V

A,,;-

LITERAEY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

OF

MANCHESTER

VOL. XIII.— X V.

MANCHESTER:

PRINTED BY THOS. SOWLER AND CO., RED LION STREET, ST. ANN’S SQUARE.
LONDON : H. BAILLIERE, 219, REGENT STREET.

3874.

' [

J

NOTE.

The object which the Society have in view in publishing their
Proceedings is to give an immediate and succint account of the
scientific and other business transacted at their meetings to the
members and the general public. The various communications
are supplied by the authors themselves, who are alone responsible
for the facts and reasonings contained therein.

INDEX.

Bailey Charles.-~Oii some Specimens of Carex punctata, ^ p. 34.

Binney E, W., F.R.S., F.G.S., V.P, — On the Bar at the entrance into the
Queen’s Channel^, Liverpooh p. 53. On a Specimen of Magalichthjs
Hibberti, p. 57. On the Drainage of Burial Grounds, p. 91, On
Professor Eenault’s genus Myelopteris, p. 99. A few Observations
on Coal, p. 125. On the Corrosion of Cast Iron by Sulphuric Acid,
Carbonaceous matter, and Water, p. 129. •

Bowman Henry.— On a remarkable Thunderstorm which occurred at
Brockham Green, Surrey, on the 7th of November, 1873, p. 37.

Carson S. — On Crystalline Sublimed Cupric Chloride, p. 61, 98.

Clarke Major E. Trevitt.— Memorandum on Brown-Stapled Cotton,

p. 62.

Darbishire E. D., F.G.S. — On Collections of Shells from the Worden
Gravel Pit, near the Leyland Station, near Chorley ; the Eailway
Cuttings near Edgehill ; and Cuttings in Toxteth Park, p. 72.

Dawkins W. Boyd, M.A., F.E.S. — On a Post struck by Lightning on the
2nd June, 1873, p. 5. The Northern Eange of the Basques, p. 81.

Heelis Edward. — Eesults of Meteorological Observations taken at
Langdale, Dimbula, Ceylon, during the Years 1868-72, j). 78.

Hereord Eev. Brooke.— On some of the Peiqilexities which the Art and
Architecture of the Present are preparing for the Plistorians and
Antiquarians of the Future, p. 119.

Ho WORTH Henry H. — Does the Earth receive any Heat directly from
the Sun ? p. 131.

Johnson William H., B.Sc. — On the Influence of Acids on Iron and
Steel, p. 60. Further Observations and Experiments on the
Influence of Acids on Iron and Steel, p. 100. On the Action of
nascent Hydrogen on Iron, p. 130.

Joule, J.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.E.S.; President. — On a new Syphon Barom-
eter, p. 11. Method of Construction of a new Barometer, p. 40.
On a Mercurial Air Exhauster, p. 58. Eemark on Mr. Howortli’s
paper, Does the Earth receive any Heat directly from the Sun/^

p. 166.

VI

Mackereth Thomas^ F.E.A.S. — Eesults of Eaiu-Gaiige Observations
made at Eccles, near Manchester, during the year 1873, p. 113.
On the Eatios and Frequency of Eainfall, deduced from Observa-
tions made at Eccles, p. 167.

Melvill J. C., M.A., F.L.S. — Eemarks upon the British locality for
Lobelia urens, p. 35.

Molesworth Eev. W. N., M.A. — On some Eoman and Celtic Antiquities,
p. 17.

Morgan Thomas M. — On a Source of Error in Mercurial Thermometers,
p. 67.

Eansome Arthur, M.D., M.A. — On the Graphical Eepresentation of the
Movements of the Chest-Wall in EespEation, pp. 64, 80, 96.

Eetnolds Professor 0.,^M.A. — On the Eelative Work spent in Friction
in giving Eotation to Shot from Guns rifled with an increasing
and a uniform Twist, p. 5. On the Bursting of Trees and Objects
struck by Lightning, pp. 14, 21. On the Destruction of Sound by
Fog and the Inertness of a Heterogeneous Fluid, p. 43. On the
Effect of Acid on the Interior of Iron Wire, p. 93.

Eogers Thomas. — On the Introduction of Pianorbis dilatatus, p. 174.

Schorlemmer C., F.E.S. — An Improved Method for preparing Marsh
Gas, p. 29. The Chemical Constitution of Bleaching Powder, p. 49-

ScHUNCK Edward, Ph.D., F.E.S., V.P. — On the Colour of Nankin Cotton,

p. 22.

SiDEBOTHAM JOSEPH, F.E,A.S.~On Lymexylon Navale, p. 35. On the
Similarity of certain Crystallised Substances to Vegetable Forms,
p. 73. On a Specimen of Hypothenemus eruditus, p. 148.

Smith E. Angus, Ph.D., F.E.S. , V.P.— -On Vitrifled Forts, p. 19.

Smyth C. Piazzi, F.E.S., Astronomer Eoyal of Scotland.—On the Ex-
plosion of Water, p. 41.

Stewart Professor Balfour, LL.D.,F.E.S. — Eesultsof certain Magnetic
Observations made at Manchester during the year 1873, p. 111.

Vernon G. V., F.E.A.S.— Mean Monthly Barometric Eeadings at Old
Trafford, Manchester, from 1849 to 1872, p. 75. Eainfall at Old
Trafford, Manchester, in the year 1873, p. 89.

Waters Arthur William, F.G.S.—Notes on Fossil Lithothamnia (so
called Nulliporse), p. 68.

Williamson Professor W. C., F.E.S.-"Address to the Microscopical and
Natural History Section, p. 29.

Vll

WiNSTANLEY David — Atmosplieric Eefraction and tlie last Rays of the
Setting” Sun, p. 1. On the Theory of the Tides, p. 86. The
Meteorological Theory of Cometary Phenomena, p, 141. The
Cause of Solar Heat, p. 169.

Meetings of the Fhtjsical and. Mathematical Section — Annual, p. 141. Ordi-
nary, pp. 75, 86, 113, 167.

Meetings of the Microscopical and Natural History Section. — Annual, p. 175.

Ordinary, pp. 29, 35, 72, 73, 147, 148, 174.

Report of the Councih—A-pvil 21st, 1874', p. 149,

\ .. .

PROCEEDINGS

OP

THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY.

Ordinary Meeting, October 7th, 1873.

E. W. Binney, F.B.S., F.G.S., Vice-President, in the (Jhair.

Mr. Samuel Broughton was elected Treasurer of the So-
ciety in place of the late Mr. Thomas Garrick.

''Atmospheric Refraction and the last rays of the Setting
Sun,” by David Winstanley, Esq.

It is recorded in the Proceedings of this Society that a
letter dated from Southport and written by Dr. Joule was
read at the meeting held on the 5th October, 1869. In that
letter it is remarked that " Mr. Baxendell noticed the fact
that at the moment of the departure of the sun below the
horizon the last glimpse is coloured bluish green.” Dr.
Joule also observes that on two or three occasions he had
himself noticed the phenomenon in question and that "just
at the upper edge where bands of the sun’s disc are separated
one after the other by refraction, each band becomes coloured
blue just before it vanishes.”

During the past eighteen months the writer, from his resi-
dence in Blackpool, has had frequent opportunities of observ-
ing the setting sun, and has noticed the phenomenon of the
final coloured ray certainly more than fifty times. To the
naked eye its appearance has generally been that of a green
spark of large size and great intensity, very similar to one
of the effects seen when the sun shines upon a well cut
diamond. The colour however is by no means constant,
being often, as in the case of Mr. Baxendell’s observation,
bluish green, and at times as mentioned by Dr. J oule, quite
Proceedings— Lit. & Phil. Society. — Vol. XIII.— No. 1— Session 1873-4.

2

blue. The period of its duration too is likewise variable.
Sometimes it lasts but half a second, ordinarily perhaps a
second and a quarter, and occasionally as much as two
seconds and a half.

When examined with the assistance of a telescope it be-
comes evident that the green ray results at a certain stage
of the solar obscuration, for it begins at the points or cusps
of the visible segment of the sun, and when the “ setting” is
nearly complete extends from both cusps to the central
space between, where it produces the momentary and in-
tense spark of coloured light visible to the unaided eye.

From the fact of the green cusps being rounded I appre-
hend that irradiation contributes to the apparent magnitude
of what is seen. The range of colour too as seen in the
telescope is more varied, and the duration of the whole phe-
nomenon more extended, than when the observation is made
only with the naked eye.

Of the objective nature of the phenomenon it is needless
to offer evidence ; for it needs to be but seldom seen to pre-
clude the idea of an optical illusion. That the waters of
the ocean have nothing to do with the production of the
colour is made manifest by its visibility when the sun “ sets”
behind the edge of a well defined cloud. On the 14th and
15th of June, for instance, it was seen at upper contact of
the solar limb with clouds. On the earlier date in question
a thin band of cloud stretched across the setting sun, and
under a power of fifteen diameters the green effect was seen
at upper contact with the cloud and again at final disappear-
ance below the horizon. On the later date it was again seen
at upper contact with each of several filaments of cloud
and again at final disappearance. And on several other
occasions the writer has observed the effect when the dis-
appearance of the sun has taken place at an elevation of six
or eight degrees behind a heavy bank of clouds.

Respecting the increased range of colours seen when the

3

phenomenon is observed with telescopic aid, I may mention
that on the 28th of June the sea was calm and the sky
quite cloudless at the setting of the sun. Of the final
coloured rays fifteen diameters showed the first to be a full
and splendid yellow, which was speedily followed by the
usual green, and then for a second and a half by a full and
perfect blue. Respecting the increased duration of the
colour I have found that when the atmosphere is sufficiently
favourable to allow a power of 60 diameters being employed
with a three-inch object glass, the green effect is seen at
that part of the sun’s limb in contact with the horizon even
when one half the sun is still unset, and of course from then
till final disappearance.

The different colours seen, together with the order of
their appearance, are suggestive of the prismatic action of the
atmosphere as the cause of their production, and the inter-
ception of the horizon or the cloud as the cause of their
separation.

Assuming the correctness of this view, it becomes evident
that an artificial horizon would prove equally efficacious in
separating the coloured bands, and also that if employed
during an inspection of the sun’s lower limb, the least
refrangible end of the spectrum would be disclosed. Accord-
ingly I introduced into an eyepiece of my telescope a black-
ened disc of metallic copper, having a slit cut in it of about
the one hundred and fiftieth of an inch in width, and pro-
ceeded to make an observation in July when the sun was
about one half of its meridian height. The blinding glare
however of that portion of the sun seen through the slit
rendered the observation futile. By projecting a large
image of the sun into a darkened room I was enabled to get
the whole of the spectrum produced by the prismatic action
of the atmosphere in a very satisfactory manner. In this
case a semicircular diaphram was used, so placed that its
straight edge divided the field of view into equal parts, from

4

one of which it obscured the light. The diaphram was
placed as before in the focus of the eyepiece, and by rotating
it every portion of the sun’s limb could be in turn examined,
and that too in the centre of the field, so as to be equally
subjected to the minimum of the peculiarities of the instru-
ment. When the sun’s lower limb was allowed to descend
into the field of view the first rays were intensely red. After
a momentary duration they gave place in succession to
orange, yellow, and green, which were then lost in the ordi-
nary refulgence of the sun. The upper limb gave green, blue,
and finally purple, which latter colour I have thus far never
seen upon the natural horizon. It should be remarked that
the colours seen were vivid and unmistakeable, and each one
of them easily detained at will or the whole phenomenon
recalled by the adjusting screws of the instrument. I appre-
hend that the results here given sufficiently prove that
atmospheric refraction is the cause of the coloured rays
seen at the moment of the sun’s departure below the horizon.
I have however thought it v/ortli while to examine the light
proceeding from the moon’s limb by the aid of the artificial
horizon and of course by direct observation. The results
were decisive and satisfactory, the spectral colours being
easily observed. The green effect I have also frequently
seen on the departure of the moon beneath the edge of a
dark and well defined bank of clouds. Telescopic aid has
however in every instance been required.

The rapid changes in colour observable in the case of
almost any large fixed star at an elevation of twenty or
thirty degrees above the horizon, and which changes vary
between red, green, and blue, may I think be fairly attri-
buted to the same cause as the colour in the sun’s final ray.
Particles of dust floating in the air act, I apprehend, for the
moment in the capacity of diaphram or horizon, and thus
enable the eye to perceive even in the light of the stars the
prismatic action of our atmosphere.

Ordinary Meeting, October 21st, 1878.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.KS., F.C.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.

W. Boyd Dawkins, F.B.S., exhibited a fragment of a post
struck by lightning on 2nd June, 1878. It formed one of
three about 8 feet high and 15 feet apart in the garden of
11, Norma Eoad, Rusholme, and stood under a cherry tree
of which the stem was 10 feet away. It was completely
shattered, fragments being driven as far as the walls of the
house, 25 yards off, and the downward direction of the
loose splinters implied that the explosive force was exerted
from below upwards, instead of from above downwards.
People in the Dickenson Road observed what they termed
a “thunderbolt” fall, as they thought, on the house, and
some of the inhabitants describe it as a flame of light fol-
lowed immediately by a crash of thunder. It is very probable
that the explosion was produced by an electric current pass-
ing from the earth upwards, and not vice, versa.

Professor Reynolds attributed the shattering of the post
to the explosive or repulsive action of an electrical discharge
of unusual intensity.

Mr. Baxendell thought it was most probably due to the
sudden conversion of a portion of the moisture in the post
into steam of high tension by the heating action of the
electrical discharge, and mentioned instances in which con-
densed vapour was said to have been seen rising from trees
immediately after they had been struck by lightning.

“On the Relative Work spent in Friction in giving Rota-
tion to Shot from Guns rifled with an Increasing, and a
Uniform Twist,” by Osborne Reynolds, M.A., Professor of
Engineering, Owens College, Manchester, and Fellow of
Queens’ College, Cambridge.

The object of this paper is to show that the friction
between the studs and the grooves necessary to give rota-
tion to the shot consumes more work with an increasing
Pkoceedifgs — Lit. & Phil, Society. — Vol. XIII, — No, 2 — Session 1873-4.

6

than with a uniform twist ; and that in the case of grooves
which develope into parabolas, such as those used in the
Woolwich guns, the waste from this cause is double what it
would be if the twist was uniform. I am not aware that
this fact has ever been noticed. It must not be con-
founded with the questions already at issue respecting the
Woolwich or French system of rifling guns. The advocates
of the gradually increasing twist maintain that it relieves
the pressure between the studs and the grooves at the breech
of the gun, where it would otherwise be greatest, while the
opponents argue that in order to obtain this otherwise
advantageous result, the bearing surface of the studs has to
be so much reduced that they are not so well able to with-
stand the reduced pressure as they are to withstand the full
pressure with the plane grooves. Now I bring forward a
collateral point, which has no bearing on the previous ques-
tion, but which is, in itself, of sufficient importance to
influence the decision in favour of one or other of these
systems. I show that apart from any undue wedging or
shearing of the studs, that with nothing but the legitimate
friction, the amount of work wasted in imparting rotation
to the shot is nearly twice as great with the parabolic as
with the plane grooves. This is important, for, although
the magnitude of this waste does not appear as yet to have
been the subject of direct inquiry, it will be seen from what
follows that with the plane grooves it amounts to more
than one per cent of the whole energy of the shot, and, con-
sequently, with the parabolic grooves it will amount to two
per cent of the energy of the shot ; this is, to say the least,
important as regards the effect of the discharge ; and when
we consider that all the work spent in friction is spent in
destroying the gun and the shot, we see that it becomes a
matter of the very greatest importance whether the gun
spends one or two per cent of its power on self-destruction.
It was established as a fact in the trials of 1863-5, that the
guns with an increasing twist gave a lower velocity than
those with the uniform twist. In the trial with the two
seven-inch guns made especially to test this point, the dif-

7

ference of velocity was such as to make three per cent
difference in the energy of discharge — a result somewhat
greater than what would have been due to the legitimate
friction, unless the coefficient of friction between the studs
and the grooves was excessively high from some cause, such
as the cutting of the studs into the grooves. However, it
would seem that the conclusions at which I have arrived
are in accordance with actual experience, and help to explain
what was otherwise to a certain extent anomalous.

Although these conclusions cannot be definitely proved
without the aid of mathematics, they may be shown to be
true (or reasonable) under certain circumstances, as follows :

The work spent in friction will, both with the parabolic
and plane grooves, be equal to the coefficient of friction mul-
tiplied by the mean pressure on the studs and again by
the length of the grooves (or by the length of the
gun — nearly). Now, the coefficient of friction and the
length of the gun are the same in both cases ; hence this
work will be proportional to the mean pressure on the
grooves throughout the gun. Again, if the pressure on the
parabolic grooves is constant (which it is the object of these
grooves to make it), then the mean pressure in both cases
will be inversely proportional to the angle which the shot
turns through while in the gun. This follows directly from
the fact that the speed and consequently the energy of
rotation with which the shot leaves the gun is the same in
both cases; for this energy is nearly equal to the mean
pressure multiplied by the arc through which the studs
turn,^ and hence the mean pressure is equal to the energy
divided by the arc.

We have then the work spent in friction proportional to
the mean pressure ; and the mean pressure inversely pro-
portional to the angle turned through by the shot in the gun ;
therefore the work spent in friction is inversely propor-
tional to the angle turned through hy the shot in the gun.

Now, the angle turned through with parabolic grooves is

* This is always true for plane grooves, but it will only be true for para-
bolic grooves when the pressure on the studs is constant all along the grooves.

8

half the angle turned through with plane grooves (by a pro-
perty of the parabola) ; hence the work spent in friction
with the parabolic grooves is double what it is with the
plane grooves. This may be shown mathematically as
follows : —

I. To estimate the actual work spent in friction luith
plane grooves.

Let fi = coefficient of friction.

i - - the inclination of the grooves.

K - work spent in friction.

S = the energy of discharge or the striking force with which
the shot leaves the gun.

Then, K =

For if K - the mean pressure on the grooves, I = the length of
the gun, then K = p R Z Jp + i (1)

i R H

And the energy of rotation = ^ S = /t=“-

^ V + 1

R

-ii

(2)

Hence (with a gun making one turn in 35 diameters) where

^ ~ n ^ ~

11 = -013 2.

The equation K=^S shows, what is otherwise quite

obvious, that with the plane grooves the work spent in
friction is independent of the distribution of the pressure
within the gun, and is proportional only to the energy of
discharge ; and hence will be the same, whether the powder
is quick or slow, provided the shot leave with the same
velocities.

This, however, is not the case with the parabolic grooves^
It is obvious that the friction will involve the law of pres-
sure in the gun. Consequently, we cannot calculate this
work unless we make some assumption with regard to the
law of pressure.

9

II. To estimate the actual work spent in friction with
parabolic grooves when the pressure on the studs is
constant,
if

Let x--^hQ the equation to the developed grooves, and let s be the

length of the grooves. Then, if we assume that = 1, and that

as

Kj, (the work spent in friction with the parobolic grooves) fxldl,
we have the work of rotation

And the work of rotation =

jjL

Since i —

Kj, = ^ ^ S,

And for plane grooves K =

• ■ K “

An expression for this work might have been obtained
without assuming ^ = 1, but so long as i is less than ^
the difference is very small.

Hence we see that on this assumption the work spent in
friction with the parabolic grooves is twice as great as with
the plane grooves. This assumption is not an unreasonable
one, for the declared object of the increasing twist is that it
may equalise the pressure of the studs on the grooves
throughout the gun. However, it is not to be supposed
that this object is always attained, for one kind of powder
has a different law of force from another. It is necessary
therefore to consider other laws of force. We cannot obtain
a general expression which will include all, but we may ex-
amine several laws of force which will enable us to see how
far the law of force affects the results.

In all cases the force diminishes from the breech to the

muzzle, and the law may be roughly expressed by P

a + y

10

where y is the distance of the shot from the breech, and
a and X are constants for each class of powder.

Although with this value of P the equations of motion
cannot be solved rigorously, an approximate solution may
be found as follows : —

III. To find the ratio of luork spent in friction with
parabolic and plane grooves luhen the law of
force is

p^_V.

a-vy

The equations of motion are
^ dx

P = P^+ . .

as p

(1)

(2)

Neglecting the ju R as small in (1), and taking p (the radius of
curvature) = h, we have if ^ = 1

/Pdy = \\og.

a + y

2\

a + y

or Kj, = fjiy^B>dy = ^^ {21 + a) log. - ^ |

d X

And for plane grooves p is infinite and ^ =
K jit J^Bjdy = y\i log.

Kfe . a 1

log. (l + 0

If « = 0 SO that P = -

y

K. „

K

If a is very great, so that P =

^_3

K “2

And the former law more nearly expresses the condition
of most guns.

11

IV. If we take a law of force.

P =

11 tan.

the equations of motion can be solved.

And if ^ ^ -p, 0 rr tan." ^ i.

We get Kj = « ^ i -l-2fi8 4 ;u*Iog.(l 4 r) I

2^h ^ j

And for the plane curve K== — e

And therefore |? = ^ ^ ~ 2^.8 + ^nog. (1 4»-^)

From which, for any given value of 6, we may obtain the actual
value of

IV

When 0 is small, so that where we may neglect high powers
without error ^

IV 2

Which result is in exact accordance with those previously
obtained, for, it must be noticed, that with this law P is
nearly constant. Hence we arrive at the following con-
clusions : —

(1) That when the pressure of the powder is constant,

Work spent in friction with parabolic grooves 3
Work spent in friction with plane grooves “2

(2) That when the pressure diminishes rapidly the above
ratio = 2.

(3) That this ratio may have any values between these
two, but that it cannot go beyond these limits.

Mr. Baxendell read the following extract from a letter
he had received from the Peesident : —

You will see that I have put a little drying apparatus to
the short limb of my syphon barometer. I believe that a
long open tube attached to the short end by a bit of india-

12

rubber tube will do just as well. This I am going to try,
and also to exclude the air more perfectly than I find it is
in the instrument at the Booms. The principal fear was
that the sulphuric acid would slowly act on the mercury.
I think the barometer has been put up long enough to
decide this, and I feel convinced that the plan will succeed.

13

Ordinary Meeting, November 4th, 1873.

R. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.RS., &c.. Vice-President, in the

Chair.

Mr. Joseph R. Bridson, Mr. James Watkins, and the Rev.
William Marshall, B.A., were elected Ordinary Members of
the Society.

The Chairman said that the death of Dr. Calvert, one of
the most distinguished members of the Society, called for
more attention than he was able to give it, but this meet-
ing of the society could not be allowed to pass over without
a few words regarding the loss which all chemists must feel.
It will no doubt be the pleasant duty of some of his friends
to prepare a more detailed account of his labours. Mean-
time he (the Chairman) would express the opinion of all
who knew Dr. Calvert by saying that a more diligent
student of chemistry has rarely if ever been found in any
country. It has been remarked that Dr. Calvert’s knowledge
of the literature of science was something marvellous. This
was doubtless owing to his devotion to the subject and his
untiring activity and strength. The memoirs which he
has written are too numerous to be characterized at present,
and already several journals have given the heads of the
most important. As a medium of communication between
scientific men, manufacturing and professional, in France
and England, he was no doubt the means of doing much good
in both countries. In the former country he felt almost as
much at home as in the latter, having lived there from the
time he was fourteen years of age until he was twenty-eight,
Peoceedings — Lit. & Phil, Society, — Vol. XIII. — No. 3 — Session 1873-4.

14

and having married a French lady. It was this intimate
connection with France which gave him his French accent,
which he could never entirely get rid of. He was however
entirely English by birth. His habits contracted there may
have led also to that excessive activity which seems to have
told at last in a very unexpected manner upon his health, as
he seemed powerful and of sound constitution. The fatigues
he underwent during a visit to the Vienna Exhibition, and
the climate there, must, however, be blamed, so far as we
can hear, for the evils both direct and indirect which pro-
duced a fatal result.

Dr. Calvert had, shortly before his death, completed a
revised edition of his lectures on some departments of
manufacturing chemistry. His practical experience, com-
bined with his profound knowledge of the theory of the
subject, must render such a work of great value, and keep
his name for a long time fresh among chemists.

His later investigations, especially those connected with
germs or the beginnings of life, were of a purely scientific
character.

He may be said in every sense to have been a successful
man until that illness which destroyed a life which pro-
mised to be very long. He had many friends, and amidst
an excessive amount of work he was able to be obliging and
kind to a large number.

He was a Fellow of the Royal and the Chemical Societies
and of several foreign Academies, and in the scientific circles
of London and Paris he was as well known as in his adopted
city, Manchester, where many lament him as a man who
knew little of him as a chemist.

“On the Bursting of Trees and Objects struck by Light-
ning,” by Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A.

The results of the experimeuts referred to in this Paper
were exhibited to the meeting.

15

The suggestion thrown out by Mr. Baxendell at our last
meeting — that the explosive effect of lightning is due to
the conversion of moisture into steam — seemed to me to be
so very probable that I was induced to try if I could not
produce a similar effect experimentally.

1. I first of all tried to burst a thin slip of wood by dis-
charging a jar through it, taking care so to arrange the
wood that the discharge should be of the nature of a spark
and not a continuous discharge ; this was done by making
the wood to form part of a discharging rod with balls on
the ends.

This experiment was successful in the first attempt,
although the results were on a small scale.

It should be mentioned that the wood had been damped
with water.

This experiment was repeated with larger pieces of wood '
with various results.

2. It then occurred to me to try with a glass tube. This
I did at first with a very small tube, passing wires from
the ends of the tube until they were within inch of each
other.

The small tubes burst both with and without water.

3. I then used a larger tube (about -Po- inch bore), using it
in a similar manner. The discharge without water pro-
duced no effect on this, even when repeated several times,
but when the tube was full of water (with the ends open)
the first discharge shattered that part of the tube opposite
the gap in the wire. This tube was bent in the form of a
syphon, and the water stood about I inch beyond the gap
in the wire on each side of it.

4. I then tried a stronger tube which I had been using
for insulation. It had a bore of -J- inch and was f inch
in external diameter. It was capable of sustaining a pres-
sure of probably 10,000, and certainly 5,000 lbs. on the
square inch, that is to say, a pressure of from 2 to 5 tons

16

per square inch. It was about 14 inches long and bent in
the form of a square-ended siphon. The gap in the wire
was about J inch, and the water extended about IJ inches
on each side of the gap. The ends of the pipe were open,
and the jar charged in the same manner as before with
about 100 turns of a 12 inch plate machine. The surface
of the jar is about ^ a square foot, and the discharge when
effected with the common rod took place through about
2 inches of air.

This tube was shivered at the first discharge. That part
opposite the gap and for some w*ay beyond is completely
broken up into fragments which present more the appear-
ance of having been crushed by a hammer than of being the
fragments of a pipe burst under pressure. Some of the
fragments show that the interior of the pipe has been
reduced to powder.

These fragments were scattered to some feet on all sides,
but there was nothing like an explosion. I held the pipe
in my hand at the time of the discharges, and the sensation
was that of a dead blow. There was no noise beyond the
ordinary crack of the discharge.

The manner in which this pipe was destroyed clearly
showed that a larger one might have been broken. But as
it was two o’clock and my fire was out, I did not continue
the experiments.

It is not easy to conceive the precise way in which a
pressure of probably more than 1,000 atmospheres could be
produced and transmitted in a pipe of water the ends of
which were open. It might have been caused by the sud-
den formation of a very minute quantity of steam, or by
the expansion of the water; but whichever way it was, its
effect was due to its instantaneous character, otherwise
there would have been an explosion,

When we consider the great strength of this pipe (which
might have been used for a gun without bursting), and when

17

we see that it was not only burst but that the interior of
the glass was actually crushed by the pressure, and all this
by the discharge of one small jar, we must cease to wonder
at the bursting power of a discharge from the clouds.

The Rev. W. N. Molesworth, M.A., said, that in answer
to an appeal that had been made to him by the chairman,
he would bring under the notice of the society some Roman
and Celtic antiquities, to which he thought that sufficient
attention had not been given in this country.

1. He believed that few people in Manchester were aware
that on the side of Blackstone Edge, and within a little
more than fourteen miles from their city, there was a Roman
road, which was one of the most perfect and remarkable
that existed anywhere in the world. A thin coating of
earth and heather had so completely preserved it that in
parts it was as fresh and new in its appearance as if it had
been quite recently constructed. It was composed of two
distinct ways, each just broad enough for a rather narrow
cart to pass along it, so that it would seem that in the
construction of this road our railway system had been
anticipated, and that there was what may be called a
double line, one for ascending and the other for descending
carriages. These two ways were separated by stones nearly
a yard wide, and in which a deep groove was cut, apparently
designed for an aqueduct. At the top there was what was
described in the ordnance map as a fort, but what he
believed to be merely the quarry from which the stone used
in the construction of the road had been obtained. Mr.
Molesworth stated that he had inquired of many antiquari-
ans both in this country and in France, but had not been
able to meet with any one who had seen a Roman road that
resembled that which he had described.

2. The next monument to which he wished to call attem
tion was the Cite de Limes, or de Lenies, otherwise called

18

the Camp de Cesar, about two miles to the north east of
Dieppe. It is a vast Celtic camp of triangular form, capable
of containing a population larger than that of the city of
Manchester. It is bounded on one side by inaccessible
cliffs of great height ; on the second side, where it is partly
defended by nature, with an earthen wall about 36 feet
high; and on the third side, which is less defended by
nature, with an earthen wall about 56 feet high, and as
thick as a railway embankment. The two walls together are
probably about three miles in length. They are supposed
to have been constructed by the Celts, and the space they
enclosed to have served as a place of refuge for the inhab-
itants of the neighbouring country, who, when invaded,
probably fled into, taking with them their families and all
their moveable possessions. Mr. M. stated that he had
seen a great number of flint implements that had been
found within the enclosure. There is a very good model of
it in the museum of Dieppe. There are two similar monu-
ments in Normandy : one at Caudebec, on the Seine. It
is in the form of a very long isoceles triangle, the two
sides of which are inaccessible cliffs, and the base protected
by a wall similar to that just described.

3. Mr. Molesworth also referred to tire vitrified camp
which exists in the neighbourhood of St. Brieux in Brittany.
This camp is enclosed by a wall of granite, which has been
completely calcined by the action of fire. It was supposed
by the Archaeological section of the Congres Scientifique of
France who visited it that it had been occupied by persons
whose conduct had rendered them so obnoxious to the inhabi-
tants of the country that they were determined to destroy their
camp so completely as to prevent it from affording them
shelter at any future time. It was very extraordinary that
in these times in which the fort was thus burnt heat could
have been obtained sufficiently intense to destroy the
nature of the granite. In answer to an inquiry as to

19

whether the effects described might not have been produced
by long exposure, Mr. M. stated that he believed that the
French archaeologists who visited it were unanimously of
opinion that it had been acted on by fire. There were also
some vitrified camps of a similar character in the north of
Scotland.

Dr. Angus Smith said that he could certainly confirm from
personal observation the opinion that Mr. Molesworth had
given, by saying that vitrified forts generally, and probably
always, are the result of premeditated firing. He had seen
none in France, but their chief seat was in Scotland, where
there were many. He had spent some time in examining
Dan Macuisneachan or Macsniochan in Argyleshire^ and
having seen the vitrified matter resting on the unaltered
rock below, there was no room for belief that internal fire,
to which some persons attributed the combustion, had ever
interfered. Although Mr. Molesworth had not seen actual
vitrified matter at the fort he visited at St. Brieux, but had
found only granite which had evidently been acted on by
fire, he (Dr. S.) had specimens where the vitreous matter
had evidently been ready to drop at the moment of its cool-
ing and congealing. Many tons of vitrified matter may be
seen on the Top of Noath, north of Aberdeen, and on Knock-
farrel, near Strathpeffer, and indeed in many places. On
one in Hungary, described by Dr. Stuart of Edinburgh and
others, the layers of charred wood are seen alternating with
the stones. None of this kind were known to Dr. Smith as
being in Scotland. He had analysed the vitrified matter
of a small fort in Bute, and one on West Loch Tarbert,
Argyle, and found an increase of bases over the matter of
the stones not vitrified. The ashes of the combustible
would no doubt help to vitrify the surfaces and so cause
adhesion, whilst the heat which penetrated the whole mass
often broke up even sandstones, and bent or made brittle
almost every species of the mixed rocks used. There seems

20

however to have been an inclination to have some basaltic
rocks to assist fusion. The vitrified walls are often very
extensive and the plan is systematic ; no conceivable siege
fires or other violent and fitful work would produce the
result. But as he (the speaker) had written three papers
more or less bearing on this subject, he need not say more,

Ordinary Meeting, November 18th, 1873.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. Arthur William Waters, F.G.S., Professor Arthur
Gamgee, F.R.S., and Mr. Arthur Schuster, Ph.D., were
elected Ordinary Members of the Society.

“ On the Bursting of Trees and Objects struck by Light-
ning,” by Professor Osborne Beynolds, M.A.

In a paper on this subject read at the last meeting of this
society I stated that the tube winch was burst by a dis-
charge from a jar would probably withstand an internal
pressure of from 2 to o tons on the square inch ; and I made
use of the expression the tube might be fired like a gun
without bursting. These statements were based on the cal-
culated streno^th of the tube, and with a view to show that
there was no mistake, I have since tried it in the following
manner.

I made 3 guns of the same tube. No. 1, which was 6
inches long, had its end stopped with a brass plug containing
the fuze hole. No. 2 and No. 3 were 5 inches long and had
their breeches drawn down so as only to leave a fuze hole.
These tubes were loaded with gun-powder and shotted with
slugs of wire which fitted them, and which were all f inch
long.

No. 1 was first fired with | inch of powder, the shot
penetrated ^ inch into a deal board, and the gun was
uninjured.

No. 2 was then fired with IJ inches of powder, and the
shot went through the 1 inch deal board and ^ inch into
some mahogany behind, thus penetrating altogether 1-|
inches ; the tube, however, was burst to fragments. Some
of these were recovered, and although they were small they

Proceedings— Lit. & Phil, Society. — Vol. XIII —No. 4— Session 1873-4.

22

did *not show cracks and signs of crushing like those from
the electrical fracture.

No. 3 was then fired with f inch of powder, and the shot
penetrated ^ inch into the deal board.

It was again fired with 1 inch of powder, and the shot
penetrated 1 inch into the deal.

Again it was a third time fired with 1 J inches of powder,
when it burst and the shot only just dented the wood.

These experiments seem to me to prove conclusively the
great strength of the tube and the enormous bursting force
of the electrical discharge.

“ On the Colour of Nankin Cotton,’' by Edwaed Schunck,
Ph.D., F.RS.

Among the numerous varieties of cotton existing in
commerce there is one which cannot fail to strike the most
unpractised eye, ’in consequence of the peculiar colour, vary-
ing from a pale yellow or rather fawn to a brown or reddish-
brown, which it exhibits. This kind of cotton is generally
called ‘"Nankin” cotton in consequence of its having been
used at an early period by the Chinese for the manufacture
of the fabric called nankin or nankeen, the peculiar colour
of which is so well known as to need no description.
Specimens of raw cotton of the colour referred to from other
countries, such as India, America, the West Coast of Africa,
and the shores of the Mediterranean are, however, found in
all extensive collections, so that it cannot be considered as
a product peculiar to China. In Malta it is, I am informed,
especially abundant, more so than the ordinary white kind.
Whether it is produced by a peculiar variety (not to say
species) of the cotton plant or whether the colour is owing
to peculiarities of climate, soil, or method of culture in-
fluencing the plant is, on the other hand, a question not
easily determined. Considerable doubt indeed prevails as
to the number of species embraced by the genus Gossypium

28

and the characters by which they are distinguished from
one another, some authorities admitting only four species,
whilst others describe more than twenty. Among the
former is Dr. Forbes Royle, who says^^ : '^The result of our
investigation of the species of the genus Gossypium is, that
there are at least four distinct species which may be easily
distinguised, and that the great mass, probably the whole
of the cotton of commerce, is yielded by three of these
species and their varieties.” Attempts have been made to
distinguish the various species of Gossypium according to
the colour of the cotton produced by them, but as might be
anticipated vdth little success, since the colour of the organs
of plants seems to be one of the least persistent of their
characteristics. Anyone, indeed, examining a collection of
specimens of cotton fibre must see that there are few marked
distinctions between them as regards colour, none being
absolutely white, and the greater number exhibiting various
shades of cream colour, verging to fawn. Nankin cotton
may be considered as being placed, as far as colour is con-
cerned, at the extreme end of the scale, at the other end of
which we find Sea Island and other almost pure white
kinds. Several authorities assert, it is true, that Nankin
cotton is produced by one species of the genus only, viz.,
G. religiosum, but others say it is found on more than one
species. Among the latter I may again quote Dr. Forbes
Royle, who says : “ G. religiosum of Linnmus seems to be
distinguished from other species only by having tawny-
coloured cotton ; but we have seen that both the common
Indian cotton, the Chinese cotton, the arboreous species, and
G. harhadense all occasionally produce nankeen-coloured
cotton, and that, therefore, it cannot be considered as char-
acteristic.” Referring to '' China cotton” the same author
saysf : “ The specimen in Herb. Hook, from Mr. Fortune, is

* On tlie Culture and Commerce of Cotton, &c., p. 151.

t On tlie Culture and Commerce of Cotton, &c., p. 143.

24

less hairy than most Indian specimens, though clothed with
a number of short hairs. Mr. Fortune states, in a note with
some specimens that he sent to Dr. Lindley, from China,
that the white-coloured and the nankeen-coloured cotton
are yielded by the same species and even by the same plant,
and that the two kinds are separated by the Chinese.
Besides India and China, this species is cultivated in
Persia, Syria, Asia Minor, and the Islands of the Mediter-
ranean, as well as in the north of Africa and the south of
Europe. The kind yielding the nankeen-coloured cotton in
Malta is probably a variety.’’ Fortune, in his Travels,*
makes the following statement regarding the cotton plant
of China : “ The Chinese or Nanking cotton plant is the
Gossypium herhaceum of botanists, and the ' Mie wha’ of
the northern Chinese. It is a branching annual, growing
from one to three or four feet in height, according to the
richness of the soil, and flowering from August to October,
.... The yellow cotton, from which the beautiful Nanking
cloth is manufactured, is called ' Tze mie wha ’ by the
Chinese, and differs but slightly in its structure and general
appearance from the kind just noticed. I have often com-
pared them in the cotton fields where they were growing,
and although the yellow variety has a more stunted habit
than the other, it has no characters which constitute a
distinct species. It is merely an accidental varietv, and
although its seeds may generally produce the same kind,
they doubtless frequently yield the white variety, and vice
versa. Hence specimens of the yellow cotton are frequently
found growing amongst the white in the immediate vicinity
of Shanghai ; and again a few miles northward, in the fields
near the city of Poushan, on the banks of the Yang-tse-
Kiang, where the yellow cotton abounds, I have often
gathered specimens of the white variety.” The opinion
here expressed is confirmed by Parlatore,f who affirms,

^ Two Visits to the Tea Countries of China, vol. I., p. 199.
f Le Specie dei Cotoni, Firenze, 1866.

25

without hesitation, that the plant bearing red or reddish
cotton is merely a variety either of G. arhoreum or G.
hirsutum.

Mr. Thomas Clegg, of this city, who is familiar with the
properties of the various kinds of cotton and well acquainted
with their commercial value and places of growth, has
kindly lent me some of his specimens for exhibition on this
occasion, and in a communication received from him he has
given me some information regarding Nankin cotton which
will no doubt be of interest to the meeting.

Mr. Clegg says : “ I found Nankin cotton abundantly at
Malta, many parts of Tunis, and in great quantities on the
West Coast of Africa. Dr. Livingstone has sent me many
samples of it, and I have frequently had specimens of it
from other, but always arid, dry, and hot parts of the world.
The Maltese has however always been the best. It is very
short in staple, coarse and of little value in itself, especially
as so little of it is produced. Being high coloured, of course
if used alone it would give a high peculiar colour to the
cloth, and as mixing it with whiter cotton generally stripes
and spoils the cloth, it is in very bad repute. In China and
Japan it gets more dusky and dark and even lower in staple.
On the West Coast of Africa it seems to be hybridized and
modified in colour. The seed, when cleaned from the cotton,
is generally only half clothed with the fibre, the other half
being black. But whether entirely Nankin-coloured or a
little whiter, it is always on that coast much longer in staple,
and though rather coarse, still a good useful cotton. Indeed
the generality of the West Coast Cotton is a nice cream-
coloured cotton, a little higher than the old Demerara cotton
used to be, and of staple on an average fully equal to Ameri-
can bowed upland, or the lower class of New Orleans, and
I hardly think can be classed as Nankin at all, though high-
coloured. If it could be had in quantity it would, in my
opinion, soon supersede all the lower qualities of American

26

cotton. Nankin cotton is always, so far as I have seen,
from fibrons-coated seed. As to the colour, I cannot tell,
being no chemist, whether it is fast or not, hut it never

seems to fade with me According to my experience

it is only in very hot countries, and on a rather arid soil,
that the really dark Nankin is produced. I think if experi-
ments were tried for three or four years together, Maltese
on the West Coast of Africa would resemble African, and
West African seed sown at Malta would become Maltese
cotton; and I almost think that West African seed which
at home produces yellow-tinged cotton, would, in one or two
years, in the New Orleans district, produce white cotton.
And I further think that pure New Orleans seed sown at
Malta in three or four years would give cotton of the red
tinge of ordinary Maltese.” Mr. Clegg seems therefore to
agree with those who think that the variations in colour
observed in cotton are entirely owing to differences of
climate and soil, and are not peculiarities attaching to
different species of the plant.

These remarks will suffice to give a general idea of the
properties of Nankin cotton and its supposed origin. I pro-
pose in this communication to give a short account of some
experiments made to ascertain the cause of the peculiar
colour by which it is characterized.

The colour of Nankin cloth having been successful!}/
imitated in this country by depositing oxide of iron on and
within the fibres in the manner well known to dyers, it
might be supposed that the colour of the raw cotton was
due to iron in some form. The simplest experiments prove
this however not to be the case. The cotton on being
incinerated leaves an ash which does not contain a larger
proportion of iron than that of ordinary cotton, and the
colour is not removed by treating the cotton with dilute
mineral acids capable of dissolving oxide of iron, whereas
the colouring matter dissolves, though slowly, on boiling it

27

with caustic soda lye. Another mode of imitating the
colour consists in mordanting the fabric with alum and
then dyeing with oak bark, the process resembling that
by which calico is ordinarily dyed of a yellow or fawn
colour. It is evident however from its resisting the action
of acids, that the colour of Nankin cotton cannot be due to
the presence of a lake of alumina or any other base. In
order to arrive at some conclusion regarding the nature of
the colouring matter, it was necessary to employ large quan-
tities of material, for though the colour looks intense when
the cotton is viewed in mass, it is in reality produced by a
small quantity of substance spread over a large extent of
surface, in this respect resembling the colour of the petals
of some flowers. I therefore had recourse to the plan
adopted on a previous occasion, and described in a paper I
had the honour of reading before this Society several years
ago.^ A quantity of yarn made entirely of Nankin cotton
(from the coast of Coromandel) was submitted to the
usual process of bleaching, and the dark brown liquid ob-
tained by treating the yarn with boihng alkaline lye was
mixed with an excess of acid which produced a dark brown
flocculent precipitate. This was filtered off, washed with
water, and then treated exactly in the manner described in
the paper just referred to. It was found to contain the
same substances as the precipitate obtained in the same
way from alkaline lyes with which ordinary Indian or
American cotton had been treated, viz., cotton wax, fusing
at the same temperature and having the same general pro-
perties as that from ordinary cotton, a white crystalline
fatty acid (probably margaric acid) pectic acid, parapec-
tic acid, and lastly colouring matters. It is to the latter
that the cotton owes its colour, for this colour is removed
to a great extent by treatment with alkali, while the
colouring matters are thrown down from the liquid

* Memoirs, 3rd Series, toI. IY,, p. 95

28

on the addition of acid, and I therefore examined them
with more care than the other constituents of the
precipitate. These colouring matters I found to be at
least two in number. One of them is easily soluble in
alcohol and is obtained on evaporating the solution as
a dark brown, shining, transparent resin. The other
is almost insoluble in cold alcohol, but dissolves in boiling
alcohol, and is deposited on the solution cooling in the form
of a light brown powder. Their properties are in genera]
the same as those of the analagous colouring matters from
ordinary cotton. They contain, like these, C, H, N, and O,
but in somewhat different relative proportions. Their com-
position in 100 parts I found to be as follows :

A. B.

Colouring matter
soluble in
cold alcohol.

Colouring matter
insoluble in
cold alcohol.

C 58-22

H 5-42

N 3 73

0 32-63

C ..... 57-70

H 5-60

N 4-99

0 3T71

The composition of the analogous colouring matters from
American cotton according to previous determinations was
as follows : —

A.

B.

c ...

... 58-42

C ...

... 58-36

H ...

H ...

... 5-71

N ...

... 5-26

N ...

... 7-60

0 ...

... 30-47

0 ...

... 28-33

The difference in composition, in the first case at least, is
not greater than may be expected with substances of the
purity of which, in consequence of their not occurring in a
crystallized state, one can never be perfectly sure. On the
whole, I think these experiments justify the conclusion at
which I have arrived, viz., that the colour of Nankin cotton
is due to the presence of bodies which are very similar to,
if not identical with, those which cause the much fainter

tints of the ordinary kinds. They show too that the
substances accompanying the cellulose (whether clothing
the fibres, or contained in their interior) are the same
with this variety of cotton as with all those previously
examined.

An Improved Method for preparing Marsh Gas,” by C.
SCHORLEMMEE, F.RS.

Everyone who ever had to prepare soda-lime knows that
the preparation of this substance is a troublesome as well
as a laborious process. Chemists will therefore hail with
pleasure a paper “ On the Determination of Nitrogen,” by
S. W. Johuson {Liebig's Ann., 169, 69). He has found
that in using the method of Varrentrapp and Will, soda-lime
may be replaced by an intimate mixture, of about equal
weights, of anhydrous sodium carbonate and dry slaked
lime. It occurred to me that such a mixture might also be
employed instead of soda-lime in the preparation of marsh-
gas, and I found that by heating an intimate mixture of
anhydrous sodium acetate with more than twice its weight
of lime and sodium carbonate, a very regular and quiet
evolution of marsh gas took place. The gas, thus obtained,
always contains some acetone, which is easily removed by
shaking it with water, or, better still, with a solution of
acid sodium sulphite.

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.
October 13th, 1873.

Professor W. C. Williamson, President of the Section,
in the Chair*

The President delivered the following address :

It being the wish of your Council that I should open our

30

new session by a few preliminary remarks upon our position
in reference to the work which lies- before us, I have not
felt myself at liberty to decline acceding to their request.

T think we can scarcely meet in this hall without being
in some degree stimulated to effort by the associations which
cling to it. It is the hall rich in memories of White and of
Perceval, of Dalton and of the two Henrys. It is the hall
in which most of their discoveries were announced — dis-
coveries which have given Manchester so distinguished a
place in the scientific annals of Great Britain. It is to me
a matter of no small pride and satisfaction that the present
age will add its contribution to that illustrious roll of names,
and that Joule and Fairbairn, Binney and Boscoe, will be
remembered by our successors as men who in their several
spheres of labour carried the torch of science with no un-
certain grasp, and handed it on to their posterity shining
with a light as brilliant as it gave forth when they received
it from their distinguished predecessors.

Stimulated by these remembrances, we do well from time
to time to take a conscientious view of our position in re-
lation to the work which awaits us. We do not occupy our
places in this room in the capacity of educators, but of inves-
tigators. Whatever duties of the former class may devolve
upon some of us elsewhere, in this place we neither profess
to be the teachers of the young, nor popularisers of science
for the benefit of the adults who join in our assemblies. It
is true that we may, in some humble measure, fulfil both
these functions, but such fulfilments are but the collateral
incidents of our position. Our proper duties are those of
pioneers, endeavouring to carry light where all is as yet
dark, — to dispel the thick mists of our own ignorance which
still envelop us as with a pall, and which can only be dis-
pelled by vigorous and combined efforts. It is our duty to
try to discover unknown truths, to ascertain hitherto unob-
served facts, and, if possible, to trace the relations which

31

subsist between them, as well as those which they bear to
facts previously known. In this search for truth no new
fact is so insignificant as to be unworthy of observation,
since it may prove to be the falling apple capable of suggest-
ing a law of the universe, — or the kite-drawn spark from
the passing cloud which opens out a new world of light and
force. If, then, in our researches we catch a faint glimpse
of some such truth, let us pursue it diligently until we
succeed in bringing it into clearer view. The ultimate use
of which such tmth is capable must not be the primary
object of our pursuit. Many of our investigations must be
carried on without reference to mercenary aims. At the
same time whilst we thus follow truth for her own sake,
let us not ignore the vital importance of applied science, or
forget that those who so apply it are honoured instruments
in alleviating the toils and increasing the joys of humanity.

How the existing band of active scientific workers is to
be increased is one of the problems now occupying the
minds of some of our ablest thinkers. The need for such
an increase, especially in our own country, is admitted by
all, but men differ as to the efficiency of the means suggested.
Some, whose names stand high on the roll of the learned,
think that the endowment of fitting men to be set apart as
discoverers, will best meet the difficulty. I confess I have
many fears as to the success of such a plan. Scientific
research is rarely the child of wealthy leisure. It is true
that you have, here and there, a Murchison or a Lyell,
whom a fortunate combination of circumstances has freed
from the necessity of labouring to win the means of
existence, but who were yet more fortunate in possessing
the vigorous energy which rendered powerless the paraly-
zing influences of wealth and station. As a rule, the
wealthy classes have done but little scientific work, and
such as have entered the field as vigorous labourers have
rarely been those whose leisure was co-extensive with their

32

wealth. They were usually men, who, like the two
Luhbocks, were actively engaged in the engrossing pursuits
of the office or of the counting-house, hut who still found
time to labour in the scientific field and established their
claim to stand abreast of the foremost in the army of work-
ers. The fact is that too much leisure tends to enervate
the mind, whilst the busy commercial or professional life
stimulates the brain into ceaseless activity. This habitual
vigour is restless for action, even in what with most men
would be idle hours, and expends its surplus energy upon
literary labours or scientific research. Such facts make me
very dubious as to the advantages which would arise from
the special endowment of men whose sole occupation in life
should be scientific enquiry.

Except in some special departments of science accidental
circumstances rather than a pre-arranged plan have much
to do with determining the direction in which original
investigations are carried on. Some small incident primarily
directs an observer’s attention to a special field of labour,
and as he follows its leads the area expands before him and
he ultimately finds himself deeply engaged in a career of
important research. Of course I presume that early training
has prepared him for the work. Now these facts appear to
me to suggest the real remedy for the present scarcity of a
high class of workers, and I think the times shew signs,
however faint, of prospective improvement in this matter.
We want a larger supply of sufficiently well endowed pro-
fessorial chairs in which the obligatory duty of teaching
shall stimulate a man to keep himself abreast of his age, but
in which that duty shall not be so all-engrossing as to occupy
the whole of his time. By such arrangements many needful
things would be provided. We should have an enlarged
body of men who would be competent to pursue original
researches, because the previous training which their official
position would involve would prepare them to recognise

88

what the Arctic navigator would term new leads, as well as
give them the intelligent power to follow them out. I am
satisfied that the two kinds of mental energies respectively
involved in teaching and in pursuing new investigations
act and re-act upon each other. That the man actively
engaged in teaching is undergoing the best of preparations
for other work, whilst the original investigator is of all men
most likely to fulfil well the duties of a teacher, because he
is more likely than other men to be animated by zeal and
enthusiasm for the work upon which he is engaged. Origi-
nal research, I believe, furnishes the best of training schools
for the teacher, whilst the students will benefit by drinking
at the running stream instead of at the stagnant pool. That
a growing demand for teachers of physical science is spring-
ing up is obvious. The grammar schools of Manchester,
Bradford, and Giggleswick may be taken as examples of the
change which a more enlightened public opinion is producing
in the respective various parts of the kingdom. When we
remember at how recent a period a small band of workers
like Huxley and Brodie first insisted upon the necessity for
a great change in both the primary and the higher education
of the youth of Great Britain I confess I marvel at the
wondrous results that have already been attained, and I
look forward into the future with sanguine hope. Mean-
while we experience a pressing want of a larger army of
young workers. The case is one in which the old political
maxim appears to be reversed in which supply will increase
demand. It appears as if there were many great and vener-
able educational establishments in this country which would
enter heartily into the work of science teaching if they could
obtain competent and judicious teachers — men who would
not merely cram their pupils’ minds with isolated details but
who were competent to make such teaching a real educa-
tional instrument and not merely an exercise of the memory.
This want appears to me to indicate the more immediate

34

duty of government at the present time. The brief experi-
ment tried at South Kensington, a short time ago, by Prof.
Huxley, aided by Dr. Kay Lankester and Professor Michael
Foster, is one which from its costliness must be prosecuted
by the Government if carried on at all, because if it is to be
productive of the full measure of the benefit to the nation
of which it is capable, it must be carried on in a prolonged
manner and on a very large scale. Such a work would, it
appears to me, be accepted by the members of the House of
Commons as involving a legitimate expenditure of the public
finances, because it would be in strict accordance with that
system of training of teachers to which they have already
given their official sanction. Such a system, if regularly
organised and perseveringly sustained, would tend to
create an army of men competent to become original
workers, and if this method was followed up by the estab-
lishment of local colleges in all the great centres of industry,
there would be found permanent spheres of labour for the
students thus trained. Two things needful to our national
well-being would thus be attained; we should enrich the
country by an extension of those scientific researches which
within our own lifetime have proved to be so fertile a source of
national wealth, and we should extend a scientific educa-
tional organisation which the fashionable quackeries of the
day shew to be a necessary adjunct to that almost
exclusively literary one which has so long monopolised the
teaching functions in this country.

Mr. Charles Bailey exhibited specimens of Carex
'punctata, Gaudin, which he had collected in August last
on the damp, narrow ledges of perpendicular rocks near a
water-fall, on the north side of a small bay, named Water-
winch, about a mile north of Tenby, Pembrokeshire. This
Ca.rex, although it has long held a place in English floras,
on the authority of some Cornish specimens seen by Dr.

35

Boott, has generally been admitted with doubt as an
indigenous plant ; many botanists believing that vai ieties of
Car ex distans had been mistaken for it. There are several
localities in Ireland recorded as stations for Gaiidin’s plant ;
it has also been found recently in Scotland, and the Tenby
locality above referred to re-establishes its right to be
considered a British species.

November 10th, 1873.

Charles Bailey, Esq., Vice-President of the Section,
in the Chair.

“ Remarks upon the British locality for Lobelia urens,”
by J. C. Melvill, M.A., F.L.S.

The author being in the neighbourhood of Taunton this
summer, determined to visit Axminster, the only known
locality for this species in Britain, and set out for that pur-
pose on the 1st of August.

The common where it was said to grow in 1836, has now
been cultivated, and the old landmarks removed, and no
trace of the plant was to be seen; however, a mile or two
further on, beyond Shute Hill, he met with the lobelia in
tolerable plenty, but exceedingly local. The flowers were
in perfection, showing that the time of flowering mentioned
in the various Botanical works is erroneous, where Autumn
is stated to be the time. Mr. Melvill exhibited some dried
specimens and distributed them among the members.

“On Lymexylon Navale,” by Joseph Sidebotham,
F.RA.S.

Mr. Sidebotham referred to the various authors who have
written about this species, the first and probably only
British example of which was taken by Mr. Griesbach, in

86

Windsor forest, in tlie year 1829. It is said formerly to
have been so abundant in the naval dockyards of Sweden,
that Linnaeus was consulted as to the best mode of stopping
the injury done by it to the timber, an account of which he
published in his Iter Westrogoth.

Last year several specimens of this insect were taken in
Dunham park by Mr. Joseph Chappell, and Mr. Sidebotham,
on visiting the tree, found the larvae feeding in the wood.

In July of the present year the author visited the park
again, and found various specimens, of both sexes, in the
tree, and also on the wing, and expressed an opinion that
the species would be found in other places now that its
mode of life and habits had been investigated, of which he
gave various particulars. He also exhibited specimens of
the insects, and of the wood bored by them.

Mr. Sidebotham exhibited various forms of Helix pisana,
from Tenby, and distributed specimens among the members,

37

Ordinary Meeting, December 2nd, 1873.

Rev. William Gaskkll, M.A., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. Henry H. Howarth, F.S.A., was elected an Ordinary
Member of the Society,

The following letter from Henry Bowman, Esq., of
Brockham Green, Surrey, dated 27th November, 1873, was
read : —

Seeing the report of Prof Reynolds' experiments on the
nature of the explosive force of lightning, it occurred to me
that the Society might be interested in an account of a
remarkable thunderstorm which took place here on Friday
the 7th inst.

I was not at home at the time, and did not hear of the
storm until my return the following week.

The Vicar of this place sent a short notice of the storm
to the “ Times," copy of which is inclosed, together with
some further particulars which he has kindly jotted down,

(copy.)

Times of Nov, 12, 1873 :

The Rev. Alan Cheales writes to us ...... a remarkable

storm burst over the valley between Dorking and Reigate on

Nov. 7 In general we have a remarkable immunity from

thunderstorms, which draw away along the Downs to the north of
us. The storm came up suddenly from the N. W. ...... I have just

returned from inspecting an oak tree in Betchworth Park

which was completely cleft in two the tree has been chopped

down within about 10 feet of the ground the girth is about

8 feet.”

My dear Sir, Nov. 20, 1873.

In reply to your enquiries relative to the very remarkable
thunderstorm of Nov. 7, mentioned in the Times of Nov. 12, I

Peoceedings— Lit. & Phil, Society. — Yol. XIII.— No. 5— Session 1873-4.

88

have much pleasure in putting before you such other particulars
as I have been able to gather.

There was no warning whatever, a black cloud rolled up, a little
rain, and then two tremendous flashes.

The tree struck was a fine young oak, half covered with ivy, in
a row with other oaks, some also having ivy on them.

E. Batchelar, painter at Dorking, 2 miles off, describes a tre-
mendous flash of blue light, and thunder instantly.

Rev. G. R. Kensit, walking in fields about 1 mile off, describes a
ball of blue fire which seemed to fall on his foot.

Martha Rapley, coming home through Betchworth Park with
perambulator and two children, was only 300 or 400 yards from
the tree ; was so stunned and blinded that she saw nothing — per-
ambulator seemed wrapped in flames — she did not know whether
the children were dead or not until she got home. Neither in-
jured.

J. C. Richards, Esq., of Boxhill Farm, had a sheep killed about
J a mile off ; he seemed to think it was killed by the same flash
that split the tree. There was only one other flash.

The tree, unfortunately, was removed at once by Mr. Hope’s
woodreeve. I could not see that any part was blackened. Mr.
Richards observed to me that no conceivable human force could
have so split it.

Part of the fibre had been made to writhe round in a most
remarkable manner.

Huge splinters (3 feet by 3 or 4 inches) were chopped out and
lay a few feet off.

The tree was divided and hung on each side of the fence about
8 or 10 feet from the ground. The lightning seemed to have run
down thence along the outside bark into the ground; but the
marks were slight. The tree was still solid below the cleft.

I am yours faithfully,

Alan Cheales.

89

Ordinary Meeting December 16tli, 1878.

E. W. Binney, F.B.S., F.G.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. James Heelis was elected an Ordinary Member of the
Society.

The Chairman said that since the last meeting the
Society had lost one of its most illustrious members by the
death of Professor Louis Agassiz, the great naturalist, who
had been an Honorary Member for above thirty years. He
(the Chairman) had the honour of being personally ac-
quainted with the deceased, having been brought into com-
munication with him during the publication of his great
work, Kecherches sur les Poissons fossiles,” and having
had the pleasure of supplying him with specimens for its
illustration. In the Eoyal Society’s Catalogue is a list of
180 scientific memoirs he gave to the world. The reputa-
tion of Agassiz as one of the foremost men of his day in
natural history is too well known to need any tribute from
me, but after a lapse of thirty years his amiable manners
and his great kindness in cheerfully imparting his vast
stores of knowlege to the humblest student are fresh in my
memory. He was one of the kindest and heartiest of men,
and his fine and manly countenance at that time was the
picture of health and good nature, and truly reflected the
genial soul within. In great and small matters he was
equally punctual and correct. All who ever allowed him to
make use of their specimens must well remember the ample
acknowledgments he made and the scrupulous care with
which they were returned; and some of the first living
palseontologists might learn a useful lesson in this respect
from the illustrious dead. With Agassiz it may be truly
said that it was hard to decide whether his head or his

40

heart most deserved our admiration. The world has to
lament the death of a great and good man, and this Society
one of its greatest ornaments.

“Method of Construction of a New Barometer,” by J. P,
Joule, D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S., &c., President,

The condition of the instrument placed on the 18th of
March in the Society’s Hall proves that it is possible to use
sulphuric acid on the top of the mercurial column without
chemical action taking place. I have therefore proceeded
to prepare other tubes with a view to test, by practical
work, the merits of the new contrivance.

A tube of about iV inch bore is selected. It is first
cleaned by drawing a knotted string through it. It is then
bent to the siphon shape; and near the longer end it is
drawn to a capillary tube. It is then washed with nitric
acid ; afterwards with sulphuric acid. The sulphuric acid
is then drained off. Mercury is then poured into the short
limb. The end of the longer limb is then attached to my
mercurial exhauster. On working this the mercury rises in
the tube, and, being replenished by pouring it into the short
limb, soon arrives at the height due to the atmospheric
pressure. It carries with it the acid left adhering to the
sides, so that after a few hours half, or, what is better, one
third of an inch of acid stands above the mercury. Small
bubbles of air are seen to arise; but by leaving the tube in
connexion with the exhauster for a day or two these finally
cease. Mercury is then poured into the short limb until
that in the longer rises nearly to the capillary part of
the tube. This is then sealed and detached from the ex-
hauster. Mercury is then removed from the shorter limb
until it stands in the long one at a convenient height.
Sulphuric acid is then introduced into the short limb until it
forms a column equal to that in the longer limb. A small
tube is finally attached to the short limb, and dipping a

41

little way into a small bottle containing a small quantity of
sulphuric acid, prevents the access of moist air into the
short limb.

The tube thus completed possesses the following advan-
tages : — 1st. There is the utmost facility in the movement
of the column, so that the most minute changes of pressure
are at once registered without any dragging. 2nd. The
depression produced by capillary action is reduced to one
half, so that the siphon arrangement can be satisfactorily
used as affording an accurate neutralization of capillary
action.

Mr. Brothers exhibited the plates forming the first part
of the Holborn Society’s photolith reproduction of Hans
Burgman’s Triumphs of Maximilian I. The designs are
engraved on wood and printed on separate sheets, but the
set shown were mounted so as to exhibit the artist’s inten-
tion— that of a triumphal procession. This remarkable
work is considered to be one of the finest specimens of
wood engraving.

Mr. BAXENDEiiL read the following letter from Professor
C. PiAZZi Sm^th, F.B.S., Astronomer Boyal of Scotland : —

Referring (as the prompt and frequent publications of your
Society so easily and agreeably enable one to do) to Professor
Osborne Reynolds’s triumphant proof, on November 18th,
that his glass tubes were strong enough to act as guns, — and
also that 1 *5 inches depth of powder produced nothing like
the force exerted by the electrical discharge; and that that
electrical discharge acted by means of conversion of water
suddenly into steam, as when lightning rends a tree; —
may I beg to offer two remarks ?

(1) The soundness of the discussions before the Society
on the recent wood-struck case near Manchester, is evident
by a similar conclusion arrived at by the British Associa-

42

tion when at Edinburgh in 1850. For a tree in the neigh-
bourhood having been struck and specially shattered into
thin plates of wood, during the week of congress, was formally
examined by a deputation of the Association, and the light-
ning was held to have exploded the watery matter of the
sap-vessels.

(2) That water is a far more powerful exploder than gun-
powder if you can get it (the water) to explode at all, is now
experimentally proved by Professor Osborne Keynolds’s
electrical experiments; and did occupy my attention many
years ago, on comparing the far larger increase of space
occupied by exploded water in the shape of steam, than by
exploded gunpowder in the shape of its permanent gases.

The difficulty however is, to get the water to explode,
and not to pass off merely into steam ; a difficulty well illus-
trated by any and every accession of dampness to gunpow-
der fired in the usual way, decreasing, instead of increasing,
the gunpowder’s explosive force.

In order to try to explode water, at that time, I melted a
large ladle full of lead; put upon the fluid and almost red-
hot surface a drop of water and tried various devices to
bring it under the influence of the heat ; but even when
forcibly attempted to be pushed under the melted lead, the
water ran with vehemence up the substance of the wooden
probe employed, and refused to have anything to do with
the fluid lead, which consequently remained undisturbed.

But when I next took a smaller iron ladle, put a drop of
water on the bottom of it, and gave therewith a little pat
to the surface of the melted lead, instantly the whole con-
tents of the great ladle were scattered to the winds, and
only a few grains were recovered. Explosion of water had
apparently taken place with excellent effect.

Then came a question as to repeating such an explosion

43

at small intervals of time, in a safe manner, so as to have
an explosion engine ; in which, if all the heat of the coal
could he used in exploding water, rather than in raising
steam, a surprising economy of fuel should result.

But as no progress was made in such an engine, I can
only refer to some old accounts of an explosion in a copper
foundry, where the great establishment was literally blown
up, it was said, by a workman simply spitting into a vessel
of melted copper. The mere amount of steam raised from
the saliva would evidently have been of no practicable avail
for either good or evil, even if employed in the best modern
expansive engine on the thermo-dynamic principles ; but, as
an explosive, its energy would seem to have been so vast, that
I must hope for further development of the subject at the
hands of the able men of science in the Manchester Literary
and Philosophical Society.

“On the Destruction of Sound by Fog and the Inertness
of a Heterogeneous Fluid,” by Professor Osborne Eey-
NOLDS, M.A.

1. That sound does not readily penetrate a fog is a matter
of common observation. The bells and horns of ships are
not heard so far during a fog as when the air is clear. In a
London fog the noise of the wheels is much diminished, so
that they seem to be at a distance when they are really
close by. On one occasion during the launch of the Great
Eastern the fog was reported so dense that the workmen
could neither see nor hear.

2. It has also been observed that mist in air or steam
renders them very dull as regards motion. This is observed
particularly in the pipes and passages in a steam engine.
Mr. D. K. Clark found in his experiments that it required

44

Irom 3 to 5 times as much back pressure to expel misty
steam from a cylinder as when the steam was dry.

3. My object in this paper is to give and to investigate
what appears to me to be an explanation of these pheno-
mena; from which it appears that they are intimately
connected; that, in fact, they are both due to the same
cause. This explanation will be the clearer for a few pre-
liminary remarks.

4. The nature of a fog and the manner in which the small
spherical drops are suspended against their weight is well
understood. So long as the fog is at rest or moving uni-
formly, the drops being heavier than the air tend to sink
like a stone in water, and consequently they are not at
rest in the air but are moving through it with greater or
less velocities according as they are large like rain or small
like haze. This motion is caused entirely by the difference
in the specific gravity of the air and water, if the drops were
merely little hard portions of air they would have no ten-
dency to descend.

In some fogs the drops are so fine that they appear to
be absolutely at rest, and will remain for a long time with-
out any appreciable motion. The force which retards the
downward motion of the drops is the friction of the air, and
this is proportional to the surface of the drop and the square
of the velocity. As the drops get smaller their weight
diminishes faster than their surface, and consequently the
friction will balance the weight with a less velocity. The
exact law is that the velocity caused by the weight of a
drop is proportional to the square root of its diameter.

This is the general explanation of what goes on under the
action of gravity when the fog is at rest or moving uni-
formly, and we may make use of it to illustrate what goes on
when the fog is subjected to accelerating or retarding forces.

45

5. If we imagine a vessel, full of such a compound as the
fog is made of, to be set in motion or stopped, the acceler-
ating or retarding force will have to be transmitted from
the sides of the vessel to the fluid within it by means of
pressure. These pressures will act equally throughout the
fluid, and if the fluid were homogeneous they would produce
the same effect throughout it, and it would all move together
but the pressures will obviously produce less effect on the
drops of water than they do on the corresponding volumes
of air, and the result will be that the drops of water will
move with a different velocity to the air — that the drops of
water will in fact move through the air just as they do under
the action of gravity. In fact, if the air is subject to an
acceleration of 32 feet per second the effect on the drops
(their motion through the air) will be the same as that
due to their weight. It is easy to conceive the action
between the air and the drops of water. If a mass of
air and water is retarded it is obvious that the water, by
virtue of its greater density, will move on through the air.
This property has, in fact, been made use of to dry the steam
used in steam engines. The steam is made to take a sharp
turn, when the water, moving straight on through it, is
deposited on the side of the vessel.

6. Owing to this motion of the water through the air it
would clearly take longer with the same force to impress
the same momentum on foggy air than on the same when
dry. This is obvious, for at the end of a certain time the
particles of water would not be moving as fast as the air;,
and consequently the air and water would have less momen-
tum than the same weight of dry air all moving together :
that is to say, if we had two light vessels containing the
same weight of fluid, the one full of dry air and the other
full of fog, and both subjected to the same force for the same

46

time, at the end of this time, although they would have
exactly the same motion, their contents would not, for the
drops of water in the fog would not be moving so fast as the
vessel. Now the energy expended on each of these vessels
would be the same, but, inasmuch as the effects are different,
the energy acquired by the foggy air would be less than that
acquired by the dry air, the difference having gone to move
the water through the air : that is to say, it would require
more pressure to impress in the same time the same velocity
on foggy air than on dry air of the same density.

7. This then fully explains the dulness with which foggy
air acquires motion. In the passages of a steam engine the
steam is subjected to continual accelerations and retarda-
tions, each of which requires more force in the manner
described with misty than with dry steam, and at each of
which the particles of water moving through the steam
destroy energy in creating eddies.

8. Although not so obvious, the same is true in the case
of sound. The effect of waves of sound traversing a portion
of air is first to accelerate and then to retard it. And if
there are any drops of water in the air these will not take
up the motion of the air so readily as the air itself. They
will allow the air to move backwards and forwards past
them, and so cause friction and diminish the effect of
the wave as it proceeds, just as a loose cargo will diminish
the rolling of a ship.

9. It is important to notice that this action of the par-
ticles of water is not analogous to their action in reflecting
the waves of light.

It has been assumed as an explanation of the action of
fog on sound that the particles of water break up the wave
of sound by small reflections in the same way as they
scatter the waves of light. The analogy however is not

47

admissible ; for in the case of light the wave length is
shorter than the thickness of the drops, and the surface of
the drop acts in the same way as if the drop were of large
extent; but in the case of sound the waves length may be
thousands of times the thickness of the drop, and instead of
the whole wave being reflected it will only be a very small
portion of it. Even this portion can hardly be called a
reflection ; it is due to the motion of the air past the drops
like the waves of sound caused by a bullet, or the waves
thrown off by the bow of a ship.

10. A certain portion of the resistance which the air offers
to the motion of the water through it is this — what is called
in naval science wave resistance; but it can be shown
that the proportion of this resistance to the resistance in
causing eddies diminishes with the velocity, and conse-
quently it can have very little to do with the effect of the
drops of water on the waves of sound, in which the velocity
of the water through the air must be very small.^'

11. So far, then, I have shown the manner in which the
fog diminishes the sound ; it remains to consider the con-
nection between the size of the drops and their effects.
I am not aware that any observations have been made
with respect to this. I do not know whether it has ever
been noticed whether a fine or a coarse mist produces the
most effect on sound. It does not appear, however, that
rain produces the same effect as fog; and considering rain
as a coarse fog, we must come to the conclusion that a cer-
tain degree of fineness is necessary.

If we examine theoretically into the relation between the
size of the drops and the effect they produce, always assuming

* This reflection has nothing to do with the reverberation from clouds which
occurs in a thunderstorm, which is probably due to the different density of the
clouds, and takes place at their surfaces.

48

the same quantity of water in the air, we find in the first place
that if the air is subjected to a uniform acceleration, which
acts for a sufficient time for the drops to acquire their maxi-
mum velocity through the air, the effect of the drops in a
given time — that is to say, the energy dissipated in a given
time — is proportional to the square root of the diameters of
the drops. This appears from the action of gravity. As
previously stated, the maximum downward motion of the
drops ; and hence the distance they will have fallen in a
given time and the energy destroyed is proportional to the
square root of their diameters. Hence where the accelera-
tion acts continuously for some time, as would be the case
in a steam pipe, the effect will increase with the size of the
drops.

This effect may be represented by a parabolic curve in
which distances measured from the vertex along the axis
represent the size of the drops and the corresponding ordi-
nates represent their effect in destroying energy.

If on the other hand the acceleration alternates very rapidly
then there will not be time for the drop to acquire its maxi-
mum velocity, and if the time be very short the drop will
practically stand still, in which case the effect of the drops
will be proportional to the aggregate surface which they
expose. And this will increase as the diameter diminishes,
always supposing the same quantity of water to be present.

This latter is somewhat the condition when a fog is tra-
versed by waves of sound, so long as the drops are above a
certain size ; when, however, they are very small, compared
with the length of the waves, there will be time for them to
acquire their maximum velocity. So that starting from
drops the size of rain, their effect will increase as their size
diminishes, at first in the direct proportion, then more and
more slowly until a certain minuteness is reached, after

49

which, as the drops become still smaller, their effect will
begin to diminish, at first slowly, but in an increasing ratio,
tending towards that of the square root of the diameter of
the drops.

This effect may be represented by a curve which coincides
with the previously described parabola at the vertex, but
which turns off towards the axis, which it finally approaches
as a straight line.

This completes the investigation, so far as I have been
able to carry it. The complete mathematical solution of the
equations of motion does not appear to be possible, as they
are of a form that has not as yet been integrated. However,
so far it appears to me to afford a complete explanation of the
two phenomena, and further to show, a fact not hitherto
noticed, that for any note of waves of sound there is a certain
size of drop with which a fog will produce the greatest
effect.

''The Chemical Constitution of Bleaching Powder,” by
C. SCHOELEMMER. F.KS.

In his classical research " On the Compounds of Chlorine
with Bases,”* Gay Lussac has sliown that the bleaching
compounds formed by tins reaction are not direct combina-
tions of chlorine and a base, as Berthollet believed, but that
a hypochlorite and a chloride are produced simultaneously,
according to the equation

2KOH + Clo - KOCl + KCl + H^O.

When to the compounds thus formed a small quantity of
a mineral acid is added, hypochlorous acid is set free, whilst
by adding the acid in excess chlorine is obtained; be-
cause in the latter case the hydrochloric acid acts on the
hypochlorous acid in the following way ;

CIH + CIOH-Cb + HA
^ “ Comptes Eendus,” XIV. 927,

50

As a ready method for preparing a dilute solution of
hypochlorous acid, Gay Lussac recommends to distil a solu-
tion of bleaching powder with a quantity of dilute nitric
acid which is just sufficient to liberate the hypochlorous
acid.

According to Gay Lussac’s view, bleaching powder is a
mixture of calcium chloride and calcium hypochlorite, and
the same view is held by most chemists. Professor Odling
has however pointed out that, calcium being a dyad metal,

r Cl

the constitution of bleaching powder was probably Ca |

or it was at the same time a hypochlorite and a chloride. Of
course both views explain equally well the formation of
hypochlorous acid by Gay Lussac’s method. I read there-
fore with great surprise a paper by Goepner (Dingler’s
Polytechn. Journ, 209, 204), in which he states that bleach-
ing powder is nothing but a simple combination of lime and
chlorine, which by acids is again resolved into its consti-
tuents without the least trace of hypochlorous acid being
formed. He says that, although the preparation of hypo-
chlorous acid by this method is described in all hand books
as if this experiment had been made hundreds of times, this
is a mistake, and the reason why this error has maintained
itself so long in chemical literature is that hitherto no
reaction was known by which free chlorine and hypochlo-
rous acid could be readily distinguished. But such a re-
action has now been found by Wolters, who has shown that
when chlorine-water is shaken with an excess of mercury
only mercurous chloride is formed, while with aqueous
hvpochlorous acid it yields a brown crystalline oxychloride
of mercury, which is readily soluble in hydrochloric acid,
and thus offers a ready means of the qualitative as well as
quantitative determination of hypochlorous acid in the pre-
sence of free chlorine.

51

In employing this reaction for detecting hypochlorons
acid in the liquid which was obtained by distilling bleach-
ing powder with a small quantity of hydrochloric or sul-
phuric acid, Goepner could not find a trace of hypochlorons
acid, but only free chlorine.

I have already mentioned that he says the preparation of
hypochlorons acid by this method is described in the books
as if this experiment had been repeated hundreds of times.
Now this experiment has been repeated many hundred
times in our laboratory only. Professor Roscoe shows it
every year in his lectures, and all our students in the course
of their practical work perform it, and find that the per-
fectly colourless distillate is a much more powerfully bleach-
ing agent than freshly prepared chlorine-water. This is
quite sufficient to show that the liquid contains hypochlo-
rous acid. But why did Goepner fail in detecting it ?
Perhaps it was the fault of the analytical method ? To
decide these questions I prepared hypochlorons acid by dis-
tilling solutions of bleaching powder with dilute nitric and
sulphuric acid and shook the colourless distillates with mer-
cury. In every case the brown oxychloride was formed in
quantity and possessed all the properties which Wolters has
assigned to it, while by shaking chlorine-water with mer-
cury only calomel was formed. From a careful perusal of
Goepner’s paper I was unable to find the cause of his
failure.

Another argument against the existence of a hypochlorite
in bleaching powder is, according to Goepner, the following.
The chlorine which is used in the manufacture of bleaching
powder always contains free hydrochloric acid, and thus in
bleaching powder more calcium chloride will always exist
than would correspond with Gay Lussac’s formula. Now
when bleaching powder is exhausted successively with

52

small quantities of water, the excess of calcium chloride is
always found in the first solutions, whilst those following
contain calcium and chlorine in the proportions correspond-
ing to the empirical formula CaOCt This fact, however,
only proves that bleaching powder is not a mixture of cal-
cium chloride and hypochlorite, but that the bleaching
compound contained in it has the Constitution which Pro-
fessor Odling has assigned to it.

Professor Williamson has shown that an aqueous solution
of hypochlorous acid may also be obtained by suspending
finely divided calcium carbonate in water and passing
chlorine into the liquid until the carbonate is dissolved and
then distilling the solution. In this reaction the compound
Ca(OCl)Cl is probably also first formed and acted on by an
excess of chlorine in the following way : —

Ca I QQj + CI2 — I

53

Oi*dinary Meeting, December 80th, 1873,

Kev. Wm. Gaskell, M.A., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., said that in the Liverpool
papers a good deal of discussion had lately taken place on
the rapid growth of the bar at the entrance into the Queen’s
Channel. This is a subject not only of local but of national
interest. Having had occasion to pass over the bar fre-
quently in his passage to the Isle of Man, he had his atten-
tion directed to the matter, and his friend our worthy
President had supplied him with a copy of an interesting
article from the Liverpool Albion of the 18th November
last. Adam Evans appears to attribute this evil to the
emptying of mud into the Mersey, and the writer in the
newspaper states as follows ; ‘'Nothing is so important to
the prosperity of the port of Liverpool as the maintenance
of its entrance channels at sufficient depth. Several times
lately the question has been named at the Dock Board, and
more particularly at the meeting of the Board last week. It
appears that Admiral Evans, acting Conservator of the
River Mersey, has been for a long time urging the construc-
tion of steam barges to take the deposits from the docks
(which deposits consist not of soluble kinds only, but also
of coal, coal dust, and all other matter which happens to
fall overboard from the ships in the docks), and to convey
them outside the port. That this is no new view of Admi-
ral Evans’s is shown by the fact that in his report for 1848,
as to the impropriety of discharging mud and other matter
from the flats into the river, he pointed out the dangers
attending the practice ; and if at that time he considered
the system bad, how much more so is it now ? The deposits
Peoceedinqs. — Lit. & Phil. Society. — Yol. XIII. — No. 6 — Session 1873-4.

54

then were about 200,000 tons annually ; now — the acreage
of the docks having increased from about 100 to 500 or 600
acres — they are probably at least 600,000 tons annually,
and all this refuse is discharged into the river. To eluci-
date the matter we may give tlie following extracts from
Admiral Evans’s report of 1843 relative to the causes which
to the extension of the Victoria Bar, and of the effects of
depositing mud and other substances in the bed of the river :
The extension of Victoria Bar is occasioned by a greater
quantity of detritus being held in suspension by the ebb
than by the flood tide, which causes the point of deposit to
continually extending outwards to where the stream of ebb
is exhausted. Although this to a certain extent is of com-
mon occurrence at the mouth of all estuaries, yet the excess
of matter held in solution by the ebb over the flood tide in
the Mersey is in a great measure to be attributed to the
habit of throwing into the river the whole of the mud and
sand ' daily’ extracted from the Liverpool docks, amounting
from January, 1843, to January, 1844, to 213,000 tons!
This enormous quantity is taken out of the docks by steam
dredges, discharged into mud flats, which are towed out by
steamers every tide, day and night, except on Sundays, and
emptied into the middle of the river at the worst possible
time of tide — namely just before high water, so that part of
the mud is taken up the river to feed the Pluckington and
other banks ; part is precipitated to the bottom, taking with
it the sand held in suspension by a full tide ; and the re-
mainder is filtered through the different seaward channels,
leaving a portion of its silt in them.

This practice, so mischievous to the navigation of the
Mersey, and detrimental to the best interests of Liverpool, is
continued under the sanction of a local Act of Parliament
(6th of George IV., cap. 117), which was passed in the year
1825. Since the passing of that Act the dock space of Liver-
pool has not only been doubled, and annually increasing, but

55

the ships are of a much larger class, requiring a greater depth
of water both in the docks and channels. If, therefore, the
Act of Parliament above alluded to applies to the docks made
and deepened since its passing in 1825, to those docks now
in progress, and to all that may be hereafter be constructed^
the amount of clay and mud thrown into the river will be
enormous, endangering the navigation at the very time, and
in proportion as the increase both in size and number of
the ships requires the channel to be kept as deep and clear
of deposit as possible.’' In consequence of this report the
practice of discharging mud boats on the flood tide was
abandoned, and they have since been discharged during the
first quarter of ebb. That the views then adopted by Ad-
miral Evans were right is shown by the present condition
of the main or Queen entrance channels into Liverpool^
which are now only about seven to eight feet on the bar at
low water spring tides, instead of about twelve feet, so that
small tug boats cannot now get in and out where compara-
tively large steamers used to be able to pass. An illustration
of this fact was aflbrded the other day, when one of the Isle
of Man boats had to wait some time before she could cross
the bar. With regard to Pock Channel, the depth of water
on the bar is now only 18 inches at low water spring tides.
It may be thought that in going back to Admiral Evans’s
report for 1843 we have travelled out of our way to manu-
facture arguments against the present system of depositing
mud in the Mersey ; but if we return to the Admiral’s
report for 1872, we find the views of 1843 confirmed.”

No doubt the throwing in of about 2000 tons of mud into
the Mersey near , Liverpool every working day is a thing
which ought not to be allowed by the conservator of that
river, but it is highly probable that this is only one of the
causes of the decreased depth of water over the bar of the
Queen’s channel. It is now pretty well known that encroach-
ments and embankments on estuaries and river courses

56

cannot be made without some detriment to such places.
The natural flow of water is generally the best for cleansing
and sweeping out a river or estuary, and such agency may be
helped and diverted, but it can never be opposed or ob-
structed with impunity. Owing to the want of reliable
experiments it is not yet well known at what speed a
current of water ceases to cut a bed of clay and begins to
lift up the course of such water. All we know broadly is
that mountain streams deepen and low country streams raise
their beds.

The estuary of the Mersey and its deep channels have
been kept open chiefly by the ebb tide and the back waters
of the Mersey, Weaver, and other streams. Of late years
the shores on both sides of the Mersey have been extended
into the water way by the construction of new docks and
other works so that the channel is now considerably less in
width than it formerly was, and consequently less water
enters the river from the sea and flows up it than used to do,
and thus diminishes the power of the ebb tide. True it is that
the contraction of the river has made the current of the ebb
for some time stronger opposite to Liverpool, and thereby
increased the scour and cutting power there, but the
materials removed soon fall to the bottom when the water
course becomes wider and the current less, so this increased
scour will not compensate for the loss of water caused by
the obstructions to the flood tide but actually increase, to a
considerable extent, the deposits of the removed materials
in the vicinity of the bar. It is quite clear that the empty-
ing of dock mud into the river is an evil, but what is it
when compared to the solid matter brought down daily
and in freshes by the inland streams feeding the Mersey.

My object in making these remarks is to direct attention
to the subject of the lowering of the depth of water over
the Queen’s Bar, which is of the utmost importance to
steamers leaving and arriving at the tidal harbours about

57

high water and reaching the bar at near low water. This
is especially the case with the Isle of Man steamers during
the greater part of the year. No doubt that particular
winds may at one time increase and at another diminish the
sand on the bar, but it appears pretty certain that for some
considerable number of years the water has gradually
become shallower at the entrance of the Queen’s Channel.
The true cause of this evil has first to be ascertained and then
no doubt the authorities at Liverpool will lose no time in
remedying it.

Mr. Binney also exhibited to the meeting a very perfect
specimen of a fossil fish, measuring from head to tail 14
inches. It was discovered in the cannel seam of the Pirnie
Coal Company at Methill in the county of Fife. He con-
sidered it to be a small Magalichthys Hihherti. Although
fragments of this fish are very frequently met with in the
coal measures, it is not often that a specimen is found in so
good a condition.

58

Ordinary Meeting, January 13th, 1874.

E, W, Binney, F.B.S., F.G.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. Kooke Pennington, of Bolton, was elected an ordinary
Member of the Society.

A drawing was shown representing some further improve-
ments of Dr. Joule’s mercurial air exhauster described in
the Proceedings of February 18, 1873.

In the section represented by Fig 1, W W is a wooden
frame ; P a pulley for raising or lowering a flask of mercury
held in a wooden box, M, working in a slide ; s s s s are
india rubber stoppers ; E is the exhauster ; t, e the entrance
and exit tubes ; g the gauge ; / a funnel to admit sulphuric
acid ; B, B moveable brackets to support any apparatus.

In Fig 2 the exhauster is drawn to a larger scale-
t, e are the entrance and exit tubes, fitting tightly in an
india rubber disc a, which disc is kept tightly pressed
against the exhauster by means of the ring, h, b. The
mercury is represented sunk below the entrance tube, as is
the case when the moveable flask is in its lower position.
On raising the flask by means of the pulley, the mercury
rises in the exhauster and forces any air it may contain
into the upper part of the exhauster by raising the india
rubber plug. The air then makes its exit through the pipe e.
This latter is also used for withdrawing the acid which
gradually accumulates.

Fig 3, also drawn to a large scale, represents a convenient
means of introducing sulphuric acid for removing aqueous
vapour, or to let air into the apparatus. The orifice at the
bottom of the funnel is about to^ of an inch diameter to
prevent violent action.

It may be useful to mention that the junctions are made
with black india rubber tube fastened by softened iron wire.

60

“On the Influence of Acids on Iron and Steel,” by
William H. Johnson, B.Sc.

In a paper published in the Proceedings of the Society
for March 4th, 1873, I mentioned that if a piece of steel
wire be immersed in hydrochloric or sulphuric acid for ten
minutes or more, and then well washed with water and
dried, that on breaking it bubbles were not seen to rise
through the moisture on the surface of the fracture as was
the case with iron wire. Subsequent experiments made
under the microscope with a power of 250 diameters, how-
ever, show that very small bubbles are given off with great
rapidity, sometimes from the whole, sometimes from part
only of the fractured surface.

This difference in the behaviour of iron and steel is most
likely connected with the difference of molecular structure.
Thus the fracture of a steel wire containing say ‘75 per cent
of carbon, when seen under the microscope presents a toler-
ably flat surface, composed of innumerable small, sharp
crystalline points, while that of iron is rough, more or less
fibrous or mossy, and the fibres do not end in sharp points.
These fine crystalline points in the steel, as is well known,
must facilitate the evolution of bubbles ; consequently they
are very small, rapidly given off*, and hence invisible to the
naked eye, whilst the absence of these points in iron causes
the small bubbles to collect into larger ones, which are
readily seen.

The less carbon a steel contains the more its fracture will
resemble iron, so in a steel containing only *21 per cent, of
carbon, small bubbles may sometimes be seen by the naked
eye.

About 5 oz. of iron wire ‘125 in. diameter, after 10 days’
immersion in hydrochloric a6id 1‘20 s.g., was well washed in
water, dried and placed in a glass tube heated to a tempera-
ture of a little over 100° C. by a sand bath. Each end of
the tube was connected with a bottle containing nitrate of

61

silver solution. A current of air was then slowly drawn
through the tube for two to three hours without forming
any precipitate however of chloride of silver ; but the
surface of the iron was covered with a coating of oxide, or
in all probability, oxichloride of iron.

Thick pieces of iron *450 in. diam. were found to redden blue
litmus paper slightly when applied to the fracture after the
iron had been immersed 12 hours in hydrochloric or
sulphuric acid.

Mr. J. Carter Bell communicated a series of meteoro-
Ibgical observations which had been made daily during the
months of May, June, July, and August, 1873, at Tumaco,
New Granada, S. America, by Mr. G. WiLCYNSKi.

''On Crystalline Sublimed Cupric Chloride,” by S. Carson,
(Student in the Chemical Laboratory of the Owens College).

Cupric Chloride prepared by burning copper in dry chlorine
gas or by heating the anhydrous salt to 200° is obtained
either as a brown sublimate or as a brownish yellow powder.

A mass of a copper compound crystallized in needles,
many exceeding 5mm. in length, as found in the decomposer
of the Deacon-Chlorine process was forwarded to Professor
Boscoe, by Mr. Worsley, of the Netham Chemical Works.
The crystalline mass was collected from the space above the
marbles, impregnated with copper sulphate at the top of the
compartments. ,The temperature of this space is always
necessarily a little lower than that of the spaces between the
marbles where the action takes place, and to this is attributed
the deposition of the compound.

I have made several analyses of these crystals, the results
of which show that they consist of anhydrous cupric chloride,
mixed with a small quantity (about 2 per cent) of an
insoluble oxychloride. The following is a mean of several
analyses of the soluble portion : —

62

Calculated. Found.

Copper 47*172 46*909

Chlorine 52*828 53*091

100*000 100*000

The formation of this crystalline sublimate appears to
take place as soon as the temperature of the marbles covered
with sulphate of copper reaches about 800°. In all pro-
bability a formation of copper chloride is constantly

occurring as a necessary step in the decomposition of the
hydrochloric acid and air, and when the temperature reaches
the volatizing point of the chloride these crystals appear.

As the greatest amount of decomposition of the hydro-
chloric acid takes place close upon the temperature at which
the chloride sublimes, the formation of this salt and the
consequent loss of copper has been a fertile source of annoy-
ance to the manufacturer.

Mr. Deacon has recently completely overcome this diffi-
culty by the addition of sodium sulphate to the copper
sulphate with which the marbles are impregnated.

The presence of this salt prevents any formation of copper
chloride, sodium chloride being volatilized, and copper
sulphate remaining behind. This reaction is well seen by
the change of colour from green to blue produced when a
solution of sodium sulphate is added to one of cupric
chloride.

“Memorandum on Brown-stapled Cotton,” by Major R.
Teevor Clarke. Communicated by Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S.

The nankeen colour in cotton staple may be considered,
I think, as a normal variational state, rarely met with in
the present day, but very probably natural to the wild
forms now nearly extinct and very imperfectly known.
The two plants which have the best claim to be considered
wild species that I have met with, namely, the Polynesian
plant of Nuttall’ and the Santo Paulo one of Mr. Aubertin,

63

have both of them yellow cotton. The coloured state how-
ever is common to several cottons, probably to all. We
find it in the hill cotton of Assam and in samples from
China (Ning-Po), both Goss, herhaceum proper, and I am
told it is not unfrequently found in the fields of this species
in India and elsewhere.

In India however the sort actually in cultivation is the
yellow form of G. hirsutvm (Orleans), and my saniples from
Malta are of the same kind. The only use that I know of
for this staple is to make the cotton blanket clothing of the
Afghans, and I think also the Kabyles use it for the same
purpose.

It seems to be an object of regard, and even veneration,
amongst the aborigines of various countries. In Peru the
country people weave a striped cloth, white and yellow, from
it, and the bodies of their ancient princes the Incas were
found to have been buried enveloped in the rich brown
wool of a coloured form of the large native plant.

The paler brown staple alluded to as coming from Africa
is the produce of a coarse kind of Egyptian, and is of
stronger quality than most. The curious kidney cotton also
assumes this appearance, as I have samples of it from Para-
hyba del Norte, and have raised plants from its seeds. In
all cases the staple suffers an unfavourable change when
assuming this state, and is invariably more or less weak and
short.

The occurence of the yellow state in so many different
kinds will go far to account for the diversity in quality
alluded to.

A tendency to brown coloration seems peculiar to the
genus ; it shows itself in the dark hue of the expressed oil,
and when injury to the seed and capsule, by insects or
otherwise, has occurred, the extravasation has resulted in
stains upon the, properly, white fibre.

In the green seed capsule will be found two distinct

64

series of colorific glands ; one yellow, soluble in alcohol, the
other purple, soluble in water ; the brown is probably made
up of these two.

“ On the Graphical Eepresentation of the Movements of
the Chest-Wall in Respiration,” by Arthur Ransome, M.D.,
M.A.

A stethograph has been constructed which gives an
accurate tracing of the course described by any point on
the chest- wall, in the forward and upward directions, i.e.
in the vertical plane at right angles to the anterior surface
of the chest.

With this instrument many tracings have been made
both in health and disease. The following, chiefly from
the anterior ends of the third ribs, are selected as specimens
of the results obtained, and to illustrate the conclusions
drawn from them.

It has been observed —

1. That the anterior end of the rib takes a different course
in its ascent from that of its expiratory descent. (Figs.
1 and 2.)

2. That in most cases the upper-
most line is that of inspiration.

8. That this course is liable to
variation in consequence of the
action of the will. (Figs. 8 and 4.)

4. That in the action of cough-
ing, after the inspiratory stroke,
there is a slight forward bulging

65

of tlie rib, perhaps from the compression of
the air in the lungs by the action of the
Diaphragm, then a downward fall for a
space of about 0’2 in., and afterwards an
almost horizontal in-drawing of the rib
(Fig. 5) quite unlike anything that could
be produced by the simple angular move-
ment of the rib.

5. That in sneezing the course of the
rib is similar to that taken in the act
of coughing, except that there is no for-
ward bulging at the commencement of
expiration (Fig. 6), and in the latter part
of its course the rib only drops about
0T5 in. for 0'8 in. of in-drawing.

6, That in the dead subject, the
movement of the end of the ribs, when
simply raised and depressed (fig. 7),
approximates to a segment of a circle.

7. That as age advances there is an approach to the form
of curve traced by the unyielding rib, and the upward and
downward strokes are more nearly alike.

From the above facts it follows that the horizontal in-
drawing of the rib, in the spasmodic actions of coughing and
sneezing, is impossible without an inbending of the rib itself,
and that the variations in healthy breathing are chiefly to be
ascribed to the influence of the muscles of forced expiration,
which produce more or less bending of the rib during their
action.

In disease a comparative feebleness of the respiratory track
is to be noticed, and the want of elasticity of the chest is
evidenced by the tendency to similarity in the upward
and downward course of the ribs.

66

In acute Phthisis there is a degree of tremulousness in
the tracings, and in Pleurisy is seen the effect of adhesions
in the very small extent of forward push on the affected
side.

The tracing of the cough of Phthisis is, however, similar
in its form to that of the healthy chest (fig. 5) though much
smaller and more feeble.

67

Ordinary Meeting, January 27th, 1874.

R. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., Vice-President, in the

Chair.

Mr. John Watts, Ph.D., was elected an Ordinary Member
of the Society.

‘‘ On a Source of Error in. Mercurial Thermometers,’' by
Thomas M. Morgan, Student in the Laboratory of Owens
College.

While engaged in distillation, a fact has come under my
observation which, although it has been noticed before, does
not appear to be very generally known, and has not so far
as I have seen been recorded.

The thermometer, which was placed in a Wurtz tube so
that the column of mercury was entirely surrounded by the
vapour of the distilling liquid, was found after some days
to indicate three degrees too little — a discrepancy caused by
volatilization from the surface of the column of mercury and
condensation on the upper part of the tube. By causing
the mercury to flow to the end of the tube and back, the
condensed portion was gathered up and the correct tem-
perature indicated. It has since been observed that after
each day of distillation, with liquids boiling between 60°
and 100° C., a quantity of mercury equal to 1° or 1°'5 vola-
tilizes, and that this quantity is scarcely perceptible when
condensed on the surface of the bore. The thermometer in
use was about the ordinary size with a scale of 360°.

1 am informed that Geissler sometimes encloses a little
hydrogen in his thermometers in order that volatilization
may not go on so rapidly.

PEOCEEDiNas.— Lit. & Phil. Society.— Yol. XIII.— No. 7— Session 1873-4.

68

■■Notes on fossil Lithothamnia (so-called Nulliporae)/’ by
Arthur Wm. Waters, F.G.S.

The organisms on the table before ns have been assigned
very various places in the organic or inoi’ganic kingdoms at
different times. The recent ones have perhaps most often
been placed among the corals, while the fossil forms have
passed more frequently as concretionary.

After shortly reviewing the opinions of some of the
leading naturalists of this century, Mr. Waters drew atten-
tion to a paper of Eosanoff, published in 1866,^ on the
Melobesiacea, which he divides into three sections, the
Melobesia, Lithophyllum, and Lithothamnium. In this
paper full description is given as to their mode of growth
and their reproduction. Since then Giimbel-f has published
in 1871 an excellent monograph on the fossil forms under
the title, ‘'Die sogenannten Nulliporen,” in which he estab-
lishes 15 species. This paper has been largely used in pre-
paring the present notes.

As most present will know, they attain their greatest
development in the the Leithakalk, a meiocene formation
which is principalljq in some cases almost entirely, composed
of this algse. Unger says he has never seen any which
contains less than two thirds. Thus formations of vast ex-
tent and many hundred feet thick, perhaps in some places
thousands, are so largely composed of this limestone sea-
weed. But it is in no way confined to the Leithakalk, being
also very abundant in the eocene, especially the upper
division ; the so-called granit-marmor, or Bavarian marble,
a numulitic formation, is very largely composed of this con-
cretionary-looking body. In North Italy it abounds in the
eocene formations which are so largely developed in the
Veronese and Vicentin. In many places the formation is
some hundred feet, much more than half composed of the

* Mem. de la Soc. Imp. des Sc. nat. de Cherbourg, t. xii.
t Abhaud. d, E. Bay At. der Wissen, x., part i., 1871.

Litliothamnium. It occurs abundantly in Hungary and
Switzerland. The so-called pisolithic limestone of Paris is
according to Giimbel about eight tenths stone algse ; also
M. Mario, Astrup; the pleiocene of Castel Arquato; and in
fact it seems to be found in most of the tertiaries on the
continent. It is further found in the chalk at Maestricht,
and in the Jurassic sponge beds at Schwabenbergs.

Doubtless when geologists have paid more attention to
the question we shall find it has a very wide distribution,
and has formed rocks of equal importance in other parts of
the world.

