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PROBLEM ANIMAL CONTROL HANDBOOK

(3rd Edition)

MASSACHUSETTS DIVISION OF FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE
100 CAMBRIDGE STREET, BOSTON, MASS.

1994

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PROBLEM ANIMAL CONTROL HANDBOOK

This handbook is intended as a guide for persons Hcensed as problem animal control
agents in accordance with the Code of Massachusetts Regulations, 321 CMR 2.14.
This is the third edition of the handbook. Other sources, including, but not
restricted to, those suggested below, may provide useful additional information.

The Division of Fisheries and Wildlife (DFW) is the state agency which has
jurisdiction and responsibility for regulating, managing, and studying the inland
fisheries and wildlife resources of the state and the habitats of these species. All
freshwater fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals are protected by state law
and may not be possessed, killed, harmed, harassed, hunted, bought or sold, or
otherwise taken or molested unless there is a provision in state law which allows
this, or unless DFW issues a permit or license allowing it. In addition, some species
are also protected by Federal law. Problem Animal Control Agents (PAC Agents)
are licensed (issued permits) by DFW in accordance with provisions of G.L. c. 131, §
4 and 321 CMR 2.14. The purposes of such licensing is to provide a lawful
procedure for the control of vertebrate animals which are causing damage to
property or interfering with the reasonable use of such property. Under some
circumstances, landowners, members of their immediate families, or persons
permanently employed by them may control or destroy problem animals without a
permit (G.L. c. 131, s. 37). However, this may not be satisfactory due to the need for
special training or equipment or the lack of time or ability on the part of the
complainant. Problem Animal Control Agents, including municipal Animal
Control Officers, can therefore provide such services, when properly licensed. No
person, unless otherwise allowed by law, may control problem animals without such
licensing from DFW.

Regulations:

The complete text of the Problem Animal Control regulations is found in the
Code of Massachusetts Regulations (321 CMR 2.14), initially published in the
Massachusetts Register in May 1989. Prior to 1989, licensing was also required but
was governed by administrative policy. The current regulations set forth the
purpose for the regulations, the scope of the permit requirement, the information
and requirements necessary for application, procedures for administering
abandoned and denied applications, criteria for issuance of the permit and for
provisional permits, exemptions, examination and recertification requirements,

procedures for revocation and non-renewal of permits, restrictions, record-keeping
and reporting requirements, and other information. A copy of these regulations is
contained in this handbook. Permittees must be familiar with all aspects of the
regulations and must comply with them in conducting their animal control
program.

Examination and Recertification Requirements:

Prior to 1989, Problem Animal Control Agents could obtain and renew their
permits by applying and by being recommended by a DFW District Wildlife
Manager or an Environmental Police Officer. Under the formal regulations now
in place, a new applicant must also complete a written examination on biology,
handling, capture techniques, animal welfare, diseases and parasites, statutes and
regulations, and other appropriate subject matter before being granted a permit.
They must also successfully complete a trapper training course. In order to phase in
existing permittees, persons who have held a problem animal control permit for
three or more years were allowed to renew without completing the examination.
Persons who had held such a permit for more than one but less than three years
were allowed to renew, but then required to take the examination within six
months in order to retain the permit. All of these 1-year provisional permittees
have now been phased into the program. In any case, all permittees must retake an
examination (recertify) every third year. In past years, there has been no fee either
for taking the examination or for issuance of the permit. Such fees may be
instituted in the future. Questions on the examination will be based on, but not be
limited to, materials in this handbook. Municipal Animal Control Officers may
be exempted from the examination and recertification requirements and the fees
(if any) when the DFW Director is satisfied that their training and experience
warrants such exemption. The ACO certification program being conducted
through the Criminal Justice Training Council can provide such training and
experience.

Control Philosophy:

The Problem Animal Control Agent has a divided responsibility. He or she has a
responsibility to the client to solve the animal problem which the client has
complained about. The agent also has a responsibility to the state and to society to
act lawfiilly and ethically. They also have a responsibility to the animals to act
humanely. It is a challenging task to meet all these responsibilities all of the time.
In many, if not most, instances, it is not the animal which is the problem, but
rather the human. Humans have intruded their habitat into that of the animals.

who have taken advantage of human artifacts for food and shelter. This
exploitation of human resources by animals is often considered to be a "problem" or
a "nuisance" by those who encounter it. These problems are often real, and need to
be resolved, but the actual problem is not the animal— which is acting in accordance
with its biological needs— but the interaction between the animal and human. By
eliminating the situations which elict those interactions, problems can often be
reduced or eliminated. In other words, prevent the problem from occurring— by
physical barriers, sanitary disposal of garbage, or by tolerating a low level of damage.
Secondarily, problem animals may sometimes be harassed or chased away. Problem
Animal Control Agents should, whenever possible, recommend and utilize
exclusionary measures or non-lethal controls over lethal measures for controlling
problem animals. On the other hand, when human health and safety, or that of
domestic animals, is immediately threatened, or when a high level of severe
damage is occurring, immediate and humane destruction of the animal may be
warranted. Agents should advise their clients of those measures which can be
utilized to prevent damage in the future. Persons should be attentive to problems
which might occur elsewhere nearby. It does little good— to either the animals or
to humans— to merely shift damage from place to place.

Capture of Problem Animals:

Those means which are allowed for the taking of problem animals are specified in
the regulations. In some instances, these include lethal means such as shooting or
kill-type traps. In other instances, capture may be accomplished by live holding
devices such as cage traps or nets. The animal's 'welfare should be considered and
needless pain and suffering should be avoided. All capture devices have inherent
conditions or contradictions which may limit their use and effectiveness and
Problem Animal Control Agents must be familiar with those devices which they
use. For example, cage or "box** traps may capture the animal harmlessly, but the
animals may become dehydrated if the trap is left in the sun for long periods, or the
trap may be vandalized. Captured animals may also damage their teeth by gnawing
at the mesh of wire traps. Be sure that you know your equipment and its
limitations.

PAC Agents must comply with most (but not all) of the fur trapping regulations,
321 CMR 3.02(5). These are detailed and are subject to frequent change. Many of
the relevant provisions of these trapping regulations have been incorporated into
the Problem Animal regulations, but you should read both regulations carefully to
be sure that you are acting properly. You will learn much of this information
when you take the required trapper training course.

Disposal of Problem Animals:

In some instances, it will be necessary to kill problem animals, either because of the
nature of the damage, or because the problem is caused by a sick or injured animal.
It can be distressing to the agent or the client to have to kill animals and
exclusionary or non-lethal means are preferred when possible and practical. When
it is necessary to destroy animals, the method used should be as quick and painless as
possible, depending on the urgency of the matter and the kind and size of animal
involved. Keeping this in mind, suggested means of euthanasia include: shooting
in the brain with a firearm (suspected rabid animals should be shot in the heart);
chemical euthanasia by lethal injection; cervical dislocation (small birds and
mammals); and drowning. Shooting should be done by trained personnel and with
due regard for the safe discharge of firearms and state laws governing the same.
Chemical injection may be done only by trained and properly licensed persons
using pharmacological agents designed for humane euthanasia. In most instances,
neither the Massachusetts Department of Public Health nor the U.S. Drug
Enforcement Administration will license non-medical private individuals (such as
PAC Agents) to possess controlled susbtances and syringes. Commercially available
chemicals such as acetone, ketone compounds, nicotine derivates, neuromuscular
blocking agents, and the like, as well as automobile exhaust, are not approved
euthanasia agents and are not allowed for that purpose.

Sick, injured, and orphaned animals may be transferred to a licensed Wildlife
Rehabilitator. These rehabilitators are licensed by the DFW and must take a
written test and meet other training standards. Names and addresses of persons
currently licensed as rehabilitators may be obtained from the DFWs Boston office
(address and telephone number below). DFW should be contacted immediately
when a person encounters a sick, injured, or dead Endangered or Threatened
species, such as an eagle or peregrine falcon.

Specialized Damage Situations:

Sometimes damage may be caused by animals which cannot be lawfully controlled
by a Problem Animal Control Agent, or which require the agent to obtain a special
permit. Examples of these kinds of damage include that caused by migratory birds
(such as Canada geese), white-tailed deer, black bear, beaver, or coyote. Migratory
birds complaints should be referred to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (see
below). DFW should be advised of damage caused by deer, bear, beaver, and other
larger mammals. In some instances, DFW will investigate these complaints in the

field. In other situations, literature or advice may be provided so that the citizen
can solve the problem himself. Although you, as a PAC Agent, will not normally
address these types of damage, you should have some familiarity with them. You
need to know what to look for so that you can identify the damage when called by a
unknowing client, and so that you can refer the client to the proper agency for
resolution of the problem.

You should have some basic understanding of the major parasites and diseases
which can affect wildlife. This is necessary to protect yourself and your employees
when handling sick wildlife, and so that you may caution your clients against
engaging in hazardous practices. Do not, however, presume to identify an animal
as having a particular disease merely on its behavior and appearance. Clinical
testing in a laboratory will be needed to prove what is afflicting the animal. You
shoud, however, know what serious diseases or parasites affect the animals you are
handling, how these ailments are transmitted, and how you can protect yourself
and others from those which are transmissible to humans. In particular, you should
have some knowledge of rabies, distemper, mange, giardiasis, Lyme disease, and
raccoon roundworm, among others.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER READING:

Some of these are written in a popular style, while others are highly technical.
Some are in-print and readily available, while others may only be obtained on the
out-of-print market or on interlibrary loan. Field guides and similar sources may
have useful information; those references below are recommended but are not the
only sources.

Animal Damage and Control and Capture Techniques:

Canadian Trappers' Federation. 1986. Canadian trappers* manual (4th ed.)
Canad. Trappers' Fed., St. Catherine's, Ontario, 326pp.

De Almeida, M.H. 1 987. Nuisance furbearer damage control in urban and
suburban areas. Pages 996-1006 in M. Novak et al. (eds.) Wild furbearer
management and conservation in North America. Ontario Ministry of Natural
Resources, Toronto, 1150pp.

Harding, J. 1979. An animal damage identification guide for Massachusetts.
Mass. Coop. Extension Service, Univ. Mass., Amherst, Publ. SP-113, 118pp.

k

Hawthorne, D.W. 1980. Wildlife damage and control techniques. Pages 411-439
in S.D. Schemnitz (ed.) Wildlife management techniques manual (4th ed.). The
Wildlife Society, Inc., Wash., D.C., 686pp.

Timm, R.M., ed. 1983. Prevention and control of wildlife damage. Great Plains
Agricultural Council Wildlife Resources Committee and Nebraska Cooperative
Extension Service, Univ. Nebraska, Lincoln, variously paged.

Also usefiil are the "Proceedings" of the Eastern Wildlife Damage Control
Conferences (1st, 1983; 2nd, 1985; 3rd, 1987; 4th, 1989; 5th, 199x). You can have
your librarian check for these on loan.

Life Histories:

Bull, J. 1974. Birds of New York state. Doubleday/Natural History Press, New
York, 655pp.

Chapman, J.A. and G.A. Feldhamer, eds. 1982. Wild mammals of North
America. Biology, man^ement, economics. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore,
1147pp.

DeCraaf, R-M. and D.D. Rudis. 1983. Amphibians and reptiles of New England.
Habits and natural history. Univ. Mass. Press, Amherst, 83pp.

Godin, A.J. 1977. Wild mammals of New England. Johns Hopkins Press,
Baltimore, Md., 304pp.

Novak, M., J A. Baker, M.E. Obbard and B. Malloch. 1987. Wild fiirbearer
management and conservation in North America. Ontario Ministry of Natural
Resources, Toronto, 1150pp.

Terres, J.K., ed. 1982. The Audubon Society encyclopedia of North American
birds. A.A. Knopf, New York, 1109pp.

Animal Diseases:

Davidson, W.R. and V.F. Nettles. 1988. Field manual of wildlife diseases in the
southeastern United States. Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study,
Athens, Ga., 309pp.

Davis, J.W. and R.C. Anderson, eds. 1971. Parasitic diseases of wild mammals.
Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, 364pp.

Davis, J.W., R.C. Anderson, L. Karstad, and D.O. Trainer, eds. 1972. Infectious and
parasitic diseases of wild birds. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, 344pp.

Davis, J.W., L.H. Karstad and D.O. Trainer, eds. 1981. Infectious diseases of wild
mammals (2nd ed.) Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, 446pp.

Friend, M., ed. 1987. Field guide to wildlife diseases. General field procedures and
diseases of migratory birds. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Service, Wash., D.C., Resource
Publ. 167, 225pp.

Remarks:

This handbook only contains a brief summary of information necessary and useful
to the Problem Animal Control Agent. If you have questions or comments, please
direct them to DFW. Issuance of permits is handled through the Permit Section,
Division of Fisheries and Wildlife, 100 Cambridge Street, Leverett Saltonstall
Building, Boston, MA 02202 (617-727-3151). Technical questions should be
directed to the Division of Fisheries and Wildlife, Field Headquarters, 1 Rabbit
Hill Road, Westborough, MA 01581 (508-366-4479,508-792-7270). The addresses
and telephone numbers of DFWs five District offices can be found in the
pamphlet "Abstracts of the Fish and Wildlife Laws", published annually and
available from the DFW or from city and town clerks. You should obtain a copy of
these and be familiar with any restrictions or prohibitions which may be
mentioned. The laws governing fisheries and wildlife are contained in the
Massachusetts General Laws, Chapter 131, which can generally be found at your
city or town hall or library. Fisheries and wildlife regulations are contained in the
Code of Massachusetts Regulations, 321 CMR. A copy may be obtained at the
State House Bookstore, Boston, or contact your local library. Be aware that
regulations change frequently!

Other Agencies:

Enforcement of the Fisheries and Wildlife laws and other Massachusetts
environmental laws is handled by the Division of Law Enforcement
(Environmental Police). Their main office is at 100 Nashua Street, Boston (617-

727-3905), with the Inland regional office in Lancaster (508-792-7436) and the
Coastal regional office in Hingham (617-727-0882). In emergencies, the Radio
Room of the Division of Law Enforcement can be contacted toll-free (1-800-632-
8075). Federal environmental laws are enforced by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service (Law Enforcement Division), Federal Office Bldg., 10 Causeway Street,
Boston 02222 (617-565-6580).

Migratory birds are subject to Federal law and international treaty and state law
regarding them is secondary. Migratory bird permits are adminstered by the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Drive, Hadley 01035 (413-253-8509).
Damage caused by migratory birds is investigated by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, APHIS/Animal Damage Control, 463 West Street, Amherst 01002
(413-253-2403). It is not lawful to harm or kill any migratory birds which are
causing damage, including birds of prey, gulls, waterfowl, and others without a
special depredation permit. However, such a permit is not required merely to scare
or frighten such depredating birds (except endangered species).

Licensing by the Massachusetts Pesticide Board does not convey authority to engage
in the control of wild vertebrate animals. The house mouse and Norway rat in
commensal situations arc not considered "wild". Permits from DFW are required
in order to use toxicants for the control of pigeons, starlings, orchard voles, and
similar species.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Statutes and Regulations:

1. Prevention of defilement of domestic water supply by gulls or terns (M.G.L. c.
111,§174A).

2. Destruction or control of foxes and rodents (M.G.L. c. 128, § 8A).

3. Killing of game by owner or tenant of land (M.G.L. c. 131, § 37).

4. Farmers; permit to trap and kill birds (M.G.L. c. 131, § 38).

5. Poisons; exceptions; permits; regulations (M.G.L. c. 131, § 43).

6. Registration and identification of traps (M.G.L. c. 131, § 80).

7. Cenain traps or other devices prohibited (M.G.L. c. 131, § 80A).

8. Sparrows and starlings (M.G.L. c. 131, § 83).

9. Placing poison for rodents where it may cause injury (M.G.L. c. 270, § 3A).

10. Trapping of birds by farmers (321 CMR2.09).

1 1 . Issuance of permits to expose poisons for the control of mammal and bird
species not protected by Federal or state statutes (321 CMR 2.10).

12. Anificial propagation and maintenance of birds, mammals, reptiles, and
amphibians (extract only— abandoned applications) 321 CMR 2.12(8).

13. Problem animal control (321 CMR 2.14).

14. State list of endangered wildlife and wild plants (321 CMR 10.60(4). (extract-
vertebrate wildlife only).

Leaflets and Brochures:

1 . Control of Snapping Turtles

2. Control of English Sparrows

3. Control of Starlings

4. Vagrant Pigeon Control

5. Canada Goose— Biology and Behavior

6. Control of Opossums

7. Moles— Biology and Behavior

8. Control of Cottontail Rabbits

9. Control of Tree Squirrels

10. Control of Rats and House Mice

Publication No. 17547 - 130 - 130 - 4/94 - 3.59 - C.R..
Recyded Paper Approved by: Philmore Anderson III, State Purchasing Agent

11. Porcupine— Biology and Behavior

12. Beaver-- Biology and Behavior

13. Beaver Management in Massachusetts

14. Control of Foxes

15. The Eastern Coyote in Massachusetts

16. Control of Weasels

17. Black Bear— Biology and Behavior

18. Coexisting with Black Bears in the Wild

19. White-tailed Deer— Biology and Behavior

20. Control of Animal Odors with Neutroleum Alpha

21. Wildlife in Massachusetts— Chipmunk

22. Controlling Wildlife Damage— Woodchuck

23. Wildlife in Massachusetts— Gray Squirrel

24. Wildlife in Massachusetts— Muskrat

25. Wildlife in Massachusetts— Raccoon

26. Controlling Wildlife Damage— Raccoon

27. Wildlife in Massachusetts— Striped Skunk

28. Controlling Wildlife Damage— Skunk

29. If You Care— Leave Them There

30. Moving Wild Animals is Against the Law

31. Public Health Fact Sheet— Giardiasis

32. Public Health Fact Sheet— Lyme Disease

33. Public Health Fact Sheet— Rabies

34. Wildlife Rabies in Massachusetts

35. Rabies and Wildlife

36. A Homeowner's Guide to Massachusetts Bats and Bat Problems.

MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL LAWS
CHAPTER 111, SECTION 174A.

111:174A.. Prevention of defilement of domestic water supply by gulls or terns.

Section 174A. In order to preserve the purity and prevent the pollution of the
waters of any reservoir, pond, and stream used for domestic water supply, by the
watershed system of the division of watershed management of the metropolitan
district commission, or by a town, water supply or fire and water district, public
institution or water company, said division, the public board or commission, or the
governing board in case of a water company, having control of such waters may
authorize one or more of its employees, so far as permissible under federal law, to
take such reasonable means and use such appliances and weapons as, in the
judgment of such public board or commission, or governing board, as the case may
be, will prevent the defilement of said waters by gulls or terns, any provision of
chapter one hundred and thirty-one to the contrary notwithstanding. Every such
division, public board or commission and governing board shall keep an accurate
account of all birds killed by its employees under authority of this section and
submit such account to the director of the division of fisheries and wildlife of the
department of fisheries, wildlife and recreational vehicles at such times and
covering such periods as he may prescribe.

Source: 1988 GLM, volume 6, page 735.

MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL LAWS
CHAPTER 128, SECTION 8A

128:8A. Destruction or control of foxes and rodents; investigations; cooperative
arrangements with United States.

Section 8A. In order to protect the food suppUes, agricuhural produce, growing
crops, Hve stock, manufactured goods and buildings, and to safeguard the public
health, the commissioner may investigate the life and habits of, and may take
necessary measures to destroy or to control, foxes, and rats, mice, woodchucks, and
such other rodents not protected by law, as may from time to time be determined
by him to be detrimental to one or more of such purposes. In performing such
duties he may, by himself or by his authorized agent, with the consent of the owner
or tenant, enter upon private premises for any of such purposes at any reasonable
time. In order to carry out this section, the commissioner may enter into co-
operative arrangements with the United States or any agency thereof, with any
department, board or commission of this commonwealth or any political
subdivision thereof, or with any association, corporation or individual owning,
occupying or possessing any property within the commonwealth. Section forty-
three of chapter one hundred and thirty-one shall not apply to the destruction of
rodents under this section. Nothing herein shall be construed to authorize the
destruction or control of foxes by the use of poison.

Source: 1988 GLM, volume 7, pages 762-763.

MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL LAWS
CHAPTER 131, SECTION 37

131 :37. Killing of game by owner or tenant of land; reports.

Section 37. An owner or tenant of land or, if authorized by such owner or tenant,
any member of his immediate family or person permanently employed thereon,
may, upon such land:—

(1) kill or attempt to kill, by means other than poisoning or trapping, any wild bird
damaging his property, including domesticated animals, poultry and game on
game-rearing farms or preserves, provided that such killing is not contrary to any
federal law, rule or regulation.

(2) hunt or take by other means, except by poison or snare, any mammal which he
finds damaging his property except grass growing on uncultivated land. No such
owner or tenant shall authorize any person, other than a member of his immediate
family or a person permanently employed by him, to place traps for the protection
of said property other than during the open season, unless such owner or tenant has
first obtained from the director a permit authorizing him to do so, which permit
the director is hereby authorized to issue in his discretion, unless such authorized
person holds a trapping license. All deer so killed shall be turned over to any
environmental police officer and shall be disposed of by the director of law
enforcement.

The following written reports shall be sent to the director by such owner or tenant
acting under authority of this section:~(a) upon the taking of pheasant, ruffed
grouse, hares or rabbits, or the wounding or killing of a deer, a report stating the
time and place, kind and number of birds or mammals so taken, wounded or killed,
within twenty-four hours of such taking, wounding, or killing; (b) upon the
taking of any other birds or mammals, a report on or before January thirty-first of
each year, stating the number and kinds of birds or mammals taken under
authority of this section during the previous year. This section shall not be
construed to limit any other provisions of this chapter.

Source: 1988 GLM, volume 8, pages 41-42.

MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL LAWS
CHAPTER 131, SECTION 38

131:38. Farmers; permit to trap and kill birds.

Section 38. Notwithstanding any other provision of law, the director may, upon
application of a farmer, as defined in section one A of chapter one hundred and
twenty-eight, grant a permit to trap live, and thereafter destroy, birds that are
destroying agricultural crops or endangering the health of livestock, poultry or fur
bearing animals. Each applicant shall state the type of trap to be used, the location
of each such trap and the period within which he intends to use such trap, and such
other information as the director may deem necessary. Each application shall be
accompanied by a fee, the amount of which shall be determined annually by the
commissioner of administration under the provision of section three B of chapter
seven for the filing thereof. The farmer shall mark each trap with his name and
address and the number of the permit issued to him by the director, and the farmer
or his agent shall check each such trap twice daily. The director shall issue rules and
regulations relative to the type of traps and kinds of birds which may be trapped,
and such other rules and regulations as he may deem necessary for the protection of
song and game birds. The director and his agents may, for the purpose of
inspecting such traps, enter upon and pass through or over private lands and
property whether or not covered by water.

Source: 1988 GLM, volume 8, page 42.

I

MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL LAWS
CHAPTER 131, SECTION 43

131:43. Poisons.

Section 43. A person shall not place poison in any form whatsoever for the purpose
of killing any mammal or bird except pursuant to a permit issued under the
provisions of this section; provided, that this section shall not prohibit any person
from placing in his orchard or in or near his dwelling house, barn or other buildings
poison for the purpose of destroying rats, woodchucks or other pests of like nature,
or from placing with like intent under the surface of his lands carbon disulphide in
any of its forms or any other poison applied in a manner similar to that in which
carbon disulphide is applied. The director is hereby authorized to make rules and
regulations and, pursuant to the terms thereof, to issue permits to the owners or
agents of forest plantations or orchards to place poison for the extermination of
rats, mice and other pests of like nature therein and to employees of municipal,
state and federal governments and to others found by the director to be qualified
persons to place poison elsewhere, for the control of animals and birds, in
connection with public health, wood tick suppression and control, propagation and
protection of wild birds and mammals, and purposes of a similar nature, or to place
poison within an area specified in such permit for the purpose of killing birds which
may lawfully be killed under federal and state law and which are present in such
area in such numbers as in the opinion of the director to constitute a public
nuisance or endanger health or safety. Possession of the raw fur of any mammal or
the dead body of any bird killed by poison, except rats, mice, woodchucks or other
pests of like nature, shall be prima facie evidence that the person having such
possession has violated this section unless he is an employee of the federal
government or an employee pf the commonwealth or a political subdivision
thereof to whom a permit has been issued under the provisions of this section.

Source: 1988 GLM, volume 8, pages 60-61.

See Also: M.G.L. c. 132B, "Massachusetts Pesticide Control Act".

MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL LAWS
CHAPTER 131, SECTION 80

131:80. Registration and identification of traps.

