« I I I \ \ PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND FOR 1927. VOL. XXXIX. j jjL 16 132 ISSUED 14th FEBRUARY, 1928. Printed for the Society by ANTHONY JAMES CUMMING, Government Printer. Bri.bane. Price: Ten Shillings. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND FOR 1927. Printed for the Society by ANTHONY JAMES CUMMING, Government Printer, Brisbane. Price: Ten Shillings. The Royal Society of Queensland. Patron : HIS EXCELLENCY SIR JOHN GOODWIN, K.C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O. F.R.C.S. OFFICERS, 1927-1928. President : Professor E. J. GODDARD, B.A., D.Sc. Vice-Presidents : Dr. J. V. DUHIG, M B. Hon. Treasurer : E. W. BICK. Hon. Librarian : Dr. J. V. DUHIG, M.B. Professor T. PARNELL, M.A. Hon. Secretary : D. A. HERBERT, M.Sc. Hon. Editors : H. A. LONGMAN, F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. W. H. BRYAN, M.C., D.Sc. Members of Council : E. O. MARKS, B.A., B.E., M.D. W. H. BRYAN, M.C., D.Sc. Professor H. C. RICHARDS, D.Sc. Professor R. W. H. HAWKEN, B.A., M.E., M.Inst.C.E. Trustees : F. BENNETT, B.Sc. J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C. A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D. Hon. Auditor : Professor H. J. PRIESTLEY, M.A. Bankers ; QUEENSLAND NATIONAL BANK, CONTENTS. VOLUME XXXIX. Pages. No. 1. — Presidential Address : By J. V. 19th September, 1927, . . Duhig, M.B. Issued 1-21 No. 2. — Flagellates in Certain Bancroft, M.B. Issued Queensland Plants : By 19th September, 1927. Thos. L. 22 No. 3. — A Revision of the Queensland Polygona : By B. H. Danser, Assistant at the Herbarium of the Botanic Gardens at Buiten- zorg, Java. Issued 19th September, 1927. . . . . 23 42 No. 4. — The Anatomy of the Australian Bush Nut ( Macadamia ternifolia) : By W . D. Francis , Assistant Government ' Botanist, Brisbane. Plate I. and ten Text-figures. Issued 19th September, 1927. .. .. .. .. .. .. 43-53 No. 5. — Volcanic Mud Balls from the Brisbane Tuff : By H . C. Richards, D.Sc., and W. H. Bryan, D.Sc . Plates II. and III. Issued 19th September, 1927. 54-60 No. 6. — Plants Collected in the Mandated Territory of New Guinea by C. E. Lane -Poole : By C. T. White, Govern- ment Botanist, and W. D. Francis, Assistant Government Botanist, Brisbane. Plates IV. and V. Issued 14th February, 1928. .. .. .. .. .. 61-70 No. 7.— A Survey of the Brisbane Schists : By A. K. Denmead, B.Sc. ( Research Student, University of Queensland). Plates VI.-X. and Text-figures. Issued 14th February, 1928. . . 71-106 No. 8. — The Rain Forest of the Eungella Range : By W. D. Francis, Assistant Government Botanist. Plates XI. -XIV. Issued 14th February, 1928. .. .. .. .. .. 107-114 No. 9. — Nutritional Exchange between Lianas and Trees : By D. A. Herbert, M.Sc., Department of Biology, University of Queensland. Plate XV. Issued 14th February, 1928. .. 115-118 No. 10. — Revision al Notes on Robber Flies of the Genus Stenopogon (Diptera ; Asilidje) : By G. H. Hardy, Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic Biology, Queensland University, Brisbane. Issued 14th February, 1928. .. .. .. 119-123 Abstract of Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . , . . iv» List of Library Exchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv. List of Members xviii. . VOL. XXXIX. No. 1. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland. Presidential Address. By J. V. Duhig, M.B. ( Delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland, 4th April, 1927.) Before delivering my Presidential address, 1 want to say that good work was done by the Society this year, not only from the point of view of publishing scientific papers, but in supporting various objects of social as well as scientific bearing, such as the protection of our native flora and fauna and the establishment of reserves. During the year we lost by death three of our members. Mr. Charles Hedley, a Foundation Member of the Society, was later a Corresponding Member and a frequent contributor to its Proceedings. Mr. R. H. Roe was a Trustee and well known to three generations for his scholarship and deep and cultured interest in education. The Hon. A. J. Thynne was also a Trustee of the Society, Chancellor of the University of Queensland, and the promoter and earnest assistant of all sociological or scientific movements of value to the community. To the relatives of these gentlemen, I offer the sympathies of the Society and my personal regret for their loss. * * * * * * NUTRITION. It is now my pleasant duty to deliver to the members of the Royal Society the address which it is customary to expect from its President at the time when he retires from that office. To that office I had little pretension. I have done little active creative work beyond the organisation, as far as I could, of pathological and biochemical work on proper lines here. All pretension I possess is an enthusiasm for science as a creative force and as a directive force for the finer ambitions and energies of mankind. R.S. — A 2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. The year that has passed has been extraordinarily fruitful for this Society in so far as the achievement of its active members is concerned. The annual volume of the Proceedings contains a huge amount of original work which would be creditable to any scientific society of similar size. But outside of this actual work done by our scientists, I confess myself a little disappointed at the progress the Society makes. Public interest in our meetings and in the work we do, public interest generally in science, is not at all what it should be. The Society has a small membership and a very precarious financial existence. To place before the scientific fellowship of the world in- printed form the work we have done all but exhausts the whole of the financial resources at our command. It is very strange this should be so, since anybody who takes the trouble to inquire even into the history of scientific thought and method, and still more into that of any particular discovery or generalisation of economic value, is immediately struck by the peculiar beauty — one might almost say, the romantic beauty — of the process that greatly transcends the pleasure derived by the average person from participation in the every-day events of his life. I say nothing of the pleasure to be derived from actual scientific pursuits, but merely comment on the curious indifference of the large mass of people to those pursuits which are specially designed to make them happier and more comfortable. Apart altogether from the lack of a training proper to promote interest in science, the fundamental reason for that indifference must be that the appeal of science is based on reason and no appeal is made to the primitive instinct of superstition in man, though one cannot altogether neglect to take account of the instinct of wonder, childish perhaps, at the gigantic natural forces about us and at the efforts we make to reduce the theory of their processes to something like order. But it still remains true that man generally prefers to be impressed rather than convinced. Man to-day is still living in the world of myth and guesswork that formed his mental concept thousands of years ago, and quackery and charlatanism flourish ; he appeals to magic rather than to science, heeding not that science is magic, that it has come to us through the hands of those who in a long line throw back to the alchemist and the weaver of spells. But so indelibly impressed is the mind of man with his littleness and his weakness amidst the forces that of old made him afraid, that now instinctively he seeks escape into the fairy world by contriving another world out of his imagination disordered by fear and so unfit for rational thinking. In that new world of his own contriving there is naturally no place for truth, and in any case truth is so small a thing, so patchy, so disparate now that it cannot in any sense explain the whole universe and man’s relationship to it. It was the fashion for the metaphysicians to attempt to do that, to view the universe as a whole and to erect a system of philosophy upon the concepts based on that universal view. In our present state PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3 that is impossible. Since Galileo, Bacon, and Newton, we have come to learn that the whole truth about life and nature is to be arrived at only by an almost infinitely long and laborious process. But another thing we have learnt is that the know ledge, partial as it is in relation to the whole problem, is a corpus of approximations so near the truth about special phases of the problem that we can be reasonably certain that eventually we shall have the whole truth. That is a pretty fine achievement, to be able to say that within the boundaries of our senses — that is, within our own natural limitations and by the touchstone ot those senses which are, after all, the only criteria we have — the validity of our methods, ever being refined, is sufficiently cogent to put us in possession of the absolute truth of things. Though science enters into every phase of our existence, there does not seem to be any spontaneous recognition of the fact. Behind the cinema, and wireless telephony, and maid-less homes, and modern motor cars and aeroplanes, there is a vast field of research, and beneath it a mine of facts out of which the correlations of relevant and significant phenomena are brought up to the light by scientific workers. The cinema alone, which has so often been turned to base uses and from which so much wealth has been drawn, is the result of a long and patient effort embodying the efforts of countless generations of physicists, lens-makers, photographers, chemists, engineers, electricians, mechanics, opticians, not to speak of artists in colour, form, and words. And this form of human effort is only a very small and as ;yet far from serious factor in human welfare. It is small and unimportant because the natural philosophy embodied in it has been diverted by heedless minds into a channel which forks one way to supply wealth to those who are ignorant of all the work that brought it into being and for which they know they cannot be expected to pay, and the other way to drug minds living in a dream world completefy out of touch with reality. There seems, then, to be a definite cleavage between life as it is generally lived and science as it is understood by a small minority to mean truth. And there is thus precisely a cleavage between what is commonly called morals and the truths of science, between laws and customs and the whole methods of living and science. It is a cleavage between parties, one of which acts according to the mass suggestion that what the mob does is right, because it is comfortable and not contrary to generally-accepted opinion, and the other by reason and the known truth. Majority rule is the essence of our present moral or social laws, irrespective of whether the laws are based on fundamentally sound natural assumptions. But since all progress naturally presupposes an intelligent minority holding views greatly in advance of those usually accepted at any given time, we must then agree either to outlaw the intelligent minority or forsake as obsolete the opinions of the unintelligent majority. Once we accept the idea of progress as the inherent end of human thought, we must agree to concede the inherent 4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. falsity of our present standards in whole or in part. In other words, if we agree to advance we must at once consent to abandon our old positions. To put it broadly, if we believe that the world is flat we are bound to provide some explanation other than the present one of the diurnal variation of light and of the tides and of the annual variation of temperature at a given part of the earth's crust. In other words, we cannot be static. It must be laid down that social conditions and thought about them are not definitely and finally set in a permanent arrangement. Most people act and think as if they are. That this cleavage between science and common life exists must be abundantly clear, though it should not so exist. I know, myself, that a large amount of disease is preventible now, and how to set about the problem of prevention is clear and available ; but by a common failing of democracy, fear of responsibility, we do not use the right methods but give the people in these matters what they think they have a right to expect. Tor instance, a common method of preventing communicable disease now in use is fumigation, as curious a mythological survival as our quaint burial customs. So wide is the cleavage that now scientists work quite independently of governments and newspapers ; that is to say, scientists generally have lost sight of any possible economic bearing of their work as their primary object, and then political methods are so empirical as to be useless to them, so that science has come to be a thing apart from common life in a most regrettable way. Scientists have their own newspapers, written in an idiom incomprehensible to the ordinary man. But this local independence is only a part of a large international fellowship of independence which has broken down all frontiers and made the parochialism of the patriot quite a trivial thing. But insensibly as science widens its frontiers of knowledge it will widen the people’s mental horizon, and with that the boundaries of world fellowship. I have often heard it suggested that we have made no advances in our philosophical concepts or attitudes since ancient times. That cannot be true. Through science we have steadily grown in knowledge of what our outlook on the universe should be, and through it have made a vast multitude of social readjustments that we know were necessary. Science has given to life a fine dignity and has erected more and more rigid standards of the value and use of life. With all their ideals . and all their knowledge the ancients were cruel : slavery and torture v/ere part of the social system down almost to our own day. Now' w-e know or ought to know' that frequently crime and insanity are the fault of an imperfect social system and that man is not inherently bad. We are all kinder now in a physical wray, if not quite so gentle with differing opinion or radical opinion. But political and religious intolerance will insensibly disappear as science brings to light new correlations of facts which explain parties one to another and PRESIDEN TIAL ADDRESS . 5 make an adjustment possible. Except in Tennessee and a few other barbarous places, one is no longer compelled to display public abhorrence of a disbelief in the historical accuracy of the book of Genesis. Geologists, anthropologists, and zoologists have made such an attitude ridiculous. Such adjustments as that are of infinite value to the race, apart altogether from the physical comfort and well-being the scientist can command for us. So that I am more than a little- dismayed at the common indifference to science, which after all stands for truth unalloyed and is the most rigidly honest system of philosophy mankind has ever evolved, besides which it teaches a large tolerance of honest difference of opinion. The part played bjr science, then, in human affairs is an essential one, and indeed it is evidently fundamental to right living. One aspect of the problem of life I shall now go on to discuss as the major portion of this address, and that is the principles on which we should proceed to maintain the life and growth of the human organism in a state normal for the species ; that is, I shall discuss shortly what we now know to be the minimum demands of nature for the food- stuffs of the right quality and quantity necessary to bring the organism to the normal structure and function of the average specimen of the human species. The evidence for the facts has been arrived at in an indirect way, and most of the experimental work has necessarily had to be done upon laboratory animals, but certain contributing evidence from observation of humans makes it likely that these experimental data are applicable to humans. The nutrition of the body is dependent on two factors — food of a certain quality and a certain quantity supplied through the digestive tract, and a supply of air by the respiratory tract for the oxidation of the food end-products. Thus there are two factors concerned — digestion and metabolism. With the latter I am not so much now concerned, as only in comparatively rare instances in proportion to the mass of material studied is oxidation ever at fault. Disturbance of endocrine balance and qualitative or quantitative changes in the circulatory system may affect oxidation to a marked degree, but the changes are pathological and do not affect the main issue I am to discuss, viz., What is the ideal diet ? The digestive system of man has evolved into a tube of very great length in proportion to the height of the organism, having at its cranial end a mechanism for crushing food into a finely divided state, while below that a system of dilution and chemical change puts the food into a state necessary for absorption and oxidation. A certain residue of food is not absorbed, but for all that it serves a definite purpose in the digestive process. Nov/ these are clear simple evolutionary facts. It is quite evident that primitive man, and indeed all mammalians at least, must have originally subsisted on a diet which needed pretty 6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. hard mastication to start with and which took some considerable time and effort to absorb, and which also needed a rough indigestible residue to start and maintain the wave that passed the food down- wards along the tract. And we presume that must have been so, since agriculture is a pursuit of quite recent invention, and we are forced to the conclusion that man the hunter must have lived on meat and such vegetable growth as lay to his hand, rough or coarse, on account of their high cellulose content. We are pretty safe in assuming that the digestive tract of modern man differs very slightly, if at all, from that of Neanderthal or Cro-Magnon man, but civilised agricultural man is putting this system to uses quite other than were originally intended. Man is now unconsciously conducting a gigantic experiment in nutrition and out of it there can come only two alternatives. Either he must get back to a dietary which is comparable in its effects and demands on the digestive tract to those of primitive time, or consciously modify his evolved structure to meet new demands, as Bernard Shaw suggests as a possibility in his diverting preface to “ Back to Methusalah.'5 I for one will not be a subject of such an experiment as the latter alternative suggests. Now we must keep in view these nutritional demands of our structure when we discuss what is to be the ideal dietary. It has long been known to physiologists that certain proximate principles are necessary in a dietary — protein, carbohydrate, and fat, as well as mineral salts which are incidentally present in the foodstuffs which contain those principles. We know also what proportions cf these principles are necessary to a well-balanced diet and the total quantity of all three necessary to maintain in health a subject of given sex, age, height, and weight. And yet we can make up a diet on these lines, properly balanced chemically and generous in amount, on which not only the subject will not thrive but actually become subject to disease. It is upon a diet of this sort that quite a large part of the race is attempting to subsist. We now know that in addition to chemical balance other factors are necessary to make the foodstuffs available for maintenance, growth, and warmth. The experimental wrork upon these accessory food factors or vitamins has thrown a flood of light upon what were obscure deficiencies of growth and structure. That these substances must exist in an efficient dietary can be abundantly proved by removing from the food of an experimental animal certain constituents. The animal fails to thrive or may even acquire disease, but the failure and the disease may be prevented by restoring these con- stituents to the dietary. That is the experimental method on which we base our knowledge of the existence of those accessory factors. Of old it was hard for pathologists to associate disease with the absence of some positive agent, and so the physiology and pathology of PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 7 nutrition were imperfectly understood, even when Eijkmann established the connection between beri-beri and the use of decorticated rice. He suggested that the cortical substance was needed to neutralise an excess of starch in the grain. But his work started a train of investigation which established once for all that the absence of certain factors acting not necessarily quantitatively but probably as catalysts in metabolism produces disease. The danger of deficiency diseases, so called, to a community, is not great where an abundant supply of natural foods is available if that supply is used in the right way. But it does exist very particularly in communities relying on a food supply restricted in range. But even in communities where the natural food supply is varied and ample it is customary to estimate nutritional requirements on a basis of protein, carbohydrate, fat, and inorganic salts required. The fallacy of this I shall show later on. I want here to digress a little and discuss briefly the question as to whether the quality of each of these so-called fundamental principles is mateiial to the issue apart from the vitamin content of the food. First, as to the sort of 'protein used. The foods used by most communities will provide the protein whose animo-acids are of the best quality for tissue maintenance. McCollum, Simmonds, and Parsons made experiments “ to determine the extent to which any protein or mixture of proteins falls short of the best quality yet observed.” They conclude, “ Kidney, liver, and milk proteins stand out as a group of foods containing proteins of unusual value. Among the cereals wheat stands first in the quality of its proteins. Without exception it has been found that two cereal grains fail to supplement very well the protein deficiencies of one another, and accordingly animals do little or no better when fed 9 per cent, of protein served from two cereals than they do confined to one. On the other hand, there are some remarkable instances of supplementing action between certain cereal grains and legume seeds. Conspicuous among these successful combinations is wheat and pea. Maize and pea in combination proved almost a failure for the nutrition of the rat.” So that where glandular organs used as meat and milk are absent from the food supply, care must be taken to supplement it with combinations of vegetable porteins of good quality, such as wheat and legumes. The Quantitative Physiological Requirement of Protein. — The evidence on this point is somewhat conflicting. It was formerly held by Chittenden (1904 and 1907) and Benedict (1906) that a low protein intake, such as is necessary to just more than maintain nitrogen equilibrium, produces no change in the normal process of growth and tissue repair, but McCollum has come to the conclusion that “ when the life history of the individual is considered, a generous protein ingestion or one allowing a fair margin of safety over the lowest percentage wrhich just suffices to induce maximal growth in the young serves to maintain vigour for the longest possible period.” 8 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Against this view were the data of numerous workers who considered that a high protein diet tended to have a certain effect on renal function. In reviewing the literature for the past year I find two papers of interest in this connection. McLean, Smith, and Urquhart (B. J. Exptl. Path. VII. 6, 360) worked with rabbits, which are normally herbivorous and do not consume very much protein food. This aspect of the question was taken up independently by Jackson, whose work we shall review shortly. But it is to be noted that an unknown factor is introduced, as McLean notes. He and his co-workers fed to rabbits a normal diet consisting of protein 11*5 per cent., carbohydrates 60 per ceent., and including fresh cabbage. The range of blood urea variation over a period of twelve months in six animals was from 22 mg. -50 mg. per 100 cc. On a diet consisting of 60 per cent, protein and green food the animals immediately showed a high blood urea content and a correspondingly high urine concentration, but within a month these readings both fell to normal. There was not at any time any albumen or casts in the urine. But when a high protein diet was fed without green food, nephritis developed, the period of its appearance varying with certain factors, as exposure to sunlight. The same effect is produced by a normal diet without green food. These \rorkers summarise their results as follows : — “ High protein feeding when accompanied by a little green food produces temporary changes in the metabolism of the rabbit indicated by a rise in the blood and urine urea . . . The renal mechanism apparently adjusts itself to the increased nitrogen intake, so that examination of both blood and urine for nitrogenous waste gives normal results. “ A very high protein diet, when a little green food is given, does not give rise to any changes of the nature of nephritis in the rabbit’s kidney. The absence of green food, however, very soon results in nephritis, no matter what the protein content of the diet happens to be.” It is difficult to evaluate these findings, but one point seems clear, that high protein feeding of a diet normal to the species does not produce marked metabolic disturbance over a period long in relation to the life of the animal. Jackson and Riggs (Jl. Biol. Chem. 1926, LXVII. No. 1) used rats, which are normally high protein feeders and are not normally as subject to spontaneous renal disease as rabbits. These workers used two diets, each containing as high as 76 per cent, protein, and conclude that — “ By feeding very high protein diets over a period of 10 to 20 months, or about one-third of a rat’s life, we have been unable to produce in these animals any recognisable nephritis.” PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9 So far, then, as the evidence goes, we are right in assuming that even in animals unaccustomed to food which contains a large amount of protein no disturbance other than a temporary one of metabolism occurs, and in animals accustomed to high protein diets no disturbance occurs of any kind. Man is a high protein consumer and, provided we make allowance for whatever error is inherent in the work of McLean and his co-workers by the selection of an animal whose nutritional demands introduce an inestimable nutritional factor (a possible error which ma,y have very interesting bearings on the general question fo protein metabolism in relation to calcium or vitamin D as the green food and sunlight factors suggest), we can with safety recommend a diet rich in protein, a very desirable thing where tissue waste is at a maximum, as in hard manual labour. If the safety factor as indicated by McLean’s experiments is a substance of high vitamin content that would indicate a return to something more closely resembling the primitive dietary which I propose to recommend, e.g., liver meat, would be preferable to casein as a source of animo-acid. Carbohydrates . — These are the proximate principles which form the basis of what I call our gigantic experiment in nutrition. The particular substances which now provide the bulk of the carbohydrate fraction of human dietary are refined cereals, principally white wheaten flour and polished decorticated rice and refined sugar — cane or beet. Apart from the absence from these substances of vitamin of any kind, their claim on other grounds to be considered suitable components of a dietary must be very carefully weighed. Either alone or combined these substances provide a large proportion of the modern dietary — white bread, scones, biscuits, cakes, pastry, and confectionery of all sorts. These things require little or no mastication, they are very quickly absorbed, and leave no residue. Thus is the evolution of the digestive tract rendered quite futile. It is curious that no other substances of diet create such a taste — one may fitly say, such a craving — as these refined carbohydrates. It would be presumptuous to observe that they are dictetically injurious, since we do not know precisely what the trend of our evolution is to be. If we are to be edentulous and reduce our digestive tract to a mere vestige, the consumption of refined sugar and cereals is the surest way to that end. Let me review again the carbohydrate content of the diet of primitive man and contrast it with that of the moderns. For carbohydrates primitive man had to depend upon vegetables, fruits, meat, milk, and possibly honey. That series contained all the starch he could possibly get, and indeed that condition of things persisted right down into comparatively modern times. And it is to be noted that nature provides for the suckling a food of comparatively low carbohydrate content. Modern man eats flour and refined sugar. This consumption of refined cereals and sugar is what I term our gigantic experiment in nutrition. Not only is agriculture, the culture of cereals, a comparatively modern pursuit, of very short duration in comparison 10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. to the tens of thousands of years man has spent on earth, but milling methods are actually very recent indeed. Incidentally western milling methods were entirely responsible for beri-beri in the Asian countries where rice is the staple, and is now responsible for the huge amount of diabetes prevalent in these rice-eating communities. It is in respect of this disease that this experiment is so fraught with perilous possibilities. Allen has shown very clearly that the pancreas which supplies the hormone specifically concerned in the katabolism of glucose is capable of exhaustion by repeated large doses of glucose. He fed to partially depancreatised dogs such small quantities of glucose as were necessary to provide for normal energy output, without, as he observed, producing any further degeneration of the pancreas. But when the system was flooded with more glucose than the remaining pancreas could deal with, not only did symptoms of hyperglvcsemia and glycosuria supervene but the pancreas itself underwent degeneration. Now, whether excessive carbohydrate intake is a cause or a symptom of diabetes, from the experiment of Alien’s and from what may generally be observed there does seem to be involved another factor in pancreatic exhaustion besides the mere quantitative value of glucose ingestion. This factor seems to be the rate of assimilation, since diabetics will assimilate without symptoms their maximum ration of carbohydrate provided in the form of fruit and vegetables, though they cannot do it when they are fed white bread, potatoes, and rice. This would seem to depend upon the rate of assimilation and oxidation, which is slower in the case of carbohydrates of different kinds such as levulose, bound up with other substances in vegetables, than is the case with the pure starch or sugar of flour, potatoes, or refined sugar. The carbohydrate necessary in a diet would seem to me then to be such as may be slowly assimilated and relatively low in quantity. The carbohydrate fraction of the modern dietary depends so much upon its vitamin content, however, that we shall return to the subject again in discussing these accessory factors. I have thought it necessary to discuss these principles of dietary in a specially quantitative way to clear the ground for a discussion of their vitamin content. A considerable literature has accumulated on the vitamins, and as it would be impossible to traverse that, I shall confine myself, first to a general summary of our knowledge of the subject with special reference to certain nutritional problems likely to arise in a community such as ours, and then to a discussion of what should be the ideal dietary for such a community. Our knowledge of the subject of vitamins is really of long date and starts from certain empirical observations on nutritional disturbance we now know to be due to vitamin deficiency. Captain Cook, for instance, was well aware of the beneficial effect of the juice of citrus fruits in the prevention of scurvy, and I have already spoken of the PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 11 association noted by Eijkmann between beri-beri and decorticated rice. It was noted as long ago as 1881 by Lewin that artificial mixtures of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, along with inorganic salts and water, are not adequate for rearing young animals, whereas milk will suffice. It contains all these principles, so Lewdn concluded there was some other factor involved in growth and maintenance than just these. Gowland Hopkins definitely established the fact (Jl. Physiol. 1914, 44, 425). He fed to two sets of male rats a diet as follows : — 1. A diet consisting of purified casein, starch, lard, inorganic salts, and water. 2. The same, with 3 cc. of milk in addition. Rats fed on the first diet failed to gain weight at anything like the same rate as those fed on the second, and the discrepancy could not be accounted for by the amount of solid matter contained in 3 cc. of milk. But when the first set of rats were given the milk their growth increased at an extraordinary rate, while the second set deprived of the milk remained stationary and then slowly declined. This experiment established definitely the presence of a growth-promoting factor, while the earlier work noted pointed to the necessity for the presence of certain specific substances to prevent beri-beri and scurvy. The vitamin or specific factor indicated by Gowland Hopkins’s work as necessary to the growth of young animals being always found in association with fats was referred to as fat-soluble vitamin and then as vitamin A, the anti-neuritic as vitamin B, and the anti- scorbutic as vitamin C, the two latter being water soluble. Recent work, some of which I shall now proceed to review/, has definitely shown that in addition to the growth -promoting substance of Hopkins, fat soluble vitamin is also concerned in bone and tooth formation and with the prevention of sterility. The two latter factors are now known to exist as definite entities apart from vitamin A and are known respectively as vitamin I) and vitamin E. It is to vitamin I) that I shall address particular attention. Before doing so, I want to say that as it is impossible to include within the limits of this address a complete list of the vitamin contents of foodstuffs, I must refer you to the medical Research Council pamphlet “ On the present state of knowledge of accessory food factors (vitamins) ” 2nd Edition 1924 which gives a comprehensive and pretty complete list in respect of vitamins A, B, and C. It is sufficient to say that vitamin A. is present in abundance in butter -fat, fish -liver, fats, milk, to a less extent in other animal fats, and is absent from lard, olive oil, and margarine, derived from vegetable oils or lard. This confirms the value of the empirical use of cod-liver oil in tuberculosis in preference to vegetable oils. It is absent from white flour and oatmeal. It is fairly plentiful in fresh green vegetables, but low in raw potatoes. Vitamin B is plentiful in all milk and fresh green vegetables, but low in cooked potatoes and absent from decorticated 12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. grains and white flour. Vitamin C is associated mostly with fresh green vegetables and fruit. It is present in milk whole, almost absent from pasteurised, and completely absent from sterilised or con- densed milk. It does not stand keeping. It is quite apparent then that fruit and green vegetables are potent sources of these important food factors and indeed careful experiments have shown that animals are absolutely dependent on vegetable sources for their vitamin supply. The vitamins of milk-fat have been traced to green fodder, and Drummond and Zilva (1924) have traced the vitamin A of cod-liver oil back to vegetable diatoms. This fact has a most important bearing, naturally, on the ideal human dietary. In a community such as ours, beri-beri and scurvy are rare owing to the wide distribution of the vitamins necessary to prevent them. But such is not so with those diseases involved in the absence of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, and E, since their range in the food supply is necessarily limited, and this has a serious bearing on the nutrition of infants. In mother’s milk Nature has evolved a perfect food for promoting growth. The milk normal to the species is naturally the perfect food, and a relationship has been established between, the chemical composition of the species type of milk, and the normal rate of growth, but protein and mineral salts alone will not produce growth without accessory factors. Further the vitamins of milk seem to be a definitely quantitative function of growth rates. Osborne and Mendel (1918) have shown, for instance, that cow’s milk may be an inadequate source of vitamin B for the rat. So that the ideal diet for the growing child is at first its own mother’s milk. But as I mentioned above, animals are dependent on outside sources for their vitamins, the cow for her fat-soluble A on green pastures, so that pregnant and nursing mothers need a diet high in vitamins if they are to produce infants with a normal growth impulse and to rear them at the normal rate of growth. The most important factor in the infant’s dietary is fat- soluble vitamin A, so that if breast feeding is discontinued cod-liver oil should be added to the diet. Proprietary foods as a rule are deficient in fat. If dried feeds are used or foods subjected to heat, anti-scorbutic water-soluble C should be supplied in the form of fresh fruit juice. The question of inorganic (mineral) salts I shall discuss at more length. Vitamin D. — It is the absence of this vitamin from dietaries, along with deficiency of the minerals, or with the metabolism of which it seems bound up, which has produced so much skeletal and dental deformity. The name is now used to indicate the anti-rachitic vitamin present especially in cod-liver oil and in other animal fats, but capable of differentiation from vitamin A. Cod-liver oil, for instance, loses its vitamin A after oxidation at high temperatures, but not the anti- rachitic factor. Also butter is more potent in vitamin A but less in vitamin D than cod-liver oil. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13 Luce (Biochem. JL, 1924) observed also that if a cow receiving a diet deficient in fat-soluble vitamins is exposed to strong sunlight, the growth-promoting properties of the milk are only slightly affected, whereas the anti-rachitic value of the milk is markedly increased. It is upon experimental rickets in laboratory birds and animals that most of our knowledge of this vitamin is based. Rickets is a disease which varies considerably in different species, but the essential feature seems to be a disturbance of calcium and phosphorus metabolism such that there is a deficient deposition of calcium salts, chiefly calcium phosphate, which results in lack of rigidity of the bones, and deformity. Histologically there is a lack of calcification of the membranous and cartilaginous matrix of the bone. It has been possible to produce rickets in laboratory animals on a diet so adjusted that the deciding factor as to its production becomes the presence or absence of vitamin D, which is mostly derived from cod-liver oil. It is obvious also that since rickets depends on imperfect calcification or, more strictly, on the calcium X phosphorus product, the absence or deficiency of these elements will aggravate the condition, so that a rachitic condition will be produced most speedily by simultaneous deprivation of both anti- rachitic vitamin and calcium and phosphorus. A third factor is concerned in the production of rickets, viz., light. The effect of light in this connection is summarised by the Medical Research Council Committee (1924) as follows : — 1 . The bone lesions of infantile rickets have been cured by exposure of the patient to the radiation from a mercury vapour lamp or to direct sunlight. 2. Exposure to direct sunlight or to the radiation of an arc lamp or mercury vapour quantity lamp prevents the development of rickets in experimental animals on diets on which control animals kept in darkness or diffused light acquire the disease. 3.. The active radiation is confined to the ultra violet rays of A 300 jjLji or less. 4. These radiations also stimulate the growth of young rats on diet deficient in vitamin A. After about eight weeks, however, growth is checked. 