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‘VT “SHNYV ‘ADATION ALVIG VMOT SONIGTING AUIVG
oe
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE
OF
BUTTER-MAKING
A TREATISE ON THE CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF MILK AND ITS COMPONENTS
THE HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM, AND THE
MANUFACTURE OF BUTTER THEREFROM
BY
G. L. McKAY,
Professor of Dairying in the Iowa State College, Ames, Ia.
AND
C. LARSEN, M.S.A.
Professor of Dairy Husbandry, So. Dak. State College, Brookings, S. D.;
formerly Associate Professur, Iowa State College, Ames, Ia.
SHCOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.
FIRST THOUSAND
NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY -& SONS
Lonnon: CHAPMAN & HALL, Lixirep
1908.
LIBRARY of GONGAESS
Two Goples Receiver
MAY 38 1908
y Gopyrigns Culry d
j o
flag, A ue Nu,
eo
COPY B.!
Copyright, 1906, 1908,
BY
G. L. McKAY anv C. LARSEN
The Scientific Press
Robert Drummond and Company
New York
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.
THE science of dairying.is. constantly broadening. The
methods and art of manufacturing the best quality of butter
have gradually changed in conformity to the scientific princi-
ples involved, ard no manufacture of butter should now be
undertaken until a careful study has been made of the prin-
ciples governing the best methods of manufacture.
The authors admit that, in our present state of knowledge
and experimental progress, it is in some instances difficult
to distinguish well established facts from those not universally
confirmed; hence it has been the object of the writers to give
only information supported by the preponderance of experi-
mental evidence.
The first edition of this book has been, in a manner, well
received, indicating the work has met with general approval.
The second edition has been carefully revised, and two chapters,
one on ‘‘Creamery Refrigeration” and one on “Economic Oper-
ation of Creameries”” have been added to meet an indicated
demand, and the authors hope that this will justify the use of
the book in our dairy schools, and also as a general reference
book for those engaged in dairy pursuits.
The authors believe that the subject of dairying should no
longer be treated as a whole, and for this reason such subjects
as Testing Milk and its Products, Dairy Bacteriology, Cheese-
making, and Technology of Milk and its Products, have not
been treated comprehensively in this work. In connection
with the practical phase of butter-making the writers have
1ll
iv PREFACE,
endeavored to give such scientific information related to it
as may be of interest and value.
The scientific knowledge has been acquired from time to
time through work done by various investigators at the different
Experiment Stations. To all of these men who have searched
for and discovered facts bearing upon dairying the authors
wish to express their thanks and acknowledgment.
It may be added that the statistics and tables given in this
work have been quoted from noted, reliable authorities, as
indicated.
The authors are also indebted to the following parties for
the use of electrotypes: Mower-Harwood Co., and Cherry
Bros., Cedar Rapids, Ia.; Creamery Package Co., Waterloo
Cream Separator Co., and Iowa Separator Co., Waterloo, Ia.;
Vermont Farm Machine Co., Bellows Falls, Vt.; Jensen Mfg.
Co., Topeka, Kans.; Ox Fiber Brush Co., Davis Cream Sep-
arator Co., Borden & Selleck Co., and De Laval Separator
Co., Chicago, Ill.; Wagner Glass Works, and J. H. Monrad,
New York, N. Y.; Burrell & Co., Little Falls, N. Y.; Empire
Cream Separator Co., Bloomfield. N. J.; Dairy Queen Mfg.
Co., Flora, Ind.; Dairy Record, St. Paul, Minn., and W. D.
Hoard, Fort Atkinson, Wis.
G. ES McKaye
C. Larsen.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
(CONPOSTLON ORME Ker meen Sateen eetee oes eased Gino teicltne dl pa ones ee es 1
Ly, AD eprtba Nh eeloya tC Ge Ny GU es WE he ere se ps Slee eteniaers ees laa eae eR UP a 1
Dea OMPOSiMOnTOeMMillke ee) ete reulc sta crsereis oar siege ove aloe suevomimece ce 2
BQ Wenelerinem or Wewell Sobick, . .¢ ccgaccapedeonncnoncusgdousubus 3
AM VIGIL CE aee ae Cee te res ge EC ea Mee PAE. Sata catias wucne eeateinls INU 4
Ea er cie Ta Vial oten euecewapa ein tccins torn nage s ee Mere e ponin oar Los ken 5
GreeropenblesOl atime crceu cme eae its cue teers epics aches echoes a
em rly CETICESF OL Hatha we hina tatheccectetr us ete Salo) chchenecusesele toate sve tub okeuerees 8
8. Theories in Regard to Films Enveloping Fat-globules.......... 9
OR ClASSESO lea Sues secre eects ieee orc use tance dousealscaicin ato nMatong c sios 10
PAG AV IO aU © arn etree Meare ems Bew Nopscee neu teat ¢ uoiucti war Paraucefearan ones 11
1B}, ANICMENOIR MIG. & Soro uteae odie tod cen aly ten oie oe renee 12
ORE COMPOSiELOMBOh MS UGECT Tatra ete) ce. rsdeie lee sysierc ict ov cies sj « ereretsiels)s 13
TE Ths OR YSYENT aN sess les se eccincrs Cer eee cies ESE Ray Se CER One OE 15
DAU TV Iaeeee ooe ve aeter ores Nc eee ae crsccGe os uouese Je giniatiiere ata autiavelelote 16
HFS SENS UID css gr meric ween eCes i apce ca PavstenHcuery faust anlcused yh ucSactle 'srswel ave. aca efeitos tee 16
IZb, : SANS. 3 baat yee ir eae Gee aiG ie aco tate) EET Bl EIEIO OEIC Cec Rr RIE 18
hee Casesror taints fe Mill Kkeprn ey penecee te teres eee don ein aise seen ecna ce rete tere 18
Gee Colonie Matter woe Matns. cage sreye cP teat telerd stettyausrewesie wile saree 20
Va OuherlConstitwentsrole Vinllkemrreieneeteiercrrieireeciieiensicinierarore 20
CHAPTER II.
MITTS SM CRE TIONS eayaroeer ar vorsve-o (cloner cope eaene cucus stewie core epane avers ore. eve cere erecoresarere 22
ieeMammanvaGlandrasralsecresony, Organ saree acres 22
2, Internal Structure of Cow’s Udder.............e.+2 c+ Seay iceenss 22
Bo GMasouates| Gt Wailke Sreyemal@m, 5 po0cuscodcodoa0ocnonenDeDOdbbsC 25
4. Conditions Affecting Secretion of Milk. .............02 cece eee 28
H lSxaweranel vay osemennes Git WCC, coodcoacaccvd00d05bU0u0edndOG 29
Geile vera iets fests e cee oairac eo atal oneareretabe ores ers pared eteleuote ces slsteereante 30
vi CONTENTS.
CHAPTER III.
PAGE
PROPERTIBS) ‘ORs MaLR2 A iadeocican otevetstere suerte ear cual ol apes tetorelete e avaremerod shart 3l
An COGT Ait vrei cowee tee ors ee reaete sao Reteactexorsiaca ere notoherehenevenet cucrens Bul
Pgs 2) En f0) eae ROR OT oo NE AO MRIS Sits ETI O NS Ecnoe cue 31
By (Oye toiny Oe NO cae go nsaon eo ot onde souomndEbCS Odo ODO DO dN iOS Bil
ab (Olatarnanenll levee anloyar Or WMMe Fos Bopp unesodauuodbUbuooUbaDNOS 32
Beaspe cine) Grra-vatiya, Oto Mall apaeey we rcrane today en tic Wek etereye oi crseclonoepenapereterenuae 32
6: NaturaliSeparationvot: Millandy@ream yaiiiern secrets tye ese cre ee 35
74 NaESiOn Ole Maile haces te earn eset ahaa aon st ety sare eeepc erential ee eae 37
BS SVASCOSIL VAOLA MIL ye P ances. alo ops tancsstet ret ciias SOC iyeespeis cola) ciclo eet goa 3
OP SpeciticuHeat Ong Migy iretereree-es aleve ste tate e\eneietelstel Xeterercral heater netea 3
10. Effect of High Heat on Properties of Milks -sceeee were en 38
AC Destroysmearly-alliGerms: aeeecada cle) er te nee 39
Be Diminishes! Vascositiy Oro yaen eich rere eereiecres 39
@igDrives! oll{ Gases sey gaan ccm ceienss. iicat cist taeret tense nea eee 40
Demparts-a, Cooked@lasteaaccot tieyte stl eterauseueetar as 40
EK. Precipitates Albuminoid and Ash Contents........... 41
Ee Destroys ELOperties Ol MinzyIMesueren mle Glebrclersistnen 41
GeWivides thetbat-clobules ices. te tetest eas eerie -torersiene ste 42
HeiGaramelizesstheisuGaryspasiceiiacs eiseie teat cerers tiers cre ierasachs 42
dee Generaleennarkisweacrtuen trey neisbor-celoesqsi eden nepenanel eve enonens 43
CHAPTER IV.
SBR MEN TS! DN VI Kom a crstetevousheee encteensriseelc) stake nersictsncreterst Per okereteueneWeneloreerenene 44
iP IDishaitnkslis Senne ch ao Rie Baooos Ooch OE Ooo DoUDn oOo On oodt 44
QeSizevandishapevOr DAcCherisen key sereasiennerorersne cela heetetaereredeaehe 45
3. Favorable Conditions for Bacterial Growth................000¢ 45
Nal Noles Rare roe RET Ape Sine OOO bee 45
Beem PEratuire Men veya coitore sacl cvemtetioe reer eaaceucuorhenenenetne reas 46
Ce Moisture sigs vi cA oukstee tina tie cee eee tere rarer 7
4, Unfavorable Conditions for Bacterial Growth...............-- 48
i, AeGhavel Covi (Creinany Ioybbarel wa NGM och oagdunugeobneoddagoobo6es 49
Ga Numberson Bacteria ama) Val egeeuarre weenie rei teres eatettene pete even ore onens 51
Ta Sources Olebactenianime Mil kee ae) yr elet a nentetrcy ronofererctatele 52
8. Effect of Thunder-storms on Souring Milk ...........0.+.655 53
CHAPTER V
ABNOR MAT WME Royce nrataetaiel areas cepacia choeieieier are Oierroret havenckstehonekeR-tetEoi-tan: 54
IL Oolospabioy WHS ee oeaodgocoboooonaudobooNd0oubDODObODOUdEC 54
Py sHliiny MOUs peop boooooousaoOoGooODoOCODUEHOoOUOe OOS oanDC 55
3: Bloody. ors Rede Millkya.v pov terete etic) = clot eleieper ie) relied stererel ota t tert 56
AWB ue Mayet caveratere: « ake et het overalehetetovorcl eels) oleate! uatenete\eh Kol ohecie| «i onorels 57
CONTENTS.
EO MOVCE LL Wee MLL Meg cents crate. scat adore vioyay ts) arava. yw sveuemels ol eWey seavers incl Sobecetee
GH MMEEVO Piya Mill Kept trey awor gy Sea sssee ns acy eae eieicis Soustereie Cie tereke RVR Peete eee ce oie
Fos UBSUy SI 1) TUN rae ne A RRP Sn t ater PE. eat ah a Ay coma Eo
8. Milk from Cows which have been in Milk a Long Period.......
Om MillfromeS pay Cade Cows: raion cits cites sloehey-tatersicisiss waiacustetsy 2
LOM Mal ketronaisicks Cows «cern «creas eisciees arsine ord ne teiay sere ates
CHAPTER VI.
WSAURTAUIST © Net O Fue HEAL DNIe MT Te Keon ester petty hee me in a nec uae tienes
Rl diva cualitive Ov © OWSS ayer et eerste claire eae once
REBT CCOEOL COWSEARRER teehee RENT RTE ore ee ee in eran enccaarer ee
a ManmersotaMalllampe res epasensieus ny teaersorttoy «os teveye) civ cic clase ee «
1
2,
Brlime eb weemp Malin oss meters tse e less wen welts anf «ome apm a)
4
5)
pee Malkine=mia chinese apes cae eee pert arr ere Noes nha rape cuacaace sue
Gs eLoOrew Malice cle Ati er Maillon eee me asia acca Negeeyarie ee avers «er eepas
EN CLOlE CO Worms cere yarc gion are ete aa eke oe ee ays ices cysisvelrewoes obras ort
See FAChALLONe CLIO Me mck eee eco Reise rcici ot weeese ines eee
OMBHOOCUEO I COWS Sepa eer aia mie sacra Lumar yn cr AL nyc Commie et de
Oe EmvironmentalaConditlOnss see ar nee een eee:
CHAPTER VII.
RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING MILK AND CREAM.............
1. Receiving and Grading of Milk and Cream..................-
A.
B.
C.
D.
E
Detection of Abnormal Milk Through the Senses. .......
{OSS GSE ZANGVOL INSSCWI ey ane tarn es hole rere cent alert iee as Ae aR
lWScrofpeHernmentaiions@lcst| sean iar aay eee
a. Gerber and Wisconsin Curd Tests. ............-.
(Crenyobinves MUG ony JEkeRiniOte, 0 wo a aban asecugeddaooeuaos
WsetofeBalbcock Mestrandslactomeperjeee aoe asco esas
Dee Niecessitiye Ol, Goode Mill agar rawe. ten cgeates epee crld eee Bae ys ak
Seam pling Olg Malka, Mat -.. ee Sa eek: vane eR eee ees OS fa: ee ENN,
Als Hey Woa\| 0) Ubovias 01 ole eveeam ene RAY ee otS O tho cicero oicnces Siar BIG Ire ence eae
K pooh ol tiay-e(Cl mpi ool AME om acaoeemacw asa SoosKod aaa one ae.
(Gh TES ROVA SLO IY BN Eee 2 tiips ccs gee lee aA Rte UR tek Sac AL ie eR RE
Wo sour gavel Copaulenrcel Wie Go oon omaooposcsannsaoosscnuonosu
Sa eApporioning|> kim eds Milcouan eee eieereierecie ate ieee eielaee
CHAPTER VIII.
COMPOSLELEM SAMPLES ety coerce eine coe elo teee ets Me ieee essoorene ovate awelc tae nites
Io DYNAM STH KS) CO a Cer pec iet Ratt epee eee Aman Ate Ru pate en ae Crate ea
vill CONTENTS.
PAGE
9° Kind of preservatives tOvNddsermeearc sicrsistevetces nays aeieate eyele’oloe i 99
4, Arrangement of Composite Samples. ............---seee+eees 102
5 Gare of Composite Samples sence act scka a sil seiyt-t oie oie ino) 102
6; Averagelmalmples arate tege che rey creme ere testa eterekey oy ieielelarerofere fone iejsueg- 104
7. Composite Sampling without the Use of Preservatives......... 104
CHAPTERS
‘Olas wtanine CVUNCIA NONE aonoonsbavcconee sbbodocubDuSodaDUDUgauouE 105
1. Finding Average Percentage iol Hat. sy. 1.10 erkereens meer 105
Je Calculatvonweole Overnune merce eercette etek ety okt ten 107
A, Thoroughness of Skimming... ..............-.----.--: 108
B. Completeness of Churning... . ......25------ = * - sce 108
© @Generalilvossestiny @reamenitess sms etter tetera err 108
D. Composition of Butter Manufactured. ..........-..-..- 108
St (Crilombymioi: Gr Olimmesniiel, woccacedskeecsanoscocduaboubodde 109
aL. KOrMMoI hen Or IDG; GpogaaegnodbasvunboonodbooucuodoS 109
HR -Cherepanerp nave (OLersrioeerotrs 5 oo Socagadboomeseooucnbodeucusadd 113
a, SEL HeaCNAUH HG) IEPIOROMNSH aa Golo sp AMoueBevossenoooondgenopooadec 118
7. Paying for Fat in Cream as Compared with Paying for Fat in Milk 116
8. Degree of Justice in Paying Cream Patrons More per Pound of
INN elope NS: Wolke JEEVES Go woonedooodeoooaebooqudonoc 117
CHAPTER X.
HBATinGe Mink PREVIOUSHLO: SIIMMINGs peecpereistareictaiolchencteneiebe spfeteieianerer= 118
Le, IRB OMsniG laeEhAe, Sogeeuacedumoodonuaontopoubennoomoo 6 118
2. Advantages of Warming Milk to High Heat Previous to Skim-
Mikey eq ooDen ood obo bn e das auokopeucd Goud ound Osco sOOE MS 119
By delonpdakeiaclyeuagqooon es d0oucocanbomeonuuneDboadoo UHC duRS 121
CHAPTER XI.
SEPARATION) ORNORMAN: pia cueriien olin ce eacern rites ottershelenenertelienser- ter 123
1 Gravity, Creaming race se ec oe acre ere tokteten fens persis sarast ne 123
A; Shallow=panioySteni: semaine 1 cetera erent tern 123
iB. Deep-setting Systema wey sryae tele se ere orekenede arrow ire 124
Gan erobableskiscplamablOneey sme iter eerie nent 126
C. Water-dilution Cream) (ly draulic)sessmer. cette 128
2. Centrifugal’ reaming sya coco entice ian tote cohen ere 129
Ay Advantages, chic testers ot cere oles ier rie tek area ec 129
B. History. of Centrifugal Separators. ............-------- 130
C7 Modern Separatorsiteescnm co eiaetincdst stort er tether iy it Tor 132
Di Classificationvol separators scr + teins niente rite: 133
CONTENTS. 1x
PAGE
ld, JPRS OH SOR NEIMOM, 6s banccoucebooooobucuuenuecuuc 134
F, Relative Amount and Richness of Milk and Cream
Opt aime eka os wher eee fue tie tort ari aE setae 137
a. Regulation of the Cream or Skimmed-milk Screw. . 137
beeNatexofelintlo wards neteace us Sere ee eee cae 138
CHAS DCCC Me Resse Couldnt tee Se Oa ERO ct SiMe cen ao 138
CES RETPETATAITE Sw poettes cients tet ect es Par ereds Spork ee 139
G. Conditions Affecting Efficiency of Separators........... 139
on ManneriotsHeatin cy Mallain sect eee eee 139
bya Conditionxoigthes Milley cree ree rene 141
om Overieeding the Separator soe.) sue aeea. 141
GMS SDCC te Mey ren ee a ee an RN ah ce Monte ee Alan deta 142
O, SUWEAGHANES iio WTOC, , 55 5566000c000500000000e 143
Verbeke essrote Creag shoe eps tenee obyise veri aitee ses crey a ae 144
Ges Usb ine BOW Meester sas wire 27 Valsvatn tio nee ons 144
DaeGeneralavemanks (ep een sets shiatieacca eon 145
CHAPTER XII.
VAR OE PAUUACTOR Ste mec) ret arsine aie cua stern ek pee etal ais icc ices EMR rota 146
(AIniroductionsomharn'|SejarayOrssn merry ete ena ae ie 146
2. Reasons for Introducing Farm Separators................... 147
om ObjectionssosharmyisceparatoOrsemeniy cities an ciao een ceien or 152
AM bhnickmesstols Crear y tac rs ci nora heiers tf Miwon suena ae ae 152
Owe KL OLeWarian Se PALAvOlsw paren stm see acta rie ores eee. « 155
@, Chins @! Cineayon Cin Toe Idan Go oben ogee odor aaob ened ou oe as ces 158
Pm DIS WOSItLOMNOIM Cheatin eee Hues Get ota ia cay ne eee oie ns 167
Aue Sip PINT Olp Creamery at el eyes team cs smear oe 169
JB), MIEN Stays WSU CLANS MENG, Gao oon cododuosubdnanubobu 169
CHAPTER XIII.
| DA anoash dA Mam Con (y muvecuttatiny q.cirs aida eG nace triorate: aco ban ecerd nia EROS caer Meee 173
alt, NO Y=sSUaty rite) ab er wena te er inane Bt at ec i ee great 173
D Wievlovecls Gk IAARWAINAMAIOINS o occa ocdocdccububnobobubObObboS 7s
AV AIMt ETOAC FEMUR cateccemlens sucise Gunes eacines ke yshepne euch nore Seas 7s}
3 Gs COMEMMUOUS a: Mowe este Wace aay eater ena tye Reh ces) ion ae ch 174
2 Saleonom ot IAATHOWIRVATE, . coc GoooconocccdsauebbcuobansubueS 175
A, Durability and Capacity. ...... Seen oie tM ie ay Wee eee MR 175
18}, 1D(eorverran© MENGE, 5 poooo dno dooo Dues soDnegauagnsE 175
CRBEIC At IN SUTACE A pimae ts ere are Re atyon eG eee te! 176
(Ds IDEAS Oi INGINESINVONESSy 4 5 ge ccacuodedcesoouunde 177
c. Thickness of Layer of Condensed Steam.......... 180
d. Difference in Temperature on Each Side of Heat-
IN DASUTIACC Ia Acre gee delaroe ee icheei terete k 181
x CONTENTS.
PAGE
e. Proper Utilization of Steam Turned into the Pas-
GEWLIZED ae Gav Oe en arsOn aor, bare ndineererargekelemeyeieusie 182
C2} DheiCostioiseasteuntzationt screen eee eae nC Ae 183
De Advancementof Pasteumzatiom. iced. ce ameter. 183
He Advantages-ofsbasteunizatiOme a: camara aie iter ae 184
Ha Disadvantages ol Pasteumizations ws.) aera 186
CHAPTER XIV.
GREAM-RIPENDN G3 tat tietes cl Ceceps tres eoeeoreah einer Pea eens eee Leones aoe eee 187
dies! BY-vo haute KOs alae pacae Cog En eM Acres a RNC A ret aN AS AB RR RS AR CE nr 187
2 Obj ectsvol. Cream=-nipening seer el eee 187
Ae Production of Flavor and Aroma) .-4s.2 4. ene 187
B. Increases the Churnability of Creaam................... 191
C. Increases the Keeping Quality of Butter............... 192
3 Ripening Lemperaturevot @reaml aan wt sleet aa eee nee 194
AN, jlagaxououatn Cn wrrenanere 1H0) LaWall (0) Cakepdnla. 65 ca nandoonscGcocdduanc 196
GY Sinlabavea Ol (Oigrno (ohbboiere lemony yeaa oe Gkaaeohagsoadasoose 197
Ge Natural Ripening sis ose aette ae cies oe enna heen Ae renee 198
ee ArtihcraleRimemim ett pe Uerenc nrc cmon an tecamirrae oeuearieaen aah me eae 199
8. Ripening Cream when Churning is Done Every Other Day..... 201
OL a Missing sof: Creams: tas sah cay acaeia eon cy rereea Seicath Rea Renae PD a net en 202
AY Quality: coh near iey 5 sesh ihe alin am esr erbar ape Naa yl suena 203
Bevicindl ote Marketie. eben mice tinge fave ona Avene aes 204
Cx rAmountiolCream: cami rence Mirae rma: Okeke ade Seen: 204
De General Creamery, Conditions... 02s. ee eee te ee 205
10. Examining and Testing Cream for Acidity during Ripening... . 205
a gaa Eh ab oleh tad Dr=xc] oie oeenane oNiey raeeT ceeiannes emo ry Pane Gin ettencn otech Gorn coe 206
[2 arrinot ones, Mestigyeess sahil eae CR nn ree nar eee 208
(SevAmounteot Acideto Wevelops. sees ere yore eect ieee 208
[4 Chaneessimu@reana: ty, 0 vvactevoteeact store cake events et omen stee oeeee 210
(At Physical: pwctercasoals hartucy a eee a eee ane 6 one Ree acne cere 210
Bi sBrologicalsn vo sau cor eieiciseirants ohepitas hele aoe er Ree mera ae 210
Cet Chemincalse) 5.5 ecge et xcs eae aay ces oes epee CNT A Ie eee 211
CHAPTER XV.
SPAR TERS. dco raucosts Moy nteue cline lliocateie: Ge epee eens oop Siebel usm Rte eM art RNa eee ob ete 216
pera) DY esau obi (0) Cpe ey ue nein ree cca AMA Phe Miche diK.p Bioicin mid Heol sia 216
22 EM SCOR ya Me ae ueratictenr ace lcy ates eee ee er eee eR Rens ee et 216
3) Classification Ol Start ersy ace terrier lot tera nerels imme ney usenet 216
4 Preparation, of Natural Starters 2 oeeccteee mieten matter ter 217
5, Commercialjstarters or Pure Cultures...) noe ci eine 217
6: Preparation of Commercial! Starters]... eels i sata VAG
7. AMOCulaAtlOneewamen shui tere tel acesee ke eretereeae ae Eerie r 220
1.
9
“~,
© OND ow
10.
Il
CONTENTS.
wlenethtof mimes starter Canibei Carried)... see seeee ee cee:
. Poor Starters
. Under-ripening and Over-ripening of Starters................
. Amount of Starter to Use
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Methodsioteeurityvine \Wash-watermiaa- eins sea eae:
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CHAPTER XVII.
SALTING AND WORKING OF BUDTER... 9. 5000s00000 0600400 0escs sees
1.
. Effects of Salt upon Keeping Properties... ..................
. Salt Facilitates the Removal of Buttermilk. ..................
+ SaltineRelationto Water in Butter, 490542442. scene eee e el ee
DONA A hwWh
Amount of Salt to Use to Produce Proper Flavor.............
Grittygbuttereuovanets)-cyascietn eee eee reer metal trea
Mottled eButtertcnucssra tes cna Phar toace ea evan ee ee nein oe ce Fae
PBrIM|-SAlG wn Oe. ere sseapehe ors sae Se eee naka eee cae
@ ObjectstoM Working sButtens arc cts eile secre crent Santee
xii CONVENTS
CHAPTER XVIIL
PAGE
LACKING GAND UMARKETING) BUADE Rg a erey tpt a siete rane aici eenere a ae 269
Ll» Kind-otsPackage tow secs ters sirens az cisieecs ieee ere: 269
2. Préparationv0ls Pulbscecaen sotarecvtic ence oe rote nes eee ere 271
3. Packing of Buttery snes atom, Recs eminem eee trai rara en aeeeartae 273
4° Paclang’ Butter tor Hxchibitions Purposes, wacecee seco te cee 275
5, Storing Buttenims Creamer ed quy ya attra tare eran cre reece 276
6.) Cost of Producing One*Poundsof Buttery ssc. etiroaee ee 278
CHAPTER XIX.
CoMPosITIONVOM VB UITER Ys), Misia eerie ie, eee eee ere eee 281
i rAverage Compositions a eae see arias ease eye te er ee ara 281
2) Efiect of Composition of) Butter on Quality. acrid. cclelade et 281
ANOCurdean dts ua rata, Wyss tape econ Renate ante 282
BS SO ALU Si eevee cies taut icrsiercrecmioxers Sees cist oe eRe RCE een roan 282
CWI COTS Seen fee ihe eS ootr sapere te) IED Peer mans eae ee 283
AB, a Or name es cies ai ene ree TA aus Arr Gry ahh 286
CHAPTER XX,
JUDGING “AND. GRADING SBUDTER wen paoemine © tid ins ee tne ee eee 287
i Stand ardstor. jucloim o seers cise macs ttee ee genera gee ee se eer ne 287
aa MaAnnersOfs Udon es sere en een ee eee eee cee ney ee 290
AN OG vaca ence Neral ice eerie’ Slee: tol cara Mean cng Mena nV oe ny mene 290
Baila orinian ys. ie cea keren stares tyre Mcrae On na ant na eee ae 290
CS COlO oe Mas Sth es, AP ae apg eer eee Geyer tae OND
DON Dall terrae o kaehe ok ee eat eta page gene a ie res 292
SOU y le iathe crate ah: aus ete eee ebicad tena camn a ca ond ase opal 292
ou Classificationrob Buttertrane mantis ee 61a a Gn ate renee 292
AraGrades:Of Buther 13 easyer, csteedten sakes som atte NCR rant eee 293
bays wD: 010) etl a RO WFLT(C) Cee uae eee a Oat ge aie gl a pan RI a ce i i 307
CHAPTER XXI.
COOLING =EACIEITIES FOR CREAMERTES\)..0 00s, tet Ocean semen itere 309
1. sCooluneySystemisis6 (5 o.c ye fyne fae se ar eg eee 309
2on Natural i lce-systenagienc ccc teresa err haut feeb ony am career an Ras! 312
Bagi SGEaYoy Mone (eCers ALO} UES eeu rte NAND A Racal ue i ae ol2
Be sizerandi shape ofliceshouseserm san a on ae eee: 316
@s Eillingthesiceshouseis sets ae er eae eee 319
Ds Souncevot Tees fe aos ste: Ae eee oie ene ener nae ae 321
SeuWsacevonelicey sine oolimom@rearnvire sear aii aries teue ae 321
A, Directly.
B. Indirectly
CONTENTS. xill
AmeMechanicalpiteimiveration ns. ee eee et eee cle. 323
Ae Npplicationwot, any Creame4riess ee eens ry 323
B. Chemicals Used for Mechanical Refrigeration........ 324
C. Principles of Producing Cold Artificially............ 324
a. Compression.
b. Condensation.
c. Expansion.
Ds Cranstermncethes Coldheart Soe nee 326
CHAPTER XXII.
HECONOMIC, OPERATION: OF CREAMERYG peo NP sere en oo. 4) isaise see. 329
ieebarings thee boiler sccrper cp: Soro 5 oh ees ee ae es 329
BD; iioaniae Wye oe Coal. sb scs554enneonos0gsu554a5n500- 330
SaeDailyeweichimocoim COalMUSedy eyes ee tis ae oe Eye 331
Ata Cleanincethe xs Were eee tes are ore eet ue ches aps ee 332
Syelrimin sols Doers pes eae eee ite aes) stay as oon eherec es cy 332
Othe Bini Ector ep ake ie eicete slays o cueke oe ane na cooe
(bee OMESCPATALOTSE ye ace eee ce emma eerste years waves oeeds cee 333
Sebelis,, Lulley, and speed Calcmlanion, 4-625. 4%25- 2.5. 334
APPENDIX.
I. Legat Stanparps For Mitx—Dairy Laws.................. 335
Il. Merric System oF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES WITH TABLES FOR
CONVERTING THEM INTO CUSTOMARY UNITED Srates Equtiv-
ANGDISAUS MRI). Geo] IEMONAISIIS oa 4 Gus Feb os none bos Seoagn doe de 336
BUTTER-MAKING.
CHAPTER I.
COMPOSITION OF MILK.
Definition.—Normal milk is a liquid secreted in special
glands of all females belonging to the mammalian group. It
is composed chiefly of water, proteids, fats, sugar, and minerals.
Coloring-matters and gases and some organic acids are found
in small quantities.
All normal milk from the different classes of animals, such
as mare, buffalo, goat, ewe, ass, and cow, has a general resem-
blance in that it all contains water, fat, proteids, sugar, and
ash. But milk from different animals varies in the relative
proportions of its constituents. The chemical and physical
properties are not alike. Human milk, when treated with
half its volume of ammonium hydrate and the mixture kept
at a temperature of 60° centigrade for about twenty minutes,
assumes an intense red color. Cow’s milk turns faintly yellow
if treated in the same way. ‘This test was reported by Unikoff,
of St. Petersburg, at the meeting of the Medical Section, Royal
Academy of Medicine, in Ireland. The various kinds of milk
also differ from each other in their behavior towards rennet.
Richmond has divided milk into two classes: Class I includes
milk from the ewe, buffalo, goat, and cow. When rennet is
added to the milk from these animals, the casein coagulates into
a firm curd. Class II includes human milk, milk of the ass,
and mare. When rennet is added to the milk of these animals,
a soft curd or none at all is formed. The latter class seems
2 BUTTER-MAKING.
to include the animals without horns, while the first includes
those with horns.
As the cow’s milk is used chiefly as a food, it has been
subjected to more extended and more careful investigation
than the milk of other animals, and, as a consequence, more
definite knowledge has been obtained concerning its com-
position, properties, and uses. The succeeding discussions
have reference to cow’s milk, if not otherwise stated.
Composition of Milk—lIt is impossible to get accurate
figures on the composition of milk, as each of the milk con-
stituents is subject to fluctuation from various conditions,
such as individuality of cow, breed, season of the year, lacta-
tion period, milking, and environment.
The average composition, as determined by 200,000 analyses
reported by Richmond as follows:
WiAtCI Ne anata 87.10
SLES HUS Roueneataet ee rerstyas 3.90
Millk=sueareat nee 4.75
Hise EWASCIM nc aia Semester ue ta tameO
Eroteids | Albumen......... ee Reite eranie 4
The composition of various kinds of milk is given by Konig
as follows:
No. of z Casein Milk- Smecite
Serre As RE Fare tet | ot Gravity.
Human........-.| 107 ; 87.41 | 3.78 2.29 6.21 eS le O20)
INGEN: Seagacoones 50 90.78 | 1.21 1.99 5.67 .85 | 1.0347
Butial omens ere 8 82.254) 5k 5.05 4.44 .75 | 1.0350
INSGHRor cece eee @ 89.64 | 1.64 Dee 5.99 .51 | 1.0345
COWAR ia ee 793 87.17 | 3.69 3.55 4.88 .71 | 1.0316
I We ory n rancionenseehe 32 80.82 |! 6.86 6.52 4.51 .89 | 1.0341
Goats sii eis soe 38 85.71 | 4.78 4.29 4.46 .76 | 1.0328
SOWee Rise eenee 8 84.04 | 4.55 7.23 3.23 | 1.05 | 1.038
IBItKEl: 6 poobonens 28 75.44 | 9.57 | 11.17 3.09 .73 | 1.085
Elephant........ 3 79.30 | 9.10 2.51 8.59 .50 | 1.0313
Hippopotamus. . . | 90.438 | 4.51] ...... 4.40 11
Camel 3 86.57 | 3.07 4 5.59 .77 | 1.042
ILJ NONE. 4 4 5. diate on 3 86.55 | 3.15 3.90 5.60 .80 | 1.034
COMPOSITION OF MILK. 3
Variation of Total Solids—As applied to milk, ‘ Total
Solids,” is a term that includes fat, casein, albumen, sugar,
and ash; in other words, all the milk constituents except the
water. ‘Solids Not Fat” is a term often used, and includes
the casein, albumen, sugar, and ash, or all the milk constituents
except water and fat. “Serum” isa term used to designate all the
milk constituents except the fat. The fat is the most valuable
constituent of the total solids. The variation in the total
solids of milk during the summer months is shown in the table
quoted below from Dr. Van Slyke of Geneva, New York:
Month. of Water, Total Solids
Mayi-atateisie fiche oes 87.44 12.56
AADAYS er eomon ree arta 87.31 12.69
iulliyseee eecar ceeatcestees 87.52 12.48
ANUFRUEE, 5 5.5 oo ooe Be 87.37 1268
September........ 87 13
Octobereaseereni ee 86.55 13.45
Dr. Van Slyke also studied the effect of the lactation period
upon the total solids in milk. FOiEGrO:
C3H; {CaHz02 CsHs { CisHss02 Cas { CisH3502 ete.,
| Cs4H7O2 | CigH3302 l CisH35O02
COMPOSITION OF MILK. 9
and the total fat made up of a mechanical mixture of these
and the remainder of the fats in butter-fat.
Richmond and other authors believe that fat probably exists
in milk chemically, as first mentioned and illustrated; because,
if the fat were a mixture of glycerine tributyrate with other
elycerides of fat, butyrin or glycerol tributyrate could be
dissolved out by the use of alcohol. But this is not the case.
Moreover, if butyrin existed separately in milk, it would be
possible to distill it off under reduced pressure. This cannot be
done.
Theory in Regard to Films Enveloping Fat-globules.—The
extreme minuteness of the fat-globules in milk renders it almost
impossible to determine by direct microscopical observation
whether there is a membrane around each globule or not.
Fleischmann and Lloyd assert that, so far as they were able
to detect, there is no real membrane surrounding each globule.
The theory generally accepted in the past was that the
only film surrounding the fat-globules was simply due to sur-
face tension, or to the fact that the molecules of the fat have
a greater attraction for themselves than they have for the
molecules of the serum, in which they are held in suspension.
Tn support of this two things are considered:
(1) The natural milk-fat may be removed from milk and
artificial fat substituted in its place. The resultant milk has
characteristics similar to milk containing normal fat: that
is, the emulsion which milk forms with the artificial fat is ap-
parently like that formed with the natural fat.
(2) If there were a special albuminous membrane around
each fat-globule, cream should contain a higher percentage
of albuminoids than milk. This, Richmond maintains, is not so.
Dr. Storch concludes from extensive researches that there
is a gelatinous membrane enveloping the fat-globules. His
conclusions are based mainly upon the first three reasons
given below. The other facts mentioned also support his
conclusions:
(1) When milk has been stained with ammoniacal picro-
10 BUTTER-MAKING
carmine, and the cream washed with water until it is free
from milk-sugar, a stained layer is present around each globule.
(2) He has succeeded in isolating this gelatinous substance
from cream and butter. Owing to its existence in these two
substances, he assumes that it is also present in milk.
(3) When ether is added to milk, the fat globules dissolve
with difficulty, unless some alkali is added to the milk first.
(4) Bichamp maintains that when ether is added to milk
the fat-globules are enlarged due to the ether passing through
the supposed membrane by the process of osmosis. He con-
siders this fact sufficient to prove that there is a membrane
encircling each globule.
(5) Butter containing 85 to 86% fat is asserted by Rich-
mond to have the same consistency as cream containing about
72% fat at the same temperature. The solidity of butter
is due to the close proximity of the fat-globules. Now, if
cream with less fat has the same consistency as butter, the
proximity of the fat-globules must be equal to that of the
butter; this would indicate that there is a membrane and
that this membrane increases the size of the fat-globules.
(6) The fact that cream separated by centrifugal force is
more easily churned than cream of same richness separated
by gravity methods, would also be explained if the fat glob-
ules in milk had such a membrane surrounding them.
This membrane, or what is believed to be a membrane,
Storch has isolated and analyzed. He finds it to consist of
94% of water and 6% of proteid.
The reasons deduced by Storch are strong; and the behavior
of cream and butter renders it probable that there is such a
membrane enveloping each globule of fat.
CLASSES OF Farts.
_ There are two great classes or groups of fats present in the
butter, namely:
(1) Volatile and Soluble,
(2) Non-volatile and Insoluble.
COMPOSITION OF MILK. 11
It was previously stated that little is known concerning
the way in which the fatty acids are combined with glycerine
in the milk; but, for the sake of convenience, the fats will be
referred to as if they exist as separate glycerides of fat.
The terms “ Volatile” and “ Non-volatile” are applied
to the glycerides of fat, or to the fats as they exist in butter.
Strictly speaking, this is not proper, as they do not assume
the volatile characteristics until the glycerine separates from
the fatty acids; it is only then that the latter becomes volatile.
Volatile Fats.—The first group, or the volatile fats, include
butyrin, caproin, caprylin, caprin, and laurin. Butyrin is the
one present in the largest proportion. Laurin and caprin are
partially non-volatile. Butyrin is the most important fat
belonging to the volatile group. It is the most important
quantitatively, and also qualitatively. So far as is known,
butyrin is the least stable of any of the butter-fats. Under
normal conditions, so long as the fatty acid remains in com-
bination with the glycerol, it is not volatile nor soluble in
water but as soon as separation takes place, due to the action
of micro-organisms, or to the effect of light and air, then it
becomes volatile, and escapes in the form of gas. According
to the mass of evidence, these factors are the chief causes of
rancidity in butter.
