By that means, are used by our best and most correct writers when they de- note instrumentality; as, By means of death, &c. By that means he preserves his superiority. — Addison.
Good writers use the noun mean in the singular number only to denote mediocrity, middle state, &c. as, This is a mean between the two extremes.
This means and that means should be used only
* Addison and Steele have used a plural verb where the antecedent to as is plural. See Taller, No. 62, 104.— Spec. No. 513. Dr. Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, vol. ii. p. 7, has mistaken the construc- tion of these phrases.
OBSERVATIONS. 151
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
when they refer to what is singular; these means and those means, when they respect plurals; as, He lived temperately, and by this means preserved his health. The scholars were attentive, indus- trious, and obedient to their tutors; and by these means acquired knowledge.
Amends.
Amends is used in the same manner as means ; as, Peace of mind is an honourable amends for the sacrifices of interest. In return, he received the thanks of his employers, and the present of a large estate : these were ample amends for all his labours.
Into, in.
Into is used after a verb of motion: and in, when motion or rest in a place is signified; as, They cast him into a pit ; I walk in the park.
So and such.
When we refer to the species or nature of a thing, the word such is properly applied ; as, Such a tem- per is seldom found ; but when degree is signified, we use the word so ; as, So bad a temper is sel- dom found.
Disappointed of, disappointed in. We are disappointed of a thing when we do not get it, and disappointed in it when we have it, and find that it does not answer our expectations ; as, We are often disappointed in things, which, before possession, promised much enjoyment. I have fre- quently desired their company, but have hitherto been disappointed o/that pleasure.
152 SYNTAX.
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
Taste of, and Taste for.
A taste of a thing implies actual enjoyment of it ; but a taste for it implies only a capacity for enjoyment ; as, When we have had a true taste of the pleasures of virtue, we can have no relish for those of vice. He had a taste for such studies, and pursued them earnestly.
The Nominative and the Verb.
When the nominative case has no personal tense of a verb, but is put before a participle, indepen- dent of the rest of the sentence, it is called the case absolute; as, Shame being lost, all virtue is lost; him destroyed ; him descending ; him only excepted; — him, in all these places, should be he.
Every Verb, except in the infinitive mood or the participle, ought to have a nominative case, either expressed or implied; as, Arise, let us go home; that is, Arise ye.
Every Nominative case should belong to some verb, either expressed or implied; as, "To whom thus Adam," i. e. spoke. In the following sentence, the word virtue is left by itself, without any verb with which it might agree. " Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are so constituted as ulti- mately to acknowledge and respect genuine merit : " it should be, However much virtue may be neglected, &c. The sentence may be made more elegant by altering the arrangement of the words : thus, Such is the constitution of men, that virtue, however much it may be neglected for a time, will ultimately be acknowledged and respected. — See Rule XIX.
The nominative is commonly placed before the
OBSERVATIONS. 153
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
verb ; but it is sometimes put after it, or between the auxiliary and the verb. — See Parsing, No. e.
Them is sometimes improperly used instead of these or those; as, Give me them books, for those books, or these books.
What is sometimes improperly used for that ; as, They will never believe but what I have been to blame ; it should be, But that I have been, &c.
Which is often improperly used for that; thus, After which time ; should be, After that time.
Which is applied to collective nouns composed of men ; as, The court of Spain which ; the company which, &c.
Which, and not who, should be used after the name of a person used merely as a word ; as, The court of Queen Elizabeth, who was but another name for prudence and economy; it should be, which was but another, or, whose name was, &c.
It is and it was are often used in plural construc- tion; as, It is they that are the real authors. It was the heretics that first began to rail, &c. — They are the real authors. The heretics first began, &c. would perhaps be more elegant.
The neuter pronoun it, is frequently joined to a noun or pronoun of the masculine or feminine gen- der ; as, It was I; It was the man.
Adjectives, in many cases, should not be separated from their nouns, even by words which modify their meaning; thus, A large enough number; a dis- tinct enough manner ; should be, A number large enough ; a manner distinct enough. The adjective is frequently placed after the noun which it quali- fies ; as, Goodness divine ; Alexander the Great.
i2
154 SYNTAX.
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
All is sometimes emphatically put after a num- ber of particulars comprehended under it ; as, Am- bition, interest, honour, all these concurred.
Never generally precedes the verb ; as, I never saw him : but when an auxiliary is used, never may be placed either between it and the verb, or before both ; as, He was never seen ; or, he never was seen.
The present participle is frequently introduced without any obvious reference to any noun or pro- noun ; as, Generally speaking, he behaves well. Granting his story to be true, &c. A pronoun is per- haps understood ; as, We speaking ; We granting.
Sometimes a neuter verb governs an objective, when the noun is of the same import with the verb ; thus, to dream a dream; to run a race. Some- times the noun after a neuter verb is governed by a preposition understood ; as, He lay six hours in bed, i. e. during six hours.
The same verbs are sometimes used as active, and sometimes as neuter, according to the sense ; thus, Think, in the phrase, " Think on me/' is a neuter verb ; but it is active in the phrase " Charity thinketh no evil."
It is improper to change the form of the second or third person singular of the auxiliaries in the compound tenses of the subjunctive mood ; thus, If thou have done thy duty. Unless he have brought money. If thou had studied more diligently. Un- less thou shall go to-day. If thou will grant my request, &c. ; should be, If thou hast done thy duty. Unless he has brought. If thou hadst studied. Unless thou shalt go, &c.
CAPITALS. 155
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
It is improper to vary the second person singular in the past subjunctive (except the verb to be}. Thus, If thou came not in time, &c. ; If thou did not submit, &c. ; should be. If thou earnest not in time ; If thou didst not submit.
The following phrases are strictly grammatical.
If thou Jcnewest the gift. If thou didst receive it. If thou hadst known. If thou wilt save her. Though he hath escaped the sea. That thou mayst be loved. We also properly say, If thou mayst , mightstj couldst, wouldst, or shouldst love.
Of Capitals.
1. The first word of every book, or any other piece of writing, must begin with a capital letter.
2. The first word after a period, and the answer to a question, must begin, &c.
3. Proper names, that is, names of persons, places, ships, &c.
4. The pronoun /, and the interjection 0, are written in capitals.
5. The first word of every line in poetry.
6. The appellations of the Deity ; as, God, Most High, &c.
7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places; as, Grecian, Roman, English, &c.
8. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon ; as, Always remember this ancient maxim : " Know thyself."
9. Common nouns when personified; as, Come, gentle Spring.
156 SYNTAX.
Directions for Superscriptions, and Forms of
Address to Persons of every Rank* To the King's Most Excellent Majesty, — Sire, or May it please
your Majesty — Conclude a petition with, Your Majesty's most
Loyal and Dutiful Subject. To the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty, — Madam, or May it
please your Majesty. To his Royal Highness the Prince Consort, — May it please your
Royal Highness. To his Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge, — May it please
your Royal Highness. In the same manner address every other member of the Royal
Family, male or female. To his Grace the Duke of ,f My Lord Duke, Your Grace,
or, May it please your Grace.
To the Most Honourable the Marquis of , My Lord Mar- quis, Your Lordship. To the Right Honourable the Earl of , My Lord, Your
Lordship. To the Right Honourable the Lord Viscount , My Lord,
May it please your Lordship. To the Right Honourable Lord , My Lord, May it please
your Lordship. The wives of Noblemen have the same titles (but in the feminine
gender) with their husbands, thus :
To her Grace the Duchess of , May it please your Grace.
To the Right Honourable Lady , My Lady, May it
please your Ladyship. The titles of Lord and Right Honourable are given to all the
sons of Dukes and Marquises* and to the eldest sons of Earls j
and the title of Lady and Right Honourable to all their
daughters. The younger sons of Earls and all the sons of
Viscounts and Barons are styled Honourable. Right Honourable is due to Earls, Viscounts, and Barons, and
to all the members of her Majesty's MostJ Honourable Privy
* The Superscription or what is put on the outside of a letter is printed in Roman characters, and begins with To. The terms of address used in beginning either a letter, a petition, or a verbal address, are printed in Italic letters immediately after the Superscription.
t The blanks are to he filled up with the real Name and Title.
j The Privy Councillors taken collectively are styled Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council.
FORMS OF ADDEESS. 157
FORMS OP ADDRESS.
Council — To the Lord Mayors of London, York, and Dublin, and to the Lord Provost of Edinburgh, during the time they are in office — To the Speaker of the House of Commons — To the Lord Advocate of Scotland — To the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury, Admiralty, Trade and Plantations, &c.
The House of Peers is addressed thus, To the Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in Parliament assembled, — My Lords, May it please your Lordships.
The House of Commons is addressed thus : To the Honourable the Knights, Citizens, and Burgesses of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in Parliament assembled — Gen- tlemen, May it please your Honourable House.
The sons of Viscounts and Barons are styled Honourable ; and their daughters have their letters addressed thus : To the Hon- ourable Miss or Mrs .
Noblemen, or men of title in the army or navy, use their title by rank, such as General, before their title by birth,
such as Lord, Honourable, Sir, &c., thus, General Lord ,
Admiral the Honourable , Colonel Sir .
The Commissioners of Customs — the Commissioners of Inland Revenue — the Governor and Deputy Governor of the Bank of England, &c., are addressed collectively as Honourable.
Her Majesty's Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland is styled His Grace the Lord High Com- missioner. The General Assembly itself is styled The Vener- able. The Provincial Synods of the Church are styled Very Reverend; and Presbyteries, Reverend.
Judges of the Court of Session in Scotland are addressed, The Honourable Lord .
The title Excellency is given to Ambassadors, Plenipotentiaries, Field-Marshals, Commanders-in-Chief, Governors- General, to the Lord Lieutenant, and to the Lords Justices of Ireland. — Address such thus :
To his Excellency Sir — , Bart., Her Britannic Majesty's
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Court of Tuscany, — Your Excellency, May it please your Excellency.
The title Right Worshipful is given to the Sheriffs, Aldermen, and Recorder of London ; and Worshipful to the Aldermen and Recorders of other Corporations, and to Justices of the Peace in England,— Sir, Your Worship.
Clergymen are styled Reverend, and when written to are ad-
158 SYNTAX.
FORMS OF ADDRESS. dressed thus : To the Reverend Mr. r, or, To the Reverend
Archbishops and Bishops, Deans, and Archdeacons, are addressed thus:
To his Grace the Lord Archbishop of , or, To the Most
Reverend Father in God, , Lord Archbishop of ,
My Lord, Your Grace.
To the Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of , or, To the
Right Reverend Father in God, , Lord Bishop of
My Lord, Your Lordship.
To the Very Reverend the Dean of ; or to the Very Rev- erend Dr. , Dean of .
To the Venerable the Archdeacon of , or, To the Vener- able , Archdeacon of .
Principals of Colleges in Scotland (being Clergymen) are styled Very Reverend; and the same title is given to the Moderator of the General Assembly.
The general address to Clergymen is, Sir, and when written to, Reverend Sir.— Deans and Archdeacons are usually called Mr. Dean, Mr. Archdeacon.
When the Principal ofa University is a layman, he is to be addressed according to his title of Knight, Doctor, &c., thus : To Sir D. B., Knight, &c. &c., Principal of the University of E. ; To Dr. J. D. F., &c. &c., Principal of the University of St. A. ; when written to, Sir. The other Professors thus : To Dr. D. R., Pro- fessor of Logic in the University of E. —Doctor. If a Clergyman, say, To the Rev. Dr. J. R., Professor of, &c.— Reverend Doctor.
Those who are not Drs. are styled Esquire, but not Mr. too ; thus, To J. P. Esq., Professor of Humanity in the University &f Edinburgh, — Sir. If he has a literary title it may be added ; thus, To J. P., Esq., A. M., Professor of, &c.
Magistrates, Barristers at Law or Advocates, and Members of Parliament, viz. of the House of Commons (these last have M. P. after Esq.), and all gentlemen in independent circum stances, are styled Esquire, and their wives Mrs.
* It seems to be unsettled whether Mr. should be used after Reverend or not. In my opinion it should ; because it gives a clergyman his own honorary title over and above the common one. May we not use the Rev. Mr. as well as the Rev. Dr. ? Besides, we do not always recollect whether his name is James or John, &c. Mr., in such a case, would look better
on the back of a letter than a long ill-drawn dash, thus, The Rev.
. In short, Mr. is used by our best writers after Reverend, but
not uniformly.
The words To the, not being necessary on the lack of a letter, are sel- dom used. In addressing Bills they are necessary.
PUNCTUATIOK. 159
Of PUNCTUATION.
PUNCTUATION is the art of pointing written com- position in such a manner as may naturally lead to its proper meaning, construction, and delivery.
Of the Comma. [ , ]
RULE I.
A simple sentence in general requires only a full stop at the end; as, True politeness has its seat in the heart.
RULE II.
The simple members of a compound sentence are separated by a comma; as, Crafty men con- temn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them. He studies diligently, and makes great progress.
RULE III.
The persons in a direct address are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, My Son, give me thine heart. Colonel, Your most obedient. I thank you, sir. I am obliged to you, my friends, for your kindness.
RULE IV.
Two words of the same part of speech, whether nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, or adverbs, do not admit of a comma between them, when coupled with a conjunction; as, James and John are good. She is wise and virtuous. Religion expands and elevates the mind. By being admired and flattered, she became vain. Cicero spoke forcibly and fluently. When the conjunction is suppressed, a comma is inserted in its place; as, He was a plain, honest man.
160 SYNTAX.
Of the Comma.
RULE V.
Three or more nouns, adjectives, verbs, par- ticiples, or adverbs, are separated by commas ; as, The sun, the moon, and the stars, are the glory of nature.
When words follow in pairs, there is a comma between each pair; as, Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, uniform and constant.
RULE VI.
All phrases or explanatory sentences, whether in the beginning, middle, or end of a simple sentence, are separated from it by commas ; as, To confess the truth, I was in fault. His father dying, he succeeded to the estate. The king, approving the plan, put it in execution. Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and knowledge. Victoria, queen of Great Britain. I have seen the emperor, as he was called. In short, he was a great man. — See p. 162.
RULE VII.
The verb to be, followed by an adjective, or an infinitive with adjuncts, is generally preceded by a comma ; as, To be diligently employed in the performance of real duty, is honourable. One of the noblest of the Christian virtues, is to love our enemies.*
RULE VIII.
A comma is used between the two parts of a sentence that has its natural order inverted ; as, Him that is upright in his dealings, honour ye.
* Some insert a comma both before and after the verb to be when it is near the middle of a long sentence, because the pronunciation requires it ; but that is a bad reason ; for pauses and points are often at variance.
PUNCTUATION. 1611
Of the Comma.
RULE IX.
Any remarkable expression resembling a quota- tion or a command, is preceded by a comma ; as, There is much truth in the proverb, Without pains no gains. I beseech you, be honest.
RULE X.
Relative pronouns admit of a comma before them in some cases, and in some not.