Section 80. A person shall not place, set, maintain, possess, or tend on the land of
another, any trap, unless the same is registered in accordance with the provisions of
this section. For the purpose of providing for the registration and identification of
traps, the director shall provide application forms, renewal forms, registration
certificates and other forms necessary for the registration of traps as hereinafter
provided. The director shall require the applicant for registration or renewal to
supply necessary information and shall charge a fee for the original certificate,
which shall be valid for two years unless suspended or revoked, and a fee for a
renewal for a similar period of time, the amounts of which shall be determined
annually by the commissioner of administration under the provision of section
three B of chapter seven, which shall cover and apply to all traps then and
thereafter owned by the applicant. The director shall provide by regulation,
approved by the fisheries and wildlife board, that the registration number of any
certificate issued by him and the name of the owner of a trap be affixed to each
trap. Upon the sale of any registered trap, the owner and purchaser shall send a
joint notice of such transfer to the director, and thereupon the seller's registered
number, as appearing upon each trap so transferred, shall have the letter "T" added
to it to indicate that said transfer has been so registered with the director, and in
addition the buyer's registration number shall forthwith be stamped upon each
trap. Upon the request of two or more persons, stating that they have entered into
a partnership and are willing that all members of the partnership shall trap with
the registered traps of any partner, each member of the partnership shall be
furnished by the director with a special certification, written upon his registration
certificate, that he is authorized to use traps belonging to the other members
thereof, and it shall be unnecessary for any trap used by such partnership to bear any
registration number other than that of its owner. The director shall from time to
time furnish to the director of law enforcement a list of all holders of registration
certificates issued hereunder, including the registration number assigned to each
such holder.

Source: 1988 GLM, volume 8, pages 73-74.

See Also: Code of Massachusetts Regulations, 321 CMR 3.02(5), "Hunting and

Trapping of Certain Mammals".

MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL LAWS
CHAPTER 131, SECTION 80A

131:80A. Certain traps or other devices prohibited; exception; special permits;
rules and regulations; penalties.

Section 80A. No person shall use, set, place or maintain any steel jaw leghold trap
on land for the capture of fur-bearing mammals except in or under buildings
owned, leased or rented by him. The steel jaw leghold trap may be used for the
capture of fur-bearing mammals in water only if set in such a manner that all
reasonable care is taken to insure that the mammal dies by drowning in a
minimum length of time. No other device which is set in such a manner that it
will knowingly cause continued suffering to such a mammal caught therein, or
which is not designed to kill such a mammal at once or take it alive unhurt shall be
used, set, placed or maintained for the capture of fur-bearing mammals; provided,
however, that a person or his duly authorized agent may apply to the director for a
special permit to use such traps, other than the steel jaw leghold trap, on property
owned by such person. Issuance of such special permits shall be governed by rules
and regulations adopted by the director pursuant to chapter thirty A. Such rules
and regulations shall include, but not be limited to provisions relative to the
following:—

(1) The applicant or his agent shall apply to the director in writing and shall state
that there exists on his property an animal problem which cannot reasonably be
abated by the use of traps other than those prohibited by this section, not including
the steel jaw leghold trap. If the director determines that such an animal problem
exists which cannot reasonably be abated by the use of traps other than those
prohibited by this section, not including the steel jaw leghold trap, he may
authorize for a period not exceeding ninety days the use, setting, placing or
maintenance of such traps during which time the procedures for obtaining a special
permit, as set forth in the rules and regulations adopted pursuant to this section,
shall be complied with.

Whoever violates any provision of this section, or of any rule or regulation made
under the authority thereof, shall be punished by a fine of not less than fifty nor
more than one hundred dollars, or by imprisonment for not more than thirty days,
or by both such fine and imprisonment.

Source: 1988 GLM, volume 8, pages 74-75.

MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL LAWS
CHAPTER 131, SECTION 83

131:83. Sparrows and starlings.

Section 83. Officers in charge of public buildings in cities and such officers as the
selectmen designate and appoint in towns may take such reasonable means and use
such appliances, except poison, as in their judgment will effectively exterminate
English sparrows and starlings in such cities and towns, but nothing herein shall
authorize an officer to enter on private property without the consent of the owner
or occupant thereof A person shall not willfully resist such officers while engaged
in such duties or knowingly interfere with the means used by them for such
purpose.

Source: 1988 GLM, volume 8, page 76.

I

MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL LAWS
CHAPTER 270, SECTION 3A

270:3A. Placing poison for rodents where it may cause injury; enforcement
officers.

Section 3A. Whoever negligently or maliciously places any poison or poisoned food
for the control of rats, mice or other rodents in any place where it may cause injury
to any human being or domestic animal shall be punished by a fine of twenty-five
dollars. The officers charged with the enforcement of the laws relating to fish,
birds and mammals under chapter one hundred and thirty-one shall take
cognizance of violations of this section and enforce the provisions thereof, and they
shall have all powers necessary therefor.

Source: 1988 GLM, volume 12, page 627.

321 CMR: DIVISION OF FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE.

' 321 CMR 2.00: MISCELLANEOUS REGULATIONS PERTAINING TO

FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE.

2.09. Trapping of Birds by Farmers.

(1) Permits may be issued to farmers to trap alive and subsequently destroy
English (house) sparrows, pigeons, and starlings if they are destroying
agricultural crops or endangering the health of livestock, poultry, or fur-
bearing animals. In addition to the birds listed above, a permit may be issued
to trap and subsequently destroy federally protected migratory birds, provided
that a federal permit has been obtained by the appUcant and countersigned
by the director.

(2) If any bird protected by state or federal law, other than birds specified in
the permit, be trapped, permittee shall immediately release it unharmed.

(3) Applications for permits shall be in writing, and shall state: the damage
being done, the extent of such damage, the species of birds to be trapped, the
type of trap to be used, the location of each such trap, and the period within
which he intends to use such trap(s). Each application shall be accompanied
by a fee, the amount of which shall be determined annually by the
Commissioner of Administration and Finance pursuant to G.L. c. 7, s. 3B.

(4) No trap other than a New York Starling Trap or trap of similar design
shall be used in conjunction with this permit.

(5) Each trap shall be marked with the permittee's name and address and his
permit number. The permittee or his agent shall check each such trap twice
daily.

(6) Permittees must comply with any special terms, conditions, or restrictions
prescribed in the permit.

(7) Unprotected birds trapped under this permit shall be destroyed as soon as
possible after trapping, and shall not be kept for food or other purpose.

(8) At the end of the period specified in the permit, permittee shall send the
director a written report, signed by him, stating the number and species of
birds trapped and destroyed.

(9) This permit may be suspended or revoked by the director for cause after
due notice and hearing.

Source: Code of Mass. Regulations, 321 CMR, page 8.2, dated 9-29-89, as
amended in 1994.

Regulatory Authority: M.G.L. c. 131, s. 38.

321 CMR: DIVISION OF FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE.

321 CMR 2.00: MISCELLANEOUS REGULATIONS RELATING TO

FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE.

2.10; Issuance of Permits to Expose Poisons for the Control of Mammal and Bird
Species Not Protected by Federal or State Statutes.

(1) Definitions:

(a) Director. The Director of the Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and
Wildlife.

(b) Board. Division of Fisheries and Wildlife Board.

(2) Exposing of Poisons. No poisons shall be exposed for the purpose set forth
above except as provided for in these rules and regulations.

(3) Permits: To whom issued.

(a) Permits may be issued to the owner or agents of forest plantations or
orchards to place poison for the extirmination of rats, mice, and other pests of
like nature, upon written request stating the specific area involved, toxicant,
bait, and period of time during which such work will be conducted.

(b) For the purposes stated in this Act, permits may be issued to agents of the
Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, and to agents of
the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture.

(c) For the purposes of this Act, permits may also be issued to commercial pest
control operators, employees of state agencies, or employees of political
subdivisions of the Commonwealth.

(d) All persons must be certified by the Massachusetts Pesticide Board either as
a private applicator in case of persons described in 321 CMR 2. 10(3) (a), or a
commercial applicator in 321 CMR 2.10(7), subcategory vertebrate in the case
of persons described in 32 1 CMR 2. 1 0(3)(c) .

(e) A person holding a permit issued under these rules and regulations must
be in direct and constant charge of any applications made under such a permit
and must adhere to all rules and regulations of the Massachusetts Pesticide
Board.

(4) Permits: Duration and Time Limits of Permits. Permits shall allow
exposure of poison for the control of birds only for the period specified
therein: which period or any part thereof may not be prior to November 15,
nor subsequent to the following March 15; except that, the Director may
authorize the placement of certain poisons on specific bait materials in

specific situations provided that in his judgement sufficient scientific
evidence has been presented to show that such placement will not be
hazardous to migratory birds or other wildlife. All permits may be revoked
for cause at any time by the Director.

(5) Materials Which May be Used Under Permits.

(a) All materials used under these permits must be registered with the
Division of Food and Drugs, Massachusetts Department of Public Health.

(b) Only such materials as may be approved by the Director may be used under
these permits.

(c) The use of all materials approved under 321 CMR 2.10(5)(b) above must
be in conformance with any instructions therefor issued by the manufacturer
thereof and with any added restrictions, conditions, or standards which may be
placed on such use by the Director in order to protect migratory birds or other
components of the environment.

(6) Notification and Reporting of Operations.

(a) All persons holding permits shall notify the Director of each application
in writing prior to the application, indicating date and place of application,
(b) Within one month following each operation, the person holding the
permit under which the work is done shall repon in summary form to the
Director:

1. Location of operation

2. Dates of operation

3. Material exposed

4. Amount of material exposed

5. Evaluation of the results of the operation

6. Safety measures and precautions instituted

(c) In the case of municipal operations, permit holders shall notify all proper
authorities including Selectmen or Mayors, local public health officials, and
local police.

(7) Policing of Operation.

(a) Permittee shall make every effort to collect and dispose of all dead
mammals or birds killed under the permit.

(b) Permittee shall remove all bait and toxicants from the area immediately
upon completion of the operation.

(8) Proof of Financial Responsibility.

(a) Private operators holding permits must produce evidence of
comprehensive insurance in the amount of or in excess of $25,000- $50,000
for public liability and $5000 for property damage.

IL-

(b) In the issuance of a permit under the above Chapter and Section, the
|| Commonwealth, Director, or the Board assume no liability of any name or

nature.

Source: Code of Massachusetts Regulations, 321 CMR, pages 8.1-9, as most
recently compiled on 12-31-86, and as most recently amended in the Massachusetts
Register, issue #579 (3-18-88).

Regulatory Authority: M.G.L. c. 131, s. 43.

321 CMR 2.12

Rules and Regulations relative to the Artificial Propagation
of Birds, Mammals, Reptiles, and Amphibians

(8) Abandoned Applications. Upon receipt of an incomplete application, an
improperly executed application, or an insufficient fee, the applicant shall be
notified of the deficiency. If the applicant fails to supply the requested
information, pay the required fee or otherwise fails to correct the deficiency within
sbcty (60) days following the date of notification, the application shall be considered
abandoned and shall be returned to the applicant.

Extracted from: Code of Massachusetts Regulations, 321 CMR, pages 9-16, as
most recently compiled on 12-31-86, and as amended in the Massachusetts
Register, issue #562, dated 8-7-87.

Regulatory Authority: M.G.L. c. 131, s. 23.

321 CMR 10.00: MASSACHUSETTS ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT

REGULATIONS.

10.60(4): List of Endangered, Threatened, and Special Concern Species.

[Extract— Vertebrates only]

FISH:

T American Brook Lamprey

E Shortnose Sturgeon

E Atlantic Sturgeon

E Lake Chub

SC Eastern Silvery Minnow

E Northern Redbelly Dace

SC Longnose Sucker

SC Burbot

T Threespine Stickleback

(trimorphic freshwater population

AMPHIBIANS:

Lampetra appendix
Acipenser brevirostrum
Acipenser oxyrhynchus
Couesius plumbeus
Hybognathus regius
Phoxinus eos

Catostomus catostomus
Lota lota

Gasterosteus aculeatus
only)

SC Jefferson Salamander Ambystoma jeffersonianum

(including triploid and other polyploid forms within the
Ambystoma jeffersonianum/Ambystoma laterale complex)
SC Blue-spotted Salamander Ambystoma laterale

(including triploid and other polyploid forms within the
Ambystoma jeffersonianum/Ambystoma laterale complex)
T Marbled Salamander Ambystoma opacum

SC Spring Salamander Gyrinophilus porphyriticus

SC Four-toed Salamander Hemidactylium scutatum

T Eastern Spadefoot Scaphiopus holbrookii

REPTILES:

SC Spotted Turtle

SC Wood Turde

E Bog Turde

T Blanding's Turtle

T Diamondback Terrapin

Clemmys guttata
Clemmys insculpta
Clemmys muhlenbe

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11

Emydoidea blandingii
Malaclemmys terrapin

E Plymouth Redbelly Turtle

S C Eastern Box Turtle

T Lo^erhead

T Green Turtle

E Hawksbill

E Atlantic Ridley

E Leatherback

T Worm Snake

E Black Rat Snake

E Copperhead

E Timber Rattlesnake

Pseudemys rubriventris bangs!
Terrapene Carolina
Caretta caretta ..
Chelonia mydas
Eretmochelys imbricata
Lepidochelys kempi
Dermochelys coriacea
Carphophis amoenus
Elaphe obsoleta
Agkistrodon contortrix
Cro talus horridus

BIRDS:

SC Common Loon

T Pied-billed Grebe

E Leach's Storm-petrel

SC American Bittern

T Least Bittern

SC Cooper's Hawk

SC Sharp-shinned Hawk

T Northern Harrier

E Bald Eagle

E Peregrine Falcon

SC Common Moorhen

T King Rail

T Piping Plover

E Upland Sandpiper

E Eskimo Curlew

SC Least Tern

E Roseate Tern

SC Common Tern

SC AraicTern

SC Common Barn-owl

E Short-eared Owl

SC Long-eared Owl

E Sedge Wren

E Loggerhead Shrike

E Henslow's Sparrow

SC Grasshopper Sparrow

T Northern Parula

Gavia immer
Podilymbus podiceps
Oceanodroma leucorhoa
Botaurus lentiginosus
Ixobrychus exilis
Accipiter cooperii
Accipiter striatus
Circus cyaneus
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Falco peregrin us
Gallinula chloropus
Rallus elegans
Charadrius melodus
Bartramia longicauda
Numenius borealis
Sterna antillarum
Sterna dougallii
Sterna hirundo
Sterna paradisaea
Tyto alba
Asio flammeus
Asio otus

Cistothorus platensis
Lanius ludovicianus
Ammodramus henslowii
Ammodramus savannarum
Parula americana

SC Blackpoll Warbler

SC Mourning Warbler

E Golden-winged Warbler

Dendroica striata
Oporornis Philadelphia
Vermivora chrysoptera

MAMMALS:

SC

Rock Shrew

Sorex dispar

SC

Water Shrew

Sorex palustris

SC

Small-footed Myotis

Myotis leibii

E

Indiana Myotis

Myotis sodalis

SC

Southern Bog Lemming

Svnaptomvs cooperi

SC

Gray Seal

Ha ichoerus grvpus

E

Sei Whale

Balaenoptera borealis

E

Blue Whale

Balaenoptera musculus

E

Fin Whale

Balaenoptera phvsalus

E

Humpback Whale

Megaptera novaeangliae

E

Northern Right Whale

Balaena glacialis

E

Sperm Whale

Physeter catodon

Source: Code of Massachusetts Regulations, 321 CMR, pages 95-96, as published
in the Massachusetts Register #679 on 1-31-92.

Regulatory Authority: M.G.L. c. 131A, s. 4.

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS
DIVISION OF FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE

CONTROL OF SNAPPING TURTLES

Snapping turtles are large, bottom-dwelling turtles with big heads, powerful jaws,
and an aggressive nature. Adults may average 8-12 inches in length (sometimes
larger) and weigh 10-35 lbs (record weight in Massachusetts, Gl lbs). They have a
long tail with saw-toothed tubercles, a heavy carapace, and a small yellowish
undershell. They are found throughout most of the United States from the Great
Plains eastward. These turtles prefer waters with soft muddy bottoms and an
abundance of aquatic vegetation or tangled branches and debris. However, they are
found in almost every type of freshwater habitat, including ponds, rivers, brooks,
swamps, and creeks, and occasionally brackish tidal waters. They are largely aquatic
but may occasionally bask on rocks or logs. They may also travel some distance
overland. Snappers spend most of their time on the bottom of a pool or buried in
mud with only ^y^% and nostrils exposed. They may be active at night, creeping
slowly over the bottom. Most snapping turtles enter hibernation by late October,
burying themselves in the mud, and emerging in March-May depending on the
area. Nesting occurs from late May through September, peaking in June. There
are normally 20-30 eggs per clutch, although numbers may vary. Nest emergence is
usually late August to early October. Snappers are omnivorous, feeding on insects,
molluscs, crustaceans, worms, fish, amphibians, snakes, small turtles, birds,
mammals, carrion and garbage. They will also eat various water plants. These
turtles are powerful and can strike very rapidly, with their thrust often carrying the
front of the body off the ground. Due to their feeding habits, snapping turtles are
prone to accumulate toxicants, such as PCB*s, in their body tissues.

Damage: In general, these turtles are seldom harmful to wildlife except in certain
confined areas such as waterfowl sanctuaries and fish hatcheries. The
indiscriminate destruction of snapping turtles as pests is discouraged and local
populations should not be exterminated. These turtles also act as scavengers and
clean up debris and detritus which is found in the various water bodies.

Hand Capture: In some instances, these turtles may be crossing a roadway or a yard
where they may be run over or where children may encounter them and be bitten.
The turtle should then be moved across the road or out of the open area. Grasp the
turtle by the hind legs, keeping the belly toward you and the head away, and pick it

up or drag it. Do not lift large snappers by the tail as their weight may cause
separation of the tail vertebrae.

Shooting: Where it is safe and lawRil to do so, basking snapping turtles may be shot
with a .22 caliber rifle. Do not shoot turtles in the water or on a flat rock as the
projectile may ricochet. Snappers are also tenacious of life and may crawl into the
water and escape even if fatally wounded.

Trapping: The most effective means of removing turtles from a water body is by
using turtle traps, either of commercial manufacture or home-made. The barrel-
shaped traps (see attached) are generally 4 to 6 feet long, using 3-inch square mesh
of #24 linen twine, or the equivalent coarse mesh poultry wire. If constructed of
twine, it should be treated with a non-toxic preservative. Three to five hoops per
trap, 30 inches in diameter, of wood or 6-gauge steel wire, are sufficient. The
funnel-shaped entrance should be 18 inches deep from front hoop to the opening.
The funnel mouth is 1 inch by 20 inches, with the corners of the opening tied to
the middle hoop. The rear end is closed off, or another funnel may be attached.
Stretchers of wood or wire are attached to the side to keep the trap extended.

The trap must be set with the tops of the hoops just out of water so that the turtles
may obtain air and breathe. All other tunics than snapping turtles are protected
and must be released alive and unhurt. Basking-type traps, where the turtle climbs
a ramp which tips and drops them into a holding pen, may also be used but are
generally ineffective for snappers, which bask infrequently.

Hoop traps for snapping turtles should be baited with fish, fish heads, chicken
entrails, or similar juicy animal remains. The bait should be fresh since snappers
may not always be attracted by spoiled bait. The traps should be visited daily and all
turtles removed and non-target animals released. Be sure that the trap is set in such
a manner that changing water levels do not submerge it and drown the turtles.

Adapted from a leaflet originally prepared by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(1965).

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COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS
DIVISION OF FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE

CONTROL OF ENGLISH SPARROWS

The English or house sparrow, an exotic bird introduced from Europe in the
1800's, has adapted itself to life throughout the United States and Canada. They
actually belong to the weaver finch family, although they are commonly called
"sparrows". Although their activities are mainly beneficial, they have several habits
that are objectionable to humans and they need occasional control to protect
human health and property. They also compete for nesting space with several
native birds. To selectively control English sparrows, it is necessary to understand
their behavior and to distinguish them from native sparrows, which are protected
by law.

Life History and Habits: English sparrows prefer openings or hollows for nesting
and will use any sort of a nesting box, cavity or opening in buildings. Normally,
nest building and egg laying begins in early spring— March and April in the
northern United States and somewhat earlier in the south. A clutch normally
consists of four to eight evenly speckled e^s that hatch in 13-14 days. They
produce several broods each season and use the same nesting hole over and over
again. Generally, these sparrows are gregarious. They nest, roost, and feed together
in large flocks.

The English sparrow, like our own sparrows and finches, is primarily a seed eater
and supplements its diet with insects. It is one of a few birds which will eat the
Japanese beetle.

Eliminating Nests and Roosts: English sparrow populations can be greatly reduced
by destroying nests and eggs at two week intervals during the spring and summer.
A long pole with a hook fastened to one end can be used to tear down nests under
eaves, rafters, and similar places. The elimination of nesting and roosting sites may
be the best permanent solution to the problem. To prevent a recurring infestation,
it may be necessary to remove all or part of the vines from certain buildings.
Copings and ledges of some buildings may be blocked with wood or sheet metal
strips placed at an angle to eliminate the roosting space.

Screening: Steeples, towers, poultry houses, barn lofts, and similar places should be
bird-proofed with 3/4-inch or smaller mesh wire or poultry netting.

Shooting: Although it should be used with caution and with due regard for state
laws regarding the discharge of firearms, shooting with low powered guns is
selective and will eliminate infestations, if persistently used. Where permissible,
shooting with .22 caliber bird shot (#12) is effective.

Scaring Devices: Most of the devices commonly used for frightening birds— such as
scarecrows, plastic owls, and the like— are only temporarily useful against English
sparrows, except where they are roosting in trees.

Trapping: Local control of English sparrows can be accomplished by trapping and
presents no danger to protected species. To lure birds to a trap, use poultry scratch
feed, fme cracked corn, grain sorghum, wheat, bread crumbs or combinations of
these. Bait several locations even though only one trap is used. Since some
untrapped birds associate unpleasantness with a particular area, move the trap to
another baited area when results at the first site diminish. The best trap sites are
generally near low shrubs or hedges. The trap should be covered with 3/4-inch
mesh wire, since some birds can escape through a larger mesh. Leave one or two
birds in the trap as decoys. Larger numbers tend to flutter wildly and scare other
birds away. Various ready-made live traps are on the market. Others can be easily
fabricated.

Sieve-Type Trap: This simple trap requires close attention for good results. A sieve-
like box with short sides is balanced on an upright stick with a string attached. A
pull on the string lets the box fall over the birds attracted to bait underneath.
While the dimensions can vary, the box should be narrow enough so that a person
can reach inside to take out the captured sparrows. The trap should not be raised
more than six inches above ground. If it is higher, sparrows can escape as the box is
falling.

Funnel Trap: This trap is more difficult to build. It is constructed of wire mesh and
consists of a large rectangle with two funnels, one at the entrance and another
inside the box. The birds enter the first funnel at its apex and go inside the box.
Stiff wires at the tip of the funneFs cone discourage sparrows from backing out.
They then enter the second funnel and pass into a second compartment, from
which escape is unlikely. A door is necessary for trappers to remove the birds.

Nest Box Trap: This trap resembles a bird nest box. Upon entering the trap, the
weight of the bird operates a mechanism which, in turn, drops the bird into a bag

and resets the trap for another. Collecting bags should be tightly woven. The front
wall of the box should be the last put into place. Screw it down so that it can be
easily removed for repair and renovation. Glue pieces of hair and feathers to the
rear of the tipping chamber. Fasten the trap to a post or side of a building so that
the collecting sack hangs free and is easily accessible.

Center Drop Trap: This is one of the simplest and best traps to use. Birds drop
through openings in the center and cannot fly out. Build the trap 6 feet wide by 6
feet high by 9 feet long. Use 2x2-inch material with lx2-inch or lx4-inch for cross
braces and the door. Cover the trap with 3/4-inch mesh wire. Make the entrance
frame 1-1/2 feet wide with 2-inch mesh wire openings.

Adapted from a leaflet originally prepared by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(1974). Rough designs of the live traps described above can be obtained from the
Mass. Division of Fisheries and Wildlife.

I

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COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS
DIVISION OF FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE

CONTROL OF STARLINGS

Large-scale trapping of nuisance starlings is generally impractical. However, the
trapping method offers considerable promise in dealing with orchards, backyards,
small feedlots, and newly-invaded areas.

The best livetrap devised so far is a modification of the Australian crow trap (similar
to the New York starling trap). This trap has an opening in the bottom of a "V
formed on the top of the trap. Birds drop in through this opening to take the bait.
On attempting to fly out, they go up into the ends of the "V" rather than back out
through the throat of the trap, where they entered. Refer to the attached diagram
and "bill of materials". Traps should be made as large as practical, at least five or six
feet high, six feet wide, and eight feet long. If the sections are bolted together it
will be easier to take them apart when necessary to move them.