Taking the Eastern Alps, witli which I have a fair
acquaintance, viz., the Bavarian, Austrian, and North Italian
Alps, in whicli, as you know, the tertiary deposits attain
extraordinary importance, I do not think it is too much to
say that one sixth of the whole tertiary rocks of this district
are composed of Lithothamnium. This is not given in any
way as an exact calculation, but merely to give an idea of
its importance.

The recent Melobesiacea seem to have a very general dis-
tribution. They grow at but moderate depths.

The Lithothamnium belongs to the family Melobesiacea
of the order Floridese or Ehodospermefe ; a large number of
this order are limesecreting, but these (Lith.) difier very
materially from the Corallina, since in the former the car=
bonate of lime is deposited in and between the cell structure,
while with the Corallina the plant is filiform, and the lime
is deposited round this, entirely encrusting it, It seems the
structural difterence is sufficient to separate them into two
entirely distinct classes.

Giimbel, after saying how the stems and branches of a
species are subject to variation as wed as the superficial
characteristics, says, But by far the most important and
numerous species can scarcely be distinguished by any other
method than by the form and relative size of the cells.

70

which can only be made out by transparent sections.” We
must be very careful how we accept this, for in a piece
which I prepared from Torbole, on the Lake of Garda, a
drawing of which is shown, we find the same plant pro-
ducing distinctly three sizes of cells at right angles to one
another, in the proportion 5 ; 3 ; 2.

According to Kosanaff the form of the young is always
orbicular.

GiimbeL gives the average of various analyses of the
Lithothamnium nodosum from Vienna and M. Mario.

Lime 47*14

Magnesia 2*66

Alumina and Oxide of Manganese 2*55

Phosphoric Acid 0*06

Carbonic Acid 40*06

Insol. in Acid 4*96

Water and Loss 2*57

100*00

The chief point to notice is the large amount of magnesia,
representing per cent carbonate of magnesia. Giimbel
points out the important bearing the large amount of mag-
nesia which plants and animals can take up from the water
may have upon the question of the formation of dolomitic
rocks.

The fossil Lithothamnia are often much altered in colour,
One rock on the Lake of Garda might almost be described
as a black rock with white spots ; an infiltration having
taken place from the outside, turning all but the central
portion a dark color, so that each piece when broken
through shows the centre white, the rest dark. I bring this
before your notice to show the great care that is required
when judging from lithological characteristics, as no one
would at first sight, and often not without microscopical
examination, consider such a pure white rock and one
almost black to be composed of the same materiah

71

In conclusion, the object of this paper is to draw attention
to the great masses of these bodies and the importance of
alwa^^s noticing tlieir occurrence in geological formations,
since it should be a very material help in regard to the cli-
mate, and the conditions of the coasts and currents, besides
being of great stratigraphical assistance; nor is it of less
importance to note carefully the growth of recent ones, for
only through a knowledge of the present can we interpret
the past.

72

MICKOSCOPIOAL AND NATUEAL HISTORY SECTION.

December 8th, 1873.

Charles Bailey, Esq., Vice-President of the Section, in
the Chair.

Mr. E. D. Darbishire, F.G.S., exhibited a collection of
shells and fragments of shells, lent for this purpose by Miss
M. H. Farington, of Worden Hall. The collection was in
itself one of remarkable extent and beauty, as a representa-
tive of the fossil fauna of the Drift, and had lately been the
subject of a Note read at a meeting of the Geological Society
of London. Ttie specimens were found in the Worden
gravel pit near the Leyland Station, near Chorley, in a bed
of shingle 240 feet above the sea level, shewed 42 species.
Amongst these one, Fusus craticulatus, was decidedly Arctic,
and the only form of that character. Cytherea chione, and
Cardium rusticum were Southern, as was also Mactra
glauca. These latter connected the list with that of the
Macclesfield Cemetery beds. Fusus propinquus and Fusus
antiquus, var. contrarius, which latter appeared here for the
first time in Engiisli lists of this date, are found in the
so=called manure gravels of Wexford.

He also exhibited similar collections made by J. Millard
Eeade, Esq., F.G.S., in the cuttings of the railway near Edge-
hill, and in cuttings in Toxteth park, both near Liverpool,
39 species at the former and 29 at the latter place. The
Edgehill list includes, like the Leyland list, Saxicava norve-
gica, Cytherea chione, and Cardium rusticum.

The two latter species occurred in comparison with other
species “frequently”; and had now been noted at Edgehill

73

in ‘‘glacial” clay and at Ley land and Maccleslield in gravels.
Neither of them had yet been recognised in the Blackpool
beds, from which also a small collection was exhibited.

January 19 th, 1874.

Joseph Baxendell, F.B.A.S., Vice-President of the Section
in the Chair.

Mr. Percival exhibited specimens in fruit of Hypnum
heterophyUum, gathered this month on wet rocks, Turton,
near Bolton, a species which has very rarely been found in
fructification.

Mr. SiDEBOTHAM exhibited a specimen of silicious num-
mulitic rock, from the banks of the Euphrates, the polished
section of which exhibited the structure of the shells in a
remarkable manner.

Joseph Sidebotham, F.B.A.S., read a paper on “The
similarity of certain Crystallised substances to Vegetable
folms.”

The author alluded to the many well known dendritic
markings in shale and slate, which are often mistaken for
sea-weeds and mosses, and to the leaf-like forms in various
crystallisations. He then called special attention to some
experiments carried on by the late Mr. Petschler and
himself, on the crystallisation of bichromate of ammonia?
nitrate of silver, and other salts, when in combination with
gelatine and other colloid substances. The results of these
experiments were brought before this society in the year
1861, but so far as he was aware the subject had not been
pursued further.

- 74

The author then called attention to the formation of
verdegris on insect pins, in old Entomological collections.
This substance makes its appearance where the pins pass
through the thorax of the insects, and in leiigtli of time
grows into a considerable mass of fiocculent matter, of a
brilliant green colour, and often breaks up the insects and
also destroys tlie pins. It consists mainly of acetate or
formiate of copper in combination with fatty or oily matter-

On examination of various specimens under the microscope,
they were found to present a great variety of forms, filamen-
tous and ribbon-like structure, often resembling various
fungi, in some cases so nearly, that it was difficult to believe
that the fibres and fruit-like forms are not really organic
bodies.

Drawings, and specimens under the microscope, were
exhibited, and the author expressed his opinion that these
bodies were simply crystals, modified in their formation by-
the oil contained in the insects, with which the crystals is
in some way combined. Some of the specimens exhibited
were taken from insects collected twenty-five years ago.

An interesting discussion followed the paper, in which
the Chairman, Mr. Plant, Mr, Rogers, and other members,
took part.

PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.

October 14th, 1873.

E. W. Binney, F.B.S., F.G.S., in the Chair.

Mr. Samuel Broughton was elected Treasurer of the Sec-
tion, in place of the late Mr. Thomas Garrick.

“Mean Monthly Barometric Readings at Old Trafford,
Manchester, from 1849 to 1872,” by G. V. Vernon, F.R.A.S.,

F.M.S.

Having a tolerably complete register of barometric read-
ings, and knowing of no published normal values for any
station in or near Manchester, I have reduced and tabulated
the monthly means for the period above named.

The barometer with which the observations were made
was a standard by Negretti and Zambra, No. 266, and
which had been compared at Greenwich.

All the observations have been corrected for capillarity
and index error to reduce them to the Greenwich standard,
and then reduced to 32° F.

In the earlier part of the series I have unfortunately some
months deficient, but in the latter part of the series I have
been able to fill up the gaps by the use of the very careful
series of observations made at Eccles by my friend Thomas
Mackereth, Esq., F.R.A.S., by applying corrections deter-
mined by comparing the months in which the observations
were simultaneous.

I found that the two series of observations were nearly
identical after allowing for difference of level.

The mean annual pressure for the entire series was 29 780
inches, which, corrected for an altitude of 123 feet above
the mean sea level, and assuming the mean annual tempei-a-

76

tiire to be 50° F,, gives us 29*912 inches as the mean yearly
value reduced to sea level.

If we take the complete period of the last eleven years
we have a mean reading of 29*838 inches, which is 0*074
inches below the value given for the entire period 1849 to
1872.

In the earlier series the month of August was generally
wanting in the observations except for a few years, but this
month having a reading generally in excess of the yearly
value would tend if anything to make the annual value
somewhat higher, and the result would tend to show that
during recent years the pressure has been lower than during
the earlier part of the series.

The variation between the highest and lowest mean
yearly readings during the last eleven years is 29*828 inches
(1870) and 29*624 inches (1872), or equal to 0*204 inches:
this would appear greater than probability would point out,
1872 having had an exceptionally low mean reading ; leav-
ing 1872 out, we have a difference of 0118 inches between
1870 and 1866.

Looking at the mean monthly values, we find that the
maximum occurs in J une and the minimum in January ; the
order beginning with the minimum is January, October,
March, December, November, September, February, July
and April equal, also May and August equal. If fine
v/eather depends upon barometric pressure, the above shows
that May and August should be the finest months as a rule,
and January and October the worst: May is next to the
driest month, April, and October bears off the palm for
being the wettest, at least in this district.

The remarkable year for rain, 1872, would appear to have
been also remarkable for deficient atmospheric pressure, as
the table annexed will show, every month except August
having had a pressure below the average, and August was
only a few thousandths of an inch above the average.

77

Difference from Iilean.

Inches.

.. -0*315

.. -0*205

.. -0*139

.. -0*032

.. -0*050

.. -0*107

.. -0*017

.. +0*006
.. -0*161
.. -0*195

.. -0*291

-0*367

Comparison of these departures below the average with
the separate monthly values of the rainfall for 1872 does
not show that the greatest rainfall occurred in those months
in which the pressure was the most below the average, but
the almost constant depression throughout the year cer*
tainly does so. It is probable that if a longer and more
complete register could be examined, that 1872 had a lower
mean pressure than any year over a very long period, just
as it had a greater rainfall tlian any year for a very long
period, say 80 years.

Barometer Means at 32'^ F., Corrected for Index Error, but

STILL EeQUIRING THE EeDUCTION TO THE LeVEL OF THE SeA.

Height of Barometer Cistern 123 feet above Mean Sea Level.

Year.

' Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

April

May.

, June.

July.

Aug.

1 Sep.

Oct,

Nov.

Dec. j'Mean.

ins.

j

ins.

ins.

ins.

ins.

ins.

ins.

ins.

ins.

ins.

ins.

1849

1 ins.

29-549

29-784

29-885

29-771

29-830

29-758

29-704

29-843;

1850

29-876

29-752

30-669

29-580

29-740

, 29-890

29-856

29-958

29-715

29-775

29-889;

1851

29-540

^ 29-883

29-573

29-930

29 720

30-079

29-701

29-837

30-137

18S2

29-5241 29-873

30-072

30109

29-819

29-527

29-885

29-793

29-718

29-420

29-463;

1853

29-527

: 29-598

29-801

29-702

29-843

29-710

29-671

29-820

29 923

+9-857

1854

29-562

30 042

30-160

30-027

29-648

29-718

29-789

1 30-004

29-682

29-689

1 29-704;

1855

30-044

29-665

29-548

29-954

29-729

29 850

29-718

29-994

29-475

129-896

j 29-709,

1856

29-456

29-877

31^-069

29-612

29-686

29-865

29-797

29-766

29-637

Iso 003

! 29-936

29 599'

1857

29-656

29-925

i 29-723

29-648

29-835

29-894

29 -829

29-878

29 845

i 29-717

30-001

30-085!

1858

30-145

29-898

29-787

29-804

29-950

29'799

29-854

+9-843

29-846

29-810

29-727!

1859

29-963

29-772

29-758

29-629

29-904

29-812

29'968

29-680

1 29-536

29-804

29-604

1860

29 -464

29.898:

29-622

29-859

29-779

29-599

29 870

29-761

29-810

29-748

29-527,

1861

30-011

29-656

29-561

30-053

29-983

29-823!

29-554

29-666

29-861

29-520

29 959

1862

29-667

29-950'

29-522

29-839

29-735

29-700

29-715

29-800

29-888

29-669

29-831

29-804 29-760

1863

29-567

30-101

29 727

29-814129-889

29 720l

29 -994

29-710129 599

29-583

29-817

29-864 29-782

1864

29 957

29-775

29-503

29-9511

29-885

29-778 29-873

29-950

129-726

29-737

29-612

29-878 29-802

1865

29-392

29-741

29-784

29-994!

29-729

30-092,

29-790

29-730

i 30-100

29-470

29-714

30-053 29-799

1866

29 663

29 ‘524'

29-546

29'799i

29-870

29-782'

29-795

29-6191

1 29-501

29-965

29-742

29-728 29-710

1867

29-508

29-787

29-696

29-573!

29-782

29-976'

29-733

29-796

29-905

29-737

30-173

29-891 29-796

1868

29-735

29-918

29-775

29-791129-835

, 30-009!

29-950

29-738

29 735

29-796

29-851

29-290 29 785

1869

29-779

29-741

29 745

29-842129-712

29-9491

29-930

29-994

29-564

29-897

29-708

29-631 29-791

1870

29-812

29-735

29-938

29-989

29-894

29-981!

29-863

29-865

29-892

29-534

29-639

29-793 29-828

1871

29-665

29-804

29-859

29-643

29-947

29-820,

29-664

29-868

29-784

29-761

29-864

29-902 29-798

1872

29-375

29-599^

29-620

29-773

29-763

29-713

29-788

29-819

29-640

29-522

29-479

29-396 29-624

Means j

'29-690

29-804

1

29-759

29-805

29-813

29-823|

29-805

29^3

29-801

29-717

29-770

29-763|

1872.

January . .
February

March ’.

April

May

June

July

August . .
September
October . .
November
December .

78

“ Results of Meteorological Observations taken at Lang-
dale, Dimbula, Ceylon, during the years 1868-72,” by
Edward Heelis, Esq. Communicated by J oseph Baxen-
DELL, F.R.A.S.

The approximate situation of the place of observation is
6° 57' N.; 79° 42' E.; and elevation 4,600 feet above sea
level.

Mean Temperature.

1 1869.

!

1870,

1871.

i

1872. '

Mean.

January

...

63-78

64-13

65-52 !

64-48 ;

February

65-27 i

64-79

65-88 '

65-31 i

March

67-26 i

66-84

66-84

66-98

April

68-36

68-14

67-73

68-08

May

68-33

67-65

69-03

68-34

June

66-15

64-66

66-55

65-78

J^iy

64-48

62-99

65-78

64-42

August

64-02

64-73

65-55

65-40

64-92

September

64-55

, 64-07

; 64-12

64-66

64-35

October

64-25

63-85

! 65-21

64-63

64-48

November

64-59

1 64-08

i 65-77

65-18

64-90

December

65-06

1 64-32

1 65-64

65-34

65-09

Means

! 65-39

65-45

1

66-04

65-59

Mean Daily Range op Temperature.

j

1869.

1

1870.

1871.

1

1872.

Mean. '

t January

•••

15-73

14-94

17-49

16-05

i February

20-39

21-89

19-24

20-51

i March

21-19

18-62

23-05

20-95

! April

21-49

18-15

15-80

18-48 1

May

I

14-56

12-76

16-71

14-68 !

June

11-44

7-45

9-56

9-48 1

July

...

9-55

7-08

10-12

8-92

August

8-95

10-63

11-10

9-43

10-03 ;

September

9-29

9-81

11-55

8-74

9-85 j

October

12-46

11-07

15-70

9-52

12-19 1

November

13-95

17-27

13-41

13-13

14-44 1

December

17-15

16-43

15-53

14-52

15-91

Means

14-96

14-01

13-94

14-29

79

Rainfall.

1868.

1869.

1870.

1871.

1872.

1

Mean,

Mean
No. of
Eainy
Days.

Greatest
1 Fall in
24 hours.

in.

in.

ill,

in.

in.

in. :

in.

January

2-48

10-03

8-98

0-65

5-53

13

2-48

; February ’

I

1-30

2-15

1-40

1-34

1-55

7

1-07

i March '

i

j 1-49

2-43

2-12

093

1-74

11

1-30

i April '

7-94

2-93

6-01

9-46

6"58

15

2-96

May

1 4-68

4-93

3-46

7-85

5-34

5-25 :

17

2-17

June i

! 11-60

20-02

11-44

21-67

15-64

16-07

25

5-10

July ^

1 9-27

1819

10-52

34-05

8-69

16-14

25

3-77

August '

1 5-53

10-54

8-79

11-04

9-54

9-09

24

1-50

September ...*

! 13-52

14-38

16-99

9-17

24-29

15-67

25

5-85

1 October

8-57

17-92

16-62

9-87

12-85

13-16

24

3-14

1 November

4*56

9-17

6-85

8-56

1042

7-91

20

2-06

December 1

6-55

6-37

2-48

2-55

3-58

4-31

15

1-42

Sums

114-73

94-69

j

123-27

102-73

!

103-00

221

Diffeeence between Mean Maximum Temperatuee in the Sun
AND Mean Maximum Tempeeatuee in the Shade.

1871.

1872.

Mean.

January

0

O

27-4

1 o
27-4

February

31-1

31-1

March

27-6

27-6

April

28-8

28-8

May

31-6

25-4

28-5

June

18-6.

15-6

17-1

Jnly

17-0

15-7

16-3

August

25-6

14-8

20-2

September . . .

24-4

14-5

19-4

October

29-2

21-8

25-5

November ...

24-6

30-9

27-7

December

30-0

27-6

1

28-8

In a letter dated 22nd June, 1873, Mr. Heelis says, “ The
monsoon came in this year some 10 days before its usual
time, a very unusual circumstance, as in the six previous
years I have never known it to vary more than 2 days
before or after the 1st of June. This year it burst on the ^
23rd of May, as far as I could determine, but so mildly
that for some weeks I doubted its being really the monsoon.
Since this date we have not had a single day without rain.’'

80

Erratum.- — In the abstract of Dr. Ransome’s paper On
the Graphical Representation of the Movements of the
Chest- wall in Respiration/’ given in the last number of the
Proceedings, the references to three of the figures are erro-
neous. The figure representing the act of coughing is No.
6, that of sneezing No. 7, and the motion of the dead rib is
given in fig. 5,

81

Ordinary Meeting, February lOtb, 1874.

K Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., Vice-President, in the

Chair.

“The Northern Range of the Basques,” by W. Boyd
Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A.

The northern extension of the Basque race from their
present boundary, in ancient times, is demonstrated by the
convergent testimony of history, ethnology, and the re-
searches into caves and tombs.

The Evidence of History as to the Peoioles of Gaul
and Spain.

In the Iberian peninsula the Basque populations (Yas-
cones) of the west are defined from the Celtic of the east by
the Celtiberi inhabiting modern Castille. In Gaul the pro-
vince of Aquitania extended as far north, in Caesar’s time, as
the river Garonne, constituting the modern Gascony, to which
was added, in the days of Augustus, the district between
that river and the Loire, a change of frontier that was pro-
bably due to the predominence of Basque blood in a mixed
race in that area similar to the Celtiberi of Castille. The
Aquitani were surrounded on every side, except the south,
by the Celtae, extending as far north as the Seine, as far to
the east as Switzerland and the plains of Lombardy, and
southwards, through the valley of the Rhone and the region
of the Volscse, over the Eastern Pyrenees into Spain. The
district round the Phocsean colony of Marseilles was inhabi-
ted by Ligurian tribes, who held the region between the
river Po and the Gulf of Genoa, as far as the western boun-
PEOCEEDiNas.— Lit. & Phil. Society.— Yol. XIII.— No. 8— Session 1873-4.

82

daiy of Etruria, and who probably extended to the west
along the coast of Southern Gaul as far as the Pyrenees.
They were distinguished from the Celts©, not merely by their
manners and customs, but by their small stature and dark
hair and eyes, and are stated by Pliny and Strabo to have
inhabited Spain. They have also left marks of their pre-
sence in Central Gaul in the name of the Loire (Ligur), and
possibly in Britain in the obscure name of the Lloegrians.
Their stature and swarthy complexion, as well as the ancient
geographical position conterminous with the Iberic popu-
lation of Gaul and Spain, confirm this conclusion. The
non- Ary an and probably Basque population of Gaul was
therefore cut into two portions by a broad band of Celts,
which crosses the Eastern Pyrenees, and marks the route
by which the Iberian peninsula was invaded.

The ancient population of Sardinia is stated by Pausanias
to be of Liby an extraction, and to bear a strong resemblance
to the Iberians in physique and in habits of life, while that
of Corsica is described by Seneca as Ligurian and Iberian.
The ancient Libyans are represented at the present day by
the Berber and Kabyle tribes which are, if not identical
with, at all events cognate with the Basques. We may
therefore infer that these two islands were formerly occupied
by this non-Aryan race, as well as the adjacent continents
of Northern Africa and Southern Europe.

The Basque Population the Oldest.

The relative antiquity of these two races in Europe may
be arrived at by this distribution. The Basques, or Ligu-
rians, are the oldest inhabitants, in their respective districts,
known to the historian ; while the Celts appear as invaders,
pressing southwards and westwards on the populations
already in possession, flooding over the Alps, and, under
Brennus, sacking Borne, and by their union with the van-
quished in Spain constituting the Celtiberi. We may

83

therefore be tolerably certain that the Basques held France
and Spain before the invasion of the Celts, and that the
non- Aryan peoples were cut asunder, and certain parts of
them left — Ligurians, Sikani, and in part Sardinians and
Corsicans — as ethnological islands, marking, so to speak
an ancient Basque non- Aryan continent which had been
submerged by the Celtic populations advancing steadily
westwards.

At the time of the Eoman conquest of Gaul, the Belgse
were pressing on the Celts just as the latter pressed the
Basques, the Seine and the Marne forming their southern
boundary, and in their turn being pushed to the east by the
advance of the Germans in the Rhine provinces. Thus we
have the oldest population, or Basque, invaded by the Celts,
the Celts by the Belgse, and these again by the Germans ;
their relative positions stamping their relative antiquity in
Europe.

The Population of Britain.

The Celtic and Belgic invasion of Gaul repeated itself, as
might be expected, in Britain. Just as the Celts pushed
back the Iberian population of Gaul as far south as Aqui-
tania, and swept round it into Spain, so they crossed over
the Channel and overran the greater portion of Britain,
until the Silures, identified by Tacitus with the Iberians,
Avere left only in those fastnesses that formed subsequently
a bulwark for the Brit- Welsh against the English invaders.
Aud just as the Belgse pressed on the rear of the Celts as
far as the Seine, so they followed them into Britain, and
took possession of the ‘‘Pars Maritima,’' or southern coun-
ties. The unsettled condition of the country at the time of
Csesar’s invasion was, probably, due to the struggle then
going on between the Celts and Belg?e.

84

Basque Element in q)resent British and French
Populations.

The Basque non- Aryan blood is still to be traced in the
dark-haired, black-eyed, small, oval-featured peoples in our
own country in the region of the Sflures, where the hills
have afforded shelter to the Basque populations from the
invaders. The small swarthy Welshman of Denbighshire
is in every respect, except dress and language, identical
with the Basque peasant of the Western Pyrenees, at
Bagneres de Bigorre.

The small dark-haired people of Ireland, and especially
those to the west of the Shannon, according to Dr. Thurnam
and Professor Huxley, are also of Iberian derivation, and,
singularly enough, there is a legendary connection between
that island and Spain. The human remains from the
chambered tombs as well as the river-beds prove that the
non- Aryan population spread over the whole of Ireland as
well as the whole of Britain. The main mass of the Irish
population is undoubtedly Celtic, crossed with Danish,
Norse, and English blood.

The Basque element in the population of France is at the
present time centered in the old province of Aquitaine, in
which the jet-black hair and eyes, and swarthy complexion,
strike the eye of the traveller, now, as in the days of Strabo,
and form a vivid contrast with the brown hair and grey
eyes of the inhabitants of Celtica und Belgica. The map
publislied by Dr. Broca (“ Memoires d’ Anthropologic,” t. I.,
p. 330) shows at a glance the average complexion prevailing
in each department, and the relative number of exemptions
per 1,000 conscripts, on account of their not coming up to
the standard of height (1-56 metre = 5 feet IJ inches), and
it will be seen that the only swarthy people outside the
boundary of Aquitaine, constitute five ethnological islands.
Of these Brittany is by far the largest, probably because its
fastnesses afforded a shelter to the Basques, who were being

85

driven to the south-west. The department of the Meuse
in the north, and those of Tarn and Arriege, in tlie south,
are also sundered from the main body, while those of the
Upper and Lower Alps present us with the descendants of
the ancient Ligurian tribes.

The people with dark-brown hair, considered by Dr.
Broca to be the result of the intermingling of a dark with a
fair race, are scattered about through Aquitaine, and occur
only in two departments in northern Celtica. The fair
people, on the other hand, are massed in northern Celtica
and Belgica.

The relation of complexion to stature may be gathered
from the following table of exemptions per 1,000 for each

department : —

Departements noirs 98*5 to 189

„ gris foiices 64 ,, 97

„ gris clairs 48 -8 63-8

„ blancs 23 ,, 48-5

From this table it is evident that tjie swarthy people are
the smallest and the fair the tallest, the inteimediate shades
being the result of fusion between the two extremes.

.o

The distribution, therefore, of the small swarthy Basque,
and tall fair Celtic and Belgic races in France at the present
time, corresponds essentially with that which we might have
expected from the evidence of history.

When we consider the many invasions of France, and the
oscillations to and fro of peoples, the persistence of the
Basque pop)ulation is very remarkable. It is not a little
strange that the type should be so slightly altered by inter-
marriage with the conquering races.

Researches in Neolithic Caves and Tombs.

The evidence offered by an appeal to history and ethnology,
as to the former northern extent of the Basque peoples, is
confirmed by an examination of the human remains in the

86

Neolithic caves and tombs, scattered throughout the area
under consideration. The discoveries in the caves of Gib-
raltar and of the Spanish Mainland prove that a small, long-
headed race, with delicate features and orthognathic profile
identical with the Basques who buried their dead in the
modern cemetery of Guipuscoa ranged throughout the Penin-
sula, using with indifference caves and chambered tumuli
for their tombs. And on the same grounds their former
range through France, Britain, and Ireland, is demonstrated,
and as far to the east as Belgium. They occupied the whole
of this region in the Neolithic age, in which they were in-
vaded and driven to the westward, and broken up into islands
by the Celts, a fair, tall, broad-headed race. The Basques,
therefore, have lived in Europe since the Neolithic age,
history, ethnology, and researches in caves and tombs, offer-
ing independent and convergent testimony. At the present
time the Basque blood asserts itself in the physique of cer-
tain isolated populations, and within the historic period is
demonstrated to have been more strongly defined, and to
have occupied larger areas, and lastly in the prehistoric
period to have formed one continuous race from the
Pillars of Hercules, as far north as Scotland, and as far to
the east as Belgium.

PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.

February 3rd, 1874.

Alfred Brothers, F.B.A.S., President of the Section,
in the Chair.

“ On the Theory of the Tides,” by David Winstanley, Esq.

According to that theory of the tides which appears to
have met with something like general acceptance, the waters
of the ocean are heaped up on opposite sides of the earth
by those differences of lunar attraction which result from

87

inequalities of distance, “ the waters being pulled from the
earth on the one side and the earth from the waters on the
other.”

In any of those expositions of this theory which have
come under my notice I have failed to observe any mention
of that resistance to the lunar attraction without the consider-
ation of which it appears to me that the theory in question
must be regarded as incomplete. One of the known results
of the mutual gravitation of the earth and moon is found
in the instance of the former body in an oscillation of its
major portion on both sides of a given line, viz. the orbital
path pursued by the centre of gravity of the binary system.
The oscillation in question is certainly resisted by the
tendency of the earth’s particles to continue their motion in
right lines, and the amount of this resistance clearly in-
creases with the extent or violence of the oscillation, which
attains its maximum at that portion of the earth’s surface
most remote from the moon, and sinks to zero at the com-
mon centre of gravity of the system. Without these differ-
ences of resistance to the forced oscillation caused by the
lunar influence, it seems to me the differences of lunar attrac-
tion would fail to produce the effects ascribed thereto.

If this be so, there can be no doubt as to the desirability
of making mention in any exposition of the tidal theory
both of the resistance I have mentioned and its differences
in extent, and the more especially as we know on the high-
est modern astronomical authority that '‘strange difficulties”
are experienced by many of those who attempt from the
expositions now in use to gain a knowledge of the modus
operandi of the tides. The tendency to continued recti-
linear movement to which I have alluded as a resistance to
oscillation is however well known by the name of “ cen-
trifugal force,” which term, or any of its modern substitutes,
may, it seems to me, be conveniently employed in consider-
ing the theory of the tides.

88

If we discard for the time all considerations of how it has
come to be so, and regard only the fact that the earth and
moon together constitute a system which revolves upon its
common centre of gravity, I am of opinion that we shall
have unmixed with distracting matter all the facts that are
necessary for theorising on the production of the lunar tides.
It will be clear that the revolution in question will be
accompanied by the development of centrifugal force, and
the whole point to which attention is now directed is whe-
ther or no the said centrifugal force contributes in any
material manner to the phenomena of the tides. It is need-
less to complicate the matter by any attempt to reduce the
value of this centrifugal force to an expression of the motion
or pressure of a number of tons or pounds. We know that
at the earth’s centre it is just sufficient to overcome that
tendency to juncture which is the simple resultant of the
gravitation subsisting between the earth and moon. Were
it greater, the interval of separation would increase ; whilst
were it less, it would diminish. The constancy of this
intervaF proves the equality at the earth’s centre at any
rate of the attraction which perturbs and the centrifugal
force which offers resistance to perturbation.

For convenience of expression we may apply the term
“ lunar unit” to indicate the quantity of either of the forces
we have named. It will at once be evident that on the
side of the earth nearest the moon there will be experienced
the effect of more than a lunar unit of attraction and less
than a lunar unit of resistance. Indeed the centrifugal
force which at the further side of the earth is opposed to
the attraction of the moon here augments the effects pro-
duced thereby, so that we have a tide-producing force equal
to the sum of the forces in question. On the other side of
the earth, however, we have less than a lunar unit of attrac-
tion, and more than a lunar unit—in fact more than two lunar
* The writer is not unaware of the ellipticitj of the moon’s orbit.

89

units of resistance ; so that we have there a tide-producing
force due to the resistance alone and equal in amount to
the difference between that resistance and the amount of
the lunar attraction.

A very little reflection will suffice to show that in what-
ever part of the earth’s figure the common centre of gravity
of the system may be found, the tide-producing energy result-
ing from the forces here named will be substantially the
same on both sides of the earth. For instance, if we regard
the figures representing the earth’s diameter, the moon’s
distance, and the mass of both bodies, as being correctly
given in the tenth edition of Herschel’s “Outlines,” we
shall find the centre of gravity of the system to be 1249
miles below the surface of the earth. Here we have no
centrifugal force at all, but at a distance beyond of 2713
miles (i.e. at the centre of the earth) we have one lunar unit
and no more. Under the moon, where the attraction is
1’034 lunar units, the augmenting centrifugal force is ’46 of
a lunar unit, and the tide-producing force equal to the
amount of their sum, or 1'494 times the same standard of
measure. On the further side of the earth, however, the
centrifugal force equals 2 “46 times the amount experienced
at the centre, whilst the attraction of the moon at the same
place is “968 of that amount. The difference of these forces
or 1“492 lunar units indicates the comparative amount of
force available for raising the external terrestrial tide.

“ Rainfall at Old Trafford, Manchester, in the year 1873,”
by G. V. Yernon, F.RA.S., F.M.S.

The rainfall of 1873 was 5“950 inches below the average
of the last 80 years, and no less than 21*877 inches below
the great fall of 1872.

The total fall in 1873 was 29*815 inches, and fell upon
198 days; although the fall was below the average it fell
upon an unusual number of days, and was 6 days above the
average of the last twelve years.

90

January had a rainfall in excess of the average; Febi’uary,
March, April, and May had a fall below the average ; J une,
July, and August were all in excess, and this joined to very
little hot weather, excepting a short period in July, spoiled
the prospects of the harvest; September had a fall below the
average, October was above ; November and December had
a rainfall greatly below the average of the season, December
especially, and excepting April was the driest month of the
year.

The rainfall for the first quarter of the year was 1*628
inches below the average; for the second quarter, 1’914
inches below the average; for the third quarter, 0*987 inches
above the average; whilst for the fourth quarter it was
3*445 inches below the average.

This distribution of the rainfall was unfortunate as the
heaviest amounts fell at the time when the crops generally
should have been ready for cutting : fortunately the weather
suited the hay crop, which was generally a very good one,
and there was plenty of after-grass.

Eain Grange 3 feet above the ground and 106 feet above sea level.

Quarterly

Periods.

1873.

Fall

in

Inches.

Average
of 80
Years.

Differ-

ence.

No. of
Days
Rain
fell in
1873.

Quarterly Periods.

1872.

1873.

80 Years.

1873.

Differ’nce

ins.

ins.

ins.

i

ins.

ins.

ins.

(

January. .

3-136

2-544

4-0-592

21

56

48^

February.

0-666

2-388

—1-722

1 11

S 7-220

5-592

—1-628

(

March ....

1-790

2-288

—0-498

16

)

c

April

0-516

2-045

—1-529

12

)

50

43]

May

1-910

2-297

—0-387

17

[ 7-207

5-393

—1-914

(

June ......

2-967

2-865

4-0-102

14

3

(

July

4-649

3-572

-f-1-077

20

h

59

64]

August . . .

4-199

3-509

4-0-690

27

[ 10-388

11-325

+0-937

(

Septemb’r

2-477

3-307

-0-830

17

)

r

October...

4-441

3-899

4-0-542

20

h

63

43 ]

November

2-283

3-765

-1-482

13

[ 10-950

7*505

—3-445

(

December

0-781

3-286

— 2-505

10

228 j

198

29-815

35-765

—5-950

198

1

35-765

29-815

—5-950

t

91

Ordinary Meeting, February 24th, 1874.

Rev. William Gaskell, M.A., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. A. Beothers, F.R.A.S., referring to a statement made
by Mr. Dawkins, F.R.S., at the last meeting, that the
sinking of a deep well recently at Sheerness had lowered
the water in a well at Southend, read the following extract
of a letter dated February 21st, 1874, which he had
received from Mr. Joseph Beard, of Southend : ■ —

“ I have seen the agent of our water works and gleaned
what particulars I could. Nothing has occured of recent
date affecting our water at Southend ; but about fifty years
ago a well was sunk in the dockyard at Sheerness which by
excessive pumping did drain all the deep wells at Southend.
Our well at the water works was sunk fourteen years ago.
It is 905 feet deep, dug to 885 feet, the rest a boring. The
last 800 feet is through chalk, above that a layer of green
sand. The water is particularly soft, and in washing you
can’t distinguish it from rain water. Nothing from Sheer-
ness has disturbed this well since it was sunk, but the com-
pany had an accident at their beginning which may have
given rise to what you have heard. They sank their first
well 400 feet, and all at once broke into water that rose 200
feet. They tried to pump it out, but could not do so, and
at last the bottom gave way and their pumping apparatus
slipped down, where it remains unrecoverable at the present
moment. They then started their labour again at a distance
of 40 feet, but had great trouble with the quicksand through
which they had to get to the chalk.”

Mr. E. W. Bineey, F.R.S., F.G.S., stated that of late years
much had been said and written on the advantages of
drainage in improving the sanitary condition of towns.
PROCEEDiKas. — Lit, & Phil. Society. — Tol. XTIT.— IS'o. 9— Sesbiox 1873-4.

92

Now this, like many other good things, can be carried
too far, especially in districts situate on a sandy soil and
where the owners of crowded graveyards are permitted
to bury corpses near to the public highway, a proceeding
occasionally yet allowed by sanitary authorities. Some
years since a main sewer was excavated on the Cheetham
Hill Koad. From the Workhouse to Temple it was made
in strong brick clay or “till,” but when it reached the
latter place it came into a mass of quicksand and drained
St. Luke’s churchyard and took the water down to Man-
chester. The sewer was then continued in the sand all the
way to the Bird in the Hand public house, where it stopped.
Within the last month a main drain has been made from
the turnpike road up Eobin Hood Street so as to drain the
water from part of St. Mark’s churchyard. This drain runs
into a new main sewer which joins the old one near the
Bird in the Hand, and thus the drainage of part of St.
Mark’s churchyard is made to join that of St. Luke’s, and
both go down to Manchester. No doubt sand possesses a
great filtering power, and will in some measure purify
the water drained from churchyards; but water derived
from such sources ought to be examined carefully before it
is conveyed even into sewers connected with dwelling-
houses. Probably our officers of health may have done so,
and think that there is no harm in water flowing from
graveyards, but as yet, so far as known to me, no informa-
tion has been given to the public on this subject. The
making of sewers in sandy soils near to burying grounds is
a matter that deserves the attention of sanitary officers
more than it has done up to this time.

Burial grounds cannot well be removed when once estab-
lished, but their owners can be prevented from burying
close to roads and streets having sewers under them, and
caution can be used in making new burial grounds near to
roads and sewers. When burial grounds adjoin churches.

93

wliatever the consequences, some people will build houses
near them, preferring the contiguity of the church to any
fear of the evils of a crowded cemetery.

“ On the Effect of Acid on the Interior of Iron Wire,” by
Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A.

It will be remembered that at a previous meeting of this
Society Mr. Johnson exhibited some iron and steel wire in
which he had observed some very singular effects produced
by the action of sulphuric acid. In the first place the
nature of the wire was clianged in a mai’ked manner, for
although it was soft charcoal wire it had become short and
brittle; the weight of the wire was increased; and what
was the most remarkable effect of all was that when the
wire was broken and the face of the fracture wetted with
the mouth it frothed up as if the water acted as a powerful
acid. These effects, however, all passed off if the wire were
allowed to remain exposed to the air for some days, and if
it were warmed before the fire thay passed off in a few
hours.

By Mr. Johnson’s permission I took possession of one of
these pieces of wire and subjected it to a farther examina-
tion, and from the result of that examination I was led to
what appears to me to be a complete explanation of the
phenomena.

I observed that when I broke a short piece from the end
of the wire the two faces of the fracture behaved very dif-
ferently — that on the long piece frothed when wetted and
continued to do so for some seconds, while* that on the short
piece would hardly show any signs of froth at all. This
seemed to imply that the gas whicli caused the froth came
from a considerable depth below the surface of the wire,
and was not generated on the freshly exposed face. This
view was confirmed when on substituting oil for water I
found the froth just the same.

94

These observations led me to conclude that the effect was
due to hydrogen, and not to acid as Mr, Johnson appeared
to think, having entered into combination with the iron
during its immersion in the acid, which hydrogen gradually
passed off when the iron was exposed.

It was obvious however that this conclusion was capable
of being further tested. It was clearly possible to ascer-
tain whether or not the gas was hydrogen ; and whether
hydrogen penetrated iron when under the action of acid.
With a view to do this I made the following experiments.

First, however, I would mention that after 24 hours I
examined what remained of the wire, when I found that all
appearance of frothing had vanished and the wire had reco-
vered its ductility, so much so that it would now bend
backwards and forwards two or three times without break-
ing, whereas on the previous evening a single bend had
sufficed to break it.

I then obtained a piece of wrought iron gas pipe 6 inches
long and | inch external diameter, and rather more than
-iV of an inch thick; I had this cleaned in a lathe both
inside and outside ; over one end I soldered a piece of cop-
per so as to stop it, and the other I connected with a piece
of glass tube by means of indiarubber tube, I then filled
both the glass and iron tubes with olive oil and immersed
the iron tube in diluted sulphuric acid which had been
mixed for some time and was cold. Under this arrange-
ment any hydrogen which came from the inside of the glass
tube must have passed through the iron.

After the iron had been in the acid about 5 minutes
small bubbles began to pass up the glass tube. These were
caught at the top and were subsequently burnt and proved
to be hydrogen. At first, however, they came off but very
slowly, and it was several hours before I had collected enough
to burn. With a view to increase the speed I changed the
acid several times without much effect until I happened to

95

use some acid which had only just been diluted and was
warm ; then the gas came off twenty or thirty times as fast
as it had previously done. I then put a lamp under the
bath and measured the rate at which the gas came off, and
I found that when the acid was on the point of boiling as
much hydrogen was given off in 5 seconds as had previously
come off in 10 minutes, and the rate was maintained in both
cases for several hours.

After havino’ been in acid for some time the tube was

O

taken out, well washed with cold water and soap so as to
remove all trace of the acid ; it was then plunged into a
bath of hot water, upon which gas came off so rapidly from
both the outside and inside of the tube as to give the
appearance of the action of strong acid. This action lasted
for some time, but gradually diminished. It could be
stopped at any time by the substitution of cold water in
place of the hot, and it was i*enewed again after several
hours by again putting the tube in hot water. The volume
of hydrogen which was thus given off by the tube after it
had been taken out of hot acid was about equal to the vo-
lume of the iron.

At the time I made These experiments I was not aware
that there had been any previous experiments on the sub-
ject; but I subsequently found, on referring to Watt's
Dictionary of Chemistry, that Cailletet had in 1868 disco-
vered that hydrogen would pass into an iron vessel immersed
iu sulphuric acid. See Comp. rend. Ixvi, 847.

The facts thus established appear to afford a complete
explanation of the effects observed by Mr. Johnson.

In the first place, with regard to the temporary character
of the effect, it appears that hydrogen leaves the iron slowly
even at ordinary temperatures — so much so that after two
or three days’ exposure I found no hydrogen given off when
the tube was immersed in hot water. Witli regard to the
effect of warming the wire — at the temperature of boiling

96

the hydrogen passed off 120 times as fast as at the tempera-
ture of 60°. Also when the saturated iron was plunged into
warm water the gas passed off as if the iron had been
plunged into strong acid ; so that we can easily understand
how the hydrogen would pass off from the wire quickly
when warm, although it would take long to do so at the
ordinary temperatures. With regard to the frothing of the
wure when broken and wetted — this was not due, as at first
sight it appeared to be, simply to the exposure of the inte-
rior of the wire, but was due to warmth caused in the wire
by the act of breaking. This was proved by the fact that
the froth appeared on the sides of the wire in the imme-
diate neighbourhood of the fracture, when these were
wetted, as well as the end ; and by simply bending the wire
it could be made to froth at the point where it was bent.

As to the effect on the nature and strength of the iron I
cannot add anything to what Mr. Johnson has already
observed. The question, however, appears to be one of very
considerable importance, both philosophically and in con-
nection with the use of iron in the construction of ships
and boilers. If, as is probable, the saturation of iron with
hydrogen takes place whenever oxidation goes on in water,
then the iron of boilers and ships may at times be changed
in character and rendered brittle in the same manner as
Mr. Johnson’s wire, and this, whether it can be prevented
or not, is at least an important point to know, and would
repay a further investigation of the subject.

Dr. Eansome, M.A., demonstrated the movements of the
chest in respiration, showing the remarkable mobility of its
several parts, and the consequent facility with which its
cavity can be infiated.

Its motions are conditioned by the shape and mode of
articulation and degree of movement of the bones composing
it.

97

The motions of points on its anterior wall on either side
of the breast bone may take place in an upward, forward,
and lateral direction, and a stethometer has been con-
structed by means of which these movements may be
measured during any one act of breathing, in three planes
at right angles to one another.

From the records obtained with this instrument it has
been observed that the ratio of the forward to the upward
and outward movements varies very greatly, not only in
different individuals but in the same person, and that by
the constraining influence of the will it is possible to cause
at one time the forward and at another the upward motion
to predominate.

The upper ribs have sometimes more forward movement
than the lower ; in childhood its extent is very large, but
with the advance of age the movement in this plane be-
comes comparatively very small. In disease the ratios of
the motions in the three planes are much altered — especially
in the early stages of consumption and in pleurisy after the
effusion has been absorbed.

By means of an instrument for ascertaining the angles
made by the plane of the rib-circuits with the vertical it
may be demonstrated mathematically--

1. That the upward dimensions of the movements of the
anterior ends of the ribs are sufficiently accounted for by the
upward rise of the ribs, their chordlengths being taken as
radii, their vertebral attachments as centres.

2. The outward indications are also probably to be
accounted for by the radial rise of the costal cartilages, the
sternal articulations being taken as centres.

8. But from the above-mentioned observations it is obvious
that the forward thrust of the anterior ends of the ribs can-
not be accounted for by their simple rise from a more to a
less oblique position. From the records of the chest move-
ments it appears that there is no constant relation to be

98

found between the amounts of forward and upward move-
ments, and from the measurement of the angles made by
the ribs with the spine it may be shown, that these angles
are not such as to permit of the degree of forward motion
recorded by the three-plane stethometer.

In some instances the discrepancy between the observed
and the calculated forward movement amounted to O’oin.
for the fifth rib and 0‘7in. for the third rib.

From these facts the conclusion has been drawn that in
forced breathing the extreme effort of expiration causes a
certain degree of inbending of the ribs.

This explanation was further shown to be correct by the
use of a pair of callipers, especially devised for measuring
the diameters of the rib-circuits in the two positions of ex-
treme inspiration and forced expiration. In the case exhi-
bited to the Society the difference between the chordlength
of the right third rib in expiration and inspiration was
proved to be about 0'4in.

Further confirmation of these views was found in the
tracings of the stethograph, shown to the Society four weeks
ago.

Diagrams of these tracings, prepared by the Eev. Brooke
Herford, were exhibited to the meeting.

Mr. Carson desires to correct a statement which appears
in a notice read at the meeting on January I8th last, “On
a Crystalline Sublimed Cupric Chloride,” in which, through
a misunderstanding, he stated that sodium chloride was
volatilized in Deacon’s chlorine process when sodium sul-
phate is added to the copper salt. He since has learnt from
Mr. Deacon that no such volatilization of sodium chloride
has been observed.

99

Ordinary Meeting, March 10th, 1874.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

The Chaikman said that at a meeting of the Society on
the 9th day of January, 1872, in presenting to the notice of
the members specimens of fossil woods from the lower
coal measures of Lancashire, he stated ^'that from some ex-
amples in his cabinet he was led to believe that Cotta’s
Medullosa elegans was merely the rachis of a fern or a
plant allied to one.” Now, Professor Renault, of Paris, to
whom we owe so much for his researches in fossil botany,
has lately read a memoir before the French Academy on
the 26th January last, which has since been printed in the
Comptes Rendu s, that completely confirms this opinion.

The genus Medullosa was first given by Professor Cotta
to some specimens of fossil plants found at Chemnitz. M.
Brongniart changed the genus into Myeloxylon, and M.
Renault has now altered it into Myelopteris and made two
species, M. radiata and 31. Landriotti.

The fossil is found in great abundance in the calcareous
nodules of the Upper Brooksbottom coal in Lancashire, and
varies in size from one tenth of an inch to an inch in dia-
meter. In this district no leaves of ferns have been found
attached to it, but in the strata adjoining the seam of coal
where the nodules occur specimens of Neuropteris, with
other ferns, have been met with. Professor Renault states
that M. Grand’ Eury refers the petioles of Myelopteris to
Neuropterides, which comprehend the Neuropteris, the
Odontopteris, &c. Side by side in the same nodules the
most common plant found with Myelopteris is Galamoden-
dron commune and the small cone which from similarity or
structure has been supposed by me to be the fructification of
that plant.

Peoceedings. — Lit. &Phil. Society. — Yol. XIII. — Xo. 10~Sessioi^ 1873-4.

100

Professor Renault has been so fortunate as to have ob-
tained a fine collection of specimens in a most perfect state
of preservation from Autun, and they could scarcely have
fallen into better hands. After describing them at length
he comes to the following conclusion :

'' D’apres ce qui precede, il est done a pen pres certain que
ces pdtioles de Myelopteris sont des petioles de Fougeres,
ay ant eu le mode de croissance et le port actuel de nos
Angiopteris, dont ils diff^raient poiirtant a certains dgards,
et Ton pent les considdrer comme ayant formd un genre
d une grande importance a Tepoque carbonifere, mais actu-
ellement compldtement dteint, que Ton doit ranger dans la
famille de Marat tiees.”

‘'Further Observations and Experiments on the Influence
of Acids on Iron and Steel,” by William H. Johnson, B.Sc.

At the last meeting of the Society Professor Reynolds
in an interesting paper " On the Effect of Acid on the Inte-
rior of Iron Wire,” appears to think that I did not attribute
to hydrogen any portion of the remarkable change produced
in iron and steel by immersion in acid. That immersion in
acid is the primary cause no one, I think, will dispute ; but
that hydrogen plays an important part in producing these
changes and is the cause of the bubbles, the following para-
graph from a paper I read before the Society, March 4th,
1878, will prove :

"The experiments of Professor Graham in 1867, and
more recently those of Mr. Parry, show that hydrogen, car-
bonic oxide and carbonic acid, and nitrogen, are evolved
from wrought iron, cast iron, and steel, when heated in
vacuo. Therefore it seems probable that a part of the
hydrogen produced by the action of the acid on the iron
may be absorbed by the iron, its nascent state facilitating
this. And when the iron is heated by the effort of breaking
it, the gas may bubble up through the moisture on the
fracture,”

101

The supposition that the absorption of hydrogen is the
sole cause of the change in the breaking strain, diminution
in toughness, etc,, attendant on the immersion of iron in
hydrochloric or sulphuric acids, and that there is no ab-
sorption of these acids into the interior of the iron, does not
account for the following phenomena : —

1. — The gain in weight of a piece of iron by immersion
in hydrochloric acid is less than by immersion, in sulphuric
acid, as is proved by experiments described in my first
paper on this subject.

2. — -Iron after immersion in hydrochloric acid sooner
regains its original state than after immersion in sulphuric
acid.

3. — -If acid iron, i.e., iron which has been immersed in
hydrochloric or sulphuric acids, be steeped in an alkaline
solution it sooner regains its original state than with
immersion in water alone.

4. — Take two pieces of iron alike in size and quality, and
immerse one in hydrochloric acid amd the other in sulphuric
acid for some hours, then wash them well in water and dry
them gently, and leave them in a temperate room for some
hours more. At the end of that time it will be invariably
found — that the piece which was in hydrochloric acid is
covered with a dark-brown red oxide of iron, while the
piece which was in sulphuric acid will be only slightly
rusted.

5. — Litmus paper when applied to the moistened fracture
of acid iron is slightly reddened.

All the above phenomena have been observed so often
and so carefully as to leave no doubt of their invariable
recurrence if the conditions of experiment be only properly
observed.

It seems to me the only satisfactory way of explaining
all the phenomena is to suppose that when a piece of iron
is immersed in acid two actions go on, viz. ; An absorption

102

of the nascent hydrogen into the interior of the iron, which
hydrogen may subsequently be given off by gentle heat or
immersion in a liquid, etc. Secondly, an absorption of the
acid itself, possibly in a very concentrated form by the
interstices between the fibres or crystals of the metal.

That it is possible for a liquid to pass into the interior of
a piece of iron is I think proved by the sweating of the
cylinders of hydraulic presses, and also the known diffusion
of gases through iron. The structure of iron as revealed by
the microscope and the changes it undergoes during manu-
facture, by which a spongy mass is by hammering and
rolling squeezed together, all go to prove that there are
numerous cavities in iron and steel.

It will however be said, the acid must act on the walls of
the cavity and form a salt of iron with liberation of hydro-
gen. This may go on to a small extent, but in opposition
to this view we may bring the experiments of Prof. Bequerel
on solutions separated by a cracked tube (Comptes Rendus,
LXXVI), where he shows that no precipitate is formed on
placing a cracked tube filled with nitrate of lead in a solu-
tion of potassium sulphate within the crack, thus making it
probable that chemical interchanges do not take place in
very minute spaces.

By this theory we may easily explain the decrease in
toughness after immersion in acid. For toughness implies
a certain ease of mobility of the particles. When a piece of iron
is bent the particles of one side are compressed, thus dimi-
nishing the minute cavities between the fibres, while those
of the other side are stretched, and the minute cavities
elongated. Now if we fill these cavities with a liquid
this mobility of the particles is prevented, for the cavities
cannot now be diminished in size and the compression of
the one side cannot now take place, consequently the piece
tears or breaks off just like a piece of frozen rope.

It will also explain the acid reaction of the moistened

103

fracture, and furthur, as hydrochloric acid is much more
volatile and of less specific gravity than sulphuric acid, it is
only natural to expect that the effect of immersion in hydro ■
chloric acid will pass off more rapidly than of immersion in
sulphuric. This experience fully confirms.

Influence of Immersion in Add on the Tensile Strain
and Elongation.

With a view of determining these interesting points a
number of experiments were made in the following way,
viz. : Small coils of iron wire were immersed in hydrochloric
and sulphuric acids for different lengths of time, and then
carefully tested for tensile strain in a very accurate machine,
so constructed that the elongation of the wire while under
strain could at any moment be ascertained. The weights
could also be added quickly and without imparting any
shock to the wires, points to which great importance should
always be attached in experiments of this kind, as a slight
shock or jar on the addition of a weight will often cause
the rupture of a piece which otherwise would have stood a
much higher strain. The length of the pieces tested was in
all the experiments 10 inches between the dies of the
machine, and their temperature at the time of experiment
about 16° C.

’ After the ultimate elongation and breaking weight had
been ascertained with this machine, the coils were placed
on warm plates or in hot chambers for some hours and sub-
sequently tested in the same way.

Experiments, the results of which are shown in tables
A, B, G, were made in this way, and lead us to the follow-
ing conclusions :

1st. That immersion in hydrochloric acid for 1 hour
diminishes the

Tensile strain of annealed iron 29 Tibs, per sq. inch of section.

5, unannealed iron 2,3891bs. „ ??

104

and diminishes the

Ultimate elongation of annealed iron 0'8 per cent.

„ unannealed iron 0-83 „

2nd. That immersion in hydrochloric acid for 6 hours
diminishes the

Tensile strain of annealed mild steel 2,6631bs. per sq. in. of section,
and increases the

Ultimate elongation of annealed mild steel 4 ’7 per cent.

When first I discovered that a decrease of ultimate elon-
gation under strain was the result of immersion of steel in
acid, I thought there must be some experimental error, and
accordingly carefully selected 3 coils, all of uniform temper,
and made 3 tests from each coil, the results of which are
given in detail in table C. The singular regularity of these
tests must be said to remove all doubt as to the truth of
the results of the first experiment.

It then occurred to me that possibly lorolonged immer-
sion in acid might so decrease the breaking strain that the
wire would not recover its original strength. For this pur-
pose I carefully tested the elongation and breaking strain of
the wire before immersion in acid and again after heating for
5 days on a hot plate. The results of these experiments as
given in tables D and E confirm this view, showing that
there is

1st. A permanent decrease in breaking strain after pro-
longed immersion in

Sulphuric acid of 12,2051b8. per sq, inch of section.

Hydrochloric „ 31,2751bs. „ „

Both these results are doubtless too high as the surface of
the wire was pitted by the acid, consequently its actual sec-
tional area was less than that calculated from the diameter
as measured.

2nd. A permanent increase in the elongation after pro-
longed immersion in

Sulphuric acid of 1 '7 per cent.

Hydrochloric ,, 2 -17 „

Having; examined the effect of acid on annealed steel it
was next thought advisable to try the effect on unannealed.
This was done with results as in table F, showing that the

lOo

immediate effect of immersion in acid was to

Decrease the tensile strain of unannealed steel 4,0451bs. per
square inch of section.

And increase the ultimate elongation of „ ,, D14 per cent.

The change is thus similar to that which takes place in
annealed steel as shown in table C. It is, however,
interesting to observe that 12 hours at a temperature of
40° — 100° C. not only restores but actually increases its
original breaking strain and elongation, while a still more
prolonged submersion of 7 days to the same temperature
still further increases them. These last experiments also
show that some considerable time is required to overcome
the change produced by the acid.

In conclusion I may say that the numerical results
arrived at, though based on experiments conducted with
considerable care, must not be taken as more than approxi-
mations to the truth, for experimental errors and variations
arising from the imperfect homogeneity of structure of all
iron falsify the results and are only lost by multiplying
experiments almost indefinitely.

Table A.

Effect of Hydkochlobic Acid on Annealed Ikon Wire.

j

Diametr^

Ultim’te

Breaking j

Breaking

Increase!

m ^

.2'5-El

1 Description.

1

inches.

Elonga-

tion.

Increase in
ditto.

strain.

strain per
sq. inch of
section.

in

ditto.

o =5

a

1 Annealed Iron

1 i

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

j Wire immersed !
! in acid 1 hour... ^

•150"

22-4°/„

918-4

51,890

9

Same piece as"^
above after be- |
ing 48 hrs. on a |
hot plate of a j

•150"

22-3°/„

-0-1%

922-8

52,140

250

9

temperature of
40°-200° C J

Annealed Iron "
Wire immersed
in acid 1 hour... ,

164"

18-6°/„

1105-3

52,389

3

Same piece as"]

1

above being 12
lu’s. on a hot
plate of a tem-

1

•164"

20-3“/o

1112-6

52,733

344

3

perature of 40°
-200° C

1

1

Average decrease in B. strain after immersion in Acid zr 297 Ihs. per sq. in.
„ „ ultimate elongation „ „ — 0-8°/q

106

Table B.

Effect of Hydeochloeic Acid on Unannealed Ieon Wiee.

Description.

Diam-

eter,

inches.

Ulti-

mate

Elonga-

tion.

Increase

in

ditto.

!

Breaking

strain.

Breaking
strain per
sq. inch of
section.

Increase

in

ditto.

No. of tests
of wh. tlie
mean is given

Unanneal’diron '

lbs.

lbs.

wire immersed !
in acid 1 hour.. ^

•136"

S2-0°/o

1193

82.150

3

Same piece as"]
above after be-
ing 12 hours in

1

•136"

2-83»/„

0-83°/„

1226-6

84,539

2,389

3

hot chamber of

i

tern. 40°-200°C^

1

!

Dec. in B. strain after immersion in acid=2,3891bs. per sq. in. or abt. 3°/^,
„ elongation „ „ =:0-83°/o

Table 0.

Effect of Hydeochloeic Acid on Annealed Mild Steel
(about *22°/o Caebon),

Number

.0^

I piece.

Diameter,

inches.

Elongation
after immer-
sion in Hydcl.
for 6 hours.

i Elongation
after being
heated 12 hrs.
to a tern, of
100 C.

B. strain after
immersion in
Hycl. for 6 hrs.

B. strain after
being heated
12 hours to a
tern, of 100 C.

_

c

•135"

197o

167o

828 lbs.

840 lbs.

1

•135"

19 „

17 „

824 „

836 „

(

•135"

20 „

16 „

836 „

860 „

c

•135"

20 „

14 „

730 „

780 „

2 ^

•135"

20 „

13 „

730 „

754 „

(

•135"

20 „

16 „

770 „

820 „

•135"

21 „

16 „

728 „

770 „

i 3 ]

•135"

20 „

17 „

742 „

800 „

! (

•135"

22 „

14 „

736 „

794 „

Average.

•135"

20-1 »/„

15-4°/,

769-3 lbs.

.'j38001bs.pr.sq.in.

806 lbs.

563631bs.pr.sq.in.

Decrease in B. strain after immersion = 2,563 lbs. or 4‘56°/o
Increase in elongation „ 4’7°/o

107

Table D.

Comparative Effect of Sulphuric and Hydrochloric Acids on
Unannealed Charcoal Iron Wire.

j

Description. j

Diame-

ter

inch.

1

Ulti-

mate

Elonga-

tion.

Decrease

in

ditto.

Break-

ing

Strain.

1

Break-
ing
Strain
per sq.
inch.

1

De-

crease

in

ditto, j

No.of
tests
ofwh.
result
is a
mean

Charcoal Iron before]
immersion in acid. . . j

•049"

2-3%

lbs. !

1

147-3 i

lbs.

78,200

lbs.

3

Ditto after 12 hours!
in hydrochloric acid|
and subsequent 5|
hours in air at a
temperature of 12°C.

•047"

1-17%

1-13°/^

i

1

; 122-7 i

71,930

6,270

3

Last piece after being]
on hot plate for 5|
days at a tempera-
ture of 40 — 140°C ...

•047"

3-5%

_l-2%

1 i

j !

81-3

i 47,954

30,246

3

Charcoal Iron after 12!
hours in sulphuric
acid and subsequent
5 hours in air at a
temperature of 12°C.

•045"

1-3%

1-0%

i

^ 98-

i

1

' 61,800

16,400

3

Last piece after being
on a hot plate for 5
days at a tempera-
ture of 40 — 140°C . . .

•045"

4-0%

-1-7%

1

i 104-6

i

!

!

j 65,995

12,205

1

i

3

All the above 15 tests were made from one coil.

Permanent decrease in B. strain after prolong’ed

immersion in hydrochloric acid=30,2461bs. per sq. in.
,, sulphuric „ =:12,205 „ „ „

increase in ultimate elongation after pro-
longed immersion in hydrochloric acid=l-2 per cent.

» « „ sulphuric „ =rl*7 „

108

Table E.

Effect of Hydeochloric Acid on Unannealed Charcoal Iron Wire.

Description.

Diame-

ter.

inch.

Ulti-

mate

Elonga-

tion.

Decrease

in

ditto.

Break-

ing

Strain.

Break-
ing
Strain
per sq.
inch.

De-

crease

in

ditto.

No.of
tests
ofwh.
result
is a
mean

Charcoal iron before
immersion in acid...

•046^'

1%

lbs.

134

lbs.

80,240

lbs.

6

Ditto after immersion
in acid for 5 hours...

•045"

1-83%

110-6

68,616

6

Last piece after 7
days on hot plate. . .

•045"

3-00%

—2-0%

94-6

59,700

30,540

6

Charcoal iron after
immersion in hy-
drochloric acid for
hrs., then washed
and di’ied in air 6
hours and again im-
mersed 5hrs. in acid

•045"

1%

86-

53,320

6

Same piece as last
heated for 7 days
on hot plate

•045"

5-3%

— -4-3%

1

90-6

56,172

34,068

6

!

All the above 30 tests were made from one coil.

Average permanent decrease in B. strain after

prolonged immersion=r32,3041bs. per sq. in.
„ ,, increase in elongation „ =3*15 per cent.

Table F.

Effect of Hydrochloric Acid on TJnannealed Mild Steel.

Description,

1

Diame-

ter.

inch.

Ulti-

mate

Elonga-

tion.

1

Decrease

in

ditto.

j

Break-

ing

Strain.

Break-
ing
Strain
per sq.
inch.

De-

crease

in

ditto.

No.of
tests
ofwh.
result
is a
mean

Mild steel before im-
mersion in acid

•0905"|

1 1-66%

lbs.

656-3

lbs.

102024

lbs.

6

Ditto after immersion
in dilute acid 5 hrs,.

•0893"

! 2-8%

—1-14%

613-3

97979

4-4045

6

Last piece heated in
hot room 12 hours
to a temperature of
40~120°C

•0893"

i

1 2-16%

—•5%

671-6

107295

—5271

6

Last piece heated 7
days in same hot
chamber

•0893"

1

!

3-42%

—1*76%

701-

1

111992

+9968

6

1

Decrease of Breaking strain on immersion=r4,0451bs. per sq. in.
Increase of Elongation ,, „ =1*14 per cent.

Each result is the mean of 6 tests on different coils.

109

Extension of the Influence of Acid beyond the part
immersed in the liquid.

Hitherto all the experiments have been made on iron
totally immersed in acid solutions. It appeared to me,
however, that very possibly the changes produced in iron
and steel by immersion in acid might not be confined to the
part in contact with the liquid only, but might also spread
beyond and produce effects similar in quality but less in
degree. With this view the following experiments were
made.

Pieces of carefully selected charcoal iron, mild steel (about
•22 carbon), and hardened and tempered steel wire (about
•65 c:irbon), each about 35 centimetres long and of same
thickness, were partly immersed in 4 tubes 13^5 centimetres
deep, filled respectively with dilute sulphuric, hydrochloric,
and nitric acids, and a saturated solution of common salt in
water. After 72 hours the pieces of wire were pulled out
and examined, when considerable differences became appa-
rent.

1st. The pieces immersed in salt solution were freed from
a very slight coating of rust on them before immersion,
where they were in contact with the liquid, but above the
surface of the liquid the rust remained as before. No
decided alteration in toughness was apparent, and no bubbles
were given off from the moistened fracture of the wire either
of the part in the liquid or that out.

2nd. The pieces in nitric acid were slightly eaten away
on the surface, the hardened steel least and the mild steel
most, and the surface was covered with a fine black dust in
the case of the charcoal and hardened steel. The moistened
fracture did not bubble, however, in any of the pieces either
in the part in or out of the acid, and no alteration in tough-
ness was apparent from that before immersion, except in
that part of the hardened steel covered with acid, where a
possible though undecided diminution seemed to exist.

110

3rd. The surface action of hydrochloric acid was rather
more marked than with nitric acid, and seemed to develope
fibrous markings, while the nitric acid only fretted the surface.

The hardened steel was very little eaten away indeed,
while the mild steel was half eaten away, the action being
irregular and much more marked in some places than in
others. The action on the charcoal was intermediate
between the mild and hardened steel.

On moistening the fracture of the charcoal iron bubbles
were given off in great abundance from the whole surface
of the fracture. On trying the same experiment with the
part adjacent, but not actually immersed in the acid, a few
small bubbles were seen to rise from the surface of the
fracture, even at a distance of iTc.m. from the surface of the
liquid. These bubbles were found to increase in number
and the toughness to decrease as you approached the surface
of the acid. Moreover, when that part of the wire not
immersed in the acid was broken, the bubbles arose almost
exclusively from the centre of the fracture ; while from the
part immersed in the acid they arose from the whole surface,
and took less time to attain their maximum.

No bubbles were visible to the unaided eye on the
moistened fracture of the mild steel or on the hardened
steel. Thad part of the mild steel immersed in the acid
broke when bent like a pipe stem, 1 centimetre above the
surface of the acid it was a little tougher, and at 2 centimetres
distance it was as tough as before immersion, and would
stand bending to and fro many times before breaking.

The hardened steel immersed in acid broke very short,
but a little tougher than the mild steel ; perhaps because it
was not so much eaten away. At 1 centimetre above the
surface of the acid it broke less short than in the acid, and the
toughness seemed to increase with the distance from the
acid until, at 4 centimetres it broke as tough as before
immersion.

Ill

4th. The effect of sulphuric acid was almost the same as
that of hydrochloric, except that its surface action, particu-
larly ill the case of mild steel, was not so marked.

It thus appears that the fibrous nature of the charcoal iron
allows the acid and absorbed hydrogen to pass up through
the interior of the mass for some 17 c.m. above the surface
of the acid, thus decreasing its toughness. The closeness of
the grain of the steel and absence of fibre appear on the
other hand to prevent this action. This difterence in
the behaviour of steel and iron is the more remarkable as
the decrease of toughness consequent on immersion in acid
is much greater with steel than with iron.

Further, it is well worthy of notice that nitric acid, which
does not evolve hydrogen on contact with iron, does not
appear to perceptibly diminish the toughness of iron or steel
immersed in it, nor do bubbles arise from the moistened
fracture of these metals after immersion in it, as they do
with acids which give off hydrogen by their action on iron.

In view of the constantly increasing consumption of mild
steel, and the proposal to introduce it in place of iron for
ship building, the greater corrosive action of acids on mild
steel than on iron has considerable interest. For it would
seem to indicate that mild steel will more rapidly corrode
than iron, and possibly this may render its use in shipbuild-
ing to be attended with greater risk. '

Mr. R D. Darbishire, F.G.S., gave an interesting account
of Dr. Schliemann’s Excavations and Discoveries on the
Site of Troy, and exhibited some selected Photographs from
his collections.

“ Results of certain Magnetic Observations made at
Manchester during the year 1873,” by Professor Balfour
Stewart, LL.D., F.R.S.

These ojDservations were made in a small wooden house,

112

the property of The Owens College, erected in the garden of
Professor Stewart, no iron whatever being used in its
erection.

The latitude of the house is 53° 26' N., and its longitude
2° 13' W. The observations were chiefly made by Mr. F.
Kingdon, assistant at the Physical Laboratory of Owens
College, in the presence of students who were receiving
instruction.

These conditions are not so favourable to minute accuracy
as where the observations made are not combined with
instruction to pupils : nevertheless it is believed that the
following table will exhibit fairly accurate values of the
magnetic dip and horizontal force for the year 1873.

The instruments used had been previously verified at the
Kew Observatory. They consist of a Dip circle by Dover
and a Unifilar by Elliott Bros. The dips are generally the
mean results from two needles.

1873.

p.. Jlonzontai Magnetic

intensity.

January

, 69° 19'-5 ...

February

. 69° U'-6 ...

March

. 69°17'-6 ...

... 3-693

April

. 69°18'-9 ...

May

. 69° 17'-7 ...

... 3-686

June

, 69° 16'-1 ...

... 3-684

July ............

. 69°14'-6 ...

... 3-704

August

. 69°20'-2 ...

... 3-704

September

. 69°23'-8 ...

... 3-715

October

. 69° 16'-8 ...

... 3-661

November

. 69° 14'-4 ...

December

, 69° 18'-3 ...

... 3-686

113

PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.

March 3rd, 1874.

Alfred Brothers, F.K.A.S., President of the Section,
in the Chair.

Results of Rain-Gauge Observations made at Eccles,
near Manchester, during the year 1873,” by Thomas
Mackereth, F.R.A.S., F.M.S.

The rainfall of 1873 was much below the average fall,
and very different in result from that of the previous year.
Whilst the rainfall of 1872 was about 36 ‘7 per cent above
the average fall, the fall of the past year was about 12 per
cent below the average. It is remarkable how little this
deficiency of rainfall was noticed by persons who had no
means of ascertaining the fact. Frequently I was asked
during the year if the rainfall was not gi’eater on the whole
year than usual. This doubtless arose from the fact that
the summer months, the only enjoyable season of the year,
had a considerable excess of rainfall. The excessive fall in
August had a bad effect upon the potato crop in the neigh-
bourhood of Eccles. The least amount of rain fell in the
spring and autumn months, though the greatest deficiency
was in December. The number of days on which rain fell
during the year was in excess of the average ; but this ex-
cess was between April and September; the number of days
of rainfall in the remaining months was below the average.

114

The folloAving table shows the results obtained from a
rain-gauge with a lOin. round receiver placed 8ft. above the
ground.

Quarterly Periods

1873.

Fall

in inches

Average

of

13 'years.

Difference,

Quarterly Periods

1

Average

of

13 years

1873.

Average

of

13 years.

1873.

Days

Days

1

(

January

^ 3-808

2-779

+1-029-)

!

45^

February ..

. 0-551

2-250

—1-699 [

7-481

7-047

(

March

2-688

2-452

+0-236 )

c

April

0-699

2-078

I — I-379S

46

52 1

May

2-052

2-085

—0-033 [

6-911

5-677

(

June

2-926

2-748

+0-178)

c

July

4-324

3-122

+1-202 S

52

671

August

4-148

3-089

+1-059 [

10-296

10-783

(

September..

. 2-311

4-085

—1-774 )

c

October

. 4-587

4-271

+0-316)

57

55 1

November..

. 2-265

3-128

—0-863 [

10-387

7-620

c

December . .

.! 0-768

2-988

—2-220 )

206

219

31-127 35-075

—3-948

In the next table is given the results obtained from rain-
gauges of tAvo different kinds placed in close proximity in
the same plane and 3 feet from the ground. The one has a
loin, round receiver and the other a 5in. square receiver.
The large receiver had an excess over the small one in most
of the months of the year, the exceptions being January,
July, August, and October. The total difference of the fall
in the two gauges was very small, being even less than the
difference in 1872. The total difference in 1872 was over
four tenths of an inch, but in 1873 it Avas barely over three
tenths of an inch. And an average fall in both gauges over
a period of six years shows a difference of only about the
same amount. Thus the two gauges, though of different
characters as regards their receivers, are good checks upon
each other.

115

1873.

Rainfall in
inches in
lOin. round
receiver,
3ft. from
ground.

Rainfall in
inches in
Sin. square
receiver,
3ft. from
ground.

Differences

From 186

Average of
6 years’
rainfall in
inches in
lOin. round
receiver,
3ft. from
ground.

8 to 1873. !

Average of
6 years’
rainfall in
inches in
Sin. square
receiver,
3ft. from
ground.

Differences

January

3-808

3-823

— -015

2-987

2-976

4- -oil

February

0-551

0-543

+ -008

2-250

2-209

+ *041

March

2-688

2-660

4- *028

2-380

2-347

4- -033

April

0-699

0-641

+ *058

2-192

2-162

4- *030

May

2052

2-000

4- *052

1-906

1-871

+ -035

June

2-926

2-880

4- -046

2-600

2-557

4- -043

! July

4-324

4-359

— -035

1 2-902

2-890

+ -012

August

4-148

4-176

— •028

1 2-857

2-797

+ -060

September . . .

2-311

2-188

4- -133

i 3-931

3-868

4- -063

October

4-587

4-630

— •043

5-124

5-097

4- -027

: November ...

2-265

2-207

-P -058

2-828

2-851

— -023

j December

0-768

0-713

: 4- -055

3-308

3-291

4- *017

31-127

30-820

4- -307

35-265

34-916

4- -349

In the next table I give the results obtained from two
exactly similar gauges placed at different heights from the
ground and free from every interference. Each gauge has
a 5in. square receiver, and the one is placed 3 feet and the
other 84 feet above the ground. The total fall in the one
8 feet from the ground was 80’820 inches, and in the one
34 feet from the ground it was 25*401 inches, for the year
1873. The difference between the fall in the two gauges is
5*419 inches, or about 17 per cent less rain fell in the higher
than in the lower gauge. In the following table I give the
average fall in the same gauges for 6 years, and by com-
paring the results it will be found that the rate per cent of
the difference of the rainfall in the two gauges is the same
as it is for last year.

116

1873.

Rainfall in
inches in
Sin. square
receiver,
3ft. from
the ground.

1873.

Rainfall in
inches in
Sin. square
receiver,
34ft. from
the ground.

1873.

From 186

Average
fall of rain
in inches
for 6 yrs. in
Sin. square
receiver,
3ft. from
the ground.

8 to 1873.

Average
fall of rain
in inches
for 6 yrs. in
Sin. square
receiver,
34ft. from
the ground.

January

3-823

2-799

2-976

2-130

February

0-543

0-349

2-209

1-656

March

2-660

2-142

2-347

1-846

April

0-641

0-570

2-162

1-858

May

2-000

1-750

1-871

1-583

June

2-880

2-633

2-557

2-288

July

4-359

S‘79S

2-890

2-566

August

4-176

3-378

2-797-

2-378

September . . .

2-188

1-894

3-868

3-322

October

4-630

3-804

5-097

4-228

November ...

2-207

1-764

2-851

2-177

December

0-713

0-525

3-291

2-760

30-820

25-401

34-916

i

28-792

I thought it might be interesting if the ratios were given
of the excesses of rainfall measured at 3 feet from the
ground over the amount measured at 34 feet above the
ground. These ratios appear in the following table. It is
curious to observe that the ratios of the total amounts that
fell in these gauges, both for 1873 and for an average of
6 years, are identical, the ratio of the difference between
the fall in the upper gauge and that in the lower being
0’824. And even in the heavy rainfall of 1872 it will be
found that the ratio of the deficiency between the fall in
the two gauges was nearly similar, being 0*855. But when
the monthly ratios are examined, either for the year 1873
or for the average rainfall in the gauges for 6 years, it will
be seen that the greatest difference of fall happens in Janu-
ary and the least in J une. The oscillations, too, of the dif-
ferences between the fall of 1873 and the average fall of
6 years is very marked. On the theory that the excess of
rainfall in the lower gauge is due to the particles of invisible
vapour in the air between it and the higher gauge coalescing
with the falling rain drops, the table seems to show that in

117

the summer months, and particularly in June, there is rela-
tively less of this vapour in the air below a height of 34
feet, and that there is relatively more of it in the winter
months, and particularly in January. Hence the maximum
of dry air on the ground is in June, and the minimum in
January, This can only be due to a very rapid convection
of warm air with its attendant vapour from the surface of
the ground upward. A consideration of this law in its
action upon public health cannot be too much regarded.

Monthly and Annual Katios of the Excess of Eainfall measheed
AT 3 feet from the aEOHND OVER THE AMOUNT MEASURED AT 34
FEET FROM THE UEOUND.

Ratios of such
rainfall for
1873.

Ratios of such
rainfall for an
average of 6 yeai’s
from 1868 to
1873.

Ja^nuary

•732

•715

February

•642

•749

March

•805

•786

April

•889

•859

May

•875

•846

June

•914

•894

July

•870

•887

August

•808

•850

September

•865

•858

October

•821

•829

November

•799

•763

December

•736

•838

Annual ratios...

•813

•822

In the next table I give the fall of rain during the day
from 8 a.m. to 8 p.m., and the fall during the night from
8 p.m. to 8 a.m. The amount of rain that fell during the
day exceeded, as usual, the fall during the night, and this
happened in every month of the year excepting January,
February, and December. The total excess of the day over
the night fall for last year was .2'846 inches. In 1871 the
excess was 4T36 inches, and in 1872 it was 1*891 inches.

118

1873. 1

Rainfall in Rainfall in
inches from inches from
8 a.m.to j 8 p.m. to
8 p.m. 8 a.m.

Differences
between
Night and
Day fall.

January . . .

1-113

2-710

-1-1-597

February . . .

0-249

0-294

-j-0-045

March

1-579

1-081

—0-498

April

0-502

0-139

—0-363

May

1-165

0-835

—0-330

June

2-194

0-686

—1-508

Jnly

2-565

1-794

—0-771

August

2-424

1-752

—0-672

September. .

1-218

0-970

—0-248

1 October

2-423

2-207

— 0-216

1 November...

1-153

1-054

—0-099

December...

0-248

0-465

4-0-217

i

1

16-833

13-987

—2-846

In the next table I present the average day and night
rainfall for 6 years. An examination of this table conti-
nues to confirm the experience of previous years, that the
day fall exceeds the night fall so far as the amount of the
whole year is concerned. But curiously enough this table
of 6 years’ average gives an excess of night fall in the same
months that were shown in a table of 5 years’ average
which I read at the Section last year, those months being
January, February, August, September, November, *and
December. It is however remarkable how close the total
day and night rainfalls are to each other, for though the 6
years’ average shows a difference of double that of the
5 years’, yet it is only about 4 per cent on the total fall.

Average of Six Years from 1868 to 1873.

' 1873.

1 Rainfall in
linches from
8 a.m. to
8 p.m.

Rainfall in
inches from
8 p.m. to
8 a.m.

Differences ;
between Night!
and Day
fall.

January

1-321

1-655

-1-0-334

February

0-919

1-288

4-0-369

March

1-375

0-970

—0-405

April

1-279

0-883

—0-396

May

1-206 !

0-666

—0-540

June

1-447 1

1-110

—0-337

July

1-713 :

1-177

—0-536

August 1

1-350 i

1-447

4-0-097 1

September j

1-773

2-094

4-0-321 1

October

2-634 !

2-463

—0-171

November |

1-367 1

1-484

-1-0-117

December |

1-448 1

1-843

4-0-395

1 1

17-832 i

17-080

—0-752

119

Ordinary Meeting, March 24th, 1874.

Rev. William Gaskell, M.A., Vice-President, in the Chair.

“ On some of the Perplexities which the Art and Archi-
tecture of the Present are preparing for the Historians and
Antiquarians of the Future,” by the Rev. Brooke Herford.

One of the most interesting elements in historical and
antiquarian studies is the consideration of the age of the
various remains which have come down to us from the past.
It continually occurs that points of great importance depend
ujDon our being able to assign an approximate date to a
document, an inscription, or some architectural feature of a
building. It is thus that vague tradition is often eked out
by corroborative fadt, and questionable chronicles become
susceptible of verification. Even in cases in which it is out
of the question to assign actual dates, it is something to be
able to be sure of the general period to which an object
belongs ; and even the iron, bronze, and stone periods
afibrd distant landmarks by which we may grope our way
back into an antiquity which may not always be so dim as
it ’is at present.

Now all who have gone into the study of the dates or
periods of ancient remains or monuments, must have been
struck by one feature which is almost universally character-
istic of them. I refer to the marvellous reliability of
whatever indications they carry in themselves of style or
stage of development. Once get back beyond a certain
borderland of confusion and deception, and almost every-
thing speaks for itself You can tell — approximately, of
course — ivhen it was done, by the how it is done. The fact
is that as the arts of life gradually developed men did
PROCEEDINaS.—LlT. &PhIL. SOCIETY. — VoL, XIII. — Xo. 11— SESSION 1873-4.

120

everything simply according to the best idea they had
attained. They worked by the clearest light of their own time.
There was a sort of sturdy self-respect in their workman-
ship. They did not think that their own best forms were
prosy and commonplace, and when they wanted something
unusually beautiful run after the ruder forms of an earlier
age. They had the thought of the beautiful, but they seem
to have been happily innocent of that sentimental distortion
of the sense of beauty which leads to the artificial manufac-
ture of the picturesque. So you tread confidently and
firmly as you trace back the ways of the ancient life. You
may be walking among rude and imperfect things, but at
any rate you are not walking among shams. The student of
old manuscripts will tell you the age of a Greek codex by
the uncial or cursive character in which it is written. If
you find a tomb inscribed in the old, so-called “Lombardic”
characters, you feel pretty sure that it is not later than the
13th or beginning of the 14th century, nor can it be
much earlier, for previously the tombstones, coffin lids, had
crosses, but not inscriptions on them. When you come
across a rude circle of stones upon the moors above Ilkley,
you may doubt if it was a hut circle, or a Druid Temple ;
but at any rate you are not haunted by a misgiving that it
Avas only a freak of some early monk of Bolton Priory, with
a taste for the picturesque. If you are pointed to an apparent
date of 1174, like that which stands on the gable of an old
house near Sowerby Bridge, you know, at any rate, that it
cannot really be of 1174, because the Koman numerals were
still universally in use, and the so-called Arabic figures
hardly even known in England, till two centuries later.
If you meet with an early undated specimen of printing
and find some words in it in italics, you know that it can-
not be earlier than 1501 when the great Venetian printer
Aldus Manuzio first introduced the new slanting letters
which he had had cut, in the series of works which liave

121

o’iveii the Aldine classics an imperishable name. Or, again,
if yon meet with an old jmrchment engrossed in the curious
black-letter which is known as balloon writing, you can
form a pretty fair conjecture that it dates back to the time
of the Edwards.

But it is in Architecture that we come upon the most
striking and important illustrations of the way in which
each age, going a little beyond the age before, believed in
its own improvements, and did simply the noblest thing it
knew. I hesitate to speak of an art of which I know so
little technically, but even the knowledge that an ordinary
lover of old buildings attains suffices to illustrate my point,
and also to show its value. You can trace our architecture,
from the great Norman builders, who first taught the English
how really to build, down to the exaggeration of the 16th
and the debasement of the I7th centuries, by unbroken
steps, — Norman, Transitional, Lancet, Geometrical, Curvi-
linear, Perpendicular, — every one of which opens up new
studies of interest.

And even later still, though the architecture of Elizabeth’s
time is only reckoned of the poorest (and in ecclesiastical
architecture there is nothing, for the church was too much
weakened by the Eeformation to do much building), yet in
domestic architecture we have a type of house with many
and sometimes fantastic gables, and massive mullioned and
transomed windows, which at any rate stands for itself,
and is an interesting study in many of our halls and manor
houses.

Of course, all these cannot be divided by sharp and un-
erring lines of date. They cannot be divided, precisely
because they are the outcome of true growth, and growth
implies continuous and indivisible processes. But the order
of growth is wonderfully observed. Sometimes even its
minuter steps can be apportioned to their special dates with
a curious exactness. I remember hearing Mr. Edmund

122

Sharpe, an architect and antiquarian who has studied the
old Cistercian abbeys as no other living man has done,
pointing out at Furness Abbey one special moulding — the
plainest possible inverted volute — as really dating the capi-
tals on which it appears to within about 20 years. It is
seldom, of course, that any such exactness can be attained.
The rate of progress was not equal everywhere, and in
remote country places the old forms lingered after the great
monastic builders had left them behind.

As to the practical value of all this in the study of history,
one or two illustrations will suffice. Often it happens that
much of the history of a church or an abbey is contained in
the silent testimony of the successive stages of its architec-
ture, or in the remains of older work embedded in more
recent masonry.

For instance: you visit some little country church. Its
general character is that of Henry VII. ’s time — you know
it by the Perpendicular windows and the spandrelled door-
ways. But look a little closer. In the chancel perhaps are
a couple of simple Lancet windows, and above them are two
or three quaint corbels, which never originally supported
that late battlemented parapet ; and underneath the com-
paratively recent porch is an old semicircular arch, and if
you look carefully about the walls you will probably find
here and there, built in, fragments of carved stone — perhaps
pieces of old stone- coffin slabs with crosses visible upon
them — which tell of a much earlier church ; and sometimes
you find fragments of old interlacing scroll work, such as
that upon the Bunic crosses of Ilkley, which carry back the
interest still further, and tell of Saxon worshippers.

And now if you have gone with me in this appreciation
of the self-respect which in old times men shewed for the
best art of their own day, and of the value of the trust-
worthy indications of date, arising out of this orderly develop-
ment, which everywhere present themselves, it will hardly

123

need that I should enter very much into detail as to the
perplexities which the art and architecture of the present
are preparing for the students of future times. For
every step in which I have been shewing these trustworthy
characteristics of the past must have reminded you how
different things are to-day. I tremble sometimes to think
of the curses which may some day be heaped upon this self-
complacent nineteenth century, with its great affectation of
taste and art, by those who in some remote future may have
the task of disinterring, and endeavouring to interpret our
monuments ! They will find inscriptions in every variety
of character, Lombardic, old English, the antique Roman type
of the end of the 17th century, and — but very sparingly —
in the beautiful characters which our modern type foujiders
have elaborated, — such type as never was in the world
before, but of which modern Englishmen seem ashamed.
They will find drinking fountains of Queen Victoria’s reign
inscribed in characters which would betoken an origin under
the Plantagenets ; and ridged tombstones of decent Manches-
ter merchants hardly distinguishable from those of the old,
spurred and belted border-knights who compounded for
their sins by leaving estates to the monks on condition
of burial within the cloisters. They will find books printed
in carefully imitated types of the sixteenth century referring
to matters which ordinary history would have led them to
believe happened in the nineteenth.

But it is in matters of architecture that they will experi-
ence the most bewildering perplexity. Imagine, if it is
possible, Manchester disinterred from the superincumbent
mould of three thousand years by some enterprizing relative
of Mr. Macaulay’s celebrated New Zealander, who has read
of “ the Manchester School,” and desires, like another Dr.
Schlieman anent Troy, to prove to his incredulous country-
men, that Manchester was a real place, and its school a
veritable seat of learning ! Imagine the curious wonder

124

witli which the Cyclopean architecture of the shops under-
neath the Exchange would be compared with the fragments of
the friezes a] id mouldings which might he found among the
ruins. Imagine the perplexity with which the portico of
the Infirmary would he compared with the facades of some
of the Portland street warehouses, and all attempted hy
some systematic thinker to he co-ordinated with the Assize
Courts and the New Town Hall. As for the endeavour to
ascertain anything about our domestic architecture, that
would he hopeless indeed. But there is one consoling
thought. It is possible that with regard to this at any rate
the perplexity may never occur ; for it is few indeed of our
modern houses that will stand into a second or third
century !

Perhaps the most important feature in this matter is that
what we are doing hy this artistic and architectural confusion
will not stop with the perplexity which it will cause concern-
ing the remains of our own time. That might he suffered. Some
may say, our buildings, at least our considerable public build-
ings, are all dated^ — so are our hooks, and our sculptured in-
scriptions. True. But the difference between those of our day
^vlliGh are dated, and those of six centuries ago, which are
not dated, will grow less distinguishable every century,
until at last they will all be touched with one equal aspect
of antiquity, and the utter confusion which will then appear
among those which are dated, can hardly fail to bring equal
confusion, and at last discredit upon those which are not.

I do not think that this is a light matter, though I have
pointed out in passing a certain ludicrous aspect which it
undoubtedly possesses. I think it points to deeper defects
in the mental and moral life of the age : to a craving for
the excitement of the picturesque rather than an apprecia-
tion of the really beautiful ; to a want of originality in the
higher forms of art, that is poorly compensated by the skill
with which we can lay Etruscan and Pompeian vases or

125

mediseval cathedrals under contribution ; and to a miserable
depreciation of our own contemporary forms, even when,
as in the case of our printed characters, they are really of
surpassing clearness and excellence.

“ A Few Observations on Coal,” by E. W. Binney, V.R,
F.RS., F.G.S.

Of late years much has been written on the structure of
coal and the various vegetable remains of which it is com-
posed. Observers examining different coals under the
microscope have, as might be expected, come to different
conclusions. Some of them have found little else than the
remains of spores and spore cases, others only scalariform and
cellular tissues and a few spores, and a third class little trace
of any structure whatever in the specimens they examined.
Splint or hard coal w,ould generally afford the results first
named, soft caking or cherry coals the second, and cannel
coals the third.

Soft coals yielding a large amount of charcoal enclosed in
bright coal nearly always show plenty of structure in the
“ mother coal,” as well as a few macrospores in the bright
portions. Macrospores are nearly always found in abun-
dance in splint and hard coals. In cannel coals they are
sometimes found as well as the cellular and scalariform por
tions of plants.

For many years macrospores were known by the names
of spore cases and spores. They could be easily observed
by the naked eye in the black parts of the coal, and they
were generally considered as sporangia, but Professor
Adolphe Brongniart in 1868 described a cone (Leindostrohus
Babadianus) having sporangia full of very minute spores,
in fact microspores, in the upper portion, and sporangia full
of macrospores, which had been so long known, in the lower
part. These observations of Brongniart have been amply
confirmed by specimens from, the British coal fields.

126

Thirty years ago it was considered that the soft or cherry
coals were chiefly composed of the remains of large plants
such as Sigillaria, Lepidodendron, &c., while caking coals
were formed of plants of a lesser size and much bark, for it
had then been observed and since confirmed, that the out-
sides of Sigillaria and other fossil trees, sometimes reaching
to two or three inches in thickness, were chiefly composed
of bright soft coal showing little traces of structure.

In the great lawsuit which was tried at Edinburgh more
than twenty years since as to the nature of Boghead coal,
much evidence was given as to its structure, some witnesses
findiug in it scarcely anything else than the remains of
vegetables, whilst others found only^a stray portion of scala-
riform structure or a macrospore. Both Boghead and the
other brown cannels of Scotland are now generally consi-
dered to afford but little evidence of vegetable tissues under
the microscope, although numerous remains of Sigillaria
and other common coal plants can be seen by the naked eye
in them. Notwitstanding that they are so rich in volatile
matter, and far exceeding other coals in their yield of
paraffine and paraffine oils, they contain from 25 to 30 per
cent of mineral matter in the form of ash. This circum-
stance has induced certain scientific men to class them as
shales rather than coals, notwithstanding that they have the
specific gravity of coals.

Some years since, when describing several fossil cones
affording both kinds of spores, he expressed an opinion that
the yellow matter seen in the vesicles of Boghead coal was
nothing but microspores composed of paraffine or a similar
hydrocarbon, and that they were driven off by heat in the
form of a yellow vapour, leaving nothing behind but a
spongy mass of earthy and carbonaceous matter. The evi-
dence that caused him to come to this conclusion was
that the microspores contained in the upper sporangia of
Lepidostrohus Harcourtii had all the appearance of crude

127

paraffine, and were of the same yellowish brown colour as
powdered Boghead coal, and that the latter substance was
composed nearly altogether of microspores and mineral
matter. So far as his observations extended, microspores had
not been observed in coal, although plenty of macrospores,
which are generally 2V th to 2h th of an inch in diameter, and
easily seen by the naked eye, had long been noticed.

He had some time since directed his friend Mr. J. W.
Kirkby, of the Pirnie Coal Company, to examine the Fife-
shire seams of coal in search of microspores, most of those
beds yielding macrospores in great abundance, and that
gentleman had lately furnished him with the specimens now
exhibited, both splint and soft coals, but especially the
former, affording the two kinds of spores. On burning the
yellow coal comj)osed of microspores, a most brilliant dame
and a peculiar empyreurnatic odour like that from burning
Boghead coal were produced, whilst the splint coal full of
macrospores only burnt and smelt like ordinary hard coal,
thus clearly showing that these two kinds of spores differed
very much in their inflammable properties and odours given
off, and that such properties were certainly not due to the
larger spores but most probably to the smaller ones.

The compressed lenticular bodies in the splint coal were
formerly of oval and spherical forms with a triradiate ridge
on one half, and although their exterior was composed of a
brown coriaceous substance, their interior was full of white
carbonate of lime or bisulphide of iron according to the
nature of the matrix in which they were found ; thus sug-
gesting the idea of their having been filled with granules of
starch when in a living state, which it is probable they
would have been in case of their being germinating spores.

He and his late partners at Bathgate, when manufacturing
paraffine oil there, had tried various means, by subjecting
Boghead coal to the action of ethers and naphthas, to
dissolve out paraffine from it, but they had never succeeded.

128

so tlie yellow matter in the coal may probably be
changed into paraffine by the heat employed in distillation.
Dr. Schorleimer, F.E.S., Avho has been so kind as to
examine the microspores found in the Muiredge splint coal,
is of opinion that they are not composed of paraffine, but
some other hydrocarbon. This may, therefore, change into
paraffine by the application of heat in a similar way to what
the yellow matter in Boghead coal does.

The macrospores are about 320 times the size of the
microspores and constituted the germinating spores, while
the microspores were the fertilizing agents, both having
been contained in one cone.

Several specimens of fine bright soft coal, between 2 and
3 inches in thickness, taken from the outsides of Sigillaria
and other fossil trees, were exhibited. In these there was
no appearance of charcoal, spores, or vegetable structure,
and in every respect they resembled the black shining
parts of soft cherry and caking coals, which generally
afford no distinct traces of vegetable structure. Hence
from his observations he was led to conclude that soft or
cherry coal was chiefly composed of the bark, cellular tissue,
and vascular cylinders of coal plants with some macrospores
and microspores.

That caking coal had much the same 'composition, except
that it contained a greater proportion of bark in it.

That splint coal had a nearly similar composition, but
with a great excess of macrospores.

That cannel coal, especiaJly that yielding a brown streak,
was formed of the remains of different portions of plants
with a great excess of microspores, which had long been
macerated in water.

These conclusions were arrived at merely as to the com-
position of the different kinds of coal. No doubt each seam
would be materially affected by the nature of the roof,
whether the latter was an open sandstone or a close and air-

129

tight black shale or blue bind, for the former would allow
the free escape of gaseous matter, and the latter would
prevent its escape. It is well known that the character of
the roof has a deal to do with the quality of the coal
under it.

Ordinary Meeting, April 7th, 1874.

E. W. Binney, F.E.S., F.G.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. J. Sidebotham and Mr. J. A. Bennion were appointed
Auditors of the Treasurer’s Accounts.

The Chairman exhibited to the meeting some portion of
the cast iron roof from the Salford Station of the Lancashire
and Yorkshire Railway, which after having been up for a
period of four years was so much corroded and damaged
that it had to be taken down. He attributed the effects to
sulphuric acid and soot arising from the combustion of the
coal used in the locomotives passing under it, aided by the
action of steam and vibration. He referred to a paper by
himself communicated to the Society and published Vol. II.
(2nd series) of its Memoirs, on the effects of old coal pit
water on cast iron, where similar results had been produced
by sulphuric acid, carbonaceous matter, and water; also
to a case alluded to by one of the most distinguished mem-
bers of the Society, the late Dr. W. Henry, F.B.S., of the
rotting of cast iron by the escape of steam from the junction
of a pipe embedded in charcoal. Of course the rate of decom-
position much depended on the quality of the iron ; but as
that metal was now so much employed in building and
mining operations, he considered it desirable to bring before
the public every instance that came to his knowledge where
it had been damaged or decomposed.

130

“On the Action of nascent Hydrogen on Iron/’ by
William H. Johnson, B.Sc.

In a paper read before the Society last year, I showed that
a piece of iron immersed in hydrochloric, sulphuric, or other
acid which evolves hydi’ogen by its action on the metal, on
breaking gives off bubbles of gas from the surface of the
fracture. It subsequently occurred to me that these
bubbles might be produced by subjecting the metal to the
action of nascent hydrogen for some time, and without the
aid of acid at all.

To test this I connected two pieces of iron wire 'OT diam.
respectively with the copper and zinc plates of a battery
of 50 Daniell’s cells and immersed them in a vessel of
Manchester town’s water at a distance of one inch apart.
On closing the current, bubbles of hydrogen were given off
from the wire connected with the zinc, but none from the
wire connected with the copper, the oxygen liberated at the
pole apparently forming oxide of iron which in 12 hours
formed a thick smudge at the bottom of the vessel. After
24 hours the surface of the wire connected with the zinc
was unchanged, but on moistening the fracture bubbles
were given off abundantly just as if it had been immersed
in acid. The other wire, on the contrary, though much
oxidised and eaten away, did not give off bubbles when
broken.

A variety of experiments were made in the same way
with pieces of wire varying from 3 to 20 inches long and
immersed from 5 to 24 hours, ^ inch to 4 inches apart in
pure Manchester town’s water, all with similar results-
With this exception, that when the wire connected with the
zinc was of steel, no bubbles were visible to the naked eye,
just like steel after immersion in acid. Twenty-four hours
in a warm room restored the iron to its original state, and
no bubbles were seen on fracturing it.

The Wcxter in the last experiments was then replaced by

131

an aqueous solution of caustic soda, when after two hours
the moistened fracture of the wire connected with the zinc
pole of the battery was found to bubble. Twenty two hours’
longer immersion, the battery working all the time, caused
the bubbles to be more abundant ; the toughness of the wire
was also diminished, and its surface was blackened. The
wire at the positive pole was however unchanged either on
the surface or in toughness.

Three pieces of wire, each 12 inches long, were immersed
in hydrochloric acid about 1*2 sp. gr., one being connected
with the positive pole, the other with the negative pole of
the battery, and the third unconnected with the battery.
At the expiration of half an hour the two last pieces were
found to bubble on being fractured, and were also more
brittle. The one however connected with the positive pole
was not in the least affected. Thus showing that simple
immersion in acid is not stifficient to produce in iron the
remarkable changes before described, unless it be accom-
panied by evolution of hydrogen.

In conclusion, if the oxidation of the surface of iron be as
a rule accompanied by the absorption of nascent hydrogen
into the interior of the iron, then the diminution of strength
and toughness consequent on this will affect iron ships,
telegraph cables, and other structures in which iron is
lai'gely used and which are constantly immersed in water.

“Does the Earth receive any Heat directly from the
Sun,” by Henry H. Howorth, Esq.

