WMC Peports 46

WCMC Biodiversity Bulletin No.1

Priorities for Biodiversity

Conservation in the Tropics

By World Conservation Monitoring Centre

Michael J.B. Green, Martyn G. Murray, Gillian C. Bunting
and James R. Paine

SUMMARY

This study provides an assessment of the extent to which habitats in the
tropics are protected and guidance on prioritising conservation action
from global and national perspectives. At the global level, investments
should be strategically targeted towards biologically richer countries and
habitats inadequately represented within protected areas. In the case of
habitats that are well represented within protected areas, investments
should be targeted towards effectively managing such sites. At national
levels, countries should aim to ensure that all habitats are well
represented within their protected areas system.

INTRODUCTION

Much of the world’s biological diversity is concentrated in the
tropics, particularly where conditions are hot and wet. Tropical
forests, for example, contain over half of the world’s biodiversity
(WCMC, 1992). But how much of biodiversity is protected, how
much is being invested in its protection and, from a global
perspective, what are the priorities and most appropriate strategies
for its conservation?

While there have been various assessments of the status of
biodiversity within each of the tropical regions (Sub-Saharan Africa:

MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986a; Indo-Malaya: MacKinnon and
MacKinnon, 1986b; MacKinnon, 1996; Pacific: Dahl, 1986; Latin
America & Caribbean: Dinerstein et al., 1995), there has never been
a single pantropical evaluation of conservation priorities.

This study makes use of several extensive spatial datasets, not previously
available, to provide for the first time a comprehensive assessment of
the conservation status of biodiversity throughout the tropics. The main
findings of relevance to policy makers, planners and donors are
presented in this paper. Further details can be found in the full WCMC
report, which also includes a more exhaustive analysis of the
conservation status of tropical forests (Murray et al., 1996).

WORLD CONSERVATION
MONITORING CENTRE

METHODS

Biodiversity status

In order to assess the status of biodiversity in
the tropics, a habitat classification system

(Box 1) was used to quantify the extent to
which major ecosystems are represented within
protected areas.

Statistics were generated by overlaying vector
datasets of protected areas and habitats, using
Geographic Information System technology.
All protected areas >1,000ha, and known to
exist and mapped in mid-1995 were included in
the analysis.

A protected area is defined as :

“An area of land and/or sea especially
dedicated to the protection and
maintenance of biological diversity, and of
natural and associated cultural resources,
and managed through legal or other
effective means ” (IUCN, 1994).

A combination of the percentage of a habitat
found within a given country and its percent
protection within that country was used to
prioritise the need, and define the strategy, for
conservation action.

Box 1 Habitat classification system

relative humidity),

Thus, a habitat with a significant proportion
(=10%) found within a particular country but
largely unprotected (% represented within
protected areas) is given highest priority for
conservation action, the most appropriate
strategy being the creation of protected areas.
Conversely, a habitat that is sparsely
represented (%) within a country but,
nevertheless, well represented (>10%) within
the national protected areas system is given
lowest priority for conservation action, the
most appropriate strategy being effective
management within existing protected areas.
These and other scenarios are explained in Box 2.

The minimum of 10% for representation within
protected areas is based on that agreed at the
III World Congress on National Parks and
Protected Areas to be an appropriate and
practical target for each of the world’s major
ecosystems (McNeely and Miller, 1984). This
target was applied to biomes at the TV World
Congress (IUCN, 1993).

Investments in protected areas

Expenditure on protected areas was used as an
indicator of levels of investment in protecting
biodiversity. Expenditure was considered for

This is based on an ecofloristic zone (EFZ) classification system developed by F. Blasco and

P. Legris of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, University of Toulouse, France
to standardise existing vegetation classifications of tropical Asia and the Pacific (Sharma,

1986; FAO, 1989). Subsequently, the classification was applied to the vegetation of Africa
(Sharma, 1988) and South America (Lavenu, Bellan and Meste, 1988). It has since been
digitised by FAO for the entire tropics as part of its Forest Resources Assessment 1990 Project.