It is also claimed that these volatile fats have the special
properties of absorbing odors and gases to a greater extent
than any of the other fats. This absorption takes place when
fat comes into contact with the undesirable taints. For this
reason it is essential that milk, cream, or butter be kept away
from any foreign undesirable odors. These undesirable taints
may also be imparted to the fat before the milk is drawn.
If the cow is fed on undesirable food such as turnips, onions,
garlic, etc., the milk from the cow assumes undesirable char-
acteristic flavors, which can-easily be recognized in the finished
product. On the other hand, such foods as well-cured sweet-
clover hay, and bran, seem to impart desirable flavors to
milk and butter.
(ea
bo
BUTTEER-MAKING.
The presence of these volatile fats in butter is quite uniform,
and is a distinguishing feature of pure butter-fat. The detec-
tion of adulteration of butter with foreign fats is based chiefly
upon the presence of these volatile fats. The characteristic
desirable flavor of butter is also believed to be due to the pres-
ence of the volatile fats. The volatile fats vary but shghtly
during the different seasons of the year. They are present
in the greatest proportion during the spring and early summer
months, when cows are fed on grass, and also during the early
stage of the period of lactation. They decrease gradually
as the lactation period advances.
About 8% of the total fats in milk is volatile fats.
Non-volatile Fats.——This group constitutes about 92% of
the total fats in butter. Chemists now agree that palmitin,
stearin, olein, and myristin are the most important ones to
be considered, as will be seen from the table quoted from Rich-
mond.
These non-volatile fats are of special importance, as the
relative amount of each of these fats largely causes the varia-
tion in the hardness and softness of the butter and butter-fat.
The melting-point of these different fats varies according to
the different investigators: olein is a liquid at ordinary tem-
perature and melts at about 41° F.; stearin, on the other hand,
has a melting-point of about 150° F.; palmitin also has a high
melting-point, namely, about 142° F.; myristin melts at about
129° F.
Olein has been found to be present in the greatest pro-
portion during the spring, when cows are fed on grass. When
cows are fed on normal dry food, as in the winter time, it is
present in a much less degree. This, together with the small
increase of volatile fats, is the cause of the softer butter so
frequent in the spring. The hardness of the butter in the
fall or winter is due chiefly to the presence of a slightly increased
amount of the fats, with a high melting-point, as mentioned
above.
From what has been said above, one is led to believe that,
COMPOSITION OF MILK. 13
by melting a sample of butter which contains these different
fats, the fats with. a low melting-point would melt first, and
leave the remainder in an unmelted condition. Such is not
the case. Butter-fat in this respect behaves a good deal like
different metals with different fusing-points. When they are
melted and mixed together, cooled and then remelted again,
they assume a common melting-point. It is the same way
with butter-fat. It melts at a temperature of 91° to
65 FE.
As the body temperature of cows (about 101° F.) is above
this temperature, the fat globules are present in the milk in
liquid form when milk is first drawn. yaa
UAW EEA NING ese 0 Ueto iy ce Lip WEN ek
A Sin ONS ! NEN ee sole en an NE
\ | eros, AU] ~ fe font
Vea REN | \\ Tei wat a
a Vy Recs me WUE HEN ', ip ey NN AV)
S ESN Vell, OHS A fy oun Hoke We
a 1 acd SNE Oth Wu) We Ach een Wipe
SESSA ONU NTR NS a
= -— (est if ! NOMEN vty /
iste ENGNG Vilar Gain TEMG AGC INS YS S
Cie ent ‘Wy | /7 Sey ii \\
ae SSN ig GEN eee Ih i Nh
a SAA! coe OSS ell Otel Sa SOON Nu ie
VORA UI Aa IN Ney
\\ ING eee GE c
Jey 1RLEN \d
TIVES Me
Fic. 7.—a, single bacterium; b, progeny resulting from the growth of a bac-
terium during 24 hours in milk at 50° F.; c, progeny of a bacterium
during 24 hours growth in milk at 70° F. At 50° F. multiplication was
5-fold. At 70° F. the multiplication was 750-fold. (Bul. 26, Storrs, Conn.)
a little above 110° F. The growth of bacteria at these ex-
treme temperatures is very slight. Even at 50° F. the rate
of growth is very slow. According to experiments conducted
by Dr. Conn, the multiplication of bacteria at 50° F. was 5-
fold, while at 70° F. the multiplication was 750-fold. The
following table shows the number of bacteria per cubic centi-
meter in milk kept at different temperatures: *
In 50 H ‘ No. of No. of
now | #22 | BAS | BS | PAROS | we | nlite
tset. ‘° () tate) urdll or ‘urd- Tr urd-
ae Ses Oe Mall at 70°. _| ling at 50° | ling at 70°.
46,000 | 39,000 | 249,500 {1,500,000 542,000,000 190 56
47,000 | 44,800 | 360,000 127,500 792,000,000 289 36
36 hours
50,000 | 35,000 | 800,000 160,000 | 2,560,000,000 172 42
42 hours
* Bull. 26 Storr’s Stn., Conn,
FERMENTS IN MILK. 47
All bacteria do not have the same optimum growing tem-
perature. Some species develop most rapidly at one tempera-
ture, while other species prefer a different temperature for the
greatest development. It is on this account that certain tem-
peratures are employed in ripening of starters and cream.
According to researches by Conn, Bacillus lactis aerogenes
develops very rapidly in milk at 95° F. It produces much gas
and an unpleasant flavor in the milk. This particular species
sours milk very rapidly. As a rule, milk which has been held
at this high temperature, contains a preponderance of this
undesirable species of bacteria. At 77° F. results are more
uncertain. The species of bacteria which will predominate in
milk at this temperature depends in large measure upon the
number of each kind present. According to Conn, Bacillus
lactis acidi has the highest relative growth at about 70° F.
This particular species produces no gas, and is desirable to have
present in cream for butter-making. Milk kept at this tem-
perature will, in most cases, providing it has previously been
properly treated, develop a pleasant acid taste, will curdle into
a smooth uniform coagulum, and will contain a preponderance
of the species of germ mentioned above.
At as low a temperature as 50° F. acid-producing types of
bacteria do not develop very well. But Conn maintains that
at this temperature misceilaneous species of bacteria develop
that produce unfavorable results. While milk does not easily
sour at this temperature, it should be remembered that un-
desirable germs are constantly developing.
As it 1s practically impossible to exclude all of the bacteria
from milk during milking and the handling of the milk, it
is very essential that the multiplication of the germs present
be checked, or at least retarded; and this can be done by
controlling the temperature of the milk. As low temperature
is effective in checking the multiplication of the bacteria, the
sooner the milk can be cooled after it is drawn, the better itis
for the keeping quality of the milk.
Moisture.—Moisture is one of the essentials for bacterial
48 BUTTER-MAKING.
growth. As milk is composed largely of water, bacteria find in
milk a good medium for growth. All the other required food
elements are also found in abundance in milk. Damp utensils
and rooms are always more conducive to the growth of germs
than are utensils and rooms which are thoroughly dried and
ventilated. This is well illustrated by a refrigerator. A very
damp dark refrigerator is always more conducive to the growth
of molds in butter than is a dry refrigerator.
Unfavorable Conditions for Bacterial Growth.—The reverse
of the favorable conditions mentioned above would be un-
favorable to the growth of bacteria. As it is practically im-
possible to make conditions unfavorable for the growth of
bacteria by taking away food, other means must be used.
Extremely high temperatures destroy bacteria. Low tem-
peratures check their growth, but so far as known do not
destroy them. Absence of moisture and presence of direct
sunlight are conditions which are not conducive to bacterial
growth. Certain chemical substances when added to milk, or
to the medium in which the bacteria are present, are very un-
favorable to their growth. Some of these chemicals entirely
destroy all germ life when added in even very small quantities.
These are called disinfectants (formaldehyde, corrosive subli-
mate, ete.). Other chemicals are more mild in their effect upon
germ growth, and merely inhibit or retard the growth of micro-
organisms. The chemicals which have this milder effect upon
germs are called antiseptics. Boracic and salicylic acids are
examples. Practically all disinfectants are violent poisons, and
should not be used in any quantity or in any form in milk
or dairy products which are intended for human food. The
milder preservatives, or the antiseptics, are, as a rule, not so
poisonous or injurious to human health. In some countries
they are allowed to a small extent. For instance, according to
reports, the laws of England permit the use of boracic acid to
the extent of 0.5 of one per cent. It is, however, safest not to
use any of these chemicals, except for preserving samples for
analytical or similar purposes. As low and high temperatures
FERMENTS IN MILK. 49
are so effective in producing unfavorable conditions, these should
be chiefly employed in controlling the growth of micro-
organisms in the dairy industry.
Kind of Germs Found in Milk.—The number of species of
germs found in milk has not yet been definitely established,
due chiefly to the fact that it is in some instances difficult
Fic. 8.—Shows a plate exposed in pasture where air must have been very
pure and free from germs. (Bul. 87, Nebraska.)
for bacteriologists to differentiate one species from another.
The description of one species of bacteria by two different bac-
teriologists may vary considerably, as the characteristics of
the germs depend so much upon the conditions throughout
the classification process. Over 200 different species have
been described. It is possible, however, though all of these
types may have different morphological and _ physiological
characteristics as described by different bacteriologists, that
some two or more of the 200 types may belong to one species.
50 BUTTER-MAKING.
For this purpose, it is sufficient to classify the bacteria into
three groups; viz., (1) those which are harmful to the butter-
making industry, (2) those which are beneficial, and (3) those
which are indifferent, or produce neither good nor bad results.
From the farmer’s or milk-producer’s standpoint, none
of these bacteria are desirable. Each milk-producer should
Fic. 9.—Shows a plate exposed one-half minute under a cow’s udder treated
with a 5% solution of carbolic acid, (Bul. 87, Nebraska.)
make it a point to prevent their entrance and suppress their
development in milk and cream to as great an extent as pos-
sible. The creamery operator should endeavor to suppress
all of the harmful germs, and foster the development of the
desirable ones.
The germs which are desirable belong chiefly to the acid-
producing types. They are often called lactic ferments.
The harmful bacteria include those which produce bitter
milk, red milk, blue milk, yellow milk, slimy milk, etc. There
FERMENTS IN MILK. ol
is a number of species belonging to this group. The patho-
genic germs, or disease-producing bacteria, must also be classed
with the harmful bacteria. It is not the intention in this
work to give an extended discussion of this subject. For
such discussion see special works on Dairy Bacteriology.
Fie. 10.—Shows plate exposed one-half minute under cow’s udder treated
by merely brushing with the hand; each little spot represents a colony
of some kind of bacteria. (Bul. 87, Nebraska.)
Number of Bacteria in Milk.—The number of bacteria
found in milk varies so much that it is practically impossible
to state accurately the average number. The number of
germs found varies according to several conditions, such as
degree of cleanliness of cows, utensils, and milker; degree of
purity of the atmosphere when the cows are milked; and
the temperature at which the milk is kept. When the milk
is being produced under the best practical sanitary conditions,
the number of germs need not exceed 10,000 per c.c. Such
52 BUTTER-MAKING.
results cannot be obtained unless extreme precautions are
taken. Milk produced under average farm conditions sel-
dom contains less than 50,000 germs per c.c. shortly after the
milking. Milk which is produced under filthy conditions,
and which is several hours old, may contain several millions
of bacteria per c.c.
Sources of Bacteria in Milk——Except in the cow’s udder
where they are present to only a small extent, bacteria are
present almost everywhere. They float in the atmosphere
Fie. 11.—The wrong and the right kind of a milk-pail. a, the ordinary
type of pail showing sharp angle between sides and bottom; B, the same
properly flushed with solder so as to facilitate thorough cleaning. The
lower figure represents a joint as ordinarily made in tinware. The de-
pression a affords a place of refuge for bacteria from which they are
not readily dislodged. This open joint should be filled completely with
solder. (From Bul. 62, Wis.)
and adhere to particles of dust. Especially is this so in the
dusty cow-stable. They are present in all well water to a greater
or less extent. They are very abundant in streams and rivers.
They are present in the soil to a depth of several feet, the
number decreasing with the depth. As these germs are prac-
tically present everywhere, the source of germs in milk may
be said to be all around us. The principal sources of germs
in milk are, however, unclean dairy utensils, unclean cows,
and unclean surroundings. As these germs multiply chiefly
by fission, or by one cell dividing into two, it is plain that the
number of germs will increase very rapidly under favorable
conditions. Under the most favorable conditions it requires
FERMENTS IN MILK. 53
approximately twenty minutes for this process of fission to
take place.
Some germs develop small bodies within the cell, called
spores. It is not difficult to destroy the sporeless cell by
heat, but the spores are very resistant to unfavorable con-
ditions. The spore-bearing bacteria cannot be destroyed by
boiling. The heating destroys the vegetative cell, but the
spores still remain. In order to destroy the germ in the spore
form, it is essential that the milk be cooled to a temperature
favorable to growth, and then allow the spore to develop into
a vegetative cell. If heat is again applied, the milk can be
rendered entirely sterile. Usually three or four successive
heatings and coolings are necessary in order to render the milk
completely sterile. A single heating under pressure (15 minutes
at 15 pounds) kills them at once.
It has been demonstrated by several investigators that
freshly drawn milk is not a good medium for bacteria to develop
in. In fact, several experiments seem to indicate that milk
acts as a germicide to certain varieties of bacteria. Tor instance,
the cholera germ is to some extent destroyed in fresh milk,
but it is not known to what extent. Organisms producing
lactic acid check the multiplications of these pathogenic bac-
teria. This germicidal property is saiad to be common, to a
greater or less extent, to all the animal secretions.
Effect of Thunder-storms on Souring of Milk.—It is acommon
impression that thunder-storms hasten the souring of milk.
This was attributed to the electricity in the air accompanying
the storm. Experiments by several investigators have proved
that electricity does not have any effect on hastening the fer-
mentative changes of milk. The reason why milk sours quicker
when an electrical storm is approaching, is that the air tem-
perature is usually higher then than at any other time. This
higher temperature warms the milk and creates more favor-
able conditions for the rapid multiplication of the germs present
in the milk. It is for this reason that milk sours quicker during
or previous to a thunder storm than at any other time.
CHAPTER V.
ABNORMAL MILK.
Colostrum Milk.—Colostrum is the milk yielded immediately
after calving. As the time of calving approaches, a cow usually
diminishes in her milk-producing capacity. Most cows become
dry about two months previous to parturition. If they do not
naturally stop giving milk, they should be dried up so as to have
a seven week’s rest before calving. When the rest has been
given, the cows yield, immediately after calving, milk which has
a composition and characteristics different from those of normal
milk. If the cow continues to give a copious flow of milk up to
the time of calving and is not allowed any rest, the difference
in the milk yielded before calving and after calving is compara-
tively shght.
The composition of colostrum varies considerably during the
first three days after calving. According to Engling, as reported
by Richmond, the composition is a follows:
Wathen. ficicer wee: nie), Serenea tow eae ae 71.69%
ate Fat SGN ees tee ee eee Sol
ho Casein Ge ce ae: 4.83
se Te 1 PN OUI 5h oe ooe mo c me Joo)
Loree) a ante Sie i tytes aN re hens Go 2.48
A Shh Sh Soe Barton ian eee ery aod eee era a Ihe ihe)
Colostrum greatly changes in composition and appearance
as it gradually assumes the characteristics of normal milk. It
is at first reddish yellow in color, and has a viscous and slimy
54
ABNORMAL MILK. a5)
consistency. It is a food which the newly born calf should not
be deprived of, as it seems to be specially suited for the digestive
tract of the young calf.
It will be seen from the above table that the water content
of colostrum is less than that of normal milk. The fat content
is a ittle lower than that of normal milk. The most striking
characteristics of colostrum, however, are the low content of
sugar, and the large amount of albumen. Of the latter substance
very little is present in normal milk. The mineral constituents
of colostrum also run quite high. The specific gravity of
colostrum varies from 1.046 and 1.079. When boiled, the
nitrogenous matter coagulates. The colostrum is not considered
to be suitable for food until about four days after parturition.
Whenever it can be boiled without coagulating, it is claimed
to be safe to use. At times a cow’s udder becomes inflamed
after calving. In such cases the abnormal qualities of the
cow’s milk will extend over a greater period of time than that
mentioned above.
Salty Milk.—The average chemical analysis of salty milk as
calculated from results obtained by the analysis of such milk
from four cows given by Boggild,* is as follows:
AWAITS PAA recat 2 nace ee 91.09
IDEs sheds Sp asec eee a Set ec ee oe ee ee ae 2.09
INIMROReMOUSHMatLeChR te i ace 2.90
SU OI eee rete yam eit rere! PU, 3.01
JENS) is Lee Ae a te uu eR ene .85
It has an average specific gravity of 1.0244.
Salty milk does not occur very often, but whenever it does
occur, it is difficult, and, so far as known, impossible to cure
without drying up the cow. Two samples of such milk have
recently come within the author’s notice. It had the appear-
ance of normal milk, had a foul smell, and very salty taste.
* Maelkeribruget in Denmark.
56 BUTTER-MAKING.
The two samples contained 1.7% and 1.9% of fat respectively.
They soured and curdled in a normal way at living-room tem-
perature in about thirty hours. At this stage they were very
foul in smell, and unpleasant in taste.
The cows which had produced this milk had both ealved
about three months previously. It oceurred in the month of
July, when pastures were quite good. The udders of the cows
were in an apparently normal condition. At first it was thought
that some conditions in the pasture caused this abnormal milk.
The cows were taken into the barn, and fed on dry food for
two weeks, but without any change in the quality of the milk.
Gradually they dried up.
The reason for the secretion of this salty milk was laid to
the long time which the cows had been yielding milk without
any rest. They had been given no rest previous to the last
calving. It is also believed that this quality of milk will occur
more frequently when the cows are near the close of their
lactation period.
While the above two causes are perhaps the most common,
they are not the only ones. Salty milk has been obtained from
cows to which these reasons could not be ascribed. Boéggild has
found that salty milk has been secreted by cows with abnormal
udders. He has also demonstrated that it was the diseased part
of the udder from which the salty milk was yielded. The healthy
portion of the udder yielded normal milk. It is possible that
an obscure, diseased condition of the udder may be the entire
cause.
Salty milk is of course undesirable in the dairy or creamery.
It is very disagreeable to the taste, and in a fermented stage
becomes very foul.
Bloody or Red Milk.—Bloody, or red milk is caused, first,
by an abnormal condition of the cow’s udder, which may or may
not be apparent; and second, a red color may be developed in
milk after standing, through the action of bacteria.
The bloody milk, caused by an inflamed udder, often assumes
a reddish-yellow appearance, and may, if not examined care-
ABNORMAL MILK. 57
fully, be mistaken for colostrum. Bloody milk produced by an
inflamed udder, may be distinguished by noticing small blood
particles, which will settle to the bottom, and can be noticed if
the sample is placed in a glass test-tube. Bloody milk caused by
bacterial growth does not show the blood at the bottom, but
instead, previous to stirring the milk or cream, it appears on
the surface in small red dots. The red color which commonly
occurs in milk is due chiefly to a species of germ called Micro-
coccus prodigiosus. Colostrum will show reddish cream on the
surface, but no blood-like material will separate out.
Blue Milk.—Blue milk is quite commonly found. Formerly
it was thought that this color was due to the condition of the
casein in the milk, but since more has been discovered in regard
to the effect of germ life upon conditions and properties of milk,
it has been proved that blue milk is caused by bacteria* (Bacil-
lus cyanogenus). This particular germ produces the blue color
in the milk only when the milk has an acid reaction. When
sterile milk is inoculated with this particular germ, the blue
color is not produced, but by the addition of a little acid, or by
inoculating the milk with the bacteria that produce lactic acid,
the blue color is produced. This seems to be one of the instances
of symbiotic action of bacteria in milk. There are probably
other causes, but they are not known. This germ, according
to Aikman, is killed by heating the milk to about 176° F. The
germ ceases to work as soon as milk is coagulated.
Yellow Milk.—According to Aikman,* yellow milk is caused
chiefly by one species of bacteria, named Bacillus synxanthus.
This micro-organism belongs to the group of ferments that act
upon the fat of milk. There are different shades of yellow
produced in milk, caused by different species of bacteria, but
the above-mentioned one is considered to be the principal cause.
Some produce a brilliant yellow color, while other species first
curdle the casein, and then digest or dissolve it into a yellow
or amber-colored liquid.
* C, M. Aikman, in ‘“‘ Milk, Its Nature and Composition.”
58 BUTTER-M AKING.
Ropy Milk.—The slimy or ropy condition of milk is not
common. It is sometimes found in milk handled by milk-
dealers and is caused by- certain micro-
organisms. Aikman mentions the fact that
no less than eighteen different distinct organ-
isms have been identified as associated with
this slimy fermentation. Most of the inves-
tigators agree that two organisms are chiefly
responsible for this slimy condition. One of
these is Bacillus lactis viscosus.* ‘This germ
has been found to be frequently present in
surface waters. The very fact that milk-
dealers in cities are occasionally troubled with
this sliminess in milk indicates that precau-
tions are essential in order to avoid the pres-
ence of this ferment in milk. This germ, when
it once gains entrance to a milk establishment,
is very difficult to eradicate. In order to
overcome this trouble it may be necessary
to cover the whole inside of the milk-store,
and all of the vessels used for handling the
milk, with sour coagulated milk. The lactic
acid germs present in this milk gains ascend-
BEG te ange Slany ency over the germs causing sliminess, and
would “string in that way the trouble may be eradicated.
Ser ements! Streptococcus hollandicus f is another spe-
a Bul. cies which produces sliminess in milk. This
aos particular organism is used in Holland as a
starter. The starter containing this particular germ is added
to the milk used in the manufacture of Edam cheese, in order
to control or check the gassy fermentation which may be present
ete
Bitter Milk.—This is one of the most common kinds of
abnormal milk, and like some of the others, may have more
* Adametz Landw. Jhr., 1891, p. 185.
+ Milch Zeit., 1889, p. 982.
6S ‘squowmioy Suronpoid-sva
Jo douasoid oy} sMOYS E puv Z UL PANd SuryVoy oY, “YA[LUL UL WOT}ePUSULTOT Assv3 jo yooyo Surmoyg—-'ET Ply
SRR age
60 BUTTER-MAKING.
than one cause. It may be due to some undesirable food that
the cow has eaten, or to the development of certain germs in
the milk. If caused by the food eaten by the cow, the bitter
taste 1s recognizable immediately after the milk has been drawn.
If it develops on letting the milk stand, it is caused by bac-
terial growth.
Several germs have been found to be associated with the
production of this bitter flavor in milk. Conn has described a
micrococcus which produces a bitter flavor in milk. Weig-
mann has described a bacillus which also produces _ bitter
flavors. Nearly all of the investigators agree that the germs
causing the bitter flavors in milk belong to the group which acts
upon the casein in milk. The bitter flavor is most commonly
found in milk that has been heated, and then cooled to a low
temperature. The heat destroys the bacteria that produce
lactic acid, but does not kill those that produce the bitter
flavor, owing to the fact that they are spore-producing.
The germs that produce a bitter flavor do not develop in
milk that is partly soured, because an acid reaction is un-
favorable to their growth.
It was formerly thought that the organisms that cause the
bitter flavor in milk produced butyric acid. This theory,
however, has been largely overthrown, as it has been found that
the germs causing bitter flavor are chiefly of the kind which
peptonize the casein and produce gas. 7
Milk from Cows which have Been in Milk for a Long Period.
—The difference in the composition of the fat yielded by cows
in different stages of the lactation period seemingly does not
affect the quality of the milk to a noticeable extent. If the
cows have been giving milk an unusually long time, then the
milk may become abnormal.
The impurities in the small amount of milk yielded by cows
almost dried up are quite apparent, and the causes of the
presence of these impurities are readily understood. The
small amount of milk drawn from such a cow would contain
a proportionately larger amount of dirt and germs than would
ABNORMAL MILK. 61
a larger amount of milk drawn from a cow yielding more milk,
providing the cleanliness of the udder and manner of milking
were the same. Cows givinga good quantity of milk always
seem to have a cleaner udder. This has been laid to the more
vigorous circulation of the blood in the udder of the cow that
yields a larger portion of milk.
When cows calve once a year, and have rest of about seven
weeks previous to parturition, if proper precautions are taken
concerning cleanliness, they seldom yield milk from which a
first-class quality of butter cannot be produced. In practice
this regularity of calving does not always exist. Several in-
stances have come within the author’s notice where cows have
been in milk for two years or more without coming in fresh.
Such a condition happens quite frequently on small farms,
where the cows kept are so few that it is deemed imprac-
ticable to keep a bull. As a consequence cows are not
served at the proper time, and great irregularities in calving
are introduced.
At times it also happens that cows become barren. In
such a case they are usually milked as long as they will pro-
duce even a very small quantity of milk. Milk produced under
such conditions is likely to become abnormal in character.
It may remain normal with a slight increase in the fat-content.
The abnormal milk, so often complained of, is usually brought
about by similar circumstances. It is a common belief that
milk yielded from such animals always contains a high fat-
content, but it may contain very little fat. It may be salty.
It may also appear normal, and the cream when separated
appear viscous and dead. Boggild states that the milk at the
creamery from one barren cow has more than once pro-
duced difficult churning.
Milk from Spayed Cows.—H. Lennat has given this kind of
milk considerable study. He finds that milk from spayed
cows may vary in quality to the same extent as milk from normal]
cows. The solids of milk, as a rule, increase as the spayed
cow advances in the milk-giving period. Especially was this
62 BUTTER-MAKING.
noticeable in the fat, sugar, and casein. Such milk is con-
sidered to be of extra good quality, and is recommended as
being especially suitable for infant-feeding.
Milk from Sick Cows.—Too much cannot be said against
the use of milk from sick cows. As soon as the cows decline
in health, the quantity will be noticeably decreased, and the
quality is usually abnormal. The kind of milk yielded varies
with different cows and different diseases, but it is interesting
to note from the study of this subject, by several men, that
the milk-secreting glands are quickly affected by disease and
are unable to perform their proper functions. Even a slight
derangement of the digestive organs is said to have a marked
influence upon the flavor of the milk and butter. When cows
do not clean well after calving, the milk secreted by them
always has an undesirable taste. During the time of sexual
excitement of the cow, milk is usually decreased in quantity,
and in a great many instances assumes a very disagreeable flavor.
When a cow’s udder is inflamed, the milk usually assumes
an abnormal condition. It usually contains large, white,
slimy lumps. According to Bang,* this is caused by a small
round bacterium, and is contagious. When this germ is in-
oculated into the udder, the cow gets feverish and the milk
becomes slimy.
When cows become infected with tuberculosis to such an
extent that the udder shows lesions and nodules, then the
composition and appearance of the milk is altered consider-
ably. Milk from such cows contains tubercle germs, appears
yellowish brown in color, and has an alkaline reaction. The
composition of such milk has been studied in Denmark and
reported by Béggild to be as follows:
AVE His Pe ee teehee: oe age aa USE. Jtatera te)
Hate Aa SS a ate ere Dana en Oh ee)
Albuminolds..o a ee ee eee ORO,
Sugar. esses td oer ns he ee eo)
* Maelkeribruget i Danmark, by Boéggild.
ABNORMAL MILK. 63
fic. 14—The carcass of an animal killed for beef, showing tuberculosis of
the liver, omentum, and lungs. Generalized tuberculosis. (Bul. 229,
Cornell, N. Y.)
64 BUTTER-MAKING.
These results represent the average of four samples taken
from the diseased part of the udder. It will be seen that the
ereatest variation from normal milk exists in the small amount
of sugar it contains and the high per cent of ash and nitrog-
enous matter.
CHAPTER VI.
VARIATION OF FAT IN MILK.
THE percentage of fat in normal milk varies a great deal
more than any other of the constituents of milk. Dr. Rich-
mond reports that the fat of milk may go as low as 1.04% and
as high as 12.52%. Such extreme variations are, of course,
abnormal. The fat-content seldom falls below 24° or rises
above 7%. The fat-content of milk from a whole herd of
cows, varies only within comparatively narrow limits. The
following are the chief factors which cause the fat-content
of milk to vary:
(1) Individuality of cows.
(2) Breed of cows.
(3) Time between milkings.
(4) Manner of milking.
(5) Whether the milk is fore or after milk.
(6) Age of cow.
(7) Lactation period.
(8) Feed of cows.
(9) Environmental conditions.
1. Individuality of Cows.—That the quantity of milk from
individual cows varies is a fact that is well known to every-
one who keeps cows, but the average cow-keeper does not very
well apprehend that the percentage of fat is as variable a factor
asit really is. Asarule, when a cow yields only a small quantity
of milk she is in many instances condemned without taking
the quality into consideration. If the fat content were taken
65
66 BUTTER-MAKING.
into consideration, such a cow might prove more profitable
to keep than another that yields a larger quantity of milk.
For this reason the yield of fat is a better standard by which
to judge the value of a cow than the quantity of milk. Since
the general introduction of the Babcock test for the deter-
mination of fat in milk, the fat-content of milk can be easily
determined, even on the farm. The importance of testing
the milk of each cow in a herd is sufficient to warrant every
cow owner to have a complete Babcock testing outfit on the
farm. :
Unprofitable cows are, and have been, a serious draw-
back to dairy progress. According to Dairy Commissioner
Wright’s reports, the average yield of butter per cow, in the
State of Iowa, is less than 140 pounds per year. Some of the
cows from which these statistics were calculated evidently
gave good returns to the owners, while others again would
run their owners in debt. Cases are on record where single
cows have produced more than eight hundred pounds of butter
annually. Such a yield is the result of a great many years
of attention to the selection and breeding, and can be obtained
only in special cases. A yield of 400 pounds of fat per cow
annually might be a good standard for which to strive. Even
if the average annual butter yield per cow could be brought
up to 300 pounds, the dairy industry would be put on a sounder
and more profitable basis. The average price of butter is
about twenty cents per pound. At this rate 300 pounds of
butter would be worth $60.00. The average cost of keeping a
cow in the State of Iowa is about $35.00, including care and
feed. This would leave a net profit of $25.00 per cow. If
a cow yielded only 140 pounds per year, which at 20 cents
would be worth $28.00, the owner of that cow would suffer
a loss of $7.00. It must not be forgotten that the above cal-
culation is based only upon the butter-fat. The calf and the
skimmed milk are not taken into consideration. The skimmed
milk is worth 25 cents per hundred pounds for feeding pur-
poses, and the calf is worth about $3.00.
GUERNSEY Cow (CustER’s BELLE, 9514).
Owned and bred by W. D. Hoard, Fort Atkinson, Wis. Calved when
two years old. She produced that year 425 pounds of butter-fat. Periodical
weighing of milk every seventh week and testing showed that she had pro-
duced 6649 pounds of milk containing 314 pounds of fat in eight months
ending Sept. 14, 1905. She calved again Jan. 15, 1905. The above records
weve made under ordinary feeding and management such as the whole herd
recelved.
VARIATION OF FAT IN MILK. 67
TABLE BY GURLER, SHOWING RECoRDS oF INDIVIDUAL Cows.
eee
3 : : F
is ss |e | 3 fll || 2 Sse) +1
b a) || 3 Sg ese) also eases sie 4
ie ca a co | 2 S Sl ll ce I
eo te oe om 2A Sm pe Sn or SS EA
Av. of
50 cows | 5708 |4.47/255.2 |297.7 |59.54/5453/14.00] 73.57/41 .06]/-+19.98
244 2382. 5/4.87/116.13}135.48/27 .09/2266| 5.66] 32.75/31.23]/—11.00
154 3619 |4.51/163.4 |190.63]/38.12/3494| 8.64} 46.76/41 .06|/— 6.80
44 3399 |4.58)155.94/181 . 93/36. 86/3243] 8.10] 44.48/37.32|— 5.34
2 2661 |5.06)1384.97|157 .46]31 .49)/2526} 6.31) 37.80/26.45)/— 1.15
308 4617 |3.83/177.16]206. 68]41 .43/4440]11.03) 52.36/39.32/+ 0.44
184 7997 |4.77)382 .04)445 . 71/89 .14!7615]19. 14/108. 28/44 .32}4+ 51.46
262 9297 {5.03 372 ..56/434. 65 86.93/8900 22 .00|109 .02)/44.72)4+ 51.80
283 10151 |3.68)/374. 76/436. 75/87 .35|9777|24.44)111.79/44.72) 454.57
129 8449 |4.52/406. 73/472. 18/94. 43/8545]21 .36/115.80/46.06] + 57. 24
Av. of 4
best 9098 |4.25/384.00)447 .32/89 .46|8709]21 . 76)111 . 22/44 .95|+53.77
Av. of 4
poorest | 3020 |4.75/142.60/160.40/33 .28/2881} 7.20) 40.48/33.96|— 5.98
Av. of 9
cows 5897 |4.43)253.5 1295.7 |59.14|5644)14.11] 73.25/39.46]/+ 21 .25
In making the calculations in the above table the price of
butter per pound was taken as 20 cents, the skimmed milk
was considered to be worth 25 cents per hundred pounds, and
the cost of iabor was taken at $12.50 per cow.
Breed of Cows.—There is a marked difference in the milk
secreted by different breeds of cows. The most striking differ-
ence is, perhaps, between the Holstein and the Jersey breeds.
The former, as a rule, yields a large quantity of milk, with a
comparatively low fat-content; the latter, as a rule, yields
a comparatively small quantity of milk, with a high per-
centage of fat. The influence of individuality of cows must
not be overlooked in this connection.
It is said that the color of the skin, and of the fine hairs on
the exterior of the cow’s udder may be taken as a guide in
selecting cows for breeding purposes. A fine soft skin, darkish
golden yellow in color, enveloping the milk-glands, and covered
with fine soft hair, are considered indications of rich milk.
While the Jersey cows perhaps yield milk with a higher fat-
68 BUTTER-MAKING.
content than any other breed, a high percentage of fat is char-
acteristic of the milk from all the Channel Island breeds. On
account of the great variation in the composition of milk from
different cows, it is difficult to get results from experiments
where the number of cows involved in each breed and trial
have been so numerous as to overcome the individuality of
the cow. We quote the following table, which shows the
average results from the breed tests conducted at the Annual
Dairy Shows of the British Dairy Farmers’ Association between
the years 1879 and 1893, inclusive:
Lees. Total Solids. Fat. Solide
otal “sau? |————— Not Live
Ne || Breed. pele Per e iaee eel Hat: Weight.
mals. Daily. Bee Cent. HERE Cent. | Cent.
147 lichorthors Tae 43.86 | 5.64 | 12.86] 1.65 | 3.77 | 9.09 | 1403
5 Oy CRS Yiey ea-veste rus DQ Gale seOS tA 54 ule Som Aas 5a ON G9) 832
3 | Guernsey... ..-| 28.95 | 4.07 | 14.05) -1.38 | 4.78 | 9.28 | 1033
IO) 1 Jakollstientay, Geo oe 6 45.119 | 5.53/12 225) 1.54 | 3:41 18.84 |) 1383
Sea pAvyas hire aac sera 37.82 | 5.09 | 13.45| 1.60.) 4.22 | 9.23 | 1060
Yh. | IDYENAOS: 3 Goo 6 00 30.12 | 4.32 | 14.34] 1.48 | 4.90 | 9.44
Samed sRollsmes tn. 35.10 | 4.55 | 12.96) 1.38 | 3.92 | 9.04 | 1201
ipa laWiel lie nences 46.00 | 5.86 | 12.74) 1.91 | 4.16 | 8.58
1 | Aberdeen-Ang..} 60.30 | 8.29 | 13.74] 3.01 | 4.99 | 8.75
12 | kerries and
Dexters.. ....| 26.59 | 3.56 |13.37| 1.11 | 4.18 | 9.19 | 749
30 eik@rosses!. se eel 42a balla e al ee 1.56 | 3.70 | 9.17 | 1362
J
These results agree very closely with tests carried on in
the United States, with the exception of the two breeds, Welsh
and Aberdeen Angus. The former breed is rare in this country.
The latter breed is considered to be quite inferior as a milk-
producing breed, but one of the best beef types known. ‘The
results obtained in the test above, where only one cow was
involved, are abnormal and cannot represent the average of
Angus cows’ milk.
Time Between Milkings.—The common practice in the
United States is to milk twice during twenty-four hours, every
morning and evening. The intervals between these milkings
are not always of the same length. Under the average farm
Ho.stEern Cow (SHapy Brook Grrsin, 43753, H. F. H. B.).
Property of M. E. Moor, Cameron, Mo. Record at St. Louis Exposi-
tion, June 16 to Oct. 13, 1904, (120 days,) 8101.7 pounds of milk containing
282.6 pounds of fat. Value of feed consumed $36.57. Dropped in June,
1892. Weight 1319 pounds.
VARIATION OF FAT IN MILK. 69
conditions the cows are milked in the morning about 5 o’clock,
and in the evening about 7 o’clock. This is especially true
during the spring and early summer months. This long interval
during the day causes the cow to give a greater quantity of
milk in the evening, but it contains a smaller per cent of fat.
The recent results obtained by Ingle illustrate this point very
plainly. Five cows were milked at 6 a.m. and at 3 P.M. during
Fic, 15.—The wrong way to milk cows. (From Glucose Sugar Refining
Catalogue.)
a period of three weeks. The average fat-content of the eve-
ning’s milk was 4.26% and of the morning’s milk 2.87%.
During the four weeks following the same cows were milked
at 5.30 a.m. and 5 p.m. The fat-content of the evening’s milk
was 3.80%, and of the morning’s milk 3.18%. It is main-
tained, and the above results indicate the same, that even
70 BUTTER.MAKING.
if the intervals between milkings are equal, the morning’s
milk will contain slightly less fat. This is accounted for by
the theory that the fat-secreting cells are more active during
the day, when the cow is exercising.
It is customary in Denmark, and in other countries where
dairying is practiced extensively, to milk three times a day,
early morning, noon, and late at night. The only reason that
can be assigned for getting richer mik after the shorter in-
terval is that the distension caused by the excess of milk in
the udder retards or restrains the free activity of the fat-secreting
cells in the mammary glands. Experiments also show that
frequent milking gives a greater quantity of milk. The in-
crease, however, is not great enough to induce the average
dairy farmers in America at the present time to milk more
than twice daily. The intervals between milkings, however,
can, Without any special outlay of money or time, be equalized.
Manner of Milking.—The milk should in all cases be drawn
as rapidly as possible, and in such a way as to cause no dis-
comfort to the animal. The hand and fingers should be used
in such a way as to imitate nature’s method as closely as pos-
sible. When the hand is placed around the teat, the upper part
of the hand, or the thumb and forefinger, should close around
the teat first, then the others closing gradually as the milk
is pressed out. The fingers should encircle the teat without
inserting the nails and causing discomfort to the animal. The
Hegelund method of milking, in comparison with the ordinary
method, has been investigated by Woll, and the results ob-
tained were in favor of the former.