5. The radiation probably acts by mobilising the reserves of the fat-soluble vitamins in the body. The effect of sunlight is interesting and comforting to inhabitants of this country, since it has been observed also that rats on a rachitic diet containing twice the optimal amount of calcium but deficient in vitamin D and phosphorus do not develop rickets if exposed to sunlight. It seems that light will mobilise the phosphorus whenever available. But it must be recognised that (1) the vitamin D is prepotent in the prevention of rickets, and (2) ultra-violet light will correct partial but not absolute deficiency of dietetic factors necessary 14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. for ossification. An interesting development has been that the anti- rachitic property can be conferred upon foodstuffs otherwise lacking it by irradiation with ultra-violet light, as casein, dried milk, flour, olive oil, lettuce, and spinach, which though rich in calcium contain little if any vitamin D, but by irradiation may act as if they do. This power to acquire vitamin D properties seemed to have been related to the content in sterols notably cholesterol and phytosterol. Very recent work, of which advance notice has been given in this country but of which no details are yet available, make it clear that the activating agent of bone formation in these substances is bound up with a fraction of the sterol molecule. We again summarise the role of vitamin D as follows (M. It. C. Committee, 1924) : — 1. An anti-rachitic vitamin in the diet corrects improper balance in the calcium and phosphorus intake, and the greater the disproportion or defect in these elements the more important is the role of the vitamin in the prevention of rickets. 2. Even when the calcium and phosphorus balance is good and the supply of each is adequate, the absence of anti-rachitic vitamin from the diet will result in the production of imperfectly calcified bone. To which we may add — - 3. That direct sunlight or the use of irradiated sterols may partially compensate for the absence of vitamin D. An interesting sidelight on the relation of the blood calcium and phosphorus product to fat-soluble D is provided by a recent paper of Hughes and Titus (Jl. Biol. Chem. 1926 LXIX., No. 2) on “ Leg weakness in chicks.” These authors correlate the presence of leg weakness with a calcium and phosphorus product and the presence' or absence of an anti-rachitic factor, whether a foodstuff actually contain- ing the anti-rachitic factor, or light radiations. These authors attempted to show that leg weakness in chicks was analogous to rickets in man, and conclude that “ the preponderance of evidence indicates that the etiology of leg weakness in chicks and rickets in mammals is the same.” But for me, far the most important aspect of this paper is the fact that all presumptions I entertained about vitamin D are confirmed. Howland and Kramer have shown that the incidence of rickets varies directly as the product of the calcium and phosphorus contents of the blood. They state that when the product is below 30, rickets is to be expected ; between 30 and 40 it is probable. When the product is above 40, either healing is taking- place or rickets is entirely absent. In Hughes and Titus’s series the highest calcium and phosphorus product occurred in chicks fed with irradiated milk, and in no case did the product fall below 40 when there was either an adequate PRESIDEN TIAL ADDRESS . 15 supply of anti-rachitic factor or of direct ultra-violet light. Where the anti-rachitic vitamin was deficient, leg weakness developed and the calcium and phosphorus product was on the average considerably under 40. Non- irradiated milk from cows on winter pasture, i.e., cows feeding on pastures and enjoying a relatively reduced exposure to sunlight, was not potent enough to bring the calcium and phosphorus product over 40, and leg weakness developed in chicks placed on this ration. Whether we accept or not Howland and Kramer’s formula as a valid assumption of fact, it remains that ossification and calcification generally depend on proper adjustment of intake of vitamin D, calcium and phosphorus, the effect of their interaction being complete if ultra- violet light is available. Further research will probably tend to prove that light is only a partial substitute for vitamin 1) in the sense that once all of the vitamin is exhausted within the tissues and no more is available from without, light alone will not prevent the characteristic signs of vitamin D deficiency. Wliile the credit of establishing this factor as definite entity must go to McCollum and his co-workers, it must be said that the earlier researches of Mellanby pointed to this probability. But the earlier work of Mellanby was inconclusive, since he attributed certain effects to a positive factor, in this case, oatmeal, when these effects could quite legitimately be attributed to a deficiency. In a recent article (Bioehem. Jl. xx., 5, 1926), Mrs. Mellanby and Miss Killick have undertaken a further overhaul of the subject of calcification processes, including that of tooth decay. Their preliminary study, recently published, sets out the problem as it then existed. Since tooth structure and position is essentially a function of calcium metabolism, investigation of vitamin D was extended to embrace these factors in human nutrition. Since the first report of Professor Mellanby in. experimental rickets, and arising out of that work, research has been undertaken by Mrs. Mellanby into “ the factors influencing the development of teeth and jaws in puppies and other animals, with the object of attempting to discover the main causes of the bad teeth of civilised nations.” The work was extended to children in two ways. Mrs. Mellanby summarises her findings — 1. A large number of deciduous teeth of children have been examined, and it was found — (a) That they were badly calcified to the extent of 80 per cent. ; not 30 per cent, as usually stated. (h) That there is a direct relationship between structure and caries — in general the worse the structure the more the caries. 16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. (c) That, when teeth are well calcified and yet carious, their resistance after eruption must have been poor, as evidenced by the badly formed or deficient secondary dentine, and vice versa. When teeth are badly formed and yet non- carious, the secondary dentine is abundant and well calcified, indicating good resistance. 2. On the basis of the above results, Mellanby, Pattison, and Proud (B. M. J. 1924) tested the effect of diet on the erupted teeth of children. They inferred : — (a) That well and badly calcified teeth can te produced at will by altering in the diets the relative amounts of calcifying vitamin found in milk, egg yolk, cod-liver oil, &c., and anti-calcifying substances found chiefly in cereals. (b) That the better calcified the teeth the less liable are they to be attacked by caries. (e) That after eruption a calcifying diet tends to increase the resistance of the teeth, whatever their structure, to the onset and spread of caries. These inferences may be justified, but require the crucial test of being deduced from experiments on animals in which experimental caries may be produced at will. As yet authentic caries has not been produced in the animal. Mrs. Mellanby ’s work is well planned and avoids the chance of fallacy inherent in the earlier researches of her husband. So far she has investigated cod-liver oil, egg yolk, green foods — as grass and cabbage and root crops — turnips, swede turnip, and carrot, added to a basal diet of oats, bran, and salts. Her findings are as follow : — 1. Diets are described which, while allowing good growth and good general health in rabbits, produce very defective calcification of teeth and bones. It is hoped by feeding these diets to produce ultimately dental caries. 2. The degree of abnormal calcification is related to the growth of the animal. If x grm. of a diet produces rickets, 2 x grm. of the same diet will produce worse rickets. 3. The worst calcification is obtained in rabbits under the experimental conditions when the calcium and phosphorus content of the diet approaches figures which have been described by workers on rickets in rats as likely to prevent the disease. 4« Calcification in rabbits responds immediately, in the same way as in other animals studied, to an increase in calcifying vitamin in the diet and to exposure either of the animal or food to ultra-violet light. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 17 5. Examination of some vegetable foods indicates that they are for the most part deficient in calcifying vitamin. Grass' especially summer-grown grass, contains more than cabbage. Of the root vegetables, carrot and swede turnip contain more than white turnip. These workers throw doubt on the validity of the calcium and phosphorus ratio or the absolute content of each element in the diet as an essential or even important factor in calcification. They state : — "It may be said with some certainty that if there is abundant anti- rachitic vitamin in the food, the question of calcium and phosphorus is negligible and that even the absolute amounts of calcium and phosphorus in the diet so far as ordinary foods are concerned are of small importance.” That is, of course, only so far as calcification of bones or teeth is concerned. So far and experimentally the question of dental caries, both in its general aspect or its relationship to diet, is not solved. Some light may be indirectly put on it by an appeal made to surveys of dental condition as it exists for peoples living in various dietaries more or less standardised by custom and limited availability both as to quantity and range. The teeth of certain civilised communities, especially those of the bulk of the people of the North American continent, are strikingly defective from the point of view of structure, position, and resistance to decay. The teeth of Australians are not much better. These communities are living in the era of agriculture and refined milling methods. It would be rash to assert a causal relationship between these facts. But it is nevertheless interesting to compare the dentition of people who have lived before our dietary conditions became operative or are now living outside them. McCollum and Simmonds observe that an examination of prehistoric and pre-agricultural teeth shows that there probably was no period in human history when people were free from toothache and dental caries and generally imperfect dentition, but where any sort of valid evidence is available it is found that perfect dentition existed amongst people living on natural uncooked food of wide range, while such people as the Egyptian aristocrats of predynastic and protodynastic times, and primitive Hawaiians, had bad teeth, attributed to the use of soft cooked luxurious food of very narrow range. The staple of the Hawaiians was cooked taro. The Icelanders afford an interesting comparison between peoples living first outside and then within the conditions of dietary as we know them to-day. From the settlement in the ninth century down to about 1850 the diet consisted mainly of fish and butter, there being no grain on the island and imported bread being unknown. But by 1870 a remarkable change occurred. A traveller states that in 1873 “ Cereals whose consumption ranges from 24-30 bushels a head are w'heat, rye, in grain R.s. — B 18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. flour and biscuit.” Again, “ Besides cereals, the stores supply sugars, hams, sausages, and sardines, butter, figs, raisins, prunes, and olive oil.” The health conditions were good and dental caries were unknown until after circa 1850. Stefansson exhumed ninety-six skulls from a cemetery dating from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries. They were described by Hooton, who found no evidences of caries in any of them. There were three or four defective teeth in the entire series, and these had suffered mechanical injury. During the last half-century the incidence of caries has increased greatly in Iceland. This corresponds closely with the changed conditions in respect of import of grain, and consequently change in character of diet. Again, Indians of American plains had wonderful teeth. In 200 skulls excavated from cliff dwellings not a single carious tooth was found. Italians. — Horne observed for many years the teeth of Italian immigrants to Boston. He found parents and children to have teeth far superior to those seen in America. Again, a chance investigation of the teeth of the people of Tristan da Cunha was recently made by the medical officer of a ship carrying supplies to the island. Dental defects were extraordinarily rare. Their diet consists of meat, milk, eggs, butter, and vegetables. They are naturally denied the use of refined cereals and foods of high starch concentration. As I say it would be rash to suggest any connection between modern dietary habits and tooth decay, but one cannot help noting the co-existence in U.S.A. of a vast and alluring publicity for sophisti- cated refined cereal breakfast foods with altogether excessive dental defects in the whole population, which have had the interesting result, I presume, of making that country pre-eminent in reparative technical dental science. I should think dentists would be badly equipped in northern rural Italy where they are not in any case needed. Having traversed the most important developments in human nutrition, let us apply them to our present conditions. An average household of to-day lives mainly on muscle meat, white bread or articles made from white flour, tea with enough milk to colour it, cane or beet sugar, potatoes, sweets — principally a sugar paste covered with chocolate — eggs when they are not too expensive, butter or margarine, a little fruit very often imported and preserved in a viscous sugar syrup, and some vegetables. Practically all these articles are cooked to a soft consistency, so that mastication is reduced to a minimum in defiance of evolutionary demands and of its corollary that development of a structure or organ depends on exercise of its function. The food that does not cling about the teeth is rapidly absorbed and leaves only a relatively slight residue. It is hard to escape a tentative correlation between such a diet and imperfect dentition and constipation, both of which are very prevalent. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 19 Here set out is the vitamin content of such a diet : — Food Constituent. V-A. 1 V-B. ! v-c. V-D. Ca %. P. White flour Nil Nil Nil Nil 0-026 + Muscle meat Nil + + (low) Nil 0-0038 + Muscle meat, tinned . . Nil Nil Nil Nil Tea Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Milk (fresh) + + + + 4- + . 0-12 + Sugar Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Potatoes (cooked) ? Nil + + ? Nil 0-011 | + Eggs— Yolk . . + + + + + + Nil * + + + ' + + White . . Nil Nil Nil Nil ? Butter + + + Nil Nil 4-4- + — — Margarine — From vegetable oils and lard . . Nil Nil From animal fat + to + + _ . + to + + — — Fruit — Raw Nil to + + + + + + ? Nil f Preserved — — - + (low) ? Nil — Vegetables — Green + + + + + + ~\~ + (low) _ j Roots Low to + + + -f to 4- + + low — — Milk- Dried + + + Nil tp 4- + Condensed + + + Nil to 4- + — — Proprietary foods + (low) + (low) Nil + (low) Low ? Jam Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Honey . . ? Nil + Nil ? Nil — — Olive Oil Nil to + Nil Nil ? Nil — — Lard . . . . ; Other foods not so j Nil or low i — | requently use d. Mutton fat — -{- (low) — — — Custard powder . . Nil Nil Nil Nil — — Oatmeal . . Nil — Nil Nil — — Rice, polished Nil Nil ! Nil Nil . — — Whole grain + H- + Nil ? + — — Wheat — Whole grain . . + + + Nil ? + Bran . . + + + Nil ? + i — Peas, dried green + _|_ + + + + — Nuts Very low + + — Nil I — Fish — Lean Nil Very low Fat i + + Very low — — — — Roe (cod) ! +++ Very low — — j — — Meat — Tinned Nil Nil Extract (beef tea) Nil j Very low Liver — Ox ++ +' + + I ? + + _ Pig ++ + + ; — ? + + I — Kidney, pig + + + + — + + j — — Starch Nil Nil Nil 1 Nil | — — Nil = absent ; + = present ; + -fjj .=+ in quantity ; ; +:++' = abundant. 20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. It should now be easy to build up the ideal diet. For Infants . — Milk from the mother who is herself on a diet suitable to fulfil all the required ideal conditions, since upon the pregnant mother the growth impulse and correct structure of the infant depend. In the absence of this diet, a natural milk. From milk the child gets all the protein, carbohydrate, fat, vitamin, mineral salts and most of the water it requires. Incidentally it may be mentioned that milk is the most potent source of calcium we have. It is useless adding limewater to a child’s milk. McCollum has shown that even large quantities of calcium salts do not inhibit rickets. If thought necessary, cod-liver oil and lemon juice will help. For the growing child the diet will be as for adults, with the precaution of abolishing from their diets white bread, cake, scones, biscuits, lollies, and ginger pop. The biscuit advertisements are founded on the fallacy that the human dietary requires protein carbohydrate and fat in a “purified” form, i.e., without vitamin. The frequent meals of bread, butter, and jam or honey should be stopped, and children should be made to feel hunger and satisfy it at regular intervals well spaced. For the adult, the ideal diet is one that requires hard mastication, leaving no residue in the mouth about the teeth, that it shall be absorbed relatively slowly, leave a rough residue in the digestive tract, shall contain a liberal protein fraction, a minimum starch fraction, and shall contain as high a vitamin content as possible, especially of the fat-soluble factors. Such a diet would consist of glandular meats such as liver and kidney, a large amount of fresh milk from cows fed in green pastures in sunlight, wholemeal wheat bread, fresh butter, eggs, raw green vegetables, and fresh fruits. That is a working basis ; it fulfils all requirements. Two of the articles required in this regimen are by a curious stroke of fate referred to as offals, viz., the internal organs of animals, and bran. I do not know what is here the consumption of fruit and vegetables per head, but I submit it might be higher. It is disheartening to see in shops good fruit boiled up to a pulp with sugar and sold as jam, and fruit canned abroad and actually imported into and consumed in a fruit-producing country. It is hardly realised that sun-ripened fruit and green vegetables are necessary parts of a dietary, not incidentals or luxuries. To eat fried steak and potatoes, steamed “ duff ” and treacle, tea and bread PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 21 and jam, is to use things that nature gives us for food in a misguided way, and for all the purposes of nutrition such a diet is practically useless. Cookery is a fine art, and while in moderation we may enjoy the sweet and dainty things it provides, they should be supplemented by the raw products of nature. We are only at the beginning of a new era in our understanding of the processes of nutrition, but even now right-living is infinitely easier than it was as late as twenty years ago. Soon deficiency diseases and those due to faulty nutrition will become extinct. 22 Vol. XXXIX., No. 2. Flagellates in Certain Queensland Plants. PRELIMINARY NOTES. By Thos. L. Bancroft, M.B. (Bead before the Boyal Society of Queensland, 2nd May, 1927.) Trypanosomes have been known to occur in the milky juice of Euphorbiaceous plants since 1909, when Donovan suggested the name Phytomonas for them, and Lafont in Mauritius described the first species, Phytomonas davidi , found in the latex of Euphorbia pilulifera ; since then others have been described. (See “ Protozoology ” by C. M. Wenyon.) No one, so far as I know, has hitherto found Flagellates in Australian plants. There is a species in the Asclepiadaceous plants Sarcosiemma australe and Hoya australis, and a larger species in Secomone elliptica, and a different kind again in Ficus scabra. There can be no doubt that many species await discovery in Australia, for out of a dozen plants with milky juice examined by me, four have been seen to harbour them. It is well known that insects take the role of intermediary host for Phytomonas. There is a bug ( Oncopeltus quadriguttatus, Fabr.)* constantly in association with Hoya australis, living on the milky juice of the plant ; it will also suck the juice of Sarcosiemma. I found Flagellates in the intestines of these bugs ; a larger form than that in the juice of the plant, which is what occurs in respect of other species of Phytomonas, the life-histories of which have been worked out. The dimensions of the Phytomonas found in Hoya and Sarcosiemma are: — Body, 17/r x 2/x ; flagellum, 18/r. Trophonucleus situated considerably nearer the anterior end than centre of body. * Identified by Mr. Anthony Musgrave. He remarks, however, that it is not quite typical. Vol. XXXIX., No. 3. 23 A Revision of the Queensland Polygons. By B. H. DANSER, Assistant at the Herbarium of the Botanic Gardens at Buitenzorg, Java. (Text-figure 1.) Communicated by C. T. White. {Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 28th May , 1927). Introduction. This revision is principally based upon the Polygona of the Queensland Herbarium of the Botanic Gardens at Brisbane, collected for the greater part and kindly put at my disposal by Mr. C. T. White, Government Botanist. I have, however, also mentioned some specimens from the National Herbarium at Melbourne, the State Herbarium at Leiden (Holland), and the Herbarium of the Botanic Gardens at Buitenzorg, respectively indicated as (H.M.), (H.L.B.), and (H.B.). This revision shows that up till now fifteen species have been collected in Queensland. Four of these (4, 9, 12, and 14) are new for this country. On the other hand three species (P. lanigerum, P. subsessile and P. articulatum) , recorded for Queensland hitherto, have been united with other ones. Of the fifteen species mentioned by me, nine also occur in the Netherlands East Indies, and these have been dealt with more in detail in my revision of the Polygonacese of those regions [9]. Of the remaining six species, two (4 and 14) are also found in tropical Asia, two (1 and 15) have been introduced from the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, and two (8 and 9) occur only in Australia and surrounding islands. KEY TO THE SPECIES. 1. Flowers in clusters in the axils of normal leaves, not crowded into more composite inflorescences. Leaves small, at most 4 cm. long, broadest in or above the middle Flowers in clusters, the clusters crowded into long or short leafless spikes, the spikes grouped or not into larger inflorescences. (Rarely the flowers in axillary clusters, but in that case the leaves are sagittate.) Leaves usually more than 4 cm. long, broadest in or below the middle . . 2. Fruit shining, broadest near the middle, about 1 to 1|- mm. long. Leaves with invisible lateral nerves Fruit dull because of minute longitudinal wrinkles, broadest in or below the middle, 1^ to 2\ mm. long. Leaves with distinct lateral nerves 2. 3. 2. P. plebium. 1. P. aviculare. 24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 3. Stems twining or prostrate. Leaves triangular- ovate with acuminate apex and sagittate base. Fruit about 3| or 4 mm. long, trigonous, dull black. Fruit-bearing perigone green, sharply trigonous or with 3 very narrow wings .. 15 P. Convolvulus. Stems not twining. Fruit at most 3 mm. long. Fruit-bearing perigone not sharply trigonous nor trialate . . . . . . . . 4. 4. Spikes short, globose or ovate, in dichotomous inflorescences . . • . . . 5. Spikes more oblong, cylindrical to filiform . . . . . . . . . . 6. 5. Internodes and petioles with few or without prickles, the other parts mostly without prickles and quite glabrous, Inflores- cences usually seemingly lateral, opposite to a leaf. Ocreae obliquely truncate, glabrous ; ocreae and bracts eciliate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12. P. dichotomum . Internodes, petioles, and thickest nerves below usually strongly prickled. Inflorescences terminal or seemingly lateral. Ocreae horizontally truncate, with appressed hairs. Ocreae and bracts ciliate . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. P. strigosum. 6. Plant often prickly. Leaves narrowly triangular with hastate or sagittate base . . . . . . . . . . 14. P. proetermissum . Plant without prickles. Leaves neither hastate nor sagittate . . . . . • 7. 7. All or nearly all fruits trigonous . . . . . . . . • • • . 8. All or nearly all fruits lenticular . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. 8. Fruit-bearing perigone under the lens with many glandular dots. Taste of leaves and perigones burning. Fruit dull because of minute wrinkles . . . . . . . . 11. P. Hydropiper. Fruit-bearing perigone without glands. Taste of leaves and perigones not burning. Fruit shining . . . . . . . . . • 9. 9. Perennial herb. Stems robust, the lower part creeping in the mud, the rest erect. Leaves lanceolate, often more than 12 cm. long. Ocreae ciliate, the cilia 1 to 2 cm. long. Spikes cylindrical, dense, greenish white . . . . 3. P. harbatum. Annual or perennial. Stems more delicate, often prostrate. Leaves lanceolate or narrower, up to 8 cm. long, up to 1 cm. broad. Ocreae ciliate, the cilia delicate, up to 1 cm. long. Spikes narrow, cylindrical to filiform, reddish or white . . 7. P. minus. 10. Fruit dull Fruit shining 11. Perigone not glandular. Spikes up to 4 cm., uninterrupted and leafless, solitary terminal and axillary. Ocreae often pro- vided with a spreading foliaceous green limb. Fruit about 1£ mm. long and nearly as broad, with suborbicular, very convex sides 11. 12. 8. P. prostratum. Perigone with many glandular dots. Spikes narrow, almost filiform, usually more than 5 "cm. long, in the lower part with rudiments of leaves at the bracts. Ocreae without spreading green limb. Fruit 2 to 3 mm. long, with sub- elliptical, less convex sides .. .. .. ..11. P. Hydropiper. 12. Leaves ovate-cordate, long-petioled. Ocreae at least partly with a green, spreading limb. Stout annual herb with many thick nutant spikes. Fruit 2 to 3 mm. long . . 6. P. onentale. Leaves linear-lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate. Ocreae without spreading green limb . . • • • • • • 13. A REVISION OF THE QUEENSLAND POLYGONA. 25 13. Oereae and bracts entirely or nearly eciliate . . . . . . . . . . 14. Ocreas, at least when young, distinctly ciliate . . . . . . . . 15. 14. All parts glabrous or nearly so. Perigone without glands. Fruit about 2 mm. long and broad, often mucronate, not concave at both sides. Sheath of the leaf 1 to cm. long At least the petiole and the midrib beneath with appressed hairs ; moreover often white or gray tomentum on the leaves and the stems. Perigone with viscous glands. Fruit slightly concave at both sides, shortly acuminate, but not mucronate. Sheath of the leaf less than 1 cm. long 10. 15. Stout perennial herb. Stem mostly creeping in the mud and ramifying in the lower part, for the rest erect and only little branched. Spikes in racemes or panicles. Leaves often 15 to 20 cm. long. Sheath of the leaf 1 to 2| cm. long Less stout plant. Stem often prostrate. Spikes solitary or in racemes. Leaves smaller, shortly petioled or almost sessile. Sheath of the leaves less than 1 cm. long . . 16. Leaves ovate to lanceolate. Ocreaa with short and delicate cilia. Bracts eciliate or at most with the same glandular hairs on the margin as on the surface. Nearly the whole plant, the perigones excepted, densely glandular, especially the peduncles and the bracts. Fruit about 2 mm. long. Spikes cylindrical, dense Leaves lanceolate to linear. Ocrese long-ciliated, bracts ciliate or not. Whole plant without glands. Fruit rarely longer than 1|- mm. Spikes slender 4. P. glabrum. P. lapathifolium. 5. P. attenuatum. 16. 9. P. elatius. 7. P. minus. SECTION I. — A VIC U LARI A. Mostly annual. Stems herbaceous or woody at the base. Leaves usually small, suborbicular to linear or spathulate, the petiole short, articulate at the base. Ocrese membranous from youth, incised or lacerate in different ways. Flowers clustered in the axils of normal leaves or forming indistinct spikes towards the ends of the stems. Perigone usually 5-merous. Stamens 5 to 8, all of them or only those of the interior whorl dilatate. Fruit -bearing perigone herbaceous. Fruit nearly always 3-gonous. Sectio Avicularia Meisn., Mon. gen. Pol. prodr., p. 43 et 85 (1826) (non vidi) ; in D.C., Prodr., XIV., p. 85 (1856) ; Benth. et Hook. F., Gen. pi., III., p. 97 (1883) ; Dans., Bull. Jard. Bot. Buit., ser. III., VIII., p. 140 (1927). 1. Polygonum aviculare. — Annual. Stems strongly branched, her- baceous, diffusely prostrate or ascending or rarely erect. Internodes very numerous, shorter or longer than the leaves. Leaves small, mostly 1 to 3 cm. long, elliptical to lanceolate or spathulate, with distinct lateral nerves. Ocrese membranous, with more than 2 longitudinal nerves, irregularly incised. Flowers mostly 3 to 6 together in the axils. Fruit-bearing perigone 3-gonous, attenuate at the base or not. Fruit trigonous, dull because of minute longitudinal wrinkles, broadest in or below the middle, 1 J to 2J mm. long. 26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. P. aviculare Linn., Sp. pi, ed. 1, I., p. 362 (1753) ; Hook, F., FI. Nov. Zel., I., p. 210 (1853) ; Meisn., in D. C., Prodr., XIV., p. 97 (1856) ; Benth., FI. austr., V., p. 267 (1870) ; Bail., Syn. Qneensl. FL, p. 413 (1883) ; Hook. F., FI. Br. Ind., V., p. 26 (1890) ; Bail., Queensl. FL, IV., p. 1270 (1901). General distribution. — Europe, extra -tropical Asia ; introduced else- where in many places. Distribution in Queensland. — Tarampa Creek, Bailey ; Ipswich, 1909, Hall 287 ; Grandchester, 1910 ; Clifton, X. 1920, Quodling ; Charleville, XII. 1916, Bick ; Albert River (Southern Queensland), VIII. 1919, Brass 19. P. aviculare is a very polymorphous species, originating from the cold and temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. On the southern hemi- sphere it is only adventive, but it is naturalised in many places, also in Australia. The delimitation between P. aviculare and its allies is still insufficiently examined. In Europe three distinct subspecies and many unimportant varieties have been described, but it seems premature to distinguish any of them among the few Australian plants I have happened to see. As to the relations with P. plebeium see this species. 2. Polygonum plebeium. — Annual. Stems strongly branched, her- baceous or woody at the base, diffusely prostrate. Internodes very numerous, usually shorter than the leaves. Leaves small, mostly less than 1 cm., rarely up to 2 cm. long, lanceolate to spathulate, with invisible lateral nerves. Ocrese with 2 longitudinal nerves, irregularly incised. Flowers 1 to 5 in the axils of the leaves. Fruit-bearing perigone 3-gonous, carinate, shortly attenuate at the base. Fruit 3-gonous, shining, broadest near the middle, about 1 to 1L mm. long. P. plebeium R. Br., Prodr., p. 420 (1810) ; Benth., FI. austr., V., p. 267 (1870) ; Bail., Syn. Queensl. FL, p. 413 (1883) : Hook. F., FL Br. Ind., V., p. 27 {1890) ; Bail., Queensl. FL, IV., p. 1270 (1901) ; Dans., Bull. Jard. Bot. Buit., ser. III., VIII., p. 140 (1927) ; P. Dryandri Hook. F., FL Nov. Zel., I., p. 210 (1853) ; P. styligerum, P. anomalum, P. Miquelianum, P. effusum, P. Roxburghii , P. plebeium, P. herniariodes, P. illecebroides, P. cliff ortioides, P. Perrottetii, P. ciliosum Meisn.. in D. C., Prodr., XIV., p. 91-95 (1856). General distribution. — South Africa, tropical Africa, Egypt, tropical Asia to China, Formosa, and the Philippines, Java, Australia. Distribution in Queensland. — Herbert River, Eaton ; Georgina River, IX., 1910, Bick 99 ; Proserpine, Michael 829 ; bed of Proserpine River, Michael 685 ; Pioneer River, Bailey ; Nebo (Northern Queensland), Gulliver (H. M.) ; Rockhampton, Dietrich 636 (H. B.) ; between Emerald and Longreacli, 1913, Jarvis ; Tarampa Creek, Bailey ; Wyaga (Goondiwindi district), IX., 1919, White ; Eulo, XII., 1896, Bailey. P. plebeium is not less polymorphous than its ally P. aviculare. This has caused the description of a large number of species, that have been united again by Hooker [12, p. 27] to a single species under the oldest name. A REVISION OF THE QUEENSLAND POLYGONA. 27 In this way we have, in my opinion, got nearer to the truth, if we consider the species as a syngameon. Elsewhere [9, p. 142] I even have suggested that P. aviculare and P. plebeium might be only races of a single syngameon. I was led to this idea by the remarkable fact that the areas of these two species only partly transgress each other. P. aviculare inhabits the extra - tropical regions of the northern hemisphere, P. plebeium is found in the tropical regions of the Old World and in the countries south of them. An exact examination in the boundary regions has not yet taken place. It would also be of great importance to know whether in those places in Australia, where it has been introduced, P. aviculare hybridises with P. plebeium and forms fertile progeny with it, or not. In the first case P. plebeium could not be maintained as a species apart from P. aviculare. . SECTION II.— PERSIC ARIA. Perennial or annual. Stems herbaceous, rarely a little woody at the Base. Leaves from ovate or cordate to lanceolate or linear, penninervous, without articulation at the base of the petiole. Ocrese cylindrical at least when young, horizontally truncate, often ciliate. Elowers in the axils of bracts, crowded into spike-like racemes, the racemes mostly leafless, terminal or grouped into larger inflorescences, rarely foliate at the base or axillary. Perigone 4- to 6-merous, often coloured. Eruit-bearing perigone membranous to herbaceous . Fruit lenticular or trigonous . Sectiones Persicaria (excl. § 2) et Amblygonon Meisn., Mon. gen. Pol. prodr., p. 66, 43 et 53 (1826) (non vidi) ; sectiones Persicaria et Amblygonon Meisn., in D. C., Prodr., XIV., p. 101 et 123 (1856) ; sectio Persicaria Benth. et Hook. E., Gen. pi., III., p. 98 (1883) ; Hans., Bull. Jard. Bot. Suit., ser. III., VIII., p. 143 (1927). In the delimitation of the section Persicaria I follow Bentham and Hooker, who in their “ Genera Plantarum” [5, p. 98] unite the sections Persicaria and Amblygonon of Meisner under the first name. Not only the difference in the embryo (which is accumbent in Persicaria , incumbent in Amblygonon) would be of too little importance to distinguish two sections, but moreover this difference is not a real one. In P. orientale , one of the two species, on which is based the section Amblygonon, the embryos are partly accumbent, partly incumbent. I have discussed this subject more in detail in my revision of the Polygonaeeae of the Netherlands East Indies [9, p. 143). 3. Polygonum fearhatum. — Perennial herb. Stems stout, the lower part creeping in the mud, the rest erect. Inflorescences terminal or lateral afterwards because of the development of an axillary branch. Internodes cylindrical, glabrous or more or less covered with rather thick appressed hairs. Leaves nearly sessile, 1 to 2 dm. long, lanceolate, broadest near the middle, glabrous or more or less covered with appressed hairs, seldom silky, always more densely haired below than above. Sheath short. Ocrese cylindrical, glabrous or more or less densely appressedly haired, with ciliate margin, the cilia I to 2, rarely up to 3 cm. long. Spikes in racemes or panicles, 28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. densely cylindrical. Bracts narrowly infundibulate, with long cilia. Fruit- bearing perigone glabrous, without glands. Fruit 3-gonous, shortly acuminate, about 2 mm. long, brownish black, shining. P. barbatum Linn., Sp. pi., ed. 1, I., p. 362 (1753) ; Benth., FI. austr.,. V., p. 270 (1870) ; Bail., Syn. Queensl. FI., p. 414 (1883) ; Queensl. FI., IV., p. 1272 (1901) ; Dans., Bull. Jard. Bot. Buit., ser. III., VIII., p. 145 (1927) ; P. stagninum, P. barbatum et P. fissum Meisn., in D. C., Prodr., XIV., p. 104 et 105 (1856) ; P. barbatum et P. serrulatum Hook. F., FI. Br. Ind., V., p. 37 et 38 (1890). General distribution. — South Africa, tropical Asia to China, Formosa, and the Philippines, Malay Peninsula, Malay Archipelago, Queensland. Distribution in Queensland. — Proserpine, Michael 1008 ; Hamilton Plain near Proserpine, Michael 1164 ; Mount Perry, Keys 718 et 735 ; Bellenden-Ker Range, VIII. 1881, Karster (H. M.). P. barbatum is a tropical plant, the area of which extends to tropical Australia. As the African Polygona have not yet been critically revised, I am not sure that the specimens, mentioned under this name, really belong to this species. The single plant I saw under this name certainly belonged to another species. 4. Polygonum glabrum. — Perennial herb. Stems creeping in the mud and branched at the base, erect for the greater part, up to 1 m. high and higher, but little branched, stout and slender, often more than 1 cm. thick at the base. Internodes cylindrical, glabrous. Leaves 15 to 20 cm. long,, lanceolate, broadest a little below the middle, long-acuminate, attenuate at the base, glabrous on both sides, often glandular beneath. Petiole 1 to 3 cm. long. Sheath 1 to 2| cm. long. Ocrese long and narrowly cylindrical, glabrous, eciliate. Spikes in racemes or panicles, long, dense, and cylindrical. Bracts infundibulate, very obliquely truncate. Fruit-bearing perigone compressed, glabrous, and without glands. Fruit lenticular, the sides about 2 mm. long and broad, one side convex, the other one usually slightly concave, shortly acuminate or mucronulate, brownish black, shining. P. glabrum Willd. Sp. pi., II., 1, p. 447 (1799) ; Meisn., in D. C., Prodr. r XIV., p. 114 (1856) ; Hook. F., FI. Br. Ind., V., p. 34 (1890). General Distribution. — Tropical parts of Asia, Africa, America, and Australia. Distribution in Queensland. — Aramac, III. 1918, White. P. glabrum is remarkable for the almost total absence of cilia and hairs. For the rest, however, it is very difficult to distinguish it from the allied species, such as P. attenuatum, P. celebicum , and P. javanum [9, p.. 159-168]. The scattered occurrence in the tropical parts of different continents suggests that P. glabrum perhaps may be only the sum of glabrous varieties of other species. In Queensland, too, it requires examination, if glabrous forms of P. attenuatum exist and if it is possible to distinguish them from P. glabrum. The above-mentioned specimen from Aramac agrees exactly with the plants I have seen from the Asiatic continent. A REVISION OF THE QUEENSLAND POLYGONA. 29 5. Polygonum attenuatum. — Perennial herb. Stems creeping (in the mud) in the basal part, for the rest erect, stout and slender, up to 1 m. and higher, at the base often more than 1 cm. thick. Internodes cylindrical, glabrous. Leaves usually 15 to 20 cm. long, lanceolate, broadest at one- third of the length, long-acuminate, attenuate at the base, more or less densely hairy on both sides, often silky, moreover with more or less numerous glands. Petiole 1 to 3 cm. long. Sheath 1 to 2J cm. long. Ocreac long and narrowly cylindrical, rather densely covered with fine appressed hairs (the hairs exserted above the margin and imitating cilia), moreover in youth shortly and finely, afterwards indistinctly ciliate. Spikes in racemes and panicles, long and densely cylindrical, overhanging. Bracts infundibulate, very obliquely truncate, with appressed hairs especially near the margin, with short but distinct marginal cilia. Fruit-bearing perigone compressed, glabrous and without glands. Fruit lenticular, about 2 mm. long and broad, flat or slightly convex on one side, flat or slightly concave on the other side, mostly with a | to f mm. long mucro, brownish black, shining. P. attenuatum et P. articulatum R. Br., Prodr., p. 420 (1810) ; Meisn., in D. C., Prodr., XIV., p. 117 (1856) ; Benth., FI. austr., V., p. 272 et 270 (1870) ; Bail., Syn. Queensl. FI., p. 415 et 414 (1883) ; Queensl. FL, IV., p. 1270 et 1272 (1901) ; non P. articulatum Linn., Sp. pi., ed. 1, I., p. 363 (1753) ; P. attenuatum et P. australe Spreng., Syst., II., p. 257 et 258 (1825) ; P. attenuatum Dans., Bull. Jard. Bot. Buit., s6r. III., VIII., p. 162, ic. 5 (1927). General Distribution. — Australia, Soemba (Netherlands East Indies). Distribution in Queensland. — Gilbert River, II. 1922, White 1429 ; Proserpine, Michael 831 ; Sandgate Lagoon, 1909, White ; ibidem, VI., 1915, White ; Enoggera Reservoir, Bailey ; ibidem, V. 1911, White ; ibidem, VI. 1919, White. Under the above-mentioned plants there are specimens which agree with the description of P. attenuatum as well as such which agree with that of P. articulatum as given by Brown and Bentham. Yet I cannot distinguish these two forms as separate species, even not as subspecies or varieties. I am therefore convinced that, like in other species, Brown has described two different forms of one species under different binomina. As in 1810, there existed already a P. articulatum of Linne, the homonym of Brown is a so-called dead-born name, and thus for the present species only P. attenuatum can be the valid specific name. 6. Polygonum oriexiiale. — Annual herb. Stem erect or with a prostrate base, strongly and spreadingly branched, in the basal part up to 1J cm. thick or even thicker. Internodes cylindrical, swollen at the nodes, rather long and spreadingly hairy, more or less glandular in the upper part of the stems. Lamina 5 to 15 cm. long, ovate-cordate, acuminate, rounded or cordate at the base, rather densely hairy above, on the nerves with spreading, between the nerves with appressed hairs, beneath hairy in the same way, .only more densely and moreover with numerous sessile glands. Petiole 30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. about two -thirds of the lamina in length, densely and spreadingly hairy. Sheath short. Ocrese short-cylindrical, the tube 1J times to twice as long as it is broad, at the top spreading into a green limb with appressed hairs and 2 to 3 mm. long cilia. Spikes all or for the greater part in the axils of small leaves, grouped into a spreadingly branched, leafly panicle in large plants, dense and cylindrical. Bracts infundibulate, very obliquely truncate, swollen by the numerous pedicels, densely covered with appressed hairs, moreover glandular and ciliate. Fruit-bearing perigone compressed, glabrous, without glands. Fruits lenticular or trigonous for a very small part, the lenticular ones on one side flat or slightly concave with a slight thickening in the middle, on the other side flat or very slightly canaliculate, shortly acuminate at the top but with mucro, almost 3 mm. long, a little broader than they are long, brownish black, shining. P. orientale Linn., Sp. pi., ed. 1, I., p. 362 (1753) ; B. Br., Prodr., p. 420 (1810) ; Meisn., in X>. C., Prodr., XIY., p. 123 (1856) ; Benth., FI. austr., V., p. 271 (1870) ; Bail., Syn. Queensl. F3., p. 414 (1883) ; Hook. F., Fh Br. Ind., V., p. 30 (1890) ; Bail., Queensl. FI., IV., p. 1270 (1901) ; Dans., Bull. Jard. Bot. Buit., ser. III., VIII., p. 168 (1927). General Distribution. — Tropical Asia from Turkestan to China, Japan, Corea, the Malay Archipelago, Australia. Distribution in Queensland. — Johnstone Biver, X. 1917, Ladbrook 136 ; Bockingham Bay, Dallachy (H. M.) ; Mt. Julian, near Proserpine, Michael 882 ; Gordon Downs, Weld Blundell 16 ; Bundaberg, IV. 1911, Johnston ; Fraser Island, XII. 1919, Epps 172 ; Noosa Heads, I. 1920, White ; Gootchie Creek, Gundiah, II. 1923, Kajewsld (H. B.) ; Horthgate-Nudgee, 13 IV. 1907, White ; Ekibin, in creeks, 8 V. 1909, White ; Enoggera Creek, Bailey ; Goodna, III. 1913, White ; Wellington Point, 17 III. 1916, White ; Mudgeeraba, VI. 1914, White ; Wallumbilla, V. 1916, White ; Albert Biver (Southern Queensland), V. 1919, Brass 2 ; Killarney (Southern Queensland), Wedd. 7. Polygonum minus. — Annual or perennial herb. Stems rather slender, prostrate or ascending, branched especially in the lower part. Internodes cylindrical, glabrous or with appressed hairs. Leaves almost sessile, lanceolate to linear, obtuse or acute, mostly rounded at the base, hairy in different degrees, at least hairy on the nerves below. Sheaths short. Ocrese narrowly cylindrical, more or less hairy with appressed bristles, the marginal cilia 1 cm. or longer. Spikes 1 to 3 at the ends of the stems, narrowly cylindrical to filiform, mostly interrupted in their lower part. Bracts infundibulate, obliquely truncate, glabrous, mostly ciliate, Fruit-bearing perigone glabrous and without glands. Fruit lenticular or trigonous, very shortly acuminate, very shining, black, 1 to 2 mm. long, the lenticular ones with ovate, convex sides. P. minus Huds., FI. Angl., ed. 1, p. 148 (1762) (non vidi) ; Hook. F., FI. Br. Ind., V., p. 36 (1890) ; Dans., Bull. Jard. Bot. Suit., ser. III., VIII., p. 174, ic. 8, 9 10 (1927) ; P. subsessile et P. decipiens B. Br., Prodr., p. 419 et 420 (1810) ; P. decipiens , P. serndatum pro parte, P. minus et P. subsessile A REVISION OF THE QUEENSLAND POLYGONA. 