The term heat is one of unusual ambiguity. It has at
least two meanings, which, if they do not exclude one
another, are at least not commensurable. Their indefinite
and careless use has created great confusion. The first
meaning connotes the feeling heat, a purely subjective
matter, whose investigation is a proper subject for meta-
physical students, but with which we have nothing to do

132

at present. The second meaning connotes objective heat,
the force heat, that phenomenon of matter whose effects we
can measure in certain definite ways. It is with this
second meaning that we are concerned to-night. Having
limited our subject somewhat, I wish to limit it further.
The science of heat'concerns itself with two main subjects,
first, the transcendental problems which deal with the
nature of heat, which endeavour to explain it as a form of
motion, &c., &c. These conclusions may or may not be
eventually confirmed by experience. At present they are
powerful and ingenious theories which enables us to map
out our knowledge to arrange and classify it, but I humbly
crave permission to doubt whether any of them may be
considered a final solution and jpro tanto, I must have my
hands free. This is not really of consequence in our dis-
cussion to-night, for I have no intention of entering into
such a difficult and crooked controversy. The nature of
heat is, in fact, outside our present subject. Eschewing the
transcendental problems we shall very briefly consider, only
the direct effects of heat upon matter. So far then as our
experience can take us heat is a peculiar condition or
phenomenon of matter, which we can modify, increase, or
lessen, which is universally present in greater or lesser
intensity, and which we measure relatively by a com-
parison with a certain fixed standard. However pro-
duced, whether by chemical action, by percussion, by
friction, &c., &c., there is one result which seems uni-
versal and which may be considered to be the corre-
lative of heat. This result is universally present and
modified in various ways it is probably the only result. So
that if we exclude the feeling of heat we may define heat
by using this result as an alternative term. The addition and
abstraction of heat are correlative respectively with an in-
crease and decrease in the bulk of the matter operated upon.
If we add heat we increase the bulk of the substance ope-

188

rated upon; if we abstract heat we cause the portion of
matter to contract and shrink, and the bulk is increased
and diminished in certain definite proportions ; and not only
so, but the opposite holds good also, namely, that if we cause
a portion’ of matter to shrink we must in doing so abstract
heat from it, while if we increase its bulk in any way with-
out adding more matter we must, willingly or unwillingly,
add a corresponding portion of heat. I believe this is accepted
as an axiom in physics by the best judges and accepted as uni-
versally true. Formerly some substances, such as bismutln
water between certain temperatures, &;c., were quoted as
exceptions to this rule, inasmuch as they expand in solidify-
ing ; but they are only apparent exceptions, for their aber-
rant behaviour has been shown, as I think beyond doubt,
to be a phenomenon of crystallisation. Speaking of the
most notorious case, that of water, Tyndal says : The

arrangement of the atoms of water when solid require more
room than they need in the neighbouring liquid state. No
doubt this is due to crystalline arrangement. The attract-
ing poles of the molecules are' so situated that when the
crystallising comes into play, the molecules unite so as to
leave larger interatomic spaces in the mass ; we may sujopose
them to attach themselves by their corners, and in turning
corner to corner to cause a recession of the atomic centres.
At all events their centres retire from one another when
solidification sets in. By cooling then this power of retreat
and of consequent enlargement of volume is conferred.” —
Tyndalls Heat as a Mode of Motion, 107. These excep-
tions then I hold to be no exceptions at all. There is one
substance, namely indiarubber, whose behaviour is eccentric
and not explainable in this way, nor at present, so far as I
know, explainable at all ; but with this solitary exception,
whose raison d’etre I have no doubt will be shown to be as
consistent with the general law as those of substances such as
water, bismuth, &c., we may safely conclude from our experi-

134

ence of matter that it is a universal law that heat and ex-
pansion, cold and contraction are correlative terms.

Having laid down an abstract axiom, let us now apply it
to a concrete example, namely, the earth.

The old notions about the stability of the earth when
compared with the mobility of the sea have been long since
exploded. We now know that there is no such thing as
absolute terra firma. We know that the earth in a less
degree is mobile like the water, rising here and sinking
there in apparently restless pulsations, waves, swellings, and
subsidings. This being so, it becomes an interesting problem
to determine whether these risings and sinkings compensate
one another; that is, whether a rising in one neighbourhood
corresponds to a sinking elsewhere, or whether the whole
periphery of the earth is undergoing enlargement or dimi-
nution, is stretching or shrinking. To decide this by direct
experiment is not easy, for since water is our gauge the
same relative effect will be produced either by the sinking
of an ocean-bed or the rising of an adjacent continent. But
we have a considerable amount of evidence notwithstanding
which points, so far as I know, in one direction and one
only. There is first the a priori evidence.

There are two sciences which deal with the inner consti-
tution of the earth : astronomy, which deals with it as a
part of the great macrocosm, the universe; and geology,
which deals with its inner life as a universe of its own. The
question of the alteration in the earth’s bulk has naturally
been discussed by both astronomers and geologists, and dis-
cussed too from very different points of view, but both are
agreed in one conclusion, namely, that the earth is shrinking.

Since the days of La Place the Nebular hypothesis has
been generally received by astronomers as the one which
best meets observed facts. This hypothesis predicates the
existence of gravitation everywhere, and shows how by its
influence the various heavenly bodies have become con-

185

densed from nebular matter. It predicates that this force
is still active everywhere, and that everywhere within our
observation we have a condensation of matter in progress,
matter condensing from a highly diffused condition to one
of greater density. Thus each member of our system, it is
argued, is gradually and surely nearing the sun and at the
same time is shrinking, and the various planets are in fact
in so many stages of evolution, and exhibit for us the
various phases which the earth has passed through and will
pass through before it is landed in the sun. And the most
ingenious and successful of our analytical astronomers and
physicists combined. Sir William Thomson, has compared
our universe to an elaborately constructed clock which is
inevitably and surely running itself down, until it has
exhausted its various forces and until each component
member has fallen into the common centre. Tliis is
elementary enough. I only quote it to show that the
evidence of astronomy is, that the earth is contracting, and
that its periphery is diminishing in area.

The conclusion of geology for our purpose 'is the same.
It is argued by geologists that the earth was originally in
an incandescent state, and that it has assumed its present
shape after a gradual cooling, that is, a gradual contraction,
which is still in progress. These are the words of Mr.
Geikie, one of the most recent and competent authorities :
“Among the geologists of the present day there is a growing
conviction that upheaval and subsidence are concomitant
phenomena, and that viewed broadly they both arise from
the effects of the secular cooling and consequent con-
traction of the mass of the earth.” On both grounds there-
fore, namely, those upon which astronomical and geological
arguments are based, is it established that the earth is
shrinking.

O

As the fire syringe discharges a certain amount of heat
when sudden pressure is applied, wliich heaffwe can collect

136

and measure, so we ought to be able to measure the amount
of heat produced by the contracting of the earth’s crust, al-
though we cannot measure that contraction with a plummet.
As we go down through the crust we ought to meet with
evidence that the pressure of the strata has increased the
temperature, and this we in fact do. In going down towards
the centre of the earth we find an increase of temperature
so wonderfully constant in all latitudes that we are con-
strained, if we accept the nebular hypothesis, to argue that
this results, as it ought theoretically to result, from the
pressure of the strata, i. e., from the force of gravity. In
some letters that I have recently written to “Nature,” I have
tried to show how the areas of upheaval and subsidence on
the earth are distributed, my conclusion being that the areas
of depression are distributed about the Equator, while the
areas of upheaval have their foci at the Poles, that the earth
is being strictured about the Equator, and thrust out in the
direction of its shortest axis ; in other words, is shrinking
in the region where the temperature is the highest, the
tropics, and is stretching out in the regions of cold, or the
Polar regions.

Now let us see how far we have travelled. We have
postulated that all shrinking matter is giving out heat. W^e
have shown that the a lyriori evidence is conclusive that
the earth is a shrinking mass. We have also adduced evi-
dence which shows that the earth is in fact hot where it
should be hot, and cold where it should be cold, in accord-
ance with the law of contraction ; and it seems to me to
follow necessarily that the earth is giving out heat, — is in
fact a furnace, a heat producing substance. This seems
to be inevitable.

I need not stay to argue that both popularly and also
among' scientific men it is held as a cardinal doctrine that
the earth receives a large quantity of its heat directly from
the sun, and elaborate calculations have been made to show

137

the terrific quantity of heat so received and the terrific
energy which this represents. We are taught that of the
sun’s heat which heats on the earth one portion is refiected,
another is absorbed, and that the latter is what we can
alone recognize by our instruments, and whose energy is
the subject of calculation. But the absorption of heat
means, as we have argued, an increase of bulk, therefore
whatever heat the earth absorbs must go to increase the
earth’s size. It is only on this condition that the earth can
absorb heat at all, and it is only by the increase in bulk
that we can in fact measure or gauge the heat.

But if the earth be shrinking it is clear that it must give
out more heat than it absorbs, it must in fact produce
enough heat to neutralize the expansion caused by the sun
and some besides. The excess being measured by the
amount of contraction that the earth is undergoing. But
this means that any heat it receives from the sun is more
than neutralized by its own heat, so that if the sun gave
us no heat at all and the earth continued to contract, as it
does now, it would not be affected in temperature, save
perhaps in becoming even hotter, for if we receive heat
from the sun which, when absorbed makes the earth ex-
pand, it is clear that a portion of the contracting force of
the earth is spent and exhausted in neutralizing this expan-
sion, which would be set free in the form of heat if this had
not to be neutralized. But I confess that having brought
the argument to this point I am constrained to go a step
further, and to say that if the earth be independent of the
sun for its heat, that if independently of the sun altogether it
is throwing out an amount of heat equivalent to the amount
of its contraction, that it is unnecessary and unphilosophical
to postulate the sun as a source of heat, and that we are
bound, paradoxical as it may seem, to conclude that the
earth does not receive any heat directly from the sun. This
conclusion seems inevitable, and if it be, we must face the

138

various difficulties that suggest themselves at every turn
and find a solution to them consistent with it.

I believe these difficulties are not hard to meet. It will
be noticed that in the question I propounded at the head of
this paper I use the word directly or immediately. When
I say that the earth is itself the furnace which supplies the
phenomena of heat which we study and feel I do not mean
that it does so entirely per se, and without any assistance
from without. I predicate all through that such heat as
the earth possesses is induced in it by the force which is
contracting it, by the gravitating force, and this force, so
far as our evidence goes, is derived nearly altogether from
the sun. My argument is that the heat of the earth is
mediately, but not immediately due to the sun’s influence,
that the sun’s influence causes the earth to contract, and
that in contracting heat is squeezed out of it. That we
derive no heat whatever qua heat from the sun, or to use a
simile, the voltaic battery supplies the electric current
which induces the magnetism in the iron but does not itself
furnish the magnetism.

This at once removes a vast quantity of apparent difficulty
for wherever the sun beats there it exercises its influence of
gravity, and the result is invariably an induction of heat,
so that winter and summer, day and night, are dependent
for their varying temperature on the sun, although in a
different manner to that popularly supposed.

There is another and a more palpable difficulty that
obtrudes itself at' once upon one’s notice in defending the
position I am arguing for. It is said : surely, if we step out
of the sunshine into the shade, or vice versa, and exclude
the radiated heat from the ground we shall find direct evi-
dence both from our feeling and from the usual effects of
heat that the sun’s rays are distinctly hot, that in beating
on our hand, on a moist surface, &c. &c., symptoms of absorp-
tion of heat at once present themselves — the hand grows

139

hot, the moisture evaporates, &c. And this is true in a
larger way of the superficial layer of the ground, which feels
the intermittent effects of day and night, summer and
winter, by absorbing more or less heat. How then do we
account for this, for the heat must be absorbed from some-
where, and the only practicable source is the direct sun-
shine. My answer to this is very short. If we ascend
through the atmosphere we rapidly find the temperature
becomes lower, that as we get nearer the verge of the
atmosphere, and therefore nearer the point where there is
no atmospheric absorption of the solar rays we find the
temperature to lower so rapidly that we are justified in
concluding that if we could get outside the atmosphere
altogether we should find the scorching of the hand, the
absorption of moisture, and the various effects we attri-
bute to heat reduced to a minimum, and are justified
in concluding that if the envelope of the atmosphere
were removed, if the earth were to be, such as the moon
is, without an atmosphere, that its surface temperature
would be but slightly affected by the direct sunshine. The
effects of the sun’s attraction would be distributed through-
out the mass of the earth, causing a general contraction and
a general relative temperature with its focus at the centre,
but there would be no surface layer of an aberrant and
peculiar temperature, and few or none of the effects we now
find in the direct sunshine. I argue, and I think I am
justified in arguing, that these peculiar effects are due
entirely to our having an atmosphere, to the fact of there
being a medium between the sun and ourselves. If this be
so, it is clearly most consistent with our contention, for the
sun’s contracting force acts not only on the earth’s solid
matter but on its gaseous envelope also, and in the latter
case with much more powerful results. So that any surface
exposed to the sunshine is exposed also to a column of air
undergoing contraction or pressure on the part of the sun,

140

and as tins compressed air must give out its heat if it is in
contact with any body at a less tension, it gives it out to
my hand or to the moisture exposed to it, which in the
one case feels hot and in the other experiences an effect of
of heat, namely evaporation. It is the column of air that is
giving out heat, each ray that pierces it squeezes it and
squeezes out of it a certain amount of heat which we attri-
bute directly to the sun’s influence, while in fact it is only
mediately due to it. This I think satisfactorily explains
the great and elementary difficulties of my position. I am
not aware of any other difficulty which cannot be as easily
met, and as I cannot see my way from escaping from the
main conclusion at which I have arrived, I have ventured,
paradox though it be, to present it for your criticism. To
sum up this conclusion in a phrase, I hold that the earth
receives no heat directly from the sun, the sun only supply-
ing the contractile force which induces terrestrial heat.

141

PHYSICAL ANH MATHEMATICAL SECTION.

Annucal Meeting, March 31st, 1874.

Alfred Brothers, F.R.A.S., President of the Section, in

the Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected Officers of the
Section for the ensuing year : —

^rcsib^nt.

ALFRED BROTHERS, F.R.A.S.
tRkc-IJrcsihnts.

E. W. BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.

JOSEPH BAXENDELL, P.R,A.S.

a. V. VERNON, F.R.A.S., F.M.S.

SAMUEL BROUGHTON.

‘‘The Meteorological Theory of Cometary Phenomena,”
by David Winstanley, Esq.

On the 16th April, 1872, I had the honour of bringing
under the notice of this Society the outline of a theory by
which I showed, or endeavoured to show, that in the
instance of bodies surrounded by abnormally voluminous
atmospheres and subject to sudden and violent thermal
changes, certain phenomena indistinguishable from the im-
posing aspects frequently presented by comets must of
necessity ensue as the ordinary phenomena of their meteor-
ology. So far as I have seen no criticisms have been
advanced disputing the correctness of this deduction. If,
therefore, I am able to satisfy you that any particular

142

comet i‘eally was surrounded by an abnormally voluminous
atmosphere, that it was subjected to sudden and violent
thermal changes, and that it also exhibited the imposing
aspects to which I have alluded, I think I am entitled to
ask you to regard the phenomena in question as meteor-
ological phenomena, and to regard the meteorological theory
as affording a satisfactory explanation of the appearances
presented at any rate by that particular body.

The analyses of meteorites falling upon the surface of the
earth from the regions of external space have not, it appears,
led to the discovery of any new chemical body^', whilst the
spectroscope has shown that chemical substances, common
enough upon the earth, exist in the solar atmosphere, in the
atmospheres of his attendant planets, in the fixed stars
themselves, and in the far distant nebulse. In short, we
have direct evidence that whatever quantitative differences
there may be, qualitatively the community of matter
extends throughout the fields of nature.

This fact at once disposes of those cometary theories
which assume the existence of some new chemical body as
a necessary agent in the production of cometic phenomena,
and it also disposes of those objections to other theories
founded upon the supposition that the ordinary operation
of physical laws as observed upon the earth may be ren-
dered inoperative in the case of comets b}^ a non-community
in their chemical nature.

We have, it is true, very little special evidence as to the
chemical constitution of comets. What little we have has
been furnished by comparatively insignificant members of
the family, in unfavourable circumstances of luminous in-
tensity, and with indications as yet unsatisfactorily inter-
preted, j* Evidence has however been adduced that comets
for the most part consist of matter moving between us and

Guillemin’s ^‘Heavens,” Eng\ trans., page i75j

t See ^‘Nature/’ Jan, 8tli, 1874.

148

certain distant stars, matter wliicli is ]3icked up and appro-
priated by our system in its onward progress tlirougli the
depths of space.^ This in itself removes any ground for
regarding comets as possible non-partakers in the universal
community of matter. The spectroscope has shown how-
ever— and this is strictly to the point in the present in-
quiry— that of whatever ingredients comets may be com-
posed they certainly are not as a class destitute of volatiliz-
able ingredients.*!' The physical condition of all terrestrial
substances — and in view of the community of matter the
physical condition also of extra-terrestrial materials is
merely a question of temperature and pressure. In short,
given a sufficiently high temperature and a sufficiently low
pressure and anything will vaporise.

The great periodic comet of our system, the body named
after the illustrious Edmund. Halley pursues an orbital path
of such eccentricity that it is sixty times more remote from
the sun in aphelion than in perihelion and is therefore sub-
jected three thousand six hundred times more to the in-
fluence of the solar radiance in the latter position than in
the former, a circumstance very suggestive of meteorological
phenomena on a grand scale, when we consider that those
terrestrial changes which to us seem so momentous are
merely local circumstances resulting from local variations of
presentation to the sun, from which, as a whole, the earth
maintains .an all but constant distance. The great comet of
1843 came from an aphelion point, at which the sun’s ap-
parent magnitude would only be the two hundredth part of
one degree, and the influence of his light and heat one ten
thousandth part of that which we enjoy. But this same
body in its peri helous passage almost grazed the very surface
of the sun approaching the photosphere within one-seventh
of the solar radius, J and being there exjDosed to the terrific

* See ^"Nature,” Jan. 22ncl, 1874, p. 239.

t See “Eoscoe’s Spectrum Analysis,” p. 290.

X Herschel’s Outlines,” tenth edit., p. 400,

glare wbicli the earth would feel were it illuminated by
47,000 suns instead of one. A far inferior degree of heat
has been found to melt the most refractory rocks and dis-
sipate materials of prodigious fixity, and there can be no
doubt that this comet acquired “a temperature high enough
to convert even carbon into vapour.”^'

The a priori evidence is complete. There can be no
doubt the comet of 1843 possessed an atmosphere, and the
only question now is one of its extent. I believe the actual
depth of the terrestrial atmosphere is still unknown, though
it is estimated as extending to a distance from the surface
of more than seventy miles.*f* Were the mass of the con-
densed portion of the earth by any means diminished so as
to lessen the coercive power exercised thereby over its gase-
ous parts, the volume of the latter would, according to
Herschel, be increased in a proportion exceeding that in
which the central mass had been diminished. The mass of
comets is so small as to have furnished, so far as I can find,
no data for its determination in any individual case. What-
ever mass we may suppose the comet of 1843 to be possessed
of consistent with this fact, it is clear its atmospheric limits
must have been prodigiously remote from the solid matter
of the nucleus. Indeed if we consider the recession result-
ing from increased distance from the central gravitating
mass, no volume of atmosphere containable within the known
extension of our system would seem too great to be attri-
buted thereto.! The deduction from this is that the pheno-
mena resulting to a body of extended atmosphere and sub-
jected to violent thermal change are phenomena which

^ Eoscoe’s Spectrum Analysis,” p. 352.

t Herschel’s ^‘Outlines,” tenth edit., p. 711.

X “ Newton, with the view of illustrating this point, calculated that if
a globe of common atmospheric air one inch in diameter was expanded
so as to have an equal degree of rarity with the air situated at an eleva-
tion above the earth’s surface equal to the earth’s semidiameter, it would
fill the whole planetary regions as far as Saturn.” — Grant’s “ History of
Astronomy,” p. 298.

145

should have been exhibited in an exceptional degree by the
comet of which we speak. And all accounts agree that it
presented '^a stupendous spectacle.” Its tail stretched to a
hitherto unheard of distance, and so brilliant an object was
this body that it could be seen by daylight and in the im-
mediate neighbourhood of the sun.

It is however only on the gratuitous assumption that
comets are composed of the most refractory materials in the
universe that any close proximity to the sun is needed as
an argument in favour of their having atmospheres. Ad-
mitting the community of matter and considering the rigor-
ous cold they must experience in aphelion, it is but reason-
able to suppose that as a rule the production of their
atmospheres by the evaporation of their nucleii is com-
menced at distances from the sun even greater than the
distance of the earth, and thare is plenty of evidence to cor-
roborate this view. The great comet of 1 81 1 presented
irrefragable evidences of the existence of a transparent
atmosphere certainly several thousands of miles in extent,^
and yet its nearest distance from the sun exceeded the dis-
tance of the earth ! whilst during the last return to peri-
helion of Halley’s comet in 1835 Sir John Herschel observed
appearances which satisfied him that the nucleus of the
comet was “ powerfully excited and dilated into a vapourous
state by the action of the sun’s rays, escaping in streams
and jets at those points of its surface which oppose the
least resistance, and in all probability throwing that surface
or the nucleus itself into irregular motions by its reaction
in the act of so escaping.”'!* Yet the perihelion distance of
this comet was as much as 0‘58 of the mean disttxnce of the
earth.

The close approximation to identity observed in the orbital

* See observations of Dr. William Herschel in Phil. Trans., voL 102,
pp. 134 to 136.

t Herschel’ s Outlines,” p. 382,

146

of certain comets and certain meteoric streams is a
matter of too serious moment to be passed over without
attention by a cometaiy theorist. The physical connection
which it indicates is one to be accounted for. It may be,
firstly, that meteors are the uncollected elements or particles
from which comets are built up, or secondly, that meteor
streams and comets are identical,^ or thirdly, that by disin-
tegration and dispersion the constituents of a comet have
become a meteor stream.

So far as I have found no evidence has been adduced that
comets aggregate material in their journeys round the sun
whilst their supposed identity with meteor streams is merely
an hypothesis built upon no observation and failing to
explain with clearness any of their distinguishing pheno-
mena. There is however evidence enough that sub-division
is not uncommon amongst bodies of the cometic class.*[*
Bi-partition is recorded in the Chinese annals four centuries
before the birth of Christ, whilst of modern evidences of
disintegration the separation of Biela’s comet into two in
1846 places the phenomena of sub-division beyond the
reach of doubt. The fact of Biela’s total loss and the exist-
ence of a meteor stream along its former path seem to
establish complete disintregation as a known result and a
meteor stream as an observed effect. During the apparition
of Donati’s comet in 1858 an appearance was remarked in
connection with the tail which Bond considered due to a
quantity of scattered and abandoned gas.j But according
to that theory which it is the object of this pa.per to advance
the disintegration of cometic bodies is not a matter for
surprise. For considering the enormous distances to which
according to that theory some portion of the cometic matter
is removed aud the manner in which it is dispersed it is

See “Nature,” vol. 4, p. 268.

t See “Kirkwood on DisintegTation.” Nature, vol. 6> p. 148,

X “Annals Harvard College,” vol. 3, p. 158 — 60.

147

quite inconceivable that it should ever be wholly re-absorbed.
W]ien its vapourous condition ends a flight of meteors must
result whose densest part will lie along tlie comet’s former
path.

It was a favourite speculation of the elder HerscheF
that in their perihelion passage comets lose some portion
of their more elastic matter, so that what remains behind
assumes a condition of greater consolidation, whilst other
astronomers have believed that at each return a comet loses
something of its former splendour.f Upon whatever evi-
dence these beliefs may rest, the circumstances which they
indicate are a necessary sequence if the theory here advanced
be true.

MICROSCOPICAL ATO NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.

Februaiy 16 th, 1874.

Joseph Baxendell, F.RA.S, Vice-President of the Section
in the Chair.

Mr. Bailey brought under the notice of the Section a
method which he had used for some years of exhibiting
slides under microscopes, the audience being seated. Tins
was described and explained, and it was proposed that the
Council be requested to take the matter into consideration
with a view to its being put into use at the meetings of the
Section.

Mr. T. S. Pease exhibited and explained a series of slides
which he had brought for examination, showing the internal
anatomy of the cockroach.

* “Observations at tlie Cape,” p. 411.

t Smytli’s “Cycle,” vol. 1, p. 235.

148

March 16th, 1874.

Joseph Baxendell, F.B.A.S., Vice-President of the Section
in the Chair.

Mr. Hurst laid on the table some of the expensive
Natural History works it had been decided to purchase
with the fund given by the Manchester Natural History
Society.

Mr. SiDEBOTHAM exhibited an old book cover of the date
1683, mined by a very rare beetle, Hyiiotlienemus eruditus.
This species was discovered more than 40 years ago by
Professor Westwood and named by him, since which time
no other specimen has been seen until this year, when it
was met with by Mr. Janson. Mr. Sidebotham met with
several specimens in this old book cover, one of which was
living.

Mr. Sidebotham also mentioned that during the frost last
week he noticed the steam from an engine at London-road
Station speedily converted into snow, and on examination
of the crystals with a pocket lens found them to consist of
unusual forms of the most simple description, equilateral
triangles, reels with triangular ends, &c., and a total absence
of all wheel-like forms.

149

Amnial Meeting, April 21st, 1874.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

The following Report of the Council was read by one of
the Secretaries :

The Treasurer’s Account for the past year shows that
the general balance has ^increased from £407 Is. 4d. on the
31st of March, 1873, to £435 13s. Id. on the 31st of March
last. It must however be remarked that this increase is
due to the facttlmt no expenditure has been incurred during
the year for binding books, in consequence of the Flon.
Librarian having been unable to give his attention to the
business of the Library as heretofore.

The number of ordinary members on the roll of the
Society on the 1st of April, 1873, was 169, and eleven new
members have since been elected ; the losses are, deaths, 4 ;
resignations, 3; and defaulters, 2. The number on the roll
on the 1st of April instant was therefore 171. The deceased
members are Thomas Garrick, Peter Higson, Thomas Turner,
and Frederick Crace-Calvert.

Mr. Thomas Garrick was born at Rockcliffe House, five
miles from Carlisle, on the 12th of April, 1816. He was
the eldest son and third child of David Garrick, Jun.,
banker, Carlisle, and Sarah his wife, nee Rrockbank, of
Ulverstone. When three years old his life was nearly lost
by fire ; his clothes were ignited in nursery pla}^, and he was
severely burned. For many succeeding years he was a
suffering and delicate boy, naturally shy and diffident,
quiet and fond of books, and not joining much in the active

Proceedings — Lit. &Phil. Soc. — Vol. XIII. — No. 12, — Session 1873-4.

150

sports of boys of his own age. His father died in 1821. In
1825 and 1826 he occasionally attended a mixed school in
the village of Stanwix, Carlisle, taught by a master in
reading, writing, and arithmetic. In December, 1826, he
was placed at a boarding school of the Society of Friends, at
Wigton, Cumberland, and remained there till October, 1829.
After an interval at home he was two years at the late
Samuel Marshalls boarding school at Kendal. Mr. Mar-
shall was interested in his pupil, and sent specimens of his
writing and drawing to William Johnson and Sons, then
land surveyors in Manchester. These specimens, with
Samuel Marshall’s recommendation, procured him a favour-
able entrance as an apprentice into Wm. Johnson and Sons’
office, in 1832, and to their honour they received him without
premium because his mother was a widow. At the close of
his apprenticeship he took offices in Brown Street on his own-
account as land surveyor, and was much engaged on railways
by C. F. Cheffins, of London. His home was with the late
John B. Brockbank’s family, Salford, and at J. B. B.’s death
the partnership of Carrick and Brock bank commenced. He
was a most dutiful son to his widowed mother up to her
death in 1814, and at all times a considerate and loving
brother.

Mr. Carrick became a member of the Literary and Philo-
sophical Society in January, 1857 ; he was elected treasurer
on the 6th of October, 1868, and continued to fill this office
till the time of his death. May 27th, 1873. He contributed
the following papers to the Society :

Feh, 22, 1859.— “On the grouping of unexplained Cosmical Phe-
nomena.”

Oct, 13, 1859.—“ On Orbit Inclination.”

Bee. 8, 1859.— -“On the Smfs Orbit plane.”

Feb. 2, I860.— “On the Moon’s Orbit plane.”

Oct. 11, I860.— “On the Atomic Constitution of Water and Ice.”
A'pr. 30, 1863. — “On the wave of High Water: a new Theory?' of
Tides.”

151

In this paper he certainly accounted for many tidal pheno-
mena, and brought together many curious facts gleaned from
a wide circle of reading. His views of cosmical phenomena
were original, and he frequently took part in discussions
from his own peculiar point of view.

Mr. Thomas Turner, F.R.C.S., was born at Truro, the
23rd August, 1793. His father, Mr. Edmund Turner, was a
banker in that town. His mother wag descended from an
old Cornish family named Ferris. Mr, Thomas Turner was
the youngest of three sons. The eldest, Edmund, succeeded
his father as a banker, and became a member of Parliament,
representing his native town in the Liberal interest for 20
years. The second son, Charles, a lieutenant in the East
India service, was killed by a sunstroke in India. There
were also two sisters older than Mr. T, Turner, both of
whom are dead. Educated at Truro Grammar School, he
left for Bristol, in 1811, to be apprenticed to Mr. Duck, who
was surgeon to St. Peter’s Hospital in that town. Mr.
Turner left Bristol for London in 1815, and entered as
student under Sir Astley Cooper at the United Hospitals of
Guy’s and St. Thomas’s, tie passed at the Eoyal College of
Surgeons and Apothecaries’ Hall in 1816. After this he
studied in Paris, and became acquainted with most of the
eminent men who flourished in the Parisian schools at the
time. He left Paris in 1817, and it was through the influ-
ence of relatives then residing in Manchester tliat he was
appointed resident house surgeon to the Manchester Work-
house. He remained there until the autumn of 1821, when
he commenced practice in Piccadilly, opposite the Boyal
Infirmary.

Mr. Turner was appointed secretary to the Manchester
Natural History Society in 1821, and continued for very
many years to take an active interest in its progress. The
Royal School of Medicine and Surgery, heretofore in Pine
Street, and which Mr, Turner has lived to see united to

152

that noble academical establishment, the Owens College,
owes its first complete organisation to Mr. Turner. In the
autumn of 1822 he commenced his first course of lectures.
They were given at the rooms of the Literary and
Philosophical Society, in George Street, on the ematomy,
physiology, and pathology of the human body. These
lectures Mr. Turner regularly continued till October, 1824,
when he established the Medical School, with the object of
enabling local practitioners to study their profession com-
pletely without the necessity of going to London. Dr.
Dalton became the lecturer on chemistry at Mr. Turner’s
Institution.

In 1831 Mr. Turner was elected surgeon to the Manches-
ter Royal Infirmary, the duties of which office he zealously
performed for 25 years, when he resigned, and was appointed
honorary consulting surgeon. This position he held to the
last. In 1843 he was appointed honorary professor of
physiology to the Royal Institution, when he annually
delivered a course of lectures — the last course being delivered
12 months ago. Mr. Turner has also been honorary surgeon
to the Manchester Deaf and Dumb School from its founda-
tion till now. Of the Infant Deaf and Dumb School he was
the chief promoter, and he laid the foundation stone of the
building at Old Trafibrd in 1859. He also originated the
Manchester and Salford Sanitary Association in 1851, and
was alwa}^ one of its most earnest supporters. His loss
will be very widely felt, from the systematic beneficence
which he practised as a medical man.

Mr. Turner was made Fellow of the Royal College of
Surgeons of England in 1843, and elected to the Council of
the College in 1866. He resigned his seat there last July.
In addition to those already enumerated, Mr. Turner held the
positions of Fellow of the Linnsean Society, and honorary
member of the Harveian Society, London. Fle was the
author of “ Outlines of Medico - Chirurgical Science

158

‘‘ Observations on Aneurism and Hemorrhage/'’ Provincial
Medical Education/’ “ Treatise on Dislocations of the
Astragalus and Injuries of the Foot/’ '•' Retrospect of
Anatomy and Physiology,” and other publiccitions.

Mr. Turner married, in 1826, Anna Mary, daughter of
Mr. James Clarke, of Needham, near Newport, Isle of
Wight. One of Mr. Turner’s sons is a clergyman at Stock-
port; another a lieutenant in the army. One daughter,
married, is resident in Shropshire. The youngest daughter
was her father’s devoted nurse at home. His illness lasted
many weeks, during which there was no hope of his
recovery. He was in his 81st year.

Dr. Frederick Grace -Calvert, F.R.S., was born near
London on the 14th of November, 1819.

In the year 1835, when 16 years of age, he left London
and went to France, where he commenced the study of
chemistry under the celebrated chemist Gerardin, at Rouen,
and continued with him for two years. At the expiration
of this time he went to Paris, and carried on his studies at
the Jardin des Plantes, the Sorbonne, College de France,
and Ecole de Medecine, his attention being principally
given to the Natural Sciences.

About the age of 21 he was appointed to manage the
well known works of Messrs. Robiquet Pelletici, where
the manufacture of pure chemicals and pharmaceutical
products is carried on. This position, however, he soon
vacated on being offered that of Demonstrateur de Chimie
Appliquee,” under the eminent chemist Chevreul, and here he

remained from 1 841 till 1846, when he left France. From

• ^

the former date his career as a chemist began and continued
with untiring eneigy during the succeeding 82 years.

He published his first paper, ‘‘ Sur I’extraction de quinine
et cinchonine,” in Septernber, 1841.

In 1843, in conjunction v/ith M. Ferrand, he elaborated
an interesting paper on the analysis of gases enclosed in

154

some organs of plants, tlie gases being taken from the same
plants at different times of the day and year to demonstrate
the action of the sun’s rays. This paper is entitled “Memoir
sur la Vegetation/’ and may be found in Volume V. of “The
Comptes Eendus.” In the following year the diseases of
beer engaged his attention, and some interesting facts were
embodied by him in a paper read to the Societe de
Pharmacie, “Sur la fermentation visqueuse de la biere.”
From 1843 till tTie time of his leaving France he was
engaged in a research on some compounds of lead which
first brought him into note. One of the papers consequent
on this may be found in the “ Comptes Eendus ” of 1848,
entitled “Precede au moyen duquel on obtient un protoxyde
de plomb cristallise et ayant la couleur du minium.”

In 1844, he wrote “ On the presence of indigo in the
Orchidaceous plants in 1846, “On the preparation of
Calomel on the large scale and, in the same year, a
compilation of facts relating to the properties of animal
black.

On returning to England at the latter end of 1846 he was
first appointed to the chair of the honorary professorship
of chemistry at the Eoyal Institution, and afterwards to
that of lecturer on Chemistry at the School of Medicine in
Pine Street, Manchester.

In 1847 he published a paper “On Bleaching Powders,”
and in 1848 one “ On the Bleaching of Cotton and Flax.”
About this time Dr. Calvert gave a long series of lectures
on his favourite subject at the Atheiipeum, Manchester,
“The Application of Chemistry to Manufactures.” These
were recorded iii Ihe daily papers.

During the following years many other subjects engaged
his attention, but we may notice the following publications
as some of the results of his labours.

In 1849, “Process for the Preparation of Chlorates, parti-
cularly the Chlorate of Potash.”

loo

In 1851 “Ou the Oxides and Nitrates of Lead.”

In 1854 “ A case of Poisoning by the Sulphate of the
Protoxide of Iron.”

In 1855 “ On the Adiilteration of Tobacco.” — “ On the
Action of Organic Acids on Cotton and Flax Fibres. On
the Actions of Gallic and Tannic Acids in Dyeing and Tan-
ning.”

In 1856 “ On the Solubility of Sulphate of Baryta in dif-
ferent Acids.” — “ On the Purification of Polluted Streams.”

About this time he commenced an enquiry, in conjunction
Avith Mr. Richard Johnson, on the physical and chemical
properties of different alloys. The publications resulting
from these iiwestigations Avere :

In 1858 On the Hardness of Metals and Alloys.”— “ On
the Conductibility of Metals and Alloys.”— “ On the Chemi-
cal Changes A^^hich Pig Iron undergoes in its Conversion
into Wrought Iron.”

In 1861 a series of papers “ On the Expansion of Metals
and Alloys.”

In 1862 “ On the Composition of a Carbonaceous Sub-
stance existing in Grey Cast Iron.”— On the Employment
of Galvanised Iron for Armour Plated Ships.”— On the Con-
ductibility of Heat by Amalgams.”

In 1863 “ On the Preservation of Iron Plated and other
Ships.”

The interest he took in the preservation of ships from the
action of sea Avater never ceased ; many unrecorded experi-
ments Avere carried on by him at intervals on this subject
till the last days of his life.

In 1865 Mr. Richard Johnson and he published “On the
Action of Sea Water on certain Metals and Alloys,” and in
1866 “On the Action of Acids on Metals and Alloys.”

In 1 870, two papers appeared by Dr. Calvert, one “On the
Composition of Iron Rust,” the other “On the Oxidation of
Iron,” and a third on the same subject in 1871.

156

In 1858 we find a publication of his “On a New Method
of preparing Hydrochloric Acid.”

In 1859 “On the Analyses of Wheaten Flours.” — “Influence
of Science on the Arts of Calico Printing.” — “On Starches:
the purposes to which they are applied, and improvements
in their Manufacture.”

During this year, his attention was called by the late Dr.
Kansome to hospital gangrene, and in seeking its cause he
was led to investigate the compounds produced during
putrefaction.

Two papers, descriptive of his results, appeared in I860,
the first “ On Products of Putrefaction.” The second
“On New Volatile Alkaloids given off during Putrefaction.”

He continued, during the following two or three years,
with these researches, and had collected about an ounce of
a precipitate, produced by combining the gaseous products
of putrefaction with platinum, by passing the gases emitted
by the putrefying meat through bichloride of platinum, by
m.eans of aspirators, during many months. This accumula-
tion of precipitate was unfortunately destroyed before its
examination could be completed, through the carelessness
of one of his assistants, which caused him much regret ever
afterwards.

In 1861 he wrote “On Improvements in the Manufacture
of Coloring Matters,” and “On the Chemical Composition of
Steel.” A report followed “On the Action of Water supplied
by the Manchester Corporation on Lead of different kinds,”
in connection with the Manchester Sanitary Association.

In 1862 he gave a seiies of lectures to the Society of Arts,
“ On the Improvements and Progress in Dyeing and Calico
Printing since 1851 ;” in 1864 “ On Chemistry as applied to
the Arts;” in 1866 “On Discoveries in Agricultural
Chemistry,” and “On Discoveries in the Chemistry of Rocks
and Minerals.”

These were the beginning of the Cantor lectures, which
are now continued every year by different lecturers.

In this same year we hnd another paper by him, On
Wood for Shipbuilding.”

In 1863 he patented and worked at his process for the
separation of sulphur from coke, by use of common salt, for
the purpose of the manufacture of iron of superior quality.

The following is a list of some of his further publications :

In I860 “On the Action of Silicate and Carbonate of
Soda upon Cotton Fibres.”-—^ On the Crystallized Hydrate
of Phenic Alcohol.”

In 1866 “ On the Hydraulicity of Magnesian Limestone.”
“ On the Preparation of Acetylene.”

About this time he interested himself with the properties
of phenic or carbolic acid, and being satisfied of its valuable
disinfecting properties, built works for its manufacture,
and to him belongs the honour of having first brought it in.
a pure state into commerce.

In 1867 he wrote papers “On Oxidation by means of
Charcoal. On the Presence of Soluble Phosphates in
Cotton Fibres, Wheat, and other Seeds,” and five articles
“ On the S}uithesis of Organic Substances.”

In 1867 “ Carbolic or Phenic Acid and its Properties ”
(three articles).

In 1869 “ Presence of Soluble Phosphates in Seeds.”—
“ Preparation of Nitrogen.”

In 1870 “Testing Petroleum.”

In 1872 “Sulphur in Coal and Coke;” and papers on
“Protoplasmic Life ;” “Vitality of Disease Germs,” &c. Part
of the latter series remains yet unpublished.

In concluding the list of Dr. Crace-Calvert’s various
researches we may mention that, besides the above, many
others were made by him, but their unfinished state does
not justify publication. Among these may be mentioned
one on “Lmht,” which cost him much labour, and one
“On the Action of different Gases on each other under
Enormous Pressures,”

158

He was a Fellow of tlie Royal Society, of the Chemical
Society, and of many other societies both at home and
abroad.

Dr. Calvert showed remarkable devotion to the science he
studied, and his knowledge of its literature was such as
very few have attained, and such also as could only
be obtained by a most unusual amount of reading,
accompanied with strong interest, and in all probability
much pleasure. He showed this knowledge more in the
departments referring to industry, and, as might be ex-
pected, he intended to give his experience to the public in a
more convenient form than his lectures presented. One of
these works, that relating to “ Colours other than Aniline,’’
was nearly completed — if not entirely so~before his last
illness, and is expected to be published shortly. Whilst
rather exhausted with this work, added to the attention
required for the manufactures in which he was engaged, he
was chosen as one of the jury of the Vienna Exhibition.
The summer of 1873 was sultry and unpleasant, and
other causes may have operated to make it unhealthy;
but whatever the reason or combination of reasons may
have been (and we cannot doubt that work and anxiety
contributed), the result was that Dr. Calvert returned in a
very enfeebled state, and a few days after his arrival in
Manchester was seized with a fatal illness, which terminated
on the 24th of October of the same year.

He was a firmly built man, of middle height, and appar-
ently of unusual strength. His hair was dark, and he
seemed to be younger in constitution than his years indi-
cated. His manner was animated, and he had great pleasure
in communicating information. It is not attempted in this
notice to say to what extent his writings have contributed
to the advance of science or the knowledge of manufactures^
but in the latter department it is certain that his influence
was widely felt, and his friendly disposition enabled him

159

to become a frequent medium of communication between
scientific men in England and in France, in both of which
countries lie felt equally at home. With these combined
characteristics the position he made for himself was
peculiar, and of its importance we may judge partly by the
fact that, although one to which many would be glad to
attain, it is not yet filled up.

In accordance with the resolution passed at the last
annual meeting the Council has entered into an arrangement
with the Manchester Geological Society to afford accommo-
dation for its meetings and room for its library, &c., tlie
Geological Society to pay an annual rent of £25, and also a
further sum of £5 per annum for the services of the Keeper
of the Rooms.

Steps have been taken for procuring the Incorporation of
the Society under the provisions of the ‘‘Companies Acts,”
but a question having arisen whether it may not be neces-
sary to alter the rules of the Society, it has been thought
desirable to obtain counsel’s opinion on this point before
proceeding further in the matter.

An application having been received from the “Scientific
Students’ Association” for permission to hold its meetings
in the rooms of the Society, a resolution will be submitted
this evening for the approval of the members, authorising
the Council to negotiate the terms and conditions of an
arrangement with the Association.

The following papers and communications have been read
at the ordinary and sectional meetings of the Society during
the present session : — ■

October 1th, 1873. — “Atmospheric Refraction and the last rays
of the Setting Sim,” by David Winstanley, Esq.

October \Wi, 1873. — “On Specimens of Carex punctata,” by
Charles Bailey, Escp

October \ith, 1873. — “Mean Monthly Barometric Readings at
Old Trafford, Manchester, from 1849 to 1872,” by G. Y. Vernon,
F.R.A.S., F.M.S.

160

“ Results of Meteorological Observations taken at Langdale,
Dimbula, Ceylon, during the years 1868 — 72,” by Edward Heelis,
Esq. Communicated by Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S.

October 21st, 1873. — “On the Relative Work spent in Friction
in giving Rotation to Shot from Guns rifled with an Increasing,
and a Uniform Twist,” by Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A.

November Uh, 1873. — “ On the Bursting of Trees and Objects
struck by Lightning,” by Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A.

“On some Roman and Celtic Antiquities,” by the Rev. W. N.
Molesworth, M.A.

“On Vitrified Forts,” by Dr. R. Angus Smith, F.R.S., V.P.

November l^th, 1873.- — “Remarks upon the British locality for
Lobelia urens,” by J. C. Melville, M.A., F.L.S.

“On Lymexylon Navale,” by Joseph Sidebotham, F.R.A.S.

November IWi, 1873 — “On the Bursting of Trees and Objects
struck by Lightning,” by Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A.

“ On the Colour of Nankin Cotton,” by Edward Schunck, Ph,D.,
F.R.S., V.P.

“ An Improved Method for preparing Marsh Gas,” by C. Schor-
le miner, F.R.S.

December 2nd, 1873. — “On a Remarkable Thunderstorm at
Brockham Green, Surrey, on the 7th November, 1873.

December Sth, 1873.-^ — “On a Collection of Shells from the
Worden Gravel Pit, near the Leyland Station, near Chorley,” by
R. D. Darbishire, F.G.S.

December IQth, 1873. — “ Method of Construction of a New
Barometer,” by J. P. Joule, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., &c., President.

“On the Explosion of Water,” by C. Piazza Smyth, F.R.S.,
Astronomer Royal of Scotland.

“On the Destruction of Sound by Fog and the Inertness of a
Heterogeneous Fluid,” by Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A.

“ The Chemical Constitution of Bleaching Powder,” by C.
Schorlemmer, F.R.S,

December 30th, 1873.—“' On the Rapid Growth of the Bar at
the Entrance into the Queen’s Channel, Liverpool,” by E. W,
Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., V.P.

Januarij IWi, 1874. — “On Further Improvements in a

161

Mercurial Air Exhauster,” by J. P. Joule, D.C.L., LL.D., F.E.S.,
&c., President.

On the Influence of Acids on Iron and Steel,” by William H.
Johnson, B.Sc.

“ On Crystalline Sublimed Cupric Chloride,” by S. Carson
(Student in the Laboratojy of the Owens College). Communicated
by Professor H. E. Eoscoe, F.R.S.

“ Memorandum on Brown-stapled Cotton,” by Major R. Trevor
Clarke. Communicated by Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S., V.P.

“ On the Graphical Representation of the Movements of the
Chest Wall in Respiration,” by Arthur Ransome, M.D., M.A.

January 19th, 1874. — ‘*On the Similarity of Certain Crystal-
lised Substances to Vegetable Forms,” by Josej)h Sidebotham,
F.R.A.S.

January 21th, 1874. ~~-“On a Source of Error in Mercurial
Thermometers,” by Thomas M. Morgan, Student in the Laboratory
of Owens College. Communicated by Professor H. E. Roscoe,

F. R.S.

“Notes on Fossil Lithothamnia (so-called Nulliporae),” by
Arthur Wm. Waters, F.G.S.

February 3rd, 1874. — “On the Theory of the Tides,” by David
Win Stanley, Esq.

“Rainfall at Old Trafford, Manchester, in the year 1873,” by

G. V. Vernon, F.R.A.S., F.M.S.

February \^th, 1874. — “The Northern Range of the Basques,”
by W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A.

February 2 ith, 1874. — “On the Drainage of Churchyards and
Burial Grounds,” by E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S,, V.P.

“ On the Effect of Acid on the Interior of Iron Wire,” by Pro-
fessor Osborne Reynolds, M.A.

“ On the Movements of the Chest in Respiration,” by Dr.
Ransome, M.A.

March 3rd, 1874. — “ Results of Rain-gauge Observations at
Eccles, near Manchester, during the year 1873,” by Thomas
Mackereth, F.R.A.S., F.M.S.

March \^th, 1874. — “On Professor Renault’s Memoir on Speci-
mens of Fossil Plants of the Genus Myelopteris,” by E. W.
Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., V.P.

162

^‘Further Observations and Experiments on the Influence of
Acids on Iron and. Steel,” by William H. Johnson, B.Sc.

“ On Dr. Schliemann’s Excavations and Discoveries on the site
of Troy,” by R. D. Darbishire, F.O.S.

^‘Results of Certain Magnetic Observations made at Manchester
during the year 1873,” by Professor Balfour Stewart, LL.D., F.R.S.

March IMh, 1874. — “On Some Specimens of Hypothenemus
Eruditus,” by Joseph Sidebotham, F.R.A.S.

March 1874. — “On Some of the Perplexities which the

Art and Architecture of the Present are preparing for the His-
torians and Antiquarians of the Future,” by the Rev. Brooke
Herford.

“A Few Observations on Coal,” by E. W. Binney, F.R.S. ,
F.G.S., V.P.

March 31s^, 1874. — “ The Meteorological Theory of Cometary
Phenomena,” by David Winstanley, Esq.

1874. — “On the Corrosion of some portions of the
Cast Iron Roof of the Salford Station of the Lancashire and
Yorkshire Railway,” by E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., V.P.

“ On the Action of Nascent Hydrogen on Iron,” by William H.
Johnson, B.Sc.

“ Does the Earth receive any Heat directly from the Sun T 1)y
Henry H. Howorth, Esq.

April IMh, 1874.-— “On the Introduction of Planorbis dilatatus
from America into Lancashire,” by Thomas Rogers, Esq.

Several of these papers have already been printed in the
current volume of Memoirs, and others have been passed by
the Council for printing.

Although the system of electing sectional Associates has
■ not yet met with the success which its promoters antici-
pated, the Council consider it desirable to recommend that
it be continued during the ensuing year.

The Librarian reports that having been unable to give
much personal attention to the working of the library, the
Council found it necessary to secure some paid help to bring
up many arrears, and prepare the parcels of Memoirs and

163

Proceedings now being distributed to the honorary and
corresponding members, and to the various learned bodies
with whoju the Society exchanges it transactions. These
parcels are now on the point of being dispatched to their
various addresses. No progress has been made in the bind-
ing of the books, and* the number needing to be bound is
now so large as to demand early attention, prompt and
regular binding being of great importance in a public
library. Considerable shelf space will be required to pro-
vide for the accumulation of works which have no fixed
place in the library. The number of Societies holding rela-
tions with .the Society continues as was reported last year.

SAWT,. BEOU'GHTOIf, TEEASTJREE, IN ICCOUNT WITH THE LITEEARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OE MANCHESTER

Feom Maech 31st, 1873, to Makch 31st, 1874. ^^lr.

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165

On the motion of Mr. F. Nicholson, seconded by Mr. J.
A. Bennion, it was resolved unanimously : — “ That the
Report just read be adopted and printed for circulation
among the members of the Society.’’

On the motion of tlie Rev. Joseph Freeston, seconded
by Mr. D. Winstanley, it was resolved unanimously: —

“ Tliat the system of electing Sectional Associates be con-
tinued during the ensuing session.”

On the motion of Mr. C. Bailey, seconded by Mr. J.
Baxendell, it was resolved unanimously : — That the
application of the Scientific Students’ Association for per-
mission to hold its meetings in the Society’s buildings in
consideration of a payment to be fixed be acceded to, and
the Council be authorised to negotiate the terms and con-
ditions of such arrangement.”

On the motion of Mr. E. W. Binney, seconded by Dr.
SCHQNCK, it was resolved unanimously : —That the thanks
of the Society be given to Mr. Bailey for his valuable
services as Honorary Librarian.”

The following gentlemen were then elected Officers of the
Society and Members of Council for the ensuing year : — ■

frtsitent.

EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., &c.

EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.

ROBERT ANGUS SMITH, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

REV. WILLIAM GASKELL, ‘M.A,

JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S.

OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A.

166

SAMUEL BEOUeHTON.

piyxanati:*

FEANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.
tht €<0«;iutl

EOBEET DUKINFIELD DAEBISHIEE, B.A., F.O.S,
WILLIAM BOYD DAWKINS, M.A., F.E.S., F.O.S.

BALFOUE STEWAET, LL.D., F.E.S.

ALFEED BEOTHEES, F.E.A.S.

EEV. BEOOKE HEEFOED,

CHAELES BAILEY.

The following communication from Dr. Joule, F.R.S.,
was read by Mr. Baxendell : —

“ Will you permit me, in reference to Mr. Howorth’s com-
munication to the last meeting, to refer to my papers in the
Phil. Trans., 1859, p. 91 and p. 183, in which experiments
are described proving what had previously been shown by
Sir W. Thomson to be corollaries to the dynamical theory of
heat, viz. : — That the heat evolved by substances on being
compressed is never exactly equivalent to the force of com-
pression ; is generally very different therefrom ; while in the
case of water taken between the limits 82° and 89° Fahren-
heit, cold, not heat, is the result of compression. I cannot
therefore, admit the axiom on which Mr. Howorth builds his
ingenious theory.”

167

PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.

April 28th, 1874.

Alfred Brothers, F.R.A.S., President of the Section, in
the Chair.

''On the Ratios and Frequency of Rainfall, deduced from
Observations made at Eccles,” by Thomas Mackereth,
F.R.A.S., F,M.S.

A few weeks ago Thomas Glazebrook Ry lands, Esq., of
Th el wall, near Warrington, was kind enough to draw my
attention to the amount of rainfall at that place for the
years 1872 and 1873. The amount which fell there in
1872 was 47*52 inches, and in 1873 it was 24*53 inches.
These amounts Mr. Rylands considers extremes of rainfall
for that district, and he was led to make several comparisons
between them. The results of these comparisons show
curiously enough that "the amount of excess in rainfall
increases with the amount of rain, and therefore that the
increase is due mainly to the maximum falls.’'

In putting the falls of the two years mentioned into
ratio they stand thus, 1*940:1. But the number of days
of rainfall in the two years stand thus, 1.235 : 1. Mr.
Rylands then introduces into comparison the ratios that
exist between other elements; but as those results only
apply to his own register, I will not now mention them. I
will merely state, having mentioned the rainfall for the two
years at that place, that the number of days on which rain
fell there in 1872 was 233, whilst in 1873 the number of
days was 189. But if the number of days on which rain
falls in a wet year is to bear any comparison with those of
a dry year the result must be very different, for the ratio

168

of the amounts of rain and the number of days I have given
stand thus, 24-58 : 47'52 :: 189; : 366, so that if the number
of rainy days at Thelwall in 1872 had any proportion with
the rainfall it would have rained there on every day in the
year instead of on only 233 days.

Seeing that some information might be derived from a
similar consideration of all the years of rainfall I had regis-
tered at Eccles, I have made the requisite comparisons and
beg now to submit the results to the section.

In the following table I present the rainfall at Eccles for
the last thirteen years, in the order of the amount of fall in
inches, together with the number of days in each year on
which rain fell.

RAINFALL AT ECCLES.

Amount of

Number of

Year.

Fall

Days of

in inches.

Rainfall.

1865

27*809 ....

.... 177

1870

30*404 ....

178

1864

30*874

180

1873

31*127

219

1868

32*922 ....

208

1871

33*161

192

1861

33*674 ....

202

1867

... 35*515

211

1869

35*701

210

1863

36*216

221

1862 37-664 225

1866 43*076 232

1872 48-416 264

Mean 35*119 209

Now, if the extremes of rainfall and number of days on
which rain fell, as shown in this table, be placed in com-
parison, their ratios will stand thus :

27-809: 48-416:: 177: 308.

Now the numbers of days on which rain fell, in 1872
was only 264; whereas, if this number had been in propor-
to the rainfall, it should have been 308.

From the foregoing table I have deduced by means of the
average amount of rainfall, and the average number of days
on which rain fell, the ratios of the rainfall of each of the
last 13 years, and placed each ratio opposite the ratio of

1G9

the number of days of rainfall of each year. They are as fol-
lows, column (h) representing the ratios of rain-fall, and (c)
the ratios of the number of days on which rain fell.

Year.

(c.)

1865

-794

-847

1870

-868

'851

1864...

....... -882

-861

1873

-889

1-047

1868

-940

-955

1871...

, -947

'918

1861

-962

*966

Mean

-897

...... -920

1-014 1-009

1-020 1-004

1-034 1-057

1-076 1-076

1.230 1-110

1-383 1-263

Mean 1-126 1-086

From the above table it will be seen that the ratios of the
first Means are inverse to those of the second Means ; and
that when the rainfall was below the average there was a
relative increase of the number of wet days ; but when it
was above the average there was a relative decrease in the
number of wet days. So that in wet years, as a rule, more
rain falls at a time than in dry years ; and we have more
rainy days in proportion to the fall in dry years than we
have in wet ones.

“ The Cause of Solar Heat,” by David Winstanley, Esq.

When a body possessing the visible energy of mechanical
translation is arrested in its course, that energy, according
to the laws of conservation, is not destroyed, but becomes
apparent in another form, generally in the form of heat.
Should a body receive two equal impulses in diametrically
opposite directions at the same time, mechanical translation
as a result thereof is impossible, and the energy thus ex-
pended, it appears to be agreed, will in the main assume the
form of heat. Should a body however receive two equal
impulses in directions inclined to each other mechanical
translation will ensue, but the value of the energy of visible

1867.

1869.

1863.

1862,

1866,

1872.

170

motion thus communicated to the body in question is not
equal to the sum of the impulses, being, as is well known,
justly represented by the diagonal of a parallelogram the
length of whose sides is proportioned to the value of the
primal impulses. What then in this case becomes of the
residue of energy applied and not converted into visible
motion ? I apprehend it assumes the form of heat. If so
in the instance of a body receiving equal impulses in direc-
tions inclined to each other at an angle of 120 degrees, the
resulting visible motion will just account for the energy of
one of these impulses, and the resulting heat for the energy
of the other. If then a body having a certain amount of
visible energy observable as rectilinear movement have a
series of impulses imparted at an angle of 120 degrees in
each instance to the line of motion and equal in value to
the visible energy of the body at the time of application,
the body in question will gain nothing in visible motion
through the application of these impulses, but will simply
alter the direction of its movement at each application and
acquire at the same time an amount of heat of which the im-
pulse is the mechanical equivalent. Adopting this view, it
matters not at what angle the impulse may be given, for so
long as the figure representing its amount yields with that
representing the visible motion of our body a parallelogram
whose resultant is equal to the line of visible motion, it fol-
lows that the energy of mechanical translation remains
unaltered and the energy of the impulse becomes wholly
transformed into heat. This condition of things however is
what obtains in the instance of a body in planetary revolu-
tion in a circular orbit. It is continually receiving impulses
through the instrumentality of gravitation at or nearly at
right angles to its line of flight, and its energy of visible
motion does not increase, whence I infer that the mechani-
cal energy by which its rectilinear movement is destroyed
is converted into an equivalent of heat which elevates the

171

tempemture of the planet so lai* as its eonditioiis of I’adia-
tion will permit. The aggregate value of the impulses
required to make a body describe a circle and return to its
primal position and direction without loss or gain of visible
energy I have endeavoured to determine graphically by
means of the mechanical parallelogram. The result at which
I arrive is that the aggregate in question exceeds the mo-
mentum of the body to be deviated in the same proportion
as the circumference of a circle exceeds its radius, and this
irrespective of the circle’s size. I have not attempted to
calculate the temperature to which the matter of the earth
would be elevated by a sudden stoppage in its orbital
path, for it appears to me that satisfactory data for doing
this do not exist. The number of thermal units to which
such a stoppage would give rise if multiplied by 6 ’28
indicate the amount of heat which upon the present
hypothesis the earth annually receives through the in-
strumentality of solar gravitation. This amount will^
I apprehend, am})ly account for a certain initial tempera-
ture of the terrestrial matter, and for that excess of
internal heat which appears to have been pretty well
made out. It will be evident that any heat which in
virtue of this hypothesis may be supposed to fall to the lot
of our earth will in some calculable proportion fall to the
lot of the other planets also. That proportion I apprehend
to be directly as the planet’s mass multiplied into its velocity
in orbit and divided by its periodic time. Of course this
amount of heat will be distributed over the entire matter of
the planet, the temperature of which will depend on the
capacity for heat of the matter composing it. and on its
facilities for radiation. These latter will clearly diminish
with the comparative diminution of superficies enjoyed
by the larger planets and with the extension of their
atmospheres. In the case of bodies moving in elliptic
orbits the amount of energy which according to this

172

hypothesis will be transformed to heat in a single revolu-
tion will be practically as before, i,e., 6'28 times the planet’s
visible energy of motion at its mean distance from the sun.
There will, however, be this difference between the two
cases. In the instance of a body moving in a circular orbit
the accession of heat will be a constant quantity in equal
increments of time and in all parts of the orbit, whereas in
the case of a body moving in an ellipse the accession will
be least in approaching the perihelion and greatest in
receding from it, inasmuch as the solar gravitation produces
an increase of mechanical translation in the former instance
and a diminution in the latter. Assuming the theory to be
correct this circumstance is one which will greatly mitigate
the extremes of heat to which, apart from such a considera-
tion, we should expect cometic bodies to be subject. Indeed,
in spite of the enormous distances to which they recede
from the sun, the voluminous nature of their atmospheres
by which radiation must be diminished, may, in conjunction
with this view of the case, afford an explanation of the
unexpectedly high temperature which, in the case of these
bodies, the spectroscope certainly seems to indicate.

The application of the views herein advanced to an
explanation of the cause of solar lieat is briefly this
As the mutual and ever-acting gravitation of the sun and
his attendant planets produces in the instance of the central
luminary no more acceleration of visible motion than in
the instance of the planets themselves, the gravitation must
result in the exhibition of some other form of energy, which in
the one case as in the other will, I apprehend, be the form
of heat. Carrying, however, this idea to the extreme, we
should be led to infer that the force of gravitation, which in
some circumstances is certainly capable of transference into
the form of mechanical translation, and thence into the
form of heat, is in others just as capable of transformation
in the opposite order. Indeed, if heat is to be regarded as

17‘^

the individual movement of a multitude of particles whose
simultaneous movement is observable as mechanical trans-
lation, it is but reasonable to suppose that a force acting
upon all, but from the circumstances of the case incapable
of producing a simultaneous and concordant movement, will
produce an individual and in a sense discordant motion of
those same particles. Looking at the matter in this way,
any agglomeration of particles whatever must have some
initial heat as a result of that gravitation which is unable
to evince itself as mechanical translation. And as in our
experience gravity is unceasing, this heat so far as we can
see should be never ending during the continuance of those
conditions which prevent the movement of translation.
And a never ending supply of heat must cause an elevation
of temperature which will only cease when a point is reached
at which the rapidity of radiation equals the rapidity of
supply. The more numerous the particles composing the
agglomerated body the less become the opportunities of
radiation and the more elevated the temperature, which
latter attains its maximum in our own system in the
instance of the stupendous body which maintains the super-
ficial mundane heat by irradiation from its fires.

It will be seen that the theory here projected places itself
in antagonism with the doctrine that '' a stone high up” has
anything which can be justly termed “the energy of posi*
tion.” But I have already occupied sufficient time without
staying now to combat further the doctrine I have named.

To those who have been accustomed to regard gravitation
as a property which enables bodies to act where they are
not, the present considerations will present difficulties not
encountered by others who accept the beautiful, and to my
thinking more rational, hypothesis that the simple mechani-
cal movement of infinitesimal particles is the immediate
cause of that grand effect the law of universal gravitation.

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.

April 13th, 1874.

Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., &c., President of the
Section, in the Chair.

Mr. Plant, F.G.S., exhibited some bones of the extinct
Auroch {Bison ijtIsgus), which had been taken from a deep
fissure in the limestone above Castleton, where nearly the
whole of the skeleton had been found, together with the
bones of the reindeer.

Mr. Thos. Kogers read a paper “ On the Introduction of
Planorbis dilatatus ” (Gould), a North American fresh water
mollusk, which he discovered (June, 1869) adhering to the
stones immediately below the surface of the water in the
Bolton canal at Pendleton, and in close proximity to the
blowing room refuse discharge, and warm water discharge
from the engines of Messrs. Armitage’s cotton mill. He also
afterwards found the same species under similar conditions
in the canal adjoining the mills of Messrs. Hylands, at
Gorton. After examining all the circumstances under which
the mollusk was found (the details of which he placed before
the members of the section), he was led to believe that its
introduction into this country was by means of American
cotton, which had been used for such like war purposes as
barricades for steamboats or river defences by the soldiers
in the civil war during the presidency of Abraham Lincoln,
and which had been accidentally submerged in water and
redried with the fry or spawn masses of the Planorbis
attached to its fibres previous to its exportation to England,
and this ultimately finding its way through the cotton
refuse into the canals adjoining the aforementioned mills,

He also remarked the abundance of the beautiful fresh water
Zoophyte Pluinatella repens, which is found in both habitats
of the Planorbis, and on the dead branches of which it seems
to find its favourite food. Mr. Rogers said that since the
year 1869 (when the mollusk was found in small quantity)
it had increased its area of distribution, and multiplied so
much as likely to become" one of the commonest of our local
shells.

Annual Meeting, May 4th, 1874.

Joseph Baxendell, F.KA.S., Vice-President of the Section,
in the Chair.

The following report of the Council for the year ending
May 4th, was read and passed :

The following papers and subjects have been brought
before the meetings during the session : — ■

November lO^A 1873.— On Lobelia urens,” by J. C. Melvill,
M.A., F.L.S., &c.

On the OccuiTence of Lymexyloii navale in Dunham Park,”
by Joseph Sidebotham, F.R.A.S.

December 8th, 1 873. — “ On a Collection of Shells from the Drift,”
by R. D. Darbishire, B.A., &c.

‘‘ On Moths and Butterflies captured at Sea 300 miles from the
coast of Brazil,” by James Linton.

On an old Microscope made by Benjamin Martin, a celebrated
Mathematician of the last century,” by J. B. Dancer, F.R.A.S.
The microscope was exhibited by Mr. Plant.

January \Wi, 1874. — -“On the Similarity of certain Crystallised
Substances to Vegetable Forms,” by Joseph Sidebotham, F.R.A.S.
Illustrated with drawings, and specimens under the microscope.

February \%th, 1874. — ^^‘‘On a Method of Exhibiting Slides
under the Microscope to a number of persons seated at a meeting,”
by Charles Bailey.

176

“ On the Anatomy of the Cockroach,” by J. S. Peace.

March 16^^, 1874:.---‘‘ On Hypothenemus eruditiis,” by Joseph
Sidebotham, F.R.A.S.

April \2)th, 1874. — ‘‘On the Introduction into Lancashire from
America of Planorbis dilatatus,” by T. Rogers.

“On a Bone Cave at Castleton,” by J. Plant, F.G.S.

Besides these papers various matters of interest have been
brought before the members at the meetings, notices of
which appear in the Proceedings.

The Council have to report the donation, by Mr. Rideout,
of the valuable old microscope which was exhibited to the
members in February, 1873, and a figure and description of
which appear in the Proceedings of that date.

The Council have had notice of the payment by the
Owens College Trustees of the first interest on the £1500
given to this Section by the Manchester Natural History
Society, and as soon as this money has been received by our
Treasurer, it is purposed to purchase some valuable Natural
History works for the library which are much wanted for
reference.

From the accompanying statement of accounts it will be
seen that the financial position of the Section is satisfactory,
the Treasurer having a balance in hand of £43 19s. 9d.

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(Signed) Joseph Sidebotham, (Signed) H. A. Hurst, Treasurer.

178

Mr. SiDEBoTToM exhibited a cut flower of Frimula Japo~
nica the result of Hybridisation.

The election of offieers for Session 18T4-5 was then pro-
ceeded with, and the following gentlemen were appointed :

R. D. DAEBISHIEE, B.A., &c.

JOSEPH BAXEHDELL, F.E.A.S., &c.
W. BOYD DAWKINS, F.E.S., &c.

W. C. WILLIAMSON, F.E.S., &c.

HENEY ALEXANDER HUEST.

SPENCEE H. BICKHAM, June.
JOSEPH SIDEBOTHAM, F.E.A.S.

tijc ConttdI.

CHARLES BAILEY.

JOHN BARROW.

ALFRED BROTHERS, F.E.A.S.
THOMAS COWARD.

J. COSMO MELVILL, M.A„ F.L.S.
THOS. H. NEVILL.

ROBERT B. SMART, M.R.C.S.

The following is the List of Members and Associates

fist

Alcock, Thomas, M.D.

Bailey, Charles.

Barrow, John.

Baxendell Joseph, F.E.A.S.
Bickham, Spencer H., Jun.
Binney, Edward Wm., F.R.S.,
F.O.S.

Brockbank, W., F.G.S.
Brogden, Henry.

Brothers, Alfred, F.E.A.S.
CoTTAM, Samuel.

Coward, Edward.

Coward, Thomas.

Dale, John, F.C.S.

Dancer, John Benj., F.E.A.S.
Dareishire, R. D., B.A.
Dawkins, W. Boyd, F.R.S.
Deane, William K.

Gladstone, Murray, F.E.A.S.
Heys, William Henry.

Higgin, James, F.C.S.

of gpmbcrs.

Hurst, Hrnry Alexander.
Latham, Arthur George.
Maclure, John Wm., F.R.G.S.
Melvill. J. C., M.A., F.L.S.
Morgan, Edward, M.D.
Morris, Walter.

Nevill, Thomas Henry.

Piers, Sir Eustace.

Rideout, William J.

Roberts, William, M.D.
SiDEBOTHAM, JOSEPH, F.E.A.S
Simpson, Hrnry, M.D.

Smart, Robert Bath, M.R.C.S.
Smith, Robert Angus, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.

Vernon, George Venables,
F.E.A.S.

Williamson, Wm. Crawford,
F.R.S., Prof. Nat. Hist., Owens
College.

Wright, William Cort.

Hardy, John.
Hunt, John.
Labrey, B. B.
Linton, James.
Meyer, Adolph.
Peace, Thos. S.
Percival, James.

fist of gissofnates..

Plant, John, F.G.S.
Rogers, Thomas.

Ruspini, F. O.

Stirrup, Mark.

Tatham, John F. W.
Waterhouse, J. Crewdson,

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

OF

MANCHESTER,

VOL. XIV,

Session 1874-75

MANOHESTEE :

PRINTED BY THOS, SOWLER AND CO., RED LION STREET, ST. ANN’s SQUARE.
LONDON : H. BAILLIERE, 219, REGENT STREET,

1875.

NOTE.

The object wliicli tlie Society liave iu view in pnblisliing their
Proceedings is to give an immediate and succint account of the
scientific and other business transacted at their meetings to the
members and the general public. The various communications
are sujpplied by the authors themselves^ who are alone responsible
for the facts and reasonings contained therein.

I.N D E X.

Bailey Charles.— On Carex ornitliopoda, j). 106.

Binney E. W., F.E.S., F.Gr.S.j V.P. — On a Specimen of Stigmaria hav-
ing the Medulla ]3erfectly preserved, ii. 13. On the Sewerage of
Towns and the Pollution of Eivers and Streams, p. 66. ISTote on
the late Mr. James Wolfenden, of Hollinwood, p. 91. On some
Specimens of a strong arenaceous Shale, containing numbers of
macrospores of Lepidodendron, p. 97.

Bottomley James, B.Sc.~On a case of Eeversed Chemical Action, p. 65^

Brothers Alfred, E.E.A.S^—Photography as applied to Eclipse
Observations, p. 143.

Carnelley Thomas, B.Sc.— On a Colorimetric Method of Determining
Iron in Waters, p. 16. Analysis of one of the Trefriw Mineral
Waters, p, 59.

Dawkins Professor W. Boyd, E.E.S.-— On the animal remains in the
Windy Knoll fissure, p, 5. On the conditions under which Paleeo^
lithic Implements are found in Eiver-Strata and in Caves in
association with the extinct Mammalia, p. 15. On the Stone
Mining Tools from Alderley Edge, p. 74. On a Collection of Stone
and Bronze Articles from the Pile Dwellings in the Lake of
Bienne, p. 104.

Gibbons James.— Action of Light on certain Vanadium Compounds,
41.

Crimshaw Harry, E.C,S. — On Basic Calcium Chloride, p. 43.

Heelis Edward.— Eesults of Meteorological Observations taken at
Langdale, Dimbtila, Ceylon, in the Year 1873, p. 93.

Howorth Henry H., F.S.A.— Some Notes on Pasigraphy, p. 24. Some
Doubts in regard to the Law of the Diffusion of Gases, p. 51.

Johnson William H., B.Sc.~On two Eemarkable Pieces of Iron
Furnace Cinder, containing Crystals of Fayalite, p. 13.

Joule, J.P., LL.D., F.E.S., V.P. — On his Mercurial Air Pump, p. 12.

McDougall Arthur, B.Sc.— On a S|>ecimen of Carbon resembling
Graphite, formed upon the Eoof of a Gas Eetort, p. 101 «

vi.

Mackerith Thomas, F.E.A.S,, F.M.S.— Eesults of Eam-Grauge Observa-
tions made at Eccles, near Manchester, during the year 1874,
p. 123.

Melvill James C., M.A., F.L.S.— On the Botany of Wilmington, North
Carolina, p. 105.

Millae J, B., B.E.— a Method of Finding the Axes of an Ellipse when
two conjugate diameters are given, p. 89.

Pennington Eooke, LL.B.— On the Ossiferous Deposit at Windy
Knoll, near Castleton, p. 1. On some Teeth from a Fissure in
Waterhouses Quarry, in Staffordshire, p. 5. Archaic Iron Mining
Tools from Lead Mines near Castleton, p. 78. A Descent into
Elden Hole, Derbyshire, p. 81.

Plant John, F.G-.S.—On the Mollusca, &c., inhabiting Cymmeran Bay,
Anglesey, p. 145,

Eawson EoBEET.-~On Mr. Millar’s Method of Finding the Axes of an
Ellipse when two conjugate diameters are given, p. 98.

Eeynolds Professor O,, M.A., Hon, Sec.-—On the Extent and Action of
the Heating Surface for Steami Boilers, j)- 7. On the Action of
Eain to Calm the Sea, p, 72.

Eoscoe Professor H.E,, F.E.S.— On the Corrosion of Leaden Hot-Water
Cisterns, p. 23. Some Eemarks on Dalton’s First Table of Atomic
Weights, p. 35.

ScHUNCK Edwaei), F.E.S., President. — On the Proposed Scheme for the
Incorporation of the Society under the Provisions of the Com-
panies Acts, 1862 and 1867, p. 109.

SiDEBOTHAM J., F.E.A.S.—On (Ecophara Woodiella, p. 80. Notes on the
Botany and Natural History of Tenby and the neighbourhood, p.
108.

Smith E. Angus, F.E.S., V.P.— A Study of Peat; Part I., p. H7.

Smith Watson, F.C.S,— Some Particulars Eespecting the Negro of the
Neighbourhood of the Congo, Y7est Africa., p. 54.

Thomson William, F.C.S.— On the Presence of Sulxihate of Copper
ill Water Heated in Tinned Copper Boilers, p, 102,

Veenon G, V„ F.E.A.S., F.M.S.— Eainfall at Old Traft’ord, Manchester,
in the year 1874, p. 122.

WAtees Aethue W., F.G.S. — Certain Lines observed in Snow Crystals,
p. 85. On Discoveries in a Cave at Thayingen, near Sclrnffhausen^
p. 113.

Williamson Professor W. C., F.E.S.-^-Oii the Structure of Stignmria, p,-

45,

Y.I1,

WiNSTANLEY Dayid.—Oii the Existence of a Lunar Atmosphere, p. 30. •
Meetings of tJie Pliijsical and Mathematical Annual, |>, 143. Ordi-

nary, pp. 93, 122.

Meetings of the Microscopical and Natural History Section — Annual, p. 153.
Ordinary, pp. 79, 105, 106, 129, 145.

Report of the Council — April 20th, 1875, p. 131.

EEEATA.

Page 6, line 8, for Odontogigram ’’ read ‘^Odontogram.”
„ 6, „ 17, for “ indentification ” read “identification.”

„131, 1, for “1874” read “1875,”

PKOCEEDINGS

OF

THE LITERAEY AND PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY.

Ordinary Meeting, October 6th, 1874.

Rev. William Gaskell, M.A., Vice-President, in the Chair.

On the Ossiferous Deposit at Windy Knoll, near Castle-
ton,” by Rooke Pennington, Esq., LL.B.

Ill October, 1870, I was in the Windy Knoll quarry, near
Castleton, a place well known to geologists, when I observed
a large bone, a tibia, sticking out of some debris overlying
the rock. I took it and one or two smaller bones away with
me and showed them to Mr. Boyd Dawkins, who named
them, and after conversation with him, I decided to explore
the place. This could not be done for a long time, as the
floor of the quarry was covered with an increasing mass of
broken stone for the repair of the turnpike, and the fissure
near which the bone was found was so placed that in removing
earth from it serious injury would arise to the road stone.

The place was, however, looked after, the permission of
the proprietor for an investigation, obtained, and from time
to time some good specimens were obtained both of bison
and reindeer bones. (Mr. Dawkins had made me certain of
the nature of the bones.) The day before Good Friday the
quarrymen had picked up a number of bones from a fall of
earth wdiich had occurred, and placed them in a basket.
They forgot to bring them down to Castleton, and on Good
Friday, some young men from Manchester carried them off.
They repeated their visit once or twice, and did considerable
damage by pulling away the soil, so that we had to set a man
purposely to watch the place, and preserve it as far as possible
Proceedings — Lit. & Phil. Society. — Yol. XIV. — No. 1. — Session 1874-5.

2

from this miscellaneous intrusion. The specimens thus oh°
tained were carried to Mr. James Plant, who, on the 28th April,
1874, read an account of them to the Manchester Geological
Society. One statement which he made then, and which he
subsequently repeated in his remarks on a paper read before
that Society, by Mr. Aitken, I must very distinctly deny.
No bones were ever carted away from the place to any
bone-mill, nor we (as will have been seen) ignorant of their
nature; the only foundation for the carting statement is the
fact that a man, casually employed in the quarry, did ta.ke
a basketful of bones to his house, but they were immedi-
ately recovered, and are now in my collection. I shall have
occasion to refer again to Mr. Plant’s observations.

The position of the quarry is somewhat remarkable. It
is ill a small mountain limestone hill, near the extreme
north of that tract of limestone which lies between the two
ranges of millstone grit and Yoredale hills running S.E. and
S.W. from Kinder Scout. The fault separating the moun-
tain limestone from the overlying Yoredale rocks of Mam
Tor runs close to the quarry. The water on both sides of
the hill runs eastward into the vale of Hope and so into the
Derwent. To the west is a valley extending about two
miles in length, whence there is no surface outlet, but all
the streams disappear towards the south and then turn east,
appearing again in the Speedwell mine and flowing out of
the Peak Cavern. There is no drainage from this valley
into the Mersey, as stated by Mr. Plant, but all the water
flows ultimately into the Trent. So far also from there
being no appearance in this locality of swallow holes,” as
he says, there is an unusually large number in the valley,
one in the quarry itself and another very important one
close by to the east.

We commenced work at the end of April. The bones
observed were in a fissure some little distance up the north-
ern side of the quarry. We soon ascertained that this fissure

3

was but an opening into a rock basin lying still farther to
the north. There was no appearance of a cave, and certainly
none connected with the fissure has ever existed to the
south, that is, where the rock has been quarried away. This
ba,sin and the fissure were filled with a reddish coloured
loam, such as usually occurs in mountain limestone fissures.
Capping this was a quantity of rubbish, derived from pre-
vious workings of the quarry. This loam has been described
by Mr. Plant as “ drifts originally derived from the washing
and wearing of the shales and sandstones of the great escarp-
ment of Mam Tor,” and as “drifted loam.” There is no
appearance whatever of the characteristics of drift, or glacial
action of any kind. All the fragments included in the loam
are angular, unrolled, and of limestone. Not a trace of any
foreign rock, even of Yoredale origin, was present.

After clearing out the fissure, we began, in May, a sys-
tematic exploration of the basin behind, blowing down the
rock which formed its southern wail. We had four men at
work for a fortnight, Mr. John Tym superintending. The
rubbish at the top contained no pleistocene animals, and the
loam in its upper portion afforded but few bones. But at
about 4 feet below the surface where we first commenced
was a truly wonderful agglomeration of mammalian relics.
Bones and teeth of bisons, reindeer, bears, and wolves were
turned out in the greatest abundance. Lying as they did
in a thick, sticky loam, the work was necessarily slow, as
great care had to be taken not to break the bones. The
depth of the ossiferous portion of the basin averaged about
12 feet, and about 22 cubic feet were got out. Near the
top the specimens were rotten and ill preserved, lower down
they were much firmer and more perfect. At the bottom
of the fissure and near the sides of the basin, they were
welded into a mass with included limestone fragments by
stalagmite such as the specimens on the table. This had
evidently been derived from the dripping of water charged

4

with carbonate of lime from the sides. The bones nnm~
bered in. all many thousands, and ot teeth more than 500
were obtained.

The accumulation of these bones must have been a work
of time. It is clear that those encrusted with stalagmite
must have lain exposed for some tolerably lengthy period-
As to the loam itself, it bears all the characteristics of being
formed from the sub-8erial disintegration of the rocks im-
mediately around. Moreover, all the included rocks being
angular and of limestone have evidently fallen in from those
above. There is no reason to suppose that the washing
and wearing of the sandstones and shales of Mam Tor have
had anything to do with it ; on the contrary, the deposit is
just like those in fissures, which are not near the Yoredale
rocks, and very unlike the debris fi’om Mam Tor in the
Castleton valley. In fact, there is a slope of the limestone
towards the place, but certainly there is no trace of the
rapid action of water or of any drifting.

I should be inclined to say that this was probably in
Pleistocene times a swampy drinking place. It is on the
direct tract from the fertile valley of the Derwent (near
which I have found traces of these and other Pleistocene
animals) to the Cheshire plains. Probably large herds of
bisons and reindeer passed the spot, in drinking some would
fall in, some would be bogged, others might die in the
vicinity and be washed in during rainy weather. The
bears and the wolves probably attended to eat up the sickly
ones and stragglers, just as such creatures do nowin Siberia.
Some of the bones and antlers bear marks of gnawing, by
what animal I do not offer any opinion, but they no doubt
had lain on the surface of the ground when so gnawed.

I should like to call attention to the absence of the
rhinoceros, hyaena, cave bear, and other animals at Windy
Knoll, and also the diseased character of some of the bones.
Also to tlie absence of the urns {hos lyrimigeniiis). Mr,

5

Boyd Dawkins at first tlionght we possessed bones of this
animal, but on further comparison found them to belong to
the bison, which is, of course, a totally distinct species.

In conclusion attention was drawn to the absence of signs
of glacial action in the neighbourhood of Castleton, and to
the fact that such signs were only found on the western
slope of the western fork of the Pennine chain in Derby ■=
shire, Cheshire, and Staffordshire.

“On some teeth from a fissure in Waterhouses Quarry, in
Staffordshire.”

Mr. Pennington called attention to some teeth of a bison
{Bos priscus) from a fissure in a quarry at Waterhouses.
The animal had evidently fallen in whilst coming to drink
at the river Hamps. It had been erroneously described as
an Irish elk,

Mr. Boyd Dawkins, F.RS., said that the two most abundant
animals in the Windy Knoll fissure were the Bison and the
Reindeer. It is worthy of remark that the young of the
former were out of all proportion to the adult, a fact which
implies that the place was haunted by these animals in the
summer and early autumn, the number of calves under five
months being very considerable, and May being the calving
time of the Bison. They were unaccompanied by any other
herbivora, the small phalange which I had at first referred
to the Roedeer, viewed in the light of the large series dis-
covered by Mr. Pennington, belonging to the former animal.

There were also the remains of the hare, rabbit and water
rat.

The other animals which have been discovered consist of
the wolf and bear, and these remains are comparatively
rare.

There is nothing of any importance to be remarked con-
cerning the wolf, but the ursine remains are of peculiar
interest as implying the existence of a new carnivore in

Derbyshire. The mean measurements of the teeth, (molar
and canines,) in Mr. Pennington’s collection coincide, I may
say, almost to a hair’s breadth, with the mean measurements
of the fossil Grizzly Bear ( JJrsus priscus) which Professor
Busk has defined so admirably in his recent memoir on the
animals found in the Brixham cave, and leave no room to
doubt that the Bear of Windy Knoll belongs to that species
or variety. If the Odontogigram of the dentition be com-
pared with that published in the Philosophical Transactions
1873, pi. 47, fig. 8, it will be seen that the agreement is exact.

The Cave-bear, or, JJrsus speloeus, is also stated by Mr*
Plant, (Manchester Geological Transactions, xiii, 130 — 156);
to have been discovered in the Windy Knoll fissure, princi-
pally on the fancied resemblance which a sacrum of a young
animal bore to a sacrum in the Peel Park Museum, said to
belong to JJrsus speloeus, partly also on the stumps of
two teeth, worthless for purposes of specific indentifica-
tion. I have carefully analysed this evidence, and on com-
paring the sacrum in question with that of the ox and bear,
I believe that it belongs to a young bison, and not to any
carnivora. And, further, even if it belong to a bear, there
is no evidence as to the species, because the specific char-
acters of that bone in the fossil bears have not yet been
ascertained. The researches of Professor Busk, during a
long series of years, and my examination of the most
important collections of fossil bears in this country and in
France, prove that the determination of the species is a
point of extreme difficulty, and we are only able to detect
characters of specific value in the heads and dentition. On
this point I would refer to Professor Busk’s memoir, and to
the vast collection at Toulouse. The Cave-bear, therefore
of Windy Knoll, must be given up, as being based on a
faulty determination.

The net result of the examination of the whole group
of remains is the conclusion that in the Pleistocene age
great herds of bison and reindeer passed up from the
valley of the Derwent into the plains of Cheshire, and
that they were accompanied by grizzly bears, wolves,

7

and a few foxeS; wliich ate up the stragglers. The
bison, in its migrations, still has the escort of grizzly
bears and wolves in the region of the Rocky Mountains ;
and the reindeer is described, by Admiral Von Wrangel, as
being followed by the same animals in Siberia, in its vernal
and autumnal migrations,

“ On the Extent and Action of The Heating Surface for
Steam Boilers,” by Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A.

The rapidity with which heat will pass from one fluid to
another through an intervening plate of metal is a matter
of such practical importance that I need not apologise for
introducing it here. Besides its practical value it also forms
a subject of very great philosophical interest, being inti-
mately connected with, if it does not form part of, molecular
philosophy.

In addition to the great amount of empirical and practical
knowledge which has been acquired from steam boilers, the
transmission of heat has been made the subject of direct
inquiry by Newton, Dulong and Petit, Pe'clet, Joule, and
Rankine, and considerable efforts have been made to reduce
it to a system. But as yet the advance in this direction has
not been very great; and the discrepancy in the results of
the various experiments is such that one cannot avoid the
conclusion that the circumstances of the problem have not
been all taken into account.

Newton appears to have assumed that the rate at which
heat is transmitted from a surface to a gas and vice versa is
ceteris paribus directly proportional to the difference in
temperature between the surface and the gas, whereas
Dulong and Petit, followed by Pdclet, came to the conclu-
sion from their experiments that it followed altogether a
different law.^

These philosophers do not seem to have advanced any
theoretical reasons for the law which they have taken, but
have deduced it entirely from their experiments, “a chercher
par tatonnement la loi que suivent ces resultats.

* Traite de la Chaleur, Peclet, Vol. I., p. 365.
t Ib., p. 363.

s

In reducing these results, however, so many things had
to be taken into account and so many assumptions have
been made that it can hardly be a matter of surprise if they
have been misled. And there is one assumption which
upon the face of it seems to be contrary to general experi-
ence, this is, that the quantity of heat imparted by a
given extent of surface to the adjacent fluid is independent
of the motion of that fluid or of the nature of the surface f
whereas the cooling effect of a wind compared with still air
is so evident that it must cast doubt upon the truth of any
hypothesis which does not take it into account.

In this paper I approach the problem in another manner
from that in which it has been approached before. Starting
with the laws recently discovered of the internal diffusion of
fluids I have endeavoured to deduce from theoretical con-
siderations the laws for the transmission of heat, and then
verify these laws by experiment. In the latter respect I
can only offer a few preliminary results ; which, however,
seem to agree so well with general experience, as to warrant
a further investigation of the subject, to promote which is
my object in bringing it forward in the present incom-
plete form.

The heat carried off by air or any fluid from a surface,
apart from the effect of radiation, is proportional to the
internal diffusion of the fluid at and near the surface, i,e., is
proportional to the rate at which particles or molecules pass
backwards and forwards from the surface to any given
depth within the fluid, thus, if AB be the surface and ah an
ideal line in the fluid parallel to AB then the heat carried
off from the surface in a given time will be proportional to
the number of molecules which in that time pass from ah
to AB— that is for a given difference of temperature between
the fluid and the surface.

This assumption is fundamental to what I have to say,
and is based on the molecular theory of fluids.

Now the rate of this diffusion has been shown from
various considerations to depend on two things

1. The natural interna] diffusion of the fluid when at rest.

Traite de la Chaleur, Peclet, Vol. I., p. 383.

9

2. Tlie eddies caused by visible motion wliicli mixes the
fluid up and continually brings fresh particles into contact
with the surface.

The first of these causes is independent of the velocity of
the fluid, if it be a gas is independent of its density, so that
it may be said to depend only on the nature of the fluid.'^

The second cause, the effect of eddies, arises entirely from
the motion of the fluid, and is proportional both to the
density of the fluid, if gas, and the velocity with which it
flows past the surface.

The combined effect of these two causes may be expressed
in a formula as follows :

H = + ^pvt, ■ (I)

where t is the difference of temperature between the surface
and the fluid, p is the density of the fluid, v its velocity,
and A and B constants depending on the nature of the fluid
H being the heat transmitted per unit of surface of the sur-
face in a unit of time.

If therefore a fluid w'ere forced along a fixed length of
pipe which was maintained at a uniform temperature greater
or less than the initial temperature of the gas, we should
expect the following results.

1. Starting with a velocity zero, the gas would then
acquire the same temperature as the tube. 2, As the velo-
city increased the temperature at which the gas would
emerge would gradually diminish, rapidly at first, but in a
decreasing ratio until it would become sensibly constant and
independent of the velocity. The velocity after which the
temperature of the emerging gas Avould be sensibly constant
can only be found for each particular gas by experiment; but
it would seem reasonable to suppose that it would be the
same as that at which the resistance offered by friction to
the motion of the fluid would be sensibly proportional to
the square of the velocity. It having been found both
theoretically and by experiment that this resistance is con-
nected with the diflusion of the gas by a formula :

R -- A^r +

^ Maxwell’s Theory of HeaR Chaps XIX.

(II)

10

And various considerations lead to the supposition that A
and B in (I.) are proportional to A^ and in (II.)

The value of v which this gives is very small, and
hence it follows that for considerable velocities the gas
should emerge from the tube at a nearly constant tempera-
ture whatever may be its velocity.

This, as I am about to point out, is in accordance with
what has been observed in tubular boilers as well as in more
definite experiments.

In the Locomotive the length of the boiler is limited by the
length of tube necessa^ry to cool the air from the fire down
to a certain temperature say 500°. Now there does not
seem to be any general rule in practice for determining this
length, the length varying from 16ft. to as little as 6, but
whatever the proportions may be each engine furnishes a
means of comparing the efficiency of the tubes for high and
low velocities of the air through them. It has been a matter
of surprise how completely the steam-producing power of a
boiler appears to rise with the strength of blast or the work
required from it. And as the boilers are as economical when
working with a high blast as with a low, the air going up
the chimney cannot have a much higher temperature in the
one case than in the other. That it should be somewhat
higher is strictly in accordance with the theory as stated
above.

It must, however, be noticed that the foregoing conclusion
is based on the assumption that the surface of the tube is
kept at the same constant temperature, a condition which
it is easy to see can hardly be fulfilled in practice.

The method by which this is usually attempted is by
surrounding the tube on the outside with some fluid the
temperature of which is kept constant by some natural
means, such as boiling or freezing, for instance the tube is
surrounded with boiling water. Now although it may be
possible to keep the water at a constant temperature it does
not at all follow that the tube will be kept at the same
temperature ; but on the other hand, since heat has to pass
from the water to the tube there must be a difference of tem-
perature between them, and this difference will be proportional

11

to the quantity of heat which has to pass. And again the
heat will have to pass through the material of the tube,
and the rate at which it will do tliis will depend on the
difference of the temperature at its two surfaces. Hence if
air be forced through a tube surrounded with boiling water,
the temperature of the inner surface of the tube will not be
constant but will dimiilish with the quantity of heat carried
off by the air. It may be imagined that the difference will
not be great : a variety of experiments lead me to suppose
that it is much greater than is generally supposed. It is
obvdous that if the previous conclusions be correct this
difference would be diminished by keeping the water in
motion, and the more rapid the motion the less would be
the difference. Taking these things into consideration the
following experiments may, I think, be looked upon, if not
as conclusive evidence of the truth of the above reasoning,
yet as bearing directly upon it.

One end of a brass tube was connected v/ith a reservoff
of compressed air, the tube itself was immersed in boiling
water, and the other end was connected with a small non=
conducting chamber formed of concentric cylinders of paper
• with intervals between them in which was inserted the
bulb of a thermometer. The air was then allowed to pass
through the tube and paper chamber, the pressure in the
reservoir being maintained by bellows and measured by
a mercury gauge ; the thermometer then indicated the tem-
perature of the emerging air. One experiment gave the
following results : — With the smallest possible pressure the
thermometer rose to 96° F,, and as the pressure increased
fell until with iV inch it was 87°, with ^ inch it was 70°,
with 1 inch it was 64°, with 2 inches 60°, beyond this point
the bellows would not raise the pressure.

It appears, therefore, (1) that the temperature of the air
never rose to 212, the temperature of the tube, even when
moving slowest ; but the difference was clearly accounted
for by the loss of heat in the chamber from radiation, the
small quantity of air passing through it not being sufficient
to maintain the full temperature, an effect which must
obviously vanish as the velocity of the air increased ; (2) as

12

tlie velocity increased the temperature diminished, at first
rapidly and then in a more steady manner. The first dim-
inution might he expected from the fact that the velocity
was not as yet equal to that at which the resistance of
friction is sensibly equal to the square of the velocity as
previously explained. The steady diminution which con-
tinued when the velocity was greater was due to the cooling
of the tube. This was proved to be the case, for at any
stage of the operation the temperature of the emerging air
could be slightly raised by increasing the heat under the
water so as to make it boil faster and produce greater agita-
tion in the water surrounding the tube. This experiment
was repeated with several tubes of different lengths and
characters, some of copper and some of brass, with practically
the same results. I have not however as yet been able to
complete the investigation, and I hope to be able before long
to bring forward anotlier communication before the Society,
I may state that should these conclusions be established,
and the constant B for different fluids be determined, we
should then be able to determine, as regards length and ex-
tent, the best proportion for the tubes and flues of boilers.

Dr. Joule made a further communica-
tion respecting his mercurial air pump
described in the Proceedings for Dec. 24,
1872; and Feb. 4, Feb. 18, and Dec. 80,
1878. He had successfully made use of
the glass plug proposed in the Proceedings
for Feb. 4, 1873. This he constructs by
blowing out the entrance tube and grind-
ino' the bulb thus formed into the neck
of the thistle-shaped glass vessel. To collect
the pumped gases he now employs an
inverted glass vessel attached to the
entrance tube and dipping into the mer-
cury in the upper part of the thistle glass.

THE SJZE

OHE FOORTH

13

Ordinary Meeting, October 20th, 1874.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c.. President, in the
V Chair.

Mr. William H. Johnson, B.Sc., showed two remarkable
pieces of iron cinder from a furnace in which iron is re-
heated. The samples showed on one side small dark pris-
matic crystals which appeared to have been formed in a
cavity of the cinder as it cooled in the cinder bogie. The
reverse side of one of them had formed the wall of a second
cavity ; its surface was however smooth, black, shining, and
studded all over with the sides of oblong jet-black crystals
unusually iridescent. He remarked that probably these
crystals were Fayalite, an iron chrysolite, a mineral found in
the Mourne mountains in Ireland, which is sometimes iri-
descent, and whose chemical composition is represented by
the formula Fe2Si04. They are the more worthy of notice
from the rare occurrence of crystals in mill furnace cinder.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., said that in Tome XXII.,
No. 9. of the Memoirs of the French Academy of Science,
MM. B. Renault and Grand’ Eury have published a most
valuable memoir on the structure of Sigillaria spinulosa,
and substantially confirmed M. Brongni art’s views of the
structure of Sigillaria elegans published in 1839. Un-
fortunately the medulla in both these species was destroyed,
as is generally the case with specimens of Sigillaria as well
as the root so long known as Stigmaria ficoides. Professor
Geoppert and himself many years since described the only
two specimens of this fossil which showed structure in the
medulla, and both these specimens were looked upon as
more than doubtful. Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.,
in Part II of his Memoirs in the Phil. Transactions, p. 215,
states : “ I have elsewhere called attention to the way in
PEocEEDiisras— Lit. & Phil. Soc.— Vol. XIY.— No. 2. — Session 1874-5.

14

'' wliich the rootlets of Stigmaria have penetrated every-
“ thing within their reach which was penetrable, and I have
“ no doubt that in both Professor Goeppert and Mr. Binney's

specimens these supposed medullary vessels were really
“ Stigmarian rootlets that had found their way into the
'' interior of the cavity left by the decay of the medulla and
“ been mistaken for a part of the plant into which they had
“ intruded themselves.” Now in his (Mr. Binney’s) Staf~
fordshire specimen described in the Quarterly Journal of
the Geol. Society for 1850, p. 77, mention is only made of
the large vascular bundles found in the axis without calling
them vascular or any other vessels. As figured in the plate
and described in the letterpress no one could scarcely take
them for the radicles of Stigmaria. The woody cylinder
was one of those having the inner parts of their vascular
circle close together and not open as in Professor Goeppert’s
specimen. It is certainly possible that the large tubes in
his specimen may not be in their normal condition and may
have been somewhat altered in the process of mineralization,
but it is very improbable that they had ever been intro-
duced into the axis after the pith had been removed.

The beautiful specimen figured and described by Goep-
pert more than thirty years since is very different from his
(Mr. Binney’s), being much more open in the spaces between
the wedges of the woody cylinder, and its central part is
enclosed in a Stigmaria, shewing the external characters in
a most excellent state of preservation, and one of the best
that has ever been found. However it might be urged that
the vascular bundles in the medulla had been squeezed
from their true position into the parts where they are now
found, they are certainly not intruded rootlets, as any one
who examines the learned author’s plate can satisfy himself.

For many beautiful specimens of Stigmaria, shewing
structure in most of their parts except the medulla from the
trap ashes of Scotland, he was indebted to the kindness of
Messrs. Wunsch, John Young, and Greive.

He had been so fortunate as to find a specimen of Stig-
mchria, which he now exhibited to the Society, from the

Bullion coal at Clough Head, near Burnley, having the
medulla perfectly preserved. It is about two inches in
diameter, and shews the inner bark composed of elongated
utricles in radiating series and traversed by bell-shaped
orifices, containing the bases of the rootlets, the zone of lax
cellular tissue, and the woody cylinder of close wedges
surrounding the central ^xis or medulla. Distinct evidence
of both the large primary and the small secondary medul-
lary rays is found in the tangential section of the woody
cylinder exactly resembling those met with in the fossil
plant described by him as Sigillaria vasGularis. The sharp
line of a dark colour separating the vascular cylinder from
the central axis is the same in both plants, and the outer
portion of the axis is formed of small vascular tubes of hex-
agonal and pentagonal forms, which gradually increase in
size as they proceed inwards, and form something like a
medullary sheath enclosing a medulla composed of very
small and short barred tubes or utricles in which are mingled
large vascular tubes or utricles, the latter being about 15
times the diameter of the former.

The size of these large vascular tubes or utricles in the
medulla exceeding anything, so far as his knowledge
extended, hitherto observed in fossil plants shews that it
was easily decomposed, and thus accounts for the general
absence of the medulla in Sigillaria and its roots. Every
part of this specimen is identical in structure with the plant
named by him Sigillaria vascularis, so if that is sufiicient
evidence of the connection of a stem with a root, it must be
taken to be the root of that plant. One thing is certain
that the large vascular tubes or utricles in the medulla
existed in the living plant and are not the intruded rootlets
of Stigmaria.

Mr. B. D. Darbishiee, F.G.S., exhibited and described
the Paleolithic (French and English Drift) Implements
collected for the Soiree at the Owens College.