The Hegelund method consists of manipulating the udder
and parts of the udder in a systematic and regular way by
lifting and pressing the different quarters of the udder. In
the Wisconsin University herd of 24 cows, with which Dr.
Woll experimented, the quantity of milk was increased by 4.5%
and the quantity of fat by 9.2%, by the use of the Hegelund
method.
es
JERSEY Cow (Lorerra D, 141,708, A. J.C. C.).
Owned by W. 8. Ladd, Portland, Oregon. Record at St. Louis Expo-
sition from June 16 to Oct. 13, 1994, (120 days,) 5802.7 pounds of milk con-
taining 280.16 pounds of fat. Value of feed consumed $31.99. Dropped
Oct. 13, 1893. Weight 1075 pounds
Fic. 16.—First manipulation of udder, right Fic. 17.—First manipulation, left quarters.
quarters,
Fia, 18.—Second manipulation, right fore-quarter.
Fig. 19.—Second manipulation, right hind- ‘Fic. 20.—Third manipulation.
quarter, rear view.
ILLUSTRATING HEGELUND METHOD OF MILKING. (From Report of Kansas State Board
of Agriculture, No, 87, 1903.)
71
71a BUTTER-MAKING,
Milking-machines.*—For a long time successful milking-
machines have been expected by dairy enthusiasts. Seem-
ingly these expectations have been fulfilled. Many large
dairy farmers are now operating such machines. The Bur-
rell- Lawrence - Kenedy milking-machine and the Globe are
two of the machines which under proper conditions and
\\)) = uta
Fic. 20a—The Globe milking-machine.
care have been found to operate successfully in the United
States.
The cost of installation, and care and skill necessary in
sconomie operations, are factors which retard their use on the
* Bulletin No. 92, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. 8. Dept. of Agr.
Bulletin No. 47, Storr’s Experiment Station, Conn.
Bulletin No. 140, Manhattan, Kans.
VARIATION OF FAT IN MILK.
Nas ER
4 \ i
Fic. 20b.—The Burrell-Lawrence-Kenedy milking-machine.
7168
72 BUTTER-MAKING,
average sized dairy farms. If a man keeps at least twenty
good cows in milk at the time, and makes dairying a business,
not a side issue, and is willing and able to care for the machine
as it should be cared for, then the milking-machine can appar-
ently be economically and successfully operated. The milking-
machine question is still in a transitional period and shall not
be considered in detail at this writing.
Fic, 21.—De Schmidt milking-machine.
All of the above machines are represented by their
respective inventors and manufacturers to do _— successful
work. Whether a milking-machine will ever be perfected
which can imitate nature’s methods as closely as the human
hands, is a question which has yet to be solved.
An UNREGISTERED BUT PURE-BRED AYRSHIRE Cow.
Owned by C. C. Burr, St. Charles, Ill. In the year 1902-3, under ordinary
farm conditions and feeding, she gave 8467 pounds of milk which contained
342 pounds of butter-fat.
VARIATION OF FAT IN MILK 73
According to experimental evidence, milk drawn with a
machine contains more bacteria than milk drawn by hand.
This is claimed to be due to the suction on the exterior of the
teat, and to the tubes through which the milk must pass after
it is drawn.
Fore-milk and After-milk.— The fore-milk, or the milk
drawn from the cow’s udder first, contains much less fat than
does the milk drawn subsequently. The very first milk drawn
Fie. 22—Milking goats in Norway.
appears watery and contains as little as 0.1% of fat, while
the very last milk in the udder may contain as high as 12%.
The reasons assigned for this variation are (1) the milk in
the canal of the teat, and lower portion of the milk-reservoir
is present under such conditions as to allow creaming to proceed.
(2) The larger fat-globules are about as large as the smaller
milk-dusts in the cow’s udder; consequently the downward
passage of these fat-globules meets with some obstruction
74 BUTTER-MAKING.
and they are drawn out only when the last milk is removed.
(3) The fore-milk has been subjected to a re-absorption process
of the lymphatics. The third factor perhaps plays only a
small part in reducing the fat-content of the fore-milk. As
the fore-milk contains so very little fat, and a great many
micro-organisms, it is often advantageous to reject the first
few streams of milk. Especially is this important when sani-
tary milk is desired.
It is in many instances customary, in order to apportion
the calf a certain amount of milk, to first partly milk the cow
by hand, and send this milk to the creamery, and then allow
the calf to suck the remainder. The results of such procedure
are plain, yet it is practiced to a large extent. When dis-
covered, it has in many instances explained why a certain
creamery patron’s milk has been testing low at the creamery.
Age of Cow.—There is a time during the life of a cow when
she is most vigorous and most productive. At the time she
first calves (about three years old) the cow or heifer is. still
growing, and her milk-producing capacity is not so great then
as it is later on, when she becomes matured. After this increase
in quantity there is also a slight increase in quality. At the
age of about seven years the cow is usually at her best. As
the cow advances in age, usually the quantity and quality
diminish. However, the individuality of cows prevents draw-
ing any definite line. In some cows age has considerable
effect, while in others age has but little effect.
Lactation Period.—By lactation period we understand the
milking period, from the time of calving until the cow is dried
up. The first few days after calving, the cow yields milk
which is rich in solids, not fat. The fat-content in milk from
most cows usually increases a trifle during the first two weeks
after parturition. Then, when conditions are normal and uni-
form, the percentage of fat is nearly constant for about three
months. After this time the quantity decreases and the
quality gradually increases a trifle. This applies more fully
if the cow is pregnant. Most cows calve in the spring of the
SHORT-HORN Cow (CoLLEGE Moore).
Owned by Iowa State College, Ames, Ia. She produced 9896.5 pounds
of milk containing 406.8 pounds of fat during one milking period extend-
ing over 395 days beginning Oct. 4, 1899. Weight 1695.8 pounds.
sy
j
1
<
\ ,
; |
eon
i =
VARIATION OF. FAT IN MILK. 79
year, and as a consequence milk usually tests a little higher in
the fall.
Food of Cows.—Ilor a long time it was thought that. the
kind of food had considerable influence upon the fat-content of
milk, but later experiments in this country, as well as in foreign
countries, have almost completely demonstrated that food has
practically no effect upon the quality of milk. Investigators
agree that foods may affect the fat-content of milk by increasing
the quantity of milk, without reducing the per cent of fat, thus
increasing the total amount of fat. Extensive experiments
were carried on in Denmark, where more than one hundred
and fifty cows were involved in each experiment, on ten different
estates, in order to determine the effect of food upon the per-
centage of fat in the milk. Roots of different kinds, which
are very succulent, were fed with out reducing the per cent
of fat. Different concentrated feeds (oil-cake, wheat, bran,
ground barley, and oats) were also fed with a view of increasing
the percentage of fat, but without any noticeable effect. The
New York Station found, through carefully conducted experi-
ments, that feeding tallow to cows did not increase the percent-
age of fat in the milk.
Soxhlet found that by feeding tallow, in the form of an
emulsion, for a considerable time, he was able to increase the
percentage of fat in the milk. The Iowa Experiment Station
also reported that the percentage of fat could be increased by
feeding oil meal. Dr. Lindsey, at the Hatch Experiment
Station, Massachusetts, recently found that fat can be slightly
increased by the use of certain foods rich in oil.
But on the whole, the results reached so far show that
different foods have little influence on the percentage of fat in
the milk. Especially is this so under practical condi-
tions.
On the other hand, different kinds of foods affect the compo-
sition of the fat itself. Gluten meal, in fact all gluten products,
produce butter containing a high percent of olein, and usually
an increase in the volatile fats. Cottonseed-oil produces a
76 BUTTER-MAKING.
decrease in the volatile fats, and makes butter noticeably
harder and more tallowy in appearance.
Environment.—Unfavorable environmental conditions im-
posed upon a cow, such as sudden changes in temperature,
storms, impure surroundings, and _ ill-ventilated barns, are
certain to decrease the flow of milk; and if they are continued a
few days, the percentage of fat in the milk will decrease also. In
a general way it might be said that any unfavorable condition
which, causes a decrease in the quantity of milk will cause a
slight increase in the percentage of fat during the first few days.
But if the cow is surrounded with these unfavorable conditions
for any length of time, the percentage of fat will again decrease.
It is possible, however, by ill treatment, to diminish the fat-
content greatly.
[cxercise, also, affects the yield of milk, as well as the quality.
Uninterrupted, long confinement in a stall is detrimental to
a cow's health. For a time it shows no effect upon the quan-
tity and quality of the milk, but eventually it will decrease
both. However, many Danish dairy farmers keep their cows
in the barn all winter, without letting them out for exercise,
and it is said that this confinement has apparently no effect
upon the quantity and quality of milk. But a proportion-
ately large number of their cows are infested with tubercu-
losis. Whether this is due to lack of fresh air and exercise, the
authors cannot say.
Too much exercise is adverse to producing the most and
best milk. If a cow is kept in the barn every day, half an
hour’s exercise, preferably out of doors, when weather permits,
seems to give good results. A small box-stall for each cow, or
a well-bedded shed for them to stand or lie down in after feeding,
are favorable conditions for getting the proper amount of
exercise, especially during cold weather.
Change of location, fright, sudden shocks, and nervousness
are conditions from which the cow must be kept, in order to
do her best as a milk-producing animal.
CHAPTER VII.
RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING MILK AND CREAM.
Receiving and Grading of Milk and Cream. — The man
who receives and samples milk at a creamery should he
accurate and quick with figures, have ability to grade and
select milk, and to stimulate interest in the production of
good milk. He should also be able to reconcile and satisfy
patrons. The method employed in some creameries of allowing
a boy with immature judgment to weigh and sample milk
should not be tolerated. The person who weighs and samples
milk and cream comes in direct contact with the patrons.
Therefore, he is a strong factor in preserving the best interests
of the creamery. In many of the best butter and cheese factories
in the country the head maker or manager in charge is usually
found at the weighing can. This gives him the opportunity
of studying the raw material from which he is expected to make
a high grade of butter or cheese. Some of our large central
plants pay the highest salary to the man who has the ability
to properly grade the cream and prepare the starters. This
requires a fine sense of smell and taste, which is not possessed
by every one.
The first step in the receiving of milk is to ascertain the
quality of the milk delivered by the patrons. It is now a
recognized fact that the best butter cannot be produced from
defective or abnormal milk or cream, no matter how many
improved methods are employed in the manufacture. In view
of this, and the knowledge we now have of the transmission
of undesirable germs from one sample of milk to another, and
also the probability that some of the patrons will deliver poor
77
(Continental Creamery Co.)
ing cream,
and grad
lying
3.—Rece
)
lia.
RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING. 79
milk, it is essential that the milk or cream be graded when it
is delivered at the creamery.
In the grading of milk or cream, different methods can be
used for detecting abnormal milk: (1) through the senses,
taste, sight, and smell; (2) by the acid tests; (3) by the fer-
mentation test; (4) by heating; (5) by the Babcock test and
the lactometer.
1. Detection of Abnormal Milk through the Senses.—In order
to detect the different kinds of defective milk, one must be
Fic. 24—The Twentieth-century can-washer.
endowed with acute senses of smell, taste, and sight. When
the milk is in a good condition, it has a pleasant smell and
sweet taste, and appears normal. If it has a disagreeable
smell and taste it cannot produce good butter or cheese. As
a rule, the quantity of defective milk brought into the aver-
age creamery is much in excess of that of really perfect milk.
As a consequence it would not be practical to separate all
the defective milk into one class and the perfect into another.
The question as to where the line should be drawn between
the good, medium, and very bad milk or cream, must depend
80 BUTTER-MAKING.
upon the judgment of the receiver, and in a great measure
upon the local conditions. Some of the creameries have no
facilities for handling different grades of milk, and some sell
butter on a market where no sharp distinction is made between
good and poor butter. Others have, through experience, sat-
isfied themselves that under American creamery conditions
it does not pay to make too many grades, nor does it pay to
grade too closely. Two, or at the most three, grades of but-
ter can at times be manufactured in one creamery profitably.
It is advisable to reject sour and abnormal milk. If accepted,
it should not be mixed with the remainder of the milk, as it
might contaminate all of it; or, the sour milk might cause
coagulation, and thereby clog up the separators. If a can of
milk is sour, but otherwise clean, it is not necessarily unfit
for the production of first-class butter. If retained until after
the sweet milk has been skimmed, it may be run through
the separator successfully.
2. The Use of Acid Tests—Some creameries, especially
the larger central cream plants, are now grading the milk or
cream according to the amount of acid it contains. For instance,
cream or milk containing .2% acid or less is classed as first
grade; that containing from .2 to .4% as second grade, and
the cream containing more than .4% acid as third grade.
Mann’s and Farrington’s acid tests can both be used, but a
more rapid and convenient way is to use a solution prepared
from Farrington’s tablets. The solution is prepared by taking
one tablet for each ounce of warm water and allowing the
tablets to dissolve. When one part of this alkaline solution
and one part of milk are put together in a cup and mixed
and the solution still retains a pink color, it shows that there
is less than .1°% acid in the sample tested. If two parts of
alkali and one part of milk are mixed and the mixture remains
pink, then there is less than .2% of acid. If the mixture turns
colorless, it shows there is more than .2°% acid in the sample.
If three measures of alkali to one measure of milk are taken,
and the mixture remains pink, that indicates that there is
RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING. sl
less than .3% of acid, ete. By means of such a test the acidity
ean quickly be determined.
The sample cups should be numbered to correspond with
the number of each patron. The results of the tests should
be noticed at once, as the action of the atmosphere affects
the color.
The acid tests are of value in grading cream, as a sour
sample of milk or cream is either old or has been improperly
kept and handled. The number of grades of cream and milk
and the maximum limit of acid each grade can contain, are
factors which must be decided according to local conditions,
by the operator.
3. Use of the Fermentation Tests.—Curdled, ropy, red and
blue milk can, as a rule, readily be detected without the appli-
eation of a special test, but there are cases when a person’s
senses are not sufficiently acute to detect samples of milk
containing undesirable fermentations. Several instances have
recently come within the authors’ notice. A neighboring
creamery was infested with a peculiar fermentation that
caused a very rank flavor in the butter. The milk that came
to the creamery was carefully examined, but without locating
the source of the trouble. The cause could not be ascertained
without the use of the fermentation test.
It is in such instances that a fermentation test is of special
value. As arule, at least when the trouble first begins, it is
milk from one particular patron that causes the trouble. This
milk may appear to be normal, and yet contain germs which
are very undesirable for the manufacture of the best quality
of butter.
Fermentation Te ts——There are two tests which may be
of general use; namely, the ‘ Wisconsin Curd Test’ and
the ‘Gerber Fermentation Test.’”” The former is used in
cheese factories, but the latter is to be recommended in testing
milk for butter-making.
Gerber Test.—This test consists of properly made glass
tubes which fit into a rack. This rack, containing the bottles,
32 BUTTER-MAKING.
fits into a small round tin tank, which is kept about two-thirds
full of water. The temperature of this water can be con-
trolled by means of a lamp kept burning underneath, or by
the use of steam. The milk from the different patrons is
put into the glass tubes, and these tubes numbered so as to
indicate to which patron each belongs. The temperature
should be kept at about 104 to 106° F. for about six hours.
Then the tubes are taken out, the milk shaken, and the appear-
ance, smell, and taste of the milk noted. The tubes are warmed
again for about another six hours, when they are again examined.
If any samples contain a preponderance of abnormal ferments,
the fact will usually appear in less than eighteen hours. If
milk does not coagulate in twelve hours, or become abnormal
in some way, it is supposed to be good.
The special apparatus mentioned above is not absolutely
essential, nor is the temperature employed considered by the
authors to be the most suitable to give reliable results. © Ordi-
nary sample jars can be used, instead of specially prepared tubes.
After the milk has been placed in the jars they can be kept
in any convenient place, at a temperature of about 98° F.
The best place to keep them is in a vessel containing water,
the temperature of which can be controlled.
Wisconsin Curd Test.—This test consists of taking some
milk in a jar and adding about ten drops of rennet, which
coagulates the milk. The sample is allowed to stand until
the curd hardens, then it is cut into small pieces with a case
knife; the whey is drawn off, and the curd allowed to stand
at a temperature of 98° F. If there are any undesirable forms
of bacteria present, they will reveal themselves by developing
small holes in the curd, usually accompanied by a bad odor.
This test is a very ingenious one for cheese-making. In
butter-making the Gerber Fermentation Test, or a similar one,
is more convenient.
4. Grading Milk by Heating.—This test is not used very
much in creameries; but in cheese factories the heating of
milk in order to ascertain its suitability for cheese-making 1s
RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING. 83
practised to a considerable extent. This test is in common
use in Canada. It consists of heating a small sample of the
milk to be tested to 120° F. If it will stand this temperature
without coagulating, it is considered to be good milk. If it
Fia, 25 —Troemner’s Babcock cream-testing scales,
—_ i
= }
Fic. 26.—Tortion cream test- Fia. 27.—Troemner’s Bab-
ing sca‘es. cock cream-testing scales.
coagulates when heated to this temperature, it is too sour
to be used for cheese.
This heating may be considered an acid test. When milk
contains about .3°% acid, it usually coagulates when heated.
It should be borne in mind in this connection that different
samples of milk do not coagulate when containing exactly the
same amount of acid, and at the same temperature. Some
samples will coagulate upon heating when containing little
$4 BUTTER-MAKING.
less than .3% acid, while others will not coagulate until more
than .3% acid has developed.
In practice the temperature (120° F.) is not always considered.
A small portion of the sample to be tested is put into a tin cup.
The cup containing the milk is put into hot water or over a jet
of steam. When hot its characteristics are noticed.
5. Use of Babcock Test and Lactometer.—These tests are
of special value in detecting watered or skimmed milk. When-
SS
—S_>
SS
SS
_—>
afc
=>
Fic. 28.—Acid carboy trunnion. Fic. 29.—Acid hydrometer.
ever a sample of milk appears watery or blue, it is fair to presume
that water has been added. The test for specific gravity and
the test for fat can then be applied to such samples of milk.
As a rule composite samples are taken daily at creameries, and
the patrons paid according to the fat delivered. For this
reason water adulteration is not very common at creameries,
but is practiced to a greater extent in the milk-supplies of
cities. The use of the lactometer in connection with the Bab-
cock test has already been referred to under the heading of
‘Specific Gravity of Milk.”
RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING. 85
There are two tests commonly used for determining fat in
milk, viz., the Babcock and Oil-test Churn. The latter method
is rapidly giving way to the former. The Babcock test is un-
doubtedly superior, though many still prefer the Q:1-test.
| |
1
———
———
uy
Fic. 30.—17.6 c.c. milk Fie, 31.—Automatic Fie, 32.—Automatic
pipette. 17.6 ¢.c. pipette. Russian pipette.
The Babcock method of testing consists of taking 18 grams of
the substance to be tested into a special graduated bottle as
shown inillustration. Milk is measured out with a pipette hold-
ing 17.6 c.c. Cream, butter, and cheese, or any other substance
which cannot be measured accurately, should be weighed.
The measured quantity of milk in the bottle is then digested by
adding 17.5 ¢.c. of commercial sulphuric acid having a specific
gravity of about 1.82. The acid digests all proteids and sets
86 BUTTER-MAKING.
free the fat. The contents of the bottle should be well shaken
at once after the acid has been added.
The bottle with its contents is then whirled about five
minutes in a centrifugal machine at a rate depending upon the
diameter of the machine, usually about 850 to 1000 revolutions
one
gre P TT
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o
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TUN UMOR GON La
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Fie. 33. Fic. 34. Fig. 35. Fic. 36. Fic. 37.
Skim-milk Whole-milk Cream test- 9-gram cream Cream
test-bottle. test-bottle. bottle test-bottle. test-bottle.
BaBcock TEST-BOTTLES.
per minute. The machine is then stopped and filled to the
neck of the bottle with pure hot water. Distilled water is
preferred. The bottles are then whirled two minutes, and
hot water added again until the fat rises in the neck where it
can be read. The bottles are then whirled again for about one
minute. The machine is then stopped and the fat read in
percentage direct from the bottle. By using a pair of dividers
RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING. 87
the reading may be facilitated. The temperature at the time of
reading should be between 120° and 140° F.
There are three very common defects in the clearness of fat
reading: (1) The fat contains black, charred, flocculent matter
at the bottom of the fat column. This is commonly caused by
TE Oo
Cy
ine anh
13
Paeece
SS
Si
; wiz
lee
E
Fig. 41.
Wagner’s skim- Ohlson’s skim- Butter test-bottle, and Russian Babcock
milk bottle. milk bottle. ~ funnel which holds test-bottle and
(Both with pneumatic fat- about 9 grams of reading-tube,
indicator (pat.).) butter.
using too much or too strong acid or mixing milk and acid at too
high a temperature. The remedy is to use less acid or to
cool milk and acid before mixing. The Llack charred matter
may also be due to allowing the acid to stand in contact with
the milk too long a time before mixing or by pouring acid
through the center of the milk. (2) There may be a layer of
white flocculent matter at the bottom of the fat column. This
is due to not having used enough acid or to the temperature of
milk and acid being too low or to not mixing the acid and milk
88
BUTTER-MAKING.
Fig, 44.—Automatie acid pipette. Fig, 45.—Wagner’s acid siphon,
RECEIVING SAMPLING, AND GRADING. 89
thoroughly. The remedy is to use more acid, or to warm milk
and acid before mixing, or to shake the mixture thoroughly
before whirling. (3) Occasionally there is a layer of impure
foam at the top of the fat column. This is generally due
to the use of hard and impure water. The remedy is to use
pure distilled hot water. For more detailed information on
this subject see “‘ Testing Milk and its Products,” by Farrington
and Woll.
Necessity of Good Milk.—All authorities agree that the best
grade of butter and cheese cannot be made from sour or tainted
milk. The two countries renowned for the excellence of their
90 BUTTER-MAKING.
dairy products—Denmark and Canada—owe their success
largely to the purity of the milk furnished by their patrons.
Makers who have won for themselves national reputation in
cheese- and butter-making have almost invariably been men
who insisted on getting first-class milk. Badly tainted milk
fia. 47.—Wizard tester.
should not be manufactured into food. The method of classify-
ing milk and cream and paying for each according to quality
has been adopted by some creameries, especially by some of
the large central plants. The object of this is to induce those
patrons who are sending poor milk or cream to furnish a better
grade. It seems more practical with milk than with cream,
because the average maker dislikes to reject a can of cream,
RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING. 91
owing to the loss the patrons would sustain. If such cream is
received, it should be churned separately, and the butter marked
and sold on its merits. The practice of taking in poor milk
and cream should be discouraged. One of the authors has
come in contact with many patrons in different parts of the
Fic, 50.—Russian Babcock tester,
country and has yet to find the first patron who seriously
objected to taking his milk back home when he was thoroughly
convinced that it was not in good condition. Patrons as a
rule respect the maker who keeps his creamery in a good sanitary
condition and insists on getting good milk. It should be the
aim of every creameryman to make the highest grade of butter
possible.
92 BUTTER-MAKING.
(+1
MMMM
Fic. 52.—The Agos steam tester.
RECEIVING, STAMPING, AND GRADING. 93
Sampling of Milk.—The sampling of milk and cream for
fat tests is one of the most delicate problems with which the
creamery operator has to deal. If a proper sample is not
obtained, the ultimate test will not be correct, no matter how
carefully the succeeding steps may be carried out. There are
two methods of sampling in use: First, sampling with a small
dipper, and second, sampling with a sample-tube, or milk-
Fie. 53.—Danish milk-wagon. (N. Y. Produce Review.)
thief. The sampling of milk for composite samples should be
done every day, and the samples taken should represent the
average quality and form a certain proportionate part of the
milk or cream delivered.
In order to get a sample which represents the average quality,
the milk or cream delivered must be thoroughly stirred, so as
to get an even distribution of the fat.
In order to get a proportionate part of the milk or cream
delivered from day to day, it is necessary to use a sampling-
tube.
The sampling of milk or cream with a dipper for composite
samples has been in use so long that this method has become
94 BUTTER-MAKING.
very general. If composite samples are not kept, and the
testing of each patron’s milk is done every day, the dipper
method of sampling answers the purpose. If thick cream is
being delivered, the dipper may be found to work better than
the sampling-tube, as the cream in some cases may be so viscous
that it will adhere to the sides and ends of the tube, and in
that way prevent the cream from entering. The sampling-
tube may also retain some of the thick cream on the inside
and if not rinsed out properly each time, the adhering cream
Fia. 54.—Delivering milk in Santiago. (Farmers’ Bulletin )
is likely to interfere with getting a fair sample of the succeeding
lot. If the sampling-tube is rinsed in hot water each time, this
probable mistake will be obviated.
Sampling-tube. — At creameries where milk is received,
the sampling-tube, or milk-thief, gives the best results and
satisfaction. It is very difficult in practice to get a propor-
tionate sample with a dipper, from day to day. To illustrate:
A patron who delivers 200 pounds of milk testing 3% fat one
day may on another day deliver 100 pounds of milk testing
5°o fat. If a dipperful is taken from each for a composite
RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING. 95
sample, the test of that composite sample will be 3+5 +2,
or 4%. According to this test, these 300 pounds of milk
delivered will contain 12 pounds of butter-fat. In reality
6 pounds of fat were delivered in the 200 pounds, and 5 pounds
of fat in the 100 pounds, making a totai of 11 pounds of fat.
Thus we see that the dipper method is not reliable, and in this
Pig. 55.—The McKay cream and Fic. 56.—Cream sampling-tube.
milk sampler.
case the patron was paid for 1 pound of butter-fat too much
for the two days’ delivery. If the sample taken from the
200 pounds of milk had been twice as great as that taken from
the 100 pounds of milk, then the composite test would have
been perfect, no matter whether it had been taken with a
dipper or with a sampling-tube. If the same weighing-can
is used every day, then an exact proportion for a sample can be
96 BUTTER-MAKING.
maintained, if the sampling-tube is put down perpendicularly
into the milk every day at the same place in the weighing-can
and otherwise carefully taken.
In ease the cream is being collected from different patrons
by a hauler, a milk-thief often works unsatisfactorily. This
is especially true during cold weather. A cream tube similar
to the one shown in the accompanying illustration is more
effective. The way in which the tube is used is apparent from
the figure. If a certain patron has 40 pounds of cream, the
cream is filled to the 40 mark on the scale of the tube. If he
has 30 pounds, it is filled to the 30 mark, ete.
Sampling Churned Milk.—It occasionally happens that the
milk arrives at the creamery slightly churned. This is espe-
cially the case during the summer. Usually such milk is
sampled in this condition, but if it is desired to find the per-
centage of fat in such milk in its unchurned condition, it is
essential to melt the churned fat before sampling. If the
butter has been churned into a few large lumps, these lumps
can be taken out in a pan, or pail, with a comparatively small
amount of milk, and this heated until the butter has melted.
Then this is remixed with the milk from which it was first
taken, and sampled while it is being stirred.
The churning of the milk during transit is mainly due to
two things: First, to a high temperature of the milk (65° to
85° F.), and secondly, to hauling partly filled cans a long distance
over rough roads. If the temperature of the milk is low (about
50° F.), when it leaves the producer, then there is seldom any
danger of having churned milk at the creamery.
Frozen Milk.—When milk is cooled to 31° F., or below, the
milk freezes. Ice forms near the sides and bottom of the can,
until a funnel-shaped cavity filled with milk is left in the center.
According to both Richmond and Fleischmann, the icy por-
tion contains more water than the unfrozen milk, and the
unfrozen portion is rich in solids. According to Farrington,
when 25% of the sample of milk was frozen, the icy portion
contained about 1°% less fat than the original portion. When
RECEIVING, SAMPLING, AND GRADING. 97
about half of it was frozen there was no great difference in
the fat-content of the frozen and unfrozen parts.
In practice, however, it seems to be different. When a
can full of partly frozen milk is sampled at the creamery, the
unfrozen milk nearly always contains less fat than the original
sample. This can be accounted for by opening the can of
milk and noting the amount of frozen cream on the sides near
the top. Whether the unfrozen portion contains less or more
fat than the original depends, therefore, upon conditions. At
any rate, frozen milk has a composition different from that
of the original sample. On this account an accurate sample
cannot be had, unless the frozen portion be first completely
melted and well mixed with the remainder.
Sour and Coagulated Milk.—In order to get a fair sample
from a can of sour and coagulated milk, it must be stirred
very thoroughly, so as to bring the coagulated milk into a
uniformemulsion. A better sample can usually be obtained with
a dipper. If the milk is not too thick, a fair sample can be
obtained by the use of the sampling-tube. In order to reduce
a can of coagulated milk to a thoroughly uniform quality, it
is best to pour it from one can into another. This mixes it
much more completely than if the sample were simply stirred
with a dipper or any other kind of an agitator.
Apportioning Skimmed Milk.—The amount of skimmed
milk to be received by the patron depends largely upon the
thickness of cream skimmed, and upon the amount of skimmed
milk retained at the creamery for various purposes. The
amount of skimmed milk generally returned by creameries
varies between 80 and 90% of the whole milk delivered.
Most up-to-date creameries now make use of skimmed-
milk weighers. Where such are employed the man, who receives
the milk, hands each patron a check for the amount of milk
delivered. This check is put into the skimmed-milk weigher,
and it allows an amount of skim-milk to flow out, corre-
sponding to the number of pounds indicated on the check.
In case a skimmed-milk weigher is not employed, it is
98 BUTTER-MAKING.
essential to have a man at the skim-milk tank to weigh
out the proper amount of skimmed milk to each patron. If
Fic. 57.—Check-rack.
the patrons are allowed to weigh out their own skimmed milk,
mistakes are frequently made, which result in more or less
dissatisfaction. It is quite customary for butter-makers to
Fie. 58.—The Ideal skim-milk weigher.
draw a chalk line on the outside of the can some ‘distance
below the surface of the milk. This indicates the point to
which the ean may be filled with skimmed milk.
CHAPTER VIII.
COMPOSITE SAMPLES.
Definition.—In order to avoid testing each patron’s milk
or cream every day for fat, a small sample, which represents
the average quality and a proportionate part of the whole, is
taken from each patron’s milk every day and placed in a jar.
A preservative of some kind is previously added, which keeps
it from spoiling. This is called a composite sample.
When to Sample.—Some makers prefer to sample the milk
or cream delivered every day; others prefer to sample every
other day. Some creamery operators, again, sample four or
five times in succession at intervals, the patrons being unaware
of the time when the sampling is to take. place. The most
reliable and practical method, however, is to take a sample
every day, and test it for fat at the end of every two weeks.
When cream is received it is not reliable to take composite
samples.
Kind of Preservative to Add.—A number of different pre-
servatives are now in use, and different ones are being recom-
mended for creameries and cheese factories by various authori-
ties. Even a few of the best authorities differ as to which
one of the preservatives gives the best results.
Among the most common of the milk preservatives, and
less poisonous than certain others, are salicylic acid, borax,
boracie acid, and bicarbonate of soda. Among the more vio-
lent poisons and strong preservatives are formaldehyde and
its compounds, chloroform, corrosive sublimate, and bichromate
of potash. Bichromate of potash and corrosive sublimate are
the two most commonly used in preserving composite samples.
The former is recommended highly by Farrington & Woll on
99
100 BUTTER-MAKING.
account of its relative harmlessness, its cheapness, and efficiency.
While bichromate of potash is relatively efficient in its
preservative effect, and not so poisonous as some of the others,
it does not give as general satisfaction as does corrosive sub-
limate (mercuric chloride), unless relatively greater precau-
tions are taken. If the composite samples preserved with
bichromate of potash are left standing in the light very long,
a leathery scum forms on the top, which is very difficult to
dissolve in the sulphuric acid. This is claimed to be due to
the reducing influence of light on chromate solutions. If too
Fie. 59.—Composite Fia. 60 —Composite samples and rack
sample bottle. to hold sample Jars.
much bichromate of potash is added, the sulphuric acid added
digests the curd with difficulty. When the sulphuric acid is
added the eurd is precipitated into a heavy, gray-colored coag-
ulum, which dissolves with difficulty in the acid.
According to the authors’ experience, corrosive sublimate
tablets can be highly recommended. The tablets contain a
color, which, when dissolved, colors milk, so that it can readily
be distinguished as not being fit for human food. The tab-
lets are very poisonous, but are more efficient in their preser-
vative effect than bichromate of potash. They can be obtained
from any creamery-supply house.
During the winter, when the samples are kept comparatively
cold, less preservative is needed than in the summer. One
TOL
(og Aroureed,) [BYUIUTUO,)) 3
jo JUDUIOSUBIIV SULMOYS ‘WOO1-SUT}S9 [— 19
102 BUTTER-MAKING.
corrosive sublimate tablet will keep a half-pint to a pint of
milk or cream in good condition for about two weeks in summer,
and about three weeks in winter, providing the sample is properly
cared for. Some makers are practicing testing at the end of
every month during the winter, and every two weeks during
the summer. Testing at the end of every month saves labor,
but it is not a reliable method to follow under all conditions,
as some of the samples are likely to be somewhat impaired
after standing so long.
Arrangement of Composite Samples.—Pint glass jars with
covers are, so far as known, the most convenient vessels to
use for composite samples. Shelves should be arranged in the
weighing-room on which to keep the bottles. If possible, it
is best to have them in a case closed with glass sliding doors.
This is neat, and, if the glass doors fit well, the samples are in
some measure protected in case of quick, unexpected changes
in temperature. These sliding doors should be locked when
the creamery operator is absent from the creamery, in order
to prevent any tampering with the composite samples.
The best method of arranging the sample jars is to have all
the jars belonging to the patrons of each route standing in
one group, or on one shelf together, if possible. The: bottles
are numbered to correspond with the number given each patron
on the milk sheet. The name of the hauler, or the number
of the route, can be put on each shelf. The samples be-
longing to those who haul their owr. milk can be put on another
shelf. These can be designated as individual haulers. Such a
classification, when the bottles are plainly numbered, will often
prevent the mistakes that are likely to occur if the bottles are
simply numbered and put into a rack together.
Care of Composite Samples.—In the first place the jars should
be kept scrupulously clean. It makes the test unreliable if
the jars are left covered with milk and molds round the neck
from one month to another. When the samples have been
tested the jars should be thoroughly cleaned, and, if necessary,
scalded, before they are used again. Care should be taken to
COMPOSITE SAMPLES 103
spill as little milk as possible around the neck, inside as well
as outside, of the bottle when the sample is put in. If the
milk is spilled there, it makes an unattractive appearance.
Very often it becomes moldy, and, as more milk is added and
the sample shaken every day, this mold gradually extends
down the sides of the bottle. This causes the composite sample
to be infested with undesirable growth, and to spoil sooner than
Fia. 62.—Testing-room in Model Dairy, St. Louis Exposition.
(Chicago Dairy Produce.)
it would if greater care were taken in keeping the milk from
coming in contact with the sides of the bottle, before coming
in contact with the preservative.
It is important also that the sample jars be well covered,
otherwise the moisture evaporates and causes the milk or cream
to dry up. It also makes the test unreliable by increasing the
per cent of butter-fat. A gentle rotary motion should be
given each jar when a sample is added to it to mix the cream,
which rises to some extent after the milk has stood a while.
104 BUTTER-MAKING.
Average Sample.—It is sometimes desirable to obtain an
average test of the milk from a whole day’s delivery. This
ean be obtained in two ways: First, by taking a sample from
each patron’s milk with a sampling-tube, and putting it all
together in one jar. The result represents an average test, pro-
viding the samples have been correctly taken. Second, an aver-
age test can be had by boring a small hole in the conductor-head.
When the milk passes over this hole, a small portion of it
drops through. A vessel of some kind can be put underneath
to catch the drops. Such a drip-sample will represent very
accurately the average quality of the milk received at the
creamery. If it is desirable to keep this sample, a preservative
ean be added to it.
Composite Sampling without the Use of Preservatives.—
Pipettes can be obtained holding 5.87 ¢.c. of milk. These are
one-third the size of the ordinary 17.6 ¢.c. pipette used for
the Babcock test. With this small pipette a sample may be
taken every day from each patron’s milk, during three suc-
cessive days, and emptied into the same test-bottle each
day. At the end of three days the samples may be tested
and the bottles cleaned, ready for use again.
Accurate composite samples may be obtained in this way,
providing the sample in the pipette is correctly taken each
day. No preservative is needed. The preservatives are added
to the composite samples to prevent curdling. The test-bottles
may be placed on a shelf, or preferably in a rack made to hold
them. They should be marked in such a way as to identify
them. A good way is to mark them the same as the com-
posite jars, the number on the jar corresponding to the number
on the milk-sheet for each patron.
Find the Average Per Cent of Fat—In calculating the
average per cent of fat from a number of cows, or the milk
furnished by the different patrons, the mistake of adding the
tests of all the samples together and dividing the sum by the
Milk from
CHAPTER IX.
CREAMERY CALCULATION.
total number of samples tested is often made.
different patrons, or from different cows, will always vary,
some in quality and some in quantity, and in order to get a
correct average test, both quantity and quality must be taken
into consideration. The wrong way of calculating the average
percentage may be illustrated as follows:
Sample.
The average test, according to the wrong method, =4%.
The correct way of calculating the average percentage may
1
2
3
4
Milk Delivered.
50. Ibs.
100
500
300
be illustrated as follows:
Sample.
1
2
3
4
Milk Delivered.
50 lbs.
100 ‘‘
500
300 <‘‘
950 lbs.
ce
ce
cé
Per cent Fat.
5.0
COW
aon
ee
~’r
—
op)
SQ
a
Per cent Fat.
950)32.5 Ibs. fat
3.42
105
106 BUTTER-MAKING.
The average test, according to the correct method, is 3.42%.
It will be seen from the example quoted that there is a
difference of more than .5%. If the percentage of fat or
the number of pounds of milk is uniform, then it does not
matter which of the two ways illustrated above is used. But
as uniformity in either of these respects scarcely ever exists
in practice, the only correct way of calculating the pereentage
is to find the total number of pounds of fat and divide it by
the total number of pounds of milk; the result is .0342, which
may be written 3.42%.
Fic. 63.—A Russian co-operative creamery in Siberia.
(U. S. Government Bulletin.)
It is very common for creamery patrons to test the milk
from each of their cows, then add the tests together and divide
by the total number of cows tested. The result they will
call the average test, and frequently such tests are made use
of as evidence against a creamery operator to prove that his
tests at the creamery were not correct. The fallacy is evident
from what has been said above.
CREAMERY CALCULATION. 107
The same mistake is also likely to be made in finding
the average test from several creamery-plants and skimming-
stations.
Calculation of Overrun.—The amount of overrun is the
difference between the amount of pure butter-fat, and the
amount of butter manufactured from that given amount. of
fat. This difference, divided by the amount of fat and multi-
ped by 100 will give the percentage of overrun. The calcu-
lation of the overrun in the creamery should always be made
Fia. 64.—A Cheshire creamery, England. (London Creamery Journal.)
from the fat-basis on which the patrons are being paid. If
the fat is delivered in the cream, the overrun should be calcu-
lated from the fat in the cream. The overrun calculated from
the composition of the butter manufactured would not be an
indication of the correct overrun, as there might be serious
losses of fat sustained during the different steps in the manu-
facture, such as from inefficient skimming, incomplete churning,
and general losses in the creamery. It is possible that butter
might show a high content of the substances not fat, and
yet not show a good overrun on account of losses; while butter
containing only a medium high moisture-content might show
as great or greater overrun on account of thorough and efficient
work during the different steps of manufacture.