31 Meisn , in D. C., Prodr., XIV., p. 104, 110, 111, 113 (1856) ; P. minus et P. subsessile Hook. F., FI. Tasm., I., p. 306 (1860) ; Benth., FI. austr., V., p. 269 (1870) ; Bail., Syn. Queensl. FI., p. 414 (1883) ; Qneensl. FI., IV., p. 1271 (1901). General Distribution of the Species.' — Europe, temperate and tropical Asia, Philippines, Malay Archipelago, Australia. Ssp. subsessile. — Slender, but often stouter than the ssp. decipiens. Internodes, ocrese, leaves and peduncles mostly densely covered with long, rigid, spreading hairs, especially the ocrese and the leaves below. Bracts either ciliate or not. Fruits lenticular, about 2 mm. long, with very convex sides. P. subsessile It. Br., Prodr., p. 419 (1810) ; Meisn., in D. C. Prodr., XIV., p. 113 (1856) ; Hook. F., FI. Tasm., I., p. 306 (1860) ; Benth., FI. austr., V., p. 269 (1870) ; Bail., Syn. Queensl. FI., p. 414 (1883) ; Qneensl. FI., IV., p. 1271 (1901) ; P. minus ssp. subsessile Dans., Bull. Jard. Bot. Bait., ser. III., VIII., p. 176 (1927). General Distribution of the ssp. subsessile. — Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea. Distribution in Queensland. — Cairns, I., 1918, White ; Yarrabah, VII., 1918, Michael 460 ; Cabbage Tree Creek, V., 1898, Bailey ; Kedron Brook, near Brisbane, VI., 1875, Bailey ; Kulara, Bick ; Maroochy, Bailey ; Kin Kin, III., 1916, White and Francis. Ssp. decipiens. Slender. Internodes glabrous. Ocrese with scattered appressed hairs. Leaves with short, appressed bristles, at least on the nerves below, often on the whole lower surface, rarely on the upper surface with appressed hairs. Ocrese ciliate. Fruits for the greater part or all of them triquetrous, about mm. long. P. decipiens , R. Br., Prodr., p. 420 (1810) ; Meisn., in D. C., Prodr., XIV., p. 105 (1856) ; P. minus Hook. F., FI. Tasm., I., p. 306 (1860) ; Benth., FI. austr., V., p. 269 (1870) saltern pro parte ; Bailey, Syn. Queensl. FI., p. 414 (1883) ; Queensl. FI., IV., p. 1271 (1901) ; P. minus ssp. decipiens Dans., Bull. Jard. Bot. Buit., ser III., VIII., p. 178 (1927). General Distribution of the ssp. decipiens. — Not exactly known ( Australia , Tasmania ) . Distribution in Queensland. — Proserpine, Michael 1384 (H. B.) ; Rock- hampton, III., 1907, Cleminson ; Eumundi, IV., 1911, White ; between Woombye and Buderim Mountain, V., 1911, White ; Moreton Bay, McGillavray (H. M.) ; Sandgate Lagoon, 1909 ; Bunya Mountains, X., 1919, White ; Laidley, III., 1921, V/hite ; Ipswich, 1908, Hall 106 ; Enoggera Reservoir, Bailey ; Enoggera, 17, III., 1914, White ; Wellington Point, 17, III., 1916, White ; Nerang, XII., 1913, White ; Blackall Range, XI., 1916, White. P. minus , ssp. not recognisable. — Mount Perry, Keys ; Mulgrave River (North Queensland), Bailey ; Rockhampton, O’Shanesy (H. M.) ; Malanda, I., 1918, V/hite. 32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Under the name P. minus I join together the plants described by Brown as two different species, viz., P. subsessile and P. decipiens. These two Polygona are easily distinguishable, intermediate forms have not been denoted with certainty, and, if I had seen no other specimens than the above I would undoubtedly maintain them as well-defined species. While revising the Polygona of the Netherlands East Indies [9, p. 174-183], however, I have not been able to separate the ssp. micranthum, depressum, and procerum , as distinct species. The difference between typical specimens of these sub-species is pretty large, but the differences between the extremes are very small, and it was not always possible to decide whether there were real or only seeming intermediate forms. Moreover several specimens from New Guinea apparently approach the Australian sub-species. It is for this reason that, in agreement with my revision of the Polygonacese of the Netherlands East Indies, I prefer to consider P. subsessile and P. decipiens too, as sub-species of P. minus. It is certainly incorrect to keep apart P. subsessile as a distinct species and unite P. decipiens at the same time with the European P. minus , as Hooker and Bentham do. By its hairiness, on first sight P. subsessile differs much more from the European P. minus than does P. decipiens, but when examined more carefully it appears to be very similar to the ssp. procerum from the northern and eastern part of the Malay Archipelago. If one prefers to accept smaller species, both Australian sub-species should get the binomina ; under which Brown originally described them. Brown describes the bracts of P. decipiens as “ nudse,” i.e., without cilia, and the fruits as trigonous. All the above-mentioned specimens of the ssp. decipiens have (with exception of a few without fruits) trigonous nuts, but ciliate bracts. I found eciliate bracts only in one plant from New Zealand, but this specimen possessed lenticular fruits. Hooker also saw plants with trigonous nuts and eciliate bracts [11, p. 306]. A further examination of the Australian plants of the minus group is still wanted. 8. Polygonum prostratum. — Herbaceous. Stems diffusely branched. Internodes cylindrical, mostly with rather long spreading hairs, rarely glabrous. Leaves ovate -lanceolate to ovate-linear, subobtuse at the top, rounded or attenuate at the base, mostly on both sides but especially on the nerves below with long, somewhat spreading hairs, rarely quite glabrous. Petiole and sheath very short. Ocrea- with scattered appressed hairs or glabrous, eciliate, often with a spreading, leafy, deeply toothed or palmatifid, scantily ciliate limb. Spikes solitary at the end of the stem and its branches and in the axils of the leaves, cylindrical, interrupted at the base. Bracts infun dibulate, obliquely truncate, eciliate. Fruiting perigone glabrous and without glands. Fruit lenticular with very convex sides, nearly always dull, very rarely shining, 1 to 1J mm. long. P. prosiratum R. Br., Prodr., p. 419 (1810) ; Hook. F., FI. Nov. Zel., I., p. 209 (1853) ; Meisn., in D. C., Prodr., XIV., p. 116 (1856) ; Hook. F., FI. Tasm., I., p. 307 (1860) ; Benth., FI. austr., V., p. 268 (1870) ; Bail., Syn. Queensl. FI., p. 413 (1883) ; Queensl. FI., IV., p. 1271 (1901). A REVISION OF THE QUEENSLAND POLYGONA. 33 General Distribution. — Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand. Distribution in Queensland. — Roma, IV., 1909, White ; Nanango, III., 1918, Grove ; Laidley, III., 1921, White ; Brisbane, Ipswich Road, III., 1910, Bick ; Tarampa, Bailey ; Hendon, XII., 1912, White ; Taabinga VI., 1912, White. P. prostratum occurs only in Australia and the surrounding islands, and appears to be sharply distinguished from all other species I know. Some striking but unimportant varieties exist, one with shining fruits, only seen by me from Western Australia, and an entirely glabrous one, already mentioned by Brown. 9. Polygonum elatius. — Herbaceous, probably annual. Stems strongly, almost dichotomously branched. Internodes cylindrical, slender, densely covered with short glandular hairs and sessile glands, for the rest glabrous. Leaves ovate -lanceolate, acuminate towards the subobtuse apex, suddenly contracted at the base, under the contraction gradually attenuate into the petiole, densely covered with sessile glands, especially below, glabrous for the rest, minutely serrulate at the margin because of short bristles. Petiole about 1 cm. long, glandular as is the stem. Ocrese cylindrical when young, slightly infundibuliform at the top, densely covered with short glandular hairs and sessile glands, ciliate at the margin, the cilia up to 3 mm. long, for the rest without hairs, afterwards mostly lacerate. Spikes almost in racemes at the ends of the stems when young, afterwards 2 to 5 together on an almost dichotomous peduncle, each spike pedunculate, cylindrical, often interrupted at the base. Bracts imbricate, infundibulate, obliquely truncate, densely covered with short glandular hairs and sessile glands, eciliate. Fruit-bearing perigone compressed, ovate, glabrous and eglandular. Fruit lenticular, flat on one side, on the other side convex, especially towards the base, black, shining, ovate or orbicular, slightly acuminate. P. elatius R. Br., Prodr., p. 419 (1810) ; Meisn., in D. C. Prodr., XIV., p. 121 (1856). General Distribution. — Unknown. Only recorded by Brown from Port Jackson in New South Wales. Distribution in Queensland. — Brisbane, 10, XI., 1888, Simmonds ; Ekibin Creek, near Brisbane, I., 1916, White. I cannot identify the above-mentioned plants from Brisbane with any other species. They perfectly agree with the original description of Brown’s P. elatius. I am therefore obliged to suppose that Bentham was wrong in uniting this species with P. lapathifolium [4, p. 271]. P. elatius seems to be closely allied with P. Persicaria, though the differences are so important that it cannot be considered as a form of this species. P. elatius having been confounded with P. lapathifolium up to the present, its distribution is almost unknown. Brown mentions it from Port Jackson, and this well agrees with the fact that it now proves to occur near Brisbane. 10. Polygonum lapathifolium. — Annual (or rarely perennial ?) herb. Stem mostly slender, erect, ascending or rarely prostrate. Internodes slender, below thicker than above, often swollen at the nodes, glabrous or R.S.- 34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Polygonum elatius R.Br. a, Flowering and fruiting branch, natural size b, Fragment of a flowering spike, X 5 ; c, Fruit-bearing perigone, X 10; d, Fruit, X 10. A REVISION OF THE QUEENSLAND POLYGONA. 35 more or less tomentose. Leaves mostly ovate-lanceolate, broadest mostly below the middle, acuminate, acute or subobtuse, attenuate at the base, above towards the margin with short appressed hairs, below on the thickest nerves with appressed short hairs and glandular dotted over the whole surface, sometimes moreover with a grey or white tomentum above and below or only below. Petiole and sheath short. Ocrese at first cylindrical, after- wards mostly lacerated, eciliate or almost eciliate, glabrous or with few appressed hairs or seldom covered with a grey or white tomentum. Peduncles glabrous or glandular or tomentose. Spikes solitary or grouped at the ends of the stems into racemes or panicles. Bracts ovate amplexicaul, obtuse, acute or acuminate, eciliate or nearly so. Fruit-bearing perigone more or less glandular dotted. Fruits nearly all lenticular, with ovate to orbicular, slightly concave sides, shortly acuminate, brown or black, shining or dull. P. lapathifolium Linn., sp. pL, ed. 1, I., p. 360 (1753) ; Dans., Pec. trav. bot. neerl., XVIII., p. 125, t. I.-III. (1921) ; Bull. Jard. Bot. Buit., ser. III., VIII., p. 185 (1927) ; P. lanigerum et P. glandulosum R. Br., prodr., p. 419 (1810) ; P. glandulosum. P. lanigerum , P. nodosum , P. lapathifolium , P. glutinosum Meisn., in D. C., prodr., XIV., p. 116-120 (1856) ; P. lapathi- folium et P. lanigerum Benth., FI. austr., V., p. 270 et 271 (1870) ; Bail., Syn. Queensl. FI., p. 414 (1883) ; Hook. F., FI. Br. Ind., V., p. 35 (1890) ; Bail., Queensl. FL, IV., p. 1272 et 1273 (1901). General Distribution. — Europe, Alrica, Asia, Australia ; in America introduced at many points and quite naturalised. Distribution in Queensland. — Georgina River, IX., 1910, Bick ; Gordon Downs, Weld Blundell 17 ; Wallumbilla, V., 1916, White ; Laidley, III., 1921, White ; Ipswich Road, near Brisbane, V., 1916, Bick ; Nanango, III., 1918, Grove ; Waterworks Road, Enoggera, near Brisbane, III., 1911, White ; Enoggera, on damp land, 18, III., 1912, White ; Enoggera Creek, Bailey ; creek at the base of Mount Cootha, Brisbane, XI., 1913, White ; Brisbane River, Bailey ; ibidem, 5, XII., 1908, White ; New Farm, Brisbare, Bailey ; Mudgeeraba Creek, XII., 1914, White ; Neerkol Creek, Bowman (H. M.) ; Nerang, XII., 1913, White ; Wyaga, Goondiwindi district, IX., 1919, White ; Blackall Range, XI., 1916, White ; Samford, III., 1910, White; Darra, 11, XI., 1916, White. Having made a special study of P. lapathifolium formerly [8], in the first place of the European forms, I wish to discuss it here somewhat more in detail. In Australia two capital forms may be distinguished, described by Brown as two distinct species under the names P. glandulosum and P. lanigerum. An exact study of these forms has pointed out that it is impossible to separate them from P. lapathifolium and from each other. Brown’s P. glandulosum is the most slender form of P. lapathifolium with fine, strongly branched stems and the smallest perigones and fruits. It is the same form that Meisner described [16, p. 60] from Japan under the name P. nodosum Sakuratade, a plant which also occurs in Southern Asia and Southern Africa. Indeed it very much resembles the European P. lapa- fhifolium ssp. nodosum (= P. nodosum Pers.). The other Australian form is 36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. a plant I have seen from tropical Asia, Sumatra, Java, and Australia ; it is recorded moreover from South Africa. Its most striking feature is the grey or white t omentum, but as a rule all the parts of the plant, the fruits included, are larger. In some cases it resembles the European P. lapathifolium ssp mesomorphum Dans., or even the ssp. tomentosum Dans. (= P. tomen- tosum Schrank), in other cases it is only distinguishable from the other Australian form by its grey or white tomentum. The density and extent of the tomentum in P. lapathifolium is highly dependent on the outer circum- stances and is consequently a distinctive character of little value. I therefore even refrain from distinguishing two sub-species. It is worth mentioning, that of the Australian plants, which agree with Meisner’s P. nodosum var. Sakuratade, the greater part has dull fruits, whilst similar plants from Asia and Africa have shining fruits. Dull fruits are also often found in the European P. lapathifolium ssp. tomentosum. 11. Polygonum Hydropiper. — Annual herb. Stem slender, mostly prostrate in the basal part, erect for the rest. Internodes cylindrical, below thicker than above, often swollen at the nodes, glabrous, often glandular. Leaves ovate-lanceolate to lanceolate-linear, broadest below the middle, acuminate, acute or subobtuse, attenuate at the base, almost glabrous above, mostly with appressed bristles on the nerves below. Petiole and sheath short. Ocrese long- cylindrical, often lacerate or bottle-shaped because of the development of cleistogamous flowers in the axils of the leaves, with appressed bristles on the nerves, long-ciliate at the margin. Spikes very narrow, mostly filiform, interrupted and with rudiments of leaves on the bracts in the lower part, the rhachis glabrous or glandular. Bracts infundibulate, obliquely or horizontally truncate, ciliate, glabrous or glandular. Eruit-bearing perigone green for the greater part, coloured at the top, glandular dotted. Fruit lenticular or trigonous, dull because of minute wrinkles of the surface, brownish black, 2 to 3 mm. long, the lenticular ones nearly flat on one side, obtusely carinate on the other side. P. Hydropiper Linn., Sp. pi., ed. I, I., p. 361 (1753) ; Benth., FI. austr., V:, p. 269 (1870) ; Bail., Syn. Queensl. FI., p. 413 (1883) ; Hook. F., FL Br. Ind., V., p. 39 (1890) ; Bail., Queensl. FL, IV., p. 1271 (1901) ; Dans., Bull. Jard. Bot. Buit., ser. III., VIII., p. 187 (1927) ; P. gracile R. Br., Prodr., p. 419 (1810) ; P. oryzetorum, P. flaccidum, P. Hydropiper et P. gracile Meisn., in D. C., prodr., XIV., p. 106, 107, 109 (1856) ; non P. flaccidum Roxb., FI. ind., II., p. 291 (1832), nec Hook. F., FI. Br. Ind., V., p. 39 (1890). General Distribution. — Europe, North Africa, Asia, Malay Archipelago, Australia. Ssp. microcarpum. — Fruit about 2 mm. long. Whole plant more delicate and more glandulous. Thickest nerves of the leaves densely hairy below. P. Hydropiper Hook. F., FL Br. Ind., V., p. 39 (1890) ; P. oryzetorum, P. flaccidum , P. Hydropiper pro parte et P. gracile Meisn., in D. C., Prodr., p. 106, 107 et 109 (1856) ; P. Hydropiper ssp. microcarpum Dans., Bull. Jard. Bot. Buit., ser. III., VIII., p. 189 (1927). A REVISION OF THE QUEENSLAND POLYGONA. 37 General Distribution of the ssp. microcarpum. — Tropical Asia, Malay Archipelago, tropical Australia. Distribution of the ssp. microcarpum in Queensland. — Noosa Heads, 1., 1920, White ; Nanango, III., 1918, Grove ; Eumundi, IV., 1911, White ; between Woombye and Buderim Mountain, V., 1911 ; Buderim Mountain, IV., 1916, White ; Enoggera, damp land, 18, III., 1912, White ; Enoggera, Waterworks Road, V., 1911, White ; Enoggera Creek, IV., 1908, White ; Simpson’s Scrub, I., 1912, White ; Goodna, 18, III., 1907, White ; Ekibin Creek, I., 1916, White ; Ithaca Creek, I., 1916, White ; Three-Mile Scrub, near Brisbane, 1875, Bailey. Ssp. megalocarpum. — Fruit about 3 mm. long. Whole plant coarser,, less glanduious. Thickest nerves of the leaves less hairy or glabrous below. P. Hydropiper Linn., Sp. pi., ed. 1, I., p. 361 (1753) ; Meisn., in D. C.? Prodr., XIV., p. 109 pro parte (1856) ; P. Hydropiper ssp. megalocarpum Dans., Bull. Jard. Bot. Buit, ser. III., VIII., p. 188 (1927). General Distribution of the ssp. megalocarpum. — Europe, temperate Asia, Southern Australia. Distribution in Queensland. — Ekibin, near Brisbane, 8, V., 1909, White. I have already discussed the synonymy of P. Hydropiper elsewhere [9, p. 191-192]. The distribution of the different forms is very curious. The ssp. megalocarpum occurs in Europe, extra -tropical Asia and extra- tropical Australia. In the interjacent regions one only comes across the ssp. microcarpum. On the Asiatic continent this subspecies has lenticular fruits ; this variety (var. lenticulare) is also found in the Philippines, the Malay Peninsula, and the northern part of Sumatra. South of this in the Malay Archipelago only the variety with triquetrous fruits (var. triquetrum) of the ssp. microcarpum occurs. It is therefore curious, that of the ssp. microcarpum in Queensland only the var. lenticulare has been found. South of Queensland the distribution of the two subspecies is not yet sufficiently known., but it is quite certain that the ssp. megalocarpum is more frequent there. A distribution of subspecies and varieties so symmetrical with regard to the equator is very striking. SECTION III, — CEPHALOPHILON. Annual or perennial. Stems herbaceous or partly wooded, often climbing. Leaves very different in form, often more or less triangular, often sagittate or hastate. Ocrese cylindrical, horizontally or obliquely truncate. Spikes globose to ovate, rarely longer. Bracts 1- or few- flowered. Perigone mostly 5-merous. Stamens 8 to 5. Fruit-bearing perigone membranous, herbaceous or baccate. Fruit lenticular or triquetrous or rarely almost globose. Sectiones Echinocaulon et Cephalophilon Meisn., in Wall., PI. as. rar., 111., p. 58 et 59 (1832) ; in D. C., Prodr., XIV., p. 131 et 127 (1856) ; sectio- Cephalophilon Benth. et Hook. F., Gen. pi., III., p. 98 (1883) ; Dans., Bull. Jard. Bot. Buit., ser. III., VIII., p. 200 (1927). 38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. I follow Bentham and Hooker [5, p. 98] in uniting the sections Cephalophilon and Echinocaulon of Meisner under the name first mentioned. Indeed the differences between these two sections of Meisner are smaller than those between such and other sections of the genus Polygonum. 12. Polygonum dichotomum. — Herbaceous stems thin and weak, ascend- ing or more or less climbing, often rooting in th6 lower part. Internodes long and thin, glabrous or with a whorl of rigid, retrorse, appressed bristles at the top. Leaves ovate-triangular to lanceolate, acute or slightly acuminate at the top, cuneate, rounded or truncate at the base, rarely hastate, glabrous or with short bristles at the margin, sometimes with retrorse bristles on the midrib below. Petiole short to rather long. Sheath very short, glabrous. Ocrese long -cylindrical, membranous, obliquely truncate, on the side facing the leaf much shorter than on the opposite side, glabrous, eciliate. Inflorescences at first terminal, soon lateral because of the development of a branch in the axil of the uppermost leaf, once or twice dichotomously branched, bearing 2 to 4 spikes. Spikes ovate to short-cylindrical. Bracts elliptical to oblong, acute or acuminate, broadly sessile, glabrous, eciliate, 1- or 2-flowered. Fruit-bearing perigone glabrous. Fruit lenticular, with almost orbicular, very convex sides and sharp edges, shortly acuminate, 2J to 3 mm. long, mm. broad, rather shining, yellowish brown. P. dichotomum, P. tetragonum et P. hispidulum Bl., Bijdr., 11, p. 529 et 535 (1825) ; P. pedunculare Meisn., in Wall., PI. as. rar., III., p. 58 (1832) ; Hook. F., FI. Br. Ind., V., p. 48 (1890) ; P. hispidulum, P. tetragonum et P. pedunculare Meisn., in D. C., Prodr., XIV., p. 133 (1856) ; P. dichotomum Dans., Bull. Jard. Bot. Buit,. ser. III., VIII., p. 222 (1927). General Distribution. — Tropical Asia from British India to China, Formosa, and the Philippines, the whole Malay Archipelago, Queensland, South Africa. Distribution in Queensland. — Johnstone River, XI., 1917, Ladbrook 149 ; Proserpine, Michael 831 (H. B.) ; Proserpine River, Michael 851 ; Proserpine, along watercourses, Michael 851 (H. B.). P. dichotomum is nearly always mentioned under the name of P. pedunculare. Since the authentic specimens have taught us that at least the P. dichotomum and the P. tetragonum, probably also the P. hispidulum of Blume, are synonyms of P. pedunculare Meisn., we are obliged to use one of Blume’s names. In my revision of the Polygonacese of the Nether- lands East Indies [9, p. 223] I have chosen the name P. dichotomum for this species as the valid one. Though I have seen many specimens of this species from very different parts of its area, I have found no reason to unite it with P. strigosum. Both species are polymorph, but I could always distinguish them. 13. Polygonum strigosum. — Herbaceous. Stems long and weak, ascending or more or less climbing. Internodes long and thin, angulate, with retrorse prickles upon and between the edges, especially in the upper part. Leaves oblong to lanceloate, acute or acuminate, sagittate or hastate A REVISION OF THE QUEENSLAND POLYGONA. 39 at the base, with appressed rigid hairs above, rarely glabrous, with retrorse prickles 021 the midrib below, with short prickles on the margins, which are mostly directed towards the base in the basal part. Petiole up to 1 cm. long, with retrorse prickles. Sheath very short, with retrorse prickles. Ocrese long-cylindrical, 1} to 2\ cm. long, ciliate at the margin, with rigid appressed hairs, directed towards the top in the upper part, towards the base in the lower part. Inflorescences terminal or seemingly lateral because of the development of a branch in the axil of the uppermost leaf, 2 to 3 times dichotomously branched, bearing 3 to 5 spikes, the peduncles with glandular hairs towards the top. Spikes short, mostly ovate. Bracts ovate, obtuse acute or acuminate, broadly sessile, glabrous or with stellate hairs, ciliate at the margin, mostly 1- flowered. Fruit-bearing perigone glabrous. Fruit lenticular or triquetrous, dark brown, rather shining, about 2J mm. long. P. strigosum R. Br. Prodr. p. 420 (1810) ; Benth. FI. austr., V., p. 268 (1870) ; Bail., Syn. Queensl. FI., p. 413 (1883) ; Hook. F., FI. Br. Ind., V., p. 47 (1890) ; Bail., Queensl. FI., IV., p. 1273 (1901) , Dans., Bull. Jard. Bot. Buit., ser. III., VIII., p. 227, ic. 15 (1927) , P. horridum Roxb., FI. ind., II., p. 291 (1832) ; Meisn., in Wall., PI. as. rar., III., p. 58 (1832) ; P. horridum et P. strigosum Meisn., in D. C., Prodr., XIV., p. 133 et 134 (1856). General Distribution. — Tropical Asia from British India to China, Malay Archipelago, Australia. Distribution in Queensland. — Rockingham Bay, Dallachy (H. M.) ; Eumundi, IV., 1911, White ; Noosa Heads, I., 1920, White ; Martin Creek, Bu derim Mountain, Easter 1912, White ; Northgate-Nudgee, 13, IV., 1907 ; Ekibin, 8, V., 1909, White ; Enoggera Dam, Bailey ; ibidem V., 1911, White ; Maroochy, X., 1874, Bailey ; Malanda, I., 1918, White. 14. Polygonum preetermissum. — Herbaceous. Stems 1 to 2 dm. long, diffusely prostrate, or longer, ascending or more or less climbing. Internodes angular, often with recurved prickles on the edges, especially in the upper part. Leaves lanceolate, obtuse or acute, hastate with obtuse lobes, glabrous or with scattered appressed hairs above, often with retrorse bristles on the thickest nerves below, serrulate because of very short marginal bristles. Petiole short, with or without retrorse prickles. Ocreae cylindrical, horizontally truncate, sometimes with retrorse prickles at the base, glabrous and eciliate. Inflorescence terminal in the beginning, afterwards lateral because of the development of a branch in the axil of the uppermost leaf, once or twice dichotomously branched, terminating into 1 to 4 filiform interrupted spikes, often with spreading glandular hairs towards the spikes. Bracts all remote, ovate, obtuse, glabrous, not or sparingly ciliate. Fruit- bearing perigone glabrous. Fruit triquetrous, with convex sides, brown, shining, about 2| mm. long. P. strigosum Hook. F., FI. Tasm., I., p. 307 (1860) ; non R. Br. ; P. prcetermissum Hook. F., FI. Br. Ind., V., p. 47 (1890). 40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. General Distribution. — British India, Philippines, Queensland, Victoria (in Herb. Bog.), Tasmania. Distribution in Queensland.- — Eight-Mile Plains, near Brisbane, 19, X., 1918, White. The specimens of P. prcetermissum from Brisbane do not agree in all parts with Hooker’s original description and with the specimens I saw from British India. They are not “ small, 6-8 inch,” but much longer, the stems are not “ nearly or quite unarmed ” but distinctly prickled as in P. strigosum , the leaves have not much shorter petioles than in this species. Since, however, the other characters agree very well, I do not doubt whether the plants from Brisbane belong really to P. prrztermissum. The specimens I saw from the Philippines were intermediate between those from British India and those from Queensland. In the Buitenzorg Herbarium there are also plants of this species from Victoria (Healesville, XI., 1906, Audas), which conform with those from Brisbane. I did not see specimens from Tasmania. SECTION IV. — TINIARIA. Herbs or undershrubs. Stems mostly dextrorsely twining, rarely erect. Leaves ovate to cordate or sagittate. Ocrese often small or nearly absent. Flowers in loose axillary simple or branched racemes, which are often grouped into panicles. Perigone 5-merous, the three outer sepals larger than the two inner ones. Fruit-bearing perigone membranous or herbaceous, carinate or more or less winged. Fruit triquetrous. Sectio Tiniaria Meisn., Mon. gen. Pol. pro dr., p. 43 et 62, excl. § 2 (1826) (non vidi) ; emend. Meisn., in Wall., PL as. rar., III., p. 62 ; in D. C., Prodr., XIV., p. 135 (1856) ; Dans., Bull. Jard. Bot. Buit., ser. III., VIII., p. 236 (1927) ; sectiones Tiniaria et Pleuropterus Benth. et Hook. F., Gen. PL, III., p. 99 (1883). 15. Polygonum Convolvulus.— Annual herb. Stems long and slender, dextrorsely twining, glabrous or with short papillous hairs. Leaves ovate- triangular, with sagittate base and acuminate apex, glabrous or with papillous hairs on the nerves below. Petiole about two -thirds of the lamina in length. Ocrese short, eciliate. Flowers in clusters in the axils of normal leaves or in loose axillary spikes. Bracts remote, short, membranous, infundibulate, obliquely truncate, eciliate. Fruit-bearing perigone green, about as long as the fruit, 3-gonous, obtusely carinate or very narrowly winged. Fruit 3-gonous, black, dull, 3| to 4 mm. long. P. Convolvulus Linn., Sp. pi., ed. 1, I., p. 364 (1753) ; Meisn., in D. C., Prodr., XIV., p. 135 (1856) ; Hook. F., FI. Br. Ind., V., p. 53 (1890) ; Bail., Queensl. Agr. Journ., VII., p. 441, t. LX. (1900) ; Queensl. FL, IV., p. 1273 (1901). General Distribution. — Europe, Northern and Western Asia, North Africa, introduced elsewhere. Distribution in Queensland. — Boney Mountain, X., 1917, Gibson ; Brisbane Botanic Gardens, “ came up in street sweepings,” XI., 1918, White. A REVISION OF THE QUEENSLAND POLYGONA. 41 P. Convolvulus does not originally occur in Australia, but has been introduced from the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere ; according to Bailey [2, p. 441] it is already naturalised in the environs of Brisbane. POSTSCRIPT. This publication had already gone to press when the following paper came to my knowledge : — K. Domin, Beitrage zur Flora und Pflanzen- geographie Australiens (1921) (Bibliotheca botanica, 89, 1). In this publication Domin mentions some Polygonums that partly seemingly partly really form an amplification to the list of species given by me for Queensland and which I therefore will discuss briefly. P. aviculare L. var. diffusum Meisn. (1. c., p. 611) . — As the varieties of this species mentioned by Meisner and others do not show a natural sub- division, I would renounce distinguishing them, though it might be possible to find plants agreeing with the descriptions. P. orientale L. var. cochinchinense Domin (1. c., p. 612). It is not clear why Domin gives this new name and does not use the older one mentioned by him among the synonyms, viz., P. orientale var. pilosum Meisn. Distinguishing varieties, founded on the different grades of hairiness, I would consider almost useless. P. Hydropiper L. var. vulgare Dom. and var. ciliare Dom. (1. e., p. 612). The var. vulgare , agreeing with European plants, seems to belong to my ssp. megalocarpum , the var. ciliare, with longer cilia on the ocrese, certainly belongs to my ssp. microcar pum. P. subsessile B. Br. var. iypicum et var. glabrescens Dom. (1. c., p. 613). — For varieties founded on different grades of hairiness cf. above P. orientale. P. Dietrichice n. sp. (1. c., p. 613). Though I have not seen specimens of this Polygonum, it seems to me to be a new form. I therefore cite Domin’s description literatim : — “ 1262. P. Dietrichice n.sp. (Sectio Persicaria). “ Perenne, erectum ; caulis circa 4 dm. altus, erassiusculus, dense appresse strigosus ; folia internodiis longiora, lanceolata, acuminata, circa 8-10 cm. longa et 2-2, 5 cm. lata, sed superiora minora, in pagina superiore breviter densiuscule strigosa, in pagina inferiore sericeo-strigosa et prsesertim ad nervos pilis longioribus sericeo-hirsuta ; ocrese mediocriter longse, mediae circa 1, 5 cm. longae, pilis longis densis sursum appressis strigosae, truncatse et margine pilis erectis, numerosis eiliisque rigidioribus paucis ocrese dimidium subaequantibus instructae ; petioli brevissimi, dense strigosi ; spicae longe vel laterales brevius vel brevissime pedunculatae, non- niillae vel paueae in paniculas spurias, laxas, plerumque terminales dispositee, breves, tantum circa 1, 5-3, 5 cm. longae, sed crassae et densae, erectae ; bracteae late rhomboideae, appresse strigosae, margine longeciliatae ; flores magnitudine eos P. subsessilis sequantes, pentameri ; perianthii segmenta 5 petaloidea (in vivo, ut videtur, albida), rotundato-ovata, glabra et 42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. eglanduiosa ; stamina 5 ; anther ae parvae, linear i-oblongae, circa 0, 45 mm. longae ; stylus paulo supra medium in ramos 2 divisus ; achaenia non visa. “ Queensland. — Angeblich Brisbane River, A. Dietrich. No. 1495, 1338. “ Species quasi inter P. subsessile R. Br. et P. articulatum R. Br. intermedia, a P. articulato indumento, petiolis perbrevibus et imprimis ocreis longiuscule ciliatis distinguenda, a P. subsessili, cui parte vegetativa propius accedit, primo aspectu spicis brevibus, crassis densisque differt. Forsam forman hybridam P. subsessile X articulatum exhibet.” (P. subsessile probably is my P. minus subsessile , P. articulatum probably is my P. attenuatum.) P. strigosum R. Br. var. glabratum Dom. (1. c., p. 614). — This variety seems to belong to P. prcetermissum or to P. dichotumum, but the description given by Domin does not permit to decide upon this. The almost entire lack of prickles reminds of P. dichotomum, the “ spicae gracillimae” of P. prcetermissum , whilst the form of the leaf as described occurs in both species. LITERATURE CITED. 1. Bailey, F. M. — A synopsis of the Queensland flora (1883). 2. Bailey, F. M. — Noxious weeds, Climbing Buckwheat ( Polygonum Convolvulus). “ The Queensland Agricultural Journal,” VII., p. 441, t. LX. (1900). 3. Bailey, F. M. — The Queensland Flora, IV. (1901). 4. Bentham, G. — Flora australiensis, V. (1870). 5. Bentham, G., and J. D. Hooker. — Genera plantarum, III. (1883). 6. Blume, C. L. — Bijdragen tot de flora van Nederlandsch Indie, llde stuk (1825.) 7. Brown, R. — Prodr omus florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen (1810), ed. 2, quam ad fidem exempli prioris editionis .... curavit Nees ab Esenbeck, vol. I. (1827). 8. Danser, B. H. — Contribution a la systematique du Polygonum lapathifolium. Recueil des travaux botaniques neerlandais, XVIII., p. 125-210, t. I. -III. (1921). 9. Danser, B. H. — Die Polygonaceen Niederlandisch-Ostindiens. Bulletin du Jardin Botanique de Buitenzorg, ser. III., VIII., p. 117-261 (1927). 10. Hooker, J. D. — Flora Novae- Zelandiae, I. (1853). 11. Hooker, J. D. — Flora Tasmaniae, I. (1860). 12. Hooker, J. D. — Flora of British India, V. (1890). 13. Linnaeus, C. — Species plantarum, ed. 1, I. (1753). 14. Meisner, C. F. — Synopsis Polygonearum, quarum specimina exstant in Herbario amplissimae Procurationis Brittannicae Indiae Orientalis, nunc Societatis Linneanae Londinensis ; in Wallich, Plantae asiaticae rariores, III., p. 53-65 (1832). 15. Meisner, C. F. — Polygonceae, in de Candolle, Prodromus systematis universalis regni vegetabilis, XIV., p. 1-186 (1856). 16. Meisner, C. F. — Polygonaceae, in F. A. G. Miquel, Annales Musei Botanici Lugduno-Batavi, II., p. 55-65 (1865). 17. Roxburgh, W. — Flora indica, reprinted literatim from Carey’s edition of 1832 (1874). 18. Sprengel, C. — Caroli Linnaei Systema Vegetabilium ed. XVI., II., 1 (1825). 19. Willdenow, C. L. — Caroli Linnaei Species Plantarum ed. IV., II., 1 (1799). Vol. XXXIX., No. 4. 43 The Anatomy of the Australian Bush Nut (Macadamia temifolia). By W. D. Francis, Assistant Government Botanist, Brisbane. With Plate I, and Ten Figures in the Text. ( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 28 th May , 1927.) Contents. Introduction. The Pericarp. The Testa and Tegmen. The Embryo. Comparison with other Proteaceous Seeds. Summary. Introduction. The purpose of this paper is to describe briefly the anatomy of the edible nut produced b y Macadamia temifolia F. v. M., a Proteaceous tree of Eastern Australia. In addition to the structural features, the qualitative composition of parts of the nut, as indicated by the application of microchemical tests, will be outlined. A brief description of the structure of the pericarp enclosing the nut will also be given. With this inclusion the paper comprehends an account of the fruit of the species. The Australian bush nut is the product of one of the few indigenous fruits which have been found palatable by civilised man. It is a commercial article in the capital cities of New South Wales and Queensland. The tree is cultivated to a limited extent in New South Wales for the nuts as a marketable product. The species occurs naturally in the rain forests of Northern New South Wales and parts of Southern Queensland. Its distribu- tion in latitude is confined between 25° S. and 32° S. According to present records its distribution in Queensland does not exceed 100 miles inland from the coast. The species is more commonly known in this State as the Queensland nut tree. A considerable amount of confusion exists in the descriptions of the fruit in systematic, botanical literature. F. v. Mueller [8] describes the original, genuine fruit of the species as possessing a horny pericarp with a somewhat swarthy, smooth exterior and a very smooth, yellow and date- brown interior. He describes the seed as carinulate near the hilum and the testa as pale, very thin and membranous. Bentham and Hooker [4] describe the fruit of the genus as a subglobose, indehiscent drupe (“ Drupa 44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. subglobosa, indehiscens”) with a fleshy exocarp and a thick, hard endocarp. Macadamia ternifolia is the type of the genus. Bentham [3] describes the fruit of the genus as indehiscent with a hard, thick putamen and a rather thin, fleshy exocarp. He also refers to the testa as membranous. Engler [5] describes the fruit as a drupe with a fleshy outer layer and a thick hard inner layer. These authors have misinterpreted the structure of the fruit. Their specimens might have been imperfect. Actually it is a follicle, which dehisces at the suture on one side. The dehiscence often takes place in fruits which are only half developed. The most prominent feature of the fruit is the extraordinary development of the testa, which in some varieties attains a thickness of 5 mm. and requires a great amount of pressure to fracture it. The very hard testa is the chief obstacle to the extensive sale of the nuts. The entire fruit is globose and slightly oblique (Text-figs. 3, 4, 6, and 7). The Pericarp. The pericarp consists of two parts, which are readily separable by mechanical means : an outer, fibrous part and an inner, soft part (Text-figs. 3, 4, 6, and 7). The outer part is from twice to thrice as thick as the inner one, as shown in the Text-figures. Externally it is smooth and green and is invested by a cuticle. The epidermis consists of a single layer of very small cells, and, passing inwards, is succeedeed by chlorophyllous parenchyma, the inner cells of which are much larger than those of the epidermis. The remaining tissue consists of branching vascular bundles embedded in the parenchyma. In transverse -radial sections the larger bundles are cut transversely and are situated near the junction of the outer and inner layers of the pericarp (Fig. 2, Plate I.). The smaller bundles branch outwards from the larger ones and are cut longitudinally or obliquely (Fig. 1, Plate I., Text-figs. 1 and 2). The vessels included in the bundles are very fine ones with spiral thickenings. Text-fig. 1.