When several words come between the relative and its antecedent,* a comma is inserted ; but not in other cases; as, There is no charm in the female sex which can supply the place of virtue. It is labour only which gives the relish to pleasure. The first beauty of style is propriety, without which all ornament is puerile and superfluous. It is barbarous to injure those from whom we have received a kindness.
RULE XI.
A comma is often inserted where a verb is understood, and particularly before not, butj and though, in such cases as the following : John has acquired much knowledge; his brother, (has acquired) little. A man ought to obey reason, not appetite. He was a great poet, but a bad man. The sun is up, though he is not visible.
A comma is sometimes inserted between the two members of a long sentence connected by comparatives ; as, Better is a little with a contented mind, than great wealth and much trouble with it. As thy diligence, so shall thy success be.
* That is, when the relative clause is merely explanatory, the rela- tive is preceded by a comma.
162 SYNTAX.
Of the Comma.
RULE XII.
It has been stated in Eule VI. that explanatory words and phrases, such as perfectly, indeed, doubt- less, formerly, in fine, &c., should be separated from the context by a comma.
Many adverbs, however, and even phrases, when they are considered of little importance, should not be separated from the rest of the sen- tence by commas; as, Be ye therefore upright. Peradventure I shall be at home. All things indeed decay. Doubtless thou art our friend. They were formerly very studious. He was at last convinced of his error. Be not on that account displeased with your son. Nevertheless I am no judge of such matters. Anger is in a manner like madness. At length some pity warmed the master's breast.
These twelve rules respecting the position of the comma, in- clude everything, it is presumed, to be found in the more numer- ous rules of larger volumes. But it is impossible to make them perfect. For, u In many instances, the employment, or omis- sion of a comma, depends upon the length or the shortness of a clause ; the presence or absence of adjuncts ; the importance or non-importance of the sentiment. Indeed, with respect to punctuation, the practice of the best writers is extremely arbi- trary ; many omitting some of the usual commas when no error in sense or in construction is likely to arise from the omission. Good sense and attentive observation are more likely to regulate this subject than any mechanical directions."
The best 'general rule is, to point in such a manner as to make the sense evident.
$P" No exercises have been subjoined to the Rules on punctuation; because none can be given equal to those the pupil can prescribe for himself. After he has learned the rules let him transcribe a piece from any good author, emitting the points and capitals; and then having pointed his manuscript, and restored the capitals, let him com- pare his own punctuation with the author's.
PUNCTUATION. 163
Of the Semicolon. [ ; ]
TJ'he semicolon is used to separate two mem- bers of a sentence less dependent on each other than those separated by the comma.
Sometimes the two members have a mutual dependence on one another, both in sense and syntax; sometimes the preceding member makes complete sense of itself, and only the following one is dependent; and sometimes both seem to be independent.
EXAMPLES.
Hasty and inconsiderate connections are generally attended with great disadvantages; and much of every man's good or ill fortune depends upon the choice he makes of his friends.
Trust not to fortune, nor to titled name,
To lead thee to the avenues of fame ;
But let some nobler aim thy mind engage,
And sow in youth what thou wouldst reap in age.
Philosophy asserts, that Nature is unlimited in her operations ; that she has inexhaustible stores in reserve ; that knowledge will always be pro- gressive ; and that all future generations will con- tinue to make discoveries, of which we have not the least idea.
The semicolon is sometimes employed to sep- arate simple members in which even no commas occur : thus, The pride of wealth is contemptible ; the pride of learning is pitiable ; the pride of dignity is ridiculous ; and the pride of bigotry is insupportable.
In every one of these members the construction and sense are complete ; and a period might have been used instead of the semicolon ; which is preferred merely because the sentences are short and form a climax.
164 SYNTAX.
Of the Colon. [:]
The colon is used when the preceding part of the sentence is complete in sense and construc- tion ; and the following part is some remark naturally arising from it, and depending on it in sense, though not in construction; as, Study to acquire the habit of thinking: no study is more important.
A colon is generally used before an example or a quotation; as, The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity in these words : God is love. He was often heard to say : / have done with the world, and I am willing to leave it
A colon is generally used where the sense is complete in the first clause, and the next begins with a conjunction understood; as, Do not flat- ter yourselves with the hope of perfect happi- ness: there is no such thing in the world. Had the conjunction for been expressed, a semicolon would have been used ; thus, Do not flatter your- selves with the hope of perfect happiness ; for there is no such thing in the world.
The colon is generally used when the conjunc- tion is understood; and the semicolon when the conjunction is expressed.
Note. — This observation has not always been attended to in pointing the Psalms and some parts of the Liturgy. In them, a colon is often used merely to divide the verse, it would seem, into two parts, to suit a particular species of church music called chanting ; as, u My tongue is the pen : of a ready writer." In reading, a caesural pause, in such a place as this, is enough. In the Psalms, and often in the Proverbs, the colon must be read like a semicolon, or even like a comma, according to the sense.
PUNCTUATION. 165
Of the Period. [.]
When a sentence is complete in construction and sense, it is marked with a period; as, The loss of wealth may be regained ; of health, recovered ; but that of time can never be recalled.
A period is sometimes admitted between sen- tences connected by such words as butj and, for, therefore, hence, &c. Example : Good- will contributes to health of body. But envy tends to its destruction.
All abbreviations end with a period ; as, A.D.
Of other Characters used in Composition.
Interrogation (?) is used when a question is asked.
Admiration or Exclamation (!) is used to express any sudden emotion of the mind.
Parentheses ( ) are used to enclose some necessary remark in the body of another sentence ; commas are now used instead of Parentheses.
Apostrophe ( ' ) is used in place of a letter left out ; as, earn'd for earned,
Caret ( A ) is used to show that some word is either omitted or interlined.
Hyphen ( - ) is used at the end of a line, to show that the rest of the word is at the beginning of the next line. It also connects compound words; as, Tea-pot.
Section ( § ) is used to divide a discourse or chapter into portions.
Paragraph ( ^ ) is used to denote the beginning of a new subject.
Crotchets or Brackets [ ] are used to enclose a word or sentence which is to be explained in a note, or the explanation itself, or to cor- rect a mistake, or supply some deficiency.
Quotation (" ") is used to show that a passage is quoted in the author's words.
Index (O") is used to point out anything remarkable.
„ f is used to connect words which have one common term, or M I three lines in poetry having the same rhyme, called a triplet.
Ellipsis ( ) is used when some letters are omitted ; as, K — g for King.
Acute accent ( ' ) is used to denote a short syllable ; the grave (") a long.
Breve ("* ) marks a short vowel or syllable, and the dash ( - ) a long.
Diaeresis ( " ) is used to divide a diphthong into two syllables ; as, aerial.
Asterisk (*) Obelisk (t ) Double dagger (J) and Parallels ( | ) i with small letters and figures, refer to some note on the margin, or at the bottom of the page.
(***) Two or three asterisks denote the omission of some letters in some bold or indelicate expression.
Dash ( ) is used to denote abruptness— a significant pause— an un- expected turn in the sentiment — or that the first clause is common to all the rest, as in this definition of a dash.
166
SYNTAX.
Latin. Ante Christum* Artiura Baccalaureus A nno Domini Artium Magister Anno Mundi Ante Merediem Anno Urbis Conditse Baccalaureus Diviniti Gustos Privati Sigilli Gustos Sigilli Doctor Divinitatis Et Ctetera Exempli gratia Tdest |
A.C. A.B. A.D. A.M. A.M. A.M. A.U.C. itis B.D. C.P.S. C.S. D.D. &c. e.g. i.e. |
Jesus Hominum Salvator J.H.S.
Legum Doctor Messieurs (French) Medicinse Doctor Memorise Sacrum Nota Bene Post Meridiem Post Scriptum Regise Societatis Socius
M.S.
N.B.
P.M.
P.S.
F.R.S. Societatis Antiquariorium
Socius F.S.A.
Ultimo Ult.
Victoria Regina VJl.
ABBREVIATIONS.
English,
Before Christ
Bachelor of Arts (often B.A.)
In the year of our Lord
Master of Arts
In the year of the world
In the forenoon
In the year after the building of the
Bachelor of Divinity [city — Rome
Keeper of the Privy Seal
Keeper of the Seal
Doctor of Divinity
And the rest ; and so forth
For example
That is
Jesus the Saviour of Men
Doctor of Laws Messrs. Gentlemen M.D. Doctor of Medicine
Sacred to the Memory (or S.M.)
Note well ; Take notice
In the afternoon
Postscript ; something written ai'ter Fellow of the Royal Society
LL.D.
Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries Last (month) Victoria the Queen
A. Answer. Alexander J.P.
Acct. Account L.C.J.
Bart. Baronet Knt.
Bp. Bishop K.G.
Capt. Captain G.C.B.
Col. Colonel K.C.B.
Cr. Creditor C.B.
Dr. Debtor, Doctor K.P.
Do. or Ditto. The same. K.T.
Viz.f Namely MS.
Q. Question, Queen M.P.
R.N. Royal Navy S.S.C.
Esq. Esquire W.S.
N.S. New Style O.S. Old Style
H.E.I.C.S.
Justice of the Peace
Lord Chief Justice
Knight
Knight of the Garter.
Knight Grand Cross of the Bath
Knight Commander of the Bath
Companion of the Bath
Knight of St. Patrick
Knight of the Thistle
Manuscript. MSS. Manuscripts
Member of Parliament
Solicitor before the Supreme Courts
Writer to Her Majesty's Signet
The Honourable East India Com- pany's Service
* The Latin of these abbreviations is inserted, not to be got by heart, but to show the etymology of the English ; or explain for instance, how P.M. cemes to mean afternoon, &c. 1 Contraction 'of videlicet.
PROSODY. 167
PROSODY.
PROSODY treats of the true sound or pronunciation of words and sentences ; comprising Accent, Quan- tity, Emphasis, Pause, and Tone, and the measure of Verses.
Accent is the laying of a greater force on one syllable of a word than on another ; as, Surmount.
The Quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied in pronouncing it. Quantity is either short or long ; as, Con- sume.
Emphasis is a remarkable stress laid upon certain words in a sentence, to distinguish them from the rest, by making the meaning more apparent; as, Apply yourself more to acquire knowledge than to show it.*
A Pause is either a total cessation or a short suspension of the voice, during a perceptible space of time ; as, Reading — makes a full-man ; conference — a ready-man ; and writing — an exact- man.
Tone is a particular modulation or inflection of the voice, suited to the sense ; as, How bright these glorious spirits shine I f Have pity upon me, have pity upon me, 0 my friends.
Versification.
Prose is language not restrained to harmonic sounds, or to a set number of syllables.
Verse or Poetry is language restrained to a certain number of long and short syllables in every line.
Verse is of two Tcinds; namely, Rhyme and Blank verse. When the last syllable of every two lines has the same sound,
* Emphasis should be made rather by suspending the voice a little after the emphatic word, than by striking it very forcibly, which is disagreeable to a good ear. A very short pause before it would render it still more emphatical ; as, Reading — makes a— /wZZ — man.
t Accent and quantity respect the pronunciation of words ; emphasis and pause the meaning of the sentence ; while tone refers to the feel- ings of the speaker.
108 PROSODY.
it is called rhyme; but when this is not the case, it is called blank verse.
Feet* are the parts into which a verse is divided, to see whether it has its just number of syllables or not.
Scanning is the measuring or dividing of a verse f into the several feet of which it is composed.
All feet consist either of two or three syllables, and are re- ducible to eight kinds ; four of two syllables, and four of three, as follow :
Dissyllables. A trochee ; as, lovely. $ An Iambus ; became. A spondee ; vain man. A pyrrMc ; on a (bank).
Trisyllables.
A dactyle ; as, probably. An amphibrach ; domestic. An anapaest ; misimprove. A tribrach; (com)fortably.
The feet in most common use are, Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic.
Iambic Measure.
Iambic measure is adapted to serious subjects, and comprises verses of several kinds ; such as,
1. Of four syllables, or two feet; as,
With rav-ish'd ears The M6n-arch hears.
It sometimes has an additional short syllable, making what is called a double ending; as,
Upon-a moun-tam, Beside-a foUn-tam.
* So called from the resemblance which the movement of the tongue in reading verse, bears to the motion of the feet in walking.
t A single line is called a verse. In rhyme, two lines are called a couplet ; and three ending with the same sound, a triplet.
% The marks over the vowels show that a Trochee consists of a long and a short syllable, and the Iambic of a short and a long, &c.
flST In scanning verses, every accented syllable is called a long syl- lable ; even although the sound of the vowel in pronunciation be short. Thus the first syllable in rav-ish'd is in scanning called a long syllable, although the vowel a is short. By long then is meant an accented syl- lable ; and by short, an unaccented syllable.
PROSODY. 169
2. Of three iambics, or six syllables; as,
Aloft - in aw-ful state, The god-like he-r5 sat,
Our hearts - no long-er Ian — guish. An additional
syllable.
3. Of eight syllables, or four iambic feet; as,
And may - at last - my wea-ry age, Find out - the peace-ful her-mltage.
4. Of ten syllables, or five feet ; called pentameter, heroic, or tragic verses ; as,
The stars - shall fade - away, - the sun - himself Grow dim - with age, - and na-ture sink - in years.
Sometimes the last line of a couplet is stretched out to twelve syllables, or six feet, and then it is called an Alexandrine verse; as,
For thee - the land - in fra-grant flow'rs - is drest'; For thee - the 6-cean smiles, - and smooths - her wa-vy breast.
5. Of verses containing alternately four and three feet : this is the measure commonly used in psalms and hymns ; as,
Let saints - below, - with sweet - accord,
Unite - with those - abSve, In so - lemn lays, to praise - their king,
And sing - his dy-ing love.
Verses of this kind were anciently written in two lines, each containing fourteen syllables.
Trochaic Measure.
This measure is quick and lively, and comprises verses,
1. Some of one trochee and a long syllable, and some of tico trochees; as,
Tumult - cease, j On the - mountain,
Sink to - peace. By a - fountain.
K
170 PKOSODY.
2. Of two feet, or two trochees , with an additional long syl- lable; as, *
In the -days of --old, Stories - plainly - - told.
3. Of three trochees, or three and an additional long syllable ; as.
When our - hearts are - mourning, L5vely - lasting - peace of - - mind, Sweet de - light of - human - - kind.
4. Of four trochees, or eight syllables ; as,
Now the - dreadful - thunder's - roaring !
5. Of six trochees, or twelve syllables; as,
On a - mountain, - stretch 'd be - neath a - hoary - willow, Lay a - shepherd - swam, and - view'd the - roaring-billow,
Those trochaic measures that are very uncommon have been omitted.
Anapaestic Measure.
1. Of two anapaests, or two and an unaccented syllable; as,
But his cour-age 'gan fail, For no arts - could avail.
Or, Then his cour-age 'gan fail - - him, For no arts - could avail - - him.
2. Of three anapaests, or nine syllables ; as,
0 ye woods - spread your branch-es apace, To your deep-est recess-es I fly ;
1 would hide - with the beasts - of the chase, I would van-ish from ev-ery eye.