The classification represents potential vegetation and is based on four criteria:

° climate (mean annual precipitation, length of dry season, temperature and

° physiognomy and structure of vegetation using interpretation of satellite imagery,

° edaphic factors (soil and physical environment), and

¢ dominant or characteristic forest species of indigenous flora.

Thirteen major zones are distinguished, each represented by one or more EFZs in the
different tropical regions. Whereas major zones are common to all regions (except the
Mediterranean which occurs only in tropical Africa), EFZs are characteristic of particular
Tegions, as shown in Maps 1-3. In this study the terms habitat and major habitat are used

synonymously with EFZ and major zone, respectively.

Box 2

Representation of a
habitat in country

to protected areas (PAs)

Protection of
habitat in country

Global priority for >
conservation action

National strategy for >
conservation action

Decision Tree for prioritising biodiversity conservation action with respect

1992 in terms of national investments, based on
protected area agency budgets, and foreign aid
channelled through bilateral and multilateral
aid agencies (i.e. Official Development
Assistance).

The analysis was restricted to 15 of the 25
countries prioritised for development
assistance by the United Kingdom under its
Renewable Natural Resources Strategies, data
for the other countries not being available.

Constraints

The data used in this study are subject to the
following limitations:

= Those protected areas whose location was
not known could not be included in the
analysis (estimated at <10% sites).

= In cases where only point locations, rather
than boundaries, were available for
protected areas, circles were mapped
proportional in size to the area of the site.

= Estimates of foreign aid for protected areas
are conservative, since it was not possible to
obtain comprehensive information on
relevant projects from all bilatera! and
multilateral donors. Moreover, the
estimates represent commitments, rather
than actual disbursements, in 1992.

RESULTS

Pantropical overview

The protection status of major habitats is
summarised in Table 1 and illustrated in Map 4.

The results show that:

= Protected areas cover 7.7% of the tropics.

= Of the five regions, South & South-East
Asia and Central America & Caribbean are
least well protected.

e Wet and moist major habitats are better
represented in protected areas than dry
major habitats. This probably reflects
national and foreign policies to promote the
conservation of tropical rain forests, and
drier habitats being more prone to
conversion to agriculture.

@ Major habitats well represented in
protected areas are lowland wet (21.8%),
mostly found in tropical America, and
montane moist(11.9%).

Poorly represented major habitats are
premontane dry (2.9%) and montane dry
(2.2%). The latter is the least extensive
major habitat, with a total area of only
308,080 sq.km.

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= Protection of several major habitats is Salient features of the analysis are as follows:

marginal (%) in certain regions, namely: seven habitats are currently not represented
lowland C. America within protected areas (Box 4).
sub-dry &Caribbean
= 13 habitats fall exclusively within the

lowland C. America territory of a single country. Such countries,
ey ah eConbbean therefore, are solely responsible for their
Sub-arid protection (Box 5).
lowland S. & S.E. Asia
arid/desertic S. America Investments in protected areas
premontane dry S. & S.E. Asia Using the number of habitats within a country
montane dry Africa, C-America as a measure of its biological richness, Figure 1

& Caribbean shows that biologically diverse countries tend

to spend less on protected areas than less
diverse countries. This is attributed to fewer

Strategies for conservation action
teg financial resources being available in

The distribution of each habitat is summarised biologically rich countries, and agrees with a
by country in the Annex, according to a range more extensive, worldwide analysis of

of conservation priorities and strategies protected area investments (James et al., in
defined in Box 2. press).

An example of how to use the Annex is given in Levels of foreign aid for biodiversity

Box 3 to show the priority and appropriate conservation, however, are weakly related to
strategy for conserving a habitat within each of habitat diversity (Figure 2), suggesting that
its range countries. Reference should also be donors have tended to appraise the biological
made to Maps 1-3 which show the distribution richness of a country in their allocation of aid
of habitats and protected areas. for conservation.

Box 3 An example of how to interpret conservation priorities summarised in the Annex

Reference to the Annex shows that deciduous forest (EFZ 15) in Africa is potentially found in
Kenya, Mozambique, S. Africa, and Tanzania. Conservation priorities and strategies within
each country are as follows:

S. Africa has <10 % of EFZ 15; >10% of that which occurs in the country lies within protected areas.

Global conservation priority : lowest
National conservation strategy : effectively manage that which is protected.