— Part of outer, fibrous layer of pericarp laid open, showing the branching vascular bundles which traverse it on the inner side. Natural size. Text-fig. 2. — Section cut along a branch of a large vascular bundle, showing the vascular ramifications extending outwards towards the surface of the pericarp. A, surface of pericarp ; B, branch of large vascular bundle. X 2^. The inner layer of the pericarp consists entirely of soft parenchyma and is represented in the lower part of Fig. 2, Plate I. The peculiar odour sometimes associated with cyanogenetic tissues was noticed while handling sections of the pericarp. Pieces of the tissue were submitted to Mr. E. H. Gurney, Assistant Agricultural Chemist, who tested them with Guignard’s sodium picrate paper and obtained a fairly strong, positive reaction indicating the presence of a cyanogenetic glucoside . ANATOMY OF THE AUSTRALIAN BUSH NUT. 45 Sections of the tissue were treated by the writer with a 3 per cent, aqueous solution of mercurous nitrate as applied by K. Peche [9] in the localisation of hydrocyanic acid in Prunus Laurocerasus. The resulting deposit of metallic mercury indicated the presence of a cyanogenetic glucoside or labile compound in isolated parenchymatous cells of the outer and inner parts and in a fairly continuous single layer of cells in the outer part where it is united with the inner part. The shell of the nut, which Mueller [8] referred to as a horny pericarp and Bentham [3] as a hard, thick putamen, is designated in this paper as the combined testa and tegmen. To justify this departure from the terminology of Mueller and Bentham it is necessary to show that the parts designated as testa and tegmen are the outer and inner coats of the seed. The ovary contains two suspended ovules attached near its apex. In most cases only one of the ovules matures and a fruit containing a single globose seed is produced as shown in Text-figs. 3 and 4. The remaining undeveloped ovule forms an insignificant, hard, lignified body attached to the inner, upper part of the pericarp ; or, less frequently, it adheres to the surface of the integument of the matured ovule. Much less frequently the two Text-fig. 3. — One-seeded fruit sectioned longitudinally in same plane as the opening suture of pericarp. The two layers of the pericarp are shown. The thick testa with a few irregularly sectional vascular bundles surrounds the cotyledons which are shown as divided longitudinally. Two vascular bundles indicate the region of the hilum below the stylar projection. Natural size. Text-fig. 4. — One- seeded fruit sectioned transversely. The opening suture of the pericarp is indicated by the dotted line on left. In the lowermost part of the figure the testa is shown as thinner than elsewhere. This part is situated on a line joining the hilum and micropyle. Transversely and obliquely cut vascular bundles are indicated in the cotyledons. Natural size. Text-fig. 5. — Section of seed cut longitudinally along the line joining the hilum and micropyle. The position of the hilum is indicated by the two vascular bundles on the upper, left side. The position of the pale part of the tegmen is indicated by the dotted line, and the dark-brown part is represented diagrammati- cally by the continuous line. The plumule and radicle are situated just above the micropyle, the radicle pointing downwards towards the mieropyle. The tegmen is strongly thickened in the region of the micropyle. Natural size. The Testa and Tegmen. Text-fig. 3. Text-fig. 4. Text-fig. 5. 46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. ovules mature and the fruit contains two hemispherical seeds as shown in Text-figs. 6 and 7. The hard shell consists of the coats of the fertilised and matured ovule and is, therefore, the testa and tegmen. In very young fruits the existence of two layers or integuments is clearly demonstrable in the tissue which develops into the hard shell. In mature fruits the Text-fig. 6. Text-fig. 7 Text-fig. 8. Text-fig. 6. — Two-seeded fruit. The two parts of the pericarp are shown. The two seeds, exposed by the opening of the pericarp, are shown in the middle of the figure. The two hila of the seeds are shown in the upper part. Natural size. Text-fig. 7. — Transverse section through a two- seeded fruit. The dotted lino through the pericarp on the lower side represents the opening suture. The dotted lines through the testa on each side indicate the position of the line along which the testa splits in germination. The interrupted line passing through the two cotyledons of the seed on the left marks the plane through which the seed represented in text-fig. 8 was sectioned. Natural size. Text-fig. 8. — A seed of a two-seeded fruit cut longitudinally in the direction indicated in Text-fig. 7. The position of the hilum is indicated by the vascular bundles near the apex. The dotted line shows the position of the pale part of the tegmen and the continuous line represents diagrammatically the position of the dark-brown part of the tegmen. Natural size. differentiation into testa and tegmen is very clearly seen in the lower half of the seed (Fig. 4, Plate I.). It will be shown in the part of this paper relating to the comparison with other Proteaceous seeds that the inner, lower portion of the shell of the bush nut and the inner integument of other Proteaceous seeds are homologous. There is no membrane or tissue of any kind between the inner surface of the shell and the epidermis of the cotyledons. In adopting the term of combined testa and tegmen for the hard shell the nut then represents a typical seed with two seed coats, a hilum and micropyle (Text-figs. 5, 6, and 8). The hilum is lateral and situated towards the apex of the seed. It is irregularly rounded or oval in outline and varies in width from 3 to 8 mm. It is united with the pericarp near the opening suture and towards the stylar projection (Text-figs, 3, 5, 6, and 8). The micropyle is situated towards the lower end of the seed, as shown in Text- figs. 5 and 8. In the vicinity of the micropyle the testa is deficient and the tegmen extends outwards towards or as far as the surface of the testa. Along a line joining the micropyle and hilum the testa in one- seeded fruits is thinner than else- where (Text-fig. 4). The tissue of the testa contains a natural fissure along this line near the micropyle. The fissure in one- seeded fruits is in the same plane as the division between the cotyledons. When germination ANATOMY OP THE AUSTRALIAN BUSH NUT. 47 takes place the testa splits along this line and fractures on the other side, forming two hollow hemispheres, each of which loosely envelops a cotyledon. The combined testa and tegmen vary in thickness in different trees from 2 to 5 mm. By far the greater part represents the testa, as the tegmen only measures about -25 mm. in thickness. The testa is very hard. The sections of it represented in Figs. 3 and 4, Plate I., were cut from pieces immersed in strong hydrofluoric acid for seven months. The tissue consists of sclerenchyma, which is traversed by occasional vascular bundles. The vessels of the bundles are very fine ones with spiral thickenings. The sclerenchyma consists of cells with stratified and pitted walls. The superficial cells are flattened and possess narrower lumina than the internal ones. Maceration of the tissue effected by nitric acid and potassium chlorate (Schultze’s method) releases a great diversity of cell shapes varying from narrow, fibre-like cells 640/x X 16/z to irregularly rounded and flattened ones about 64p, in diameter. The elongated forms predominate. Angular, branched, rostrate and sinuous forms among the separated cells indicate a high degree of interlocking, which contributes to the rigidity of the tissue. The walls of the cells, when treated with 5 per cent, alcoholic phloroglucin and mounted in strong hydrochloric acid, assume an intense reddish- violet colour indicating lignification. In untreated sections the cells are filled with a dense, apparently colloidal substance varying in colour from bright reddish- brown to yellow. This substance may be phlobaphene as described by Molisch [7], who states that there is no specific microchemical test for it. In many of the ceils parts of this substance assumed a bluish-black colour with solutions of ferric chloride and iron-ammonium sulphate suggesting the presence of tannin. This reaction supports the assumption that the cell contents may be phlobaphene, which is derived from tannin. The tegmen or inner seed coat forms a smooth, shining, tenuous layer on the inside of the testa with which it is united. It consists of two kinds of tissue which are widely different in appearance. In the lower half it is white or pale yellow and enamel-like. The position of this part is indicated by the dotted line in Text-figs. 5 and 8. In the upper half it is dark brown and shining. F. v. Mueller’s description [8] of the interior of the part designated by him as the pericarp refers to the colours and smoothness of these twro parts of the tegmen. The lower, enamel-like part is abruptly united with the tissue of the testa (Fig. 4, Plate I.). It is composed of hard material and consists of polygonal and rectangular cells which are granular in appearance. These cells are not resolvable by the ordinary microscopic methods into walls and lumina. In each cell at the extremity directed outwards or towards the testa a small, angular, clear area is visible. This clear area evidently indicates a position in the cell occupied by a crystal of calcium oxalate, which appears to have been dissolved either by the treat- ment involved in the preparation and mounting or by the natural processes of the maturing seed. In young developing fruit these cells possess crystals which are seen to be doubly refracting when viewed between crossed Nicols. The crystals are undissolved by acetic acid but are soluble in hydrochloric acid. It is concluded that they consist of calcium oxalate. In the mounted 48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. sections of the tegmen of mature seeds the angular, crystal-like areas are not very sharply defined and remain dark between crossed Nicols. Cells with similar crystals located in the same part of the cells will be described further on as constituting the tegmen of other Proteaceous seeds. The granular material, which appears to be the sole constituent of the cells, with the exception of the crystals, is apparently unstratified. That it is a hard substance is evident from the mechanical properties of the whole tissue. When viewed between crossed Nicols it is seen to be doubly refracting, which is a physical property of ceil-w'all material. With chlorzinc iodide it turns blue in the same manner as cellulose does. With iodine (dissolved in potassium iodide) and sulphuric acid it turns brown, which is one of the colour reactions of lignified tissue. With phloroglucin and hydrochloric acid it assumes a dense reddish-violet colour, which is another colour reaction of lignified tissue. It is insoluble in strong sulphuric hcid, indicating that it differs from cellulose in solubility. These reactions indicate that the granular material is a ligno -cellulose. The upper, brown part of the tegmen is continuous with the testa. It is composed of smaller and more regular cells than those forming the testa. The whole of the tissue of this part of the tegmen is deeply impregnated with a dark-brown substance, possibly phlobaphene, which renders it almost opaque, even in thin sections (Fig. 4, Plate I.). The Embryo. In one-seeded fruits the embryo is subglobose and the cotyledons large and semiglobose. The radicle and plumule together form a small, subglobose body which is acuminate at the lower or radicular end ; they are- inserted between the cotyledons at the lower end (Text-fig. 5). Text-figs. 3, 4, and 5 show the outline of the cotyledons in a one-seeded fruit, and Text-figs. 7 and 8 represent it in a two -seeded fruit. At the lower end in the vicinity of the radicle each cotyledon is divided. When germination takes place this small division forms the sinus between the two basal auricles, which are situated, one on each side of the petiole, at the base of the cotyledon. The epidermis of the cotyledons consists of relatively small cells containing nuclei and diffused protoplasm without granules or the bodies subsequently referred to as proteinoplasts. The internal tissue of the cotyledons consists of parenchyma traversed by a few vascular bundles consisting largely of very fine, spiral vessels. The perforation of the parenchy- matous cells consists partly of rounded openings and partly of somewhat elongated or slit-like apertures in the secondary wall (Text-fig. 9). Some of the apertures are arranged in round or elliptical groups each of which is probably related to an adjoining cell. The walls of the epidermal cells of the radicle and plumule are decidedly thicker than those of the internal tissue, which consists of exceedingly thin-walled cells containing nuclei and abundant, finely granular protoplasm. The breadth of the internal cells of the plumule and radicle is approximate^ one -third that of the internal cells of the cotyledons. The prominent proteinoplasts of the cotyledonary tissue are absent from the tissue of the plumule and radicle. ANATOMY OF THE AUSTRALIAN BUSH NUT. 49 When sections of the cotyledons, which are freed from oil by treatment with ether, are acted upon by strong sulphuric acid the cellulose walls are dissolved and the cutinised walls of the epidermis remain. When fresh sections are immersed in equal parts of a 1 per cent, alcoholic solution of Sudan III. and pure glycerine and heated on a slide until the alcohol boils, Text-figs. 9 and 10. — Cells of internal tissue of cotyledon, showing the apertures of the cell walls. X 500. the cutinised walls of the epidermis and the oil in the cells are stained red. With this method, which is recommended by Lee and Priestley [6], the cutinised walls stain a deeper red than the oil, whilst the cellulose remains colourless. Fig. 5, Plate I., is a photograph of a preparation stained in this way. The photograph shows the darkly -stained, cutinised walls of the epidermis on the exterior of the cotyledons and the cutinised outer walls of the epidermal cells v/here the cotyledons are in contact. Smith and Meston [II], who analysed the embryo, found it to contain 66 per cent, oil, 8-8 per cent, protein, 15-4 per cent, carbohydrates, 5-1 per cent, crude fibre, and 1-7 per cent. ash. The writer studied the distribution of the oil by staining sections with Sudan III. and by submitting sections to solubility tests with ether, chloroform, and absolute alcohol. The application of these methods indicated that the oil is contained in all of the non-vascular cells of the embryo. The distribution of the protein was investigated 'with Millon’s reagent, the xanthoproteic reaction, Baspail’s test and solubility in 2-5 per cent, aqueous solutions of potassium hydroxide. Sections of the cotyledonary tissue, which were freed from oil with ether and treated with absolute alcohol, vrhen submitted to these tests indicated that the protein * in a granular or diffused state is also fairly generally distributed in the non-vascular cells. A large amount of the protein is contained in leucoplasts in the internal tissue of the cotyledons. These leucoplasts contain mostly one, but sometimes two, three, or four round or partly compressed protein grains (Fig. 6, Plate I.). The body of the leucoplast as well as its contained protein grains stains red with Millc>n5s reagent and dissolves in *5 per cent, aqueous potassium hydroxide. It vras noticed that the protein grains often dissolved first, indicating their greater solubility in the reagent. When examined between crossed Nicols a very small numerical proportion of the protein-containing leucoplasts showed a minute doubly refracting crystal, possibly of calcium oxalate. The absence of the globoid, which is so R.s.— n 50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. frequently found in the protein grains of oily seeds, is indicated by the solubility of the protein-containing bodies in the very dilute alkali. Molisch [7, p. 371] illustrates apparently similar bodies from the milky sap of Cecropia peltata and refers to them as “ Proteino-(Leuko-)plasten” or “ Proteinoplasten.” He states [7, p. 372] that according to Wakker and Werminski the protein grains of seeds originate from vacuoles, that the aleurone grains are originally vacuoles filled with protein and that they become solid with the drying of the ripe seed. Schneider and Zimmermann [10] also figure somewhat similar bodies in the epidermis of the upper side of the leaf of Tradescdntia discolor. They refer to them as leucoplasts and to the protein inclusions as leucosomes. It appears from this investigation that the protein grains of the cotyledonary tissue of Macadamia ternifclia are developed in leucoplasts. As leucoplasts are differentiated portions of the protoplasm and are regarded as cell organs, apparently the protein grains in this instance have a different origin from that ascribed to the aleurone grains of seeds by Wakker and Werminski. Comparison with other Proteaceous Seeds. The structure of the seeds and pericarps of Macadamia Lowii F. M. Bailey and M. minor F. M. Bailey is similar to that of the seed and pericarp of M. ternifolia , but their fruits are only about half the size of the fruits of M. ternifolia. The seeds of M. Whelani F. M. Bailey have a very thick, hard testa which is expanded into a large disk on the inner, lower side. The disk has a funnel-shaped aperture in the middle through which a slender, tapering part of the embryo passes downwards to the micropyle. The broad, upper part of the cotyledons rests upon the disk and overlaps its summit. A very thin, pale yellow tegmen invests the surface of the disk. The upper part of the tegmen is a thin, loose, dark-brown coat lining the inner surface of the testa above the disk. In two-seeded fruits the inner part of the pericarp is extended between the seeds as a dissepiment, a structure which is lacking in M. ternifolia. The fruit of M. Whelani is about twice the size of that of M. ternifolia. The one remaining species included in Macadamia by F. M. Bailey [2], the ball nut, M. prcealta ( Helicia prcealta F. v. M.) has an indehiscent pericarp and two semigiobose or one globose seed with two separable, papery seed coats. The fruit is about twice the size of that of M. ternifolia. The testa in Grevillea Banksii R.Br. is composed of thin- walled parenchyma. The tegmen is constructed of a single layer of radially elongated, granular cells with a single crystal of calcium oxalate situated at the outermost extremity of each cell. The tissue composed of these cells and the tegmen in the lower part of the seed of Macadamia ternifolia are evidently homologous. The fruit of Grevillea Banksii is a follicle containing two winged seeds. The tegmen is the only continuous coat investing the seeds of Banksia collina R.Br. The cells constituting it each contain a prominent crystal of calcium oxalate at the outer extremity. The crystals frequently have the ANATOMY OP THE AUSTRALIAN BUSH NUT. 51 appearance of prominent, outward extrusions from the cell walls. After prolonged action of strong hydrochloric acid the forms of the crystals remained, but they had lost their doubly refracting property. In preparations treated with strong acetic acid for the same time the crystals retained their birefringent effect. Apparently the crystals are intimately encrusted by a substance insoluble in hydrochloric acid. An envelope surrounding crystals of calcium oxalate has been observed by Alexandrow and Timofeev [lj in the wood of Sterculia platani folia. These authors state that the envelope is probably composed of cellulose. Bentham [3, p. 540] states that Brown has pointed out that the plate intervening between the two seeds in the Tribe Banksiese consists of the outer coating of one side of each seed, and that these outer coats forming the dividing plate separate from the inner ones and become united at the base but remain separate in the upper part of the plate. The seeds of Banksia collina when detached from this intervening plate are enveloped by a coat which evidently corresponds to the tegmen in the lower part of the seed of Macadamia ternifolia. Summary. The Australian bush nut is a seed. The fruit in which it is contained is a follicle and the thick hard shell of the nut is the combined testa and tegmen. Hitherto the fruit was described as a drupe and the shell of the nut as an endocarp or putamen. The pericarp consists of an outer fibrous part and an inner parenchymatous part. The tissue of the testa is very rigid and consists of thick-walled, lignified cells varying in shape from narrow fibre-like cells to flat broad ones, the elongated forms predominating. The lower part of the tegmen or inner coat of the seed is a tenuous layer of white, enamel-like, hard material consisting of polygonal and rectangular cells. These cells in appearance are granular ; they are without evident lumina ; and their walls are apparently unstratified. Their granular material on the application of microchemical tests yields reactions indicative of a ligno -cellulose. In prepared and mounted sections each of these granular cells exhibits a small, angular, clear area marking the position occupied by a crystal of calcium oxalate which apparently has been dissolved. The upper part of the tegmen is a very thin, brown layer com- posed of smaller and more regular cells than those of the testa. Its cells are deeply impregnated with a dark-brown substance, possibly phlobaphene, which renders them almost opaque, even in thin sections. The internal tissue of the plumule and radicle is differentiated from that of the cotyledons by its thin-walled, much smaller cells containing conspicuous nuclei and abundant, finely granular protoplasm, properties adapted to its physiological functions as generative tissue. The internal cells of the cotyledons are characterised by the possession of numerous protein-containing bodies or proteinoplasts, which qualifies them for the role of storage. The large quantity of oil contained in the embryo is distributed throughout its non- vascular cells. The protein of the embryo is also fairly generally 52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL, SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. distributed in the non- vascular tissue. The protein grains of the proteino- plasts apparently originate in a different way from that ascribed to the aleurone grains of seeds by Wakker and Werminski. The seeds of the other species of Macadamia are compared with those of M. ternifolia. A tegmen consisting of cells, each of which contains a crystal of calcium oxalate, is also a feature of the seeds of Grevillea Banksii and Banksia collina of the Natural Order Proteacese. The occurrence of this kind of tissue in the inner seed coats of these widely separated species suggests that a similar tegmen may be characteristic of the Natural Order or a large section of it. Acknowledgments. — The writer is indebted to Mr. C. T. White (Govern- ment Botanist) for permission to use some of the specimens in the Botanic Museum, Brisbane ; to Mr. E. W. Bick (Director, Botanic Gardens, Brisbane) for supplies of fresh fruit ; and to Mr. J. C. Brunnich (Agricultural Chemist) and his staff for some of the reagents used. Appreciative acknowledgment is also expressed to Mr. H. Tryon, who drew the writer’s attention to the presence of crystals in the inner seed coat of Grevillea Banksii and who supplied fruits of Banksia collina. REFERENCES. 1. Alexandrow, W. G., and A. S. Timofeev. — Ueber die Losung des kristallischem Calciumoxalats in den Pflanzen. Botanisches Archiv., XV., 286, 1926. 2. Bailey, F. M. — The Flora of Queensland, IV., 1330, 1901. 3. Bentham, G. — Flora Australiensis, V., 406, 1870. 4. Bentham, G., and J. D. Hooker. — Genera Plantarum, III., 178, 1883. 5. Engler, A., in Engler und Prantl’s Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien, III., Toil, I., Halfte, 147, 1894. 6. Lee, Beatrice, and J. H. Priestley. — The Plant Cuticle, I. Annals of Botany, XXXVIII., 528, 1924. 7. Molisch, Hans. — Mikrochemie der Pflanze, Zweite Auflage, 176, 1921. 8. Mueller, F. — Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae, VI., 191, 1867-1868. 9. Peche, K. — Mikrochemischer Nachweis der Cyanwasserstoffsaure in Prunus Laurocerasus L. Sitzungsber. der Kaiserl. Akad. der Wissenschaften in Wien, Bd. CXXL, Abt. 1, 33-55, 1912. 10. Schneider, Hans, and A. Zimmermann. — Die Botanische Mikrotechnik, Zweite Auflage, 345, 1922. 11. Smith, F. B., and L. A. Meston. — Some Oil-bearing Seeds indigenous to Queens- land. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, 26, 16, 1914. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. XXXIX. Plate I. 1. Outer part of pericarp. Transverse-radial. X 40. 2. Inner part of pericarp. Transverse-radial X 40. 3. Outer part of testa. Longitudinal-radial. X 170. 4. Tegmen and inner part of testa. Longitudinal- radial. X 100. 5. Part of the two cotyledons. Transverse. X 170. Face page 53.] 6. Tissue of cotyledon, showing proteinoplasts. X 380. ANATOMY OF THE AUSTRALIAN BUSH NUT. 53 EXPLANATION OF PLATE. Figs. 1, 2, and 4 were photographed with a 16 mm. apochromatic objective N.A. •3 ; and Figs. 3, 5, and 6 with a 4 mm. apochromatic objective N.A. -95. Compensating eyepiece 4 was used for Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 5, and compensating eyepiece 8 for Figs. 4 and 6. 1. View of transverse-radial section, showing outermost part of pericarp, stained with Heidenhain’s iron haematoxylon and Safranin. The outermost dark band is the cuticle ; beneath it the fine, light band represents the small-celled epidermis. Obliquely cut vascular bundles traversing parenchyma are the chief features of the picture. 2. View of the innermost part of the same preparation, which is partly shown above. The upper part shows the inner portion of the fibrous layer and three large vascular bundles in transverse section surrounded by parenchyma. The lower part of the picture depicts the entire width of the parenchymatous inner layer of the pericarp, which is separated from the outer layer by the cells with dark contents situated towards the middle of the picture. 3. Longitudinal-radial section through combined testa and tegmen stained as in previous section. The outer, covering layer of compressed cells is depicted on the left. The lignified walls, abundantly pitted, and the cell inclusions are shown. This view is limited to the outermost part of the testa. 4. View of innermost part of same preparation, which is partly shown in Fig. 3. The innermost part of the testa and the junction of the lower and upper parts of the tegmen are shown. The reddish-brown or yellow contents of the cells of the testa are shown on the right. The granular cells of the lower part of the tegmen are shown on the left. The small, light areas marking the positions once occupied by crystals of calcium oxalate are indistinctly seen in the cells of the lower part of the tegmen. The very dark part of the picture on the upper left side represents the upper, dark-brown part of the tegmen, which is almost opaque. The dark-brown part of the tegmen is shown overlapping the lower, pale part. This thin overlapping part is non-cellular. 5. Section of part of two cotyledons, slightly obliquely cut, heated on a slide with equal parts of 1 per cent, alcoholic solution of Sudan III. and pure glycerine. The cutinised walls of the epidermal cells on the outside of the cotyledons and the cutinised outer walls of the epidermal cells between the coytledons are deeply stained. In contrast the cellulose walls of the internal tissue are unstained. The oil present in the cells almost throughout the tissue is stained by the reagent. 6. Section of internal tissue of cotyledon fixed with Carnoy’s fluid and stained with Heidenhain’s iron haematoxylon. The proteinoplasts are focussed in some of the cells. Towards the middle of the picture one proteinoplast with two protein grains is shown. The body of the proteinoplasts has stained more deeply than the contained protein grains. 54 Vol. XXXIX., No. 5. Volcanic Mud Balls from the Brisbane Tuff, By H. C. Richards, D.Sc., and W. H. Bryan, D.Sc. Plates II. and III. {Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 25th July , 1927.) I. Introduction. At a meeting of this Society, held on 27th July, 1925 [1], the authors exhibited specimens of Brisbane tuff from Oastra, on the right bank of the Tingalpa Creek and 12 miles east-south-east of Brisbane. One of the reasons for bringing the exhibit before the notice of the members of the Society was the presence, in some portions of the tuff, of numerous small rounded bodies, the mode of origin of which was an enigma to the exhibitors. The authors hoped that some reasonable explanation of these bodies might have been advanced at the meeting, but none was forth- coming. Although the Brisbane tuff has been closely examined in many of the quarries and natural sections in and about Brisbane by numerous observers, no bodies like those of Castra have ever been found elsewhere. II. Description. The geological section at Castra shows a thickness of approximately 30 feet of consolidated volcanic ash almost horizontally disposed, very similar to the “Brisbane Tuff’7 of Upper Triassic age, which is typically developed in and about the City of Brisbane. The tuff lies unconform- ably over the Brisbane Schist series. At the base of the tuff numerous angular and subangular fragments derived from the schists, together with angular blocks of rhyolite, some at least 6 inches across, are embedded in the tuff. These probably represent a volcanic agglomerate, although many of the fragments of schist may be remnants of the old land surface. The spheroidal bodies which form the subject of this paper occur scattered throughout the lower and middle portion of the section of tuff. 1. Abstract of Proceedings Boy. Soc. Qld., 1925, Vol. XXX VII., p. xii. VOLCANIC MUD BALLS FROM BRISBANE TUFF. 55 Plate II. b gives an idea of the average proportion of the spheroids to the ordinary tuffaceous groundmass. There is, however, a tendency for the balls to collect on certain layers, some strata being almost crowded with them, as in Plate II. a. Again, even in comparatively barren strata, “ nests7’ of spheroids occur. In the upper portion of the section the balls are more sparsely distributed and the individuals are considerably smaller, while in the uppermost portion of the section none were found. Owing to the superior weather-resisting properties of the balls as compared with the tuffaceous groundmass they are to be found in considerable numbers lying on the surface and at the bottom of the slope of the outcropping tuff. In size the balls exhibit considerable variation, but for the most part they can be compared with marbles and beads. In addition to the variation in size of individuals from any one horizon is the fact already noted that the balls from the upper portion of the tuff are considerably smaller than those below. The largest spheroids found were a small group, the individuals of which measured 25-30 mm. in greatest diameter. In addition to their unusually large size these differed in other respects from the typical spheroids and must be regarded as distinctly abnormal (see Plate III.), About 300 balls were collected in situ from the tuff in the middle of the section. These, when separated by sieves with meshes of 11, 9, 6, and 4 millimetres respectively, showed the following proportions and sizes : — - GROUP A. GROUP B. GROUP C. GROUP D. GROUP E. + 11 mm. —11+9 mm. —9 + 6 mm. —6 + 4 mm. — 4 mm. 20 74 204 8 0 A separation of material obtained from a restricted spot in a some- what lower portion of the section gave the following results : — A. B. C. D. E. 22 41 105 0 0 Practically all the specimens collected from the higher part of the section belonged to Group D. Although there are some specimens approaching true spheres, some which are egg-shaped, and others of less regularity, the vast majority may be described as spheroids. The ratio in length between the long axes and the corresponding short axes is not uniform, some of the balls being much flatter than the others. When examined in situ a noticeable fact is that the short axes are perpendicular to the bedding planes of the tuff. This suggests that the balls were originally spherical in shape and acquired the flattening after falling into position as a result of the pressure of the sediments which were afterwards added to the series. Internally the only structure of the spheroids is seen to be concentric, although some specimens are so homogeneous that no structure whatever 56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. is discernible. The concentric structure is, however, plainly shown in many individuals, and is often intensified as the result of differential weathering or colouring of the several zones. (See Plate III. e.) One very common feature is the presence of a skin of material with a glazed surface and frequently different in colour from the remainder of the specimen. It is this hard outer skin which makes the spheroids so resistant to weathering. Lithologically the material of the bails appears to be not dissimilar from that of the enclosing volcanic tuff, except that it is of much finer grain. A micro-section of a typical ball shows the material to be very fine and to resemble a clay in texture, the outermost portion, however, being noticeably more compact than the interior. Observation by the unaided eye shows, however, that many specimens are made up of somewhat coarser material. The authors considered the advisability of procuring chemical analyses of the spheroids with a view to determining whether they were tuffaceous in nature. The expenditure entailed in time and money on such analyses was, however, thought to be unwarranted for the following reasons : — (1.) The difficulty of deciding on a really representative sample of such a heterogeneous rock as a tuff for purposes of comparison ; (2.) The differential effects of subsequent alteration of the tuff and the included bails, protected as the latter are by their glazed skins ; (3.) Even if both tuff and balls had the same source of origin, it could not be safely assumed that they would be closely similar chemically owing to their different grades of comminu- tion and to the sorting action of gravity on slowly falling dust-like particles. III. Comparisons. A. Philippine Islands. — Recently the authors met with the descrip- tion of apparently identical tuff balls, together with a feasible explanation of their origin, in an article under the caption “An Unusual Form of Volcanic Ejecta.’7 [2] The author of the article (Wallace E. Pratt) described “small concretion-like bodies in the finest grained portion of the blanket of fragmental ejecta” thrown out during the disastrous eruption of Taal Volcano in south-western Luzon, Philippine Islands, during the month of February, 1911. Taal Volcano forms an island near the centre of a lake from 15 to 20 kilometres in diameter, and the mud balls were found both on the slopes of the volcano and on the outer margin of the lake. Pratt’s description of the mud balls of Taal is as follows: — “ . . . drops or balls of mud . . . They range in 2. Journal of Geology, 1916. Yol. XXIV., p. 450. VOLCANIC MUD BALLS FROM BRISBANE TUFF. 57 size from large shot to hazel nuts, and when broken sometimes show concentric markings. 7 7 Since the eruption of 1911, there have been found by Pratt, at the towns of Bauan and Taal, at depths of from 100 to 150 metres, ‘ ‘ abundant spherical and ellipsoidal inclusions77 which ivere “indistinguishable from the mud balls of the last eruption of Taal.77 Pratt also describes, from several widely separated localities in the older tuffs of Luzon “dating back probably to the late Miocene,77 “well preserved balls enclosed in clayey tuff 7 7 which 4 4 hate retained their form. 7 7 B. Martinique . — The only volcanic ejecta known to Pratt which could be regarded as comparable with the mud balls of Luzon were the “drops of mud77 described by Hovey [3] which fell during the eruptions on Martinique in 1902. But these “flattened spheroids of mud77 measuring “2, 4, and 6 inches across where two or more had coalesced77 do not bear nearly so close a resemblance to those of Luzon m do those collected by the authors from Castra. In size, shape, nature of the material, and type of structure, the mud balls of Luzon are wonderfully like those of Castra. This is shown not only by the descriptions of the former but by several photographic illustrations which accompany them. A comparison of Plates II. and III. of the present paper with Figures 2 and 3 of Pratt’s account shows the remarkable similarity. IV. Suggestion as to Origin. When the authors first noted the presence of the spheroidal bodies embedded in the tuff at Castra they realised that they could not be referred to any of the usual products of vulcanicity such as lapilli or small bombs. Neither were they Australites nor concretions. Two sugges- tions presented themselves. The first was that they resulted from a rather unusual type of spheroidal weathering. The fact that the bodies were most obviously displayed in the more weathered portions of the outcrop seemed to support such a view, but closer examination showed their presence in the heart of unweathered and unstained blocks of solid tuff, and another explanation was sought. Superficially, the bodies resembled in shape and size the spherulites which are quite commonly found in rhyolites of various ages in South Queensland, and the fact that they occurred in a tuff which is of an acid nature and is made up largely of minute fragments of rhyolite gave weight to the opinion that the spheroids were spherulites which in some curious way had become isolated from the parent body of rhyolite. This second hypothesis broke down when individual spheroids were sectioned and examined micro- scopically. It was found that they were essentially concentric in structure and showed no trace of the radial character typical of spherulites. More- over, the material of which the bodies was formed appeared to be very finely comminuted particles almost like clay in appearance. 3. American Journal of Science, XIV. (1902), 343. B.S.— E 58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Hovey, in describing the volcanic phenomena at Martinique in 1902, wrote: — “In addition to the showers of dry dust and ashes, there fell during the eruption an immense amount of liquid mud which had been formed within the eruption cloud through the condensation of its moisture. That drops of mud, too, formed in the air and fell as a feature of the eruption is proved “ ... the evidence of the mud coating and these drops of mud proves that much aerial condensation of steam accompanied these outbursts. ” Pratt accepted the explanation of Hovey for the “mud drops” of Martinique and thought it quite applicable to the mud balls formed in the 1911 outbursts of Taal. Further, in light of the wide distribution of hardened mud balls in the older tuffs of Luzon, Pratt suggests — - “That the condensation of mud into drops or balls must be a rather common feature of volcanic eruptions which throw out great clouds of water-vapour and line sand or dust, ’ ’ and he adds — “The product may be described, perhaps as a volcanic hail- stone. ’ ’ It is probable that Pratt, in making this interesting comparison, had in mind not the frozen rain drop which is often referred to as hail, but the true “summer hail” which precedes thunder showers. Of the formation of the latter, Milham, in his text-book on ‘ ‘ Meteorology, ’ ’ writes as follows : — ‘ ‘ The hailstones are usually large, in some cases several inches in diameter, and they consist of concentric layers of compact snow and ice . . . The hailstones are formed in the whirling" squall-cloud of a thunder shower. The nucleus is carried up and coated with snow; it then falls or is carried down and is coated with water; it is then carried up again; the process continues, adding coat after coat until the hailstone becomes too heavy to be longer sustained, and it falls to the ground. ’ ’ As Pratt had the good fortune to study both the mud balls as they lay on the surface soon after the eruption and those resulting from previous eruptions, some probably from the Tertiary era, his explanation must be regarded as carrying great weight. Consequently, and in view of the marked similarity of the Castra spheroids with those of Luzon, the authors see no reason why this explanation should not be applied to the local development. The suggestion has been made to the authors that the mud balls, after being formed high above the volcano, became dried and hardened in their final descent through the hotter air nearer the volcanic vent, and the outermost parts in particular became glazed and indurated and VOLCANIC MUD BALLS FROM BRISBANE TUFF. 59 thus gave the balls sufficient strength to withstand the shock of impact, whether they fell into the water of a Triassic lake or into loose finely- comminuted volcanic ash. One feature which it seems the volcanic outbursts of Castra and Luzon possessed in common and which may have some bearing on the formation of the balls is their close proximity to large bodies of water. Thus Taal Volcano stands actually within a lake, and the lake itself is thought by some authorities [4] to mark the caldera of a huge volcano. Of some of the tuffs of Luzon from which mud balls were obtained Pratt states that — “ . . . it is beyond question that the tuff is in great part water-laid, and it is to be presumed that the mud balls . . . fell into the sea originally.” There is good evidence for believing that the Brisbane tuff is a water- laid volcanic ash, for it is in several places underlain by normal fresh- water lacustrine sediments, while its upper portions pass gradually into felspathic sediments and then into normal shales and sandstones. V. Possible Climatic Significance. Pratt is of the opinion that the formation of mud balls is probably confined to those regions “where atmospheric conditions similar to those on the island of Luzon prevail.” He points out in support of this conclusion that — “Unless conditions peculiar to the tropics, such as high temperature and, perhaps, excessive humidity, are essential factors in the phenomena which have been described, it would appear that mud balls should have been formed in the eruption cloud from Katmai Volcano in Alaska and in the [then] recent eruption of Mount Lassen in California,” In view of the fact that mud balls are a rare form of volcanic ejecta, and of Pratt’s suggestion that atmospheric conditions of a tropical nature are the controlling factors, it is of interest to inquire whether the climatic conditions in Southern Queensland during the late Triassic (or Rhsetic) time when the Brisbane tuff was ejected may have approxi- mated what we term “Tropical” at the present day. The prolific vegetation which succeeded the eruption as shown by the very numerous fossil plants in the overlying shales of the Ipswich Series, and the numerous coal seams is quite in harmony with such a view. Seward [5] has emphasised the cosmopolitan nature of the floras of Rhsetic and Jurassic times, when little difference existed between the plants of such widely separated places as Greenland, Ceylon, and Antarctica. The suggestion conveyed by this flora is of a uniformly moist and hot climate spreading from pole to pole, for many of the 4. Tempest Anderson Volcanic Studies, 1917, p. 87. 