Sometimes a syllable is retrenched from the first foot ; as
Ye shep-herds so cheer-ful and gay, Whose flocks - never care-lessly roam.
PROSODY. 171
3. Of four anapaests, or twelve syllables; as,
'Tis the voice - of the slug-gard ; I hear - Mm complain. You have wak'd - me too soon, - 1 must slum-ber again.
Sometimes an additional short syllable is found at the end; as, On the warm - cheek of youth, - smiles and ros-es are blend-^.
The preceding are the different Idnds of the Principal* feet, in their more simple forms ; but they are susceptible of numerous variations, by mixing them with one another, and with the Secondary feet . The following lines may serve as an example :— Spon. Amph. &c. apply only to the first line.
Amph. Dact. lam.
Time shakes - the stable - tyranny - of thrones, &c. Where is - to-morrow ? - in anoth-er world. She all - night long - her am-orous des-cant sung. Innu-merable - before - th' Almigh-ty's throne. That on - weak wings - from far - pursues - your flight.
FIGUEES OF SPEECH.
A Figure of Speech is a mode of speaking, in which a word or sentence is to be understood in a sense dif- ferent from its most common and literal meaning.
The principal Figures of &peech are,
Personification,
Simile,
Metaphor,
Allegory,
Hy-per'bo-le,
Irony,
Metonymy,
Sy-nec'do-che,
Antithesis,
Climax,
Exclamation,
Interrogation,
Paralepsis,
Apostrophe.
* Iambus, trochee, and anapaest, may be denominated principal feet ; because pieces of poetry may be wholly or chiefly formed of ary of them. The others may be termed secondary feet, because their chief use is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse.
17? FIGUEES OF SPEECH.
Prosopopoeia or Personification is that figure of speech by which we attribute life and action to in- animate objects ; as, The conscious Water saw its Lord and blushed.
A Simile expresses the resemblance that one ob- ject bears to another ; as, The sovereign like a pil- lar supports the state.
A Metaphor is a simile without the sign (like or as, &c.) of comparison; as, The sovereign is the pillar of the state.
An Allegory is a continuation of several meta- phors, so connected in sense as to form a kind of parable or fable ; thus, the people of Israel are re- presented under the image of a vine ; Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt, &c. Ps. Ixxx. 8 to 17.
An Hy-per-lo-le is a figure that represents things as greater or less, better or worse, than they really are ; as, thus we say of Saul and Jonathan, They were swifter than eagles, they were stronger than lions.
Irony is a figure by which we mean quite the contrary of what we say ; as when we say, in a par- ticular tone of voice, to a dishonest man, Yes, you are a very honest man.
A Metonymy is a figure by which we put the cause for the effect, or the effect for the cause ; as, when we say, He reads Milton ; we mean Milton's Works. Grey hairs should be respected, i. e. old age.
Synecdoche is the putting of a part for the whole or the whole for a part, a definite number for an indefinite, &c., as, The waves for the sea, the head for the person, and ten thousand for any great num- ber. This figure is nearly allied to metonymy.
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 173
Antithesis or Contrast is a figure by which dif- ferent or contrary objects are contrasted, to make them show one another to advantage : thus, Some go down to the grave with the workers of iniquity'; while others rise to heaven with the virtuous and the good.
* Climax is the heightening of all the circum- stances of an object or action, which we wish to place in a strong light : as, To profess religion is good, to feel the sentiment is better, but to practise it in obedience to the divine command is the best of all.
Exclamation is a figure that is used to express some strong emotion of the mind ; as, Oh the tenderness of a virtuous mother's heart towards her dying child ! — its father far away I
Interrogation is a figure by which we express the emotion of our mind, and enliven our discourse by proposing questions : thus, If you teach your son submission, will he not yield you obedience? If you teach him religion, will he not be pious f and if he be truly pious, will he not be happy f
Paralepsis or omission is a figure by which the speaker pretends to conceal what he is really de- claring and strongly enforcing : as, Horatius was once a very promising young gentleman ; but, in process of time, he became so addicted to gaming, not to mention his drunkenness and debauchery, that he soon exhausted his estate and ruined his constitution.
Apostrophe is a turning off from the subject to address some other person or thing : as, True Re- ligion has fled the land, and Thou, Hypocrisy, usurp' st her place.
* Climax, Amplification, Enumeration, or Gradation.
K 2
174
QUESTIONS.
Questions on the Text and Observations. |
|
What is English Grammar? Into how many parts is it divided ? |
Pronouns. |
What does Orthography teach ? |
What is a pronoun ? |
What is a letter, &c.? |
Which is the pronoun in the sen- |
Of what does Etymology treat? How many parts of speech are |
tence, He is a good boy ? How many kinds of pronouns are |
there? |
there ? |
Article. |
Decline the personal pronoun /. Decline thou backwards, &c. |
What is an article ? |
|
How many articles are there? |
Relative Pronouns. |
Where is an used ? |
What is a relative pronoun ? Which is the rel. in the example ? |
Noun — Number. |
Which is the antecedent? Repeat the relative pronouns. |
What is a noun ? |
Decline who. |
How are nouns varied ? |
How is who applied ? |
What is number? |
To what is which applied ? |
How many numbers have nouns ? How is the plural generally formed? |
How is that used ? What sort of a relative is what f |
How do nouns ending in s, sh, ch, x, or o, form the plural ? |
Adjective Pronouns. |
How do nouns in y form the plural ? How do nouns in / or fe form the |
How many sorts of adjective pro- nouns are there ? |
plural ? |
Repeat the possessive pronouns. |
What is the plural of man, &c. |
Repeat the distributive pronouns. |
Repeat the demonstrative. |
|
Gender. |
Repeat the indefinite. |
What is meant by gender? How many genders are there ? |
ON THE OBSERVATIONS. |
What does the masculine denote ? What does the feminine denote ? |
Before which of the vowels is a used? What is a called ? |
What does the neuter denote ? What is the feminine of bachelor, |
What is Me called? In what sense is a noun taken with- |
&c.? |
out an article to limit it ? |
Case. |
Is a used before nouns in both |
W^hat is case ? |
numbers? |
How many cases have nouns ? |
How is the used ? |
Which two are alike? |
vr |
How i s the possessive sing, formed ? How is the possessive plur. formed? |
4.1 OUI1S. How do nouns ending in ch, sound- |
Decline the word lady. |
ing k, form the plural ? |
How do nouns in io, &c., form the |
|
Adjective. |
plural ? How do nouns ending in ff form |
What is an adjective? |
the plural? |
Uow many degrees of comparison |
Repeat those nouns that do not |
have adjectives? |
change / or /e into ves in the plu. |
How is the comparative formed ? |
What do you mean by proper |
How is the superlative formed? |
nouns? |
How are dissyllables in y com- |
What are common nouns ? |
pared. |
What are collective nouns ? |
Compare the adjective quod. |
What do you call abstract nouns? |
QUESTIONS.
175
Questions on the Text and Observations.
OBS. Continued.
What do you call verbal nouns ? What nouns are generally singular? Repeat some of those nouns that
are used only in the plural. Repeat some of those nouns that
are alike in both numbers. What is the singular of sheep ? What gender is parent, &c. ?
Adjectives.
What does the positive express, &c. ?
How are adjectives of one syllable generally compared ?
How are adjectives of more than one syllable compared ?
How are dissyllables ending with e final often compared ?
Is y always changed into i before er and est 9
How are some adj ectives compared ?
Do all adjectives admit of compar- ison?
How are much and many applied ?
When is the final consonant doubled before adding er and est f
Relative Pronouns.
When are who, which, and what
called interrogativesf Of what number and person is the
relative ?
Adjective Pronouns.
When are his and her possessive pronouns ?
What may former and latter be called ?
When is that a relative pronoun ?
When is that a demonstrative?
When is that a conjunction ?
How many cases have himself, her- self; &c.?
Verb.
What is a verlf
How many kinds of verbs are there ?
What does a verb active express?
What does a verb passive express ?
What does a verb neuter express ?
Repeat the auxiliary verbs.
How is a verb declined f
How many moods have verbs ?
Adverb.
What is an adverb ?
Name the adverbs in the example.
What part of speech is the general- ity of those words that end in ly.
What part of speech are the com- pounds of where, there, &e. ?
Are adverbs ever compared?
When are more and most adjectives, and when are they adverbs 9
Preposition.
What is a preposition f
How many begin with a f
Repeat them.
How many begin with b f
Repeat them, &c.
What case does a preposition re- quire after it ?
When is before a preposition, and when is it an adverb ?
Conjunction.
What is a conjunction ?
How many kinds of conjunctions
are there?
Repeat the copulative. Repeat the disjunctive.
Interjection.
What is an interjection ?
Note.— As these are only the leading questions on the different parts of speech, many more may be asked viva voce. Their distance from the answers will oblige the pupil to attend to the connexion between every question and its respective answer. The observations that have a corresponding question are to be read, but not committed to memory.
176 FKKNCH PHRASES.
As the following loords and phrases, from the French and Latin, frequently occur in English authors, an explanation of them has been inserted here, for the convenience of those who are unacquainted with these languages. Let none, however, imagine, that by doing this I intend to encourage the use of them in Eng- lish composition. On the contrary, I disapprove of it, and aver, that to express an idea in a foreign language, which can be expressed with equal perspicuity in our own, is not only pedantic, but highly improper. Suck words and phrases, by being frequently used, may, notwithstanding the uncouthness of their sound and appearance, gradually incorporate with our language, and ultimately diminish its original excellence, and impair its native beauty.
A la bonne heure, a la bon oorv, lucMly ; in good time,
A la mode, a la modv, according to the fashion.
A propos, ap-pro-pov, to the purpose; opportunely.
Affaire de cceur, af-far' de koor', a love affair ; an amour.
Afin, a feng, to the end.
Aide-de-camp, *ad-de-kangv, an assistant to a general.
Au fond, o fongv, to the bottom, or main point.
Auto da fe, &-td da fa [Portuguese], burning of heretics.
Bagatelle, bag-a-tel', a trifle.
Beau monde, bo mongdv, the gay world, people of fashion.
Beaux esprits, boz es-pree, men of wit.
Billet-doux, bil-le-duv, a love-letter.
Bivouac, be-voo-akv, to watch, to continue all night under arms
without shelter. Bon gre, mal gr£, bong gra, &c., with a good or ill grace;
whether the party will or not. Bon jour, bong zhur, good-day ; good-morning. Bon-mot, bong mo, apiece of wit, a jest. Bon ton, bong tong, high fashion. Boudoir, bu-dwarv, a small private apartment. Carte blanche, kart blangshv, a blank ; unconditional terms. Chateau, sha-tov, a country seat.
Short vowels are left unmarked; — ft is equal to u in rule; — a to a in art ; oo, as used here, has no correspondent sound in English ; it is equal to u, as pronounced by the common people in many counties of Scotland, in the word gude ; a is equal to a in all.
* A is not exactly a long here; it is perhaps as near e in met as a in make, but a will not be so readily mistaken. It is impossible to convey the pronunciation accurately without the tongue.
FRENCH PHRASES. 177
Chef d'oeuvre, she dooVr, a masterpiece.
Ci-devant, se-de-vangv, formerly.
Comme il faut, com-il fo, as it should be. [of affection.
Con amore, con-a-movre (Italian], with love; with the partiality
Conge" d'e"lire, kong-zha de-leerv, leave to elect or choose.
Cortege, kor-tazhx, a train of attendants.
Coup de grace, ku-de grassv, a st roke of mercy ; the finishing stroke.
Coup d'ceil, ku-da-e, a peep ; a glance of the eye.
Coup de main, ku-de-mangv, a sudden or bold enterprise.
Debut, de-boov, first appearance in public.
De*pot, de-pox, a storehouse or magazine. .
Dernier ressort, dernx-ya-res-sorx, the last shift or resource.
Double entendre, dCibl ang-tang'dr, double meaning, one in an
Douceur, du-soorx, a present or bribe. [immodest sense.
Dieu et mon droit, dyooxe-mong-drwa, God and my right.
Eclat, e-kla^ splendour ; applause.
Eleve, e-laV, pupil.
En bon point, ang-bong-pwangx, in good condition ; jolly.
En masse, ang massx, in a body or mass.
En passant, ang-pas-sangx, by the way ; in passing ; by the by.
Ennui, eng-nuee, wearisomeness ; lassitude; tediousness.
Faux pas, fo-pa, a slip ; misconduct.
F6te, fat, a feast or entertainment.
Fracas, fra-caN, bustle ; a slight quarrel ; more ado about the
thing than it is worth.
Hauteur, ho-toorv, haughtiness. [him that evil thinks,
Honi soit qui mal y pense, ho-ne-swa'ke-mal e pangsv, evil be to Je ne sais quoi, zhe ne sa kwa, / know not what. Jeu de mots, zhoo de mov, a play upon words. Jeu d'esprit, zhoo de-spree, a display of wit ; a witticism. Mal-a-propos, mal ap-ro-p5\ unfit ; out of time or place. Mauvaise honte, mo-vaz-hontv,/aZse modesty. Mot du gue*t, m5 doo gas, a watchword. Naivete*, na-iv-tav, ingenuousness, simplicity, innocence. Outre", u-trav, eccentric; blustering ; wild; not gentle. Petit maltre, pe-te mastr, a beau ; a fop. Protege", pro-ta-zha\ a person patronized and protected. Rouge, r^zh, red, or a kind of red paint for the face. Sang froid, sang frwa, cold blood; indifference. Sans, sang, without. Savant, sa-vang, a wise or learned man. Soi-disant, swa-de-zangv, self-styled; pretended. Surveillance, sur-ve-iangsv, superintendence, keeping an eye upon.
178
LATIN PHRASES.
Tapis, ta-pee, the carpet.
Tete-a-tete, tat a tat, face to face, a private conversation.
Tout ensemble, tu-tang-sangbl, the whole together.
Trait, tra, feature, touch, arrow, shaft.
Un bel esprit, oong bel e-spree, a fine wit, a virtuoso.
Unique, oo-neek, singular, the only one of his Hand.
Valet-de-chambre, va-la de shangvbr, a valet or footman.
Vis-a-vis, ve-za-veex, over the way, opposite.
Vive le roi, veev le rwa, long live the king.
LATIN PHRASES.
The pronunciation has not been added to the Latin, because every letter is sounded.
1. A long or short over a vowel denotes both the accented syllable and the quantity of the vowel in English.
2. Ti, ci, or si, before a vowel sounds she.
3. Words of two syllables have the accent on ihe first.
A fortiori, with stronger reason, much more.
A posteriori, from the effect, from the latter, from behind.
A priori, from the former, from "be- fore, from the nature or cause.
Ab inltio, from the beginning.
Ab urbe ctfndita, from the building of the city; abridged thus, A.U.C.
Ad captandum vulgus, to ensnare the vulgar.
Ad infimtum, to infinity, without end.