Do not place traps under trees. Place them in the open where the bait and decoy
birds can be easily seen by other starlings. Almost any food which the starlings are
used to can be used as bait. Culled apples, dried fruit, raisins, stale French-fried
potatoes, canned or cracked corn, pelleted animal feed, silage, beet pulp meal,
linseed oil meal, and even meat scraps have all been effective when the birds have
had prior experience feeding on them.

Keep the traps well supplied with bait and water. An inexpensive watering trough
can be made by splitting an old automobile tire down the middle.

Best results are obtained when ten to twelve starlings are left in the trap to serve as
decoys. It may be necessary to "salt** the trap by catching the original decoys
through other means before the starlings will enter the large trap. The trap should
be tended at regular intervals and all of the birds, except the decoys, removed. If a
large number of birds is caught it is best to remove ten or twelve decoy birds first
and hold them in a small cage. These birds will be needed when the trap is once
again in operation. Then, remove the majority of the birds for disposal.

Trap location is important— if the trap is not attracting starlings, move it to
another location (or try another bait). All birds caught except starlings, English
sparrows, and vagrant pigeons must be released unharmed.

Farmers should refer to M.G.L. c. 131, s. 38, and 321 CMR 2.09 for permits to trap
other blackbirds damaging agricultural crops. Under specialized circumstances,
persons properly licensed by the Massachusetts Pesticide Board may obtain a permit
for chemical control of starlings. Refer to M.G.L. c. 131, s. 43, 321 CMR 2.10, and
the Massachusetts Pesticide Control Act (M.G.L. c. 132B). Unlicensed and
improperly trained persons may not use chemicals for controlling starlings or other
birds or mammals.

■a

Adapted from a leaflet originally prepared by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(1977).

BILL OF MATERIALS

15 - rX4"X 8' 2 HINGES

>25 - TX 4''X 6'
4 - TX r X8'

ZIb.STAPLES ,
210

I - I/2"XI6''X8' EXTERIOR

PLYWOOD
40' X 6*- I'MESH CHICKEN WIRE i

TOP PANEL (MAKE TWO)
SIDE PANEL (MAKE TWO)

CUT WIRES AT MARKS

TRAP THROATS

END AT CIRCLES

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COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS
DIVISION OF FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE

VAGRANT PIGEON CONTROL

Pigeons Today: Pigeons similar to those now living in a semi-wild state in towns
and cities have been closely associated with man since the beginning of recorded
history. The form, coloration, and habits of these feral birds suggest that they were
originally derived from the blue rock, or common, pigeon (Columba livia) of
Europe, Asia, and Africa. Most flocks of pigeons in urban or rural areas are
composed of free-ranging "wild" birds. However, banded birds (homing pigeons)
are privately owned and should not be killed or molested. While the presence of
pigeons affords pleasure to many, excessive concentrations present a health hazard
and may offend people's senses.

Control Techniques

Roost Elimination: Measures to control roosting sites appear costly, but permanent
methods of control are usually worthwhile in the long run. Openings in lofts,
church towers, behind signs, and under eaves can be screened with rust-proof 3/4-
inch mesh wire, which will also keep out starlings and English sparrows. Roosting
on ledges can be eliminated by screening them with wire netting or by installing
wood or metal sheathing at a steep incline.

Products such as glue, wires, or electrical devices can also be used, but these methods
are usually expensive and not always effective. Somewhat more permanent
products are those which utilize metal wires in the form of a bristling fence which
acts as a barrier to prevent roosting.

Trapping: General Recommendations: Set traps in inconspicuous places where
pigeons commonly roost or feed and where they are not apt to be vandalized. Roof
tops which have water dripping from air-conditioning units are excellent
summertime trapping sites.

Small traps can be used effectively, but larger walk-in types are better. They should
be easy to dismantle. It is important to bait the trap with the kind of food the birds
are eating. Whole corn and grain sorghum are generally good baits. Scatter a small
amount outside the trap door to attract the birds. Keep a generous quantity of bait
on the floor inside and near the trap door at all times. Water should also be

available in the traps. One or two decoy birds will tend to draw in others. Light-
colored birds make better decoys than dark, blue-gray ones. Trapped birds should be
removed frequently. Too many fluttering birds will tend to scare others away.

Loft Traps: Birds often use attics, unused upper stories in industrial buildings,
desened factories, or partially-used buildings as nesting and roosting sites. These
indoor roosts can be made into productive traps by closing them up with screening
or plastic. Leave one or two entrances open until the birds become accustomed to
using them. Then, fit the entrances with trap doors that can be closed from the
outside at night after the birds have settled down. The trapped birds can then be
caught by hand or with nets.

Funnel Traps: A simple trap can easily be made from lx2-inch welded wire with a
1-1/2-inch "V^ opening. This is kept from springing shut by large nails. Pigeons
are attracted to a small amount of bait scattered at the entrance. They see more
bait inside the trap and force their way through the small opening.

A variation of the above can be made by having the fiinnel on a inclined board.
Pigeons pick up bait, squeeze their way through the opening, then hop down 4 to 6
inches to the floor of the trap. This use of an inclined board tends to keep trapped
birds away from the entrance. Various shapes can be utilized in making fiinnel
traps. The lily-pad and clover-shape traps are easy to set up and peg to the ground.

Bob-Type Trap: This trap is capable of large daily catches and enables a person to
enter and remove the birds through a small door constructed in the end of the trap.
Although large traps are preferred, good catches have been made using poultry
crates and other small enclosures.

The construction of a trap with lx2-inch material is desirable so as to reduce the
weight, which is a factor if the trap is to be moved. The use of bolts and the
construction of the trap in five sections will facilitate dismantling.

The door or entrance through which pigeons are lured is the principal feature of
the trap. Individual, free-swinging **bobs** are most practical and successfiil. These
bobs can be made of heavy aluminum wire of light-weight metal rods. It is
important that they swing upward and inward easily and drop back smoothly into
slots at the base of the door.

UL.

Shooting: Shooting is not normally the most effective nor aesthetically pleasing
way to control pigeons. Sometimes, individual birds roosting in barns or similar
structures may be controlled in this fashion. Be sure to comply with state laws
regarding the discharge of firearms. At ranges less than 50 feet, .22 caliber bird shot
is effective and will do little or no damage to structures.

Poisoning: Poisoning should not normally be used for pigeon control. Where
permitted, users must comply with provisions of M.G.L. c. 131, s. 43, 321 CMR
2.10, and the Massachusetts Pesticide Control Act (M.G.L. c. 132B).

Adapted from leaflets prepared by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1968, 1976).

COOPERATIVE EXTENSION, University of Massachusetts

L-682

NORTHERN NEW ENGLAND ANIMAL DAMAGE CONTROL PROGRAM

EDUCATION LEAFLET SERIES

CANADA GOOSE
(Branta canadensis)

BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR

The Canada goose is a brownish-gray bird with a long black
neck, a white cheek patch, and black legs and feet. It is a
large bird (weight: 7-14 lbs. [3-6 kg.]; wingspan: 5-6.5 ft.
[1.5-2 m.]); among North American waterfowl, the Canada
goose is second only to swans in overall size. In flight, the
prominent white rump and black tail band of a Canada
goose are clearly visible. The loud honking and familiar V-
shaped or single-file flocks of migrating Canada geese are
quickly recognized.

Throughout much of their range, Canada geese are migra-
tory, shifting between summer breeding grounds and win-
tering areas on coasts, bays, large rivers, and other water
systems that are free of ice. However, in many areas of New
England, Canada geese are non-migratory, year-round
residents living in close proximity to humans.

Canada geese feed early in the morning and again in mid-
to late afternoon; between feedings, they rest, preen, or
pursue other activities. Geese are "grazers", feeding pri-
marily upon aquatic and terrestrial vegetation (tender
seedlings and shoots, mature seedheads, fruits, berries) and
invertebrates (insects, mollusks, crustaceans). Cultivated
crops and grasses have become staple foods of many resi-
dent goose populations.

Canada geese are monogamous and maintain their pair
bond for life. Should a mate die, the remaining individual
will select a new mate. Females usually breed during their
second year whereas some males may not acquire a mate
for several years. A nest is constructed on an elevated site
over or adjacent to water, such as on a muskrat house,
island, or tussock. Geese also will use artificial nesting
platforms. Four to ten eggs are laid during late March or
April and chicks hatch about 28 days later.

caused by geese also have risen. Common problems with
Canada geese include damage to agricultural crops or other
vegetation (by consumption, uprooting, trampling), aes-
thetic degradation of property (accumulation and odor of
droppings and feathers), reduction of water quality (nutri-
ent enrichment and contamination with feces), and threat
to personal safety (bird/airplane encounters).

CONTROL TECHNIQUES

The Canada goose is protected under the federal Migratory
Bird Treaty Act. Geese may not be killed, purchased, sold,
or held in possesion, except as allowed under specific
guidelines established by the U. S. Department of Interior
and state wildlife agencies. A permit is not necessary to
harass depredating geese. Nevertheless, you should consult
local wildlife authorities about possible restrictions before
implementing a damage control program for geese.

ECONOMIC STATUS AND IMPORTANCE Preventive Measures

Canada geese are prized throughout New England by
waterfowl hunters, v/ho, through purchases of hunting
licenses and duck stamps, generate con^derable revenue
for use in conservation activities. Numbers of Canada
geese have increased steadily in New England since the
early 1970's, particularly in suburban areas and urban
parks. As a result, complaints and reports of damage

In cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture

Do not attract wild geese or encourage them to stay bv
providing supplemental foods. Although many people
receive personal satisfaction from feeding wild animals,
foods provided are often of poor nutritional quality and do
not satisfy metabolic needs of geese. Additionally, supple-
mental feedings (1) increase local population densities of
geese (and thus increase the potential for disease transmis-

sion), (2) cause geese to lose their natural fear of humans,
and (3) may repress the instinct to migrate, potentially
leading to establishment of large, resident populations of
geese. Farmers should consider planting crops that ripen
outside the time of normal migration and coordinate the
timing of their planting with other farmers in the area so
that vulnerable crops ripen at the same time as ways of
reducing losses to geese moving south during fall migration.
Delayed planting or using plant varieties more tolerant of
grazing may minimize early-season goose depredations.

Non-Lethal Controls

Harassment may prevent Canada geese from establishing a
daily feeding pattern, but only if the disturbance is persis-
tent and begins soon after the first geese arrive. Integrating
several control techniques is more effective than using any
single type of control alone. Frequent repositioning of
scare devices appears to minimize habituation of geese to
controls and increases overall effectiveness. Auditory
harassment devices include fireworks, cracker shells, whistle
rockets, propane cannons, or electronic noise makers.
Local ordinances may prohibit use of some of these meth-
ods; consult local authorities before using noise-making
devices. Visual harassment devices, such as scarecrows,
helium-fdled balloons, mylar reflecting tape, or colored
flags, can be placed strategically about the site of depreda-
tion. Visual devices that incorporate movement are more
effective than stationary objects. Physical harassment tech-
niques recently have received renewed attention. Trained
dogs can chase geese from agricultural fields before the
birds establish a daily feeding routine. Motorized toy boats
are used to harass geese on public water supplies and open
water recreational areas. Remote control model airplanes
are being tested as a means to drive geese from airports.
Physical barriers, such as strands of monofilament line,
strung over municipal water supplies may inhibit geese
from entering, thus reducing the potential for contamina-
tion. Herding, trapping, and relocation have been used to
remove isolated, small flocks of nuisance geese during the
period of time they are flightless (geese lose [molt] their
flight feathers in late June, July, or early August). Because
this control option is labor intensive, costly, and often
simply transfers the problem from one site to another, its
use is usually discouraged.

Lethal Controls

In all but the most extreme cases, use of lethal measures to
eliminate depredating Canada geese is prohibited. How-
ever, thinning goose populations during the hunting season
may minimize the amount of damage caused by geese and
re-establish a natural wariness towards humans. Prelimi-
nary results from on-going research indicate that late sea-
son extensions of the hunting season may be an effective
way to reduce locaify troublesome, readent goose popula-
tions without adversely affecting the migratoiy population.

REFERENCES

Besser, J. F. 1985. A grower's guide to reducing bird
damage to U.S. agricultural crops. U.S. Fish & Wildlife
Service, Denver Wildlife Research Center, Bird Damage
Research Report No. 340. 90pp.

Conover, M. R. & G. G. Chasko. 1985. Nuisance Canada
goose problems in the eastern United States. Wildlife
Society Bulletin 13:228-233.

Kortright, F. H. 1967. The Ducks, Geese, and Swans of
North America. TheStackpole Company, Harrisburg, PA
and The >\^dlife Management Institute, Washington, D.C.
476pp.

Pfeifer, W. K. 1983. Waterfowl. Pp. E-75 to E-78in R. A.
Timm (ed.), Prevention and control of wildlife damage.
Great Plains Agricultural Council Wildlife Resources
Committee and Nebraska Cooperative Extension Service,
University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

PARTICIPATING AGENCIES

■ USDA APHIS-ADC, State Directors for Maine, Massachusetts, and

New Hampshire/Vermont

■ Maine Department of Agriculture

- Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and V^dlife

■ University of Maine, Cooperative Extension

■ Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife

■ University of Massachusetts, Cooperative Extension

■ Univetsity of Massachusetts, Wildlife and Fisheries Biology Program

■ New Hampshire Fish and Game Department

' University of New Hampshire, Cooperative Extension

■ Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department

■ University of Vermont, Rsheries and V^dlif e Program

Text prepared by James A. Parkhurst, Northern New England Animal
Damage Control Education Program Leader and Wildlife Extension
Specialist, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA.

Illustration prepared by Nancy Haver.

For additional information, contact:

Cooperatioe Extension offers equal opportunity in programs and employment CR-263:4/91-5M

I

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS
DIVISION OF FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE

CONTROL OF OPOSSUMS

Range and Description.

The opossum ("possum") is the only native mammal in the United States that
possesses an abdominal pounch for carrying its young. It can be found in wooded
areas from the Gulf of Mexico to New England and westward to Michigan,
Wisconsin, Iowa, and Missouri.

The 'possum is usually light gray in color and the average adult measures about 33
inches in length, including a 12-inch tail. They produce one to three litters per
year, depending on the region of the country. The young (5-13, usually) are tiny
(bumblebee-sized) and poorly developed at birth. After birth, they crawl into the
mother's pouch and attach to the mammary glands where they remain for four-six
weeks. After leaving the pouch, the young remain with the mother for about one
month before setting out on their own.

Opossums seek shelter in a hollow log, rock crevice, tree cavity, or an old squirrel
leaf nest. They prefer habitats adjacent to swamps, along streams, and in wooded
country. Where food is plentiful, travel may be limited to a few hundred yards
from den site to feeding areas. The animals are omnivorous, eating almost
anything available, including fish, crustaceans, insects, mushrooms, berries and
other fruits, cultivated vegetables, eggs, carrion, and human garbage. They are
sometimes detrimental to farm poultry and corn fields.

Opossums are hunted and trapped in many states for food and fur. The furs are
used mostly for trimming in inexpensive garments.

Control.

**Nuisance*' opossums can usually be excluded from chicken coops, pens, and similar
structures by keeping openings blocked up, loose wire fastened down, and similar
exclusionary measures. The animals can be kept from climbing over wire mesh
fences by stretching electric fence wire near the top of the fence and three inches
out from the mesh.

Opossums can also be readily caught irx cage or box traps set near its denning area or
near the damage site. Smelly baits such as cat or dog food, fish, or over-ripe fruit are
often effective baits.

Adapted from a leaflet originally prepared by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(1977).

UNIVERSITY OF MASSA CHUSETTS CO OPERA TIVE EXTENSION SYSTEM

L-692

MOLES

HAIRY-TAILED MOLE

BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR

Moles live underground and inhabit the lawns of
residential homes, golf courses, cemetaries, and
parks, as well as unmaintained fields, forest
edges, and pastures where moist, sandy loam
soSs are common and digging is easy. Three
species of moles are present in the Northeast.
The most widely distributed species in New
England is the semi-aquatic star-nosed mole
(Condylura cristcUa\ which can be found in all six
states. Two other species may be encountered;
the eastern mole (Scalopus aquaticus), common
to Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Is-
land, and the hairy-tailed mole {Parasccdopus
breweri\ which is found throughout Vermont
and New Hampshire, southern Maine, central
and western Massachusetts, and northwestern
Connecticut. Soil moisture content, soil type,
and food limit mole activity. Moles generally
avoid heavy clay or stony, coarse gravel soils and
areas that are too dry or wet to support their
tunnels. The star-nosed mole prefers habitats
characterized by poorly-drained or moist soils,
particularly around wetlands, whereas both the
eastern and hairy-tailed moles prefer drier habi-
tats. Individuals of any of the three species can
swim, but the star-nosed mole is most adept and
seen frequently in water.

Moles are approximately 4-8 inches in length
from nose to tail. They have short, powerful
forefeet with broad outward-turned palms and
prominent digging claws, small eyes and ears,
short, black or brownish-gray velvety fm:, and a
somewhat elongated head and neck. The snout
of the star-nosed mole, as its name suggests, is
characterized by a prominent fleshy protuber-

EASTERN MOLE

STAR-NOSED MOLE

ence with 22 short "tentacles" radiating fi-om it.
These tentacles are believed to aid the animal in
sensing its environment and are foimd in no
other mammal. Eastern and hairy-tailed moles
may be distinguished by differences in their tails.
The tail of an eastern mole is short (0.6-1.2 in.)
and naked whereas that of the hairy-tailed mole
is longer (0.9-1.4 in.) and covered with stiff hairs.
Male eastern and hairy-tailed moles typically
are larger in size than their respective females
whereas the sexes of the star-nosed mole are ap-
proximately equal in size. Tactile hairs on the
snout, forepaws, top of the head, and tail en-
hance the sense of touch, but moles have a poor
sense of smell and sight (although they do ap-
pear to be able to detect light from dark).

In cooperadon wth the United States Department ofAfficuUure

Although many people believe moles are a type
of rodent, like mice and rats, they actually are
members of the scientific order Insectivora, which
also includes animals like shrews. Their diet
consists of earthworms, snails, slugs, and insects
(both adult and larval stages), but also may
include small amounts of vegetation and seeds.
However, moles destroy few plants or bulbs by
direct feeding. Because moles expend a tremen-
dous amount of energy during tunneling, they
are active both day and night year-round in their
search for food. They often consume an amount
of food equal to 60-100% of their body weight
daily. To satisfy this almost insatiable demand
for food, one mole will cover a substantial area
each day (up to 150 feet of new tunnels). They
are most active in early morning and late eve-
ning on damp, cloudy days during the spring and
fall and may be seen above ground at night or
when they disperse to new areas.

All moles in the Northeast except the star-nosed
mole are solitary creatures, coming together
only during the spring (March-April) breeding
season. After a 4-6 week gestation period, fe-
males produce one litter of 2-5 young (up to 7 in
star-nosed mole) each year. Nest chambers are
constructed 12-18 inches underground, often be-
neath a large stone, tree, sidewalk or roadway.
Young moles leave the nest at about 5-6 weeks of
age and become sexually mature by the end of
their first year. Moles may live up to 4 years in
the wild. Predators of moles include snakes,
skunks, foxes, weasels, coyotes, hawks, owls, and
domestic cats and dogs.

Moles construct two types of tunnels: those at or
near the surface and those deep (6-20 in.) under-
ground. The network of interconnecting trails
visible above ground and just under the surface
are feeding tunnels that often are used only
once. Deep tunnels are the highways that lead to
feeding and living chambers and provide cover
against predators. Hairy-tailed moles may use
the same burrow system continuously for up to 8
years. Although all species of moles make feed-
ing timnels, eastern moles usually create the
prominent ridges of heaved soil visible at the
surface whereas star-nosed moles typically are
responsible for the large (1-2 ft. diameter, 4-9 in.
hig^) '"mole hills" pushed up from below.

ECONOMIC STATUS AND IMPORTANCE

Moles are beneficial because they consume the
larvae and adults of pest insects, such as Japa-
nese beetles, that affect garden, landscape, and
flowering plants. Additionally, their tunneling
activity loosens the soil, improves aeration, and
mixes deeper soils with surface material, all of
which enhance soil quality. Moles can be a
nuisance when their tunneling disturbs lawns
and recreational facilities. Although moles fre-
quently are blamed for feeding on roots of vege-
tation or seeds planted in gardens, they usually
do not cause such damage. Garden plants may
be uprooted or heaved out of the soil inadver-
tently by the mole's tunneling activity. However,
commercial bulb growers and producers of row
crops can sustain substantial economic loss to
moles when plants are dislodged and subse-
quently die from desication or when harvesting
equipment is damaged following contact with
mole hills.

MOLE TUNNEUNG

'^^s

MANAGEMENT OPTIONS

For commercial agricultural producers, elimi-
nation of moles over large areas is difficult, and
probably not feasible. Homeowners, however,
can control moles with minimal effort and some
persistence. Because moles usually are solitary
and have a rather low productivity, most residen-
tial yards can be maintained "mole-free** for a
number of years. Homeowners with a serious
Japanese beetle problem in their yard should
carefully evaluate the wisdom of trying to elimi-
nate moles; such action may actually make the
beetle problem worse.

A variety of sonic and vibration producing con-
trol devices are available commercially as means
to control moles but they have yet to be proven
effective, despite claims made in advertising.

Similarly, many "home remedies", such as gas-
sing with auto exhaust, placing broken glass, pins
( or other sharp objects in the tunnels, and use of
harsh household chemicals, generally are inef-
fective and may be hazardous to humans, pets, or
the environment.

Repellents/Toxicants

Effective repellents are not available and toxi-
cants used to kill moles are classified for "Re-
stricted Use Only". In the past, insecticides have
been applied to lawns to reduce the number of
beetle grubs, which are a major food of moles.
The reasoning was that with a reduced food
supply, moles would leave the area. In practice,
applications of insecticide have been ineffective
because moles feed on a variety of invertebrates,
not just grubs. Furthermore, some of the insec-
ticides that were applied were toxic to wildlife,
particularly songbirds. Therefore, toxicant ap-
plication should be left to licensed or certified
pest applicators. Application of white milky
spore, a naturally-occurring fungus now avail-
able in commercial form, may help reduce the
number of grubs and limit the mole's food supply
\ somewhat. However, with other food items still
available, this option alone may not successfully
reduce mole numbers.

Barriers

Sometimes small, limited areas, such as seedbeds
or small gardens, sustain persistent mole dam-
age. For such areas, installation of a barrier
made of sheet metal or hardware cloth may be
appropriate. Such a barrier should begin about
5 inches above the ground surface and extend to
a depth of at least 12 inches, then bend outward
' at a 90° angle for an additional 10 inches. All
connections in the barrier must be secure if it is
to be effective.

Trapping

Trapping may be an effective technique to re-
duce local mole populations. Two options are
available: use of lethal devices or use of live
traps. Use of "kill traps" (e.g., harpoon or body
, gripping types) as a means of eliminating mole
damage may be dangerous to those unfamiliar
with their operation. These traps can be difficult

to set and properly place without risking per-
sonal injury. Additionally, there is potential for
injury to small children and pets playing near or
with unattended mole traps. For these reasons,
it is recommended that trapping with these devices
be left to those with appropriate training.

To live trap moles, one uses a container into
which the moles will fall and be unable to escape
(commonly called a pit trap). However, you
must first determine which runways are active
before installing these devices. The best time to
trap moles is in the spring, as soon as the first
ridges are noted, or after the fall rains. The
selection of a main or frequently-used runway is
of prime importance. To determine which run-
ways are active, stamp down a short section of
each runway and place a marker at each of these
locations so that you will be able to locate them
again. Observe for signs of mole activity daily for
several days and restamp any newly-raised sec-
tions. If a tunnel is raised daily, it is an active
runway. This is where a pit trap should be
placed.

To construct a pit trap, dig a small hole in the
most active runway and place a #10 tin can (ap-
proximately 7 inches in diameter and 10-12 inches
deep) in the hole. Be sure the top of the can is
level with the bottom of the runway. Fill and
pack tightly around the can, and then plug both
sides of the runway with soil right to the lip of the
can. You may also want to stamp the runway
about 1 foot on both sides of the can. Cover the
top of the hole with a board, shingle or other
suitable material that will block light yet allow
easy access later. In reopening the runway, the
mole will fall into the can and usually is unable to
escape. If the tunnels are not reopened or you
fail to catch a mole within 1-2 days, move the
device to another active runway.

Captured animals may be released in areas of
your property where they will not cause a prob-
lem or they may be humanely euthanized.
Regardless of whether you believe any harm will
result from your action, it may be illegal to
transport a live nuisance animal from your
property (e.g., state law prohibits such activity in
Massachusetts). Check with your state wildlife
agency or local extension agent for information
before relocating any wildlife.