5. Pres. Add. Q.J.G.S., Vol. 80, 1924, p. xci., et seq. 60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. fossil plants of Greenland are similar to those of Malay and India at the present. Seward is, however, careful to point out that other conclusions, based upon the adaptability of plants, are possible. Thus evidence, both as to the nature of the plants of the Ipswich Series and as to their luxuriance, is for, rather than against, such tropical conditions as Pratt considers necessary for the formation of volcanic mud balls. VI. Position of Centre of Eruption. It might be thought that the presence of mud balls at Castra could serve as an indication of the proximity of one of the centres of eruption which ejected the Brisbane tuff, for the nearest other outcrop of the series, some 5 miles to the N.N.W., contains none of these bodies. Such a view is supported by the presence of comparatively large blocks of rhyolite at the base of the tuff. Basing his opinion on quite other evidence than this, and before the discovery of the tuff and associated balls at Castra, one of us [6] wrote as follows : — < “It is not unlikely that the source of the activity was to the east or south-east of Brisbane [i.e., towards Castra] in a region now foundered beneath sea-level.” The evidence from Luzon does not, however, lend much support to the idea that these balls indicate the centre of eruption. After the eruption of Taal, Pratt found mud balls from 6 to 8 kilometres distant from the crater, and concluded that they “must have been widely distributed. ’ ’ Some older specimens, obtained 25 kilometres away, Pratt thinks “may have come from Taal itself.” DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Plate II. Photographs of hand specimens of tuff, showing . the arrangement of volcanic mind balls in their matrix. Plate III. Individual mud balls arranged in series to show variations' in size, shape, and structure. A — Series to illustrate variation in size from 6 mm. to 32 mm. B — Series to illustrate variation in relative lengths of horizontal diameters resulting in variation in shape from spheroidal to ellipsoidal. G— Series to illustrate variations in relative lengths of vertical and horizontal diameters resulting in different degrees of flattening. D — Series to illustrate various stages of decortication resulting from weathering to show the relative durability of the outermost ‘ ‘ skin 7 ’ of the mud balls. E — Series of polished sections illustrating concentric nature of mud balls and thickness of outer skin. 6. H. C. Richards, A.A.A.S. Yol. XVII., 1924, Volcanic Activity in Qld., p. 286. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XXXIX. Plate II. Photographs of hand specimens of tuff, showing the arrangement of volcanic mud balls in their matrix. Pace page 60.] Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XXXIX. Plate III. Race page 60.] Vol. XXXIX. No. 6. 61 Plants Collected in the Mandated Territory of New Guinea by C. E. Lane-Poole. By C. T. White, Government Botanist, and W. D. Francis, Assistant Government Botanist, Brisbane. Plates IV. and V. (Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 2 6th September, 1927.) After reporting on the forests of Papua, Mr. C. E. Lane-Poole proceeded to the Mandated Territory of New Guinea and made an investigation of the forests of that territory on behalf of the Common- wealth Government. In the course of the work he collected a large number of botanical specimens during the latter part of 1923 and in 1924. This paper contains records of the plants collected during that period. As a forester, Mr. Lane-Poole paid particular attention to the trees. Comprehensive notes on the specimens he collected and an account of his investigation will be found in his report, “The Forest Resources of the Territories of Papua and New Guinea/’ which was published by the Commonwealth Government in 1925. Unfortunately, 125 botanical specimens were destroyed by the natives in an attack upon Mr. Lane-Poole ’s camp on the Ramn River. The plants collected in Papua (British New Guinea) by Mr. Lane-Poole are dealt with by us in these Proceedings, Vol. XXXVIII., p. 225-261, 1927. Family GLEICHENIACE.E. Gleichenia dichotoma Hook. Nomi River, Finschhafen District, 549, sterile fronds, Novr., 1923. Family 'TAXACEiE. Podocarpus cupressina R. Br. Ogeramnang, Finschhafen District, 554, foliage specimens, Novr., 1923. Podocarpus amara Blume. Ogeramnang, Finschhafen District, 552, foliage specimens, Novr. 1923. Dacrydium elatum Wall. (?). Joangey, Finschhafen District, 567, foliage specimens, Novr. 1923. Phyllocladus hypopliyllus Hook. f. Salawaket, 9,000 ft., 518, foliage specimens, Novr. 1923. Family PINACEJE. Araucaria Cunninghamii Ait. Hanep, 639, foliage specimens, Feb., 1924. Libocedrus papuana F. v. M. Salawaket, 520, foliage specimens, Novr., 1923. F 62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Family GNETACEJE. Gnetum gnemon Linn. Kulungtufu, Finschhafen District, 563, flowering specimens (male and female), Novr., 1923. C. E. Lane-Poole remarks that it is prized for its leaves as a vegetable and is cultivated at all altitudes. Family LILIACEiE. Draccena august if olia Roxb. Yonombo, 632, flowering specimens, Feb., 1924. Family IRIDACE7E. Libertia pulchella Spreng. Salawaket, 8,000-10,000 ft., 507, flowering specimens, Novr., 1923. Family FAGACEiE. Quercus lamponga Miq. Yunzain (Jungaing), Finschhafen District, 585, foliage specimens accompanied by old acorns, Deer., 1923. Quercus spicata Smith var. depressa King. Yunzain, Finschhafen District, 582, fruiting specimens, Deer., 1923. Family MORACEzE. Dammar opsis Kingiana Warbg. Nomi Valley, Finschhafen District, 550, fruiting specimens, Novr., 1923. The petiole in these specimens measures 5 cm. in length. Family ^RTICACEAE. Laportea corallodesme Lautb. Yonombo, 633, flowering specimens. Elatostemma macrophyllum Brongn. var. majusculum IT. Winkl. Nomi River, 5,000 ft., Finschhafen District, 539, flowering specimens, Novr., 1923. Elatostemma sesquifolium Hassk. Nomi River, 5,000 ft., Finsch- hafen District, 541, flowering specimens, 22nd Novr., 1923. Gypholophus pachycarpus H. Winkl. Nomi River, 5,000 ft., 547, flowering specimens, Novr., 1923. Family LORANTHACE^E. Loranthus Novce-Guinece F. M. Bailey. Malu (230 miles up the Middle Sepik River), 790, flowering specimens, July, 1924. Family POLYGONACEzE. Muhlenbeckia platyclada Meissn. Ogeramnang, Finschhafen District, 551, flowering specimens, Novr., 1923. On tree stems. . Family IIIMANTANDRACEiE. Himantandra Belgraveana Diels. Ogeramnang, Finschhafen District, 556, foliage specimens, Novr., 1923 ; 568, Joangey, Finschhafen District, immature flowering specimens, Deer., 1923. PLANTS COLLECTED IN MANDATED TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. 63 Family LAURACE^E. Cinnamomum masso ia Sell ewe var. rotundatum Schewe. Finsehhafen, 592, foliage specimens, Dec., 1923. Family SAXIFRAGACEJE. Kania eugenioides Schlechter. Ogeramnang, Finsehhafen District, 558, flowering specimens, Novr., 1923. Polyosma lagunensis Merrill. Likdin (Lavengai — New Hanover of Germans), 801, flowering specimens, Aug., 1924. Family CUNONI AC EiE. Weinmamiia Lederntanii Schlechter. Likdin (Lavengai — New Hanover of Germans), 802, fruiting specimens, Aug., 1924. The speci- mens differ from those described by Schlecter, Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 52, 162 (1914), in the pubescent petiole amd leaf rhachis. In this respect they approach W. papuana Schlecter. Family ROSACEEE, Ruhus Ferdinandi-Muelleri Focke. Salawaket, 10,000 ft., 511 and 512, flowering specimens, Novr., 1923. For the determination of these specimens we are indebted to Mr. V. S. Summerhayes, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Parinarium laurinum A. Gray. Mavelo River, 810, fruiting specimens, Septr., 1924. Lane-Boole states that the rind of the fruit is grated on the stem of a Pandanus and used as a caulking for canoes by the natives. Family LEGUMXNOS.E. Serianihes sp. Allied to Serianihes grandi flora Benth. The speci- mens differ from descriptions of S. grandiflora in having narrower (7 mm. wide), and more numerous (13-15 pairs) leaflets and in the greater distance (1-5 cm.) of the' gland from the base of the petiole. Amage (Upper Ramu), 649, flowering specimens, March, 1924. Afzelia bijuga A. Gray. Finsehhafen, 588, foliage specimens, Deer., 1923. Bauhinia Sclilechteri Harms. Mogendo (Lower Sepik River), 793, foliage specimens accompanied by pods. Pod 25 cm. long and 9 cm. broad, containing 4 seeds. Seeds obliquely orbicular, 3-4 cm. in breadth, 6-10 mm. thick. Pterocarpus indicus Willd. Finsehhafen, 587, fruiting specimens. Deer., 1923. Family RUTACEAE. Evodia accedens Blume sens. lat. Ramu, 630, flowering specimens, Feb., 1924. Family MELIACE^E. Cedrela Toona Roxb. var. Yalu, 626, foliage specimens accompanied by dry capsules, Deer., 1923. 64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Family OXALIDACE M. Averrhoa Bilimbi Linn. Main (230 miles up Middle Sepik River), 789, fruiting specimens, July, 1924. Family EUPHORBIACEJE. Breynia cernua Muell. Arg. Yalu, 611, fruiting specimens. Baccaurea papuana F. M. Bailey. Yalu, 625, flowering specimens, Deer., 1923. Bridelia subnuda K. Sch. et Lauterb. Mogendo (Lower Sepik River), 794, dowering specimens, July, 1924. Homalanthiis populifolius Grah. Joangey, Finschhafen District, 576, flowering and fruiting specimens, Deer., 1923. Family ANACARDIACEJE. Spondias dulcis Forst. f. Mavelo, 809, flowering specimens, Septr., 1924. Dracontomelum mangiferum Blume. ' Yalu, 613, fruiting specimens, Deer., 1923. Campnosperma brevipetiolaia Vlks. Marienburg, Lower Sepik River, 785, fruiting specimens, July, 1924; 799, Likdin (Lavengai — New Hanover of Germans), flowering specimens, Aug., 1924. Family SAPINDACE^. Pometia pinnata Forst. Finschhafen, 586, foliage specimens, Deer., 1923. Dodoncea viscosa Linn. Ogeramnang, Finschhafen District, 561, fruiting specimens, Novr., 1923. Family ELiEOCARPACEflE. Echinocarpus papuanus Schlechter. Yunzain (Jungaing), Finsch- hafen District, 583, specimens bearing flowers and accompanied by capsules, Deer., 1923. Capsule oval or elliptical, hard and woody, 5-6 cm. long, 3-4 celled, outer surface glabrous and unarmed in the old specimens at hand. Anoniodes pulchra Schlechter. Joangey, Finschhafen District, 581, specimens accompanied by capsules, Deer., 1923. The capsules are ovoid or globose, hard and woody, 3-4 celled, 4-5 cm. long, densely pubescent on outside and armed with somewhat flexible, almost pungent processes attaining 1-8 cm. in length, the indumentum of the capsule extending along the processes but absent from their apices. The seeds are described by Lane-Poole as red with black tips. Family MALVACEAE. Hibiscus I)' Albert isii F. v. M. Abunti, 786, flowering specimens, July, 1924. Proc. Eoy. Soc. Q ’land, Yol. XXXIX. Plate IY. imHKm Face page 65.] [ Photos . : Dept. Agriculture and Stock. ■Saurauja emarginata sp. nov. Both natural size. Fig. 2. — Eurya albiflora sp. nov. PLANTS COLLECTED IN MANDATED TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. 65 Family STEECULIACEJE. Pterocymbium stipitatum White and Francis. Yalu, 602, flowering specimens, Deer., 1923. This species is illustrated in the authors’ paper in these Proceedings, XXXVIII. , 242 (1927). Family DILLENIACEiE. Saurauja emarginata sp. nov. (Plate IV., fig. 1.) Arbor parva, partibus junioribus et ramulis et petiolis et pedunculis et foliis subtus lepidis triangularibus obtectis ; foliis petiolatis? oblanceo- latis serratis apice acutis et mucronulatis basem versus angustatis subtus pallidioribus nervis lateralibus 8-10 in utroque latere supra impressis subtus elevatis; floribus albis axillaribus singularibus, pedunculis in parte superiore bi-bracteatis, calyce aite 5-lobato, lobis ovatis obtusis intus ad basem pubescentibus ; petalis emarginatis : antheris numerosis, linearibus loeulis rima. dehiscentibus, ovario globoso dense pubescenti, stylis 5 basem versus connatis. Described by the collector as a small tree 4.5 m. high. Young shoots, branchlets, petioles, peduncles and underside of leaves furnished with a few triangular scales 1-1-5 mm. long. Branchlets terete, about 2 mm. in diameter 10 cm. below apex. Petioles 1-3 mm. long. Leaf blades oblaneeolate, serrate, apex acute and mucronate, narrowed towards the base, under side paler than upper side, midrib and lateral nerves visible on both sides but more prominent on the under side, reticulate veins visible and impressed on upper side, 5-7 cm. long, 3-3J times as long as broad. Flowers single in the axils, described by the collector as white, glabrous except for an occasional scale on the calyx, the densely pubescent ovary and pubescent inner side of the calyx lobes at their base. Peduncles 3 cm. long with two opposite ovate-lanceolate bracts 7 mm. long situated about 6 mm. below the flower. Calyx divided to the base lobes ovate, obtuse, 8 mm. long, 3-4 mm. in breadth. Petals emarginate or notched at the apex, 13-15 mm. long, about 5 mm. in breadth. Anthers numerous, linear, 2-5-3 mm. long, attached at the back near the base, opening in longitudinal slits; filaments exceedingly short. Ovary globose, densely pubescent, 5-celled ; styles 5, 5 mm. long, united towards base. Locality: Edge of limestone precipice above Nomi Eiver, 7,000 ft., 528, C. E. Lane-Poole, Novr., 1923. Allied to 8. Boemeri Lauterb., from which it differs in its smaller leaves, single-flowered inflorescence, and narrower bracts and calyx lobes. Saurauja conferta Warbg. Nomi Eiver, 5,000 ft., Finschhafen District, 538, flowering specimens, Novr., 1923. Differs from Warburg’s description in hawing larger leaves (up to 30 X 11 cm.), longer peduncles (up to 5-5 cm.), and longer styles (up to 1 cm.). 68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Family TEENSTRCEMIACEJE. Eurya albiflora sp. nov. (Plate IV., fig 2.) Frutex vel arbor parva, ramulis et foliis subtus pilis longis sericeis fuscis dense vestitis, foliis disticbis petiolatis cordatis vel ovatis coriaceis apice emarginatis margine serrulatis subrecurvis costa media et venis supra alte impressis floribus alvis glabris pedicellatis axillaribus singularibus vel 2-3 fasciculatis, pedicellis puberulis ; bracteis 2 ovatis obtusis; sepalis imbricatis concavis orbicularibus ; petalis obovatis ad basem brevissime connatis ; staminibus 5, filamentis complanatis, antheris ovatis ad basem cordatis ; ovario ovoideo. Described by collector as a shrub or small tree about 6 m. high. Branchlets and underside of leaves densely pubescent with long, brown hairs. Branchlets about 2 mm. in diameter 10 cm. from apex. Branchlets slightly fiexuose. Leaves distichous. Petioles about 1 mm. long. Leaf blades cordate or ovate, apex finely emarginate, margins finely serrate, somewhat recurved, texture thick, midrib, lateral nerves and a few reticulations prominent and impressed on the upper surface, venation obscured by the long hairs on the under side, 13-17 mm. long, 9-10 mm. wide. Flowers white (C. E. Lane-Poole), glabrous, axillary, mostly single, or in clusters of 2 or 3. Pedicels puberulous up to 2 mm. long. Bracts subtending flowers 2, ovate, obtuse, 2 mm. long. Sepals strongly imbricate, concave, orbicular, attaining 3 mm. in breadth. Petals obovate, very shortly united at base, 3 mm. long. Stamens 5, alternating with petals, about 3 mm. long; filaments flattened, 2 mm. long; anthers ovate, cordate at base, about 2 mm. long. Ovary ovoid, 1-5 mm. long. Sarawaket, 10,000 ft., 505, C. E. Lane-Poole. Novr., 1923. In appearance the new species approaches the Philippine Eurya buxi folia Merrill, from which it is readily distinguished by its smaller, obtuse leaves and densely pubescent branchlets and underside of leaves. Family OCHNACEaE. Schuurmansia Henningsii K. Sch. Joangey, Finschhafen District, 580, flowering specimens, Deer., 1923. Family THEACEJE. Gordonia fragrans Merrill. Likdin (Lavengai — New Hanover of Germans), 804, flowering and fruiting specimens, August, 1924. The specimens differ from Merrill’s description (Philipp. Jour. Science, 1, suppl. 1, 95-96, 1906) in having shorter petals (1-5 cm. long) and shorter fruit (2 cm. long). Family FLACOURTIACE^. Pangmm edule Reinw. Wide Bay, 811, fruiting specimens, Septr., 1924. Lane-Poole remarks that the kernel of the nut is eaten by the natives after washing to remove toxic principle (hydrocyanic acid). Proc. Roy. Soc. Q ’land, Yol. XXXIX. Plate V. Face page 67.] [ Photos . : Dept. Agriculture a,nd Stock. Pig. 3. — Mearnsia cordata sp. nov. Both natural size. Pig. 2. — Hoya Poolei sp. nov. PLANTS COLLECTED IN MANDATED TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. 67 Homalium pachyphyllum Gilg. Korindal, 798, flowering specimens, Aug., 1924. Family DATISCACEJE. Octomeles sumatrana Miq. Yaln, 589, fruiting specimens, Deer., 1923. Family LECYTHIDACE^E. Barringtonia quadrigibbosa Lanterb. Likdin (Lavengai — New Hanover of Germans), 803, flowering specimens, Aug., 1924. In the absence of the fruit the determination is somewhat doubtful. The racemes in the specimens attain 70 cm. in length. Planchonia timorensis Blume. Yalu, 606. Family MYRTACEJE. Mearnsia cor data sp. nov. (Plate V., fig. 1.) Arbor parva partibus junioribus tomentosis ; foliis brevissime petio- latis cordatis apice obtusis acuminatis vel rarius rotundatis margine reeurvis nervis lateralibus in utroque latere 12 venis et venulis et supra et subtus visibilibus sed subtus multo prominentioribus ; fioribus glabris parte inferiors defoliata ramulorum ortis, in fasciculis umbellis vel racemis brevis dispositis; calycis lobis 4 latis obtusis; petalis 4, orbicu- laribus, staminibus 15-20, filamentis filiformis, antheris avatis ; ovario 2-loculari (?), stylo tenuo. Described by collector as a small tree up to 9 m, high. Young branches tomentose, very young leaves pubescent. Branchlets 2-5 mm. in diameter 18 cm. from apex, the older parts covered by a loose, brown baik. Petioles very short and broad, 1-2 mm. long. Leaf blades cordate, acuminate or occasionally round at apex, margins recurved, midrib, about 12 lateral nerves on each side of midrib and numerous reticulate veins visible on both surfaces but raised and prominent on the under- side, 3-5 cm. long; the broad leaves are nearly as broad as long, the narrow ones about twice as long as broad. Flowers glabrous, in clusters, umbels or short racemes'; on the branches below the leaves. Pedicels 3-6 mm. long. Calyx campanulate, about 4 mm. long, the upper free part of the tube spreading and about 1-5 mm. long, lobes 4, broad, obtuse. Petals 4, orbicular, about 2 mm. in diameter. Stamens 15-20 ; filaments filiform, red (C. E. Lane-Poole), attaining 11 mm. in length; anthers ovate, basifixed, about -5 mm. long. Ovary apparently 2-celled; style slender, 12 mm. long. Limestone precipice above Nomi River, 534, C. E. Lane-Poole, Novr., 1923. This species is allied to Mearnsia ramiflora Diels, from which it differs in its cordate leaves. Eucalyptus Naudiniama F. v. Mueller. Korindal, 797, flowering specimens, 1st Aug., 3924. 68 PROCEEDINGS OF TEIE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Family MELASTOMACEaE. Osheckia chinensis Linn. Grass hills, upper Ramu up to 1,700 ft., 638, flowering specimens, 29th Feb., 1924. Family UMBELLIFERaE. ( Enantlie Schlechteri Wolff. Nomi River, 5,000 ft., Finschhafen District, 542, flowering specimens, Novr., 1923. Family ERICACEAE. Rhododendron Commoner Forster. Salawaket, 6,000-9,000 ft., 502, flowering specimens, 20th Novr., 1923. Rhododendron Carringtonice F. v. M. Divide between Nomi and Ake, Salawaket, 7,000 ft., flowering specimens, Novr., 1923. The flowers are longer (8-5 cm.) and the corolla tube narrower (less than 4 mm. in diameter) than described by Mueller. The stamens are exserted. Lane- Poole remarks that the flowers are white and fragrant. Rhododendron Hansemanni Warbg. Edge of limestone precipice above Nomi River, 7,000 ft., Finschhafen District, 531, flowering specimens, Novr., 1923. Rhododendron warianum Schlechter. Edge of limestone precipice above Nomi River, 7,000 ft., Finschhafen District, 532, flowering specimens, Novr., 1923. Diplycosia mundula Schltr. Salawaket, 6,000-12,000 ft., 504, flowering specimens, 20th Novr., 1923. Agapetes Moorhonsiana F. v. M. Joangey, Finschhafen District, 575, flowering specimens, Deer., 1923. Lane-Poole describes the flowers as rose-coloured. Family SAPGTACEaE. Chrysophyllum Roxburghii G. Don. Yalu, 614, fruiting specimens, Deer., 1923. Family LOGANIACEiE. F agreed ohovata Wall. Edge of limestone precipice above Nomi River, Finschhafen District, 533, flowering specimens, Novr., 1923. Family GENTIANACEaE. Exacum tetragonum Roxb. Grass hills of upper Ramu up to 1,700 ft., 636, flowering specimens, Feb., 1924. Family APOCYNACEaE. Alstonia macrophylla Wall. Joangey, Finschhafen District, 571, flowering specimens, Deer., 1923. Alstonia scholaris R. Br. Yalu, 594, foliage specimens. PLANTS COLLECTED IN MANDATED TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. 69 Family ASCLEPIADACE JS. Hoy a Poolei sp. nov. (Plate V., fig. 2.) Planta scandens glabra; foliis petiolatis textura carnosis (in sicco coriaceis) lanceolatis vel elliptieis apice acuminatis; peduncnlis axillari- bus, umbellis 6-8 floris, pedieellis tennissimis calyeis lobis lanceolatis, corollas lobis deltoideis, coronas folioiis horizontalibus anguste ovoideis supra concavis. Described by collector as a Hoya-like creeper. Glabrous. Petioles 4^6 mm. long. Leaf blades fleshy, lanceolate or elliptical, acuminate, venation indistinct in dried specimens, 6-9 cm. long, about thrice as long as broad. Peduncles axillary, 2-3 cm. long, bearing an umbel of 4-8 flowers. Pedicels very slender, 8-17 mm. long. Flowers glabrous, described by collector as white with pink centres. Calyx about 4 mm. in diameter ; lobes lanceolate, about 1 mm. long. Corolla about 1*2 cm. in diameter, lobes deltoid about 3 mm. long. Corona scales horizontal and spreading to about 2-5 mm., narrowly ovoid, concave above, posterior obtuse. Locality: Joangey, South-Eastern end of Finisterre Range, 6 66, C. E. Lane-Poole, Deer., 1923. Allied to Hoya gracilipes Schlechter (Nachtrage, FI. deutseh. Schutzgeb. Sudsee, 363, 1905) from which it differs in its shorter peduncles and glabrous corolla. Family CONVOLVULACEeE. Ipomo&a Batatas Poir. Sweet Potato. Kulungtufu, Finschhafen District, 564, flowering specimens, Novr., 1923. Common in old garden lands. , Family BORAGINACEeE. Cordia Myxa Linn. Lea, 628, flowering specimens, Jan., 1924. Zoellera procumbens Warbg. Salawaket, 8,000-12,000 ft., 506, flowering specimens, Novr., 1923. Family VERBENACEiE. Vitex Cofassus Reinw. Yalu, 590, flowering specimens, Deer., 1923. Family SOLANACEJE. Solanum aviculare Forst. Nomi River, Finschhafen District, 544, flowering and fruiting specimens, Novr., 1923. Family GESNERACEAE. Baza lanuginosa Lauterb. et Schum. Hanep, 640, flowering speci- mens, Feb , 1924. Dichrotrichum Ckalmersii F. v. M. Joangey, Finschhafen District, 572, flowering specimens, Deer., 1923. Lane-Poole describes the flowers cs wine-coloured 70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Family ACANTHACE^E. Calycacanthus Magnusianus K. Schum. Rain forest on hills of upper Ramu to 3,000 ft., 637, flowering specimens, 29th Feb., 1924. Family RUBIACEJ3. Mitragyna parvifolia Korth. Awatib, 792, fruiting specimens, July, 1924. Musso&nda frondosa Linn. var. glabriflora K. Sch. Joangey, Finsch- hafen District, 565, flowering specimens, Deer., 1923. Family COMPOSITE. Olearia vernonioides White and Francis. Salawaket, edge of Libo- cedrus forest and grass lands, 509, flowering specimens, Nov., 1923. Blumea chinensis DC. Joangey, Finschhafen District, flowering specimens, Deer., 1923. Emilia prenanthoidea DC. Edge of limestone precipice above Nomi River, Finschhafen District, 537, flowering specimens, Novr., 1923. Vol. XXXIX., No. 7. 71 A Survey of the Brisbane Schists. By A. K. Denmead, B.Se. (Research Student, University of Queensland) . Plates VI. -X., and Text-figures. (Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland, 26th September, 1927.) Contents. I. Introduction. II. Distribution of the Brisbane' Schists. Ill: Physiography. IV. Petrological types within the Brisbane Schists. V. The Greenstone Series. VI. The Bunya Series. The Mica Phyllites. VII. Relation of the Greenstones and Mica Phyllites. VIII. The Neranleigh Series. The Greywaclces. IX. Relation of the Greywackes and Mica Phyllites. X. The Phosphate Belt. XI. The Fernvale Series. The Jaspers. XII. Earth Movements. XIII. Age of the Brisbane Schists. XIV. Summary. References to Literature. I. — Introduction. Investigations, the results of which form the substance of the present paper, were begun in connection with the field work prescribed as part of the Fourth Year Course at the University of Queensland. The objects of the work were : — (i.) To determine the sequence of the beds. (ii.) To determine the main structural features of the series. (iii.) To attempt to correlate several widely separated occurrences. (iv.) To determine the age of the series. % The writer does not claim in the limited time at his disposal to have made any but a very general survey of the Brisbane Schists ; many of his conclusions are tentative, and some of the problems have so far defied solution. He will feel amply repaid for his labours if he has indicated lines of research for future workers on one of the most interest- ing and complex series in Eastern Australia. There are abundant references to the Brisbane Schists in Australian geological literature, but they are for the most part incidental, or deal with local occurrences; little has been done until very recently in the way of correlation. Most of the references will be cited in the text. One reference only will be mentioned here, which, although now of little 72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. value, has an historical interest, for it contains the earliest account of the Brisbane Schists. This is Leichhardt’s "Beitrage Zur Geologie von Australien,” published in 1855. My attention was drawn to this work by Dr. F. AY. Whitehouse, to whom I am indebted for a translation of parts of the paper. II. — Distribution of the Brisbane Schists. According to the official view of the Geological Survey ( see Appendix to Harrap’s “ Geography of Queensland”), the Brisbane Schist series extends north-westerly from Coolangatta to Nanango through Southport, Nerang, Beenleigh, Brisbane, Enoggera Range, Taylor Range, D ’Aguilar Range, Mt. Crosby, and Kilcoy. Equivalent series are (1) the Amamoor series developed at Black Snake, Marodian, Amamoor, Kandanga, and Mt. Walli; and (2) the Gladstone-Curtis Island series outcropping at Cawarral, Yeppoon, Emu Park, the islands of Keppel Bay, Curtis Island, Facing Island, Gladstone, and Mt. Millar. There is no doubt that the metamorphic series in the extreme north-east of New South Wales is a continuation of the Brisbane Schist series; and Dr. W. II. Bryan [1] believes the Coff’s Harbour Schists also to be equivalents. Lately Mr. C. H. Massey has proved the presence of the Schists, on many of the islands of Moreton Bay. They occupy the whole of the east coast of Macleay Island, and are also well developed on Russell, Stradbroke, and other islands. It is generally believed that the "schists” occurring to the south and east of Gympie, including the Kin Kin phyllites of Jensen [2], belong to the Brisbane Schists. III. — Physiography. In general the Brisbane Schists are hard, weather-resisting rocks, and this characteristic is reflected in the topography of the country where they outcrop. The coastal strip between Tweed Heads and Brisbane, except where it has been levelled by wave erosion, is very hilly, although not of great altitude, the highest mountains scarcely rising above 800 ft. The hilly strip goes inland north from Brisbane. This is due to the covering of the Schists on the coastal area by lacustrine deposits of Triassic and Tertiary age. In the extreme south-east of Queensland the Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments are unaffected by severe earth- movements, and in general their outcrops are characterised by flat or undulating country. An exception to this rule is found in the Bundamba Sandstone series, whose outcrops occasionally resemble those of the Hawkesbury Sandstones in forming sharp ridges with precipitous sides. Escarpments of this nature are to be seen v/ithin a few miles of Brisbane, and at a distance are apt to deceive one into imagining them to be composed of the old metamorphic rocks. An examination of a feature map of the Moreton district shows a striking N.N.Yv. and S.S.E. trend, not only of mountains, but also of river valleys which run parallel with the mountain chains for long distances, and then, turning sharply, pursue a zig-zag course to the sea. A SURVEY OF THE BRISBANE SCHISTS. 73 There is a definite parallelism between geological structures and topographical features. The trend of the Schists is N.N.W. and S.S.E., and we find quartzite ridges frequently following these trends. It has been found that where topographic features cut across the trend they are generally associated with faulting movements. Examples are the North Pine River, the Brisbane River, and probably also the Logan River. As a rule Schist country is hilly, and often on this account inacces- sible. Inliers of Schist in the Ipswich series of Mesozoic age are by no means uncommon. In general they form more or less rugged hills surrounded by the flat or undulating country occupied by the younger rocks. On this account E. 0. Marks [3] concluded that the floor on which the Mesozoic sediments were deposited was very uneven. In general the Schist produces a poor soil that supports meagre forests of ironbark and other eucalypts. Certain basic rocks, however, that are associated with quartzites produce a deep red soil that has been found very rich for cultivation purposes. Examples of such country are seen at Mt. Cotton, at Kenmore and Brookfield, west of Dayhoro’, at Belmont, and in many other localities. The basic rocks of Mft. Mee, Bayboro ’, &c., produce soils of only medium quality. IV. — Petrological Types within the Brisbane Schists. The rocks described as “ Schists ” present a great variety of types, including the following: — Mudstones, fine-grained shales, micaceous shales, sandstones, quartzites, cherts, grits, boulder beds, greywackes, banded slates, jaspers, calcareous grits, altered tuffs, serpentines, andesite tuffs, phyllites, quartz-mica schists, granulites, amphibolites, altered porphyrites, chiastoiite schists, actinolite schists, glaucophane schists, and many other metamorphic rocks. Excepting in the neighbourhood of granitic intrusions there are no true schists in the entire Brisbane Schist series. Although the term has been retained in the present paper, the author would stress the fact that it cannot be regarded as in any sense descriptive. In spite of the great variety of rock types included in the Brisbane Schists, Mr. B. Dunstan, Chief Government Geologist of Queensland, recognised three belts, each characterised by certain rock types ( see p. 101). The author has recognised four broad divisions in the Brisbane district, as follows : — (1) The Greenstone series, consisting almost entirely of altered basic rocks. (2) The Bunya series, consisting chiefiy of mica phyllites. (3) The Neranleigh series, a name given by Mr. C. C. Morton of the Queensland Geological Survey for the series of grey- wackes, slates, &c., occurring between Nerang and Beenleigh. First noted by W. H. Rands [4]. 74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. (4) The Fernvale series, comprising ferruginous jaspers, banded cherts, slates, limestones, &c., with intrusive serpentine, named after the locality from which they wrere described, by Richards and Bryan [5]. Y. — The Greenstone Series. The rocks included under this heading are the least known and at the same time the most interesting rocks of the series. They are appar- ently enormously thick, and underlie the mica-phyllites. The term 4 ‘ greenstone ’ ’ includes all those altered basic rocks described by Jensen [6] from Mt. Mee and other places, as well as the rocks that are described here. Greenstone is seen outcropping on the Mt. Mee road not far from the Dayboro’ railway station. Half a mile from Dayboro’, mica-schist occurs striking north-north-west and dipping at a high angle in a westerly direction. The junction between the greenstone and the mica- schists is obscured by a great thickness of soil. At Petrie the greenstone strikes east and west and dips vertically. One mile along the Dayboro5 road there occur interbedded (?) mica- phyllites that are very much contorted and penetrated by veins of a pegmatitic nature, with quartz and felspar in intimate intergrowth. Such rocks are traversed for about one-third of a mile, when greenstone is again met with, striking north -north-west and south-south-east. Greenstone occurs continuously from this point to within one mile of Dayboro’. The strike over this section departs little from the normal direction, and the dips (of the foliation planes), where observed,, are easterly and rather steep. The rock is in general quite massive,, but may become highly schistose. The schistosity is more pronounced in the western half of the section. In the hand specimen, the greenstone exhibits a good deal of variation. Four main textural types have been recognised — (1) Porphyritic massive greenstone; (2) Fine-grained greenstone, usually massive, occasionally some- what sheared ; (3) Porphyroblastic schistose greenstone; (4) Foliated felspathic greenstone. (1) Porphyritic Massive Greenstone. — A grass-green, very tough rock, with phenocrysts of a decomposed, often greenish mineral. In some specimens partly decomposed felspar can be recognised. The phenocrysts have in some cases been completely removed by weathering or solution, leaving impressions the shape of which indicates the idio- morphic nature of many of the original phenocrysts. The green mineral which appears to have replaced the felspar phenocrysts is very soft and is of a chloritic nature. Hornblende needles have been noticed in some specimens. A SURVEY OF THE BRISBANE SCHISTS. 75 Under the microscope the rock exhibits a typical porphyritic struc- ture. The phenocrysts frequently have an extremely ragged outline, and are in some cases almost completely replaced by sericite, chlorite, and epidote. The less-altered phenocrysts are twinned, usually on the albite type, but occasionally on the Carlsbad type, and are mostly plagio- c-lase with some orthoclase. The groundmass consists of epidote in small grains, flakes and fibres of chlorite and tale. Hornblende is pre- sent, though sparingly, in small grains in some sections. In the green- stone from Stradbroke Island the phenocrysts, which are more completely replaced than those in the Petrie rock, are generally idiomorphic to sub-idiomorphic in outline. Pyrites is present in notable quantity. (See Plate VI., fig. 1.) Although very altered, this type of greenstone cannot have been buried to the lowest zone of schist formation, for the minerals present are all products of katamorphism. It follows, too, that it must have been remote from major igneous intrusions. (2) The Fine-grained Greenstone often differs markedly from the porphyritic type in mineralogical as well as textural characters. It is usually dark green in colour and very tough. It is composed of glisten- ing crystals of hornblende and actinolite (?). Under the microscope a definite banded arrangement is seen. There is a chloritic groundmass which is very fine-grained with parallel strings of iron ore* and well cleaved sections of hornblende, which is green and strongly pleochroic. Actinolite, colourless or very pale green, occurs in elongated flakes with good cleavage parallel to the longer axis. Radiating aggregates of epidote are occasionally seen. Chlorite, pale green with very ragged edges, occurs in grains up to 0-5 mm. in diameter. Some secondary quartz is present. The rock appears to have been completely recry- stallised and every trace of original texture is obliterated. (See Plate VI., fig. 2.) The minerals present in this type of greenstone indicate that the rock has been affected by some igneous intrusion or has been deeply buried. The former is more probably the case, for such a rock has been found within a short distance of the porphyritic massive type. If any ' phenocrysts were originally present they have been completely replaced and all indications of their presence destroyed. (3) Porphyroblastic Schistose Greenstone. — The porphyroblasts are similar to the phenocrysts in the massive rock. They give evidence of their primary origin in that the other minerals are folded about them, giving a knotted appearance in the hand-specimen (“Knotenscheifer”). Talcose minerals are abundant. Chlorite is also present in dark-green scales. This type, which occurs at Kilcoy, has undergone great shearing strain, but it has been encompassed only in the upper zone of Schist formation as is indicated by the nature of the minerals. (4) Felspathic Foliated Type. — One other type of greenstone is to be described, namely, the felspathic foliated type. 76 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. This rock is found about two miles east of the Dayboro’ railway, between Kobble and Armstrong Creeks. At this point the greenstone is interlaminated with bands of coarse-grained gneiss that obviously result from contact metamorphism by a hidden granitic mass, probably a northward extension of the Mt. Samson granite batholith, which forms the southern boundary of the greenstone in this area. These rocks are very decomposed, and no specimens of sufficient freshness were obtained for the making of thin sections. The recognisable minerals are tabular orthoelase, hornblende, muscovite, and probably other micas. Here was found also a rock that may be described as ferruginous chiastolite-mica schist. This is a beautiful pink rock with a satiny lustre that consists of iron-stained mica with small black crystals of chiastolite. In thin section the mica is nearly opaque, showing a \ery definite schistose structure. Sections of chiastolite have their centres clouded with dust-like inclusions, while the outside rim is clear and colourless. The greenstone is much more resistant to weathering agencies than the interlaminated gneiss. Fresh samples are to be obtained from out- crops that have been long exposed to the weather. The banded appear- ance of the greenstone is due to the segregation of the dark minerals. The rock is severely contorted and puckered, and has large pockets of white felspar occurring plentifully in it, producing a typical “augen” structure. The minerals recognisable in the hand specimen are felspar, small white grains with a somewhat vitreous lustre on the cleavage faces ; actinolite, dark green. On a weathered surface the felspar stands out and considerably accentuates the banded appearance. Under the microscope, turbid orthoelase occasionally twinned on the Carlsbad type is abundant. Numerous lath-shaped grains of fibrous, pale-green actinolite occur in parallel arrangement. Irregular grains of chlorite are present. The edges of the felspars are, in general, irregular, and they contain numero is inclusions of actinolite. In some cases they appear to have replaced the actinolite, but often the fibres of that mineral are folded about the felspar grains, whose peripheries are then more sharply defined. On the whole it appears that the felspars are secondary, some having developed during the disturbance that pro- duced the foliation, and others after the schistosity was completed. The rock has undoubtedly resulted from the contact metamorphism of normal greenstone. This felspathic type of greenstone can be observed to grade into the normal schistose variety as one proceeds east. Rocks similar to those described have been collected from Mt. Mee by Dr. W. H. Bryan. Schistose greenstone with “ augen” of felspar similar to that occurring near Dayboro’ is encountered one mile east of Kilcoy. Near Kilcoy it is interbedded with mica phvllite. North from here, greenstone outcrops in the bed of Sheep Station Creek. The strike there, as elsewhere in Kilcoy, is east and west. The A SURVEY OF THE BRISBANE SCHISTS. 