Ad libitum, at pleasure,
Ad referendum, for consideration.
Ad valorem, according to value.
Alias (a-le-as), otherwise.
Alibi (al-i-bi), elsewhere.
Alma mater, the university.
Anglice (ang-gli-cy), in English.
Anno DQmini, in the year of our Lord.— A. D.
Anno Mundi, in the year of the world. — A.M.
Arcanum, a secret.
Arcana imperii, state secrets.
Argumentum ad fidem, an appeal to our faith.
Argumentum ad homlnem, an ap- peal to the professed principles or practices of the adversary.
Argumentum ad judicium, an ap- peal to the common sense of mankind.
Argumentum ad passiones, an ap- peal to the passions.
Argumentum ad populum, an ap- peal to the people.
Audi aiteram partem, hear the other party ; hear both sides.
Bona fide, in reality, in good faith.
Cacoethes scribendi, an itch for writing.
Caput mSrtuum, the worthless re- mains ; dead head.
Ceteris (se) paribus, other circum- stances being equal.
Compos mentis, in one's senses.
Contra, against.
Cum privilegio, with privilege.
Data, things granted.
De facto, in fact, in reality.
De jure, in right, in law. \_God.
Dei Gratia, by the grace or favour of
Deo volente (D. V.), God willing.
Desideratum, something desirable, or much wanted.
Desunt caetera, the rest is wanting.
DQmine dirige nos, 0 Lord direct us.
Dramatis personae, characters rep- resented.
Durante placlto, during pleasure.
Durante vita, during life.
Ergo, therefore.
Errata, errors. — Erratum, an error.
Esto perpgtua, let it be perpetual.
Et caetera, and the rest; contr., &c.
Ex offlcio, officially, by virtue of office.
Ex parte, on one side.
Ex tempore, without premeditation.
Excerpta, extracts.
Exempli gratia, as for example; contracted, e. g.
LATIN PHRASES.
179
Fac simile, exactcopy or resemblance. Fiat, let it be done or made. Flagrante bello, during hostilities. Gratis, for nothing. Hora fugit, the hour or time flies. Humanum est errare, to err is human. Ibidem, in the same place; contr.,i&. Id est, that is ; contracted, i. e. Idem, the same. [tender.
Ignoramus, a vain uninformed pre- Imprimis, in the first place. In loco, tTi this place. In propria persona,in his own person. In statu quo, in the former state. In terrorem, as a warning. Ipse dixit, his sole ass&rtion. Ipso facto, by the act itself. Ipso jure, by the law itself. Item, also or article. Jure divino, by divine right. Jure humano, by human law. Jus gentium, the law of nations. Labor Smnia vincit, labour over- comes everything.
Lapsus linguae, a slip of the tongue. LicSntia vatum, a poetical license. Locum tenens, deputy, substitute. Magna charta, the great charter; the
basis of our laws and liberties. Memento mori, remember death. Memorabilia, matters deserving of
record.
Meum et tuum, mine and thine. Multum in parvo, much in little, a
great deal in few words. Ne plus ultra, no farther, nothing
beyond. Ne quid nimis, too much of one thing
is good for nothing. Nem. con. (for nemine contradicen-
te\ none opposing. Nem. dis. (for nemine dissentiente,}
none disagreeing. Nemo me impune lacesset, no one
shall provoke me with impunity. NisiDSminusfrustra, unless the Lord
be with us, all efforts are in vain. Nolens volens, willing or unwilling. Non compos mentis, not of a sound
mind. [of speaking.
Norma loqaendi, the rule or pattern O tempora, O mores, 0 the times,
O the manners.
Omnes, all. [anything.
Onus probandi, the burden of proving Ore tenus, from the mouth only. Passim, everywhere. Per diem, by the da.y. Per se, by itself, alone.
Posse comitatus, the civil power of the county.
Prima facia, at first view, or at first sight.
Primum mSbile, the main spring.
Pro bono pilblico, for the good of the public.
Pro et con, for and against.
Pro forma, for form's sake.
Pro loco et tempore, for the place and time.
Pro re nata, as occasion serves.
Pro rege, lege, et grege, for the king, the constitution, and the people.
Probatum est, it is tried or proved.
Quo Snimo, with what mind.
Quo jure, by what right
Quoad, as far as.
Quondam, formerly.
Regina, a queen.
Res pflblica, the commonwealth.
Resurgam, / shall rise again.
Rex, a king.
Senatus consul turn, a decree of the
Seriatim, in regular order, [senate.
Sine die, without specifying any par- ticular day.
Sine qua non, an indispensable pre- requisite or condition.
Statu quo, in the state in which it was.
Sub poena, under a penalty.
Sui generis, the only one of his kind, singular.
Summum bonum, the chief good.
Supra, above.
Toties quoties, as often as.
Triajunctainuno, three joined in one.
Ultimus, the last (contracted ult.)
Una voce,with one voice,unanimously.
Uti possidetis, as ye possess, or pre- sent possession. [ant.
Utile dulci, the useful with thepleas-
Vade mecum, go with me ; a book fit for being a constant companion.
Vale, farewell.
Verbatim, word for word.
Versus, against.
Veto, I forbid.
Via, by the way of.
Vice, in the room of.
Vice versa, the reverse.
Vide, see (contracted into u.).
Vide ut supra, see as above.
Vis poetica, poetic genius.
Vivavoce,ora%; by wordof mouth.
Vivant rex et regina, long live the king and the queen.
Vox p5puli, the voice of the people.
Vulgo, commonly.
INDEX TO THE RULES OF SYNTAX.
Nouns. page
Two or more nouns in the sing., 85 Two nouns disjoined, &c., ib.
Noun of multitude, - 89
One noun governs another, 88 Of a clause between them, 111 Several nouns in the possessive,*88 Singular nouns of diff. persons, 98 A singular and a plural noun, 99 A noun and its pron. improper, 100
Pronouns.
Pronouns agree in gender, &c., 95 Each, every, either, agree, &c., 108 That and this, former, latter* 109 Relative agrees with its antec., 96 Relative that and which* ib.
Relative preceded by two ante- cedents of different persons, 97 Rel. should be placed next ant.,J ib. Who after than* - - 107 When a pronoun refers to two
words of different persons^ 99 Of whichsoever, &c.,* - - 111
Verb.
A verb agrees with its nom., 82 An active verb governs, - 83 Neuter verbs do not gov. anob.,g ib. Active verbs admit of no prep.,|j ib. One verb governs another, 87 The infinitive is used as a nom., 101 Verbs related in point of time, 110 The verb to be has the same case, 90
Participle.
Participle used as a noun, 93
A possessive pronoun before the
present participle,! - ib. A noun before the present par.,} ib. Past Par. is used after have & be, 94
Adverbs. pag6
Of the position of adverbs, 104 Adjectives not used as adverbs, 105 Of hence, thence, there, &c.* ib. Double comparatives improper, 102 Two negatives improper, - 103 The com. degree requires than, 106
Prepositions.
Prepositions govern objective, 84
sometimes a clause, IsS™ ib.
should be placed before
the relative,* ib.
Diff. preps, with the same noun,f ib.
To, at fin, before names of places, 112
Words requiring appropriate prepositions, - - 113
Conjunctions.
Conjunctions couple like moods, 86 require subjunctive mood, 91
Lest and that* ib.
If, with but following,! - ib.
Conjunctions in pairs, - 92 than and as, - 107
Various Things.
Interjections,^ - - 112
General'Rule, 116
Use of the articles, - - 117 Ellipsis is frequently admitted, 118
improper, - - 119
Construction, ... 120
Promiscuous exer. on Syntax, 121
Miscellaneous observations, 143
When to use capitals, - 155
Prosody, - - - 167
Of Versification, - - ib.
Figures of Speech, - - 171
Questions on Etymology, 174
French and Latin Phrases. 176
APPENDIX.
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
ANALYSIS treats of the division of SENTENCES into their MEMBERS, and of the KELATIONS which these members bear to one another.
A Sentence is a combination of words making at least one complete assertion.
A sentence which makes only one complete assertion is called a Simple* sentence; as, All flesh is grass. Nothing COULD STOP that astonish- ing infantry.
A sentence which makes two or more com- plete assertions is called a Compound sentence ; as, He CHID their wanderings, but he EELIEV.ED their pain.
A Member of a sentence is a word, or a group •{• of words, expressing a single idea ; as, The
* It has already been observed (p. 81) that a simple sentence contains only one finite verb— that is, only one verb having number and person.
t Herein lies the difference between analysis and parsing. Parsing deals with each word in a sentence separately, specifying its number, person, gender, tense, mood, -voice, &c. Analysis regards a group of words as a separate member when they express a single idea,
L
182 ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES.
end | of the pole the head. \ He his words. I
struck | George \ smartly \ on that hath knowledge \ spareth
Each member of a sentence may be a word, a phrase, or a clause.
A Phrase is a group of words expressing a single idea, but not containing a finite verb; as, On the return \ of spring. The ice having been * weak. To have been published.
A Clause is a member of a sentence which contains a finite verb within itself; as, When spring RETURNS. As the ice WAS weak. That it
HAS BEEN PUBLISHED.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
Every Simple sentence may be divided into two parts, — the Subject and the Predicate.
The Predicate is that part of the sentence which asserts something ; the Subject names the person or thing about which the assertion is made.
The part of speech which asserts is the verb; therefore every predicate must contain a verb.
The part of speech which names things is the noun; therefore every subject must contain a noun, or some word equivalent to a noun.
In proceeding to analyze a sentence, first find the verb: the verb and its adjuncts, or depen-
* Participles and infinitives are not finite verbs, as they have not pensou or number. They cannot therefore make assertions.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 183
dent words, form the predicate: secondly, turn the predicate into a question beginning with who? or what? The answer will be the subject : e.g., Lord William sat at his castle gate. Here, sat is the verb ; therefore the predicate is sat at his castle gate. This, in the form of a question, is, Who sat at his castle gate? The answer is, Lord William; and that is the subject. The following examples show this general kind of analysis : —
Subject. Predicate.
Kings British soldiers The Duke of Wellington [You]* There f
reign.
are very hardy.
gained many victories.
return quickly.
is a tide in the affairs of men.
EXERCISES.
Divide into Subject and Predicate. J
Boats sail. The wind blows. The mother was very tired. The good doctor has visited him frequently. 'The wife of our clergyman is dead. Walking is a healthy exercise. Never despair. To err is human. For many an hour the anxious mother watched her child. Hope deferred maketh the heart sick. Never was
* When the verb is in the imperative mood, the subject is usually omitted. In analyzing such sentences, the subject must be supplied.
+ The true subject in this sentence is " a tide in the affairs of men." There is a pronoun standing in place of the true subject. Nevertheless such sentences had better be analyzed as above.
J Observe that the subject does not always stand first in the sentence, and that the words of the predicate do not always stand together
184 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
assistance more necessary. A wounded spirit who can bear ? Down came the blow. The steed along the drawbridge flies. Miserable comforters are ye all. How forcible are right words! The aged minstrel audience gained. Absence of occupation is not rest. Superfluous lags the veteran on the stage. To be of no church is dangerous. Necessity is the argument of tyrants. The trappings of a monarchy would set up an ordinary coirgnonwealth. The poorest man may in his cottage bid defiance to all the force of the crown. Judge not according to the appearance. A borrower is servant to the lender. Drowsiness shall clothe a man with rags.
THE PARTS OF THE SUBJECT.
The Subject may be subdivided into the Nominative to the verb, and qualifying or de- pendent w^ords called Attributes.
THE NOMINATIVE.
The Nominative is generally a Noun or Pro- noun; but it may be any word or phrase equi- . valent to a noun. The following are examples of the different forms of the Nominative : —
A Noun ; as, The new master has arrived. A Pronoun ; as, He is a very pleasant man.
An Adjective used as a Noun ; as, The rich should care for the poor.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 185
A Participle ;* as, The preparing of the neces- sary materials requires time.
An Infinitive Phrase;-^ as, To drink poison is death.
THE ATTRIBUTE.
The Attribute, when it consists of a single word, is generally an Adjective; but it may consist of any qualifying word or phrase. The following are its different forms : —
An Adjective; as, TheJ humble boon was soon obtained.
A Participle; as, Rolling stones gather no moss.
A Noun in Apposition ;§ as, "William the Conqueror died in France.
A Possessive Case ; as, Henry's promises were always kept. Her tears flowed fast.
A Prepositional Phrase; as, The quality of mercy is not strained. The spots on the sun are said to vary from year to year.
Several attributes || may qualify the same noun ; as, The valiant Edward, the Black Prince, son of Edward III., died a year before his father.
* See p. 93, Rule XII.
t See p. 66, and p. 101, Rule XX.
\ As the article is inseparable from the noun to which it is attached,, it is not considered an attribute.
% Nouns or pronouns signifying the same thing, and agreeing in case, are said to be in apposition. See p. 88, Rule VII. part 2.
|| In analyzing, the different attributes to the same noun should be numbered separately ; 1, 2, 3, &c.
186 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
EXERCISES.
Divide into Nominative, Attribute, and
Predicate*
Honest men make many friends. The pic- tures in this book are very beautiful. His brother deceived him. Cowper the poet died in 1800. Heaps of wounded and slain dotted the side of the hill. King Charles the First was an unfortunate monarch. The arrival of the doctor put an end to our suspense. The shepherd's dog caught a hare. The best reward of the virtuous man is the approval of his conscience. A forgiving spirit is better than riches. Eichard Crookback was a cruel king. The parting gleam of sunshine kissed that haughty scroll of gold. A foreign nation is a contemporaneous posterity. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. The sentinel on Whitehall gate looked forth into the night. Burned Marmion's swarthy cheek like fire. The paths of glory lead but to the grave.
Many a shaft, at random sent, Finds mark the archer never meant.
Affliction's sons are brothers in distress. This goodly frame, the earth, seems to me a sterile promontory.
THE PARTS OF THE PREDICATE. The Predicate may be subdivided into the finite Verb, its Complements, and its Adverb ials.
* Example: A thing of beauty is a joy for ever. Nominative, a thing; attribute, of beauty; predicate, is a joy for ever.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 18?
THE VERB.
A Finite Verb is a verb which has person, number, and tense ; or which has a nominative. It is therefore any part of the verb (pp. 34-40) except the Infinitive and the Participles.
THE COMPLEMENT.
The Complement is any word or phrase de- pending upon a verb that does not of itself make complete sense : e.g.,
The Objective * case after an active verb ; as, The keeper shot a hare.
The Infinitive -f* mood governed by another verb ; as, He promised to forgive me.
The Word or Phrase J following the verbs to be and to become; as, Milton was a poet. Philip became haughty. His drawings were amongst the lest.
The Nominative Case after a passive verb of naming ; § as, The new scholar is called David.
Some verbs are followed by more than one complement of different kinds; as, His father taught (1) him (2) reading. The emperor made (1) his son (2) a general. The judge ordered (1) him (2) to ~be imprisoned.