REFERENCES

Chapman, J. A,, and G. A. Feldhammer. 1982. Wild
mammals of North America. The John Hopkins Univer-
sity Press, Baltimore, MD, 1,147pp.

Godin, A. J. 1977. Wild mammals of New England.
The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.
304pp.

Henderson, F. R. 1983. Moles. Pages D-53 to D-61 in
R. M. Timm, ed. Prevention and control of wildlife
damage. Great Plains Agricultural Council Wildlife
Resources Committee and Nebraska Cooperative Exten-
sion Service, University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

For additional information, contact:

Text prepared by James A. Parkhurst, Ph.D., Northern
New England Animal Damage Control Education
Program Leader and Wildlife Extension Specialist,
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA.

lUustrations prepared by Nancy Haver.

This leaflet was a cooperative effort of the follovwng agen-
cies and institutions:

- Maine Department of Agriculture

- Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife

- University of Maine Cooperative Extension

- Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife

- University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension

System

- University of Massachusetts, Department of Forestry and

Wildlife Management

- New Hampshire Fish and Game Department

- University of New Hampshire Cooperative Extension

- Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department

- University of Vermont, Fisheries and Wildlife Program

- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal, Plant, Health

Inspection Service, Animal Damage Contrd (USDA
APHIS-ADC) for Maine, Massadiusetts, and New
Hampshire/Vermont.

The Cooperative Extension System offers equal opportunity in programs and
employment. CR301:12I92-5M

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS
DIVISION OF FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE

CONTROL OF COTTONTAIL RABBITS

Rabbits (including hares and jackrabbits) are not rodents but are part of another
large mammal group called "lagomorphs" or Lagomorpha. These mammals have a
second small pair of upper incisor teeth directly behind the front ones. There are
several species of cottontails in the United States; two of these, the eastern and the
New England cottontail, are found in Massachusetts. Unlike hares (which give
birth to precocial young which are active immediately), cottontails young are weak
and feeble and are sheltered in the nest for 2-3 weeks after birth. Cottontails breed
from mid-February through September and may have 3 or more litters per year.

Cottontail rabbits are an important prey for many species of avian and mammalian
predators and are also game animals which ftirnish a great deal of hunting
recreation. As such, they are protected by state law and can only be taken during
restricted hunting seasons or as otherwise provided by law. However, in some
localized areas, cottontails may cause damage to farm and garden crops during the
summer. In winter, they may turn to tree nurseries, orchards, and ornamental
shrubs. It is at these times that rabbit control may be necessary to reduce damage.

Habitat Control

Cottontail rabbits prefer dense thickets or heavily vegetated areas in which to live.
Cover of this type is necessary for food and protection from predators. Overgrown
ditch banks, brushy fence rows, or brush piles within or adjacent to croplands,
nurseries, or orchards may be major factors contributing to rabbit damage.
Cottontails leave this cover at night or in the early morning, feed in crop areas, and
return to the thicket for protection during the day.

Mowing, brush cutting, and general cleanup of overgrown areas may be all that is
needed for rabbit control. Without sufficient cover, rabbits do not stay in exposed
areas.

Trapping

Live trapping can be an effective means of removing individual animals causing
damage to gardens or other crops. Although rabbits are active at any time of day or
night, the height of their activity is just before sunrise and just after sunset; thus,
live traps should be set prior to these peak activity periods. Cottontails usually do

not have definite trails going from their cover to their feeding grounds. There
may be one or two fixed points where rabbits regularly enter. These points of
entrance and areas showing constant rabbit activity or damage are the logical places
for setting live traps.

Metal live traps ("cage" or "box** traps) may be purchased from hardware or farm
supply stores. Wooden live traps, such as those used by the Pennsylvania Game
Commission (see attached), can be easily made at home.

Fencing

Rabbit-proof fences will aid in protecting small home gardens or other areas of
valuable crops. Generally, a two to four-foot high fence of 1-1/2 inch galvanized
mesh wire or "chicken wire" is a sufficient barrier. This type of fence must be
thoroughly staked to the ground and the bottom edge buried to a depth of 4-6
inches in order to prevent the rabbits from burrowing or crawling beneath it.

Tree Guards

Tree trunk guards are also effective in preventing rabbit damage to trees or shrubs.
These guards should be of a material heavy enough to prevent rabbits from chewing
through them. Poultry wire of 1-inch mesh, 20 gauge, in strips 12-18 inches wide
can be formed into cylinders around trees. These should be braced away from the
tree to prevent the rabbits from bending the wire and reaching the tree. Tree
guards may also be available from a number of commercial sources; check with your
local farm supply store.

Repellents

Taste repellents have often been recommended as a method of reducing rabbit
damage. Many of these afford only temporary protection and must be applied too
often to warrant their regular use. Most are not registered for application to plants
which will be harvested for human use. Additional factors which determine the
effectiveness of a repellent include: thoroughness of application, weather
conditions, and proximity of existing rabbit food and cover. The application must
be heavy enough to withstand adverse weather conditions, since rain and snow may
dilute the repellent or wash it off Commercial repellents containing Thiram are
effective and can be applied safely to trees and shrubs. However, be sure that use of
any repellent is done in accordance with provisions of the Massachusetts Pesticide
Act.

r

European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are not cottontails. They are native to
parts of southern Europe and northern Africa but have been widely introduced
elsewhere and have often become serious pests. Unlike other rabbits, they dig their
own holes and live in large colonies called "warrens". The European rabbit is the
progenitor of the various breeds of domestic rabbit. So-called "San Juan" rabbits or
"Belgian hares" are varieties of the European rabbit. They were released at various
places in Massachusetts in the 1930's but did not establish themselves. They are
now found in the state only on a few small coastal islands.

Adapted from a leaflet originally prepared by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(1976).

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]

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS
DIVISION OF FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE

CONTROL OF TREE SQUIRRELS

Tree squirrels are found in most of the forested areas of the United States. In the
Northeast (including Massachusetts), there are three kinds of tree squirrels— the
gray squirrel, the red squirrel, and the flying squirrel. There are two species of
flying squirrel, but they may be hard to tell apart. Fox squirrels do not occur in
New England. The black squirrels seen in some areas are merely a color phase of
the gray squirrel.

The red squirrel is usually found among cone-bearing trees, whereas the gray
squirrel is usually found in hardwoods. Flying squirrels are active at night, while
the red and gray squirrels are usually active during the early morning and late
aft:ernoon. Around human dwellings, gray squirrels may sometimes be active all
day. Tree squirrels do not hibernate, although during severe cold or wet weather
they remain in their nests for several days. A litter of two to seven young is born in
the early spring, with a second litter sometimes arriving in late August. The young
remain in the nest at least six weeks before going out on their own.

Tree squirrels are usually beneficial. Gray squirrels are protected by law and may be
hunted only during a limited fall hunting season. At the present time, red and
flying squirrels are unprotected and may be hunted by licensed hunters year-round.
In some instances, tree squirrels may cause damage and it becomes necessary to
control them. They may invade attics, destroy growing plants and fruit, dig up
newly planted bulbs, and strip bark and leaves from shade trees and shrubs. Utility
companies report that squirrels often cause them considerable work and expense
when the animals gnaw through cables. Squirrels have also invaded orchards
during the late summer and have been known to destroy from 500-600 bushels of
fruit in one orchard in a few days. In a few instances, gray squirrels have attacked
and bitten pedestrians in public parks, perhaps because they are accustomed to hand-
feeding. Red squirrels tend to be aggressive and unsociable and will defend their
territory against other squirrels and birds. The alleged hostility of red squirrels for
grays is probably related to this territorial behavior rather than to any inherent
"enmity** between the two.

Blocking Squirrels from Buildings: Tree squirrels usually enter through openings
near the eaves of a building. Check for unscreened attic ventilators, loose louvers,

and spaces under eaves where the sheathing does not fit the overhanging roof.
Knots that may have fallen out from boards leave holes which may be enlarged by
squirrels. These holes should be patched. Openings where telephone and electric
cables enter a building may also be used by squirrels, or the squirrels may gnaw the
cables themselves. Metal flashing around chimneys may also work loose, leaving an
opening for the squirrels. They may also crawl down fireplace chimneys and can
enter the house when the damper is not closed securely. Close large openings
around water and waste pipes, too. Check the doors and the windows; if left open
and not screened, squirrels may enter that way.

At times, squirrels jump on rooftops from nearby trees. Metal bands about two
feet wide, fastened around the trunks at a height of six to eight feet, will usually
keep squirrels from climbing isolated trees, but are valueless if squirrels can jump
from tree to tree. If possible, prune branches near the house so squirrels cannot
jump from the tree to the roof. Colorless paint or wood preservative containing
zinc naphthenate may sometimes be used to protect trim or shingles which
squirrels are gnawing. However, be sure that the paint is suitable for the surface
you apply it to so that it will not stain or damage the original surface.

Protecting Trees: Use of metal bands on trees and removing low-hanging branches
so squirrels cannot jump up to the limbs will prevent squirrels from damaging fruit
and shade trees, if the trees are far enough apart so that squirrels cannot cross from
tree to tree.

Catching Squirrels: Squirrels usually follow regular routes of travel and box or cage
traps placed in such areas can prove quite effective. Be sure the trap works easily and
closes tightly enough to hold the trapped animal. It should be large enough so that
the doors do not close on the squirrels' tail, thus blocking the door from latching.
It should be small enough, though, so that you do not catch other animals, such as
skunks and cats. Good baits include nut meats, pumpkin or sunflower seeds, peanut
butter, rolled oats, and similar items. Place the trap toward the trail or near the
base of a den tree or a place where the squirrels are feeding. Check the trap
regularly, particularly if the trap is in a sunny area and the squirrels can become
overheated.

Conibear Traps: Conibear traps, size #110, or others of similar design, may be used
inside buildings in attics or crawl spaces to kill squirrels which are chewing wires or
causing damage which cannot be controlled otherwise. Be sure you know how to
set these traps and set them only inside where other animals or persons cannot be
caught or spring them.

Shooting: If discharge of firearms is permissible in your area, squirrels may be shot
with a .22 rifle or a small gauge shotgun. Be sure to comply with state and local
laws regarding shooting and the discharge of firearms. Shooting is usually most
effective in the early morning and late afternoon.

Adapted from a leaflet originally prepared by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(1976).

I

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS
DIVISION OF FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE

CONTROL OF RATS AND HOUSE MICE

Two species of rats have been introduced to New England from Europe. These
include the black rat (Rattus rattus). which was brought over by the first settlers in
the 1620's, and the brown or Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus) which was introduced
around 1775. The Norway rat has proved more aggressive and has displaced the
black rat, which is not now found in Massachusetts. The common house mouse
(Mus musculus) is also an introduced animal, having also been brought in
inadvertently by the colonists. It is most common in urban areas and around farms.

The Norway rat and house mouse are considered to be pest species, rather than
wildlife, and are not protected by state laws.

Description and Habits: House mice are typically dark gray on the back and ashy
gray on the abdomen. Variations occur all the way from black to nearly white. The
ears are large and prominent. The tail is small and slender, being about the length
of head and body combined. They are quite small, weighing about 3/4 ounce.
They may sometimes be confused with immature white-footed mice, which are also
dark above and light below.

Rats may vary in color from almost pure gray to reddish brown or nearly black.
Partial albinos may also occur. The average length of the adult Norway rat is 16-18
inches, including the tail, which is 7 to 7-1/2 inches in length. Norway rats weigh
from 10-17 ounces, although a one-pound rat is unusually large. The average life
span of a rat in the wild is only 8 months, however, they can live beyond three years
in captivity.

Female house mice may give birth to young during any month of the year,
especially in warm and secluded locations. The gestation period is approximately 21
days and from 5-8 litters averaging 5 young each are born during a single year.
Juveniles are dependent upon the mother for about 3 weeks and may reach
maturity in 2-3 months. Although caged mice may survive for two years or more,
it is probable that few wild mice live for more than one year.

Rats breed at three to four months of age and probably continue to breed until
death. The gestation period is 21 to 25 days. The young are weaned when three
weeks old, often just prior to the birth of another litter. The female comes into
heat about every five days and can breed within one day after giving birth. A
female averages between 5-7 litters annually consisting of 8-10 young each.

However, litters may contain as many as 20 young and as many as 14 litters
annually have been recorded. Natural mortality can be high; however, under
normal conditions, each pair annually produces 60-70 young which survive to
breeding age. While breeding is usually greatest during spring and fall, 20-30
percent of the females in a colony are usually pregnant at any given time.

House mice and rats eat the same foods as man, but, under natural conditions, are
primarily seed eaters. Foods high in protein or sugar content, such as peanut
butter, bacon, ground meat, cheese, cookies, and candy are readily consumed. The
diet varies in different environments and some animals can live on live insects,
starchy clothing, and glue in book bindings. However, when necessary, they will eat
and thrive on virtually any edible item.

Rats and mice are color blind. Their depth of vision is limited to about a few feet in
rats and 6 inches or so in mice. They can distinguish movement farther away,
however. They have a well-developed sense of smell and taste which aids them in
avoiding poorly prepared toxic materials. Their hearing is exceptionally good and
they seem to recognize higher frequency sounds than do humans. Their facial
"whiskers" and body hairs are very sensitive to touch and aid them as they move
about in confined spaces. Regular travel routes are marked by dark smudges on the
sides of tunnels and runways, due to the animals' rubbing on them. They are often
cautious of anything new and the displacement of a familiar object may disturb
them for a time.

Rats and mice are good swimmers. They will sometimes swim through sewer lines
and enter homes through floor drains. It is not uncommon for them to climb
pipes as high as the second story and emerge. A large rat can reach vertically 1 8
inches and jump three feet with a running start. They have been known to fail
four stories without apparent harm. It is possible for young rats to go through a
1/2-inch hole and house mice can pass a 3/8-inch hole.

The front incisor teeth of rats grow continually. They must gnaw in order to wear
back the teeth. They can chew through lead pipes, three inches of poorly formed
concrete, oak planks, and sun-dried brick.

While rats and mice are primarily burrowing animals, they can climb when
necessary. Rats prefer to live in burrows or tunnels in rubble 8-18 inches
underground. A long-established colony might have tunnels extending the length
of a city block. In light sandy soil, they have been known to burrow down to 6 feet.

Rats usually start their search for food and water after sunset each day. They
apparently feed twice during the night; once shortly after dark and again in the
early evening. The average rat needs 3/4 to 1 ounce of dry food and 1-1/2 ounces
of water every 24 hours. Without food, they will start to weaken in 3-4 days, but,
without water, they weaken in 1-2 days. Mice are not as reliant on water and have
been kept in captivity on dehydrated food containing less than 5 percent moisture
for periods of up to one year. This difference is a factor in baiting for the 2 species.

If food and shelter are present, house mice may spend their entire life span within a
25-foot range. Rats generally travel over a wider distance, but their movements are
also correlated with the availability of water, food, and shelter. When disturbed by
construction or other large-scale displacement, rats have moved as much as four
miles in one week.

Economics: Rats and mice transmit over 35 known diseases to man and domestic
animals. They also carry several kinds of lice, fleas, and ticks. Disease is spread by
their excrement, their parasites, and their bites. Among the human diseases carried
by rats are pl^ue, typhus, infectious jaundice, rat-bite fever, salmonellosis, and
trichinosis.

The vast economic losses are also significant. During the period April 1959 to
March 1960, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration made 370 seizures due to rat
and mouse contamination. The total poundage of contaminated food was
7,092,700. Samples of grain taken directly from combines indicate that 5-9 percent
of the wheat in some areas contained rodent droppings. The degree of
contamination varied from zero to 4500 per kilogram (2.2 lbs.). One pair of rats
living in a granary eats approximately 27 pounds of food in 6 months, but
contaminates 10 times as much. During this time, the two rats produce 2-4 pounds
of droppings and 1-1/2 gallons of urine, and shed one million hairs.

Rats and mice can also start fires by damaging insulation on electric wiring. A
survey of 39 cities in the 1960's showed that 530 fires were started by rodents.

Control: The best control of rats and mice is to take away the food and shelter that
permits them to survive. Traps, poisons, and other methods are only stop-gaps
which can temporarily halt a growing population or which can be used against
individual animals which find their way into an otherwise secure dwelling.

Light infestations of rats and mice can be removed through the use of ordinary
snap traps. These should be placed at right angles along walls between objects, or by
holes and damaged materials, so that the trigger mechanism intersects the animal's
route of travel.

An attractive bait is chunky peanut butter smeared over the trigger surface. Other
good baits are cake, doughnuts, bacon, nut meats, cheese, and soft candies. A
sprinkle of rolled oats or dry cereal over and around baited traps is sometimes
helpful. Trap-shy individuals may be caught by hiding the whole trap under a layer
of flour, rolled oats, or similar dry light-weight bait. At times, a wad of cotton
attached to the trigger may attract mice searching for nesting materials.

Poisoning: Toxic rodenticides are sometimes helpful in controlling large
infestations where trapping is impractical. No one bait or poison is universally
effective, and many rats and mice are now resistant to the more common chemicals.
For this reason, it is desirable to use poisons as little as possible and to rotate their
use. Only those poisons approved under state law should be used and they should be
used only by trained personnel having the appropriate permits.

The selection of poisons should be consistent with human safety and that of
domestic and wild animals. Anticoagulants (diphacin, fumarin, pival, warfarin,
PMP) cause death by internal bleeding. They are the least hazardous of the
rodenticides and are highly effective on an unexposed population, but are slow
acting. Small amounts of them must be consumed daily for 5 or more days in order
to produce death and several weeks may elapse before complete control is attained.
They may be purchased ready-mixed or as a concentrate. For large-scale use, the
concentrate is most economical. The basic bait mix consists of 12 parts ground
yellow corn meal, 5 parts rolled oats, 1 part vegetable oil, and 1 part granulated
sugar, mixed with the anticoagulant according to the manufacturer's instructions.
Precautions should be taken to prevent contamination of food and to protect
humans and pets from accidental poisoning (see M.G.L. c. 270, s. 3A). Place baits
carefully in protected bait stations and promply pick up and dispose of dead rats and
mice. Note that anticoagulants such as warfarin ("D-Con") are formulated for use
on rats and mice and should not be used to control other animals, such as squirrels
or rabbits.

Adapted from leaflets prepared by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1977).

COOPERATIVE EXTENSION, University of Massachusetts

NORTHERN NEW ENGLAND ANIMAL DAMAGE CONTROL PROGRAM

EDUCATION LEAFLET SERIES

PORCUPINE
{Erethizon dorsatum)

BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR

New England ' s second largest rodent characteristically appears
as a dark, spherical silhouette amidst the forest canopy. Closer
observation reveals a short-necked, short-limbed, plump body
form, conspicuously quilled from head to tail. Overall length of
adults ranges from 24-34 inches (60-85 cm .), with the muscular,
triangular tail comprising 7-9 inches (17-23 cm.). The re-
nowned quills, numbering to some 30,(XX), are hollow-shafted,
barb-tipped, and lacking only along the underbelly, ears, and
snouL Porcupine coloration generally presents a dominantly
black pelage with lighter highlights, although chestnut, light
brown, and albino variations may occur. Typical adult weights
range from 9-14 lbs. (4-6.5 kg.), with reported records of old^
males of 38 lbs. (17 kg.) in the Western subspecies.
Geographical distribution of the porcupine in New England

I includes all suitable habitat throughout Maine, New Hamp-
shire, and Vermont, extending south to the hills of northcentral
and western Massachusetts, and northwestern Connecticut
Although use of wetlands and agricultural areas within this
range is common, stands of mixed hemlock and hardwood
forest provide the most constant source of food and shelter.
Porcupines do not hibernate; but winter dens are established
along hillsides among the rocky outcrops and talus, or within
hollow trees, logs, dry culvots, or deserted human structures.
Primarily nocturnal, the porcupine's peak activity begins at
dusk.

Social behavior among porcupines is limited. While mutual
tolerance at optimal winter den sites is common, solitary
behaviorprevailsmuchoftheyear.Breeding may occur through-

. out autumn, with the birth of a single, 1 lb., fuUy quilled
"porcupette" (juvenile) in late spring. Maternal Ixxids wane
during late summCT, with total independ^ce of the young by
September.

Dietary preferences of porcupines follow cycles of seasonal
availability. While inner bark layers and foliage of Eastern
hemlock and other conifers must primarily suffice as wintCT's
meager fare, the buds, catkins, foliage, and mast (beechnuts and
acorns) of hardwoods provide higher nutritional offerings dur-
ing warmCT months. Among the most significant of these
sources are sugar maple, beech, birches, and oaks. Ground
feeding is prevalent in some areas during spring and summer.

I Favored vegetation includes grasses, herbs, and aquatic plants,
as well as agricultural crops.

ECONOMIC STATUS AND IMPORTANCE

Porcupines are responsible for supplying significant winter
browse in the form of "niptwigs" to highly valued game species
during years of heavy snow cover. With foraging efforts ham-
pered by the elements, white-tailed deer and snowshoe hare
benefit from evergreen boughs and twigs cut, partially con-
sumed, and dropped by the porcupine from its canopy feeding
porch.

However, feeding behavior also forms the focal point of most
porcupine/human concerns and conflicts. Allegations of severe
damage and economic loss to woodlots, orchards, commercial
forests, and cropland have often prompted extreme "pest"
control measures. In fact, porcupines rarely girdle the bark from
trunks or major limbs; thus mortality among foraged trees is
extremely low. Sawtimber stands or conifer groves near winter
dens may suffer stunted and deformed crowns of individual
trees of preferred nutritional quality. Similarly, remarkable
selectivity may occur in apple and cherry orchards, with only a
minority of trees bearing fruit of optimal acidic content being
foraged.

In answer to their critical need for dietary sodium, salts found
in plywood and building products, or utilized in de-icing winter
roads are actively sought by porcupines. In areas of dense
porcupine populations, damage to dwellings and automobiles
(tires, hoses, wiring) may be significant

In cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture

CONTROL TECHNIQUES

Prior to implementing any control measures, thoroughly in-
spect areas of suspected porcupine damage for characteristic
signs. Scat (fecal droppings) is generally abundant at den sites,
and commonly found about the base of feeding trees. Look for
niptwigs — partially defoliated thick twigs and small branches
with acutely angled severed stems. Consult field guides to
confirm the tracks and wide, distinctive snow trough of the
waddling-gaited, tail-dragging porcupine.

Non-lethal Control

Although their expense may warrant cost/benefit consider-
ations, the effectiveness of mechanical barriers to porcupine
depredations is well documented. Individual seedlings and
young saplings may be sheathed in protective plastic tubing or
enclosed by wire baskets. Larger trees can be protectively
banded in aluminum flashing of 24" minimum width secured at
a height above snowline. Simple adaptations of this technique
may be applied to posts and buildings. Exclusionary fencing is
accomplished via 18" width poultry mesh, tautly stretched, yet
closely conforming to all ground contours. Above this netting
a single strand of electric wire is strung (L5" gap) to discourage
climbing. Chemical deterrents have demonstrated variable suc-
cess. Rodent repellent sprays containing thiram are available at
garden supply retailers. Common wood preservatives ^plied
to exterior plywood and decking should contain copper
napthanate orpentachlorophenol. In areas of substantial porcu-
pine damage, forest practices such as thinning may need to be
reduced to maintain a closed canopy, thereby siq)pressing
ground cover and understory age-classes favorable to higho*
porcupine densities. However, harvesting hemlock in proxim-
ity to favored den sites will limit potential winter forage.
Following any harvest, burning or removal of logging debris
prevents future denning by porcupines in slash piles, snags, and
downed logs. Public awareness and tolerance of natural preda-
tors improves the potential of biological control. Reintioduc-
tions and rising populations of fishos, bobcats, and coyotes in
northern New England provide a significant check oa porcu-
pine d^isities. Public awareness and action regarding alterna-
tive de-icing techniques to rock salt would dramatically reduce
damage to automobiles from sodium-starved porcupines. Sand,
urea, calcium, and calciiun-magnesium salts are all proven
substitutes. The capture and relocation of live-trapped nuisance
wildlife contributes to the spread of animal diseases such as
rabies. Always a poor management tool, it is now prohibited by
law in most areas.

Lethal Control

The use of toxicants or steel-iaw trans to control porcupines has
generally proven ineffective, labor-intensive, or highly hazard-
ous to non-target species. Special permits for their use beyond
bams and dwellings must usually be obtained from local
wildlife officials. Due to its effectiveness and target-specificity,
hunting is die method of choice when the necessity of lethal
cixitrol of an offending individual dictates. Resh snow condi-
tions facilitate tracking and location of the den or feeding trees.