77 greenstone here is many miles out of its line of strike, and has doubtless been brought to the surface by a heavy east-west fault. Greenstone fragments are abundant 'as inclusions in the granite to the east of Kilcoy. Between Wamuran and Bracalba, on the Kilcoy railway, there occur clay slates, mica phyllites, and fine-grained granulites which overlie and are, to a certain extent, interbedded with more or less metamorphosed greenstone. The general strike direction is N.N.W. and S.S.E., and the dip is to the east at varying angles. The strike is frequently disturbed by faults which appear to strike in an east-west direction. Decomposed dykes penetrate the schists, and are probably responsible for the highly metamorphosed state of some of the rocks. The Schist is separated from the Woodford granite by Bundamba sandstone, which is faulted against the granite between Bracalba and D ’Aguilar. ^Origin of the Greenston&s. — The existence of only slightly altered felspar phenoerysts in the upper portion of the greenstone is of great importance, for there is every reason to believe that there the mineral is of primary origin. The abundance of ferro-magnesian constituents everywhere supports the evidence of the primary felspar in pointing to an igneous origin, and the general absence of quartz combined with the other features show that the original rock was basic in character. It appears highly probable that the porphyritic texture so common in the greenstone is really a primary texture, and so the portions of the series characterised by this texture may be looked upon tentatively as altered porphyritic andesite or porphyrite. The presence of elongated vesicles in the greenstone near Petrie suggests a flow rather than an intrusion. In the section near Kilcoy, already mentioned, we have alternating greenstones and mica phyllites, and there can be little doubt that they are actually interbedded. If this is so, we are dealing either with (1) intrusions in the form of sills or (2), more probably, contemporaneous lava flows. When the prolonged period of violent volcanic activity was drawing to a close and the extrusions were becoming weak and inter- mittent, there would be deposited normal sediments in the periods of quiescence which would give place to lava for a short time, until finally the activity ceased altogether. All the evidence so far gathered tends to support the theory that the greenstones represent an altered series of basic lavas and possibly tuffs erupted partly at least under sub-aqueous conditions.* Thickness of the Greenstones. — The maximum thickness of the series cannot be calculated, for the base is unknown. The Petrie-Dayboro’ section, however, enables one to gain some idea as to the minimum * H. I. Jensen (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1906, Part I.) believed that the altered basic rocks of Mount Mee, etc., were lava flows, the glaucophane schists representing the ancient volcanic necks. G 78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Text-figure ] . The Greenstone Series does not occur in this section. Elsewhere it underlies conformably the Bunya Series. A SURVEY OF THE BRISBANE SCHISTS. 79 thickness’ which may be attributed to these rocks. Over a considerable distance of this traverse the greenstone is massive, there being no dip planes to indicate how the rocks may be disposed. Since all observed dips are easterly, it is reasonable to assume the direction of dip to be uniform throughout. The starting point will be the position where a N.N.W. strike is first observed about 1-J miles from Petrie and the finishing point half a mile east of the Dayboro’ granite. Assuming an average dip of 60 degrees we have a thickness of approximately 32,000 feet. This figure must be considered a conservative one, for a very generous allowance has been made for the displacing effect of the Dayboro ’ granite and the observed dips were rarely less than 60 degrees. "When more is known of the greenstones north of Dayboro’, the thickness may prove to be considerably greater. At all events there is ample evidence of violent vulcanicity extending over an enormous period in what we may term early Brisbane Schist times. Summary of Section 'V. The greenstones occur between "Woodford and Armstrong Creek. They are cut off on the south by mica phyllites and on the north by granites. There is a small outcrop on Stradbroke Island. By contact metamorphism the greenstones are altered loically into hornblende- aetinolite schists, glaucophane schists, etc. The normal greenstone consists of chlorite, talc, epidote, felspar (more or less altered), and sometimes quartz. Estimated thickness, 32,000 feet. VI. — The Bunya Series: The Mica Phyllites. In the heart of the city of Brisbane there is developed a rock that may be termed a mica phyllite. The rock often cleaves readily along the bedding planes, but in the more metamorphosed specimens the cleavage makes a large angle with the bedding. The present paper would be incomplete without an adequate description of the Brisbane Schist in the type locality, and since such a description has been given by Prof. H. C. Richards [7] it is quoted here in full: — “ (a) In the Hand Specimen. “When fresh the schist is a dark-blue or grey rock which exhibits a plication usually well developed owing to its fine- grained nature. There is often evidence of much movement in the rock, as slickensided or grooved and polished surfaces are common. ‘ 1 Fine veins of quartz are abundant, and they vary from the finest films to several inches in width. These quartz veins seem to be of two types — those which follow the plication or schistose plane of the rock and those which traverse it. The former are the more abundant. “From the dark nature of the rock one would expect it to contain graphitic material, and microscopic investigation bears this out. 80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Pyrites is abundant in the form of small specks, which usually occur in the thin quartz veins. On weathering, the rocks take on a rusty-brown appearance so familiar in any of the cuttings about the city. The softer micaceous minerals become chemically and mechanically eroded out, leaving the more resistant quartz veins usually stained brown by limonite. In the fresh rock, the iron is present in the ferrous condition, and the blue-grey colour of the unaltered schist is due to the ferrous iron, but, on weathering, the iron is present in the ferric state which gives the brown iron-stained appearance. * ‘ ( b ) Under the i Microscope . “ Under the microscope the schist shows very clearly its plicated character and also its fine-grained nature. The minerals present are quartz grains and flakes of mica. Quartz grains occur as an integral part of the original sedimentary rock, but there has been much quartz in the form of veins added by the deposition of silica from the filtrating solutions. The mica flakes are difficult to determine owing to their minuteness, but they do not appear to be chlorite for the most part. Chlorite — a greenish mica — does occur through the schists, but usually in veins with quartz. The micaceous flakes have been arranged with their longest axes parallel to the schistose plane of the rocks, and they are seen wrapped around the more-or-less-angular quartz grains. Through the rock there is much graphitic material arranged in layers, parallel also to the plication. Some of the zones appear to contain more than others. Most of the quartz veins appear to have been the result of a metasomatic replacement of the micaceous minerals by quartz, and occasionally calcite. The graphitic material is often not replaced, and lines of it passing through the quartz grains occur just as it does in the unreplaced schistose material. There are other veins, however, made up of quartz and calcite, which appear to have filled up cracks in the rock. These cut across the schistose planes, as a rule. “Pyrites is very common, and is usually present as small granules through the quartz veins. e 1 Prom the nature of the rock, as observed in the hand speci- men and under the microscope, one would expect it to weather into quartz grains, chlorite scales, and kaolin.’7 A chemical analysis is given by Prof. Richards and is quoted here (a), together with the average shale (b) and the average phyllite (c), both after Daly [8]. The analysis (a) was made by Mr. G-. R. Patten, of the Department of Agriculture and Stock. The sample was taken from an excavation at the corner of Edward and Adelaide streets, Brisbane. A SURVEY OF THE BRISBANE SCHISTS. 81 — A. B. C. Si02 61-62 58-38 57-1 ai2o3 21-20 15-47 20-6 Fe203 1-51 4-03 5-5 FeO 1-93 2-46 4-6 MgO 1-77 2-45 1-9 CaO 1-59 3-12 0-6 Na20 3-39 1 31 1-6 K,0 3-07 3-25 3-7 h2o h2o 3-29 0-03 \ / 5-02 3-2 co2 n.d. 2-64 TiOa 0-82 0-65 i-o p2o5 0-17 0-17 MnO 007 Tr. 0-1 Total 100-56 100-41 100-0 It will be noticed that in chemical composition the Brisbane rock lies closer to the average phyllite than to the average shale. The chief points of difference between it and both shale and phyllite are the small quantities of iron oxides and relative abundance of soda. This last point is worthy of special notice, for it is in the proportions of soda that igneous rocks differ essentially from those of sedimentary origin, the soda being dissolved more readily than the potash. The abundance of alumina and excess of magnesia over lime, however, as was pointed out by Prof. Richards, clearly indicate the sedimentary character of the rock. In the classification of U. Grubenmann [9] for the metamorphic rocks, the Brisbane phyllite lies within the “alkali felspar gneiss” group. This classification, however, has very little meaning as applied to the Brisbane phyllites, on account of the slight degree of metamorphism to which the series has been subjected. Such a rock as has been described is the least crystalline of the Bunya series. As one proceeds from the metropolis westward a change in the character of the rocks is to be observed. The rocks are fairly uniform as far as the road-bridge over the Ipswich railway between Roma Street and Milton stations. Here the Schists become- intensely foliated and contorted. The bedding planes and cleavage planes can only be traced by the quartz veins which are inclined to stand out somewhat, and which here and there make fantastic patterns on the face of the rock. Evidently, this is a zone of severe crushing, for less disturbed rocks occur to both east and west. Rocks of a similar character are to be observed in South Brisbane and West End. Mica schists are visible at Taringa, where the dip is noticeably less, becoming increasingly shallower until at Indooroopilly the rocks are horizontal and are penetrated by numerous dykes, both rhyolitic and porphyritic in character, and believed by W. H. Bryan [10] to be genetically related to the Enoggera granitic intrusion. The Schists have been rendered highly foliated, and their mineralogical composition and texture have been affected in places to a profound degree by the granite and associated dykes. 82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. The area affected by the Enoggera intrusion is very large compared 'with the extent of the granite. This is partly due to the network of minor intrusives that penetrate the surrounding schists, but even where dykes do not appear at the surface, metamorphism is often intense. The area to the north-west of Brisbane is much affected by intrusions of a granitic nature. North-west of the Enoggera intrusion we have the Camp Mountain granite, and continuing along the same line the Mt. Samson granite and then the Dayboro’ intrusion. The Woodford granite lies on the same line. These granites lie near a great anticlinal axis, as is frequently the case with anticlinal structures of great magnitude. The quartz-mica schists are wholly crystalline, and are developed in the neighbourhood of granitic intrusions. In the hand specimen the rock is usually white in colour, but is sometimes stained reddish or brownish by iron oxide. The constituent minerals are quartz, biotite, and muscovite. The minerals are segregated into layers, often producing a coarsely gneissic appearance. The rock is completely crystalline. The cleavage as a rule takes place along roughly plane surfaces parallel to the foliation, but sometimes the rock has been bent into many small puckers and the cleavage becomes irregular. Under the microscope the quartz is minutely granular, the grain size rarely exceeding -1 mm. in diameter. Brown biotite occurs in narrow flakes with their long axes parallel to the foliation. They are segregated into narrow bands through the quartz. Muscovite occurs in the bands of biotite. Limonite is plentiful in weathered specimens. Other minerals than these have not been noted. The phyllites are monotonously uniform over wide areas between Brisbane and Dayboro’. A traverse from Cedar Creek to Cash’s Crossing on the South Pine River was entirely over such rocks. The distance between these two places, measured in a straight line, is approximately seven miles. The direction makes an angle of about 45 deg. with the strike. The angle of dip is at first quite small, but to the east it increases after about two miles have been traversed and at the end of the traverse is about 60 deg. We may assume that the average dip is 45 deg. Thus, if there is no duplication of the strata by strike faulting, the thickness is approximately 18,500 feet. Beyond Cash’s Crossing the Schist is covered by Tertiary strata, so that this estimate is quite a conservative one. There is no doubt that the metamorphism of much of the quartz- mica schists is due chiefly to the great granitic intrusions which pierce the Schists at intervals along the north-north-west and south-south-east axis already referred to. Regional metamorphism, however, has also played its part, and there is no doubt that the mica phyllites remote from the granites result from this type of alteration. Summary of Section VI. The mica phyllites are typically developed between the North Pine River and Brisbane. They also occur to the east of Kingston and on A SURVEY OF THE BRISBANE SCHISTS. 83 Russell and Lamb Islands, They are altered by intruded granites to quartz-mica schists, cyanite-rutile granulites, chiastolite schists, &c. Estimated thickness, 18,500 feet. VII. — Relation of the Greenstone and Mica Piiyllites. A section that gives a clue to the relation between the greenstones and the altered sedimentary series is that mentioned earlier from Kilcoy. Here greenstones are with interbedded ( ? ) mica phyllites striking east and west and dipping to the north. Mr. C. H. Massey has informed the writer that towards the junction of the schists with the Mesozoic sedi- ments west of Kilcoy the strike of the former is north-east and south-west, with a dip to the north-west, the rocks here being mica phyllites. Thus it is evident that the greenstone underlies the mica phyllite. This relation is borne out by other sections, for, although no actual junction can elsewhere be found, the dips always suggest that the phyllites overlie the greenstone. For example, at Dayboro’ the mica schist lies to the west of the greenstone and both have a westerly dip, and similarly at Kobble. On the east we have mica phyllites and slates apparently inter- bedded with the greenstone, but the disturbances here have been such as to conceal the true relationships. There is a junction of the greenstones and the mica phyllites extending from Petrie across the strike to Kobble which follows approximately the course of the North Pine. No green- stone has been found south of this line. There can be little doubt that the' junction is a faulted one, the southerly beds having been dropped down with respect to those on the north side of the junction. It seems clear that the oldest members of the Brisbane Schists exposed are the greenstones, and that these are overlaid by mica schists of sedimentary origin which pass upward into phyllites, slates, quartzites, and shales. Further it appears that this sequence is a conformable one, no basal conglomerates or unconformities appearing at any point in the series. These conclusions have been strengthened by the finding by Mr. C. H. Massey of greenstone very similar to the Petrie greenstone on the east coast of Stradbroke Island adjacent to Russell Island, where it undoubtedly underlies the mica phyllites, VIII.- — The Neranleigh Series. This series, described by Rands [11] in 1889, includes the felspathic sandstones, shales, “conglomerates,” and grits that have their typical development at Mudgeeraba. The Neranleigh beds have been noted at Currumbin, West Burleigh, Mudgeeraba, and in many places between there and Bethania Junction. Greywacke forms high precipitous hills at Tambourine Mountain, and occupies much of the east side of the mountain. It is found just north of Alberton, and from here north to the junction with the Mesozoic rocks. Greywackes and shales occur between Carina and Greenslopes. At Kenmore, some three miles west of Indooroopilly, there occur somewhat sheared greywackes with green calcareous slates. It is inferred from the great abundance and size of 84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. the boulders of greywacke found in Leacey’s Creek, near Dayboro’, that this rock outcrops in the hilly country at the head of the stream, a few miles west of its junction with the North Pine River. Certain information obtained from Mr. C. C. Morton, of the Queens- land Geological Survey, led the writer to visit Mudgeeraba, whence a traverse was made to Neranwood, a small settlement some eight miles distant in a south-westerly direction. The traverse was made by way of the tramway, and the return journey by the road, very good sections being seen on both routes. To the north of the Mudgeeraba railway station there are excellent sections exposed in the cuttings. North of the station a massive series of grits outcrops. Included in the grit are patches — generally elongate and cut off at one end abruptly — of very fine shale. Scattered sparsely throughout the grit are rounded boulders and angular pebbles of two kinds: — (a) a quartz-felspar rock, and (b) quartzite, sometimes banded. Some of the boulders are approximately spherical, but the majority are somewhat irregularly shaped. One boulder seen by Mr. Morton was 2 ft. long by about 1 ft. by 18 in. The author has seen several boulders near Nerang up to 3 ft. in length. (See Plate VII., fig. 3.) The quartz-felspar rock has phenocrysts of quartz and felspar set in a groundmass of the same minerals. Occasional chlorite stains indicate the former presence of very subordinate ferro- magnesian minerals. Under the microscope the rock is seen to consist of phenocrysts of ( 1 ) quartz, clear and free from cracks and inclusions ; (2) plagioclase somewhat kaolinised ; (3) orthoelase ; and (4) microcline, both rather clouded. The fine-grained groundmass is composed of these four minerals. There is a notable absence of ferro-magnesian consti- tuents. Most of the boulders are of this type. As far as is at present known there is no such rock outcropping in southern Queensland, so that this occurrence is of great interest, being the sole relic of a once important rock mass, now completely eroded or covered by sediments. Qiuartzite boulders are rare. They consist of black or reddish quartzite that split readily along a series of parallel planes (foliation planes) . As one proceeds along the tramway line, fine-grained compact shales are met with. Prolonged search revealed no trace of any organism. Thin bedded quartzites stained with manganese are exposed in a quarry situated at the first turn in the tramway. The beds are contorted in a peculiar manner and exhibit miniature anticlines, synclines, overfolds, and faults. Massive greywacke, boulder beds, and manganiferous quartzites occupy the rest of the section. Dips, where they can be observed, are all in an easterly direction. At Neranwood there are massive quartzites, often breeciated in appearance and containing innumerable veins of turquoise which, although generally pale-green, occasionally takes on the beautiful blue colour that has made turquoise a valued gem. The quartzite is overlaid by manganese-bearing clays which strike north-west and south-east and A SURVEY OF THE BRISBANE SCHISTS. 85 dip at an angle of 45 deg. to the north-east. After half a mile these pass upward into a reddish cherty mudstone that contains myriads of casts of radiolaria. The radiolarian rocks grade upward into dark-grey shales which appear to be unfossiliferous. The radiolarian and associated rocks are cut off on the east by a fault striking north and south. The absence of these beds only a few miles to the north and their faulted nature suggest that they represent a faulted outlier. Between Mudgeeraba and West Burleigh there occur grits, “con- glomerates,” greywacke, and banded shales, striking approximately N.N.W. and S.S.E. and dipping to the west. Evidently there occurs a syncline here with its axis passing through Mudgeeraba. At West Burleigh, greywackes overlie silicious shales, sandstones, mudstones, and quartzites. The quartzites have more or less felspar, and form hard, weather- resisting cliffs at North Burleigh and Currumbin. At Tugun micaceous shales occur, bearing indistinct1 plant Remains. The mudstones of Burleigh Heads and Tweed Heads also contain indeterminable plant remains. These fossils have always been regarded as fragments of marine algae,, but no special study has been made of them, and in any case they are probably too fragmentary for classification. They consist of elongate carbonaceous markings usually exhibiting no structure. Occasionally there is to be seen a median depression that may represent a mid-vein. Similar rocks occur to the south-east of Murwillumbah in New South Wales. They have been traced as far south as Cape Byron, where the dip is in a westerly direction. Here manganese dioxide occurs in lentioles and veins in clay slates and thin-bedded quartzites. At the north end of Tambourine Mountain the lower basalt rests partly on Mesozoic sandstone and partly on the greywacke, both of which series it has intruded, for dykes of a basaltic nature are seen cutting them in several places. On crossing the boundary between the basalt and the greywacke, Cedar Creek drops down several hundred feet over a series of falls and rapids. It has cut a deep gorge with one wall over 200 ft. high, exposing a vertical cliff of massive greywacke. The greywacke here shows no traces of bedding, is remarkably homogeneous, and is traversed by an unusually uniform system of joints, in some of which quartz has been deposited, forming thin veins which persist some- times for considerable distances in perfectly straight lines. Many angular blocks of the rock, bounded by plane surfaces and approximately rectangular, have fallen into the creek bed from' the cliffs. The junction between the greywacke and Mesozoic sandstones is obscured by soil and undergrowth, but in the bed of a small gully about 1 mile west of Cedar Creek Falls there is a beautiful breccia, consisting for the most part of large angular fragments of greywacke and slate. This may be a fault breccia. If so, it would give an indication of the nature of the junction between the two series. If one proceeds down the stream one 86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. or two basaltic dykes are seen penetrating the greywacke. Lower down, the rock becomes finer in grain, changing to quartzite and haying small bands of shale interbedded with it. From these bands the attitude of the strata was determined. The strike is meridional to a few degrees west of north, and the dip vertical. The creek winds for some miles between steep banks of such rocks. An attempt to follow the creek to the Albert Fiver had to be abandoned on account of the thick under- growth covering its banks. The greywacke is continuous from here in a south-easterly direction to the New South Wales border. Professor H. C. Richards has mentioned the occurrence of fragments of greywacke (microslide in the University of Queensland collection) included in the basalt at Mount Barney. Thus the Neranleigh beds are probably much more wide-spread than would appear from their limited outcrop along the coastal strip. An interesting section occurs between Loganholme and Stradbrcke Island. Thin-bedded quartzites associated with a deep reddish fertile soil are the most westerly beds ; they are more or less vertical and strike N.N.W. Half a mile to the east, greywackes and interbedded shales outcrop, dipping to the west at an angle of about 30 deg. and striking N.N.W. and S.S.E. Further west the shales exhibit traces of schistosity, the dip still being to the west. Towards Native Dog Creek the soil assumes a deep-chocolate colour. It appears to be rich and supports many crops. Quartzite was found outcropping in a cutting through this soil. A similar occurrence was noted at Mount Cotton, where the quartzite is manganiferous. Underlying the quartzite there are beds of clay slate. On Macleay Island, Russell Island, Lamb Island, and Karragarra Island Mr. C. H. Massey has found “clay schists” and mica phyllites striking N.N.W. and S.S.E., and dipping at varying angles to the west. The most westerly outcrop, namely, that occurring on Stradbroke Island, consists of greenstone similar to the greenstones of Petrie. The outcrops of greenstone occur at sea-level and are of very limited extent. It is probable that such rocks form the basement of Stradbroke Island, the surface being occupied by recent sands, &c. The section is of great value, for it shows very well the relationships of the greywackes, rnica-phyllites, and greenstones. South-east of Brisbane, on the Camp Hill tramway, about 1 mile from the terminus, the dip changes from westerly to easterly, the strike being dislocated. Here again are abundant shales which, like all other occurrences examined, appear to be unfossiliferous. Proceeding west from Coorparoo the same general succession is met with as on the eastern side. At Buranda the somewhat sheared greywackes disappear under Mesozoic sediments, but a little to the south (at Greenslopes and Ekibin) quartzites are to be seen. The area immediately to the south of Brisbane appears to have undergone much A SURVEY OF THE BRISBANE SCHISTS. disturbance, for one cannot follow an outcrop for any great distance without meeting an entirely different type of rock from that which one has been traversing. Greywacke occurs associated with phosphatic quartzites in the neighbourhood of a hill called locally Mount Scrubbytop, some 5 miles south-west of Dayboro’. The rock is somewhat sheared. Further north more massive greywacke evidently occurs. Large boulders of it are to be seen in the North Pine River and Leacy’s Creek, near the confluence of these streams. The course of the greywacke further north has not been followed, mainly on account of the hilly and inaccessible nature of the country. There is evidence that it has suffered considerable disturbance, because along the line of strike near Kilcoy we have rocks of a very dissimilar nature. Greywacke has been encountered in the C off’s Harbour schists not far from the type locality. The rock is associated with red soil, and outcrops are numerous. Under the microscope the constituent grains of quartz and felspar (plagioclase, orthoclase, and some microcline) are seen to be rounded to subangular with a fine-grained silicious ground- mass. Hornblende and biotite are also present ( see Plate VI., fig. 5). The rock is not dissimilar to the Queensland greywackes, and may subsequently prove to be part of the same series. Petrography. — The greywacke* (or arkose), described by Rands [12] as argillacious schist, is variable in its field occurrence and in its textural characters. It may be thin-bedded as at Bethania Junction, where it is frequently interbedded with poorly cleaved slates, and itself contains minute patches of contemporaneous slate ; or it may form very massive outcrops, as at Tambourine Mountain, where there is no apparent trace of bedding, and where it forms solid walls hundreds of feet high. At West Burleigh the greywacke is fawn-coloured and very much like an acidic tuff in the hand specimen. Under the microscope the rock is seen to be made up of angular or subangular grains of quartz and felspar with very little fine material. The quartz is rather clouded with minute dust-like inclusions. The felspar is of three kinds — (a) plagioclase, rather decomposed; (b) microcline with the characteristic twinning; (c) orthoclase, remarkably well cleaved and fairly fresh. Much of the greywacke at Tambourine is rather silicious and fine-grained. A thin section of a sample taken from Eagle Heights shows the rock to be composed of excessively angular fragments of quartz with a subordinate quantity of felspar, which is also very angular. The average grain-size is about 0-2 millimetre in diameter. The felspar * The term “greywacke’ ’ is used in the sense of Harker (“Petrology for Students”) and not in its modern American significance as a basic equivalent of an arkose. 88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. is mostly plagioclase. Fresh orthoclase, green hornblende, and a few small grains of magnetite are also present. The cement is silieious (See Plate VI., fig. 4.) A thin section of greywacke from Pine Mountain, one and a-half miles south-west of Belmont, shows large rounded or subangular grains of quartz and felspar (mostly microcline) and small angular grains of the same minerals. Much decomposed felspar (plagioclase?) is present. There is a subordinate groundmass which is composed largely of silica. A few angular fragments of chert and quartzite are included in the section. Much of the microcline has inclusions of haematite and magnetite. Muscovite occurs very sparingly. Greywacke from Bethania Junction containing small lenticular patches of contemporaneous slate is seen under the microscope to be composed of large subangular grains of quartz, microcline, plagioclase, and orthoclase. The sample being somewhat weathered, some of the felspar is rather decomposed. The lenticles of slate are nearly opaque. They sometimes include small fragments of quartzite. A fresh sample of massive greywacke taken from a small creek about half a mile south-east of Bethania Junction is seen, under the microscope, to be composed of angular or subangular fragments of dust-clouded quartz, exhibiting strain polarisation, microcline, plagioclase, and orthoclase. Fibrous biotite is plentiful. Magnetite is present in small grains. The groundmass is rather silieious. A chemical analysis has been made of this rock by Mr. G. R. Patten, of the Agricultural Chemical Laboratory, Brisbane, and is as follows : — — A. B. c. Si02 68-54 69-73 58-38 A1203 15-49 14-98 14-47 Fe203 0-88 1-62 4-03 FeO 3-17 1-66 2-46 MgO 1-23 1-08 2-45 CaO 2-24 2-20 3-12 Na20 3-04 3-28 1 31 k2o 3-50 3-95 3-25 h2o h20- 0-75 0-15 \ / 0-78 5-02 co2 2-64 Ti02 0-59 0-34 0-65 p205 0-16 0-27 0-17 MnO 0-08 0-11 Tr. Total . . 99-82 100-00 100-41 A. Greywacke, Bethania Junction (Analyst G. B. Patten, A.I.C.). B. Average composition of granites younger than Pre-Cambrian (Osann and Clarke). C. Composite analysis of shales (B. A. Daly). For the sake of comparison the average granite (younger than Pre-Cambrian) and average shale are given. The closeness with which A SURVEY OF THE BRISBANE SCHISTS. 89 the greywacke approximates to the average granite is indeed remarkable, when it is remembered that it is a true sedimentary deposit. The composition is that of an intermediate granite or adamellite. Very special conditions must have prevailed to permit a great rock mass to be broken down and redeposited without katamorphic agencies having any appreciable effect. In several other respects the Neranleigh series appears to have been deposited under very special conditions; for example, in the distribution of the boulders, lack of bedding, angular nature of the grits and greywackes, alternating coarse and fine bands in certain localities, banded slaty rocks interbedded with the greywackes. All these conditions, considered together, are perhaps suggestive of glacial action. The occurrence of undecomposed felspar in the grey- wacke indicates either an excessively dry or an excessively cold climate, and the angularity of the constituents and the frequent occurrence of slate and shale preclude the likelihood of the deposits being of asolian origin. In some respects the series resembles a ‘‘torrential” deposit, but its wide distribution and great thickness dispose of this mode of origin. Thus, although the larger boulders in the Neranleigh beds are well rounded, and, as far as examined, free from scratches or grooves, much of the evidence points to a glacial origin for part of the series. Summary of Section VIII. The greywackes and banded slates are developed chiefly between Brisbane and Murwillumbah (New* South Wales). In the valley of the Nerang River there occur, interbedded with the greywackes, gritty beds containing rounded boulders up to 2 ft. in diameter. For a number of reasons the Neranleigh Series is taken to be a cold-climate deposit and possibly, in part, of glacial origin. The series has been traced as far north as Dayborot Thickness unknown; not less than 15,000 ft. IX. — Relation of the Greywackes and Mic a-Ph yllites . There are many sections which show this relation very well. In the section between Loganholme and Stradbroke Island, already referred to, the direction of dip is constant. Greywackes and shales overlie manganif erous quartzose rocks and interbedded basic tuffs ( ? ) . Under the quartzites, &c., there are sandy clay slates which pass downwards into mica phyllites (on Russell Island). This sequence has been observed^ further north in an oblique traverse past Mt. Cotton. In the opposite sense the same sequence is found in a section west from Coorparoo- West from Indooroopilly we find this sequence with the beds dipping to the west again. Both north-west and south-west of Dayboro’ we find the same succession. 90 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. X. — The Phosphate Belt. The quartzose rocks usually found at the base of the Neranleigh series present a difficult and at present unsolved problem. In many places they are associated with deep red soils which have often been taken to be of basaltic origin. At Ekibin such red soil occurs associated with a green, very much decomposed rock that is certainly part of the Schist series and is possibly an altered basic tuff. The red soils at Loganholme, Mt. Cotton, and other places are taken by the writer to result from the decomposition of a rock similar to that occurring at Ekibin, notwith- standing the fact that no outcrops of it have been seen. The quartzose rocks themselves are of obscure origin. Undoubtedly much secondary silicification has taken place, but some part of them at least was originally sandstone or quartzite, as is shown by their texture. Their thickness varies enormously, and occasionally they almost disappear, as at Adelaide street, Brisbane, where they are represented by a narrow band of thin-bedded cherts. Here and there the quartzose rocks contain phosphate of alumina in the form of (a) turquoise; (5) apatite; or (c) wavellite. In the Rockhampton area similar deposits have been noted by Mr. B. Duhstan [13]. The mode of occurrence and associated rocks are similar every- where. This is the most important factor in the correlation of the Keppel Bay-Curtis Island-Gladstone “ Schists ” with the Brisbane series. The phosphates were first described by H. G. Stokes [14] in 1892. A full account of the mineralogical and chemical characters was giyen, but the question of the origin of the phosphates was not dealt with. Phosphates of alumina have been found in the following localities : — - Murwillumbah, New South Wales; Adelaide street, Brisbane; Victoria Park, Brisbane ; Wilston Hill, Brisbane ; Kedron, Brisbane ; Mt. Staypl- ton ; Neranwood; Samford ; 5 miles S.W. of Dayboro’; Kiikivan district ; Emu Park; Curtis Island; Quoin Island; Yeppoon; Keppel Bay (Wedge Island and Divided Island) . The four Brisbane localities are co -linear, the line joining them being the general strike direction. They form a belt five miles long from Adelaide street, Brisbane, to Stafford. In every case the phosphate is associated with quartz. It lines or fills cavities and cracks in cherts, quartzites or quartzose slates. At Wilston and Stafford beautiful green stellate aggregates of wavellite occur in a brecciated chert associated with quartz. In other localities wavellite is absent, or present in small traces only. On the summit of a hill known as Mt. Scrubbytop, about five miles south-west of Dayboro’, turquoise occurs in massive quartz veins associated with china clay. At Neranwood, eight miles south-west of Mudgeeraba on the South Coast railway, there is an occurrence of turquoise similar to that at Mt. Scrubbytop. The Murwillumbah deposits lie on the line of strike of the Neranwood phosphates, some twenty miles away. A SURVEY OF THE BRISBANE SCHISTS. 91 The pliosphate’-bearing rocks at Yeppoon recently seen by the writer bear a striking similarity to those at Brisbane. (See Plate IX., fig. 1.) The other phosphate localities are noted in the “Queensland Mineral Index, ’ 7 in which work analyses of the phosphates are given. Origin of the Phosphate Deposits. — In considering the origin of the phosphates one naturally turns to the nearest deposits of a similar nature whose origin is known, namely, the phosphatic beds in the Mansfield district, Victoria. Skeats and Teale [15] and A. M. Howitt [16] regard the phosphates as being organic in origin. In the associated black cherts there are numerous fragmentary remains of the tests of trilobites, which originally consisted almost wholly of calcium phosphate. The calcium phosphate was dissolved, the solution then coming into contact with aluminous material (clay, &c.), and being precipitated in the form of aluminium phosphate in a more or less hydrated condition. While there are black cherts associated with the Queensland phos- phate deposits, an exhaustive examination of them has revealed no trace of any fossil organism, unless the rather plentiful graphite and other carbonaceous material be taken as such. Furthermore, much calcium phosphate occurs at Mansfield in beds underlying the black cherts. No calcium phosphate is known to occur in association with our turquoise deposits. The black cherts at Mansfield contain the casts of radiolaria, while our cherts, even under the microscope, show no trace of these organisms. In other respects, such as the confinement of the deposits to one horizon, the narrow width of the deposits, the brecciated and crushed nature of the beds, and association with slates and cherts, the deposits are similar. On this evidence it would be rash to ascribe the same origin to our phosphates as to those at Mansfield. Wavellite and earthy phosphate of alumina occur near Lancefield (Victoria) ; hydrous aluminium phosphate occurs at Gringala in the same State, as well as in several other localities, but the origin in these cases is obscure. Phosphate of alumina occurs in association with calcium phosphate in the Cambrian limestones at Orroroo and other places in South Aus- tralia. Here, as well as in Wales, Spain, and U.S.A., the phosphates have undoubtedly been derived from organic sources. The fact that the Queensland deposits frequently occupy a single horizon precludes the likelihood of their having been derived from a plutonic source, but beyond this nothing definite can at present be said as to their origin. XI. — The Fernvale Series. The Fernvale and Pine Mountain jaspers have been described fully by Richards and Bryan [17]. Their relation to the serpentine has been established, and they have been correlated on the one hand with the Woolomin series in New South Wales, and on the other with the jaspers 92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. of the Gladstone district. This was the first record of fossils within the Brisbane Schists, and was of great importance in giving support to the correlation of the Pine Mountain and Fernvale serpentine with that of New England (New South Wales). The age assigned to the jaspers was Lower Devonian and to the serpentine Upper Devonian. The Pine Mountain jaspers were reported on by Rands [18] in 1895 and by Ball [19] in 1904. To the east of Pine Mountain, at a horizon high up in the jaspers, there occur boulders of limestone. They rarely outcrop on the surface, but have been ploughed out of fields in one or two cases. A careful search has failed to reveal any trace of fossils, and indeed the limestone is so crystalline that embedded organisms could hardly have escaped obliteration. These limestones are taken by Richards and Bryan [20] to be the equivalents of the Devonian limestones at Tamworth, Silver- wood, and Calliope. Since the publication of the paper by Richards and Bryan radio- larian jaspers have been found in several other localities. One of these is near Mt. Crosby. Another locality is about three miles east-south- east of the first, and one mile downstream from College’s Crossing on the right bank of the Brisbane River. In both cases the jaspers strike at 70 deg. west of north and dip) at a high angle to the north. They appear to overlie or to be interbedded with a greenish rock, which may represent an altered tuff with interbedded cherty material. The outcrops are massive and irregularly jointed, so that it is impossible to determine their attitude. A typical outcrop is to be seen in one of the high railway cuttings near the river bridge on the Mt. Crosby railway. The jaspers in these localities are very massive, making strike and dip determinations a matter of considerable difficulty. In the hand specimen they are identical with the Fernvale jaspers, being red in colour and showing, on a v/eathered or polished surface, myriads of dark radiolarian casts. Like the Fernvale jaspers, they often contain notable amounts of manganese, but never in anything like sufficient quantity to warrant its being exploited. The area occupied by the jasper is quite small — only a few acres in all. High bluffs of jasper overlook the river at each locality. The presence of an unusual breccia in the Ipswich series near the more westerly locality suggests that the junction there is a faulted one. If the serpentine ever was represented it has since been denuded or covered with a deposit of conglomerate of the Ipswich series. The jasper occurrences already mentioned occupy their present position by virtue of a series of movements by which the Mesozoic strata have been faulted against the jaspers as suggested by Cameron [21] . Dr. W. H. Bryan informs me that red jaspers occur forming high banks on Barambah Creek, not far from Murgon. Lithologically, they are identical with the Fernvale jaspers, and it is probable that, when examined closely, they will prove to be radiolaria-bearing. The relation A SURVEY OF THE BRISBANE SCHISTS. 