108 BUTTER-MAKING.
The amount of overrun depends upon:
1. Thoroughness of skimming.
2. Completeness of churning.
3. General losses in the creamery.
4, Composition of the butter manufactured.
The theoretical overrun, however, may be quite accurately
calculated from the composition of the butter manufactured
in a well regulated creamery. In creameries where the con-
ditions of separation and churning are almost perfect, the
amount of fat lost in the buttermilk and the skimmed milk
is quite constant from day to day, and should not exceed .1%
in the skimmed milk and .2% in the buttermilk, according
to the Babeock test. Basing the calculations upon the above
figures, the theoretical overrun may be calculated from the
composition of the butter as follows:
If, for instance, we start with 1000 pounds of milk-testing
4% fat, there will be a total of 40 pounds of fat. If we skim
32% cream from 4% milk, we should have ~4, or 4, of it cream,
and the remainder skim-milk, or 125 pounds of cream and
875 pounds of skimmed milk. If there were .1% of fat in the
skimmed milk, there would be a loss of .875 pounds of fat during
skimming. There would then be 39.125 pounds of fat in the
125 pounds of cream (40—.875=389.125). If 10% of starter
were added to the cream we should get 137.5 pounds of cream
testing 28.4%. (125 pounds cream X 1.10= 137.5 pounds cream;
39.125 +137.5—28.49, fat.) By churning this’ cream “we
should obtain about 100 pounds of buttermilk. If it tested
.2% fat there would be a loss of about .2 pounds of fat, making
a total loss of fat in skim-milk and buttermilk of 1.075 pounds.
Subtracting this total loss of 1.075 from 40 pounds we would
have 38.925 pounds of fat left to be made into butter
(40 —1.075=38.925 pounds of fat). If the butter on analysis
proves to contain 82% fat, the total number of pounds manu-
factured will be 38.925 +82= 47.47 pounds of butter. 47.47 —
40 = 7.47 pounds theoretical overrun, and 7.47 +40 x 100= 18.7%
overrun (theoretical).
CREAMERY CALCULATION. 109
It is evident that the losses of fat will vary according to
the different conditions. The richer the cream, and the less
fat in the whole milk to be skimmed, the more skim-milk there
will be; the thinner the cream, and the more fat there is in
the milk to be skimmed, the less skimmed milk there will be,
and consequently with the same skimming efficiency less fat
will be lost in the skim-milk. The thinner the cream is the
more buttermilk there will be. These conditions must be left
for the operator to govern according to the conditions present.
The actual amount and per cent of overrun as determined
in creameries is calculated as described previously. The
formula is as follows:
_ Butter-fat
fat
<100=per cent of actual overrun.
Calculation of Churn-yield.—Instead of expressing the in-
crease of butter over that of fat in the percentage overrun,
as above, it is often customary among creamerymen to speak
of the ‘‘churn-yield.” For instance, they say that their test
was 3.90, and their churn-yield was 5, meaning that on the
average each 100 pounds of milk contained 3.9 pounds of
fat and yielded 5 pounds of butter. The churn-yield is always
expressed in percentage, and is obtained by dividing the total
pounds of butter obtained by the total pounds of milk from
which the butter was made, according to the following formula:
Pounds of butter
Pounds of milk
< 100 =churn-yield.
In case cream is handled instead of milk, the same may
be obtained by substituting “pounds of cream” for ‘‘ pounds
of milk” in the formula.
Calculation of Dividends.—The method of calculating
dividends will vary according to the agreements between the
manufacturer of the butter and the milk and cream producers.
110 BUPTER-MAKING.
Some manufacturers agree to make the butter for so many
cents per pound of butter (usually 3 or 4 cents). Occasionaliy
the creamery proprietor agrees to pay a final fixed sum for milk
delivered containing a definite amount of fat (usually 4%).
These two methods are not in use much at the present time,
although in the eastern part of the United States the method
of paying the operator so much per pound of butter-fat manu-
factured is quite common.
Fa, 65,—Jeinsen creamery, Barnten Province, Hamburg, Germany,
(Creamery Journal.)
The two methods most commonly used, especially in the
central West, are as follows:
(1) Pay so much per pound of butter-fat based upon some
standard market price, such as Elgin or New York. The
amount paid now by the central plants for butter-fat is usually
2 or 3 cents per pound below “‘New York Extras,” and the
company pays all freight or express charges.
(2) Pay per pound of fat based upon the net income of the
creamery.
CREAMERY CALCULATION. ao
1. The former method of paying for butter-fat has become
quite common. Nearly all the hand-separator or central plants
are paying for butter according to this method. Payments are
usually made every two weeks. Although this causes more
work, it is much more satisfactory to the patrons than to pay
only at the end of each month.
In order to calculate dividends when paid at the end of
two weeks or at the end of each month, the first step is to
find how many pounds of butter-fat have been delivered by
each patron. If composite samples are taken, and_ these
tested for fat at intervals of one week, which would make about
four tests during the month, and two during half a month,
the results of the several tests may be added, and the sum
divided by the number of samples tested. This may give the
average test, but it must be borne in mind that this method
is also likely to give wrong results. Especially is this so
when cream is delivered which varies in quantity as well as
quality during the different parts of the month.
If cream only is being received, it is a good plan to test
each patron’s cream every day, as it is more or less difficult
to get absolutely accurate composite samples from creams of
different richness. Besides this, the patrons can get the test
as well as the weight of the cream of each previous day’s de-
livery, and thus know how their account stands from day to
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158 BUTTER-MAKING.
out another one can be put in. ‘The bearings should be
cleaned at intervals. When kerosene is occasionally used on
the bearings they do not need to be cleaned so often, because
Fia. 94.—Dairy utensils in the battered condition of the can on left and
with tin off in many places inside, cannot be kept clean and should be
discarded. (IXansas State Board of Agriculture Report No. 87, 1903.)
it keeps them from gumming. The machine should be turned
at the proper speed, as indicated in the directions. A thicker
cream will result from rapid turning; consequently more
skimmed milk will be obtained. Slow turning causes ineffi-
cient skimming and thinner cream.
Care of Cream on the Farm.—The first step in the produc-
tion of good cream is clean milking. This can only be accom-
plished when barn, cows, and utensils are clean. It is a good
6ST CTT ‘FS ‘Ne_) “Suryyprea oaojyoq saoppn SMO Suruvopy—GG “YT
‘
160 BUTTER-MAKING.
plan to dampen a cloth, and wipe off the cow’s udder and sides
each time previous to milking. The milker should never
wet his hands while milking. Dust should not be stirred up
in the barn during milking, as the dust particles carry with
them a large number of undesirable germs. When these settle
in milk they are likely to produce taints. If cloth strainers
are used they should be kept scrupulously clean. It is advis-
able not to use them at all, as good sanitary wire-gauze strainers
are inexpensive.
Progeny ofa
single germ in ©
twelve hours
Fia. 96.—Showing the effect of cooling milk on the growth of bacteria. The
beneficial results of early chilling are readily apparent. (Irom Bul. 62,
Wis.)
If these conditions are complied with, and the separator
is kept in a good clean condition, the milk will have compara-
tively few germs in it. Some germs, however, will enter the
milk, and in order to keep them from developing, it is essential
to cool the cream or milk immediately. Low temperature
retards and practically prevents the development of germ life.
Tt is a well-known fact that when milk is kept cool, it will
remain sweet much longer than if kept at a high temperature.
Never mix two milkings or skimmings unless both are well
cooled first. In order to cool cream quickly, it should be
stirred during cooling. The ordinary four-gallon shot-gun cans
are good and suitable for keeping milk and cream. They have
a large cooling surface in proportion to their cubical content.
FARM SEPARATORS. 161
The milk or cream should be cooled as low as the water will
cool it. It is well to cool it even lower than this if ice is ob-
tainable. In keeping milk, the temperature should never go
Tic. 97.—The condition of the cow shown in this cut is favorable for the
accumulation of loose dirt. (Bul. 84, Il.)
above 60° F. Cooling to 50° F., if it can be accomplished, is
much more desirable for keeping milk or cream in good condi-
tion.
162 BUTTER-MAKING.
If considerable milk is handled, it is well to provide a milk-
house. it should be built large enough to contain the sepa-
rator, water-tank, and other utensils necessary for home butter-
TE TREES SS ARLIT cPRRR NR EAT 2717
Fig. 98.—A clean cow. ‘The dirt cannot adhere to this cow to so great an
extent as to the one shown in Fig. 97. (Bul. 84, IIL.)
making, such as a churn and butter-worker. There should be
plenty of windows on all sides to give good ventilation. The
water-tank should be connected directly with the well, so that
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FARM SEPARATORS. 167
the water can be pumped directly to the tank holding the milk
and cream. From this place the water can be run out into
the stock-tank. This arrangement allows the milk to be kept
at the lowest possible temperature.
It is just as essential to cool the milk during the winter
as it is during the summer. By pumping water through this tank
practically all the time, the water in the tank will be kept from
freezing. It is well to keep the surface of the water higher
Fig. 103.—The average weight of dirt which falls from muddy udders dur-
ing milking is ninety times as great as that which falls from the same
udder after washing, and when udders are slightly soiled it is twenty-
two times as great. (Bul. 84, Ill.)
than the surface of the milk in the can. This will prevent the
milk from freezing so easily. If the cold is too severe, a tank-
heater can easily be secured which will moderate the tem-
perature a trifle.
Disposition of the Cream.—There are two ways of disposing
of cream on the farm: (1) selling it to creameries or other
parties, and (2) making it into butter on the farm. The former
method is usually the most advantageous. Creameries, as a
rule, are better equipped to control the quality of butter. The
price per pound of butter-fat is usually about 2 cents below
“New York Extras.” ( OH
CsHs {C3H7CO2 + 3H20 = C3Hs {OH + 3C3H;CO.H
| Cs3H7CO2 | OH
CHAPTER XV.
STARTERS.
Definition.—By the term starter, in cream-ripening, we
understand a medium containing a preponderance of desirable
germs present in a virulent condition.
History.—The use of starters in the dairy industry dates
back a great many years. The fact that starters helped in the
manufacture of dairy products was recognized years ago by
practical men even before scientists recommended the use of
pure cultures. In European dairy countries the use of the
buttermilk borrowed from a neighboring factory to add to the
cream in order to overcome abnormal conditions, was a common
occurrence. In Holland, sour whey borrowed from some other
factory was used to overcome gassy fermentation in cheese-
making. While the reasons for this were not well understood,
the underlying principle was involved, viz., that of overcoming
the undesirable fermentation by adding ferments of an an-
tagonistic kind.
The introduction of pure cultures, or commercial starters,
for cream-ripening dates back to 1890, by Professor Storch.
He recommended their use in creameries in Denmark. Starters
were used in that country for a time successfully, and since
then starters have been introduced and extensively used in
this country, as well as in practically all European countries.
Classification of Starters.—Generally speaking, the different
kinds of starters are included under the names (1) Natural,
and (2) Commercial. The latter is prepared from a pure
culture of bacteria obtained from the laboratory. The former,
or natural, include a great many kinds of dairy products which
216
STARTERS. 217
are supposed to contain a preponderance of those germs which
are involved in the production of desirable flavors in butter.
Buttermilk, sour cream, whey, and sour whole or skim-milk,
are classed under this heading. While all these may be termed
natural starters, and at certain times the use of any one of
them may produce better results than if no starter at all were
used, it 1s not safe to rely upon these to bring about better
results than could be obtained without the use of starters,
because these products are likely to be contaminated in a large
degree with undesirable germs.
Preparation of Natural Starters.——The best natural starter
is usually obtained by selecting a number of different samples
of the best milk coming into the creamery, into cleaned sterile
glass jars. The samples are allowed to stand until sour at
about 70° F. The sample which coagulates into a smooth uni-
form curd, and has a pleasant acid taste and smell is selected
and used as a mother-starter. When inoculated into a large
quantity of selected pasteurized skim-milk, cooled to and kept
at a temperature of about 70° F. until it begins to coagulate,
it will usually produce a starter which is equal, and often
superior, to a commercial starter.
Commercial Starters, or Pure Cultures.—Ixperiments have
amply proved that certain species of bacteria are chiefly re-
sponsible for the butter flavors developed in cream during
ripening. This fact has given rise to the use of pure cultures
prepared in a commercial way. These pure cultures contain,
in a virulent condition, the germs which produce the desirable
flavors and aroma. The cultures are put up in laboratories
specially provided for this kind of work. The germs are iso-
lated and inoculated into a medium which is suitable to their
growth. Some laboratories inoculate them into a liquid medium,
others into a powder medium. The liquid medium consists
usually of sterilized bouillon, or milk. The powder medium
consists chiefly of milk-sugar. The cultures that are put up
in the liquid form will not keep so long, and it is not safe to use
them after they are about nine days old. The cultures which
218 BUTTER-MAKING.
are put up in powder form have the advantage that they can
be kept for a much longer time and still retain their vitality.
Both kinds as a rule are good while they are fresh. We give
below a list of the commercial cultures with which the authors
are familiar:
5S. C. Keith, | Laectie Acid Culture.)
Charlestown, +} Duplex Culture Liquid.
Mass. J) Boston Butter Culture }
O. Douglas, | Boston Butter Culture }
Boston, > Duplex Culture } Liquid.
Mass. J Lactic Acid Culture
Eloc Ericsson, | Eriesson’s Butter Cul- ets
St. Paul, ACREGEE Liquid.
es ure
nN ’ Minn. J
Ameri-
pcs Hansen’s,
Little Falls, } Lactic Ferment Powder.
Caniner Park Davis & Co., [ This culture is put up
oa col Detroit, Flavorone ; in tablet and cap-
eee Mich. | sule forms.
Starters |
Conn’s Culture,
Storr Station, $ Bacillus 41 Liquid.
Conn. |
Blauenfeldt & Danish Lactie Acid :
I'vede, Copen- Se Powder.
| Ferment
yagen, Den.
Hjort & Fog’s
. Lab’tory Cul. |7..-
Foreign Gopenhagen, + Lactic.
Den.
S. P. Storm,
Tillitze, Naks- } Starter.
[ kov, Den.
Preparation of Commercial Starters.—All of the starters
mentioned above have been tested and are known to produce
good results. The first step in the preparation of a mother-
starter (starterline) is to prepare preferably a glass jar or
bottle by thoroughly cleaning and sterilizing it. Glass jars are
used in preference to any other vessel, because if they are un-
clean in any way, it will show through the glass. Secondly,
there are no seams and no places on the inside which will cor-
STARTERS, 219
rode, and in that way retain unnoticeable dirt. Mason jars
and sampling bottles are suitable. The kind of bottle which
is used for marketing milk gives very good results.
The second step consists in selecting suitable milk. The
milk must be in as pure and sweet a condition as possible. A
good starter can be produced from either whole or skim-milk.
Skim-milk, however, is preferable to whole milk. The mis-
take of selecting whole milk for starters has often been made.
The mother-starter prepared from whole milk usually has a
more pleasant, mild, rich taste, due to the fact that it contains
more fat than the starter made from skim-milk. The mother
starter prepared from good skim-milk is preferable, and safer
to rely upon. Efforts should be made towards separating the
starter milk before the rest of the milk has been run through.
If not separated till late during the run of the day, the separator
is filled with slime and bowl-slush, which are lkely to con-
taminate the starter milk. At some creameries, the separation
of the starter milk is accomplished with a small hand sepa-
rator. This, however, is not convenient or practicable at most
creameries. The milk for the starter can be selected and run
through the power separator during the beginning of the run.
It is well not to use the very first milk which passes through
the separator, asit would be likely to contain a greater number
of undesirable germs.
The milk which has been selected for the mother-starter,
or starterline, is then pasteurized. The pasteurization is best
accomplished by the intermittent method. If considerable
milk is to be pasteurized it is best to make use of a clean,
sterilized can. If only a small portion is to be pasteurized,
just enough for the mother-starter, the milk can be put di-
rectly into the jars. The jar half full is about the proper amount
of milk to use. The directions sent with some pure cultures
recommend as much as half a gallon or a whole gallon of milk.
As a rule better results are obtained if only about a pint of
milk is taken. If the milk for the mother-starter is pasteurized
in the glass bottles or jars, then it is advisable to set the bottles
220 BUTTER-MAKING.
containing the milk into cold water,—covering the jar so as
to prevent outside contamination,—-and then heat up the
water gradually. Care should be taken not to insert these
bottles suddenly into scalding hot water, or to let the steam
strike them, for either is likely to crack the bottles. Care
should be taken also to exclude water from milk used for
starters. It is advisable to heat this milk, for the starterline,
as high as possible in scalding water, say up to about 200° F.
The sample may assume a cooked taste, but this will soon
disappear after the starter has been carried on a few days.
The milk should be left at this high temperature for about ten
or fifteen minutes. A longer time does no harm. Then the
milk is gradually cooled to about 80° F. This high temperature
is desirable, because the germs present in the commercial cul-
ture may be somewhat dormant. This high temperature would
tend to revive them more quickly than a lower temperature.
Great care should always be taken to cool the milk previous to
inoculating it with the pure culture, otherwise the germs present
in the pure culture will be destroyed.
Inoculation.—The next step is to inoculate the prepared
milk with the pure culture obtained from the laboratory. The
bottle which contains the pure culture is carefully opened, then
the bottle containing the culture is turned over and emptied
into the pasteurized milk. The bottle should be held down
closely to the mouth of the jar containing the sterile milk, in
order to prevent too much contamination from the air. Then
the milk containing the pure culture is thoroughly stirred and
set away in a room where the temperature is about 70° F.
This will gradually cool the milk from 80° to 70° F., and in
about twenty to forty hours the milk will sour and coagulate.
Germs in nearly all of the liquid cultures are rather slow in
acting upon the milk, undoubtedly due to the dormancy of the
germs, and to a comparatively few of them being present in
the pure culture. When the powdered cultures are used, a
little more care is essential to get the powder thoroughly min-
gled with the milk. It is a trifle more difficult to get the
STARTERS. 221
powder thoroughly mixed with the milk than it is to get the
liquid cultures mixed. If anything is used with which to stir
the sample, it should be sterilized before coming in contact
with the milk. This apples in the preparation of all cultures.
In testing or sampling the mother-starters, nothing should be
allowed to come in contact with it unless it has previously been
thoroughly sterilized. The powder cultures are usually more
vigorous in their effect than most of the liquid cultures now
on the market. The powder cultures usually coagulate the
sample in about twenty-four hours, and if the operator is used
to handling the liquid cultures, he should watch the mother-
starters prepared from powder cultures, so that they do not
get overripe. It is very essential that the starters do not get
overripe. The time when the germs are most numerous and
most active in the starter is about the time when the sample
coagulates. As soon as this stage has been reached, or just
previous to coagulation, the starter should be cooled down to
at least 50° F., or lower if possible This prevents any further
growth of germs and the sample can be kept a short time
without injury.
Directions usually accompany each of the cultures, but the
above will be found to produce good results with all of those
mentioned in the above outline.
By inoculating from 2% to 5% or more of the mother-
starter into a large sample. of pasteurized milk, any desired
amount of starter can be prepared. In selecting this amount
of milk, as much care as possible should be taken in order to
select the best kind of milk, and keep it from being contaminated.
When this large sample of starter is at the proper stage of
coagulation, it should be used at once, or else cooled down to
about 50° F. The amount of mother-starter with which to
inoculate the large sample of starter may vary a little with-
out any bad effects. If the large sample of starter is to be
ready for use in a short time, a larger portion of the mother-
starter can ve used for inoculation. If the temperature at
which the starter is set and the amount of mother-starter used
222 BUTTER-MAKING.
for inoculation are the same from day to day, the starter will
be ripe at nearly the same hour every day, and, consequently,
more uniform ripening results can be obtained. The notice-
able coagulation of the starter when skim-milk is used will
usually take place when there is about .6% of acidity. A
slight coagulation will take place when there is about .5% of
acidity, but it is hardly noticeable. The coagulation-point may
vary with different samples of milk.
If a mother-starter is to be kept any length of time it
should be inoculated into a sample of good fresh pasteurized
“milk about every other day. If a mother-starter, or starter
of any kind, is allowed to stand too long at a low temperature,
the desirable germs will become dormant, and some undesirable
germs will gradually gain a foothold. It is a good plan to
carry any mother-starter along for two or three days before it
is used to inoculate a large sample of milk. When the mother-
starter is first prepared it sometimes contains an undesirable
taste and smell from the medium in which the germs were
put up at the laboratory. This smell and taste is eliminated
by earrying it on two or three days previous to its use.
While the starter, or mother-starter, is in the stage of
ripening it should occasionally be gently stirred. As soon as
coagulation of the milk begins, then starters of any kind should
never be stirred. If a sample of coagulated milk is stirred
before it is ready for use, it is more likely to “whey off.”
Length of Time a Starter Can be Carried.—In this country,
even if special precautions are taken, it seems almost im-
possible to carry on a starter for more than four weeks without
having undesirable ferments enter. The length of time a starter
can be carried undoubtedly depends upon conditions, and the
care with which it has been handled. When a starter is properly
prepared, cooled gradually before coagulation, and not overri-
pened, it will contain a smooth soft curd, and retain its mild acid
flavor for at least a month. The Danes, who use starters in
butter-making more regularly than any other people, are able to
carry a starter along for six months or more without renewing it.
STARTERS. 223
It is a good plan to keep at least two different kinds of
starter by carrying them on from day to day in small quart
jars. Then if one should happen to “go off,’ the other one
can be used instead.
Poor Starters. — Many unsuccessful results from the use of
starters for cream-ripening have been reported. The failure
can be traced to the improper use of starters. If starters are
good they will never bring about poorer results than are ob-
tained without the use of them. Owing to the fact that it is
difficult to keep the same starter in a good condition very
long, many starters are used which develop abnormal fermenta-
tions In cream. A slightly acid, somewhat bitter taste, and a
simy condition of the starter are defects which are very com-
mon. These conditions seem to be brought about chiefly by
overripening it at a high temperature, and keeping it a long
time at a low temperature before using it. Slimy fermenta-
tion is very common in starters which have been carried on
for a time, Whenever this slimy ferment develops in the
starter it can be noticed in the cream and starter both, by the
acid not developing so rapidly as when the proper acid-pro-
ducing ferment is present. It seems almost impossible to
develop any more than about .5% of acidity in 30% cream;
while if the proper ferment were present, about .7°% could be
developed. A decrease in the quality of butter accompanies
the development of this ferment in the cream.
Whenever it is found that a starter is not in as good condi-
tion as it ought to be, it should not be used, as a poor starter
is worse than none at all. The buttermilk from the previous
cream can sometimes be used advantageously until a new
starter can be prepared.
Underripening and Overripening of Starters. — The effect
of overripening starters has already been mentioned under the
“Preparation of Mother-starters.” The question of under-
ripening starters is also of importance. It is a well-known fact
that just about the time when the milk begins to turn sour,
that is, when the sourness can just be recognized by the taste,
224 BUTTER-MAKING.
it has a rather disagreeable flavor. After more acid develops
the undesirable flavor largely disappears, and the milk assumes
a clean, desirable acid taste. The reasons for this has recently
been accounted for by Storch, the well-known authority on
starters. He claims that this disagreeable flavor is due to the
action of undesirable organisms, during the first souring stage.
As the souring progresses these germs are subdued and grad-
ually crowded out by the desirable acid-producing types.
In the preparation of a starter the probabilities are that
some of these undesirable types of germs are present. At least
it is safer to go on the assumption that they are present. This
makes the underripening of starters just as important to guard
against as overripening.
Amount of Starter to Use.—The amount of starter will vary
under different conditions. It may vary from none at all the
as much as 50% of the cream to be ripened. The quality of
cream is one of the factors that needs to be considered. Raw
cream and old cream each require a large starter, especially if
the cream is thick enough so as to permit of being reduced in
thickness. Good pasteurized cream does not need a larger
starter than about 10°% of the cream to be ripened.
The amount of starter to use also depends somewhat upon
the general creamery conditions. In some creameries all the
cream is received in a very sour and poor condition, and facili-
ties for getting milk for preparation of starters are often very
poor. Under such conditions it is questionable whether it
would be profitable to use starters at all. The amount of
starter to use chiefly depends upon the degree of rapidity of
ripening desired, and upon the temperature of the cream. If it
is desirable to ripen quickly, then a comparatively large starter
(15% to 25%) should be added, and the ripening temperature
should be comparatively high (about 80° F.). If slow ripening
is desired, then less starter can be used. Enough, however, should
be used to control the fermentation in the cream (about 10%
to 15%), and the ripening temperature may be lower, between
60° and 70° F. More starter should be used in the winter.
STARTERS. | 225
Use of Starter-cans.—In the past, ordinary tin shot-gun
cans have chiefly been used for the preparation of starters,
and have given good results. Many makers still use such cans
in preference to recently invented starter-cans.
So
Fie. 133.—The Victor Fia. 134.—Emily’s perfection
starter-can. starter-can.
The earliest starter-cans were made of light material and did
not last long. These defects, however, have largely been done
away with, and the use of starter-cans certainly is an improve-
ment over the old method of preparing the starters in several
smaller cans.
These starter-cans are jacketed, so that the temperature can
be controlled by using hot or cold water, or ice, as demanded,
in the jacket. All of the starter-cans have an agitator, which
is operated with a belt.
CHAPTER XVI.
CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER.
Definition.—By churning we understand the agitation of
cream to such an extent as to bring the fat-globules together
into masses of butter of such size as to enable the maker to
separate them from the buttermilk.
The agitation may be brought about in several different
Fic. 135.—Ancient method of churning Fic. 136.—The Dash churn.
in skin bags.
ways, and by different shaped devices, which are called churns.
The methods of churning, like the process of separation, began
with primitive methods. The ancients churned their milk,
without separation, in bags made from the skins of animals.
The next step in advance was to place milk or cream in bottles
or jars, and then to shake them. This latter method of churn-
226
CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 220
ing cream in bottles is yet in use in many of the smaller house-
holds of Europe, where the amount of cream is limited to a
small quantity donated by cow-owners. The next step toward
churning on a large scale was to get a large wooden box or
barrel run by power or by hand. The churns which are in use
at the present time in American butter-factories are termed
“combined churns.” They are so arranged as to admit of
churning, washing, salting, and working without removing the
butter from the churn. This style of churn is now being in-
troduced into Europe. Owing to their superior worth they will
soon be in general use there as well as here. They keep flies
away from the butter during fly time; the temperature of the
butter can be controlled in the churn, and the handling of the
butter during salting and working is obviated.
ConpD:ITIONS AFFECTING THE CHURNABILITY OF CREAM.
Temperature.—The temperature of cream is one of the most
influential factors in determining the churnability of cream.
Fig. 137.—The Dairy Queen combined churn.
The higher the temperature of the cream, the sooner the churn-
ing process will be completed. Too high a churning tempera-
ture, however, is not desirable. It causes the butter to come
in soft lumps instead of in a flaky granular form. This is
deleterious to the quality of the butter. It causes, first, a greasy
texture of the butter, and, secondly, it causes the incorporation
228 BUTTER-M AKING.
in the butter of too much buttermilk. This buttermilk contains
sugar, curd, and water, which, when present together in butter,
are likely to sour and in other ways deteriorate the butter.
Curd and sugar should be excluded from butter as much as
possible, in order to eliminate food for bacteria which may be
present. An excess of curd is also favorable for the forma-
tion of mottles.*
Too low a temperature is also undesirable, although it is
Fic. 138.—The Victor combined churn.
better to have the temperature a little low rather than too high.
When the churning temperature is too low, difficult churning
is likely to occur. Cream at a low temperature becomes more
viscous. On agitation in the churn such cream if it is very
thick will adhere to the sides of the churn and rotate with *t
without agitating; consequently no churning will take place.
Too low a temperature brings the butter in such a firm condi-
tion that it takes up salt with difficulty, and when this hard
butter is being worked, a large portion of the water in the
* Bul. No. 263, Geneva, N. Y.
CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 229
butter is expressed, and the overrun will be lessened to a great
extent without increasing the commercial value of the butter.
The degree of hardness of the fat in the cream is the govern-
ing factor in deciding the churning temperature. The churn-
ing temperature will vary a great deal in different localities.
The hardness of the fat depends upon (1) the season of the year;
(2) the individuality of cow; (3) the stage of lactation period;
Fig. 139.—The Squeezer combined churn.
and (4) the kind of food fed to the cows. All these factors
influence the melting-point of butter-fat. The higher the
melting-point of butter-fat is, the higher the churning tempera-
ture, and the lower the melting-point of the fat, the lower the
churning temperature.
1. During the spring the cows yield milk containing a larger
proportion of soft fats; consequently the churning tempera-
ture is always lower in the spring than in the fall or winter.
During winter, when the cows are fed on dry food chiefly, the
harder fats increase in quantity, and consequently a higher
churning temperature is necessary during that time.
2. Some animals produce milk containing a larger proportion
of softer fats than do other animals. It is said that the differ-
ence in this respect is more marked in certain breeds. It is
maintained that the cows of the Jersey breed produce milk con-
taining a larger proportion of the softer fats than do any of the
other breeds.
3. The period of lactation also affects the melting-point of
butter-fat. When a cow is fresh she yields a larger proportion
230 BUTTER-MAKING.
of the soft fats than she does later on in the lactation period.
With this increase in the proportion of the hard fats in the
advancement of the lactation period, the fat-globules become
smaller. This, together with the increased hardness of the fat,
causes difficult churning at times. It can readily be seen that
the larger the fat-globules are the greater are the chances for
these globules to strike each other during agitation in the
churning process.
4. The nature of the food fed affects the melting-point of
butter to a considerable extent. Cotton-seed and its by-
Fic. 140.—The Disbrow combined churn.
products have been demonstrated thoroughly by several investi-
gators to cause butter to become hard. When a large amount
of cottonseed is fed, the butter assumes a crumbly, tallowy,
hard condition; while linseed meal, and practically all succulent
foods tend to decrease the melting-point of butter-fat.
According to the above it can be concluded that the churning
temperature may vary between wide limits, but the average
desirable churning temperature under normal conditions 1s
CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 231
between 50° and 60° F. Any conditions which tend to harden
the butter-fat will require a comparatively high churning tem-
perature; and any conditions tending to soften the butter-fat
will require a lowering of the churning temperature. The
lower the temperature at which the churning can be success-
fully accomplished, the more complete will be the churning;
that is, the less fat will remain in the buttermilk.
a
Fic. 141.—The Simplex combined churn, with worker detached.
Richness of Cream.—The amount of fat in the cream affects
the churnability of it considerably. The richer the cream the
sooner will be the completion of the churning, that is, providing
the cream is not rich enough to be so thick as to cause the cream
to adhere to the inside of the churn and thus escape being
agitated. If rich cream is churned at a high temperature the
butter will come in a remarkably short time, providing all other
232 BUTTER-MAKING.
conditions are favorable. Thin cream churns much more slowly,
and can be churned at a higher temperature than thick cream,
without injuring the quality of the butter. When rich cream
is churned at a high temperature, and the butter comes in a
short time (about ten minutes), the butter will usually be greasy
in body, and will contain a great deal of buttermilk, which will
be more or less difficult to remove on washing. When thick
cream 1s being churned, the butter does not break in the form
of small round granules, as it does when thin cream is churned.
When thick cream is churned at as high a temperature as is
consistent with getting a good texture, the best results are
obtained. In the first place, rich cream produces less butter-
milk, consequently less fat will be lost in the buttermilk. This
would tend to increase the overrun. Secondly, the breaking
of the butter at the end of the churning will be such as to
cause the granules to appear large and flaky, rather than small
round granules. The more flaky granules of butter will retain
Fic. 142.—The Simplex churn with worker attached.
more moisture than the small, harder granules under the same
treatment. Experiments show that when different thicknesses
of cream (thin cream containing on an average 22% of fat,
and thick cream 36% of fat) are churned, there is a difference
of about 3% in the moisture-content of the butter. The
CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 233
average churning temperatures of cream and wash-water in these
experiments were 56° and 53° F. respectively.
When thick cream is churned, and the temperature is
moderately high, it is almost impossible to churn the butter
into granules. This condition causes butter from thick cream
to contain more moisture than butter from thin cream.
Amount of Cream in Churn.—When the churn is about one-
third full, the greatest degree of agitation is obtained, and con-
) joests Sot |( [)) josstetor (
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ios rere) hic= ° =of ((
1
Fia. 143.—Danish churns and frame for holding them.
sequently a quicker churning. If a small amount of cream is
being churned, it is often difficult to gather the butter properly.
If the cream is thin, the granulesare thrown about in such a
way that they are gathered with difficulty. If the cream is
thick, the small amount of cream will adhere to the inside of the
churn, and in that way delay the completion of the churning.
It is a common opinion that less overrun is obtained from
234 BUTTER-MAKING.
a small churning than from a large churning. It is safe to say
that if it were possible to maintain all conditions alike, especially
as to temperature and degree of churning, there would be no
difference in the moisture-content of the butter made from
churnings of different sizes. When there is only a small amount
in the churn, the atmospheric temperature is likely to raise or
lower the temperature of the cream. If the atmosphere is
warm, then the butter from the small churning is more lkely
to be soft. A small amount of cream in the churn is also more
likely to be overchurned than a larger amount of cream. These
two factors would tend to increase the amount of water in the
butter. In mixing the salt with a comparatively large amount
of butter, less working is necessary. Much of the butter is
mixed in the churn without going through the workers, and con-
sequently less moisture will be expressed from the butter. With
the same number of revolutions of the churn the butter from
the small churning is worked correspondingly more than the
butter from a larger churning. Medium firm butter, to a cer-
tain limit, loses about .2% of moisture for every revolution that
it is overworked in the absence of water.
Degree of Ripeness.—The riper the cream is, all other con-
ditions being the same, the easier it will churn. Sweet cream
is viscous, and consequently the fat-globules will not unite as
readily. The acid developed in the cream seems to cut or
reduce the viscosity of the cream, although it causes it to become
thicker in its consistency. Cream in an advanced stage of
ripening is brittle, so to speak. That is, if a sample of the
properly soured cream is poured from a dipper it will not string
but break off in lumps.
If very thin cream is overripened, the curd is coagulated.
When this thickly coagulated cream is churned, the solid curd
breaks up into small curdy lumps. These small lumps of curd
are likely to incorporate themselves in the body of the butter
and injure its quality, and also its keeping quality. If thin
cream has been overripened, it should be strained well, and
care should be taken not to churn it to such a degree as to
CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 235
unite the granules into lumps before the churn is stopped. By
stopping the churn while the butter is in a granular form, the
most of these curdy specks can be separated from the butter
by copious washing. Some specks are likely to remain in the
butter when the cream is in such a condition, but by following
the above plan enough of the specks can be removed from the
butter so that it will not injure its commercial quality. The
degree of ripeness of cream does not have any effect upon the
Fic. 144.—The churn-room in Trifolium Creamery, Denmark.
composition of the butter, except in increasing the curd con-
tent, as mentioned.
Nature of Agitation.—The nature and degree of agitation of
cream affect the churnability considerably. Many different
kinds of churns are on the market at the present time. The ro-
tary drum-churns, now used almost universally in this country,
are claimed to give the greatest degree of agitation; that is,
providing the churn revolves at a proper rate of speed. If
236 BUTTER-MAKING.
the speed is so great as to cause the cream to be influenced by
the centrifugal force generated, rotating it with the churn,
then no agitation will take place. Consequently the churning
process will be delayed, if not entirely prevented. If the
speed of the churn is too slow, the degree of agitation of
the cream will not be at its maximum, as the cream will tend
to remain at the lowest portion of the churn without being
agitated.
In the old-fashioned dash-churn the cream was not exposed
to much agitation. In Europe the upright barrel-churn with
rotary stirrers inside is mostly used. It takes longer to churn
in this churn than in American churns. However, it gives good
satisfaction.
The proper speed of the combined churn,—that is, the speed
at which the greatest degree of agitation is brought about,—
cannot be given here, as it varies with the different diameters
of the churns. The directions given with the churns from the
manufacturing companies should be followed. So far as known
the quality and composition of butter obtained from churning
at a low speed, and at a rapid speed, do not vary.
Size of Fat-globules.—Cream containing large fat-globules
churns more quickly than cream containing small globules. A
more exhaustive churning can also be obtained from cream
containing mostly large globules. It is, however, impossible
to obtain cream which does not contain any of the small globules.
The minute globules are always difficult to remove from the
serum, whether it be in the churning or in the separation. In
the churning there is a certain force which always tends to hold
the globules in place. This force acts in a correspondingly
greater degree upon the small globules. They are held in
position and move only when the cream is exposed to agitation.
Cream containing larger globules allows them to escape from
their position with greater ease than does cream containing
the minute globules. The globules which are not removed from
the buttermilk during the churning process are largely of the
small type.
LES “UOSAIQ) ‘puvpydog ‘AIMWUBELL) pooMa|Ze]] UL WOOI-UINyYO— GF ‘Oly
238 BUTTER-MAKING.
Straining of Cream.—Before the cream is transferred from
the ripening-vat to the churn it should be strained through a
fine perforated tin strainer. This can be conveniently done
during the changing of the cream from the ripening-vat to the
churn. Special strainers are now manufactured which can
be hooked onto the churn, and the cream can run directly from
the ripening-vat through the strainer into the churn. This
straining of the cream separates all the lumps which are
likely toappear. It also separates any other coarse impurities
which may be present. If these impurities were not sepa-
rated they would probably be embodied in the butter and
cause an unsightly appearance. They would also be likely to
injure the keeping quality of the butter, but this would depend,
of course, upon the character of the impurities.
Fic. 146.—Cream and milk strainer.
Color.—In ordez to maintain a uniform color in the butter
during the different seasons, it is essential that some artificial
color be added at certain times. During the latter part of
May and the fore part of June the butter has a rich yellow
color, which is accepted as the standard color of butter. This
is often referred to as the ‘June color.”
There are several different butter-colors on the market, for
which special merits are claimed. All the colors, so far as
known, are efficient in imparting color to the butter without
materially coloring the buttermilk. A good butter-color should
be a substance which does not impart a bad smell or taste to
the butter. It should possess strong coloring properties, so
that very little of it would have to be added in order to
impart the desirable color. It should not be injurious to health.
CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 239
Some colors are prepared from the fruit of the annato tree,
which grows in the East Indies and South America. The flesh
of this fruit is dissolved in some oil, such as sesame or hemp.
Before any of the proper commercial butter-colors were put
upon the market, extracts of carrots, marigold, saffron, and
annato were used. The yolk of eggs has also been used to
some extent. It is said that carrot-juice is the most healthful
butter-color.
The amount of color to add depends upon the market
requirements, and upon the season of the year. As was men-
tioned before, in June little or no color should be added. As
the summer season advances the amount of color added can be
gradually increased. During winter, while the cows are on
dry feed, the maximum amount of color is generally used. Color
requirements of the butter vary considerably at the same season
of the year. American markets demand a higher color than
European markets. The northern markets desire a hight straw
color, while the southern markets want a deeper color, almost
an orange color. The Jewish trade requires uncolored butter.