Wetland areas adjacent to damaged property are best scoured at
night using a spotlight during wanner seasons. Always consult
with local wildlife authorities prior to implementing any means
of lethal control. I

REFERENCES

Dodge. W.E. 1982. Porcupine. Pp.355-366inWild Mammals
of North America. (J. A. Chapman and G. A. Feldhamer, Eds.),
Johns Hopkins University Pess, Baltimore.

Dodge, W. E. and J. E. Borrecco 1992. Porcupines. Chapter 13
in A Siivicultural Approach to Animal Damage Management in
the Pacific Northwest. (Q.C. Black, Ed.), U.S. Forest Service,
PNWGTR-287.

Roze, U. 1989. The North American Porcupine. Smithsonian
Institution Press, Washington.

Schenmitz, S. D. 1983. Porcupines. Pp. B-71 - B-74 inPreven-
tion and Control of Wildlife Damage. (R. A. Timm, Ed.), Great
Plains Agricultural Council Wildlife Resources Committee,
University of Nebraska, Lincoln.

Spencer, D. A. 1948. An electric fence for use in checking
porcupine and other mammalian crop depredations. Journal of
Wildlife Management 12:110-111.

Stokes, D. W. 1976. A Guide to Nature in Winter. Little, Brown
and Company, Boston. i\

PARTICIPATING AGENCIES

• USDA APHIS-ADC, Sute Directors for Maine, Mastachusens. and New

HampshireA'ennont

• Maine Dqiaitment of Agriculture

• Maine Department of bland Htheiies and Wildlife

• Univertity of Maine Copperative Extensioa

• Masiadiusetts Division of Fifheries and Wildlife

• Univerti^ of MastadiusetU, Dqurtment of Forestry and Wildlife

Management

• Universily of Massachnsetts Cooperative Extension

• New Hampshire Hsh and Game DqMutment

• Univend^ of Vetmoot, Fisheries and Wildlife Program

Text prqMred by David H. Brownlee for the Northern New England Animal
Control Education Program, University of Massadiusetts, Amherst, MA.

Illustration prepared by Nancy Haver.

f

Piinicd on lecydcu pjpct.

Cooperative Extension offers equal opportunity in programs and employment.

COOPERATIVE EXTENSION, University of Massachusetts

L681

NORTHERN NEW ENGLAND ANIMAL DAMAGE CONTROL PROGRAM

EDUCATIONAL LEAFLET SERIES

BEAVER (Castor canadensis)

BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR

Beavers are chunky, yellowish-brown to brownish-black
aquatic mammals. They have short legs, dexterous fore-
feet, large webbed hind feet, and a spatulate (broad and
flattened), leathery tail. Bright yellow-orange incisors
(front teeth used for gnawing) protrude from the mouth
and are readily visible. The beaver is the largest North
American rodent and attains an overall length, including
tail, of 34-40 m. (86-102 cm.) and a weight of 27-67 lb. (12-
30 kg.). Beavers have Uved for up to 20 years in captivity,
however, they rarely survive beyond 10 years in the wild.

Although beavers are native to New England, by the late-
1800's they were nearly extirpated from this region by
commercial overharvest. With the implementation of
protective regulations and the help of successful beaver
reestablishment programs by federal, state and private
conservation agencies or organizations, these animals reoc-
cupied most of the ori^al range by the mid-1900's, and
their numbers continue to increase locally throughout much
of New England. Beavers occupy a variety of aquatic
habitats, including streams and rivers bordered by woods,
lake shores, impoundments, and marshes. They prefer
water courses with low gradient and abundant, high quality
foods.

Beavers are true vegetarians, consuming leaves, bark, small
twdgs, sprouts, fruits, and buds of shrubs and trees as well as
aquatic plants (e.g., sedges, rushes). Woody plants pre-
ferred by beavers include alder, aspen, bu-ch, gum, maple,
poplar, and willow. A beaver may consume up to 20-30 oz.
(567-850 g.) of food per day (approximately the amount of
bark and smaller branches of a 1-3 in. [2.5-7.6 cm.] diameter
tree every 2 days).

Beavers are usually nocturnal (active at night) but they may
be observed during daylight hours as they make repairs to
their structures or gather food. Their abUity to build dams
and lodges is well known. When beavers establish a new
territory in suitable, unoccupied habitat, they build a dam
before any other construction activity be^ns (usually April-
June or August-October). Beaver dams range from 2-10 ft.
(0.6-3.0 m.) in height and can extend more than 100 ft. (30
m.) in length. Lodge building, or bank den excavation, and
creation of a food cache (a pile of freshly-cut branches
placed in the pond next to the lodge that will remain
accessible as a food supply beneath winter ice) beg^i in
August or September, after the dam is completed and the
level of water in the pond stabilizes. Lodges often exceed 5

»Avine

ft. (15 m.) in height and 20-40 ft. (6-12 m.) m diameter.
Aft^ establishing a territory, beavers construct scent mounds
(piles of mud and secretions of castoreum from the beaver's
scent gland) about its boundary. It is believed this form of
chemical communication warns beavers from outside the
colony not to intrude.

Beavers are monogamous and, unless a mate dies, they pair
for life. They breed in late-January and February and
produce a litter of 3-5 kits during May or June. A typical
beaver colony consists of the adults, their kits, and the
previous generation of yearlings and may include up to 12
individuals. Two-year olds leave, or are driven away from,
the colony to establish new colonies of their own; when
dispersing, these ofiEspring travel an average distance of 4
ml (7.4 km.) from their natal colony.

ECONOMIC STATUS AND IMPORTANCE

The value of the beaver as a fur animal contributed signifi-
candy to the exploration of and western expansion of
civilization in North America. Today, beavers are an
important recreational and economic resource because of
the value of their pelt and the role they play in modifying
habitat. Beaver dams create or enhance wetiand wildlife
habitats, stabilize water flow, reduce siltation, and conserve
water. Impacts on fisheries depend upon the type and
location of that resource; cold-water species may suffer as
water temperature rises in new beaver impoundments
\^ereas warm-water species may benefit from more avslil-
able habitat and food sources. Beavers can cause consider-

In cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture

able damage to property by: flooding roads, septic systems,
fields, and pastures; flooding or cutting timber or orna-
mental plants; and destroying water retention devices. Al-
though many other potential hosts and vectors of transport
exist, beavers often are blamed for contaminating public
water supplies with Giardia cysts. For all these reasons and
many more, the beaver is one of the most intensively man-
aged wildlife species in North America and presents a great
challenge to wildlife managers.

CONTROL TECHNIQUES

In New England, there are no federal regulations protect-
ing beavers, however, each state has laws governing their
capture, taking, and disposition. Consult local wildlife
authorities before beginning any damage management
program.

Preventive Measures

There are no known techniques to discourage beavers from
occupying suitable habitat. Reports of deterring beavers
through harassment with loud noise or bright lights are
usually unfounded. Modification of habitat (removal of
food and construction materials) has been suggested but
remains imtried and suspect.

Non-Lethal Controls

To protect ornamental plants or trees of high value from
beavers, hardware cloth or wire mesh screening about 3 ft.
(1 m.) in height can be wrapped around the base of the
trunks and secured with wire twists. Exclusion fencing also
maybe used to restrict beavers' access to plants. Because
both techniques are labor intensive and somewhat costly,
they should be used only where the area of damage is small
or the value of the plants involved is high. Chemosterilants
(Le., birth control) have reduced the productivity of captive
beavers but an effective delivery method has not yet been
devised to introduce these compounds to wild beaver
populations. Partial or complete removal of dams ^r 1<;iHgyf
usually is ineffective in reducing damage caused by an active
beaver colony because they can repair or replace dams in
less than 24 hours. Also, removal of structures associated
with an active colony maybe a violation of state wildlife laws
as well as conflict with wetland protection regulations.
Even where a colony has abandoned its pond, permits may
be necessary to remove a beaver dam. Although used
extensively in the past livetrapping and relocation of indi-
viduals is discouraged because the practice is labor inten-
sive, costly, and, in most cases, simply transfers problem
beaver to another site. And, most habitat suitable for
beavers aheady is occupied by active colonies. Installation
of a water control de\dce (e.g., 3-log drain, T-culvert,
wooden box pipe) is useful in manipulating the level of
water in a pond ^ere maintenance of beavers* presence is
de^ed.

Lethal Controls

Because beaver populations can increase substantially in a
short period of time, the most effective way to minimize the
potential for problems with beavers is to hold their num-
bers in check. Research indicates that the incidence of
beaver damage is inversely proportional to the worldwide
demand for and value of their pelts (i.e., when pelt prices
and beaver harvest decline, reports of beaver damage
increase). When properly conducted, trapping can be an
effective technique for managng beaver populations. Consult
your state wildlife agency regarding specific regulations or
prohibitions on the use of traps and snares before placing
any sets. Shooting at night with spotlights may be effective
in eliminating problem individuals, but special authoriza-
tion is needed to do this. There presently are no toxicants
or fumigants registered for use in the control of beavers.

REFERENCES

Chapman, J. A. & G. A. Feldhamer. 1982. Wild mam-
mals of North America. The John Hopkins University
Press, Baltimore, MD. 1147pp.

Godin,A.J. 1977. 'W^d mammals of New England.
The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.
304pp.

Miller, J. E. 1983. Beavers. Pp. B 1-11 m R. M. Timm,
ed., Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage. Great
Plains Agriculture Council Wildlife Resources Commit-
tee and Nebraska Cooperative Extension Service,
University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

PARTICIPATING AGENCIES

- USDA APmS-ADQ State Directors for Maine, Massadiusetts, and

New Hampshire/Vermont

- Maine Department of Ag^culture

- Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and V^dlife

- University oi Maine Cooperative Extension

- Massadiusetts Division of Fisheries and ^^dlife

- Univeisity of Massachusetts Gx>perative Extension

- University of Massachusetts, Department of Forestry and Wildlife

Management

- New Hampshire Rsh and Game Department

- University of New Hampshire Cooperative Extension
• Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department

- University of Vermont, Fisheries and Wildlife Program

Text prepared by James A. Parkhurst, Northern New En^and Animal
Damage Control Education Program Leader and V^dlife Extension
Specialist, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA

Illustration prepared by Nancy Haver.

Cooperative Extension offers equal opportunity in programs and employment CR260:3/91-5M

Commonwealth o{ Massachusetts

Division off
Fiilier ies & Wildliffe

BEAVER MANAGEMENT IN MASSACHUSETTS

Beaver are a valuable renewable natural resource in Massachusetts. They
are one of the few mammals that create their own environment in which to live.
Their practice of damming and slowing down moving water, along with chewing
down trees, has a tremendous effect on landscape in the state. Beaver have many
positive aspects associated with their presence and activity in the state. These
positive aspects include:

- creation of wetland habitat: which is valuable because wetlands function in
sediment control, pollution control, ground water recharge, as water supplies,
and in addition are important for aesthetic and recreational purposes.

- creation of wildlife habitat: beaver-created wetlands are extremely productive
as wildlife habitat. These wetlands are utilized by waterfowl, mink, river otter,
muskrats, raccoon, marsh-nesting song birds, turtles, snakes, and many other
species.

- economic values: people harvest beaver as a fur and food product;
approximately 1,300 beaver are harvested annually under a strictly regulated
beaver trapping season. The value of harvested beaver in the past five years has
generated in excess of $150,000 for households in the state.

• aesthetic values: people like to watch or photograph beaver and the wildlife
that use their habitat.

Beaver also have negative aspects associated with their presence and activity.
Negative aspects include:

- road flooding & road culvert blockage

- railroad flooding

- chewing & damage to ornamental trees

- felling of trees on automobiles, electric powerlines and roads.

- flooding of wells and septic systems

- flooding of agricultural crops

- warming of cold water fish habitat

- carrying an intestinal protozoa (Giardia lamblia)

The Division receives hundreds of complaints regarding beaver damage yearly.
One third of the towns in the state incur damage to highways and roads due to
beaver activity. The resulting damages costs taxpayers hundreds of thousands of

dollars annually.

(OVER)

Division of Fisheries & Wildlife

Field Headquarters, One Rabbit Hill Road, Westboro, MA 01581 (508) 366-4470

An Agency of the Department of Fisheries, Wildlife & Environmental Law Enforcement

Population status:

Beaver are an abundant furbearer and a protected species in Massachusetts. The
Division has re-established beaver throughout the state. There are viable beaver
populations in all suitable habitat throughout the state.

Division management goals for heaver are:

- Maintain beaver populations compatible with suitable habitat

- Manage beaver for their vretland values

- Minimize beaver complaints and damage caused by beaver

Methods used to achieve management goals:

Regulated harvest, by trapping, is the method used to manage beaver populations.
Wildlife biologists regulate harvest by adjusting trapping laws for beaver. There
are over 20 laws governing the harvest of beaver during the trapping season
(Nov. 15 - Feb. 28). Fur prices can also affect the harvest. More beaver are
harvested during years when prices are high than in years when they are low.

In addition, at suitable sites where beaver are causing property damage, the
Division investigates complaint sites and explores ways to help landowners
alleviate damage. This program utilizes flow devices to control the level of water
in an effort to manage the site for wildlife habitat, and alleviate the negative
aspects of the beavers' presence.

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS
DIVISION OF FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE

CONTROL OF FOXES

Life History:

Two species of fox are found in Massachusetts, including the red fox (Vulpes
vulpes) and the gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus). Foxes of one species or
another are found throughout Massachusetts, except on Martha's Vineyard and
Nantucket, and probably in the urban Boston area (Suffolk County). Both foxes
are the size of a small dog, though the gray fox (7-13 pounds, 32-45 inches in total
length) is often slightly smaller than the red (10-15 pounds, 36-41 inches). Red
foxes are generally yellow-red or rust-red above with whitish underparts, a white-
tipped tail, and black legs and feet. Color variants, including the dark "cross fox"
and grizzled "silver fox" occur uncommonly. The gray fox is generally grayish
"salt-and-pepper" with rusty red areas on the neck, legs, and underside of the tail.
The top of the tail is black, with no white tip. Both foxes have large bushy tails.

Red foxes inhabit a diversity of broken or mixed habitats, including open
hardwoods, farmlands, woodlots, pastures, brushy areas, and suburban areas broken
up with small parks and undeveloped areas. Gray foxes, on the other hand, are
more of a forest animal, preferring dense hardwood or mixed hardwood-coniferous
forests and rough or rocky terrain. Gray foxes are skilled tree climbers. Red foxes
sometimes dig their own den but may often take over a woodchuck burrow or an
old fox den. Most denning areas are in similar sites year-after-year. Gray foxes
rarely use burrow dens but rather use sites under logs or stumps, in hollow trees and
logs, or in rock crevices and fissures.

Both red and gray foxes breed in mid-January to late February, with the pups born
in late March or early April. There is only one litter per year, with 4-5 pups in the
average litter. Communal denning may occur in red foxes with several families
denning in close proximity. Red foxes are believed to mate for life. In both species,
the pups are feeble at birth and remain in the den for 4-5 weeks. The adults
sometimes move the young from den to den. At about 8-10 weeks in gray foxes
and 12 weeks in reds, the pups are weaned and they soon leave the den. They
remain part of the family group until late autumn, when they disperse and begin
to fend for themselves.

Both red and gray foxes are opportunistic feeders, eating a wide range of small
mammals, birds and eggs, reptiles, amphibians, insects, fruits and berries, nuts,
grains, and carrion. Red foxes may cache their extra food by burying it or covering
it with debris.

Both red and gray foxes are highly susceptible to rabies, although that disease is
currently virtually absent in Massachusetts except in bats. Historically, there were
outbreaks of fox rabies in Massachusetts, the last occurring in the 1930's. Both foxes
are also susceptible to canine distemper. Sarcoptic mange— caused by a small mite
which infests the hair follicles— is very common in red foxes and is lethal to them.
It is not a problem in gray foxes. Heartworm may also be found in foxes.

Damage:

Red foxes may prey upon domestic poultry, or small livestock such as lambs and
piglets. They will also sometimes kill house cats. Depredations may be particularly
important during the denning and pup-rearing period when the adults have to
feed both themselves and their young. Gray foxes are less likely to cause damage
than red foxes.

Sickly foxes may cause alarm when they appear in suburban back years and act tame
or fearless of humans. Young children may approach dicse animals and try to pet
or feed them and may be bitten. Similarly, healthy foxes which are seeking food
may learn to feed on pet food, table scraps, or garbage.

Control:

Wire net fences with openings of three inches or less will exclude most red foxes if
the bottom of the wire is buried or secured with an apron so that foxes cannot
burrow under it. Pens or coops should also be roofed, since red foxes will often
readily climb a fence. Well-maintained electric fences with three wires spaced at 6,
12, and 18 inches above ground have also been used to successfully repel red foxes.

Sanitary practices should be maintained around livestock enclosures and dead
poultry or livestock should be buried deeply or incinerated rather than thrown in
the bush. Pet food should not be left outdoors and scraps from barbecues and cook-
outs should be cleaned up. Garbage should be kept in secure containers.

Where lethal controls are lawful and necessary, foxes may be trapped in approved
types of traps. The current trapping laws should be checked to ascertain the types of
traps that may be used and the circumstances under which they are allowed. Foxes

I

are intelligent and can be difficult to trap if traps are not de-scented and carefully
concealed. Adult foxes are difficult to trap in cage traps. Foxes may also be hunted
or shot during the lawful hunting season or when otherwise authorized. State laws
regarding the safe discharge of firearms must be followed. Foxes may sometimes be
called in by the skillful use of a "predator call" which simulates the distress calls of
prey.

Prepared by Mass. Division of Fisheries and Wildlife, May 1990.

amSCTTS DIVISiOH OF FISHERIES AND WODUFE* UNIVERSmf OF MASSACHUSETTS COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SYSIEI^:

>

THE
EASTERN COYOTE

IN MASSACHUSETTS

It is very likely that coyotes currently live within your com-
munity. To make your property less attractive and to avoid
having problems with them, here are some basic steps that
you should follow:

S

fi

£•

fi

a

w

Don't feed coyotes! Feedins ultimately alters the animals' behav- \ t y
lor. They become dependent upon and less wary of humans. This ^ ''^^-^

can lead to potential problems (bites, scratches, encounters with pets).

Don't leave pet food outdoors! If you must feed pets outside the home, provide only the amount that your pet
will finish in one feeding.

Don't approach or try to pet coyotes! Don't provoke an encounter with a coyote by coming too close or
restricting its free movement.

Do secure your garbage! Coyotes knock over trash cans or tear open trash bags left In the open. Don't provide
potential meals.

Do secure your pets! Although free roaming pets are more likely to be killed by automobiles than by wild animals,
coyotes and foxes do view pets as potential food. For the safety of your pet, keep It restrained at all times.

Do protect livestock and produce! Consult with the Division of Fisheries and Wildlife for appropriate ways to
protect property and stock animals from wildlife.

MORE COYOTE INFORMATION

Range and historical background of coyotes in Massachu-
setts: Coyotes originally moved Into the central and western
regions of Massachusetts in the 1 950s, and they have been In
the eastern sections and Cape Cod since the 1970s. This
species Is well established statewide.

Description: Coyotes are the size of a mcdium-slzed dog,
but with longer, thicker fur. Coyotes have a long, bushy,
black-tipped tail that is usually carried pointed down. Their
snout Is long and slender, and their ears are pointed and
erect. The pelts of coyotes In Massachusetts range from
grayish-black to blonds, light tan, dark tan, or even all black.
Females weigh 33-40 lbs and males arc slightly larger (34-47
lbs). Coyotes can attain weights of 50-60 lbs. Because of their
thick fur, weights of coyotes can easily be over-estimated.

Habits: Coyotes are usually shy and elusive. Male and female
coyotes pair up, establish a territory, and breed In February
or March; 4 to 8 pups are Ixsm In April or May. Activity is
variable; they can be active night or day, and sightings at
dawn or dusk are common. They remain active all year-round

MASSACHUSEnS DIVISION
OF FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE

and do not hibernate. Coyotes are often seen individually, In
pairs, or In small groups. The area a coyote uses may vary from
4 to 30 square miles.

Food: They are opportunistic feeders and their primary foods
include small rodents, rabbits, deer, birds, snakes, frogs, and
insects. They will also eat fruits, berries, vegetables, garbage,
and pet food left outdoors. In some areas they prey upon
unprotected F>ets, including house cats, and have been
knovtm to attack domestic dogs. Because coyotes utilize so
many different food sources, they have adapted to and live In
a variety of habitats Including urban and heavily populated
areas.

Coyotes are an Important natural resource In Massachusetts.
They are classified as a furbearer species, for which an
established harvest season and management program exists. If
you are experiencing problems with, or have any questions
regarding coyotes, contact the nearest regional office of
Massachusetts Division of Rsherles and Wildlife.

UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS
COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SYSTEM

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION, CALL MASSACHUSETTS DIVISION OF FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE AT:

Acton 508/263-4347«West Boylston 508/835-3607«Pittsfield 413/447-9789*Boume 508/759-3406«Belchertown 413/323-7632

Univeraity of Massachusetts, United Stata Department of Agriculture and AAassachusetts counties cooperating. The Cooperative Extension System
offers equal opportunity in programs and employment. Funding provided by the Northern New England Animal Damage Control Education Program under

Grant No. 88EXCA-2-0870. CR-0332:7/93-7M . Printed on recycled paper. 0

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS
DIVISION OF FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE

CONTROL OF WEASELS

Life History: Two species of weasel are found in Massachusetts, including the
ermine or short-tailed weasel (Mustela erminea) and the long-tailed weasel
(Mustek frenata). The long-tailed weasel is the larger of the two, averaging about
16 inches in length whereas the ermine averages about 13 inches. Male weasels are
distinctly larger than females. Both species of weasel may have a white coat in
winter; however, this is most common in the ermine. Both species have a black tip
on the tail. The ermine has a white line down the hind leg (summer coat), while
the long-tailed weasel lacks the line. The underparts of the ermine are white, while
those of the long-tailed are yellowish in color.

Long-tailed weasels prefer open woodlands, brushy areas, and agricultural areas with
hedges and fencerows. Ermines generally inhabit low brushy thickets bordering
streams in forested areas. There may be some habitat overlap, though, and both
species appear to require open water for drinking. They den in old chipmunk
burrows or other holes, in stone walls or rock piles, in fallen hollow trees, or similar
sites.

Both species of weasel breed in summer and the young are born the following April
or May. There are usually about 6-8 young per litter. They are blind and feeble
when born but are active at about 45 days and leave the parents by about November.

Weasels feed on a variety of small prey including mice, rats, chipmunks, rabbits,
small birds and e^s, frogs, small snakes, insects, and earthworms. They may eat
carrion if other foods are unavailable. If one type of prey is particularly common,
the weasels will usually continue to select that prey as long as it is available. Weasels
are commonly thought to be "bloodthirsty" because, in some instances, they may
kill more prey than they can eat. Actually, this behavior (called "surplus killing") is
common in many carnivores and is not a conscious "choice" on the part of the
animal. Normally, the weasel is stimulated to kill by the frightened behavior of
the prey. Then, when the prey is dead, the weasel's feeding behaviors come into
play. However, When confronted with a large number of prey animals, the weasel's
killing instinct is repeatedly stimulated and there is no chance for the feeding
instincts to take over.

Damage: Weasels may occasionally kill domestic animals, such as poultry, ducks,
pigeons, rabbits, and similar-sized birds and mammals. Often, they are beneficial
due to their predation on rats and mice.

Control: Preventive measures designed to exclude weasels from poultry houses are
an essential step in eliminating damage. All openings larger than 1 inch should be
blocked with 1/4 or 1/2-inch mesh hail screening or similar wire mesh. Window
screening is not strong enough. Be sure that the weasels cannot push under the
wire where it contacts the ground. Pens must also have a secure top, since weasels
are good climbers.

When necessary, weasels may be trapped in small cage traps or wooden box traps
(about 4x4x24 inches) baited with sardines or fresh meat. Traps may be set in hen
coops, under brush piles, or along fence rows or stone walls.

Prepared by Mass. Division of Fisheries and Wildlife,
May 1990.

UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS COOPERA TIVE EXTENSION SYSTEM

L-693

BLACK BEAR
(Ursus americanus)

BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR

The black bear is a large mammal with powerful
limbs, a small head, and small ears. Adult
females weigh 100-200 lbs. whereas adult males
are larger, weighing 150-400 lbs. This species is
characterized by several color phases, but bears
in the Northeast usually are all black except for
a brown muzzle. Some individuals may have a
small, white chest patch. Black bears have 5
toes, each with a well-developed claw, on the
front and hind feet and have teeth adapted for
feeding on both plants and animals.