93 of these jaspers to the Kilkivan serpentine is not certain. They lie considerably to the west of the serpentine which is associated with basalts (?) supposed to belong to the Schist series. The icobaltiferous nature of the Kilkivan serpentines marks them as distinct from the serpentines of Pine Mountain, Pernvale, Cawarral, and the New England (N.S.W.) belt. The intense alteration of the surrounding rocks is attributed to the serpentine, which is another important peculiarity of the Kilkivan intrusion. This occurrence may be distinct in age, as it appears to be distinct in horizon from the other serpentines in the Pernvale series. Red jaspers are reported from the Mary Valley by Mr. E. C. Tommerup. He informs me that outcrops and loose boulders and pebbles composed of jasper are to be seen in numerous localities along the Mary Valley railway. In general they contain no radiolaria, but, near Glaston- bury, jasperoid rocks in situ were found to contain casts of the organisms. Besides the jaspers, cherts, claystones, and shales seem to be abundant. The whole series seems to have been subjected to intense folding, for anticlines, synclines, and faults on a small scale are to be seen in many localities. Lithologically, the Mary Valley rocks are indistinguishable from the Pernvale series and are regarded by the writer as occupying a similar stratigraphical position to that series, but on the eastern limb of the anticline whose axis passes through Xndooroopilly. Andesitic tuff, striking east and west and overlaid by red radiolarian jaspers, occurs at Brookfield, five miles west of Indooroopilly. The latter are very highly manganiferous, being often stained and riddled with veinlets of the black hydrated oxide. The jaspers are not mentioned by Rands [22] in his report on the area. They strike N.N.W. and S.S.E. and are overlaid by a very unusual type of rock. It is a green, somewhat calcareous rock which, when split along the bedding, is seen to contain lenticular or angular white bodies up to three inches or more in length. When viewed at right angles to the bedding on a weathered surface the white bodies are very elongate and lenticular and are parallel to one another, frequently conforming to a chain-like arrangement. Under the microscope the rock is seen to consist of chlorite, calcite, and some kaolin-like substance. It is difficult to say how this rock could have originated. It may possibly have been an impure limestone together with volcanic ash, the whole having been subjected to much pressure. There is a considerable thickness of this type of rock before it grades upwards into banded, often cherty shales, which make a very striking outcrop and remind one irresistably of some of the banded rocks at Tamworth and Woolomin. The banded shales strike N.N.W. and S.S.E. and dip to the west at 45 deg. Overlying them are greywackes and silicious sandstones, which form massive outcrops striking E.N.E. and W.N.W. These grade into dark-green, often banded chert at the Brookfield school, where the strike is N.W. and S.E. and the dip south- westerly. H 94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Such a rock continues across the strike for four miles interbedded with clay slates and calcareous slates which have an average strike a little west of north-north-west. The direction of the dip changes some- where in this distance. The axis of the syncline cannot be found exactly on account of the very steep dips obtaining, but for the last half mile or so all dips are to the east. In portion 150v, parish of Moggill, there are indurated shales and cherts, some of which are well banded and contain the casts of radiolaria. The correlation of our radiolarian jaspers with those at Woolomin (of which the writer is an ardent advocate) receives full support from this section, where, as at Woolomin, banded cherts overlie manganiferous red jaspers. The section affords one an opportunity of examining the schists for some thousands of feet above the radiolarian jaspers. * , The author has found red jaspers forming high cliffs on the Brisbane River, some five miles east of Fernvale. They are striking approximately north-west and south-east, and are dipping steeply to the south-west. They are associated with cherty rocks, with which they appear to be interbedded. The country between here and Upper Brookfield is occupied by cherts, quartzites, and indurated shales. The exposures, which are numerous, generally show a rock which is very massive, greenish in colour, and cherty in character. The summits of the mountain chains are invariably occupied by very silicious quartzites, which often form high and inaccessible precipices. The strike remains almost constant at north-north- west and south-south-east, while dips are either vertical or inclined at a small angle to the vertical. It appears that the rocks in this region have been closely folded and perhaps faulted to a certain extent. Jaspers do not occur between Brookfield and the Brisbane River near Fernvale. Serpentine occurs about two miles in a direction east-south-east from Fernvale, striking north-north-west and south-south-east. The outcrop, which is only about 80 feet wide, has been followed for 500 yards, and it certainly extends further than this. A southward con- tinuation would probably join up with the Pine Mountain serpentine. The radiolarian and associated rocks at Neranwood have already been described. Undoubtedly they belong to the Fernvale series, although their exact horizon is doubtful. Whether it is with the Brookfield jaspers that they are to be correlated it is difficult to say, but in their ferruginous character they are closer to them than to the banded cherts. Certain greywackes and fissile shales occurring at Villeneuve, on the Kilcoy railway, are probably to be included in the Fernvale series. They are certainly much younger than the surrounding phyllites and schists, a-nd, moreover, they have escaped the contact effects of the Neurum granite, suggesting that they were down-faulted to their present position after the intrusion of the batholith. A SURVEY OF THE BRISBANE SCHISTS. 95 Note on the Jaspers, &c., of Broadmount and Gladstone. — In 1924,. radiolarian jaspers were discovered at Broadmount by Professor Richards and Dr. Bryan [23]. They are associated with serpentine which is striking N.W. and S.E. This jasper is a pink, banded rock containing round casts of radiolaria, and is regarded as being equivalent to the Pernvale and Pine Mountain beds. Red jaspers were described in 1904 b}r L. C. Ball [24] from the Gladstone district, apparently overlying Devonian limestones. No trace of radiolaria was seen, in spite of careful search, but we are probably dealing with the same horizon as at other localities, for on the west of the jaspers there are limestones (fossiliferous in this case). Summary of Section XI. Jaspers and interbedded andesitic tuffs occur at Fernvale, Pine- Mountain, Brookfield, and in the Mary Yalley. In all these localities the jaspers contain casts of radiolaria. Intrusive sills of serpentine occur at Pine Mountain and Pernvale. In the former locality, boulders of pure crystalline limestone occur in the jaspers. Banded cherts at Upper Brookfield, some thousands of feet above the jaspers, contain radiolaria, as do some cherty mudstones at Neranwood. Thickness not known ; not less than 10,000 feet. XII. — Earth Movements. The whole of the rocks comprising the Brisbane Schists have been subjected to intense tangential forces acting in east-north-east and west- south-west directions. As a result of these forces the beds have been, highly folded into a series of. anticlines and synclines of great magnitude. The lower beds have been rendered more or less schistose by the same forces, and granites have penetrated and now form cores in the great anticline whose axis passes through Indooroopilly and Dayboro’. The “Indooroopilly anticline” appears to be unsymmetrical. At Cedar Creek we have mica phyllites dipping steeply to the west. Half a mile to the east the beds are nearly or quite horizontal. Further east there is a slight easterly dip, which increases very gradually up to 60 deg. A similar phenomenon is to be observed in the Brisbane area, but there is a crush zone in the neighbourhood of Milton which has the effect of increasing the apparent thickness of the beds on the east of the anticlinal axis. Between Brisbane and Beenleigh this anticline is hidden beneath Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments. There is almost certainly an anticlinal axis situated between Tambourine and Coomera, but this is difficult to prove on account of the massive nature of the greywackes and quartzites occurring there. The “Indooroopilly anticline” has been traced as far north as Woodford. The field investigations of the author have not extended 96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. further north, and no help is to be had from the scanty literature on the area. It is to be expected, however, that the anticline does continue northward, for it is inconceivable that such a vast structure could suddenly die away altogether. The “Coorparoo syncline” has already been mentioned. It is a structure of considerable importance, for on its eastern limb the beds continue down as far as the greenstones. Evidence for the continuation of this structure south of Loganholme has not yet been found, chiefly because of the limited field work that has been done there. At Mudgeeraba there occurs a synclinal axis whose extent has not yet been ascertained. It lies considerably to the east of the Coorparoo syncline, but it is probably part of the same structure. A SURVEY OF THE BRISBANE SCHISTS. 97 A synclinal axis passes through Upper Brookfield. It is the first of a series of small folds met with as one proceeds from Brookfield to Fernvale. On the easterly spurs of the D ’Aguilar Range, slates and coarse- grained shales occur, dipping in an easterly direction, but on the summit of the range dips are westerly or vertical, indicating a probable anticline. Between here and Fernvale there is evidence of much close folding. The strata are vertical or severely contorted, making structural deductions very problematical. Besides the folding along north-north-west axes, there is evidence of several very important faulting movements which have post-dated the folding. These movements have in general taken place approximately at right angles to the folding. The first of them to be noticed is the Petrie-Armstrong Creek fault. The fault follows an approximately straight line between these two places. It is notable that the North Pine River follows much the same course from Dayboro’ to Petrie. The evidence for the fault is as follows : — There is a sudden change in the lithological character of the schists as one proceeds northward along the strike. Mica phyllites are abruptly replaced by greenstone. There is a lack of gradation of one type of rock to the other. Strikes vary considerably in the neighbourhood of the supposed fault. There is a general swinging round of the greenstones to a west-north-west direction — that is, parallel to the supposed fault. On proceeding in an easterly or in a westerly direction over the greenstones, quartz-mica schist or phyllites, similar to those south of the supposed fault, are met with. On the east they have an easterly dip and on the west they have a westerly dip. It follows that the south side* is the downthrow side. Numerous small faults have taken place in a direction at right angles to the strike along the course of the Brisbane River. As a result of these there are several faulted inliers of the schists within the Mesozoic series. This zone of faulting is quite extensive, and appears to have affected the Mesozoic rocks for a considerable distance to the south of their faulted junctions with the schists. It swings to the north in the neighbourhood of Fernvale and continues at least as far as Kilcoy. Another large fault' is inferred at the Logan River, where also an abrupt lithological change is to be observed, as one proceeds along the. strike. The downthrow side is on the south. It is believed that yet another east-west fault exists in the neigh- bourhood of Woodford, for the following reasons: — Between Woodford and Kilcoy there are to be observed — (1) inliers ;98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. of younger rocks, and (2) in the neighbourhood of Kilcoy, east-west .strikes. To the north of Kilcoy (at Murgon, Wondai, and Kilkiyan) f there are rocks that are quite high up in the series, while similar rocks are found at the head of the Mary Valley. Thus it seems probable that we have an approximately east and west fault passing through Kilcoy, with the downthrow side on the north. If this is so, the area between Woodford and Dayboro’ would represent a “reversed trough” or “horst.” The Neurum granite, which is younger than the Woodford instrusion, may be another effect of the same forces that produced the fault. In the Brisbane district there are several faults (probably in connection with the Brisbane River zone) the extent of which is not yet known. One fault passes through Ekibin and White’s Hill. There are almost certainly others to the south of this, and at least one to the north, passing through Coorparoo. The evidence for these faults is (a) sudden lithological changes along the line of outcrop, or (b) unusual strikes, or sometimes both of these phenomena together. To the east and north-east of the city of Brisbane there occurs a very unusual series of rocks — the Hamilton schists. W. H. Rands in 1887 (Q.Gr.S. Rep. 34) described them as “highly quartzose schists.” “They probably,” he says, “belong to the same series [as the Brisbane rocks], though they differ much in character, being more silicious and not so micaceous.” Under the microscope this rock is seen to consist of irregular grains of quartz that are clear and usually free from cracks. They show ‘ ‘ strain shadows” under crossed nicols. The groundmass consists of quartz, muscovite, zircon, tourmaline, haematite, limonite, and kaolin, and is entirely crystalline. The muscovite occurs as fine fibres in parallel bands. Zircon is plentiful. It is not so much the unusual nature of the rock that makes the Hamilton series so striking, but rather its position with respect to the rest of the schists. Although the strike is very irregular, the general direction of the dip is north-east. The passage from the slates of Wilston to these highly schistose rocks appears to be perfectly conformable, and yet it is inconceivable that but slightly cleaved slates could underlie conformably a thick series of schists, the foliation and contortion of which must be seen before its intensity can be appreciated. Furthermore, near Breakfast Creek and at Bulimba there are undisturbed greywackes and slates dipping in an easterly direction. Both of these occurrences are surrounded by quartzose schists, which (at Bulimba particularly) are very highly contorted. They outcrop at low levels, while the surrounding hills are occupied by the quartzose schists. A SURVEY OF THE BRISBANE SCHISTS. 99 The only reasonable explanation of these facts which has suggested itself to the author is an over thrust fault. Rocks of a similar type to the quartzose schists, but not so foliated and not contorted, occur at Carina, some seven miles east of Brisbane. Thus the overthrust mass would have moved from the north-east, where similar rocks might be expected to occur (this area is now occupied by Mesozoic sediments). It is noteworthy that miniature overthrust faults, recumbent folds, and reverse faults do exist in this series. The existence of a large overthrust fault is rarely easy to prove, and the author does not claim that in this case any one piece of evidence is conclusive, but he does claim that all the facts taken in conjunction strongly suggest that the series of quartzose schists under discussion has been thrust over younger and less altered sediments. The area occupied by the quartzose schists is about five square miles. They are bounded on the north, east, and west by Mesozoic rocks, and on the south by greywackes, shales, and slates. Faulted junctions of the Schists with strata of Mesozoic age have been noted at Bracalba (Kilcoy railway), Tambourine, and Albion, as well as the localities referred to above. The Schists are often well- jointed, and some slipping has been known to occur along the joint planes, resulting in slickensided surfaces. In view of the frequent association of Permo-Carboniferous and Devonian (or older) rocks, the writer believes that (at least in Queens- land) folding took place in the Carboniferous period. Dr. F. W. Whitehouse* has recently detected a strong unconformity between Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous beds at Lake’s Creek, near Rockhampton, a discovery which greatly strengthens the case for Carboniferous folding. That the great dip faults have post-dated the folding of the Schists is inferred from the fact that in the neighbourhood of the faults the strike of the Schists is profoundly affected, which would not be the case if the faulting had taken place prior to the folding. Some, at least, of the faulting in the Brisbane River zone is post- Mesozoic, for the junctions of the Schists with the Ipswich series there are faulted. The age of the Petrie- Armstrong Creek fault is uncertain. At Petrie a fault has brought the Schists up against the Tertiary beds, but it is not comparable in magnitude with the great dip fault, which is probably pre-Mesozoic in age, the Me^bzoic rocks being (apparently) unaffected by it. Benson (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1920, p. 315) and others have * I am indebted to Dr. Whitehouse for his permission to use this information in the present paper. 100 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. shown that, at the close of the Palaeozoic era, Eastern Australia was subjected to heavy epeirogeny, as a result of which Permo-Carboniferous beds have in several cases been block-faulted into older rocks. Since the large dip faults are pre-Mesozoic, it is most reasonable to assume that they are coeval with the block faults at Silverwood, Gympie, Cress- brook Creek, and other places. Summary of Section XII. All the beds have been subjected to lateral pressure, resulting in their being folded about north-north-west axes. The major structure is an asymmetric anticline whose axis passes through Indooroopilly. There is an important syncline on the east, and a series of comparatively small folds on the west of the great anticline. Along the main anticlinal axis from Brisbane to Woodford there is a series of granitic masses penetrat- ing the Schists. The strike is fairly constant and rarely departs from the normal direction by more than 15 or 20 degs., except in the neighbourhood of dip faults. Heavy faulting has taken place since the folding, the most important fractures striking approximately east and west. One of these dip faults passes through Kilcoy. Another passes through Petrie. The Brisbane River follows an east-west fault zone, while another fault zone occurs along the lower reaches of the Logan River. The oldest rocks occur between Kilcoy and Dayboro \ the Schists to both north and south having dropped with respect to this region. There appears to be a perfectly conformable passage from the lowest beds to the highest. No discon- formities have been detected. XIII. — Age of the Brisbane Schists. It must be admitted at the outset that we have no direct strati- graphieal or palaeontological criteria on -which to fix definitely the age of the series. Almost certainly more than one period is represented. The minimum thickness that we can attribute to the Schists is 75,000 feet, which is more than can reasonably be assigned to one period. The Brisbane Schists have been assigned the following ages: — Pre-Cambrian. — David [25], Wearne [26], Saint-Smith [27]. Pre-Cambrian to Carboniferous. — Jensen [28]. Ordovician. — Dunstan [29], Richards [30], David [31]. Ordovician to Devonian. — Richards and Bryan [32] . Silurian. — Rands [33]. Silurian and Devonian. — Bryan [34] [35]. Devonian. — A. C. Gregory [36], Dunstan [37]. Permo-Carboniferous. — Jack [38]. A SURVEY OF THE BRISBANE SCHISTS. 101 Mr. Dunstan’s [39] recognition of certain belts in the schists, particularly in reference to the northern equivalents, was the earliest attempt at subdividing the series and at correlating widely separated occurrences. The belts of Mr. Dunstan are : — 3. Serpentine and limestone, 2. Manganiferous schist, 1. Phosphate-bearing schist. The official view as to the age of the schists held by the Geological Survey is that they are doubtfully Ordovician. • The reason given for this age is that on a certain horizon within the schists there occurs green phosphate of alumina, and this substance is characteristic of certain horizons in the Upper Ordovician sediments of Victoria. But the age of the Mansfield phosphate -bearing cherts of Victoria has been shown by A. M. Howitt [40] to be Upper Cambrian. Phosphate of alumina has also been found in beds of Upper and Lower Ordovician ages in Victoria. Furthermore, the origin of the deposits cannot be shown to be the same in all cases. Thus an attempt to correlate our phosphatic rock with similar beds over a thousand miles away must lead to confusion. The possibility that the Brisbane Schists may represent more than one period was first suggested by Jensen [41] and later by Richards and Bryan [42]. The reader is referred to this paper by Richards and Bryan, where a very striking case is presented for the Devonian age of the Fernvale and Pine Mountain jaspers. The tentative scheme of these authors for the whole of the Brisbane Schists is as follows : — Serpentines Radiolarian jaspers Manganiferous schists Phosphatic schists Upper Devonian. Lower Devonian. ? Silurian. Ordovician. In regard to the above arrangement the writer would point out that (at least in the Brisbane area) the radiolarian jaspers are manganiferous, a further argument in favour of the correlation with the Woolomin jaspers which are themselves highly manganiferous. Additional evidence for the Lower Devonian age of the jaspers is afforded by the presence of banded slaty silicious rocks and cherts that overlie the radiolarian jaspers at Brookfield. The similarity of the banded rocks to certain of those at Tam worth and Woolomin has greatly impressed Dr. Bryan and the writer, both of whom a few months previously went over the entire section in New South Wales. Dr. Bryan [43] later disagreed with the Ordovician age of the lowest or phosphatic schists, which he now regards as Silurian as a result of approaching the problem from the point of view of earth movements. He found that intense folding had characterised the close of the 102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY' OF QUEENSLAND. Ordovician in Eastern Australia, causing violent unconformities to exist between the Ordovician and Silurian systems. In view of the conformable passage upward from the phosphatic schists to the manganiferous slates, &c., it is most unlikely that the Ordovician period is represented in the Brisbane Schists ( See also Bryan [44]). Underlying the phosphate-bearing rocks there is a great thickness of mica phyllite and greenstone, whose age must also be accounted for. To be logical we must assign to these also a post-Ordovician age, since no unconformity has been detected. The age of the disturbance which produced the folding is probably that of the serpentine, which, according to Benson [45] was intruded in the Carboniferous period. In the author ’s opinion, it is most unlikely that any folding took place in late Devonian times, for there is no record of any time break between the Carboniferous and Devonian systems anywhere in Eastern Australia. If this is so, the upper part of the Brisbane Schists may have been deposited as late as Carboniferous times. In the Gladstone area, fossiliferous Devonian limestones apparently underlie red jaspers which are devoid of radiolaria. Further north, however, at Broadmount there occur banded radiolarian jasperoids which are in all probability equivalent to the Gladstone series. The jaspers and associated manganiferous clay slates are stated to underlie the more easterly phosphatic slates and quartzites, which is an apparent inversion of the succession in the supposed equivalents in the south. The explanation given by Richards and Bryan [46] is that there occurs in the north an overfold causing jaspers and limestones situated near the synclinal axis to overlie the older phosphatic rocks. If this is correct the parallelism between the Brisbane Schists and the Gladstone-Curtis Island-Yeppoon series is indeed remarkable, and one is certainly justified in correlating them. The northern jaspers would be Lower Devonian and the phosphatic slates and quartzites probably Upper Silurian. The following table shows the close lithological similarity between the two series : — Age. Brisbane Schists. Gladstone-Curtis Island Yeppoon Series. Carboniferous (?) Serpentine Serpentine r Radiolarian cherts, claystones, Rhyolites, radiolarian cherts. &c. &c. Devonian . . ^ Limestone Fossiliferous limestone Manganiferous radiolarian Manganiferous radiolarian - jaspers jaspers r Greywackes, &c. (sometimes Manganiferous slates and clay- manganiferous ) stones Silurian (?) . . Phosphatic cherts, slates, &c. Phosphatic slates and quartz- ■< ites Mica phyllites (?) - Greenstones (?) A SURVEY OF THE BRISBANE SCHISTS. 103 Equivalents of the mica phyllites and greenstones are not known in the north. Apparently they are not represented, for on Facing Island, near Gladstone, there occurs a series of highly contorted mica schists striking at 30 deg. east of north and riddled with igneous dykes ( see Jensen [47]). Although no junction between this series and the Gladstone slates is to be seen, the differences in attitude and lithological character are so marked as to indicate that a sharp unconformity exists. If this is so, the older series is pre-Silurian; according to Bryan [48] it is probably pre-Cambrian. Summary of Section XIII. The upper part of the Brisbane Schists may be fairly closely correlated on lithological grounds with beds of Devonian age in Queens- land and in New South Wales. It is believed that the Schists do not go below the Silurian on account of the perfect conformability of all the beds in them. XIV. — Summary. The name “ Brisbane Schists” is applied to an immense series of more or less altered sediments, tuffs, and lavas, occupying a com- paratively narrow belt on the south coast of Queensland and extending into Northern New South Wales. In spite of the great variety of rock types represented in the series, there can be recognised four well-marked divisions : — 4. Serpentines, jaspers, andesitic tuffs, banded cherts, shales, claystones, and limestones, to which the name “Fernvale series” has been given. 3. Greywackes, banded slates, grits, boulder beds, quartzites, . which have been called the “Neranleigh series.” 2. Mica phyllites and quartz-mica schists with phosphatic cherts, slates, and quartzites in the upper portions of the series. This division has been named the “Bunya series.’ ’ 1. Greenstones, probably altered porphy rites and basalts. No unconformities or disconformities are known to occur in the Brisbane Schists. The beds are all folded about north-north-west and south-south-east axes. The major structural feature is an asymmetric anticline whose axis passes through Indooroopilly. Another important feature is a syncline situated on the east of the Indooroopilly anticline. Minor folding is rare except in the Fernvale series. At least three important dip faults have occurred subsequently to the folding. Small faults are by no means uncommon. In the absence of palaeontological evidence, the age of the Brisbane Schists is not definitely known. The upper part of the series may, however, be fairly closely correlated on lithological grounds with beds 104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. of Devonian age in the Rockhampton district and in the Tamworth district in New South Wales. It is believed that the schists do not go below the Silurian on account of the perfect comformability of all the beds in them. Elsewhere in Eastern Australia there is a sharp unconformity between the Ordovician and Silurian systems. In conclusion, the author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. W. H. Bryan, of the University of Queensland, for his invaluable assistance and helpful advice in this work ; to Professor H. C. Richards and Dr. F. W. Whitehouse, of the University of Queensland, for assistance and encouragement ; to Messrs. B. Dunstan and C. C. Morton, A.C.T.S.M., of the Queensland Geological Survey, for valuable information supplied ; to Mr. W. Cottrel-Dormer, who has given up much of his valuable time to the photographing of micro-slides, &c. ; to Mr. W. H. Reeve for the drafting of the section on page 78, and to Mr. T. K. Smith, of Melbourne,, for the drawing of the map showing the distribution of the Schists. A SURVEY OF THE BRISBANE SCHIST^. 105 REFERENCES TO LITERATURE. 1. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, 1926, p. 92. 2. Aust. Assocn. for Adv. Sc., 1909, p. 261. 3. Geol. Survey of QTand, Pub. 225, p. 8. 4. Geol. Survey of Q’land, Rep. 51, p. 5. 5. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, 1924, p. 131. 6. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1906, Part I., pp. 85, 108. 7. Aust. Inst. Engineers (Bris. Div.), 1922. 8. Daly: “Igneous Rocks and Their Origin, ’ ’ p. 400. 9. Grubenmann: “Die Kristallinen Schiefer. ” 10. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, 1922, p. 123. 11. Op. cit. 4. 12. Geol. Survey of Q’land, Rep. 36, p. 1. 13. Geol. Survey of QTand, Pub. 190, Part III.; 1904, p. 10. 14. Proc. Roy. Soc. of Q’land, 1892, p. 11. 15. Proc. Aust. Inst. Mining Engineers, 1918, p. 155, et seq. 16. Geol. Survey of Vic., Bull. 46, 1923, p. 8. 17. Op. cit., 5. 18. Geol. Survey of Q’land, Ann. Prog. Rep. 1895, p. 26. 19. Geol. Survey of Q’land, Pub. 194, 1904, p. 55. 20. Aust. Assocn. for Adv. Sc., 1926. 21. Geol. Survey of Q’land, Rep. 143, 1897, p. 13. 22. Geol. Survey of Q’land, Rep. 63, 1890. 23. Op. cit. 20. 24. Op. cit. 19. 25. B.A.A.S., Australia, 1914. Federal Handbook, p. 259. 26. Aust. Assocn. for Adv. Sc., 1911, p. 124. 27. Q’land Govt. Min. Jour., Vol. 24, 1923, p. 412. 28. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, 1911, p. 154. 29. Harrap’s Geography of Queensland, Appendix B. 30. Op. cit. 7. 31. Aust. Assocn. for Adv. Sc., 1913. 32. Op. cit. 5, p. 135. 33. Geol. Survey of Q’land, Rep. 34, 1887. 34. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, 1925, p. 16. 35. Op. cit. 1, pp. 92-5. 36. Parliamentary Papers and Proceedings, vol. ii., 1879. 37. Geol. Survey of Q’land, Pub. 241, 1913. 38. Geological Map of Queensland, 1892. 39. Geol. Survey of Q’land, Pub. 268 (Art. 8). 40. Op. cit. 16. 41. Op. cit. 28. 42. Op. cit. 5. 43. Op. cit. 34. 44. Op. cit. 35. 45. Aust. Assocn. for Adv. Sc. 1911, p. 104. 46. Op. cit. 20. 47. QTand Govt. Min. Journ., vol. 19, 1918, p. 10. 48. Op. cit. 1. 106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VI. (Figs. 1, 2, 4 , 5, by Mr. W. Cottre’l-Dormer.) Fig. 1. — Altered porphyrite, showing groundmass of chlorite and epidote. Stradbroke Island. Ordinary light. Magnification X 120. Fig. 2. — Altered porphyrite. Four miles west of Petrie. Ordinary light. Magnifi- cation X 28. Fig. 3. — Phyllite. Adelaide Street, Brisbane. Ordinary light. Magnification X 25. (By kind permission of Prof. II. C. Bichards.) Fig. 4. — Greywaeke. Tambourine Mountain. Ordinary light. Magnification X 30. Fig. 5. — Greywaeke. Coif’s Harbour, New South Wale's. Ordinary light. Magnifica- tion X 18.5. Fig. 6. — Ferruginous jasper with chalcedonie casts of radiolaria. This figure by Prof. H. C. Bichards and Dr. W. H. Bryan. Fernvale. Ordinary light. .Magnification X 30. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. XXXIX. Plate YI. Face page 106.] / I DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VII. Fig. 1. — Greywacke, showing massive character and jointing. Nerang. Fig. 2. — Boulders in slate. Two miles south of Nerang. Fig. 3. — Large boulder of gneiss in slate. Two miles south of Nerang. Proc. Koy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XXXIX. Plate VII. Face page 106.] Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. XXXIX. Plate VIII. 2. Pig. 1. — Vertically dipping banded slates. One mile south of Mudgeeraba. Pig. 2. — Contorted phyllites, showing vein of pegmatite. Auchenflower, Brisbane. Face -page 106.] Pro c. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XXXIX. Plate IX. Fig. 1. — Thin-bedded cherts. Yeppoon, Rockhampton district. This is the type of rock most commonly associated with the phosphatic minerals in the Brisbane Schists'. Pig. 2. — Foliated greenstone near Dayboroh Face page 106.] Proc. Roy. Soc. Q'land, Vol. XXXIX. Plate ! j Vol. XXXIX., No. 8. 107 The Rain Forest of the Eungella Range. By W. D. Francis, Assistant Government Botanist. Plates XI. to XIV. (Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, ?Ast October , 1927.) I. Introduction. II. Climate and soil. III. Vegetation of the foot hills. IV. Some conspicuous constituents of the forest. V. The occurrence together of northern and southern species of the Queensland Flora. VI. Comparison with the flora of other mountain areas. VII. Discussion. VIII. Summary. Appendix — List of plants collected on the Eungella Range. I. Introduction. The Eungella Range is situated in Queensland, about forty five miles westward of Mackay, at approximately 21° south. The vegetation consists chiefly of dense rain forest, similar in general character to the heavy rain forests of other parts of the State. Like- wise the majority of the species are allied to species of the rain forests of Papua and Malaya. As the area is situated about midway between the comparatively large extent of rain forest of Southern Queensland, with Maryborough as its northern limit, and the tropical rain forest of the Cairns district, it is of some interest from tho standpoint of the plant geography of the State. A brief botanical survey of this intermediate area, which the rain forest of the Eungella Range represents, is of service in elucidating the distribution of species in some instances regarded as limited to the southern rain forest and in other instances to the northern one. Another factor involved is that of elevation. The area of the Eungella Range examined by the writer varies from 2,300 to 3,000 ft in height. An outline of the vegetation of this area would facilitate a comparison of its botanical constituents with those of similar elevated and lowland areas in other parts of the State. It is recognised, however, that, owing to the absence of very high mountains in Queens- land, the study of plant distribution in relationship to altitude is limited. The floras of some of the more interesting elevated areas in the State, such as the Bellenden-Ker Range, Macpherson Range, and Bunya Mountains, have received attention from botanists in the past. 108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. The present paper is based upon a short visit by the writer to the Eungella Range from 3rd to 12th October, 1922. The part of the range visited was that above Netherdale, the terminus of the railway line from Mackay, whence a road leads up the range. II. Climate and Soil. The rainfall, humidity, and temperature, as well as the character of the soil, undoubtedly have influenced to a great degree the distribu- tion of rain forest in Eastern Australia. The presence of this type of vegetation on so many of the mountain ranges of Queensland is due mainly to these factors being favourable to its development. The Macpherson Range, Mount Mistake, Tambourine Mountain, and Blackall Range are examples of the coincidence of heavy rainfall, basaltic soils, and rain forest. As the equator is approached the relative importance of soil conditions is not so evident, because the increasing temperature and humidity in combination with a heavy rainfall appear to be sufficient to maintain rain-forest growth on comparatively poor soils. In reply to an inquiry, Mr. H. A. Hunt, the Commonwealth Meteorologist, states that the average annual rainfall of the Eungella Range is 65 in. The eastern part of Queensland adjoining the coast contains six regions with a rainfall approximating or exceeding 60 in. per year*. Separating each of these regions are areas in which the rainfall is markedly less. This distribution of rainfall has a very noticeable effect on the location of luxuriant rain forest in the State, as it is in the regions of the heavy rainfall that the luxuriant rain forests are found. With the exception of the limited area around and northwards from Yeppoon, the fairly extensive, heavy -rainfall belt, including Mackay, the Eungella Range, and Proserpine, is the only markedly moist region between the rain forests of Southern Queensland and of the Cairns region. The temperature of the Eungella Range would be similar to that of a region between Southport (28 deg. S.), Queensland, and Grafton (30 deg. S.), New South Wales, if calculated on the basis adopted by Sir J. D. Hooker [1]. Hooker assumed that at each 1,000 ft. of elevation the temperature corresponds to that of a position at sea level three degrees further from the equator. .The soil of the area is derived from a granitic rock. Two rock samples collected by the writer from the road cutting ascending the range were identified by Professor H. C. Richards as horneblende granite and hornfels. Mr. L. C. Ball [2] refers to the common rock of the locality as granodiorite. III. Vegetation of the Foot Hills. The country at the foot of the range consists partly of Eucalyptus forest, which is found on some of the dry ridges, and partly of rain forest, which clothes the valleys and banks of watercourses. The road * These areas are enumerated by the writer in a paper in these Proceedings, Vol. 34, p. 210, 1923. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XXXIX. Face page 109.] Plate XI. «§ * 5 rn- ^ § RAIN FOREST OF THE EUNGELLA RANGE. 