In the passive voice of these verbs, the first complement is made the nominative, and the second remains as the complement ; as, He was taught reading by his father. The emperor's
* See p. 83, Rule II. t See p. 87, Rule VI.
J See p. 72, and p. 90, Rule IX. % See p. 90, foot-note, par. 4.
188 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
son was made a general. He was ordered to le imprisoned.
The Complement, like the Nominative, may be accompanied by attributive words or phrases;* as, The midnight brought the signal sound of strife.
EXERCISES.
On the Complement.^
Shakespeare is our greatest dramatist. The tenant was ordered to leave the farm. William conquered Harold. The hawk pursued a spar- row. Gentleness overcomes many foes. The Home Secretary made his friend a bishop. Procrastination is the thief of time. The Irish guns continued to roar all night. I make the netted sunbeams dance. The prisoner was de- clared to be guilty. Pope wrote the Essay on Man. Elizabeth was resolute and self-willed. George, the Elector of Hanover, became King of England. Young men think old men fools. Virtue is its own reward. The meeting was thought ominous by the people. Henry was violent in temper. Beauty soon grows familiar to the lover. Care keeps his watch in every old man's eye. She never told her love. Such joy ambition finds. Let this great maxim be
* In analyzing, each attribute of the Complement should be enclosed In brackets.
t Examples: Milton was a great poet; Complement, a (great) poet. The general commanded the infantry to advance ; Complements, (1) the infantry, (2) to advance.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 189
my virtue's guide. One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. Her form had yet not lost all its original brightness. His third son was named Edmund Burke, after the great orator. He is often asked his name. He was condemned to die. We were taught history by the clergyman. The blow blunted the keen edge of his sword. Marlborough was next created a Duke. The father has given his son a handsome volume. He has never sent me his address. The general immediately gave the signal to advance.
THE ADVERBIAL.
The Adverbial is any word or phrase added to the verb in order to modify its meaning, or specify some circumstance about it.
Adverbials are classified as follows, according to the ideas they express, viz. : —
Adverbials of Time; soon, thrice, im- mediately, in a few minutes, for a month, the signal being given; &s,Tlie signal leing given* we began the attack ; i.e., we began the attack when the signal was given.
Adverbials of Place; here, hence, thither, on the ground, to Egypt ; as, The expedition has gone to Egypt.
* This is called an Absolute Phrase, corresponding with the Ablative Absolute in Latin Syntax. The noun signal is said to be in the Nomi- native Caee Absolute. The Absolute Phrase also expresses cause, con- dition, &c.
L2
190 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
Adverbials of Manner; thus, well, by acci- dent, with his face to the foe; as, He was found with his face to the foe.
Adverbials of Degree; much, not, so, as, but (only), in a great measure, not at all ; as, I blame him in a great measure for the acci- dent.
Adverbials of Cause;* therefore, for that reason, to read the newspapers, of the plague ; as, Hundreds died of the plague every day.
Adverbials of Effect; to distraction, in ruin, to prove him innocent ; as, All this goes to prove him innocent. This will end in ruin.
Adverbials of Condition;"^ with persever- ance, time permitting ; as, Time permitting, \ I shall explain the matter ; i.e., ^/tirne permits.
Adverbials of Concession ; § nevertheless, notwithstanding his failure ; as, he persevered, notwithstanding his failure; i.e., though he had failed.
An Adverbial may be attached to an adjec- tive or to an adverb, as well as to a vert ; as, He returned much more quickly than he went. A
* Purpose is included in this class. When I say, " He goes there to read the newspapers" the purpose of his going is the cause why he goes.
f In an Adverbial of Condition, something is supposed as the reason of something else following; as, With perseverance he will succeed; i.e., if he perseveres, he will succeed.
J An Absolute Phrase. See p. 189, note.
g In an Adverbial of Concession, something is granted as the reason why something else should not follow ; as, In spite of his efforts he failed, i.e., it is granted that he made efforts, but, contrary to our expecta- tions, he failed.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 191
general victorious ~by accident deserves little credit. But the Adverbial of the sentence in analysis belongs only to the verb of the predi- cate.
EXERCISES. On the Adverbial*
The captain has gone to Eome. The doctor has called thrice at the hotel. Both brothers died of fever. She loved him to distraction. He will undoubtedly succeed. The explanation in no respect satisfies us. With care he may recover his position. He nevertheless behaved like a coward. Ships of war are made of iron, to resist cannon-balls. The answer being un- favourable, the attack on the forts was recom- menced. The station was decorated with ban- ners and evergreens. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. The bonfires shone bright along the whole circuit of the ramparts. Notwithstanding the efforts of the crew, the cargo was entirely lost, I have often left my childish sports to ramble in this place. Weather permitting, we shall go to the country on Thursday. The captain altogether misunderstood the orders of his superior. In spite of repeated warnings, he persisted in incurring the danger. I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. Cowards die many times before their deaths.
. -
A'.<: ?""' a* Tir •
* Example: He arrived in London at four o'clock. Adverbials, (1) in London (place), (2) at four o'clock (time).
192
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
o
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0
o
B
I
IP
I
o
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o3 |
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i |
0> |
i |
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3 |
"^d |
^5 |
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4 |
PH |
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w |
i bS" |
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H |
0 5 |
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PREDICA |
t |
Noun (with out attribu |
Pronoun. |
Adjective. Infinitive. |
Phrase. |
o |
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S o |
i |
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£ |
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§ |
o |
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S |
d |
o5 d > > |
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P |
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1 |
d 1 |
I PH |
s *s pir* «d |
1 |
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1 |
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1 |
d |
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i |
£ |
> |
0 |
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'S |
"o |
i |
'i |
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03 |
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& 04 |
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THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 193
KINDS OF PHRASES.
A phrase in the Attribute is called an Adjec- tive or Attributive Phrase; a phrase in the Nom- inative or Complement is called a Noun Phrase; a phrase in the Adverbial is called an Adverbial Phrase.
EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS.
1. Old men often make mistakes.
2. The thundering roar of the lion only increased the confusion.
3. I therefore asked him the circumstances of his deception.
4. Let me no longer waste the night on the page of antiquity.
5. Meantime Nelson received a severe wound in the head.
6. The service past, around the pious man, With ready zeal each honest rustic ran.
FIRST STEP.
Subject.
1. Old men
2. The thundering roar
of the lion
3. I
4. [Thou]
5. Nelson
6. Each honest rustic
Predicate.
oflen make mistakes, only increased the confusion.
therefore asked him the circum- stances of his deception.
let me no longer waste the night on the page of antiquity.
meantime received a severe wound in the head.
ran around the pious man, with ready zeal, the service past.
194
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
~ r§ r»J OJ o |
1 |
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1 |
f ^ |
^ — »£ |^ o §3 o *j ® c S 8) £ a M PI «*i c *^ eu 03 o |
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THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 195
EXERCISES.
Simple Sentences for Analysis.
It is a splendid picture. You are certainly mistaken. Now, every considerable town has its daily newspaper. Many years have passed since his death. Nothing can exceed his kind- ness. There were several literary men there. Observe the moon to-night. We shall proceed no further in this business. At length the caliph approached him reverently. On my birthday, my brother sent me a delightful book. You wronged yourself to write in such a case. I was touched with a secret joy at the sight of the good old man. Their ammunition being exhausted, the garrison surrendered. My friend Sir Koger, being a good churchman, has beauti- fied the inside of his church with several texts of his own choosing. The French admiral had moored his fleet in Aboukir Bay. Put the Word of God into the hands of my son. His noble conduct well deserved honourable reward. A man's first care should be to avoid the re- proaches of his own heart. Things remaining thus, the secretary's character will suffer greatly. The first two ships of the French line were dis- masted in a quarter of an hour. With taper light
To seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish,
Is wasteful and ridiculous excess. Notwithstanding the most heroic efforts, the hopes of the French visibly declined from day to day. Now for the first time, I observed,
196 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
walking close to the feet of his horse, a little boy about ten years of age.
Meanwhile, our primitive great sire to meet, His godlike guest walks forth.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.
When any member of a simple sentence — that is, of a sentence containing only one inde- pendent assertion — is in the form of a clause, the sentence is called Complex; as, A man who is learned * is respected.
In a Complex Sentence, there are at least two finite verbs, and therefore at least two clauses. The clause containing the leading assertion is called the Principal Clause; as, A (certain) m-an is respected. The clauses containing ex- planatory assertions are called Subordinate Clauses; as, Who is learned, &c.
A Principal clause may stand by itself and •make complete sense ; as, A man is respected : a Subordinate clause cannot make complete sense by itself; as, Who is learned.
A Subordinate clause may further be known by this, — that it is always introduced by a relative pronoun, or by a conjunction, which marks its dependence on some part of the prin- cipal clause ; as, He is ill because he is unhappy. We started as the clock struck. The book
* A man who is learned, is the same as a man of learning or a learned man. The sentence is therefore simple and not compound, inasmuch as it contains only one complete assertion ; but since it contains an Attri- bute in the form of a clause, it is called complex.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 197
which you gave me is lost. The mother cried tiiat her child was drowning.
In Analysis, the words used to introduce clauses, or to join them together, are called Connectives.
Subordinate Clauses are of three kinds, corre- sponding with the three kinds of phrases men- tioned above (p. 193), viz.: — Adjective Clauses, which qualify nouns or describe things ; Noun Clauses, which stand for nouns or name things ; and Adverbial Clauses, which modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.
Any clause which describes a thing, or which is attached to a noun or pronoun, is an Adjec- tive Clause; as, The house that Jack built. The place where I was born. He whom ye seek.
The Adjective clause is generally introduced by a relative pronoun, the antecedent of which is the word qualified by the clause. Even when such words as when, where, why, &c., are used to introduce clauses, each of them may be re- solved into a preposition and a relative — in which, at which, for which, &c.; as, The place where (in which) I was born.
A Compound Relative * introducing an adjec- tive clause, must be resolved into a demonstra- tive and a relative ; as, Show me what you have found, i.e., show me that, which you have found.
* See p. 18 ; also pp. 69, 70 ; and K. p. 43.
198 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
Whoever said so spoke falsely, i.e., Any one spoke falsely, who said so.
When this separation is made, the demon- strative forms part of the principal clause, and the relative belongs to the subordinate clause.
When the antecedent is omitted,* it must be supplied before the sentence is analyzed; as, Who steals my purse steals tretsh, i.e., He steals trash, who steals my purse.
When the relative is in the objective case, it is often omitted ; * as/ It is not easy to love those (whom) we do not esteem.
Sometimes a relative in the nominative case is omitted, when its antecedent immediately precedes the subordinate verb ; as, I have a brother (who) is condemned to die.
After negatives, the adjective clause is fre- quently introduced by but, meaning which not or that not ; as, There is not one of his works but shows marks of care and study ; i.e., which does not show marks of care and study.
The Adjective clause may be attached to a noun or pronoun in any part of the sentence ; e.g. :—
In the Nominative; as, He whom ye seek is not here.
In the Attribute; as, The spire of the church which we attend was struck by lightning.
* See p. 77 ; and K. p. 83, q.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 199
In the Complement; as, I have twice read the book ivhich you lent me.
In the Adverbial ; as, He died in the house which was given him by the queen.
EXERCISES.
On Adjective Clauses.*
The man who painted that picture is dead. I often think of the night which I spent with you. What you report may be quite true. He who tells a lie knows not what a task he under- takes. I have lately visited the place where I spent the happy years of my boyhood. I am monarch of all I survey. Who was the thane lives yet. The treaty of Westphalia, which terminated the Thirty Years' War, was con- cluded in 1648. I saw two gentlemen by me, who were in the same ridiculous circumstances. A shower then overtook us, which compelled us to seek shelter.
Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot O'er the grave where our hero we buried.
I may do that I shall be sorry for. Strive to do only that is right. It seemed as if the Eng- lish people had, in this brief period, utterly forgotten the mighty princess whose reign had been so glorious, and over whose bier they had so lately mourned.
The nurse sleeps sweetly, hired to watch the sick, Whom snoring she disturbs.
* Example: I have just seen the lady who wrote that letter. Adjec- tive clause, who wrote that letter, describing lady.
200 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
I have often wandered in fields which are now covered with houses. The frame of the picture that you gave me is beautif ally carved. There is no one but believes in his honesty. Nothing which I could do would repay you for the kindness with which you have treated me, ever since the day when we first became friends.
There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, But has one vacant chair.
THE NOUN CLAUSE.
Any clause which names a thing, or which occupies the place of a noun in any part of the sentence, is a Noun Clause; as, I believe that he has deceived me. That you have wronged me is quite evident.*
The Noun clause is generally introduced by the conjunction that ;-(• but the conjunction is often omitted ; as, It is said (that} he has failed.
When two or more Noun clauses are stated alternatively, the first is introduced by whether, the others by or ; as, I cannot discover whether the letter was composed by himself, or was written by him to his father's dictation.
Sometimes only one alternative is stated, the other being implied. In this case the Noun clause is introduced by the conjunctions whether
* The test of the noun clause is that the word "something" may always be put in its place ; e.g., I believe something— namely, that he has deceived me. Something is quite evident — namely, that you have wronged me.
t This conjunction is really the demonstrative pronoun, used to point out the clause following it.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 201
and if; as, It is uncertain whether he is ready (or not). Ask him if he will help you.
A quotation is generally a Noun clause, governed by such words as he said, the author thinks, it is a well-known saying; as, Burke says, that " early and provident fear is the mother of safety."
When the Noun clause expresses an opinion, or states a fact, the principal clause may be in the form of a parenthesis ; as, Every one (I think) will acknowledge the importance of classical learning; i.e., I think that every one will acknowledge the importance of classical learning.
The Noun clause is frequently in apposition to the pronoun it ; as, Elizabeth, it is true, often spoke curtly to her parliaments ; i.e., It (namely, that Elizabeth often spoke curtly to her parlia- ments) is true.
EXERCISES.
On Noun Clauses*
We believe that he is honest. That he is brave is unquestionable. I have been told he is a great gambler. I doubt whether he speaks the truth. That thou art happy owe to God. I'll warrant we'll never see him sell his hen on a rainy day. He could not be brought to believe that his sister was dead. They say there is divinity in odd numbers. I would that
* Example: They say that he has lost his manuscript. Noun clause, that he has lost his manuscript, objective case, governed by say.
202 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
I were low laid in my grave. Ask him whether he is ready.
Yet some maintain that to this day
She is a living child.
I would the gods had made thee poetical. I have often thought, says Sir Roger, it happens very well that Christmas should fall out in the middle of winter. No observation is more com- mon, and at the same time more true, than that one half of the world are ignorant how the other half lives. These, I found, were all of them politicians. Milton says beautifully that truth is as impossible to be soiled by any out- ward touch as the sunbeam. Ask him if he is aware of your success.
Whether he was combined With those of Norway, or did line the rebel With hidden help and vantage, or that with both He laboured in his country's wrack, — T know not.