Black bears are found throughout much of Alaska,
Canada, and the western and north central United
States. In the East, they occur primarily along
the Appalachian Mountains from Maine to Flor-
ida. Black bears inhabit forested terrain with
thick understory vegetation and make extensive
use of wetlands and riparian areas as sources of
food and cover and as travel corridors. Black
bears are omnivorous and will eat a variety of
seasonally available foods, including skunk cab-
bage and grasses in spring, berries, fruits, and
sedges in summer, and hard mast (beechnuts,
acorns, and hickory nuts) in fall. Insects, small
mammals, and deer fawns also may be eaten
where available or when encountered. When
natural foods are not abundant, bears seek alter-
nate and accessible food sources, such as agricul-
tural crops, beehives, and sometimes livestock.

Except for females with young or during the
breeding season, black bears generally are soli-
tary animals. During spring, simimer, and fall,
and particularly during the breeding season,
bears may be active during daylight hours, usu-
ally at dawn and dusk, but they are rarely seen
because they are so secretive and quiet Bears

often become nocturnal where contact with hu-
mans is more frequent. Individuals of both sexes
estabUsh overlapping home ranges; the area
utilized by an adult female is smaller ( 1 1 sq. mi.)
than that of the more far-ranging males (120 sq.
mi.). Females do not breed until 3 to 5 years of
age, and then only reproduce every other year.
Breeding occurs during June and July, but em-
bryonic development does not begin until No-
vember or December. Two to 4 cubs are bom in
late January or early February while the female
is denning. The young remain with the female
throughout the next winter denning period and
disperse the following spring. At that time,
young males wiU move out of their mother's
range whereas young females usually establish a
range close to or overlapping their mother's.
Mortality is highest among dispersing yearlings,
especially males, as they travel considerable dis-
tances in search of suitable, unoccupied habitat.

Bears will den in brush piles, logging slash, hol-
low trees, under rock outcrops, or at the base of
a tree. The onset of and emergence from den-
ning is dependent upon the availability of food,
but denning typically spans from early Novem-
ber to late March or early April in the Northeast.
Denning, as exhibited by black bears, is not true
hibernation. Although a bear's heart and respi-
ration rates and body temperature decline slightly
while denning, a bear will "wake up" if disturbed
and may move to a new site if winter denning
conditions are not favorable. Bears do not uri-
nate or defecate throughout the winter.

In cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture

ECONOMIC STATUS AND IMPORTANCE

The black bear is an important indicator species
of the "heahh" of the environment and the par-
ticular habitats it frequents. It has been an
important part of our natural heritage, both for
its aesthetic and ecological values. Today, black
bears are managed as a big game species in the
Northeast and are hunted by permit only during
regulated hunting seasons. The international
commercial trade in selected body parts (e.g.,
gall bladders, paws, hides) from bears has led to
an increased illegal harvest of all bear species,
including the black bear. When natural foods
are scarce, bears will use whatever sources of
food are available. Potential conflicts between
bears and agricultural producers, homeowners,
or other affected parties arise where bears cause
damage to property and crops as they search for
food. Because of their inherent values, we should
make every effort to co-exist with bears.

DAMAGE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS

To reduce the potential for damage to property,
precautions should be taken before a bear devel-
ops an interest in or gains access to potential
food sources. As with most wildlife damage
problems, no one control technique will provide
absolute protection from bear depredations. How-
ever, certain measures that are initiated in a
timely manner, maintained properly, and ap-
plied with an understanding of bear habits and
behavior can greatly reduce the extent and se-
verity of bear damage. Although black bears are
generally shy creatures, they are intelligent and
possess good long-term memory capabilities.
Futhermore, these are wild animals, and they
will react to undue provocation accordingly. These
traits should be accounted for when designing
any damage management program for bears.

Preventive Measures:

To reduce the potential for damage by black
bears, don't encourage their presence or attract
them to your property. Be sure to 1) exercise
good husbandry, 2) remove all sources of alter-
native foods (garbage or refuse, pet food, bird
feeders, animal carcasses), 3) move domestic
animals into protected areas and away from

areas with heavy cover, 4) maintain well-mowed,
cleared corridors around beehives, agricultural
crops, or livestock holding areas, and 5) alter-
nate row crops to provide less cover. Don't
knowingly feed bears at any campsite or near
homes~this will only attract more bears and ha-
bituates them to humans.

Non-lethal Controls:

Non-lethal controls are used to prevent a bear
from gaining access to property or a commodity.
Such measures may include 1) erecting tempo-
rary or permanent electric or heavy woven wire
fencing, 2) using bear hounds or guarding dogs
to ward off depredating bears, 3) manipulating
the habitat to make it unsuitable for or unattrac-
tive to bears, and 4) where practical, authorized,
and allowed by state law, having state wildlife
agency personnel capture and relocate an of-
fending bear. Consult wildlife authorities in
your state to determine whether this option is
available to you. In most instances, it is illegal
for a private individual to capture a live bear.
There are no repellents registered for use on
black bears.

Lethal Controls:

If all attempts to deter bears with preventive or
non-lethal measures fail, removal of the offend-
ing animal(s) may be warranted. Because per-
mits may be required and certain reporting
procedures must be followed, individuals con-
tenq)lating lethal action against depredating bears
are encouraged to consult their state wildlife au-
thorities before initiating such action. In most
states, the owner of the property, a member of
their immediate family, or a person under their
direct permanent employment may be allowed
to destroy a depredating bear, but only when the
animal is "in the act of causing damage." Situ-
ations where the health or safety of a person is
"at risk" from a bear also may constitute grounds
for its destruction. However, because "risk" can
be defined and perceived differently, there may
be question as to whether the destruction of a
bear was truly lawful. Regardless, any person
destroying a bear is required to report such ac-
tion and to surrender the bear's carcass to wild- .
life authorities within 24 hours. *|

REFERENCES

Boddicker, M.L. 1986. Black bears. Pages C-5 to C- 16 m
R.M. Timm, ed. Prevention and control of wildlife damage.
Great Plains Agricultural Council Wildlife Resources
Committee and Nebraska Cooperative Extension Service,
University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

Cardoza,J.E. 1976. The history and status of black bear in
Massachusetts and adjacent New England states. Massa-
chusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife, Research Bul-
letin 18. 113pp.

Chapman, J A., and G A. Feldhammer. 1982. Wild mammals
of North America. The John Hopkins University Press,
Baltimore, MD. 1,147pp.

Godin, A J. 1977. Wild mammals of New England. The
John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. 304pp.

The Northern New England Animal Damage Control
Education Program is a cooperative effort of the following
agencies and institutions:

- Maine Department of Agriculture

- Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife

- University of Maine Cooperative Extension

- Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife

- University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension

System

- University of Massachusetts Department of Forestry

and Wildlife Management

- New Hampshire Fish and Game Department

- University of New Hampshire Cooperative Extension

- Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department

- University of Vermont Fisheries and Wildlife Program

- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal Plant Health

Inspection Service, Animal Damage Control
(USDA APHIS-ADC) for Maine, Massachu-
setts, New Hampshire, and Vermont.

Text prepared by Sandra Robinson, research assistant,
Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Uni-
versity of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA

Edited by James A. Parkhurst, Ph.D., Wildlife Extension
Specialist and Program Leader, Northern New England
Animal Damage Control Education Program, University
of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA

For additional information, contact:

Illustration prepared by Nancy Haver.

The Cooperative Extension System offers equal opportunity in programs
and employment. CR-0304: 12I92-5M

"i

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University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension System

CO-EXISTING WITH

BLACK BEARS

IN MASSACHUSETTS

^, DO NOT FEED BEARS: feeding bears may place you or your

W family, friends, and neishbors in danger because bears accus-
tomed to handouts lose their instinctive fear of humans and
become unpredictable. You also place the animal in danger of
having to be destroyed.

g', WHEN CAMPING,STORE ALL FOODS AND WASTES PROPERLY: don't store
w food in your tent, trailer, or other inhabited space; secure food in bear-resistant
containers or hang it high betvveen tv\/o trees or poles. Avoid cooking in, or
immediately near, your tent v^here food odors may accumulate and attract
bears. Dispose of all waste in bear-resistant dumpsters or bury deeply well
away from the campsite.

jjll, REMOVE OR SECURE ALL POTENTIAL SOURCES OF FOOD: don t tempt bears
W by leaving or providing food within easy reach. Be sure all pet foods will be com-
pletely consumed at a feeding and not left in the dish. Remove bird feeders (espe-
cially those with suet) by early April. Store all garbage in a secure indoor location or
in a bear-resistant receptacle.

^i DO NOT APPROACH ANY BEAR IN THE WILD: maintain a safe distance between
" yourself and any wild animal to avoid threatening it or instigating a confrontation. Be

particularly aware of seemingly abandoned young cubs ~ the adult female probably

is nearby.

^t BE ALERT IN AREAS WHERE BEARS MAY BE ACTIVE: avoid travelling in gullies,
w along hedgerows, or in thick cover - bears frequently use these areas as travel
corridors.

BASIC LIFE HISTORY OF BLACK BEARS

The black bear is a large bodied (male: 150 to
300 lb; female: 100 to 180 lb.), dark brown to
black mammal. All black bears are characterized
by a light brown muzzle; some individuals may
have a white patch on the chest. They have small,
conspicuously furred ears that usually are held
erect. Ttiey have large, well-padded feet equipped
with 5 prominent claws. Bears have good eyesight
and hearing, but rely primarily on tfieir excellent
sense of smell to locate food and recognize po-
tential danger.

In AAassachusetts, bears ore found primarily west of
the Connecticut River and north of the Massachu-
setts Turnpike. However, individuals, particulariy
young males, have been recorded as far east as
Worcester and Middlesex Counties and south to
the Connecticut/Rhode Island borders. They typi-
cally Inhabit wooded wetlands, swamps, and

mixed hardwood and conifer forests withadense
understory adjacent to water sources.

Black bears are active during daylight (1/2 hr.
before sunrise to 1 to 2 hr. after sunset. They may
be nocturnal in areas v&taz frequent contact
with humans occurs (e.g., in campgrounds,
dumps or landfills) or during the breeding
season. They are not social animals and rarely
group together (except at food sources dur-
ing extremely lean natural food years). They
have a relatively low productivity In that they
produce S to 4 cubs every 2 to 3 years.
Females first breed at 3 to 5 years of age.
Onset of denning is variable, deperxjing
on availability of rutural foods, but gener-
ally occurs between late November and
early December and exterKJs until eariy
April.

For Additional Information About Black Bears, Their Manascmcnt, And Damase Control Strategies, Contact
MASSACHUSETTS DIVISION OF FISHERIES & WILDLIFE

Acton (508) 263-4347
Bourne (508) 759-3406
West Boylston (508) 835-3607

Univc'si^ o' Massoctiusctts, Unil.-d Sidles Dcpartmer.t o! A9nc'jlr:i:e and Mjssd-,hii;p;is cci,i'!ici cciDCur.
Issued in funhrrjncc of Cc>rpcfal ve Exicnssn wc'-. Actsol May 8 and l.ir.r 30 nu, .n ccctvrai,-:. \.vi':i
■ !nivcrsir/of .Mo;sJ:l'.uscn5CcoDC:d'ivc f i.ifnsicnSvsirni Th.; Co- rri.i^ivc [.tc-n-,!-,r- S.^tc;ii oiu-

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Belchertown (413) 323-7632
Pittsfield (413) 447-9789

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UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS COOPERA TIVE EXTENSION SYSTEM

L-685

WHITE-TAILED DEER

(Odocoileus virginianus)

BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR

The white-tailed deer has long, slender legs,
large ears, and a tail that, when the deer is
alanned, flares erect to reveal the flu^ white
underside for which the animal is named. Deer
are smaller than most people believe; they attain
a total length of about 71 inches (180 cm.) and a
height of 39 inches (100 cm.). Weight depends
upon age, sex, and physical condition of the
animal and upon the quality and quantity of food
consumed. Typically, adult males weigh 100-250
lbs. (36-113 kg.) whereas females are somewhat
lighter at 70-150 lbs. (32-68 kg.). In addition to
their greater size, male deer also are character-
ized by branched antlers that grow each year and
are shed Jifter the breeding season. Coloration is
similar between the sexes, but it varies season-
ally. During summer, coats of deer are reddish
tan and composed of short, thin hairs. In winter,
deer take on a brownish gray color as thicker,
longer, hollow hairs replace the summer coat.
Fawns are bom a chestnut brown color with
conspicuous white spots on the back and sides
that fade by 3-4 months of age.

With the exception of certain zones within cities
and areas of northern New England located
above treeline, white-tailed deer are present
throughout the entire region. Deer prefer for-
est-edge habitats or thickets intermixed with
glades, wetlands, or abandoned pastures. How-
ever, they readily adapt to and can satisfy their
daily needs within the fragmented forests typical
of most residential areas. Agricultural lands
located adjacent to woodlots or wooded wet-
lands also are frequently inhabited. From late
January through early March, deer often will
congregate and seek shelter from wind, deep
snow, and cold temperatures in stands of dense

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conifers, rhododendron, or mountain laurel ("deer
yards"). White-tailed deer are crepuscular, that
is, their periods of peak daily activity occur at
dawn and dusk, yet they may be active at other
times of the day, especially during their Novem-
ber breeding season.

The diet of white-tailed deer is highly variable;
they consume an amazing variety of plant mate-
rials. In general, preferred foods include buds,
stems, and delicate shoots of woody plants and a
variety of f orbs. However, deer also will eat mast
crops (e.g., acorns and other nuts), lichens, or the
inner bark of saplings, and occasionally they will
scratch for roots or tubers. In residential areas,
deer browse on ornamental shrubs and graze in
flower beds. Forage and vegetable crops, fruits,
and nursery plants are eaten where unprotected
and available. Although deer may be color-
blind, ihey see and hear very well, and their
sense of smell is especially well-developed. Deer,
particularly fawns, are an important food of
predators, such as coyotes, bobcats, or bears,
and scavengers.

In cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture

Although deer usually do not establish or defend
territories, they do maintain a loose social struc-
ture. Typically, an adult doe, her fawns, and, in
some cases, last year's female offspring stay
together on the maternal range, an area of famil-
iar habitat less than 1 mi^ (2.6 km^ ) in size.
Males leave the maternal range as yearlings (1 +
year old) to adopt either a solitary existence or,
more commonly, form "buck groups" consisting
of 2-5 individuals. Bucks traverse more area
than females, but neither sex travels great dis-
tances. Typically New England white-tails travel
no more than 5-15 miles except when they re-
treat to winter **yards", when movements may
exceed 15 miles. In the Northeast, breeding
occurs from mid-November in nortiiem New
England to early December in southern New
England. After a gestation period of about 200
days, fawns are bom in May or June. Depending
upon her age and physical condition, a doe may
produce 1, 2, or, rsuely, 3 fawns that weigh about
4-6 lbs. (2-3 kg.) at birth and are able to walk
about within an hour of birth.

ECONOMIC STATUS AND IMPORTANCE

The white-tailed deer is the most prized big
game animal of the Northeast, both for its con-
smnptive value to hunters and for its aesthetic
appeal to nature enthusiasts. Considerable in-
come (more than $100 million in New England)
is derived from the sale of licences and sporting
equipment and from tourist dollars spent in
pursuit of deer. Deer also can produce signifi-
cant economic hardship for orchardists, vege-
table producers, Christmas tree growers, forest-
ers, watershed managers, and homeowners as a
result of the damage caused by their feeding.
Deer serve as a host for the deer tick (Ixodes
dammini)y which has been implicated in the
spread of Lyme disease.

CONTROL TECHNIQUES

How can you determine if deer are present on
your property and possibly causing damage?
Direct observation of deer, discovering their
tracks or droppings, or finding evidence of brows-
ing are good indicators. Because deer do not
have incisors (fi-ont teeth) on their upper jaw,

they tear or rip away plant material when brows-
ing and leave jagged edges on the remaining
stalk or stem.

Many damage control techniques must be im-
plemented before a feeding pattern develops or
damage occurs if they are to be successful; once
a pattern has become estabhshed, it can be
difficult to alter. In addition, damage caused by
deer is easier to minimize where deer numbers
are low. In areas of high deer density and
extensive browsing pressure, many deterrents
may be ineffective. However, using several dif-
ferent control strategies in an integrated ap-
proach will increase the effectiveness of a dam-
age management program.

Preventive Measures

Removal of food or elimination of cover have
been suggested as means to limit deer damage.
However, evidence to support the success of
these techniques is scant. Planting vegetation
unpalatable to deer may reduce the likelihood
of damage, particularly for ornamental plants
around residential dwellings. Use of decoy crops
or alternative preferred foods, such as clover, al-
falfa, or lespedeza, placed near or aroimd high
value crops may reduce deer damage initially,
but also may artificially increase deer densities
in the immediate area, leading to greater dam-
age later.

Non-Lethal Controls

Frightening or scare devices (i.e., using noise,
visual, or both cues) may provide temporary
protection against browsing by deer when used
in conjunction with other deterrents and when
moved about frequently. Use of certain noise
makers (e.g., propane exploders, cracker shells)
maybe restricted by locsd statutes-check appli-
cable regulations before using any noise deter-
rent. Repellents can provide satisfactory protec-
tion to non-bearing crops or dormant season
growth in areas where deer numbers are low or
browsing damage is light to moderate; repellents
usually are not effective where deer densities are j
high. An area repellent prevents deer from (
entering a site by presenting an offensive odor.

'.■'--"-iv^iVJ

whereas a taste repellent applied to a potential
food source makes that item less palatable to
deer. The effectiveness of all repellents de-
creases over time and with repeated rains; there-
fore, most have to be reapplied frequently.
Sterilization and birth suppressants have re-
ceived considerable public attention and are the
subject of current research. However, an appro-
priate chemical delivery mechanism that en-
sures reaching enough individuals to provide
adequate population control has yet to be devel-
oped. By far the most effective non-lethal tech-
nique is the use of either permanent or tempo-
raiy electric or non-electric fencing. The con-
struction, placement, and type of fencing to be
used is dependent upon many factors; property
owners and producers are advised to consult
with their local extension agent or state wildlife
professional.

Lethal Controls

The goal of most state wildlife agencies with
regard to deer is to achieve a balance between
the biological canying capacity (maximum num-
ber of deer ahabitat can support in good physical
condition over an extended period of time) and
the cultural canying capacity (maximum num-
ber of deer that can coexist compatibly with local
human populations). This balance normally is
achieved by regulated public hunting, including
the harvest of female deer, or special damage
abatement permits. Also, regulations exist in
many states that allow property owners to re-
move deer caught in the act of destroying crops,
regardless of the time of year.
Notification of appropriate wildlife authorities
is required and, in most cases, any animals taken
must be surrendered to a wildlife agent. There
are no toxicants or fumigants registered for the
control of white-tailed deer.

REFERENCES

Craven, S. R. 1983. Deer. Pp. D-23 to D-33 in R. M.
Timm, ed. Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage.
Great Plains Agricultural Council Wildlife Resources
Committee and Nebraska Cooperative Extension Service,
University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

Ellingwood, M. R., and S. L. Caturano. 1988. An evalu-
ation of deer management options. Connecticut Depart-
ment of Environmental Protection, Wildlife Bureau, Pub-
lication No. DR-11. 12pp.

Godin, A. J. 1977. Wild mammals of New England. The
John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. 304pp.

Halls, L. K. (ed.). 1984. White-tailed deer: ecology and
management. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, PA. 870pp.

Text prepared by James A. Parkhurst, Northern New England Animal
Damage Control Education Program Leader and Wildlife Extension
Specialist, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA.

Illustrations prepared by Nancy Haver.

This leaflet was a cooperative effort of the following agencies and
institutions:

- Maine Department of Agriculture

- Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife

- University of Maine Cooperative Extension

- Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife

- University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension System

- University of Massachusetts, Department of Forestry and Wildlife

Management

- New Hampshire Fish and Game Department

- University of New Hampshire Cooperative Extension

- Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department

- University of Vermont, Hsheries and Wildlife Program

- US Department of Agriculture, Animal, Plant, Health Inspection

Service, Animal Damage Control (APHIS-ADC) for Maine,
Massachusetts, and New Hampshire/Vermont.

For additional information, contact:

CR281:12/91-5M

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS
DIVISION OF FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE

CONTROL OF ANIMAL ODORS WITH NEUTROLEUM ALPHA

Noxious animal odors may be masked eflfectively using the deodorant
"Neutroleum Alpha". Odors arising from penned animals, as in a laboratory or
kennel, skunk spray contamination, or a rotting carcass are examples of odor
problems controlled by Neutroleum Alpha.

Neutroleum Alpha is available in concentrated or water soluble form. The water
soluble form is cheaper and more flexible in use than the concentrate. The water
soluble form can be diluted for use as an area spray or used as is by saturating
materials such as cotton or lamp wick. For an area spray, add two ounces of
Neutroleum Alpha to one gallon of warm water.

Space or area sprays should be used in a room or small building where the odor-
causing substances are widespread or bulky. An area contaminated with skunk spray
or where highly odoriferous material has been spilled would be likely places for
spray application. The entire area or odor-causing mass should be covered
throughly with the spray. Generally, one application is sufficient. Sometimes, due
to the depth of the odor-causing material, a second application is needed. The
interval between applications is usually fourteen days.

Saturated cotton balls or lamp wick may be employed where the source of the odor
is localized. The saturated materials should be suspended in or near the
contaminated area so that air circulation can move the volatile deodorant
throughout the area. The saturated materials can be suspended by string behind
doors, from door knobs, behind curtains, from curtain rods, from pipes, or from
strategically placed thumb tacks. The saturated materials are effective for about
three weeks.

The source of odors is sometimes difficult to locate, especially when small animals
die in walls and other out-of-the-way places. Lack of knowledge of air circulation in
the area contributes to the difficulty. The smoke of a burning cigarette or punk
will show the air circulation in the affected areas. The vicinity of electrical wall
outlets and radiator pipes should be checked carefully as these areas usually have a
continuous air current. Gases from decomposing animal carcasses are heavier than

air and settle into the lower levels in a structure. It is in these areas that the
greatest number of saturated materials should be placed.

The normal number of placements of saturated materials in an average room in a
house is four. The number should be doubled in the basement beneath the same-
sized room.

Neutroleum Alpha may be obtained from Fritzsche Brothers, Inc., Port Authority-
Building, 76 Ninth Avenue, New York, N.Y. Inquiries concerning current prices
should be directed to the company. This deodorant may also be purchased from
hospital supply houses or pest control operators.

Obnoxious odors may also be masked using NI-712, a commercial citrus odor
eliminator available as an aerosol spray. This substance is available from Neutron
Industries, Inc., 7107 N. Black Canyon Hwy., Phoenix, AZ 85021.

The above is for the information of correspondents. The inclusion of company or
trade names does not imply endorsement by the Commonwealth or the Federal
government.

Adapted from a leaflet originally prepared by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(1969).

Doperative Extension Service

versity of Massachusetts,

ted States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating

L-335

Wildlife in Msissachusetts

Chipmunk

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\

Chipmunks are small ground-dwelling squirrels
common in forested areas of Massachusetts. They
have characteristic markings that make them easy
to distinguish from other members of the squirrel
family. Their coat is rusty-red to chestnut-brown,
and has five dark-brown stripes lining the back.
Their tail, which is about one-third of the chip-
munk's total length, is flat, hairy, and fringed in
white or gray. Both males and females are alike in
color, size (8-1/2 to 9-1/2 inches), and weight
(2-1/2 to 4 ounces). Their short front feet are
specially designed for holding and eating food
while sitting up. Like all members of the rodent
family (squirrels, beavers, mice), chipmunks have
chisel -shaped, ever-growing front teeth which must
be controlled by gnawing.

Habitat and Behavior

Chipmunks prefer hardwood forests having a
thick ground vegetation interspersed with old logs
or stone walls. In open areas with little or no
ground cover, they are most often found living in
the cracks and crevices of stone walls or ground
burrows. These energetic and resourceful animals
are often seen in parks, lawns, and around gardens.

Chipmunks may seem to be more common than
other members of the order Rodentia because they
are active during the daytime. Them seem however,
to be most active in the cooler hours of morning
and afternoon. When temperatures are too high or
low, or the weather is stormy, they will not ven-
ture from cover.

When not busy with food gathering or territorial
defense, chipmunks sleep in their underground bur-
rows. Burrow entrances are neat, round holes, usu-
ally less than two inches in diameter. During the

winter, the entrance is plugged. From the entrance,
the burrow drops straight down for a few inches
and then declines more gradually until it levels out
at about three feet below the surface. When exca-
vating, the chipmunk will carry soil away from the
entrance in its cheek pouches. Because of this,
there is little or no evidence of excavated soil at
the entrance. Within four to five years an average
chipmunk burrow may be 30 feet long, have sever-
al openings, and may have up to six chambers.