In some of the European countries no color is used. The
English market, which is the greatest butter market in the
world, demands butter that has a very light straw color. The
main object in coloring butter is to maintain a uniform color
during the different seasons of the year. The amount of color
to add during the different seasons will usually vary between
none to a trifle over two ounces for every 100 pounds of fat.
The color should be added to the cream before the churn
has been started. If this has not been done, the butter can be
colored by mixing the color with the salt. The salt should
then be well distributed and worked into the butter until the
body of the butter assumes a uniform color. The chief ob-
jection to this method is, that it is difficult to work in the color
thoroughly without injuring the butter.
When to Stop the Churning.— Different makers have various
ways of ascertaining when the churning process has been com-
pleted. Some determine the proper churning stage by the size
240 BUTTER-MAKING.
of granules. Others by the height at which the butter floats
in the buttermilk. Others again depend upon the appearance
of the buttermilk. It is well to let all of these factors influence
the operator in deciding when the churn should be stopped.
Any one of these factors may not be sufficient indication to
insure the proper time to stop.
The size of the granules is the most common factor that
determines the time when the churn should be stopped. It
has been a general rule in the past to stop the churning when
the granules are a little larger than wheat-kernels. As a rule
it is safer to carry the churning on a little further until the
granules increase to the size of corn-kernels, irregular and
flaky in shape. At this stage the buttermilk will usually appear
bluish in color, and the butter is raised above the buttermilk
a considerable distance. When the butter is churned to too
small granules, many of them will go through the strainer into
the buttermilk, and cause a considerable loss. When butter
in such shape is washed in medium-cold wash-water, the granules
continue to remain in a separate state. When salt is added,
the moisture is extracted from them, and the water is likely
to be caught in holes and crevices during the working and
cause leaky butter. If the churning is carried on a little further,
the granules will not escape into the buttermilk. The churn-
ing is more complete, and the moisture will be incorporated in
a better condition.
Overchurning should be avoided as much as underchurning.
If butter is overchurned in the buttermilk, it will retain a
large amount of the buttermilk, which will be very difficult
to remove by washing. Overchurning butter, especially at a
medium-high temperature, is very effective in increasing the
moisture-content of butter, and should be guarded against for
that reason. Butter containing more than 16% water is not
permissible on the American market.
When cream is in a poor condition it should not be over-
churned, as the incorporation of buttermilk produces a very
rank and unclean flavor in the butter. Cream in such condi-
CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 241
tion also contains many undesirable germs, which, when in-
corporated into the butter, will cause it to deteriorate to a great
extent. When the cream is in poor condition, the churn should
be stopped as early as is consistent with the completeness of
churning. The buttermilk should be removed and the butter
washed thoroughly in good clean and pure wash-water. If
Fig. 147.—Butter from 1 lb. of fat in cylinders, showing the effect of differ-
ent percentages of water upon quantity. The water-content of these
samples ranges between 8% and 19%.
the wash-water is added while the butter is in this granular
condition, the buttermilk can be very effectively removed.
If one washing is not sufficient, wash three or four times. In
such a case the temperature should be low. If the temperature
of the wash-water is high, and the butter is washed excessively,
it will contain too much moisture when it is finished, and is
likely to be salvy. By washing with water at a low temperature
the butter will not incorporate so much water. What it does
242
BUTTER-MAKING.
Fie. 148.—Butter sample, Fig. 149.—Butter sample,
15.61% water. 15.31% water.
Fie. 150.—Butter sample, 13.37% water; leaky, 2% brine.
Microscopical views showing condition of water in butter. Fig. 148 shows that
the water has been incorporated in the form of very minute particles.
Storch found from nine million to sixteen million water particles per
cubic millimeter. Such butter appears dry and a little dull. Fig. 149
shows the water incorporated in medium-small particles. There was
on an average three and three-fifths millions of water particles per cubic
millimeter in such butter. Fig. 150 shows condition of water in leaky
butter. Storch found about two and one-half million water particles
per cubic millimeter in butter having such a body. (Views by
Storch.)
CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 243
incorporate in excess, will, as a rule, be expressed during the
working of the butter—a result due to its firmness.
If the attempt is made to incorporate water by working
the butter in water after the salt has been added, while the
butter isin a hard, granular condition, it will usually appear
leaky.
If cream is in a good condition, overchurning to a small
extent does not produce any bad results. The germs which
are present in pure and well-ripened cream are not deleterious
to the keeping quality of the butter. The amount of butter-
milk incorporated in the butter is not sufficient to cause any
bad effects upon its quality. If the cream is in proper condi-
tion it is difficult to incorporate any more than 3% of curd
into the butter. While overchurning is not to be recommended,
if it is at any time desirable, it should be done in the wash-
water rather than in the buttermilk.
Churning Mixed, Sweet, and Sour Cream.— When two lots of
cream are to be churned, one sweet and the other sour, they
should be churned separately. If the two lots of cream are
mixed together, the sour cream churns more quickly than the
sweet cream. As a consequence the churn is likely to be
stopped before the fat from the sweet cream has been com-
pletely separated from the serum.
At some of the creameries conditions are such that the
operator may be tempted to mix the two lots of cream. Where
sweet cream arrives at the creamery just previous to churning
time, it 1s advisable not to mix the sweet cream with the sour.
It is, as a rule, better to carry the sweet cream over to the
next’ churning, or, if necessary, churn it separately.
Difficult Churning.—-Difficult churnings in creameries are
not very common. In farm butter-making it is more frequent.
Especially is this so in the fall. At this time the cows are
usually well advanced in the period of lactation, and early in
the winter they are often fed on food which causes hard butter-
fat, as described under ‘Effect of Food upon Fat.’ In the
fall or early winter, a large portion of the milk is usually obtained
244 BUTTER-MAKING.
from strippers, or cows almost dried up. Such milk contains a
large portion of the small fat-globules. Difficult churning
resulting from such conditions can usually be remedied by
ripening to a higher degree of acidity and churning the cream
at a higher temperature.
Complaints are occasionally heard of difficult churning
which cannot be remedied by such treatment. Sometimes
cream froths, and will not agitate in the churn. Such a frothy
condition has in some cases been found to occur even though
the cream may seem to be in an ideal condition for churning.
It is believed by some, notably Hertz, that such a condition in
the cream is brought about by a disease of the cow. Weigman
has studied and isolated a ferment which caused a soapy condi-
tion of milk and cream. It is possible that such exceedingly
difficult cases in churning may be due to a disease of the cow,
and it may also be due to certain ferments that produce a soapy
condition of the cream.
If thick cream at a very low temperature is put into the
churn, it sometimes produces difficult churning. When such
cream is first agitated in the churn it incorporates considerable
air. This air, together with the various gases developed at a
low temperature does not readily escape. The viscosity of
it is so great that it will not release the air present. As a
consequence it assumes a stiff consistency, much the same as
the beaten white of an egg. If cream froths in the churn as
mentioned, a little warm water thrown on the outside of the
churn will often start the agitation of the cream within. If
a combined churn is used the rollers may be put in gear, and
the churn revolved in slow gear. This will often start the
cream to agitate. If these two remedies are not sufficient, a
little water, luke-warm if necessary, may be added directly to the
cream. By letting the churn stand a short time, the cream will
usually condense into a liquid form again, and many times the
churning process can then be completed. This latter method, how-
ever, usually requires more time than can be profitably spared.
If the churning difficulty is of a serious nature the remedies are:
CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 245
(1) If produced by a certain cow, or herd, find out whether
it is produced by a fermentative process, or by other abnormal
conditions of the cow.
(2) Change the food of the cow. A succulent food will
usually cause the cow to secrete more milk, and of a different
nature.
(3) If produced by a ferment, endeavor to control the fer-
mentation as previously described.
(4) Ripen the cream to a higher degree of acidity.
(5) Skim thicker cream and churn at a higher tempera-
ture.
The last three methods will cure most cases of difficult
churnings.
Keeping Churn Sweet.—It has been mentioned before that
butter absorbs foreign odors very readily. If the churn is not
kept in a pure, sweet condition, the butter will be exposed to
the undesirable odors and its commercial quality will be im-
paired. The best butter cannot be produced in a foul-smelling
churn. As churns often are not used every day, they very
readily assume this impure condition, and it is essential that
special care be taken in keeping them clean.
The best method of keeping churns in good condition is to
rinse the churn in two sets of water at the end of each churn-
ing. The first rinsing should be made with lukewarm water,
the second with scalding hot water. Some prefer to turn the
churn over with mouth down. Others prefer to allow the
cover-hole to turn up. When the churn is turned with the
cover-hole down, the remaining steam on the inside of the
churn will not escape. It will condense inside of the churn,
and cause the churn to remain in a damp condition over night
or even longer. By turning the churn with the cover-hole up
the dust and other impurities, if present, are likely to settle
into the churn. A good way is to turn the churn over so that
the cover-hole points to one side. The churn should be thor-
oughly drained first, otherwise some water will remain in the
bottom of the churn. When the churn is left with the cover-
246 BUTTER-MAKING.
hole at one side, the steam can escape, and the heat absorbed
from the wash-water will dry the churn thoroughly. Many
makers rinse the churn only once and use scalding hot water.
This method is likely to scald the remaining curd on to the
wood; secondly, one rinsing is not enough to insure a clean churn.
The first rinsing with lukewarm water removes the major por-
tion of the buttermilk and brine, and to a certain extent warms
the wood of the churn, so that when the second rinsing with
scalding hot water is completed, the churn has been thoroughly
scalded. In addition, the churn is clean, and no food left, on
which for germs to thrive. The churn is also left warm, and in
that condition will dry quickly.
Some makers prefer to keep the churn in a good condition
by sprinkling salt on the inside after washing. ‘This is not to
be recommended, as all churns contain more or less iron-ware
on the inside. Salt, while a good germicide, causes the forma-
tion of rust on all iron with which it comes in contact. After
a time this rust will scale off to a certain extent and become
incorporated with the butter.
If the churn is treated daily in the manner described above
and then at the end of the week treated with slacked lime, the
churn can be kept in a good sweet condition. The lime should
be freshly slacked and in a liquid condition when put in the
churn. A pailful or two of this fluid will be sufficient for each
churn. By rotating the churn a few times the lime will be
spread all over the inside of the churn. Let the churn remain
in this condition until ready for use again. When ready for
use, put In some warm water, and the lime will readily come
off. But if it has been allowed to remain in the churn too
long, it will form a lime carbonate, and will be more difficult
to remove.
Lime is one of the best disinfectants and deodorizers that
can be used in a creamery. Some of the best butter-makers
use 1t every day on all the wooden utensils, such as on butter-
workers, churns, ete. Lime can be used more advantageously
CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 247
in American creameries than it is to-day. Many creameries
would be in a much sweeter and purer condition if they were
given a good coat of whitewash on the inside once a month.
Refrigerators, wooden utensils, and rooms of any kind ean be
kept in a good sweet and pure condition by whitewashing or
sprinkling a little lime on them.
WASHING or BUTTER.
Purpose of Washing.—The chief object of washing butter is
to remove as much buttermilk as possible. The more impure
the cream is, the greater is the importance of getting the butter
thoroughly washed. In the winter, when it is cold, and the
cream is in good condition, some makers do not wash the
butter at all. But this is not a safe method. The removal
of the buttermilk constituents should be as complete as con-
ditions will permit.
Temperature of Wash-water.——The temperature of wash-
water should be as nearly like that of the cream when churned
as is consistent with the other conditions. Extreme and rapid
changes in temperature should always be avoided. Occasionally
it is necessary to use water that is colder than the cream. At
other times it is necessary to use wash-water at a higher tem-
perature than that of the cream. If the butter churns soft,
do not use ice-cold wash-water to chill the butter, as it has a
tendency to give buttera tallowy appearance. Neither should
hard butter be quickly softened by using wash-water at a very
high temperature, as it is likely to cause the butter to assume
a greasy and slushy texture. If it is necessary to change the
degree of hardness of the butter, change it gradually by using
water at a moderate temperature and allowing the butter to
be in contact with it a longer time without agitating it much.
Unless the butter is of very poor quality, excessive washing
should be avoided. Cold water is said to absorb a considerable
portion of the flavoring substances. If the quality of the
butter is poor, many of the undesirable flavors and odors are re-
248 BUTTER-MAKING.
moved by excessive washing; while if the butter has a fine, rich
flavor, it should be retained, and not extracted by washing
the butter more than is needed. No definite temperature can
be given, as the temperature of wash-water must vary accord-
ing to the hardness of the butter when churned.
If the temperature of the wash-water is too high, and the
churning in the wash-water is continued a very long time, much
water will be incorporated in the butter. If the butter is quite
firm in the first place, and the temperature of the wash-water
is not above 60° F., there is not much danger of getting too
much water in the butter. Rapid changes in the degree of
hardness of the butter in the presence of water are conducive
to a high moisture-content. Very soft butter chilled in very
cold water, and hard butter softened in very warm wash-water
are two conditions which should be avoided.
Kind of Wash-water to Use.—In the washing of butter,
it is very essential that water used should be the best obtain-
able. The creamery water-supply is evidently much_ better
now than it was years ago. Pond-wells and shallow wells are
gradually passing out of existence, but there are yet many
shallow wells from which water is drawn for creamery purposes.
Water from wells may appear to be pure, and yet contain
germs which are deleterious to dairy products, and especially
to the keeping quality of butter. That water of average purity
contains such germs has been demonstrated in this country,
as well as in foreign countries. Shallow well-water contains
on an average about 15,000 germs per cubic centimeter, but
Miquel has found that a rapid power of multiplication charac-
terizes the bacteria in pure spring-water, while in impure water
the multiplication is slower. Water containing only this many
germs is, as a rule, considered very pure. Most creameries,
however, pump their water into a tank overhead in the creamery,
where it is contaminated with bacteria and impurities of different
kinds.
Shallow wells are usually surrounded with conditions which
do not guarantee a creamery pure water during the different
CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 249
seasons of the year. In the spring, when rains are frequent
and heavy, unwholesome surface-water is likely to seep in
through the sides. Such wells may also serve as traps for
small animals. The presence of an animal in the well is sure
Gn
‘Su t Za f
RIAISS—
BRL AV LT,
ORME
on Zz “tt ww
“4 = DRO. WS
tH <7
Fda Wit :
SR aS
WS
Wy
ile
:
WS
= al+
"ARP
h
Fig. 151.—The shallow barnyard well with privy-vault and manure heaps
near by. The water is likely to be contaminated from these any time.
(Farmer’s Bul. No. 43, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
to cause undesirable odors and a multitude of undesirable and
putrefactive organisms.
Water from deeply drilled wells, even if it is pure in so far
asits germ-content is concerned, is in many cases turbid and
sandy, and needs to go through a process of purification as much
as does the shallow well-water.
250 BUTTER-MAKING.
MeEtTHoDs oF PURIFYING WASH-WATER.
There are two practical and effective methods of purifying
wash-water, viz., (1) Filtration, and (2) Pasteurization. Which
of these two methods is the most practicable and the most
effective in the creamery depends upon the conditions and
upor the quality of the water. In the case of water from deep
wells, which contains little or no organic matter, but at the
same time is infested with undesirable germs, pasteurization
is perhaps more expedient. Filtration, if the same degree of
thoroughness is to be reached as in pasteurization, is a com-
paratively slow process. Pasteurization of wash-water is a
trifle more expensive than filtration. Wash-water can be
pasteurized at the same time that the churning is being done,
thus economizing in time and fuel. Pasteurization is quite
effective in rendering the water germ-free, but it is not so
effective in removing any organic matter or other tangible
impurities which may be present. If the creamery does not
already have a pasteurizer, filtration can be employed very
profitably, and under average conditions it will perhaps give
the best results.
Filtration.—Filtration is inexpensive, and is a very efficient
method of purifying wash-water. It seems strange that bacteria
ean be removed from water by passing through layers of sand,
eravel, coke, and charcoal, but such is the case. Filtration
is applicable to all kinds of water; even if the water appears
pure, it is well to filter it. Fewer germs and fewer varieties
of micro-organisms are apparently found in deep well-water
than is the case in water from surface-wells; hence the ferments
which are present will have a free field for developing in the
absence of competing forms. If a sample of water which is
rich in micro-organisms is violently shaken with a certain amount
of charcoal, coke, chalk, or similar substances, and then left
for a time to settle, the pure layer of water at the top will be
almost entirely free from germs, and in some cases entirely
CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 251
sterile. It used to be thought by older German investigators
that these different filtering substances had almost miraculous
power of removing organisms from water.
The factors which are to be considered in successful filtra-
tion are:
(1) Storage capacity for unfiltered water.
(2) Construction of filter-beds.
(3) Rate of filtration.
(4) Renewal of filter-beds.
(1) Concerning the storage capacity, nearly all creameries
have storage-tanks overhead in the creamery; so far as that
is concerned, however, filtration can be successfully carried on
continuously as well as intermittently.
(2) The construction of the filter-bed used in the experi-
ment carried on at the Iowa Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa,
is as shown in Fig. 153. The approximate proportionate
depth of each layer in the bed is as follows, beginning at
the bottom:
Two inches small flint stones; 22 inches fine sand; 12
inches fine coke; 9 inches charcoal; 2 inches fine stone or coarse
gravel. The layer of fine sand should not be less than 15 inches.
It has been asserted that a few pieces of old iron mixed in
the filter-bed are beneficial. Alum, lime, and copperas have
been recommended for clarifying and deodorizing very impure
water. Asthese substancesare soluble they should not be used
in filter-beds, which are intended for the filtration of water
for potable purposes. The filtering-can was made from 22
galvanized iron. The height of can is 48 inches; diameter,
18 inches. The bottom of the can is slanting towards the
faucet, or opening. Thus no water is permitted to stand on
the bottom and afford opportunities for germs to accumulate.
On the inside are three plates. One lies horizontally, near the
bottom, and upon it the filtering-material rests. Another lies
on the top of the fine sand. Both of these plates were per-
forated with many small holes. Near the top is placed a
concave plate with a hole near the center. This plate directs
252 BUTTER-MAKING.
all the water to the center of the filter-bed, and thus the water
gets the full benefit of the filtering process. The total cost of
this filtering-can when complete was $11.11.
Charcoal
Fine sand
Gravel @ 20202
0058008 wre
OB Wacese®
: ofso
Coarse gravel SozssSo0s ‘a
Fic. 152. Fia. 153.
Fic. 152.—Filter-can: 1, overflow; 2, inlet of tap-water; 3, outlet of filtered
water.
Fie. 153.—Cross-section of filter-bed and can: 1, overflow; 2, inlet; 3, out-
let of filtered water; 4, perforated galvanized-iron plate; 5, perforated
galvanized-iron plate; 6, concave galvanized-iron plate with hole in
center.
(3) The rate of filtration is necessarily governed by the
depth of the filter-bed, the character of the material used, and
its fineness. The water passes through the charcoal, coke,
and gravel quite rapidly, yet the substances are very strong
barriers to the passage of micro-organisms. The sand layer
does not admit of so rapid filtration. Fine sand, however, is
one of the best filtering substances that can be had. The rate
of filtration can be regulated by increasing or decreasing the
CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 253
depth of the fine-sand layer. In a general way, the slower the
rate of filtration is, the more thorough it is; and, vice versa, the
more rapid the rate of filtration, the more incomplete is the
removal of the bacteria. If the filter-bed is constructed as
described above, the rate of filtration will be about 18 gallons
per hour, and about 96% of all the germs present will be removed,
together with the impurities present in suspension.
(4) The filter used at the Iowa Experiment Station was in
constant use for about three months, without having been
changed. At the end of this time it did as efficient work as
at any previous time. The length of time a filter-bed can be
used without being changed depends upon the purity of the
water to be filtered, and also upon which kind of filtration is
used, the continuous or the intermittent. The more impure
the water which has to be filtered, the oftener the filter-bed
should be changed. Whenever the rate of filtration is decreased
to such an extent as to make the process impracticable, the
filter-bed should be taken out and cleaned. If the water
to be filtered is of average purity, a change of the filtering-mate-
rial once every four months is ordinarily sufficient, no matter
whether continuous or intermittent filtration is used. A
filter-bed may do efficient work even a longer time than this.
The same filtering-material can be used again providing it is
thoroughly washed previous to replacing it in the filtering-can.
Kinds of Filtration.—The two kinds of filtration in use are
(1) Continuous, and (2) Intermittent.
By the continuous method of filtration the inflow of water
into the can is constant during night and day. The stream of
water admitted into the filter-can is sufficient to cause the
surface of the filter-bed to be covered with water all the time.
This method excludes all oxygen from the filter-bed, except
that which is in solution in the water.
During the process of filtration a slimy coat is deposited
on the fine sand. This seems to be the real agent absolutely
necessary in order to eliminate bacteria by a process of filtra-
tion. A filter-bed without this slimy deposit on it simply takes
2.54 BUTTER-MAKING.
out the coarse organic and inorganic matter held in suspension,
without removing the bacteria. If some bacteria are removed
with the matter held in suspension, others are carried along
from the filter-bed. Owing to this, a new filter-bed must be
kept in operation a few days before the filtered water can be
considered pure and ready for use. The following table illus-
trates how the germ-content of water is decreased as the process
of filtration is carried on during the first few days:
Filtered Unfiltered
Water, Tap-water,
Germs per Germs per
C..G. cz cs
No.1. Taken when filter-bed was first used......... 20,000 107
eee oe a o had worked 1 day... .. 860 118
UG aye UG ue Cee ec avs 370 96
(sf5 4 be 66 ce 66 (F14 5 m3 4S 54
“e 5 6é 6¢ (a4 bc ce 7 ce 3 73
66 6 é¢ 66 66 (a9 ce 9 a? 5 S9
It will be seen from the table that during the first three
days the filter-bed was in use the filtered water contained more
germs than the unfiltered. Good results were not obtained
until the seventh day. In order to be on the safe side it is
best to expose the filter-bed to continuous filtration for about
nine days before the water is used.
The slimy coat referred to above is formed by certain germs.
These germs then constitute the real agent of filtration. In
order for these micro-organisms to do efficient work oxygen
is essential. Well-water of average purity contains enough
oxygen in solution without employing an intermittent process of
filtration, and consequently for creamery purposes the con-
tinuous method of filtration is to be recommended.
Intermittent.—The intermittent process of filtration is used
where comparatively impure water is being purified, such as
in purifying water for large cities. If the continuous process
of filtration were employed in such instances, the filtered
water would not be free from germs, due to the fact that impure
river-water does not carry enough oxygen in solution to supply
the germs which form the real filtering agency.
CHURNING AND WASHING BUTTER. 255
If the intermittent process is used, the first water filtered
_after the intervening period should not be used. During the
intermission, or during the time that the water is shut off,
germs develop and come through the filter-bed with the water
that is filtered.
Advantages of Purifying Wash-water for Butter.—The chief
advantage of purifying wash-water for butter is that the keeping
quality of the butter is improved, and if the proper skill and
care have been applied in the other steps of manufacture, a pure
sanitary product is obtained. The sanitary efficiency reached
by purifying the wash-water constitutes no small consideration.
Germs producing contagious diseases are thus checked from
spreading.
CHAPTER XVII.
SALTING AND WORKING OF BUTTER.
Objects of Salting.—-The chief objects of salting are: (1)
to impart a desirable flavor; (2) to increase the keeping quality
of butter; and (3) to facilitate the removal of buttermilk.
Amount of Salt to Use to Produce Proper Flavor.—The proper
amount of salt to use in order to impart a desirable flavor
depends chiefly upon the market. Some consumers prefer a
medium high salt-content in butter; others, again, like butter
which contains very little salt. The English market demands
rather light-salted butter. In fact, this is the case with prac-
tically all European markets. American markets, as a rule,
demand comparatively high-salted butter, as much as will
properly dissolve in the butter. Parisian markets and some
markets in southern Germany require no salt in it at all. The
salt-content of butter may vary between nothing and 4%.
Butter containing as much as 4% salt is, as a rule, too highly
salted. When it contains this much salt, part of the salt is
usually present in an undissolved condition. Those who like
good butter prefer butter that contains the salt thoroughly
dissolved and well distributed.
The amount of salt to be added should be based upon the
least variable factor. Some creamerymen measure the amount
of salt according to the amount of cream in the churn. While
the box-churn and Mason butter-worker were being used, many
~ makers preferred to weigh the butter as it was transferred from
the churn to the worker. The method mostly in use now, and to
be recommended, is to base the amount of salt upon the number
of pounds of fat. The amount of salt to use per pound of fat
256
SALTING AND WORKING OF BUTTER. 257
varies, therefore, according to the conditions mentioned below,
and also according to local conditions. Usually from half
an ounce to one and a half ounces of salt per pound of butter-
fat is most suitable. In whole-milk creameries the salt is
often estimated per hundredweight or per thousand pounds of
milk.
To get the butter salted uniformly from day to day is very
important, as a small variation in the salt-content has a greater
effect upon the quality of butter than has a small variation
in any of the other butter constituents. A variation of 1%
to 2% in the salt-content can very easily be detected by the
consumer, while that much variation in any one of the other
constituents could not be readily noticed.
The conditions upon which the proper amount of salt
depend are: First, the amount and condition of moisture in
the butter at the time the salt is added. If there is a great
deal of loose moisture in the butter, more salt is necessary.
This is due to the fact that the salt will go into solution in the
water and be expressed during working. Secondly, it depends
upon the amount of working the butter receives, and at what
time the bulk of working is done, after the salt has been added.
If the butter is medium firm, moisture in the form of brine
is being expressed during the working. Consequently, the more
butter is worked, up to a certain limit, the more brine is being
expressed, and the more salt should be added to the butter.
Thirdly, the amount of salt to add depends also upon the size
of the butter granules at the time the salt is being added, and
the hardness and softness of the butter. If the granules are
very small and quite hard, they take salt with difficulty. The
salt attracts also more moisture from these small granules than
from larger ones, which will escape in the form of brine.
If the butter is present in a rather soft, lumpy condition at
the time the salt is added, and there is no water in the churn,
very little salt is wasted in the form of brine, consequently
less salt is necessary in the first place.
It is undoubtedly due to these facts that the salt-content
258 BUTTER-MAKING.
and the condition of salt in butter vary so much at the different
creameries; they even vary considerably from one churning
to another at the same creamery. If conditions are uniform
in the creamery from day to day, the amount of salt to add
to butter, and the amount of salt retained in the butter when
finished, will be comparatively uniform. :
It should be mentioned in this connection that butter made
from very good cream should not be salted too heavily. Butter
made from a rather poor quality of cream may be salted corre-
spondingly heavier. This is due to the fact that the heavy
salty taste covers some of the undesirable flavors in the butter.
If the butter-flavors are good, they should not be hidden by
a heavy salty taste. If the butter-flavors are poor, then it
may be policy to partially cover them up with a medium-heavy
salty flavor.
Effects of Salt upon Keeping Properties.—That salt is anti-
septic is no longer a doubt. It has been domonstrated in
laboratory work with butter that the growth of certain germs,
isolated from butter, can be completely checked by the addi-
tion of a certain amount of salt to the medium in which they
are inoculated. Bouska* found that a yeast isolated from
butter showed luxuriant growth in a medium containing 2%
of salt in forty-eight hours, and only a trace in 4% of salt.
The same germ showed only a trace of growth in a 6% salt
medium after five days.
The ordinary bread-mould, Penicillium glaucwm, was 1so-
lated from butter and showed noticeable growth in a 9% salt
medium in two days, and only a trace in a 10% solution during
the same time.
——_
Folded.
Fic. 169.—The Eureka hand WiC alg Buttercartonss
butter-printer.
In the preparation of the tubs, many of these woody odors
are eliminated, but 1t is impossible to remove all of them. The
heat when applied to the tub opens up the pores of the wood
and causes the volatile woody odors to pass off with the escaping
steam. When the wood is removed from the influence of the
steam, the pores again close, or contract, and in that way most
of the woody odors are removed, at least from the inner surface
of the tub. The remaining woody odors should not be allowed
to circulate inwardly through the butter by allowing empty
spaces inside the tub. The top surface of the butter can
be made to appear smooth and full by filling the tub a little
more than full of butter, and then cutting the excessive amount
of butter off with a string. The extra butter can then be rolled
off, and the top appear perfectly smooth and full.
PACKING AND MARKETING BUTTER. 275
The surface of the tubs should be neatly finished by pleating
the lining of the tub over onto the top of the butter. The
lining should not be allowed to lap over any more than about
an inch. A cloth circle should then be neatly put on. A
Fia. 162.—Tub-fasteners; common tins.
handful of salt sprinkled on the top of this circle is advisable.
A little water may be sprinkled on to cause the salt to become
wet. Some butter-makers prefer an additional paper circle
on top of the salt again.
Fie. 163.—Tub-fasteners; tin and tack combined.
Packing Butter for Exhibition Purposes.—-In case butter is
to be opened and scored several times, it is advisable to use paper
circles instead of cloth cireles. Cloth circles give a much better
appearance when the tubs are not to be opened often, but they
Fie. 164.—Tub-fasteners; riveted.
are difficult to readjust after they have been taken out of posi
tion, while the paper circle can be taken off and replaced as
often as desired. This applies especially to butter entered
for scoring contests, where the keeping quality of butter has
to be tested also. Twenty-pound ash tubs are generally used
for exhibition purposes. Ash tubs take a little better finish
276 BUTTER-MAKING.
than do spruce tubs. Sandpapering the tubs on the outside
gives a nice appearance. -
, '9" Bel s
TO oS UN 23 X 30 zl a
o|
a
|
PLATFORM
N
em FLOOR PLA
Fig. 169.—Plan of a creamery. Scale, 3/’=1’. Floor plan. (Bul
. 53, Montana.)
FUEL ROOM
280
BUTTER-MAKING.
creamery Making nearly half a million pounds of butter from
whole milk exclusively. The approximate average cost of mak-
ing butter for the whole State of Iowa in the whole-milk cream-
eries is about 24 cents per pound.
As the creameries produce
on an average about 150,000 pounds of butter per year, the
running expenses of the average creamery are approximately
$2350.00 per year.
The following table will show the variation in cost of pro-
duction per pound of butter:
A , : , No. Jost
Class. Creamery Cost of Manufacturing a Pound of Butter. Reported: coe
1 Creameries making no more than 50,000 Ibs. of
PUGLOT sy se siecot acetal Wan tae icaty nee ema v| een 3.14
2 |Creameries making between 50,000 and 100,000
libs: cofbutters Gyms aneeet a en ae aucune 98 2.36
3 | Creameries making between 100,000 and 150,000
llbstvofitloutterk ea. ces esis wera a een moe Ere 55 1.99
4 Creameries making between 150,000 and 200,000
Iibs(cofeloutterwe peers erga ee eee 28 1.78
5 |Creameries making between 200,000 and 300,000
Ibs Of bit ber. ne Ok Sac a cites crenata 2th ikezal
Average Orble; Stalewss rreeitaiucets berries 253 2.28
Average) foriclasses!27and (3 tas yy as ode ee 154 2.22
CHAPTER XIX.
COMPOSITION OF BUTTER.
BuTrer is composed of fat, water, proteids, milk-sugar,
ash, and salt. The milk-sugar and ash are. present in butter
only to a very small extent. In the analysis of butter the
milk-sugar is usually included with the proteids (curd), and
the ash is reckoned in with the salt.
Storch gives the following average composition of butter:
From From
Fresh Cream. Ripened Cream.
Ta Uremic zaes ir epee hee ae 83.75 82297
AV ese Teeter ys) metic ene 13.08 13.78
Rroterdsa(Curd)eer wets .64 84
MU CCU ma ane eis stacct alee sialoas 30 .39
J NG) dl esacoh eRe ln eel ar Rene 14 ALG
SOU eae eo tee tees Ane os 2.09 1.86
The average composition of butter as determined from the
analysis of 221 samples, representing 55 different creameries
in different parts of the State of Iowa, is as follows:
Des eamitee ere ean Git Se or ee ance n Soa te a), 84
NSIT oA Ait alah ar ee en i coe aia rome Oh eee ees
(CHUTE iM Sores ie nr ea ea aC 1.30
DaliGeeamMcleas tes weer dpe eather ns ei cae iO
EFFEcT OF CoMposiITION oF BuTrER Upon QUALITY.
The quality of cream or milk from which the butter has been
produced and the methods employed in the manufacture have
more effect upon the quality of butter than has the composi-
281
282 BUTTER-MAKING.
tion. A small variation in the components of butter affects
the quality very little, provided the butter has been properly
made, and the components properly incorporated. In the
same creamery the composition of butter varies according to
the season of the year, from day to day, and even from one
churning to another. According to the present methods of
manufacture, water, salt, and fat are the components most
likely to vary. Casein varies very little.
Curd and Sugar.—Occasionally the curd-content may go as
high as 4%. It rarely exceeds 2%, and seldom falls below .5
of 1%. A high curd-content will show itself in the butter in
the form of a milky brine, or in the form of white specks. If
there is less than 2% of curd present in the butter, the brine
shows no noticeable milkiness. More than that much curd
ean, as a rule, be detected from the color of the brine.
If the casein or the curd has been incorporated in the form
of small lumps or specks, then abnormal amounts of curd
appear. When the sample of butter is taken for analysis, such
a speck of curd present in the sample raises the final curd-con-
tent to a comparatively high figure.
As has been mentioned before, the curd and milk-sugar are
incorporated from the buttermilk into the butter during the
churning. In manufacturing butter for storage, these sub-
stances should be excluded from the butter as thoroughly as
possible. The milk-sugar and albuminoids constitute the chief
food for bacterial growth. As the deterioration of butter has
been demonstrated to be due chiefly to the action of organisms,
it becomes essential to restrain their growth as much as possible
by excluding food necessary for their growth.
Salt.—In the chapter discussing the salting of butter, 1t was
mentioned that a small increase or decrease in the salt-content
of butter ean be recognized by most consumers, while the same
variation in the other constituents cannot be noticed so easily.
The average salt-content of butter is about 2%. As the amount
of salt properly dissolved in butter depends upon the amount
of water present, the first important step in controlling the salt-
COMPOSITION OF BUTTER. 283
eontent is to have reasonable control of the water-content of
the butter. If there is no more than 16% of water present in
the butter, it is desirable to have as much salt in as the water
will dissolve within the time usually allotted for that purpose.
This much salt suits most of the
American butter markets. The
authors have analyzed commercial
butter containing more than 8% salt.
The major portion of this was present
in an undissolved condition. Such
butter is called gritty, and is ob-
jected to by most consumers.
Salt acts as a. preservative and
adds flavor to the butter, provided
it is in good condition. It is said
that the addition of salt has some
effects upon the body of the butter.
Richmond asserts that salty butter
loses more water on standing than
unsalted butter. This is undoubt-
edly due to the leaky condition which is brought about when
salt is added to butter while in a granular condition. Salt
attracts moisture. Unsalted butter would not be exposed to
this influence of the salt. When kept unsalted, butter usually
becomes cheesy in flavor in a short time, while salted butter
assumes entirely different characteristics.
Water.—The moisture-content of butter may vary between
6% and 16%. Frequently butter is found that contains more
than 16%, but this amount is in violation of the law. Butter
may contain as much as 18% of water, if properly incorporated,
without affecting its apparent commercial quality. Water is
present in a greater proportion than any other non-fat con-
stituent. Its variation is also greater than that of any other
constituent. The fat will, of course, vary with the water.
The more water there is present in the butter, the less fat there
will be, and the less water, the more fat. As butter is bought
PAT-APPUO-FOR
We i is i
Fie. 170.—Ice-crusher.
284 BUTTER-MAKING.
with the understanding that it is rich in fat, much objection has
been raised to butter containing an abnormal amount of water.
This objection by consumers is, of course, a just one. The
producers desire to incorporate as much water as is consistent
with good quality. Butter containing a high moisture-con-
tent, more than 18%, will appear dead and dull. It is sticky,
and when sampled with a trier it is next to impossible to draw a
full trier of butter. Itshrivels and rolls on both sides of the trier’
Moisture affects butter in two principal ways, according to
the way in which is is incorporated: (1) By causing leaky
butter, and (2) by making the butter appear dull.
1. This leaky condition in commercial butter is very common.
It has been a common opinion among butter-judges that when-
ever water appears in large drops on the butter, and some-
what slushy when sampled, the butter contains too much
moisture. This, however, is not always the case, as butter will
not as a rule hold an excessive amount of moisture in that form.
Even if this leaky butter does not contain an excess of moisture,
it is a very undesirable condition, as most consumers object
to this apparent slushiness. As has been stated before, this
leaky condition is brought about chiefly by churning the butter
to small granules, washing the butter very little in cold water,
salting heavilv, while butter granules are still small and firm,
and working the butter frequently in the presence of brine.
When moisture is properly incorporated in butter, it should
be present in exceedingly minute drops. In a fine state of
division it will not escape from the butter.
This leaky condition of moisture in butter may give a wrong
impression to consumers about its moisture-content. Major
Alvord, Chief of Dairy Division of U. S. Department of Agri-
culture, reports that a great many buyers on the English market
have the opinion that American butter contains an excess of
moisture. This conclusion evidently has been reached on
account of the water in American butter often appearing in
this leaky condition, as described above. In reality it is low
in its moisture-content. -
COMPOSITION OF BUTTER. 285
2. The dull and dry appearing condition of butter may be
due (1) to the presence of an excess of moisture properly incor-
porated; (2) to the treatment the butter receives during manu-
facture. When the dull and dry appearance is due to moisture,
the water has been incorporated during the churning, or during
the washing process, through excessive churning or working
Fre. 171.—Rubber mop.
in the buttermilk or wash-water at a high temperature. The
dullness may also be brought about by overworking the butter.
If the butter has been overworked, as a rule, it contains little
moisture, though its appearance may be like that of butter
containing an excess.
The conditions which affect the moisture-content of butter
during its manufacture are:
(1) Temperature of cream and of wash-water. The higher
the temperature of these two substances, the more water will
be incorporated in the butter. When the temperature is too
high, the body of the butter is injured materially. The keeping
quality of the butter is also injured by having the temperature
of the cream too high. The buttermilk constituents are incor-
porated with the butter and cause it to deteriorate rapidly.
(2) The amount of churning in buttermilk and wash-water.
The more the butter is being churned or worked in the presence
of moisture, the more water the butter will contain. When the
temperature of buttermilk and wash-water is low, a small
amount of churning affects the moisture-content very little,
while if the temperature is high, great care should be taken
not to overchurn.
(3) Per cent of fat in cream. The thicker the cream the
more moisture there will be present in the butter. In order to
286 BUTTER-MAKING.
churn thick cream, a higher temperature is necessary. It is
difficult to stop the churn without overchurning a trifle. These
two conditions, thick cream and high temperature, are both
conducive to a higher moisture-content.
(4) Amount of work the butter receives. If the butter is
in a moderately firm condition, the more the butter is worked,
in the absence of water, the less moisture it will contain. If
the moisture is present in a leaky form as mentioned above, it
is expelled to a great extent by working. But if the moisture
is properly incorporated and the butter is not too firm, work-
ing has little effect upon changing the moisture-content of the
butter, providing there is no water present in the churn.