Kenya has <10% of EFZ 15; <10% of that which occurs in the country lies within protected areas.

Global conservation priority : low
National conservation strategy : increase representation within protected areas to at

least 10%.

Tanzania has >10% of EFZ 15; >10% of that which occurs in the country lies within protected areas.

Global conservation priority : high
National conservation strategy : effectively to manage that which is protected.

Mozambique has >10% of EFZ 15; <10% of that which occurs in the country lies within protected
areas.
Global conservation priority : highest
National conservation strategy : increase representation within protected areas
to at least 10%.

Although the allocation of foreign aid is
unevenly distributed, Figure 3 shows that it
makes a substantial difference to the total
investment in protected areas in approximately
one-third of countries sampled. However,
foreign aid does not adequately compensate
for the low level of national investments in
biologically rich countries.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS

This study provides initial guidance on global
priorities, and the most appropriate strategies,
for biodiversity conservation in the tropics.
Biodiversity conservation policies and
interventions should be guided by the following
principles:

Global priorities

= Investments should be strategically targeted
towards habitats inadequately represented
within protected areas, with priority given to
countries with sole or major responsibility
for their conservation.

In particular, the proportionately less
extensive protected area networks in South
& South-East Asia and Central America &
Caribbean, poorer representation of drier
habitats in protected areas, and marginal or
zero protection of certain habitats need to
be addressed.

= In the case of habitats that are well
represented within protected areas,
investments should be targeted towards
effectively managing such sites, with priority
given to countries with sole or major
responsibility for such habitats.

= Investments should be prioritised towards
biologically richer countries.

National priorities
# Countries should aim to ensure that all

habitats are well represented within their
protected areas system.

Given that the habitat classification system
represents potential vegetation, conservation
strategies will need to be validated by more
detailed assessments of the actual distribution
and condition of the vegetation at national
levels.

Box 4 Habitats currently not protected

Tropical Africa
EFZ 2 - lowland rain forest
(Madagascar)

EFZ 18 - wooded grassland with
baobab (Angola, Zaire)

Tropical Asia

EFZ 14 - evergreen & semi-evergreen
forest (Viet Nam)

EFZ 29 - deciduous & mixed forest
(Cambodia)
EFZ 31 - temperate & alpine forest
and scrub (Pakistan)
EFZ 36 - subtropical hill forest (Sri
Lanka)

Tropical America
EFZ 8 - cerrados (Brazil)

Box 5 Countries with sole responsibility
‘or the conservation of habitats
within their territory

Tropical Africa
Kenya (1 habitat)
Madagascar (9 habitats)
South Africa (10 habitats)

Tropical Asia

Cambodia (1 habitat)
India (4 habitats)
Indonesia (5 habitats)
Malaysia (2 habitats)
Myanmar (1 habitat)
Pakistan (2 habitats)
Sri Lanka (1 habitat)
Viet Nam (2 habitats)

Tropical America
Brazil (5 habitats)

Peru (1 habitat)

Note: Habitats are identifiable from the Annex.

Figure 1

Relation between national investment in
protected areas in 1992 and habitat diversity
(excluding South Africa)

8

8

$

National investment in protected areas (US$/sq.km)

°o
°

Number of habitats

Figure 3

Relationship between types of investments in
protected areas in 1992 and habitat diversity,
showing that foreign aid does not adequately
compensate for low national investments in
biologically richer countries.

ODA and national investment combined
C National investment only
| Solid line indicates the amount of ODA

3 Big

8

3

Figure 2
Relation between foreign aid for protected areas
in 1992 and habitat diversity

Total ODA for protected area projects (US $millions)

FUTURE MONITORING

The value of using GIS technology to quantify
the representativeness of protected area systems
in the tropics is clearly demonstrated by this
study. However, the present analysis is limited to
habitats. It should be complemented by a similar
quantitative assessment of the representation of
centres of species diversity, speciation and
endemismm within protected areas.