O

" Professor Boyd Dawkins, F.B.S., brouglit before the notice

16

of the Society the conditions under which the palaeolithic
implements are found in the river-strata and in the caves,
in association with the extinct mammalia, such as the Mam-
moth and woolly Rhinoceros. Although the number of
flint implements from the river-strata in various collections
was very great, yet it is small when viewed in connection
with the emormous quantity of gravel removed in their
discovery. They are not evenly distributed, but cluster
round certain spots. Their discovery in India along with
the extinct mammalia proves that man was living, both in
Europe and in southern Asia from the Ganges to Ceylon in
the same rude uncivilised state, at the same time in the life-
history of the earth. He also called attention to the art of
the hunters of the reindeer and mammoth in the south of
France, Belgium, and Switzerland, an art eminently realistic,
and by no means despicable, and he inferred from their art
and implements and the associated animals that they may
be represented at the present day by the Eskimos.

“ On a Colorimetric Method of Determining Iron in
Waters,” by Mr. Thomas Carnelley, B.Sc. Communi-
cated by Professor H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S.

Of late years the analysis of water has become of such
importance that any improvement in the methods employed
in that analysis will, it is thought, be acceptable, however
small such improvement may be ; and it is with this consi-
deration that the following paper is submitted to the
Society.

In the determination of heavy metals in water, with the
exception of lead, great inconvenience arises from the want
of rapid and accurate methods of estimating very small
quantities, and it is to remedy this inconvenience in the
case of iron that the following method is proposed. Besides
accuracy it fulfils both the other requisites, viz. rapidity and
the power of determining exceedingly small quantities ; for
without any evaporation 1 part of iron in 13,000,000 parts
of water can be detected and a determination made in less
than fifteen minutes; the smallest amount of ammonia

17

wliich can be detected by tlie well known Nessler test,
without contraction, being only 1 part of ammonia in
20,000,000 parts of water; and moreover, as water will
admit of evaporation without loss of any iron it may contain,
the iron which can be estimated may be reduced to almost
an infinitely small quantity.

The method consists in the comparison of the blue colours
produced by adding to a solution of potassium ferrocyanide,
first, a solution of iron of known strength, and secondly, the
water in which the iron is to be determined.

The standard solutions and materials required are as fol-
lows : —

(1) Standard Iron Solution. — This is prepared by weigh-
ing out 0‘7 grins, of ammonio-ferrous sulphate (=0.1 grin.
Fe), dissolving the water and adding Icc. of the sulphuric
acid ; the iron is next oxidised by adding an exact suffi-
ciency of the potassium permanganate solution from a
burette and the whole diluted to 1 litre. Of this solution
Icc. =0'0001grm. Fe.

(2) Solution of Potassium Permanganate. — This must
be moderately dilute, but it is not necessary that it should
be of standard strength.

(3) Standard Nitric Acid — is prepared by diluting 50cc.
of pure strong nitric acid to one litre.

(4) Potassium Ferrocyanide Solution — is obtained by
dissolving 1 part of the salt in 25 parts of water.

(5) Strong Sulphuric Acid — ■ diluted with an equal
volume of water.

(6) Tiuo similar Glass Cylinders and a Glass Rod. — The
former should hold rather more than 200cc. each, the point
equivalent to that measure being marked on the glass.

(7) A Burette — marked to iVcc. for the iron solution and
an ordinary burette for the permanganate.

(8) Three one cubic centimetre pipettes — for the ferrocy-
anide, nitric acid, and sulphuric acid respectively, the one
for the last being marked also to deliver tyc

The following is the method of analysis employed : —

A measured quantity of the water less than one litre in

18

bulk is taken, the amount being regulated according to the
quantity of iron contained in the water, which is judged
by a previously made qualitative experiment of adding Icc.
of the ferrocyanide to a portion of the oxidised water. One
cubic centimetre of the sulphuric acid is added and then the
permanganate from a burette till a permanent faint pink
colour is obtained ; the vvhole is made up to one litre, when
it forms what may be called the “water test solution.”
Into each of the cylinders Icc. of the potassium ferrocyanide
is added and then a measured quantity of the water test
solution put into one of them (x), both are next filled with
water up to the mark and Icc. of the standard nitric acid
added to each. After (x) has been well stirred the standard
iron solution is gradully run into {y), the liquid being stirred
after each addition, and the colours in the two cylinders
compared by placing them side by side over a sheet of white
paper in front of a window ; this is repeated till the colours
in each of the cylinders appear to be equal, which point
completes the operation.

Every cubic centimetre of iron solution used corresponds
to O’l mgrm. of iron, from which the amount of iron added
to cylinder (y) can be calculated. Then assuming that equal
shades of colour are, ceteris 'paribus, produced by equal
weights of iron, the amount of the latter in cylinder (x) is
equal to that added to (y), and since the volume of the
original sample of water in the test solution is known, and
also the volume of the latter put into {x), the amount of
iron in a measured quantity of water can therefore be cab
culated. The volume of the test solution put into cylinder
(x) should be such as not to require more than 5cc. of the iron
solution to be added to (y) to produce an equal shade, for if
more be added the colour obtained would be too dark to
compare with ease and accuracy.

If the sample of water contains such a small amount of
iron as, after oxidation, not to give a coloration directly
with the ferrocyanide and nitric acid, a sufficient quantity
of it must be evaporated with a cubic centimetre of the
sulphuric acid till it occupies from 100 to 200cc. The

liquid is then poured into a flask, together with the rinsings,
and oxidised with permanganate to a very slight excess, and
then filtered so as to separate any precipitate, and also to
destroy the excess of permanganate. The fluid thus obtained
is next tested as before by adding the whole or a known
part of it to one of the cylinders containing the ferrocyanide.
WliQn the water after being filtered has still a cloudy
appearance, as is the case with sewage and polluted rivers,
&c., a known quantity of the filtered water must be evapor-
ated to dryness and ignited, the residue dissolved in a small
quantity of hydrochloric acid and filtered, wa^shed with
water, and the free acid in the filtrate as nearly as possible
neutralized with ammonia and then Icc. of sulphuric acid,
after which oxidised with permanganate, then filtered, if
requisite, to destroy excess of permanganate, and the iron
estimated as before. A green colour may be sometimes
obtained instead of the pure blue ; this is owing to a slight
quantity of unreduced permanganate being present; this,
however, is of no consequence, as with a little practice the
green tint may be compared with the blue and correct
results obtained; still the comparison may be rendered easier
by adding 1 to 2 drops of permanganate to the cylinder to
which the standard iron is run, and which by this means
will also assume a green tint. Experiments were made
with reference to this point and it was found that the
presence of not more than a few drops of unreduced per-
manganate has little or no effect on the results obtained, the
only consequence being the change of tint but not of depth
of colour.

Potassium permanganate is employed as the oxidiser in-
stead of the nitric acid, because (1) The oxidation is per-
formed much quicker than it would be if nitric acid were
used, and in the latter case the liquid would have to be
heated. (2) It can be added to exactly the right point,
which could not easily be done with nitric acid. (3) An
excess of the latter is very detrimental to the accuracy of
the method, for, from, experiments made in relation to this
point, it was found that when the amount of free acid pre-

20

sent in 200cc. was more than 0'0025cc. of the strong acid,
it renders the colour deeper than it otherwise would be.

One cubic centimetre of the standard nitric acid is added
to each of the cylinders, because (1) It renders the reaction
much more delicate. (2) Because the colours produced in
the presence of this amount of free acid are almost always
of the same tint, being of a pure blue, whilst when no. free
acid is present the colour varies, even when apparently of
the same depth, from a blue to a bluish green, which ren-
ders them less easy to compare. (3) Because it destroys
the effect which the presence of a small quantity of any free
acid, previously existing in the liquid, might have in alter-
ing the shade of colour produced, for from a series of experi-
ments made with reference to this point also, it was found
that when the amount of free acid present, in addition to
the Icc. of standard nitric acid added is only small, i.e less
than 0'05cc. of the strong acid in 200cc. of water, it has no
effect on the depth of colour produced. When any free acid
exists in the water to be examined it must, before being
oxidised, be made as nearly neutral as possible with am-
monia, and the iron then determined.

The following are some of the results obtained on deter-
termining the iron in solutions of known strength : —

Iron Found. Iron Calculated.

Milligrams. Milligrams.

17-99 19-48

4-20 4-14

1-80 1-86

•61 with salts (C) present -57

•51 -52

*40 "41

•40 ... with KNO 3 (D) present ... ^40

•33 ^30

•28 -31

•23 . ...with salts (B) present ^22

•20 -21

•14 -16

•12 -10

•070 -078

•025 ’031

In order also to test the effect which the presence of dif-
ferent salts has on this method, four series of experiments
were made by adding known weights of the following salts
to 1 litre of the ammonio-ferroiis sulphate solution :

(A) Calcium Bulpbate, magnesium sulphate^ ammonium
chloride^ sodium chloride, and potassium carbonate, in all
lb grin.

(B) Ditto, in all 0’9 grm.

(C) Magnesium sulphate, ammonium chloride, potassium
carbonate, sodium chloride, and calcium chloride, in all
0‘8 grm.

(D) Potassium nitrate 0'4 grm.

The solutions thus obtained were oxidised with perman-
ganate and sulphuric acid diluted to one litre, and the iron
estimated as previously described. The results obtained
are given below, the letters attached denoting to which of
the preceding series they severally belong, and from them it
will be seen that the presence of these salts has little or no
effect.

It was also found that neutral organic matter is not
detrimental to the method.

With reference to the delicacy of the method it was found as
a mean of seven experiments that 0'0055 mgrms. of iron give
a very distinct colour on the surface, and that 0’015 mgrms.
give a blue colour on being stirred with 200cc. of water, and
therefore that 1 part of iron produces a blue coloration in
13,000,000 parts of water containing ferrocyanide of potas-
sium and nitric acid. According to Hartig,* however,
1 part of iron (in the form of sulphate) only produces a
colour in 600,000 parts of water containing ferrocyanide.
The difference of these results is due to the effect which the
presence of the small quantity of free nitric acid, added in
the new method, has in increasing the delicacy of the
reaction.

As to the smallest differences of reading which can be
detected, it was found that when any quantity of iron solu-
tion below Icc. had been added, a difference of 0‘05cc. can
be discriminated ; above 1 and below 2cc. a difference of
OTcc. ; above 2 and below 4cc. a difference of 0*2cc. ; and
above 4 and below 5cc. a difference of O'Scc.

Jour. Pr. Cliem, 22. 51.

22

The following are a few samples of ditferent waters in
which the iron has been determined as described above :

Parts per 1^000,000.

1

Amount

1 i

Date,

Name of Water.

used in

By new By

As found by other Observers.

! 1874.

Analysis

method KM11O4

i Feb. 14

Manchest. Water Supply

5 litres

•21

1

•287, R. A. Smith, 1864.

i IMar. 2(

1 » •

•18 t

2

•175 (

1 July 15

1 „

•10^

1

1 ,,

•11)

1 Aug. 31

1 „

•27

i

1 Sept. 1

>5 35

1 „

•18

' » 2

53

: 1 »

•26)

1

j

1

1 „

•27 )

! Sept. 3

33 53

i y>

•30 i

—

5 3 3 3

1 n

•32 )

Sept. 4

5 3 3 3

•38)

1

—

33 3 1

1 „

•30)'

1

Sept. 5

3 3 33

i }>

•42)

1

—

Medicinal Spring Tre- )
friew, North Wales )

1 „

•41 ;

1

Feb. 19

30. cc

1600-00

1575-50*

Feb. —

Chloride of Iron Spa, \
Harrop'ate )

50. cc

290-00

290-34

289-40 H. Davies, Feb., 1872.

Feb. 16

R. Irwell nr. Pomona )
Gardens | |

1 litre

•86,

Feb. 18

R. Mersey, Northenden

U „

•48

Feb. 23

R.Dane, above Cong’ton

1 „

•57

,, below ,,

•44

—

Li verpl. Waterworks,

Compensa. Water, V
White Cop’ceHeapy )

2 „

•42

1

i

Jan. 3

Barnsley AVater Supply

2^ „

•25'

Feb. —

R. Thames, Lon. Bridge

1 M

•19i

Jan. 3

Cockerhm W ell, Barnsl’y

2 „

•075’

Feb. —

New River Company ..

1 „

•050'

Trace ) Graham,

12-l(Al203&Fe203) [-Miller and

—

Lambeth „

1

•044

East London ,,

1 5,

•038'

6 8( ,, ,, )) Hofmann.

Jan. S

Friars’ AVell, Barnsley . .

1 3

■*^4 33

•005!

i

* The author hopes shortly to bring an analysis of this water before the

Society.

Errata.

In the last number of the Proceedings, page 6, line 8, for
“ Odontogigram ” read Odontogram.

Line 17, for indentification ” read identification.

Ordinary Meeting, November 3rd, 1874.

Rev. Wm. Gaskell, M.A., Vice-President, in the Chair.

\

Mr. William Carleton Williams, F.C.S.; Mr, Harry Grim-
shaw, F.C.S. ; and Mr. William E. A. Axon, M.R.S.L., F.S.I.,
were elected Ordinary Members of the Society.

''On the Corrosion of Leaden Hot-water Cisterns,” by .
Professor H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S., &c.

As the question of the occurrence of lead in town’s water
has been brought forward in the daily papers, I think it
right (whilst stating my experience of many years’ duration
to be that the Manchester Corporation water when cold
does not take up lead from the pipes under ordinary circum-
stances) to guard persons from using for drinking purposes
water drawn from hot-water cisterns made of lead.

My friend, Mr. Melland, Surgeon, of Rusholme, handed to
me a white powder taken from the inside of the covering of
his leaden hot-water cistern, which presented a honey-
combed surface, and in many places stalactitic masses hung
down which were from to of an inch in length.

This powder consisted of a hydrocarbonate of lead, giving
the following results on analysis :

Lead Oxide (PbO) 85*67

Carbonic Acid (CO2) 12*12

Water (H2O) 2*21

100*00

It was doubtless formed by the solvent action of the con-
densed water containing oxygen upon the mietal and the
subsequent formation of the insoluble hydrocarbonate, and
there can be little doubt that water drawn from such a
cistern would be contaminated with lead.

Peoceedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc. — Vol. XIV.— IVTo. 3. — Session 1874-5.

24

“On an Improvement of the Bunsen Burner for Spectrum
Analysis/’ by Mr. F. Kingdom, Assistant in the Physical
Laboratory, Owens College.

The students in the Physical Laboratory of Owens College
having occasionally experienced some difficulty in obtaining
the spectra of some salts with the ordinary bunsen, through
apparently a deficiency of pressure in the gas, it occurred to
me that the amount of light even at this deficient temperature
might be increased by multiplying the number of luminous
points. This is accomplished by broadening out the flame
of the bunsen, that is, causing the gas to issue through a
narrow slit instead of a round hole. We have, so far, only
made a rough experiment, the slit being about fin. long
and -Jin. wide. The result is, as expected, a more brilliant
spectrum.

“Some Notes on Pasigraphy,” by Henry H. Howorth,
Esq., F.S.A.

Among the Utopian schemes which have interested others
beside paradoxers and dreamers none has perhaps been more
plausibly uiged than the scheme of an universal language
which should enable men to communicate with one another
who are now inevitably sundered.

During the time of the Roman dominion it may have
been hoped that Latin, which was its universal language,
and in being so was also the language used by all those who
in its point of view were not mere barbarians, would
become in the future, as it was at the time, the universal
language; be to the world what Hindustani is to the inha-
bitants of Northern India with their great variety of
dialects, namely the common language of all. On the
break up of the Roman Empire the Latin which was
spoken so universally within its borders began to decay, and
decayed differently in different localities, so that in a few cen-
turies each fragment of the empire had developed a peculiar

tongue of its own, to a large extent unintelligible to its
neighbours. Latin had then ceased to exist except as a
dead and artificial language. It was no longer the universal
language. But it still remained the universal language of
divinity, of philosophj^, and' in fact of the narrow arcana of
the sciences studied during mediaeval times; it remained
the learned language in which cultured people could and
did communicate. At the Beformation this began to alter ;
culture ceased to be the peculiar heritage of the Bomance
peoples, and the so-called barbarians beyond the Bhine
began to elbow their way into the arena of science, litera-
ture, and art, and gradually to acquire a peculiar vantage in
all three. These barbarians spoke a language whose pedi-
gree was not rooted in Latin. Latin to them was a foreign
tongue, not as it was to Frenchmen and Italians, their
grandmother-language, if I may coin the phrase. For a
while its difficulties were eagerly mastered by the most
patient race of students that ever lived ; and like the rest
of Europe for a while the Germans used Latin in their
various learned compositions ; but it was gradually disused.
More and more valuable matter was published in the verna-
cular, and this was imitated rapidly elsewhere, so that the
Latin language ceased to be a practical means of com-
munication, and the Babel of tongues replaced the one
uniform medium of intercourse. There can be no doubt
that this was a serious loss. There are some people who
value the mere knowledge of a language for its own sake,
and acquire with equal delight and ease two or three lan-
guages. To others the difficulty is as great as is the grievance,
and among the latter class are numbered many who value a
language not for itself, who look upon the knowledge of
several languages as a mere feat of memory in which one
knows several names for each idea instead of one, and only
value the knowledge of a language in so far as it gives them
a key to the knowledge which is buried under it. This class

was no doubt aggrieved by liaving to learn French and
German in order to be even with the latest discoveries.
But to learn German and French was ‘at least possible to a
studious man, As time went on, however, other races
besides the German and Eomance speaking folk began to
have a valuable literature. Kussians, Bohemians, Hun-
garians, Scandinavians, et id genus omne. More lately
still, a vast revival is on the point of breaking out again in
the further east, and we may expect that Hindus and
Chinese will be aspirants for at least a place in the great
threshing mill where science and literature thresh their
harvests. It is clearly appalling to give an outlook into the
future and to contemplate the time when each man must
be a Mezzofanti in order to prepare himself for literary or
scientific work. Nor is this a mere chimeera. The Eussians,
who are very diligent students, are yearly giving up their
old practice of composing in French and German, and will
write only in their own difficult tongue ; and perhaps I feel
my toes especially pinched, inasmuch as they are working
in mines where the ore I chiefly value is found, namely
those relating to Eastern Ethnography. This frightful
difficulty is naturally of interest to others besides dreamers,
and it has often been suggested that all should agree once
more to write in some language which, though artificial to
most of its students, should yet enable all to communicate
with one another. But this seems at present hopeless.
English, from its wide extension, from the enormous num-
ber of individuals in Europe, America, and Australia who
speak it, and from the general familiarity of most students
with it, might promise such an end, but the Eussians point
to their future no less proudly than we to our present, and
the mutual jealousies of nations make it impossible that any
living language should be thus used, while the dead lan-
guages, perfect as they are for polish and rhetorical excel-
lencies, are deficient both in plasticity and vocabulary when

it is attempted to employ them to meet the various require-
ments of our complicated scientific and other nomenclature.

Difference of language, although the greatest, is not the
only bar to communication. Another lesser but still very
appreciable difficulty is the* variety of characters and alpha-
bets in use in various parts of the world. Thus in Europe
alone we have, beside the ordinary Italian characters, the
German, Greek, and Cyrillic or Russian ; and if we go fur-
ther east, among those languages where the so-called tones
prevail, or where gutturals of different kinds are in use,
and where our limited alphabet becomes almost useless, we
have a large number of peculiar alphabets, each one an
irritating barrier to free intercourse with the language.

In the presence of these various difficulties it has been
thought by some that a scheme might be devised by which
communication might be carried on independently of lan-
guage ; that by a system of ideographs instead of words we
might invent a conventional formulary, by means of which
the common ideas of men might have a common represent-
ation ; that we might do, in fact, what was done in the
earliest period of writing, what the Chinese, the Mexicans,
the Egyptians, and the Akkadians of Mesopotamia did,
namely, use characters which should represent ideas and not
words or sounds. It is well known that this is still the
case in China ; that many people can read Chinese books
who know nothing or very little of the Chinese language.
The Japanese, for instance, whose language is entirely
different, are taught in their schools to read Chinese books
witliout being taught the Chinese language. Such a system,
if universally accepted, would be well described by the term
pasigraphy. It is such a system which has been developed
with great sacrifice and patience by a German savant called
M. Bachmaier, and Avhich I wish to bring before you to-night.
Without expressing any opinion as to its utility, there can
be no doubt as to its being quite practicable and easy to

learn; and my friend Dr. Birch, of the British Museum,
lias told me that he has used it with ease in correspondence.

The systems of picture writing above-named are all more
or less cumbrous and difficult of application, because they
employ an immense number of signs. Even the Chinese,
which is the most satisfactory of these systems, and has by
an ingenious system of combination reduced its simple forms
to about 800, is very cumbrous. The system which I now
introduce to you is much simpler, in that there are only 10
simple signs, namely the 10 first numbers, from the com-
bination of which any vocabulary of any length can be
represented, while it is an easy matter by a few simple
marks to represent grammatical forms, and thus enable us
to put down actual phrases and sentences, and not merely
so many crude and substantive ideas which it requires an
effort of the mind to combine into either sentences or logical
propositions.

The principle of the plan is this A dictionary is pre-
pared of each language : this may be of any length. In the
scheme of M. Bachmaier 4,334 words have been chosen, by
means of which an interchange of ideas on nearly any sub-
ject can be carried on. The words in these dictionaries
each have a number attached to them, beginning with 1
and ending with 4,334. These numbers correspond to ex-
actly the same words in each language ; thus, if heart have
the number 26 attached to it in English, 26 will be attached
to coeur in the French, and to herz in the German dictionary,
etc. etc. Each number thus becomes, therefore, an ideo-
graph, and represents one idea to those who speak a variety
of languages. Instead of communicating by words, there-
fore, we here have a simple, easy, conventionalism, by which
we communicate by signs ; a code of signals, in fact, which
mean the same thing to all those who can read them.

These dictionaries, again, are twofold ; in the one part we
can find the word we need and its corresponding number.

This is the part used by the writer or the person making
the communication. In the other part the numbers are
ranged in order with their meanings attached, so that if one
gets a communication consisting of a series of ideographic
numbers, one has only to turn to this part of the dictionary
to find a key to each. In corresponding, therefore, with a
China man, 2 dictionaries would be needed, one an English
dictionary would enable the person in England to find the
ideographs answering to the words or ideas he wishes to
communicate ; the other a Chinese dictionary, in which
these same ideographs could be read ofi* into Chinese by a
China man. This without the labour of acquiring a know-
ledge of Chinese characters, etc. etc.

So far we have rivalled the more ancient systems of
ideography in completeness and have much simplified them.
It next becomes clear that we may by very slight marks
about our figures qualify the ideas so as to convey what is
otherwise conveyed by the grammatical structure of
language, by inflection, etc.

Dr. Bach maier has drawn up a list of such signs which
may be easily applied, thus; masculine or feminine are
denoted by a slight mark above or below the first digit of
the figure, as — 126 masculine, 126 feminine; the plural is
denoted by a mark extending entirely beneath the number,
as — 126; a substantive is denoted by an accent, thus — 126;
an adjective by another kind of accent, thus — 126 ; a verb
by a wavy line, as — 126; the past tense by a line through
the figures 126, and the future by one above them, as — 126;
the comparative and superlative degrees by dots, as — 126
comparative, 126 superlative. Cases, by adding the numbers
representing the prepositions that qualify the particular
case, and so on. One or two rules to govern the position of
the verb and of the adjective in the sentence and all is
learnt that is required to enable us to communicate. The
rapidity with which it can be done is a matter of practice,

80

and for purposes of correspondence, of telegraphy, and of
short communications, it seems difficult to find an objection
to its use. It has been tested, as I said, by Dr. Birch and
others, and by them found to answer admirably, and if by its
means the problem be eventually solved by which the vast
gulf may be bridged which now separates those thinkers who
do not know each other’s language, a very great gain will have
been secured. Its inventor, at least, is hopeful enough, and
has, I believe, in preparation a series of dictionaries in
several languages ; of these I exhibit three which were dis-
tributed at the late Oriental Congress, viz., the English,
French, and German ones.

“ On the Existence of a Lunar Atmosphere,” by David
WiNSTANLEY, Esq.

The non-existence of a lunar atmosphere is spoken of by
many astronomical writers as confidently as if it were a
demonstrated fact. It is certain, however, that it is not a
demonstrated fact, and it is certain also that if a fact at all
it is undemonstrable.

The failure of any optical test, however delicate, to detect
the existence of such an atmosphere still leaves another
alternative open to us than the inference of atmospheric non-
existence, namely, the existence of an atmosphere in quantity
below the minimum discernible by the means employed.

The non-existence of an atmosphere about the moon com-
parable in density with that which surrounds the earth may
indeed be regarded as an established fact ; but the total
non-existence of such an atmosphere is certainly an un-
warranted conclusion.

I shall endeavour to show presently that the refraction
of a ray of light is not the most delicate test which can be
employed for the determination of the point in question.
But even this test has yielded indications which astronomers
of note have construed into evidence of a lunar atmosphere

IM

of considerable attenuation. Arago, for instance, has ob-
served on more than one occasion the apparent adhesion of
a star for three or four seconds to the dark limb of the
moon after it had been perceived to be in contact with it,
and he has also observed a very sensible diminution of
brightness previous to immersion.

From the distortion of the visible segment of the solar
disc observed by Euler during the eclipse of 1748, Du
Sejour, after making corrections for the effects of irradia-
tion, arrived at the conclusion that the moon possesses an
atmosphere having a horizontal refraction of 1.5", and
which is therefore 1,400 times more rare than common
atmospheric air upon the surface of the earth.

A phenomenon similar in kind to the twilight of the
earth has been recognised by Shroeter, in the form of a
faint crepuscular light extending from each of the lunar
cusps along the circumference of the unenlightened portion
of her disc, from which he has been enabled to deduce the
existence of an atmospheric envelope about our satellite
capable at an elevation of 5,000 feet above her surface of
causing a sensible inflexion of the light proceeding from a
celestial body. But as the moon would describe an arc
representing this amount in less than two seconds of time,
“ the circumstance has been adduced as affording: a sufflcient
explanation of the difficulty of detecting a lunar atmosphere
in the phenomena of occultations.”

Chromatic dispersion is the test which in certain circum-
stances at any rate seems to offer better opportunities for
ascertaining positively the existence of a lunar atmosphere
than the test of simple refraction. It would cause the
colour of an occulted object to change, making it green, and
finally blue at the instant of disappearance.

The direct telescopic observation, by which alone this
appearance could be noticed, would, from the operation of
circumstances upon which I need not dwell, probably lead

32

only to results of uncertainty. At the same time it is but
proper to remark that appearances have been observed at
eclipses of the sun suggestive of this phenomenon, and
which have been interpreted by Flamsteed as indicating the
existence of a lunar atmosphere. The particular circum-
stances in which, as I take it, chromatic dispersion may
afford weighty evidence of the existence of a lunar atmo-
sphere occur when the body occulted by the moon is one of
considerable angular magnitude and great intrinsic splen-
dour. Then it is manifest that the chromatic dispersion
effected by such an atmosphere would cause the projections
of prismatic bands upon the earth, forming as it were an
iris on the borders of the shadow, and bathing the land-
scape and the clouds in all the rainbow hues. These
circumstances it will be seen exist during the totality of a
solar eclipse, and the rainbow hues bathing alike the land-
scape and the sky, which I have indicated as the inevitable
consequences of chromatic dispersion by a lunar atmosphere,
would seem to be almost constant accompaniments of such
eclipses. ‘'As early as the year 840 it was remarked that
during the total eclipse of the sun which happened in that
year the colours of objects on the earth were changed.’'
“ Kepler mentions that during the eclipse which occurred in
the Autumn of 1590 the reapers in Styria noticed that
everything had a yellow tinge,” whilst during that which
took place in 1706 objects were observed to change their
colour, now appearing of an orange yellow, and now of a
reddish tinge.

The illustrious Edmund Halley remarked that the face
and colour of the sky were changed during the eclipse ob-
served by him in 1715. “The serene azure of the sky,” he
says, “turned to a more dusky livid colour, intermingled
with a tinge of purple, and grew darker and darker until
the total immersion of the sun.” Sir John Clarke, in his
account of the eclipse of 1737, states that “the ground v/as

covered with a dark greenish colour/’ whilst in the eclipse
of 1842 “it was universally remarked that the colours of
terrestrial objects were changed.” Mr. Hind says that after
the totality had commenced “ the southern heavens were
of a uniform and purple grey.” “ In the zenith and north
of ifc the heavens were of a purplish violet, while in the
north-west and north-east broad bands of yellowish crimson
light, intensely bright, produced an effect which no person
who witnessed it can forget.” “The crimson,” he says,
appeared to run over large portions of the sky, irrespeotive
of the cloudsf a circumstance certainly suggestive of a
cause differing from that which gives rise to the hues of
sunset.” “ All nature,” continues Mr. Hind, “ seemed to be
overshadowed by an unnatural gloom; the distant hills
were hardly visible ; the sea turned lurid red, and persons
standing near the observer had a pale and livid look.” Hot
only did the colours “run over large portions of the sky,
irrespective of the clouds,” but they were visible at stations
so remote from one another as to give additional assurance
of an extra-terrestrial origin. The distribution of the
colours observed by Mr. Hind at Haevelsberg is consistent
with the theory of their production by the chromatic dis-
persion of a lunar atmosphere, whilst the order of their suc-
cession, as stated by Sig. Piola who observed in Italy, and
the sudden change of colours noticed by Mr. Lowe, and
which took place as the shadow swept along, afford confirm-
ation of the theory.

It has been suggested by Mr. Lockyer that the colours
projected upon the landscape during the continuance of a
total solar eclipse may be those of various layers of the
chromosphere alternately disclosed by that great screen the
moon in its passage over the solar disc. Manifestly, how-
ever, the purity of some of the colours would be interfered
with, assuming them to be produced in this manner, and the
yellow which is so frequently seen would seem to be un-

34

accounted for. It is not unlikely that further and special
observations will be required to say of either of these
theories that it may or may not be maintained.

In the meantime, considering that the non-existence of a
lunar atmosphere is undemonstrated and undemonstrable,
that it is in opposition to analogy, and that even simple
refraction has given evidence of such an inconsiderable
atmospheric envelope as we might at most expect a body of
the moon’s small mass to have, it certainly seems to me
that the balance of probability lies in favour of the theory
that the rainbow hues observed at total eclipses of the sun
are really the results of chromatic dispersion etfected by a
lunar atmosphere.

Ordinary Meeting, November 17th, 1874.

Edwakd Schunck, Ph.D., F.KS., &c., President, in the

Ohair.

‘'Some Remarks on Dalton’s First Table of Atomic
Weights,” by Professor Henry E. Roscoe, F.R.S.

As the Society is aware, the first table, containing the
relative weights of the ultimate particles of gaseous and
other bodies, was published as the 8th and last paragraph to
a paper by Dalton, “ On the Absorption of Gases by Water
and other Liquids,” read before this Society on October 21,
1803, but not printed until the year 1805. There appears
reason to believe these numbers were obtained by Dalton
after the date at which the paper was read, and that the
paragraph in question was inserted at the time the paper
was printed. The remarkable words with which he intro-
duces this great principle give us but little clue to the
methods which he employed for the determination of these
first chemical constants, whilst in no subsequent publication,
as in none of the papers which have come to light since his
death, do we find any detailed explanation of how these
actual numbers were arrived at. He says, ^ " I am nearty
persuaded that the circumstance ” (viz. that of the different
solubilities of gases in water) “depends upon the weight
and number of the ultimate particles of the several gases —
those whose particles are lightest and single being less
absorbable, and the others more, according as they increase
in weight and complexity. An inquiry into the relative
weights of the ultimate particles of bodies is a subject, so
far as I know, entirely new. I have been lately prose-
cuting this enquiry with remarkable success. The principle
cannot be entered upon in this paper ; but I shall just sub-
join the results, as far as they appear to be ascertained by
my experiments.”

* Manch. Mem., Vol. I., 2nd Series, p. 286.

Peoceedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc. — Yol. XIY.— No. 4. — Session 1874-5,

86

Here follows the table of the relative weights of the.
atoms : — ■

TABLE

Of the relative weights of the ultimate particles of gaseous and
other matters.

Hydrogen 1

Azot 4‘2

Carbone 4’3

Ammonia 5‘2

Oxygen 5'5

Water 6'5

Phosphorus 7’2

Phosphurretted hydrogen 8*2

Mtrous gas 9*3

Ether 9'6

Gaseous oxide of carbone 9*8

Nitrous oxide 13*7

Sulphur 14-4

Nitric acid 15-2

Sulphuretted hydrogen 15*4

Carbonic acid 15-3

Alcohol 15*1

Sulphureous acid 19-9

Sulphuric acid - 25*4

Carburetted hydrogen from

stagnant water 6 '3

Olefiant gas 5 -3

In the 2nd part of his New System of Chemical Philo-
sophy, published in 1810, Dalton points out under the
description of each substance the experimental evidence

upon which its composition is based, and explains, in some
cases, how he arrived at the relative weights of the ultimate
particles in question. Between the years 1805 and 1810,
however, considerable changes had been made by Dalton in
the numbers; the table found in the first part of the New
System being not only much more extended, but in many

cases the numbers differing altogether from those given in
the first table published in 1805: It is therefore, unfor-

tunately, to a considerable extent now a matter of conjecture
how Dalton arrived at the first set of numbers. All we
know is that it was mainly by the consideration of the
composition of certain simple gaseous compounds of the
elements that he arrived at his conclusions, and in order
that we may form some idea of the data he employed we
must make use of the knowledge which chemists at that
time (1803-5) possessed concerning the composition of the
more simple compound gases.

As I can find no record of any explanation of these early
numbers I venture to bring the following attempt to trace
their origin before the Society to whom we owe their first
publication.

The first point to ascertain, if possible, is how Dalton

37

arrived at the I’elation between the atomic weights of
hydrogen and oxygen given in the table as 1 to 5 ’5 (but
altered to 7 in 1808). The composition of water by weight
had been ascertained by the experiments of Cavendish and
Lavoisier to be represented by the numbers 15 of hydrogen
to 85 of oxygen, and the result was generally accepted by
chemists at the time, amongst others doubtless by Dalton.
That in those early days Dalton had actually repeated or
confirmed these experiments appears improbable. At any
rate he formed the opinion that water was what he called a
binary compound, i.e., that it is made up of one atom of
oxygen and one atom of hydrogen combined together. Hence
if he took the numbers 85 to 15 as giving the composition
of water, the relation of Hydrogen =1 to Oxygen would be
as 1 to 5 ’6, or nearly that which he adopted. It does not
appear possible to explain why Dalton adopted 5*5 instead of
5*6 for oxygen; it may perhaps have been a mistake or a
misprint, as there are two evident mistakes in the table, viz.,
18‘7 for nitrous oxide instead of 13‘9, and 9’3 for nitrous gas
instead of 97.

Let us next endeavour to ascertain how he obtained the
number 4*3 for carbon (altered to 5 in 1808 and 5 '4 later on).
Lavoisier, in the autumn of 1783, had ascertained the com-
position of carbonic acid gas by heating a given weight of
carbon with oxide of lead, and he came to the conclusion
that the gas contained 28 parts by weight of carbon to 72
parts by weight of oxygen. Now Dalton was not only
acquainted with the properties and composition of carbonic
acid, but he was aware that Cruikshank had shown in 1800
that the only other known compound of carbon and oxygen,
carbonic oxide gas, yields its own bulk of carbonic acid
when mixed with ox}^gen and burnt; and also that
Desormes^' analysed both these gases, finding carbonic oxide
to contain 44 of carbon to 56 of oxygen, whilst carbonic

* Ann de Cliimie, T. .39, r>. 38,

38

acid contained to 44 of carbon 112 of oxygen, being just
double of that in the carbonic oxide. Dalton adds, “ this
most striking circumstance seems to have wholly escaped
their notice.” Hence Dalton assumed that one atom of
carbon is united in the case of carbonic oxide with one atom
of oxygen, whilst carbonic acid possessed the more complb
cated composition and contains two atoms of oxygen to one
of carbon. Now if carbonic acid contains carbon and
oxygen in the proportion of 28 to 72, carbonic oxide must
contain half as much oxygen, viz., 28 of carbon to 36 of
oxygen, and assuming that the atomic weight of oxygen is

5-5

that of carbon must be

28x5-5

36

Having thus

arrived at the number 4-3 as the first atomic weight of
carbon, it is easy to see why Dalton gave 6 ”3 as the atomic
weight of carburetted hydrogen from stagnant water, and
5 '3 as that of olefiant gas. The one represents 1 atom
of carbon to 2 of hydrogen, the other 1 of carbon to 1 of
hydrogen, or olefiant gas contains two equal quantities of
carbon, only half as much hydrogen as marsh gas. This
conclusion doubtless expressed the results of Dalton’s own
experiments upon these two gases which were made, as we
know from himself, in the year 1804. He proved that
neither of these gases contains anything besides carbon
and hydrogen, and ascertained — by exploding with oxygen
in a Volta’s Eudiometer — that if we reckon the carbon in
each the same, then carburetted hydrogen contains exactly
twice as much hydrogen as olefiant gas does, and that “just
half of the oxygen expended on its combustion was applied
to the hydrogen and the other half to the charcoal. This
leading fact afibrded a clue to its constitution.” Whereas,
in the case of olefiant gas, two parts of oxygen are spent
upon the charcoal and one part upon the hydrogen.

The atomic weight of nitrogen (azote =4-2) was doubtless
obtained from the consideration of the composition of am-
monia, whose atomic weight is given in the table at 5 -2.

39

Ammonia was discovered in 1774 loy Priestley, but the
composition was ascertained by Berth ollet in 1775, by
splitting it into its constituent elements by means of elec-
tricity, when he came to the conclusion that it contained
0’19o parts by weight of hydrogen to 0‘807 parts by weight
of nitrogen. Dalton assumed that this substance is a com-
pound of one atom of hydrogen with one of nitrogen, and

807 X 1

hence he obtained for the atomic weight of azote — = 4’2 ;

and 4‘2-l~l = 5‘2 as the atomic weight of ammonia. It is
also probable that Dalton made use of the composition of
the oxides of nitrogen for the purpose of obtaining the
atomic weight of nitrogen. If we take the numbers ob-
tained partly by Davy and partly by himself, as given on
page 318 of the New System, as representing the composition
of the three lowest oxides, it appears that the mean
value for nitrogen is 4’3 when oxygen is taken as 5*5. In
all probability the number in this table (4*2) was obtained
from an experiment of Dalton’s made at an earlier date.

It is not possible to ascertain the exact grounds upon
which Dalton gave the number 7 *2 for phosphorus; its
juxtaposition, however, in the table to phosphuretted hydro-
gen shows that it was probably an analysis or a density
determination of this gas which led him to the atomic
weight 7'2, under the supposition that this gas (like am-
monia) consisted of one atom of each of its components. In
the second table, published in 1808, Dalton gives the number
9 as that of the relative weight of the phosphorus atom,
and we are able to trace the origin of this latter number,
although that of 7*2 is lost to us. On p. 460, Part II. of
his New System, Dalton states that he found 100 cubic
indies of phosphuretted hydrogen to weigh 26 grains, the
same bulk of hydrogen weighing 2*5 grains ; hence, assuming
that equal volumes contain an equal number of atoms, we

have :

26—2*5

:9'4 gives the atomic weight of phosphorus'

2*5

40

nearly. It was probably by similar reasoning from a still
more inaccurate experiment than this one that he obtained
the number 7 ‘2.

Sulphur, which stands in the first table of 1803 at 14’4,
was altered in the list published in the New System to 13.
These numbers were derived from a consideration (1) of the
composition of sulphuretted hydrogen, which he regarded
as a compound of one atom of sulphur with one of hydrogen,
and (2) of that of sulphurous acid, which he supposed to
contain one atom of sulphur to two of oxygen. Dalton knew
that the first of these compounds contained its own volume
of hydrogen, and he determined its specific gravity, so that
by deducting from the weight of one volume of the gas that
of one volume of hydrogen he would obtain the weight of
the atom of sulphur compared to hydrogen as the unit. The
specific gravity he obtained was about 1*23 (corresponding
neaity he says — p. 451 — to Thenard’s number 1-23); hence
(as he believed air to be 12 times as heavy as hydrogen) he
would obtain the atomic weight of sulphur as (12 X D23)— 1
= 13‘76, which number, standing half way between 14‘4 as
given in the first table and 13 as given in the second, points
out the origin of the first relative weight of tlie ultimate
particle of sulphur. So from sulphurous acid he would
obtain a similar number, taking the specific gravity as ob-
tained by him (Part II. 389) to be 2-3, and remembering
that this gas contains its own bulk of oxygen (p. 391), he
obtained (2-3 - 1T2) x 12= 14T6 for the atomic weight of
sulphur. As however we do not possess the exact numbers
of his specific gravity determinations, and as we do not
exactly know what number he took at the time as re-
presenting the relations between the densities of air and
hydrogen (in 1803 he says that the relation of 1 ; 0‘077 is
not correct, and that -A is nearer the truth), it is impossible
to obtain the exact numbers for sulphur as given in the first
table.

In reviewing the experimental basis upon which Dalton

41

founded liis conclusions, we cannot but be struck with the
clearness of perception of truth which enabled him to argue
correctly from inexact experiments. In the notable case,
indeed, in which Dalton announces the first instance of com-
bination in multiple proportion (Manch. Mem., vol. 1, series
2, page 250) the whole conclusion is based upon an erroneous
experimental basis. If we repeat the experiment as described
by Dalton we do not obtain the results he arrived at. Oxy-
gen cannot as a fact be made to combine with nitric oxide
in the proportions of one to two by tmerely varying the
shape of the containing vessel, although Iby other means we
can now effect these two acts of combination. We see,
therefore, that Dalton’s conclusions were correct, although
in this case it a23pears to have been a mere chance that his
experimental results rendered such a conclusion possible.

‘^Action of Light on certain Vanadium Compounds,” by
Mr. James Gibbons. Communicated by Professor H. E.
Roscoe, F.R.S.

Potassium divanadate, in combination with organic matter,
is first rendered green, and ultimately blue, by exposure to
light, being reduced probably to the state of vanadium
tetroxide. The salt is not sensitive to light in the absence
of organic matter.

Gelatine, mixed with potassium divaiiadate, becomes
slightly less soluble in warm water after being exposed to
light; this is apparent by the unexposed portions of the
film swelling and dissolving more quickly vdren treated
with water than the exposed parts.

If a colourless film of dry sodium orthovanadate (MaoVO^),
free from organic matter, be exposed on glass to the sun for
several hours, it only acquires a faint brown tint. The film
kept in the dark, with access of air for some hours, regains
its normal colourless condition. The salt does not undergo
any change when exposed to diffused daylight.

42

Pajjei'; which does not contain any size of an animal
origin, when coated with a solution of sodium orthovana-
date, is darkened on exposure to light, the depth of tint
depending on the length of exposure and on the strength
of the solution used. The tint, however, never becomes
darker than a slate colour.

If the paper thus prepared be immersed, after exposure
to light, in a solution of silver nitrate, the colour in the ex-
posed part instantly changes to a deep brown or to a black
colour, varying according to the amount of exposure. A tint
of the decomposed vanadate, which is of so slight an amount
as to be with difficulty distinguished from the whiteness of
the paper, will, by immersion in the silver nitrate, be toned
so as to exhibit a very perceptible tint

It is evident that paper prepared in this way might be
employed for the purposes of photographic printing.

The unexposed parts are converted, by treatment in the
silver bath, into yellow silver vanadate. This substance
may be dissolved out either by ammonia or by sodium
hyposulphite. This act of fixing converts the dark brown
or black part into those of a red colour. This may be pre-
vented to some extent by using a bath of ammonio-silver
nitrate, with an excess of ammonia, instead of the simple
silver nitrate bath. The developed print can afterwards be
toned with gold chloride.

The length of exposure required to produce a deep black
is about one hour to a strong sun light. This by using a
solution of the sodium orthovanadate containing about 1 1
per cent of the salt.

Some ligneous substance only must be present with the
sodium orthovanadate for the production of the above-men^
tioned slaty tint ; for if an albuminous body be present, a
faint brown tint is produced after exposure to light, and the
silver nitrate is not afterwards reduced to any very great
extent. The slate colour of the reduced salt appears to be
due to the formation of vanadium trioxide. If the exposed

48

paper be kept for some weeks its colour changes to that of
a yellowish brown, free vanadic ‘ acid appearing to be
produced.

Gelatine impregnated with sodium ortho vanadate exposed
to light, and afterwards dipped into a solution of silver
nitrate, becomes insoluble in hot water.

Silver orthovanadate is capable of forming a photographic
image, which is nearly latent, and which may be developed
by the ordinary ferrous developer used in photography.

To produce this image two or three minutes’ exposure to
sunlight is required. To develope it, it is essential that
little or no silver nitrate be present ; otherwise, the exposed
and unexposed parts are reduced indiscriminately. The
washed silver vanadate can be mixed with a solution of
gelatine containing a little albumen, spread upon paper, and
allowed to dry ; it can then be exposed to light, and
afterwards developed.

“On Basic Calcium Chloride,” by Harey Geimshaw^
F.C.S.

When a strong solution of calcium chloride is boiled with
calcium hydrate, the solution filtered, and allowed to cool, a
salt separates out in long, slender, needle-shaped crystals.
This salt is called in Gmelin’s Handbook, hydrated chloride
of calcium and lime, or hydrated tetra-hydrochlorate of
lime, and, according to him, has been noticed by Bucholfcz
and Trommsdorf and by Berthollet, and analysed by H.
Bose, who found the formula SCaO, CaCl+16Aq, or in pre-
sent notation SCaO, CaCl2+16H20. This is not a very
simple or intelligible formula, and moreover the percentage
of water found, which was 49 '084, is considerably lower
than that required by the formula, namely, 50'793i The
salt was therefore prepared and analysed as follows.

The solution of calcium chloride was prepared by dissolv-
ing, by heat, pure white marble in moderately concentrated
hydrochloric acid until saturated. This was boiled with an

44

excess of milk of lime for about an hour, filtered whilst hot
and allowed to cool. The salt separated out, on standing,
in slender, white, needle-shaped crystals, generally from one
half to an inch in length. They were sometimes obtained
of not more than a quarter of an inch in length, and almost
transparent, the separation not taking place until the solu-
tion was agitated. The composition of the crystals was in
all cases the same, and was not affected by the length of
time they were allowed to remain in contact with the liquid.
The crystals, dried as quickly as possible between blotting
paper, on analysis gave the following results : —

(а) 0-677 grm. gave 0*273 grm. CaO.

0-442 „ „ 0-228 „ AgCl and 0-0012 Ag.

0*307 grm. lost on heating 0*152 grm.

(б) 0-359 grm. gave 0*144 grm. CaO.

0-794 „ „ 0*2045 „ AgCl and 0*0245 Ag.

T052 lost on heating 0*52 grm.

Calculated for Found Calculated for

CaO, CaOHCl + fH^O.

^ _A_

. 3CaO, CaCL+16H.

(«)

(0

Ca

... 29*144 ...

... 28-80

28-77 .

28*22

Cl

... 12*932 ...

... 12*86

12*794 .

12*522

0

... 5*829 ...

—

—

8*465

OH ...

... 6*193 ...

—

—

—

HoO ...

... 45*901 ...

... —

—

—

Loss on heating 49*179 ...

... 49*40

49*47 .

...(HoO)50*793

100*000

100*000

The constitution of the salt is therefore expressed by the
formula ^ | + On heating, two molecules of

the salt decompose, forming SCaOd-CaClg+lSHgO. The
difference of the proportion of the constituents according to
the above formula, and according to that assigned by Eose,
is therefore that corresponding to one atom of water more
or less. As the amount of water is nearly 50 per cent of
the whole, this constituent will exhibit the greatest differ-
ence, namely 1*514. Accordingly, the numbers above will

45

( CaOH

be found to agree with the formula 0 | "b which

loses on heating 49 ‘179 per cent. The number found by
Rose (49‘084) agrees very nearly.

The salt is perfectly stable for any length of time if kept
out of contact with the air. It may be also kept unaltered
in the mother liquor for some time. In the air it decom-
poses, absorbing carbonic acid and water. Over sulphuric
acid in vacuo or in air, or over quicklime, it parts with a
portion of its water of crystallization. Both these circum-
stances interfere with the exact drying of the salt.

With water, it decomposes into calcium hydrate and
calcium chloride —

2ro I +2H,O=3Ca(0H)2-f CaCl^.

the substitution of hydrobromic for the hydrochloric
acid in the preparation of the salt, I expect to obtain a cor-
responding bromine compound.

“On the Structure of Stigmaria,” by Professor W. C.
Williamson, F.RS.

At the meeting of the Manchester Literary and Philo-
sophical Society, held on October 20th, Mr. Binney called in
question some conclusions at which I had arrived, and had
published in Part II. of my Memoirs on the Structure of
the Coal Plants, respecting the organisation of Stigmaria,
Mr. Binney further published an abstract of his remarks in
Part II. of Vol. 14 of the Society’s Proceedings. Believing
that Mr, Binney ’s observations, if allowed to pass unnoticed,
may mislead some Palseontologists unacquainted with Stig-
maria, I feel called upon to reply to them through the same
channel as that which he has employed for their promulga-
tion. The general features of the plant, known for half a
century as Stigmaria ficoides, have been so well described
by Bindley and Hutton, Dr. Hooker, Mr. Binney, and Brong=^
niart, that no one familiar with those descriptions can fail
to recognise it without difficulty. That plant consisted of a

46

central medulla, surrounded by a cylinder of scalariform
vessels arranged in radiating wedges, very distinctly separated
by two kinds of medullary rays (primary and secondary), the
whole being enclosed in a thick bark from the surface of which
spring numerous large cylindrical rootlets. The vascular
cylinder gives off numerous large vasculai- bundles of
scalariform vessels, which proceed outwards, through the
conspicuous primary medullary rays, to reach the rootlets.

The dispute between Mr. Binney and myself resolves
itself chiefly into three points. 1st. — The structure of the
medulla of Stigmaria, 2nd. — The source whence the vascu-
lar bundles supplying the rootlets are derived. And 8rd.- —
The nature of some vascular bundles which both Mr. Binney
and M. Goeppert have figured as existing within the medulla,
and one of which is prolonged radially in M. Goeppert’s
example through a medullary ray. Mr. Binney and M.
Goeppert believe that the cellular medulla of Stigmaria
contained bundles of very large scalariform vessels, and that
those bundles proceeded outwards to supply the rootlets. On
the other hand, in my 2nd Memoir, referred to by Mr. Binney,
I not only expressed my conviction, but demonstrated the ab“
solute certainty that such was not their origin. I adhere to
the same opinion as I previously expressed, and have the
specimens on the table which prove its correctness. The
fact that these bundles were derived, not from the medulla,
but from the vascular wedges of the woody cylinder, was
illustrated by the figures 43, 44, and 47 of the Memoir
referred to, figures which accurately represent, not conditions
occasionally met with, but, those which characterise every
specimen of the true Stigmaria ficoides. In the Memoir I
further affirm that immediately within the wood^^ cylinder
there exists a delicate cellular tissue, and state that one of
my specimens makes it perfectly clear that the entire
medulla consisted of similar cells, unmixed with any vascu^
lar bundles whatever such as were represented in M. Goep-
pert’s and Mn Binney’s figures^ and the accuracy of which

47

was, and it appears still is, endorsed by Mr. Binney. After
thus endorsing what I believe to be a grave mistake, Mr.
Binney proceeds to justify his doing so by appealing to a
specimen which I have not seen, but which Mr. Binney’s own
description convinces me is a plant altogether different, alike
from THE Stigmaria of authors, and from M. Goeppert’s and
Mr. Binney ’s own figures. Mr. Binney describes his new spe-
cimen as having a radiating woody cylinder, immediately
within which is a second series of large vessels not arranged
in radiating wedges, and which Mr. Binney says is ‘'some-
thing like a medullary sheath, enclosing a medulla composed
of very small and short barred tubes or utricles, in which
are mingled large vascular tubes or utricles.” Though this
use of vague terms renders the sense obscure, I pre-
sume that Mr. Binney simply means that in the medulla of
his plant a vascular cylinder encloses a cellular medulla, or,
in other words, that his specimen has a Diploxyloid axis.
That Mi-. Binney possesses a specimen having the above
structure, and giving off rootlets from its periphery, I
have no reason for doubting, since in the Memoirs already
quoted I have described a similar structure under the
name of Diploxylon Stigmarioideum, and respecting which
I make the following observations: — -“It is possible that
the plant may, like Stigmaria, prove to be the upper-
most part of a root of some of the other forms” {i.e. of
Lepidodendroid stems), “though I have never yet found
it associated with any rootlets, and it may be a fragment
from the base where stem and roots united.” — (loc. cit. p.
289.) I arrived at the above conclusions because I found in
the specimen described evidence that large rootlet bundles
were given off from the woody zone as in rhe true Stig-
maria. But I affirm that out of hundreds of Stigmarian frag-
ments that I have examined, I have only found two possess-
ing this structure; and I unhesitatingly express my conviction
that Mr. Binney’s specimen is another example of an equally
rare type, both being entirely distinct from Stigmaria ficoides.

48

to which latter plant alone is referable Mr. Binney’s pre-
viously published figures, M. Goeppert’s description and
figures of which Mr. Binney approves, and mine which he
rejects.

Mr. Binney proceeds to say, The size of these large vas-
cular tubes or utricles in the medulla, exceeding anything,
so far as his knowledge extended, hitherto observed in fossil
plants, shows that it was easily decomposed, and thus
accounts for the general absence of the medulla in Sigillaria
and its roots.” At this reasoning I must altogether demur.
Size has nothing whatever to do with the preservation of
the tissues in fossil plants. Yasciilar structures strength-
ened by transverse bars of lignine are equally well preserved
whether they are large or small. The medulla of Stigmaria
disappeared or became much disorganised because it con-
sisted of an unusually delicate cellular tissue with extremely
thin walls. This tendenc}^ to decay was more manifest
towards the centre of the medulla than at its circumference.
Specimens on the table exhibit this peripheral part of the
cellular medulla in exquisite perfection, giving off its cha-
racteristic cellular prolongations constituting the medullary
rays, as described in my memoir. And yet this beautiful
cellular tissue occupies the position which Mr. Binney says
was occupied by “large vascular tubes or utricles.” The
specimens referred to showing these conditions constitute
unanswerable facts.

Mr. Binney correctly notes the resemblance of the inner
vascular cylinder in his specimen to a “ medullary sheath.”
I have already said the same thing in several of my memoirs,
and M. Brongniart said it before either of us. But this
very homology, if correct, indicates the probability of Mr.
Binney ’s specimen being a fragment derived from the junc-
tion of stem and root rather than a true root, since in
living plants possessing a medullary sheath, that sheath,
as every botanist knows, is never prolonged into the
true roots, for the simple physiological reason that its origin

49

is directly connected with that of the leaf formations of
the ascending axis.

As I have already observed, M. Goeppert’s and Mr.
Binney’s previous figures represent a structure altogether
different from that now described by Mr. Binney. Instead
of the continuous inner vascular cylinder of the latter M.
Goeppert’s figure displays two detached, unsymmetrically
arranged, vascular bundles in the interior of the medullary
cavity. I have already affirmed my conviction that these
belonof to intruded rootlets of a Sti^maria, and are in no
respects part of the true m.edullary axis. On the other
hand Mr. Binney says that “they are certainly not in-
truded rootlets, as anyone who examines the learned
author’s plates can satisfy himself.” On this point Mr. Car-
ruthers writes to me on November 2nd, “No one who is
accustomed to sections of Stigmaria can fail to see that
Goeppert has mistaken the accidental rootlets of Stigmaria
penetrating the decayed axis for an organic part of that
axis.” I may allow this opinion of an experienced botanist,
with which I wholly concur, to neutralise that of Mr.
Binney, who further says, “ It is very improbable that they”
(ic. Goeppert’s vascular rootlets) “ had ever been introduced
into the axis after the pith had been removed.” To this I
reply that it is an extremely rare thing to find any
such axis which does not contain more or less of these
rootlets. My cabinet is full of such examples, and in two
specimens on the table, one of Vvdiich has been lent me by
Captain J. Aitken of Bacup, similar rootlets not only exist
in the centrai axis but have penetrated the medullary rays
as in M. Goeppert’s specimen.

Mr. Binney, referring to my comments upon his previous
memoir, says that “in that memoir mention is only made
of the large vascular bundles found in the axis, without
calling them vascular or any other vessels.” I do not very
clearly understand what this sentence means, but I presume
it is intended to imply that Mr. Binney never affirmed that

50

the pith of Stigmaria contained VASCULAR tissues, and that
I have misrepresented him in stating that he had done so.
I can only answer this by giving Mr. Binney’s words. “ The
most important circumstance thus developed is the existence
of a double system of vessels in Stigmaria, first shown by
Goeppert, and the consequent approach in this respect to
Diploxylon, Corda. In Diploxylon, however, the inner
system forms a continuous cylinder, concentric with and in
juxtaposition to the wedges of wood forming the outer ;
while in Stigmaria the same inner system is broken up into
scattered bundles, apparently unsymmetrically arranged in
the medullary axis or pith of the plant” — Quarterly Journal
of the Geological Society, vol. 15, p. 17— and on p, 78 of the
same memoir, describing the specimen represented by fig. 2,
he says, ‘'The axis is filled with eleven or twelve large
vessels of circular or oval form,” and the same structures are
again spoken of as “vessels” no less than six times in the
next seventeen lines, with the further remark that “altogether
these angular vessels remind me somewhat of the vascular
tissue in the middle of Anabathra” — (loc. cit. p. 78). It is
true that in two places Mr. Binney applies to these structures
the term “utricles,” by which, I presume, he means cells,
but such a term, applied to such tissues, is equally applicable
to all known fibro-vascular structures, and is simply equiva-
lent to saying that scalariform vessels have no existence.

I have entered into these details because by promulgating
vague and groundless doubts respecting work already care-
fully done, Mr. Binney s communication tends to reintroduce
confusion into questions that have been virtually settled.
It does this through failing to discriminate between
things that differ. His introductory remarks refer to the
common Stigmaria ficoides, whilst his justification of those
remarks rests upon a plant of a very different character, and
which I am absolutely certain is not the common form of
Stigmaria.

Ordinary Meeting, December 1st, 1874.

Rev. Wm. Gaskell, M.A., Vice-President, in the Chair,

“Some Doubts in regard to the Law of the Diffusion of
Gases,” by Heney H. Howorth, Esq.

The Author said that he had a difficulty in reconciling
the conclusions drawn by Dalton, Berthollet, and Graham
respecting the diffusion of gases with the actual facts of
nature, and it seemed to him that the only way in which
the inferences drawn from experiments in the laboratory
and what was going on in nature on a large scale could be
reconciled was in the belief that either diffusion was ex-
tremely slow in some cases or that it was sometimes
prevented.

He argued that the continuity of condition between
gases and liquids which had lately been so admirably illus-
trated made it, a priori, probable that similar laws prevailed
in both classes of matter in respect to their laws of diffu-
sion, &c., and that, as in the case of liquids, the law of
diffusion was not a universal one, but had at least apparent
exceptions, so also among gases there might occasionally be
conditions which resisted or very greatly impeded the
operation of the law. He granted at once that the gases
that form air, and many others, bear uniform testimony to
the correctness of the generalisation ; but in the case of
carbonic acid, watery vapour, and hydrogen, there seemed
to be some room for doubt. The fact that in all abandoned
wells, tunnels, and mines, where atmospheric currents do
not play, and where there is no absorbing vegetation, there is
an accumulation of carbonic acid gas, although these hollows
have ample access to the air, goes to show that the rate of
diffusion must be exceedingly slow in these cases, if in fact
diffusion be not actually suspended. The mephitic vapours
Proceedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc. — Yol. XIY.— No. 5.— Session 1874-5.

52

in low valleys in volcanic districts, and the gases that
generate malaria in many low-lying marshy districts — such
as the Maremma in Italy, the neighbourhood of Montpelier
in France, &c. — seem to point in the same direction. The
very diverse condition in regard to the amount of watery
vapour contained in contiguous areas of the atmosphere,
whether we examine it in different neighbouring localities
or in the superimposed strata of air in any particular
locality, show that the working of the law of diffusion is
here greatly impeded. In regard to hydrogen the evidence
is somewhat different. It is clear that if under certain con-
ditions hydrogen be an exception to the general law of the
diffusion of gases, and follows rather the more general law
of gravitation, that it will exist in a stratum above the
atmosphere and beyond the reach of direct observation. In
his experiment upon the occlusion of gases, Mr. Graham
examined several aerolites, and found that under the air
pump they parted with a very large quantity of occluded
hydrogen. If, as is probable, the gas was occluded by the
aerolites when at a red heat, and this red heat was coin-
cident with their passage through that layer of the upper
atmosphere in which the phenomena of shooting stars and
of the aurora occur, it seems more than probable that this
stratum is a layer of hydrogen. This is confirmed by what
we know of the spectrum^ of certain auroras, which re-
sembles those of the zodiacal light and the solar corona.
The spectrum of the corona has been the most attentively
studied, and Jansen, perhaps the greatest authority on it,
speaks most confidently about its distinguishing feature
being the hydrogen lines, while a special line which charac-
terises both its spectrum and that of the aurora, and which
is different to that of any terrestrial substance, is considered
by Father Secchi to be an abnormal hydrogen line. Dr.
Dalton long ago argued, as Mr. Baxendell has reminded Mr.
Howorth, that the peculiar features of the aurora could best

53

be explained by the hypothecation of a stratum of some
peculiar gas above the atmosphere. A gas of a ^'ferruginous
nature'' is the expression of Dr. Dalton. Now hydrogen
in the higher chemistry is not only classed among the
metals, but Faraday and others have shown that in its rela-
tion to magnetism it is nearly allied to iron, so that a
stratum of hydrogen above the air would seem to exactly
answer Dr. Dalton’s postulate. If it should exist, the earth
would resemble the sun in one remarkable feature, for we
now know that the sun is girdled with an immense layer of
hydrogen. Lastly, he would add that the heterogeneous
texture of the gaseous nebula, like the great nebula in Orion,
seems to argue that the law of the equal diffusion of gases
does not prevail there.

Mr. Hov^'orth presented these facts with considerable
hesitation, his excuse for doing so being his view that all
physical laws are tentative only ; that is, they are good as
long as they explain all the facts, and no longer, and that it
sometimes becomes a duty to present apparently aberrant
and abnormal facts to an audience so v/ell qualified to
criticise them as the Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, in order that they may either be brought within
the law or that the law may be revised.

Ordinary Meeting, December 15th, 1874.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., tc., President, *in the

Chair.

Mr. Joseph Garrick and Professor Morrison Watson, M.D.,
were elected ordinary members of the Society,

Rev. Wm. Gaskell, M.A., read an interesting account of
Horrocks’ and Crabtree’s Observations of the Transit of
Venus in 1639, published in the Annual Register for 1769.

54

‘‘Some Particulars respecting the Negro of the Neigh-
bourhood of the Congo, West Africa,” by Watson Smith,
F.C.S.

These particulars were furnished by Mr. Eichard C.
Phillips in two letters dated respectively July 17th, 1873,
and July Vj, 1874. The parts of the coast are those situ-
ated between the towns Chillunga, Landana, Cabenda, Am-
brizette, Kinsembo, and Ambriz.

With respect to the Coast trading, which chiefly consists
of a system of barter, the following information is given.
The articles of barter are chiefly rum, beads, cloth, knives,
rings, hatchets, and miscellaneous articles of the kind.
On certain parts of the coast some articles will pass as cur-
rency to the exclusion of others ; thus beads are essential
in Ambrizette and Kinsembo, being the true money of the
country, and in consequence comparatively little spirits are
used in those places, while at Loango rum plays a most
prominent part. The produce of the country exchanged by
the Negroes for the above mentioned articles is as follows :
Palm nuts, ivory, coffee. No doubt numerous other articles
are bartered, but those named are principal.

The African uses most of his rum as money. Suppose a
Negro trader receives half a gallon; he will divide this into
many portions— drinking some, giving some to his wives
(perhaps ten), spending some in palm nuts, casada, corn,
firewood, &c. The rum is preferred, partly on account of
its being readily divided without suffering loss of value.
The same applies to beads, which are preferred in some
localities. The drinking of spirits is thus very much limited
by its scarcity, and by its use as currency ; yet occasionally
drunkenness breaks out and a “ big dance ” is held. One
thing is evident, viz., that a settled and confirmed taste for
spirits is being formed amongst these coast natives. Also,
that this being a tropical country, this fact points to a great
peril in store for the future of the native people; and not a

55

very vivid imagination might picture the effect probably
following the introduction in larger qu^tity of such a
beverage, or say the method of manufacturing the article
for themselves.

The character of the Negro is thus described by Mr.
Phillips : '' Pie is very averse to work, and takes little
thought for the future, has little love or hate, is not revenge-
ful, as that would entail trouble or expense, lives unto
himself alone. Crafty, cunning, a born swindler, often a
confessed rogue, avaricious yet lazy, he generally attaches
himself to some one of importance and does his bidding like
a stray cur who follows you home, and of which you take
charge. This is not the individual, but the national cha-
racter.” In the early part of this year, 1874, the small-pox
broke out violently on the Coast. Mr. Phillips at once set
to work to grapple with the evil in a manner which is
beyond praise. Having procured a quantity of vaccine
lymph, he vaccinated some hundreds of the Negroes. The
result exceeded his expectations, for not one died who had
been vaccinated, though numbers fell around them. Later
on, Mr. Phillips writes, “ I am entirely out of lymph, and, in
connection with this. I’ll tell you something. When I had
finished the ‘ batch ’ of which I have spoken I told several
to come at the time of ripening, so that I could transfer the
matter for the use of others; but not one had the generosity
to remember his neighbours, and not one came.” Mr.
Phillips further writes : '' I believe if the vaccine lymph be
fresh, be it syphilitic, cancerous, scrofulous, what not, it acts
in precisely the same manner.”

The social customs are of a very peculiar nature, and
certain of them furnish, as I have recently found, an in-
teresting contribution to the elucidation of a question con-
nected with ancient Greek History. Mr. Phillips writes :
“The women are the slaves of their husbands or the
mother’s eldest brother. This may seem a strange arrange-^

56

ment. It is after this principle — If I die leaving children
they may not Ife mine really, but another man’s ; but my
eldest sister is certainly of my blood, having been born of
the same mother, then her eldest son is certainly of her,
consequently of my blood. My property would then go to
her children, not my wife’s and (presumed) mine. In like
manner I should have the control of my sister’s children
during my life. My sister’s husband cannot take the
charge of his children because they cannot be proved to be
his ; but on my side there can be no mistake, they are of
my blood. This arrangement is necessary on account of
concubinage, which is every woman’s portion until she is
married, and illegitimacy is a term of which they have no
idea. One and all children are alike, the mother’s eldest
brother having charge of the whole. They seem to get on
very well without the domestic strife which one would
expect; the wives seem contented and happy. In fact,
before the manner in which the domestic machinery works
can be appreciated, an examination of it is necessary. Mow
in Dr. Ernst Curtius’ History of Greece, translated by Prof.
Ward, of the Owens College, the following paragraph occurs
(p. 83) concerning the Lycians, a people of Greek descent,
who lived in Lycia, a country of Asia Minor. Quoting the
opinions of that day. Dr. Curtius writes : “ Their patriotism
they proved in heroic struggles, and in the quiet of home
developed a greater refinement of manners, to which the
special honour in which they held the female sex bears
marked testimony.” “ This is one of the blessings of the
religion of Apollo,” &c., &c. And in the families of the
citizens the matrons were honoured hy the sons designating
their descent hy the names of their mothers!'

In a foot-note Dr. Curtius explains as follows : “ It is true
that the usage of the Lycians to designate descent by the
mother was interpreted even in ancient times as a proof
that in their social life they conceded a peculiar influence to

57

women. They are called women’s servants by Hera elides
Pontiens. However, it would be an ‘error to understand the

i

usage in question as a homage offered to the female sex. It
is rather rooted in primitive conditions of society, in which
monogamy was not yet established with sufficient certainty
to enable descent on the father’s side to be affirmed with
assurance. Accordingly this usage extends far beyond the
territory commanded by the Lycian nationality. It occurs
even to this day in India. It may be demonstrated to have
existed amongst the ancient Egyptians. It is mentioned by
Sanchuniathon, where the reason for its existence is stated
with great freedom. Hence we must regard the employ-
ment of the maternal name for the designation of descent as
the remains of an imperfect condition of social life and family
law, which as life became more regulated was relinquished
in favour of the usage, afterwards universal in Greece, of
naming children after the father. This diversity of usage,
which is of extreme importance for the history of ancient
civilisation, has been recently discussed by Bachofen.”

With respect to the language, Mr. Phillips furnishes me
with the following interesting particulars The native
tongue is very peculiar, but very musical. I fancy it would
sound well sung. The sound of one word often determines
that of several others in a sentence, as li-ilii -le ami, chinkutu-
chi-ami, malo-mami, where the alliteration is plainly per-
ceived. Ami means ^my.'” In another letter is the fol-
lowing : “ The language is a study of great interest, being
one of the Bantu or alliterative languages, the peculiarity
of which consists of euphonious changes of consonants for
the sake of the alliteration. Thus one sound will often pre-
dominate through a sentence governed by some principal
word. It may be considered in the following light:
Suppose it to contain several nouns— five or six — and each
gender to depend on the sound of the first syllable, then let
the pronouns, adjectives, verbs, all be declined, with the

58

same corresponding generic sounds; thus we get an allitera-
tion, the subject governing ail until the object is reached.
The inflexions are of the first, not the last syllable. The
following are a few specimens of singular and plural with
personal pronouns attached, illustrating the theory, which
however is not invariably carried out

Chink util chiami 1 , . ,

7 . . y my shirt.

shirt my j

Biukutu biami 1 , . ,

shMs my \ “7

Li-ilu leaini 1

y my nose.

nose my J ^

Matu mami ]

eyes my J

Lungo chiami
ring my

Lnngo biami
rings my

Mwbiio ami
child my

Bano bami

children my

^ my ring.

(No alliteration)
j my rings.

(No alliteration)
> my child.

I

my children.

There are some very interesting forms of verbs, adverbs

of negation, &c., phrases, for example — | ^

asleep, or was asleep at the time spoken of They say in
answer to the question, “Have ’you eaten?” “No.” In
answer to “ Have you anything to eat ?” they do not say
“ No,” but “Nothing.” The phrase “I have not eaten” in-
volves again a diflerent negative. Many phrases are of a
double nature, like the French negative in “je ne saisy^as.”
Altogether it is a highly elaborate tongue, with whose
beauties few are acquainted. If rapidly spoken a sentence
seems but one long word, so easily do the syllables flow
together. The words themselves seem intricate changes on
simple syllables ; few double consonants unless at the be-
ginning of a word, then generally of the extraordinary
forms in “ Mpembo,” “Njeio,” “Msitii,” “Nkdmbo,” and as
the preceding word ends in a vowel these readily combine.
I do not think a dozen words in the language end in a con-
sonant. The word for a cat is a suggestive one, “ wai-o,”
pronounced “why-o.”

59

“Analysis of one of the Trefriw Mineral Waters/' |by
Thomas Carnelley, B.Sc. Comi^mnicated by Professor
H. E. Roscoe, F.KS.j &c.

An analysis of this strongly ferruginous mineral water has
not, so far as the author has been able to learn, been pub-
lished before any scientific society ; and though two general
analyses of it have previously been made, the first by D.
Waldie, Esq., in 1844, and the second by Dr. Hassall in 1871,
and published in the form of pamphlets for public reading
by Dr. Roberts and Dr. Hayward respectively, yet as it is
peculiar for the extremely large quantity of iron and
alumina that it contains, and as its composition has varied
considerably since it was analysed by the last named che-
mist (whose results also varied from those of the first), it is
thought that another and more complete analysis will not
be out of place.

The village of Trefriw is situated on the left bank of the
Conway about miles from Llanrwst and between the
latter place and Conway. The springs, which now belong
to a company and are often visited by invalids as they are
said to be good for the cure of diseases of the digestive
organs and of the skin, are close to the high road which
runs between Conway and Llanrwst, and are rather over a
mile from the village. The entrance to them is a short way
up the side of the mountain called the Alt cae Coch, and
consists of an underground passage cut in the rock. There
are at present two springs (formerly there were three), one
opposite and close to the entrance, the other at the end of a
gallery 10 or 12 yards long to the right. The former water
is used to supply the baths, and the latter exclusively for
drinking ; they differ considerably in the relative propor-
tions of their mineral constituents, but it is only the last
named which is the subject of this paper.

The water, which flows into a basin cut in the rock, is
said to be uniform in quantity and issues at the rate of

60

about 40 gallons per hour; its temperature varies only
within very narrow limits and is quite cold. As it occurs
in the spring it is perfectly clear, bright, and colourless ; but
after a short exposure to the air it turns yellow and deposits
flakes of ferric oxide ; it has no smell, but possesses a strong
and very disagreeable inky taste. On being shaken up in
a closed bottle no disengagement of gas takes place ; it has
a strongly acid reaction, and contains neither free carbonic
acid, carbonates, nor sulphides ; and when first taken from
the spring is perfectly free from ferric salts.

The following (I) is the analysis made of the water col-
lected by the author on September 8th, 1874, together with
that (II) made by Dr. Hassall in the early part of Septem-
ber, 1871,^ or just three years previously.

Temperature of the External Air... ...... 15’5° C.

,,, „ Air at the Spring,,, 12’5° C.

„ „ Water 110° C.

Specific Grravity at 1^° C.

I.

1*00716

II.

1*00570

j

Paets pee 1,000,000.

T;nss nn ignitinn

7217*5

32*8

Precipitate formed on boiling 1 hour

Iron

—

1507*0

233*3

271*3

134*1

31*5

25*1

trace

0*80

1*63

0*34

157*0

4985*3

11*8

9*1

2*45

2009*4

11*2*4

116*5

45‘4

Alumi nium

Calcium

Magnesium

Potassium

Sodium

15*3

trace

Manganese

Eead ... .. ,

Ammonium (NH4)

Albumenoid Ammonia

Silica fSiOo)

149*0

4512*0

10*9

Sulphuric Acid (SO 4)

Chlorine

Nitric Acid (NO 3)

Phosphoric Acid (PO4)

Total Solid Contents

7370*78

7370*00

6970*9

The Eesidue dried at 310° C

* See “Gruide to Trefriw and Vale of Conway Spa,” by Dr. J, W, Hay-
ward, M.D.j M.E.C.S, Second edition.

01

The following table represents the above in combination :

4

I.

4090-4

II.

5454-3

1358-9

700-7

922-3

3760

IVTngnfisiiiTn Sulphate

670-3

225-7

Potassium Sulphate

70-3

Sodium Sulphate

49-9

47-0

Dead Sulphate

1-25

Calcium Chloride

16-8

Sodium Chloride

19-4

Sodium Nitrate

4-8

-

Ammonium Nitrate

7-2

Aluminium Phosphate

3-2

Manganese

trace

trace

Silica

157-0

149'0

Albumenoid Ammonia

0-34

Bases for which there is not sufficient Acid

1 15-5

1-4 Loss

7370-79

6970-9

With reference to this analysis the following observa-
tioiivS are to be made : — •

(1.) The determination of the total residue was first made
at 180°C., as recommended by Fresenius,^ and the result
obtained corresponded to 8,100 parts per 1,000,000; it was
found however that this was much too high, the reason being
that ferrous sulphate, though it looses six molecules of water
at 114°C,, yet retains the seventh even at 280f. In order to
drive off this remaining molecule, the residue from lOOcc of
water was heated in an air bath to 800°— 310'" and weighed ;
after repeated heating two successive weighings did not
differ by more than a milligramme. In heating to so high
a temperature, however, there is a danger of a little sul-
phuric acid volatilising by decomposition of the sulphate of
iron, but by careful heating this may be avoided ; a loss of
ammonia will, nevertheless, have been incurred, but as this,
together with the trace of organic matter, did not amount
to more than 8 to 10 parts per 1,000,000, it was not of very
much consequence.

* Fresenius. Quantitative Analysis, 4th Edition, p. 560.
t Watts, Dictionary of Chemistry, Vol. 5, p. 597.

62

(2.) It will be seen from the table showing the supposed
combination of the salts, that the total bases formed were
rather more than sufficient to combine with the acids, and
the base which is given above as uncombined is alumina, as
it is thought that the quantity of this body obtained was
rather too high, for, in addition to the total bases being
too large for the total acids, the sum of the oxides
(FeaOs-f AI2O3+P2O5) calculated from the Fe, Al, and
each estimated directly, is rather greater than the result
obtained by weighing the three oxides together, the num-
bers being 2,592 and 2,570 respectively — -difference 22.

(3.) In the determination of the alumina it was separated
from the iron by means of tartaric acid and sulphide of
ammonium, and weighed as A1203-I-P205; the difference
between this and the determined amount of P2O5 gave the
quantity of alumina.

(4.) The phosphoric acid was estimated by precipitating
with ammonium molybdate, and as the amount was only
small, by weighing the precipitate obtained on a constant
filter, the calculation was then made from the composition
of the precipitate, which contains, according to various
authorities, 3T42 per cent P2O0.

(5.) The iron was determined directly at the spring with
potassium permanganate, and afterwards gravimetrically in
the laboratory. The results obtained agreed very nearly.

(6.) Several determinations were made of the alkalies, but
rather varying results, comparatively, could only be obtained
for the sodium. The above is the mean of four, of which
the highest was 82 and the lowest 22 parts per 1,000,000,
the reason being that the quantity of sodium present was
only very small, so that the traces of it also contained
in the reagents had an appreciable effect, though they were
as pure as could be obtained. The results got for the
potassium, however, agreed Very nearly.

(7.) The lead was determined by the method given in

63

Wanldyn & Chapman’s Water Analysis, as were also the
ammonium, albumenoid ammonia, an’d nitric acid.

By a comparison of the above two analyses it is evident
that between September, 1871, and September, 1874, the
composition of the water has varied considerably, and
though the author has not had an opportunity of seeing the
analysis made in 1844 by Waldie, yet from Dr. Hassall’s
report, given in the above-mentioned pamphlet, it would
seem that the results there given also vary much from those
obtained by Waldie. The quantity of iron appears to have
greatly diminished, while, with the exception of Si02 and
chlorine, that of the other constituents occuring in larger
quantities has considerably increased. A determination of
the iron made last February gave 1575*4 parts per 1,000,000,
though in this case the determination was not made till
after the water had been collected some days. From this
it would seem that the iron is gradually diminishing in
quantity. The result, however, obtained by Waldie is
very nearly the same as that got by HassalL

From the analysis it will be seen that the Trefriw water
is peculiar, as already mentioned, on account of the large
quantity of sulphate of iron which it holds in solution;
there being, so far as the author has been able to learn, no
spring in the United Kingdom, and perhaps not even on
the Continent, which contains it in anything approaching
to the same amount, while there are only a few springs
known which contain it even in a notable quantity, the
analyses of which have been described. The water is also
remarkable for the large quantity of sulphate of alumina
and silicic acid which are dissolved in it, while the phos-
phoric and nitric acids, though existing only in small
amounts, are rather large compared with what is found in
most other mineral waters ; on the other hand the propor-
tion of chlorine is only small.

The other Trefriw mineral spring was not analysed, but

64

from Dr. HassalFs analysis of the two waters, it appears to
contain less iron and alumina, but a larger quantity of
alkalies and alkaline earths than the one which is the sub-
ject of this memoir.

With regard to the geological position of Trefriw, and
the source of the mineral impregnation of the springs, it
may be observed that the mountains at the base of which
the wells are situated consist chiefly of beds of limestone,
ironstone, alum slate, and iron pyrites, together with vary-
ing proportions of silicates, very much fractured and dis-
located, forming the northern extremity of the Bala or
Caradoc beds. Up in the mountains and on these beds lie
some small lakes from wliich the springs are supposed to
derive their principal supply of water, which, after perco-
lating through the above beds and dissolving large quanti-
ties of their constituents, flnds its exit near the base of the
mountain Alt cae Coch, where it issues from the slate bed
(Black Band), and between it and the ironstone. From the
above data the composition of the water is easily accounted
for. There are several pyrites mines in the vicinity, one of
which is situated just over the springs, but much further
up the mountain side.

The author has been indebted for Dr. Hassall’s analysis
and some of his remarks relative to the geological position
of the springs to the pamphlet of Dr. Hayward previously
mentioned.

1

65

Ordinary Meeting, December 29tb, 1874.

E. W. Binney, F.G.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

“On a case of Keversed Chemical Action,” by James
Bottomley, B.Sc.

Having observed the solubility of iodine in a solution of
borax, an experiment was made to see what the result of
this solution would be, expecting to obtain a combination of
soda with excess of acid. 27*8475 grins, of borax were dis-
solved in about 250 grms. of water. As it was difficult to
anticipate what the action of the iodine might be, this ele-
ment was added at hazard, the quantity used being nearly
seven grms. When assisted by heat almost the whole of
this quantity dissolved in the solution, only a small quan-
tity evaporating along with the aqueous vapour. The
solution, which amounted to about 200 cc., had only a faint
yellowish tint. Being set aside for some days, it deposited
crystals which proved to be ordinary borax, for 0*5932 grms.
of the crystals lost by heating 0*2773 grms. of water of crys-
tallisation corresponding to 46*75 per cent, the theoretical
quantity being 47*13. After removing the crystals the
solution was still further evaporated in a retort. As the
evaporation proceeded, instead of the faint yellow tinge
disappearing as was anticipated, the colour of the solution
began to darken, finally becoming opaque owing to the
quantity of free iodine in solution ; vapours of iodine were
also given off along with the steam. Thus the iodine which
had previously dissolved and chemically united with the soda
when the solution was dilute, was displaced and eliminated
in the free condition when the mixture was past a certain
degree of dilution. The explanation of this reversal of
Pboceedings—Lit. & Phie. Soc.—Voe. XTY.— No. 6.-— Session 1874-5,

66

chemical action is as follows. When sodic borate is diluted
with water its constituents are so far dissociated that
the iodine acts towards the soda in the same way as
it would towards caustic soda, sodium iodide and sodium
iodate being the result. When however the solution is
concentrated the boracic acid, notwithstanding its feebly
acid power, is able to displace continuously and simulta-
neously small quantities, of iodic and hydroiodic acid from
combination with sodium, but these two acids cannot
coexist in the free state ; by mutual reaction they give iodine
and water. To test the correctness of this explanation the
following experiment was made. Boracic acid was added
to a solution of sodium iodide ; even after boiling some time
the solution only acquired a feeble yellow tint, and no
iodine vapours were given off; but on the addition of
sodium iodate the solution soon became dull brown owing
to the presence of free iodine, which also was given off
along with the steam. This behaviour of iodine with sodic
borate favours the view of the decomposition of the salt by
dilution; it also shows the varying character of chemical
affinity under different circumstances of temperature and
dilution.

Ordinary Meeting, January 12th, 1875.

B. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.B.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

E. W. Binney, F.K.S., V.P., said that at the present time
great attention was being paid to the sewerage of towns. Our
Corporation had brought before the public a plan for dealing
with the flood waters of the Medlock, and it is generally
understood that Parliament will attempt to do something to
prevent the further fouling of streams. Both Parliament
and Corporate bodies have been long in moving in this

67

matter, and the doing of that which should have been done
30 years ago will now be a matter Of the greatest difficulty.
In 1840 the Irwell approached Salford in so pure a state
that numerous fish were seen in its waters near the present
Peel Park, but after Manchester and Salford sewers had
entered it none were to be met with in it at Cornbrook.
Fish were also at that time in the Medlock above Pin Mill
Bridge.

In order to show how long a time authorities take to
consider before they trouble themselves with action he
brought a Report on the Streams of Manchester, published
by Dr. Lyon Playfair in the Health of Towns Commission
in 1844. After describing the geology, watersheddings, and
streams of the district, the report proceeds as follows
“ When the boroughs of Manchester and Salford were not so
thickly populated as at present and the surface of the soil
was in its primeval condition, without any irregularities
arising from artificial excavations, since caused by the making
of bricks and for other economical purposes, the sites of the
towns, from their undulating surfaces alone, would possess
good top drainage into the streams and rivulets before men-
tioned. Some little obstruction to the drainage might arise
from the rows of cottages which are generally built nearly
at right angles to the inclinations of the surface of the land •
still the irregularities produced by the hand of man have
doubtless been in part rectified by public sewering into the
watercourses above alluded to, and had such watercourses
been allowed to pass unimpeded through the towns, although
they might have caused some nuisances, still they would not
be in anything like the filthy condition which they are now,
owing to the weirs and dams marked X in map appended to
this report that stop their courses and form so many cess-
pools, allowing some of the top waters certainly to flow
along but collecting all the heavier particles, and thus con-
tinually generating the most offensive effluvia.

68

“ The Kiver Irwell, after having by its tributaries afforded
drainage and sewerage to the towns of Bolton, Hey wood, Bury,
Rochdale, Radcliffe, and numerous other places, and having
been pent up in countless reservoirs and dams for manufac-
turing purposes, approaches Salford by the Adelphi in a pretty
tolerable condition as to purity, inasmuch as small fish live
in its waiters — a very rare circumstance in any other of the
streams hereinafter mentioaed. At the Adelphi is"a high weir
built quite across the river. After passing this impediment
the stream is polluted by numerous works upon its banks
and the contents of the sewers of the eastern and south-
eastern parts of Salford, until it receives the waters of the
Irk at Hunt’s Bank in a much worse condition than its own-
in fact, as filthy as water can well be ; thence the river flows
sluggishly along the western part of Manchester to Hulme,
where it receives a portion of the waters of the Medlock and
Shooter’s Brook (a part of this being kept in the Bridgewater
Canal) charged with the contents of the sewers of the eastern
and southern parts of Manchester; it is then stopped at
Throstle Nest by a dam across its stream. For many miles
in its course towards Runcorn it emits offensive smells, and
bubbles of light carburretted hydrogen gas rise to its sur-
face.

“ The Irk approaches Mcmchester from Blackley. It, like
the Irwell, is anything but a pure stream to begin with.
After being dammed up at Messrs. Appleton’s paper mills,
Mr. Hartley’s dyeworks, Mrs. Crompton’s paper mill, amd
Messrs. Appleton’s upper logwood mills, it joins the Moston
Brook at Collyhurst. This last-named brook is impeded in
its course within a quarter of a mile of its junction by
three weirs, namely, at Messrs. Appleton’s St. George’s log-
wood mills, Messrs. Dentith & Co.’s chemical vforks, and a
weir not far from the old Rochdale Road at Collyhurst.
Proceeding with the Irk : — This river after its junction with
the Moston Brook is dammed up at Messrs. Appleton’s lower

69

logwood mills and near the BulFs Head Inn in Newtown;
and after receiving the refuse from* the numerous dyeworks,
size manufactories, chemical works, tanneries, skinyards,
gasworks, sewers, &c., it is stopped at Messrs. Caistor and
Thompson’s corn mill at Scotland Bridge and the School
Mills in Long Millgate before it readies the Irwell at Hunt’s
Bank.

“The Medlock enters the borough at Beswick charged with
the refuse of numerous works, and is dammed up by Aveirs
across its course at Messrs. Guest’s weir at Beswick, Neck
Break weir, the Island Mill v/eir (a little beloAV which near
Fairfield Street it receives some fetid water from a small
dam at Cruickshank’s Mill), Messrs. Hoyle’s weirs in
Ardwick, and the weir near Messrs. Wood and Westhead’s
Mill in Garratt. At this place it receives the water of
Shooter’s Brook, a filthy little stream as black as ink, which
enters Bradford from Newton, and after flowing under
Butler Street to New Islington exposed is covered in till it
reaches the Medlock at Garratt. This last named stream,
after its junction with Shooter’s Brook, passes under Oxford
Road along Little Ireland, and is dammed up near Messrs,
Birley’s Mill in Kenyon Street. It then receives many
sewers from the surrounding district and the river Tib in
Gaythorn, which runs under the centre of Manchester but
is entirely built over, and reaches the Duke of Bridgew*ater’s
Canal in as polluted a state as possible, thence some of its
water after being employed as a power of winding goods
escapes into its old course, which joins the Irwell near
Hulme Hall. The waters of the Duke of Bridgewater’s
Canal are chiefly derived from the Medlock after it has re=
ceived the contents of the Manchester sewers, aud thus are
in as bad a condition as the streams before described.

“Cornbrook enters Ardwick from Gorton, and partly
open and partly built over traverses Ardwnck, Chorlton-
upon-Medlock, Greenlieys, Hulme, and Cornbrook, at which

70

last mentioned place it readies the Irwell in as polluted a
state as any of the other streams.

“ Besides the streams before described I may mention a
little rivulet near Stock Street in Cheetham, which crosses
York Street, and after forming several stagnant ponds enters
the reservoir in Strange ways Park. There is also another
rivulet, which crosses the New Bury Koad at Stocks, and
flows down to the pool near Strangeways Hall. A third
goes from Cheetwood by the end of Broughton Lane ; and a
fourth by Broughton Grove. All these run into the Irwell.
There is also a filthy and stagnant pool of water in front of
the houses at Stony Knolls, which excites very little atten-
tion among the inhabitants. In Pendleton there is a small
stream which, though it has often been presented at the
court leets as a nuisance, and is correctly designated “ The
Black Ditch,” remains in just as bad a condition as it ever
did. In all the streams above described a number of dead
dogs and cats are to be seen in the various states of decom-
position, bubbles of gas, light carburetted hydrogen, rise up
to the surface, and, although offensive smells are met
with at all times, they are by fdr the most annoying when
the barometer has experienced a sudden depression after
having been high for a considerable time previously. Sul-
phurretted hydrogen is the gas which chiefly causes the
odour, though doubtless phosphuretted hydrogen assists in
some measure.”

Such was the condition of the Manchester streams prior
to 1814. Immediately after the publication of the Health
of Towns Commissioners’ Report the sewerage of towns and
villages was increased to a great extent, and in nearly all
cases the refuse matter was conveyed into the neighbouring
streams instead of being utilised in manuring the land as it
had been previously employed. No doubt sanitary engi-
neers have been the chief offenders in polluting our waters
during the last 80 years, but manufacturers have also done

71

their share by disposing of their refuse matter into the
streams. The consequence is that ,not only are the waters
more polluted, but their beds are being continually raised.
Single towns on the banks of streams have little power to
alter matters, there are so many vested interests to be dealt
with. Numerous owners of property have by law what is
called a right to foul waters by long user, and it will require
strong parliamentary powers to effect any good. The owners
of the numerous weirs will have to be compensated prior to
such obstructions being removed and allowing the waters of
the streams to flow and cut their courses as they once did. Be=
fore any great engineering works in the making of tunnels
are attempted it is only reasonable that the streams should
have a fair chance to cleanse themselves by their own natu-
ral flow of water. Manchester and Salford could try what
the removal of the weirs at Douglas Mill, the Adelphi, and
Throstle Nest would do. Surely such a simple experiment
is worth trying before hundreds of thousands of pounds are
spent in forming tunnels.

However, let Manchester and Salford spend what money
they may, little good will be done unless the pollution of
the waters above from their sources downwards to those
towns is stopped. No doubt those towns set a bad example
in the beginning, but as all the places on the streams are
more or less guilty, they ought all to make a fair start toge-
ther in the race of amending their evil ways of fouling
streaans and wasting manure.

If once the foecal matter of a large town is diluted with
water it is very costly to get it back again either by evapo-
ration or sewage farming. Kival patentees advertise and
recommend their respective plans as most efficacious, but at
the present time he was not aware of the whole of the
sewage waters of any large town in England having been
profitably applied for farming purposes.

72

On the Action of Rain to calm the Sea,” by Professor
Osborne Reynolds, M.A.

There appears to be a very general belief amongst sailors
that rain tends to calm the sea, or as I have often heard it
expressed, that rain soon knocks down the sea.

Without attaching very much weight to this general
impression, my object in this paper is to point out an effect
of rain on falling into water which I believe has not been
hitherto noticed, and which would certainly tend to destroy
any wave motion there might be in the water.

When a drop of rain falls on to water the splash or
rebound is visible enough, as are also the waves which
diverge from the point of contact ; but the effect caused by
the drop under the surface is not apparent, because the
water being all of the same colour there is nothing to show
the interchange of place which may be going on. There is
however a very considerable effect produced. If instead of
a drop of rain we let fall a drop of coloured water, or better
still if we colour the topmost layer of the water, this effect
becomes apparent. We then see that each drop sends down
one or more masses of coloured water in the form of vortex
rings. These rings descend with a gradually diminishing
velocity and with increasing size to a distance of several
inches, generally as much as 18, below the surface.

Each drop sends in general more than one ring, but the
first ring is much more definite and descends much quicker
than those which follow it. If the surface of the water be
not coloured this first ring is hardly apparent, for it appears
to contain very little of the water of the drop which causes
it. The actual size of these rings depends on the size and
speed of the drops. They steadily increase as they descend,
and before they stop they have generally attained a
diameter of from 1 to 2 inches, or even more. The annexed
cut shows the effect which may be produced in a glass
vessel.

73

It is not that the drop merely forces itself down under
the surface, hut in descending carries down with it a
mass of water which when the ring is 1 inch in diameter
would he an ohlate spheroid having a larger axis of 2 inches
and a lesser of about inches. For it is well known that
the vortex ring is merely the core of the mass of fluid which
accompanies it, the shape of which is much the same as that
which would he formed hy winding string through and
through a curtain ring until it was full.

It is prohahle that the momentum of these rings corre^
spends very nearly v/ith that of the drops before impact, so
that when rain is falling on to water there is as much motion
immediately beneath the surface as above it, only the drops,
so to speak, are much larger and their motion is slower.

Besides the splash, therefore, and surface effect which the
drops produce they cause the water at the surface rapidly to
change places with that at some distance below.

Such a transposition of water from one place to another
must tend to destroy wave motion^ This may be seen as
follows. Imagine a laj^er of water adjacent to the sur^
face and a few inches thick to be flowing in any direction

74

over the lower water, which is to he supposed at rest.
The effect of a drop would he to knock some of the
moving water into that which is at rest, and a correspond-
ing quantity of water would have to rise up into the moving
layer, so that the upper layer would lose its motion by com-
municating it to the water below, Now^ when the surface
of water is disturbed by waves, besides the vertical motion
the particles move backwards and forwards in a horizontal
direction, and this motion diminishes as we proceed down-
wards from the surface. Therefore in this case the effect of
rain drops will be the same as in the case considered above,
namely to convey the motion which belongs to the water at
the surface down into the lower water where it has no effect
so far as the waves are concerned, and hence the rain would
diminish the motion at the surface, which is essential to the
continuance of the waves, and thus destroy the waves.

‘‘On the Stone Mining Tools from Alderley Edge,” by
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.E.S.

Discovery.

In May, 1874, Mr. H. Wilde and myself happened to
take a walk to the new excavations which were in progress
at the copper mines at Alderley Edge, which penetrate the
rock, on the east side of “the Street Eoad,” leading to
Alderley. The Lower Keuper sandstone in that place is
impregnated with carbonate of copper, in search of which
tunnels had been driven into the base of the hill in the
main parallel to the strata, having there a depth to the
west of about 29°. In following the ore from the deep
upwards the miners had worked their way to the surface,
on the hillside immediately above the heaps of refuse near
the reducing tanks, and laid bare a considerable portion of
the rock. While walking over this surface, which was fan-
tastically hollowed, a worked stone happened to catch

my eye; and when we examined the .stones lying about in
the hollows we saw at once that a large number had been
used in mining operations; and of these, owing to the kind-
ness of the manager and the captain of the mine, we were
able to secure thirty-five, which are now lodged in the
Museum at the Owens College.

Description of Tools.

These mining tools are divisible into three classes : 1, the
hammers with a simple groove round the middle for tlie re-
tention of the withy which formed the handle ; 2, the
hammers which besides this groove have one of their ends
also grooved for the reception of another withy, and
thus were prevented from slipping when a blow was struck ;
and lastly, there were two implements which probably had
been used as wedges, being possessed of an edge blunted by
wear, and exhibiting marks of having been struck on the
other. One of these has a surface which looks as if it had
been glaciated, and the second, in shape very much like a
celt, is remarkable for the clear evidence which its sur-
face offers, that the groove around it for the reception of
the withy was cut after the stone had been ground to its
present shape, and probably long after, in consequence of the
decomposition of the surface of grinding as compared with
that of the groove.

All these implements were derived from the ice-borne
stones of the boulder clay, of which they were merely picked
specimens which happened to be useful for the special
purpose of mining.

Tools found in old Surface Workings.

Subsequently, in the autumn of 1874, many more speci-
mens were obtained by Col. Lane Fox and myself through
the kindness of Lord Stanley of Alderley and the manager
of the mine, and we were able to make a careful examina-

76

tion of the conditions under wliich they were found. To pass
over those which have been buried, the number which I
have examined is considerably over one hundred, belonging
to the three types mentioned above.

The rock where the tools were met with was hollowed
out irregularly and evidently artificially, and to a depth in
some cases of from 8 to 11 feet from the surface. And
from an examination of the ground it was perfectly obvious
that the ancient users of these tools had worked the
metalliferous portions from above, without attempting to
make galleries. The tools lay buried in the debris which
had been thrown into the old surface workings after they
had been discontinued, and which presented all the char-
acters of “a wheelbarrow formation,” and were found in the
greatest abundance near the bottom.

Comparison of Stone Hammers with those of other
Districts.

Stone hammers of the kind mentioned above, and
especially of the simple grooved class, are very widely
distributed. They have been found equally in the ancient
copper mines of Anglesea, of Spain and Portugal, and of
Lake Superior. With these also the Egyptians worked the
turquoise mines of Wady Magarah, in the Sinaitic penin-
sula. They undoubtedly represent one of the ruder and
probably earlier stages in the art of mining. With the
solitary exception offered by the turquoise mines at
Magarah, they have only been discovered in old copper
workings, and they may therefore be inferred to have been
used in ancient times mainly for the extraction of that
metal.

No Direct Evidence as to Date,

I will not venture to attempt to assign a date to the
mining operations carried on at Alderley, when these imple-

77

ments were in use. In all the ancient mines, worked by the
Romans, so far as I know, iron toolSi have alone been met
with. Nor am I aware of any mines, of post-Roman date
in Europe, which have been carried on with tools com-
posed of any other material. It would, therefore, seem
probable that they are of pre-Roman age, and that they are
of the class termed pre-historic by the archseologists.

'What Ores were sought in the Surface Worldngs.

Nor is it absolutely certain what metal was sought in
these surface workings, because ores of copper, cobalt, lead,
iron, and manganese are associated together in that spot.
If they were in search of copper, the ore must either then
have been richer than that which they left behind, or they
must have been acquainted with some mode of reducing the
small per centage of copper (which averages considerably
less than 5 per cent) from the matrix, of which we are
ignorant. This is at present effected by a bath of hydro-
chloric acid. Possibly, like some of the joint-stock com-
panies of the present day, they may have been seeking for
copper without success ; but in that case the large number
of stone hammers is not explained. Had tools such as these
been used for the extraction either of lead or of iron they
would most probably have been discovered in the workings
which have been carried on throughout Great Britain,
certainly since the Roman occupation to the present day.
And it is hard to believe that the miners of Alderley worked
these metals in a ruder fashion than any others in this
country, so far as the present evidence stands. Nor is it at
all likely that the insignificant and obscure ores of lead and
iron at Alderley would attract the notice of miners in
ancient times, when both were obvious, and very rich in the
adjacent districts of Lancashire amd Derbyshire.