Several other factors, such as pasteurization of cream, full-
ness of churn, and character of fat in cream, all have a small
influence in governing the moisture-content of butter, but in
this summary it is sufficient to say that temperature, degree
of churning, and thickness of cream are the only conditions
which materially influence the moisture-content. If churning
is carried on to an excess, whether it be in the buttermilk or
in the wash-water, all other factors are subordinate and have
little or no influence in regulating the moisture-content of
butter. Low temperature is the chief factor that delays in-
corporation of moisture in excessive churning.
Fat.—The English, the German, and the United States
governments have endeavored to protect consumers in regard
to the amount of nutriment in butter, by recommending 16%
of water as a maximum limit. Such a ruling has worked suc-
cessfully now fer several years. Efforts have recently been
made in the United States to base by law the nutritive quality
of butter upon a certain minimum percentage of fat. The
minimum amount of fat recommended by the appointed com-
mittee of chemists is 824%. A minimum standard of 824%
of fat in butter would be unintentionally violated, while a basis
of 80% fat in butter would be more consistent with the quality
of butter as manufactured.
CHAPTER XX.
JUDGING AND GRADING BUTTER.
Butrer may be judged from a commercial and from an
individual standpoint. Individual judgments of the same
butter may vary considerably. It is important that the judge
should become familiar with the quality of butter as required
by our standard markets, and then judge the butter according
to the demands of the mass of the consumers, rather than
according to personal likes and dislikes. In order to become
a good butter-judge, it is essential that the senses of taste and
smell be acute. Even if one’s taste and smell are keen and sensi-
tive, considerable practice or experience is necessary. Almost
any one can tell a good sample of butter from a very poor one,
but when it comes to differentiate between two samples which
are nearly alike in quality, skill and experience are required.
The chief thing in scoring butter is to become thoroughly
familiar with the ideal flavor of butter; then by repeated
comparisons of different samples of butter to this one ideal
flavor, one will soon become efficient in grading the butter.
Standard for Judging. — In America the distinct qualities
which are noticed in butter are designated according to the
basis of points given below. It will be noticed that different
values are given to the different characteristics, according to
their relative importance. The score-card given below is used
commercially, and is based upon 100 as perfect:
SCORE-CARD.
IN@s 6665
Perfect. Score. Remarks.
TVERHGIR, 6 3 a6 weer Sarees els See ee ee 2 ee ee en
BOG y ark cies Saban Meters ence OROy| i Rees A cerrecien Gcceer ee os lee ae
Colomerer te gone aes aya Ifa} 5 IR JEER eBS ee ests dbase or el rac ae
Sal tear eee ceo e ae seca chs I ORR hetero mere ety erp aT Cen e
Shiyleere Actos rar ata aire EEN Rg Soe one ha tee Seat enters eae ie
MO GARG cranes astra yk es 2 UCDO) Me eS oe oe ce tee ores ene eee thee An ee eae
ALC aang. Mate Mle ni ce eis 6 ees SCOTCH Dye are seers erature ac are
288 BUTTER-MAKING.
At a recent conference of the Société Nationale de Laiterie,
held at Brussels, the following scale of points was suggested for
butter (Creamery Journal) :
(B76 (a) aie eee ene OS aN cation Sm reign een i Bieter ae 5
( COlORS Mires oe dnty secre ee nears 5
i. Reflectioncs wack asso on 10
Work. .......... | Cleanliness. Bee. lance 5
| Chemical analysis....... Piast sa i(0)
(GPIrMMESSs ace era 13
Consistency.... . j Spreading facility........... 12
} Interior structure: ....../. 2.2. 5
BUrit yee cae 5
Taste... ........ | Taste and aroma........... 30
100
Stencil ewes kn) Cheek enor Date cts:
CIEAME Rye iene eet, iy aiecmrtost ats teieh es
Buttermaker > 2. oscra osisesee ey ak eo vas cen
Gxowalied Chat eae ens a pier e etna a ar bc 1 ES peice errr cen renee Ati = Artec ny ies axe
SOUT Gee ctincn ven eee de Merete LAS io ceed eA iets Cea een eae
Heated ee deat min vetenoernc etree Oey ion agen tiae treed Ge eee
Wiee diverter, sel eeeeay a cieniy ance a santos ZENO) gece aise ene aan ee ere es
PAIN teh: Girt ee stocs as heck tens esc Dra eta atcy te tgine a mamen Oey eared
BEM Yicpiatyrance csicte ae ene ene wie ue nero De MQ ieee gece nen ss otro Oe geg Seta otters
Poor sewerage, dirty cans, etc........ Del Ons ae aetuatauesers saa ladiotecceemaenezct
* WaNGER Yap eicecate oy ak lers foe een ae esas QE Oiteas cen eet oR ee Ue
SMa O(c lesa) ll epee aac tra mere n clo Ararapiny Aro We ar NAAN Cartas bey’ «
atl LAG A hoe erie ala cust ster oeaen sey ee ceeeeas: Es ae Rey aE eR cr ans Step
EernilsIGige a bi weatre ee ae Natta totes ante creer ne TESS Gace ces eee eee
SUMM Ch Meces cde Remaster ene DOs Re Oo eae
INeedsimiorercid armies EBA S daase ont noe eens eee eee
POOr Water O1Z1Cerirs (is te sicoa aie Any ae Serene Sobol cual Peeters oan ae eee
LETS) 5 stdin des are cere esc oneM ces eee ean BOR ie ate saga ent Tene ae Eanes
COW Yeo hese reuetetmne Gacnes seer cea stegatans jd 0 ae ae are thc. Airey cies Ay cr
Hine; high, clean’... 003 fac.so vahanmawe tee & racic eats oa hee texekan = uorey eerie
Score: (Perfect *A a). = ik tees a tenses resent neuen oa crite ear fe
IW iealksae iad yo rcetsccte(ee ebopeep nee hn Pee 1 AE A Se Gd BIO eo a 4
Salviyen oe bre eee eee neil emer Ale NA, 2) (at neal eee e caine Wey area
GreaSVOAn ne ta noe eitae ete re ees Ae Regt aero dessins Gite cet eee ETE
Olivas eee rotten or ene Peer A 2 renee areata eS Ay OE peed ene ee
Mall wien ieee yolancee acs ot orestiateorsncceteratt 1 SV eR MES erties ees Kerr Ie oat Gosh GG
Bed (OHEESVare cas aero ese iearie soa ora tone Creraeee Ae salecra eae tog. dakep tua ae eg Me ee ee
TS aLOOSCHDOGVp.a55 cue ieee Ly umoRet ater rater ter Beran ity oo 6
Fas oosmuchawatenncewr saree en ae 1 A ARs Ne. ain A ce 8H
Not enough water.................. As Tgesilla en eMart een
Water not well incorporated......... 7 Meee eee renee ch LAN Fea tee ee ©
I Sue woe ee gemon en eeoodobsauacduudooodoccérnueo oooene Dee:
IMs WER Ap oboe ued oGodcosonooducboosesconuCOOOONS | Obahaanne=
Scorex@Perlect) 25) han ener Saree en en eee mmm arr
Color
JUDGING AND GRADING BUTTER.
TEGO OOY OG se ee eerreacs by BO oe ren ea
ANG ILE hs Seas 8 Seve Recut Ges srg Ne Se oP
INOUE OOCES had Come Aust aaa tn try ON ater ee mre e ON ace a St
Hime even helt Straw, COLOLed= ass te eeee a ae ee tes
Scores (eriectuliay erase wrew Metre eMac een et Nea
eer c eee eee
CC tr er ry
ey
Salt
HOO Mn ohne. welt ae. Gee, ene cee aes tocns Oniece eget acta
oomiaht tare etter tractors ssutct na: OAPs carat waite os
Roomeraderolysalttivarar set: awa eee eat Geshe Se asians
Ere cular aia taccersi alte Maryan eat erty eens chen ay fe
Tifhave «Aipaeterd Tie es Sete he
Scores (berectsl O) eee cece eas ye siemens | ioe
Packing, Package, and Style
ARO DS ENOL Meat Mela) hate Gea os tater ae are Mca tewycne
Too much salt on tops...............-..:...-- (S58 606
dubs ino Galtier ase ner eaten: once am iaee ase sta veces tous (ek aasrte ae
Stroke tops off level; do not bevel.............. Tote Re a.
Fold paper liners under cloth circles, not on top..........
INO tapaperslineds qocs ais canton emer etc Al ys ae eras
IEIMETS WOOT: RTACC ares ee hs hee ldehe Sesh eve lale vaevcticseaeusaietottle lle
AGOMMUCH TORING 4s anh ey eosin ere sts auc) le (elvis Ta Sane.
Wooselys packed sary ane. Wc eisiid ageeess ioliie Gusto US 6 666
MS Harty ae ences execseeion tc yavel sn ce ee Sea ack See ecaaone (easier
Mmuloseraad diy.tex myst ner ent cae nisl a ebe nde Oar g. toe
Tubs soaked too much..... ren te eae ities cw, TON oie
Malos MO WI Ys cae wees wssoe «cases & sper omatslsushanacehace UGE esas
Wark=colonedistavessere mere eee ee (opera
MINIT SETI S Vee eee aa wipe chet esi ete tone seca teeta os och Ui Beeenc ee
Brokenghoopsiandscoversanmer mcr rere te Tete eek
Mares too light; Il lbs, wanted). %5..-...-..... Senne
Mares too heavy, 11 lbstiwanteds =.) 3.22.4. 42. Sires c tere
Hooksior poor tinfasteners. 9... 020. 4--5555---- (Arce tie
Hjimve whancasOmMie septs are fee eek we art seeded ara ah Soon loce
Scoret@eriecteo) ere crt ris rae cere. tuacrbetass bke tas arsed ate ee ts
=) [ol ieleniel (a) e-eiz8\ 0)
ry
ee re)
ry
Total score ( Bertect MOO) Re eee ya ene nals
290 BUTTER-MAKING.
MANNER OF JUDGING.
Body.—After the trierful of butter has been drawn out,
the first thing to notice is the aroma, and the body or texture
of the butter. The butter on the outside should be examined
at once before it is affected by the temperature of the room.
Notice its color, whether it is even or uneven, low or high.
Determine by the appearance of the butter and the way it feels
to the palate whether it is greasy, tallowy, spongy, or sticky.
The amount of brine and condition of brine should also be
noted. These characteristics and their causes have been
previously discussed. Stroke the plug of butter with a knife
to observe the color closer. Squeeze it with the thumb to
ascertain the character of the body. The aroma of the butter
should also be noticed in connection with scoring the butter
on body or texture, as it is more pronounced immediately after
the trierful of butter has been drawn.
Flavor.—It is impossible to describe all the different flavors
found in butter. There are perhaps as many distinct butter
flavors as there are shades of colors. However, there are a
few flavors which stand out more prominent and. are more
commonly met with than any of the others. Good butter
should possess a clean, mild, rich, creamy flavor, and should
have a delicate, mild, pleasant aroma. Some butter judges,
especially foreign judges, allow a separate number of points
for aroma of butter in the score-card. This has been sug-
gested in the United States also, owing to the fact that
butter may have little aroma and still have a good flavor.
Owing to this, it has been suggested that it would be better to
allow a certain number of points separately for aroma in the
score-card.
Flat flavor is noticeable in butter made from unripened
cream. If such butter is otherwise clean, little objection is
made to this kind of butter for ordinary commercial purposes.
The remedy is to ripen the cream a little higher with a proper
ferment. Rancid flavor is applied to butter which has an
JUDGING AND GRADING BUTTER. 291
undesirable, strong flavor. Rancid flavor is the most common
defect developing in butter on standing. Other flavors develop-
ing in butter are “turpentine,” “fishy,” ‘‘ unclean,” ‘‘feverish,”’
and ‘“‘stale”’ flavors. In criticizing butter it is better to mark
at once the specific fault, rather than state that the butter
is rancid. Cheesy flavor is another characteristic which is very
common in butter. This cheesy condition develops chiefly
in butter containing little or no salt. It is claimed to be cue
to the decomposition of the proteid matter in the butter.
Weedy flavors are quite common in butter. They are due
mostly to the condition of milk previous to the manufacture
of the butter. The remedy is to take the cows away from the
pasture in which weeds of different kinds are growing, such as
garlic, wild onions, ete. Acid flavor is another common defect
found in butter. It is usually due to improper ripening of
cream. The term sour is used in its literal meaning in describing
butter which in reality is sour, though not very sour to the
taste; by the sense of smell, bowever, the sourness is readily
perceived. The usual cause of this sourness is an improper
removal of the buttermilk before the butter is packed. The
term sour is occasionally used to designate butter which has
been made from overripened cream. feverish flavor is a
comparatively new term. Its significance seems to be of
importance. This flavor is very sickening. It is believed to
be due to the cow’s system being in an unhealthy condition.
This flavor is imparted to the butter when it is produced from
milk drawn from cows during sexual excitement. Diarrhea
of the cows is claimed to produce the same effect. Stable
flavors are due to the improper and unclean conditions of the
barn. They are most common during the winter, when cows
are exposed to stable conditions.
Color.—The color should be bright and even. When a plug
of butter is drawn with a trier and is held up to the light, it
should not be cloudy and dense, but should be almost transparent
and bright. The chief fault found with the color of butter
is unevenness. It may be streaky, mottled, or it may be too
292 BUTTER-MAKING.
high or too low. The shade of color will vary according
to the different markets. The color preferred in our markets
is chiefly a high straw color. There has been a tendency re-
cently to recommend a comparatively high color in butter, in
order to distinguish it from oleo margarine. 2 x 10 Studs filled with
dry planer shavings.
Mt
1% Surfaced plank for
inside door, to be put in
as the ice is piled up,
hs Space filled with shavings
Waterproof [/ through small outside door at top.
\Doors lapped
as shown,
S
y Ws a
2 x8 Joists-24 Cen. filled with planer shavings
Joists to slant towards center of house
Grade 3 =
*"° Gravel under joists well
tamped
Fic. 175.—Construction detail of ice-house.
316 BUTTER-MAKING.
method of creamery refrigerators, even though more expensive,
is to be highly recommended, chiefly because labor is decreased,
and the low temperature is uniformly maintained.
Reasonable high ground affords a good location for an ice-
house. It is of importance that the ground should be thor-
oughly drained before building the ice-house. If the ground
is high, dry, and gravelly, perhaps no drainage is needed,
but under most conditions a drain should be run through the
bottom. This drain should not be very deep. If area to be
drained is so large that one drain will not carry off the water,
it is better to use two drains, rather than to have one deep one.
Size and Shape of Ice-house.—The plan of the ice-house
should be as nearly square as consistent with room. A square
building, having a certain length of wall around it, will hold
more ice than an oblong building having an equal number
of feet of outside walls. The building should also be high in
proportion to width and length. This will tend to preserve
the ice as proportionately less top surface is exposed to the air.
The size of the building will vary according (1) to amount
of milk handled at the creamery, (2) whether ice is sold from
creamery, and (3) whether ice is used for any other purposes,
such as ice-cream freezing, cream shipping, etc. For creamery
uses, the only basis on which to estimate is the amount of
milk received.
For example, suppose a creamery is receiving 12,000 pounds
of milk daily. This milk will produce about 2000 pounds of
cream and about 600 pounds of butter. Suppose that the
cream needs to be cooled from 90° F. down to 40° F. or a range
of 50° F. One pound of ice will cool about 142 pounds of
water 1° F. Calculations are made with water as basis. The
results will thus be a little too high, but subsequent corrections
will be made. If one pound of ice will cool 142 pounds of
cream 1° F., it will require 50 pounds of ice to cool that amount
of cream 50° F. By calculation from these figures we find that
about 0.35 of a pound of ice is required to cool each pound
of cream 50° F. and for cooling 2000 pounds of cream it will
317
COOLING FACILITIES FOR CREAMERIES.
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318 BUTTER-MAKING.
require 700 pounds. If it takes 700 pounds of ice daily for
cooling the cream for eight months of the year, which is about
the time the cream would have to be cooled by artificial means,
ie
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it would take 168,000 pounds of ice per year. As the specific
heat of cream is only about 0.7, the final amount needed for
cooling the cream would be only 117,600 pounds, or about
59 tons.
COOLING FACILITIES FOR CREAMERIES. 319
The next consideration is the ice needed for cooling the
butter. Roughly speaking, there will be about 600 pounds of
butter. Suppose the butter needs to be cooled 30° F. Granting
that the specific heat of butter is the same as that of water,
it would require 30 pounds of ice to cool 142 pounds of butter
30° F. There will therefore be needed daily 126 pounds of
ice for cooling the butter. As the specific heat of butter is
only about 0.4, 51 pounds of ice are necessary daily. For eight
months 12,240 pounds will be needed. The amount of ice
needed in a refrigerator above that needed for cooling the
butter cannot be calculated. We may count on 25% radia-
tion and 25% as an allowance for cooling tubs and packages.
The total ice needed for cooling the butter will then be 24,480
pounds, or about 124 tons.
Counting on 20% loss incidental to transportation and.
melting in the ice-house, 89 tons of ice are needed for cooling
the cream and butter the number of degrees mentioned above.
One cubic foot of ice at 32° F. weighs 57.5 pounds. If
1 cubic foot of ice weighs 57.5 pounds, 89 tons would occupy
a space equal to 3093 cubic feet, and would require an ice-
house of dimensions approximately as follows: 16 ft. high,
14 ft. wide, and 14 ft. long. These dimensions are given only
as examples. The height, width, and length may need to be
changed to conform with local conditions. One thing should
be kept in mind, it is always better to have an ice-house a little
too large rather than too small.
Filling the Ice-house.—The chief objects to be sought in
packing ice into an icehouse already properly constructed,
are: first, to exclude circulation of air through the mass of ice
and thus prevent melting; second, to pack it in such a manner
that it can easily be removed in whole blocks; third, to pack
it with such material that it will leave the ice as clean as is
consistent with other important sought objects.
The packing material which is most commonly used in the
central western States is sawdust. This is very efficient in
excluding air, lasting, and usually cheap, but soils the ice,
320 BUTTER-MAKING.
so that considerable water needs to be used with which to rinse
it. As a consequence of this latter, considerable ice is wasted.
Straw is used successfully. It leaves the ice much cleaner,
but is not so effective in preserving the ice. Shavings are
good, but as a rule are too expensive and not available. Some
use no packing material other than ice and snow. When the
blocks of ice are put into the ice-house, they are packed closely
together. A man with a hatchet chips the block of ice in
such a way as to fit them snugly together. The small cracks
are filled with fine ice and snow. The experience of the authors
is that, by this method, the blocks of ice are likely to solidly
freeze together, so the ice cannot be removed without break-
ing it up into irregular pieces. This is hard work, and con-
siderable ice is wasted.
Another method of filling ice-houses in successful use is
that of running a small layer of water into the building and
allowing it to freeze. The doors in the ice-house are opened
during a protractive period of cold weather. The bottom of
the ice-house is covered with building-paper. Water is run
on top of this and allowed to freeze until a layer of ice about
a foot in thickness has been obtained. Then another layer of
paper is made to cover the ice and more water flooded on
and frozen. This process is continued until the ice-house
is filled. The paper between the layers prevents the ice
from freezing into one solid mass, and facilitates the removal
of the ice.
When the ice is stored in an insulated house, combined
with the refrigerator, no packing material is used except on
the top of the ice. Shavings are good to pile on the top of ice
when the ice-house has been filled. They are clean and effective
in preserving the ice.
The cost of filling an ice-house with natural ice, obtainable
within a distance of about eight miles, will vary in different
localities, but may be said to range between $0.60 and $1.25
per ton. The creamery furnishes a man to pack it into the
ice-house.
COOLING FACILITIES FOR CREAMERIES. 321
Source of Ice.—The ice for creamery use should be ob-
tained from as pure water as possible. A large running stream
is always better than a small polluted stream. Usually the
creamery can cooperate with butchers, restaurants, hotel-
men, and other local ice-users in building a dam in a suitable
stream. The ice can also as a rule be harvested cheaper by
cooperation.
Some creameries have constructed ice-ponds near the ice-
house. If there is a clay or impervious bottom, this works
successfully and economically. The pond is filled and kept
filled from the creamery water-supply or from a tile drain inlet.
Care should be taken not to use stagnant water and water
in which weeds and other rubbish have been allowed to accu-
mulate. The pond should be deep enough so that the water
will not freeze to the bottom and produce dirty ice. The pond
should also be filled with water to overflowing when freezing
is begun, otherwise slush and snow are likely to accumulate
together with dust from the fields and roads, producing impure
ice.
The ice is best when frozen from the top down. A hole is
bored and kept open in the ice during the freezing process.
Through this opening the pond is supplied with water as rapidly
as it subsides. When the water is solidly up against the bottom
of the ice it will show in the opening or hole in the ice.
To construct an ice-pond on gravelly soil is useless, and to
pack such a pond with a sufficiently thick layer of clay to pre-
vent leakage of water is under most conditions, impracticable.
UsaGE oF Icke In CooLING CREAM.
1. Directly.
2. Indirectly.
1. The cooling of cream in creameries by putting ice directly
into the cream has been much practiced in the past. The
method is yet used considerably, especially where the old
open vats are still in use. Some of these open vats are jacketed
322 BUTTER-MAKING.
ae
and some are not. Cream in unjacketed vats could not well
be cooled in any other way than by using ice directly in the
cream and stirring until cold. To keep cold any length of
time, considerable excess of ice needs to be used.
Such a method of cooling cream has its advantages as well
as disadvantages. The latter, however, clearly outweighs
the former.
The advantages are that the cream can be cooled in a very
short time, and it does not require any special investment
for up-to-date ripening-vats, nor special machinery for the
purpose of pumping the cooling medium.
The chief disadvantages are: First, impurities and un-
desirable germs are liable to be introduced, which would injure
the quality of the cream and otherwise work harm to the
quality and keeping property of the butter; second, the melt-
ing of the ice would dilute the cream. This would render
the cream less sour, impart a marked flat, insipid taste to the
cream and butter, and produce more buttermilk which, if it
contained a certain per cent fat, would mean a greater loss
of fat during the churning process.
The use of ice directly in the cream for cooling purposes
should not be resorted to unless it is necessary. With the
best quality of cream this method is still more unsatisfactory,
as it greatly lowers the quality of butter. With cream in
very poor condition previous to ripening, the chances for
lowering the quality of butter are not so great.
2. The cooling of cream with ice indirectly is by far the
best method. With the use of our up-to-date ripening-vats,
the cooling of cream is an easy matter. But where the creamery
is already in possession of a good open vat and the manage-
ment not disposed to discard it to install a new one, the ques-
tion is different.
Some open vats have a jacket and special open space at
one end for holding crushed ice. These vats will control and
hold temperature better than those with just a jacket around.
The cooling of cream on a large scale by circulating ice-water
COOLING FACILITIES FOR CREAMERIES., 323
through the jacket, at best, is a slow process. Usually too
slow to be effective and practical.
This cooling process is carried out by mixing the ice and
water together in a separate vat to which a rotary pump is
attached, forcing the water through the jacket and again
returned to the ice and water-tank to be cooled. The slow-
ness of this cooling process can in a measure be overcome by
mixing salt with the ice and water. This will cause the ice
to melt faster, and consequently cool the brine to a lower
degree of temperature than was possible to obtain with water
and ice.
In ease it is desirable, a set of coils can be made which will
fit into the open vat. The inlet and outlet of thesc coils can
be connected up by means of rubber hose with the pipes con-
veying the brine to and from the ripener. The coils can be
made to move up and down, by means of a rope attached to
and leading from the coils through a pulley near the loft and
fastened to a small crank at the end of a shaft. When the
shaft turns the crank will also turn and cause the coils in the
vat to move up and down. In the absence of a special up-to-
date ripener, this manner of cooling works very satisfactorily.
A butter refrigerator containing a tank, as already de-
scribed, could be cooled by pumping brine through it in similar
manner, as described for cream cooling, except that no coils
are needed.
MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION.
Application of in Creameries.—Mechanical refrigeration has
been considered expensive and impracticable on a small scale
until within a few years. The science of producing cold arti-
ficially has been simplified and reduced to such a practical
basis that it is now used in many large as well as smaller
plants where formerly natural ice was used altogether. Where
at least 10,000 pounds of milk, or its equivalent in cream,
are received daily during the summer months, mechanical
refrigeration is considered practicable.
324 BUTTER-MAKING,
On another page a table of comparative cost of natural ice
and mechanical refrigeration is given. It was also stated in
that connection that the cost of mechanical refrigeration
would vary under different conditions. The chief factors
affecting the cost of mechanical refrigeration may be said to
be similar to those affecting the economic running of the re-
maining machinery, such as kind of fuel used, skill of fireman,
style and condition of boiler, proportion of boiler power to
work done, upon the correlative size of all machinery, upon
kind of insulation and care of cooling-rooms, and upon effi-
ciency of compressor and whole refrigerating system.
Chemicals Used for Mechanical Refrigeration.—The most
common substances used in mechanical refrigeration are am-
monia and carbonic acid. A number of others are in use, but
from a creamery standpoint, these only are of importance.
Ammonia is used chiefly. It is efficient, cheap, and not so
dangerous to life and property as are some of the others.
Anhydrous ammonia has a boiling-point of 27° below zero
at atmospheric pressure. The latent heat of ammonia is also
great. Ammonia has vreat chemical stability, and is not
explosive in nature. Ammonia attacks copper and_ brass,
but has no effect upon iron and steel pipes. If ammonia
should escape through a leak into a room, the operator can
protect himself from the effects of the gas by breathing through
a wet sponge held in the mouth. Ammonia leaks may be
detected by holding a glass rod dipped in hydrochloric acid
to the place where the leak may be. When ammonia comes
in contact with hydrochloric acid, white fumes are formed.
Carbonic acid is used considerably in Europe, and is chiefly
favored because the gas is not highly poisonous; in case of
leak it does not spoil contents of refrigerator, and it liquefies
at a high temperature (90° to 100° F.), and is therefore favored
in tropical climes.
Principles of Producing Cold Artificially —The chief principle
involved in producing artificial cold is that when a substance
passes from a liquid into a gaseous state, a definite amount of
COOLING FACILITIES FOR CREAMERIES. 325:
latent heat is absorbed. When water in a kettle on the stove
begins to boil and passes off into steam, no higher temperature
can be reached. No matter how much heat is applied under
those same conditions, the temperature remains the same.
This extra heat is used in transforming the water into steam.
If this steam were confined, and that heat removed, by cooling,
the steam would again pass into a liquid state. We are familiar
with the coolness produced by rapid evaporation of perspira-
tion from the body. Mechanical refrigeration is virtually a
process of evaporation of the ‘cooling media, during which
heat is absorbed and liquefaction of the cooling medium by
compression and cooling to remove that absorbed heat. To.
increase the ability of the cooling medium to absorb heat it
is compressed and liquefied. So we might say that any com-
pression refrigerating system has three separate operations.
necessary to form the complete cycle of mechanical refrigeration,
Viz. :
1. Compression of the ammonia gas.
2. Condensation of the ammonia gas.
3. Expansion of the ammonia gas.
1. The machine which causes the compression of the am-
monia gas is called the compressor. In construction it is much
like a steam-engine. Small machines are single, but large
machines are double acting. Gas is drawn in, on the suction
stroke, compressed and discharged on the return stroke. The
pressure generated varies between 120 and 175 pounds per
square inch. During the compression heat is developed in
proportion to pressure exerted. The greater the pressure the
higher the temperature of the gas. Part of the heat of com-
pression is carried off by means of a continuous stream of
water running through a jacket around the cylinder.
2. From the compressor the gas is forced through the pipes
into the condensing coils, in which the warm compressed gas
is cooled still more. When sufficient heat has been removed
from this gas, it assumes a liquid condition and is ready to
expand into a gaseous form for the purpose of absorbing heat:
326 BUTTER-MAKING.
and producing cold. During the cooling and condensing pro-
cesses each pound of ammonia parts with about 560 units of
heat, which amount can again be absorbed when it expands into
gas at the lower pressure.
3. This liquefied gas, which is still under great pressure, is
then admitted through what is termed the expansion-valve.
This valve is especially constructed for that purpose, and has
only a very minute opening in it for the admission of the liquid
ammonia. On the expansion side the pressure is low (20
to 30 lbs.). As the liquid ammonia emerges from the high-
pressure side through the expansion-valve into the expansion
side, it forms a gas. This expanded gas may then be circulated
through coils for cooling purposes. From there it passes back
into the suction side of the compressor ready to go through
another similar cycle.
From the above description it will be seen that there are two
sides to the system, the expansion side and the compression
side. The compression side extends from the compressor to
the expansion-valve; the expansion side from the expansion-
valve to the suction side of the compressor, inclusive.
Transferring the Cold—The methods of transferring the
cold to the different places in the building vary. There are
two systems, viz.:
1. Direct Expansion.
2. Brine System.
1. By the direct-expansion system the condensing-pipes
of the system are extended to the room or place at which the
cooling is to be done. An extended set of expansion coils then
convey the gas which absorbs the heat. A lower temperature
can be produced by this method than with the brine system.
2. In the brine system a large brine-tank is placed some-
where in the creamery at a place most convenient with respect
to cooling. This tank contains a strong solution of brine.
The chief reason why brine is used in preference to water is that
brine has a very low freezing-point. This will vary with
different degrees of saturation.
COOLING FACILITIES FOR CREAMERIES,
327
Either one, sodium chloride (common salt), or calcium
chloride, may be used for brine. The latter is considered
best chiefly because it is not so hard on the pipes and it keeps
the brine pipes cleaner than does a salt brine. The tables
give properties of brine made from these two substances.
SHOWING PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION OF SALT. (SIEBLY).
(Chloride of Sodium.)
Pounds Tes ecific : : ;
Percont,| Eopnes [Degrees on WelehtGSeetG.| Speci | Freeting-| Froesing
Weight. gan of | at 60° F.| at 39° F.| 39° F. . Fahr. Ceisius.
olution. 4°C.
1 0.084 4 8.40 1.007 0.992 30.5 — 0.8
2 0.169 8 8.46 1.015 0.984 29.3 — 1.5
250 0.212 10 8.50 1.019 0.980 28 .6 — 1.9
3 0.256 12 8.53 1.023 0.976 27.8 — 2.3
3.5 0.300 14 8.56 1.026 0.972 201 — 2.7
4 0.344 16 8.59 1.030 0.968 26.6 — 3.0
5 0.433 20 8.65 1.037 0.960 25.2 — 3.8
6 0.523 24 8.72 1.045 0.946 23.9 — 4.5
7 0.617 28 8.78 1.053 0.932 22.5 — 5.3
8 0.708 32 8.85 1.061 0.919 21.2 — 6.0
9 0.802 36 8.91 1.068 0.905 19.9 — 6.7
10 0.897 40 8.97 1.076 0.892 18.7 — 7.4
12 | 1.092 48 9.10 1.091 0.874 16.0 — 8.9
15 1.389 60 9.26 1.115 0.855 1272 —11.0
20 1.928 80 9.64 1.155 0.829 6.1 —14.4
24 2.316 96 9.90 1.187 0.795 We 4 —17.1
25 2.488 100 9.97 1.196 0.783 0.5 —17.8
26 2.610 104 10.04 1.204 0.771 —1.1 —18.4
PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM. (SIEBLY).
pire aime lee occ eat NaS cc omneiee alias eeraen Rates | iniDeniees Gale
1 0.996 1.009 31 = 0.8
5 0.964 1.043 27.5 = 2.5
10 0.896 1.087 22 = 8.6
15 0.860 1.134 15 = 0.6
20 0.834 1.182 5 eis
25 0.790 1.234 =8 =P)
The expansion-coils pass through the brine-tank
and cool
the brine. Special pumps force the cold brine through pipes
to the cream vat, cooling coils, ice-cream freezer, etc.
328 BUTTER MAKING.
For creameries the brine system is the only practical sys-
tem. It is preferred because, first, cold can be stored in an
insulated brine-tank and used at will without running the com-
pressor. In case of a prolonged stoppage due to some accident
a brine made by a mixture of ice-water and salt could be
temporarily substituted; second, less ammonia is required to
charge the system; third, fewer couplings and less ammonia
pipes are necessary. This latter would decrease the danger
of ammonia leakage and cost of pipes.
CHAPTER XXII.
ECONOMIC OPERATION OF CREAMERY.
INASMUCH as it is impossible within the limited space in this
work to take up a detailed discussion of the various principles
and practices of operating boilers, engines, mechanical re-
frigerators, and other creamery machinery, only a few of the
chief factors common to creamery practice and effecting the
economic operation shall here be discussed. For more com-
plete information students are referred to works treating
specially of these phases.
Firing the Boiler—Much fuel can be wasted and saved ac-
cording to the completeness with which the combustion occurs.
This again depends upon the manner of firing, upon the regu-
lation of the draught, and upon the kind of boiler. The fire
on the grates should never be too thick nor should too much
coal be loaded on the fire at any one time. )
NNR eee
.304798
.609596
.914393
219191
. 923989
.828787
. 133584
.438382
. 743179
OMNAMNPWHe
tid t dd de do
NNW RE OOCO
.914393
828787
. 743179
.657574
. 571966
.486358
.400753
.315148
. 229537
WDNR PWN
a) ea oh ll
DIONE WWYH ©
1.60935
3.21869
4.82804
6.43739
8.04674
9.65608
OBDNOUPWNH-
tibet wt ded ted
WI
12.87478
14.48412
Miles = Kilometers.
METRIC SYSTEM.
SquaRE MEASURE. Coupic MEASURE.
é.
Oy . .
Os B a : zB wb q : re
fess ce= 8% ge=25 os =o8 eB=o8
oor | ek pe | BA EP oe pe | os 38
oA) M io) M NQ MN o o 6) Ss)
IL (0), 1y5y5) 1=10.764 1= 1.196 1= 35.315 | 1=0.02832
2— (eo 2228 2= 2.392 2= 70.631 | 2=0.05663
3=0.465 Bia, 3= 3.588 3=105.947 | 3=0.08495
4=0.620 4=43 .055 4= 4.784 4=141.262 | 4=0.11326
i OR iho 5=53.819 5= 5.980 5=176.584 | 5=0.14158
6 =0.9380 6 = 64.583 6= 7.176 6=210.899 | 6=0.16990
‘ie So 7=75.347 C= B72 7 = 247.209 | 7=0.19821
8=1.240 8=86.111 S= 9.568 8 = 282.525 | 8=0.22653
9=1.395 9=95 .874 9=10.764 9=317.840 | 9=0.25484
SquarRE MEASURE. Liquip MEASURE.
ee Se lass 3 z S . a
Bia) Jorgen (a Guu lle aimee esl PS ak
ee BE a ela oF BBO g g £ a
Hn Hn N N n Ome 4 eo na O
= 452 |1=0.09290|] 1=0.836 tf =OF3838) | Is 0564" —OFR264107
=12.903 | 2=0.18581 | 2=1.672 2 = OF 646 22 S49 2052834
= 354 |3=0.27871 | 3=2.508 3=1.014 | 3=3.1700! 3=0.79251
=25.806 |4=0.37161 | 4=3.344 4=1.352 | 4=4.2267) 4=1.05668
o= 957 |5=0.46452| 5=4.181 5=1.691 | 5=5.2834| 5=1.32085
5 709 |6=0.55742| 6=5.017 6=2.029 | 6=6.3401 | 6=1.58502
160 7 =0.65082 | S15) 18533 7=2.368 | 7=7.3968| 7=1.84919
612 | S=0.74323 | 8=6.689 8=2.706 | 8=8.4534] 8 =2.11336
063 |9=0.83613! 9=7.525 9=3.043 | 9=9.5101 | 9=2.37753
Dry Measure. Liquip MraAsuReE.
s <= a £ I 3 B vi a of
a gous a as Ba = a= § oo
S 3 = Ss ~ — 3 “4
eet og a ees ee ee,
om
1= 2.8375 | 1=0.35242 LS BOs 1=0.94636 | 1= 3.78544
2= 5.6750 | 2=0.70485 2= 5.915 2=1.89272 | 2= 7.57088
8= 8.5125 | 3=1.05727 3= 8.872 3=2.83908 | 3=11.35632
4=11.3500 | 4=1.40969 4=11.830 4=3.38544 | 4=15.14176
5=14.1875 | 5=1.76211 5=14.787 5=4.33180 | 5=18.92720
6=17.0250 | 6=2.11454 6=17.744 6=5.67816 | 6=22.71264
7=19.8625 | 7=2.46696 7 =20.702 7=6.62452 | 7=26.49808
8=22.7000 | 8=2.81938 8 = 23.659 8=7.57088 | 8=30. 28352
9=25.5375 | 9=3.17181 9 = 26.616 9=8.51724 | 9=34.06896
APPENDIX. 341
Weicur (AvorrDUPOIS).
A 4 é “3
g ae 5 ‘ ; :
neo 2 B= £5.34 = 35g eS oF
Bh |g BAS, 2 348 eo ee
Ss) 1S) isa} fe) ise my = 4
1=0.1543 1S 7835), Be 1= 2.20462 1=0.9842
2=0.3086 2= 70.548 2= 4.40924 2=1.9684
3=0.4630 3 =105.822 3= 6.61386 3 =2.9526
4=0.6173 4=141.096 4= 8.81849 4=3 .9368
5=0.7716 5=176.370 §=11.02311 5=4.9210
6=0.9259 6 = 211.644 6 =13.22773 6=5.9052
7=1.0803 7=246.918 7=15.43235 7=6.8894
8 =1. 2346 8 = 282.192 8S =17.63697 8 =7.8736
9=1.3889 9 =317.466 9 =19.84159 9=8.8578
F 3 é Bar ee
‘a ba gq 8 ee | ca 8
Oo S) fo) Sd Ay ise 4 S
1= 6.4799 1= 28.3495 1 =0.45359 ah Ol
2=12.9598 2= 56.6991 2=0.90919 22 032i
3=19.4397 3= 85.0486 3 =1.36078 3 =3.0482
_ 4=25.9196 4=113.3981 4=1.81437 4=4 0642
§ =32.3995 5=141.7476 5 =2.26795 5=5.9803
6 =38.8793 6 =170.0972 6=2.72156 6=6.0963
7=45.3592 7=198 .4467 7=3.17515 S37 Al!
8 =51.8391 8 = 226.7962 8 =3.62874 8 =8.1284
58.3190 9 = 255.1457 9 =4.08233 9=9 1445
INDEX.