Every one, I think, will acknowledge the justice ef the verdict. Reading, says Bacon, maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man.
But, that thou shouldst my firmness therefore doubt
To God or thee, because we have a foe
May tempt it, I expected not to hear.
THE ADVEKBIAL CLAUSE. Any clause which occupies the place of an adverb, or which modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, is an Adverbial Clause; as, He came when he was called. He goes as often as he can. I shall do it if I am asked.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 203
The nature of Adverbial clauses is indicated by the conjunctions which introduce them. Their classification corresponds exactly with that of adverbial words and phrases given above (p. 189). It is as follows: —
Clauses of Time, introduced by the con- nectives when, while, whenever, since, before, after, until, &c.; as, The letter arrived while he was there.
Clauses of Place, introduced by the con- nectives where, whither, whence, wherein, wher- ever, &c. ; as, He goes wherever he pleases. He remained until I arrived.
Clauses of Manner, introduced by the con- nectives as, as if; as, He speaks as he thinks. He acts as if he were innocent*
Clauses of Degree, introduced by the con- nectives (so) as, (more) than, &c. ; as, William is not so clever as his brother [is clever]. Wil- liam is cleverer than his brother [is clever}.^
Clauses of Cause, introduced by the con- nectives because, for, since, as> why, (in order) that, $ but ; as, He went because he was tol$. Strive, that you may succeed. Take heed lest ye fall.
* As if is elliptical. The full sentence would be, He acts as he zoauld act, 7/he were innocent. The true clause of manner is as he would act. The subsequent clause, if he were innocent, is a clause of condition depen- dent on " as he would act."
| In each of these examples, the connective is preceded by a corre- lative or corresponding word : in the one case the adverb so ; in the other, the comparative cleverer. In both examples the degree of William's cleverness is measured by comparison with that of his brother. In the first case the degree is that of equality, in the second of inequality.
J (In order) that and lest express purpose, which in the case of clauses, as of phrases, is included under cause. See p. 190. note *.
204 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
Glauses of Effect, introduced by the con- nective (so) that; as, He speaks so low that we cannot hear him.
Clauses of Condition, introduced by the connectives if, unless; as, If I were invited, I should go. Unless I am invited, I shall not go.
Clauses of Concession, introduced by the connectives though, although; as, Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him.
EXERCISES.
On Adverbial Clauses.*
He acted as he was told. He started when he heard the news. Let it lie where it has fallen. If you persevere, you are sure to suc- ceed. We are often so tempted that resistance seems impossible. He will remain where he is until he is sent for. Since you are wrong, you must have made some mistake. Although he was poor, he was always contented. Unless you are quiet you will hear nothing. He did not go, as he was told to remain at home. The noise pursues me wheresoe'er I go. When I am in a serious humour, I very often walk by myself in Westminster Abbey. You have more circumspection than is wanted. Although we seldom followed advice, we were all ready enough to ask it. He speaks to me as if he were my master. The climate of England is ,- / , —
* Example: I cannot write to my cousin, as I have lost his address Adverbial clause, as I have lost his address, expressing cause.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 205
not so mild as that of France. He passed me so quickly that I did not recognise him. If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. As my heart was entirely subdued by the captivat- ing strains I had heard, I fell down at his feet.
Eternal smiles his emptiness betray,
As shallow streams run dimpling all the way.
I will roar that I will do any man's heart good to hear me.
Had I your tongues and eyes, I'd use them so That heaven's vault should crack.
Wherever they marched, their route was marked with blood. If there be anything that makes human nature appear ridiculous to men of superior faculties, it must be pride. The rest were long to tell, though far renowned. As soon as the sun arose, all their boats were manned and armed.
When here, but three days since, I came, Bewildered in pursuit of game, All seemed as peaceful and as still As the mist slumbering on yon hill.
There are three methods of analyzing complex sentences: — (1.) They may simply be divided into clauses, the nature of each clause being specified ; (2.) They may be analyzed in exactly the same way as simple sentences, only the principal clause being divided into its members ; (3.) All the clauses, subordinate as well as prin- cipal, may be divided into their members.
206 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
Before analyzing any complex sentence, con- tractions must be expanded, and ellipses supplied ; as, A man who is mean, or cowardly, or indolent, will not do for the post; i.e., A man who is mean, or [who is] cowardly, or [who is] indolent, &c. What cannot be cured, must be endured ; i.e.. That (which cannot be cured) must be en- dured. "Who live to nature rarely can be poor ; i.e., Those (who live to nature) rarely can be poor.
EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS.
1. He is well paid that is well satisfied.
2. That thou art happy, owe to God.
3. At about half a mile's distance from our cabin, we heard the groanings of a bear, which at first startled us.
4. When Henry the Fifth came within sight of that prodigious army which offered him battle at Agincourt, he ordered all his cavalry to dismount.
5. In truth there is no sadder spot on the earth than that little cemetery.
6. You have done that you should be sorry for.
FIRST, OR SIMPLEST, METHOD.
1. A.* He is well paid
a. That is well satisfied. (Adjective to " He.")
* An easy and convenient method of indicating the relations of the clauses to one another, is to mark each principal clause by a capital letter, as A, and each subordinate clause by a corresponding small letter, as a. This simple notation is borrowed from Mr Dalgloieh's " Grammatical Analysis."
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 207
2. A. Owe [thou] to God
a. That thou art happy. (Noun, comp. to " owe.")
3. A. At about half a mile's distance from our
cabin, we heard the groanings of a bear,
a. Which at first startled us. (Adj. to " groan- ings.")
4. A. He ordered all his cavalry to dismount,
a. When Henry the Fifth came within sight of that prodigious army, (Adverbial of time to " ordered.")
a. Which offered him battle at Agincourt. (Adj. to "army.")
5. A. In truth there is no sadder spot on the earth a. Than that little cemetery [is sad]. (Adv. of
degree to " sadder.")
6. A. You have done that
a. For [whicK] you should be sorry. (Adj. to "that.")
Note.— The Second and Third Methods of Ana- lysis are given in the following pages. It will be observed in these tables that every principal verb is printed in SMALL CAPITALS, and every subordinate verb in italics.
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
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II
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b"s 11
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.
209
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210 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
EXERCISES.
Complex Sentences for Analysis.
The prisoner declared that he was innocent. He that runs may read them. When the prin- cess arrived, she received a splendid bouquet. Though he is above seventy, he is an active man of business. Unless he perseveres he will never succeed. He sat for several hours motion- less where the rivers meet. The citadel where he shut himself up after his defeat was stormed in the following week. Their diadems were crowns of glory which should never fade away. Those had little reason to laugh who encoun- tered them in the field of battle. Such was the dust with which the dust of Monmouth mingled. Nothing is so dangerous as pride. One of the company told me that it would play there above a week longer if the thaw continued. Mercy becomes the throned monarch better than his crown. Whatever is, is right. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. Such treat- ment I did not expect, for I never had a patron before. Those who are rich are not always so happy as their poorer neighbours. If it had not been that I had tested his fidelity before, I could not have believed him. My valet, who was an Irishman, fell into so great a rage at what he had heard, that he drew his sword. When I compare the figure which the Dutch make in Europe with that they assume in Asia, I am struck with surprise.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 211
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
A Compound Sentence is a sentence that eon- tains two or more complete assertions, or prin- cipal clauses ; as, The father makes money, and the son spends it. I hate innovation, but I love improvement.
The several principal clauses in a compound sentence are said to be co-ordinate with one another, because they are independent of one another, and each of them makes complete sense by itself.
Any principal clause in a compound sen- tence may have subordinate clauses attached to it; as, The father, who is industrious, makes money ; and the son, who is extravagant, spends it as fast as he can.
CONTRACTED SENTENCES. When a member common to two or more clauses is expressed only once, the sentence is said to be contracted: as, Its motion is circular, not progressive ; i.e., Its motion is circular, [its notion is] not progressive. Death had lost its terrors, and pleasure its charms; i.e., Death had lost its terrors, and pleasure [had lost] its charms.
The principal members of compound sen- tences are connected by the conjunctions and, either — or, neither — nor, and but. Sometimes the conjunction is omitted ; as, The wind roared, the rain came down in torrents; it was a ter- rible night.
212 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
There are three methods of analyzing com- pound sentences. — (1.) They may simply be divided into clauses ; (2.) Each leading member may be analyzed in the same way as simple sentences, only the principal clauses being di- vided into their members ; (3.) All the clauses, subordinate as well as principal, may be divided into their members.
EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS.
1. We said that the history of England is the history of progress ; and when we take a comprehen- sive view of it, it is so.
2. At church, with meek and unaffected grace, His looks adorned the venerable place ; Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway, And fools who came to scoff, remained to pray.
FIRST, OR SIMPLEST, METHOD.
1. A. We said
a. That the history of England is the history of
progress ; B.* And it is so,
b. When we take a comprehensive view of it.
2. A. At church, with meek and unaffected grace,
his looks adorned the venerable place ;
B. Truth from his lips prevailed with double
sway,
C. And fools remained to pray
c. Who came to scoff.
* Applying the notation already explained (p. 206, note) to com- pound sentences, we mark each principal clause with a different capital letter, A, B, C, &c.; the clauses subordinate to clause A are marked a; those subordinate to clause B are marked b, and so on.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
213
EC
tn O
S'g
"3 *o
13 *2
214
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
* -
32
3
.23
v
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 215
EXERCISES.
Compound Sentences for Analysis. The general had three daughters, and he left each of them a fortune. He had many relatives, but he died without a friend. I could make nothing of it, and therefore asked in what language it was written. When Sir Roger sees any one sleeping in church, he either wakes them himself, or sends his servant to them. Charles had two brothers; the one became a bishop, and the other, who had entered the navy, was drowned in the Mediterranean. Henry the Fifth manifestly derived his courage from his piety, and was scrupulously careful not to ascribe the success of it to himself. Impudence is a vice, and absurdity a folly. The impudent are pressing, though they know they are dis- agreeable ; the absurd are importunate, because they think they are acceptable. A long series of ancestors shows the native, with great ad- vantage at the first ; but, if he any way degen- erate from that, the least spot is visible on ermine. Almost every man's thoughts, while they are general, are right ; and most hearts are pure while temptation is away. It is one thing to write because there is something which the mind wishes to discharge ; and another thing to solicit the imagination, because ceremony or vanity requires something to be written. Full well the busy whisper, circling round, Conveyed the dismal tidings when he frowned ; Yet was he kind, or, if severe in aught, The love he bore to learning was in fault.
216 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
The French have long been acknowledged to have much bravery: a great part of Europe has owned their superiority in this respect ; and I know scarcely any country but that which has beaten them that dares assert the contrary. Slaves cannot breathe in England : if their lungs Receive our air, that moment they are free ; They touch our country, and their shackles fall.
The alms of the settlement in this dreadful exigency were certainly liberal, and all was done by charity that private charity could do : but it was a people in beggary ; it was a nation which stretched out its hands for food.
Who steals my purse steals trash: 'tis something, nothing; Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands j But he that filches from me my good name, Robs me of that which not enriches him, And makes me poor indeed.
FINIS.
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OLIVER AND BOYD'S NEW CODE CLASS-BOOKS, page 4.
English Beading, Grammar, etc. Armstrong's Eng. Composition.P. 7
Eng. Etymology 7
Col ville's NewCode Reading-Books 4
Connon's English Grammar 6
First Spelling-Book 6
Dalgleish's English Grammars... 6
Gram. Analysis 6
Eng. Composition 6
Demaus's Paradise Lost 8
Analysis of Sentences.. 8
Douglas's English Grammars 5
Progressive Eng. Reader 5
Selections for Recitation 5
Spelling and Dictation. 5
English Etymology 5
Ewing's Elocution 8
Fisher's Assembly's Catechism... 8
Lennie's English Grammar 6
M'Culloch's Reading-Books 3
English Grammar.... 3
M'Dowall's Rhetorical Readings.. 8
Milieu's English Grammar 8
Morell's Poetical Reading-Book... 7 Pryde's Studies in Composition... 7
Reid's English Grammar 7
English Composition 7
English Dictionary 7
Sess. School Etymological Guide.. 8
Old & New Test. Biographies 8
Shakspeare's Richard II 5
Spalding's English Literature 7
White's English Grammar 8
Wordsworth's Excursion 5
Object-Lessons.
On the Vegetable Kingdom 8
Ross's How to Train Eyes and Ears 8
Geography and Astronomy.
Clyde's School Geography P. 9
Elementary Geography .. 9
Douglas's Introductory Geogy 10
Progressive Geogy 10
Text-Book of Geogy 10
Edin. Acad. Modern Geography ..11
Ancient Geography. .11
Ewing's Geography 11
Atlas 11
Lawson'a Geog. of British Empire 10
New Code Geographies 4
Physical Geography.... 4
Murphy's Bible Atlas 11
Reid's First Book of Geography.. 10
Modern Geography ."...10
Sacred Geography 10
Atlases 11
Reid's (Hugo) Elements of Astro- nomy 11
Phys. Geography.. 11
Stewart's Modern Geography 9
White's Abstract of Geography... 9
System of Geography.... 9
Atlas 11
School Songs.
Hunter's Books on Vocal Music... 17 School Psalmody 17
Household Economy. Gordon's Household Economy 8
History.
Corkran's History of England 12
Simpson's Scotland 13
Goldsmith's England..l3
Greece ....13
Rome 13
INDEX.
Ty tier's General History P. 13
Watt's Scripture History 13
White's Universal History 12, 13
England for Jun. Classes 12
History of France 12
Great Britain and Ireland 12
Sacred History 13
Histories of Scotland 12
History of Rome 13
Writing, Arithmetic, eto.
Cray's Arithmetic 15
Hutton's Arithmetic, etc 15
Ingrain's Principles of Arithmetic 15
Maclaren's Arithmetic 16
Book-keeping 16
Melrose's Arithmetic 15
Scott's Arithmetical Works 16
..« Copy Books & Copy Lines..l6
Smith's Arithmetical Works 14
Stewart's Arithmetical Works 15
Tsotter's Arithmetical Works..l4, 15
New Code Arithmetic... 4
Hutton's Book-keeping. 15
Gaelic. Forbes' s Gaelic Grammar 16
Mathematics, eto. Ingrain's System of Mathematics..l6
Mensuration, by Trotter 16
Trotter's Key to Ingram's Mathe- matics 16
Manual of Logarithms.. .16
Ingram's Euclid 16
Algebra 16
Nicol's Sciences 17
French.
Beljame's French Grammar, etc. ..20 Caron's First French Class-Book ..20
First French Reading- Book.. 20
French Grammar 20
Chambaud's Fables Choisies IS
Christison's French Grammar 20
Fables et Contes Choisis 20
Fleury's History of France. .20
French New Testament 18
Gibson's Le Petit Fablier 18
Hallard's French Grammar 20
Schneider's First French Course. ..18
Conversation- Grammar.18
French Reader 18
French Manual 18
ficrin Litte*raire 18
Surenne's Dictionaries P. 19
New French Manual, etc... 19
New French Dialogues 19
French Classics 19,20
French Reading Instructor 20
Wolski's French Extracts tt>
French Grammar 20
Latin and Greek.