The only conclusion which I wiU venture to draw, is that
these implements imply a ruder phase of the art of raining

78

than has hitherto been known in the neighbourhood of
Manchester — a phase which may point back to the bronze
age, when the necessary copper was eagerly sought through-
out the whole of Europe.

‘'Archaic Iron Mining Tools from Lead Mines near
Castleton/’ by Rooke Pennington, LL.B.

The iron and wooden mining tools now submitted for the
Society’s inspection are from the Mock mine, a lead mine in
the High Rake, a vein of ore in the Tideslow liberty, about
four miles to the south of Castleton. They were found in
old workings at between 80 and 90 yards below the surface.
According to the information I have been able to collect in
the neighbourhood, this mine has not been worked for more
than 200 years, but I cannot say that this is entirely to be
relied upon. Probably however a minimum of 200 years
may be taken as the age of the tools, independently of such
evidence, for the following reasons. In the first place, a
similar collection of tools from another part of the same
“ rake” is very well described by Mr. Benjamin Bagshawe
at p. 43, No. 13, vol. 3, of the “Reliquary.” These tools
were found associated with silver coins of the time of
Charles I, and two tradesmen’s tokens dated 1667.

Again, the tools I am describing were accompanied by a
particular form of small tobacco pipe, which according to
Mr. Llewellynn Jewitt, F.S.A. (Reliquary, October, 1862,
p. 75), is probably Elizabethan, and certainly not later than
Charles I. These pipes are usually known in Derbyshire as
“ fairy pipes,” or sometimes (with great correctness) as “ old
man’s pipes,” the “ old man” being the term used to describe
^ the miners of past ages and by transposition applied to the
mines themselves, so that old workings are usually called
the “ Old Man.”

An amusing mistake once arose from this confusion of
terms. A miner from the Peak giving evidence in London

79

on a mining case, continually referred to the Old Man,”
until the opposing counsel objected that this second-hand
evidence ought not to he admitted, but that the individual
referred to should himself be called as a witness. It is also
an illustration of the untrustworthy character of popular
names that these pipes are also known as “ carl’s pipes,” just
as a prehistoric hill fort near Hathersage is called the
“ Carl’s Walk.”

It will be observed that one of the tools has been a
wooden spade, tipped with iron. This serves to show the
value iron possessed, or rather its comparative scarcity. All
the other tools are altogether of iron, except the handles,
but I do not on this account regard the spade as of earlier
date, inasmuch as nothing but metal w’-ould serve the pur-
pose in the other tools, whilst a mere shovel might do very
well although made of wood.

All the tools are of archaic type, though some are recog-
nised by old miners as similar to those in use in their
youth.

MICEOSCOPICAL AND NATUEAL HISTOEY SECTION.
December 7th, 187k

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.B.S., in the Chair.

Mr. James Cosmo Melville, M.A., F.L.S., was elected
Secretary of the Section, in place of Mr. Sidebotham,
resigned.

80

Joseph Sidebotham, F.RA.S., read a paper on (Ecophara
Woodiella (Curtis). This moth was discovered on Kersall
Moor in the year 1829, and figured and named by Curtis
in 1830, since which time it has not been again met with,
either in this country or abroad. The only
specimens known to exist are the one from
which the original drawing was made, and
a pair in the museum of Owens College.
The author exhibited the last-mentioned
specimens, also drawings from the various
published figures of the species, as well as photographs of
the natural size from the pair belonging to the College.

81

Ordinary Meeting, January 26th, 1875.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.RS., &c., President, in the

Chair.

John Dixon Mann, M.D., M.RC.S,, was elected an Ordinary
Member of the Society.

‘'A Descent into Elden Hole, Derbyshire,’" by Eooke
Pennington, LL.B.

Near the road from Buxton to Castleton, and about four
miles from the latter place, stands Elden Hill. It is a
bieak, bare, mountain, one of the highest of the grassy emi-
nences of the Derbyshire limestone district, and, though
uninviting itself, commanding a most extensive and fine view.
Its summit was long ago in the prehistoric past chosen as a
resting place for the bones of some savage chief, and in its
side is Elden Hole.

Elden Hole is a perpendicular chasm in the rock, and
like many such apertures is reputed to be bottomless ; and
indeed the sound of a stone falling into the gulf is almost
enough to justify the reputation, for, bounding from side to
side and smashing as it bounds, the noise of each leap
gradually diminishes, but the stone is never heard to stop.
Though still famous, it is not so famous as it once was. It
was once reckoned one of the seven wonders of the Peak.
In the time of Queen Elizabeth the Earl of Leicester is said
to have let a man down into it who was drawn out speech-
less and who shortly afterwards died. A cat subsequently
lowered a considerable distance was also brought out dead.
A hundred years later, Cotton, the poet of the Peak, tried
unsuccessfully to fathom it ; he has recorded his experiment
inverse. At length, just a hundred years ago, Mr. Lloyd,
E.B.S., went to the bottom himself and returned safely.
His account of what he saw is printed in the Philosophical
Transactions. But Mr. Lloyd was a man before his time,

pEOCEEDiNas— Lit, & Phil. Soc.—Yol. XIV.=~No. 7.-™8essiox 1874-5.

82

and the country-side still went on believing in Leicester’s
speechless man and dead cat rather than in the scientific
explorer, and Elden Hole remains an unfathomable ab5^ss to
this day in the belief of the peasant and the tourist, and its
glory has departed not through diminished depth, but
because it is near no railway and even adjoins no carriage
road, and the nineteenth century traveller rarely visits
beauties or wonders the way to which can only be travelled
on foot.

On the 11th of September, 1873, we explored the chasm
for ourselves.

A number of stout beams and planks had been brought
up the day before, and of these a rude platform was con-
structed. We found it was impossible to make this platform
and place our windlass so as to obtain a descent plumb to
the bottom, or rather to the first landing place in the chasm,
inasmuch as the northern end is the only part where such a
drop can be obtained, and there the gulph was much too
wide to be bridged over. Having made all our arrange-
ments, we commenced our descent. My friend Mr. J. Tym
of Castleton was the first to go down. He was let down for
about 15 or 20 yards before coming in contact with the pro-
jecting side of the gulf. For about another 10 or 12 yards
he slipped over the rock, which was however perfectly
smooth, so that there was no risk of cutting the rope. He
sustained no further injury than that which befell those of
us who followed him, viz., a complete rolling in mud derived
from the damp and slippery rocks. As the pioneer, how-
ever, he ran considerable danger from stones which had
lodged on ledges of rock and which there was risk of dis-
turbing. When a little more than half way down he came
clear of the rock again, and there was a sheer descent to the
bottom, the rope continuing to run over the smooth pro-
jecting side. Three of us followed him, one at a time, each
of us being tied to the rope so as to have the hands free to
guide the body.

83

The effect of being lowered into the dark abyss, with the
blue sky above and the green ferns and creepers around, was
very fine, but the knocking one got against the rock a few
yards down soon distracted the attention from scenic effect.
At a distance of 180 feet from the top a landing place was
reached, although not a very secure one, as it was inclined
at an angle of about 45 degrees. Thence a cavern ran dowm
wards towards the south or south-east ; the floor was entirely
covered with loose fragments of limestone, probably extend-
ing to a considerable thickness.

This is no doubt to some extent natural, but principally
artificial, being the result of the favourite amusement of
visitors, the throwing down of loose stones from the pro-
jecting wall which surrounds the top. The farmer told me
that during his time two or three walls had disappeared
and been replaced. No doubt it had been the same in time
of his predecessors. There was quite sufficient light at this
point to enable one to sketch or read. Having refreshed
ourselves we left daylight behind, and scrambled, or rather
slipped, into the cavern for some few yards, during which
we descended a considerable distance ; it was of a tunnel-
like shape ; then it suddenly expanded into a magnificent
hall about 100 feet across and about 70 feet high. The
floor of this hall sfoped like the tunnel, and like it was
covered with debris. At the lower side we were about 60
feet below our landing place, and therefore about 24f> feet
beneath the surface. The entire roof and walls of this
cavern were covered with splendid stalagmitic deposits.
From the roof were hung fine stalactites, whilst the sides
were covered with almost eveiy conceivable form of depo-
sited carbonate of lime. In some places it was smooth and
white as marble, in other places like frosted silver, whilst
the rougher portions of the rock were clothed with all sorts
of fantastic shapes glistening with moisture. When we had
lighted some Bengal fire, I need hardly say the effect was

84

exquisite. From this cavern we could find no opening of
any length or depth save the one by which we had entered
it, although we very carefully explored it. There is an
absurd local tradition of an old woman’s goose which fiew
down, and was given up as lost, but which subsequently re-
appeared at the mouth of the Peak Cavern, at Castleton.
The sagacious and enterprising bird must have been much
cleverer than we were.

There can be no doubt that this chasm has been formed
by the chemical action of carbonic acid in water, and that
it has attacked this particular spot either from the unusual
softness of the rock originally situated here, or because there
was here a joint or shrinkage in the strata. There is nothing,
however, in the position of Elden Hole to lead one to
suppose that any stream has ever flowed through it; no
signs of such a state of things appear anywhere around.

In this it differs from the numerous water swallows of the
neighbourhood, and from the pot-holes of North-West
Yorkshire. It is not related to any valley or ravine, or to
any running water, and there is, as observed, an absence of
any well defined exit for water at the bottom. No
mechanical action of a flowing stream can therefore have
assisted the process of enlargement.

That so deep a chasm should be en^rely isolated is cer-
tainly remarkable, because it cannot be said to represent a
^^weak point towards which the rainfall has converged.”
It must, therefore, be due to the gradual silent solvent
properties of rain-water falling on the surface, and escaping
through jointings and insignificant channels in the hard
rocks below. Whether the excavation took place from
above or below is uncertain. Applying the rule “ a ravine
is a cavern open to the sky,” such an abyss is simply a
perpendicular cave whose roof has at length fallen in. But
there are many shallow fuunel-shaped depressions in the
limestone to which this rule will not apply, and which have

85

been begun from the top, and there are also holes of very
irregular shape, apparently of downward origin. So far as
the perpendicular shaft of Elden Hole is concerned, it is not
at all unlikely that the excavation descended from the
surface ; on the other hand, there are many underground
chasms which have probably been excavated upwards, and
which when uncovered will present very much the appear-
ance of Elden Hole. For example, the upper part of the
great chasm in the Speedwell Mine bears a strong re-
semblance to it, though the process is not there yet com-
plete, a-nd could sections of the district south of Castleton
be made, these hollow mountains would probably reveal
many such a cavity.

Section of Elden Hole, Derbyshire, September, 1873.

“ Certain Lines observed in Snow Crystals,” by Arthur
W. Waters, F.G.S.

The crystalline form of water belongs to the hexagonal
system, and the best condition, but not the only one, for
observing this is as snow crystals, or perhaps more correctly
as ice crystals, for with a very low temperature there are
frequently beautiful ice crystals floating in the air when
there is no snow-fall.

Of such some snow is formed but not all. Hr. Nettis, of
Middleburg, published some drawings in 1740. Scoresby^'

^ Scoresby . Account of the Arctic Regions.

86

in 1822 figured about one hundred forms from the Arctic
Regions, and Glaisher in 1814 gave some very elaborate
drawings in the Journal of the Microscopical Society. The
figures from both these two last sources have been very
largely copied for various text books and scientific works,
and are probably familiar to most present.

These figures are made up of angular lines, which seems
quite natural for crystalline forms. Some sucli ice crystals^
which I observed and figured from Davos in Switzerland,
show a variety of curved lines, the cause of which I found
for some time enigmatical, but the explanation is so ex-
tremely simple that I feel surprise that it did not at once
present itself to me, and the explanation I believe shows
that such observations may have a scientific utility.

It is not often in England that there are favourable op-
portunities for observation, as the temperature seldom is
much below freezing. Frequently in the Swiss mountainous
districts when a very low temperature obtains there are a
great number of the ice crystals just mentioned floating in,
the air. These are usually the most beautiful and regular,
and are the most readily examined. The illumination I
used was Wenham’s Parabolic Reflector.

FIG. G. The lines which I wish to bring

before your notice are the curved
internal ones, especially such as
the meander line in flg. G. This
crystal I carefully watched during
the process of melting. First the
external arms melted down as far
as this meander line; next the
crystal melted down to the straight
sided hexagon; this then melted
further, leaving a crystal with the
shape of the next interior lines. When we see it taken to
pieces we may judge that it was built up in somewhat

* Klimatologisclie Notizen ii. d. Winter im Hocligebirge von Arthur Wm.
Waters. Basel, 1871.

87

the same manner, that is to say by a growth from one
form to another, so that on the i^imple tabular hexagon,
growth takes place along the six sides, or from the corners
arms may be thrown out, and such changes may, as my
figures show, be repeated several times. But to explain
the curved line found in the interior we must examine
a little further. When a crystal begins to melt it loses the
angular corners and gradually melts down, so that we can
suppose a crystal, G' thawing down to take the shape of the
meander line. This brings us to the explauation of these
curved lines, which indicate in the first place a thawing, but
as the arms extend beyond these lines it is clear that after
this partial thawing freezing has begun again.

The production of these lines thus shows that the crystals,
after having been formed in a cold atmosphere, have passed
into a warmer one, where part of the crystal has been
removed by thawing; after this it has again passed into
colder air, and has formed anew upon the partially melted
crystal.

It seems to me that these crystals bring down with them
registers of the comparative temperature of regions in-
accessible to the meteorologist, and that a systematic
examination in favourable localities would add much to the
knowledge of this science, as we may thus learn where
counter currents exist. To take the crystal G, which fell on
the 22nd of December, 1870, the meteorological observa-
tions for Switzerland show that the prevailing wind east of
Davos was north or north-east, with thermometer falling,
while to the west the wind was south and west. The con-
clusion which I have arrived at from the lines under con-
sideration is that above Davos a la3^er of this southerly wind
intrudes into the colder northerly winds, and the observa-
tions of other days do not militate against this theory ; but^
as I have been able to compare but few days, I should be
glad to see a series of observations undertaken to obtain
further information.

88

In Switzerland, the wind observations are taken by the
anemometer placed near the meteorological station. Now
many of these are in the valleys, and as the valley winds
are so frequently merely local, these observations have little
value for our purpose, and the same may be said for general
meteorological purposes. On January 9th, when some of
the crystals were observed, the wind registered in the valley
at the meteorological station was north, while the clouds,
which I always noticed for my observations, showed that a
south wind was blowing above.

T have called attention to the fact that I did not find the
classification of Scoresby^ always corresponded with what I
observed ; finding sometimes low temperature forms on the
coldest days. This may probably be explained by the fact
that in the arctic regions there are fewer counter currents,
and so the crystals were formed under more uniform circum-
stances ; yet at the same time the only explanation of the
variety exhibited in each crystal must arise from growth
taking place under slightly altered circumstances, or else
why should it suddenly change from one type to another ?

The amount of wind seems to exert quite as much influ-
ence upon the form of the crystal as does the temperature.
When there is little motion of the air the crystal can go on
building itself up regularly in all six directions ; but with a
considerable amount of wind the conditions for this building
up are more favourable on one side than another, so that
we may get showers of acicular snow when a strong wind
prevails. On the same principle the one side of a rope may
be covered with hoar frost turning in the direction of the
wind, but the same thing can sometimes be still better seen
on a fir, all the leaves of which are covered with acicular
hoar frost ; these needles in the same way all having a direc-
tion against the wind.

The temperature when the crystal figured fell was be-
tween — 10*5 C. and —11*4 0

^ Voyage to Grreenland, 1823.

89

Ordinary Meeting, February 9th, 1875,

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the

Chaii-.

Mr. R. F. Gwyther, B.A., Lecturer on Mathematics at the
Owens College, and Mr. M. M. Pattison Muir, Demonstrator
in the Chemical Laboratory of the Owens College, were
elected Ordinary Members of the Society.

“ A Method of finding the Axes of an Ellipse when two
conjugate diameters are given,” by J. B. Millar, B.E,
Communicated by Professor 0, Reynolds.

In Mechanical Drawing it is frequently required to draw
an ellipse of which Wo conjugate diameters are given, or,
what comes to the same thing, to inscribe an ellipse in a
given parallelogram.

The following, which so far as I know is new, is a simple
method of solving this problem by obtaining the axes of the
ellipse, from which it may be described by means of a tram-
mel or any other of the well known methods.

Let AB and CD be two conjugate diameters of an ellipse;
it is required to determine its axes.

Proceedings—Lit. & Phil. Soo.— Yol. XIY.— No, 8. —Session 1874-5,

90

Construction. — From A,
the extremity of the longer
diameter (or from the ex-
tremity of either if they be
equal), draw AE at right
angles to OD and make AF
equal to OD: on the line OF
as diameter describe a cir-
cle; join A with the centre
G and produce AG to meet
the circumference in K. OH
and OK will be the direc-
tions of the major and minor
axes respectively, and

OL“AK= semi-major axis.

OM= AH = semi-minor axis.

Proo/’.— The ellipse of which OL and OM are the semi-
axes will evidently be traced by the point A if the line AK
be made to move so that H and K move along the axes. It
only remains therefore to show that this ellipse will pass
through the point D and have AB and CD for conjugate
diameters.

It is well known that when a circle rolls inside another
of twice its diameter, every point on the circumference of
the rolling circle moves along a diameter of the other. If
then the circle OKH be rolled inside the circle FNP the
points H and K would move along OH and OK so that the
point of which A is the initial position, moving with the
circle, would describe the ellipse of which OL and OM are
the semi-axes. Now as the circle OHK rolls inside FNP
the points E and F move along the diameters EC and FP ;

91

so that when F lias moved to O, FA. will coincide with 01)
and the point A with D, since AF fe equal to OD.

Therefore the ellipse will pass through D.

Again, as the circle OHK begins to roll from its present
position F will be the instantaneous centre, and therefore
the tangent to the curve at the point A will be perpendicular
to AF, that is parallel to OD, since AE is perpendicular to
OD.

Therefore OA, OD are conjugate diameters of the ellipse
of which OL and OM are the semi-axes.

The President called attention to a paper in Poggen-
dorff’s Annalenfor July, 1872, by H. Abich, on a fall of hail
of a remarkable character which took place near Tiflis on
the 9th of June, 1869.

E. W. Binney, F.B.S., V.P., presented to the Society a
bust of the late James Wolfenden, of Hollinwood, one of
most noted Mathematicians of the Lancashire school, who
was born on the 22nd June, 1754, and died on the 29th
March, 1841. In vol. 50, p. 887, of the Mechanics' Maga-
zine, 1849, is a memoir of the deceased, written by the late
Mr. T. T. Wilkinson, F.R.A.S., a corresponding member of
the Society, who states that Mr. Wolfenden was sent to a
day school at the age of six years, but the bobbin wheel
and loom being considered much more profitable employ-
ment than learning to read, he was taken away after one
week’s attendance, and the sum of three halfpence defrayed
the expenses of his scholastic education, Those deficiencies
were in some degree supplied by the assiduity of his grand-
father, wdio took advantage of the intervals of leisure,
after the day’s weaving, to instruct him in reading, writing,
and arithmetic. From this stage Mr. Wolfenden may be

92

said to have been self taught, if we except some occasional
assistance he received from Mr. Jeremiah Ainsworth, a well-
known mathematician, then resident near Hollinwood.
Though his days were occupied at the loom, he spent most
of his leisure hours in reading all the works on science he
could procure in that then thinly populated neighbourhood,
so that at the time he arrived at manhood he was well
acquainted with most of the writers on physical and mathe-
matical subjects, and had made the works of Euclid, New-
ton, Simpson, and Emmerson, his particular study. In 1807
Mr. Wolfenden calculated the first Tide Table for the port
of Liverpool, which was published by Mr. Lang in the
« Original Liverpool Almanack.’’ In this work he proposed
and solved the following problem Suppose the sun and
moon in the equinoctial, and the ratio of their forces to
raise the tides to be given, it is required to find, geometri-
cally, their elongation when the interval or intercepted arc
between the place of high water and the moon is the
greatest possible,”

The solution is founded on the lemma to proposition 58 ^

Simpson’s Select Exercises,” and shows how much can be
effected by geometry, when ajaplied by a skilful hand. In
a foot-note he informs his readers that Bernouilli and other
writers on the theory of tides, make use of the fluxions in
the investigation of this problem.

The bust was given to Mr. Binney by Mr. Wm. Hadfield
Bowers, of West Gorton, who received it from his father-in-
law, Mr. Whitaker, an old friend of Mr. Wolfenden,

On the motion of Mr. Bailey, seconded by Professor
Beynolds, the thanks of the Society were voted to Mr.
Binney for his donation of a bust of the late Mr. James
Wolfenden.

93

PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.
February 2nd, 1875.

Alfeed Beothees, F.K.A.S., President of tlie Section,
in the Chair.

'' Results of Meteorological Observations taken at Lang-
dale, Dimbula, Ceylon, in the year 1873,” by Edwaed
Heelis, Esq. Communicated by J oseph Baxendell,

F.R.A.S.

TEMPEEATURE.

Mean
Temp,
of the
Month.

Mean

Daily

Eange.

10.30 a.m.

6 p.m.

Air.

Evap.

Diff.

Air.

Evap.

Diff.

January

64*35

18*1

67*6

55*9

11‘7

66*5

67*3

9*2

February

65*90

18*8

70*2

59*1

11*1

66*5

59*8

6*7

March

67*60

23*0

74*5

60*6

13*9

66*2

59*6

6*6

April

68'40

20*0

74*4

65*1

9-3

66*6

63*8

2*8

May

67*65

17*5

73*3

66*4

6*9

66*2

64*4

1*8

June

64*70

6*6

65*3

63*9

1*4

63*2

62*1

1*1

July

63*90

8-0

64*9

62*6

2*3

62*7

61*4

1*3

August

66*05

11*1

67*5

64T

3*4

65*9

643

1*6

September . . .

65*85

14*3

67*2

62-3

4*9

64*1

61*6

2*5

October

65*00

11*0

65^9

64*4

1*5

63*3

61-8

1*5

November

66*90

15*2

70*4

63*6

6*8

64*8

62*5

23

December

66*50

15*2

70*1

61*9

8*2

65*0

62*5

2-5

Means

66*06

14*9

69*3

62*5

6*8

65*1

61*8

3*3

94

RADIATION.

Mean Max.
in Sun.

Max. in Sun
less Max. in
Shade.

Max. in Sun
Ther. in
vacuo.

Min. on
Grass.

January

99*5

26-1

129-4

44-1

February

106-7

31-4

137-1

50-2

March

118-8

39-7

146-8

49-5

April

116-3

37-9

151-0

52-3

May

117-9

41-5

143-7

54-3

June

93-1

25-1

116-6

59-6

July

98-4

30-5

126-1

57-4

August

109-6

38-0

134-2

58-2

September

113-7

40-7

140-1

54-7

October

1060

35-5

56-5

November

115-5

41-0

53-9

December

116-2

42-1

52-4

RAIN, CLOUDS, AND OZONE.

EAIK.

CLOUDS.

OZONE.

Amount

No.

of

Days,

Greatest
Fall in
24 hours.

lO-.SO

a.m.

6-0

p.m.

Mean

Least

Daily

Amount

Greatest

Daily

Amount

January

0-40

3

0-17

3-4

4-1

7-1

3

9

February

5-60

10

1-47

4‘7

6-3

7-4

5

9

March

3-47

8

1-17

1-9

4-6

6-6

3

9

April

8-61

13

1-55

3-7

6-7

6-2

5

9

May

11-89

22

2-45

4-0

8-4

6-4

4

9

June

26-98

30

2-65

9-0

9-9

6-5

5

8

July

19-59

26

2-55

8-7

8-8

5-8

3

9

August

12-89

26

1-31

5-5

8-6

5-3

3

9

September

11-40

15

3-13

5-1

7:7

4-9

2

8

October

10-24

25

1-26

7-9

8-9

5-6

3

9

November

5-90

16

1-62

6-2

7-2

5-6

3

9

December

6-43

16

2-75

5-3

7-1

5-7

4

8

123-40

210

5-4

7-4

6-2

The warmest month was April, and the coldest July, hut
the difference of mean temperature was only 4*5 degrees*
The greatest mean daily range was 23*0 degrees in March,
and the least 6*6 degrees in June. The mean humidity of
the air, at 10.30 a.m., was greatest in June, and least in
March; at 6 p.m. it was also greatest in June, but least in

95

January. In October, however, it was nearly as great as
in June, both at 10.30 a.m. and 6< p.m.

The difference between the mean maximum temperature
in the sun and the mean maximum in the shade was greatest
in December, and least in June. The values for May, No-
vember, and September differed, however, but little from
that in December, while the value for January was only one
degree above that for June. The low value for January is
remarkable as the dryness of the air was above the average,
the rainfall at a minimum, and the mean amount of clouds
much below the average.

The mean minimum temperature on the grass was lowest
in January, the month of least amount of cloud at 6 p.m.,
and highest in J une, the month of the greatest amount of
cloud at the same hour. The lowest minimum on the grass
was 83*0 degrees in January, and the highest 57'0 degrees
in June.

The greatest monthly rainfall was 26*98 inches in June,
and the least 0*40 inches in January. The six consecutive
months of greatest fall were May to October, when the total
amount was more than three times that of the remaining
six months.

The greatest mean amount of ozone was 7*4 in February,
and the least 4*9 in September, the difference being thus
only 2-5. Ozone was present on every day of observation,
and the lowest daily amount recorded was 2*0 in the month
of September. In February, April, and June the daily
amount never fell below 5*0. On the other hand the daily
amount never exceeded 9*0 in any month.

In every month the mean amount of cloud at 10.80 a.m.

96

was less than at 6 p.m., which is contrary to what usually
happens at most places in England.

On the 9th of December at 8 p.m. a miniature cyclone
occurred on a portion of the estate at Langdale. Its dia-
meter was about 200 yards ; rate of progression say 4 miles
per hour; and the velocity of the wind say 70 miles per
hour. Bare branches 2 inches thick at butt and 6 feet long
were carried some 50 feet high to a distance of at least 800
yards.

97

Ordinary Meeting, February 23rd, 1875.

R. Angus Smith, Pli.D,, F.R.S., Yice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. Joseph Sidebotham, F.R.A.S., sent for exhibition a
specimen of the Colorado Potatoe Beetle (Doryphora decom-
lineata), which had appeared in great numbers in Canada
last year, and had caused great destruction in the potatoe
crops.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., V.P., exhibited to the society specie
mens of a strong arenaceous shale, approaching to a flag-
stone, containing numbers of macrospores of Lepidodendron.
Several times previously he had brought before the Society
similar specimens in coals, and showed that they formed a
considerable portion of the Fifesh ire splint, but he had never
previously found them in arenaceous shale or sandstone,
although he had often looked for them. Many years since
Professor John Morris, F.G.S., in Vol. V., part 3 (1840), of
the Transactions of the Geological Society of London, in a
catalogue of the fossils mentioned in Professor Prestwick’s
Memoir of the Coalbrookedale Coal Field states that '' cap-
sules neither bitumenized nor mineralized, but in a state of
brown vegetable matter, are very abundant in some of
the coarser sandstones of the coal measures.” He collected
the specimens from a new pit at Woodbank, near Methel
Hill, Fifeshire, where a winning was being made down
to the Cameron Bridge Coal, and his attention was first
directed to them by his friend Mr. J. W. Kirkby, of the
Pirnie Colliery. Their great abundance in seams of coal
was considered very remarkable, but when they are also
found largely in arenaceous shales and sandstones asso-
ciated with such coals it clearly shews that the plant of
Peoceedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc.~ Vol. XIV.— No. 9.— Session 1874-75.

98

which they are the organs of reproduction must have con-
tributed very largely to the production of such beds of coal.
They doubtless were floated in water with other vegetable
remains to the places where they are now found, and owing
to their coriaceous covering have been preserved whilst
their accompanying plants have only left traces of their
remains in the black charcoal dispersed throughout the
shale. The macrospores are compressed, but their upper
surfaces are minutely tuberculated, and their under ones
marked by a tri-radiate ridge. They yet contain sufficient
combustible matter to afford a brilliant flame in a burning
candle.

Ordinary Meeting, March 9th, 1875.

Edwakd Schunk, Ph.D., F.RS., President, in the Chair.

“ On Mr. Millar’s Method of finding the Axes of an
Ellipse when two conjugate diameters are given,” by
Robert Rawson, Esq., Honorary Member of the Society.

At the ordinary meeting of the Society, February 9th,
1875, Professor 0. Reynolds communicated a paper on “A
Method of finding the Axes of an Ellipse when two conju-
gate diameters are given,” by J. B. Millar, B.E.

Of this . solution of an ancient and useful problem it is
necessary to observe that it is accurate, simple, but not
new.

It may be found in Waud’s Algebraical Geometry, art. 290,
page 189. The construction here referred to is the same as
that employed by Mr. Millar, with the exception of the
generating circle OKEF, which, however, is not necessary
in the construction of the principal axes. Waud’s solution
depends upon the well known property, viz., the equal areas
of all parallelograms whose diagonals are conjugate diame-
ters in position and magnitude.

99

The same construction may readily be inferred from
Professor Lowery’s solution of a problem by Sir James
Ivory, in Leybourn’s Mathematical Repository, vol. I, new
series, page 175.

Three solutions of this problem are given by Mr. Besant
in his Geometrical Conics— art. 216, art. 217, and art. 249,
Appendix. The first two of these solutions are not so
simple as is the third, which would in all probability have
been the same as Mr. Millar’s had he taken PE in his figure
in the opposite direction. Mr. Besant derives his construe"
tion from the investigation of the locus of a fixed point in a
given straight line whose extremities move on the legs of a
right-angled triangle.

The various properties of the ellipse on which the solu-
tion of this problem may depend are as follows, and they
may be found demonstrated in most modern works on conic
sections

The lines AA' BB' are the principal diameters, CC' PP'
are conjugate diameters, PF is perpendicular to OC, meeting
the axes in G and g, PT is a tangent at P, and therefore paral-
lel to CC', Kt' A'T' are tangents at A and A',

PF . PG - OB- (1)

PG. OA = OC. OB ...(3)
PG.P^ = OCb.,......(5)

PT . Ik OC- (7)

M . AT= OBb........(9)

P^' . PT' = OC (11)

PF . Vg = OA= (2)

P^ . OB - OC.OA ...(4)
PF.OC -OA.OB...(6)
OA' + OB'= OC- + OPb.(8)
SP . S'P - OC- (10)

100

The properties 7, 8, 9, and 10 are true for any conjugate
AA' and BB'.

Emerson, in his Conic Sections, published in 1767, solved
this problem by means of property 7. Sir J. Leslie, in his
Geometry of Curved Lines, pages 255, 256; and Salmon, in
his Conic Sections, art. 179, page 168, fifth edition, have
repeated Emerson’s solution.

The radius of the generating circle used by Mr. Millar is
determined in terms of the principal axes by Wallace in his
Conics somewhat in the same manner as that used by Mr.
Miliar.

This problem is given as an exercise by C. Taylor, in his
Conics, published at Cambridge in 1863, ex. 9, page 90.

Several eminent writers do not refer to it. Amongst this
number are Todhunter, Hymer, Drew, Hamilton, Hustler,
Bridge, Buckle, and Jackson.

In the Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin Messenger of
Mathematics, vol. III. page 151, K. Tucker, M.A., has given
a solution of this problem. The construction of the mag-
nitude of the axes is simple ; their directions, however, are
not so simple, as they are made to dej)end upon the focal
properties of the ellipse.

This provoked another solution in the same volume, page
227, by B. A. Proctor, B.A., whose construction is very
simple indeed. The lines employed by Mr. Proctor are dif-
ferent from those employed by Mr. Millar, but the construc-
tion of each is about equally simple.

In all the cases above referred to the constraction of the
principal axes only is given. The direct construction of any
pair of conjugate diameters from the first pair is not con-
sidered by any of the above named authors. The following
is offered as a solution of this part of the problem. I am
not sure it is the simplest that could be devised. It depends
upon property (7) when the axes are not the principal

axes.

101

Let AO A' BOB' be the given conjugate diameters. Draw ■
Bi^T parallel to AA'. With the centre B and radius OA
draw the circle DH/?. In this circle take any radius BD at
pleasure, perpendicular to which draw the diameter HBA
Find O' in BD such that 0'H=0'0=0'/i, make 0'^=:0'T=
00', join 0^ and OT. These lines will be conjugate. To
find the length of the diameters draw Bm parallel to 0^, and
Bn parallel to OT, then OM^=OT . Om and 0N^=0^ . On,

A simple construction with a circle is usually adopted to
determine OM ON geometrically from these two equations,

Mr. Arthur Mc.Dougall, B.Sc., invited attention. to a
specimen of carbon formed upon the roof of a gas retort,
by the decomposition of the hydrocarbon gas by heat.
The carbon thus formed resembles graphite in its almost
metallic lustre, and it was suggested that its mode of
formation might throw some light upon that of graphite.
Graphite always occurs in association with rocks which
have been subjected to igneous action, and may have been
formed by hydrocarbon gases traversing fissures or dykes
whilst the sides were in a highly heated state, thus causing
a deposit similar to that formed in gas retorts. The fact
that in the latter case an increase of pressure causes a
greatly increased amount of deposit favours this view, as it
is extremely probable that any gases existing in the earth's
crust would be in a state of great tension.

102

“ On the Presence of Sulphate of Copper in Water heated
in Tinned Copper Boilers,” by William Thomson, RC.S.

A few weeks ago I was consulted with regard to some
water which was taken from a copper boiler in a kitchen
range, which led me to investigate the case, and, as the
results seem to be of vital importance to many, I venture
to bring them before your notice.

The range referred to belonged to a large chapel in Man-
chester, and was employed for culinary purposes in connec-
tion with various meetings of the congregation, &c. It was
originally formed of two iron boilers, each capable of holding
from thirty to forty gallons, with a fireplace between. One
of these boilers was cracked, through cold water having
been carelessly thrown on the iron after it had been allowed
to become nearly red hot. To repair this defect a copper
boiler coated with tin was fitted into the cracked iron one.
I was informed that this boiler together with the iron one
on the other side of the range had been employed for heat-
ing water for tea making at one or more meetings, and that
some persons complained of feeling ill after tea. Some of
the hot water from this boiler was afterwards employed for
washing, and as it broke up the soap like hard water and
threw to the top a scum which had a bluish colour, suspicion
was thrown on it and a sample of the water brought to me
for examination. It contained some matter in suspension
of a dark colour, which soon subsided and left the water
clear. Presuming that if copper were present it would be
in suspension and not in solution, I examined the sediment
but found it to be free from that metal. I then filtered and
examined the clear water.

It contained a large proportion of copper in solution, and
gave a distinctly acid reaction to blue litmus paper. I
evaporated the water down to a very small bulk and ex-
tracted the free acid with absolute alcohol, eliminated the
alcohol used, and got it in a concentrated form in a water

103

solution, it charred paper with facility and gave a copious
white precipitate with chloride of Barium insoluble in Hy-
drochloric acid, thus proving it to be free Sulphuric Acid
which had acted - upon the copper. I then continued my
investigation to find the source of that acid. I observed
that the boilers on each side of the fireplace were supplied
by the same water, (Manchester supply) passing along the
same pipe. I collected a sample of that water from the tap
used for filling the copper boiler, and took another from the
iron boiler on the other side, these samples were evaporated
down and tested, but found to contain neither free acid nor
copper. I next looked for the acid as a result of the com-
bustion of sulphur in the coal, but as both boilers were
entirely separated from the fire by brick work and also
covered in on the top, the products of combustion had no
chance of finding their way into the boilers, and further had
this been the cause I ought to have found free acid in the
water of the iron boiler.

On further enquiry, I was informed that after the boiler
had been put in, it was well washed with water and after-
wards had a solution of washing soda boiled in it and again
washed well with clean water. After this treatment, water
which was heated in it became highly contaminated with
copper and free sulphuric acid.

My experiments up to this time having offered no solution
of the problem as to how the water became contaminated, I
made enquiries respecting the galvanizing of such utensils,
and found that the process followed was this : the inside of
the vessel was “ pickled ” with sulphuric acid, then rubbed
with sand to remove oxide, and washed, lastly heated up
with chloride of ammonium and block tin rubbed over the
surface.

The only explanation which I can offer of this remarkable
contamination is, that part of the sulphuric acid used for
cleansing before galvanizing had been secreted in the joints

104

formed by the riveting of the sheets of copper together and
also between the plates and the rivets, so that when the
boiler was washed and heated with a solution of carbonate
of soda, it could not enter into the crevices to neutralize the
acid during the few hours the soda solution was heated, but
which under the subsequent prolonged action of the hot
water gradually dyalized out bringing the copper with it.

I called one day at the chapel, and found them using the
hot water from this boiler for washing dishes, so that fresh
quantities of pure water were being added as the hot water
was drawn off. I took another sample of it, and on
analysis I found it to contain 3 ‘575 grains of metallic
copper to the gallon, equal to 14-056 grains of crystallised
sulphate of copper. I consider it well that results such as
these should be generally known, as I understand that
boilers of this kind are often employed for culinary pur^
poses, and through ignorance of the above facts serious
results might accrue.

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.KS., exhibited a collec=
tion of articles of the Neolithic and Bronze ages from the
pile dwellings in the Lake of Bienne, lately presented to
the Man Chester Museum, Owens College, by J oseph Thomp=
son. Esq. He called attention to the fact that the neolithic
peoples were the first herdsmen and farmers of whom we
have any trace, and stated that to them we owe the intro-
duction into Europe of domestic animals and of cultivated
cereals. They were also the first weavers and gardeners.
From the southern character of some of the domestic ani-
mals such as Sus pcdustris, and of some of the vegetables
such as the Egyptian wheat and Silene Cretica, it may be
inferred that they came from the south, probably from the
south-east, from the warmer regions of Central Asia.

With regard to the Bronze age it is a disputed question
as to whether the knowledge of bronze was spread by

105

commerce or by conquest. Probably it was spread by both
these means. The art of the Bronze age can only be traced
home to the Etruscans, that mysterious people who are a
terror to the philologists, and of whom we know historically
that they were powerful by land and sea, that they were
famous workers in metal, and possessed of quantities of
amber. He therefore thought it probable that the amber
trade with the shores of the Baltic, and the tin trade with
Spain and Britain, distributed over a large part of Europe,
the produce of the Etruscan workshops. On the decay of
the Etruscan power the trade was taken up by the Phoeni=
cians, the great maritime people who possessed no distinctive
style of art of their own, but manufactured goods for the
various markets, like the manufacturers of Manchester and
Birmingham. He did not therefore see how the popular
view could be maintained that the art of the Bronze age
was introduced into Northern and Central Europe by the
Phoenicians,

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.

January 18th, 1875.

John Barrow, Esq., in the Chair.

Mr. James Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S., read a paper on
the Botany of Wilmington, North Carolina, with an especial
reference to the habitat of Hionsea muscipula (Ellis). He
visited the place in May, 1872, and after passing an
extensive sandy tract, N.W. of the city, where grew
Kobinia hispida, vai\ Elliottil, Lupinus diffusus, Stipulicida
Setacea, &c., arrived at a pine barren, beyond which was a
marsh, and found Hionsea growing amongst rushes, Helonias

106

dioica, Sarracenia purpurea, and S. flava — it appeared to be
very local, even there. The soil seemed of the usual peaty
formation common to the pine barren, and it is difficult to
account for the plant having so restricted a range. The
only insect found entrapped by the leaves was a species of
midge. Another very local plant, the Solidago verna, grew
close by, for which this is the only locality known.

Mr. Melvill also exhibited a specimen of Eupty cilia
metahleta (Crosse), a land shell lately discovered in Mada-
gascar, connecting the Genera Cyclostoma and Cyclophorus,
and distinguishable from all other land shells by its scalar!-
form variels.

February 15 th, 1875.

Charles Bailey, Esq., in the Chair.

Mr. Rogers exhibited a specimen of Carex ornithopoda,
Willd., collected by Mr. J. Whitehead in Millersdale, Derby-
shire, in July of last year.

Mr. Charles Bailey remarked that this specimen was
identical with examples which he exhibited from Saxony
and Lower Austria, and that it was a very interesting addi-
tion to the flora of the district as well as to that of Great
Britain. Its nearest ally was Carex digitata, L,, but this
species is not known to occur in the neighbourhood of Man-
chester, although found in the extreme north of the county.
Its distribution all over Europe is rather perplexing as it is
entirely absent from extensive areas ; it is rare in France
and Luxembourg, and unrecorded for Belgium proper. Hob
land, and Denmark, It is a Scandinavian species, and com-
mon in the Rhine provinces, as well as in Germany, Austria^

107

Russia, &c. In some parts of the Continent the Carex
ornithopoda is found associated with Carex dlgitata, but
whether the former is a stunted, starved form of the latter,
as Crepin surmises, or whether they are specifically distinct,
are matters for further investigation. The intermixture of
closely allied, but distinct, species is by no means infrequent,
and their occurrence in immediate association with each

other is not necessarily a proof of their common origin.
Thus Erytlircm Centaurium Pers., E. littoralis, Fries, and
E. pidchella, Fries, are frequently found intermixed; Medi-
cago eu-falcata and M. sylvestris, Fries, grow together on
the Norfolk coast, and Statice Behen, Drejer, occurs side by
bide with S. Bahusiensis, Fries, in the estuary of the Wyre
opposite Fleetwood. The botanist who studies the living
plant and notes the habits and surroundings readily separates
these amd other allied species, and there is little difficulty in
differentiating Carex ornithopoda^ from C. digitata, its
shorter rhizome and cymose spikes being the most manifest
characters for identifying it from the last named species.
As it may occur in other localities in the district, Mr. Bailey
mentioned the following as the more striking characters ot
the two plants :

Carex digitata, L,

Carex ornithopoda, Willd.

Bracts Membranaceous

Female Spikes Distant; erect; with large

fruits

Glumes of Fruits... Attaining the base of the
beak

Beak op Fruit One-eleventh the length

of the fruit

Shorter than those of
C. digitata.

Condensed ; curving out-
wards ; lighter in co-
lour, and shorter than
in C. digitata.

Not reaching the base of
the beak.

One-fifteenth the length
of the fruit — which is
a shade smaller than
that of C, digitata.

A full account of the more minute differences between
the two species will be found in Crdpin’s |)aper, in YoL
XVIII Memoires couronne^s et autres mdmoires publide par
I’Academie de Belgique (1865),

108

Mr. SiDEBOTHAM, F.R.A.S., then read a paper entitled
‘‘Notes on the Botany and Natural History of Tenby and the
neighbourhood.” Specimens of some of the rarer plants found
in that locality were exhibited, and critical remarks on the
specific identity of some of them were made ; also on some
of the land shells, of which a good series was exhibited, with
some interesting varieties, specimens of which were dis-
tributed among the members present.

Mr. Spencee Bickham read an interesting paper on the
diflerent kinds of Beehive used in this country, and exhi-
bited specimens.

109

Special General Meeting, March 23rcl, 1875.

Edward Schunck, PL.D., F.RS., &c., President, in. the

Chair.

The President said -The subject which the meeting
will have to consider this evening is one of considerable
importance. We have met to discuss and come to a decision
on a scheme first proposed by the Council and generally
approved of by the Society at its annual meeting in April,
1873, a scheme for the incorporation of the Society under
the provisions of the Companies Acts 1862 and 1867, and
the adoption of a new code of laws which this scheme if
carried out will render necessary. This Society, as you are
aware, has 'hitherto occupied the position simply of a
private association for the promotion of Literature and
Science, having been guided by laws or rules, which have
frecpiently been altered and revised so as to adapt them to
altered circumstances. The Laws and Regulations goverm
ing the Society at the period of its establishment will be
found in print at the commencement of the first volume of
the Society’s Memoirs, published in 1785. The two chief
objects of the Society at that period (when the number of
members was limited to fifty) seem to have been the reading
of papers on various subjects at its meetings, and the subse-
quent publication of such of them as the “ Committee of
Papers ” should approve of in its Memoirs, and the “ Laws ”
refer principally to these objects. The secondary objects
which the Society had in view, such as the formation of a
library, the award of medals to persons of merit, &c,, were
set forth in the so-called Regulations.” These Laws (the
Regulations having in 1790 been incorporated with them)
PEocEEDiNas— Lit. & Phil. Soc.~Yol, XIY,— No. 10.— Session 1874-75,

110

subsequently underwent slight modifications. In 1852 a
set of Rules was adopted by the Society, and duly certified
in pursuance of the Act of Parliament. In these Rules -the
“ Committee of Papers ” is not mentioned, the decision as
regards the printing of papers, as well as the management^
and direction of all the affairs of the Society, “ subject to
such instructions £is may be given from time to time by the
Society,” being entrusted to the Council. The property of
the Society is declared to be “ vested in Trustees upon trust
for the ordinary members, who shall alone be interested in
the property of the Society.”' During the following years
much discussion arose regarding these rules, and the result
was the adoption in 1861 of a new code, being that by
which the Society has been governed from that time to the
present. The set of rules now in force does not differ
essentially from the preceding one. A new feature how-
ever appears in the shape of an appendix referring to the
Sections, which were not in existence at the time the pre-
vious set of rules was drawn up.

Without undergoing any change in its character and
objects, the Society’s sphere of activity has during the last
twenty years been considerably enlarged. In addition to
the Memoirs which appear periodically it publishes Proceed-
ings, giving an account of what occurs at each of its meet-
ings, and the labours of the Secretaries and the Editor of the
Society’s publications are consequently more onerous than
formerly. Our library is now one of considerable extent
and importance, and requires constant attention on the part
of the librarian. Several sections have been established for
the reading and discussion of papers on subjects with which
they are specially concerned. Two societies having no
organic connection with ours make use of our rooms for
their meetings under certain conditions, and it may be
expected that others of a similar character will be admitted
to the same privileges. Our property is now of considerable

Ill

value, and yet under the present regime we are unable to
deal v/itb it easily and expeditiously-. Under these circum-
stances it has been considered advisable that the Society
should endeavour to attain to a legally recognised position
and status, together with greater liberty of action generally,
opportunity for which is afforded by the Companies Act,
1867. At the annual meeting of the Society held on the
29th of April, 1873, it was accordingly resolved that the
Council be instructed to take steps for procuring the incor-
poration of the Society under the provisions of the Com-
panies Acts, and to apply to the Board of Trade for permission
to omit the word “ Limited” from the title of the incorpo-
rated Society.” At the following annual meeting, held on
the 2 1st April, 187f, the Council in their annual report
stated that steps had been taken for procuring the incor-
poration of the Society under the provisions of the Com-
panies Acts, but a question havingarisen whether it may not
be necessary to alter the rules of the Society, it has been
thought desirable to obtain counsers opinion on this point
before proceeding further in the matter.” The Council
having placed the matter in the hands of Mr. H. M. Orme-
rod, solicitor, the Buies of the Society have been by him, as
a necessary preliminary to the application to the Board of
Trade, submitted to the revision of counsel, and have been
by him re-drawn in the form of the Memorandum and
Articles of Association now before you. The wording alone
of the rules has been altered, but the spirit has been pre-
served, and the two combined contain all that is essential in
our present set of rules, modified only in accordance with
the requirements of the law. The Memorandum and Articles
of Association having been submitted to and approved by the
Board of Trade, who have granted their licence for the registra-
tion of the Society, it now remains for the meeting on behalf
of the Society to adopt or reject them as it thinks fit. If
the meeting approves of them, after confirming its resolution

as to tLe formation of a company under the. Act, the further
steps to he taken with a view to registration will follow in
due course.

The following resolutions were then ])roposed by Mr.
H. M. Oemerod, seconded by Professor Balfour Stewart,
and carried unanimously : —

1. '^That this Society be formed into a Limited Company
under the 23rd section of the Companies Act, 1867; and by
the name of The Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, and that the Council of the Society be and they are
hereby authorised to take such steps in that behalf as they
may deem expedient.”

2. “ That the Memorandum and Articles of Association,
draft of which has been approved by the Board of Trade,
and is now laid before this Meeting, be and they are hereby
approved as the Memorandum and Articles of Association
of this Society, when so incorporated, and that the Council
do take such steps as may be necessary for procuring the
same to be duly executed and duly registered in conformity
with The Companies Acts, 1862 and 1867.”

Ordinary Meeting, March 23rd, 1875.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c.. President, in the

Chair.

The following letter from Mr. J. B. Millar, B.E., was
read by Professor Reynolds ; —

Will you kindly permit me to express, through you, my
thanks to Mr. Rawson for the trouble he has taken in com-
paring the solution which I gave of the problem on the
ellipse with those which have been given b}^ the various
authors on the subject?

118

The points on which 1 relied when venturing to bring
the problem under the notice of -your Society were, its
practical importance ; the simplicity of my construction ;
and the fact that the same solution had not before been
published, or if it had, was very little known. On all these
points Mr. Kaw’son has confirmed the correctness of my
opinion.

The solutions referred to by Mr. Rawson may, from his
point of view, be conveniently arranged into three classes :
(1) those which are quite different from mine ; (2) one which
might have been the same had it been done in n difterent
way from what it is; and (3) one by Waud which is the
same with one exception. I have not yet been able to find
the book containing this last solution, and cannot therefore
say how nearly identical the two solutions may be ; but as
the generating circle is the most important part of my con-
struction, seeing it determines both the directions and
lengths of the axes, and as Mr. Rawson says the circle is
not introduced in Wand’s solution, I cannot but think the
exception must be an important one.

It is scarcely necessary to observe that I laid no claim to
having discovered a new geometrical principle, but I did
think that by looking at the problem from a different point
of view from most of the writers on Geometrical Conics I
had succeeded in obtaining a solution which was at once
simple to execute and easy to remember, and I submit the
proper test by which to judge it is to take the compasses
and work the problem by the several known methods, when
the simplicity of my method as well as its points of differ^
ence from the others will become apparent.

“ On Discoveries in a Cave at Thayingen, near Schafi-
hausen,” by Akthur Wm. Waters, F.G.S.

Last meeting our attention was drawn by Professor Boyd
Dawkins’ interesting papei- to the large number of settle-

114

meiits wliicli liave been found in Switzerland belonging to
the Neolithic and Bronze ages. On the other hand traces
of earlier inhabitants have only been found as yet in
Switzerland in two caves at Saleve and Yilleneuve, on the
west side of the country, and in the cave at Thayingen at
the extreme east. In each articles of human workmanship
have been found in association with bones of animals.

The examination of this last cave, which is called the
“ kessler loch,” or kettle cave, since the Gipsy tinkers had
often used it, was begun in the early part of 1874. It is
situated in the Jura limestone, a few miles from Schafi-
hausen, but since it is rather a hollow in the rock it scarcely
deserves the name of a cave. A full description of the
fauna found here will shortly be published, with the assist-
a-nce of Professors Biittimeyer and Fraas, and until this has
appeared it is impossible to give any exact list ; but pro-
bably the following though not complete will be found
correct : — Ursus arctos, Canis lagopus, Gulo borealis, Elephas
primigenius. Bos priniigenius, Canis vulpes, Lepus variabilis, - -
Arctomys marmotta, Cervus tarandus and perhaps Cervus
elejdias and Equus. This is very similar to the lists from the
other caves, and the animals belong to the upper pleistocene
group. Nor does the similarity end in Switzerland, for
besides the same animals some of the harpoons and other
weapons have an extraordinary resemblance to some from
the caves of South France, and sufficient with those of some
parts of Germany and South England to show that the
same race of men had a wide rano’e.

O

In the periods which were brought under our notice
last meeting we saw that the inhabitants of these dwellings
were herdsmen and ffirmers, who cultivated the land, had
several domestic animals, followed the chase, erected houses,
skilfully worked stones into implements and afterwards
used bi'onze tools, made pottery, spun and wove flax and
bast, with which they made clothes and nets ; but when we

115

turn to these earlier cave men, whether in Switzerland or
elsewhere in Europe, we find that the life they led was
altogether different, for they seem to have been a race of
hunters and fishers, with probably no domestic animals, no
knowledge of how to cultivate land or to erect themselves
dwellings, and the stone tools they used were never polished
as in the later periods, but merely chips of flints. Yet
these men whose civilization stood so low were able with
their simple flint tools to execute engravings on bone and
horn with fair skill. The main point of interest connected
with the cave to which I am drawing your attention lies in
the discovery among the remains from Thayingen of a piece
of antler of reindeer with the representation of a reindeer
feeding, most faithfully and really artistically carved. There
are also two other carvings (of horses) of which no descrip-
tion has yet been published, but I have been told that the
execution of one is even much superior to that of the
reindeer,

From the paleolithic caves of the Dordogne and Switzer-
land numerous engravings of animals have been found, but
none yet published are as well drawn as the reindeer from
Thayingen ; but Professor Pleim, in the paper^^ from which
I get much of my information regarding the cave, says that
lie has been informed that just recently M. Piette, juge de
paix at Craonne (Aisne), has dug out caves near St. Bertrand,
in the Pyrenees, which show the same conditions as those
from Perigord in the Dordogne, and that a drawing of a
wild goat still more artistic than our drawing from Thayin-
gen has been found there.

From their implements and mode of life the palaeolithic
race of men is supposed to be represented by the Esquimaux
at the present time, and this receives the strongest support
from the fact that these people, whose mode of life is very

* Ueber einen Fund aus d. Kentliierzeit in d. Schweiz von Prof. A. Heim.
Mitt. Antiq. Gesell Zurich 18V4. XVIII. 5,

116

similar to tliat of the palseolithic man, are in the habit
of ornamenting their bone and horn implements in the same
way, and the style of designs has much resemblance to that
of the Dordogne.

From the cave near Schaffhausen harpoons, and the so-
called commandostabe, which have been shown by Professor
Boyd Dawkins to be really arrow straighteners, together
with needles or bodkins have been found. The drawing of
the piece of antler, with the engraving, were lithographed
by Professor Heim with the greatest care and exactness,
and every slip of the flint is shown, and measurements of
the depth of the lines by an instrument specially arranged
for it are given in the work I have referred to. Prof. Heim
also argues that the preponderance of animals looking to
the left over those looking to the right indicate a probability
that the artists drew with the right hand. He concludes by
saying, the race of zoo-artists were in their talents in
advance of the means which were at their disposal. In the
later races — for example the pile dwellers — the intellectual
capacity and the resources in the midst of which the men
grew up are more nearly balanced.” He also says “ that
this was a premature attempt of the human genius, and that
no partial inconsistent cultivation of a single talent can be
maintained for a long period.” This last remark does not
seem to be borne out, since the similarity of the Esquimaux
and paleolithic man is undoubted, and would rather make
us consider how persistent a low civilization may remain
when there are few extraneous modifying circumstances.

117

Ordinary Meeting, April Gtli, 1875.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the

Chair,

Mr. J. S. Kipping and Mr. W. A. Cunningham were
appointed Auditors of the Treasurer’s accounts.

A Study of Peat Part I. By R. Angus Smith, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., &c., Y.P.

The author referred to a former paper, in which he
stated his belief that calculations as to the age of peat bogs
were frequently much exaggerated, and that the more highly
combustible bodies called hydrogen and richer hydrogen
compounds increased in proportion to age, not by addition
to their substance, but by the oxidation of the other
parts, and removal of carbonaceous bodies in the brown
water.

After referring to the observation of oil from peat and
treatment of the subject and its relation to questions con-
nected with coal, by E. W, Binney, F.R.S., he now wished
to bring forward certain scientific and certain economic
points. Of the former : 1st. The rapid growth of peat,
shown partly by collected experience and by numerous
quotations. 2nd. The existence of the resins and bodies
having a high amount of hydrogen and carbon in new as
well as old peats. 3rd. The cause of the rather greater
amount in the old, not from formation during decay of the
plant, but their greater permanence and insolubility. 4th.
The existence of similar bodies in the fresh mosses which
form the peat. 5th. The possible removal of all woody
fibre by decomposition, leaving only oils and resinous or
similar bodies undergoing little if any chemical change.
6th. The reason, viz., that woody fibre produced no highly
Peoceedinqs— Lit. & Phil. Soc.— Yol. XIY. — No. 11. — Session 1874-75.

118

combustible liquids or solids during its decomposition.
7 til. Suggesting that the same idea might be transferred to
coal without confining it to any portion of the plant. 8th.
The rapid formation of hard peat promoted by the growth
of fine mosses, which break down readily into fine powder,
whereas strong stems remain long.

Next, certain economic and sanitary points. 1st. The
importance of keeping up in certain parts of the country a
sufficient amount of peat for the fuel of the neighbourhood.
2nd. The possibility, by proper peat culture, of increasing
the growth manifold. 3rd. The question of the removal
of the resinous, &c., bodies by solution instead of distilla-
tion. 4th. The value of peat as a reservoir of water. 5th.
Its value as a rapid grower, if properly cultivated, for filling
up wet ground and swamps. 6th. Its subsequent use in
removing swamp fever, which was never found, at least in
the northern peat bogs, and he believed never in the true
peat bog, the cold not being the cause of this.

On recent enquiry, he had found peat which, on good
evidence, had grown 80 inches in 41 years, and observers
with still better opportunities gave amounts much higher,
equal to 88 inches in a similar time. Taking the lower
estimate, it seemed clear that Sprengel’s statement was
correct, that peat grew more combustible matter in an acre
than forest trees grew. The specimen in question, from
Deeside, on a spur of the Grampians, had a considerable
density, viz., 0*92, measuring externally, or a cubic foot
weighed 571bs., whereas a cubic foot of water weighs 62-82.
The probably very old peat of a coaty fracture spoken of by
several persons is not here alluded to, and did not come
under the author’s observation. The amount of the wet
material that grew in an acre was 2,454 cubic feet in a year,
and of the dry material, taking the lowest estimate of
l-6th, 10-2 tons, say ten. The estimated amount for wood
in the plains below was considered to be 2| tons per acre

119

per annum, and tins may be high, as Liebig gives only
half this amount, and hay and straw, which he considered
able to produce the same amounf of dry material, do not
produce more. The value of the peat and the wood as
combustibles would differ little. The value of the ten tons
may be considered as equal to four tons of coal. These
four tons, then, were grown on land which could scarcely be
said to have agricultural value. Of course, all bogs are not
always growing at this rate, and there is a limit in time to
their increase ; on the other hand, by care and proper feed-
ing, we may be able to grow the material much faster than
ever it has grown, and the black bogs may become for
us rich coal fields, oil wells, and whale fisheries. The
fuel is not important for those places where coal is cheap,
but there are many places in Great Britain where coal
is difficult of transport. Since peat will not bear much
carriage, its value is limited in distance, and in many places
now without any it would be well to grow along with oat
and potato fields a field also of this despised fuel. This is
actually done, but it is rarely systematic, and in many places
peat is driven out where a portion of land otherwise almost
useless might be set aside for it. The systematic fostering
of peat so as to increase the produce is advocated for many
places, although this may appear absurd in * the eyes of
those who are desirous of removing entirely all its traces.

The peat which had grown rapidly was fine in texture and
became heavy on drying; not of the heaviest kind, as 0’92
is high but not of the highest class. (The lightest peat
examined was 0 2.) The first had grown from fine or small
mosses, Jiypnum chiefly, and the fineness of the fibre was
apparently the cause of the rapid breaking up. It is not
time alone then that is always required to make fine dense
peat. Large pieces of wood may endure and be preserved
long. Henceforth a new classification of peats is necessary,
and this is according to the prevailing plant. To grow good

120

peat, all plants with thick stems must be avoided as giving
too much woody fibre, rendering the structure too open and
the peat too light, as well as giving an inferior amount (in
the case of some woods at least) of the resinous and very
inflammable bodies, and generally taking too long to form.
The great peculiarity of good peat is the oleaginous and
resinous matter, to which also wax and fats may be added,
as they have been found by some. It has been generally
believed that these bodies have been produced during the
decomposition of the plant, although one writer, quoted in
the paper, considers they were produced by the growing
plant. Dr. Smith came to the conclusion that woody fibre
could not be shown to produce substances rich in hydrogen,
the compounds resulting from its decay were rather of a
humous character and not good combustibles. If woody
fibre did not leave its hydrogen and carbon in such quantity
as to form the resins, &c., of peat, then we must look for
the origin in the growing plant. The mosses from which
the peat from Deeside was evidently grown were examined,
and on drying gave about a fourth of dry matter Avhich
readily crumbled into a powder and which contained 1*27
per cent of substances soluble in a light naphtha. It much
resembled that obtained from the peat, but was softer, being
about the consistence of butter and capable of being dis-
tilled so as to give a yellowish substance of the same
consistence. Besides this there was 1 per cent of a substance
extracted by alcohol, resinous in appearance, fusible, and
containing apparently the chlorophyll.

The author believed that these bodies produced the
similar matter in the peat, or rather were the matter itself
with little or no change. In the peat it had been hardened,
perhaps by oxidation or perhaps by the removal of the more
fluid portion by water. In this way he explained the
possibility of having a flow of oil from a peat moss. When
the substances in the plants themselves were of a more fluid

121

character, the removal . of the woody fibre and absorbing
humous bodies would set them free, and the fusibility or
otherwise of the substances at ordinary temperatures would
depend on the plants. The oil formed by distilling the
resinous bodies obtained from the peat was of a light yellow.
Its true character has not been fully determined, but the
analysis gave — carbon 88’86 p.c., hydrogen 12*70.

The author inclined to believe that there is a great
variety of oils and solid hydrocarbonaceous bodies, if not
true hydrocarbons, in the plants, which so far as he knew '
had not been examined. The resins of the peat had been
carefully examined by Mulder.

The author had not found any of the coaly peat spoken of
by some authors. It might readily be supposed that when the
woody fibre was removed various compounds insoluble in
water would remain and account for fossil resins, ozokerit, &c,
A similar action might produce coal although the plants
forming peat and coal were different and most probably the
climate, and the idea of Prof. Morris (see Prof. Huxley
and Prof Dawkins on coal) that the bituminous part of
coal was composed of spores and sporangia primitively sup-
plied with resinous or oleaginous matter would so far agree
with the above reasoning, although in forming peat we
cannot confine ourselves to the spores, so far as the author
knew at least, when wood is present having resin dispersed
in it. Perhaps the same may be said of coal.

The author spoke of the great value of peat as a water
reservoir in a country demanding so much water, which did
not always require to be bright, and of the possibility in
many positions of clearing it as it was leaving the mosses.
Water reservoirs could thus be grown at a cheap rate in
many spots, instead of being banked in or dug at a great
expense, although growing might require perhaps more
time. A reservoir formed of peat 10 feet thick would hold
as much as a water reservoir of the usual kind 8 feet deep,
or say 7J, and still be easily walked over.

The capacity of growing possessed by peat was so great,
if the results found can be readily attained in many places,
that in suitable situations it might be used for filling up
swamps and making dry surfaces, for after rising to a certain
height the top easily drained and left a part dry.

Swamps were sources of fever and ague. True peat bogs
never were, so far as the author knev*^, and probably the
growing of peat would render many places healthy which
could not otherwise easily be made so. Gases from peat
mosses it is intended to examine more fully, and also many
peat-forming plants.

PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.

Tuesday, March 2nd, 1875.

E. W. Binney, F.E.S., F.G.S., Vice-President of the Section
in the Chair.

“ Eainfall at Old Trafibrd, Manchester, in the year 1874,”
by G. Y. Yeknon, F.E A.S., F.M.S.

The rainfall during 1874 was 84*095 inches and fell upon
203 days. The total rainfall was 1*617 inches below the
average of the last 81 years, and 4*280 inches above the fall
for 1878.

January had a rainfall above the average ; February below,
March considerably in excess; April, May, June, and July
were all considerably below the average, June and July
unusually so, the deficiency for these four months amounting
to 5*540 inches below the 81 j^ears’ average; August and
September were above the average, September slightly
belo’w the average ; November and December w^ere above
the average, especially November, the fall in that month
reaching nearly 5 inches. April was the driest month of
the year.

123

The rainfall for the first quarter of the year was 1*248
inches above the average; for the secQiid and third quarters
the fall was 3*762 inches and 0*408 inches below the
average ; and the last quarter 1*305 above the average.

The dry weather of April, May, June, and July appears
to have suited the grain crops, which were remarkably
large, and were no doubt greatly favoured by the extra-
ordinary weather during the two last weeks of April, the
tempei’ature of which were 9*7° and 7*0° above the average
25 years.

Eain-gauge 3 Feet above the Ground and 106 feet above the
Level of the Sea.

Quarterly

Periods.

1874.

Fall

of

Rain.

Average

of

81 years.

Differ-

ence.

No. of

Days’ j Quarterly Periods.

Rain- i

1873.

1874.

fall in 1

1874. |81 years.!

1874.

Diff.

' inches.

inches. !

inches.

’ inches.

inches. 1

inches.

c

January. . .

3-525

2-556

q-0-969

18)1

1

i

48

471

February .

1-589

2-376

—0-787

11 [ 7-233

8-481

+1-248

(

March

3-367

2-301

-1-1-066

18)!

C

April

0-999

2-030

—1-031

15) i

43

401

May

1-395

2-285

-0-890

17 [ i 7*156

3-394'

—3*762

(

June

1-000

2-841

—1-841

8) i

1 1

c

July

1*771

3-549

—1-778

14) i

' 1

1 1

i

64

551

August . . . .

4-345

3-520

+0-825

20 [ 10-383

9-975

—0*408

c

Sept’mber

3-859

3-314

l+-0-o4o

21);

1

1

r

October . . .

i 3-758

3-897

-0-139

25)

43

61]

November

4-851

3-778

i 1-073

17 [ '10-940

12-245

+1*305

i

c

December

3-636

3-265

0-371

19) i

1

198

1

203

34-095

35-712

i— 1-617

i

203 35-712

'34-095

i

—1-617 1

“Results of Rain-gauge Observations, made at Eccles,
near Manchester, during the, year 1874,” by Thomas
Mackereth, F.R.A.S., F.M.S.

The rain fall of 1874, though reaching about the average
for this district, is exceptional in several ways. The rain-
fall for the past three years has unusual characteristics,
that of 1872 was remarkable for its excess, being one of the
wettest years on record, that of 1873 was rather remarkable
for its deficiency, and it may be said of the fall of last year
that it vfas remarkable for both its deficiency and excess.

124

Though, as I have said, about the average amount for the
year fell, there was a great deficiency throughout the spring
and summer months as far as to the end of July. The
thunderstorms which occurred in August seem not only to
have been the precursor of the excesses of rainfall which
followed, but also of a very rapid decline of temperature
which continued with slight variations till it culminated in
the very low temperature at the end of the year. The
drought of April and May was accompanied by severe frosts
that completely destroyed the fruit crops of this district at
least. The number of days on which rain fell during the
past 3^ear is greater than the average. But this excess is
less in proportion to the amount of rainfall in the wet
portion of the year than the deficiency in the dry portion,
pointing again to the law which I showed to exist in the
amount and fi’equency of rainfall, in a paper I read on the
subject before the Section in the last session. The following
table shows the results obtained from a rain-gauge with a
lOin, round receiver placed 3ft. above the ground

Quarterly Periods

1874.

Fall

in

Inches.

Average

of

14 Years,

1 DiflEerence,

!

Quarterly Periods. ^

Average

of

14 years.

1874,

Average

of

14 Years.

1874,

Days.

Days.

c

January

3-261

2-813

+0-448 ■)

52

56^

February

1-464

2-194

—0-730 [

7-498

7-716

C

March

2-991

2-491

+0-500 )

c

April

0-919

1-995

1—1-076)

46

44^

May

1-956

2-076

! —0-120 [

6-686

3-764 1

1

June

0-889

2-615

\ —1-726 ;

(

Jnly

2-136

3-051

—0-915 )

i

53

60^

August

5-767

3-280

+2-487 [

10-371

11-380

(

September . . .

3-477

4-040

—0-563 )

c

October

4-091

4-258

—0-167)

57

61 ]

November ...

5-111

3-270

+1-841 [

10-529

12-371

(

December

3-169

3-001

+0-168;

208

221

35-231

35-084

+0-147

In the next table are given the results obtained from
rain-gauges of two different kinds, placed in close proximity

125

ill the same plane, and 8 feet from • the ground. The one
has a loin, round receiver, and the other a oin. square
receiver. The large receiver had an excess over the small
one in nearly all the drier months of the year. There were
six months when the large one had the excess, and six
months when the small one had it. The excesses in either
case are exceedingly small, very few of them reach iV of an
inch for the month. The greatest excesses are in the small
gauge, and those in the wettest months of August, October,
and November. There appears quite an unusual monthly
excess in December in the small gauge. It attained to more
than half an inch ; but the conditions under which it hap-
pened are altogethei' abnormal. Most of it was melted snow^
It fell heavily, fitfully, and often curiously intermixed with
large and small flakes. This I offer as a suggestion as to
the cause of the excessive difference in last December be^
tween the fall in the two gauges. An average fall of both
gauges over a period of seven years shows only a little over
Aoth of an inch of excess in the larger receiver ; thus the
two gauges may be taken as good checks upon each other.

j

!

1871.

1

Rainfall I

in inches in
loin, round
receiver
3ft. from
ground.

Rainfall
in inches in
Sin. square
1 receiver
[oft. from
ground.

Difference.

From 186

Average
of 7 years’
rainfall in
inches in
loin, round
receiver
3ft. from
ground.

8 to 1871.

Average
of 7 years’
rainfall in
inches in
Sin. square
receiver
3ft. from
ground.

Difference.

j January

1 February

i March

! April

i May

; June

1 July

August

September

October

November

December

3-261

1*464

2*991

0*919

1*956

0*889

2*136

5*767

3*477

4*091

5*111

3*169

3*219

1*440

3*011

0*863

1*903

0*872

2*096

5*971

3*538

4*192

5*225

3*708

-f*042

4--024

—•020

-|-*056

-|-*053

-P*017

-j-*040

—*204

—*061

—•101

—•114

—•539

3*026

2*137

2*406

2*008

1*913

2*355

2*793

3*272

3*866

4*976

3*154

3*288

3*011

2*099

2*441

1*977

1*876

2*317

2*776

3*251

3*821

4*968

3*190

3*350

I

-|-*015

4--038

—•035

+*031

+•037

+*038

+*017

+*021

+*045

-i-*008

—*036

—*062

1

1

35*231

36*038 —*807

35*194

35*077

+•117

126

In the next table I give the results obtained from two
exactly similar gauges, placed at different heights from the
ground, and free from every interference. Each gauge has
a Sin. square receiver, and the one is placed 3 feet and the
other 84 feet above the ground. The total fall in the one
3 feet from the ground was 3G’048 inches, and in the one
34 feet from the ground it was 28'201 inches for last year.
The difference between the fall in the two gauges is 7‘847
inches, or about 22 per cent less rain fell in the higher than
in the lower gauge. In the same table I give the average
fall in the same gauges for seven years, and by comparing
the results it will be found that the average difference be-
tween the fall in the two gauges is about 18 per cent.

1874.

' i

Eainfall in
indies in
5 in. square
receiver 3 ft.
from ground.
187-1.

Rainfall in
inches in
5 in. square
receiver 34 ft.
from ground. [
1874.

From 186S

Average fall of
rain in inches
for 7 years in
5 in. square
receiver 3 ft.
from gTound.

3 to 1874.

Average fall of
rain in inches
for 7 years in
5 in. square
receiver 34 ft.
from ground.

! January

3-219 1

2-339

3-011

2-160

February

1-440 1

1-170

2-099

1-586

March

3-011

2-301

2-441

1-911

April

0-863

i 0-672

1-977

1-689

May

1-913

1-849

1-876

1-704

June

0-872

0-699

2-317

2-062

July

2-096

1-823

2-776

2-463

August

t 5-971

4-758

3-251

2-718

September

1 3-538

2-773

3-821

3-243

October

i 4-192

3-264

4-968

4-090

November

1 5-225

4-248

3-190

2-473

December

i 3-708

2-305

3-350

2-695

1

1 36-048

!

28-201

35-077

28-794

The following table gives the ratios of the excesses of
rainfall at 3 feet from the ground over the amount measured
at 34 feet from the ground. I produced this kind of table
for the first time last session, and I then showed that these
ratios for the rainfall of 1873, and for the average of six
years, were almost identical. The last year presents a very
different result. Not only is the ratio of each month very
divergent from the average, but the ratios of the totals are
very different. I must, however, observe that both tlic

127

mean monthly and the mean annual^ values of six years,
and the same means of seven years, have similar if not
identical ratios. When, however, the mean monthly ratios
are examined it will be found that the greatest difference of
the fall happens in May. The six years’ average places this
difference in June. Before it can be seen to which of these
months it really belongs, a larger area of averages is
required. The fall of 1874 places it in May. Both the six
and the seven years’ average place the least difference in
January, and this in a most marked manner. On the theory
then, as I have pointed out before, that the excess of rain-
fall in the lower gauge is due to the particles of invisible
vapour in the air between it and the higher gauge coalescing
with, the falling raindrops, the result seems to show that
in the spring and early summer months there is relatively
less of this vapour in the air below a height of 34 feet, and
that there is relatively more of it in the winter months, and
particularly in January. Hence the maximum of dry air
on the ground is in May or June, and the minimum in
January. The time of this maximum is also the time when
the maximum of ozone is found.

Monthly and Annual Ratios of the Excess op Rainfall Measured
AT 3 Feet from the Ground over the Amount Measured at
34 Feet from the Ground.

Ratios

of such Rainfall
for 187-1.

Ratios

of such Rainfall
for an Average
of 7 years from
1868 to 1874.

! January

i

•726

•717

February

'812

•755

; March

•764

•782

April

•778

•854

May

•966

•908

June

•801

•889

J^hy

•869

•887

August

•796

•836

September

•783

•848

October

•778

•823

November

•813

•775

December

•621

•804

Annual ratios...

1

•792

•823

128

In tlie next table I give the fall of rain for 1874 during
the day from 8 a.m. to 8 p.m., and the fall during the night
from 8 p.m. to 8 a.m. The results obtained from this table
show another exceptional character of the rainfall of last
year. Hitherto every year since I have made this com-
parison the total fall for the year in the day time has
exceeded the total fall during the night. But during the
past year the reverse has taken place and that to a large
extent. In 1873 the total excess of the day over the night
fall was 2 ’8 46 inches, or about 18 per cent, whilst during the
last year almost the reverse happened, for the night fall
exceeded the day fall by 2'692 inches, or about 15 per cent.

1871.

Eainfall
in inches from
8 a.m. to 8p.m.

Rainfall
in inches from
8p.m.to8a.m.

Difference
betweenXight
and Day fall.

January

1-357

1-862

-{-0-505

February

0-619

0-821

-i-0-202

March

0-958

2-053

-1-1-095

April

0-367

0-496

-i-0-129

May

0-767

1-136

-1-0-369

1 June

0-602

0-270

—0-332

July

0-447

1-649

-1-1-202

1 August

3-114

2-857

—0-257

i September

1-953

1-585

—0-368

October

2-119

2-073

—0-046

November

2-668

2-557

—0-111

December

1-702

2-006

-1-0-304

i

16-673

19-365

+2-692

In the next table I present the average day and night
fall for a period of seven years. The results of this table
continue, notwithstanding the reversal of last year, to con-
firm the experience of previous years, that the day fall ex-
ceeds the night fall as far as the amounts of the whole year
are concerned. The same curious fact presents itself in this
table which is presented in a similar table of the previous
two years. It is this: that an average excess of night
rainfall occurs in January, February, August, September,
November, and December. The total excess of the fall

129

during the day is very slight, though some of the month] y
differences are very large, being in some cases as much as
100 per cent.

Aveeage of Seven Years, from 1868 to 1874.

1874.

!

Rainfall in
inches from i
8 a.m. to 1
8 p.ni. 1

Rainfall in
inches from
8 p.m. to
8 a.m.

^ Difference
betweenNight
and Dayfall.

January

1-326

1-684

+0-358 ;

February

0-876 ;

1-222

+0-346

March

1-316 j

1-125

—0-191

April

1-148 1

0-828

—0-320

May

1-143 i

0-733

—0-410

June

1-326 i

0-990

—0-336

Hily

1-532

1-244

—0-288

August

1-602

1-648

+0-046

September

1-799

, 2-021

+0-222

; October

2-560

2-407

—0-153

j November

! 1-553

: 1-637

+0-084

: December

! 1-484

j

1-866

+0-382

i

17-665

1 17-405

—0-260

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.

Monday, March loth, 1875.

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.BS., in the Chair.

The Honourable J. Leicester Warren, M.A., was unani-
mously elected an Associate, and Mr. Arthur William Waters,
F.G.S., a Member, of the Society.

Mr. Charles Bailey exhibited a series of slides illustra-
ting the structure of Natural and Artificial Cork.

Mr. James Cosmo Melvill exhibited a specimen of
Coquina Stone from the quarries of Anastatia Island, St.
Augustine, East Florida. This specimen was taken from

130

the castle of St. Mark, the earliest recorded building in the
United States, 1565 A.D., which is entirely built of Coquina;
the shells found in it appear to be chiefly those of Area
incongrua and Ostrea virginica, both species still living in
the Western Atlantic.

Mr. T. S. Peace exhibited a series of curious varieties of
Helix nemomlis, H. hortensis, and H. hyhrida, .

Dr. Alcock showed a Greenland Bullhead (Cottus Green-
landicus, which was taken in November, 1872, amongst
stones at low water on the shore of the Menai Straits. He
stated that, so far as he knew, it is the first example met
with on the coasts of Britain, the two specimens previously
recorded, and noticed by Couch, having been captured in
Dingle Harbour, County of Kerry, in Ireland, in the month
of November, 1850.

131

Annual Meeting, April 20th, 1874.

Dr, SCHUNCK, F.D.S., F.C.S., President, in the Chair,

The following Report of the Council was read by one of
the Secretaries :-~

The Council have the satisfaction to report that the
proceedings taken for procuring the Incorporation of the
Society under the “Companies Acts, 1862 and 1867/' in
accordance with the resolution passed at the Annual Meeting
held on the 13th of April, 1873, have been completed, and
that a Certificate of Registration of the Incorporation of
the Society was granted by the Registrar of Joint Stock
Companies on the 22nd of March, 1875. Copies of the
Memorandum and Articles of Association have been printed
for distribution among the members of the Society.

The Treasurer’s account shows that the expenditure
during the year ending March 31st, 1875, was £57 3s. lOd.
in excess of the income. This excess, however, is attribute
able to extra expenses for providing new book-shelving, re-
arranging the library, binding a large number of books, and
preparing a new catalogue.

The number of ordinary members on the roll of the Society
on the 1st of April, 1874, was 171, and 8 new members have
since been elected ; the losses are— deaths, 4 ; resignations,
5 ; and defaulters, 2. The number on the roll on the 1st of
April instant was, therefore, 168. The deceased members
are Thomas Standring, Sir William Fairbairn, Bart., T. T.
Wilkinson, and Robert Hyde Greg.

Proceedings — Lit. & Phil, Soc. — Vol. XIV. — No. 12. —Session 1874-75.

132

Sir William Fairbairn, Bart., F.K.S., LL.D., who died on
the 18th of August last, was born at Coldstream, near
Kelso, on the 19th of February, 1789. At the age of 16^
his father being then engaged in managing the Perc}^ Main
Colliery Company’s farm, in the neighbourhood of New-
castle-on-Tyne, he was articled as an engineer for five
years to the owners of the Percy Main. Thus began a
career which, while protracted to an unusual length, lias
certainly been as remarkable for success and usefulness as
any which this remarkable age has furnished. As several
very complete biographical notices of Sir William Fairbairn
have already appeared, particularly those written by Mr.
Smiles and Sir Thomas Fairbairn, it is unnecessary here to
enter into the incidents of his life.

After travelling as a journeyman mechanic for nearly
four years, during which time he worked in London, in
the south of England, and in Dublin, he settled in Man-
chester as a working millwright in 1814. In 1817 he and
James Lillie commenced business on their own account, and
having obtained employment first of all from Mr. Adam
Murray, soon distinguished themselves by the attention and
ability with which they conducted their business.

At this time Fairbairn was instrumental in effecting a
revolution in mill machinery — in the means of communi-
cating power. Hitherto engineers Avere accustomed to aim
at slow motion, and this necessitated the use of very heavy
shafts and large drums, which were for the most part made
of wood or cast iron. Fairbairn, with true instinct, saw
that by increasing the speed of the shafts he might reduce
their size and employ wrought iron instead of cast iron or
wood. He was enabled to carry out his improvements in a
new mill belonging to Mr. John Kennedy, and their success
completely established the reputation of Fairbairn as an
engineer. He continued to introduce improvements in mill

183

macliineiy, particularly in the construction and working of
waterwheels; and so early as 1830 diis opinion seems to
have been sought far and wide.

In 1829 he undertook some experiments on the traction
of boats on the Ardrossan Canal, which led to his constructing
in Manchester an iron vessel, which appears to have been the
third sea going vessel ever constructed of iron. The success
of this vessel induced him to commence iron ship building,
and in 1835 he opened a yard at Millwall, which was one of
the first iron shipbuilding yards in the world, and from which
has been turned out the largest ship yet produced, viz., the
Great Eastern, constructed by Mr. Scott Russell, who sub-
sequently purchased the yard from Mr. Fairbairn.

Although Sir William Fairbairn early took an interest in
many scientific enquiries and has published many papers
his by far most important work has been the extension of
the use of iron as a material for construction. He early
looked upon it from a scientific point of view, and com-
menced making systematic experiments. In 1837 he j^re-
sented the British Association with a report “ On the strength
and properties of cast iron from the hot and cold blasts
and he subsequently co-operated with Mr. Eaton Hodg-
kinson in a series of experiments on the strength of iron,
which were made at Fairbairn’s works. These experiments
were on a scale such as had never before been attempted.
They were conducted with extraordinary practical skill, and
owing to the high scientific attainments of Mr. Hodgkinson,
were so thorough and complete that in many respects they
have left little to be desired, and are still the principal data
which engineers rely upon.

Perhaps the work for which Sir William Fairbairn is
best known, and which sprang directly out of his experience
in shipbuilding and in the use of iron, was the assistance
which, in connection with Mr. Hodgkinson, he rendered to

134

Robert Stephenson in the designing and construction of
the Britannia tube.

Although it has been the subject of an unfortunate dispute
to whom the merit of this great work belongs; yet owing
j)artly to the researches of Mr. Smiles, the country knows
enough to insist on assigning to all three a full share of
merit; for it is clear that each of them performed his work
in a perfect manner. Sir William Fairbairn claimed to
hawe originated the idea of a cellular structure for the tube,
and he from the first advocated the plan of a simple tube
without chains, which plan was eventually adopted with
such success.^

Judged, however, by the light of subsequent experience,
this plan, although it has in every respect fulfilled the
most sanguine hopes, is not better than certain others ; and
it appears that recently but few tubular bridges have been
constructed, while of the plans which have been adopted in
place of it, some much more nearly approach to Stephenson’s
original idea of a tube supported by chains or a stiffened
suspension bridge. Thus the fact that Sir William Fair-
bairn succeeded in persuading Stephenson to adopt his plan,
must be looked upon as an instance of the extraordinary
force of character and readiness of mind to which as well
as to his ability Sir William Fairbairn owed his success.

Although not now much used for bridges, the cellular
method is largely used in ship building. The Great Eastern
is built on this plan, as are almost all our ships of war.

In 1862 Sir William Fairbairn conducted, in conjunction
with Mr. T. Tate, a series of experiments on the density of
saturated steam, which form a very valuable addition to our
knowledge of that subject.

Sir William Fairbairn was elected a member of this Society
in 1824, and was president from 1855 until I860. In I860

* Smiles’ Lives of tlie Engineers,’* Vol. III., note on p. 474.

he received a royal medal of the Eoyal Society for his
scientific services ; and at the meeting held in Manchester
in 1861 he acted as president of the British Association.
He was the recipient of numberless honours both English
and foreign ; and in 1869 her Majesty created him baronet
in acknov/ledgment of his scientific services.

Besides the numerous papers which he contributed to tlie
memoirs of this and other societies he published several
larger works well known to engineers. Until the very last
he took an active interest in scientific questions and in pro=
moting scientific education. He was one of the founders of
the chair of Engineering at Owens College.

The author of this notice who had the privilege of know-
ing Sir William Fairbairn during the later years of his life,
desires to bear witness to the constant gentleness, geniality,
and kindliness of this distinguished man, who was at all
times ready to interest himself in whatever interested those
about him,

Mr. Robert Hyde Greg, who died on the 21st of February
last, at Norcliffe Hall, was born in September, 1795, in
King-street, Manchester. He completed his education in
Edinburgh, where he made the acquaintance of Sir Walter
Scott. On leaving college he travelled in Spain, Italy, and
the East, and subsequently published some critical notes on
his travels. He appears to have been at Madrid dining
with Sir Henry Wellesley when the news came of the Duke
of Wellingtons victory at Waterloo. In early life Mr. Greg
took a leading part in politics, and was elected for Man-
chester in 1839. He was one of the founders of the
Manchester Mechanics’ Institution, and was a member of
the Geological Society.

He was elected a member of this Society in 1817, and he
contributed several papers on literary subjects, amongst

136

which is an important paper “ On the Site of Troy and the
Trojan Plain,” published in the Memoirs for 1824, and
another '' On the Bound Towers of Ireland,” published in
the same volume.

On account of his advanced years, Mr. Greg had for some
time retired from public life, and had devoted himself to
agricultural pursuits, and the cultivation of his estates at
Norcliffe, and at Coles Park, Herts.

Mr. Greg was a zealous horticulturist, and his grounds at
Norcliffe have long been celebrated for their extensive
collection of trees and shrubs, many of which are of great
interest. His especial favourites were the coniferse and
rhododendrons, and amongst the former are individual
specimens which are unequalled in this neighbourhood for
their age and dimensions, some of them having been planted
nearly 40 years ago.

Acting upon the authority given by a resolution of the
Society, passed at the last annual meeting, the Council have
granted permission to the Scientific Students’ Association to
hold their meetings and place their library in the Society’s
buildings on condition of their paying £1 a meeting to the
Treasurer of the Society, and £5 a session for the services
of the attendant, Mr. Roscoe.

At a Council Meeting, held December 15th, 1874, Mr. R.
D. Darbishire brought forward a request from the “ AssO“
elation for the promotion of the Education of Women,” that
the Society would allow them the use of the meeting room
on the condition of their paying for it, when it was resolved
“ That the ‘ Association for the promotion of the Education
of Women’ be allowed the use of the meeting room of the
Society on condition of their pa^dng £1 a meeting, witli
suitable remuneration to the attendant.”

187

The following papers and communications have been read
at the ordinary and sectional meetings of the Society during
the present session : —

October Qtli, 1874.~^‘On the Ossiferous Deposit at Windy Knoll,
near Castleton,” by Eooke Pennington, Esq., LL.B.

‘‘ On some teeth from a fissure in Waterhouses'*Quarry, in Stafiord-
shire,” by Eooke Pennington, Esq., LL.B.

“ On the Animals found in the Windy Knoll Fissure,” by
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.E.S.

“On the Extent and Action of the Heating Surface for Steam
Boilers,” by Professor Osborne Eeynolds, M.A.

October 1874. — “On Two Eemarkable Pieces of Iron

Furnace Cinder, containing Crystals of Fayalite,” by William H.
Johnson, B.Sc.

“On a Specimen of Stigmaria, having the Medulla perfectly
preserved,” by E. W. Binney, F.E.S., F.G.S., V.P.

“ On the Conditions under which Palseolithic Implements are
, found in Eiver-Strata and in Caves in association with the extinct
Mammalia,” by Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.E.S.

“ On a Colorimetric Method of Determining Iron in Waters,” by
Mr. Thomas Carnelley, B.Sc., communicated by Professor H. E.
Eoscoe, F.E.S.

November orcl, 1874. — “On the Corrosion of Leaden Hot-Water
Cisterns,” by Professor H. E. Eoscoe, F.E.S., &c.

“ On an Improvement of the Bunsen Burner for Spectrum
Analysis,” by Mr. F. Kingdon, Assistant in the Physical Labora-
tory, Owens College.

“ Some Notes on Pasigraphy,” by Henry H. Howorth, Esq., F.S.A

“ On the Existence of a Lunar Atmosphere,” by David Win-
stanley. Esq.

November Yitli^ 1874. — “Some Eemarks on Dalton’s First Table
of Atomic Weights,” by Professor H. E. Eoscoe, F.E.S.

“ Action of Light on certain Vanadium Compounds,” by Mr.
James Gibbons. Communicated by Professor H. E. Eoscoe, F.E.S.

“ On Basic Calcium Chloride,” by Harry Grimshaw, F.C.S.

188

On the Structure of Stigmaria,” by Professor W. C. William-
son, F.R.S.

December 1874. — “Some Doubts in regard to the Law of

Diffusion of Gases, by Henry H. Howorth, Esq.

December Itk, 1874. —“On (Ecophara Woodiella,” by Joseph
Sidebotham, F.R.A.^.

December 1874. — -“Some Particulars respecting the Negro

of the Neighbourhood of the Congo, West Africa,” by AVatson
Smith, F.C.S.

“Analysis of One of the Trefriw Mineral Waters,” by Thomas
Carnelley, B.Sc. Communicated by Professor H. E. Roscoe,
F.R.S., Ac.

December 1874. — “On a Case of Reversed Chemical

Action,” by James Bottomley, B.Sc.

Jaimary 12th, 1875. — “On the Sewerage of Towns and the
Pollution of Rivers and Streams,” by E. W. Binney, F.R.S., V.P.

“ On the Action of Rain to Calm the Sea,” by Professor Osborne
Reynolds, M.A.

“On the Stone Mining Tools from Alderley Edge,” by Professor
W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

“Archaic Iron Mining Tools from Lead Mines near Castleton,”
by Rooke Pennington, LL.B.

January IWi, 1875. — “On the Botany of AYilmington, North
Carolina,” by James Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S.

January 2Qth, 1875. — “A Descent into Elden Hole, Derby-
shire,” by Rooke Pennington, LL.B.

“Certain Lines observed in Snow Crystals,” by Arthur Win,
AVaters, F.C.S.

February 2nd, 1875. — “Results of Meteorological Observations
taken at Langdale, Dimbula, Ceylon, in the year 1873,” by
Edward Heelis, Esq. Communicated by Joseph Baxendell,
F.R.A.S.

February ^th, 1875.— “A Method of Finding the Axes of an
Ellipse when two Conjugate Diameters are given,” by J. B. Millar,
B.E. Communicated by Professor 0. Reynolds, M.A.

189

“Note on tlie late Mr. James Wolfenden, of Holliiiwood,” by

E. W. Biniiey, F.R.S., V.P.

February 1875. — “On Carex ornitliopoda/’ by Charles

Bailey, Esq.

“Notes on the Botany and Natural History of Tenby and the
neighbourhood,” by Joseph Sidebotham, F.R.A.S.

February 2?>rd, 1875.—“ On some specimens of a strong arena-
ceous shale containing numbers of macrospores of Lepidodendron,”
by E. W. Binney, F.R.S., V.P.

March 2nd, 1875. — “ On the Rainfall at Old Trafford, Manchester,
during the Year 1874,” by G. V. Vernon, F.R.A.S., F.M.S.

“Results of Rain-Gauge Observations made at Eccles, near
Manchester, during the Year 1874,” by Thomas Mackereth,

F. R.A.S., F.M.S.

March ^th, 1 875.-—“' On Mr. Millar’s Method of Finding the Axes
of an Ellipse when two Conjugate Diameters a.re given,” by Robert
Rawson, Esq., Honorary Member of the Society.

“On a Specimen of Carbon resembling Graphite formed upon
the roof of a Gas Retort,” by Arthur McDougall, B.Sc.

“ On the Presence of Sulphate of Copper in Water heated in
Tinned Copper Boilers,” by William Thomson, F.C.S.

“ On a Collection of Stone and Bronze Articles from the Pile
Dwellings in the Lake of Bienne,” by Professor W. Boyd Dawkins,
F.R.S.

March 22>rd, 1875.— “On Discoveries in a Cave at Thayingen,
near Schaffhausen,” by Arthur Wm. Waters, F.G.S.

March ZOth, 1875. — “Photography as applied to Eclipse Obser-
vations,” by Alfred Brothers, F.R.A.S.

Ainil ^th, 1875. — “A Study of Peat, Part I.,” by R. Angus
Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.

Several of the above papers have already been printed
for the forthcoming volume of the Society’s Memoirs, and
others have been passed for printing. It is expected that
the printing of the new volume will be completed before
the commencement of the ensuinp’ session.

O

140

The Council consider it desirable to continue the system
of electing Sectional Associates, and a resolution on the
subject will be submitted at the annual meeting for the
approval of the members.

The Librarian reports that he has forwarded to the
various societies with which we correspond Yols. 8, 9, 10,
11, 12 of our Proceedings and Yol. 4 of Memoirs. The
Library has been re-arranged ; a large number of volumes
have been bound ; additional shelves have been added ; the
catalogue has been completed, and will shortly be ready for
the printer. The number of societies with which we cor-
respond continues nearly the same as last year.

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142

On the motion of Dr. Roscoe, seconded by Mr. Cunning-
ham, the Report was nnanimously adopted.

On the motion of Dr. Roscoe, seconded by Mr. Binney,
it was resolved unanimously : —

“ That the system of electing Sectional Associates be con-
tinued during the ensuing Session.”

The following gentlemen were elected officers of the
Society and Members of the Council for the ensuing year

^wsibcut.

EDWAED SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.E.S., F.C.S,

JAMES PEESCOTT JOULE, D.C.L., LL.D., F.E.S., F.C.S,
EDY/AED WILLIAM BINNEY, F.E.S., F.G.S.

EOBEET ANGUS SMITH, Ph.D., F.E.S., F.C.S.

Eev. william GASKELL, M.A.

JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.E.A.S.

OSBOENE EEYNOLDS, M.A.

SAMUEL BEOUGHTON.

FEANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.

@f thz Coundl.

CHAELES BAILED?.

EOBEET DUKINFIELB DAEBISHIEE, B.A„ F.G.S.
WILLIAM BOYD DAWKINS, M.A., F.E.S., F.G.S.

HENEY ENFIELD EOSCOE, B.A., Ph.D., F.E.S., F.C.S.
ALFEED BEOTHEES, F.E.A.S.

BALFOUE STEWAET, LL.D., F.E.S.

The reading of the paper entitled “A Study of Peat,”
1st Part, by R. Angus Smith, Ph.D,, F.R.S., V.P., was con-
cluded.

143

PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION,

Annual Meeting, March 30th, 1875.

Alfred Brothers, F.KA.S., President of the Section,
in the Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected officers of the
Section for the ensuing year : ■ —

IPrcsitfcnt.

E. W. BINNEY, F.E.S., F.a.S,

ALFRED BROTHERS, F.R.A.S.

JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S.

©rcasurcr.

SAMUEL BROUaHTON.

Sccmaig.

a V, VERNON, F.R.A.S,, F.M.S.

“Photography as applied to Eclipse Observations,” by
Alfred Brothers, F.KA.S.

Since 1860, when photogTaphy was first applied to eclipse
observations, almost every eclipse of the sun has been
photographically recorded — from 1860 to 1868 for the pur-
pose chiefly of determining the nature of the red promi-
nences; and in 1870 and 1871 to ascertain whether the
corona is an appendage of the sun or an effect produced in
our own atmosphere. Previous to 1870 the ordinary tele-
scope, uncorrected for the chemical rays, had been almost
exclusively used. But in 1870 it was determined to adopt a
properly corrected photographic lens, and by a graduated series
of exposures to obtain if possible the whole pictorial effect.
This method was successful, and has been adopted in all
eclipse work since. That more suitable apparatus has not
been employed may be due to the fact that the funds pro-
Proceedings—Lit. & Phil. Soo.— Vol. XIV.—No. 13.— Session 1874-75,

14i

vided by the Government, the Royal and Royal Astronomi-
cal Societies, for the observation of the various eclipses have
either all been spent at the time, or the balances have been
returned. As good work has been done with the apparatus
referred to, it may be asked why anything different should
be used. It was by mere accident that a lens of a certain
kind was used in 1870, no other suitable was to be had, and
the image obtained with it is small. Photogiuphy was not
employed during the eclipse of 1874, almost the only obser-
ver on that occasion being the Astronomer Royal at the Cape
of Good Hope, Mr. Stone, who observed with the spectro-
scope under the most favourable conditions, and it is much
to be regretted that no photographs were obtained. On the
occasion of the recent eclipse no preparations were made
until the invitation from the King of Siam was received, and
then, as on almost ever^r occasion since 1868, all arrangements
have been hurriedly made. No apparatus for obtaining a
picture of the corona different from what has been previously
used was employed, and consequently no superior result
may be anticipated. The lenses used in 1870 and since for
photographing the corona give an image of the sun of about
-/oths of an inch in diameter, and although suitable for small
pictures, such lenses cannot be said to be the best for the
purpose. I would suggest therefore that at least three
achromatic lenses of 5 or 6 feet focal length, corrected for
the actinic rays, should be constmcted, with all suitable
apparatus, so as to be ready for use when required. The
light of the corona is sufficiently actinic to produce good
pictures when an instrument of long focus is used— it is
only a question of time in the exposure and accuracy in the
adjustment of the driving clock apparatus attached to the
equatorial mounting. There cannot I think be any doubt
that under favourable atmospheric conditions some features
of interest would be revealed during every eclipse, and it is
undesirable to allow any eclipse of the sun to occur without

145

some attempt being made to record such phenomena perma-
nently by means of photography. It seems to me also
equally certain that pictures of greater dimensions such
as the instrument suggested would give would be propor-
tionally more valuable than any hitherto obtained.

The photographic process used has always been the wet
coUodion. It might be advantageous to use daguerreotype
plates, but I see no reason why both methods should not be
employed.

MICEOSCOPICAL AND NATUEAL HISTOEY SECTION,
April 12 th, 1875.

Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S., in the Chair.

Mr. Aethue W. Waters, F.G.S., presented the section
(for the cabinet) with the following slides

Diatomaceous earth from Billin, in Bohemia, full of Gallionella
distans, Ehr.

Diatomaceous earth from Berlin.

Spicules of Alcyonium digitatum, from Brighton.

Dr. Alcock read a paper on the occurrence of Hyperia
Galba, and Lestrigonus Kinahani, crustaceans parasitic upon
Medusae, at Southport, on a sand bank called the “ Seldom
seen” Bank,

A paper was read on the Mollusca, &c., inhabiting Cym-
meran Bay, Anglesey, by Mr, John Plant, F.G.S., &c.

Cymmeran Bay is a deep indent on the western coast of
Anglesey. At the head of the bay is the strait which

140

separates tlie small island of Holyhead. The bay at the
widest part is five miles wide, from the small islet of
Meibion, south, to the Rhoscolyn beacon islet, north. The
head of the bay is an immense sand, over which a small
stream finds its way to the sea, The north and south
shores are rocky crags, and long islets of jagged and rough
rocks occur at intervals in the bay, making it a source of
danger to any vessels that drift from the channel, or in a
fog lose their course and sail with the »strong western winds
right into the bay.