Chipmunks are not true hibernators, though
some may sleep for long periods of time during the
cold winter months. They store food rather than
fat, and must wake up to eat. Mild winter weather
may bring them out of their dens for short periods
of time.

In late February and early March, chipmunks
leave their burrows to breed. There are two breed-
ing seasons every year: spring and summer. During
the spring season, the older females and one-year-
old females will breed. During late July and Au-

gust, females which do not mate in spring and a
few of the three-month-oid females will breed.
Older females may even have two litters per year.
After a 31 -day gestation, four or five young are
born (blind and naked). The young develop and
grow very quickly, spending only a month in the
burrow.

Chipmunks are omnivorous, feeding on both
plants and animals. Some of the plant foods eaten
are acorns, beechnuts, seeds of woody plants, ber-
ries of the American yew, ragweed, wintergreen,
Canada Mayflower, clover, and wild buckwheat.
Occasionally they sample mushrooms, sunflower
seeds, watermelon, apples, and squash. They eat
many invertebrate animals such as insects and

worms, but sometimes catch vertebrate animals
(moles, young mice, small songbirds, and frogs).
Chipmunks have special internal cheek pouches
which can be filled with food. The pouches are
used to carry food to storage sites for future use
during the winter and are emptied by squeezing
them with their front feet. But, more often they
eat their food on the spot, usually at a favorite
stump or rock. Such a feeding area rapidly be-
comes littered with broken nut shells and seeds.
During the late summer and early fall, chipmunks
start gathering and storing nuts and other seeds for
the winter.

Chipmunks usually do not travel very far — 75
yards from their burrow or nest would be consid-

ered a great distance. The outer areas of an individ-
ual's home range often overlap with that of other
chipmunks, except during the breeding season.
Chipmunks are solitary and except for females
with young, live alone in separate dens. Predators
of chipmunks include: man, hawks, mink, rac-
coons, weasels, martens, foxes, bobcats, coyotes,
cats, and large snakes.

Economic Importance

In their natural habitat, chipmunks are part of
the natural community of plants and animals. They
compete with gray and red squirrels, grouse, deer,
turkeys, mice, and other nut-eating animals for
food. Some food is eaten on the spot; some is bur-
ried. When a large amount of food is stored and
left in the ground, there may be less for other wild-
life but some stored seeds can sprout and new
trees will grow from them.

Chipmunks are enjoyable to watch, but when
they move into urban settings, they may conflict
with man's interests. They dig up garden seeds and
have been accused of eating flower bulbs. Burrow
entrances in lawns, rock gardens, stone walls, and
near building foundations may be objectionable. If
such disturbances can be tolerated, it may be just
as well to learn to enjoy these alert animals. Maybe
the benefits of watching outweigh the disadvan-
tages. If control is necessary, such as when they get
into houses, snap-type rat traps can be used effec-
tively.

Written and compiled by Nan Chadwick.
Illustrations by Nancy Haver.

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, E. Bruce MacDougall,
Dean, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; Unit-
ed States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services
cooperating. The Cooperative Extension Service offers equal oppor-
tunity in programs and employment. J2394: 1 1/84-3M

Cooperative Extension Service
U.S. Department of Agriculture
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts 01003

OFFICIAL BUSINESS

PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE. $300

POSTAGE AND FEES PAID

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF

AGRICULTURE

AGR 101

(looperative Extension Service

L-331

niversity of Massachusetts,

nited States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating

( "^^ ^

I riBB ^WILDLIFE I
I SERVICE I

Controlling Wildlife Damage

Woodchuck

)

\

The woodchuck is a member of the rodent fami-
ly and Is one of the most common mammals in
Massachusetts. It prefers to inhabit pastures and
meadows or the edges of brush woodlands. Com-
plex burrows are dug and are used for denning
and winter hibernation.

Woodchucks are most active during daylight
hours and prefer to feed in the early morning or
evening. They are vegetarians, and eat alfalfa, clo-
ver, grasses, leaves, dandelion buds, common chick-
weed, and other wild plants as well as agricultural
plants such as beans, peas, carrots, and apples.

Control

Abandoned woodchuck burrows offer consider-
able benefits to many wildlife species. They pro-
vide escape cover and dens for cottontail rabbits,
foxes, and other wildlife. However, in areas where
they are overabundant, woodchuck activities may
conflict with man's interests, especially on farms,
in gardens, orchards, or nurseries. They can do
heavy damage to pea, bean, corn, and hay crops.
Mounds of earth from the burrow or entrance
holes may be a hazard to farm equipment as well
as to horses and their riders. In spring, fruit trees
and ornamental shrubs may be damaged by the
woodchuck gnawing on the stems. For these rea-
sons, control measures may be necessary.

Fencing

Home gardens may be fenced to keep many ani-
mals from damaging or destroying produce. Since
woodchucks are good climbers, they can easily
scale wire fences, if fencing is already in place,
an electric hot wire placed 5 to 6 inches off the
ground and about 3 to 4 inches outside the fence
will prevent woodchucks from climbing or burrow-
ing under the wire mesh. Also, 4 to 6 inches of a
fence should be buried to inhibit burrowing.

Shooting

In Massachusetts, the woodchuck is considered
a nuisance animal. A valid state hunting license is
required. There is no closed season, nor Is there
any limit on the number of woodchucks that can

be taken by an individual hunter. Landowners and
their hunting friends can help reduce the number
of woodchucks where necessary and desirable.

Gassing

If safety requirements do not permit shooting,
commercial woodchuck gas cartridges may be used.
These are specially designed cardboard cylinders

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filled with slow-burning chemicals which, when ig-
nited and put In the burrow, burn to produce car-
bon monoxide gas. When confined to the burrow
system (by blocking the entrances), lethal amounts
of gas accumulate. Since a burning material is in-
volved, care should be taken to avoid setting fire to
dry grass or brush. Because of the potential hazard
from fire and toxic gasses, gas cartridges should not
be used in dens found under sheds or buildings.
Woodchuck cartridges are available from local farm
supply stores. Directions for their use are on the
label and should be carefully followed.

Trapping

Trapping may also be used to reduce woodchuck
populations in problem situations. A regular box
trap made of wood lined with metal to prevent
chewing can be used. They should be baited with
apples or other fresh fruit and should be checked
twice a day (morning and night), so that trapped
animals may be dealt with in a humane manner.
Steel leg-hold traps are not allowed in Massachu-
setts unless trapping in or under buildings or
underwater.

A

Written and compiled by Nan Chadwiclc.
Illustrations by Nancy Haver.

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, E. Bruce MacDougall,
Dean, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30. 1914; Unit-
ed States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services
cooperating. The Cooperative Extension Service offers equal oppor-
tunity in programs and employment. J2394: 1 1/84-3M

Cooperative Extension Service
U.S. Department of Agriculture
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts 01003

OFFICIAL BUSINESS

PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE. $300

POSTAGE AND FEES PAID

U,S. DEPARTMENT OF

AGRICULTURE

AGR 101

fl

(operative Extension Service

J.JJ3B

f/ersity of Massachusetts,

fid States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating

ll

Wildlife in Massachttsetts

Gray Squirrel

The gray squirrel, named for its silvery-gray
coat, is a slender, long-tailed arboreal (tree dwell-
ing) rodent. Its bushy, flattened tail Is usually held
in an S-shaped curve over its body when sitting. Its
hind legs are larger and stronger than the front
ones and are used for leaping from tree to tree. The
front feet are specifically adapted for holding nuts.
An adult gray squirrel usually weighs between 3/4 and
1-3/4 pounds.

Gray squirrels display one of two color phases
depending on the season of year. During the winter
the underpants are white and the back and sides are
made up of hairs banded in black, brown, and
black with a white tip. Summer coats may be more
yellowish-brown, with gray on the sides of the
neck, shoulders, and thighs. Overall, the tail is gray
in appearance, but individual tail hairs are brown at
the base, banded with black and tan, and tipped
with white. Both males and females are similar in
color. In certain parts of Massachusetts a totally
black color phase is known to occur. Gray as well
as black color phases may be found within the
same litter.

Gray squirrels can be found throughout Massa-
chusetts, especially where there are hardwood trees
such as oak, hickory, and beech. They are common
in cities and parks where nut- and fruit- bearing
trees are abundant and discarded food is available.

Habitat and Behavior

Gray squirrels are very quick and nimble ani-
mals. They can easily run, climb, and jump among
branches of the tallest trees. Their long, flattened
tail helps them to maintain their balance during
these acrobatics. When startled on the ground,
squirrels will usually scramble up the nearest trunk,
traveling swiftly from tree to tree, seldom losing
their grasp. When they jump too far, they can drop
from the tree top to the ground without being in-
jured. Squirrels can travel along electrical and
telephone wires with ease for long distances with-
out setting foot on the ground.

The gray squirrel uses leaf nests and tree dens.
Good tree dens are permanent quarters, while leaf

nests are only temporary homes during summer-
time. The animals seem to prefer cavities in ma-
ture, living trees for winter dens. A den or cavity
begins to form in a tree where a branch has fallen
off or where a woodpecker has drilled a hole into
the trunk. With the protective bark gone, weather
and insects begin the decay process in the wood,
and eventually, a cavity is formed. Cavities are cre-
ated in live trees as well as in dead and dying ones.
Squirrels need a den that has an opening measuring
approximately three inches. They must often gnaw
back new bark tissues that grow over openings to
keep the den entrance from sealing. Old hollow
trees with broken tips, cracks and many openings
do not make good tree dens, but do provide hiding
places for squirrels. On occasion, a squirrel may
chose to den in a barn, garage, or attic.

During summer, adults build leaf nests which
are usually placed in the top fork of a tree or in
the crotch of a high limb near the trunk. A single
entrance usually faces the main tree trunk or near-
est limb. A leaf nest is made up of 3 or 4 parts:
the base and supports are constructed of twigs,
the floor on the inside is made of a layer of com-
pact soil and organic debris mixed with twigs, and
the outer shell is made of leaves and twigs. Often,
an inner layer of woven bark, grass, and leaves Is
constructed to provide warmth and added protec-
tion. Leaf nests range in size from 14 to 16 inches
in diameter and weigh from 6 to 7 pounds. Such
nests are cooler than cavity nests and are free of
parasites. They may also serve as temporary quar-
ters near winter food supplies.

Squirrels have two breeding seasons per year:
one In late January or February, the other In late
May or June. Before mating, several males may
chase a female In a noisy, energetic race through
tree tops. After a 44-day gestation period, 3 to 5
young are born (blind and hairless). Young squir-
rels depend on the mother for about 1 2 weeks.
Young from the first litter venture out in early
May and those from the second litter become
active in early August. Springtime litters are gener-
ally born in tree dens, but summer litters are usu-
ally born in leaf nests.

Squirrels rely heavily on mast (nut) crops such
as acorns, hickory nuts, and beech nuts for food
and can consume up to two pounds of nuts each
week. When mast is scarce, squirrels may be hard
pressed to find enough food to subsist. Food short-
ages and severe winter weather may reduce popula-
tions drastically. When mast Is abundant, the ani-
mals store (cache) nuts, then throughout the win-
ter they dig them up to eat. Experiments have
shown that squirrels find these stored nuts with
their highly developed sense of smell. They com-
pete for mast with ruffed grouse, deer, black bear,
chipmunks, white-footed mice, blue jays, flying

squirrels, and wild turkeys. During spring thaw,
squirrels will eat buds and flowers of red and sugar
maple. Later in spring, they may eat the maple and
elm fruits. In summer, they feed on berries, mush-
rooms, apples, corn, and other grains. Gray squir-
rels will occasionally eat bird eggs and chew on
bones or deer antlers for calcium, phosphorous,
and other necessary minerals.

Although they may stay in the den for several
days at a time during stormy weather, gray squir-
rels are active all year long. Daily, they are most ac-
tive at dawn and in late afternoon. If wind is not
strong, they will feed during rain or snow storms.
Most squirrels live in an area of 2 to 7 acres. Their
natural predators are hawks, owls, foxes, bobcats,
and raccoons. Also, hunters take some during open
season. House cats prey on squirrels, especially
young ones. Many are killed on roads in the fall
when they tend to migrate longer distances in
search of food. The average life span.of gray squir-
rels is about 1-1/2 years, but they have been
known to live seven or eight years.

Written and compiled by Nan Chadwick.
Illustrstions by Nancy Haver.

Issuad by the Cooperative Extension Service. E. Bruce MacDougall,
Dean, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; Unit-
ed States Department of Agriculture end County Extension Services
cooperating. The Cooperetlve Extension Service offers equal oppor-
tunity in programs and employment. J2394: 1 1/84-3M

/Ooperative Extension Service

L-336

niversity of Massachusetts,

mited States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating

Wildlife in Massachttsetts

Muskrat

The muskrat is one of the larger wild rodents
found in Massachusetts; adults weigh from 1-1/2
pounds to 4 pounds. Like its relative the beaver, it
is a water-loving mammal. Its fur varies in color
from rich dark brown to reddish brown. Its under-
fur is thick, silky and grayish. Muskrats have large,
broad hind feet that are partially webbed and are
well adapted for swimming. Unlike the beaver, the
muskrat's scaly tail is flattened vertically so it can
serve as a rudder while the large hind feet propel
the animal through water. Its small, long-clawed
front feet are specially adapted for holding food
and digging. Muskrats have two scent glands lo-
cated near the anus, which give off a musky odor
that is strongest during the breeding season.

Habitat and Behavior

Muskrats are seldom found far from water. They
prefer shallow ponds and marshes, but may oc-
casionally be found along slow-moving streams, ca-
nals, and rivers. Muskrats may dig a den in a bank
or build a house with aquatic plants. In general,
burrow entrances are below water level. A bank
den is ventilated by small holes hidden under a pile

of roots or other thick vegetation. When banks are
too low for a den, muskrats build a lodge.of cat-
tails and other aquatic plants. The lodge may be
constructed over a submerged stump or log, or
built directly on the bottom of the wetland. The
cone-shaped den is made of mounded cattail stalks,
or bulrushes, roots, and mud dragged up from the
bottom. Entrance to a lodge is always under water
but the living chambers are above water. Interior
rooms are protected by walls of vegetation and
mud that are more than a foot thick and are lined
with fine grasses. Muskrats will continue to build
throughout the year. New houses appearing in late
summer are usually the work of young muskrats.
The tops of muskrat lodges are favorite nesting
platforms for Canada geese and other water fowl.
Even though they are chiefly nocturnal, musk-
rats occasionally venture out during the day. Since
they are mostly vegetarian, they feed on stems,
roots, bulbs and leaves of aquatic plants; however,
they may also feed on corn, clover, alfalfa, apples
or other fruits. They also eat snails, mussels, crus-
taceans, insects, and fish. When feeding, a musk->
rat prefers to take its food out into the wetland

to an emerged floating log. There uneaten food
soon piles up and forms a feeding platform. These
"feeders" are places where they can eat without
interference from predators. Because they are
roofed, the feeders can safely shelter a muskrat
during bad weather. In ponds or marshes which
are likely to freeze over in the winter, muskrats
often keep open under-the-ice access tunnels
leading from the lodge to favorite feeding places.
Muskrats in Massahcusetts breed from early
spring until fall. In the south they may breed al-
most year-round. Usually three to five litters of
5 kits are born to a breeding female each season.
Young muskrats are born hairless and helpless, but
they grow very rapidly and are independent from
the mother In only one month. Some young may
even breed within the same year in which they
were born.

Economic Importance

Originally found only in North America, the
muskrat has been transplanted to Europe and
other parts of the world. Muskrats are one of
the most important furbearlng animals in Massa-
chusetts, as in most other states. Muskrats are reg-
ulated as furbearers and the harvest is strictly
controlled under Massachusetts laws. Natural
enemies include coyotes, skunks, weasels, bob-
cats, great horned owls, marsh hawks, red foxes,
mink, snapping turtles, and large snakes.

Muskrats often cause damage to earthen dams
and dikes by burrowing into the banks. Their feed-
ing habits sometimes result in damage to agricul-
tural or ornamental crops gowing near water.

V

i

Written and compiled by Nan Chadwick.
Illustrations by Nancy Haver.

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, E. Brvce MacDougall,
Dean, In furtherance of the Acts of Mey 8 and June 30, 1914; Unit-
ed States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services
cooperating. The Cooperative Extension Service offers equal oppor-
tunity In programs and employment. J2394: 1 1/84-3M

Cooperative Extension Service
U.S. Department of Agriculture
University of Massachusetts
Amheret, Massachusetts 01003

OFFICIAL BUSINESS

PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE, $300

POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE
AGR 101

iL

ooperative Extension Service

L-342

|versity of Massachusetts,
ted States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating

Wildlife in Massachusetts

Raccoon

I

Distribution and Identification

The raccoon is common throughout Massachu-
setts and most of North America. Raccoons are
recognized by their blacl< face mask and black,
brown, and white ringed bushy tail. They have long
thick fur, a wide head, and a slender, pointed nose.
The coat is a grizzled gray or brown. Male and fe-
males are colored alike, and males are generally
larger than females. Adults average between 8 and
16 pounds, but may get up to 40 pounds in rare

instances. Their feet are well adapted to climbing.
Their forepaws are very sensitive to touch and they
often stop to feel around in water as they wander
along a stream in search of food.

Habitat and Behavior

Raccoons live In forested areas that are close to
fields or wetlands. They are often found near
streams, lakes, and swamps, but are very adaptable
and can exist in almost every sort of habitat where
food is available, including suburban areas. They
den in hollow trees or logs, rock crevices, deserted
buildings, culverts, abandoned beaver lodges, or
woodchuck burrows. More than one den may be
used each year and the same den is often used year
after year.

Raccoons are almost entirely nocturnal, but are
most often seem at dawn or dusk. Although they
spend winter months denned up, they are not true
hibernators and may leave the den during winter
warm spells. Raccoons do not store food like chip-
munks, but they build up layers of body fat which
are used to supply energy until spring.

Although classified as a carnivore, raccoons feed
on a wide variety of plants and animals including
frogs, fish, shellfish, insects, birds, nuts, fruits,
seeds, corn, and other vegetables. In spring they
feed mostly on animal matter, and in late summer,
fall, and winter, they feed mainly on plants and
seeds. Some favorite plant foods include apples,
acorns, corn, oats, berries, grapes, ragweed, and

(

tender shoots and buds. Animals commonly eaten
include crayfish, frogs, snails, fish, snakes, insects,
small birds and their eggs, shrews, mice, and car-
rion. In urban areas they frequently raid garbage
and rubbish containers.

Most raccoons breed during January, February
or March. The young are born about 63 days later.
Litters of 3 to 7 cubs are born blind, but with fur.
The cubs grow rapidly and open their eyes when
they are about three weeks old. The mother and
young remain together throughout the summer and
may den together during the following winter.

Raccoons have few natural predators because of
their relatively large size and their fighting and
climbing abilities. While young raccoons are some-
times killed by owls, foxes, and weasels, man and
dogs are the major predators of adults. Many rac-
coons are killed on roads each year and many
young die from starvation, disease, and parasites
during the winter. Hunting and trapping are strictly
regulated to insure that only the surplus popula-
tion is harvested each year.

Economic importance

Raccoons are important furbearers and game
animals. They are hunted and trapped for their fur,
for meat and for sport. They fill an ecological
niche as a predator, thereby helping to regulate ro-
dent and other pest populations.

Control

Raccoons cause damage in corn fields by feeding
on ears of corn and they occasionally kill poultry
and eat eggs. Often they damage fleshy fruit and
vegetables in gardens. They are also a nuisance
when they get into garbage at camp sites or else-
where, and may enter chimneys. Many of these
problems would be easily avoided if people w^uld
keep their garbage in secure cans and block access
to potential den sites in buildings. Raccoons have
also caused problems for other wildlife, initially,
the wood duck nesting box program was seriously
hampered because raccoons preyed upon eggs and
hens sitting in the boxes. Today, the nesting boxes
are fitted with a wooden extension or metal barrier
that prevents the raccoon from reaching into or
climbing up to the box.

Before initiating any control program, contact
the Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wild-
life or a U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service representa-
tive. Control measures can be either "reductional"
or "preventive." Reductional methods include kill-
ing the offending individuals. Preventive measures
include Installation of electric fences of 6-foot high
wire that surround the area to be protected. Also,
garbage cans should iae secured. Although the State
Division of Fisheries and Wildlife can not get rid of
the raccoons for you, it can supply trapping regula-

tions, directions for building inexpensive live traps,
and instructions for capturing the nuisance animals.
Since most raccoon problems are caused by a few
individuals, controlling these troublesome raccoons
will usually solve most of the problems.

W^

I 1

Written and compiled by Nan Chadwiclc.
Illustrations by Nancy Haver.

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service. E. Bruce MacDougeH,
Dean. In furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30. 1914; Unit-
ed States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services
cooperating. The Cooperative Extension Service offers equal oppor-
tunity In programs and employment. J2394: 1 1/84-3M

(ooperative Extension Service

L-332

liversity of Massachusetts,

iited States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating

Controlling Wildlife Damage

Raccoon

>

Raccoons live throughout Massachusetts, except
in Nantucket. They are most common in forests
and wet areas such as streams, lakes or swamps.
They are recognized by their black face masks and
black, brown and white ringed bush tails. Adults
grow to about 28 to 36 inches long, including the
tail, and can weigh up to 40 pounds.

Raccoons are nocturnal, and while they do not
hibernate, they may be inactive for long periods

during the winter. They feed on many animals and
plants including frogs, fish, crayfish, insects, birds,
nuts, corn, and other vegetables. They also eat car-
rion and garbage.

They live in hollow trees or logs, rock crevices,
deserted or inhabited buildings or in deserted wood-
chuck burrows. Their breeding season is from Jan-
uary to mid-March. After a 63 day gestation, 3 to
7 cubs are born in the dens. The young begin for-
aging for food by 2 months old and stay with the
female through the following winter.

Raccoons are important furbearers and game an-
imals, and this classification provides them with te-
gal protection. They cannot be taken except during
the hunting or trapping seasons. Raccoons fill an
ecological niche as a predator. They may help regu-
late rodent and other pest populations.

Control

Raccoons can cause damage in corn fields, gar-
dens and orchards. They feed on ears of corn, gar-
den vegetables, fruits, and raid garbage cans. Many
of the most trying raccoon problems in Massachu-
setts are Jn suburban areas: raccoons in chimneys,
attics or garbage containers. Since individual ani-
mals do most of the damage, controlling these few
troublesome raccoons will usually solve most of
the problems. The Massachusetts Division of Fish-
eries and Wildlife should be contacted before any
control program is started.

Hunting

Hunting may help keep animal numbers and
damage at a tolerable level. Before hunting, permis-
sion should be granted and ground rules set be-
tween the hunter and the landowner. When hunt-
ing raccoons, a valid state hunting license is re-
quired during legal hunting season. If it is necessary
to shoot out of season those animals doing damage
to private property, your local state conservation
officer should be consulted. It is permissible to
destroy raccoons on your own land if they are do-
ing damage, but no shooting may be done within
500 feet of an inhabited dwelling or within 150
feet of a state wood. No license is needed if shoot-
ing is done by the landowner, a member of the
immediate family or a tenant.

Preventing Damage

Electric fencing can be used around gardens to
protect crops from raccoons. Two electric wires
placed 5 to 8 inches above the ground and powered
by a fence charger will stop animals from entering
vegetable plots. Care should be taken to examine
wires frequently and support stakes to make sure
vegetation doesn't grow up and short out the
fence. Support stakes can be made inexpensively
out of 1 " X 3" strapping material. These supports,
with insulators, can be driven into the ground at
10-foot intervals.

Keeping very tight-fitting covers on garbage cans
around camps and homes, and keeping the garbage
area clean and odor-free will usually prevent rac-
coons from becoming a nuisance. You can also
keep garbage cans inside a closed garage or keep
garbage in the freezer and only place it in trash
containers on the day of pickup.

Wrinen and compiled by Nan Chadwick.
Illustrations by Nancy (Haver.

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, E. Bruce MacDougall.
been. In furtherence of the Acts of May 8 end June 30, 1914; Unit-
ed States Depertment of Agriculture and County Extension Services
cooperating. The Cooperative Extension Service offers equal oppor-
tunity in programs and employment. J2394: 1 1/84-3M

I J

I I

)operative Extension Service

iversity of Massachusetts,

lited States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating

L-334

Wildlife in Massachusetts

Striped Skunks

The striped skunk is probably best known for its
pungent odor. It is very common throughout Mas-
sachusetts where it Is also known as the eastern
striped skunk, polecat, wood pussy, common
skunk and lined skunk.

Striped skunks are about the same size as house
cats, but with shorter legs. Their front feet have
long, curved claws that are used for digging in grass
and pulling apart rotten logs in search of insects.
Skunks can be easily recognized by their broad .
white stripes running from the nape of the neck to
the base of the tail. There is also a single white
stripe between their eyes. While males and females
look alike, males are somewhat larger. An adult
male may weigh from 6 to 14 pounds and measure
about 20 to 28 inches long.