Ainsworth's Latin Dictionary 23
Cicero's Orationes Selectee 24
Cato Major, De Officiis....24
Clyde's Greek Syntax 21
Dymock's Csesar and Sallus.t 22
Edin. Academy Class-Books : — Rudiments of Latin Language... 21
Latin Delectus 21
Rudiments of Greek Language. ..21
Greek Extracts 21
Cicer6nis Opera Selecta 21
Selecta e Poetis 21
Ferguson's(Prof.)Gram. Exercises 24
.....?. Latin Delectus 24
Ovid's Metamorphoses 24
Fergusson's (Dr) Xenophon's Ana- basis 23
Greek Gram. Exercises 23
r.. Homer's Iliad, with Vocab. 23
Geddes' (Prof.) Greek Grammar... 21
Greek Testament, by Duncan 23
Hunter's Ruddiman's Rudiments .22
Sallust, Virgil, & Horace 22
Livy, Books 21 to 25 22
Latin Testament, by Beza 23
Macgowan's Latin Lessons 22
Mair's Introduction, by Stewart... 23 Massie's Latin Prose Composition 22
M'Dowall's Csesar and Virgil 22
Melville's Lectiones Selectae 22
Neilson's Eutropius 22
Stewart's Cornelius Nepos 23
Veitch's Homer's Iliad 23
German. Fischart's New German Reader... 24
Logic. Port-Royal Logic (Prof. Baynes')24
School Eegisters. / Pupil's Daily Register of Marks. 17 School Register of Attendance,
Absence, and Fees 17
Geometrical Drawing. Kennedy's Grade Geometry 17
Messrs Oliver and Boyd were awarded Medals for their Educa- tional Works by Her Majesty's Commissioners of the London International Exhibition, and by the Jurors of the Paris Uni- versal Exhibition.
EDUCATIONAL WOBKS.
ENGLISH BEADING, GEAMMAE, ETO.
IN the initiatory department of instruction a valuable series of works has been prepared by DR M'CULLOCH, formerly Head Master of the Circus- Place School, Edinburgh, now Minister of the West Church, Greenock.
DR M'CULLOCH'S SERIES OF CLASS-BOOKS.
These Books are intended for the use of Schools where the general raental culture of the pupil, as well as his proficiency in the art of reading-, is studiously and systematically aimed at.
They form, collectively, a progressional Series, so constructed and graduated as to conduct the pupil, by regular stages, from the elementary sounds of the language to its highest and most complex forms of speech ; and each separate Book is also progressively arranged, — the lessons which are more easily read and understood always taking the lead, and preparing the way for those of greater difficulty.
The subject-matter of the Books is purposely miscellaneous. Yet it is always of a character to excite the interest and enlarge the knowledge of the reader. And with the design of more effectually promoting his mental growth and nurture, the various topics are introduced in an order con- formable to that in which the chief faculties of the juvenile mind are usually developed.
That the moral feelings of the pupil may not be without their proper stimulus and nutriment, the lessons are pervaded throughout by the religious and Christian element.
DR M'CULLOCH'S READING-BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS.
FIRST READING-BOOK, Ijd.
Do. Large Type Edition, in two parts, price 2d. each.
Do. In a Series of Sheets for Hanging on the Wall, Is. ; or on Roller, Is. 8d.
SECOND HEADING-BOOK, 3cl.
THIRD READING-BOOK, containing simple Pieces in
Prose and Verse, with Exercises. Now Printed in Larger Type, 1 Od.
FOURTH READING-BOOK, containing only Lessons
likely to interest. With SYNOPSIS OF SPELLING, ... Is. 6d.
SERIES OF LESSONS in Prose and Verse, .... 2s.
COURSE OF ELEMENTARY READING in SCIENCE and LITERATURE, compiled from popular Writers, 39 Woodcuts, 3s.
MANUAL OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, Philosophical
and Practical ; with Exercises ; adapted to the Analytical mode
of Tuition, Is 6d.
Oliver & BoycTs New Code Class-Books.
STANDARD READING-BOOKS,
r.y JAMKS COLVILLE, M. A., English Master, Glasgow Accademy ; late Eng- lish Master, George Watson's College-Schools, Lauriston, Edinburgh, one of the Educational Institutions of the Merchant Company.
PRIMER: Being Spelling and Reading Lessons Introductory to Standard I. (Illustrated.) 36 pages. l£d.
FIRST STANDARD READING-BOOK; with Easy Lessons in Script. (Illustrated.) 95 pages. 4d. in stiff wrapper, or 6d. cloth.
SECOND STANDARD READING-BOOK ; with Dictation Exer- cises, partly in Script. (Illustrated.) 108 pages. 4d. in stiff wrapper, or 6d. cloth.
THIRD STANDARD READING-BOOK; with Dictation Exer- cises, partly in Script. 144 pages, strongly bound. 8d.
*#* The Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Standard Reading-Books, completing the Series, will shortly be published.
2. ARITHMETIC,
By ALEX. TROTTER, Teacher of Mathematics, etc., Edinburgh ; Author of "Arithmetic for Advanced Classes," etc.
PART I., embracing Standards 1 and 2. 36 pages. 2d.— Answers, 3d. „ II., embracing Standards 3 and 4. 36 pages. 2d. — Answers, 3d. „ III., embracing Standards 5 and 6.
3. STANDARD GEOGRAPHIES,
By W. LAWSON, F.R.G.S., St Mark's College, Chelsea; Author of " Geography of the British Empire," etc.
GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER, embracing an Outline of the Chief Divisions of the World. Adapted to Standard IV. 36 pages. 2d.
GEOGRAPHY of ENGLAND and WALES ; with a Chapter on Railways. Adapted to Standard V. 36 pages. 2d.
GEOGRAPHY of SCOTLAND and IRELAND; with Notes on Railways. 36 pages. 2d.
GEOGRAPHY of EUROPE. Adapted to Standard VI. 48 pp. 3d.
4. LAWSON' S ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Adapted to the Requirements of the New Code. 90 pages. 6d.
ENGLISH READING, GRAMMAR, ETC. 5
The following Works, included in the present Catalogue, will also "be found adapted to the Requirements of the New Code : —
REID'S RUDIMENTS OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY, with 36
pages of information on Counties and Railways, . Catalogue, p. 10
DOUGLAS'S PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHY, a New Work, . . 10
LENNIE'S GRAMMAR, with Analysis of Sentences, ... 6
DOUGLAS'S GRAMMAR, with Analysis of Sentences, ... 5
REID'S GRAMMAR, with Analysis of Sentences, .... 7
HUNTER'S SCHOOL SONGS, with Music, 17
THE PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR; with a Series of Progressive Exercises, and a Supplementary Treatise on Analysis of Sentences. By Dr JAMES DOUGLAS, lately Teacher of English, Great King Street, Edinburgh. Is. 6d.
DOUGLAS'S INITIATORY GRAMMAR, for JUNIOR
CLASSES. Printed in larger type, and containing a Supplementary Treatise on Analysis of Sentences. 6d.
DOUGLAS'S PROGRESSIVE ENGLISH READER.
A New Series of English Reading-Books. The Earlier Books are illus- trated with numerous Engravings.
FIRST BOOK. 2d. I THIRD BOOK. Is. I FIFTH BOOK. 2s.
SECOND BOOK. 4d. | FOURTH BOOK. Is. 6d. | SIXTH BOOK. 2s. 6d.
DOUGLAS'S SELECTIONS FOR RECITATION, with
Introductory and Explanatory Notes; for Schools. Is. 6d.
DOUGLAS'S SPELLING AND DICTATION EXERCISES.
144 pages, price Is.
Athenceum. — "A good practical book, from which correct spelling and pronunciation may be acquired."
DOUGLAS'S ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY: A Text-Book of Derivatives, with numerous Exercises. 168 pages, price 2s. Scotsman. — " An especially excellent book of derivatives."
SHAKESPEARE'S KING RICHARD II, With Historical and Critical Introductions; Grammatical, Philological, and other Notes, etc. Adapted for Training Colleges. By Rev. Canon ROBINSON, M.A., late Principal of the Diocesan Training College, York. 2s.
WORDSWORTH'S EXCURSION. THE WANDERER.
With Notes to aid in Analysis and Paraphrasing. By Canon ROBINSON. 8d.
6 ENGLISH READING, GRAMMAR, ETC.
LENNIE'S PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Comprising the Substance of all the most approved English Grammars, briefly defined, and neatly arranged ; with Copious Exercises in Parsing and Syntax. New Edition ; with the author's latest improvements, and an Appendix in which Analysis of Sentences is fully treated. Is. 6d.
THE AUTHOR'S KEY, containing, besides Additional Exer- cises in Parsing and Syntax, many useful Critical Remarks, Hints, and Observations, and explicit and detailed instructions as to the best method of teaching Grammar. 3s. 6d.
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES: Being the Appendix to Lennie's Grammar adapted for General Use. Price 3d.— KEY, 6d.
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND ANALYSIS,
for ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, with EXERCISES. By WALTER SCOTT DAL- GLEISH, M.A. Edin., lately one of the Masters in the London Interna- tional College. 8d. KEY, Is.
DALGLEISH'S PROGRESSIVE ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
with EXERCISES. 2s. KEY, 2s. 6d.
From Dr JOSEPH Bos WORTH, Professor of Anglo-Saxon in the University of Oxford; Author of the Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, etc., etc.
" Quite a practical work, and contains a vast quantity of important in- formation, well arranged, and brought up to the present improved state of philology. 1 have never seen so much matter brought together in so short a space."
DALGLEISH'S GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS, with PRO- GRESSIVE EXERCISES. 9d. KEY, 2s.
DALGLEISH'S OUTLINES OF ENGLISH COMPOSI- TION, for ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, with EXERCISES. 6d. KEY, 4d.
DALGLEISH'S INTRODUCTORY TEXT-BOOK OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION, based on GRAMMATICAL SYNTHESIS; con- taining Sentences, Paragraphs, and Short Essays. Is.
DALGLEISH'S ADVANCED TEXT-BOOK OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION, treating of Style, Prose Themes, and Versification. 2s. Both Books bound together, 2s. 6d. KEY, 2s. 6d.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR, founded on the Philosophy of Language and the Practice of the best Authors. With Copious Exer- cises, Constructive and Analytical. By C. W. CONNON, LL.D. 2s. 6d.
Spectator— " It exhibits great ability, combining practical skill with philosophical views."
CONNON'S FIRST SPELLING-BOOK. 64
ENGLISH READING, GRAMMAR, ETC. 7
A DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, con- taining the Pronunciation, Etymology, and Explanation of all Words authorized by Eminent Writers. By ALEXANDER REID, LL.D., late Head Master of the Edinburgh Institution. Reduced to 5s.
DR REID'S RUDIMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Greatly improved. Copious Exercises have been introduced throughout ; together with a new Chapter on the Analysis of Sentences ; while the whole work has been revised and printed in a larger type. 6d.
DR REID'S RUDIMENTS OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION,
with Copious Exercises. 2s. Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged.
The work has been entirely remodelled. It now includes Systematic Exercises in Sentence-making. A distinct division has been devoted to the Structure of Paragraphs. The sections on Descriptive and Narrative Essays have been entirely rewritten.
KEY TO THE IMPROVED EDITION, including Directions for teaching the Work. 2s. 6d.
HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE; with an
OUTLINE of the ORIGIN and GROWTH of the ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Illus- trated by EXTRACTS. For Schools and Private STUDENTS. By WILLIAM SPALDING, A.M., Professor of Logic, Rhetoric, and Metaphysics, in the University of St Andrews. Continued to 1870. 3s. 6d.
Spectator. — " A compilation and text-book of a very superior kind. . . The volume is the best introduction to the subject we have met with."
POETICAL READING-BOOK; with Aids for Grammatical
Analysis, Paraphrase, and Criticism ; and an Appendix on English Versification. By J. D. Morell, A.M., LL.D., Author of Grammar of the English Language, etc.; and W. IHNE, Ph.D. 2s. 6d.
STUDIES IN COMPOSITION : A Text-Book for Advanced Classes. By DAVID PRYDE, M.A., Head-Master of the Edinburgh Merchant Company's Educational Institution for Young Ladies. 2s- Eecently published.
ENGLISH COMPOSITION FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS.
By ROBERT ARMSTRONG, Madras College, St Andrews; and THOMAS ARMSTRONG, Heriot Foundation School, Edinburgh. Part I., Is. 6d. Part II., 2s. Both Parts bound together, 3s. KEY, 2s.
ARMSTRONG'S ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 2s. ARMSTRONG'S ETYMOLOGY for JUNIOR CLASSES. 4d.
ENGLISH READING, GRAMMAR, ETC.
SELECTIONS FROM PARADISE LOST; with NOTFS adapted for Elementary Schools, by Rev. ROBERT DEMAUS, M.A., late of the West End Academy, Aberdeen. Is. 6d.
DEMAUS'S ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 3d.
SWING'S PRINCIPLES OF ELOCUTION, improved by F. B. CALVERT, A.M. 3s. 6d.
Consists of numerous rules, observations, and exercises on pronuncia- tion, pauses, inflections, accent, and emphasis, accompanied with copious extracts in prose and poetry.
RHETORICAL READINGS FOR SCHOOLS. By WM.
M'DOWALL, late Inspector of the Heriot Schools, Edinburgh. 2s. 6d.
SYSTEM OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR,, and the Principles of Composition. With Exercises. By JOHN WHITE, F.E.I.S. Is. 6d.
MILLEN'S INITIATORY ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Is. OBJECT-LESSON CARDS ON THE VEGETABLE
KINGDOM. Set of Twenty in a Box. £1, Is.
HOW TO TRAIN YOUNG EYES AND EARS : Being a MANUAL of OBJECT-LESSONS for PARENTS and TEACHERS. By MARY AXNE Ross, Mistress of the Church of Scotland Normal Infant School, Edinburgh. Is. 6d.
HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY: A MANUAL intended for Female Training Colleges, and the Senior Class of Girls' Schools. By MAR- GARET MARIA GORDON (Miss Brewster), Author of "Work, or Plenty to do and how to do it," etc. 2s.
Athenceum. — "Written in a plain, genial, attractive manner, and consti- tuting, in the best sense of the word, a practical domestic manual."
SESSIONAL SCHOOL BOOKS.
ETYMOLOGICAL GUIDE. 2s. 6d.
This is a collection, alphabetically arranged, of the principal roots> affixes, and prefixes, with their derivatives and compounds.
OLD TESTAMENT BIOGRAPHY, containing notices of the chief persons in Holy Scripture, in the form of Questions, with references to Scripture for the Answers. 6d.
NEW TESTAMENT BIOGRAPHY, on the same Plan, 6d.