In places where the high cliffs have been worn away the
shore is shallow and has miles of firm sand, whilst these
sands are fringed with sand dunes, which inland stretch
away in barren and wild commons with small bosses of
rocks. The district is rarely visited by strangers, and alto-
gether is a wild, stormy, and mainly uncultivated district.
The rocks are grand for geological study ; they are black
slates, shales, serpentines, quartzites, gi'anites, and conglo-
merates of Cambrian age. The last rocks are mines of the
most valuable knowledge for the study of primitive rocks of
pre-Cambrian age.

The sandy shores are extensive at the head of the bay ;
with continuous winds from the west and south the breakers
are fearfully heavy, and the sea so rough that no boat from
the shore can be launched by the fishermen for many weeks
together; calms are rare and uncertain, so that fishing is
precarious ; at low tides a fine expanse of shore is, exposed,
as dry and as level as a bowling green, with the bosses of
black and bright green rocks striking out ot the level.

The conchologist would be greatly disappointed if he paid
but a brief visit to the shores. He might walk all day and
conclude that the sand was extensive but as barren of shells
as a snowdrift. But with leisure and perseverance parts of
the shore are found to be ‘teeming with some species, and in
the rocky pools and quiet caverns and corners many rare

147

specimens are to be found. At present my list of species of
shells embraces eight}^, but the list will be extended this
year, when closer attention is paid to the specimens brought
up by the dredgers.

The list of fishes comprises all that I have identified ; no
doubt there are many others caught in the bay.

SOME OF THE FISHES CAUGHT IN CYMMERAN BAY.

1. Spinax acanthias, spined Dog fish, caught during the herring

season and at times amongst the rocks.

2. Baia clavata, Thornback Ray, not uncommon, is caught to cut

up for baiting the Lobster pots.

3. Aculeatus marinas, Fifteen-spined Stickleback, in the rocky

pools.

4. Latrax Lupus, Bass, caught in great numbers during summer,

about the rocks ; they are good eating.

5. Spams aurata, common Sea Bream.

6. Trigla lyra. Piper Gurnard, occasionally caught out in the bay.

7. Scomber vulgaris, Mackerel, the fishing trawlers meet with

shoals out in the channel, opposite the bay.

8. Gobius niger, Rock Goby, rare.

9. Labrus tinea, Ballan Wrass, found about the rocks in the bay.

10. Morrhua vulgaris, the Cod, the commonest fish in the bay.

11. Alerlangus pollachias, Pollack Whiting, common during the

summer.

12. M erlangus carbonarius, Coalfisb, common along all the coast.

1 3. Ammodytes tobianus, Sand Launce, rather scarce.

14. Plaitessa vulgaris, the Plaice, uncommon in the bay.

15. Platessa limanda, the Dab, abundant in summer.

16. Solea vulgaris, the Sole, rare.

17. Clupea Harengus, the Herring, found passing the bay out in

the channel.

18. Salnio salar, the Salmon. The salmon is caught in numbers

in calm warm weather in summer, in the bay ; it also runs
up the river Crigyll to spawn, and is found in Lake
Maelog.

19. Alurmna conger. Conger Eel, caught with bait in the bay.

148

20. Syguathus, Pipe fish, sometimes cast on shore.

21. Petromyzon marinus, Sea Lamprey, caught in the pools.
Hydrozoa. Pulmonigrada. Rhizostoma Cuvieri, large mushroom-
shaped jelly fish, 14 inches diameter.

Physalia pelagica, Portuguese Man-of-war.

Sea Anemone, common smooth species, Actinia mesembryanthe-
mum.”

SHELLS. CLASS L— ACEPHALA,

FaM. IV. — CORBULIDiE.

1. Corbula nucleus (2 specimens), rare.

FaM. VII.— -SOLENIDiE.

2. Solen siliqua, rare.

Fam. IX. — Tellinid^e.

3. Psammobia Ferroensis, very rare.

4. Tellina crassa, common.

5. „ solidula, common.

6. fabula, rare.

7. „ tenuis, rare.

8. Syndosmia alba, rare.

9. Scrobicularia piperata, not numerous.

Fam. X. — Donacid^.

10. Donax anatinus, very common.

Fam. XI.— MACTRiDiE.

11. Mactra solida, common.

12. „ stultorum, semi-common.

13. „ subtruncata, rare.

Fam. XII. — VsNERiDiE,

14. Tapes decussata, common.

15. ,, palustra, uncommon.

16. Cytherea Chione, J valve.

17. Venus striatula, very common.

18. „ fasciata, uncommon.

19. Artemis exoleta, semi-common.

Fam. XIIL— Cyprinid^.

20. Cyprina Islandica/ rare.

149

FaM. XIV. — CARDIApiE.

21. Cardium rusticum, common.

22. „ edule, common.

2.3. „ Norvegicum, rare.

Fam. XV. - Lucinid^e.

24. Lucina flexuosa, ^ specimen, very rare.

25. „ Leuconia, semi-rare.

Fam. XIX. — MvTiLiDiE.

26. Mytilus edulis, semi-common.

27. „ barbata, rare.

28. „ tulipa, rare.

Fam. XX.“~ ARCADiE.

29. Nucula nucleus, rare.

Fam. XXII.— OsTREADiE.

30. Pecten varius, common.

31. „ maximus, uncommon.

32. „ Danicus (1 specimen), very rare.

33. Anomia ephippium, semi-common.

34. Ostreas edulis, common.

Beds of oysters upon rocky and shingly bottoms are found
to extend about eight miles, running from Cymmeran Bay
to beyond Ehoscolyn to the north ; great numbers are sent
to the Manchester market.

CLASS IV.— PROSOBRANCHIATA.

Fam. XXVII. — Chitonid^.

35. Chiton cinereus, rare.

Fam. XXVIII.— Patellid^e.

36. Patella vulgata (and others), common.

37. „ pellucida.

38. Acmea virginea, rare.

39. „ testudinalis, common.

Fam. XXIX. — Dentaliadas.

40. Dentalium dentalis (Holyhead), rare.

Fam. XXX. — Calyptra:idaj.

41. Pileopsis Hungaricus, rare.

150

FaM. XXXL— FiSSURELLIDiE.

42. Fissurella reticulata, rare.

43. Emarginula reticulata.

FaM. XXXIII. — TROCHIDiE.

44. Trochus ziziphinus, very rare.

45. „ striatus.

46. „ cinerarius.

47. ,, umbilicatus.

48. 5, magus, rare.

49. Phasianella pullus, common.

Fam. XXXVII.—Lillorinid^.

50. Littorina littorea, common.

51.

rudis, „

52.

JJ

littoralis, ,,

53.

Eissoa crenulata, 1 specimen,

54.

j?

costata, few.

55.

striata „

56.

parva, numerous.

57.

V

labiosa, few.

58.

J)

cingillus, few.

59.

5J

ulvae, 1 specimen

Fam. XXXVIIL— Turritellid^.

60. Turritella communis, rare.

Fam. XXXIX.

61. Aporrhais pes-pelicani, Holyhead, I specimen.

62. Cerithium reticulatum, rare.

Fam. XLI.— Pyramidellidj:.

63. Chemnitzia elegantissima, rare.

„ fenestrata, rare.

64. Odostomia plicata, rare.

Fam. XLII.

65. Xatica monilifera, very rare.

Fam. XLY.---Muricid^.

66. Murex erinaceus, not very common.

67. Purpura lapillus, common.

68. Nassa reticulata, not very common.

69. Buccinum undatum, not common.

151

70. Fusus Islandicus (broken), rare.

71. Trophon clathratus, rare.

Fam. XLVI. — CoNiD^,

72. Mangelia tnrricula, very rare.

73.

rufa, rare.

74.

nebula, rare.

75.

55

costata, rare.

76.

55

septangularis, rare.

Fam. XL VI I. — Cypr.ead/e.

77. Cypraea Europsea, common.

Fam. XLVITI.

78. Cylichna cylindracea (Holyhead 1), rare,

79. „ obtusa, rare.

Sponges— Yerj few, common species.

Fomminefera — Polyrnorpliina, Bilocnlina Lagena, Den-
talina.

Zoophytes — few ordinary species.

Medusce — seen in the luminous waves in the autumn-
jelly fish and Portuguese man-of-war.

Hydrozoa — The most interesting of these beautiful crea-
tures found in the bay are the crimson winged jelly fish,
aurelia aurita” chiefly in the summer season, and the
large species, Rhizostoma Cuvieri, in the spring. Many of
the specimens I examined this Easter had a diameter of 14
inches, and weigh about lOlbs. They present a most exqui-
site appearance when alive, and are fine examples for dissec-
tion and study.

The Medusae are in myriads in late summer, and give the
bay a luminous and flashing star-like aspect on warm nights.
The rarest and most striking of the Hydrozoa is Fhysalia
pelagica, one of the Portuguese men-of-war. After a
south-western gale, it is frequently met with by the oyster
dredgers floating into the bay, and some of them are ulti-
mately driven on shore amongst the rocks. I have found

152

large specimens, the bladder being 8 inches long, and the
inferior appendages 24 inches. I know of no creature of
the sea which is so exquisitely tinted with changing pris-
matic colours as this floating glassy bubble presents, and in
my enthusiasm to examine into its structure, I had to suffer
from the acute stinging secretions which in handling a Phy-
salia is abundantly given out by the soft thread-like append-
ages; my hands and arms became inflamed, and it was several
hours before the pain was allayed, leaving itching for days
after.

I was not able to preserve any specimens in a recognisable
form ; they dry up to a mere skin and gelatinous film.

StarJiahes—scsiYce, common Crossfish (uraster rubens),
parts of Echinus, common.

Anelida — serpula (phyllodoce luminosa, lob- worm).

Crustacea — Lobster, abundant, edible Crab, common, very
few others ; Shrimp scarce.

Cirripedia — Acorn barnacle (Balani), fringing all the
rocks to the line of high tide, and Lepas anatifera, occa-
sionally.

The Anemones are abundant on the rocks and small pools,
but the species are all common, such as mesembryaniherrium.

153

Annual Meeting, May 3rd, 1875.

H. A. Hurst, Esq., in the Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected Officers of the
Section for the Session 1875-76

W. BOYD DAWKINS, F.E.S., &c.

R. D. DARBISHIRE, B.A., &c.

CHARLES BAILEY.

THOMAS ALCOCK, M.D.

©wasum.

HENRY ALEXANDER HURST.

Scmtarjj.

J. COSMO MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S,

Cotmtil.

JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S., &c.
SPENCER H. BICKHAM, Jun.

JOHN BARROW.

JOSEPH SIDEBOTHAM, F.R.A.S.

A. W. WATERS, F.O.S.

ALFRED BROTHERS, F.R.A.S.
THOMAS COWARD.

154

The following is the list of Members and Associates

Hlemkrs.

Alcock, Thomas, M,D.

Bailey, Charles.

Barrow, John.

Baxendell, Joseph, F.E.A.S.
Bickham, Spencer H,, Jun.
Binney, E. W., F.E.S., F.a.S.
Brockbank, W., F.G.S.
Brogden, Henry.

Brothers, Alfred, F.E.A.S.
CoTTAM, Samuel.

Coward, Edward.

Coward, Thomas.

Dale, John, F.C.S.

Dancer, John Benj., F.E.A.S.
Darbishire, E. D., B.A.
Dawkins, W. Boyd, F.E.S.
Deane, W. K.

Gladstone, Murray, F.E.A.S.
Heys, William Henry.
Higgin, James, F.C.S.

Hurst, Henry Alexander.

I Latham, Arthur George.

I Maclure, J. W., F.E.G.S.

■ Melvill, J. Cosmo, M.A., F.L.S.

Morgan, J. E., M.D.

. Morris, Walter.

I Nevill, Thomas Henry.
j Piers, Sir Eustace.

! Eideout, W. j.

Eoberts, William, M.D.

SiDEBOTHAM, JOSEPH, F.E.A.S.

Smart, Eobert Bath, M.E.C.S.
I Smith, Eobert Angus, Ph.D.,
F.E.S., F.C.S.

Vernon, George Venables,

I F.E.A.S.

Williamson, Wm. Crawford,
F.E.S. , Prof. Nat. Hist., Owens
College.

Wright, William Cort.
Waters, A. W., F.G.S.

Hardy, John.
Hunt, John.
Labrey, B. B.
Linton, James.
Meyer, Adolph.
Peace, Thos. S.
Percival, James.

Plant, John, F.G.S.

Eogers, Thomas.

Euspini, F. Orde.

Stirrup, Mark.

Tatham, John F. W.

Warren, Hon. J. B. Leicester.
Waterhouse, J. Crewdson.

The Microscopical and Natural History Section of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society

IN Account with the Treasurer, H. A. Hurst. Cr*

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(Signed) Akthur Wm. Waters, \ ®y Balance at Manchester and Salford

Thos. Coward, j ' Bank, St. Ann’s-street £104 19

. A. Hurst,

CL

PEOCEEDINGS

OF THE

LITEEAEY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

OF

MANCHESTEE.

VOL. XV.

Session 1875-76,

MANCHESTEE:

FEINTED BY THOS. SOWLER AND CO., RED LION STREET, ST. ANn’s SQUARE.
LONDON , BALLIERE, 219, REGENT STREET.

187G.

NOTE.

The object wliich. the Society have in view in publishing their
Proceedings is to give an immediate and succinct account of the
scientific and other business transacted at their meetings to the
members and the general public. The various communications
are supplied by the a,uthors themselves^ who are alone responsible
for the facts and reasonings contained therein.

INDEX.

Aldis Professor T. S., M.A “On Glacial Action in the Valley of the
Wear, &c., p. 86.

Axon William, E. A., M.E.S.L., &c. — hlotice of a Eecent Discovery of
a Pre-historic Burial-place near Colombier in Switzerland, p. 69.
Note on a Church Bell at North Wooton, Somersetshire, dated
A.D. 1265, in Arabic Numerals, and on a M,S. dated A.D. 1276, in
which they are freely used, p. 173.

Bailey Charles. — On the Hybrid British Heath, Erica Watsoni, p. 13.

Baxendell Joseph, P.E.A.S. — On a Source of Atmospheric Ozone,
p. 113. On the Connexion between the Humidity of the Air and
the Amount of Ozone, 177.

Binnet E. W., F.E.S., F.G.S., V.P. — On the Eed Marls under Man-
chester, p. 2. On some Bronze Coins found sixty years ago under
a Peat Bog at Misterton Car, in Notts., p. 5. On Explosions of
Fire Damp, p. 56. On the Migration of Swallows, p. 62. On
Boulder Stones in the Manchester Drift, p, 71.

Bottomley J., D.Sc. — Note on a Method of Comparing the Tints of
Coloured Solutions, p. 63.

Brockbank W., F.G.S. — On the Granites of Eavenglass and Criffel,
p. 70.

Burghardt Charles A., Ph.D.“On the Formation of Azurite from
Malachite, p. 72.

Carnelley Thomas, B.Sc., F.C.S.— On a Colorimetric Method for
determining small quantities of Copper, p. 24.

Cockle Sir James, F.E.S, — Notes bearing on Mathematical History,

p. 6.

Dale E. S., B.A. — On Crystals of Sulphate of Lead found in Alu-m
Eesidue, p. 89.

VI

Dancer J. B., F.E.A.S.— An Account of some early Experiments with
Ozone, and Eemarks upon its Electrical Origin, p. 121.

Daebishire E. D., F.G.S. — On a Series of Specimens of very young
Ehomhus Vulgaris (Cuv.), p. 134. Notes made during a Visit in
the past Summer to the Swedish Shell-beds of Uddevalla and the
neighbouring districts, p. 135.

Dawkins Professor W. Boyd, F.E.S. — On the Depreciation in the
Value of Silver, p. 141. Note on Mr. Plant’s Fossil Sacrum from
Windy Knoll, p. 149, On the Eucalyptus, p. 161. On a series of
Specimens obtained in September, 1875, from the inner side of
the barrier reef at Honolulu, j). 179,

Dodgson WiLLiAM.—On a Graphical Method of Drawing Spectra,
p. 103.

Joule J. P,, LL.D., F.E.S., V.P.— -Glue Battery, p. 1. On the IJtilza-
tion of the Common Kite. p. 61.

Mackeeeth Thomas, F.E.A.S., F.M.S, — Eesults of Eain Gauge Obser-
vations made at Eccles, near Manchester, during the year 1875,

p.. 128.

Muir M. M. Pattison, F.E.S. E. — Note on the Temperature of the
Body during Physical Exertion, p. 10. On the Estimation of very
small quantities of Lead and Copper, p. 31. On certain circum-
stances which affect the Purity of Water supplied for Domestic
Purposes, p. 35. Chemical Notes, p. 57.

Percival James. — On a New British Moss—Hypnum nitidulum (Wahl),

p. 101.

Plant John, F.G.S. —The Fauna of Cymmeran Bay, Anglesea, part 2,
p. 48. On the Gradual Decrease of Wild Birds during the last
twenty-five Years west of Manchester, p. 102. Evidence to prove
that a Bone from the Windy Knoll, Castleton, named by Professor
W. Boyd Dawkins, F.E.S., '^Sacrum of Young Bison,” is a Sacral
Bone of the Cave Bear, ITrsus Speloeus, p, 107. List of Shells
found in Cymmeran Bay, Anglesea; Corrections and Additions,
p. 138, A Beetle of Good Omen from Yucatan, p. 180.

Eawson Eobert. — On Explosions of Fire Damp, p. 64.

Eeynolds Professor Osborne, M.A. — On the Principle of the Electro-
Magnet constructed by Mr. John Faulkner, p. 17. On Graphic
Methods of Solving Practical Problems, p. 55.

Vll

Rogers T, On the Discovery of Jungermannia Nevensis, p. 178.

Eoscoe Professor H. E., P.E.S.— Notes on a Collection of Apparatus
emxAoyed by Dr. Dalton in his Researches^ which is about to be
exhibited (by the Council of the Literary and Philosophical Society
of Manchester) at the Loan Exhibition of Scientific Apparatus at
South Kensington, p. 77.

Sadtler Professor. “On the Natural Gas from the Gas Wells in Butler
County, Pennsylvania, p. 68.

ScHORLEMMER Professor C., E.R.S.“On some Reactions of Bromine and
Iodine, p. 4. On a Sample of Peat from lagoons in the Sierra
Madre in Mexico, p. 55.

ScHUNCK Edward, Ph. D., F,R.S., President.“On some Isomerides of
Alizarine, x>. 142,

Schuster Arthur, Ph.D.“On a Direct-Vision Spectroscope, p. 73. On
a New Absorptiometer, p, 74.

SiDEBOTHAM J., E.R.A.S. — On the Life History of Lymexylon Navale,
p. 76, On Psammodius Sulcicollis, p, 76. On the Discovery of
.Egialia rufa, p, 178.

Smith R. Angus, Ph.D,, E.R.S., V.P.~The Eucalyptus near Rome, p. 150.

Spence Peter, P.C.S.—On a Lead Pipe which had been transformed into
Galena, p. 17.

Stewart Professor Baleour, LL,D., E.R.S.—On an Instrument for
Measuring the Direct Heat of the Sun, p. 20.

Thomson William, F.C.S.“On the Degree of Accuracy Displayed by
Druggists in the Dispensing of Physicians’ Prescriptions in diffe-
rent Towns throughout England and Scotland, p. 90.

Waters Arthur William, F.G.S.—On the Zoological Station and
Aquarium at Naples, p. 82.

Williams William Caeleton, F.C.S.—Staiinic Arsenate, p. 67.

Vlll

Meetings of the Physical and Mathematical Section. — Annual, p. 177.
Ordinary, pp. 113, 121, 177.

Meetings of the Microscopical and Natural History Section.'^Ammal, p. 181.
Ordinary, pp. 13, 47, 75, 76, 101, 134, 178.

Report of the Council,— April, 1876, p. 165.

PROCEEDINGS

OP

THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY.

Ordinary Meeting, October 5th, 1875.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the
Chair.

Mr. Thomas Mackereth, F.RA.S., F.M.S., was elected an
Ordinary Member of the Society,

“Glue Batb y,” by Dr. J. P. Joule, F.P.S., &c.

If su' ihate of zinc or sulphate of copper be dissolved in
solution of gelatine and then carefully dried, an elastic solid
is produced holding the salt in combination, which softens
on the application of heat. I have taken advantage of this
circumstance to form a voltaic couple which illustrates Fara»
day’s discovery of the necessity of liquefaction for electro-
lysis, and which also may not be without some practical
advantages.

I paint pieces of zinc with glue impregnated with salt of
zinc, and pieces of copper with glue charged with sulphate
of copper, dry, and lay them together in series. The pile
thus formed is inert when cold, but capable of giving a good
current when heated, as will be seen from the following
results obtained with a single couple in connexion with a
delicate galvanometer :

Proceedings — Lit. & Phil. Soc.— Yoi. XY.—No. 1. — Session 1875-6.

2

Temp. Fahr.

Deflection.

Temp. Fahr.

Deflection.

6U

... 0°

150°

5°

50'

o

o

... 0° 40'

160°

7°

20'

00

o

o

... 1° 10'

170°

8°

10'

90°

... 1° 40'

180°

10°

20'

110°

... 2° 50'

190°

17°

40'

130°

... 3° 0'

200°

43°

0'

140°

... 4° 40'

After the lapse

of three years

I find that the above

couple

has retained its powers almost unimpaired.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., V.P., said that many years ago, when
he first came to Manchester, the red sandstone found under the
city was known by the nameof the Upper New Red Sandstone,
the lowest division of the Trias and the equivalent of the Bun-
ter. The authorities of the Geological Survey have divided
it into Lower Soft Red Sandstone, Pebble Beds, and Upper
Soft Red Sandstone ; but the Pebble Beds are the deposits
chiefly found under Manchester. Superior to this sandstone
he had seen a deposit of red marls which he thought resem-
bled the red marls of Cheshire, and at page 87 of the 1st
vol. of the Transactions of the Manchester Geological Society
he states that “ this deposit, extending over so great a por-
tion of the neighbouring county of Chester and reaching to
a great thickness in the salt beds, is seldom to be seen in
the south east of Lancashire. The only place where I have
observed it is on the south of the town along the line of the
Oxford Road from All Saints’ Church to St. Peter’s Square.
After going through the diluvial clay a thin band of two
feet in thickness occurs. In Chepstow Street leading out
of Oxford Road this bed is between four and five feet in
thickness. In the middle of it occurs a light coloured layer
resembling fullers’ earth in appearance, which briskly effer-
vesces when treated with dilute hydrochloric acid. The
lower part of the marl becomes arenaceous and passes

3

gradually into the upper sandstone. " Both rocks dip to the
W.S.W. at an angle of 8°. The marls here found are of a
dark red colour, variegated hy streaks and patches of green
and yellow. They effervesce feebly with acids. No clearly
recognized organic remains have been found in them — a
circular concretion something resembling the cast of an
ammonite was found in Chepstow Street.” Since this no-
tice was written, about 35 years ago, nothing has appeared
respecting these marls. During the past summer he had
noticed some shafts being sunk on the site of the intended
new railway station of the Cheshire Lines in Back New-
berry and Bedford streets. In the first namiecl locality the

following section was met with : —

Till or Brick Clay 15ft.

Red and Variegated Marl 27

42

In the last named

Till 15ft.

Red Marl 41

56

The red marls in their lower portions gradually became
arenaceous and finally passed into the underlying red sand
stone. In the pebble beds strata of red marls of one to two
feet in thickness are sometimes met with, but nothing like a
deposit of 40 feet. As the line of the Great Irwell fault of
above 3,000 feet in throw runs a little to the south of the dis-
trict where the marls are met with it is probable that these are
a lower portion of the Bed Marls of Cheshire lying above the
Bunter beds of the Trias. He brought the matter before
the Society for the purpose of directing the attention of the
members to any excavations they might observe, as it was
desirable that no facts concerning the rocks under our city
should escape notice, and as so few opportunities occur
for observing this deposit of marls no opportunity for ex-
amining them should be lost.

4

Ordinary Meeting, October 19th, 1875.

Edward Schungk, Ph.D., F.RS., &c., President, in the

Chair.

“ On some Reactions of Bromine and Iodine,” by Professor
C. SCHORLEMMER, F.R.S.

Although it is well known that iodine dissolves in chlo-
roform and some other liquids, such as carbon-sulphide and
petroleum-naphtha, with a line purple and bromine with a
yellow colour, it seems not to be known that, under certain
conditions, a colourless solution may be obtained containing
both these elements in the free state.

Thus on adding dilute chlorine water drop by drop to a
weak solution of potassium iodide and bromide, containing
an excess of the latter, and shaking the liquid at the same
time with chloroform, the purple colour of the iodine makes
first its appearance, but gradually becomes fainter and at
last disappears completely. It is, however, not easy to hit
exactly the point, when the chloroform becomes quite
colourless, but this is readily effected by adding so much
chlorine water that the chloroform assumes a faint yellow
tint, and then shaking the liquid with a cold and dilute so-
lution of sodium bicarbonate, which must be carefully added
drop b}^ drop. It is easily proved that the colourless solu-
tion thus formed contains both free bromine and iodine, for
on adding more bicarbonate, in order to remove the free
bromine, the purple colour gradually appears again.

I am not able as yet to explain these facts ; it is not a
case of two complementary colours neutralising each other
as I first assumed; for on mixing dilute solutions of the two
elements in dry chloroform no colourless solution can be ob-
tained. It seems that the presence of water has something

5

to do with it, for on adding the solution of bromine to that
of chloroform until the purple is changed into a light brown,
then shaking well with water, the colour of the chlo-
roform becomes much paler and even disappears almost
completely.

E. W. Binney, V.P., F.R.S, said that at the last meeting
he had stated the circumstance of an urn containing bronze
coins having been discovered under a peat moss. He now
exhibited two small coins of bronze, about half an inch in
diameter, evidently Roman from the figures on them, and
most probably of the reign of Otho. They were found sixty
years since under a peat bog of fifteen feet in depth, in an
earthenware urn buried in the upper red marl of Misterton
Car, in Notts, which forms the southern portion of the Level
of Hatfield Chace, a large turf moss on the borders of the
counties of York, Lincoln, and Nottingham. Some hundred
coins were in the urn, and the two in his possession were
presented to him about fifty years since by his relative the
late Mrs. Joseph Hickson of East Stockwith, on whose pro-
perty they were met ^\^ith, and who furnished him with the
above particulars. In the peat under which they occurred
numbers of large oak and yew trees, with their roots
attached to them, were as thickly placed as they could have
grown on dry and strong soil. At the period when the urn
w^as deposited, the spot was a dense forest, which was prob-
ably destroyed by the drainage of the district having been
impeded by the raising of the beds of the rivers Trent,
Ouse, and Idle, and thus causing the formation of the bog.
The Dutch, under the direction of Sir Cornelius Vermuyden,
and more modern drainers, have succeeded in bringing the
land into a state fit for corn growing, but not capable of
producing such oaks and yews as are now found, with their
roots attached to them, lying in the peat,

6

Notes bearing on Mathematical History/’ by Sir James
Cockle, F.H.S., Corresponding Member of the Society.

1. To the list of Professor Boole’s writings which follows
the preface to the Supplementary Volume of his “Differen-
tial Equations” [2nd (posthumous) ed., 1865, pp. viii — xi]
may be added a paper entitled “ Mr. Boole’s theory of the
mathematical basis of logic,” published in the Mechanics
Magazine (1818, voL xlix, pp. 254-255).

2. Mr. Blissard in his “theory of generic equations” (Q
of Math. vol. iv, p. 279 ; vol. v, pp. 58 and 185, see also pp.
184 and 325) has applied “representative notation” very
extensively. Professor J. B. Young had noticed {Mech.
Mag., 1847, vol. xlvii, p. 627) that the law of Bernoulli’s
numbers is expressed by

(l+B)'^-B„-0

if we write the exponents of B below instead of above that
symbol. J udging from what purports to be an examination
paper, I see that Prof Young, examining for the Andrews
Scholarship, 1851, at University College, London, again
noticed (in question 7) the law.

3. In Notes and Queries (1854, vol. x, p. 48; see also p.
191 ; and 2nd Ser. vol. viii, p. 465, vol. ix, p. 340, vol. x, p.
162; and 4th Ser. vol. ii, p. 316) I long ago pointed out that
Barociiis, in the margin of p. 264 of his Proclus (1560) cites
the Geometricce enarrationes of Geminus, and I suggested
that there might yet be some hope of recovering that work.
In a comment (jh. 2nd Ser. vol. ix, p. 449) on something I
had said, De Morgan remarked that he took “ enarrationum”
as a printer’s mistake for “ effectionum,” if Heilbronner were
right; adding that if there be, as both Petavius and Heil-
bronner seem to state, a printed catalogue of the manu-
scripts of Barocius, it would be desirable to revive the
knowledge of it. De Morgan states that Petavius is the
authority for manuscripts of Barocius being brought to
England, and that it may be that a manuscript book of

7

Geminus, which Petavius describes as" '' nondum editus,” yet
exists in some English library. One of two strange things
must have happened (see De Morgan, ih. p. 450), viz. either
the minute Petavius omitted the title of the work, if it were
given: or Heilbronner preserved a title from some other
source, if it were not. I am not aware that the manuscript
has been discovered.

4. Lagrange, at page 2 of vol. i of his ‘‘ Mecanique Anali-
tique” (1811), observes that the laws of statics are founded
on general principles which may be reduced to three ; that
of the lever, that of the composition of forces, and that of
virtual velocities. He says {ih. p. 18, No, 14) that the
principle of the lever is the only one which has the advan-
tage of being founded on the nature of equilibrium consi-
dered in itself, and as a state independent of motion.

5. Lagrange {ih. p, 20) says that it does not appear that
the ancients knew of the law of virtual velocities. From
what is said by Whewell in his “ History of the Inductive
Sciences'’ (1837, vol. ii, pp. 39 and 42; vol, i, pp, 69, 81, 82
and 94) it seems that the law, so far as it relates to the
lever, was known to Aristotle. Whewell considered the
physical philosophy of Aristotle {ih. i, 25) and of the Greeks
{ih. 33) as an utter failure. He apparently regarded the
doctrine of the lever (see vol. ii, p. 59 ; vol. i, chap. I, sect. 1,
p. 91) with greater favour than that of virtual velocities (see
vol. ii, chap. II, sect. 4, p. 39), in connection with which he
makes no special mention of Lagrange (see vol. ii, p. 120).
Professor Odcylej {Messenger, N. S., voL hi, p. 1) has given a
dissertation “ On the general equation of virtual velocities."

6. There are two modes of approaching the parallelogram
of forces. First, we may from the composition of motions,
through the second law of motion, pass to the composition
of forces. Thomson and Tait, fortified by the example of
Newton (see their ‘Treatise,’ &c., vol. i, pp. 181, 182,

§ 255—257) have followed this mode, which they believe

8

to contain the most philosophical foundation for statics.
Lagrange, whose writings are a mine of historical informa-
tion, says ('Mec. Anal.’ i, 13) that the ancients knew the
composition of motions, as we see by some passages of
Aristotle, in his Mechanical Questions; and that the geo =
meters especially have employed it for the description of
curves, as, Archimedes for the spiral, Nicomedes for the
conchoid, &c.

7. Secondly, we may seek to arrive at the composition of
pressures, independently of the second law of motion, by
processes which are valid whether that law be a law of nature
or not, and which would be valid even if we had not any
conception of motion, and which indeed do not render it
necessary to consider whether pressure does or does not
tend to produce motion. Lagrange ('Mec. An.’ i, 19) thinks
that the principle of the composition of forces, in being
separated from that of the composition of motions, loses its
principal advantages ; and he, just before saying tins, throws
out a doubt as to whether a principle used by Daniel Ber*
noulli in his demonstration was altogether independent of
the conception of motion. The whole subject of composition
is discussed by De Morgan in his paper “ On the General
Principles of which the Composition or Aggregation of Forces
is a consequence.” (Camb. Trans. Yol X. Part II, 1859).

8. Lagrange (AI^c. Anl’ i, p. 14 No. 11) observes that,
although the principles of the lever and of composition lead
always to the same results, it is remarkable that the simplest
case for the one becomes the most complicated for the other.
He adds (i6. No. 12) that we can establish an immediate
connection between these two principles by a theorem of
Yarignon. Newton’s view is noticed by Lagrange {ih. No. 10).

9; Thomson and Tait have a special object (“Treatise” &c.
vol. i. Preface p. v; p. 141 par. (f); p. 841 § 453), in refer-
ence to which Newton’s proof may be the more appropriate
or elegant. I here use the word “elegant” in the sense which

9

Austin, in his ^'Lectures on Jurisprudence” (voL ii, p. 865)
says it is used by the Roman lawyers. But there is much
that is interesting in the other investigations on the subject.

10. Lagrange {ih. p. 29) uses the term ‘"moment” in the
sense which Galileo {ih. p. 20) gave it, viz : the product of
the force into its virtual velocity ; noticing however another
{ih. p. 7) meaning viz. the product of the force into the arm
of the lever by which it acts.

11. Whewell (Hist. Ind. Sci., i, 93), speaking of a “matter
of obvious and universal experience,” says

“ This general fact is obvious, when we possess in our minds the
ideas which are requisite to apprehend it clearly. When we are
so prepared, the truth appears to be manifest, independent of
experience, and is seen to be a rule to which experience must
conform.”

He seems {ih. ii, 25) to reiterate this opinion, which, if
“appears to be manifest” be taken to mean “is self-evident,”
will hardly pass unquestioned.

12. Lagrange ("Mec. An.’ i, 4, 5) tells us, in words which I
translate as follows, to

“ imagine a triangular plane loaded with two equal weights at
the tw^o ends of its base, and with a double weight at its vertex.
This plane will evidently be in equilibrium, w^hen supported by a
straight line or fixed axis, which passes through the middle of the
two sides of the triangle j for we may regard each of these sides as
a lever loaded at its two ends with two equal weights, and w^hich
has its fulcrum on the axis which passes through its middle.
Now w’e may contemplate this equilibrium in another manner, by
regarding the base itself of the triangle as a lever of which the
ends are loaded with two equal weights ; and by imagining that
there is a transverse lever which joins the vertex of the triangle
and the middle of its base in the form of a T, and of which one
end is loaded with the double weight placed at the vertex, and
the other serves as the fulcrum of the lever which forms the base.
Tt is evident that this last lever will be in equilibrium on the
transverse lever which sustains it at its middle, and that the
transverse lever will consequently be in equilibrium on the axis

10

on which the plane is already in equilibrium. But since the axis
passes through the middle of the two sides of the triangle, it will
pass also necessarily through the middle of the straight line drawn
from the vertex of the triangle to the middle of its base; hence
the transverse lever will have its fulcrum at the middle point, and
must consequently be equally loaded at its two ends. Hence the
load supported by the fulcrum of the lever which forms the base
of the triangle, and wdiich is loaded at its two ends with equal
weights, Vvill be equal to the double weight at the vertex, and
consequently equal to the sum of the two weights.”

13. Wheweli in his “Mechanical Euclid” (2nd ed. p. 170)
says that it will be found that Lagrange’s proof, if distinctly
stated, involves some such axiom as this : — that

“ If two forces, acting at the extremities of a straight line, and
a single force, acting at an intermediate point of the straight line,
produce the same effect to turn a body about another line, the twm
forces produce at the intermediate point an effect equal to the
single force.”

He adds that though this axiom may be self-evident, it will
hardly be considered as more simple than the proposition to
be proved. Without discussing Whe well’s criticism I oh-
serve that Lagrange ('Mec. An.’ i, 16, 19) regards forces as
quantities which can be added and subtracted, and which
may be regarded (ih. p. 18) as weights. He Morgan (loc. cit.)
seems to be of opinion that the proposition that the weight
of the whole is equal to the sum of the w^eights of all the
parts is known only by experience.

“Oakwal,” near Brisbane,

Queensland, Australia,
July 22, 1875.

“Note on the Temperature of the Body during Ph^^sical
Exertion,” by M. M. Pattison Muir, F.H.S.E., Assistant
Lecturer on Chemistry, Owens College.

In Nature, vol. xii, p. 132, appeared an account of Dr.
Forel’s observations on body -temperature during mountain

11

climbing, tlie general conclusion of which was that the tem-
perature of the body increases during ascents or descents.

In the same journal, p. 165 of the same volume. Dr. Thorpe
has published the results of observations made upon him.self
during an ascent of Mount Etna, from which it appears
that he noticed a small decrease of temperature.

Dr. Anderson, however, Nature, voL xii, p. 186, partially
confirms the earlier experiments of Drs. Marcet and Lortet,
who observed a decrease of 3 or f degrees F. in the tempera-
ture of the body during mountain ascents. The greatest
fall recorded by Dr. Anderson amounts to 1°'6 F.

During the long vacation I carried out a few experiments
upon my own body-temperature while rowing and while
ascending a height.

The observations were made with a registering clinical
thermometer, the bulb of which was placed in the mouth
underneath the tongue. The bulb was allowed to remain
in this situation during five minutes before the readings

were noted.

Experiment I.

Initial temperature.. 98°'5 F.

After rowing for J hour 99°-05

After hard rowing for f hours 9 8° ’6

After resting J hour, eating two biscuits,

and gently rowing for | hours 99'^

Experiment II.

Initial temperature 98°T F.

After \ hour’s hard rowing 99°

After 1 hour’s ,, „ 98°-7

Experiment III. — Ascent of Goatfell.

Height

Time. in Feet. Temp.
Beginning ascent 1p.m...... 98°’8

Easy climbing. Warm 1*50 900 99°

Stiffer climb. Perspiring 2-30 1,750 99° *5

Hard climbing. Perspiring much .. . 2 ’45 2,200 99°*2

Very hard climbing. ,, „ ... 3-0 2,750 99'’

After descent of 2,500ft Warm ...4-0 — 90°«3

12

The observations were invariably taken while actually
rowing or climbing.

These numbers are, in the main in accordance with those
of Dr. Forel, and shew that a slight increa.se took place in
my body-temperature during physical exertion. This in-
crease was decidedly marked during the first half hour while
rowinsf, and the first one and a-half hours while climbino^,
after which times a diminution of temperature took place,
the final temperature being in no case, however, so low as
the initial temperature.

Dr. Anderson, (loc. cit.) has attempted to explain the
varying results of different observers by supposing that in
some men the heat transformed into motion, and spent in
doing work is restored by quick oxidation of material with-
in the organism, while in the case of others whose power of
oxidation is slower, no such equilibrium is maintained, and
a decrease in body temperature consequently ensues.
Looked at in this light the above numbers seem to show
that during the earlier phases of physical exertion oxidation
was more than sufficient to restore heat spent in doing work,
but that as the work was continued and grew harder the
excess of heat was gradually encroached upon. In the paper
already cited from Nature (vol xii, p. 132) the abstractor
shews that if body-temperature be taken as the exponent of
internal work, then a greater increase ought to be observed
during extra muscular work if unaccompanied by external
work than if so accompanied. The results which I have
obtained during canoeing bec.r out this theory. The follow-

ing were the numbers : —

Experiment IV.

Initial temperature 98®*3 F.

After 20 minutes hard paddling 9 9° *4

After 30 „ „ „ 99°”4

The external work done in propelling a light canoe
through the water must be less than that needed for the

13

propulsion of a tolerably sized rowing, boat — yet there is a
very considerable amount of muscular work in maintaining
the paddle in position, in the movements of the body, &c.
Now the increase of temperature amounted to 1°*1 F., a
much larger quantity than any noticed either during row-
ing or mountain climbing, where the external work is
larger. Nor was the decrease which followed the first in-
crease in the latter cases, noticeable while canoeing, probably
because the external work was not continued long enough
to make any great demand upon the internal heat.

MICEOSCOPICAL AND NATUEAL HISTOEY SECTION.

October 11th, 1875.

Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S., in the Chair.

Mr. Plant exhibited specimens of Locusta migratoria,
found in Ordsall Lane and Peel Park, Salford, after the
unusually strong equinoctial gales of the end of September.

“ On the Plybrid British Heath, Erica Watsoni, Benth.,”
by Charles Bailey, Esq.

Some weeks ago Mr. E. W. Nix, M.A., when in Cornwall
with his brother Mr. Arthur Nix, collected, on a wet, boggy
moor in the neighbourhood of Truro, a heath, whose habit
and characters struck him as being different both from
Erica Tetralix and E. ciUaris, and both gentlemen were
satisfied it was a hybrid form. A small specimen which
Mr. Edward Nix brought home with him to Manchester
was shown to me for identification, and I had no doubt in
naming it as the Erica tetralici-ciliaris of Syme {=E. Wat-
soni of Bentbam).

14

Nine years ago I spent a whole day in a careful but
unsuccessful search for this plant in the same neighbour-
hood, and it was with much pleasure I saw Mr. Nix’s speci-
men this year, as the only examples of this hybrid which I
had previously seen were those which Mr. H. C. Watson
has from time to time distributed through the Botanical
Exchange Club. Mr. Watson’s plant came originally from
Cornwall, where it was collected by the late Eev. C. A.
Johns many years ago, and this plant having been trans-
planted to Mr. Watson’s garden, has been the principal
source from which British botanists have obtained speci-
mens. Knowing the rarity of the occurrence of this plant
in a wild state, I urged Mr. Nix to procure a root from the
locality where he discovered it, and to the united kindness
of this gentleman and his brother the Section is indebted
for a sight of the living plant now exhibited.

From a paragraph in the report of the Botanical Ex-
change Club, which has appeared during the last three
weeks, we learn that Mr. Cunnack of Flelston, with Mr.
Blow, also found this hybrid last year, on a barren moor
between Truro and Penryn.

Mr. Nix’s plant has affinities with both its supposed
parents. It differs from Erica Tetralix in its longer and
la^rger corolla, which is pear-shaped rather than urceolate in
form through a rather sudden contraction in the uppermost
half ; in its having a herbaceous bract at the base of each
pedicel ; and in its more numerous barren branches.

It differs from Erica ciliaris in its less leafy habit and
more spreading branches ; in its more raceme-like inflor-
escence; and in its stamens, which have two minute, short-
ly-ciliate, subulate awns. Its leaves have more affinity
with those of E. ciliaris both in shape and pubescence, but
it is destitute of all glands at the extremities of the ciJia
of the margin of the leaf; this feature is the more note worthy
as the cilia in Mr. Watson’s specimens are nearly all

15

glandular. The styles are very slightly exserted and the
uppermost portion does not gradually widen upwards as
in E. ciliaris, but it is abruptly capitate as in E. Tetralix,
and the ovary is downy, not glabrous, but I cannot find on
the whole plant a single ovary which has come to maturity.

The character by which the hybrid appears to be differ-
entiated from its allies the most readily is taken from the
anther, and more particularly by its awn-like appendages.
The anthers of E. Tetralix possess two awns which are
equal in length to the lobes of the anther, while the filament
is united to the anther at the back just above the base of the
lobes. The anthers of E. ciliaris are also attached by their
bases to the fi] ament, but there is no trace of any awns. In
the hybrid plant however, the attachment of the filament is
higher up the back of the papillose anther, so that the two
lobes project much more than in the parent plants; from
each side of the filament at its junction v/itli the anther,
there rises a slender awn whose leugth is only one-fourth
that of the anther, and these two awns do not project beyond
the lobes as they do in Erica Tetralix.

From a comparison of the specimens exhibited, it will be
seen that Mr. Nix’s plant comes nearer to E. ciliaris than
do Mr. Watson’s, particularly in the infloresence ; but they
agree perfectly in the character of the av/ns of the anther,
as noted above. In habit it seems to have some affinity
with E. Machaiana, and it is nearer E. Tetralix than E.
Ciliaris in this respect.

The habitat of the hybrid plant is described by Mr. Nix
as decidedly boggy, and his observation of the Cornish local-
ities of E. ciliaris leads him to conclude that it also fiour-
ishes best in a similarly moist station. Dr. Syme on the
other hand gives '' sandy heaths ” as the character of the
station of E. ciliaris. Erica Tetralix loves boggy land, and
this seems to be the character of the station where Erica
tetralici-ciliaris flourishes in some abundance.

16

The Connemara station for Erica Mackaiana is peculiar ;
according to my observation it occurs only on a small
rocky eminence wliicli rises out of a vast bog which is the
home of E, Tetralix ; as it grows in free flowering bushes a
foot or more in height, it may readily be picked out from
plants of E. Tetralix.

A series of British and Continental specimens of the
heaths named in this communication now lie on the tables
for comparison with the living plant.

17

Ordinary Meeting, November 2nd, 1875.

R. Angus Smith, Ph.D,, F.R.S., &c., Vice-President, in the

Chair.

Peter Spence, E.C.S., &c., exhibited a piece of 2 to 3
inch lead pipe in which the metal had been entirely 'trans-
formed into galena, the crystalisation being visible through
the whole of the specimen.

The shape of the lead pipe was unaltered, showing that
the lead had not been exposed to a melting heat, no increase
of bulk was visible, but the pipe was so brittle as to shiver
with a blow. The circumstances in which this change was
effected, as nearly as can be made out, were as follows.

The pipe had been used for the conveyance of gas ammo-
niacal water and was sunk under ground. It was in the
vicinity of a furnace which heated the ground where it
lay. It had been disused for some years but never
taken up. When the ground where it lay had to be ex-
cavated for a new erection, it was found that there had
been a considerable leak of gas water, as the ground for
some space was impregnated with ammoniacal salts. About
25 per cent of the ammonia in gas water being sulphide,
and the ground being warm, a constant atmosphere of
sulphide of ammonium would surround the pipe, and this
seems to have been the cause of the conversion of the lead
into sulphide, as only that part of the pipe which was in
the vicinity of the leak was found to be transformed.

On the Principle of the Electro-Magnet constructed by
Mr. John Faulkner,” by Professor Osborne Reynolds, M A.

PROcEEDiNas — Lit, & Phil. Soc.—Vol. XV.— No. 2.—- Session 1875-6^

Tiie magnet which forms the subject of this paper consists
of a soft iron bar with a fiat plate attached to one end and
surrounded by a coil of Vvire in the same way as the
ordinary electromiagnet. Outside this coil is placed a tube
of soft iron of the same length as that portion of the interior
bar which projects beyond the plate; this tube lias flat ends
■ — one of which is in contact with the plate, while the other
comes up flush with the end of the bar—so that a plate or
keep placed over the end is in contact with both the bar and
the cylinder. The magnet is excited in the ordinary wa}^,
by connecting the ends of the wire which forms the coil with
the poles of a battery. When thus excited this magnet
exhibits certain peculiarities as compared with a common
ma^gnet. In the first place the magnetic field is very limited,
being confined to the space in front of the open end of the
tube, there is little or no magnetism along the tube or at
the closed end. The magnet retains its keep with greater
force than the simple bar. Mr. Faulkner has some magnets
of this kind which retain the keep with 100 times more
force when the outer tube is on than when it is removed.
The ratio of these retaining powers appears, however, to
depend on the relative diameters of the bar and the tube ;
the larger the bar in proportion to the tube, the greater is
the difference. Some magnets, made especially to test the
relative powers, give an increase of only double as compared
with the simple bar magnet. This magnet has a greater
sustaining power than the horse-shoe ma^gnet. This was
shown by putting tubes round the poles of a horse-shoe
magnet, by which means it was made to sustain greater
weights than it would without the tubes.

The object of the paper was to suggest explanations of
these phenomena. They were attributed to three principal
causes.

1. The tube surrounding the bar unites the poles and
converts the magnet into a kind of horse-shoe magnet, the

19

ends of the tube having the opposite polarity to those of the
bar. If this were all, however, this magnet would not have
any advantage over the horse-shoe magnet,

2. The close proximity of the tube to the bar enables the
one pole to exert greater inductive action on the other, than
in the case of the horse-shoe form.

8. The electro-magnetic action of both sides of the coil is
utilised in the same manner as in the astatic galvanometer.
The current converts the tube into a magnet of opposite
polarity to the bar, and hence these two magnets act upon
each other by induction, which their relative positions
enables them to do with the greatest effect. It appears
from tlie researches of Dr, J oule that the larger the bar
inside the coil the less will be the intensity of magnetism
exerted in it by the coil. While it may be shown that the
smaller the tube — the closer it is to the coil — the greater
will be the intensity of magnetism excited in it. Also the
inductive action of the iron in the tube on that of the bar is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them. Hence it follows that the effect of using the outside
as well as the inside of the coil must increase rapidly as the
diameter of the bar approximates to the internal diameter of
the tube.

After the reading of the paper, Mr. h Aulkner exhibited
some of his magnets ; and by means of iron filings scattered
on sheets of paper produced some very beautiful diagrams
illustrating the effect of the outside tube on the magnetic field.

General Meeting, November 16th, 187

llev. William Gaskell, M.A., Vice-President, in the Chair,

Mi\ John Boyd, of Victoria Park, and Mr. E. W. NiXj
M.A., of the Branch Bank of England, were elected Ordinary
Members of the Society,

20

Ordinary Meeting, November 16th, 1875.

Rev. William Gaskell, M.A., Vice-President, in the Chair.

“ On an Instrument for Measuring the Direct Heat of the
Sun,” by Professor Balfour Stewart, LL.D,, F.R.S.

The instrument generally employed for giving the radiant
energy of the sun’s rays acts upon the following principle.
In the first place the instrument is sheltered from the sun but
exposed to the clear sky, say for five minutes. Let the heat
so lost be termed r. . Secondly, the instrument is turned to
the sun for five minutes. Let the heat so gained be termed
R. Thirdly, the instrument being now hotter than it was
in the first operation is turned once more so as to be ex-
posed to the clear sky for five minutes while it is shielded
from the sun. Let the heat so lost be termed r.

It thus appears that r denotes the heat lost by convection
and radiation united when the instrument, before being
heated by the sun, is exposed for five minutes to the clear
sky, while r' denotes the heat lost by these same two opera-
tions by a similar exposure after the instrument has been
heated by the sun ; and it is assumed that the heat lost
from these two causes during the time when the instru-
ment is being heated by the sun will be a mean between
r and r\ and hence that the whole effect of the sun’s rays

will be in reality R F •

Now although this assumption may in the average ol a
great number of experiments represent the truth, yet in
many individual cases, it may be far from being true. It
would therefore seem to be desirable to get rid of this
uncertainty by constructing an instrument in which we are
sure that the causes of variability are not allowed to
operate.

21

These causes of variability I have attempted to get rid of
in the following manner. With the help of Mr. Jordan,
mechanician at Owens College, the following instrument has
been constructed. It consists of a large mercurial ther-=
mometer with its bulb in the middle of a cubical cast iron
chamber, this chamber being of such massive material that
its temperature will remain sensibly constant for some time.

The chamber with its thermometer has a motion in azimuth
round a vertical axis A, and also a motion in altitude round
a horizontal axis B. A three inch lens C of 12 inches focal
length is attached by means of a rod to the cubical chamber
so as to move with it. The nature of this attachment will
be seen in the figure. Thus the whole instrument may be
easily moved into such a position that the lens as well as
the upper side of the chamber which is parallel to the plane
of the lens may face the sun, and an image of the sun be
thrown through a hole D in the side of the chamber upon
the thermometer bulb E.

The stem of the thermometer protrudes from the chamber
as in the figure. A screw S somewhat larger in diameter
than the bulb of the thermometer is made use of to attach
the thermometer to its enclosure, and a smaller screw S'
pressing home upon india rubber v/ashers enables the ther-=
mometer to be properly adjusted and kept tight when in
adjustment.

In the present instrument the internal diameter of the
chamber is 2 inches, while the bulb of the thermometer is
about inches in diameter.

The scale of the thermometer is very open, more than an
inch going to one degree, I have generally allowed the
image of the sun given by the lens to heat the thermometer
bulb for one minute, during wdiich time an increase of tem=
perature, not exceeding in any case two degrees, has been
produced.

As far as principle is concerned there appears to be no
objection to the present instrument, nevertheless it is open
to a very serious practical objection. The scale being so
very open, the stem comprehends only a few degrees;
frequently, therefore, the temperature is such that the
extremity of the mercurial column is either below or above
the stem. Now the thermometer has a small upper cham-
ber, and by means of a method of manipulation well known
to those who work with thermometers, it is possible to add
to or take away from the main body of mercury in the bulb
so as to keep the end of the mercurial column always in the
stem. But experience has convinced me that for a ther-
mometer with such a large bulb, frequent manipulation of
this kind is not unattended with danger to the bulb. On
this account the instrument in its present form is, I conceive,
unsuited for steady work in an observatory from year to
year.

It is however possible without any appreciable sacrifice
of the scientific principle of the instrument to alter it in

23

such a. manner as to remedy this defect. Without altering
the size of the bulb, I should propose for a permanent
instrument a stem say 18 inches long with a bore of such
diameter that the stem should embrace a range of tempera-
ture betwen 20° Fahr. and 92° Fahr. Thus somewhat less
than five degrees will go to the inch. The stem might be
protected from the risk of accident by an appropriate shield.
Let such a thermometer .be heated for two minutes and the
size of the lens be somewhat increased. In this case a rise
of something like 5° Fahr. will be obtained, and this heating
effect might very easily be estimated to one hundredth of
the whole, while the same thermometei would serve for all
the temperatures likely to occur in these islands during the
course of the year.

I ought to add that a pasteboard cover, gilded on the out-
side is made to surround the chamber, and also that between
the lens and the chamber there is a pasteboard shield with
a hole in it to permit the full rays from the lens to pass— -the
object of this shield being to prevent rays from the sun or
sky from reaching the instrument.

In such an instrument r or the change taking place in the
thermometer before exposure to the sun will in all pro-
bability completely disappear, while r will be extremely

small. At any rate we may be quite certain that R +

will accurately represent the heating effect of the sun,

We may probably suppose that in the same instrument
the lens (which must always be kept clean) will always stop
the same or nearly the same proportion of the solar rays.
But the lens of one instrument may not stop the same pro-
portion as that of another instrument. This, however, is no
objection if it be borne in mind that the instrument is a
differential one. In practice there would be some standard
instrument which would be retained at a central observatory,
and all other instruments would, before being issued, be

24

compared with it. It would he thus possible to compare to-
gether the indications of various instruments working in
different places provided that these before being issued had
their co-efficients determined at the central observatory.

'‘ On a Colorimetric Method for determining small quan-
tities of Copper/’ by Thomas Caknelley, B.Sc., F.C.S.,
Demonstrator in the Chemical Laboratory of Owens College.
Communicated by Professor H. E. Koscoe, E.RS., &c., &c.

Last year I brought before this Society a paper (Proceed-
ings Vol. XIV,, 2) on a colorimetric method for detennining
iron in waters, and as this method has been found convenient
for estimating small quantities of iron in substances other
than water, I thought it would likewise be useful to have a
delicate and easy method of a similar kind for copper, and
it is the description of such a method that forms the subject
of the present paper.

The reagent used is the same as in the case of iron, viz.,
potassium ferrocyanide, which gives a purple-brown colour
with very dilute solutions of copper. This reaction, how-
ever, is not so delicate as it is with iron, for 1 part of the
latter in 13,000,000 parts of water can be detected by means
of potassium ferrocyanide, while 1 part of copper in a neutral
solution, containing ammonium nitrate, can be easily detected
in only 2,500,000 parts of water. Of the coloured reactions
which copper gives with different reagents, those with sul-
phuretted hydrogen and potassium ferrocyanide are by far
the most delicate, and as a preliminary the comparitive
values of these two reagents were tested with the following
results, the determination being made in each case in loOcc.
of water : —

(1) With HaS. 1 part of copper produces a colour in
2,500,000 parts of water.

* Among others I may mention that nse has been made of this method
by Wanklyn, in the indirect determination of Alum in Bread. — Chemical
Neivs, Vol. XXXI., p. 67.

25

(2) TO/iK,FeCyc

(a) In acid solutions, the colour produced being earthy
brown, 1 part of copper produces a colour in 1,000,000 parts
of water.

(5) In neutral solutions, the colour being purple-brown,

1 part of copper produces a colour in 1,500,000 parts of
water.

(c) In neutral solutions containing ammonium nitrate, the
colour being purple-brown, I part of copper produces a
colour in 2,500,000 parts of water.

From the above it will be seen that of the two reagents,
sulphuretted hydrogen is the more delicate, except in the
latter case when they are of equal value. But potassium
ferrocyanide has a decided advantage over sulphuretted
hydrogen in the fact that lead, when not present in too
large quantity does not interfere with the depth of colour
obtained, whereas to sulphuretted hydrogen it is, as is well
known, very sensitive.

And though iron if present would, without special pre-
caution being taken, prevent the determination of copper
by means of pota.ssium ferrocyanide, yet by the method
as described below the amounts of these metals contained
together in a solution can be estimated by this reagent.

As the above results show ammonium nitrate renders the
reaction much more delicate ; other salts, as ammonium
chloride and potassium nitrate, have likewise the same effect.

The method of analysis consists in the comparison of the
purple-brown colours produced by adding to a solution of
potassium ferrocyanide — first, a solution of copper of known
strength, and secondly, the solution in which the copper is
to be determined.

The solutions and materials required are as follows : —

(I) Standard copper solution. — Prepared by dissolving
0*893 grm. of pure CuSo4'5H20 in one litre of water. Icc.
is then equivalent to 0*1 mgrm. Cu.

26

(2) Solution of ammoniiim ?iifraf6.-=“Made by dissolving
100 grm. of the salt ill one litre of water,

(3) Potassium ferrocyanide sokition.---Cont^mmg 1 part
of the salt in 25 parts of water.

(4) Two glass cylinders holding rather more than 150cc.
each, the point equivalent to that volume being marked on
the glass. They must, of course, both be of the same tint
and as nearly colourless as possible.

(5) A burette, marked to ToCC., for the copper solution ;
a 5cc. pipette for the ammonium nitrate, and a small tube
to deliver the potassium ferrocyanide in drops.

The following is the method of analysis Five drops
of the potassium ferrocyanide are placed in each cylinder,
and then a mea^sured quantity of tlie neutral solution in
which the copper is to be determined into one of them (A),
and both filled up to the mark with distilled water, 5cc. of
the ammonium nitrate solution added to each and then the
standard copper solution run gradually into (B), till the
colours in both cylinders are of the same depth, the liquid
being well stirred after each addition. The number of
cubic centimetres used are then read off. Each cubic
centimetre corresponds to OT mgrm. of copper, from which
the amount of copper in the solution in question can be
calculated.

The solution in which the copper is to be estimated must
be neutral, for if it contains free acid the latter lessens the
depth of colour and changes it from a purple brown to an
earthy brown. If it should be acid it is rendered slightly
alkaline with ammonia, and the excess of the latter got rid
of by boiling. The solution must not be alkaline, as the
brown coloration is soluble in ammonia and decomposed by
potash ; if it is alkaline from ammonia this is remedied as
before by boiling it off ; while free potash, should it be pre-
sent, is neutralized by an acid and the latter by ammonia.

27

Within moderate limits the amount of potassium ferro-
cyanide does not affect the accuracy of the method as was
proved by several experiments, for instance, v/hen Jcc. and
2cc. of the ferrocyanide were added to the two cylinders re~
spectively, water up to the mark, and 5cc. of ammonium
nitrate to each, then 7cc. of the standard copper solution
produced in each an equal depth in colour.

The same may be said of the ammonium nitrate, for in

one of several trials, all leading to the same result, when
there were five drops of ferrocyanide in each cylinder, with
water up to the mark, and 5cc. of ammonium nitrate in one
and 15cc. in the other, an equal depth of colour was ob-
tained on running into each 7cc. of the standard copper
solution.

The following are the results obtained- by estimating the
copper in pure solutions of copper sulphate of known

strength : —

Copper found.

Copper calculated.

205-00 moTm 202-08

mo-rm.

32-36

6-50

1-18

1-13

0-96

0-75

0-59

0-52

0*42

0-39

0-22

0-13

0-12

0-055

31-32

6-27

1-13

1-21

1-01

0-75

0-61

0-50

0-40

0-38

0-20

0-13

0-10

0-050

In order to test the effect which the different salts might
have on the accuracy of the method, 8-0 grms. of a mixture
of the following salts, viz. : — Ammonium chloride, sodium
chloride, potassium nitrate, calcium chloride, calcium sulphate,

28

and magDesimn sulpbate^ were dissolved with an amount of
copper sulphate, containing O'lOl grm. Cu. to 1 litre. Vary-
ing quantities of this solution were taken, and the copper
estimated therein with the following results, from which it
is seen that these salts have no detrim.ental effect.

Copper found. Copper calculated.

0*54 mgrrn 0-51 mgrm.

0-71 „ 0-71 „

0-91 „ 0-91 „

In the same manner the effect of the presence of colour-
less non-volatile organic matter was tested hy dissolving up
18 grins, of sugar with an amount of copper sulphate
equivalent to 0’0505 grin, copper in 1 litre of water, and the
copper estimated in two different portions as before, the
following numbers being obtained : —

Copper found. Copper calculated.

O' 52 mgrm 0'51 mgrm.

0-82 „ 0-81 „

In order to see what influence the presence of lead might
exercise on this method of estimating copper, a quantity of
the sulphate containing 0'255 grm. Cu. was dissolved in
water, the copper precipitated by potash, washed, and the
oxide dissolved in nitric acid and the solution after nearly
neutralizing with ammonia diluted to 1 litre with the ad-
dition of 2 grm. of lead nitrate — 1’25 grm. Pb. Vary-
ing quantities of this solution were taken, and the copper in
them estimated with the following results : —

Copper found. Copper calculated.

0’80 mgrm 0'77 mgrm.

0-75 „ 0-70 „

0-51 „ 0'49 „

0-49 „ 0-51 „

0-38 „ 0-35 „

From which it will be seen that lead when present in not
too large quantity has little or no effect on the accuracy of
the method. The precipitate obtained on adding potassium

29

ieiTocytiiiide to a lead salt is white, and this, except when
present in comparatively large quantity with respect to the
copper, does not interfere with the comparison of the colours.
In the above experiments the proportion of lead to copper
was as 5 to 1.

When copper is to be estimated in a solution containing
iron the following is the method of procedure to be adopted.
To the solution a few drops of nitric acid are added in order
to oxidise the iron, the liquid evaporated to a small bulk
and the iron precipitated by ammonia. Even when very
small quantities of iron are present this can be done easily
and completely if tliere is only a very small quantity of
fluid. The precipitate of ferricoxide is then filtered off,
washed once, dissolved in nitric acid and reprecipitated by
ammonia, filtered, and washed. The iron precipitate is now
free from copper, and in it the iron can be estimated by dis-
solving in nitric acid, making the solution nearly neutral
with ammonia and determining the iron by the method
given in the paper before referred to. The filtrate from the
iron precipitate is boiled till all the ammonia is completely
driven off, and the copper estimated in the solution so
obtained as already described. The following are the results
* obtained with solutions containing known quantities of iron
and copper : —

Copper Iron

Tound

Calculated

Found

Calculated

(1) 0‘53 mgrm.

.....0'51 mgrm..

....0-22..

. ...0’20 mgrm.

(2) 0-69 „ .

0-61 „ ..

....2-15..

....2-40 „

(3) 0-79 „ .

0-76 „ ..

9, ‘4-9

....3-00 „

(4) 0-G6 „ .

0-66

When the solution containing copper is too dilute to give
any coloration directly with potassium ferrocyanide, a
measured quantity of it must be evaporated to a small bulk
and filtered if necessary, and if it contains iron, also treated
as already described.

80

ill the determination of copper and iron in water, for
which the method is specially applicable, a measured quan-
tity is evaporated with a few drops of nitric acid to dryness,
ignited to get rid of any organic matter that might colour
the liquid, and dissol\^ed in a little boiling water and a di’op
or two of nitric acid, if it is not ail soluble it does not
matter ; ammonia is next added to precipitate the iron, the
latter filtered off, washed, redissolved in nitric acid, and
again precipitated by ammonia, filtered off and washed.
The filtrate is added to the one previously obtained, and the
iron estimated in the precipitate and the copper in the
united filtrate.

The distilled water used in the Owens College Laboratory,
and which is condensed by the apparatus made by Hirzel
of Leipzig, gave, on analysis by the above method, the
following results, two litres of the water being used for the
purpose : — ■

015 paits Cr. 1 1 000,000 parts of water.

0-03 parts Fe. j ^

The copper and iron in this case were evidently derived
from the fittings of the condensing apparatus, v/hich con-
sisted in great part of these metals.

31

Ordinary Meeting, November 80tb, 1875.

Edwabd Schunck, Pli.D., F.RS., &c., President, in the

Chair,

On the Estimation of very small quantities of Lead and
Copper,” by M. M. Pattison Muib, F.RS.E., ilssistant
Lecturer on Chemistry, Owens College.

As I have lately been occupied with experiments upon
the action of saline solutions upon lead and copper, which
involved the measurement of very small quantities of these
metals I thought it might be well to test the accuracy and
delicacy of the method employed.

The method itself is in no way iiev/, being that described
by Wanklyn in his Book on Water Analysis.” The depth of
colour produced by the addition of sulphuretted hydrogen
water to a known volume of the liquid under examination
is compared with the colour produced, by the same means,
in an equal volume of water to which a known amount of
lead or copper, in solution, has been added. In comparing
the colour of the liquid under examination with the
standard liquid I find it preferable to employ stout glass
tubes, holding about 100 cc. and having a diameter of about
1-5 cm., rather than white porcelain dishes a.s recommended
by Wanklyn. The contents of the tubes are thoroughly
mixed by means of glass tubes on the ends of which bulbs
have been blown. (See Thorpe on a method of estimating
nitric acid, &c. Chem. Soc. J. [2] XI. 547.)

Wanklyn recommends the use of standard solutions, 1 cc.
of which is equal to 1 mgm. of copper or of lead : he em-
ploys 70 cc. of the water to be tested. If, therefore, the
colour produced on adding sulphuretted hydrogen Avater to
70 cc. of the liquid under examination is found to be equal
Proceedings — Lit, & Phil. Soc. — Vol. XY. — No, S.—Session 1875-6.

82

to that produced 'b}^' the addition of the same reagent to
70 cc. of distilled water to which 1 cc. of the standard has
been added, we shall have 1 grain per gallon of lead in the
water. But one-tenth of a grain of lead per gallon is generally
considered hurtful when present in a drinking water; to
estimate this we should require to use only 0‘1 cc. of the
standard : a very small error in reading the burette measure-
ments would introduce a comparatively large error in the
result. Thus in the case of a water containing one-tenth
grain of lead per gallon an error in reading of 0‘05 cc. would
introduce an error in the quantity of lead equal to one-half
of the total quantity to be estimated. The first point, there-
fore, to investigate appeared to be the strength of the
standard soluiions. I shall describe the experiments made
with copper.

Standard used 1 cc. = 1 mgm. copper.

Expt. Taken. Found.

No. 1 5 mgm. per litre .. . 4 mgm. per litre.

No. 2 2-5 „ „ 2 „

Standard used 1 cc.=;0T mgm. copper.

Taken. Found.

No. 3 5 mgm. per litre... 4 *8 mgm. per litre.

No. 4 2-5 „ „ 2-4 „

No. 5... 0-5 „ „ 0-5 „

In eacli case 50 cc. of liquid was used.

Similar results were obtained with lead solutions.

The use of a standard, 1 cc. of ivhich is equcd to Od mgm.,
of copper or of lead enables more accurate and more delicate
results to be obtained than the use of a stronger standard
does.

The second point to be determined was the limits of
accuracy of the method, and first as to the lower limit.

From the experiments with copper already detailed it will
be seen that 0-5 mgm. of copper per litre could be estimated
by using 50 cc. of the liquid.

33

Standard used 1 cc. = 0*1 mgm. copper.

Solution contained 0*25 mgm. of copper per litre. Details as before.
Added 0-3 cc. standard. Colour too dark.

Added 0'2 cc. ,, Colour rather too dark.

Added 0‘1 cc. „ Colour equal to the other.

Taken. Found.

No. 6. 0'25 mgm. per litre. ...0-20 mgm. per litre.

In this experiment it was very difficult to determine the
exact point at which the colours were the same, as the
intensity of coloration produced was very slight. A further
addition of O'OScc. of the standard could hardly he said to
produce a noticeable change in the depth of colour.

I think, therefore, that 0'5 mgm. of copper per litre “
0‘035 grains per gallon is the smallest quantity which can
be accurately estimated by this process when working with
50 cc. of the liquid under examination.

The amount of lead which can be estimated with accuracy
is less minute than the amount of copper.

Standard used Icc. = 0’1 mgm. lead.

Taken. Found.

No. 7 0*25 mgm. per litre... no coloration.

No. 8 0‘5 „ ,, 0'4 mgm. per litre.

No. 9 0-75 „ „ 0-6 „

No. 10... ......DO „ „ DO „

1 mgm. of lead per litre = 0‘07 grains per gallon, is, there-
fore, the smallest quantity which can be accurately estimated
by this process when working with oOcc. of the liquid under
examination.

By the evaporation of 1 litre of water to 50cc., a quantity
of copper so small as 0‘025 mgm. per litre, or of lead equal to
0'05 mgm. per litre, can be estimated by this process. In
other words, the process will estimate 1 part of copper in
2,000,000 parts of water, or 1 part of lead in 1,000,000
parts of water.

Secondly, as to the upper limit.

34

Standard used Icc. = 0‘1 mgm. copper.

Taken. Found.

No. 11 20 mgm. per litre... 20’4 mgm. per litre.

No. 12 10 „ „ 10 „ „

No. 13 25 „ „ 24-28 „

No. 14 30 „ „ 28—32 ,,

20 mgm. of copper per litre = 1 ’4 grains per gallon is the
largest quantity which can be estimated by this method
when working with 50cc. of the liquid under examination.

With lead the following results were obtained : —

Taken. Found.

No. 15 10 mgm, per litre... 10 mgm. per litre.

No. 16 12 „ j, 12 — 15 mgm. per litre.

No. 17 15 ,, „ colour too dark to allow of

estimation.

10 mgm. of lead=0'7 grains per gallon, is, therefore, the
largest quantity which can be estimated by this method
when working y/ith 50cc. of liquid.

In making these determinations, I found that the colours of
the liquids might be compared immediately after the addi-
tion of sulphuretted hydrogen. The colours did not become
intensified on standing.

I also found that it was immaterial whether the standard
was added before the sulphuretted hydrogen water or vice
versa. Thus there is no need if the colour of the standard
be too light, to prepare a fresh standard, as must be done in
nesslerising. It is only necessary to add another measured
quantity to the liquid which already contains sulphuretted
hydrogen.

The addition of one or two drops of dilute hydrochloric
or nitric acid in no way affected the accuracy or delicacy of
the estimation of copper. In the case of lead, a drop of
hydrochloric acid caused a faint turbidity (especially in
estimating large qiianities of the metal), which interfered
materially with the results. If an acid must be added,
acetic acid is, I think, the best.

.35

When working with 50cc. of liquid,, so small a quantity
as O’o ingm. of copper, or 1 mgm, of lead per litre, may he
estimated by this process. If it is required to estimate
smaller quantities than these, the liquid must be con-
centrated by evaporation. If the amount of copper exceed
20 mgm., or of lead exceed 10 mgm. per litre, a smaller
quantity of the liquid than 50cc. must be used.

“On Certain Circumstances which afiect the Purity of
Water supplied for Domestic Purposes,” by M. M. Patti-
SON Muie, F.P.S.E., Assistant Lecturer on Chemistry,
Owens College.

Water as supplied for domestic use may suffer contamina-
tion from various sources. Those which I propose to con-
sider are (1) the metallic pi])es through which the water
hows, and the metallic vessels in which it may be stored,
(2) certain of the metallic vessels through which the water
may pass during various domestic processes, and (3) the
existence of cisterns inside the house in which the water
may be stored before it is used.

The metals which are most commonly employed in the
formation of water pipes, or of vessels in which water is
kept, are lead and copper : these metals exert, as is well
known, a poisonous action upon the human organism.

It is known that water exerts a certain solvent action
upon these metals, and that this action varies in accordance
with the quality and quantity of the salts held in solution
by the water. I have endeavoured to obtain a few definite
measurements of this action in regard to (a) the nature of
the salts in solution, (b) the quantity of those salts, and (c)
the length of time during which the action proceeds.

I. Action on Lead.

A number of solutions were made containing a known
amount of various salts dissolved in distilled water : pieces
of clean bright lead were suspended in these liquids for

86

various lengths of time, and the amount of lead which was
dissolved was estimated at certain intervals ; the method
employed being the colorimetric one described in the fore-
going paper. The salts employed, the amounts of each, and
the amount of lead dissolved after 24, 48, and 72 hours’
action are stated in the following table in mgrms. per litre
and in grains per gallon. The surface of lead exposed
measured 5600 sq. mm.

Table A.

Lead dissolved hy water containing various salts in
solution.

Salt,

Mgms.
per litre.

Grains
per gall.

I Lead dissolved.

' In Mgms. per Litre,
j After 24! 48 t 72

In Grains per Gallon.
24 1 48 1 72 hrs.

Ammonium Nitrate

20

1-4

i 13-0

25-0

0-91

175

Ditto

40

2-8

! 15-0

15-0

32-0

1-05

1-05

2-24

Ditto

80

5-6

i 15*0

1-05

Potassium Nitrate

20

1-4 1

1

1

and

>■ and

and >

2-0

2-0

0-14

0-14

Sodium Sulphate ...

3 50

3-5 )

Potassium Nitrate

■) 40

2-8

1

and

> and

and >

1 0*8

1-0

1-2

0'05

0-07

0-08

Sodium Sulphate ...

3 212

147)

Potassium Nitrate

S 45

3-1 1

i

and

>- and

and >

1

0-3

0-021

Potass. Carbonate...

3 305

21-5 )

Potassium Nitrate

4 70

5-4

and

1

and >

i

...

0*5

0-035

Potassium Sulphate

13 504

35-2 )

Calcium Sulphate...

252

17'5

I 0-4

0-8

0-C2

0‘05

Ditto

408

28-5

! 0-4

1-0

0-02

i * * *

0-07

Potass. Carbonate ..

310

217

0-2

1

...

0-014

Ditto

516

36-1

0-2

1 ...

0-014

Calcium Chloride ...

250

17-5

b-5

b-5

0-5

b-b4

0-04

0-04

Ditto

510

35-7

1 0-3

!

0-4

0-02

0.028

Sodium Sulphate ...

200

14-0

' ...

!!!

1 0-8

0-05

Ditto

400

28-0

...

0-5

1 0-03 :

Ammonium Nitrate

) 20

1-4 )

1

1

!

and

> and

and >

!

...

1 1-8

0-126

Calcium Chloride ...

) 60

4-2 )

!

Ammonium Nitrate

'A 20

l'4b

I

Potass. Carbonate
and

f 100

t and

7-0 /
and f

...

...

0-4

0-028

Sodium Sulphate ...

J2OO

14-0 )

Sodium Sulphate

200

14-0^

Potass. Carbonate

( 40

2-8 (

O'l

and

1 and

and (

....

U Uv/

Calcium Chloride ...

3 100

7-o;

1

Loch Katrine Avater

1-0

1-0

1-5

0-07

0-07 ;

0-105

Distilled water

2-0

2-0

3-0

0-15

0-15 !

0-210

From tins table it is evident that tlie salts enumerated

87

have, when in solution, very differenj^ actions upon lead.
Nitrates undoubtedly very largely increase the solvent
action of water upon lead : the other salts generally diminish
this action. ^

The general conclusion which I would draw from these
results are

(1.) Nitrates if present alone even in srnaJl quantity
cause water to exert a very marked solvent action upon lead.

(2.) The presence of other salts — sulphates, carbonates,
and chlorides — along with nitrates, greatly decreases, or even
stops, this solvent action : • carbonates especially exercise a
deterrent action.

(8.) Carbonates, sulphates, and chlorides, when added to
distilled water, greatly dmiinish the solvent action of that
water upon lead.

(4.) A small quantity— -about 15 grains per gallon— of
these last mentioned salts exercises almost as great a
deterrent action as a comparatively large quantity, about 35
grains per gallon,

(5.) The amount of lead dissolved increases but slightly
after the lapse of twenty-four hours, in the presence of these
salts which exercise a deterrent action upon the solvent
power of water on lead. In the presence of salts which
increase this action — notably of nitrates— the amount of lead
dissolved increases with the length of time during which
the water remains in contact with the lead. I cannot speak
with certainty upon this point for a greater length of time
than 72 hours.

In these experiments the lead was uniformly clean and
bright. Inasmuch as natural waters, even if contaminated
with nitrates, usually contain small quantities of soluble
carbonates, sulphates, or chlorides, the solvent action of these
waters upon leaden pipes and leaden cisterns may, I think,
be said to be, under ordinary circumstances, exceedingly
small. I would especially draw attention to the experiment

38

made with water containing 1’4 grains of ammonium nitrate
and 42 grains of calcium chloride per gallon; the amount ot
lead dissolved, after 72 hours being only 0*126 grains per
gallon, whereas water containing the same amount of
ammonium nitrate, but without the addition of any other
salt, dissolved 1*75 grains per gallon, or about fifteen times
as much lead in the same time. As a water which cpnt?lins
nitrates very often also contains chlorides this reaction is one
of some importance.

Under certain circumstances there can be no doubt that
water will dissolve considerable quantities of lead, this is
especially the case with water charged with carbon dioxide,
and with hot water

Dr. Koscoe has described a case* in which a leaden cistern
was very quickly acted upon by hot water.

For the following details regarding the amounts of lead
found in various samples of aerated beverages in the manu-
facture of which leaden apparatus had been employed, I am
indebted to my friend. Dr. Milne, of Glasgow.

Table B.

Lead found in various samioles of aerated beverages.

Description of Quantity of Lead in

Liquid. , grains per gallon.

Lemonade 0*20

Bo.

Do.

' Gingerade
Sodawater
Do.

0*40

0*05

0*10

0*60

0*05

in addition to these numbers i have determined the follow-
ino\ which shovf the amounts of lead dissolved by distilled
water charged with carbon dioxide at the ordinary
atmospheric pressure for varying lengths of time, and also
the amounts dissolved by the same water on the addition of
various salts. The surface of lead exposed measured 2,100
square millimetres.

Proo. Lit. and Phii. Soc., of Manchester, Vol. xiv., p. 23.

Table C.

Lead dissolved hy ivater charged ivith carbon dioxide at
ordinary pressure.

!

Mgms.

per litre.

Distilled water cliar- ,
ged with. Carbon

Dioxide j

The water poured*
off, more added'
and again ponredj
off, and finallyj
fresh water con-i
taining Carbon
Dioxide added ...
Potassium Carbon-*
ate and !

Ammonium Nitrate*

Lead Dissolved.

Grains

100

and

20

7-0

and

1-4

r

In mgms. per litre.

After 24 4S

72

1

j CO

CO

o i

O

1

None.

1

1

1 Merest trace.

In grains per gallon.

21

48

0.21

hrs.

0-21

None.

Merest trace.

As the results indicated that water charged with carbon
dioxide at the ordinary atmospheric pressure exercises no
considerable solvent action upon lead, and moreover that
this action ceases on the addition of carbonates ; the large
amounts of lead found in some of the samples of sodawater
examined by Dr. Milne are probably due to the increased
solvent action of water containing large quantities of carbon
dioxide forced into it under pressure. In order to test the
truth of this supposition T have made a few determinations
of the amounts of lead dissolved by distilled water, and by
the same water containing known quantities of various salts
when charged with carbon dioxide at a pressure of several
atmospheres.

The apparatus consisted of an ordinary gasogene used for
making so-called soda water.” From the known capacity
of the globe and the weight of sodium carbonede and tartaric
acid employed the pressure exerted in the interior of the
vessel by the carbon dioxide was calculated as approxi-
mately equal to 6 atmospheres,

The surface of lead exposed measured 750 sq. mm.

40

Table D.

Lead dissolved hy water charged with carbon dioxide at a
pressure of about 6 atmospheres.

Salt.

Mgms.

per

litre.

Grains

per

gallon.

Lead Dissolved.

In Mgms,
24 hours.

. per litre.
48 hours.

In Grains
24 hours.

per gallon.
48 hours.

Potassium Carbonate..

Ditto

Calcium Chloride

Ammonium Nitrate . . .

Ditto

Distilled Water

80

160

160

16

40

5-60

11-20

11-20

1-12

2-80

13- 2

32

5

10

14- 8

32-0

6-0

44

35

24

0-924

2-24

0-35

0- 70

1- 036

2- 24

0- 42

3- 08

2-45

1- 68

It appears from these numbers that distilled water charged
with carbon dioxide under a pressure of (approximately) 6
atmospheres dissolves five times as much lead as the same
water charged with the gas at the ordinary atmospheric
pressure : that the presence of a small quantity of ammo^
Ilium nitrate does not increase the solvent action until after
a lapse of 48 hours or so : and that potassium carbonate,
when present in somewhat large quantities, exerts a marked
deterrent action. The amount of lead dissolved, however,
even in the presence of potassium carbonate, is far too large
to allow of such a water being drunk with safety.

II. Action on Copper.

The experiments under this heading were carried out in a
manner similar to that already described. The pieces of
copper foil presented a surface of 420 sq. mm. to the action
of the various solutions. The results obtained were with
one exception negative : no copper was dissolved. The
action of the following liquids was examined: —
wcder; the same containing ammonium Qiitrate in quaiiti-
ties varying from '02 grams per litre ( = 1*4 grains per gallon)
to *408 grams per litre ( = 28*56 grains per gallon); the
same containing potassium nitrate in like amounts; the
same containing ammonium sulphate in quantities varying
from *10 to *20 grams per litre ( = 7 to 14 grains per gallon) :
and also distilled water containing simultaneously carbonates
and, nitrates, carbonates and sidphates, and chlorides and

41

nitrates. The length of time during which the copj^er was
exposed to the action of these solutions varied from 18 to
150 hours. The only liquid which exercised any solvent
action upon the copper was that containing the large quan-
tity of 28‘56 grains per gallon of ammonium nitrate ; this
action was manifested only after 150 hours’ contact of the
liquid with the copper, the amount of metal which had then
passed into solution being equal to S milligrams per litre,
or 0’21 grains per gallon.

The general conclusion to be drawn from these experi-
ments therefore undoubtedly is, that at ordinary tempera-
ture neither distilled water nor water containing the salts
which commonly occur in drinking waters exercises a solvent
action upon copper.

That water charged with carbon dioxide will dissolve
copper is apparent from the following figures, which repre-
sent the amounts of that metal found by Dr. Milne in vari-
ous samples of aerated beverages.

Table E.

Copper found in various aerated beverages.

Description
of liquid.

Soda water

Quantity of copper
in grains per gallon,

-084

Potash water

*098

Lemonade

*053

Ginger ale

-053

Potash water

TOO

Aerated water

-089

Soda water .

*100

Aerated water

*084

Soda water

’036

In order to arrive at some accurate measurements of this

solvent action of water containing carbon dioxide upon
copper, I prepared a number of solutions charged with that

gas at the ordinary atmospheric

pressure and placed in each

a piece of clean copper foil exposing a surface of 2100 sq. mm.

The amount of copper dissolved

was estimated by adding

42

sulplinretted hydrogen and comparing the depth of colour
produced with that in a standard liquid : the process is ex-
ceedingly accurate and delicate.

T/IBLE F.

Copper dissolved hy ivater charged ivlth Carbon dioxide
at ordinary pressure.

Salt.

Mgms.

per

Litre.

Grains

per

Gallon.

Copper dissolved.

Mgms. per Lit
24 ’ 48 1 72

re.

120

Grains per Gallon. ''

1 1 1

24 1 48 72 ! hrs.

Potassitim Carbonate..

i

200

14

0-1 ...

0-15

0-2 !

1

•007 ...

•0105 -014

Caicium Chloride

200 '

i 14

0-7 , ...

1-20

1-80|

•049 ...

•084| -126

Ammonium Nitrate ...

20

! 1-4

0-3 i ...

0-601

1-40

1-021 ...

•042 -098

Ditto

40

' 2-8

0-6 ...

0-80

1-40

•042 ...

•056; -098

Potassium Carbonate

j 100

7 ]

1

1

and

) and

1 and >

0-2 ' ...

0-30

1-0

•014 ...

•02l| -07

Ammonium Nitrate ...

) 20

j 1-4)

1

Potassium Carbonate

j 200

! 14 1

1

and

’ and >

trace . . .

trace

. 0-1

trace ...

trace' -007

Ammonium Nitrate . . ,

) 40

i 2-8)

i

1 Ammonium Nitrate

j 20

1-4 f

i

1 i

j and

1 and

and >

0-6 ...

2-4

3-0

1-042 ...

•168 -252

i Calcium Chloride

)200

j 14

j

1

i

1 Distilled Water

o

O

CO

...

1-0

•007 -021

... ; -07 1

The general conclusions which I would draw from these
results are :

( 1 ) Distilled water, charged with carbon dioxide, exercises
a notable solvent action upon copper, the amount of metal
dissolved increasing with the length of time during which
it is exposed to the action of the water,

(2) The salts which have the greatest effect in increasing
this action are chlorides and nitrates, especially the latter :
if there are both present the action is very largely accelerated.

(3) Carbonates, especially when present in large quanti-
ties, very materially diminisli this solvent action.

(4) If carbonates and nitrates are present together the
solvent action of the latter is much diminished by the pre-
sence of the former salts, so much so indeed that if the car-
bonates be present in proportionately large quantities the
solvent action upon the copper almost entirely disappears.

I have also carried out a few experiments with the view

43

of determining tlie amounts of copper' which are dissolved
by water charged with carbon dioxide under a pressure of
several atmospheres : the results are subjoined.

The apparatus were the same as that employed in the
experiments with lead.

Surface of copper exposed = 2100 sq. mm.

Table G.

Copi^er dissolved by ivater charged luith carbon dioxide
at a 'pressure of about 6 atmospheres.

Salt.

Mgms.

per

Litre.

Grains

per

Gallon.

Copper dissolved.

Mgnas.p
24- hrs.

ler Litre
48 hrs.

Grains i
24 hrs.

N

)er Gall.
48 hrs.

Potassium Carbonate ...

40

2-8

1-0

1-2

07

•084

Ammonium Nitrate

16

1-12

0-8

•056

Ditto

80

5'60

1-2

1-4

•084

•098

Distilled Water

0-4

0-6

•028

•042

Distilled water, charged with carbon dioxide, under a
pressure of (approximately) 6 atmospheres, dissolves about
three times as much copper as the same water charged at
the ordinary atmospheric pressure. Nitrates increase this
action and carbonates diminish it.

III. Influence of house cisterns upon the water supply.

There appears to be a somewhat wide-spread feeling
against the use of cisterns in dwelling-houses, which is, I
suppose, chiefly due to the fact that the waste pipe from
the cistern is generally in connection with the soil pipe
which carries off the drainage of the house.

The hurtful sewer gases may thus readily find their way
into the cistern, and so contaminate the water therein
stored. On the other hand, however, it may be urged that
inasmuch as the water in cisterns is frequentty changed
there is no great probability that the water actually used
for domestic purposes will be, at any rate largely, con-
taminated by sewer gas. I have attempted to obtain
some definite measurements of the amount of contamination

44

present in cistern waters, in so far as this may he estimated
by the chemical processes at present in our possession.

The method which I have adopted consists in measuring
the amount of free and of albumenoid ammonia, and the
amount of nitrogen existing as nitrates and nitrites : from
these data we may deduce, at any rate comparative measure-
ments, of the purity of various waters.

In order to prove conclusively, for my own satisfaction,
that if sewer gases be absorbed by water their presence will
be indicated by a marked increase in the quantities of
ammonia, free and albumenoid, obtained from that water
on analysis, I carried out the following preliminary experi-
ment : —

A quantity of distilled water, free from ammonia, was
placed in a porcelain basin, which was covered with porous
paper, and suspended at a short distance above the liquid in
a sewer which received the refuse from a very large area,
chiefly occupied by dwelling-houses, in Glasgow. After 96
hours, the free and albumenoid ammonia were estimated
with the following results : — ■

Free ammonia = 0*60 mgms. per litre = parts per million,
Albumenoid „ =0*54 „ „ = „

It is thus evident that the absorption of sewer gases by
water causes a marked increase in the quantities of ammonia
obtained on analysis.

The method adopted for the estimation of ammonia was
the well known one of Wanklyn and Chapman; the method
for the estimation of nitrates was that described by Thorpe
in the Journal of the Chemical Society for June, 1873.
This method consists in evaporating the water, along with
a fragment of ignited quicklime, to a small bulk, and then
evolving the nitrogen, as ammonia, by the action of zinc^
coated with a deposit of spongy copper, at a boiling heat.

In selecting the waters for examination I endeavoured, as
far as possible, to obtain typical samples : in this endeavour

45

I was greatly aided by the kindness' Qf Mr. Macleod, the
Sanitary Inspector for Glasgow, who obtained for me samples
of waters from various liouses situated in the lower parts of
the town.

The results are calculated as follows -
Table H.

Ammonia and nitrates found in various samples of ivater.

Mgms. per Litre=Farts per Million.

i-

ii. 1

iii.

iv.

V.

vi.

vii. viii. j

IJ^'

X.

xi.

xii.

Free Ammonia 1

•005

•085

•023

•015

•015

•Olo' -035*

•015

•075

•200

•045

Albumenoid Do. ...

•092

•120

•080

•082

•090

•080

•085 -085

•070

•065

•370

•090

Nitrogen as Ni- 1
trates& Nitrites, j

•309

•463

•321

•360

•20

•258 ...

1

•284

•306

•414

These samples were obtained from the following situations.
No. 1. From main pipe. No. 2. From cistern in same
house, little used. No. 3. From cistern in house similar to
No. 2, hut ivater generally used. No. 4. From pipe leading
directly out of the bottom of cistern in well-situated dwelling
house. No. 5. From cistern in smaller divelling house.
No. 6. From small cistern supplying part of a dwelling
house only. No. 7. From p)uhlic ivell supplied hy Loch
Katrine water contained in a wooden cistern closed at the
top. No. 8. FroWo cistern situated just under the slates in a
house in a lower locality than any of the preceding. No. 9.
From cistern over water-closet in a dwelling house. No. 10.
From cistern similar to above. No. 11. From the cistern
same as No. 9, but after stirring up the muddy deposit at
the bottom. No. 12. From cistern near the slates in a
house where there had been tivo cases of fever and ivhere the
ivater ivas complained of.

Omitting for the present No. 11, it is found that No. 2
sample yields the highest number for free and for albumenoid
ammonia, also for nitrates. Now this sample was taken
from the cistern of a house in which the pipes have been
recently entirely renewed, and in which the pipe leading
from the water-closet to the main drain is thoroughly venti-

46

lated. The water in this cistern is however very rarely used;
for all domestic piirjDoses a supply is obtained directly from the
main ; it would therefore appear that sevf er gases are slowly
absorbed by water stored in such a cistern. That this
absorptive action must take place slowly is evident if we
look at the results obtained from the other waters. Although
many of these waters were taken from badly situated
cisterns, yet in none of them can the influence of sewer
gases be distinctly traced. We must therefore conclude that
the rapidity with which the water in the cistern has been
changed has prevented any appreciable action of the gases
upon these waters. There are, it is true, slight variations in
the numbers obtained, but in no case do we find a notable
increase as compared with water from the main pipe.

The amount of ammonia, &c , obtained from a sample of the
slimy matter found at the bottom of one of the cisterns
(No. 11) indicates that a great part of the ammonium
salts, &c., is concentrated therein ; this matter may there-
fore perhaps exercise a certain beneficial effect upon the
water.

The general conclusions which I would draw from these
results are

(1.) That sewer gases are absorbed by water, but that this
absorption takes place slowly.

(2.) That in ordinary house cisterns the water is not
contaminated to any great extent Avith sewer gases, probably
because of the short time during which this water is
allowed to remain in the cistern, and also perhaps because of
the deposition of part of the impurities in the muddy sub-
stance which settles at the bottom of the cistern.

The general problem of the influence of the means of
supply upon potable waters is a very Avide one. I offer
these measurements as a contribution towards its solution.

47

In the course of the discussion which took place after the
reading of the above papers several of the members stated
that the town’s water as received at their houses was some-
times very turbid, and the President said it ought never to
be used for drinking purposes without being filtered.

J. G. Lynde, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., said that at his house
he had always found the water quite clear and pure, and
that although he had a filter it was now never used,

T. H. G. Beeeey, Ass. Inst. C.E., superintendent of
the Manchester Corporation Water Works, stated, in reply,
that there was no reason why the water should be dis-
coloured at the points named, except that it must have
been caused by the neglect of the turncock to cleanse the
hydrants according to instructions. The general supply
throughout the 36 townships supplied by the Manchester
Corporation was quite satisfactory, and the water was
never rendered turbid except in the case of a very heavy
thunderstorm, when the turbid water would sometimes,
during the night, get into the service reservoirs from the
adjoining brooks before it could be sent down the flood
watercourse.

MICEOSCOPICAL AND NATUEAL HISTOEY SECTION.

November 8th, 1875.

Aleeed Beothees, F.E.A.S., in the Chair.

Mr. Peecival exhibited specimens of Bryum Neoda-
mense Itzig [=B. formosum, Wilson MSS.] found by him,
in company with I)r. Wood and Mr. T. Rogers, on May
23rd, 1875, fruiting abundantly. ITitherto it had only been
found in a barren state in Britain. The locality is near
Freshfield, Lancashire.

48

The true place of this moss is next to E. pseudo triquetrum,
common upon the Lancashire mosses.

It was originally found at Birkdale, near Southport, hut
soon disappeared, owing to draining and building operations;
then it was again observed at the Bullrush Slack, by its
original discoverers, viz.. Dr. Wood, Mr. W. Wilson, and Mr.
H. Boswell, but never in a fruiting condition.

Mr. Thos. Rogeks exhibited living specimens of the rare
Irish Slug, geomalacus macidosus, from Lough Corrib, its
only known British habitat, and even there its range is
exceedingly restricted.

“The Fauna of Cjnnmeran Bay, Anglesea,” by John
Plant, F.G.S. — Part 2.

The list of the fishes and mollusca which I read to the
Section last April included all the species which had been
identified from the collections made in the summer of
1874 and at Easter, 1875,

The present list includes those which have been added by
a further examination of the shores and waters along the
coast from Khoscolyn to Aberffraw, of which line Cjnn-
meran Bay forms the centre.

The time devoted to the work extended from the end
of July to September, when the Aveather was rarely
disturbed by furious gales, such as preA^ail on this coast in
spring and autumn — so that the neAV collection possesses
none of the varieties which the rude waves of the Atlantic
at such times cast upon the rocks and sands.

The species in this list are therefore more likely to be
local and permanent than are some included in the former
list.

During the summer a fine young seal, Phoca vitulhia,
was caught fast asleep upon the rocks in the bay, and kept
in confinement a few days with the intention of sending it to

49

Belle Vue Gardens, Manchester, but* it managed to escape
from the room it was kept in, and actually travelled
down to the rocks, and got away to sea.

The fishermen say that the seal is well known along the
coast, and breeds in the more inaccessible clefts and caverns
in the bold sea cliffs, from the North Stack to Khoscotyn.
The Welsh name for The Skerries, the well known rocky
islets off Carmels Point, is Ynysoedd Moelroniaid, the Isles
of Seals. A century back, the seal was very common on
these rugged and little frequented coasts.

A few years ago, a shoal of Cetaceans found their way to
the head of Cymmeran Bay and were stranded in the strait
which divides Plolyhead from Anglesea. They proved to
be the Bottle-nosed Dolphin, Tursio tvuncatus, of Mon-
tagu.

The common Porpoise, Fhoccena communis, not infre*'
quently is seen and captured when sporting out in the
channel.

The additions to the fishes already enumerated, are not
many, for it is not easy to obtain specimens of the species
that are small and worthless for the table— they readily
escape through the nets used for mackerel and herrings.

Specimens of hig sharks are often seen in the bay by the
fishermen, but they give them a wide birth, and I
cannot make out the species from the imperfect descriptions
given in such an unscientific tongue as is the mixed Welsh
and English.

The Picked Dogfish, Acanthias mUgaris, will at times get
caught in the nets during the night, after making a hearty
meal upon the cod and whiting.

The spotted Ray, Raut macidoia, is often captured by
trawling, but it is not used for food, being cut up like its
congenor the thornback Ray, as bait for lobsters and crabs.

The Tui'bot, Rhombus maximus, is caught of moderate
size.

50

The Garfish; Belone vulgaris, rare.

The Grey Gurnard; Trigla guvnardus, is common with
the Piper Gurnard all the summer.

The additions to the former list of mollusca made during a
long visit have been sixty -two specieS; making a list of one
hundred and forty-one species. It is remarkable that
although the sandy shores about Cymmeran and Aberffraw
bays are both extensive and level between high and low
tidal markS; such well-known common species as
Gardium edule, TuTritella communis, Mytilus eduUs, and
otherS; should be excessively scarce; whilst such species as
Cyprcm Europoca, Patella pellucida, Tellma fabula, T.
tenuis, Cyprina Islandica, Mactra stidtorum, Pecten maxi-
mus, and Littorinse should be fairly abundant; if not quite
common.

The small species of Rissoa Odostomia, Skenea, and
Mangelia, occur in great numbers; the sand in places being
almost made up of these shells; mixed with Entomostraca;
Serpulse, comminuted shells; and crustacean claws. The
varieties of Eissoa parva, costata and striata are endlesS;
and it would be easy to multiply species of this genuS; and
also of Skenea, if only extremely marked or smooth speci-
mens were regarded.

In my former list are many species which were called
rare; as only one or two specimens or even a single valve
had been found in 1874; or at Easter of 1875. In some
cases this rarity has been proved by not finding additional
specimens this summer; asin Corhula, Psammohia, Dentalium,
Turritella (only two); Chemnitzia, Troplion, and Cylichna.

Amongst the fresh species there are none that occur
abundantly; but Pecten pusio, Cyprina, Scaphander,
Ceratisolen, Crenella, Adeorhis, Kellia, and Assiminea are
found in fair numbers between high and low tidal marks.
The rock-borers and tunicata have had but cursory attention
paid to them at present.

51

Some species are very local, being* only found within a
small rocky cove, or else confined to a limited zone on the
wi^e sands either at AberfFraw or at Cymmeran, a few even
are restricted to smaller patches of sand in one of the
numerous little creeks along the coast.

Additions to the Mollusca.
CEPHALOPODA.

80. Sepia ofhcinalis. The animal is occasionally caught in the

dredges, nets, and lines of the fishermen, and the bone
or shell is thrown on shore after a gale.

81. Sepiola xitlantica, seen at times in the deeper pools of the

rock.

82. Octopus vulgaris. This singular animal has been taken, but

it is very seldom kept, as its uncanny ways make it
dreaded by the nshermen.

83. Loligo vulgaris, taken in the nets. It is probably common

amongst the rocks, as my son saw the inky cloud dis-
charged from one in a small pool as his boat passed over
the spot.

ACEPHALA.

Fam. I. — Pholadid^.

84. Teredo norvagica, portions of the tube found in wreck.

85. Teredo navalis. The tube of this common shipworm is

found in old wreck floating into the bay, after months of
drifting in the Atlantic or in the Channel.

86. Pliolas Candida. Specimens are rare; no doubt the absence

of limestone rocks along this coast accounts for the
rarity of the Pholadidte.

87. Saxicava rugosa, A few specimens.

88. Alya truncata. A few perfect shells,

Fam. VI. — ANATiNiDiE.

89. Thracia phaseolina. One ralve only.

52

FaM. VII. — SOLENID^,

90. Solen ensis.

91. Solen marginatus.

92. Ceratisolen legumen.

Fam. IX. — Tellinid^.