PAGE
PNIOTAO IIa lpia il ewer pee rect ener ate acres MR tLe Menomena ch nets Fah 54
Acid, butyric, capric, caprylic, myristic, oleic, palmitic, stearic......... 14
carbonic, hydrochloric, phosphoric, sulphuric. .................. 18
CLUTIG eee cic aenys cher Situ cer ete eoe geen eee rer Be Doge ie oa eee a ie 20
ENG BOs: 2 Sirk Grete atest crislct Si eriten CRU oie Rees cre chen ie tO APU Oe 213
Salncyla caveceeeret cotceope meee Meaty raiodee CoM a Rav yea oe RG CW kon 99
Sula lnUr i Cemere: Meer pecepeaenctn. Were e chae ae mee UMM e | eve AR LER 85
WEBUISG o ciate Goin Soni Od Seebeck 6 cio aren tic ero ee ee aoe 80, 208, 206
ENCICIG Ye O feline ge eetaratotets ndtie eee Gtk eee pene th. G0N of Sa Neg e o AEa 78
of ripened cream in relation to richness of cream... ........... 209
OIESHATLETS Serer orate em ene ee orra ee cen CROMTE aiy la lances Nin Beat Wa 223
GESUSMOR rer piecnareterncopeneruceee re lalar te yey se eae, slewcuaianelG llr arevaieiiteae ae 208
ENcivesioneo temmilloe, artery eaten eis ccee ele ieiecirentceen acy ti Ane ee Ra ake ance 337/
Nloumenaimgrnaillke ees trec costae crcrseeewAe pekics eee coe eis eee ees on 16
AMumimordspimenailke 2 cess sec cee tropa cere sorde cte scans eee ottiee woe Esa Packman ieeee 14
Alkali of various strengths for measuring acid in milk and cream. ...... 80
AIMphotenicereaction Ofemalllke nsec early. pee er sacl ee ee eer eile 32
PAIGISE PICS ee sccitistsyelocs evens cnebeleye sos Mops caaccie (tonees SUSE ter eee ee nea eee 48
Babcock testOntatss: ste cere I reer a eerste at eo ee ay! 84
causes and remedies for common defects in clear-
NESSOl Atal ues cree ea ete ae ca 87
Bacteria in milk, aroma and flavor producing. .................2.+00. 187
as a cause of deterioration of butter................. 11
classificationrolasies aid tees as eer ae Satine 50
conditions favoring development of... .............. 45
desirable and undesirable in cream ripening........... 189
number Ol memilke oes sea csskovee sees osveesasts ce ose le erdeers 51
sizesand«shapesOfe ic srei e. siere! selsa oe snela wines sacle erers cane 45
SOUEGES :Ofsnawereiee: ceria ca nebefs ois oles eoe ia iiede leualwts erovetensiais 52
unfavorable conditions for... .............. sce ceeee 48
Biological changes in ripening cream... ............-..eeeceeceeceees 210
Boiler, cleaning of, priming of....-....2-...0.60...--+cceeceeec:: 332
firing: ;with woodand’coaliii. as ae kit eek be weis s ones 330
344 INDEX.
PAGE
Breeds, composition of milk from: various...) 4.2.) sos es 68
Brine: ton mechanicalireingeration: eee nena ee 327
properties:of NaG@lwandi€aGl ey. a yas ae ee eee 5 Bee
Brine; sabtingsbutterzwitbes ssc eos ree eta te oe a nec 264
soaking tubs tnlcrsre sectors cis tu apres tees cuter Va ee ara erate 271
Buttercappearance Offs irre. tsrtecercy Mie teeters ates te teen ene eet me 292
COLO ORO cn ce cneee eae getel estar ate eicsa re are care ete aCe te ue Rea 238, 291
COMNPOSIEIONNOL a ear bele yen a) tt ciepenetaca nouewetole eC ea aesee Semng ten es 281
HOT Cle Wo IONAMIN 6 oo Ge omed moon booed on ou soo odoubd ows 278
classification ard grades of, as outlined by N. Y. Mercantile Ex-
(MVNO gaandos uods Ap ey a tans ACP eS SP rd nt GO rh ah 292
EXPOLLALION Chen ascurernn epee ar yee cee Chae ee eae eae 307
MaVOr7Ol gol ecermcey ety carter Ree nas MUN o eenat See ian a eA errs 290
judging andegracine role eects st ner ten asta reer tee me ee 286:
Keepin Gein’ CreAMeUIes suse ce- leis etre eae e eee .276, 310, 313, 314
MakineyOloMslavmiey ones e ena ar er weet yet ee eee ene eee 169
mogstled, causescandsretmediytee. si macnqn ett ances ice 263
DACKIDE OL gee er Nec et ce ie -te Rete Pet ek Career ree eens 271, 275
FSagTa ac ig 0) Pe rears tne i Eo AEN cP, PRENAL rar Bit PS BAN AE PaCS wR GO ern 274
TAMCIC Ame eA USC! Ohare. tease rhs eyen tases asee Mutya ma TS rete ae dn SUS ERE 11
Ba LIMESSu Olin cv cueteue eect cay tare venetst cater ctcecre eI ak tne eer L esac see fea 292
SCOPING Ny CTSA teri eSsnni.27 an ousvdaeane cua uclsttel arses Ae ope ae yentaee une 276
LES Ure OD DOCywObyn Spec eaten lege lece parti trina ca teen anna eatel age ae 290
HEISE AKO) SNA HOCS) Pint ur eae eee asl re ei Gene eal Soars tg 87
washing sand: kind Ofawash=watelang.: Gira sol aie h nema yee 247
WODKING HOE she peg ote soot: osties awe uc calte shone ee taces pee aeeaue eee eur Ne yan 266:
JOSE AASV CD AUT I eee mene eee eat Meer ei vite eRe AP, arama et oe Ales ae ie ae 22 23224
ISinavikncyne sono nh boo URat uc Sonu Mad So obbubeua bong Ou oto op 13.
Calculation of amount of salt to add to butter... .................0.. 256:
Ob average: percent abies suds aia meee se vespecteertea asta caoer tte 105.
Of Ghurtycyield i.e mss cs tach suanare leet ahs rodeyerade ak eeu eee gene Ronen 109:
Ol CLEAM-TAlsiN CUCORMICIEMbe cree seers sitter rene 113
Oi divid Ends saeaceA tet sees Cee eo er are eee gee 109:
ONE ONIAc)H ADE Oe ee err ennot Sete rie Deda «ey Hire a itans ata diet dco ache bor 107
ofisolidssinemilkes. sae tuations een ea ec teaceieet sere ele 35
of speed:s pullleysimbelts® sci sm rns dene rev sueerencecttets ar uaeeusteke 331
Cans starter seerc tre teeters oi enna Otc eee) Aen ener ec en yt eee 225
@aresOf Crear cOmM PALM wae cecane ce Cee etat secs a too ay caps gn are rad Mary eee eer mare heonrnae 158
Caseinuintmillconditionioinnnn cua rieise cer ee oh tens sieasir rare 15
Centrifugal separation, Ob creaiiwe seri tset ice ie een la meter 129
Changes in milk and cream, chemical, physical, and biological.......... 210
Chemical changes in ripe and over-ripe cream. ..........-.....0.5- 2138, 215
Churn, keepin in:eoodt condition se come) ieee eee 245
G@hurn) yield tcalculationtoticer;, ire eke eR eect er ane 109
CGhurned milleisam pline serene ceteris ce nered Retiree tee eer 96
PAGE
hurningvamount of creamforas v.02 00 cee) odes sees eed. cee. 233
conditionsratlec tinge eee ease es ee ne Seen ees 22h
Cefn tIONsO leaner cy eats epee Me OP Tes MEN Fe ln fencenioeee 226
dithicult}jcausesandiremedyator. 2s... -.es)e nasse eee. 243
Churning mixed sweet, aud|souricreane = ees sence cae: 243
MATURE TOMASI CAtIONMOLe: zeae eRe ane 235
Richness OMCKEAMBLOT ey me eae es ei Ao nara eile 231
SLEAMIN ey Ochoa MpLe WOUSILON = 4. eae eee eee 238
WME ME CORSE OD Sane y ete meth Sy aunt ita Wiel aclu deta 239
Ciorickacicuin’ maillceseenu neat ey ues oge Mih BP e Mintel Sahn 20
Coal edailysweiglinow ole wal ser ene tal ak See Fe i ie Sebo. Sell
shickay sual c Od egan iy Nemec au net id rey demi ch ve sree ie 331
(COOLGIPS UU Reh eatery au ion Wn A Nae te tie SAT ete ee ge lie A 238
(Ciolorstaver iene tnere Toe) Fool ea hm er mieoa ey aia icra eg Megs ene ae me ne 20, 31
Conmpositersamapleswemra nian ery citar pits cee Mare tA aie oe ee ue ree 99
carelandyarrangementiols ey alse eens ee 1¢2
J OLNSISTSV AUCH AKESTIUG) Pierteen Sion ome Fes ee pen eA 99
Senay olbuares By oyoMANAUIS UO; GG Go cans daesoguosnocneene 94
Wonmmpositionrottbutteners aust ven ee iter eaion) ort a, Syecustons cvotaveesceitier ets 281
Gfecolostrumapmiillk eye y tes egy een mie ceny ete cane amen te 54
Olgdarnvasal (SW seen poet tat eer tee Ae ae aimee. Es ate 262
oigdifierentkandstotimilkee pe, ae see ts is ore: 2
GHIA OM, Cool CHVEUbUEAy? Gui \NOUHUEE, Geno acaoncoboucosacecuodss 281
Ole sellitayaraalll eae etch een eee te eo en nae and eeaparo Wee IE a ee 55
Ol Separator SlIMe saree ah aces ececblaas a Siaeson ne te ceee 144
Olatuloencul ousirilleae aria ir en en ee cont ce an A ieee 62
BOTMIMETCIAlEStAGLERS Neve ipe rt ee te ome Oca Aeee ue eee Cyclase a en Alea
PLeparationvanGauUsecOle Geert eae ee ae 218
(Continuoushmethod ot pasteunizationss eee ci see ee ecices eee aic 173
BCoolevuamethodolcream separations ccc). see ee eee 124
Cooling facilities, water, ice, mechanical refrigeration .............. 309
cost of natural ice-system vs. mechanical refrigeration ....... 310
SV SUCMOS Isms en ion ra seem wiralcs edt tr ait a aes, sem waerkts eitiad iat toi 206 309
COWS, ANCTEYRD [DROGKICAHION Dios GdoavancoesocuosbcomooobndevebuoGuauS 66
Ipreed Stole sep ent tates cere esr oie or tain noses, chat ytttie, ease gta 68
COStHOM KEE DING enarinisteps eye ares eee ce mine caine edea me a als toat sen tua el 66
tableshowinespront and wlossam keepinge is. wear aa. eye ene a 67
Oneae waa, GVEOltay Ci, WO CMMI, @oscc oe geno ogodskosogoneneooocudoooS 205
CATON LEO TUB EL RII a ea tM meee mere telel eo.d st Mata re unde. avin 18, ates nn 158
effectrotscleanlimess: oma ality Olam orci eo sir ie ates) se eec se 159
CoO? Os ocogacocdegboodsondousaencaccnos qo gob aeoge danas 79
AMSA NGOS Ok Che VMN? Oi, g ne cecvocdmoccvcovogeuoccoccnoceEDs 167
Temas Oe Chita CMRINBES, 6-sceccctecaacocgusccavuucooudds 202
(SOSKOUTSNNION, OI, 5 boarcougusceeaecoungo sus oondsoaunoDaGoOd 173
(OE OULU ay Genco eb Src MURR oem oC Cader 186
TIC MMESSHO ee eRe R Tee cxes eh Meaeicuscci ae een los sete utes. Pecan neers 137, 152
346 INDEX.
PAGE
Cream, ripening™ off. asc s ee on ee ee een 187
SER aah o)phat gio) tener sient emiianeme rays tami aeptr tnn el rum A Ve Nae tna a ata eam 93
specific hheatrofein. cx aausatehatecrestoreta coeur a ce eestor cers taest see ote a mere ae 38
Creamery sewace disposals oer ceneney cal aes econ were or Pn 278
JEN cS Rian era Dtprirnin Genneenricer i remeron 4 reat agIn a 276
Deep-setting system of cream separation. .......5.....22..00ce+e rece 124
Diticult;churming causesyandiremed yee ee arene ee ee 243
Dilution effect ofsonicreamin owe nee ae eater eee ogee ee 128
Dsinfectantstrcrc chev. oys- ste epexere ee oss lors che vereneetel secteisi ee trees Miche 48, 99, 246
Hlectricity, etfect-of-ony germs inumillkes vai) esis sees 53.
IDE eV Aig coletca babe dav Uehara tetas rant een Acari OA iy ten Se enters meni re 0 20)
effectiof heationts sesrrace ee cetera etre eee 41
GEStSPLOR Stach cmos cts ew rates Hoe Ee Spee ne Nioeme 42
HXports: Of DULLER eves tayyors ones cds tsxen ote re ne ere ataats Sees ee teens ota eee 296:
Factories: plan: ofs i eaevan) sea cine Sen eens tare toast eee pan ee 279:
Harring tones sbestimwsr «cher vey aire ricucaceee eu hee iaiehees mien ice ana oes Se eae 208
Batra utter stene. 1c Sects pete ete cdc cey Sue ape nene ele ees caine nen nearest eee 286:
BEDE Taa Tae eee ae eney ee asec ns bayiedete ate bek nae utter oxen tea ele fe ga weenie se maaae rete alsa 5:
EOMPOSILIOM Of va. Mira censl cna seismic rach ate eaear ea eel rag se ean 13
CONGITIONVOL sae aeons ree eae cattece Par cee oe cas teeta cat Pant earn a 6:
effectsiofaenvironm en tawer intr ere tre eee ee ie 76
OfPhEa ti ON eather eee hea eerie Meee eens enn 42
of various feeds on composition of................. 75:
giycerides: of) Faaicis See cee eae een arene rear 8
PIV.GCPIMEAIMS ori, cycle eaters Prensa pe esac: Ln seo 14
melting-pointsOl tein oro sce ae cies ieee ieee os ee ee 12
membrane enveloping fat globules. ....................4. 9)
microscopicalyappearancerOleqes 7 secre sees eee 6:
HON=VOlatile ws sas ysl Soie ck saeccc PA ee eee SO RO 2}
paying for, as compared with fat in cream................ 116
Separations, Ofai- se tiedern cc cectee situs Acree ree econ eae gee 123
SizesOf ‘ClObULES se acaean asec eee ack OE ee ore eee w
testing fOr sc 104 . senses sheceyertee eee ue, Pern erect Oe ae eee 84
Volatile sex nialis shovenetscclevee petoia hele ie ne eee 28
LMCOTIES ape es acces aspera eke cars tasters cr Ren a et eae 25
SPECLACORAVItV.OL mt, cise anuatcsatel iawn, enn cce Wain ee as nee 32
LOvalSOldssOl syncs cot) ecterap cn sites reel oe ee eee gee 3
tuberculoussCOwWsie.2 ane ner re eee nein See ee 62
variation im quality, of,, and: CAUSeS ase... <7. sm cesses eee ere ee 65
Milking; frequencysofs cir. there ern tonnes fers coor iene ee eee ere pe 68
TIVADIMOL SOL cseac cca: saves eg cue ns taks Fase erect Ve mt en ee a 70
Milkino-machine power, mnanc=andetoote nm sv. neler 70-72
MottlesmcausesioPeimeluttenscac cree item ea ae rere tree tes i ine sert tee ae 263
kind So fea ea ede RAN pen eer dN 0 el oe 263
JOUCENL-) 11H (0) 1h 0) EERE AMINA PARSE Nain we Gas Geilo reas dteos 264
Natural starters; preparatiOm’ Ofirer cr) tes -hel)- ne oe em re rea 217
INGEN DCO1 Ae Lapa ks Chambon Geo hododoudouUb ouaatotooboduneb bboooraO OS 293
Non=volatile vats! ice ccs cee ater cusicreyene crs orcue orcieceie eran paneer ene 12
Nuclei in smile cs ceva eieca oS clots derobene wile meee AC ERE ee a 20
Oil’ separatory pee sa ae act ules er nn Gc gt a re LN a ee 333
Olein, effect of variation of, on softness of butter........ A HURO Cal catia 12
Opacity.s OF mil eee er we vee te Se ee ee SE in a tee 31
INDEX, 349
PAGE!
OrramiZe dole rimentS eccrine yer Meets mece ea Peas tei ANY ae a 44
WweTeripe CLEAN a So feeniiot tte uarcincespauet eee es bots Sots 205, 215
Overrun definitiontand calculationiof...94-s+-.-- 425.98 5..004..22.-: 107
PACLORSITO VERMIN Sederren (uate dae enn wh ha ee eek vnm 2 witha A 108
ac kinemoutvergiOr exiiOntIONs semis. cokes aeics acess eae. 275
landean cisize ofapackaves opera nets ee 270:
preparation of tubs)previous toy oss. -- 4.04 0s sss sss 271
EEPeM TMNT G VIN Regs eR Rey ape Mok eas Ra sack Te en etna Aes eee. Sassi gat ea, ee yeh ew oy oe ty 12,
asteunzationvadvantapes Ofs. 7402 eas bees csr ve nhs si cet c a, 184
COSHIOM SEY cae etna teed Fl ean GL ER I yn 183
definitiongandymethodsioteerin. ais s5 405.5. os sae” 173
cisadvantaresnOleccnic rea Ninh et Meaty feeb ans Me Ts 186
PACE ORSKEONCONSI GOT MI er eratite ia ewe ior, aie aay ieee ledee
Olssours crear segae sce inte an woh aac Peabee Ail foe eve 180
UserOlmdirectssteammbinwcm tase. aoe nese. 174
inesteunizen, durability and-eticlencyss s.r ates secu... 175
Paying for fat in cream as compared with fat in milk.................. 116
hy sicalachanseshingcreamls as. cuss cio gate aici Mereeereiaasic(es as dls Ses 210
Proteids in milk, as a cause of mottles in butter...................... 264
ISB CUG IS) V6) tah tira eae oreo nee es a eral ours ara ary ee wT 14
Ouevennewactometeninneciccmhovece: selec eka wee oral cac necro tes eee 3S
Van crds Outten -CausestOls.. siMeaacislcsteucecsreia seen eionr als cds leks Male ses eae Gh!
Necelmmnegumtl kaamay Creamnrsre:cesrrse isc ists tauren ct sta \atiays o.n'o wvecete o shuteceees 78
eticerationmantiicialpanatunaleen ese ya ee 309, 323
tran sierringucoolimsamedianey en ee see S26
Richness of cream from centrifugal separator........................ 137
iNOMeoTAVIbyeSe PALAtiOnmens tases sini alee 125
HUIpenime Cream sarcuiclal am yess Mee ae ewe Nga hs Sasa ake nee ee 199
kinds otacidssproducedyirom- a... suns ye eee ee 214
LOVE AUT Sos Pee cin aa cece ae gyre ee a a 198
DUEPOSCSUO lewemteecye Moen tel ee cretes ctl totale Sgue he 187
SLIREID Ee FOMmCre ama Uurin tay set i cree i i 197
UN TIP NMUR Bo o onde bo oe Hop S omddold osladoues oaeuls 194
testing cream! for acidity during. .....:....:....1.... 205
when churmedtevery otherday. 4.406. oo sure ce os 201
Saltingibutter) amount of saltito use. 92..e4.4.4..45-4. 40h seecs cs 256
effects of, on keeping property of butter. .............. 258
POUPOSE NOLO re mites stat tages anit eee NG ccs ue ihe cae 256
NWO Og OTe A ety ci ie ee Searierccueties oem enya arr A 264
Salttascaicause vol mottlesien sneer .aclo craic as Side eis oetot seta Oe 263
compositionlofAmericanrand: Danishes. 49.2024 42.-.. 086052200: 262
conditionioi= whenvaddedstolbutter) 4) 44. o5454 2460s ese 261
350 INDEX.
PAGE
Salt effect7of om keepines propertys or outters are eter eee 258
of, on removaléot buttermilk eee ae ne 259
Thaasl ChALOLUAG) WENHSIe Tol, |ONAIE. 4 on coo hha u eo doo bed ake doa oe babe 259
(obavebisiolAreYol sual loNAKSe oe oe vonaadoeGhuuavAbswusdabunsboscoeatlc 263
Samples:caverages i). stants a stseai ae sey a suen eda aura Re unit ts et a Ale ere ees ee 104
CODLPOSICE ssn! bce ok eiecna een Gwen ean Ann mon ses eae ewe ON rin era eat oe
Sam pling=tube ice oie. seer athens acon ale tanenn tesage eee rs Pe euerete sa ome uae 94
Separation, advantages:olicentrifusalye ies) heros ee een al sage 129
Centrifugal seria eMiee gare Nae! sian Wisc ehig weneenace et erente remit Raa eto 129
classification of centrifugal machines. .................... 133
conditions affecting completeness of...................... 139
effect of speed as compared with diameter on............. 143
factors governing richness of cream...................... 137
(eas Nia hip oie ke eres bree neers ore ee nh che ion a eee ek OOO AA Geet & 123
heating orailk fOr: ceache caren een cs me ee eee eet ree ten ee ee 118
histonysandadevelopmentiof-mmris-en ees te ee ee 130
processioicentrifucall seedeg pee rere ae re en eae ere 134
resultsstrom different methodsioiems necro rier iene 129
Separator farm, introduction and development in Iowa................ 146
NEASONS MORAN tROCU CI Oana tte peird ee ere ee eee 147
Separator slimes COMmpositiOMeas a raster ce ie ates eet 144
Sewage-disposalsplants, CutsrOls m0 mean is uae ayers tees eee aes 278
Score-CarG sMOrsDuUbterieyy sata Wea eps cee ee ema tue er eee ese M a ee 287
Shallow=pan Crean give. scps ove nyse ee eae oo Meal gre eae eer mien nual ve 123
Sinmmedenallk apportioning. ore ae dey ieee ern tee eee eae eee ee 97
Standards legal eto remake psa em ee ee clan geo a eect ae ase pea ee em 314
POLS] VAY COLO a -cae eon rte oie mee eee ines NAPALM Aca a Ge oun eh 173
Statements eanru ale tee ses Geere cas ne Ra ep aey Gene ccee a mee 114
patrons’smonthly.7o ee aoe ene ne eee 113
Starber:cansy ia empsctensenat cotetucr ap shea cece hae eee nee eee By)
Starters; amoumtoses7p.7 0 ati teen ees aa 196, 224
definition historyandsclassii cationee cs. seater nea nea 216
TMOCUIALIOIS Sek gee casey ae Ore Ee tet ee et eee ee 220
length: ofitimest o;cartycns censors ee een eee 222
over-ripening and under-ripening of......................05. 223
preparationcol- seca cs-cwtas hemes era Nes eee ae 217, 214
Sugarcand-curdsin butters): teies ete reese St eee ta en een aera 282
Tals) | SOO ei ceil inant oe aie a ear Abo sd wen eal Mi Bie Lame oka. 16
Streaked tbutters stics s/eisich., =o icnsbeee tore Siete cs euins were aaa ee keer ge eo nae 263
Table showing amount of acid produced from a definite amount of sugar
INSCHEAM FIPEMIN Gee sony. aeyae sar eee ee ee ene 214
effect of temperature on growth of bacteria............ 46
fat and total solids of milk from various breeds......... 68
number of acid- and non-acid-producing germs in ripe
CC) ct: 00 eRe a MEIN He eR Nee ri niniiat Aee.5 artim. aid\o 211
INDEX. 351
PAGE
Taints in milk, eliminating. ........... SS Rane «SER en ye cc een 19, 40
SOUICESHOLsr sgn ee ter ceeriea earch eee eng xe, thie ek 18
MempPeravure wCMUTMIN Gee: Aides nates eo daa. GR toes wie Me Sh eters: 227
Gunatiomgo iiese eye ys estar ee ie hope chee le tae cine, et 118
ellect#oisonybactenial growtht a4 4s rec ee 46
fOrgSlLoriMem uttering ee i ee ey ee 276
PASLEUTIZALION ety emi pee e ee ae te elem oA poate Aone 173, 181
TOC INI Oe prureure nay yates agate goiter eh redt DIRI ak! tna Ney 194.
SCALA GIONS: wert nee mh ae wren eect nut us sra Re oar yogiy! War rone Dia 118
WASH WA LOT n aston eer ma Ace ky Weta A aM dee ah as 247
"TN SSIHESL, EXT le ae aa eet ste A ela cg SM nO oC 80
TEER DR eB AG Bio ta “Seen ec Bh RUE re 6) a Ne ee 84
sleststtenmentatiomay cer micetuticcuvapyre oare leet) yer oy em ee We Oeiiy Son gt 81
Paste uniZecprml lesak ee rca Vesela secs Sete os ee ime tka os fh 42
Towel sollicls or wonllke WeaeRNAOIN Cis do os cconodsucoanocnuocougeenouoaar 3
hubstepreparationvandalimdstofsscn cs ters Geto oe pee ses on eae 271
Wdderwextermaltappearance: of iy) conte s = scibon Yeas occu ee cee 29
IMGernalESCrUChUe Ole agtee Arey nerves tes tetas ect oa wien tae is 22
Uitorgamizedstermentssgrip:s selec eee) staters alain o> erotica evel Venecercrarsloen ins 44
(Cire hh eat hese 2 cli par Pe eee rece AA ne oe RRR eS 20
Wiremsilemelenmuinmon weyers ces: ceceavsrcn tater eee Marie ance oeta dase ote 145, 159
Wiearacloneotetatemmnilincalises Ole svete cis cus eiuels amici cle sie sicletes ae 63
WASCORETIMMUISC EOL APN ste erate Mitre Pease otal ora tre, Se Syste cvs chelate Meupe.c. o'4 ab the 39
WASCOSItyrOtuml epee, Pen eee gene ees taxc cote Mie Saptea crs tite eee Pleubyere cle. es BC
TOSLOLACIOMNO Ley Werte vox ueect hich rscuae os ame tint Shae paces orev seks 39
Wolatilesiatshe ars min wee eebaure tener. etd de een wate connec bsrars i kercios 11
Wiashimgsbutter: kindvot wash-water fOne ens. ss) ane certs ier cosielel cise ere = 248
POUT OSE HO Lew tera eye ted tae rine cyeven suse we icereate ede recess 247
Wit ersimylo Gt err meenten secret beret terniaa ts oa ouS Une caoncetarcts cisaa c Gseke Susvactn c suet 241
CONGIEIOM TOTP arama eget eee eee rermuerti coal recuncae icles 242
Water nerclabionstorsaltuimubutter teri ee cea ree eee cs yen 259
IMeChOdSrOL sOUMM ING senate yee tstbcreraieTete sae cued nites sol aas.oysw aso 250
WiiScOnsIME CUINGNLESL men eremines cee he SS meta cn maeud aetna icc a Oe oS anel 81
Workington butters objectsiand electslOfea cc... <1 volves ies eee 266
WioodMib urine ding cream ries aes ar ctwsiern = tte a eet ee eee ios | 38
Working of butter, objects and efiectsof.¢ ).........555..4. 552+... 266
DAIRYMAID AND BLUEBELL
CREAM SEPARATORS.
A Dairymaid or Bluebell cream separator will skim
so closely that there is scarcely a trace of butter fat left in the
skim-milk. Cleaning a Dairymaid or Bluebell is an easy job,
for all parts are accessible; in fact these separators are unex-
celled, and no dairyman can profitably be without one. The
Dairymaid is a chain drive and the Bluebell is a gear drive
machine. Each machine is made in four sizes: 300, 400,
550 and 750 pounds capacity per hour.
Although the Dairymaid and Bluebell are easily operated by
hand, some dairymen prefer a mechanical power. About 1/16
horse power is all that is required for
operating the largest size Dairymaid or
Bluebell separator. A Tom Thumb one
horse power air-cooled gasoline engine
is an ideal power for this purpose, as the engine is small, compact,
and reliable; or a two or three horse power !.H.C. vertical gasoline
engine may be used, which will also be found suitable for other
jubs.
For full particulars concerning the Dairymaid and Bluebell
cream separators and I.H.C. gasoline engines, see local dealer,
or write nearest general agent for catalog and booklet ‘‘ Develop-
ment of the Cream Separator.’’
INTERNATIONAL HARVESTER COMPANY OF AMERICA
(Incorporated)
CHICAGO, U.S.A.
BOOKS FOR FARMERS AND DAIRYMEN
PUBLISHED BY
JOHN WILEY & SONS.
‘THE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL NUTRITION,
With Special Reference to the Nutrition of Farm Animals, By Henry Prentiss
Armsby, Ph.D., Director of the Pennsylvania State College Agricultural Experiment
Station; Expert in Animal Nutrition, United States Department of Agriculture, 8vo,
vii + 614 pages, Cloth, $4.00.
MANUAL OF CATTLE-FEEDING.
A Treatise on the Laws of Animal Nutrition and the Chemistry of Feeding-stuffs in
their Application to the Feeding of Farm-animals. With Illustrations and an Appendix
of Useful Tables. By Henry P. Armsby, Ph.D., Director of the Pennsylvania State
College Agricultural Experiment Station. 12mo, x + 526 pages. Cloth, $1.75.
A HANDBOOK FOR FARMERS AND DAIRYMEN,
By F. W. Woll, Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, University of Wisconsin. With
the Assistance of well-known specialists. Fourth Edition, Revised. 16mo, xvi+488
pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.50.
THE PRINCIPLES OF MODERN DAIRY PRACTICE,
From a Bacteriological Point of View. By Gésta Grotenfelt, President Mustiala
Agricultural College, Finland. Authorized American Edition by F. W. Woll, Assistant
Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, Third Edition, Re-
vised. 12mo, vi + 286 pages, 32 figures. Cloth, $2.00.
U.S. WINS
aoe 42 IN PREMIUMS
Hillside Dairy Farm,
East RYEGATE, Vt., October 1, 1906.
T am pleased to inform you that my butter
made from cream separated by the U. 8., won
the Dairy Sweepstakes. at the Valley Fair,
Brattleboro, Vt., this year. 1906 makes the
fifth time my butter has taken the Dairy
Sweepstakes at the Valley Fair.
During the past years I have received from
you as Special Premiums on U. 8S. Butter,
$36.00, mostly $2 at a time; and from inant
and Dairymen’ s Associations I have received
$396.42, ‘and all on butter made with the
U.S. Separator, which produces cream in the
very best condition for making butter of the
highest quality.
Mrs. Carri J. NELSON-SHACKFORD.
GRAND SWEEPSTAKES
STATE DAIRYMEN’S CONVENTIONS 1906-7
MAINE—98 NEW HAMPSHIRE—98 VERMONT —98%
Conclusive proof that the U. S. delivers cream in the best condition for making
butter of the highest quality. But that’s not all. The U. S. gives you not only the
best cream but the most cream. Remember the U.S. still
Holds the World’s Record
CLEAN SKIMMING
for
Our free cat-
alog shows as
well as tells
everything
about the con-
struction and
operation of the
Wy 5-9) | SOULS
for the asking
VERMONT FARM MACHINE CO., Bellows Falls, Vt.
PROMPT DELIVERY. Eighteen Distributing Warehouses. _NO DELAY
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Durand’s Resistance and Propulsion of Ships. .e..seevcvcveverecveees QVOs
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* Dyer’s Handbook of Light Artillery. ..........00.-...0cccccccccccs I2mo,
Wissler’s Modern High Explosives. .................cccccccccevcccce. 8vo,
* Fiebeger’s Text-book on Field Fortification.................. Large 12mo,
Hamilton and Bond’s The Gunner’s Catechism ..................... 18mo,
a Hoft’s Hlementary, Naval Tactics. 022... 5oss see te eee a eee 8vo,
Ingalls’s Handbook of Problems in Direct Fire.................000-.. 8vo,
sDissaks OrdnanceandiGunnery,)..4 6-2 + stock edn cee ss eet. 8vo,
* Ludlow’s Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables .................... 8vo,
* Lyons’s Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and II..8vo, each,
* Mahan’s Permanent Fortifications. (Mercur.).............. 8vo, half mor.
Manualifor;Courts-martialos os 2c. s ceies cece ce cna tie eee 16mo, mor.
* Mercur’s Attack of Fortified Places...........0cccecccccccecceces I2mo,
* Elements of the Art of War. .........cceccccce se cccersceccees 8vo,
Metcalf’s Cost of Manufactures—And the Administration of Workshops. .8vo,
as Ordnance and Gunnery. 2 vols......... Text 12mo, Plates atlas form
Nixonis;Adjutants7) Manualyy (50h aces ca se eee irs a eels ese cue 24mo,
Peabody2siNavaleArchitecturess.. jee eee eee ceeian. 8vo,
* Phelps’s Practical Marine Surveying......................c0eeeceee 8vo,
Powell’s Army Officer’s Examiner.........0......0 02000 cucvececeeee I2mo,
Sharpe’s Art of Subsisting Armies in War...................... 18mo, mor.
* Tupes and Poole’s Manual of Bayonet Exercises and Musketry Fencing.
24mo, leather,
aWieaver:s) Military, xplOSiVeSiial ar -) sas tan asia cine ha te ere rome coca: 8vo,
Woodhull’s Notes on Military Hygiene..............., cece ee eeu 10mo,
ASSAYING.
Betts’s Lead Refining by Electrolysis................ 0.0.00 cee eeeueee 8vo,
Fletcher’s Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe.
16mo, mor.
Furman’s Manual of Practical Assaying. ..................-.-00 000 8vo,
Lodge’s Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory Experiments... .8vo,
Low’s Technical Methods of Ore Analysis........................... 8vo,
Millers (Cyanide: Processinvsi7s site ce lee ee EE I2mo,
Mantuallsof-Assayin oration cisco: tern aceon als rope reach nia ee EE ET I2mo,
Minet’s Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo.).....12mo,
O’Driscoll’s Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores. .................... 8vo,
Ricketts and Miller’s Notes on Assaying. ............. 0.00 cece ee eeeee 8vo,
Robine and Lenglen’s Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)................. 8vo,
Ulke’s Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining......................000. 8vo,
Walsonis) ChlorinationsProcesScssrecie ss eicisiclaiciel ierels a crete miei cece cine es 12mo,
GyaniderProcessescmiirsrisiedenensiekerneleniniedernerneanidiinsiece soci ere I2mo,
ASTRONOMY.
Comstock’s Field Astronomy for Engineers................0..000000: 8vo,
CraioisvAz ime hea gigs ul ales carr ina irae AMBION Fee CORNY Se Alall okey JN Ato,
Crandall’s Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squarese. ore eee 8vo,
Doolittle’s Treatise on Practical Astronomy. .................0ceceeee 8vo,
Gore’s Elements‘ of Geodesy. 2. 6 0 ss Sia cle oo en ed le ielals oeve eile 8vo,
Hayford’s Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy... ..............eeeee0e- 8vo,
Merriman’s Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy...............- 8vo,
* Michie and Harlow’s Practical Astronomy....................6. ...-8V0,
Rust’s Ex-meridian Altitude, Azimuth and Star-Finding Tables. (In Press.)
%* White’s Elements of Theoretical and Descriptive Astranoamy........ I2mo,
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Abderhalden’s Physiological Chemistry in Thirty Lectures. (Eall and Defren).
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* Abege’s Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation. (von Hnde>) pemerereee 12mo,
Adriance’s Laboratory Calculations and Specitic Gravity Tables........ 12mo,
Alexeyeff’s General Principles of Organic Syntheses. (Matthews.)........ 8vo,
Allen’s Sables for ironsAmallysisiitmr ere ie cree ir eke arse ree cir: 8vo,
Arnold’s Compendium of Chemistry. (Maidel.)...........:.. Large 12mo,
Association of State and National Food and Dairy Departments, Hartford
Waste MOV oa garde whe ddtwobostebodsodbopcEDococ Oa EdDe.s 8vo,
Jamestown Meeting. 1907... 2.2... 1 eee eee eee eee eee 8vo,
Austen’s Notes for Chemical Students .................- bohm Sialtoba I2mo,
Baskerville’s Chemical Flements. (In Preparation).
Bernadou’s Smokeless Powder.—Nitro-cellulose, and Theory of the Cellulose
Wrolle cule ee eee ee tbiaietle: auc ratan aMicney es cart ae PMR Pecan Seta I2mo,
* Blanchard’s Synthetic Inorganic Chemistry.............-..-.-.--4- I2mo,
* Browning’s Introduction to the Rarer Elements..................... 8vo,
Brush and Penfield’s Manual of Determinative Mineralogy............. 8vo,
* Claassen’s Beet-sugar Manufacture. (Halland Rolfe.)............... 8vo,
Classen’s Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.). .8vo,
Cohn’s IndicatorsvandiDest-papersige ecu every ieicpere eye en eet enero r2mo,
Tests and-Reacentsserai coy erence te crn create nee Die Raaten Neer 8vo,
* Danneel’s Electrochemistry. (Merriam.)...................-..-. I2mo,
Duhem’s Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.)................ 8vo,
Fakle’s Mineral Tables for the Determination of Minerals by their Physical
DRTC ahd daponseddooogeaesondoogoucdbodoscoGsagudee be 8vo,
Bissler’ssModernebHioh Explosives emia oiler einer creek telnet pekensten: 8vo,
Effront’s Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.)................ &vo,
Erdmann’s Introduction to Chemical Preparations. (Dunlap.)........ I2mo,
* Pischer’s Physiology of Alimentation..........-..-.....-.--.. Large 12mo,
Fletcher’s Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Plowpipe.
12mo, mor.
Fowler’siSewase. works Analyses in coer icalstelejene’ se leisure caeinttes ited enele I2mo,
Fresenius’s Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Wells.)......... 8vo,
Manual of Qualitative Chemical Aralysis. Part I. Descriptive. (Wells.) 8vo,
Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (Cohn.) 2 vols................ 8vo,
When Sold Separately, Vol. I, $6. Vol. II, $8.
Fuertes’s water and: Public Health sy ajee ia cicie kee sietetel ote eh etsuereieilonet= I2mo,
Furman’s Manual of Practical Assaying. .................0-eeeeeeeee 8vo,
* Getman’s Exercises in Physical Chemistry....................4.. i2mo,
Gill’s Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers... ..............--..020005 I2mo,
* Gooch and Browning’s Outlines of Qualitative Chemical Analysis.
Large 12mo,
Grotenfelt’s Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.)........... I2mo,
Groth’s Introduction to Chemical Crystallography (Marshall)........ I2mo,
Hammarsten’s Text-book of Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.)....... 8vo,
Hanausek’s Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton.)............... 8vo,
* Haskins and Macleod’s Organic Chemistry. ........---- ++ +eeeeeeee I2mo,
Helm’s Principles of Mathematical Chemistry. (Morgan.)........... I2mo,
Hering’s Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors)........-. r6mo, mor.
* Herrick’s Denatured or Industrial Alcohol............-0-- +e esse eee 8vo,
Hinds’s Inorganic Chemistry. ..........-----++-++> SWE LUNC RS ngs aed ep ee 8vo,
* Laboratory Manual for Students .......----+- +2 see eee e teres I2mo,
** Holleman’s Laboratory Manual of Organic Chemistry for Beginners.
AAI )ceawiGnbore dobobosdaobedcabadoan voc ecortond0c0 I2mo,
Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry. (Cooper.). ....-..---+++++-+-+- 8ve,
Text-book of Organic Chemistry. (Walker and Mott.)............ 8vo,
Holley and Ladd’s Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments, and Varnishes.