FISHER'S ASSEMBLY'S SHORTER CATECHISM EX- PLAINED. 2s.
PART I. Of what Man is to believe concerning God. II. Of what duty God requires of Man.
GEOGRAPHY AND ASTRONOMY.
GEOGRAPHY AND ASTKQNOMY,
IN compiling the works on these subjects, the utmost possible care has been taken to ensure clearness and accuracy of statement. Each edition is scrupulously revised as it passes through the press, so that the works may be confidently relied on as containing the latest information accessible at the time of publication.
A COMPENDIUM OP MODERN GEOGRAPHY, POLITICAL, PHYSICAL, and MATHEMATICAL : With a Chapter on the Ancient Geog- raphy of Palestine, Outlines of Astronomy and of Geology, a Glossary of Geographical Names, Descriptive and Pronouncing Tables, Questions for Examination, etc. By the Rev. ALEX. STEWART, LL.D. Carefully Revised. With 11 Maps. 3s. 6d.
SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. By JAMES CLYDE M.A., LL.D.,
one of the Classical Masters of the Edinburgh Academy. With special Chapters on Mathematical and Physical Geography, and Technological Appendix. Corrected throughout. 4s.
Athenaum. — " We have been struck with the ability and value of this work, which is a great advance upon previous Geographic Manuals. . . . Almost for the first time, we have here met with a School Geography that is quite a readable book, — one that, being intended for advanced pupils, is well adapted to make them study the subject with a degree of interest they have never yet felt in it. ... Students preparing for the recently instituted University and Civil Service Examinations will find this their best guide."
DR CLYDE'S ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Corrected
throughout. Is. 6d.
An Appendix on Sacred Geography has now been added, which will be found amply sufficient for ordinary uses. Fresh interest has been given to many old names by the mention of quite modern facts connected with the corresponding places.
AN ABSTRACT OF GENERAL GEOGRAPHY, compre- hending a more minute Description of the British Empire, and of Pales- tine or the Holy Land, etc. With numerous Exercises. For Junior Classes. By JOHN WHITE, F.E.I.S., late Teacher, Edinburgh. Carefully Revised. Is. ; or with Four Maps, Is. 3d.
WHITE'S SYSTEM OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY; with
Outlines of ASTRONOMY and PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY ; comprehending an Account of the Principal Towns, Climate, Soil, Productions, Religion, Education, Government, and Population of the various Countries. With a Compendium of Sacred Geography, Problems on the Globes, Exercises, etc. Carefully Revised. 2s. 6d. ; or with Four Maps, 2s. 9d.
10 GEOGRAPHY AND ASTRONOMY.
RUDIMENTS OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY. By ALEX. REID, LL.D., late Head Master of the Edinburgh Institution. With Plates and Map of the World. Carefully Revised. Is.; or with Five Maps, Is. 3d. Enlarged by 36 pages of extra information regarding the Counties and principal Railways of the United Kingdom.
The names of places are accented, and accompanied with short descrip- tions, and occasionally with the mention of some remarkable event. To the several countries are appended notices of their physical geography, productions, government, and religion ; concluding with an outline of sacred geography, problems on the use of the globes, and directions for the construction of maps.
FIRST BOOK OF GEOGRAPHY: Being an Abridgment of Dr Reid's Rudiments of Modern Geography. With an Outline of the Geography of Palestine. Carefully Revised. 6d.
This work has been prepai'ed for the use of young pupils. It is a suit- able and useful companion to Dr Reid's Introductory Atlas.
DR REID'S OUTLINES OF SACRED GEOGRAPHY. 6d.
This little work is a manual of Scripture Geography for young persons. It is designed to communicate such a knowledge of the places mentioned in holy writ as will enable children more clearly to understand the sacred narrative. It contains references to the passages of Scripture in which the most remarkable places are mentioned, notes chiefly historical and descriptive, and a Map of the Holy Land in provinces and tribes.
AN INTRODUCTORY GEOGRAPHY, for Junior Pupils. By Dr JAMES DOUGLAS, lately Teacher of English, Great King Street, Edinburgh. Carefully Revised. 6d.
DR DOUGLAS'S PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHY. An
entirely new work, showing the recent changes on the Continent and elsewhere, and embracing much Historical and other Information. 160 pages, Is. Carefully Revised.
DR DOUGLAS'S TEXT-BOOK OF GEOGRAPHY, con- taining the PHYSICAL and POLITICAL GEOGBAPHY or all the Countries of the Globe. Systematically arranged. 2s. 6cl. ; or with ten Coloured Maps, 3s. Carefully Revised.
GEOGRAPHY OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. By WILLIAM
LAWSON, St Mark's College, Chelsea. Carefully Revised. 3s. PART I. Outlines of Mathematical and Physical Geography. II. Phy- sical, Political, and Commercial Geography of the British Islands. III. Physical, Political, and Commercial Geography of the British Colonies.
LAWSON'S STANDARD AND PHYSICAL GEOG- RAPHIES, adapted to the requirements of the New Code. See Catalogue, page 4.
GEOGRAPHY AND ASTRONOMY. 11
EDINBURGH ACADEMY MODERN GEOGRAPHY.
Carefully Revised. 2s. 6d.
EDINBURGH ACADEMY ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 3s. SWING'S SYSTEM OF GEOGRAPHY. Carefully Revised.
4s. 6d. ; with 14 Maps, 6s.
Besides a complete treatise on the science of geography, this work contains the elements of astronomy and of physical geography, and a variety of problems to be solved by the terrestrial and celestial globes. At the end is a pronouncing Vocabulary, in the form of a gazetteer, con- taining the names of all the places in the work.
ELEMENTS OF ASTRONOMY; adapted for Private Instruction and Use of Schools. By Hugo Reid, Member of the College of Preceptors. With 65 Wood Engravings. 3s.
REID'S ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY;
with Outlines of GEOLOGY, MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY, and ASTRON- OMY, and Questions for Examination. With numerous Illustrations, and a large coloured Physical Chart of the Globe, is.
SCHOOL ATLASES.
A GENERAL ATLAS OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY ; 29
Maps, Coloured. By THOMAS EWIKG. 7s. 6d.
WHITE'S ELEMENTARY ATLAS OF MODERN GEO- GRAPHY. 4to, 10 Maps, Coloured. 2s. 6d.
CONTENTS.— 1. The World; 2. Europe; 3. Asia; 4. Africa; 5. North America; 6. South America; 7. England; 8. Scotland; 9. Ireland; 10. Palestine.
A SCHOOL ATLAS OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 4to,
16 Maps, Coloured. By ALEXANDER REID, LL.D., late Head Master of the Edinburgh Institution, etc. 5s.
REID'S INTRODUCTORY ATLAS OF MODERN GEO- GRAPHY. 4to, 10 Maps, Coloured. 2s. 6d.
CONTENTS.— 1. The World; 2. Europe; 3. Asia; 4. Africa; 5. North America ; 6. South America ; 7. England ; 8. Scotland ; 9. Ireland ; 10. Palestine.
MURPHY'S BIBLE ATLAS of 24 MAPS, with Historical Descriptions. Is. 6d. coloured.
Witness. — " We recommend this Atlas to teachers, parents, and indi- vidual Christians, as a comprehensive and cheap auxiliary to the intelli- gent reading of the Scriptures."
1 2 HISTORY.
HISTORY,
THE works in this department have been prepared with the greatest care. They \vill be found to include Class-books for Junior and Senior Classes in all the branches of History generally taught in the best schools. While the utmost attention has been paid to accuracy, the narratives have in every case been rendered as instructive and pleasing as possible, so as to relieve the study from the tediousiiess of a mere dry detail of facts.
A CONCISE HISTORY OF ENGLAND IN EPOCHS.
By J. F. CORKRAN. With Maps and Genealogical and Chronological
Tables, and comprehensive Questions to each Chapter. New Edition,
with the History continued. 2s. 6d.
The writer has endeavoured to convey a broad and full impression of the great Epochs, arid to develop with care, but in subordination to the rest of the narrative, the growth of Law and of the Constitution.
HISTORY OF ENGLAND FOR JUNIOR CLASSES; with
Questions for Examination. Edited by HENRY WHITE, B.A. Trinity College, Cambridge, M.A. and Ph.D. Heidelberg. Is. 6d. Athenaeum. — " A cheap and excellent history of England, admirably adapted for the use of junior classes. The various changes that have taken place in our constitution are briefly but clearly described. It is surprising how successfully the editor has not merely avoided the obscurity which generally accompanies brevity, but invested his narrative with an interest too often wanting in larger historical works. The information conveyed is thoroughly sound; and the utility of the book is much increased by the* addition of examination questions at the end of each chapter."
HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND; with an Account of the pi-esent State and Resources of the United Kingdom and its Colonies. With Questions and a Map. By Dr WHITE. 3s. Athenaeum. — " A carefully compiled history for the use of schools. The writer has consulted the more recent authorities: his opinions are liberal, and on the whole just arid impartial : the succession of events is developed with clearness, and with more of that picturesque effect which so delights the young than is common in historical abstracts."
HISTORY OF SCOTLAND FOR JUNIOR CLASSES;
with Questions for Examination. Edited by Dr WHITE. Is. 6d.
HISTORY OF SCOTLAND FOR SENIOR CLASSES;
with Questions for Examination. Edited by Dr WHITE. 3s. 6d.
HISTORY OF FRANCE; with Questions for Examination.
and a Map. Edited by Dr WHITE. 3s. 6d.
Athenceum. — "Dr White is remarkably happy in combining convenient brevity with sufficiency of information, clearness of exposition, and interest of detail. He shows great judgment in apportioning to each subject its due amount of consideration."
OUTLINES OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Edited by Dr
WHITE. 2s.
Spectator.— "Distinct in its arrangement, skilful in its selection of leading features, close and clear in its narrative."
HISTORY. 13
DR WHITE'S ELEMENTS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY,
On a New and Systematic Plan. In THREE PARTS. Part I. Ancient History; Part II. History of the Middle Ages; Part III. Modern History. With a Map of the World. 7s. ; or in Parts, 2s. 6d. each.
This work contains numerous synoptical and other tables, to guide the researches of the student, with sketches of literature, antiquities, and manners during each of the great chronological epochs.
OUTLINES OF THE HISTORY OF ROME; with Ques-
tions for Examination. Edited by Dr WHITE. Is. 6d.
London Review. — "This abridgment is admirably adapted for the use of schools/— the best book that a teacher could place in the hand of a youthful student."
SACRED HISTORY, from the Creation of the World to the Destruction of Jerusalem. With Questions for Examination. Edited by Dr WHITE. Is. 6d.
ELEMENTS OF GENERAL HISTORY, Ancient and Modern. To which are added, a Comparative View of Ancient and Modern Geography, and a Table of Chronology. By ALEX. FRASEB TYTLER, Lord Woodhouselee, formerly Professor of History in the University of Edinburgh. New Edition, with the History continued. With two large Maps, etc. 3s. 6d.
WATTS' CATECHISM OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY, and
of the Condition of the Jews from the Close of the Old Testament to the Time of Christ. With INTRODUCTION by W. K. TWEEDIE, D.D. 2s.
SIMPSON'S HISTORY OF SCOTLAND; with an Outline of the British Constitution, and Questions for Examination at the end ol each Section. 3s. 6d.
SIMPSON'S GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND;
With the Narrative brought down to the Middle of the Nineteenth Century. To which is added an Outline of the British Constitution. With Questions for Examination at the end of each Section. 3s. 6d.
SIMPSON'S GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE.
With Questions for Examination at the end of each Section. 3s. 6d.
SIMPSON'S GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF ROME. With
Questions foi Exaniuatnn at the end of each Section. 3s. 6d.
14
WRITING, ARITHMETIC, AND BOOK-KEEPING.
WHITING, ARITHMETIC, AND BOOK-KEEPING.
THIS section will be found to contain works in extensive use in many of the best schools in the United Kingdom. The successive editions have been carefully revised and amended.
ARITHMETIC ADAPTED TO THE NEW CODE, in
Three Parts. By ALEXANDER TROTTER, Teacher of Mathematics, etc., Edinburgh. Parts I. and //., embracing the first four Standards, are now Ready. 'Each containing 36 pages, 2d., stiff wrapper. Answers to Parts I. and II., price 3d. each. Part III. in Preparation.
PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC FOR JUNIOR CLASSES.
By HENRY G. C. SMITH, Teacher of Arithmetic and Mathematics ia George Heriot's Hospital. 64 pages, 6d. stiff wrapper. Answers, 6d.
From the Rev. PHILIP KELLAND, A.M., F.R.SS. L. & E., late Fettow oj Queens' College, Cambridge, Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh.
" I am glad to learn that Mr Smith's Manual for Junior Classes, the MS. of which I have examined, is nearly ready for publication. Trusting that the Illustrative Processes which he has exhibited may prove as efficient in other hands as they have proved in his own, I have great pleasure in recommending the work, being satisfied that a better Arithmetician and a more judicious Teacher than Mr Smith is not to be found."
PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC FOR SENIOR CLASSES;
Being a Continuation of the above. By HENRY G. C. SMITH. 2s. Answers, 6d. KEY, 2s. 6d.
*** The Exercises in both works, which are copious and original, have been constructed so as to combine interest with utility. They are accompanied by illustrative processes.
LESSONS IN ARITHMETIC FOR JUNIOR CLASSES.
By JAMES TROTTER. 66 pages, 6d. stiff wrapper ; or 8d. cloth. Answers, 6d.
This book was carefully revised, and enlarged by the introduction of Simple Examples of the various rules, worked out at length and fully explained, and of Practical Exercises, by the Author's son, Mr Alexander Trotter, Teacher of Mathematics, etc., Edinburgh; and to the present edition Exercises on the proposed Decimal Coinage have been added.
LESSONS IN ARITHMETIC FOR ADVANCED CLASSES;
Being a Continuation of the Lessons in Arithmetic for Junior Classes. Containing Vulgar and Decimal Fractions; Simple and Compound Proportion, with their Applications; Simple and Compound Interest; Involution and Evolution, etc. By ALEXANDER TROTTER. New Edition, with Exercises on the proposed Decimal Coinage. 76 pages, 6d. in stiff wrapper; or 8d. cloth Answers, 6d.
Each subject is also accompanied by an example fully worked out and minutely explained. The Exercises are numerous and practical.
WRITING, ARITHMETIC, AND BOOK-KEEPING. 15
A COMPLETE SYSTEM OF ARITHMETIC, Theoretical
and Practical ; containing the Fundamental Rules, and their Application to Mercantile Computations ; Vulgar and Decimal Fractions; Involution and Evolution; Series; Annuities, Certain and Contingent. By Mr TROTTER. 3s. KEY, 4s. 6cf.
*** All the 3400 Exercises in this work are new. They are applicable to the business of real life, and are framed in such a way as to lead the pupil to reason on the matter. There are upwards of 200 Examples wrought out at length and minutely explained.
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LATIN AND GREEK. 21
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22 LATIN AND GREEK.
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