93. Syndosmya prismatica, one specimen, rare.

Fam. XL — Mactrid^

94. Lntraria elliptica, many thich valves, separated and broken

by the gulls.

94a. Mactra elliptica, rare.

Fam. XII. — Venerid^.

95. Venus verrucosa, small variety.

96. . „ casina.

Fam. XIII. — CYPRiNiDiB.

97. Circe minima, very rare, only one valve,

98. Astarte sp.'?

Fam. XIV. — CARDiADiE.

99. Cardiiim fasciatum, very rare.

Fam. XVI. — Kelli ad.e.

100. Montacuta ferruginosa, rare.

101. Turtonia minnta, one valve, rare.

102. Kellia rubra.

Fam. XIX.— MYTiLiDiE,

103. Crenella marmorata.

Fam. XX. — ARCADiE.

104. Nncnla decnssata, rare, one valve.

105. Pectunculns glycimeris, rare, one valve.

Fam. XXI. — Ostread^e.

106. Pecten pusio, fine living shells, dredged.

107. „ tigrinns, rare, one very small valve.

108. ,, opercnlaris, rare,

109. „ ni veils, rare.

110. Anomia striata, rare.

111. „ ephippiiim, many varieties of this species, occur
commonly at high water line, living specimens dredged.

PROSOBRANCHIATA.

112. Chiton, sp. These singular mollusca occur pretty commonly

but the species are not yet satisfactorily identified,

Fam. XXVIII.-— Patellid^.

1 1 3. Pilidium falvum, rare, one worn specimen,

Fam. XXXI II. — Trochid^.

1 1 4. Trochus lineatus, very fine specimens- about the rocks at

low water — abundant.

115. Adeorbis subcarinata, a few specimens.

Fam. XXXVII. — Littorinid.e,

116. Littorina saxatilis, one specimen.

121. Assiminea Grayana.

122. Rissoa calathus.

123. ,, ventrosa, dead sliells

124. Skenea planorbis.

125. „ nitidissima.

126. „ rota.

Fam. XLI. — Pyramidellid.e,

127. Eulima polita.

128. Chemnitzia sp., uncertain until other specimens are found

for comparison.

129. Odostomia conoidea.

134. Nassa incrassata.

135. Fusus antiquus, brought up alive by dredging.

Fam. XL VI. — Conid^.

136. Mangelia linearis.

117. „ tenebrosa, and varieties,

118. Lacuna pallidula.

119. ,, puteolus.

120. „ vincta, and varieties.

130.

131.

132.

133.

rissoides.
unseulpta.
spiralis,
sp. uncertain.

Fam. XLV.— MuRiciDiE.

54

FaM. XLVIIL— BuLLIDiE.

137. Tornatella fasciata, rare.

138. Scaphander liguariiis.

TUXICATA.

Fam. — Ascidiat^.

139. Ascidia mentula. I found a very fine one attached to a

piece of slate^ at a very low tide : it was nearly six
inches long.

140. Ascidia sp. Several other forms have been seen, but not

taken for preservation.

Crustacea. — Upon further exploration it has been found
that the shrimp is a very rare species all along this coast,
but that the prawn, Palcemon serratus, is very abundant.

The fishermen firmly believe that the lobsters and crabs
are sensitive to coming violent changes in the wind and
weather, and maintain that they forsake the neighbourhood
of the rocks in the bay and go far out into deep water in
the channel 24 to 48 hours before the storm breaks on the
coast ; for none are ever caught in the ports a day or two
before the storm* That fishes leave the shallow waters
of the bay for deeper water before a storm, is a fact for
which I can myself bear testimony, as well as the fact
that on warm quiet days and nights, when the water is oily
and without a ripple, the fish frequent the bay in thousands.

Tlie Crustacea, Balanidse, Lepadidse, Annelidee, Echino-
dermata, Actinozoa, are only at present half ascertained, but
a sufficient number of specimens have been obtained to
make their further collection important ; and these, toge-
ther with the land and fresh- water shells, will be given in
a future list of the fauna of Cymmeran,

55

Ordinary Meeting, December^ 14th, 1875.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the

Chair.

Professor Schorlemmer exhibited a sample of peat from
lagoons in the Sierra Madre in Mexico. It is very dense
and not readily inflammable, giving very little flame, but
when once red-hot it burns completely, without requiring
much draught, to a perfectly v/hite ash containing much
calcium carbonate and a little sodium sulphide, which is
derived from glauber salt which the peat contains.

“On Graphic Methods of Solving Practical Problems” by
Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A.

In the first part of this paper it is pointed out that, when
dealing with practical problems by the aid of the graphic
method, it is not necessary to break off the operations of
drawing, and find numerical values for the quantities repre-
sented, in order to perform on them the operations of multi-
plication and division. For by the aid of a parallel ruler
the operations of multiplication and division may be per-
formed graphically with great facility. The only geometri-
cal proposition involved being that of finding a fourth
proportional to three distances. When two distances have
to be multiplied or divided the one by the other, a third dis-
tance is chosen equal to unity, and a fourth proportional
found which represents the product or ratio of the first
according as unity is the first or third of tlie given quanti-
ties.

^ The method was illustrated as applied to the determina-
tion of areas, centres of gravity, and moments of inertia.

In the second part of the paper a graphic method is
described by which the velocity and acceleration of a
moving point can be determined wlien the times at which it
Peoceedings-Ht. & Phil. Soc.-Vol. XV.-No. 4.-Session 1875-6.

56

occupies certain positions are known, ke. tlie curves repre-
senting the velocity and acceleration of the point may he
drawn from the curve representing the positions of tlie
point. Also a converse method hy which the position of a
point at any time may he found from the curve representing
either its velocity or displacement,

On Explosions of Fire Damp.”

E, W. Binney, V.P., F.E.S.; said that the fearful loss of
life in our coal mines deserved the careful attention of all
societies like ours. It ought to he one of the objects of
science to endeavour to find out the cause of these explo-
sions and to devise some means to prevent their occurrence
or lessen their frequency. No douht Government Inspec-
tion had heen of service, and the examination of managers
would tend to improve the efficiency of mining officers; hut
still notwithstanding these improvements the explosions of
fire damp are sadly too frequent. The lamentahle events
which have taken place during the last ten days clearly
show that they sometimes occur without any great change
in the barometric pressure of the atmosphere, although
undoubtedly sudden depressions in a barometer ought to
caution miners against emission of gas from the seam of coal
and coal wastes, and put the men more on their guard at
such times.

It has heen stated in this society that certain conditions
of the atmosphere quite irrespective of barometric pressure
may have something to do with causing the “ drag” in the
currents of air circulating through a mine, as explosions
have frequently occurred during an east wind and a muggy
state of the atmosphere, and a vesicular condition of water
in the air has heen suggested as the probable cause of this
lessening of the speed of the air passing through the galle-
ries of mines. Now, careful observations with a good
anemometer in the return air course of a mine ought to

57

determine wli ether or not such an effect is produced, and
thus settle this point by direct experiment.

Another source of accidents at this time of tlie year has
to be taken into consideration. Before Christmas and in cold
weather there is often a brisk demand for coal, and both
managers and men are in a hurry to increase the output,
and under such circumstances probably there may be
sometimes not so much care and caution exercised as are
necessary for them to use in the dangerous work in which
they are engaged.

In the management of a fiery mine, in my opinion,

1. There ought not to be any unventilated wastes.

2. The mixed use of Davy lamps and naked lights should
not be permitted where the former are commonly employed.

3. Blasting of coal by gunpowder should not be sanc-
tioned where Davy lamps are in common use.

4. An anemometer under the care of a competent man
should be in constant use in order to see that a sufficient
current of air is passing through the workings to insure
perfect ventilation of the mine..

5. When there are marked indications of fire damp in a
mine, shown by a cap on the flame of a lamp, the men en-
gaged in hewing and drawing coal should be removed from
the pit until b}^ ventilation the place is cleared of gas and
rendered safe for a working collier.

The above precautions may probably cause an increased
cost in the getting of coal, but they are necessary for the
preservation of human, life if such catastrophes as now fre-
quently occur are to be prevented. It is now pretty gene-
rally admitted that all explosions of fire damp are caused
by there being too little pure air and too much of that gas
in a mine.

“ Chemical Notes,” by M. M. Pattison Mum, F.R.S.E.,
Assistant Lecturer on Chemistry, Owens College.

I. On the h)oluhility of Potassium Perchlorate in Wccter.

58

Having a small quantity of pure Potassium perchlorate
at my disposal, I thought it might he interesting to deter-
mine the solubility of this salt in water at different temper-
atures.

The apparatus employed was similar to that described by
Hannay.^'

The salt was placed in a small test tube to which a ther-
mometer was strapped, the whole being surrouiided with ice
or water maintained at the proper temperature.

The following were the results obtained.

A. Temperature 0° C.

Weight of liquid in the bulb 4 '72 2 grins.

Weight of residue on evaporation 0-033 3 grins.

Weight of distilled w^ater contained in the bulb at
0°, 4 ’75 75 grins.

Weight of bulb itself, 5‘3954 grins.

Hence the specific gravity of an aqueous solution of this
salt saturated at 0° equals 1’0005: the percentage of salt in
solution is 0’705 : and the solubility of the salt is 1 part in
142*9 parts of water.

B. Temperature 25° C.

Weight of liquid in bulb 4*7418 grins.

Weight of residue on evaporation 0*0907 grins.

Other weights as before.

Specific gravity of aqueous solution saturated at 25°^
1-0123.

Percentage of salt in solution, 1*92.

Solubility, 1 part in 52*5 parts of water.

C. Temperature 50° C.

Weight of liquid in bulb 4*798.

V/eight of residue on evaporation 0*243.

Specific gravity of aqueous solution saturated at 50°,
1*0181.

Percentage of salt in solution 5*07.

Solubility, 1 part in 15*5 parts of water.

J. Cliem. Soc. [2] sii, 203.

59

D. Temperature 100° C.

Weiglit of liquid in bulb 4‘9965.

Weight of residue on evaporation 0-7870.

Specific gravity of aqueous solution saturated at 100°,
1-06603.

Percentage of salt in solution 15-76.

Solubility, 1 part in 5-04 of water.

For each rise of 25° the solubility and the percentage of
salt in solution increase in round numbers threefold.

I may add that I found Hannay’s apparatus exceedingly
accurate and serviceable.

II. On Basic Bismuth Pevchlorate.

If metallic Bismuth be heated with an aqueous solution
of perchloric acid it is slowly converted into a white non-
crystalline mass. This substance is insoluble in water;
when thoroughly washed amd dried between folds of blot-
ting paper it presents the appearance of a bulky, pure white
powder which it is difficult to obtain equally divided as the
particles tend to gather together and form small more or
less compact masses. This substance yields the following
numbers on analysis :

{a) 0-364 grams gave 0-2675 grams Bi203 = 0-2382 grams Bl

(6) 0-4-173

,, 5, 0’298 ,, j,

0-267

(c) 0-450

„ „ 0°3231 ,, „

-0-290

55 55

Calculated for BiO.ClOj

Found.

I. n.

III.

Bismuth 210

64-52.....

65-44 63-98

64-44

These numbers agree very well with those required by
the formula BiO.ClO^,, or it may be written Bi(C104,)3.Bi203.

Basic Bismuth perchlorate is almost perfectly insoluble in
water even at 100°; it is very readily dissolved by hydro-
chloric or nitric acid ; less readily by sulphuric acid ; at a
red heat it is decomposed with formation of bismuth
chloride which is slowly volatilised.

GO

III. On the Amount of Carbon Dioxide in the Air of Sea
Coast Places,

Thorpe (Chem. Soc. J. [2] v. 189) has shown that the air
over the ocean contains less carbon dioxide them air over
the land, the mean numbers being 3 '0 and 4'04 vols. per
10,000 of air respectively.

During the long vacation I interested myself with a few
experiments upon the air of the sea coast with a view to
determine whether it inclined, as regards carbon* dioxide, to
sea air or to land air.

The samples of air were collected at A rdrossan, a small
town on the firth of Clyde, where the liver is almost entirely
merged in the open sea.

The estimations were conducted in accordance with Pet-
tenkofer’s method.

1

Date,

1875.

Weatter.

Place and Time, j

Temp.

Barom.

Wind.

Vols. of
CO2 per
10,000 of
air.

Aug 2.

Fine but cloudy.

In boat, i mile;
from shore j 12
noon.

36°-5

7 67 mm.

Why S

3-87

» 4.

Clear, cloudless
1 sky. Sunset.

On shore, 8 p.m.

2V

760mm.

W byN

3*88

» 14.

Fine, fresb breeze

200 yards from
shore, 3 p.m.

2r

760mm.

SW

3-34

„ 18.

Fine, very clear ;
very heavy rain
during preced-
ing night.

On shore, 8.30

a.m.

16“

750mm.

my

3-40

„ 21.

Fine, very clear ;
rain during

morning.

In boat, i mile
from shore, 2. 30

p.m.

17’-5

767mm.

my

3-84

Sept. 3.

Fine, shoAvers

during preced-
ing days.

300 yards from
shore.

16“

!

' 759mm.
!

NW

4-01

Mean=3’72 vols. CO-2 per 10,000 of air.

The air of such a place as Ardrossa-n, although it be situ-
ated almost in the open sea, is not therefore influenced by
the sea, so far as the carbon dioxide is concerned, but con-
tains almost the same amount of that gas as is found in land

air.

61

Ordinary Meeting, December 28th, 1875.

Edward Schunck, Pli.D., F.RS., &c., President, in the

Chair.

The following communication from Dr. Joule, F.RS.,
V.P., was read : —

Unsuccessful attempts have recently been made for the
purpose of utilizing a modification of the common kite as a
means of obtaining a view of the surrounding country.
The machine in each instance rose only to fall violently to
the ground after remaining in the air a very short time.
These trials have brought to my recollection some experi-
ments I made more than six years ago, but of which I did
not publish the results, imagining that all such matters
must have been thoroughly elucidated by the Chinese, if
not by our own more juvenile kite flyers. The usual
method of making the skeleton of a kite is to afiix a rather
slender bow to the top of a standard, tying the extremities
of the bow to twine fastened to the bottom of the standard.
The steadiness of the kite in the air depends on the fact
that the wings yield with the wind. If the bow is too stiff
and the surface nearly a plane, instability results. A kite
ought to have a convex spherical surface for the wind to
impinge upon. Such a surface I readily made by fixing
two bows crosswise. The string was attached to a point a
little above the centre of the upright bow, and a very light
Proceedings — Lit. & Phil. Soc. — Vol. XV. — No. 5. — Session 1875-6.

62

tail was fastened to the lower end. The kite stood in the
air with almost absolute steadiness. I found that by pull-
ing strings fastened to the right and left sides of the hori-
zontal bow, the kite could be made to fly 30° or more from
the direction of the wind, and hence that it would be pos-
sible to use it in bringing a vessel to windward. One great
advantage of such a mode of propulsion over ordinary sails
would be that the force, however great, could be applied
low down, so as to produce no more careening than that
desired by the seaman.

E. W. Binney, V.P., F.B.S., said that in the Isle of
Man there had been a prevalence of easterly winds through-
out the months of October and November, such as he had
never experienced during a residence of ten years. This
appears to have influenced the migration of swallows. In
the beginning of September the chimney swallows and the
house martins assembled in great numbers on his buildings
on Douglas Head, as they were accustomed to do prior to
their annual departure, and disappeared. On the 5tli of
November, between 10 and 12 a.m., he observed a dozen
house martins ( Hirundo urhica ) in front of his house and
between it and the sea, busily employed in pursuing their
prey. During the summer months the swift and sand
martin are frequently seen in the same locality, but seldom
the swaUow or house martin, and he was inclined to believe
that the presence of the latter was due to their having been
driven out of their course by the easterly gales.

G3

Ordinary Meeting, January 11th, 1876.

Edwakd Schctnck, Ph.D., F.P.S., &c.. President, in the

Chair.

“ !N ote on a Method of Comparing the Tints of Coloured ‘
Solutions,” by J. Bottomley, D.Sc.

In the last number of the Chemical News, January 7th,
is a letter from Mr. Thos. P. Blunt, M.A., proposing a new
method of ascertaining the quantities of bodies in solution
by colorimetrical experiments. To two cylinders containing
equal columns of the fluid to be examined for a certain sub-
stance he adds measured quantities of that substance, adding
more of it to one cylinder than to the other ; he then pur-
poses to shorten the darker column until it corresponds in
depth of tint with the other, then from the length of the
two columns he calculates the quantity of the substance
originally present. At the end of his letter, alluding to the
method for shortening the column, he states “ The appro-
priate apparatus mentioned above so far as I am aware is
still a thing of the future.” Mr. Blunt’s suggestion with
slight variation may be practically carried out as follows : —
Take two cylinders of equal diameter; inside, at the
bottom of each, place a white porcelain disk (the flat lid of
a crucible will do). In these cylinders let there be equal
columns of fluid. In one cylinder, which may be called A,
let a tint be produced by a known quantity of the substance
sought. Suppose B to contain this substance, and first sup-

64

pose the tint in B darker than A. Take a white porcelain
lid and elevate it or depress it in B until the tint produced
is the same as in A, then if the height of the column of
fluid above the disk be h, and the total length of the
column H, and p the weight of the substance in A, then the
H

weight in B will be If the tint be stronger in A than

in B, then the disk must be allowed to sink in A until
identity of tint is obtained. It will be convenient to have
the cylinders of equal radii. If they are not so, then if B
be the radius of B and r the radius of A, the quantity of

H

the substance sought in B will be ^ — iJ. Instead of sup-
porting the string attached to the disk by the hand it
wmuld be more convenient for it to pass over a pulley and
have a counterpoise at the other extremity

“ On Explosions of Fire Damp,” by Bobert Bawson, Esq.,
Hon. Member of the Society.

Mr. Binney has done wisely in calling the attention of
the Society to the great loss of life in our coalmines by the
explosion of light carburetted hydrogen. Surely the appli-
cation of science may do a little good, even if its powers are
limited to pointing out the advantages of order and obedi-
ence while contending with a foe so subtle and powerful as
is carburetted hydrogen, and which is unfortunately so
plentiful in many of the coalmines* My object now is to
supplement the excellent rules recommended by Mr. Binney
with a few observations which struck me in reading Mr.
Binney’s paper on this subject. Fire damp may be regarded
as an enemy possessing terrible powers — and coalminers on
the other hand may be regarded as an army whose mission

65

is to filch the black diamonds from the grasp of this power-
ful enemy with the least possible expenditure of life and
force. In my opinion a little of military obedience and
tactics might be introduced with advantage into the struggle
maintained between the coalminer and the fire damp. It is
well known that the safety of an army, when before an
enemy, is much improved by keeping a good look out at a
considerable distance and in every possible direction. Ve-
dettes are usually stationed on the outposts of an army for
the express purpose of watching the movements of the
enemy, and to give timely notice of his approach. By this
means the evils which frequently follow a surprise are con-
siderably diminished, and sufficient time is given for the
army to retreat or otherwise with advantage if the enemy
is too strong. Many illustrations of this simple and obvious
principle may be found in the common affairs of every-day
life, but the above is sufficient to show tlie force of my argu-
ment in reference to the dangers met with in coalmines.
Why the army of coalminers should be deprived of a system
which affords so many obvious advantages is a question
which should receive immediate and serious consideration
from every lover of humanity, A system of vedettes should
therefore be at once adopted in coalmines to watch the
movements and strength of the fire damp.

1. A vedette, armed with ample knowledge of the proper-
ties of fire damp, should be placed at the various outposts
of the mine where the enemy is likely to appear. His duty
should be to watch, constantly and carefully, over the safety
of the miners, and not allow them to remain at work until
the enemy is upon them.

2. Miners should not be allowed to work where it is

66

unsafe to fire a shot or expose a naked light. For men to
work several hours in an atmosphere highly charged with
light carbiiretted hydrogen may be consistent with their
desires to maintain their families in comfort and independ-
ence; but is hardly consistent -with the wish of a great
nation for the welfare of its mining population.

3. Unventilated wastes are magazines of dynamite; and
according to Mr. Binney should bC; if possible, avoided in
coalmines.

4. System, watchfulness, and complete knowledge of the
enemy’s position and force, will no doubt diminish the
probability of the happening of events which too often
overtake the miners by surprise and fatal consequences.

5. A more palpable and delicate test of the presence and
strength of fire damp should be supplied than the flame of
a candle or Davy lamp.

I may add in conclusion my conviction, that the increased
price of coal incident to the changes here alluded to would
be cheerfully borne by the public, who would rejoice to see
the adoption, at any reasonable cost, of a system which
promises to reduce the fatal casualties in coalmines.

07

Ordinary Meeting, Janimry 2qI:}i; 1876.

E. W. ’Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

'^Stannic Arsenate,” by William Caeleton Williams,

F. C.S., Demonstrator in the Chemical Laboratory of the
Owens College.

A mixture of moderately concentrated aqueous solutions
of stannic chloride amd arsenic acid gradually thickens on
standing, and after the lapse of two or three weeks solidi-
fies, forming a transparent colourless noncrystalline mass.
In order to ascertain the composition of this substance I
subjected a considerable quantity of it to dialysis; hydro-
chloric acid and the excess of arsenic acid or stannic chloride
passed througl) the dialyser, leaving a gelatinous residue of
pure stannic arsenate. This jelly is heavier than water, it
floats in a liquid having a specific gravity 1T85. Strong
acids, and solutions of caustic potash or soda, dissolve it
readily. In water it dissolves very slov/ly. From this
aqueous solution certain reagents reprecipitate the arsenate
of tin as a gelatinous mass, identical in its appearance, proper-
ties, and composition vrith the original jelly. These reagents
are hydrochloric, nitric, and sulphuric acids, the chlorides of
barium, calcium, ammonium, and iron, also silver nitrate
and pota^ssium iodide. Alcohol, acetic acid, sodium phos-
phate, mercuric chloride, and the carbonates of sodium,
potassium, amd ammonium, do not produce any change.

This substance contains a large amount of water, the
greater pa.rt of v/hich is expelled at a temperature of 100° C,
A small quantity however is retained most pertinaciously,
and is not driven off at 200°, Below a dull red heat decom-
position takes place and fumes of amsenious oxide escape.

51 ’9 grm. dried at 100° C, left 1'9 grin, residue. Loss of
water = 50 grm. or 96*3 per cent.

The residue somewhat resembles gum arable in appear-
Proceedings — Lit. & Phil, Soc. — Vol. XV. — No. 6. — Session 1875-6.

G8

ance. It is soluble in strong hydrochloric acid and in aqua
regia, but is insoluble in water, nitric and sulphuric acids.
Analysis of the residue gave the following results;

Wt. tlm.

gave

%

Avge.

0*3897 grm..

..0*1696 grm. SnOo

= 34.4Sn ]

>34.46 Sn

0*8214 „ .

,..0*359

5?

= 34-52,, J

0*3013 „ .
0*5228 „ ,

,..0*2395

...0*397

„ MgNH4AsO,H.O = 29-96As ■
„ „ = 29-69

j. 29-82 As

0*7842 „ .
0*852 „

...0*0801

...0*099

„ H,0

= 10-21H,O 1
= 11-02 „ J

j. 10-91 H.0

The simplest formula agreeing with tliese results is

As Sii 0 H^O

Found 29*82 34*46.,,... — 10.91

Calculated ... ...29*46... ...34*76 25*18 10*6

Professor Reynolds, M.A., exhibited and explained the
action of a Geissler’s Light Mill.

Ordinary Meeting, February 8th, 1876.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the

Chair.

Mr. W. A. Cunningham and Mr. W. Brockbank were
appointed Auditors of the Treasurer’s Accounts.

Professor 0. Schorlemmer, F.R.S., read the following
communication, which he received a short time ago from
Professor SiDTLER, of the University of Pennsylvania : —

“ Since I heard from you I have been analysing some of
the natural gases from the gas wells in Butler County,
Pennsylvania, in the midst of the oil region.

“ This gas has been brought in lines of piping eighteen
miles to Pittsburg, and is used with great success as fuel in
the rolling mills there, so the Geological Survey sent me to
collect and analyse it,

(39

“You will remember that Foiique {€coniJt. Mend. 67; 1 Go 4)
analysed five of these natural gases from widely different
localities and found them to be mixtures of the lower mem-
bers of the paraffin series.

“I find free Hydrogen, Marsh Gas CH^, Ethyl Hydride
C^Hg, and a trace of Butyl Hydride C^H^o, with some little
Carbonic Acid, in the two that I have already analysed. The
hydrides of ethyl ?md butyl I collected qualitatively at the
wells by passing the gas through absolute alcohol.

“ The occurence of free hydrogen was an unexpected result,
as Foiique found none in any of the gases analysed by him;
but its presence is proved by his own equations given for a
mixture of the paraffin series.”

Professor Schorlemmer added, that Dr. E. Eonalds, of Edin-
burgh, examined, in 1865 (Journ. Ghem. Boc. 18, 54) the
most volatile constituents of crude American petroleum, and
found them to consist of homologues of marsh gas. Marsh,
gas itself was not present ; but in conclusion he says : there
appears to be little doubt that marsh gas and, perhaps, even
free hydrogen will be found among the gases which are
evolved with the oil at the springs.

Notice of a recent discovery of a prehistoric burial place
near Colombier in Switzerland,” by William E. A. Axon,
M.B.S.L., &c.

The Journal des Bdhats of Feb. 1st, 1876, cites from a
Swiss paper a notice of an interesting archaeological disco-
very in Switzerland. In sinking the foundations for a
building now in course of construction on the border of the
lake between Colombier and Auvernier, the workmen came
upon some large pieces of stone each a.bout one metre broad
and one mtkre 50 centimetres long. These covered a series
of cavities formed of flagstones surrounding the opening,
which Avas filled Avith earth, pebbles, and graAml. The stones
are blocks of various sorts of Alpine granite, evidently

70

fashioned by liimian labour at a very remote period. In
one of tlie cavities were found fifteen skeletons, one of
tliem being that of a child. The discovery of a bronze ring
would appear to indicate that these individuals belonged to
the bronze age, but there were also found a stone axe
(nephrite), and bears’ teeth pierced to form necklaces. The
first grave was explored on the 24th January, and further
examination was in progress,

Mr. BrockbaNK, F.G.S., exhibited a large collection of
granites from the Ravenglass district, and from Criffel,
wdiich he had got together with a viev/ to proving the
origin of the large granite boulders recently found in the
glacial clay or till of this district.

The fine boulder recently placed in this Queen’s Park, and
which was found in the railway cutting through the drift
clay at Co]lyhurst, proves to be of Ravenglass granite, such
as is found in Eskdale, about four miles above Ravenglass.
It is a very fine example of a glaciated boulder, being
polished and scratched on several sides, and very little
weathered, so that it is pretty much in the condition in
which it v/as when deposited in the clay.

Two large boulders were recently found in the foundations
for the corporation buildings near the Manchester Exchange.
One of these is of Ravenglass granite, of a deep red colour,
such as is now found in the Mimcaster Fell quarries about
two miles from Ravenglass.

The other is a most interesting specimen differing greatly
in appearence from the Queen’s Park boulder, in being
much weathered, and presenting no worn surfaces' except
one of its sides, and no ice markings. This may partly be
accounted for by its having been found in the gravel, but
the writer believed it to point to other glacial conditions
than those wdiich had obtained wdth the Collyhurst boulder.
This granite appears to be identical with tliat nov/ worked

71

ill the Spy Crag quarry, near Dalb.eattie, in the Criffei
district, and if so it affords a most interesting evidence of
the northernly origin of oiir drift current.

The red granite boulder which for many years stood at
the end of the v/atering trough at Kooden-lane, and which
now lies in the grounds of Mr. IT. M. Ormerod, at Cheetham
Hill, is of the red granite of Muneaster Fell, near Kavenglass.

It had been asserted by Professor Dawkins that the
Queen's Park boulder was of Shap granite, but the writer is
quite certain that this is not the fact, and he has never
found any of the Shap Fell granites in the boulder clays of
South Lancashire,

E. W. BinKey, V.P., F.R.S., said, since the publication of
his paper on the Drift Deposits of Manchester in Vol. YIII.
(second series) of the Society’s Memoirs, attention had been
directed to the preservation of large boulder stones. The
date of that memoir was 1847, and in it was described and
figured the fine block of grey granite now placed in Peel
Park. It 'svas found in the till or brick clay at Park Place,
Higher Broughton, just below the house then occupied by
Mr. W. Sale, and remained on the road side till about the
beginning of 1850, v/hen the owners of the land were dig=
ging a hole to bury the stone, amd thus get it out of the Way,
He wrote a letter to the Editor of the Mcmchester Guardian,
which appeared in that paper of the 13th February, 1850,
suggesting that the Peel Park Committee should fetcii the
stone and place it in their park. His appeal was responded
to without loss of time, and it now is placed at the entrance
to the park. He was glad to find that the preservation of
this specimen had been of service in saving other large
boulder stones from the rite of burial. He had himself seen
the fine specimen of red granite placed in the Park at
Macclesfield, and the large block of hard green stone, weigln
ing nearly 20 tons, now preserved in the Oldham Park. It

was very desirable that when any more specimens are met
with they should be preserved in the public parks, or some
other suitable places for the inspection of the public. Lan-
cashire and Cheshire contain many large boulders, and it is
to be wished that they should not be buried near to where
they are found, so as to get lid of them. In his remarks on
the building stones of Manchester in 1856, YoL I,, p. 194 of
the Proceedings of the Society, he stated : “ By the facilities
which railways now afford one might have expected that
some of the beautiful syenite of Shaj), containing large
crystals of felspar or the grey syenite of Bootle and Kaven-
glass would have made their appearance in Manchester, but
to my knowledge none of them have been used. It is
possible they may not have been known to our architects.”
He was glad to say that the former stone had been intro-
duced into the buildings of our city, and, when polished,
had a beautiful appearance. It was a granite of very
marked character, and could not easily be mistaken. After
a search of forty years he had never found a specimen of it
in the drift near Manchester, and when he heard from the
newspapers that a block had been discovered at Collyhurst,
and placed in Queen’s Park, he went to look at it, but that
stone was certainly not Shap granite, a rock which he had
several times carefully examined in the quarry at Wastedale
Head. It was a grey granite, and it was difficult to speak
with certainty whether it came from Bavenglass, Dalbeattie,
or the Isle of Man, as specimens from those places are much
alike, and it would require to be carefully analyzed by a
chemist before it could be identified,

“On the fomicdion of Aziirite from Malachite,” by
Charles A. Burghardt, Ph.D.

Two years ago I placed a specimen of rather poor Mala-
chite (from Alderley Edge) on a rockery in my garden
where it would be exposed to the action of the weather, in

order to ascertain wb ether any change would take place in
its composition. Last December I examined the specimen
and found it had been acted upon by the weather to a con-
siderable extenb as specks of a dark blue mineral were
distributed here and there upon its surface. This dark blue
mineral proved to be Azurite. Messrs. Wibel and Tiingel
(Dent. Chem. Geo. Berichte IV. 138), in a short paper on the
formation of Azurite state that it is formed from Malachite
by the absorption of carbonic acid and elimination of water,
as Azurite contains a much larger percentage of carbonic
acid than Malachite. This statement still remains to be
proved, but it is scarcely probable that the moderate heat of
our last tv/o summers was sufficient to cause a Joss of water
in the Malachite specimen. At some future time I shall
endeavour to ascertain the real cause of the formation of
Azurite,

On a Direct-Vision Spectroscope of great Dispersive
Power,” by Arthur Schuster, Ph.D.

This instrument is made by Mr. Adam Hilger of London,
The following are its chief advantages : —

1. The compound prism has a very great dispersive
power. The nickel line between the two sodium lines is
easily seen in the solar spectrum.

2. The cross wire is replaced by a very fine slit which
can be illuminated from above to any degree of intensity.

3. The slit is moveable by means of a very fine micro-
meter screw; the position of the slit can be read off to
within O'OOOl inch.

The measurement is made by bringing the line to be
measured against the bright slit which comes down from
the top to the middle of tlie field. The position of the lines
can be easily measured to within the fifth part of the dis-
tance between the sodium lines.

a New Absorptiometer/' by AiiTHUB Schuster^

Ph.D,

In some recent researclies Professor Vogel found that the
relative intensity of the red and blue part of the solar
spectrum was subject to great changes. While rvorking
with the spectroscope at considerable heights on the southern
slope of the Western Himalayas, I was struck by the same
fact. The instrument which I have now the honour to
exhibit before the Society is constructed in order to measure
the relative intensity of the I’ed and blue light in the solar
or any other spectrum, by comparing the intensity of each
ray with that given out by a standard lamp. The photo-
metric principle involved in the measurement is that first
used by Professor Zollner. The intensity of a certain part
of the spectrum is brought to the same intensity as that of
the standard light by a system of Nicol’s prisms. Pro-
fessor Zollner only compared the whole intensity of two
sources of light and did not investigate the relative intensity
of the different colours. D. Glaii constructed another ap-
paratus by which he could measure the relative intensity of
different colours, but his instrument was constructed for an
entirely different object, and is not suitable for the purpose
for which the present instrument is made.

The instrument, which I have called absorptiometer,
because it is intended chiefly for the determination of the
absorption of light taking place in our atmosphere, consists
of a table similar to that of a goniometer table, but being
able to turn round on a horizontal axis so as to give it any
inclination to a horizontal surface. The telescope of the
goniometer is replaced by a direct -vision spectroscope.
Opposite the spectroscope a tube is fixed to the table con-
taining two Nicol’s prisms. One of the prisms is fixed j
the other can be turned, and its azimuth read off on a
graduated circle. The standard light is placed behind its
tube. The intensity of the light falling unto the slit of the
A

spectroscope is ^ sina, where a is the angle between two of
the principal planes of the two Nicol prisms, and A the

intensity of the light which would Ml into the slit of the
spectrosco]3e if the NicoFs were removed.

A jDlane parallel piece of glass, acting as mirror, is fixed
unto the small table, the centre of which coincides with the
centre of the large goniometer table. The parallel sides can
be adjusted by means of 8 screws until they are vertical.
This mirror reaches to such a height that the horizontal
plane laid through the top of the platS would bisect the
tube containing the two Nicols.

The light which is to be examined falls through a tube
containing one Nicol, and is reflected by means of the
plane parallel mirror into the lower half of the spectroscope.
If the ray of light is reflected at the angle of polarization
the intensity of this light can be reduced to nothing by
means of the rotation of the Nicol.

On placing the standard light in front of the tube con-
taining the two Nicols and allowing the light which is to
be examined to be reflected into the spectroscope on the
mirror through the tube containing one Nicol, the mirror
being placed at the angle of polarization, we observe in the
spectroscope the two spectra one above the other, and by
turning the Nicols we can reduce the intensity of the
brighter light to that of the weaker for any colour we like.
The positions of the Nicols will enable us to find the
relative intensity of the two lights for the different colours.

MICEOSGOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.

December 6th, 1875,

Charles Bailey, Escp, Vice-President of the Section, in
the Chair.

Mr. SiDEBOTHAM, P.R.A.S., sent for exhibition some sand
from a river far inland of New Guinea, containing particles
of gold, magnetic and n on-magnetic iron, foraminiferse,
silicified fragments of echini, and shells.

76

Mr. J. Cosmo Melvill exhibited two specimens of the
Spurge Hawk Moth (Deilephila Enphorbim) ; said to have
been captured in the larval state at Ecclesbourne; near
Hastings, feeding in all probability on Euphorbia Amygda-
loides, as he subsequently visited the spot and could see no
trace of any other Spurge.

January l7th, 1876.

John Bareow, Esq., in the Chair.

Mr. SiDEBOTHAM, F.R.A.S., exhibited a magnified drawing
and specimens of lymexylon navale from Dunham Park,
and read a short paper on the life history of the insect,
which he and Mr. Chappell had studied since its discovery in
Dunham Park in 1872. Previously to that time only one
authentic British specimen was known; this was found
at Windsor nearly fifty years ago.

The species is very abundant in some of the old oak trees
in Dunham Park, but specimens are difficult to capture, as
they fly about the tops of the trees, and to obtain them
a net attached to a very long pole is required.

Mr. SiDEBOTHAM also read a paper on Psammodius Sulci-
collis, and exhibited specimens taken at Southport in 1875.
This has been considered a very rare species, but its habits
being now known, it is easy to obtain a comparative abund-
ance. It buries itself in the dry sand at the foot of the
sandhills during the day, coming out about 5 p.m.

Mr. Plant exhibited various objects of interest, including
a longicorn Beetle (Astinoinus gedilis) from a coal mine
near Manchester; also cases of a N. American caddis worm
(Phryganea sp<) much resembling a mollusk of the gentfs
Valvata., and once named by Lea Yalvata arenicola.

77

Ordinary Meeting, February 22nd, 1876.

Edwakd Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c.. President, in the Chair.

“ N otes on a Collection of Apparatus employed by Dr.
Dalton in his Researches, which is about to be exhibited
(by the Council of the Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester) at the Loan Exhibition of Scientific Apparatus
at South Kensington,” by Professor Roscoe, F.R.S.

The apparatus employed by John Dalton in his classical
researches, whether physical or chemical, was of the simplest
and even of the rudest character. Most of it was made
with his own hands, and that which is to be exhibited has
been chosen as illustrating this fact, and as indicating the
genius which with so insignificant and incomplete an expe-
rimental equipment was able to produce such great results.
The Society has in its possession a large quantity of appara-
tus used by Dalton, most of which however consists of
electrical apparatus, models of mechanical powers, models of
steam engines, air pumps, a Gregorian telescope, and other
apparatus of a similar kind, which was either bought or
presented to him. It has not been thought necessary to
exhibit these, but rather to show the home-made apparatus
with which Dalton obtained his most remarkable results.

I. Meteorological and Physical Appcmdus made and, used
by Dr. Dalton.

Throughout his life Dalton devoted much time and atten-
tion to the study of meteorology; indeed his first work,
published in 1798, was entitled “Meteorological Observa-
tions and Essays,” and his last paper, printed in 1842,^'

* Vide Life of Dalton by Dr. Henry, published by the Cavendish
Society ; Memoir of Dr. Dalton and the History of the Atomic Theory,
published in the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester, 2nd Series, Vol. 1 ; Dr. Lonsdale’s Life of Dalton, Longmans,
1874.

Proceedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc. — Vol. XV. — No. 7. — Session 1875-G,

78

(Mem. Lit. and Phil. Soc. VI. 617); consists of auroral obser-
vations. Hence the first of Dalton’s apparatus which claims
attention are the meteorological instruments.

No. 1 is Dalton’s mountain barometer, with accompanying
thermometer, made for him by the late Mr. Lawrence Buchan,
a member of the Society. The barometer is enclosed in a
wooden case which Dalton was accustomed to carry in his
hand.

Several home-made barometers used by Dalton in his
observations are in possession of the Society. They are all
of them filled, and the scales prepared, by Dalton himself,
and are simple siplion tubes with a bulb blown on at the
bottom to serve as a mercury reservoir. These are attached
to plain pieces of deal upon the upper part of which the
paper scale is pasted. One of these, which has probably
also served for tension experiments (No. 2), has been placed
in the collection.

Many of the thermometers appear also to have been
home-made. No. 3 is a mercurial thermometer evidently
made and graduated by Dr. Dalton, and marked with his
initials, J. D. The freezing point of this thermometer was
tested recently by Mr. Baxendell, who found that it had not
altered since the instrument was graduated. Another
(No. 4) is of the same kiiid and bears the date 1823; No. 5
is a third mercurial thermometer with long stem and
wooden scale; No. 6 is an alcohol thermometer with wooden
scale ; and No. 7 a registering maximum and minimum ther-
mometer employed by Dalton, maker’s name J. Eonchetti,
29, Balloon-street, Manchester.

II. Apparatus Constructed and Used by Dalton in his
Researches.

(1) “On the constitution of mixed gases,” (2) “On the
force of steam or vapour from water or other liquids at
different temperatures both in a Torricellian vacuum and

79

in air/’ (8) “ On evaporation/’ and (4) '' On the expansion of
gases by heat.”^'

No. 8 is an apparatus used for the determination of the
tension of volatile liquids at low temperatures ; it consists
of a siphon tube, at the upper end of which is a scale in
inches in Dalton’s handwriting. He describes it thus :

I took a barometer tube 45 inches in length, and having
sealed it hermetically at one end, bent it into a siphon
shape, making the legs parallel, the end that was closed
being 9 inches long, the other 86 inches. I then conveyed
2 or 8 drops of ether to the end of the closed leg and filled
the rest of the tube with mercury except about 10 inches
at the open end. This done, I immersed the whole of the
short leg containing the ether into a tall glass containing
hot water.”

No. 9 is a smaller tube containing another liquid, also
having a graduated scale written on paper and attached to
the tube. Nos. 10, 11, 12, 18, 14, are tubes used by
Dalton for measuring the tension of vapour from water and
other liquids at higher temperatures than their boiling
points, both in a vacuum and air. No. 15 is a tube used by
Dalton for measuring the tension of the vapour of bisulphide
of carbon, labelled “ Sulphuret carb.,” with a paper scale in
Dalton’s handwriting, and a cork showing that the upper
portion of the tube containing the bisulphide of carbon
could be heated in a water bath to various temperatures.
No. 16 is a manometer tube, fixed into a board, divided and
numbered by Dalton. No. 17 is an apparatus used by
Dalton for the determination of the tension of the vapour
of ether, and is interesting as being the instrument by means
of which Dalton arrived at one of his most important
experimental laws. It is described as follows (p. 564): —

* Experimental essays on tlie above subjects, by John Dalton, read
October 2nd, 16tb, and 30th, 1801, and published in the 1st series, vol. 5,
part 2, of the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Man-
chester.

80

“ The ether I used boiled in the open air at 102°. 1 filled
a barometer tube with mercury moistened by agitation in
ether ; after a few minutes a portion of the ether rose to the
top of the mercurial column, and the height of the column
became stationary. When the whole had acquired the
temperature of the room (62°) the mercury stood at 17'00
inches, the barometer being at the same time 29 ’75 inches.
Hence the force of the vapour from ether at 62° is equal to
12’74 of aqueous vapour at 172° temperature, which are 40°
from the respective boiling points of the liquids.”

This is generally known as Dalton’s law of tensions, since
shown by Regnault not to be rigorously true.

No. 18 is a wet and dry bulb mercurial thermometer
made by H. H. Watson, of Bolton.

III. Apparatus for Measuring Gases, and for determining
the Solubility of Gases in Water.

No. 19 is an apparatus with a graduated tube, probably
used by Dalton for the determination of the laws regulating
the absorption of gases by water and other liquids,” read
October 21st, 1803^'. No. 20 is a graduated glass tube
attached to a bottle of indiarubber, also probably used in
his researches on the absorption of gases by water. No. 21,
No. 22, are divided endiometer tubes, employed by Dalton
for measuring the volumes of gases. No. 23 is a spark eudi-
ometer ; Nos. 24, 25, 26 are glass tubes, pipettes, and
funnels graduated by Dr. Dalton and used by him for
measuring gases ; No. 27 is a graduated glass bell-jar, used
for measuring gases ; No. 28 is a phial, with graduated tube
attached by cement, for collecting and measuring gases;
Nos. 29, 30 are stoppered phials with the bottoms cut off,
used as gas jars for collecting and measuring gases; No. 31
is a thousand grains specific gravity bottle, with its counter-
poise of lead stamped ''175” and paper labelled "bottle

* “Manchester Memoirs.” 2nd Series. Vol. 1.

81

balance;” No. 32 is a pipette; No. 33 square bottle of thin
glass, fitted with brass caps, and probably used for the
determination of the specific gravities of gases ; No. 34 is an
earthenware cup, used by Dalton as a mercury-trough, and
containing a small phial with mercury; Nos. 35, 36 are
bulb-tubes, with graduated scales which may have served
for the determination of the coefficients of expansion of
gases; No. 37 is a Florence flask with cork and valve for
determining the specific gravity of gases ; No. 38 is a glass
alembic.

IV. Weights, Balances, Apparatus, Reagents and Specimens
used by Dalton.

No. 39, eleven |:)hials, containing creosote, iodine, a;mak
gam of bismuth and mercury, quercitron bark, grana
sylvestra cochineal, and other substances, labelled in Dal-
ton’s handwriting. No. 40, three divided blocks, used by
Dalton for the illustration of his lectures; these are not,
however, the balls an inch in diameter (referred to in his
latest memoir on the “ Analysis of Sugar ”) which he em-
ployed occasionally in his lectures, as illustrating his newly-
discovered laws of combination and the atomic theory;
these appear, unfortunately, to be no longer in existence.
No. 41 is a common pair of scales used by Dalton ; No. 42,
a pair of apothecary’s scales and weights employed by
Dalton, with a paper of weights made of wire, labelled in
his handwriting, “ 100th grains.” No. 43 is a box of weights
used by Dalton, and containing a pill box labelled “Platina,”
another pill box labelled “ Hund,” and containing 100th of
grains, and another wooden box containing brass gramme
weights, labelled “Weights, French;” the other ordinary
weights are of lead. No. 44 is Dalton’s pocket balance^
consisting of a small pair of apothecaries’ scales, with beam
about 4 inches long, and having the pans attached by
common string ; it is contained in a tin case for the pockets

82

No. 4f5 is a penholder used by Dalton. No. 46, leaden
grain weights made by Dalton from sheet lead, and stamped
in numbers by him ; No. 47, iron punches used by Dalton
for this purpose. No. 48, a glass lens, wrapped in a piece
of paper labelled, in Dalton’s writing, “ Sun’s focus 4*2
inches.” No. 49 is a paper containing “ 10th of grains,”
made by Dr. Dalton of iron wire. The paper in which these
are wrapped is part of a note from one of Dr. Dalton’s
pupils (as is well known he lived by teaching mathematics
at half-a-crown per lesson), in which the writer presents his
‘^compliments to Mr. Dalton, and is sorry that he will not
be able to wait upon him to-day, as he is going to Liver-
pool with a few friends who are trying the Railway for the
first time. Mr. D. may fully expect him on Monday at the
usual time.” No. 50 are bottles of tin, earthenware, and
silver, some of them being common penny pot ink bottles.
Each has a thermometer tube cemented into the neck of
the bottle, and these tubes are provided with paper scales.
These were used by Dalton probably for experiments on
radiant heat. No. 51 is a manometer tube used by Dalton;
it consists of a tin vessel attached on either side to leaden
tubing, and having a thermometer-tube closed at the upper
end, and provided with a divided scale, fixed into the upper
portion of the tin vessel. No. 52, Dalton’s balance, made
by Accum, and capable of arrangement as hydrostatic bal-
ance, with weights and counterpoises.

The following letter from Mr. Arthur Wm. Waters,
dated Naples, February 9th, 1876, was read by Mr. Baxen-
DELL : —

Having expected to return ere this, I thought that, in the
conversational hour before papers are read, I should have
been able to say a few words on the Aquarium at Naples,
where I have been working for six weeks, the British
Association Committee for the establishment of zoological

83

stations, having granted me their table*; ^but having, for the
purpose of getting further acquainted with the fauna of the
Mediterranean, become connected with the institution for a
short time, I shall not be in England until after the last
meeting of the session, and so send a letter that you may
read, if you see fit, when there is a dearth of subjects for
conversation.

The zoological station is connected with an aquarium
which is more generally known, but is the least important
part of the institution, and it was for the sake of the former
that the undertaking was started and has been carried on
by Dr. Dohrn. There are, in rooms above the aquarium,
tables for twenty-four to work, and the greater part of these
have been taken up by different governments, but some by
other institutions — as the British Association and the Uni-
versity of Cambridge, and Dr. Dohrn is anxious the whole
number should be taken, in order to place the station in a
Satisfactory position.

As the full advantage of such stations are not known to
all, a word or two on the opportunities for scientific utility
may perhaps have an interest for some of my friends of the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.

The station has been established by Dr. Dohrn two years,
when he built, as I have before said, an aquarium, together
with convenient rooms for study, library, and museum. As
the most important direction of zoological research is at the
present moment embryology and the study of development,
it is natural that it should be principally used for advancing
science in this direction, and, as I shall show, in no branch
are the advantages more felt ; and although this, I believe,
was fully appreciated by Dr. Dohrn, when he determined to
erect an aquarium at Naples, it was not merely with the
idea of advancing zoology in this branch, but that natural-
ists should have the opportunity of using it for any purpose
which they found might forward the branch of science they

84

had taken up. The greater immher who have used the
tables here have followed up the embryology of some group
or species, but others have worked at the anatomy either of
an organ or, on the other hand, of a class or species. I found
that it presented great advantage for studying systematically
a group, and in the six weeks during which the British
Association granted me their table, I have been able to
make a large collection of Bryozoa, the determination oi
which I have not been able to complete, as I cannot obtain
some of the most important literature on the subject here ;
but I may say that I have over one hundred species and
expect to find it not under one hundred and fifty, and
probably it will be the largest number obtained from any
one locality. These I have collected for the purpose of com-
parison with my collection of Bryozoa from various periods
of the tertian formation.

For the study of embryology it is necessary that a very
large number of animals should be collected, and that often
continuously for a long time ; and this is a difficult and ex-
pensive thing for a naturalist, especially in a foreign town,
but as the station has two fishermen, with a very large
knowledge of the animals, who are out every day with in-
structions to bring such animals as are wanted at the time,
and as the fishermen in the whole neighbourhood are

o

encouraged to bring anything rare or that is wanted at the
time, it will be clear that for such studies or other anatomi-
cal work the advantages are very great, and I have found
the same advantage of having the opportunity of constantly
overhauling a considerable amount of material for the
systematic study of any group of smaller animals. Each
worker has a good-sized tank and two smaller ones for
keeping anything he requires alive. Besides having the
animals or plants collected which each is studying, he has
on the working table all the reagents which are ordinarily
required, besides glass vessels, drawing materials, and cer-

85

tain simple apparatus, so that the naturalist on his arrival
may find at once what he requires for his studies, and can
directly set to work ; and further, finds a very considerable
library of zoological works, which is especially rich in the
department of embryology. This was for a large part Dr.
Dohrn’s private library, but by presents from authors and
publishers it has now become a very important library,
numbering about three thousand volumes, but being com-
paratively very recent it is not a matter of surprise that
with systematical works it is but very poorly supplied, but in
time, by gifts and purchases, it will no doubt possess the
most important for determining the fauna and flora occurr-
ing here. I should stronglyadvise any naturalist who intends
to study to previously obtain the catalogue, that he may
know what books that he is in the habit of using he had
better bring with him.

Another very important feature is collecting and preserv-
ing the animals brought, so that there is a stock of cer-
tain animals in alcohol always ready for anyone who may re-
quire it, and supplies are constantly being sent to all parts of
Europe to those who require the material for study, and are
sent at about cost price. At the present moment there is an
application from a neighbouring Literary and Philosophical
Society for a supply of Amphioscus in various preservative
solutions. A few animals have been determined by special-
ists who have worked here, and this will form a nucleus of
a museum of the fauna and flora of the Bay of Naples. The
specimens as yet determined in this manner are too few to
have much importance, but when the collection is more
considerable it will be very useful, as any one sending for
specific specimens can feel more security in the determina-
tion when this is necessary.

Besides the knowledge of the fauna and flora, which can
be gained by the material brought daily by the fishermen,
those who are working here have the opportunity from

86

time to time to go out dredging ; and it is to be hoped that
a commencement may be made this spring of systematically
dredging in the Bay, so that gradually a very complete
knowledge may be gained of the nature of the Bay and the
condition of depth and soil, with reference to the various
animals found; but this can be carried out much more satis-
factorily when the station has the steamer which has
recently been presented by the Berlin Academy for the pur-
pose of dredging.

As I indicated above, the expenses of this station are
partly supplied by different governments and institutions
who pay £75 per annum for a table ; in some cases two
governments have jointly taken a table, and the tables are
granted to those who wish to proceed to Naples for study.
At present, England has but two, i.e., the Cambridge Uni-
versity and the British Association ; but probably Oxford
will soon take one, and why should not Owens join with
the other Northern Universities, or with London, to take
one ?

“On Glacial Action in. the Valley of the Wear, etc,'' by
Professor T. S. Aldis, M.A.

The coal workings in the county of Durham have revealed
the existence of a great depressed trench excavated in the
coal measures, and partly filled in with drift. The part best
known stretches from Durham to Newcastle in nearly a
straight line, the Team Valley being the upper visible por-
tion of it, the lower part being filled in for nearly 200 feet.

There is, I believe, no doubt that this “Wash ” is the old
valley of the W ear.

The glaciers filled up this trench to such an extent that
the river, when set free again, often failed to find its former
valley-— in fact was altogether thrown to the east at Chester-
le-Street, entering the sea by a post-glacial valley, though
possibly guided in forming it by a dene or glen previously
existing.

87

This diversion of rivers by glacial action is referred to by
GeikiO; in his “Great Ice Age/’ but the Wear gives better
instances than I imagine can elsewhere be found.

Above Durham the river meanders through a valley
resembling that of the Irwell opposite Kersal-moor, one or
both of the opposite banks being composed of drift. At
Durham itself a firm dam of clay has been thrown across
the old valley, and the river has cut a narrow horseshoe-
shaped ravine in the solid rock, thus isolating the block of
stone on which the cathedral and castle stand. As soon as
the stream emerges again from the rock into the pre-glacial
valley, the bounding cliffs fall back, and the valley widens
below as above the town. The narrow isthmus which joins
the isolated block of rock is called Clay-path, and the
boulder-clay in it is decidedly tough.

There are other instances of this clay-bar across the old
river valley, and the isolation of a block of rock connected
with the opposite side by a clay mound which has usually
by this time weathered much lower than the isolated rock
above which at first it must have risen. There is a very
beautiful example of this (one amongst many) on the Esk,
by Lealholm Station, near Whitby.

At Sunderland Bridge Station on the N.E.R. mainline to
the south of Durham is one of these diverted channels, half
cut down. The river has begun a semi-circular ravine in
the solid rock, but after it had dug down some 40 feet the
clay barrier failed, and the ravine is left apparently pur-
poseless. The Sunderland-bridge Railway Station stands in
the hollow, and the railway forms the sagitta, whilst the
viaduct across the present valley of the Wear beyond marks
the site of the former clay barrier. Narrow, rocky-sided,
and deserted river valleys will therefore be usually of post-
glacial formations.

This Wash, or old valley of the Wear, proves that before
the glacial period the north-eastern part of England was at

88

least some 300 feet higher than at present, for a rise of some
200 feet would push the sea much further off, and yet only
bring the bottom of the Wash at Newcastle about to sea-
level.

The depth of these old effaced river-beds gives us surely
the best index of land elevation in old times, and several
interesting conclusions follow from it.

Rock stretches, I believe, close to the surface of the
ground all across the mouth of the Tees estuary. If then we
raise the land to pre-glacial elevation,' the Tees valley here
should be sunk some 200 feet below the surface. The Tees
therefore, we may assume, in pre-glacial times flowed south-
ward into the Ouse, as the Wear flowed northward into the
Tyne.

The York plain and the vale of Malton represent the
filling in of valleys whose rock bottoms, in the case of the
plain of York, may be 200 or 800 feet below the present
surface.

The section of the ravine excavated by the Wear since
the glacial period is at least, I judge, forty times less in
area than that excavated before. How old, then, are our
English rivers ?

It is therefore, I think, a tolerably safe rule that all nar-
row rocky valleys are post-glacial, — e.g., I have no doubt
the Nidd at Knaresbro’, the Derwent at Castle Howard,
Swale at Richmond, Esk at Whitby harbour, are cases of
post-glacial section. In several of these cases we can see
clearly the old filled-up valleys. The Derwent apparently
formerly flowed out by Gilling, on to Pilmoor, &c., &c.

It is stated that scratched flints occur at the top of
boulder-clay a little to the north of Sunderland. If this be
so it proves that at the close of the glacial period there were
chalk beds to the east, off Sunderland, in continuation of the
York wolds, at such a height as to send glaciers backwards
when the great ice-sheet had so far lessened as to permit
the free play of ice on minor slopes.

89

Do the clay dams across the pre-glacial Wear valley and
other similar valleys mark epochs in the decline of the ice
when the retiring glacier for a time advanced again and
mounted up a huge mass before it ? It is possible, of course,
that they do not really differ from the rest of the denuded
drift, but on the other hand they appear in some degree to
correspond in Weardale and Eskdale, the to two cases I know
best. Lealhohn corresponds to Bishop Auckland : above
these points in both valleys I have not noticed any great
filling-up of the valleys. One can even fancy a correspond-
ence between some of the clay dams in the one valley and
in the other as regards relative position and completeness.

Mr. Thomas Cabnelley, B.Sc., exhibited and explained
the action of Edison’s Electric Pen.

Ordinary Meeting, March 7th, 1876.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the Chair.

Mr. R S. Dale, B.A., exhibited Specimens of Crystals of
Sulphate of Lead found in Alum Residue, and said that ‘‘In
the manufacture of pure red liquor (alumina acetate), lead
sulphate occurs as a bye-product from the admixture of
alum and lead acetate. This lead sulphate is filtered to a
stiff paste. In a cask of this pulp the very curious crystals
I exhibit were found embedded in the centre of the mass,
and, so /ar as could be seen, unattached. These crystals
resemble the axes of a crystal of the regular system,
and are undoubtedly pseudomorphs from crystals of alum.
Lead sulphate in the crystalline state belongs to the Rliom-
hie system. In the same cask crystals of alum were found,
which leaves little doubt that such was the origin of these
extraordinary forms. Analysis showed them to consist of
lead sulphate.”

90

“ On the Degree of Accuracy displayed by Druggists in
the Dispensing of Physicians’ Prescriptions in different
towns throughout England and Scotland,”* by William
Thomson, F.C.S.

The results obtained by Mr. Allen, the public analyst for
Sheffield, a short time ago in reference to the inaccuracies
displayed by druggists in making up prescriptions, led me
to believe that it would be interesting to have the same
prescription dispensed by different druggists, in different
parts of England and Scotland, and by analysis to decide
the range of inaccuracies, if any. By the aid of my friend.
Dr. Sinclair, of Manchester, to whom I am indebted for
much subsequent help, I was furnished with two ordinary
prescriptions, the principal ingredients of which admitted
of very accurate determination, as I shall afterwards show.

The prescriptions were as follows : —

13^. Potass lodid 3ij

Sp. Chlorof. 3j

Aq. ad gvj

M. |ss ter die.

bL. Zinci Sulphat. 9 ij

Aq- Pur gij

M. Fiat Lotio.

The processes of analysis were so simple for both that it
leaves little doubt as to the accuracy of the results. The
specific gravity of each solution was first taken. 100 grains
measure at 60° Fahr. were then placed in clean, accurately
tared and marked platinum capsules, weighing from 180 to
200 grains each ; the fluids were then carefully evaporated
to dryness on a water bath, those containing the potassium
iodide being afterwards heated in an air-bath at 220° Fahr.
till they ceased to lose weight, whilst those containing the
zinc sulphate were dried at 220° Fahr. and afterwards heated
to dull redness to drive off the last molecule of water

^ The facts contained in this paper were accepted by the Committee
of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, to be read before them,
and subsequently, on the day advertised by them for its reading, rejected
by the Council.

91

of crystallization, and the anhydrous >zinc sulphate cal-
culated into the crystalline or hydrated zinc sulphate;
these prescriptions, then, contained no ingredient which
could interfere with the direct determination of the salt
introduced. I give the dispensers, in this paper, the
advantage of not estimating the actual proportion of
the pure salt, hut the total, of what had been added
by them. The first prescription should have been
made up to a total fluid measure of 6 ounces (2625
grains) which quantity should have contained 120 grains
of potassium iodide. The second prescription should
have been made by adding 40 grains of crystallized zinc
sulphate to 2 ounces of water, which would make a total
fluid measure of 893 grains, but as few gave either the
exact measure of liquid, or weight of solid, I found it
necessary to ma.ke three columns of figures, in the following
tables, for each prescription ; the first to show the amount
of liquid measured out; the second to show the total
amount of solid weighed out; and the third, as a comparison
of the actual strength of the different fluids, which is made
by calculating the amount of potassium iodide which would
be contained in exactly 6 ounces (2625 grains measure) of
the mixture, and the amount of zinc sulphate which would
be contained in exactly 893 grains measure of the lotion,
supplied by each druggist.

It will, of course, be clearly seen, that if the potassium
iodide or zinc sulphate were damp, or in bad condition,
although the weighings may have been made with absolute
accuracy, the actual amount of the salts found on analysis
would be less than' that weighed; but this is equally a fault,
because dispensers ought to have all their drugs in good
condition. The following table will show the results of the
analysis of eighty-one samples of the potassium iodide
mixture, and the same number of the zinc sulphate lotion,
one sample of the mixture, and one of the lotion, having

92

been dispensed by each druggist; besides which, at the
suggestion of Dr. Sinclair, I have annexed the prices
charged by each, for the two bottles, as in his opinion it
might prove of general interest to dispensers, and will
make the table more perfect, because from those who charge
most, the greatest degree of accuracy should be expected.
I may further state, that from eacli important town, I
endeavoured as far as possible to have one lot dispensed by
a druggist having the highest reputation and another by
one of the lowest class, but I found it difficult to carry out
this exactly, so that the prescriptions have been made up
more generally by high class or respectable druggists than
by those of a lower class. 1 have, however, as far as pos-
sible, marked those who could be recognised as having
decidedly large and respectable shops, and those that were
decidedly low class; the others may all be accepted, I
believe, as respectable, and many may even be termed high
class druggists.

No.

Table I.

I-

i-

S

r

Name of Town, &o.

Scotland.

Aberdeen

Small village in
Kincardineshire

Cupar Fife

Inverness

Banff "!!!!!!!!!!!

Dundee*

Glasgow

Edinburgh

Airdrie

Greenock

Dumfries

England.

Carhsle

Prescription containing
Iodide of Potassium.

Prescription containing
Sulphate of Zinc.

Total amount of
Fluid measured
out by the Drug-
gist.

Total amount of
Potassium Iodide
weighed out by
the Druggist.

Strength equal to
amount of Iodide
contained in 6
fluid ounces.

Total amount of
Fluid measured
out by the Drug-
gist.

Total amount of
Zinc Suiphate
weighed out by
the Druggist.

Strength equal to
1 amount of Sul-

1 phate contained

1 in 893 fluid grs.

(about 2 ozs.)

Grains,

Grains,

Grains,

Grains,

Grains,

Grains,

measure.

weight.

weight.

measure.

weight.

weight.

Designa-

Accordinj

jtothepr

ascriptions the solut

ions ought to contain,

tion of
Shop.

(6 OZ.)

2,625

120

120

(about 2
ozs.)893

40

40

Large

2650

119-3

118-1

860

40-1

41-7

Medium.

2650

120-6

119-4

910

41-2

40-4

jj

2830

122-5

113-7

890

36-5

36-6

2740

128-5

123-1

850

40-4

42-5

Large

2760

122-3

116-3

760

39-3

46-1

Medium.

2840

118-7

109-7

910

41-2

40-4

2710

120-0

116-6

940

47-4

45-0

2800

122-4

114-7

810

361

39-8

Large

2590

120-7

122-3

870

41-2

42-3

Medium

2740

119-7

114-7

910

35-7

35-0

Large

2730

103.6

99-6

810

45-2

49-8

Medium

2520

116-4

121-3

880

36-5

37'1

Low

2600

116-7

117-9

950

42-5

39-9

Medium

2520

119-4

124-4

870

42-3

43-4

Larged

2600

135-7

137-1

910

40-5

39-8

Low!

2790

128-9

121-3

860

32-5

33-7

Medium

2750

141-6

135-2

860

43-2

44-9

2800

121-8

114-2

920

41-3

40-1

,,

2320

120-4

136-2

810

53-8

59-3

Large

2440

121-5

130-7

800

40-9

45-7

Medium

2580

120-5

122-6

940

45-7

43-4

»

2490

127-6

134-5

920

41-6

40-4

Medium

2590

112-9

114-5

890

39-3

89-5

[J.-28.10_,_

_ 102-1

95-4

965

40-7

37 '7

s. d.
1 6
1 6
2 0
1 10
2 2
1 8
1 6
1 1
2 2
1 6
2 2
2 4
2 2
2 4
2 6
2 0
2 0
2 6
1 10
2 8
2 0
2 0

2 0
2 0

Prices.

Table I.

W' '4

93

It might be well to mention here with regard to the veri-
fication of these figures, that the analysis of each sample
which deviated beyond five grains in the potassium iodide?
or zinc sulphate, from the prescribed amount, was repeated,
and the result, of the second analyses found in each case
to agree with that of the first. The specific gravities of all
the lotions closely coincided with the amounts of zinc sul-
phate found, but in the mixtures, owing to the different
amounts of spirit of chloroform which had been added, on
the one hand, and the difference in the actual composition
of that spirit of chloroform on the other, the specific gravity
was no indication to the quantity of potassium iodide pre-
sent. In looking over the above table it will be seen that
only two druggists out of the eighty-one have given exactly
the required weight of potassium iodide; thirty-four have
given more than the prescribed amount, and forty-five less;
but it may be of further interest to notice that when the
whole of the quantities of potassium iodide given by the
eighty-one different druggists are added together that the
total quantity comes to 220|- grains less than it would have
been if each druggist had dispensed the exact quantity.
Again, in the lotion, only one druggist out of the eighty-
one gave the exact weight of zinc sulphate; forty-three
have given more than the prescribed amount, and thirty-
seven less ; and when the whole of the quantities of the zinc
sulphate given by the eighty-one different druggists are
added together it comes to only 12 J grains more than it
would have been if each druggist had dispensed the exact
quantity. This resum4 seems to show that a larger per-
centage of druggists have given less weight for the more
expensive drug, viz,, potassium iodide, than for the zinc
sulphate, the value of which is infinitesimally small, but
still, no one can come to the conclusion that this is really
done with dishonest intention in the large majority of cases,

94

I think, however, that no one can have a doubt about the
want of care which is shown generally in dispensing, by the
above table. A large percentage have dispensed within a
range of accuracy which many might consider reasonable.
I have, however, made all my estimations with analytical
accuracy, and I think it must be left to the medical profession
to decide what limits of error they consider might be allowed.
With the view to decide what amount of inaccuracy a phar-
macist would consider allowable, I consulted a gentleman
who is a partner in an establishment which does a con-
siderable business in dispensing. After informing him of the
investigation I had been making, I asked him what
amount of inaccuracy he would consider allowable in
dispensing 120 grains of potassium iodide in 6 ounces of
fluid, and also for 40 grains of zinc sulphate in 2 ounces
of fluid; he considered that in both cases they ought to
be absolutely accurate, but if I allowed three-tenths of a
grain either way I should be allowing sufficient for all
practical purposes. I have, however, been still more lenient
than my pharmaceutical friend, and have allowed five-
tenths of a grain on either side of the prescribed quantity
as the range of practical accuracy. I know that many
dispensers will take objection to this range of inaccuracy as
impracticable. We, as analysts, can weigh easily to the
one-hundredth part of a grain, and I know that balances used
by dispensers for weighing such quantities as 120 grains
are capable of turning with the tenth part of a grain if kept
in good condition, and I think under such circumstances it
would be absurd for any one to contend that it is impracti-
cable to weigh drugs within half a grain on these premises.
I have formed the following summaries of the above re-
sults:—For the potassium iodide mixture, two druggists out
of the eighty-one have given the exact weight prescribed ;
nine out of the eighty-one have come within the practical

95

range ol accuracy ; lifty-five out of file eiglity-one have
weighed within 5 grains either way of the prescribed
amount; whilst the remaining twenty-six have made greater
errors. For the zinc sulphate lotion, one druggist out
of the eighty-one gave the exact weight prescribed ; nine-
teen out of the eighty-one have come within the practical
range of accuracy; fifty-one out of the eighty-one have
weighed within 2 grains either way of the prescribed
amount; whilst the remaining thirty have made greateiy
errors.

In the actual measuring of the fiuids, I have assumed that
measurements within 5 fluid grains either way are absolutely
correct, whilst those within 15 grains either way are prac
tically correct.

For the potassium iodide mixture, six dispensers out of the
eighty-one have measured correctly; eleven out of the
eighty-one have come within the range of practical accur-
acy ; thirty- two have measured within 50 grains (a tea-
spoonful) of the prescribed amount; whilst the remaining
forty-nine have made greater inaccuracies. For the zinc
sulphate lotion, six dispensers out of the eighty-one have
measured correctly ; sixteen have measured vfithin the range
of practical accuracy; twenty-eight have measured within 25
grains of the prescribed amount ; whilst the remaining fifty-
three have made greater inaccuracies. Lastly, with respect to
the strength of the solution, some dispensers may make both
their weighings and measurements in excess or deficiency,
and in either case the strength might be exactly what is
required ; whilst others may have weighed correctly and
measured incorrectly, or vice versa, and in these instances,
the strength of the solution, which is the most important
point, would be wrong. The following shows the amount ol
deviation made in this respect :

96

Not one dispenser lias succeeded in making the prescrip-
tion to the exact strength in either the mixture or lotion.

In the potassium iodide mixture, five out of the eighty-
one dispensers have come within the range of J a grain
more or less than the prescribed amount ; forty have made
the strength of the mixture within 5 grains more or less
than the prescribed amount ; whilst tlm remaining forty-one
have made greater errors.

In the zinc sulphate lotion fourteen out of the eighty-
one dispensers have come within the range of J a grain
more or less than the prescribed amount; forty-five have
made the strength of the lotion within 2 grains more or
less than the prescribed amount ; whilst the remaining
thirty-six have made greater errors.

It may be interesting, before leaving this part of the
subject, to make a few further observations on the dis-
pensing of these solutions. We found that the mixture of
No. 74, dispensed by a man in Birmingham, was strongly
alkaline to test paper, and I submitted its contents to
further analysis and found, that out of the 115'7 grains
represented in the table, lOO'l was composed of carbonate
of potash, and 15 *6 of iodide of potassium, etc. From
this large proportion, it seems as if the former salt had been
intentionally added, along with a small proportion of potas-
sium iodide. One (No. 48) from Eccles contained 2 -5 grains
of Potassium Carbonate in the 126 '7 grains weighed out.
Many were absolutely free from Potassium Carbonate and
many contained traces of that salt. No. 46 had both the mix-
ture and lotion corked with very dirty corks. The dispenser
of No. 16 (from Edinburgh) put in a preparation of orange

97

instead of spirit of chloroform. No. 4 (from Cupar Fife)
added the spirit in such proportion that it possessed the smell
of whisky; whilst No. 18 (from Airdrie) dispensed the chloro-
form without any spirit, so that it remained insoluble at the
bottom of the bottle. This error might have proved serious
if the last dose in the bottle, containing all the chloroform,
had been swallowed by the patient. The seven mixtures
to which the following numbers relate contained disagree-
able looking sediments~l7, 24, 45, 46, 56, 74, and 78.
One more potassium iodide prescription was made to
contain the same quantity of salt as the others, but the
solution made up to two instead of six ounces. The fol-
lowing shows the result

Table II.

Potassium Iodide Presceiption.

No.

District.

Description
of shop

Actual mea-
sure

of the mixture
dispensed.
(In

fluid grains.)

Actual amount
of Potassium
Iodide
weighed out
by

the Druggist.

strength
of the mixture
calculated on
the

two ounces.

Price.

The mixture as prescribed.

875

120 grs.

120 grs.

s. d.

1

Manchester :
Stretford-road

895

123T

120-4

1 2

With the view to test further the range of inaccuracies
in other and more valuable medicines. Dr. Sinclair and I
arranged to have a few different prescriptions dispensed,
and he accordingly wrote out five, having the following
composition : — -

It. Argent. Nitrat 5 j

Aq. Distillat

M. Fiat lotio. To be kept from the light.

These were subject to analysis, and the following Table
shows the results

98

Table III.

Silver Nitrate Prescription.

No.

District.

Description
of shop.

Actual mea-
sure

of the lotion
dispensed.
(In

fluid grains.)

Actual amount
of

Silver Nitrate
weighed out
hy

the Druggist.

strength

of

the lotion
calculated on
447 '5 gr.

Price.

The lotion as prescribed.

447-5

60-0

60-0

s. d.

Manchester :

1

1

Moss Lane W.

410

59-8

65-3

1 0

2

do. London-rd.

Low.

425

44-8

47-2

1 0

3

do. Oxford-st...

425

57-4

60-4

1 6

Liverpool :

4

Gt. Homer-st..

Low.

433

73-2

75-6

1 4

5

London, E.C....

365

59-0

72-3

0 8

. The figures in this table show the amounts of anhydrous
silver nitrate contained in the solution.

These show that not one of them has given the weight
of this drug accurately; one came within the range of
practical accuracy ; three came within the range of 5 grains,
and two made inaccuracies of upwards of 13 grains. In
measuring, none came within the range of absolute accuracy,
viz., 5 grains either way, and only one came within the
range of practical accuracy. In strength, one came within
the range of practical accuracy, the others made errors of
over 5 grains.

The next prescription was the following : —

R. Quin. Sulphat 3j

Acid. Hydrochlor. dil 3 j

Aq ad. gij

M. Sig. One teaspoonful to be taken in a wineglass of water
twice a day.

Two of these prescriptions were dispensed, and three
more containing the same amounts of quinine sulphate and
hydrochloric acid, but made up to 6 instead of 2 ounces

measure.

99

These were submitted to analysis, with the following
results : —

Table IV.

Quinine Sulphate Peesceiptions.

No.

District.

Description
of shop.

Actual meas-
ure

of the mixture
dispensed.
(In

fluid grains.)

Actual amount
of Quinine
Sulphate
weighed out
by

the Druggist.

strength
of the mixture
calculated
on the
two ounces.

Price.

The mixture as prescribed.

875

60 grs.

60 grs.

s. cl.

1

Liverpool :

1

Lime Street

920

59-7

56-8

3 6

2

London, E.C.

Low.

900

42-0

40-6

2 6

In No. 2, the hydrochloric acid of the prescription had
not been introduced, and most of the quinine sulphate
remained undissolved.

No.

District.

Description
of shop.

Actual mea-
sure

of the mixture
dispensed.
(In

fluid grains.)

Actual amount
of Quinine
Sulphate
weighed out
by

the Druggist.

Strength

of

the mixture
calculated on
the

six ounces.

Price.

The mixture as prescribed.

2625

60 grs.

60 grs.

s.

d.

3

L’ncaster,Town

2660

56-8

56-1

3

0

4

Manch.Lnd.-rd.

2700

64-5

62-7

1

6

5

LiverpT, Bootle

2810

59-7

55-8

2

2

The figures in these two tables represent the amounts of
Quinine Sulphate containing 7 molecules of water of crys-
tallization.

In this it will be noticed that in the quantities weighed
none of the five dispensers arrived at absolute accuracy,
two came within the range of practical accuracy, and the
remaining three are outside this mark; none measured
within the range of either absolute or practical accuracy,
and none came within the range of either absolute or prac-
tical accuracy in the strength of their solution.

100

The third and last prescription was the following : —

R. Ferri et Quin. Citrat 3 ij

■A-q- Jvj

Sig. §ss, ter die.

Two of these prescriptions were dispensed, and one con-
taining the same amount of salt, but made up to 2 instead
of 6 ounces.

The results of the analysis are as follows : —

Table Y.

Ieon and Quinine Citeate Peesceiptions.

No

District.

Description
of shop.

Actual mea-
sure

of the mixture
dispensed
(In

fluid grains.)

Actual amount
of

Quinine and
Iron Citrate
weighed out
by Druggist.

strength
of the mixture
caclulated on
the

2690 grains.

Price.

The mixture as prescribed.

2690

1

120 grs.

120 grs.

s. d.

1

Manchester :

Hiilme,

2690

122

122

1 6

2

London, E C.

2570

140

146-5

1 9

No.

District.

Description
of shop.

Actual mea-
sure

of the mixture
dispensed
. (In
fluid grains.)

Actual amount
of

Quinine and
Iron Citrate
weighed out
|by Druggist.

strength
of the mixture
calculated
on the
940 grains.

Price.

The mixture as prescribed.

940

120

1

120

s. d.

3

Manchester :
Oxford.road.

985

107

102-1

2 6

The figures in these tables represent the dry iron and
quinine citrate, plus 10 '5 per cent, the amount which we
found the salt to lose on drying at 212'’ F.

Not one of these three came within the range of absolute
or practical accuracy in either the weight or the strength of
solution. One, however, measured with absolute accuracy,

101

the remaining two were out of the. range of practical
accuracy in every respect.

In concluding, it may he of some importance to mention
that in the dispensing of these prescriptions, in the large
majority of cases, and generally in the more respectable
shops, no questions were asked of the purchasers, and no
remarks made, but in some cases, and especially in those
shops of a lower class, questions of rather an impertinent
nature were asked ; in one, not only was the patient’s name
demanded, but the name of the medical man who pre-
scribed ; and in another instance the druggist actually
refused to dispense a prescription containing 10 grains
doses of quinine sulphate on the ground that the dose was
excessive, and one who did dispense it remarked that the
dose was a strong one. The bearing of these facts on the
relative position of the physician, patient, and druggists,
although of much importance, especially to the medical
profession, does not come within the scope of my paper.

In conclusion I must express my best thanks to our
assistant, Mr. Percy J. Winser, for the painstaking and
accurate manner in which he had helped me in this
investigation

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.

February 14tb, 1876.

Charles Bailey, Esq., in the Chair.

Mr. E. W. Nix, M.A., was elected a Member, and Dr. John
Roberts an Associate of the Section.

Mr. Percival, through Mr. Rogers, exhibited specimens of
a new British moss — Hypnum nitidulum (Wahl), belonging
to the sub-genus Plagiothecium — found by him and Mr.
Whitehead on June 8th, 1868, at Penneghant Gill, Craven^

102

Yorkshire. It differs from its near ally, H. pulchellum
(Dicks), in its leaves being broader and larger, and in the
male flowers being separate and distinct. Besides, H. niti-
dulnm affects rotten wood, decayed bark, or decomposed
vegetable matters as a site for its growth; whilst H. pulchel-
lum always grows in the fissures of rocks.

Mr. Plant exhibited a rare hydrocarbon mineral from peat
found near Manchester, The mineral crystals which encrust
and radiate over the inner surface of the pine bark in the
specimen exhibited, belong to the Fichtelite group of the
hydrocarbons, and may be subsequently determinable to
this. If so, it will be the first instance of Fichtelite having
been recorded as occurring in Great Britain.

Mr. Plant then read a paper on the gradual decrease of
wild birds during the last 25 years west of Manchester.
The list included all the birds — residents, visitants, and
casual stragglers — observed in and near to Peel Park, in the
years 1850-60-70, and the numbers resident in 1871-75.

The birds recorded in 1850 were 71 ; 1860, 42; 1870, 19;
and in the last five years only 8 resident birds were to be
found.

The causes for the decrease were chiefly increase of
building, destruction of trees from many causes, and general
absence of food and shelter for birds.

103

Ordinary Meeting, March 21st, 1876.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the Chair.

Dr. Arthur Schuster exhibited an interesting collection
of objects brought by him from Siam and the Western
Himalayas.

“ On a Graphical Method of Drawing Spectra,” by Mr.
William Dodgson, Whitworth Scholar. Communicated by
Professor Eoscoe, F.E.S., &c.

Construction of Curve for ccscertaining the ivave-lengths.

A number of points are first plotted on the curve-paper, the
abscissse of these points being the micrometer scale-readings
of certain lines, as observed directly in the spectroscope, or
being absolute— or relative measurements taken from an
existing photograph ; whilst the ordinates of these points are
the corresponding wave-lengths, taken from the determina-
tions of some reliable observer.

If there be a large number of points taken, the curve ought
not to be drawn actually through them all, or it would
probably be irregular ; it therefore becomes necessary to
draw a mean curve, ke., a continuous even curve which shall
pass near to all the given points, some being on one side
and some on the other.

The following method was employed to determine the
wave-lengths of the well defined edges of the bands in two
absorption spectra.

The micrometer scale readings of 27 air-lines were obser-
ved in the spectroscope, in addition to those of the absorbing
vapour, and taken as abscissa ; and the corresponding wave-
lengths determined by Thalen as ordinates. These 27 points
when plotted on the curve-paper, fell naturally into six
groups ; a mean point v/as then found for each group by
accurate measurement, and the curve drawn through these
Proceedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc.-— Vol. XV.— No. 8.— Session 1875-6.

104

six mean points, such that the sum of the shortest distances
of the several points of any one group from the curve is zero.

The mean points were obtained by means of the arrange-
ment shown in Fig. 1.

The wooden rod AA has a steel point CC fixed at one
end, and a graduated scale of tenths of an inch at the other;
the axis of the steel point is kept vertical and the scale
horizontal while the rod is being rotated, by the strip of
wood TTP, the end P sliding on the table. The centre C
being placed at some fixed point, the curve-paper is then
adjusted on the table, so that some particular division on
the scale (found by trial) describes a circle through a group
of points, and also through two adjacent groups, one on each
side, which circle if drawn would pass not far from the mean
points of the three groups we are proceeding to determine.
The distance from each point of the middle group to the
centre C is then read off on the seal© to the tAo oth of an
an inch, with the aid of a lens, and a second scale divided
into Tooths of an inch ; and a point plotted near the centre
of gravity of the middle group at a distance from C equal
to the mean of these readings.

This process is repeated for each of the four middle
groups, the mean points of an end group being determined
with the paper and centre C in the same positions as for
the second group from that end.

A nearer approximation to the true position of the mean
points may then be found, by making use of those already
obtained, to find more correctly the radius of the circle
through the three groups, and repeating the process of
measuring and plotting.

In one case an isolated point occurs ; this is taken as one
group, and the curve drawn through it.

105

The curve consists of arcs of circles, vwhicli pass through
the six mean points, with radii varying from 64J inches at
the upper end, to 61 J inches at the lower end, drawn by
means of the rod AA, having a drawing pen fixed to it.

The wave-lengths corresponding to the scale-readings of
the observed lines in the two spectra, were then found by
measurement from the curve to YoVo-th of an inch, by means
of a lens, and scale of Tooths of an inch.

The above method of graphically drawing a curve, may •
be extended to the case where the points are nearly
uniformly distributed, and not divided into groups naturally
as in the case of the air-lines.

Divide the points into any number of groups, about an
equal number in each group. Find the mean points as
described, by aid of lens and vernier scale on the rod ; draw
the curve through the points by the best practical method.
The number of groups taken will be guided by judgments
and will depend on what degree the proposed curve shall
be. The greater the number of groups, the greater will be
the degree of the equation to a curve passing through their
mean points, and the greater probably will be the irregular-
ities in the variation of the radius of curvature.

Construction of Scale for Map of Spectrum,

The arrangement shown in Fig. 2 has been employed to
draw the map scale, and found to be an accurate and ex-
peditious method.

106

ABCD the drawing board, EFGH the drawing paper,

TT Stanley’s ebony-edged T-square, resting against the
pins KE, during the operation ; MM Stanley’s ebony-
edged set-square, which slides along the edge of TT ;

SS Stanley’s engine-divided, millimetre scale, connected at
one end to the edge of the set-square M, by pins and elastic
string NN, so as to slide with the set-square, and have its
graduated edge parallel to the edge of TT, and also parallel
to the lines KK, K'K' on which the scales have to be con-
structed ; LL a very fine ink line at right angles to the edge
of the scale, beyond the extremity of the required scale KK,
on the right hand side, to which the divisions of the milli-
metre scale are adjusted by the eye, with the aid of a lens
placed on a stand, its axis in a vertical plane through the
line LL ; a fine adjustment of the line and division is
obtained by means of the blunt handle of the drawing pin,
used as a lever against the end of the scale, the surface of
the board or the paper being the fulcrum.

The divisions of the map scale are drawn at Z,Z, with a
very thin drawing pen, very close to the edge of the set
square, so that the variation of the inclination of the draw-
ing pen is a very inappreciable error. If the map scale is
required to be longer than the scale S, another very fine
perpendicular ink line L'L' must be drawn at an exact *
multiple of 10 millimetres distant.

To prevent mistakes in drawing the principal divisions,
the line LL is arranged so that they may be drawn when
the corresponding principal divisions on the scale SS are
coincident with the line.

The advantages of this method of drawing a map scale,
arise from the fact that the error due to the observation of
the coincidence of two lines, is much less than that of plot-
ting a point opposite each division of the millimetre scale.
Also in the fact that the error due to drawing a line
with a thin pen very close to the edge of the set-square.

107

(the pen approximately at the same inclination) is much
less than that of drawing the divisions through the plotted
points, judging by the eye.

If only one scale be required on the map, place the edge
of the scale S near to the line KK. If two are required,
place the edge of SS half-way between KK, K'K' to lessen
the errors due to imperfections in the straight edge of the
T-square.

Construction of a Vernier Scale for the above Maj) Scale,

The drawing board, T-square, set-square, and paper as in
Fig. 2. 00 a strip of paper, on which the vernier scale is

to be constructed, its edge being parallel to TT, the scale SS
is attached to the edge of the set-square and slides with it, by
means of the pins and elastic NN as before, but inclined to
the edge of TT at an angle a = sec.~^ H ; it is kept in this
position by the pegs IT, U in the end of the scale ; the fine
ink line LL is drawn at right angles to SS, the lens being
used on a stand as before, with its axis always in a vertical
plane through LL.

The divisions on the vernier scale will be 1 millimetres
in length.

“ Evidence to prove that a Bone from the Windy Knoll,
Castleton, named by Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.B.S.,

108

^ Sacrum of young Bison/ is a Sacral Bone of the Cave
Bear, Ursus Speloeus,'’ by John Plant, F.G.S.

When I first described, at the Manchester Geological
Society in April, 1874, a number of bones which came from
a limestone fissure near Castleton, they were correctly
attributed, even upon a cursory examination, to be the
remains of Bison, Reindeer, Wolf, and Bear, the bulk of
them belonging to the Bison. In the course of a careful
examination subsequently, several of the bones were found,
presenting characters not to be determined by the aid only
of such scanty help for comparison which was at my service,
so I took a number of them to the Liverpool Museum, and,
with the kind assistance of Mr. Moore, the Curator, was able
to compare them with skeletons of bovine and ursine ani-
mals, as well as with a collection of bones of the Cave Bear
—~U. Speloeus— which the Museum possessed, from La Grotte
des Echelles, France. Some of my specimens could not be
determined then, and have not yet been identified ; but in
one case both Mr. Moore and myself were quite of the
opinion that it bore a close resemblance to a sacral bone of
the Cawe Bear, in their collection from La Grotte des
Echelles, and I ventured without hesitation to ascribe it to
that animal.

At a meeting of the Geological Society in May, 1874, I
specially exhibited this bone, and described the new interest
which had become attached to it. Professor Dawkins,
however, expressed his doubts as to the correctness of my
naming, and I at once placed the bone in his hands so that
he could satisfy himself upon the matter. A month after
(June 24) I received the bone, with a short note saying;—
“ The hone luhicJi I have ordered to he returned is sacrum
of young Bison f and upon the bone itself was written,
''Bison, W.B.DT

Surprised, but not convinced, I paid another visit to the
Liverpool Museum, and with my friend Mr, Moore recom-

109

pared this identical bone with the sacral bones of all the
bovine skeletons in the Museum, and from merely having
an opinion, I became positively certain of my first deter-
mination of the bone, and equally certain that my specimen
did not, and could not, belong to a bovine animal

In the Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical
Society of Manchester, October 6th, 1874, p. 6, Professor
Dawkins states— “ The Cave Bear, or Ursus Speloeus, is also
stated by Mr. Plant (Manchester Geological Transactions,
xiii, 130-— 156) to have been discovered in the Windy Knoll
fissure, principally on the fancied resemblance which a
sacrum of a young animal bore to a sacrum in the Peel Park
Museum, said to belong to Ursus Speloeus, partly also on
the stumps of two teeth, worthless for purposes of specific
identification. I have carefully analysed this evidence, and
on comparing the sacrum in question with that of the ox
and bear, I believe that it belongs to a young bison, and
not to any carnivora. And, further, even if it belong to a
bear, there is no evidence as to the species, because the
specific characters of that bone in the fossil bears have not
yet been ascertained. The researches of Professor Busk,
during a long series of years, and my examination of the
most important collections of fossil bears in this country
and in France, prove that the determination of the species
is a point of extreme difiiculty, and we are only able to
detect characters of specific value in the heads and dentition.
On this point I would refer to Professor Busk’s memoir,
and to the vast collection at Toulouse. The Cave Bear,
therefore, of Windy Knoll must be given up, as being based
on a faulty determination.”

It was a great surprise to me to find Professor Dawkins
deliberately stating that he had compared my specimens
with the sacral bones of the ox and bear, and that it
belonged to a young bison and not to any carnivora.” I am
aware that he is credited with the possession of great

110

experience and knowledge in the bones of Pleistocene
animals, and must know the risks of damaging that
reputation in giving an opinion upon a matter like this
Avithout full consideration; but as he had the bone in his
possession for nearly one month, it could not be said he
formed his opinion in a hasty manner.

Notwithstanding this deliberately expressed opinion of
Professor Dawkins that it belonged to a young bison, I was
not alarmed for my small reputation as a palaeontologist,
or convinced that he was right. I had myself seen and
examined sacral bones of both oxen and bears, and always
found the differences between them far too striking to be
mistaken. I was sure this bone could never be bovine,
and I had a firm opinion that it was Cave Bear ; moreover,
I considered that nature could never be so hard up for
variety as to give to the stiff-backed oxen tribe a sacrum
that could be confounded with the sacrum of the lithe and
flexible hindquarters of the bears.

However, I set myself to the study of bears and oxen,
took the bone with me whenever I had a chance of
comparing it with bones in public museums and private
collections, and sent it for examination and report to
gentlemen, who have made comparative osteology their
special study, and without exception the opinions I received
were unanimous in one respect, that it was not the sacrum
of a bison, or even of a bovine animal — but the sacrum of
a hear.

It is not necessaiy, nor do I intend, to mention the names
of gentlemen to whom I here allude; their opinions were
formed pretty much like my own by direct comparison only,
without going into the minute anatomical points of the
differences of structure between sacral bones of bovines and
ursines. Comparison is usually a safe method of deter-
mining species in natural history, and it applies with equal
force with bones, or portions of bones, when authenticated
specimens can be obtained for comparison.

Ill

Being in London in February, I wo^ited upon Professor
Owen, at the British Museum, and submitted the bone to
his experienced judgment. He most kindly undertook to
make a thorough examination of the bone, and give me his
opinion. A few days after I called upon him again, when
he took great pains to show me a number of sacral bones of
bears and bison, and point out the clear differences between
them in certain points, and in what way it could be proved
that my specimen belonged to the bear and not to the
bison, at the same time giving me the results of his deter-
mination in writing, with full permission to use it in any
way that would serve the purpose of my enquiry.

“Bkitish Museum, Sth February, 1876.

“ The fore end of the sacrum yields the best and readiest
characters for distinguishing that of an ox from that of a
bear. In the Ruminant the pre-zygapophyses present each
a long longitudinal semi-cylindric channel, for the corres-
ponding convexity of the post-zygapophyses of the last
lumbar vertebra.

“In the Bear the pre-zygapophyses of the first sacral,
present a short suboval flat, or almost flat, surface, which
becomes slightly concave below through the production of
the mesial border of the process.

“ In the Ox the symphysial surface for the ilium is in great
part presented by the transverse process of the first sacral,
which is much produced, these processes give a winged
character to the fore part of the sacrum ; the surface itself
is long, narrow, and looks backward more than outward.

“ In the Bear the transverse process of the first, is little
longer than of the second, sacral, and it* is much thicker in
proportion to its length than in the Ox. The second sacral
contributes a larger proportion to that surface than in the Ox.

“The neural spine of the first sacral in the Bovines is
long (lofty), compressed, and becomes confluent with the
second, as this with the succeeding sacral spines, to form a
continuous bony crest.

112

In Ursines the sacro-neural spine in the first vertebra is
small and short; in the second often almost obsolete, that of
the third sacral, though small and short, is usually better
developed, but all remain distinct from each other, with
well marked intervals, except along their base.

“No palaeontologist who had ever made this comparison
could risk the mistaking of a bear s sacrum for one of a
bovine quadruped.

“ Eichard Owen.”

Before leaving Professor Owen I pointed out to him that
the bone he had taken so much trouble to compare with the
large series of specimens before him was marked “ Bison,
W.B.D.,” and had been so named by Professor Dawkins, and
I also informed him that it had previously been submitted to
the care of Mr. Wm. Davies, acknowledged to be the most
experienced comparative osteologist in the Zoological Depart-
ment in the British Museum, and also to the assistant in
this department, Mr. Gerrard (who has charge of the
skeletons), who, although at first inclined to the opinion
that the bone had the aspect of a bovine sacrum, after
careful examination, agreed with his colleague Mr. Davies
in his determination, which is this— “ Undoubtedly the first
and second sacral vertebrae of the Cave Bear, Ursus
/Sfpe^c^us.—WM. Davies.”

The last remark of Professor Owen was that this opinion
from Mr. Wm. Davies was quite sufficient in itself to have
settled the question of the species of the bone. His own
remarks had been solely directed to explain the marked
differences between the sacral bones of oxen and bears.

The drawings I exhibit to assist in showing the special
points alluded to by Professor Owen, the specimens of sacral
vertebrae of oxen, bison, and the sacrum of Cave Bear from
the Liverpool Museum, to compare with the sacrum from
Castleton, will, I doubt not, be convincing, and prove beyond
all doubt that the bone in question was at the first correctly
described when I named it sacrum of Ursus ^^eloeus.

113

PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL ^ SECTION.

October 12th, 1875.

E. W. Binney, F.B.S., F.G.S., President of the Section, in
the chair.

“ On a Source of Atmospheric Ozone,” by Joseph
Baxendell, F.B.A.S.

The source of atmospheric ozone is a subject respecting
which various opinions have been entertained by chemists
and meteorologists. According to M. Schonbein, Mr.
Damcer, M, Houzeau, Professor Boscoe, and others, it is
due to electrical action. Dr. Daubeny, from a long series
of experiments, was led to attribute it to the action of sun =
light on the green leaves of plants. M. Gorup-Besanez
believes it is simply the result of evaporation; and Mr.
Mackereth regards it as being dependent on a peculiar and
direct action of the sun’s light upon the oxygen of the
atmosphere.

In my paper “ On Observations of Atmospheric Ozone,”
read October 20th, 1868, I stated that from my own obser-
vations it seemed probable that the amount of ozone near
the earth’s surface depended upon the height at which
clouds are formed in the atmosphere. Subsequent obser-
vations confirmed this view, and also showed that the
amount of ozone had, in general, some relation to the degree
of transparency of the lower atmosphere. Thus when fogs
and haze were prevalent it rarely happened that even the
faintest trace of the presence of ozone could be obtained ;
but on their disappearance the indications became more
marked, and in clear states of the air the test papers were
generally more or less coloured. It appeared, therefore,
from these results that atmospheric ozone was absorbed or

114

decomposed by haze or fog, and was given off or produced
when evaporation changed haze or fog into invisible aqueous
vapour.

From the very small degree of solubility of ozone in
water it seems highly improbable that the amount of water
existing in ordinary haze or fog could absorb the whole of
the ozone usually found in the atmosphere, nor could the
whole of this ozone be contained in the water from which
the aqueous vapour in the air had been derived. Moreover,
not only does haze prevent the coloration of the test
papers, but it often rapidly bleaches those which had
already been coloured by the action of ozone. This
bleaching effect, however, is not produced if the papers are
thoroughly wetted by immersion in water, and therefore it
has been attributed to the action of a form of oxygen
differing essentially in some of its properties from ozone,
and which has, therefore, received the name of antozone.

The existence of antozone is, however, doubted by many
chemists, and it becomes, therefore, necessary to seek some
other explanation of the bleaching effect of fogs and haze,
which will also, at the same time, account for their effect in
apparently absorbing or decomposing ozone, and afterwards
of giving it off or forming it on evaporation.

As it is generally supposed that the minute vesicles or
globules of water which form fog and haze are similar in all
respects, except perhaps in size, to the globules which form
the spray from a breaking wave, a waterfall, or fountain, it
was evidently desirable to ascertain whether the spray from
any of these sources would produce effects similar to those
produced by fog and haze, since it might be contended that
as in the one case the globules were the result of a conden-
sation of aqueous vapour taking place in the air, while in
the other they were produced by a more or less violent
mechanical action, their effects upon the oxygen or ozone in
the atmosphere might be very different.

115

In 1872 I had a series of observations made twice daily
for five weeks at stations on opposite sides of one of the
reservoirs of the Manchester Corporation Waterworks, and,
grouping the results according to the direction of the wind,
I found tliat the mean values for the station on the lee side
of the reservoir were not sensibly different from those at
the station on the windward side. The surface of the
water was, however, seldom sufficiently disturbed to produce
any appreciable amount of spray ; but the results of the
observations clearly indicated that mere evaporation from a
large continuous surface of water had no effect in increasing
the amount of ozone in the air passing over it.

Observations and experiments made at Southport on the
action of spray from the sea led to no satisfactory result on
account of the difficulty of eliminating the effects due to
varying velocities of the wind ; but the influence of fogs
and haze in checking the coloration of the test papers was
very marked.

I had long been anxious to try the effects of spray from
a large fountain, but had no opportunity of doing so until
June last, when I became aware for the first time of the
existence of the fine fountains at the Arnfield and Holling-
worth reservoirs in the Manchester Corporation Water-
works' district. In both these fountains the diameter of
the column of water as it issues from the discharge pipe is
nine inches, and under full pressure the height of the
column or jet is about 27 feet at Arnfield, and 35 feet at
Hollingworth. The water is turned on at ' very irregular
intervals, and generally for only short periods of time, but
with the kind assistance of Mr. James Wilkins, the very
intelligent reservoir-keeper, and observer at the Arnfield
meteorological station, I succeeded in making a satisfactory
series of experiments, the details of which are as follows : —

For the exposure of the test papers two open boxes were
used, each about 2 feet long, 10 inches wide, and 4 inches

116

deep. These boxes were placed on end, one on the
windward, the other on the leeward side of the fountain,
and the test papers were pinned in the upper ends of the
boxes, and the boxes so placed that the papers were not
exposed to direct sunlight, nor to wind and rain.

The first experiments were made on June 16, 1875, and
three of Schonbein’s test papers were placed in each box
and exposed from 9.30 a.m. to 1.30 p.m. At the Arnfield
fountain the resulting tints were : — ■

In Windward. In Leeward.

Box (W). Box (L).

4-5 7-0

5*5 7-0

52 8-0

Mean = 5*07 Mean = 7*33

At the Hollingworth fountain they were

W. L.

5-0 6-5

4*0 6-5

5-0 7*5

Mean = 4’67 Mean = 6*83

Fresh papers were exposed from 1.30 to 6.30 p.m. with
the following results

ARNFIELD.

W. L.

5*5 8-0

7-5 70

6 0 5‘0

Mean = 6 “33

The third paper in the L. box was evidently a faulty one.
HOLLINGWORTH.

w.

L.

50

6-5

4-0

65

4-0

6-0

6“67

Mean = 4“33

Mean = 6“33

117

And the mean results of the two experiments were : —

Arnfield

W. ^ L.

... 5-7 7-0

Hollingworth

... 4-5 6-6

July 2 and 9.

Experiments were made

on both these days, but the

atmosphere was hazy and rain fell, and none of the papers

were coloured.

July 10-

-AENFIELD.