I

Habitat and Behavior

The skunk belongs to the weasel family (Mustel-
idae). Like other mustelids they have scent glands
located near the anal opening which are used for

protection. By lifting their tail over their arched
back and contracting the muscles near the gland, a
skunk can spray its yellowish, musky fluid accur-
ately as far as 12 feet. Warning signals such as rapid
stamping of the front feet and arched back or
lifted tail are signs that a skunk is ready to spray.
Skunks will usually not spray unless they are very
frightened or upset.

Skunks inhabit a variety of habitat types, espe-
cially mixed woodlands that are close to open
fields or agricultural lands. Though mostly noc-
turnal, they may be seen at dawn or dusk, and oc-
casionally even in late afternoon. They search for
food along woodland-field borders, fence rows,
marshes, and stream edges. Although they can
swim, they prefer to stay out of the water.

In spring, skunks feed on mice, snakes, and in-
sect larvae. Later in the summer, grasshoppers

crickets, earthworms, and beetles are eaten. As in-
sects become scarce in the fall, they eat a variety
of small mammals including mice, shrews, moles,
and chipmunks. Apples, raspberries, black berries
and other fruit are also important in their diets. In
more wooded areas, skunks will eat eggs and nest-
lings of ground-nesting birds. Where available, they
will also feed on frogs and crayfish. Because they
have such a varied diet, their chance of surviving
during times of food shortages is high.

During the day, skunks sleep in dens or burrows
located under stone walls or in abandoned wood-
chuck holes. They like denning on sunny slopes,
but in populated areas burrows are often hidden
under buildings, wood piles, or stone walls. Al-
though skunks are not true hibernators, they go
into a deep sleep in late fall or early winter. They
may, however, wake up during winter thaws. Dur-
ing most of the year, skunks keep to themselves,
but as many as ten or more may den together in
the winter.

By early March, skunks leave their dens to
breed. A single litter of about 4 to 7 young is born
in mid-May after a 62-66 day gestation period.
Young skunks are born blind and helpless, and are
weaned after 2 months. They may stay with their
mother through their first winter. The kits are able
to spray like an adult by the time they are 4 or 5
weeks old.

Skunks have few natural enemies. One encoun-
ter with the irritating, eye-burning musk is usually
enough to keep most predators away. However,
skunks are preyed upon by man, great-horned
owls, bobcats, foxes, fishers, lynxes, and coyotes.

Economic Importance

Skunks are generally beneficial to farmers, gar-
deners, and landowners because they prey on field
mice, other small mammals, and insects. Occasion-
ally, they feed on corn, poultry, and eggs, a habit
which conflicts with man's interests. They some-
times damage beehives when searching for insects.
Probably the most common complaint is of skunks
getting into basements, barns, garages, and under
porches. Skunks that are active during the day are

Written and compiled by Nan Chadwick.
Illustrations by Nancy Haver.

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, £. Bnice MacDougall,
Dean, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; Unit-
ad States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services
cooperating. The Cooperative Extension Service offers equal oppor-
tunity in programs and employment J2394:11 /84-3M

often suspected of having rabies; therefore, pre-
cautions should be taken to avoid them. If an indi-
vidual is bitten, the wound should be cleaned im-
mediately with soap and water, and a doctor
should be contacted soon afterwards. If possible,
a skunk suspected of being rabid should be cap-
tured without damaging the head, so the brain tis-
sue can be examined for rabies. Carcasses of these
animals should be sent or taken to a state public
laboratory. While nuisance skunks may be captured
according to state wildlife regulations, it is illegal
to keep skunks as pets.

» I

4^

-^

1^ 1

d)operative Extension Service

L-341

iversity of Massachusetts,

ted States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating

Controlling Wildlife Damage

Skunks

Skunks forage for food at night, seeking grubs,
insects, small rodents, carrion, soft fruit, berries,
com, and mushrooms. Occasionally, they eat eggs
and nestlings of ground-nesting birds and poultry.
Skunks generally make their dens in abandoned
woodchuck holes or in rock piles or under build-
ings and wood piles. They are not true hibernators
but go into a state of dormancy during periods of
cold weather, waking when temperatures rise.
Their breeding season is in late February and early
March.
^ Skunks are basically beneficial to man because
they prey on many small rodents and objectionable
insects. However, they become a nuisance by oc-
casionally feeding on corn, poultry and eggs. They
will take one chicken at a time, but then usually
return for more. Since skunks do not climb well,
m predation is limited to poultry and eggs in nests
^ near or on the ground. If many chickens are killed
and nests above the ground are destroyed, rats,
weasels or mink are more likely suspects. Beehives

may also be damaged by skunks in search of in-
sects. Skunks may dig up lawns, golf courses, and
meadows in search of beetle larvae and other grubs.
The diggings appear as patches of upturned earth
and turf, 3 to 4 inches across, funnel-like in appear-
ance, and usually 3 to 4 inches in depth. Since oth-
er animals such as moles, squirrels and dogs dig up
lawns, it should be determined precisely which spe-
cies is causing the problem before control measures
are attempted. Moles tunnel below the ground sur-
face and leave ridges or mounds of dirt in the grass
with no visible evidence of burrow openings. Squir-
rels may make small shallow excavations while
buryiny or removing nuts. Dogs may bury or re-
move bones.

Skunks sometimes are carriers of diseases that
are harmful to humans and domesticated animals.
Such diseases include rabies, distemper and lepto- >
spirosis. Diseased skunks may sometimes be identi-

fied by behavior that is unusual for the species
such as appearing during daylight hours, erratic
wandering or loss of coordination and unusually
aggressive behavior. If an animal is seen and sus-
pected to be diseased, it should be reported to a lo-
cal conservation officer or to the police. It is un-
wise for persons untrained in handling diseased ani-
mals to attempt capturing, killing or removing them.

Control

Skunks are generally beneficial; therefore, con-
trol should, where possible, be preventive rather
than destructive (killing the animal). Skunks that
den under buildings may become a nuisance. Al-
though they rarely spray in their dens, they do
emit a musky odor which may be objectionable.
When skunks are out, openings in foundations can
be sealed off using welded wire fencing, sheet met-
al, concrete, or other suitable materials. If skunk
activity is suspected, flour or ground limestone can
be sprinkled in front of the opening and checked
after dark for tracks. If there are signs of activity,
the direction of the tracks will indicate If the
skunk has left the den. The opening can then be
sealed. Caution should be used when closing en-
trances between early May and mid-August to
avoid trapping young inside. When skunks enter
garages, cellars or houses, doors should be left open
to allow the skunk to leave. If the skunk does not
leave on its own, a live trap baited with sardines or
canned cat food can be used. Cover the trap, ex-
cept for the entrance, with a burlap sack at the
time it is set, so the skunk can be easily moved to a
more desirable location without fear of spraying.
The animal can be released from the trap by care-
fully placing the trap on the grroun and slowly
opening it so the skunk can walk out. Note! Per-
mission must be obtained from the Massachusetts
Division of Fisheries and Wildlife to live trap
skunks.

in most instances, food from uncovered garbage
containers or dog dishes attracts skunks to build-
ings. The use of secure lids on containers will usu-
ally solve this problem. It is wise to keep doors to
poultry coops closed at night. A 3-foot high fence
of 2-inch wire mesh with 2 feet above and 1 foot
below the ground surface will keep skunks out.

Written and compiled by Nan Chadwick.
Illustrations by Nancy Haver.

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service. E,- Bruce MacDougall,
Deen, In furtherance of the Acts of Mey 8 and June 30, 1914; Unit-
ed States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services
cooperating. The Cooperative Extension Service offers equal oppor-
tunity in programs and employment J2394: 1 1/84-3M

Trapping

Wooden box traps or commercial wlre-mesh
traps covered with burlap bags are very effective.

Because skunks are classified as furbearers in Mas-
sachusetts, trapping them can only be done from
November to February. All traps used on someone
else's land must have a valid registration number
permanently embedded or cut into the trap. A cur-
rent valid trap registration certificate and a valid
trapping license is required of all who trap on
someone else's property. Steel jaw leg-hold traps
may be used only in or under buildings on land
owned, leased, or rented by the trapper.

Skunk musk is very irritating to mucous mem-
branes. Temporary intense pain and burning may
be caused by contact with lips, eyes, and nasal
passages. Diluted solutions of vinegar or tomato
juice helps in removing skunk odor from people,
pets and clothing. Neutroleum Alpha, an aromatic,
is effective when placed in basements or garages.
This material might be obtained from some hospi-
tal supply houses or pest control firms.

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University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension System

MOVING WILD ANIMALS
IS AGAINST THE LAW!

Capturing a wild animal and releasing it in another area is prohibited by Massachusetts law. Rabies
in raccoons is spreading throughout the eastern United States. Moving animals from one area to
another may spread this disease to new areas. To protect people and wildlife.

Do Not Relocate Problem W^ildlif e!

Wild animals sometimes damage homes, gardens and lawns. Often people want to catch the
problem animals and release them someplace else. Massachusetts law prohibits moving any Uve
wild animal from one area to another. This law has been in effect for many years, protecting both
humans and wildlife.

Here are some reasons wild animals should not be relocated:

Capturing a wild animal and releasing it somewhere else may spread disease(s) into populations
of animals (including pets) that did not have the disease(s) previously. Diseases such as Rabies and
Canine Distemper have been spread by people who captured an animal in one area and released it
somewhere else.

Wild animals already live where you release your problem animal. Wherever you plan to release
a problem animal, there are already resident animals with established territories competing among
themselves for food and denning sites. When a new animal is introduced, competition for these
limited resources is intensified, causing increased social stress and conflict within the resident
population, as well as hardship or death for the introduced animal.

* Relocated animals often return to where you caught them. Squirrels, raccoons and other wildlife
can return from translocations of 5, 10, or even 15 miles. Such animals are more likely to be killed
by automobiles or succumb to other accidents as they cross unfamiliar areas while attempting to
retium to their original territories.

* Relocation only transfers your problem to someone else. In an unfamiliar territory, an animal
accustomed to living near people is likely to seek out human habitations and damage someone else's
property.

* Moving an animal does not solve the problem. Within a short period of time, other individuals of
the same or another species will move in, unless food (garbage, pet food, grain) is removed, and access
to gardens, chimneys and attics is blocked.

Information on methods or techniques to control damage caused by wildlife is available by
contacting :

Massachusetts Division of Fisheries & Wildlife

Acton 508-26.^-4.^47 Bourne 508-759-3406 West Bov^ston 508-835-3607
Belchertown 413-323-7632 Pittsfield 413-447-9789

Umvenity of Masnduisetts, United States Depanmem of Agriculnuc cooperating. The Cooperative
Exiensian System often equal opportunity in programs and employmenL Funding provided by (be
Nonhein New England Animal Damage Contiol Educatian Program, under Gratu No. 88EXCA-2.0870.

PUBLIC HEALTH
FACT SHEET

Giardiasis

Massachusetts Department of Public Health, ISOTremont Street, Boston, MA 021 11, (617) 727-0049

What Is Giardiasis?

Giardiasis is a gastrointestinal infection caused by a microscopic parasite called Giardia lamblia. This is
a common parasite causing gastrointestinal illness in the United States. Giardiasis can be a problem in
areas where sanitation is poor, in settings in which there may be problems with personal hygiene, such
as institutions or day-care centers, or when unfiltered water supplies are contaminated with the
organism.

How Is Giardiasis Spread?

A Giardia infection can be acquired when you ingest food or water which has been contaminated with
the parasite. The parasite multiplies in the small intestine and is passed out with a bowel movement.
Any food or drink which has become contaminated with infected stool can transmit the parasite. The
infection can also be spread person-to- person when hands, which are contaminated with an infected
person's stool, are brought in contact with the mouth. Swallowing as few as ten parasites can cause the
infection. Person-to-person transmission is the main way that giardiasis is spread, such as in day-care
centers and institutions, where pel'sonal hygiene may be poor due to age (infancy, elderly) or disability.
Giardiasis can also be spread in this manner in a household setting.

Are Animals Involved in the Spread of Giardiasis?

Giardia parasites have been found in the stools of many animals, including rodents, dogs, cats, cattle,
and wild animals. Animals living near water supplies, such as beavers and muskrats, have been found to
be infected with Giardia. The extent of direct animal-to-human transmission of Giardia is minimal; there
is greater evidence of indirect transmission such as through contamination of water supplies.

What Are the Symptoms of Giardiasis?

Symptoms of giardiasis usually appear 7 to 1 0 days (and sometimes as long as 4 weeks) after ingesting
the parasite. The most common symptoms are diarrhea, foul, greasy stools, abdominal cramps,
bloating, increased gas, weakness, and weight loss.

Do All People Who Are Infected With Qiardia Get Sick?

No. Some people who are infected with the parasite may only have minor symptoms and some people
may not have any symptoms at all. However, these people can still pass Giardia parasites in their stool
and become a source of infection for others.

How Is Giardiasis Diagnosed?

Giardiasis is usually diagnosed through a laboratory examination of a stool sample. Your physician will
forward the stool sample to a laboratory which will use a microscope to look for the parasite. Several
stool samples may need to be examined to detect the parasite. The disease can also be diagnosed
through a sample of fluid or a biopsy from the small intestine.

What is the Treatment for Giardiasis?

There are several medications which are effective in treating the infection. They are only available by
prescription from your physician. Other treatments for diarrhea, such as increased fluid intake, may
also be recommended by your physician.

How Can Giardiasis Be Prevented?

Giardiasis can be prevented by practicing good hygiene and using caution before drinking water from
an unknown source.

Some general guidelines are:

1 . Always thoroughly wash your hands with soap and water before meals, before preparing food,
after having a bowel movement, after changing diapers, and after playing with your pets.

2. Do not drink untreated water from a surface water supply such as a pond, lake, or stream.
Although the water may appear to be clean, it may contain Giardia parasites which cannot be
seen without a microscope. If only untreated water is available, boil the water before drinking it.

3. If you are taking care of a person with gjardiasis, use extra precautions after contact with the
person's stool (for example, after changing diapers). Promptly and carefully dispose of any
material which has been contaminated with stool and always wash your hands after such
contact.

4. If your source of drinking water is from a well or another surface water supply, do not allow
humans or animals to defecate (have bowel movements) near the water. In addition, appropriate
water filtration systems can be effective in removing Giardia parasites from contaminated water.

Are There Any Health Regulations for People With Giardiasis?

Yes. To protect the public, all employees of food-related businesses (restaurants, food storers, food
processing plants) who have giardiasis are required by law to be absent from work until they have two
consecutive negative stools taken at least 48 hours apart. This law also applies to f oodhandlers who are
household contacts of a person with giardiasis.

Where Can I Get Further Information?

Massachusetts Department of Public Health

Division of Communicable Disease Control (617) 727-2686
Office of Public Information and Health Education (617) 727-0049

Your Local Board of Health

In phone book under local government.

May 1986

PUBLIC HEALTH
FACT SHEET

Massachusetts Department of Public Health, 150 Tremont Street, Boston, MA 02111

t

What is Lyme Disease?

Lyme Disease is an infectious disease caused by bacteria tliat are spread by tiny infected ticks. Both people and
animals can be infected by Lyme tick bites. Lyme Disease can be serious if it is not treated, but it is not fatal.

Where is Lyme Disease found?

Lyme Disease can be found all over the United States, but it is most common along the east coast, the Great Lakes, and
the Pacific Northwest

In Massachusetts, Lyme ticks are most often found in the coastal areas, islands, and the Connecticut River Valley in the
western part of the state. The disease Is most likely to be spread between late May and early autumn, when ticks are
most active.

How is Lyme Disease spread?

Lyme ticks cling to plants near the ground in brushy, wooded, or grassy places. The ticks, which cannot jump or fly,
climb onto animals and people who brush against the plants. Very young ticks (called larvae) pick up the bacteria that
cause Lyme Disease by biting infected animals, such as field mice. The bite of older ticks (called nymphs) can pass the
infection along to the next host

Lyme ticks are so tiny that the larvae are no bigger than the period at the end of this sentence. The ticks live for two years,
during which they can infect wild and domestic animals as well as people.

ACTUAL SIZE
Iws nymph tonwto nwto

!ilililil.i.liidiL.

ONE INCH

Not all ticks carry Lyme Disease, and even being bitten by a Lyme tick does not necessarily mean that you will get the
disease. The tick must be attached for at least 24 hours to pass on the bacteria, so removing the tick promptly will cut
dovtm your chances of Incoming infected.

What are the symptoms of Lyme Disease?

Early stage: The first symptom of Lyme Disease is usually — but not always — an unusual rash where the tick bit. (Often
the tick isn't even noticed, and it drops off t>efore the rash appears.) The rash first appears anywhere from three days to a
month after the bite. It starts as a small red area then spreads out, often clearing up In the center so it looks like a donut.
Other skin signs include burning or itching, hives, redness of the cheeks and under the eyes, and swollen eyelids with
bloodshot eyes. Flu-like symptoms such as fever, headache, stiff neck, sore and aching muscles and joints, fatigue,
sore throat, and swollen glands are also common in the early stage of Lyme Disease.

These symptoms often go away by themselves after a few weeks, but the person remains infected. Without medical
treatment, atx)ut half the infected people will get the rash again in other places on their kx)dies, and many will develop
more serious problems later. Treatment with antibiotics clears up the rash within days and often prevents later
problems.

Later stages: Three major organ systems — the joints, nerves, and heart — can be affected months after the tick bite,
although symptoms usually show up within four to six weeks. People with Lyme Disease can develop late-stage
symptoms even If they never got the donut-shaped rash.

About 60% of people with untreated Lyme Disease get arthritis in their large joints, usually knees, elbows, and wrists.
The arthritis can move from joint to joint and t>ecome chronic.

About 1 0% to 20% of people who don't get treatment develop nerve problems. The most common symptoms are severe
headache and stiff neck, facial paralysis or other cranial nerve palsies, and weakness or pain (or both) in their hands,
arms, feet and/or legs. These symptoms can last for weeks, often shifting from mild to severe and back again.

About 6% to 1 0% of people who don't get treatment develop heart problems, such as inflamed heart muscles or erratic
heart beats.

How is Lyme Disease diagnosed?

Lyme Disease is easy to diagnose when someone gets the donut-shaped rash. It is much harder to diagnose without the
rash because other symptoms mimic other diseases, like flu. To help diagnose these cases, doctors can ask the
Massachusetts Department of Public Health or other labs to test their patient's blood for antibodies to the Lyme
Disease bacteria.

l-low is Lyme Disease treated?

Lyme Disease can be treated with antibiotic pills if it is diagnosed eariy. Tetracycline seems to work best Children under
seven are given penicillin instead because tetracycline can stain their permanent teeth. Other antibiotics can be pre-
scribed for people who cannot take tetracycline or penicillin. Prompt treatment of early symptoms can prevent
later and more serious problems.

Hovi can you prevent Lyme Disease?

The only known way to get Lyme Disease is from the bite of an Infected tick. The best ways to prevent Lyme Disease are
to know where these ticks are found, avoid these places, and promptly remove the tick if you do get bitten. If you live In or
visit a high-risk area, follow these tips:

• Don't walk barelegged in tall grass, woods, or dunes where ticks may live.

• If you do walk in these places, wear a long-sleeved shirt, long pants, high socks (with pants tucked tightly into the
socks), and sneakers. Light colors will help you spot ticks on your ctothes before they reach your skin.

• Use Insect repellahts made with DEET (check the label) on your skin, and the ones made with permethrin on
your ctothes.

• Check for ticks every day. Their favorite places are on the legs, thighs and groin, in the armpits, along the hairtine, and
in or t^ehind the ears. The ticks are tiny, so look for new "freckles."

• To remove a tick, use tweezers to grip the body firmly and pull it straight out If you must use your fingers, protect your
fingertips with a plastic bag or a tissue and wash your hands afterward. Put antiseptic on the bite.

• Drown the tick in alcohol or kerosene. (Never leave these liquids where children can reach them.)

• Know the symptoms of Lyme Disease. If you have t)een someplace likely to have ticks between May and early
autumn and you devetop Lyme Disease symptoms ^ especially If you get a donut-shaped rash — see a doctor
right away. Eariy treatment can prevent later problems.

Where can you get more information?

Your local board of health -^ ■ "~~i^^
Listed in the telephone book under local government

Massachusetts Department of Public Health
Diviston of Epidemiology (61 7) 522-3700, x420 or 425

May 1990

))

PUBLIC HEALTH
FACT SHEET

Rabies

Massachusetts Department of Public Health, 150 Tremont Street, Boston, NfA 02111

What is rabies?

J)

k

Rabies is a viral disease of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) that is almost always fatal.
Rabies in humans is very rare in the U.S., but rabies in animals — especially wildlife — is common in some
parts of the country.

How is rabies spread?

The rabies virus lives in the saliva (spit) and other body fluids of infected animals and is spread when they bite
or scratch. The virus can also be spread if one of these body fluids touches broken skin or a mucous mem-
brane (in the mouth, nose or eyes). In caves crowded with bats, it is even possible (but extremely rare) to
inhale the virus floating in the air.

What kinds of animals spread rabies?

The rabies virus can infect any mammal (if it has hair or fur, it's a mammal), but it is only common among cer-
tain ones like bats, skunks, foxes and raccoons. Rabies is very rare among rodents like squirrels, rats, mice
and chipmunks. Thanks to vaccines,, rabies is extremely rare among pets and farm animals.

How common is animal rabies In Massachusetts?

Rabies is fairly rare in this state. Testing at the State Rabies Laboratory finds less than a dozen rabid animals
(almost always bats) per year. However, rabies is on the rise among raccoons in the mid-Atlantic and
southem New England states.

How can you tell if an animal is rabid?

Rabid animals usually behave strangely after the virus attacks their brain cells. Rabid animals often become
aggressive, hyperactive, and easily frightened, so they will attack people or other animals for no real reason.
Not all rabid animals act this way, however, so you should avoid all wild animals — especially bats, skunks,
foxes and raccoons.

What should you do if you think you have been exposed to rabies?

If you have been bitten or scratched by a wild animal, or by a pet or farm ani mal that has been behaving oddly,
follow these steps:

1 . Wash the wound with soap and water right away for at least five minutes.

2. Call your local board of health and your doctor, nurse or health center as soon as you finish washing. They
will help you decide if you need to be treated for rabies. Follow their instructions to the letter.

3. Contact your local animal control officer to catch or find the animal that scratched or bit you. Your local
board of health can tell you how to get it tested by the State Rabies Lab.

4. If your pet has been bitten or scratched by an animal you think might be rabid, follow the same steps but
call your pef s veterinarian instead of your own doctor in step 2.

What is the treatment for people exposed to rabies?

People who have never had rabies shots are given six shots in the arm, one at a time over the course of a
month. (Rabies shots are no longer given in the stomach muscles.) The first shot is antibodies to fight the
virus, and the rest are vaccine to ensure long-lasting protection. To work best, the shots should begin as soon
after the bite or scratch as possible. However, if the animal has been caught and can be tested for rabies,
some doctors wait until the test results come back to see if the shots are really needed.

How can you prevent rabies?

• Avoid wild animals, especially bats, skunks, foxes and raccoons. Avoid any animal — wild, farm or pet —
that behaves oddly, and report it to your city or town's animal control officer.

• Make sure your pets are vaccinated against rabies and that their shots are up to date. By law, all dogs must
be vaccinated against rabies. Cats should also get rabies shots because they are hunters by nature and
often have contact with animals at high risk for rabies.

• Fasten trash can lids tightly. Garbage attracts animals (like skunks and raccoons) looking for an easy
meal.

• Teach your children to avoid wildlife, strays, and all other animals they don't know well. Do not let your
children (or pets) roam freely in areas where wild animals live.

• It is against state law to keep wild animals such as skunks, ferrets or raccoons as pets. There are no rabies
vaccines for most wild species.

• If you have bats living in your house, talk to a professional about bat-proofing your home.

• Do not handle dead, sick, or injured wild animals yourself; call the police or animal control officer. If you
must handle the animal, use heavy gloves, sticks or other tools to avoid direct contact

• If you are bitten or scratched by an unfamiliar animal, do not try to guess If it Is rabid. Call your doctor and
local board of health for advice.

• Animal control officers, veterinarians and their assistants, and others who have a lot of contact with strays
or wildlife should think about getting routine rabies vaccinations to protect themselves before they are
exposed to the virus.

Where can you get more information?

Your doctor, nurse, or health center

Your local board of health

Listed in the telephone book under local government

Massachusetts Department of Public Health

Division of Epidemiology (617) 522-3700, x420 or x425

September 1991

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