This study also highlights the need to procure
data on the effectiveness with which protected
areas are managed to guide aid interventions,
particularly as investments become increasingly
directed from the establishment of protected
areas to their maintenance.

A tripartite information system on:

® representation of tropical habitats and
species hot spots within protected areas,

@ effectiveness of protected area
management, and

® national and foreign aid investments in
protected areas

would enable cost-effective strategies for
conserving biodiversity in the tropics to be
developed and monitored.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dahl, A.L. 1986. Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
UK/ UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya.

Dinerstein, E., Olson, D.M., Graham, D.J., Webster, A.L., Primm, S.A., Bookbinder, M.P. and Ledec, G. 1995.
A Conservation Assessment of the Terrestrial Ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean. The World
Bank, Washington D.C.

FAO 1989. Classification and Mapping of Vegetation Types in Tropical Asia. FAO, Rome.

James, A.N., Green, M.J.B. and Paine, J.R. (in press). National Investments in Biodiversity Conservation.
World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK.

IUCN 1993. Parks for Life: Report of the IVth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland.

IUCN 1994. Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories. CNPPA with the assistance of WCMC.
IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.

Lavenu F, Bellan M.E and Meste C. 1988. Carte Eco-floristique de l Amerique du Sud. FAO, Rome.

MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. 1986a. Review of the Protected Areas System in the Afrotropical Realm.
IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.

MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. 1986b. Review of the Protected Areas System in the Indo-Malayan Realm.
IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.

MacKinnon, J. (Ed.) 1996. Review of Biodiversity Conservation in the Indo-Malayan Realm. Draft. Prepared
by the Asian Bureau for Conservation in collaboration with the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. The
World Bank, Washington D.C.

McNeely J.A. and Miller K.R. (Eds) 1984. National Parks, Conservation, and Development: The Role of
Protected Areas in Sustaining Society. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

Murray, M.G., Green, M.J.B., Bunting, G.C. and Paine, J.R. 1996. Biodiversity Conservation in the Tropics:
Gaps in Habitat Protection and Funding Priorities. Overseas Development Administration Research Project
R6190. World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK.

Sharma, M.K. 1986. Eco-floristic Zone and Vegetation Maps of Tropical Continental Asia. FAO, Rome.
Sharma, M.K. 1988. Eco-floristic Zone Map of Africa. FAO, Rome.

World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1992. Global Biodiversity: Status of the Earth’s Living Resources.
Chapman and Hall, London.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was funded by the Overseas Development Administration, UK under its Renewable Natural Resources
Research Strategy (Research Project R6190 - Investments in Conservation Areas in the Tropics). Particular thanks
are due to Howard Wright and Anne Bradley of the Forestry Research Programme, Oxford Forestry Institute which
manages the Forestry Research Strategy for the UK Government. The study is the product of several major projects
previously carried out by WCMC, notably the compilation of an atlas of the world’s tropical forests in collaboration
with IUCN - The World Conservation Union (funded principally by British Petroleum p.l.c.), an assessment of the
conservation status of tropical managed areas as a contribution to the FAO Forest Resources Assessment 1990
(funded by the Overseas Development Administration, UK), and a review of financial investments in biodiversity
conservation (funded by the European Commission). It has also benefited from an ongoing review of the
Indo-Malayan protected areas system, funded by the World Bank and executed by Dr John MacKinnon, Asian
Bureau for Conservation in close association with WCMC. Massimiliano Lorenzini and George Muammar, FAO
Forest Resources Assessment 1990 Project kindly made available in digital format the ecofloristic classification
system. The project was originally conceived by Dr Mark Collins, Director of WCMC. The authors are very grateful
to Victoria Freeman for secretarial assistance. Christine Carey-Noble, Mary Edwards and Ronan Smith also
contributed to this study.

For further information please contact:

The Information Officer
World Conservation Monitoring Centre Tel: +44 (0)1223 277314
219 Huntingdon Road Fax: +44 (0)1223 277136

Cambridge CB3 ODL, United Kingdom e-mail: info@wcmc.org.uk