Three papers, exposed in

each box from 2.20 to 7.20 p.m.;

but at 4.45 it was noticed that the wind had changed and
the boxes were removed into fresh positions. The height

of the jet was only 11 feet.

The tints were

W.

L.

50

4-2

4*5

6*0

4-5

5-5

Mean = 4’66

Mean = 5*23

July 11-

-ARNFIELD.

Three papers in each box exposed from 9.30 to 11.40
a.m. ; height of jet about 16 feet ; very cloudy, but the air

pretty clear.

W.

L.

4-0

5‘5

8‘5

5-0

40

4-0 -b

3-83

4*83

At 11.50 a.m. one paper was left in each box, and at 4.50
p.m. the tints were — =

w. L.

3*5 5-0

The weather was showery, and the wind oscillated
between W.S.W. and W.N.W.

At 7.0 p.m. two papers were left in each box, and at 8.0
the following morning one paper was taken from each box,
and the shades of colour were found to be — ■
w. L.

2*0 3-0

118

At nine a.m. the remaining papers were both No. 4
July 15— AENFIELD.

Three papers exposed in each box from 2.30 to 440 p.m. ;
height of column of water about 20 feet; wind blowing in
strong breezes from E.N.E. ; air pretty clear, but sky very
cloudy. The results were : —

W. L.

8*5 40

30 3-5

2-5 3-5

Mean = 3*00 Mean = 3*66

Fresh papers were exposed from 4.50 to 7.5 p.m., with
the following results : —

W.

4-0

3-5

3-5

L.

40

4*5

5-5

Mean = 3*66 Mean = 4-66

At 9 p.m. two papers were left in each box, and at 5.0
the following morning the results were — ■

W. L.

7- 5 9'0

8- 0 9’0

Mean = V‘75 Mean = 9*0

August 11 — AENFIELD.

Two papers in each box from 12.30 to 3.30 p.m. ; height
of jet about 16 feet; temperature of the air at 12.30, 70°. 5;
temperature of evaporation, 63°.0 ; wind, S.W. to W.S.W. in
light breezes.

W. L.

2- 5 4-5

3- 5 5-5

Mean — 3 00 Mean = 5’0

One paper in each box was afterwards exposed from 4.0
to 7.0 p.m., when it was observed that the air was becoming
hazy.

W.

2.0

L.

3.0

119

August 12.

Two papers in each box from 12.0 'to 4.0 p.m. ; but the
air was very hazy, and there was no action on any of the
papers. A thunderstorm occurred between 4.0 and 6.0
p.m., and at 7.0 p.m. the papers were again examined, with
the following results : —

W. L.

00 10

00 2-5

Mean — O’O Mean — T75

August 13 — ARNFIELD.

Two papers in each box from 1 to 2.30 p.m.; air pretty
clear; light breeze from W.S.W.; jet 16 feet. The spray
box L was 9 yards from the jet. The distance on former
occasions had varied from 7 to 17 yards according to the
strength of the wind.

W. L.

1-0 (A) 3-0 (A)

3-5 5-0

The papers marked (a) had been in my pocket-book
since the previous day, but the others were fresh from the
ozone box. A thunderstorm occurred between 4 and 5 p.m.

August 14.

At 10 a.m. two papers were placed in each box; at 12
no action had taken place on any of them, the air being
very hazy. At 2.15 p.m. the air had become much less hazy
and the tints were—

w.

L.

00

2*0

00

2-0

The height of the jet ol Avater on this occasion was 21
feet. At 2. 1 5 p.m. the readings of the dry and wet bulb
thermometers were : — Dry, 68°-5 ; Wet, 61°7.

The experiments thus briefly described appear to me to
prove that the spray from a fountain on eA^'aporating gives
off or produces atmospheric ozone, and in this respect is
similar to ordinary fog or haze.

120

In some of the experiments which I made the papers in
the leeward box became sensibly damp in consequence of
the box being placed too near the fountain, or from the
acting of strong gusts and eddies of wind. In these cases
the coloration of the papers was very much retarded or
altogether prevented, and it therefore appears that spray
has, like fog or haze, the power of absorbing or decomposing
atmospheric ozone.

Having now proved, expeiimentally, that spray produced
by mechanical means, and ordinary fog or haze produced by
the condensation of aqueous vapour in the air, are precisely
similar in their relations to atmospheric ozone ; and having
also shown that the quantity of ozone usually found in the
air could not have been held in solution by the water from
which the aqueous vapour in the atmosphere is derived it
becomes evident that the production of atmospheric ozone
is in some way dependent upon the minute state of division
in which water exists in the air in the visible form of
clouds, fogs, and haze, and often also probably in an
invisible form. This consideration has led me to infer
that water exposed to the air has tlie power of condensing
Oxygen upon its surface into a thin film of ozone. When,
therefore, complete evaporation of the vesicles or globules
of moisture which constitute a cloud or fog takes place the
ozone is left free to diffuse itself through the air ; but when
evaporation takes place from the surface of a large and
practically inexhaustible mass of water the ozone is not set
free but remains adhering to the surface It will, however,
be objected that if ozone is formed in this way test papers
ought to be coloured very rapidly in a fog or dense haze,
and that no bleaching action could take place upon papers
which had already heen ozonised. The explanation which
I will venture to offer is that ozone associated with moisture
and in the presence of the oxydised potassium will combine
with the freed iodine and form iodic acid which, uniting

121

with the potash, will form the colourless iodate of potash.

But it may also be that the direct action of ozone on
iodide of potassium is retarded or altogether prevented by
an excess of moisture when the ozone is present in only
small quantities as is usually the case in the atmosphere,
and this view is supported by the fact that dry papers
appear to be generally more sensitive than damp ones.

Admitting that the inference I have drawn from the facts
given in this paper is correct, it will enable us to explain
why, on the sea coast, winds from the sea bring more ozone
than those from the land, and why, when the cloud
stratum is high, the quantity of free ozone near the surface
of the earth is, in general, greater than when the cloud
level is low. It also indicates that the sudden and con-=
siderable manifestations of ozone which sometimes occur
may be found to be due to descending currents bringing air
from the cloud region to lower and warmer levels and thus
causing the rapid evaporation of the condensed vapour
which it contains. It may also enable us to trace out the
causes of the differences which exist between the mean
amounts of ozone in different localities, and will, I believe,
be useful in suggesting new methods of treating meteorolo-
gical observations and attempting the solution of some of
the difficult but intere'sting problems which are at present
engaging the attention of meteorologists.

February 29th, 1870,

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., President of the Section, in
the chair.

“ An Account of some early Experiments with Ozone, and
remarks upon its Electrical Origin,’' by J. B. Dancer,
F.RA.S.

122

Nearly a century since it was noticed that oxygen gas,
when electrical sparks had been passed through it, acquired
a peculiar smell and the power of attacking mercury.
Somewhat later it was found that electrified air possessed
the property of purifying decomposing animal and vegetable
matter. In 1826 Dr. John Davy believed this principle
existed in tlie atmosphere, and proposed tests for its
detection.

When residing in Liverpool in the year 1838 I supplied
some Daniell’s batteries to Mr. T. Spencer. The apparatus
consisted of a number of cells, in which I had substituted^
tliin porous jars, made of ungiazed biscuit ware, to separate
the two fluids, in place of the bladders, and ox gullets,
which were very disagreeable in use, and easily destroyed ;
these porous jars and cells are now in general use, not only
in Daniell’s, but also in Grove’s, and other batteries in which
two fluids are employed.

It was expected that this battery would exhibit consider-
able power, and an evening was fixed upon to try some
experiments with it at Mr. Spencer’s house. The parties
present at these experiments were Mr. Spencer, the late
Mr. John Wilson (teacher ot chemistry at the Liverpool
Mechanics’ Institution), Mr. James Kobinson (now of
Dublin), and myself The first- experiment was the
decomposition of water. A Faraday’s voltameter, with
large platinum electrodes, was connected with the battery,
and the mixed gases, as they were evolved, were collected
in a glass gas jar, of the capacity of 180 cubic inches. The
gas jar was filled with water, and placed on the shelf of a
pneumatic trough ; a bent glass tube from the voltameter
had its end placed under the open bottom of the jar. When
the experiment had proceeded for a short time we noticed
that a white cloud, or vapour, escaped from the bubbles of

* Page 229. First edition of Elements of IS'atural Philosophy, by Dr.

Grolding Bird. London, 1839.

128

the mixed gases as they burst at* the surface of the water
in the jar. This white cloud remained permanent, and its
unexpected appearance gave rise to many conjectures.
When the jar became filled with the oxygen and hydrogen,
it was removed from the shelf for the purpose of refilling
with water, in order to repeat the experiment. As the
gases were displaced from the jar, we became aware of the
presence of a powerful odour, so pungent as to produce
coughing. This was a second surprise, and it led to
considerable discussion. The prevailing opinion seemed to
be that some impurity in the sulphuric acid, used in the
voltameter, had caused the white cloud and the odour. On
one point we were all agreed— the odour was identical with
that produced during the excitement of a frictional electrical
machine, and the novel phenomena we had witnessed were
admitted to be worthy of investigation. On repeating the
experiment a second time similar results were obtained, and
the room was filled with the electrical odour ; being mani-
pulator, I probably inhaled more of this odour than the
rest of the company, and my throaT was in a state of
irritation for several days. I constructed another battery
of similar power to that already named, and repeated the
experiment at my own house, taking the precaution to have
carefully-prepared sulphuric acid in the voltameter. The
white cloud and odour were produced just as in the first
experiments.

It became clear, therefore, that impurity in the sulphuric
acid was not the origin of either cloud or odour. I filled
several bottles with these odorous gases, and tried some
experiments, such as the solubility of the odorous substance
in water, its alkaline and acid properties, &c. These experi-
ments were named to many scientific friends, one of them,
the late Dr. Brett, then a chemist of repute, a relative of
Dr. Golding Bird, of London. Dr. Brett offered to join me
in investigating the properties of this peculiar odorous body,

124

and it was agreed that we should commence experimenting
as soon as leisure would permit. Business affairs, however,
obliged me to leave the subject in abeyance.

In the year 1839 F. 0. Schonbein, Professor of Chemistry
at Basle, whilst decomposing water by a voltaic ‘battery,
noticed that an odorous substance was evolved along with
the oxygen gas at the positive pole. The identity of this
odour with that which usually accompanies lightning, and
that which is produced by passing sparks from an electrical
machine to pieces of platinum or gold, induced him to enter
on an investigation to discover, if possible, the source and
properties of this odorous body, to which he gave the name
Ozone.” His discovery was announced in a memoir which
he presented to the Academy of Munich in 1840. When an
account of his experiments appeared in the scientific
periodicals, I recognised under the name of ozone the
odorous body which had surprised us during our experi-
ments in 1838.

The announcement of Schonbein’s discovery caused con=
siderable excitement in the scientific world, and a large
number of scientific men in this country, and on the
Continent, commenced investigating the properties of this
remarkable body. In this brief and imperfect notice I can
only name a few of the experiments. Those who are
interested in the history of ozone may consult Dr. C. Fox’s
exhaustive work on ozone and antozone.'^' In “Nature,”
March 5th and 12th, 1874, there is also a very interesting
account of ozone, in an address delivered before the Boyal
Society of Edinburgh by Hr, Andrews, F.E.S., December,
1873.

What is ozone ? This is a question not easily answered
in a satisfactory manner. This body has been tortured in
every conceivable way by a legion of able experimentalists
for the last thirty years, and up to this moment scientific
men are not all agreed upon this subject.

* Published by Churchill. 1873,

125

Ozone is formed by passing an electric current through
air or oxygen gas. Schdnbein discovered that it was also
generated, during the slow oxidation of phosphorus, in
moist air. Ozone is a powerful bleaching and oxidising
agent, possessing the property of purifying decomposing
animal and vegetable substances. It oxidises many of the
metals, is insoluble in water, and in solutions of acids and
alkalies. If breathed in a concentrated state, it has a
powerful effect on the animal system. To test the presence
of ozone in the atmosphere, Schonbein proposed the
employment of slips of paper impregnated with iodide of
potassium and starch. These are exposed to the atmosphere
with certain precautions ; if ozone is present, these papers
become coloured, and the depth of colour is supposed to
indicate the amount of ozone. Schonbein at first supposed
that ozone was a new electro negative element, analogous
to chlorine and bromine ; afterwards he suspected it to be a
constituent of nitrogen. His investigations were continued
for many years, and, from certain experiments, he concluded
that oxygen could exist in three distinct states. When
electro negative it was ozone, when positive it was antozone,
and when these two states were combined it became passive,
or neutral oxygen.

There are some scientific men who do not think the
existence of antozone is satisfactorily proved. The elaborate
researches of Dr. Andrews and Professor Tait have added
largely to our knowledge of the nature and properties of
ozone. These gentlemen discovered that when oxygen gas
has been ozonised by a discharge of the electric current
the volume of gas was diminished — for example, 100
volumes of oxygen become reduced to about 92 volumes.
If changed back again by the agency of heat, or otherwise,
it becomes 100 volumes again. Sor^t discovered that the
oils of turpentine and cinnamon, being brought into contact
with ozonised oxygen, the whole of the ozone was absorbed.
He concluded that ozone was IJ times the density of

126

oxygen. At present the prevailing opinion is that ozone is
an altered condition of oxygen, the molecular constitution
being different to that of ordinary oxygen.

Is ozone which is produced by an electrical discharge
through air, or oxygen gas, identical with that observed in
the atmosphere ?

Many eminent men of science doubted the existence of
atmospheric ozone ; it was thought that other active sub-
stances in the air had similar reactions to those exhibited
by ozone. The careful experiments of Dr. Andrews, which
were intended to settle this important question, appear to
confirm in a satisfactory manner the original views of
Schonbein.

Ozone presented itself to my view in such close union
with electricity that I have been almost forced to believe in
its electrical origin. I expected that it would be ultimately
found that an unstable chemical union existed between
electricity and oxygen in the ozonised state. Some very
careful experiments by Dr. Andrews appear to show con-
clusively that such is not the case ; he finds that ozone may
be readily destroyed by agitating it strongly with fine
fragments of glass. Dr. Andrews remarks that this
experiment forms a new and closer link than any hitherto
observed between a purely mechanical action and a chemical
change. Probably the generation of ozone is constantly
taking place in the higher regions of the atmosphere ; the
formation of clouds, rain, hail, snow, &c., developing free
electricity, under conditions highly favourable for the
conversion of oxygen into ozone. The amount thus pro-
duced would be vastly augmented by agencies in operation
at certain portions of the earth’s surface. Ozone is said to
be abundant at sea. This might have been anticipated;
the friction of the wind on the surface of the waves, and
the conversion of water into aqueous vapour (a change of
state which always developes an abundance of free
electricity) produce conditions as favourable as those

127

whicli exist in the upper regions -of the atmosphere.

In the Lake district the manifestations of ozone are
considerable ; again there are conditions somewhat similar
to those already named.

On land the amount of ozone generated will vary
considerably with the character of the surface of the earth.

In localities where vegetation abounds ozone should exist
in considerable quantity ; there is the mechanical action of
the air over the moist surfaces of the vegetation, and the
formation of aqueous vapour ; and if it be true, as stated,
that the oxygen which is evolved by plants is in an ozonised
condition, we should have an additional source for the
production of this purifying agent.

Heavy storms of rain, hail, and snow are always accom-
panied by free electricity and a manifestation of ozone.
The pleasant sensations experienced on breathing the
atmosphere after heavy rain are, perhaps, not altogether
due to the washing of the atmosphere, but in part produced
by the ozone contained in it. Mr. Baxendell noticed that
when the fountains at the Waterworks, Arnfield, were set
in operation he found the manifestation of ozone greater
than he had observed in severe thunderstorms. This I can
quite imagine possible. In discharges of lightning the
production of ozone would be confined to the locality of the
flash, and the effect on the test paper would depend on its
situation and the direction of the wind. A water fountain
may be regarded as a hydro-electric machine,* the friction
of the water issuing through the jets developing electrical
action, materially assisted by the conversion of the spray
into aqueous vapour. I would suggest that this fact should
be prominently brought before municipal bodies, to induce
them to erect fountains in all available places in large cities
as sanitary agents. They might prove highly beneficial in
crowded localities.

* Humboldt mentions in Cosmos, vol. 1, page 344, “ That the negative
electricity near high water falls is sufficiently intense to produce an effect on
a delicate electrometer at a distance of 300 or 400 feet.”

128

''Results of Rain Gauge Observations, made at Eccles,
near Manchester, during the year 1875,” by Thomas Mac-
KERETH, F.R.A.S., F.M.S.

The rainfall of last year was above the average, by a
little over the amount which fell in July above the average
for that month. Hence it may be said that the excess of
rainfall for the year was due to the excessive amount which
fell during July. Great excesses fell during June and Sep-
tember, and the fall during all the summer and autumn
months was invariably above the average. The fall was
greatly below the average in February, March, April, and
December, so that the year was characterised by a dry
spring and a very wet summer and autumn, though the
excess of the rainfall of the year is about the average fall
for a month at this station, yet the number of days on which
rain fell is below the average. This usually happens during
the periods of excessive rainfall, which shows how much
more rapidly the clouds condense during periods of heavy
than of light rainfalls; and is another instance of a rule in
rainfall that I pointed out last year. The following table
shows the results obtained from a rain gauge with a lOin,
round receiver placed 3ft. above the ground.

QuarterlyPeriods.

1875.

Fall

in

Inches.

Average
of 15
years.

Differences.

QuarterlyPeriods.

Average
of 15
years.

1875.

Average
of 15
years.

1875.

Days.

Days.

c

January

3-469

2-857

-f 0-612 •)

52

49^

February

0-833

2-103

—1-270 [

7-336

5-081

1

C

March

0-779

2-376

—1-597 )

April

0-763

1-913

—1-150 S

46

44 k

May

2-676

2-116

+0-560 V

6-729

7-336

(

June

3-897

2-700

+1-197 )

c

July

5-624

3-223

+2-401 ■)

53

56 K

August

4-067

3-333

+0-734 [

10-692

15-180

c

September

5-489

4-136

+1-353 ;

1

(

October

5-030

4-310

+0-720 ')

00

56 K

November

4-099

3-325

+0-774 [

10-514

10-295

(

December

1-166

2-879

—1-713 ;

i 209

i

205

37-892

35-271

+2-621

129

In the next table are given the results obtained from rain
gauges of two different kinds, placed in close proximity in
the same plane, and 8ft. from the ground, the one has a lOin.
round receiver, and the other a 5in. square receiver. Nearly
all the months on which there was an excess of rainfall the
smaller gauge registered the larger amount; out of the four
months when the rainfall was below the average three of
them show the greater fall in the greater gauge. Nearly
the whole difference between the fall in the two gauges
occured in January. A similar circumstance happened in
the December of the previous year, that is in the preceding
month, and both cases were doubtless due to the same cause,
namely the fall of snow. An average fall in both gauges
over a period of eight years shows a difference of only
of an inch. Thus as I have said before the two gauges are
practically checks upon each other.

1875.

Rainfall in
inches in
lOin. round
receiver 3ft
from
ground.

Rainfall in
inches in
5in. square
receiver
8ft. from
ground.

Difference.

From 1868 to 1875.

Difference.

Average of
8 years
rainfall in
inches in
lOin. round
receiver
3ft. from
ground.

Average of
8 years
rainfall in
inches in
5in. square
receiver
3ft. from
ground.

January

February

March

April

May

June

Jiily

August

September

October

November

December

3-469

0-833

0-779

0- 763

2- 676

3- 897
5-624

4- 067

5- 489
5-030
4-099

1- 166

4- 062
0-824
0-724

0- 779

2- 690

3- 956

5- 710

4- 056

5- 497
4-960
4-118

1- 131

—-593
+•009
+-055
— -016
— -014
— -059
— -086
+•011
—•008
+•070
—•019
+•035

3-082

1- 974

2- 203

1- 853

2- 008

2- 548

3- 148

3- 372

4- 069
4-983
3-272
3-023

3-142

1- 940

2- 227
1-827

1- 978

2- 522

3- 143

3- 351

4- 030
4-967
3-306
3-073

—•060

+•034

—•024

+•026

+•030

+•026

+•005

+•021

+•039

+•016

—•034

—•050

37-892

38-507

—•615

35-535

35-506

+•029

In the next table I give the results obtained from two
exactly similar gauges placed at different heights from the
ground and free from every interference ; each gauge has a
5in. square receiver, and the one is placed 8ft. and the other
84ft. above the ground. The total falHn the one 8ft. from

130

the ground for last year was S8-507in., and in the one 34ft.
from the ground it was 32*921in. The difference between
the fall in the two gauges is 5'586in. or about 18 per cent
less rain fell in the higher gauge than in the lower one. In
the same table I give the average fall in the same gauges
for eight years, and by comparing the results it will be
found that the average difference between the fall in the
two gauges is about 17 J per cent, very nearly the difference
I showed last year on a seven years’ average.

1875.

Kainfall in
inches in
5in. square
receiver 3ft.
from ground,
1875.

Rainfall in
inches in
Sin. square
receiver 34ft.
from ground,
1875.

From 1868 to 1875.

Average fall of
rain in inches
for 8 years
in 5in. square
receiver 3ft.
from [ground.

Average fall of
rain in inches
for 8 years
in 5in. square
receiver 34ft.
from ground.

January

4-062

2-613

3-142

2-217

February

0-824

0-585

1-940

1-461

March

0-724

0-605

2-227

1-748

April

0-779

0-543

1-827

1-545

May

2-690

2-345

1-978

1-784

June

3-956

3-326

2-522

2-220

July

5-710

5-312

3-143

2-819

August

4-056

3-791

3-351

2-852

September

5-497

4-917

4-030

3-453

October

4-960

4-605

4-967

4-154

November

4-118

3-464

3-306

2-597

December

1-131

0-815

3-073

2-460

38-507

32-921

35-506

29-310

The following table gives the ratios of the excesses of
rainfall 8ft. from the ground over the amount measured at
84ft. from the ground. It is astonishing how these ratios
vary their places in each single year, and yet how they
maintain their positions in and after a six years’ average.
There was absolutely no comparison between the ratios of
the single years of 1878 and 1874 and the ratios of the six
and seven years’ averages, which were almost identical.
So also of these ratios of last year, there is not tlie slightest
comparison between them and the eight years’ average, and
practically there is no difference between the six, seven, and
eight years’ averages. Now, according to the seven and

181

eight years’ averages, the greatest difference between the
amounts of rain which fell in the lower andjiigher gauges
occurs in January, decreases gradually in difference till
May, when it attains a minimum. This minimum main-
tains itself till August, when there is a slight increase; then
after a slight decrease in September, the increase becomes
constant to January again. On the theory first enunciated
by Mr. Baxendell that the excess of rainfall in the lower
gauge is due to the particles of invisible vapour in the air
between it and the higher gauge coalescing with the falling
rain-drops, the results seem to show that in the spring and
early summer months there is relatively less of this vapour
in the air below a lieight of 34ft., and there is relatively
more of it in the winter months and particularly in January.

Monthly and annual ratios of the excess of rainfall
measured at 3ft. from the ground over the amount measured
at 34ft. from the ground ; together with the amount of the
mean humidity of the atmosphere, full saturation being
represented by unity.

1

Ratios of such
rainfall for 1875.

Ratios of such rain-
fall for an average
of 8 years, from
1868 to 1875.

Mean humidity of
the atmosphere
for 8 years, from
1868 to 1875.

January

•643

•705

•871

February

•709

•753

•855

March

•835

•784

•836

April

•697

•845

•765

May

•871

•901

•755

June

•840

•879

•747

July

•930

•896

•759

August

•934

•851

•793

September

•894

•856

•777

October

•929

•836

•840

November

•841

•785

•853

December

•720

•800

•872

j Annual Eatios

•820

•824

•810

That I might demonstrate as far as possible that this is
the true way to account for the difference of rainfall at the
two lieights above the ground, I took out the representatives
I had for the last 8 years of the relative amount of moisture
in the atmosphere. These results were obtained from a

132

wet and dry bulb hygrometer, which I have had in use for
16 years, and reductions based upon Glaisher’s humidity
tables. In the foregoing table the averages of the relative
amount of moisture in the atmosphere are given in the last
column. Of course the order of the amounts is inverse to
the ratios of rainfall, one being positive and the other
negative. The striking resemblance between facts shown
by each is at once obvious. I have, however, projected
them in the following diagram. The irregular line marked

(a) represents the rainfall ratios, and the one marked (6)
the mean relative amount of humidity. Hence I infer
that the maximum of dry air on the ground is in May,
June, and July, and the minimum in November, December,
and January. These periods of maximum and minimum
are closely allied to similar periods of ozone results.

In the next table I give the fall of rain for 1875 during
the day, from 8 a.m. to 8 p.m., and the fall during the night
from 8 p.m. to 8 a.m. The results of these observations for
1874 I pointed out were exceptional, as in every pre=-
vious year since I instituted them the day-fall had always
been greater than the night-fall. The last year gives the
original kind of results, and the day-fall exceeds the night,
and by about the same amount as the reverse of 1864.
The excess of the day-fall over the night of last year was
2’517 inches, or about 13 per cent.

133

1875.

Rainfall in
inches from
8a.m. toSp.m.

Rainfall in
inches from .
8 p.m. to 8 a.m.

Difference
between night
.^nd day fall.

January

1-605 !

2-457

-PO-852

February

0-468 '

0-356

, —0-112

March

0-380

0-344

—0-036 1

April

0-396 :

0-383

—0-013

May

1-249

1-441

-fO-192

June

2-425 ’

1-531

—0-894

July

3-780

1-930

—1-850

August

2-033

2-023

—0-010

September . . .

2-410

3-087

-fO-677

October

2-759

2-201

—0-558

November ...

2-584

1-534

—1-050

December

0-423

0-708

+0-285

20-512

17-995

—2-517

1

In the next table I present the average day and night
fall for a period ol eight years. The results of this table
continue to show that the day-fall exceeds the night=fall
so far as the whole year is considered. The months which
have an excess of rainfall in the nights are those which
show the greatest amount of atmospheric vapour, namely
January, February and December; August and September
show an increase, but in these months the amount of vapour
in the air begins to increase, but whether the excess in those
months is due to that cause is yet doubtful.

Average of eight years, from 1868 to 1875 : —

1875.

Rainfall in
inches from
8 a.m.
to 8 p.m.

Rainfall in
inches from
8 p.m.
to 8 a.m.

Difference
between night
and day fall-.

i January

1-361

1-781

+0-420

j February

! 0-825

1-114 I

! +0-289

1 March

! 1-199

1-027 !

i —0-172

April

1-054

0-772 !

—0-282

May

1 1-156

0-821

—0-335

i June

i 1463

1-058

—0-405

! Jtily

: 1-813

1-330

—0-483

i August

i 1-656

1-695

+0-039

September . . .

i 1-875

2-155

+0-280

October

2-585

2-381

—0-204

November ...

1-682

1-624

—0-058

December

1-351

{-721

+0-370

i

' 18-020

17-479

—0-541

i

184

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.

March 13th, 1876.

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.B.S., F.G.S., in the chair.

Mr. John Boyd was elected a Member, and Mr. Robert
Ellis GunlifFe, and Mr. Walter Edward Barratt, Associates
of the Section.

Mr. Charles Bailey exhibited a series of slides illustrat-
ing similarities of structure in Dicotyledonous and Monocoty-
ledonous stems.

Mr. Bailey likewise distributed among the members dried
plants of Potamogaton lanceolatus sm. from Lligwy, Anglesea,
that locality being still the only recorded habitat for this
rare Pondweed ; and exhibited some Egyptian plants
collected by H. A. Hurst, Esq., Treasurer of the Section —
the most noteworthy of which was Tamarix articulata—
from Alexandria.

Mr. R. D. Darbishire, F.G.S., exhibited a series of speci-
mens of very young Rhombus vulgaris (Guv.), showing (1),
the two eyes on each side of the vertebral plane, (2) the
removal of the eye from the underside to the dorsal edge, (3)
the appearance of both eyes on the one (upper) side of the
fish. These specimens had been found and given by Dr, A,
W. Malm, of Gothenburg ; who first proved the remarkable
physiological change of form. Dr. Malm stated that he had
had no difficulty in procuring specimens so young as these
by using a surface net at sea before dawn in the hot days
of summer. These were taken in the Kattegat on the 25th
July, 1875.

135

Mr. R. D. Darbishike, F.G.S., also communicated some
notes made during a visit in the past sumrher to the Swedish
shell-beds of XJddevalla and the neighbouring district, and
exhibited a collection of the fossils of remarkable extent
and beauty. He referred to the notices of these fossils by
Linnmus, 1747 (9 species), and others ; by Sir C. Lyell, 1834,
in his paper on the proofs of a rising of the land in Sweden
(Philos. Trans. 1834) (25 species); by Mr. J, G. Jeffrej^s,
1863, British Ass. Rep. (85 shells, and 14 other invertebrata),
and M. Thuden, 1866 (116 specimens of shells), and to the
great collections of Mr. R. Thorburn in the Museum of
XJddevalla, and Dr. Malm in that at Gothenburg. The two
latest lists must be used with discrimination as they are
conchological ratlier than geological ; each enumerating in
one consecutive list fossils from older, newer and compara-
tively recent beds.

He described the great deposits at Kapellebacken S.W.
and at Samnerod, Bracke and Kurod, N.E. of XJddevalla,
and noted especially the following facts as proving that,
whether the greater part of those vast accumulations of
remains had been drifted into the bottom of the ancient
fiords or not, some at least of the shells had lived where
they are now found. The perfect and unviolated occurrence
of the species named, the horizontal position of the small
beds of sand and shingle in which some of the shells are
found, point to very steady and slow movement. Sir Charles
Lyell indicated the present rise of the southern part of
Sweden as at the rate of 8 feet per century. As the highest
beds at XJddevalla are about 206 (English) feet above the
level of the sea, this means that they have been rising for at
least 7,000 years. How long it was before they emerged
from the water, that the lower parts of the deposit, which
at Kapellebacken are apparently more than 70 or 80 feet
thick, were laid in the bottom of the sea, there is no record.
The most elevated beds of the district appear to be tliose at

186

Kapellebacken. In a small quarry, where the material has
been worked for agricultural purposes, the following shells
were found under conditions which imply that they lived
where they now lie. They occur in horizontal patches,
shewing on the sections as level, and remarkably limited
strata. There is, at a level many feet below the top of the
older deposit, a curious patch of much more modern raised
beach with Littorina littorea and Cardium edule.

This bed also is horizontal and undisturbed.

My a truncata : The two , valves together, upright in
sandy shingle, and filled Avith the same.

Mytilus Edulis : In beds, the valves of various sizes
lying confused and packed. In this species the ligament
and hinge are weak and the valves speedily detach them-
selves. One pair was found in the mouth of a baccinum,
which could scarcely have rolled over after its lodger had
died without losing his shell.

Modiola Modiolus : In a bed of fine sand shells of this
species occurred in a remarkably perfect condition, the
valves closed, posterior edge uppermost, the hinge and back
at the top ; large shells and smaller (all of a more fragile
variety than is commonly dredged in British seas.) In
digging back into this layer shell after shell appeared;
while fresh, as perfect as if alive,” but soon to warp and
crack in drying.

[Query : Does this Modiola ever live burrowing free in
fine sand ?]

Fecten Islandicus : In beds, large and small, the valves
together, horizontally, with the flatter valve uppermost.
The colour of this shell is often preserved with extraordinary
freshness.

Buccinnum undatum : and B. Greenlandicum : Both
species occasionally occurred, older and younger shells
together, grouped in horizontal strata, though, naturally, not
so massed as the less locomotive bivalves, and besides,
generally diffused through the whole deposit.

137

Fusus Antiquus: Also occurred, though not massed, old
and young shells free from sea-wear.

Echinus Drohachiensis : Also occurred in sandy layers,
grouped, old and young, as these animals are usually found
to live.

Balanus Hameri, a species whose component plates seeto
very slightly attached to each other, and speedily fall apart
after death and disturbance, occurs whole. It was at this
locality that M. Brongniart noticed the basal plate shells
adhering to the gneiss rocks, between which the shales are
heaped. The like were still to be found there.

In the more amply extended deposits at Bracke, which
do not rise above a level of 100 feet above the sea, there
are enormous accumulations of the shells of Saxicava
rugosa. Wherever there was a fresh section ready, or could
be made, it was easy to pick out multitudes of specimens
with the two valves together. As the ligament of this shell is
very slight, and the hinge nothing, these pairs of valves
cannot have suffered either sea wash or any geokinetic
change of position, or even pressure.

The great size and the freedom of growth of the Uddevalla
Saxicava has been long noticed, indicating its life outside
of such burrows as gave the more modern form its name.
One may suppose that the shells, growing at liberty amongst
piles of shells of their ancestors, may well have developed, as
we see. Both varieties (rugosa and arctica) occur, the latter
somewhat more rarely.

At the same place there were found amongst the Saxi-
cava valves, which form, as it were, the matrix of the deposit,
many specimens of Astarte borealis, old and young, with
both valves in juxtaposition, placed vertically with the
posterior end uppermost, in the position of life. Astarte
elliptica occurred also in the same condition, though more
rarely.

It was at Bracke that Sir Charles Lyell found the balanus
hameri still attached to tlie rocks.

138

Saxicava arctica, Mya trimcata, and Mytilus edulis
appear in forms peculiarly distorted, in a way wliicli it is
usual to attribute to exposure, during intervals, to greater
or less infusion of fresher or colder water. This may be
supposed to be due to some direction of the currents of the
old land streams, probably coming down from glaciers, over
shellbeds, not far from shore, and at no great depth. The
variation of Mya truncata from some such cause has given
rise to the form known as M. Uddevallensis.

Dr. Thomas Alcock has kindly examined three parcels of
sand, and reports finding the following species :

Kapellebacken— high level-

Brache — lower.

From sand
among shells.

From sand
in Modiola.

From sand
in Echinus.

Polystomella umbilicatula..

*

Miliolina seminulum

#

*

,, trigoimla...

Eotalina turgida (?)

*

Truncatulina lobatula

Another form

#

MoUusca, fry of

#

Ostracoda

3

2

3

The specimens are all of strong kinds, and appear much
worn. They were not common in any parcel.

Mr. John Plant made the following remarks, being
addenda and corrigenda to the list of shells already
published, found in Cymmeran Bay, Angiesea.

List of Shells found in Cymmeran Bay, Angiesea. Cor-
rections and Additions, by John Plant, F.G.S.

Since the printing of my last list of the Fauna of
Cymmeran Bay, the collection of shells obtained from
there has been more than once revised, and I have seen
reason to believe that in several instances my determination
of the species has been faulty, from my having had only

139

young or greatly worn shells to deal with. Several species
have been added to the list of this ' collection. It is
therefore necessary to print a few corrigenda and addenda.

25. Lucina leucoma, was so named from a few worn and
small valves, since which living shells have been
taken and it proves to be L. borealis, smaller
than normal specimens.

81. Cardium rusticum; this must be given up as belong-
ing to this locality. All my specimens belong
to C. echinatum.

96. Venus casina, are shells much worn of V. verrucosa.

97. Circe minima ; the one small valve so named proves

to be a very young Cyprina Islandica.

99. Cardium fasciatum; the two small specimens so
named are young of C. echinatum.

109. Pecten niveus; the valve so named is a white
variety of P. pusio, a common shell in the bay.
White varieties of P. varius approaching nearly
to the niveus are also found.

89. Acmsea testudinalis ; the shells so named are the
young of a variety of P. vulgata.

121. Assiminea Grayana are only worn and small forms of
Lacuna Vincta and L. puteola.

Fusus Islandicus should be called F. gracilis, the former
name has long been applied to this English
shell, but erroneously.

The following are additional species which have been
satisfactorily determined since the last list was printed.

Venus ovata, several specimens from both Cymmeran and
Holyhead.

Artemis lincta, a lew valves.

Cardium echinatum, previously named C. rusticum.

Cardium pygmseum, not very common.

Astarte sulcata, one small specimen.

Lucina borealis, previously named L. leucoma.

140

Modiola modiolus, not common.

Sphsenia Binghami, a good number of smallish specimens.

Trochus Lyonsii, a well marked variety of T. zizyphinus.

Dentalium tarentinum, from Holyhead.

Patella athletica, rather common.

Natica nitida, far from common.

Odostomia acuta (Jeff.), two specimens of a dull white
variety, distinctly umbilicated— vide Brit. Mol.
V. 3, p. 270.

Sepia bisserialis, Towyn Capel, Defarh bays. Mrs. Plant
found four of these beautiful and rare shells
after very stormy weather, in August, 1 873.

141

Ordinary Meeting, April 4th, 1876.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.KS., &c., President, in the

Chair.

Professor W. BoYD Dawkins, F.KS., called the attention
of the Society to the depreciation of silver which is now
under the notice of a select committee of the House of
Commons. It has been attributed to a panic, to the
demonetisation of silver in Germany, or to the increased
production of silver. In all probability all these causes
have been in operation together. With regard to the
last he had had the opportunity of examining a part of
the silver mining district in Nevada last autumn, and
he was very much impressed by the enormous mineral
wealth of that region, which is as yet scarcely touched. In
spite of the depression of trade, which was marked by the
number of miners out of work, new localities are being dis-
covered which will afford an almost inexhaustible supply of
silver. To take an example. In June last a new lode
was discovered in the range of metamorphic schists and
slates about 1 2 miles from Battle Mountain, a station on the
Central Pacific Kail way, 519 miles from San Francisco.
When he visited it in October it was nearly in working
order, and at the present time is in full production. The
lode runs N. and S. and outcropped on the surface of the
ground, forming a vertical mass looking almost like a
broken down wall in some places, and measuring 32 feet
wide, the richer portions being of course irregular in thick-
ness.

Proceedings— Lit. & Phil, Soc. — Vol. XV. — No. 9. — Session 1875-6.

142

These metalliferous ranges extend southwards through
Arizona and New Mexico into the great Mexican mining
districts, and northwards to an unknown limit. The
principal obstacles to their wealth being realised are, 1. The
hostility of the Indians, 2. The want of wood, 8. The diffi-
culties of carriage. These however are swiftly being
removed. The Indians are rapidly perishing, and the rail-
ways are bringing places hitherto inaccessible within reach
of the seaboard and the Eastern States. And although the
lonely plains covered with sage-brush which sweep round
the metalliferous ranges almost like a sea, and at a height of
from 4000 to 5000 feet, are without a tree, the Sierra
Nevada on the one hand, and the Rocky Mountains on the
other, offer an endless supply of timber. It seems therefore
that the production of silver in this district is likely to be
largely increased. Unless the demand keep pace with the
supply, the price must necessarily fall. F ourteen tons of silver
coined at the San Francisco mint were sent to the Eastern
States on 21st of March last, and the export from San Francisco
to China, which was under one million sterling in 1874
according to Sir Hector Hay, in 1875 reached one and a
half millions, which gives an increase of 50 per cent, and
this in spite of the extraordinary depression of trade.

On some Isomerides of Alizarine,” by Edward Schunck,
Ph.D., F.R.S., and Hermann Roemer, Ph.I).

Considering the importance of everything connected
with the history of alizarine, we have been induced to
undertake the study of such of the isomerides of that body
as we have been able to obtain. These isomerides are
interesting from a theoretical point of view, as presenting a
problem with regard to internal constitution which has
not yet been solved, and technically some of them are
interesting as they occur along with artificial alizarine and
not being available for tinctorial purposes are the source

148

of loss to tlie manufacturer. The isomericles of alizarine
hitherto observed are the following : —

1. PivTpuroxcmthine, a body first obtained by Schlit-
zenberger from commercial purpurine, and afterwards
prepared artificially by the action of reducing agents on
purpurine. It crystallises in yellow needles, soluble in
alkalies with a blood-red colour.

2. Isoalizarine, a substance derived from madder and
described by Kochleder, having properties very similar to
those of purpuroxanthine, and perhaps identical with it.

o. Frangulic Acid, a substance also very similar to pur-
puroxanthine, obtained by Faust by the decomposition of
franguline, a constituent of the bark of Rhamnus frangula.

4. A nthraflavic A cid or A ntliro flavine, a body accompany-
ing artificial alizarine, first described by one of the authors in
a paper read before this Society,'*' and subsequently examined
by Mr. Perkin. Its isomerism with alizarine was established
by Mr. Perkin, who was the first to obtain it in a state of
perfect purity. It is easily distinguished by the colour
of its alkaline solution, which is yellow.

5. Antliraflavon, a product obtained by the action of
diluted sulphuric acid on oxybenzoic acid. We have not
yet had an opportunity of preparing and examining this
body, but on reading the description of it given by its
discoverers, Barth and Sennhofer, it is evident that it bears
a strong resemblance to the preceding.

6. Qninazarine, obtained by Baeyer, by the action of
phthalic acid on hydroquinone. Of all the isomerides it
most resembles alizarine itself. Its alkaline solutions have
the same violet colour as those of alizarine, and it dyes
mordants, while the other isomerides have no tinctorial
properties.

7. Chrysazine, a body formed by the action of nitrous
acid on hydrochrysammide, and carefully examined by its

Memoirs, 3rd Series, Vol, V., p. 227.

144

discoverer, Liebermann. By the action on it of strong nitric
acid it yields chrysammic acid, the nitro-acid first obtained
from aloes by one of the authors many years ago.

To these we have now to add— ~

8. Isoanthraflavine, a substance accompanying artificial
alizarine, generally found along with anthrafiavine in the
commercial product, and which we shall describe presently.

Chrysophanic Acid, the crystalline colouring matter of
rhubarb, which at one time occupied a place in the list has
been erased, since it has been shown by Liebermann that it
is in reality a homologue of alizarine, having the formula
Ci5Hio04, and is derived not from anthracene, but from a
methylanthracene.

We propose in this paper to give an account of some
experiments on two of these isomerides, viz., anthraflavic
acid and the one generally accompanying it, which we have
lately observed for the first time.

Anthraflavic Acid or Anthraflavine.

We have little to add to the description of this substance
given in the paper above referred to. Its melting point is
above 830°C. It is less soluble in glacial acetic acid than
in alcohol. The analysis of a carefully purified specimen
of the substance gave numbers agreeing exactly with the
formula C14H8O4, and confirming the results obtained by
Perkin. The barium salt, which has been previously
described, loses when dried over sulphuric acid a con-
siderable quantity of water, becoming at the same time
much lighter in colour. On being now heated at a
temperature of 150° — ISO^’C. it loses two molecules of water,
and the dried salt has a composition corresponding with the
formula Ci4H6Ba04. Our results do not quite agree with
those of Perkin, who found the formula of the salt dried at
180° to be 2Ci4HgBa04, HgO.

Tctrahromanthraflavine, Ci4H4Br404, is prepared by
adding bromine in excess to an alcoholic solution of the

145

substance. It crystallises in yellow needles, which are
almost insoluble in the usual menstrua, such as alcohol,
benzol, and glacial acetic acid.

JSFitroanthraflavic Acid, a body already referred to in
the paper of 1871, is prepared by dissolving anthraflavine
in fuming nitric acid and after allowing to stand some time,
adding water, which precipita;tes the nitro-acid as a light
yellow crystalline powder. It is obtained on spontaneous
evaporation of its alcoholic solution in large well-defined
rhombic crystals of a deep yellow colour, the composition of
which is expressed by the formula Ci4H4(N 02)^04. Most of
the salts, such as the potassium, sodium, magnesium?
barium, silver, and mercury salts, are soluble in boiling
water, and crystallise in lustrous needles, varying in colour
from light-yellow to brownish-red. By reduction with tin
and hydrochloric acid the nitro-acid yields a dark-blue
powder, which is almost insoluble in alcohol, glacial acetic
acid, &c., but dissolves in caustic alkalies with a fine violet
colour like that of alkaline solutions of alizarine,

Diacetylanthraflavine has already been described by
Perkin.'^ We found its melting point to be at 227°C.

Diethylanthrajiavine, Ci4H6(C 115)204 was prepared by
heating a mixture of anthraflavine, caustic soda, iodide of
ethyl, and a little alcohol in sealed tubes to 120°, and crys-
tallising the product from boiling alcohol. It crystallises in
light yellow needles, which are soluble in benzol and glacial
acetic acid, but insoluble in water. It fuses at 232°. The
fused substance on cooling is converted into a mass of pris-
matic crystals. The spectrum of the solution in concentrated
sulphuric acid, which is red, shows a well-defined absorption
band between the green and blue.

Dimethylanthmflavine, the preparation of which is
similar to that of the preceding, has almost the same pro-
perties as the ethyl compound. It fuses at 247"'-248°.

* .Journal Chem. Soc. XXVI., p. 20.

146

Isoanthmflavine.

This isomeride of alizarine was prepared from a by-pro-
duct of the manufacture of alizarine supplied to us some
time ago by Mr. Perkin, and which, according to the latter,
had been obtained by treating the crude alizarine with lime-
water, filtering and precipitating the red extract with acid.
The product was treated with dilute caustic soda lye, in
order to separate some anthraquinone. The filtrate gave with
hydrochloric acid a yellow gelatinous precipitate, which was
filtered off and treated with cold baryta water, until nothing
more dissolved. The residue left undissolved after this
treatment consisted of barium anthraflavate, and was em-
ployed for the preparation of anthraflavine. The blood-red
solution was mixed with hydrochloric acid, which gave a
yellow precipitate consisting of isoanthraflavine. This was
purified by repeated crystallisation from boiling alcohol,
and was obtained in long yellow crystalline needles. Some-
times it yielded golden yellow lustrous scales, but these on
recrystallisation always gave needles. T'hese needles, after
drying over sulphuric acid, still contain one molecule of
water of crystallisation, which is driven off by heating to
120°. The dried substance has a composition agreeing with
the formula C14H8O4, five analyses giving as a mean C69‘79,
H3'65, the calculated amounts being C70-00, H3-3S. The
properties of isoanthraflavine resemble those of anthra-
flavine. It melts at a temperature above 330°. When
slowly heated between watch-glasses it yields a sub-
limate consisting of lustrous bright yellow needles and
plates. It is a little more soluble in boiling water than an-
thraflavine. It dissolves easily in boiling alcohol and in hot
concentrated sulphuric acid, but is almost insoluble in benzol
and chloroform. It imparts no colour whatever to mordants
and differs in this respect very widely from alizarine. It
may be easily distinguished from anthraflavine by the colour
of its alkaline solutions, which is distinctly red, while the

147

colour of anthraflavine solutions is deep yellow, or when
concentrated reddish-yellow. In concentrated sulphuric
acid isoanthraflavine dissolves with a cherry-red, anthra-
flavine with a yellow colour. The two substances may also
be readily distinguished by their behaviour towards lime
and baryta water, in which isoanthraflavine dissolves easily
in the cold, yielding red solutions. Anthraflavine, on the
other hand, is almost insoluble in cold baryta water, and
only dissolves on boiling, while in lime water it is almost
insoluble at all temperatures. Isoanthraflavine in most of
its properties approaches purpuroxanthine even more closely
than it does to anthroflavine ; but having prepared a speci-
men of purpuroxanthine according to Schiitzenberger s pro-
cess, we are enabled to assert positively that the two bodies
are not identical. One of the characteristic properties of
purpuroxanthine is that it yields phthalic by oxidation with
nitric acid, whereas isoanthraflavine gives with nitric acid
a nitro-substitution product.

The barium compound of isoanthraflavine can be made to
crystallise (though not without some difiiculty) in dark red
needles resembling barium anthraflavate. It contains water
of crystallisation, which it loses on being heated to 150°.
The composition of the dry salt corresponds with the for-
mula Ci4H6Ba04.

Tetrahromisoanthrajlavine, Ci4H4Br404, is prepared in the
same way as tetrabromanthraflavine. It crystallises in
yellow needles, soluble in boiling alcohol and in glacial
acetic acid.

Diacetylisoanthmjiavine, Ci4H6(C2H3 0)304 was obtained
by the action of acetic anhydride on isoanthraflavine at 160
to 180°. It crystallises in light yellow microscopic needles,
which are soluble in alcohol and more easily soluble in
glacial acetic acid. At 175° it commences to soften, and at
about 195° it fuses completely. It is decomposed by alco-
holic potash solution.

148

Diethylisoanthraflavine, Ci4,H6(C2H5)204, was prepared
ill the same way as dieth^danthraflavine, which it closely
resembles. It crystallises from alcohol in long light yellow
shining needles, soluble in alcohol and ether, more soluble
in glacial acetic acid and benzol. It fuses at 193 — 194°.
It dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid, forming a purple
solution, the spectrum of which shows two ill-defined ab-
sorption bands, one in the yellow, the other in the green.

Isoanthraflavine gives with fuming nitric acid a nitro-
substitution product similar in its appearance and general
properties to nitro-antliraflavic acid, but we have been
unable from want of material to examine it minutely.

We will conclude with a few remarks on the action of
caustic alkalies on anthraflavine and isoanthraflavine.
On a former occasion it was stated by one of us that
anthraflavine yields by the action of fusing hydrate of pot-
ash alizarine, and it was this supposed convertibility into
alizarine which led Liebermann and others to the conclusion
that anthraflavine was identical with monoxyanthraquinone.
We are now in a position to assert with confidence that the
product of the action of alkalies is not alizarine. On
repeating the experiment on a larger scale by fusing the
substance with caustic potash in a silver basin we obtained
a substance which after being freed from impurities crystal-
lised from alcohol in orange-coloured needles strongly resem-
bling but certainly not identical with alizarine. On heating
it yields a sublimate in needles very similar to sublimed
alizarine. The solution in alkalies is however devoid of the
violet tint characteristic of alizarine, and on dilution appears
distinctly red. The spectrum of the solution shows two
absorption bands similar to those of alizarine solution, but
these bands, according to the determination kindly under-
taken for us by Dr. Schuster, lie further away from the red
end than the bands of alizarine. It appears probable that this
body may turn out to be an isomeride of purpurine, resem-

149

bling Mr. Perkin’s anthrapurpurine. Isoanthraflavine when
treated in the same way yields a body which has most of
the properties of anthrapurpurine, though it seems to crys-
tallise more readily and in longer needles than the latter
substance does, according to Mr. Perkin’s account. We are
at present engaged in the investigation of these products.

Professor Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., made the following
remarks :

It is not my intention to add more than a few necessary
words to the literature, serious and comic, which has Windy
Knoll for its centre. At the last meeting I was unable to
give a decided ' yes’ or ' no’ to Mr. Plant’s evidence that the
^ bone of contention’ was not that of bison, because it is a
fragment of a variable and unimportant bone which I had
not seen for nearly two years. I have re-examined the
evidence, and consulted Mr. Davies, of the British Museum,
and I find that I was mistaken in referring it to bison. The
mistake is however a side issue and not of any scientific
importance, because the remains of that animal from that
place are considerably over one thousand in number, while
those of the bear are over sixty,

With regard to the real point at issue, as to whether it
adds the cave-bear to the fauna of Derbyshire, as urged by
Mr. Plant, I have only to add to the opinion expressed in
Proceed, of Lit. and Phil. Soc., Manchester, 1874, p. 6, the
views of Professor Busk and Mr. Davies. The former
writes — I should be very loth to give any opinion what-
ever as to the specific characters of a fossil bear from that
part of the skeleton alone.” The latter, after regretting
that Mr. Plant had omitted to mention the discovery of the
associated ursine jaws and teeth when the bone was sub-
mitted to him, says (25th March, 1876), “I have not suffi-
ciently studied the bones of the bears, with the exception
of the jaws and teeth, as to enable me to determine with
certainty the species to which they belong. Had I known

150

all the facts, I should not only have hesitated but refrained
from assigning the bone to any particular species of bear.”
The evidence of the jaws and teeth proves that the bear of
Windy Knoll is not the cave, but the great fossil grizzly
bear (U. ferox fossilis=U. priscus), as may be seen by a
reference to the Quart. Geol. Journ., Lond. 1875, pp. 251-2.
It is unnecessary to go into further details.

The Eucalyptus near Eome,” by Dr. E. Angus Smith,
F.E.S., V.R

A few years ago I wrote to a friend in Italy, suggesting
that, as he had leisure, he might try the value of the
Eucalyptus in that country for the removal of those con-
ditions which engender malaria. His reply was somewhat
to the effect that every one was aware of the value of the
tree, and everywhere trials were being made, so that there
was no use in his doing what everybody was doing. This
was very cheerful, showing how rapidly the Italians had
risen up to a full appreciation of new ideas. This winter I
went to Rome with a desire to learn on the spot something
of the conditions of the ground complained of, and receive
some knowledge from the learned men of the place, as well
as from any books which may not be well known here. I
certainly did not obtain any confirmation of the opinion
that every one was attending to the subject. I saw men in
scientific and social positions, in which one might expect
to find the fullest knowledge of the subject, and I came to
the conclusion that it had excited very little interest in
Eome or the neighbouring country.

One small experiment, however, was spoken of, and
several knew of it, although I met few who had seen it.
It was made at the Church of St. Paolo alle Tre Fontanc
(usually called Tre Fontane), three or four miles from
Eome, and as this is the only place I have seen from which
to derive a lesson, I must be excused taking such a small

151

example. The church has two other churches near it, and a
small residence for monks of the order of La Trappe.
The station had been deserted for 40 years, and the ancient
building — the largest and lowest in situation — had been
filled up with mud to the depth^of three feet. The Campagna
here is much exposed to malaria, and hence the desertion.
It is by no means a dead level, neither is the upper part of
the Campagna or agro Romano by any means so. The soil
is very deep, and it is cut into vales of a depth which I will
not venture to characterize generally, but enough to say,
they were at this place 80 to 40 feet. The streams, like the
Tiber itself, had brought down their mud, and the place
had become to a large extent a desolation. In 1869 it was
re-inhabited ; and before entering on the dwellings, a num-
ber of prisoners were set to clean out the place, remove the
accumulated mud, and make drains. Round the desolate
spot there is now a garden, and although it is not yet in fine
order, it is, at least in sunshine, a great improvement on the
neglected land around. T venture to give no exact history,
but tell only such few things as were told me at the spot.
During the first season several of the monks died — I think
five was the number given — aud of fever such as marshes
produce. A few specimens of Eucalyptus Globulus were
planted, and, as they grew well, a small garden is now
thinly covered over with various species. As one enters
there is a peculiar odour perceptible, it is fragrant, pleasant,
and resinous; some compare it to that from turpentine,
some to the black currant, but every one attempts to give
the name of some other odour as evidently mixed with this
more prominent one. The most of the plants are two or
three years old and about ten feet high ; but there is a
diversity, and the oldest has been planted only five years.
This largest was judged by myself and others to be about
thirty-five feet high : at the height of fourteen inches from
the ground it Avas eight inches in diameter.

152

Not one of the monks had died after the first year, but
then the place had not been inhabited during the night
until last summer. Still, it will be seen that the experiment
is a very small one and a very imperfect one. It is, how-
ever, important in this respect, that during the last summer
and autumn — the dangerous seasons— no one had died,
whilst during the first there were several deaths. But it
must be remembered that the place had been cleaned out
and drained, and placed, as the buildings were, in the lower
part of a valley, draining must have been much required^
and the fact of mud being in the church itself, showed how
readily the whole was fiooded. Although there are now
some trees growing, they are only at one side and they are
small. It is true they give out a very distinct odour very
striking when one goes near, and it may be said that the
cause must pervade all the surroundings even if it be not
perceptible. This will certainly take place in very still
weather, and the low situation protects it greatly from winds.
Still, with every desire to give to the emanations of the
Eucalyptus every virtue demanded, it is not easy to look on
this as a good instance of its success.

One of the monks by name Orsise, had prepared a tincture
from the leaves, and a glass of this was given to every one
daily when fever showed itself. This seems to have been the
really efficient agent that in conjunction with the drainage
protected the brethren last summer.

It is not my intention to speak of this substance with
details to any extent. It is however known that in the
leaves and the bark and even wood of the blue gum tree is an
oil with a very strong odour. There may rather be said to be
several oils, but one which has been called eucalyptol boils
between 170° and 178° C. This is the oil which is said to
resemble cajeput oil, and is said to have an effect similar to
that of quinine. But the substance which has the medical
effect is probably a much more volatile oil continually

153

rising from the plant, and J. Bosisto adds a volatile acid."^

This experiment mentioned shows that men may live in
liealth in one of the worst parts of the Campagna with proper
precautions, and how different^ would things be if this plan
were general; instead of a neglected country with scarcely a
house, it might be a pleasant habitation, as it once was, for
many thousands. Still we should not expect this to occur if
the inhabitants were obliged to take tincture of eucalyptus
leaves very frequently. Indeed the use of the tincture is
itself an objection to the experiment. The difficulty into
which Sir Samuel and Lady Baker got when detained in
Africa was aggravated by fever of a marsh kind, but seems
to have been entirely removed when they used the spirit from
the sweet potato. The fever was not a severe one, but the
fact injures to some extent the experiment at Tre Fontane.

If however we look to other countries we are informed
that the tree itself with its exhalation is quite sufficient to
render a district healthy, and it is perfectly certain that if
the oil is efficacious, and the evidence gives faith,
those who live near must be continually taking in
doses which must soon equal in amount that usually given
as a cure. They must in fact be living in a constant vapour
of this healing oil. In order to produce this condition the
houses must be surrounded with the trees, and every wind
will then blow its measure of health. At Tre Fontane this
is not attempted, and although more ground has been pro-
mised the monks, it is not promised to extend on every side
so that they may manage to be surrounded.

In speaking of the subject it of course occurs to ask : Is
it really certain that this tree will destroy the malaria, and
if not certain, will the expense not be a most alarming one ?
Can any one venture then on giving advice on the subject ?
This last is the very point which I look on as so clear.

* See “ Is the Eucalyptus a fever-destroying tree by I. Bosisto.

Eoy. Soc. of Victoria, 1874.

154

I do not pretend to give from my own experience any infor-
mation on the curative powers of the oil, but I have read
enough on the subject to satisfy me that the character given
to the plant is well founded. A brochure by Dr. Carlotti^',
of Corsica, goes over the whole subject very fully, and
journals in abundance have treated the subject. But strong
as I believe the arguments are, I would conclude that even
if they were weak the tree ought to be encouraged and
grown largely, because if the benefit of the curative agency
were less there is another advantage arising, and that is from
the nature of the wood. I went to Tre Fontane with a
friend who planted about a million and a half trees in this
country annually, and had studied the growth carefully, and
he said that the best growing tree would require about thirty
years to grow the wood made in five years by the eucalyptus.
The question I then asked was this : Does this rapid growth
arise from the difference of climate in Scotland and Italy ?
But the surprise of the Italians at the rapid growth was
equally great, although I am not able to tell the difference of
increase of the same kind of tree in the two countries. See
on this also the book quoted.

M. Lambert, quoted by M. Carlotti, gives the growth in
Algeria thus : —

Circumference in centimetres after 1 year
„ . „ 2 years

. 10
. 13
. 80
. 40
. 55
. 75
. 90
.1-20
.1*50

M. Carlotti has seen the growth from II months to be
equal to 17 cent, in circumference.

* AssainissGmeiit des Ecgions cliaudes insalubres par Regulus Carlotti.
(Ajaccio, 1876).

Wood about Rome is scarce ; people are cold in winter
and would gladly use a fire, and they put cloaks on even
in their houses I am told. True, their winter is short. It
is a very expensive thing to have a fire in a hotel, and one
can easily burn five francs’ worth of wood in a day, or at the
rate of seventy pounds’ worth a year for a fire in one small
room. People have not fires enough for the wants of a full
civilisation. Even large hotels allow their fires to go out in
the evening, and cooking at unusual times cannot be accom-
plished. The wood of a gum tree five years old is larger
than necessary for firewood, and would at any rate be of a
most convenient size for splitting up. It is too large near
the gTound to be used entire, and much larger than any of
the wood which I got in Rome or Florence.

Let us imagine this as a source of fuel, a portion of the
Campagna, Maremma, Pontine marshes, &c., growing such a
crop of combustible matter every five years. Where else
will be found a coal field equal in value ? Let the power
obtainable from this be calculated.

Professor Boyd Dawkins tells me that Sir Charles Nichol-
son, late Governor of Queensland, had proposed planting the
gum trees in Italy twenty years ago, and had sent seed
enough to have covered the Maremma with trees, but we
see what has been done.

Speaking with a Roman senator on the subject, he said it
would take thirty years to grow the trees, and man was a
shadow and could not look so far. I know that man is
mortal, but have often heard that Rome is eternal, and it
is for the future we must act. This senator had the same
idea we have here of thirty years for a pretty strong stem,
but now it is reduced to five with apparent certainty.
These five years themselves may be reduced, because at two
years the trees give out rich odour, and perhaps when still
younger, and thus they begin to work almost at once, pre-
paring wholesome habitations. The evidence seems to be

150

that in the second year the homesteads would with care be
habitable, and in five years there would be a rich crop of
wood off the plantation, whilst the ground cultivated for
other purposes would be richer of course, because it would
be receiving that attention which for a long time it never
has had. The trial in this point of view ceases to be a specu=
lation; it is a fine opening for producing wealth and comfort.
Even if the malaria were not removed the gain from the
wood would be great.

It is said that the tree will not grow if the temperature
falls below 4° C, or about 25° — 26° Fahr. One specimen had
lost the top leaves by frost ; but the great fact remains that
they lasted the five years required. There are many varieties
of the tree, and some grow in Australia at the height of
4,000 feet, but I cannot learn if these produce as much wood
or oil as the globulus ; if they do, they promise to be valuable
in this country. The eucalyptus viminalis was said to be
the best for drying up swamps, and it had the appearance of
a willow ; but it was by no means so full of oil to all appear-
ance or so fragrant as the eucalyptus globulus. The
eucalyptus coccifera never suffered at all from the frost at
Tre Fontane, but it had not been long tried ; still the attempt
was made in its tenderest years.

M. Bosisto says that the Eucalyptus Amygdalina grows
350 feet on high undulating forest land, but not above 100
miles from the coast. This may be the best species for
Italy. M. Carlotti seems to recommend the Globulus ;
M. Bosisto’s remarks seem to favour the amygdalina.

The conclusion arrived at was that the frost of the Cam-
pagna would not hurt to any great extent any species of
the tree tried there, and the principal specimen especially.
Nearer the Sabine hills it was said not to grow so well, but
there is abundant low land where it is required.

The value claimed for the eucalyptus is intelligible if we
consider it as continually giving out a medical agent. So

157

far as we know this medical agent, when constantly inhaled,
has no unfavonrable effect, a result not very usual ; but it is
difficult to compare it with others, because in no cases can
we take medicine in doses so minute, constant, and equable.
There is room here for a very interesting inquiry.

One virtue claimed for the tree is not so clear — namely,
its drying up of swamps. This has been accounted for by
its wonderful rapidity of growth ; but I do not hear that it
requires wet ground to grow upon, and am told that it grows
in Australia in very dry places.

M. Bosisto mentions cool refreshing draughts of water
obtained from the trunk of the dwarf trees in the region of
the river Murray. Still one would be glad to hear more on
this point. These dwarfs are only 25 feet high.

A paper read before the Royal Society of Victoria by
1. Bosisto shews a great variation in the amount of oil. He
says the Euc. Odorata yields 7 fluid ounces from 2000 lbs.
of leaves attached to small branch! ets.

Viminalis

Rostrata

Oblioua

Globulus

Sideroxylon

160.

Oleosa

200.

Amygdalina

500.

I suppose these numbers to represent the total amount of
oils and resins.

In a report on the strength of wood, published by the
Science and Art Department, Kensington, the Eucalyptus
stands high, but as there are several species from several
situations the numbers vary considerably.

In a list where the highest breaking weight is 11,158 lbs.
in the case of white or pale iron bark, the blue gum of
N.S. Wales is 7,364 to 6,860, of Queensland 5,663, 4,074,
3,416, and as a means of comparison, may be given Russian

158

Larch 2,142, White Cedar, Queensland, 2,105; the blue
gum, therefore, takes a high position.

That drying is an important element in the removal of
th e causes of malaria cannot be doubted in the most of cases,
but it is by no means apparent in all. It cannot be doubted
that Garibaldi’s plan of having another passage for the Tiber
south of Eome would be of great advantage, but especially to
the city itself, which is so frequently inundated, and which
must, therefore, be on a foundation exceptionally wet. The
mud brought down is proverbially great ; but so far as I
could judge it was not so fine as that of the Nile, which,
however, I have seen only in bottles. The Egyptian mud
causes no fevers ; perhaps because it is more rapidly dried
up. The mud of the Tiber is deposited on a very deep soil,
but the same occurs on the Nile. The depth of mud, how-
ever, may have an important bearing in a less burning sun.

The mud of the Tiber seems always to have been remark-
able, and one wonders why it should be able to go on so
long unchanged, but on going up the river the difficulty
ceases; there we find mud hills, many of them conical, all
with steep sides and nearly all without any vegetation except
below in some cases. There is in fact from water an enor-
mous deposit raised to a great depth, and enough to keep the
Tiber as muddy as ever for ages. It seemed to me that all
this fine earth would be very valuable in much of our
country, where we are glad of a few inches over chalk, or of
a little soil scattered among large stones. Here it lies in
great excess, cut into millions of little valleys, a fine study
for those who wish to examine the action of streams, but a
land wasted and almost useless. If these were made to bring
out crops there is room enough for a great population to live,
and if crops were closely grown, the mud would proportion-
ately cease to flow. There is a good deal of friendly inter-
change of favours to be made between the lower and upper
Tiber. That this is possible seems to be proved from

159

some of these hills being covered, although there are few
in this condition. It may be difficult to coat the steep sides
with any vegetation, but when the top is covered this diffi-
culty diminishes. Still this is work for many men and for
a long time.

A peculiar feature of the unwholesome land struck me.
It began exactly at the foot of the hills. There was no
gradual slope, but you came down from the hill and
were at once on the plain stretching out for miles. This, of
course, favours violent floods, and may be coexistent with
very bad drainage of the plain. Still, as it has been
remarked, the Campagna around Home is not a plain surface,
neither are the lower parts the least healthy.

I hope to think more fully of this if I describe the various
opinions on the cause of malaria; at present it comes
only incidentally. The great engineering works which only
governments can undertake promise to be of value, but the
planting to which I specially allude seems to point it out as
the work of private men. This view of the subject, if
correct, must be most comforting to Italy, because it prevents
that delay wffiich is needful before great numbers can be
brought to act in concert. If enough can be done privately
to enable the agricultural labourers to inhabit the plains
without fear, the larger schemes will come in time. The
Tiber is dammed up by bridges, and one, namely Pons
Sublicius, lies now at the bottom, and the water flows over
with difficulty. No wonder the bed rises, and no wonder
the Tiber bursts all bounds at times. It did so even in the
time of Horace, who tells us in his second ode his fear of
another flood as in the time of Pyrrha, when the fish rose
into the trees or paid a visit to the mountains.

This shows that even by reducing the bed of the Tiber
to the level it had in the time of Augustus, floods would not
cease, and deepening is not at all likely to be a sufficient
measure. It is a pity that the double bed should be so

160

expensive. That is, however, not for private action ; but the
use of the eucalyptus is for all who live on the plains out of
town.

This fear is greater now, and the ground less wholesome ;
but of that and the inquiries of Dr. Balestra and others I
hope to speak after some time. At present I shall content
myself with a few recommendations.

The conclusion to which I come is that enough is known
to prove that great benefit may be expected from the
cultivation of the eucatyptus globulus and perhaps more from
other species. The best plan to begin would probably be
by surrounding with trees any house to be inhabited in a dis-
trict subject to malaria,. That the benefit seems to arise in
the second year, as soon as the plants give out a great deal
of odour. That the experiment near Rome is very small
and somewhat mixed, but is nevertheless enough to give
great hope to those who have an opportunity to try the
same in the Campagna and elsewhere. That the experi-
ments made in other countries seem to indicate a certainty
of benefit. That, the value of wood being great near Rome,
the eucalyptus promises a substance much wanted and there
is therefore a double reason for growing it. That the
growth is unusually rapid, so much so that even in five years
the wood is much larger than that usually employed for
burning in Rome. The expense of the crop is therefore
small, and Rome is thus promised both a supply of health,
of warmth, and of power by the outlay of little money and
with little labour. Apparently Rome need never envy us
our coals, for her coal thus got will last for ever.

I have made no new discovery in relation to this subjects
but have only put together a few of the more striking points.

161

that my Eoman friends may be induced to stimulate action
in those who are more directly concerned, and not leave
neglected such a promising source of comfort and of nationa]
wealth. For not only is this great source of power to be
obtained in the rapidly growing wood, but the removal
of malaria is the introduction of better cultivation and addi-
tional wealth from other crops.

Professor Boyd Dawkins. F.R.S., remarked that in
Australia and Tasmania the eucalyptus grows in almost
every sort of situation and from the sea level to a height
of several thousand feet above the sea. It is to be seen
growing equally well on arid rocky soil based on thick
sandstones, analagous to our millstone grit, and on swampy
ground. In the Blue Mountains a ridge of carboniferous
rock rising in New South Wales to a height of 8,000 feet
above the sea, it is subjected to considerable extremes of
climate. At Mount Victoria, for example, on the 7th of
August, 1875, there was a heavy fall of snow followed by a
frost; and this, I was told, was by no means unusual in the
winter. It seems, therefore, that some varieties of euca-
lypti can stand a moderate amount of cold, and I see no
reason why, if it be thought desirable to grow so ugly a tree,
it should not be naturalised in this country. On this point,
however, I have a letter from Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,
which is an important contribution to the history of the
introduction of the plant into Europe.

[copy.]

“ Some years since I wrote to the Government botanist at
Melbourne, suggesting to him the possibility of acclimatising

162

some of the harder varieties of the eucalyptus in the British
Islands ; and at the same time asking him to procure me the
seed of any plants belonging to that family whose habitat
was alpine, or that belonged to the most southern and colder
parts of Tasmania. In compliance with this request he sent
me a collection of seeds, which, however, I suspect were
nearly all derived from the neighbourhood of Melbourne,
Gipps Land. I had them sown in pots, and kept the young
plants in a greenhouse for a couple of years. They grew
with such rapidity that I no longer had any space for them,
and after giving away a number of plants, I turned about
half a dozen out into the open air. Three or four of the
specimens (they were all of the s. eucalyptus globulus or
quadrangular) seemed scarcely to feel the change, and in the
course of some four years attained a height of about ten or
twelve feet. The other specimens put out in the open air
were cut down each winter, growing again from the root
with the return of each succeeding spring.

Such has been the result of my experience up to within
the last fortnight. Two days ago, however, on going to my
farm in Essex, I was disappointed to find that my trees,
which had so successfully resisted the frosts of four winters,
had in consequence of the late severe weather been seriously
affected, the greater part of the foliage and the more tender
branches being shrivelled up and dead. I do not imagine,
however, that the trees themselves will be destroyed ; they
will probably lose some two or three feet of their height
and again flourish, if they escape a succession of severe
winters.

“Were I to attempt — and I regret that I have not done

168

so — the cultivation of the eucalypti, I would arrange the
plants in thick plantations, mixed with pines or nondeciduous
trees, in order that the latter might afford protection to the
young plants during their earlier growths. I find that the
stokea, an Australian genus, grows perfectly well and is
Avholly unaffected by the winter climate of England: it
would prove a good associate with the gum tree.

“Some twenty years since, on landing at Naples, and
seeing so many plants of the Australian flora flourishing
there, it occurred to me that the cultivation of the gum trees
might be most advantageously followed throughout the
whole of the Campagna. I tried to impress some of the
official people in Rome whom I met with the idea, amongst
others. Monsignor Talbot, whom I knew, and he engaged,
if provided with the necessary supply of seed, that the
experiment should be tried. At the cost of some trouble
and expense, I procured a quantity of seed, sufficient by
this time to have covered the whole Maremma and Pontine
marshes with a forest of gum trees. But I believe the
attempt in those good old days of Papal supineness was
never made to initiate an experiment which, if successful,
would transform the climate of Italy, and be of value in a
thousand different ways.

“ The coincidence of the presence of the eucalyptus and
the infrequency of malaria is a most curious one. The
investigation of the cause is one well worthy of pursuit.”

In a second letter Sir Charles gives an account of the
eucalyptus in India and New Zealand :

“In 1861 I went through India, and on visiting the Nil-
glierry hills was delighted to see the accacias, eucalypti and

164

angophorus growing, especially the first (the accacias) in the
greatest luxuriance. I afterwards learnt from Sir William
Denison (the then Governor of Madras) that many millions
of plants had been established and were growing indifferent
parts of the Presidency, and that the eucalyptus had been
found to thrive on arid spots and places where no other
trees could be grown. As a source of future supply for
timber the cultivation of the eucalyptus is of course an
object of the very highest importance. As you are probably
aware, hundreds of thousands of acres of land that a few
years ago in New Zealand were open downs or treeless
plains, are now clothed with a thick forest of the indigenot?,'?
trees (especially the eucalyptus) of Australia.”

165

Annual General Meeting, April 18th, 1876.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.KS., &c., President, in the
Chair.

Mr. Robert Ellis Cunliffe, of Manchester, and Mr. Thomas
Hornby Birley, of Somerville, near Manchester, were elected
Ordinary Members of the Society.

Report of the Council, April, 1876.

The Treasurer’s account shows that in consequence of the
large outlay required for the repair and beautifying of the
property, the renewal of upholstery, the charges for the
incorporation of the Society, binding books, and a new cata-
logue, the expenditure for the year has been £324 11s. lid.
in excess of the income, and has diminished the balance to
that amount; but the ordinary expenditure, allowing an
average amount for binding and assistance in the library,
would be within the income.

The ordinary balance is £94 8s. 7d., and there is due to
the Society one year’s rent from the Geological Society,
which would make £125, less accounts owing for periodi-
cals, £10, and voted for binding and not paid, £27, leaving
an available balance of about £88.

The number of ordinary members on the roll of the
Society on the 1st of April, 1875, was 169, and 3 new
members have since been elected ; the losses are~deaths,
2 ; resignations, 2 ; and defaulters, 2. The number on the
roll on the 1st of April instant was, therefore, 166.
The deceased members are Murray Gladstone and William
Jackson Rideout,

Ml*. Murray Gladstone, who died on August 23, 1875, was
the fifth son of Robert Gladstone of Liverpool, where he
Proceedings— Lit. & Phil. Soc.— Vol, XV.— >No. 10.— Session 1875-6,

166

was bom on the 14th of February, 1816. He was educated
as an Engineer, being articled to the late George Stephen-
son. He followed this profession for several years, after
which he became a member of the firm of Ogilvy Gillander
and Co., and went to Calcutta, where he remained for several
years. On the 30th April, 1861, soon after his return to Eng-
land, Mr. Gladstone was elected a member of this Society.
He then resided at Higher Broughton, at the house which
is now Bishop s Court. He here set up an observatory
with a 7:i-inch refracting telescope equatorially mounted.
On the removal of the Crumpsall observatory to Altrincham
Mr. Gladstone placed his observatory at the disposal of Mr.
Baxendell. Some of the results of the observations made at
this observatory have been published in the Society’s Pro-
ceedings. On leaving Manchester he removed his observa-
tory to his new residence, Penmaenmawr.

The Council having received a request from the Commis-
sioners of the Loan Exhibition of Scientific Apparatus to
contribute any interesting objects belonging to the Society,
have, with the assistance of Dr. Roscoe, selected such of the
late Dr. Dalton’s apparatus and instruments as appeared to
be of the greatest historical interest, and have sent the col-
lection to South Kensington for exhibition.

The following papers and communications have been read
at the ordinary and sectional meetings of the Society
during the session now ending : —

October 5thf 1875. — “On a Glue Battery,” by Dr. J. P. Joule,
F.R.S., &c.

“ On the Red Marls under Manchester,” by E. W. Binney,
F.R.S., V.P.

October Wth^ 1875. — “On the Hybrid British Heath, Erica
Watsoni, Benth.,” by Charles Bailey, Esq.

October Vlth^ 1875.— “On a Source of Atmospheric Ozone,” by
Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S.

167

October 19^A, 1875.— “On some Reactions of Bromine and
Iodine,” by Professor C. Schorlemmer, F.R.S.

“ On some Bronze Coins found sixty years ago under a Peat Bog
at MisertonCar, in Notts,” by E. W. Binney, V.P., F.R.S.

“Notes bearing on Mathematical History,” by Sir James
Cockle, F.R.S., Corresponding Member of the Society.

“Note on the Temperature of the body during Physical Exer-
tion,” by M. M. Pattison Muir, F.R.S.E., Assistant Lecturer on
Chemistry, Owens College.

November 2nd, 1875. — “ On a Lead Pipe which had been trans-
formed into Galena,” by Peter Spence, F.C.S.

“ On the principle of the Electro-Magnet constructed by
Mr. John Faulkner,” by Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A.

November Wi, 1875. — “ The Fauna of Cymmeran Bay, Anglesea,
Part II.,” by John Plant, F.G.S.

November \Qtli, 1875. — “On an Instrument for Measuring
the Direct Heat of the Sun,” by Professor Balfour Stewart, LL.D.,

F.R.S.

“ On a Colorimetric Method for Determining Small Quantities of
Copper,” by Thomas Carnelley, B.Sc., F.C.S. Communicated by
Professor H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S., &c., &c.

November 1875. — “On the Estimation of very small

quantities of Lead and Copper,” by M. M. Pattison Muir, F.R.S.E.,
Assistant Lecturer on Chemistry, Owens College.

' “ On certain circumstances which affect the Purity of Water
supplied for Domestic Purposes,” by M. M. Pattison Muir,
F.R.S.E., Assistant Lecturer on Chemistry, Owens College.

December lith, 1875. — “On a Sample of Peat from lagoons in
the Sierra Madre in Mexico,” by Professor Schorlemmer, F.R.S.

“ On Graphic Methods of Solving Practical Problems,” by Pro-
fessor Osborne Reynolds, M.A.

“ On Explosions of Fire Damp,” by E. W. Binney, V.P., F.R.S.

“Chemical Notes,” by M. M. Pattison Muir, F.R.S.E., Assistant
Lecturer on Chemistry, Owens College.

December 2^th, 1875. — “On the Utilization of the Common
Kite,” by Dr. Joule, F.R.S., V.P.

“ On the Migration of Swallows,” by E. W. Binney, V.P., F.R.S.

168

January Wth, 1876. — ‘‘Note on a Method of Comparing the
Tints of Coloured Solutions/’ by J. Bottomley, D.Sc.

“ On Explosions of Fire Damp/’ By Bobert Rawson, Esq., Hon.
Member of the Society.

January 1876.—“ On the Life History of Lymexylon

Navale,” by J. Sidebotham, F.R.A.S.

“ On Psammodius Sulcicollis’” by J. Sidebotham, F.R.A.S.

January 1876.—“ Stannic Arsenate/’ by William Carlton,
Williams, F.C.S.

February 8^4, 1876. — “On the Natural Gas from the Gas Wells
in Butler County, Pennsylvania,” by Professor Sadtler, of the
University of Pennsylvania. Communicated by Professor C.
Schorl emmer, F.R.S.

“ Notice of a recent discovery of a pre-Historic Burial Place,
near Colombier, in Switzerland,” by William E. A. Axon,
M.R.S.L., &c.

“ On the Granites of Ravenglass and Criffel,” by Wm. Brock-
bank, F.G.S.

“ On Boulder Stones in the Manchester Drift,” by E. W.
Binney, V.P., F.R.S.

“ On the Formation of Azurite from Malachite,” by Charles A.
Burghardt, Ph.D.

“ On a Direct-Vision Spectroscope of great Dispersive Power,”
by Arthur Schuster, Ph.D.

“ On a New Absorptiometer,” by Arthur Schuster, Ph.D.

February lith, 1876. — On a New British Moss — Hypnum
nitidulum (Wahl),” by Mr. James Percival.

“ On the Gradual Decrease of Wild Birds during the last 25
years West of Manchester,” by John Plant, F.G.S.

February 22nd, 1876.—“ Notes on a Collection of Apparatus
Employed by Dr. Dalton, in his Researches, which is about to be
Exhibited (by the Council of the Literary and Philosophical
Society of Manchester) at the Loan Exhibition of Scientific Appa-
ratus, at South Kensington,” by Professor Roscoe, F.R.S.

“ On the Zoological Station and Aquarium at Naples,” by
Arthur William Waters, F.G.S.

169

“ On Glacial Action in the Valley of the Weir, etc.,” by PrO’
fessor T. S. Aldis, M.A.

February 1876. — ‘‘ An Account of some early Experi-

ments with Ozone, and Remarks upon its Electrical Origin,” by J.
B. Dancer, F.R.A.S.

‘‘ Results of Rain Gauge Observations, made at Eccles, near
Manchester, during the year 1875,” by Thomas Mackereth,
F.R.A.S., F.M.S.

March 1th, 1876. — “ On Crystals of Sulphate of Lead found in
Alum Residue,” by R. S. Dale, B.A.

On the Degree of Accuracy displayed by Druggists in the
Dispensing of Physicians’ Prescriptions in different towns through-
out England and Scotland,” by William Thomson, F.C.S.

March 12>th, 1876. — “ On a Series of Specimens of very young
Rhombus Vulgaris (Cuv.),” by R. D. Darbishire, F.G.S.

“ Notes made during a Visit in the past Summer ta the Swedish
Shell-beds of Uddevalla and the neighbouring district,” by R. D.
Darbishire, F.G.S.

“ List of Shells found in Cymmeran Bay, Anglesea. Corrections
and Additions,” by John Plant, F.G.S.

March 'list, 1876. — “ On a Graphical Method of Drawing
Spectra,” by Mr. William Dodgson, Whitworth Scholar. Com-
municated by Professor Roscoe, F.R.S., &c.

“ Evidence to prove that a Bone from the Windy Knoll,
Castleton, named by Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.,
‘ Sacrum of young Bison,’ is a Sacral -Bone of the Cave Bear,
Ursus Spelaeus,” by John Plant, F.G.S.

April A:th, 1876. — “ On the Depreciation in the value of
Silver,” by Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

“ On some Isomerides of Alizarine,” by Edward Schunck, Ph.D.,
F.R.S. , and Hermann Roemer, Ph.D.

“ Note on Mr. Plant’s Fossil Sacrum from Windy Knoll,” by
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

The Eucalyptus and Malaria, by Dr. R. Angus Smith,
F.R.S., V.P.

“ On the Eucalyptus,” by Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

170

Several of the above papers have been passed by the
Council for printing in the Society’s Memoirs. The printing
of VoL V,, third Series, of the Memoirs has been completed,
and the copies are now in the hands of the bookbinders.

The Council again consider it desirable to continue the
system of electing Sectional Associates, and a resolution on
the subject will be submitted at the annua] meeting for the
approval of the members.

The Librarian reports that since the last annual meeting
a large number of volumes have been bound and the cata-
logue has been printed. The number of societies with
which Ave correspond continues nearly the same as last
year. Copies of the catalogue can be had by members on
application.

On the motion of Dr. Bokghardt, seconded by Mr. E. S.
Dale, the Eeport Avas unanimously adopted, and ordered to
be printed in the Society’s Proceedings.

On the motion of Mr. Baxendell, seconded by Mr.
Bailey, it was resolved unanimously :

That the system of electing Sectional Associates be con-
tinued during the ensuing Session.

The following gentlemen were elected officers of the
Society and members of the Council for the ensuing year :

EDWARD WILLIAM RIXNEY, F.E.S., E.G.S.

EDWARD SCHUNOK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
ROBERT ANGUS SMITH, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

HENRY ENFIELD ROSCOE, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

171

JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.B.A.S.

OSBOENE EEYNOLHS, M.A,

SAMUEL BEOUGHTOX.

pijxaxiaiL

FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.
t^-e C0UimL

Rev. william GASKELL, M,A.

ROBERT DUKINFIELD DARBISHIRE, B.A., F.G.8.

WILLIAM BOYD DAWKINS, M.A„ F.R.S.

BALFOUR STEWART, LL,D„ F.R.S.

CHARLES BAILEY.

CARL SCHORLEMMER, F.R.S.

On the motion of Mr. Henry H. Howorth, seconded by
Mr. John A. Bennion, it was resolved :

That the Council be requested to consider the amendment
of the present imperfect system of election of officers of the
Society.

On the motion of Mr. Spence, seconded by Dr. B. Angus
Smith, it was resolved unanimously :

That a Memorial be presented to the Mayor and Corpora-
tion of the city of Manchester expressing the regret of the
Society to hear that it is proposed to transfer the Reference
Library to the upper rooms of the new Town Hall, and
urging the importance, in the interests of science and litera-
ture in Manchester, of having the valuable books of refer-
ence belonging to the city placed in a central locality in
rooms which will afford the easiest possible access and large
facilities for study.

THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

Balance Sheet from April 1st, 1875, to March 31s#, 1876.

SAMUEL BROUGHTON, Treasurer.

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April 3, 1876. WM. BROCKBANK.

173

Ordinary Meeting, April 1 8th, 1876.

Edward Schunck, Pli.D., F.KS., President, in the Chair.

“Note on a Church Bell, at North Wooton, Somersetshire,
dated A.D. 1265, in Arabic Numerals, and on a MS. dated
A.D. 1276, in which they are freely used,” by William E,
A. Axon, M.K.S.L., &c.

The date at which Arabic numerals were introduced into
this country has been a matter of considerable doubt and
discussion. There are very few to be found upon our monu-
ments and public buildings earlier than the 16th century.
Dates have frequently been cited, such as 1090, 1102, a.nd
so forth, but closer examination has proved that they have
been misread. There is a doubtful date which may be 1417
given in the Archseological Journal, Vol. YI, p. 291. Heath-
field church contains the date 1445, and Lych-gate, at Bray.
Berkshire, is dated 1448. In documents the Arabic nume-
rals are only occasionally met with in England in the
fifteenth century, and only two examples are known belong-
ing to the fourteenth century. Mabillon, after examining
six thousand European MSS., found no earlier instance of
the use of these figures than one of 1855, in the hand-
writing of Petrarch. Having written an article on the
history of the Arabic numerals in the Companion to the
Almanac for 1875, in which these dates were given, I re-
ceived from Mr F. W. Dunkerton, an interesting rubbing
of a bell inscription, which I now exhibit. The bell is in
the church of North Wootton, near Wells, in Somersetshire,

174

The church is about seven miles from Glastonbury, and there
is a local tradition that one of the bells once belonged to the
famous abbey of that place. Mr. Dunkerton’s curiosity
being thus excited, he examined tlie bells. Two are modern,
but the largest is an old one, and round it towards the top
is this inscription :

Amo DOMINSII AP. W.L. CW. 1265.

The letters appear to be cast, and not incised.

If we were to accept this date as accurate, it would upset
all our previous notions upon the subject. There are other
reasons for regarding it with doubt. The earliest known
English church bell is that at Claughton, near Lancaster,
which is dated ANNO DOMI M.CC. NONOG. VI. (1296).
The North Wootton date is thirty-one years earlier. It
would be strange if the oldest bell should chance to be also
the earliest example of the use of the Arabic numerals in
English inscriptions. Dates are but rarely found on me-
diseval bells. The earliest instance of the use of Arabic
numerals on them with which I am acquainted is at Egling-
ham church, near Alnwick. The inscription is in German,
and the date 1489. Strasburg is said to have one bell dated
1461, and another 1474. There is therefore strong proba-
bility against the accuracy of this North Wootton date.
The style of the letters remind one of a later period. Apart
from the date, most persons would be inclined to attribute
them at the latest to the 16th rather than the 18th century.
The three sets of initials seem also to indicate a comparatively
recent age. Mr. H. T. Ellacombe, in his work on the “ Church
Bells of Somersetshire,” suggests that the date should be
read 1625, the figures being out of order. This seems impro-

175

bable. Mr. Ellacombe does not appear to have seen the bell
itself. The letters have a strong resemblance to those used
by Roger Semson, of Ash Priors, who was at work in the
middle of the 16th century. ,

The vine leaf ornament which is observable over the
inscription suggests an even later date. It was a form of
decoration frequently used by a family oP bellfounders at
Closworth, one member of which, Thomas Purdue, died in
1711, aged 90 years. The letters he used strongly resemble
those employed by Semson.

Mr. J. A. Picton, F.S.A., who has paid a good deal of
attention to the history of numerals, writes to me that he is
inclined to identify the second figure with the gobar figure
5, though it differs in position, and the last figure with the
gobar 4. In this case the date would be 1564. Whilst
agreeing with him in assigning the inscription to the 16th
or 17th century, I am unable to solve the riddle of the date
in a satisfactory manner. It is certainly the most puzzling
of all those which seem to carry back the use of Arabic
numerals to a much remoter date than is commonly allowed.
On this general subject, however, the last word has not yet
been said. Since the publication of Mr. Picton’s memoir
“On the Origin and History of the Numerals’’ in the
Transactions of the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical
Society, 1874, and of my own paper in the Companion to
the Almanac, 1875, we have both heard of a MS. of the
18th century, in which the Arabic figures are freely used.
It is a treatise on the Astrolabe, by Macha-allah, or Messa-
hala, and is dated 1276. This is now one of the treasures of
the Cambridge University library, where it is marked li. 3.8.

176

A portion of it has been printed in the Rev. W. W. Skeat's
edition of Chaucer on the Astrolabe {Early English
Text Society, 1872.)

This shows that the Arabic numerals were in use at a date
much earlier than is generally supposed. A critical examina-
tion of this MS. and of the form of the numerals employed
would probably throw more light upon this interesting
subject.

177

PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.

Annual Meeting, March 28th, 1876.

E. W. Binney, F.K.S., F.G.S., President of the Section,
in the Chair.

Arthur Schuster, Ph.D., and R. F. Gwyther, B.A.,
were elected members of the Section.

The following gentlemen were elected officers of the
Section for the ensuing year : — ■

^WSibeUT.

E. W. BINNEY, F.E.S., F.G.S.

JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S. | J. B. DANCER, F.R.A.S.
SAMUEL BROUaHTON, ESQ.

THOMAS MACKERETH, F.R.A.S., "".M.S,

April 25th, 1876.

Alfred Brothers, F.RA.S., in the Chair.

Mr. Baxendell read a paper “ On the Connexion between
the Humidity of the Air and the Amount of Ozone,” in
which it was shown from observations made at the South -
port Observatory during the four years ending June 80th,
1875, that in the months of January, February, March, Sep-
tember, October, November, and December the amount of
ozone was above the mean when the relative humidity of
the air was below the mean, while in the months of April,
May, June, July, and August it was above the mean when
the relative humidity was also above the mean. The excess
with a relative humidity below the mean was greatest in
the months of September, November, and December; and
Peoceedings—Lit. & Phil. Soo,— Vol. XV.— No. 11.— Session 1875-6.

178

with a relative humidity above the mean the greatest excess
of ozone occurred in April and May. The results of the
four years’ observations are as follows

Mean Amount of Ozone,

with the Relative
Humidity of the Air

Below the
Mean.

Above the
Mean.

1 Difference.

January

6-6

4’5

+1.1

+0-9

+0-3

—1-7

February

4-8

3-9

March

5’4

5-1

April

4-0

5-7

May

i 5-2

6-8

—1-6

June

1 5'2

6-2

—1-0

July

j 5-3

5-4

—0-1

August

i 4-9

5-1

—0-2

September

1 6-4

4-1

+2‘3

October

5-0

3-7

+1-3

November

5-8

3*5

+ 2-3

December

1 5-8

3-7

+2*1

MICKOSCOPICAL AND NATUEAL HISTOEY SECTION.

April 10th, 1876.

A. Beothees, F.R.A.S., in the Chair.

Mr. SiDEBOTHAM, F.R.A.S., made the following remarks.

On the discovery of jEgialia rufa.

In the middle of last June I captured two specimens of a
species of Coleoptera new to me. This proves to be j^Jgialia
rufa of Fabricius, a species found in North Germany, but
said to be rare. Rufa differs from the other two British
species in being of a red colour, the prothorax is rugose and
margined at the base, and the elytra strongly crenate striate.
The specimens found were on the loose sand at the base of
the sand hills at Southport. I send one of the specimens for
exhibition, also specimens of the other two allied species.

Mr. T. Rogers communicated the following •—

I recorded the discovery of a Jungermannia which has
been provisionally named Jungermannia Nevensis, by Dr.

Carrington. It was discovered by Mr. John Whitehead
during a botanical excursion to Ben Nevis, July, 1875. It
has not yet been described, but is near in form to Junger-
mannia StarJdi, and probably may have been overlooked
for that species. Dr. Carrington thinks it may be new iu
science, but he confirms Mr. Whitehead’s surmise that it is
new to Britain, and it will consequently appear in the ap-
pendix to Dr. Carrington’s work on British Hepaticae. It
grows in moderate sized patches on the sloping banks of the
mountain. Neither male nor female flowers have yet been
found.

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.K.S., exhibited a series of
specimens which he obtained in September, 1875, from the
inner side of the barrier reef at Honolulu, ^together with
photographs. At that point of examination the reef was
formed of irregular nodular limestones composed in part of
corals, millepores, and perfect shells, but mainly of fragments
so broken up and altered by the action of carbonic acid that
the original structure was almost lost. The fine calcareous
sediment forming the bottom of the lagoon, and covering
the shore up to the very edge of the lof ty palms was analo-
gous in every respect to that which composes the oolitic
limestones, and especially the Bath or great oolite. In the
deposits on the inner side of the reef, as well as in the
limestones above mentioned, corals were equally distributed.
The masses of coralline limestone were traversed by Ser-
pulse, just as in the case of the Coral Crag.

The few shells which he happened to find were as
follows

Range in British Museum,

1. Triton Chlorostoma^liBm. ... West Indies.

2. Fasciolaria stigmataria, A. Ad. . . . Sandwich Isles.

3. Purpura haustrum, Martyn.

4. JTassa hirta, Hil. ... Seychelles.

5. Oheliscus teres A. Ad. ... Penang.

180

6. Cyprma caput-serpentis

7. Cyprma gangrenosa'! Sol.

8. /froclms anthosa (J)

tuherculata ! Gray.

9. Natica Brodripiana ! Eeclus

10. Turbo margaritacea, Lam.

11. Tellina rugosa

12. Myrtea scalia, Lam.

18. Terna Calif ornica ! Young.

Terna Cumingii ! Reeve.

14. Modiola tenuistriata, Dun.

It is worthy of note that the Oheliscus teres of the above
list is the nearest living representative of the oolitic genus
Tferinma so abundant in the limestones of that formation.

The following communication from Mr. Plant, F.G.S.,
was read : —

A Beetle of Good Omen from Yucatan.

This curious beetle is found in the Province of Merida,
and the Indians find it in the caverns and underground
chambers in the ruins of the ancient buildings, described by
by Mr. J. L. Stephens in his interesting work on Yucatan.
The natives have a strong superstitious regard for these
beetles, considering them as powerful charms against evil
spirits, and sure to bring good luck to their possessors, so
they keep them alive in their houses, and carry them about
on their persons. In order to secure the beetle from
wandering away, a light band of gold is fastened round the
thorax, having a gold chain and hook attached to it ; this
hook serves to secure the beetle to the curtains of a bed,
as a protection during the night from ghosts and evil spirits
and also to fasten in front of the dress in the daytime, to
wear like a living brooch. The Indians have a belief that
the beetle will live for years without food or water, and

Range in British Museum.

... New Zealand.

. . . Mozambique.

... New Zealand.

... West Columbia.
. . . Seychelles.

.f. New Caledonia.
... St. Thomas.

181

that it is quite harmless, having no power to bite, and cannot

It is probable that in a natural state the beetle will live
several years, as it belongs to a tribe of coleopterous insects
of sluggish habits, concealing themselves in dark and damp
places and shunning the daylight.

The whole of this tribe of beetles (Melasoma) is usually
uninteresting to coleopterists, being nearly all of dull black,
brown, or greyish colours, ugly in forms, and of bad repute
for their habits and odours. This particular beetle is
oblong, flattish, an inch and half long by half an inch broad
(looking much like a large Elater), the thorax and elytra
ashy white, a black cross on the thorax, the scutellum and
tips of the elytra black, with raised oblong black spots,
sparingly on the elytra which are united together under-
neath, black with numerous ashy pits.

The beetle is Heteromerous, coming 'under the family of
Melasoma (Latreille), in which the British Blaps Mortisaga
is included, but I have not at present been able to find any
authority for the genus and species.

It is an interesting instance of reverence and superstition
attached to an insect, and coming from Yucatan, may be
one that has descended from the ancient people who built
those marvellous cities and temples.

Annual Meeting, May 1st, 1876.

John Barrow, Esq., in the Chair.

Mr. Thomas Hornby Birley, of Somerville, Pendleton, was
elected a member of the Section.

The Treasurer s account, and[report of the Council were
read and passed.

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(Signed) Edwd. W. Binnby, ) May. By Balance at Manchester and Salford

Jno. Dale, J Bank, St. Anu’s-street £91

183

The election of Officers for the ensuing year took place
as follows

W. BOYD DAWKINS, F.E.S., &c.

R. D. DAEBISHIKE, B.A., &c.

CHAELES BAILEY.

E. W. BINNEY, E.E.S., E.G.S.

©vcasurev.

HENEY ALEXANDEE HUEST.

gccmavgi

S. COSMO MELVILL, M.A., E.L.S.

©omuiL

JOHN BAEEOW.

THOMAS COWAED.

A. BEOTHEES, E.E.A.S.

JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.E.A.S.

SPENCEE H. BICKHAM, Jun.

JOSEPH SIDSBOTHAM, F.E.A.S.

THOMAS ALCOCK, M.D.

W. BEOCKBANK, F.G.S.

184

List of Members and Associates of the Section :~

Alcock, Thomas, M.D.

Bailey, Charles.

Barrow, John
Baxendell, Joseph, F.E.A.S.
Bickham, Spencer H., Jim.
Binney, E. W., E.E.S., E.G.S.
Birley, Thomas Hornby.
Boyd, John.

Brockbank, W., E.G.S.
Brogden, Henry.

Brothers, Alfred, F.E.A.S.
CoTTAM, Samuel.

Coward, Edward.

Coward, Thomas.

Cunlippe, Eobert Ellis.
Bale, John, F.C.S.

Dancer, John Benj., F.E.A.S.
Darbishire, E. D., B.A.
Dawkins, W. Boyd, F.E.S.
Deane, W. K,

Heys, William Henry.

Higgin, James, F.C.S.

Hurst, Henry Alexander.
Latham, Arthur George.
Melvill, J. Cosmo, M.A., F.L.S.
Morgan, J. E., M.D.

Nevill, Thomas Henry.

Nix, E. W., M.A.

Piers, Sir Eustace.

Eoberts, William, M.D.
Sidebotham, Joseph, F.E.A.S.
Smart, Eobert Bath, M.E.C.S.
Smith, Eobert Angus, Pli.D.,
F.E.S., F.C.S.

Williamson, Wm. Craweord,
F.E.S., Prof. Nat. Hist., Owens
College.

Wright, William Cort,
Waters, A. W., F.G.S.

Barratt, Walter E.

Hardy, John.

Labrey, B. B.

Linton, James.

Meyer, Adolph.

Peace, Thos. S.

Percival, James.

Waterhouse,

Plant, John, F.G.S.

Eogers, Thomas.

Eoberts, John, M.D.

Euspini, F. Orde.

Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S.

Tatham, John F. W., M.D.
Warren, Hon. J. B. Leicester.
J. Crewdson.

Thos. Sowler and Co., Printers, Red Lion Street, St. Ann’s Square, Manchester.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

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