Large 12mo
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Tddings:suRockiMinlerals! itary git nts Segoe ia nua SIU ita ae bah 2k 8vo,
Jackson’s Directions for Laboratory Wor in Physi glosival Chemistry. .8vo,
Jokannsen’s Determination of Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sectioas...8vo,
HMECEP Si CAS tHLNOT Ae clei cae NCUA meen Pe mane OoeH pole ec atudeba esas cae mae enc 8vo,
Ladd’s Manual of Quantitative ChemiucalvAmalysishiaresusseieyaiee cron I2mo,
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* pangworthy and Austen’s Occurrence of Aluminium in Vegetable Prod-
ucts, Animal Products, and Natural Waters.................. 8vo,
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OrganicyChemustryye «binges ae eet eas eee ae 12mo,
Leach’s Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State
CO tro le ere cere ornate aera ce ant atlC AL SNS AYU soc SR atin Aare ae Svo,
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Lodge’s Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory Experiments. .. .8vo,
Low’s Technical Method of Ore Analysis........5.......02: 002-250-000: 8vo,
Lunge’s Techno-chemical Analysis. (Cohn.)....................... I2mo0
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Maire’s Modern Pigments and their Vehicles.......................--- r2mo,
Mandel’s ‘Handbook for Bio-chemical Laboratory ................... I2mo,
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Mason’s Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.).. ..12mo0,
Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Sino )
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Minet’s Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo.)....12mo0,
Mixter’s Elementary Text-book of Chemistry. ..................--.-. I2mo,
Morgan's hlements) of Physical Chemistry...) os oe ee se ee ree I2mo,
Outline of the Theory of Solutions and its Results............... I2mo,
** Physical Chemistry for Electrical Engineers................... I2mo,
Morse’s Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories.............. r6mo, mor.
* Muir’s History of Chemical Theories and Laws.................... 8vo,
Mulliken’s General Method for the Identification of Pure Organic Compounds.
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O’Driscoll’s Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores. ..............--20-- 8vo,
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ee st “ ig Part Two. (Turnbull.)......2 12mo,
* Palmer’s Practical Test Book of Chemistry.............2..2..e200- 12mo,
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* Penfield’s Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests.
8vo, paper,
Tables of Minerals, Including the Use of Minerals and Statistics of
Womesticveroduction yee sen wig ee eis te Da eA 8vo,
Pictet’s Alkaloids and their Chemical Constitution. (Biddle.)........ .899,
PooletsuCalorific Power ofehuelssse).5 4 ase ee ae Sen 8vo,
Prescott and Winslow’s Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Refer-
ence to Sanitary Water Analysis....................+.00-. I2mo0,
*PReisig7s Guide tovPiece-dyeing. .0. 22262 4+ 12 abides ele ae ete: 8vo,
Richards and Woodman’s Air, Water, and Yood from a Sanitary Standpoint..8vo,
Ricketts and Miller’s Notes on Assaying. ............00eeeeeeeeeeeeee Svo,
Rideal’s Disinfection and the Preservation of Food.................... 8vo,
Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage................. 8vo,
Riggs’s Elementary Manual for the Chemical Laboratory..... OBA eat 8vo,
Robine and Lenglen’s Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)............... . .8va,
Ruddiman’s Incompatibilities in Prescriptions. ............... Pheer ots 8vo,
Whys in Pharmacy...,..... FrOthe eS OI NCRE DRE TSE BO Gee AEN yJ2mo,
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Ruer’s Elements of Metallography. (Mathewson). (In Preparation.)
Sabin’s Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish........ 8vo,
Salkowski’s Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (Orndorff.).....8vo,
Schimpf’s Essentials of Volumetric Analysis........................ I2mo,
+) Oualitative;ChemicalvAnallysismerwcr ya ome ee ere eee 8vo,
Text-bookiof-ViolumetricvAnalysisseis ease ci erece eee I2mo,
Smith’s Lecture Notes on Chemistry for Dental Students.... .......... 8vo,
Spencer’s Handbook for Cane Sugar Manufacturers............. 16mo, mor.
Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses............. 16mo, mor.
Stockbridge’s)Rocks/ and Soilsy yan ciete ca ete sin eeclonst pice steiieiees sie 8vo,
* Tillman’s Descriptive General Chemistry.....................-+0%- 8vo,
* Elementary Lessons in Heat....................4.. Chai Peer CE My 8vo,
Treadwell’s Qualitative Analysis. (Hall.)...................-02000-s 8vo,
QuantitativeAnalysis-y) (fall) eer sean cteleisiel ie eee ae iene 8vo,
Turneaure and Russell’s Public Water-supplies....................25. 8vo,
Van Deventer’s Physical Chemistry for Beginners. (Boltwood.)...... I2mo,
Venable’s Methods and Devices for Bacterial Treatment of Sewage....... 8vo,
Ward and Whipple’s Freshwater Biology. (In Press.)
Ware’s Beet-sugar Manufacture and Refining. Vol.I............ Small 8vo,
sf i tf oi vA Viole ess Small 8vo,
Washington’s Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks.............. 8vo,
* Weaver’s Military Explosives.. ............. 0.0... cece eee eee 8vo,
Wells’s Laboratory Guide in Qualitative Chemical Analysis............. 8vo,
Short Course in Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis for Engineering
Studentsie is ey ven iigcle pore taieasetatede aikeeacira les Re pellet on Gree a Rue eae 12mo,
Text-bookof Chemical) Arithmetic i. cscs spec eee eels I2mo,
Whipple’s Microscopy of Drinking-water.......................0005. 8vo,
Wilson’s Chlorination Process. .......... 0.0. e cece e eee eee eee ens 12mo0
GCyanideyProcesses nec serreis lances tice aiereiareksieyeienensceaciersaleericte r2mo
Winton’s Microscopy of Vegetable Foods ................-.....-: _ .8vo
CIVIL ENGINEERING.
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BRIDGES AND ROOFS. HYDRAULICS. MATERIALS OF ENGINEER-
ING. RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
Baker’s Engineers’ Surveying Instruments... ...............2..-0-. I2mo,
Bixby’s Graphical Computing fable................ Paper 19} « 24} inches.
Breed and Hosmer’s Principles and Practice of Surveying.............. 8vo,
* Burr’s Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal ..... 8vo,
Comstock’s Field Astronomy for Engineers................ ......... 8ve,
* Corthell’s Allowable Pressures on Deep Foundations.................. 12mo,
Crandall’s Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares .................. 8vo,
Davis’s Elevation and Stadia Tables.................. 00.00.0000 eee 8vo,
Elliott’s Engineering for Land Drainage.................-----.0--- I2mo,
Practicaliharm! Drainageyss ceca oie ee alee ieee I2mo,
*Fiebeger’s Treatise on Civil Engineering.................0 ec eee eeeee 8vo,
Flemer’s Phototopographic Methods and Instruments................. 8vo,
Folwell’s Sewerage. (Designing and Maintenance.)................... 8vo,
Freitag’s Architectural Engineering......... ..--- +--+ e eee eee eee ees 8vo,
French and Ives’s Stereotomy.......-..- se eee ee eee eee tenes 8vo,
Goodhue’s Municipal Improvements. .......-.-..-2 0-0 eect eee eens I2mo,
Gore’s Elements of Geodesy... 2... - ete eee ce tenet eee 8vo,
* Hauch and Rice’s Tables of Quantities for Preliminary Estimates,...... 12mo,
Hayford’s Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy... ...---++-+--++-++-+e- 8vo,
Hering’s Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors). ......... 16mo, mor.
Howe’s Retaining Walls for Earth. ........-- 2 ee cee eee eter eee eee I2mo,
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* Ives’s Adjustments of the Engineer’s Transit and Level.......... 16mo, Bds.
Ives and Hilts’s Problems in Surveying.........-.-.-+s++++-:- 16mo, mor. I
Johnson’s (J. B.) Theory and Practice of Surveying. .........-.-- Small 8vo, 4
Johnson’s (L. J.) Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods. ........... 8vo, 2
Kinnicutt, Winslow and Pratt’s Purification of Sewage. (In Preparation).
Laplace’s Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.)
I2mo, 2
Mahan’s Descriptive Geometry. ........ 222-22 esse rts eee t eee 8vo, I
Treatise on Civil Engineering. (1873.) ONO )e ose Hacacdoooss e 8vo, 5
Merriman’s Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy. ........-----> 8vo, 2
Merriman and Brooks’s Handbook for Surveyors........---+--- 16mo, mor. 2
Morrison’s Elements of Highway Engineering. (In Press.)
Nugent’s Plane Surveying. ...-.-----+--2 sees settee ett t eet: 8vo, 3
Ogden’s Sewer Design. ...--- 2.5... + yc dee teeter ce I2mo, 2
Parsons’s Disposal of Municipal RRELUSE ee teat encileliciiele repay ieee: 8vo, 2
Patton’s Treatise on Civil Engineering.........----+++-+-- 8vo, half leather, 7
Reed’s Topographical Drawing and Sketchingy is cra ciscieiede tel cnet el- ie eelen Ato, 5
Rideal’s Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage.........----. 8vo0, 4
Riemer’s Shaft-sinking under Difficult Conditions. (Coming and Peele.)..8vo, 3
Siebert and Biggin’s Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry. ........-.+--- 8vo, I
Smith’s Manual of Topographical Drawing. CUM CIEMID S b0 dolcion acinoo 8vc, 2
Soper’s Air and Ventilation of Subways. (In Press.)
@racy’s Plane Surveying...--- +--+. +--+ sere reste ett 16mo, mor. 3
* Trautwine’s Civil Engineer’s Pocket-book.. ...-..---++++++-++ r6mo, mor. 5
Venable’s Garbage Crematories in America........--- +--+ sere reese 8vo, 2
Methods and Devices for Bacterial Treatment of Sewage.......-.- 8vo, 3
Wait’s Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence..........-.-+----- 8vo, 6
Sheep, 6
TeaweotiGontractsstars ieee ele ie ie eel eect ene hata 8vo, 3
Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi-
CRIN, 6 ooo SOR OO UO ENO ODNOO ESOC OMDUBMOUOE MAO pono tan ee 8vo, 5
Sheep, 5
Warren’s Stereotomy—Problems in Stone-cutting..............---+--- 8vo, 2
* Waterbury’s Vest-Pocket Hand-book of Mathematics for Engineers.
225% inches, mor. I
Webb’s Problems in the Use and Adjustment of Engineering Instruments.
16mo, mor. I
Wilson’s Topographic Surveying.........-+--+e sere errr ernest: 8vo, 3
BRIDGES AND ROOFS.
Boller’s Practical Treatise on the: Construction of Iron Highway Bridges. .8vo, 2
Burr and Falk’s Design and Construction of Metallic Bridges ..........- 8vo, 5
Influence Lines for Bridge and Roof Computations.............--- 8vo, 3
Du Bois’s Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. IL............-.--+--- Small ato, 10
Foster’s Treatise on Wooden Trestle BTid SESH ae iene tetnedsehersielsistc) staiee- 4to, 5
Fowler’s Ordinary Foundations. ......---++++- seer tr ttre t rset 8vo, 3
French and Ives’sStereotomy....-.-.-----+2-s st eseret tresses 8vo, 2
Greene’s Arches in Wood, Iron, AMGEStONe Mees ier iericnelelciocastckat ce: 8vo, 2
Bridge Mrussess abe aye Ge cere eyes eat mia acy 8vo, 2
TRGVOE IBANSEEL Go nooo oaseoconboo ee ouoDGUC HDR UNO OD RonS COR F oD: 8vo, I
Grimm’s Secondary Stresses in Bridge Trusses.....------+-eeee rere ree: 8vo, 2
Heller’s Stresses in Structures and the Accompanyin* Deformations... ...8vo,
Howe’s Design of Simple Roof-trusses in Wood and Steel. .............- 8vo, 2
Symmetrical Masonry JWaN 6 Go bopobceokeoodoeosudsonoco edocs 8vo, 2
Treat seHOTICATCHeSe apeiiee meiitiitai che ai enceee icin Tense tele sicy che) cn 8vo, 4
Johnson, Bryan, and Turneaure’s Theory and Practice in the Designing of
Modern Framed Structures......----- sees eres ereces Small 4to, 10
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Merriman and Jacoby’s Text-book on Roofs and Bridges:
Parte Stresses; inioimplesPrussests seve cies mest one ee eee na 8vo,
Partild. Graphic: Statics se eee ieee eae uae toe ele a ease ror Wea 8vo,
PartsIl. (BridgesDesions cee: Sic sete ee ee Se enone &vo,
PartlVi HishersStructures:.3) sae ere en eee 8vo,
Morison’s Memphis’ Bridgeyn ii. come ie cise Otel ieee Oblong 4to,
Sondericker’s Graphic Statics, with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and Arches.
8vo,
Waddeli’s De Pontibus, Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers...... 16mo, mor,
oF Specificationsfor SteeliBrid geste (ye ton pie nia: ieee I2mo,
Waddell and Harrington’s Bridge Engineering. (In Preparation.)
Wright’s Designing of Draw-spans. Two parts in one volume.......... 8vo,
HYDRAULICS.
Barnes’silce Formations cca stds a Ml eden pore ate knee RO 8vo,
Bazin’s Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein Issuing from
aniOrifice::. GDrautwine actuate tne aol nee eee 8vo,
iBoveyzselLreatise: ony Ebydraullics wir eis peee e eeta s eencey! Ee N Spe Nannulngs 8vo,
Church’s Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels.
Oblong ato, paper,
ydrawlicr Motors oy yes a ee Cue aA Ee cael Ma OE EAU a Rian ahi 8vo,
Mechanics of@Engineenin gis caer ese eine a dee epee 8vo,
Coffin’s Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems.......... 16mo, morocco,
Flather’s Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power....-....... I2mo,
Kolwells:wWater-supply Pugineerings: site). sede stn pale cones tenemos ae 8vo,
Brizellis} Wiater=powerer ce tec eto Sacer ei hes Neeaev eesti ote Beenie rs A a 8vo,
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* Michie’s Elements of Analytical Mechanics......................... 8vo,
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Wood’s Elements of Analytical Mechanics. ........................4. 8vo,
TLurbinesiseit tote aetors VMN adele yall Setamatietai's fartevavercos gevalte soteteter sees see Le 8vo,
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RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
Andrews’s Handbook for Street Railway Engineers........3x5 inches, mor.
Berg’s Buildings and Structures of American Railroads................ 4to,
Brooks’s Handbook of Street Railroad Location................ 16mo, mor,
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Hudson’s Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Em-
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* 6 ce 06 Abridged Eda ck ot eee 8vo,
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Coolidge and Freeman’s Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engi-
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Emch’s Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Applications........ Syvo,
Hill’s Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective.............. 8vo,
Jamison’s Advanced Mechanicai Drawing................ccceeeeeees 8vo,
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Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.)........ Reet noerahe vente vavaValiolievegenene ct 8vo,
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- Moyer’s Descriptive Geometry..... 2. .5..0.04...0-2 0.0008 c cece be eecceess 8vo,
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Smith (A. W.) and Marx’s Machine Design.......................... 8vo,
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ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS.
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Mor
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* Michie’s Elements of Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light. ......8vo,
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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
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Flather’s Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power............. I2mo,
RoperDrivingsierera iisitnst ete keveheiae emlcheloisiers RPA sisi Shatter are tevehens I2mo,
Gill’s Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers........ PP satay ememae chanctaets I2mo,
Goss’; Lrcomotive Sparks......... EB hedecstel suctiorenabiclcheloyotererstetonereente levctecon seat 8vo,
Hall’siGar/ Lubrication ect tee eee eee tetet reer toe neta I2mo,
Hering’s Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors). .........16mo, mor.,
Hobart and Eliis’s High Speed Dynamo Electric Machinery. (In Press.)
HMutton’?s.Gaseh meiner renee tes sewn on cetera oretetc tele revenelede revieroveliel bane sreteterersneton ai 8vo,
Jamison’s Advanced Mechanical Drawing. ...........-eeceeceeeeeees 8vo,
ElementsiofsMechanical#Drawingisn. ci ehaemcl +e eretete ecco cr heeene 8vo,
Jones’s Machine Design:
Part; ] Kinematics ofeMachineryayrctecvvetorsie one erovaronicie etale helccetenaionare 8vo,
Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts............... 8vo,
Kent’s Mechanical Engineers’ Pocket-book... .............-208 16mo, mor ,
Kerr’s Power and Power Transmission. .........-.+. eee eececeeeeees 8vo,
Leonard’s Machine Shop Tools and Methods; ................2-..008- 8vo,
* Lorenz’s Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean.) . .8vo,
MacCord’s Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism. .................... 8vo,
MechanicalyDrawinocramieaciacieieicetieciclehletenetelodcetsietstsvet cle onchecsnsienelan- 4to,
Velocity. Diagramsr. eset ori er iri eee tcnereisiecs iolavorclonKereke tener nensy stat 8vo,
MacFarland’s Standard Reduction Factors for Gases.............. Lae OVOs
Mahan’s Industrial Drawing. e(Thompson.)...............--.2-e+002> 8vo,
* Parshall and.Hobart’s Electric Machine Design.... Small 4to, half leather,
Peele’s Compressed Air Plant for Mines. (In Pres ss. 3)
Poole’s(Calorific Power of) Buelss. sos see one ocelot eon 8vo,
* Porter’s Engineering Reminiscences, 1855 to 1882................... 8vo,
Reid?ssCourselin Mechanical Drawings ecclesia ciclo renene dereecuere totes 8vo,
Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8vo,
Richard?siGompressedpAitcs etic eleletoveienerstsiensys te ehe|iehe ta elroy olan ectel I2mo,
Robinson’s Principles of Mechanism... ........... 0-0 eee cece ee eeee 8vo,
Schwamb and Merrill’s Elements of Mechanism... ...............-0-. 8vo,
Smith’s (O:) Press-working of Metals)... 0000. . e e e e ee 8vo,
Smith (A: W.) and Marx’s Machine Design... 2-2... 03st 8vo,
Thurston’s Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics.
; I2mo,
Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill Work... 8vo,
Tillson’s Complete Automobile Instructor ...........-.-..---++-+--- 16mo,
mor.,
* Titsworth’s Elements of Mechanical Drawing................. Oblong 8vo,
Warren’s Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing............. 8vo,
* Waterbury’s Vest Pocket Hand Book of Mathematics for Engineers.
2% X 5% inches, mor.,
Weisbach’s Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. (Herrmann—
GSW haidsentadodoosowaeebodecobobduDooeode oC Et sadoaco.0 8vo,
Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann—Klein.). .8vc,
Wolft’s Windmill as a Prime Mover............ 0.0.02 cece eee eee eens 8vo,
WOOd?SULUTDINES ye ielro lore eleleleLelsieleh ele aN TE is Nie Lope ene Da ATO NT aR Patan oa rater Ere 8vo,
MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
* Bovey’s Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures. ............. 8vo,
Burr’s Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering......... 8vo,
Church’s Mechanics of Engineering. ............-. 0s cece ccc eeeeeees 8vo,
*/Greene’s Structural, Mechanics). cos sus cyeiclol) ate ciel =e euerenete alict cies enst=iel= 8vo,
Holley and Ladd’s Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments, and Varnishes.
Large 12mo,
Johnson’s Materials of Construction. .........e eee e tere eee eeees aie ON.O)s
Keeps iCastilron sas ecmentatelrercirnelcvensrarleleiskersieKerstelsker Pelee iotsioneiotersuctals icy 8vo,
Lanza’s Applied Mechanics. ........++++-+eeee wletetstoteneroneys peter reliry pet nd 8vo,
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Maire’s Modern Pigments and their Vehicles....................... I2mo,
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Martens’s Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.)............... 8vo,
Maurer’s Technical Mechanics. ............- 000 e eee e cece eee teens 8vo,
Merriman’s Mechanics of Materials.................. cece eee eee eee 8vo,
* StrengthsofeMatertalsi seve nicer Greener PN Oe bebe ass I2mo,
Metcalf’s Steel. A Manual for Steel-users...................-..0.. I2mo,
Sabin’s Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish........ 8vo,
SniithissMaterialsiof Machines -pis ic discs crelaieketsicin sy-Setesenede arp oeueneke lens I2mo,
Thurston’s Materials of Engineering... ................-..5-. 3 vols., 8vo,
Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering, see Civil Engineering,
3 page 9.
Parte cmon ANGG SECs serisnial cu siare a netee siete ere oeletelisua laiibe eh eoiereyenes, @ leu 8vo,
Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their |
GOST MES eee israel eA sto See ne eS PEAT trans cite char aires 8vo,
Wood’s (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics.................... 8vo,
Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an Appendix on the
Preservation ofsbimbenea sce cess vets euac sl erels 8vo,
Wood’s (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and
Steeler eset a pene aes nuemucue tte leveltebc oveifatelelatavers?=ile/ayelepej(e/ el axe 8vo,
STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
Berry’s Temperature-entropy Diagram...................--seeeeees I2mo,
Carnot’s Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. (Thurston.)......12mo0,
Chase’s Art of Pattern Making.................-..-..-...-2--eee- I2mo,
Creighton’s Steam-engine and other Heat-motors..... dondonbece $08, GOoO dao}
Dawson’s ‘‘Engineering”’ and Electric Traction Pocket-book. ...16mo, mor.,
Ford’s Boiler Making for Boiler Makers.................-.0.000000- 18mo,
Goss’s Locomotive Performance.... .....--.....s 222s sete eres eee eee 8vo,
Hemenway’s Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy.......... I2mo,
Hutton’s Heat and Heat-engines. ................. cece cena tee ee ees 8vo,
Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants. .....................-- 8vo,
Kent’s Steam boiler Economy. ..............c.cccccccccccsccccccces 8vo,
Kneass’s Practice and Theory of the Injector...................2-22-: 8vo,
MacCordisrSlide=valviessinie tr yeti ete Mea oellacstarste Micseccroeactohlobelorie 8vo,
Meyer’s Modern Locomotive Construction. .............-.eeeeeeeeeees 4to,
Moyer’s Steam Turbines. (In Press.)
Peabody’s Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator.................... I2mo,
Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam and Other Vapors. ..... 8vo,
Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines...... 8vo,
WValve-gears for Steam-engines. ............--.-... 00sec ce eens 8vo,
Peabody and Miller’s Steam-boilers............... 00.2: e ee eee eee nee 8vo,
Pray’s Twenty Years with the Indicator.......................- Large 8vo,
Pupin’s Thermodynamics of SEIS Cycles in Gases and Saturated Vapors.
OSES Dera) Heep tee yes Srcbesei es dice selec sig ARTIS ee ERAN RR Rea I2mo,
Reagan’s Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition.
i Large 12mo,
Sinclair’s Locomotive Engine Running and Management............. I2mo,
Smart’s Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice............... I2mo,
Snowesisteam=boilersPracticesicicy seid satterecics vere cick cecvel yetievuec suave ve ie oreiele 8vo,
Spangler’s Notes on Thermodynamics.........-2..+.2- ceseeceseees I2mo,
Vial VeZce ans sees tcie keeles anes eet neues tenepepep Re Bicitace alorate kvaiebe 8vo,
Spangler, Greene, and Marshall’s Elements of Steam-engineering....... 8vo,
Mhomas S| SteamM—=turpwUMVES sy ojo oi: ciler viel ons (ese tnasevneuere Al ols ore chs h-ope ateneuencn ieteee 8vo,
Thurston’s Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the Indi-
catoriandsthe Prony, Brakes. pyericrievcreretecel stele cferei cre) sietotel choke 8vo,
Handy ghables sch cy siciccre care tetay recy bekoesyeroinacee omsyareniieg Ne tener NAPS b 8vo,
Manual! of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction, and Operation..8vo,
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Parti) WHistory,.structurewandsbheonya esse eee ee 8vo, 6
Part Ii. Design, Construction, and Operation................ 8vo, 6
Stationary/steam-—enginess. ple eee eer 8vo, 2
Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice.............12mo, 1
Wehrenfenning’s Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-water (Patterson) 8vo, 4
Weisbkach’s Heat, Steam, and Steam-engines. (Du Bois.)............. 8vo, 5
Whitham’s!Steam-engine sD sigan mim ey terie cess Seine enya ee enor 8vo, 5
Wood’s Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines...8vo, 4
MECHANICS PURE AND APPLIED.
Church’s Mechanics\of Engineering suse ante | eee ee ee pee 8vc, 6
Notes\and''‘Examples' in! Mechanicsi sels es sla eee ee cee 8vo, 2
Dana’s Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for Colleges and Schools..12mo, 1
Du Bois’s Elementary Principles of Mechanics:
Vol. d oe Rane matlesay sips agian ere yssseeehsn Si cae onsen eV AES TeTe HOSTS ciara 8vo, 3
Viol. LT ee Statics! eave reste teenie Moana tcc Si wai pai Et g Sets puna ney er help 8vo, 4
Mechanicsiof#Hneineentn gs iaViolsim lee ra ni ee ee etn eee Small ato, 7
AY oy) Eh 0 cee er ses ea nee Small 4to, 10
*iGreene7s stnucturaleMechamicSssen ry tennessee seep eee 8vo, 2
James’s Kinematics of a Point and the Rational Mechanics of a Particle.
Large 12mo, 2
*Johnson’s (Wi. We) Lbeoretical Mechanics... saci ein Wore Ae12Zmos 83
Lanzass ,AppliedsMechanics ser citys wari iaier ner icuny sie eesti | eae 8vo, 7
* Martin’s Text Book on Mechanics, Vol. I, Statics.............-.... 12mo, I
* Vol. 2, Kinematics and Kinetics ..12mo, 1
Maurers#hechnicalyMechanics sew acre reir erin ein eae 8vo, 4
*oMerriman’s Elements of/Mechanics).0;i tiesto are evens 12mo, 1
Mechanics of-Materialsaci35 Ase i ih ah eco epanittn prey leg ner a saaiaee 8vo, 5
* Michie’s Elements of Analytical Mechanics........................ 8vo, 4
Robinson's Principles.of Mechanism rere oe iene eae 8vo, 3
Sanborn’s Mechanics Problems................ FASS ere Mees Large 12mo, I
Schwamb and Merrill’s Elements of Mechanism...................... 8vo, 3
Woods Elements of Analytical Mechanicss.... ice eee ee eee 8vo, 3
Principles cf Elementary Mechanics................0.eceeuinene 12mo, 1
MEDICAL.
Abderhalden’s Physiological Chemistry in Thirty Lectures. (Hall and Defren).
(In Press).
von Behring’s Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.).............. I2mo, I
LPB OLGUANYSMLMMUNE A SCLA Ns ornate iagentle nel ereteger atest eucseesonel mente et aeee i2mo, I
Davenport’s Statistical Methods with Special Reference to Biological Varia-
TIONS Ae ia tis he trees pewetlc me ir ucie Be eRe ENS ute fie sn ir r1Omo, mor., I
Ehrlich’s Collected Studies on Immunity. (Bolduan.) ................ 8vo, 6
* Fischer’s Physiology of Alimentation........-........ Large 12mo, cloth, 2
de Fursac’s Manual of Psychiatry. (Rosanoff and Collins.)......Large 12mo, 2
Hammarsten’s Text-book on Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.).......8vo, 4
Jackson’s Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological Chemistry. ..8vo, 1
Lassar-Cohn’s Practical Urinary Analysis. (Lorenz.)................ I2mo, 1
Mandel’s Hand Book for the Bio-Chemical Laboratory. .............. I2mo, I
* Pauli’s Physicai Chemistry in the Service of Medicine. (Fischer.)....12mo0, 1x
* Pozzi-Escot’s Toxins and Venoms and their Antibodies. (Cohn.)......12m0, 1
Rostoskis'Serum) Diagnosis’ (Boldwan®)) sa.) sc eyes ene eis) siecne ence I2mo, I
Ruddiman’s Incompatibilities in Prescriptions...........,.......00-. 8vo, 2
WhyshintPharma cy sonnei cichecte rene er Raceline I2mo, I
Salkowski’s Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (Orndorff.)..... 8vo, 2
* Satterlee’s Outlines of Human Embryology....................... I2mo, I
Smith’s Lecture Notes on Chemistry for Dental Students............... $vo, 2
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Steel’s Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog. ..............00.00 eee aee 8vo,
= Whipplesyiyphoidpeverai snicisnrcete teva citins hace chore oreiee Large 12mo,
Woodhull’s Notes on Military Hygiene ............................ 16mo,
oe Personal Hy cienese wae piocewr ee asa bare 8 Mts ee a Sere I2mo,
Worcester and Atkinson’s Small Hospitals Establishment and Maintenance,
and S_ggestions for Hospital Architecture, with Plans for a Small
EV OS pital apart te star ccetacnstst cuenta tad Sunk coda tog Ghee kee se hae izmo,
METALLURGY.
BettszsLead Refininewby, Blectrolysise. «1c. sues ke eae 8v0.
Bolland’s Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of Foundry Terms Used
INuthevPractice OL MMOUl dn ee eee neaateg= ops crete aya eeraaae 12mo,
TTONSH OUNCE GEV aceycletent aspen in asian ate eee aun ia wectele enslieys UnUD Wsk 12mo.
he pe: Supplement we kee eat ean ea i TE ee Nea 12mo,
Douglas’s Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects......).......... 12mo,
Goesel’s Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book........... a. LOmMO,,more
zwieswsuluead smelting a nmisni somone) cana uite Oba a perneita ge Chacha 12mo,
Hee pys7 Casi lrom’s ciate etenatices rica asus ie Pe asec aT RT ERE RRR tate ny ae 8vo,
Le Chatelier’s High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard—Burgess.) 12mo,
Metcalf’s Steel. A Manual for Steel-users...................:..0.. 12mo,
Miller syCyanidesProcess sn rcrasy Morera esa) cee ects hse e eee eee Ne pe 12mo0
Minet’s Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo.)....12mo,
Robine and Lenglen’s Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)................. 8vo,
Ruer’s Elements of Metallography. (Mathewson). (In Press.)
SmuithispMaterialssofaMachinesy.4.0.cie wee ens oe ee 12mo,
Thurston’s Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts................. 8vo,
part 1. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering, see Civil Engineering,
page o.
Partial. Lronvandy Steele. necro tects eae steric apace 8vo,
Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their
Constitwents wee ce ee ashe oe een 8vo,
Ulke’s Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.................00ceee eee 8vo,
iwestzs AmenicansHoundry, Practic@sa1. sss cle ciskes e+ ccidciet ors cleretete ci stay 12mo,
Moulders-TextiBookey quits hysiche rog-teh Necctebst eae s totais: tous Leuaitel euaiisliel hay ane eRs 12mo,
WilsonwsiChlonnati oneProcesSamemi ier te cent reaeteiaer at cacce ence 12mo,
Cy ANidevPTOCESSES isc ke et ire oad EalRe ee ei cticilo cb wi wi'e) abelereueue i2mo,
MINERALOGY.
Barringer’s Description of Minerals of Commercial Value. Oblong, morocco,
Boy diseResourcesofsSouthwestovaingimiaten =r ei a. oe. cae nas ee 8vo
Boyd’s Map of Southwest Virginia... ............... . Pocket-book form.
* Browning’s Introduction to the Rarer Elements........ .. .........-.. 8vo,
Brush’s Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield.)..... HRCA ice 8vo,
Butler’s Pocket Hand-Book of Minerals........................ lomo, mor.
Chester’s'Catalopwerof Mineralste.). sccm cic ccm crisis ciara on 8vo, paper,
‘ Cloth,
Crane’s Gold and Silver. (In Press.)
Dana’s First Appendix to Dana’s New ‘‘ System of Mineralogy... .Large 8vo,
Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography........................ I2mo
Mirerals and How to Study Them........................0.0.. I2mo,
Systemuof Miimeralogiye <) sierra tey ore te eter oom erle Large 8vo, half leather,
ANerqislyorole Ge WobaaeVoPAyondoedboouuoubsdbdsuusuubeubooo ohio 8vo,
Douglas’s Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects... ............ I2mo,
Fakle?s Mineral: Mableste oti ids tea eae tak Heed So ad eae ONE rarer EET. 8vo,
Stone and Clay Froducts Used in Engineering. (In Preparation).
Egleston’s Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms...................... 8vo,
Goesel’s Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book.. ........... 16mo, mor.
Groth’s Introduction to Chemical Crystallography (Marshall)........ I2mo,
17
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* Tddings’s ‘Rock: Minerals i .i5.). sescuesieieropeken ia ead Caterer eee RN Ue 8vo,
Johannsen’s Determination of Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sections. ....8vo,
* Martin’s Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the Blowpipe.12mo,
Merrill’s Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses.......... 8vo,
Stones for, BuildingandiDecorationseee.ne ie be esate raion . .. 8vo
* Penfield’s Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests.
8vo, paper,
Tables of Minerals, Including the Use of Minerals and Statistics of
Domestic Production :-s.: cio iessicokakeweienel Sntns sutavei cus ettctess cstretievelielley Stele aire 8v0,
Pirsson’s Rocks and Rock Minerals. (In Press.)
* Richards’s Synopsis of Mineral Characters...............+0006 I2mo, mor.
* Ries’s Clays: Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses............. ',. .8vo,
* Tillman’s Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks. .............. 8vo,
MINING.
* Beard’s Mine Gases and Explosions............-e+eseeeeeee Large 12mo,
Boyd’s Map of Southwest Virginia.................--00- Pocket-book form,
Resources.of Southwest) Virginia... 3... fe. s cc. oe see ce cee elec 8vo,
Crane’s Gold and Silver. (Jn Press.)
Douglas’s Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects... ............ I2mo,
Eissler’s: Modern High Explosivess senac: ogee sickens nets ekelerevevelelomehsnereie 879.
Goesel’s Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book..,........... 16mo, mor.
Iilseng’s Manualtof Mining se srpcicceleticterele ers) okeiclcrsh ker oxetel ional loyet lieder lishcne 8vo,
*itlesisplead=smeltingatyscitenecnalsieteekenckeh skeheteneieklenenenet ene rerenedoisorave ot sete I2mo,
Miller’s Cyanide Process...........+-.-- Fe eta G ceatane is dole eam ntReee I2mo,
O’Driscoll’s Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores. ..............-2020-- 8vo,
Peele’s Compressed Air Plant for Mines. (In Press.)
Riemer’s Shaft Sinking Under Difficult Conditions. (Corning and Peele). . .8vo,
Robine and Lenglen’s Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.)................. 8vo,
x Weavers Military, EXDlOSIVES. . a eiesiecetelcns te sv elcicl e cneicde sloelelel ol elelelsfadeh stele 8vo,
Wilson’s Chlorination Process. ..........--.2eeececeescecee tae AUS ye Izmo,
Cyanide Processessrs ve) vrojeiesyerhesedes svete rss veel en cesded le adel cl ohel(=)oler hotel I2mo,
Hydraulic and Placer Mining. 2d edition, rewritten............ I2mo,
Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation........... 12mo,
SANITARY SCIENCE.
Association of State and National Food and Dairy Departments, Hartford Meeting,
TOG TEA ee OU a UA ae eta ae nahn pease ee 8v0,
Jamestown Meeting, 1907...............+ +22 eee eee reer eee 8vo,
* Bashore’s Outlines of Practical Sanitation..............-...--0205- 12mo,
Sanitation of a) Country, Houses ce. iesiciele cicie io ere eisieisielleralste siciatene 12mo,
Sanitation of Recreation Camps and Parks.................. 12mo,
Folwell’s Sewerage. (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance.). .....8vo,
WiaterssupplyaEbngineenin oer pr riiere eire entre ncrteittcl crt tanya 8vo,
Fowler’s Sewage Works Analyses... 0... ccs ee eect cece tence eeeees 12mop,
Fuertes:s water-altration sWOrkstimrici- -ciekelcrensfenetoneeselslevoheneheieiale steht 12mo,
Water and=Publicw Heal theceewrtcper sine el imterentareherleneierenonorer iene 12mo,
Gerhard’s Guide to Sanitary House-inspection ...............+2+00-- 16mo,
* Modern Baths and Bath Houses...........c.eeceeeceerreevecees 8vo,
Sanitation of Public Buildings.............ee ee. e eee eee eee ee 12mo,
Hazen’s Clean Water and How to Get It............-.seeeeeeee. Large 12mo,
Filtration of Public Water-supplies... ...........2.0-00 ee ee eee 8vo,
Kinnicut, Winslow and Pratt’s Purification of Sewage. (In Press.)
Leach’s Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State
CO Dt ee ee SG See ered hal ou ot Rican vex Say aes anne As 8vo,
Mason’s Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological)...... 12mo,
WAH AW HAR NN DPW AB Re A Ww Ww
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Water-supply. (Considered principally from a Sanitary Standpoint)..8vo, 4
18
* Merriman’s Elements of Sanitary Engineering...................... 8vo,
OgdentsiSewer Design. scans Maceo nae cok totees atone tecge aus ceoe eicicnk enl 12mo,
Parsons’s Disposal of Municipal Refuse................. ccc cee ececees 8vo,
Prescott and Winslow’s Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Refer-
ence to Sanitary Water Analysis............e.cccceceecee. 12mo,
* Price’s Handbook on Sanitation............. side cal stetay cstaleVeleveperaecrers 12mo,
Richards’s Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries..................... 12mo,
Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science..............0-.. 12mo,
CostrofeSbelter qos sire maybe eee cece eh a fad cea yap ew E E 12mo,
* Richards and Williams’s Dietary Computer.....................-.-. 8vo,
Richards and Woodman’s Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Stand-
FIO} b on RSE aSy nn BE arte Arai et en ne Srabers¥e ietetetene nets 8vo,
Rideal’s Disinfection and the Preservation of Food,. ..........-.sss0+- -8V0,
Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage.................-. 8vo,
Soper’s Air and Ventilation of Subways. (In Press.)
Turneaure and Russell’s Public Water-supplies. .............eceecee-: 8vo,
Venable’s Garbage Crematories in America.................000- LRG 8vo,
Method and Devices for Bacterial Treatment of Sewage........... .8V0,
Ward and Whipple’s Freshwater Biology. (In Press.)
Whipple’s Microscopy of Drinking-water..............ceecceccceeces 8vo,
* TRV DHOUUE VET sare roesvotete rele cc ears lala accuse okenete whevn ve Sie -decete eras Large 12mo,
Walue ofsPureswatene ni ctrce cireiici cis ecisloccelseelelel ate ous Syelstercts Large 12mo,
Winton’s Microscopy of Vegetable Foods... ...........ccceececcvceecs 8vo,
MISCELLANEOUS.
Emmons’s Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion of the
International Congress of Geologists................006 Large 8vo,
Ferrel’s Popular Treatise on the Winds. ................cceccececcces 8vo,
nitzceraldyssBostone Machinistiecs cmc -icta-iieie cieletorciciclcle ere iaticlerele cerca 18mo,
Gannett’s Statistical Abstract of the World. ........................ 24mo,
Haines’s American Railway Management. ...................0e0e0-. 12mo,
* Hanusek’s The Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton)........... 8vo,
Ricketts’s History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 1824-1894.
Large 12mo,
Rotherham’s Emphasized New Testament............ S50000'6.060 Large 8vo,
Standage’s Decoration of Wood, Glass, Metal, etc............. ..... 12mo,
Thome’s Structural and Physiological Botany. (Bennett)............. 16mo,
Westermaier’s Compendium of General Botany. (Schneider)............ 8v0,
Winslow’s Elements of Applied Microscopy.....................0-- i2mo,
HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS.
Green’s Elementary Hebrew Grammar...............00.0ccecceuees 12mo,
Gesenius’s Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures.
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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
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