109 up the range passed through rain forest mainly, and it was in this type of vegetation that the trees referred to in this paragraph were observed. One of the principal trees noticed was the native nutmeg ( Myristica insipida), which is a tropical species. The trees seen were short-stemmed and attained a height of about 70 ft. The appearance of the bark, which is brown in colour, is represented in the photograph (Fig. 1). The species does not appear to extend beyond 1,000 ft. on the range. The milky pine (Alstonia scholaris) attained a large size in the valleys and was not seen in the higher parts of the mountains. A feature of this species is its peculiar stem, which is triangular or quadrangular in cross-section towards the base. One example of the Mackay cedar (Albizzia Toona) was seen. It was a typical rain-forest tree with a very long stem. It was leafless at the time of the visit (October) and is probably a deciduous species. Timonius Rumphii forms a fairly dense undergrowth on some of the lower slopes. In the valleys there were large numbers of the Northern Bangalow palm (Archontophoznix Alexandra), which is similar in appearance to the Bangalow palm (Archontophcenix Cunninghamii ), which extends ‘much further south. The white or grey colour of the underside of the leaves readily distinguishes the northern species referred to. Along the roadside up to about 1,200 ft. Tre?na orientalis is plentiful. Unlike its congener, the peach-leaf poison bush ( T . aspera), it is a tree attaining a height of about 50 ft. and a stem diameter of about 15 in. IV. Some of the Principal Constituents of the Bain Forest of the Rangr. The writer was impressed by the large number of red cedar trees -( Cedrela Toona var. australis ) in the rain forest. Up to that time suitable access for timber haulage was not available and the area was almost in its primeval state, but the felling and removal of. some of the cedar trees had begun. One of the most common trees is the species known in Southern Queensland as black jack ( Tarrietia actinophylla) . It is very closely allied to the booyong or Queensland hickory ( T . argyrodendron) , a tree which it closely resembles in appear- ance. Like the booyong, the black jack is always buttressed and has a slightly furrowed bark. Partly detached pieces of the bark generally reveal a darker-coloured inner bark. The stems of both species above the buttresses are generally fairly cylindrical and elongated and their taper upwards is less evident than in other trees. The prevalence of the black jack in Eungella Range forests corresponds to the frequent occurrence of the booyong in South Queensland lowland rain forests. A few trees of the booyong were noticed in western portions of the Eungella Range forests. Another large rain-forest species which is very common in the area is Elceocarpus foveolatus. It is abundant at an altitude of about 3,000 ft. on the track leading to Mt. Dalrymple. It has a light-grey, fairly smooth bark and a buttressed stem. The foliage looked at from the ground beneath the trees is brown in R.s. — i 110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. appearance. Very large numbers of Bang alow palms (Archontophcenix Gunninghamii) were also found along the track to Mt. Dalrymple at about 3,000 ft. In places these palms were the predominant constituent of the forest. The Northern Bangalow palm ( Archonto - phoenix Alexandrce) appeared to be comparatively rare in the upper parts of the range. A tree with a very corrugated sapwood surface, and on that account called the washing-board tree, is fairly common. It proved to be a new species, and was named Cryptocarya corrugata by White and Francis in these Proceedings [3]. A large proportion of the undergrowth in places was composed of Drimys dipetala and Sloanea Longii. The Eungella gums, which comprise two species known as red Eungella gum and white Eungella gum, are important trees, as their timber is used by the settlers as a substitute for hardwuod. The timber is said to be fairly durable. The red Eungella gum is Eugenia 'hemilampra. The white Eungella gum also belongs to the genus Eugenia, but the species may be undescribed. In outward appearance the two species are often very similar. They are both buttressed trees with grey to brown barks. (See Figs. 3 and 4.) The common lawyer palm of the area is Calamus australis, which is very frequent throughout the rain forest, and climbs over the shrubs and trees. Many of the tree stems are more or less enveloped by Freycinetia excelsa, and large clumps of the elkhorn fern (Platycerium alcicorne) are situated on the branches and upper parts of the tree trunks. V. The Occurrence together of Northern and Southern Species of the Queensland Flora. The following are some of the tropical species which were found in the rain forest : — Cryptocarya Murrayi, Cinnamomum Tarnala, Sloanea Langii, Mallotus angustifolius , Elceocarpus ruminatus, E. foveolatus, E. sericopetalus, Xanthcphyllum Macintyrii, Baca hygroscopica, and Calamus australis. The following species, hitherto regarded as belonging to Southern Queensland or, in some cases, to Northern New South Wales also, occur on the Eungella Range : — Corduroy tamarind ( Arytera Lautere- riana), Queensland beech ( Gmelina Leichhardtii) , carribin (Sloanea Woollsii), mountain beech (Elceocarpus Kirtonii), mango bark (Protium australasicum), black jack (Tarrietia actinophylla ). So far as known previously, the northern limit of these species was Fraser Island (25° S.). The mingling of species from northern and southern parts of the State may be accounted for by the intermediate position of the Eungella Range and its altitude, which affects the climate by reducing the temperature. This effect of altitude may be a determining factor in the distribution of the species referred to above as southern species extending to the Eungella Range. The distribution of the hoop pine Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XXXIX. Plate XII, Face page 110.] Fig. 3.— Eugenia hemilampra F.v.M., red Eungella gum. Fig. 4.— Eugenia sp., white Eungella gum. Eungella Eungella Range. The serial roots of a fig tree are shown on Range. Two large trees of the species are shown in picture, the stem. Photos. : W.D.F. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XXXIX. Plate XIII, Face page 110.] Fig. 5. — El^eocarpus rxjminattjs F.v.M. Eungella Range. Fig. 6. — Cryptocarya corrtjgata White & Francis, The abundance of the Bangalow palm ( Archontophoenix Gun- washing-board tree. Eungella Range. The palm-like leaves ninghamii ) is indicated by this picture. of Calamus australis are a feature of the background. Photos. : W.D.F. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XXXIX, Plate XIV. Face page 111.] RAIN FOREST OF THE EUNGELLA RANGE. ill ( Araucaria Cunnin gh ami i ) in Eastern Australia and Papua exhibits a similar relationship to altitude. In Queensland it grows on the low- lands and ridges, whilst in Papua, as pointed out by C. E. Lane-Poole [4], this species is no longer a coastal one but appears at about 5,500 ft. and ceases at about 7,500 ft. on the mountains. VI. Comparison with the Flora of other Mountain Areas. In considering the relationship of the flora with that of other elevated areas, it is found that a number of species or their allies are common to elevated areas in widely separated parts of the State. The Magnoliaceous genus Drimys has a still wider range, extending to mountain areas of Eastern Malaya. It has already been stated that the black jack (Tarrietia actino- phylla) is one of the commonest trees on the Eungella Range. This species also occurs very frequently in the rain forest of some South Queensland mountains such as the Macpherson Range at Roberts Plateau, and near Killarney. J. H. Maiden [5] records the same species as plentiful on the Dorrigo, a mountain area of New South Wales. Another species, the mountain beech ( Elceocarpus Kirtonii), which is abundant on the mountains of South Queensland, is also found on the Eungella Range. Symplocos spicata, a large tree, which is plentiful in the rain forest of the Eungella Range, is closely allied to, if not identical with Symplocos Thwaitesii, which Miss L. S. Gibbs [6] observed on Mt. Bellenden-Ker from 3,000 to 5,000 ft. Species of the genus Drimys , although they are not confined to elevated areas in Eastern Australia, are important constituents of mountain areas throughout a wide range. The abundance of Drimys dipetala in parts of the rain forest of the Eungella Range has been remarked upon in this paper. J. H. Maiden [5] states that Drimys aromatica forms large areas of the undergrowth of the Dorrigo. On Mt. Bellenden-Ker, Miss Gibbs [6] found that Drimys oblonga forms dense scrub on the summit at 5,000 ft. In recording Drimys piperita for Mt. Kinabalu, North Borneo, O. Stapf [7] remarks that this species seems to be very characteristic of the ridge vegetation of Borneo and of Eastern Malaya. Another species, Drimys cyclopum, is recorded by C. E. Lane-Poole [4, p. 86] as undergrowth at 8,000 ft. on Mt. Obree in Papua. The preponderance of Sloanea Langii in the undergrowth of parts of the Eungella Range corresponds with the abundance of straggling and shrubby forms of Sloanea australis in the rain forest of Roberts Plateau, Macpherson Range. VII. Discussion. The occurrence on the Eungella Range of the six species of trees hitherto regarded as confined to Southern Queensland is a feature 112 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. of the plant geography of the State. These six species of trees are enumerated in Section V. of this paper. There is a possibility that further botanical surveys will show that some or all of these species extend further into the gap between the Eungella Range and Fraser Island, which is the present extreme northern limit of these species in Southern Queensland. It is very difficult or impossible to determine whether the species under discussion evolved in the south and extended northwards, or originated in the north and spread southwards. On the assumption that the Australian rain-forest flora is an invasion from Papua and Malaya, the latter hypothesis would appear the more feasible one. The distribution of these six species appears to be explainable to a great extent by climatic factors such as temperature, humidity, and rainfall. In respect to these conditions the rain forests of Southern Queensland and the Eungella Range are similar. Sir J. D. Hooker’s studies [1] of plant distribution led him to conclude that tropical species extend into cold regions that are humid and equable further than into dry and excessive ones, and, conversely, that temperate species advance much further into humid and equable tropical regions than into those that are dry and excessive. Whether it is assumed that the six species of trees extended northwards to the Eungella Range or southwards to Southern Queensland, the foregoing conclusions of Hooker indicate that climatic conditions are favourable to either assumption. The existence of a gap of over 400 miles in the known distribution of the six species of trees would appear to be explained to some extent by the fact that, with the exception of the small area around Yeppoon, the rainfall of the area in the gap is decidedly lower than that in the rain-forest areas of Southern Queens- land and the Eungella Range. The presence in the rain forest of the Eungella Range of many species of the tropical Queensland rain forest may also be accounted for by the climatic factors emphasised by Hooker. The temperature of the Eungella Range is of a temperate character, owing to its altitude, but its high relative humidity, heavy rainfall, and equable climate would facilitate the growth of tropical rain-forest species. VIII. Summary. With the exception of the limited area in the neighbourhood of Yeppoon, the heavy rainfall belt, which includes the Eungella Range, is the only markedly moist region between the rain forests of Southern Queensland and of the Cairns region, in the north. The rain-forest flora of the Eungella Range contains constituents of both the southern and northern rain forests of the State. The species constitution of the rain forest of the Eungella Range has evidently been influenced by the intermediate position of the area, its heavy rainfall and its elevation. The area contains some species which are identical with or allied to species abounding in mountain areas of Northern New South Wales, Southern and Northern Queensland, Papua, and Malaya. RAIN FOREST OF THE EUNGELLA RANGE. 113 Acknowledgments. — The writer is indebted to Mr. C. T. White (Government Botanist) for the determination of some of the specimens, to Mr. D. A. Herbert (Queensland University) for the reference to Hooker’s work on climate and altitude, and to Mr. A. H. Cole (Forest Surveyor) and his staff for their assistance in the field work. The illustrations of the paper originally appeared in the “ Queenslander,” and acknowledgment is expressed to Mr. W. J. Buzacott, editor of that journal, for the process blocks. REFERENCES. 1. Hooker, J. D,, “ Botany of Antarctic Voyage,” III., Flora Tasmanige, XVII., 1860. 2. Ball, L. C., Queensland Geol. Survey Pubn. No. 224, p. 27, 1910. 3. White, C. T. and W. D. Francis, Proc. Hoy. Soc. Queensland, 37, 165, PL IX., 1926. 4. Lane-Poole, C. E., “ The Forest Resources of the Territories of Papua and New Guinea,” Australian Commonwealth Govt. Pubn., 50, 1925. 5. Maiden, J. IT., “ Agricultural Gazette of N. S. Wales,” 5, 602, 1894. 6. Gibbs, L. S., “ Journal of Botany,” 55, 297, 1917. 7. Stapf, Q., Trans. Linnean Soc. London, 2nd Series, Botany, IV., 2, pp. 101, 128, 1894. APPENDIX, the Eungella Range. 0., immature flowering specimens; immature fruiting specimens. List of Plants Collected on FL indicates flowering specimens ; im fr., fruiting specimens ; im, fr., Cyatheaqece.— Alsophila Rebecese F.v.M. A. Leichhardtiana F.v.M. Polypodiacece.— Dryopteris truncata O. Ktze. Arthropteris tenella J. Sm. Nephrolepis cordifolia Presl. Davallia pyxidata Cav. Asplenium nidus Linn. A. adiantoides C. Christens. Blechnum cartilagineum Sw. var. tropicum Bail. Adiantum formosum R. Br. Polypodium Brownii Wikstr. P. pustulatum Forst. Cyclophorus serpens C. Christens. C. confluens C. Christens. Platycerium bifurcatum C. Christens. Marattiacece. — Marattia fraxinea Sm. Pandanaceas. — Freycinetia excelsa F.v.M. (fl.). Graminece.— Oplismenus compositus Beauv. Palmas. — Calamus australis Mart. Archontophoenix Cunninghamii Wend. & Drude. Liliacece. — Dianella cserulea Sims (fl.). Cordyline Murchisonise F.v.M. Rhipogonum album R. Br. Dioscoriacece. — Dioscorea transversa R.Br. (im. fl. & im. fr.). Orchidacece. — Dendrobium gracilicaule F.v.M. Piperaceas. — Piper Novae-Hollandiae Miq. Peperomia reflexa A. Dietr. Balanopsidacece .- — Balanops australiana F.v.M. (fr.). Ulmaceas. — Trema aspera Blume (fl.). Aphananthe philippinensis Planch. Moraceas. — Malaisia tortuosa Blanco. Ficus Cunninghamii Miq. Ficus stephanocarpa F.v.M. (?). Ficus stenocarpa F.v.M. Urticacece. — Boehmeria nivea Hook. & Arn. (im. fl.). Pipturus argenteus Wedcl. (fl.). Proteaceas. — Helicia glabriflora F.v.M. Kermadecia Bleasdalii B. & IT. 114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND. Loranlhqcece. — Loranthus dictyophlebus F.v.M. Notothixos subaureus Benth. (fl.). Amarantacece.—l^&e ringia altissima F.v.M. (im. fl.). Menispermaceoe. — Legnephora Moorei Miers. Magnoliacece. — Drirnys clipetala R.Br. (fi.). Anonaceoe. — Melodorum Leichhardtii Benth. Eupomatia laurina R.Br. Monimiacece. — Moilinedia subternata Bail, (fr.). Kibara macrophylla Benth. Palmeria scandens F.v.M. Lauracece. — Cinnamomum Tamala Th. Nees. Litsea dealbata Nees (fl.). Cryptocarya Murrayi F.v.M. Cryptocarya triplinervis R.Br. (im. fl.). Cryptocarya hypospodia F.v.M. Cryptocarya glaucescens R.Br. (?). Endiandra discolor Benth. Endiandra longipedicellata W. &. F. tSaxifragacece.- — Abrophyllum omans Hook, f. Pittosporacece. — Pittosporum venulosum F.v.M. (fl.). Hymenosporum flavum F.v.M. (fl.). Cunoniacece. — Ackama Muelleri Benth. Leguminosce. — Albizzia procera Benth. Mezoneurum Scortechinii F.v.M. Lonchocarpus Blackii Benth. Rutacece. — Pleiococca Wilcoxiana F.v.M. Zanthoxylum brachyacanthum F.v.M. Flindersia Schottiana F.v.M. Acronychia Isevis Forst. Burseracece. — Protium australasicum T. A. Sprague. Meliacece. — Cedrela Toona Roxb. var. australis C. DC. Synoum glandulosum A. Juss (fr.). Polygalacece. — Xanthophyllum Macintyrii F.v.M. (fr.). Eupkorbiacece . — Glochidion Ferdinandi Muell Arg. (fr.). C’laoxylon angustifolium Muell. Arg. (fr.). Maliotus philipp inensis Muell. Arg. Mallotus angustifolius Benth (fr.). Baloghia lucida Endl. (im. fr.). Homalanthus populifolius A. Grah. (fr.). Anacardiace oe. — Euroschinus falcatus Hook, f. Sapindaaeo s. — Guioa semiglauca Radik. Cupaniopsis serrata Radik. Sarcopteryx stipitata Radik, (fl.). Jagera pseudorhus Radik. Arytera Lautereriana Radik. Vitacece. — Vitis nitons F.v.M. Vitis oblonga Benth. Vitis hypoglauca F.v.M. Elceocarpacece. — Elseocarpus ruminatus F.v.M. Elseocarpus foveolatus F.v.M. (fr.). Elseocarpus sericopetalus F.v.M. Sloanea Woollsii F.v.M. Sloanea Langii F.v.M. StercvMacece. — Tarrietia argyrodendron var. trifoliolata. Tarrietia actinophylla Bail. Dilleniacece. — Hibbertia volubilis Andr. Elceagnacece. — Elseagnus latifolia Linn. Myrtacece. — Rhodamnia trinerva Blume (A;)- Eugenia hemilampra F.v.M. (fr.). Eugenia macoorai Bail. Araliacece. — Hedera australiana F.v.M. Panax cephalobotrys F.v.M. Cornacece. — Marlea vitiensis Benth. Myrsinacece. — Ardisia brevipedata F.v.M. . Ardisia pseudojambosa F.v.M. Embelia australiana Benth. & Hook. Ebenacece. — Diospyros australis R.Br. (im. fl.). Diospyros pentamera F.v.M. & Woolls. Maba fasciculosa F.v.M. Symplocacece. — Symplocos spicata Roxb. (im. fr.). Apocynacece. — Chilocarpus australis F.v.M. Alyxia ruscifolia R.Br. Parsonsia ventricosa F.v.M. (fr.). Parsonsia velutina R.Br. Lysonsia reticulata F.v.M. (fl.). Asclepiadacece. — Marsdenia rostrata R.Br. (fl.). Borraginacece. — Ehretia pilosula F.v.M. Tournefortia sarmentosa Lam. (fr.). Verbenaceoe. — Gmelina Leichhardtii F.v.M. Solanacece. — Solanum verbascifolium Ait. (fl.). Solanum c a rnp anu latum R.Br. Solanum viride R.Br. (fl.). Bignoniacece. — Tecoma jasminoides Lindl. (fl.). Tecoma australis R.Br. Gesnerac&oe.- — Bsea hygroscopica F.v.M. Rubiacecs. — Randia chartacea F.v.M. Psychotria loniceroides Sieb. Morinda jasminoides A. Cunn. (fi.). Coelospermum paniculatum F.v.M. Goodeniaceoe.— Scsevola enantophylla F.v.M. (fl.). Compositce. — Conyza viscidula Wall (fl-)- Vol. XXXIX., No. 9. 115 Nutritional Exchange between Lianas and Trees* By D. A. Herbert, M.Sc,, Department of Biology, University of Queensland. Plate XV. {Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland , 31st October , 1927.) Natural unions between the branches of different individual trees of the same species are somewhat rare, and those between trees of different species are of still less frequent occurrence. Such cases as those of the mistletoes, the sandalwood, and such parasites which habitually form natural unions with plants belonging to other families, must of course be excluded. Adhesion and cohesion of branches have been reported on various occasions in the eastern States of Australia ; but in a number of instances one tree has grown in the hollow trunk or branch of another, rooting in the detritus of the pipe and forming no organic union. Such cases are by no means infrequent. In 1886 the late A. Norton [1] drew the attention of members of the Royal Society of Queensland to the curious behaviour of a stump of Moreton Bay Ash {Eucalyptus tessellaris) in the Gladstone district. This remarkable stump had no leaves or branches, and had continued living for from fifteen to eighteen years. Mr. Norton described its appearance as that of a stump which had been left standing when the upper portion of the tree had been snapped off by a strong wind. Its height was 9 ft. 3 in., and its circumference 4 ft. 6 in. No investigation was made of the cause of this remarkable prolongation of life in the absence of leaves, but Dr. (then Mr.) A. J. Turner suggested an inosculation of the roots of the stump with those of neighbouring trees. Dr. Joseph Bancroft, in the same discussion, referred to a spotted gum which, its natural attachment to the ground being severed, had maintained its life by intimate coalescence with the tissues of the branches of two neighbouring trees into which it had fallen. A. D. Hardy [2] records the case of two trees of Eucalyptus rostrdta 8 ft. apart, joined by a cable root. One of these trees is considered to have been originally a sucker of the other. There is a possibility that this stump was joined to its parent tree in such a way, but from Canada comes interesting support to Dr. Turner’s suggestion. Dallimore [3] publishes some observations by C. C. Pemberton, of British Columbia, accompanied by photographs, which prove pretty conclusively that similar stumps of Douglas fir and Abies grandis have natural root grafts with other trees. Stumps which have healed over without producing leafy branches continue to live until their neighbouring tree is cut down, when they die. Cohesion of roots is often seen when a tree is uprooted. Fusion of stems and branches is, however, more easily observed, and Maiden [4] in 1904 gathered some data on natural grafts, and again drew attention to them in his “ Forest Flora of New South Wales,” in 1917, and [5] 116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. in the “Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus” [6] in 1921. In the case of a union between Eucalyptus hcemastoma and E. capiteUata, some of the red colouring matter of the former was found in the fibres of the pale timber of the latter, with which they were in juxtaposition. J. W. Audas [7] in 1911 reported the fusing of a yellow box (E. melliodora) with ,a grey box (E. hemiphloia var. microcarpa) . Hardy (l.c.) figures cohesion of the branches of E. ro si rat a, and describes a composite growth where E. obliqua and E. viminalis are fused at the base. Unions of this nature are for the most part between closely related species. Fusions between widely separated forms seem to be unknown,, except for a few cases such as that cited by Masters, where a branch of Sambucus contracted a firm adhesion with that of Sophora. The observations recorded in this paper show, however, that adhesion between unrelated plants often does take place, and that a certain amount of transference of food material from one to the other results from the process. It was noticed that in the rain forest of Tambourine there occasionally occurred small oval pieces of dead wood like large date- stones stuck to tree trunks. These were obviously no part of the tree to which they were adherent, though they were closely associated with it and could usually only be removed by pulling off a flake of bark as well. There was no union between xylem and xylem. The foreign chip was separated from the living wood by healthy and normal bark. The opinion formed was that these pieces of dead wood were the remains of lianas which had formerly been entwined round the trees and which had died, decayed, and left these oval wood}’ buttons. The well preserved state of the residuals was almost as remarkable as their very definite shape, and there must have been some very good reason for it. A section showed that the bark on the inner side of the chips was still intact and that the cortical parenchyma was fused with that of the bark of the tree. That of the chip was, of course, dead, but its structure was quite well preserved. No tongue of invading tissue penetrated the bark of the tree, but the two sets of parenchyma were in such close contact that food material could readily be transferred by osmosis from one to the other. That such a transfer can be effected is proved by some of the cases already quoted. The Tambourine Mountain material was too scanty for a general conclusion as to the transference of food from liana to host. No definite proof could be claimed from the examination of two specimens. During August, however, a fortnight was spent in the rain forest on Dunk Island, North Queensland, and a special search commenced' for further evidence on the subject. This was soon forthcoming. The woody buttons were found in great numbers, and were no rarity, and the earlier stages of their formation were found as well. These are well shown in the photograph (Plate XV., a., b., c.). A liana wrapped round a living stem dies and commences to decay. Gradually all disappears except a NUTRITIONAL EXCHANGE BETWEEN LIANAS AND TREES. 117 small section a few inches long. This section, when rubbed with the fingers, crumbles away, leaving only the characteristic oval piece of wood firmly adhering to the living bark. In nearly every case this is all that is found; it is not often that the rotten piece of liana is seen. The transition stages are shown in the photograph at a, b, and c. The size of the wooden button varies; the largest collected was 5f in. long, 2 in. wide, and f in. thick. Others ranged in size down to mere splinters. In each case examined, however, the adhesion between parenchyma and parenchyma was quite definite. It was, of course, impossible to identify the liana ; there was not enough material in the fragment of undecayed wood for a decision, though it was more than likely that in some cases it was Entada scandens, the matchbox bean. The living tree could, however, be classified, and it was found that the range of species with these curious adherent objects was very large. One monocotyledon, Archontophcenix Alexandras, a palm, was included in the list, and almost any of the woody dicotyledonous members of the rain forest and monsoon forest seemed capable of forming such attachments. The case of the palm is of special interest, constituting as it does the first record of a graft between the stem of a monocotyledon and that of a dicotyledon. (Parasitic attachments such as those of Cassytha with monocotyledons are not counted). There was, of course, no vascular continuity, but the adhesion of the parenchyma of the two and the transference of material is undoubted. The structure of the buttons is rather peculiar. Many of them closely resemble a date stone in shape, though differing in size and colour. The groove is on the side remote from the tree and represents the pith of the liana. In none of the ^ specimens discovered did the button represent more than half of the cross section of the lianoid stem ; in nearly all cases it was less. Its long axis always corresponded with the axis of the stem of which it was residual. Some of the buttons, especially those in which the rest of the wood had only recently decayed, were partly encrusted with the black wefted hyphae of a septate fungus, which was possibly one of the Polyporaceae, though no fructifications were found. In all cases this fungus was found creeping over the under-side of the button and spreading on to the bark of the living tree. At first sight this looked like an appressorium, but in section it was found that the button was not much penetrated except on its outer layers where the other wood had decayed away. The cementing hyphae were not the agents holding it to the bark of the tree. The conclusion that must be arrived at is that the fusion of the parenchyma of tree and liana, rendered possible by their mutual pressure, had resulted in the transfer of material by osmosis. In the aureole of transfusion the changed chemical constitution of the lianoid stem wras sufficient to preserve the wood and bark from the attacks of the dry-rot fungus for some considerable time after the rest of the vine had decayed. It would naturally be expected that the osmotic diffusion would be more favoured in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the stem than in that of the 118 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND. transverse, and that therefore the button would tend to be oval in outline. The exchange can hardly he great, but is sufficient to cause a difference in a few cubic centimetres' of liana tissue nearest the point of adhesion. In such a case of nutritional exchange, the tree stem should show similar change, and the young stem of a liana was found with a large piece of wood adhered to it (Plate XV., d) ; the case being similar to that of the residual pieces of liana on trees. Only one specimen was found, but it indicates that there is a flow from liana to tree as well as from tree to liana. Summary. Small bean-shaped pieces of dead wood found adhering to the trunks of rain-forest trees in North and South Queensland were found to be the remains of lianas which had died and rotted away. It was found that the cortex of the liana had fused with that of the tree, and that the wood and bark of the former had been preserved adjacent to the junction, whereas the rest had succumbed to the attack of a dry-rot fungus. It is concluded that the relative immunity of the woody button from attack was due to the presence of substances obtained by diffusion from the tree. The reverse was where a fragment of a dead tree trunk had been preserved near a junction with a living liana. A case of a graft between the stem of a. dicotyledonous vine and that of a mono- cotyledon ( Arclionto phoenix Alexandras) was also found; as in the other cases there was no vascular connection, but such an occurrence seems to be the first on record. LITERATURE. 1. Norton, A.— Proc. Eoy. Soe. Q., III., 39, 1886. 2. Hardy, A. D. — Teratological Notes, Part 2; Proc. Eoy. Soe. Viet., XXIX. (N.S.), Part 2, 165-172, 1917. 3. Dallimore, W. — Natural Grafting of Branches and Eoots, Kew Bulletin, 303-306, 1917. 4. Maiden, J. H. — Some Natural Grafts Between Indigenous Trees, Journ. Eoy. Soe. N.S.W., XXXVIII., 36-40, 1904. 5. Maiden, J. H. — On Some Natural Grafts between Indigenous Trees, Forest Flora of N.S.W., VI., 79-82 and 287, 1917. 6. Maiden, J. H.— -Natural Grafts, Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus, V., Part 9, 279-281, 1921. 7. Audas, J. W.— Victorian Naturalist, XXVII., 207, 1907. Pkoc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XXXIX Plate XV. Natural Grafts between Lianas and Trees. PLATE XV. (a) Eotten piece of liana attached to a living stem. (b) A section of liana which has rotted away, leaving two of the bean-like pieces of wood attached to a living stem. (c) A characteristic woody residual; the black substance is fungal mycelium. (d) A thin stem of a liana with the remains of a small tree trunk fused to it. The rest of the tree has decayed, leaving a relatively round piece of wood in contact with the liana. All half natural size. Face page 118.] Vol. XXXIX., No. 10. 119 Revisional Notes on Robber Flies of the Genus Stenopogon (Diptera; Asilidae). By G. H. Hardy, Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic Biology, Queensland University, Brisbane. { Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 28 tli November, 1927.) The Australian species of the genus Stenopogon are remarkably alike in shape, colour, and general structure ; therefore there are few characters available for the ready determination of various described forms, most of which have had their names placed as synonyms of S. elongatus Macquart. The genus was first revised by Ricardo, who recognised only two species, elongatus Tvlaequart and nicoteles Walker, whereas White sub- sequently permitted three, the third being the same as that upon which elongatus was first established. Macquart ’s description reads to the effect that the two first pair of femora are red, the anterior ones black basally, whilst the posterior femora are black with red below at the apex. White’s description is identical except that he does not refer to the red spot that occurs on the female at the apex of the posterior femora, usually confined to the underside. Both Macquart and White omit the very small black area at the base of the intermediate femora, and indeed White states that this segment is entirely red. Macquart added two varieties under elongatus, both from Tasmania, one having entirely black femora and is undoubtedly that described later by Bigot as f rat emus, the second being lanatus Walker in which all the femora are marked black and red, the intermediate ones being almost entirely red as in the typical elongatus. The latter one, lanatus, is undoubtedly the form that White mistook for the typical elongatus, for he added a description of f rat emus as a variety and made the original elongatus his flavipennis. Dasypogon digentia, and D. agave Walker, are distinct species, as also probably is D. thalpius Walker, all from Western Australia. The last mentioned is very close to flavipmnis White, and is only known to me from the female, in consequence of which I have not been able to fully establish its specific identity, whilst those specimens from Queens- land that agree with the description of the two first-mentioned may possibly not belong there but it is considered expedient to retain them as here placed until the males are known from the type locality. 120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Three undescribed species are known, only one of which is included below. The other two are represented by old specimens and are notable on account of the genital characters of the male. One has what appears to be a very short dorsal plate, but closer inspection shows a thin pro- longation almost hidden amongst the other parts; the other has an extraordinarily large dorsal plate that extends as far as does the pro- longation on that of mcoteles and fraternus. The purpose of the present paper is to record the above disentangle- ment of the identities of early described species. The genital characters, upon which much of this study depends, have not been advanced sufficiently to warrant a fuller account, and some years must pass before the necessary material can be collected for the purpose of finishing these studies. In the meanwhile, specimens are being named in collections in conformity with the plan here adopted, those in various, collections in Queensland and in that of the South Australian Museum having already been suitably labelled. By aid of the following key most of the species will be readily recognised on the characters of the male, but reference to leg characters will usually enable the females to be recognised even if the male is unknown. 1. Moustache almost entirely black; there are some silvery white hairs easily detectable below. All femora black. Male genitalia with a down- wardly curved prolongation of the dorsal plate . . . . nicoteles Walker. Moustache conspicuously yellow, usually entirely so . . . . . . 2. 2. Dorsal plate with a downwardly curved prolongation. All femora black. Face often with black hairs just at the base of the antennae. Last two segments on the female abdomen sometimes reddish . .fraternum Bigot. Dorsal plate simple; without prolongation . . . . . . . . . . 3. 3. Dorsal plate emarginate at the apex. Face with black hair above and on each side of the otherwise yellow moustache. All femora with the apical half red, basal half black . . . . . . . . emarginatus n.sp. Dorsal plate rounded at the apex. Face always with hair entirely yellow, at most a few black ones at the base of the antennas . . . . . . 4.. 4. Posterior femora, as well as the anterior and intermediate ones, apically red and basally black . . . . . . . . . . . . lanatus Walker.. Posterior femora entirely black, or rarely a little red at the extreme' apex usually confined to the lower side . . . . . . . . . . o. 5. Intermediate femora almost entirely red, black only at the extreme base; anterior femora red apically . . . . . . . . flavipennis White.. Intermediate femora mainly or entirely black . . . . . . . . 6. 6. Anterior and intermediate femora red only at the extreme apex, the red being separated by a very defined straight line . . . . digentia Walker. Anterior and intermediate' femora entirely black . . . . . . agave Walker. STENOPOGON NICOTELES Walker. Dasypogon nicoteles Walker 1849, p. 320. Stenopogon nicoteles Bicardo 1912, p. 157. Hab. — Western Australia; Perth one male, 1911-2. RE VISIONAL NOTES ON ROBBER FLIES OF THE GENUS STENOPOGON. 121 STENOPOGON FRATERNUM Bigot. Dasypogon elongatus var. (first) Macquart, suppl. 2, 1847, p. 34. Stenopogon elongatus var. "White, 1916, p. 164. Stenopogon elongatus Hardy, 1927, p. 309, fig. 3. Stenopogon fraternum, Bigot, 1878, p. 421. This is the first so-called variety of elongatus mentioned by Macquart and also White’s variety; the locality for both is Tasmania, which leaves little doubt concerning this identification. It occurs as far north as Sydney and so would appear to be that form upon which Bigot’s description was based. Bigot mentions the hair at the base of the antennae is black, which is taken to mean on the face and front, thus indicating the present species rather than agave. Judging from genital characters, this species appears to represent, on the eastern side of Australia, a type that i,s represented on the western side by S. nicoteles. Hob. — Tasmania: Hobart, Bream Creek, Wynyard, January and February 1916, 1918, and 1924. New South Wales: Sydney, October, and Blue Mountains, November 1918, 1919, and 1924. STENOPOGON EMARGINATUS n.sp. This species conforms to others of the genus in all general characters, but is at once distinguished by the male genitalia which have the dorsal plate truncate and with a very definite emargination at its apical border. Moreover the hairs on the face are black below the antennae and on the tubercle, where they surround the otherwise yellow moustache. From the base to about two-thirds of their length, all the femora are black, from thence to the apex red. Hob. — Victoria: Gisborne, 1 male, 11-3-17 (G. Lyell). STENOPOGON LANATUS Walker. Dasypogon elongatus var. (second) Macquart, suppl. 2, 1847, p. 34. Stenopogon elongatus White, 1916, p. 163, typical form only. Dasy- pogon lanatus Walker 1849, p. 318. This species is readily distinguished by the intermediate femora being mainly red, in conjunction with the half red half black posterior femora. Hab. — Tasmania: Wedge Bay (pair in copula), January 1918, Hobart, January 1914, Swansea. South Australia: Murray Bridge and Callington, November 1887 (Tepper) ; Angas Plains. Western Aus- tralia : Perth, November 1912 ; Capel River. STENOPOGON FLAVIPENNIS White. Dasypogon elongatus Macquart, suppl. 1, 1847, p. 66, PL vii., fig. 6. Stenopogon elongatus Ricardo 1912, p. 155, part only (name pre- occupied). Stenopogon flavipennis White 1917, p. 79. 122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Asilus along dius Meigen, was placed under Stenopogon by Loew 1847, hence Macquart’s name is preoccupied. The species is recognised by the posterior femora being entirely black, or almost so, in conjunction with the intermediate femora being almost entirely red. The red at the apex of the posterior femora is very inconspicuous, apparently only on the female and usually confined to a spot on the underside. Hah. — New South Wales: Blackheath and Katoomba, November 1912 and 1919. STENOPOGON THALPIUS Walker. Dasypogon thalpius Walker, 1849, p. 317. This species is very close to if not identical with S. flavipennis White. It is only known to me from the female, three specimens of which sex differ in the entire absence of the red at the apex of the posterior femora, and in the larger amount of black at the base of the intermediate pair. It is considered better to keep these names distinct rather than use Walker’s for the eastern form with the possibility of having to revert later to the name given by White. Hob. — Western Australia: Perth, November 1912, three females. STENOPOGON DIGENTIA Walker. Dasypogon digenUa AY alker, 1849, p. 316. Dasypogon flavifacies Macquart, suppl. 4, 1850, p. 64, PI. vi., fig. 6. In this species the anterior and intermediate femora are red only at the extreme apex, and the very defined line between the colours is remarkably straight. I have not seen it from AYestern Australia, but Queensland specimens conform to the described characters. Macquart ’s record from Tasmania is evidently erroneous, as only two species occur in that island. Hal). — Queensland: Brisbane, September 1921, October 1927. STENOPOGON AGAVE Walker. Dasypogon agave Walker, 1849, p. 517. The male is not known to me from AVestern Australia, which is AValker’s locality, but the female bears a certain distinctive appearance that suggests the Queensland forms possibly do not belong to it ; I have, however, not been able to find any characters to separate them other than size. South Australian specimens are of the same form, as those of Queensland. Considerable difficulty will be found in separating the females from mose of S. frdUrnum, and I have been unable to find any reliable REVISION AL NOTES ON ROBBER FLlES OF THE GENUS STENOPQGON. 123 characters whereby this may be done. The range of the species will help to a certain extent, but they overlap in the Blue Mountains at least. In fraternum there are a few black hairs on the face just below the antenna) and are rarely missing, whereas they are rarely present on agave. Also there is a marked tendency in fraternum from Tasmania to have the last two segments of the abdomen reddish, but this does not appear on those from New South Wales. Hal). — Western Australia: Hamel (without further data), two females in the Queensland Museum. Queensland: Bunya Mountains, December 1925, Brisbane, September and October 1924 and 1927. National Park, December 1921. New South Wales: Blackheath, November 1919. South Australia: Murray River, Lamaroo, and Callington, November 1887 (Tepper) ; between Karoomba and Peebing. LITERATURE REFERRED TO. Macquart, 1847-1850- — Dipteres exotiques nouveaux ou pen connus. suppl. 1; 2, and 4. Walker, 1840. — XjisI ol tlic DiplGions Insects in the British Museum. Yol. 2. Bigot, 1878. — Ann. Ent. Soc., France, viii. Ricardo, 1912. — Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) ix. White, 1916 and 1917. — Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania for the years 1916 and 1917. Hardy, 1926. — Proc. Lin. Soc., N.S. Wales, li. The Royal Society of Queensland. Report of Council for 1920. To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland. Your Council has pleasure in submitting its Report for the year 1926. Sixteen original papers were read and discussed before the Society and published during the year. One meeting of a popular character was held. On this occasion Mr. E. Ballard, B.A., delivered a lecture on “A Journey up the Markham Valley, New Guinea.” The Council wishes to acknowledge generous subsidies amounting to £205 from the Queensland Government towards the cost of printing the Proceedings of the Society. Appreciative acknowledgment is also expressed to the University of Queensland for housing the library and providing accommodation for meetings. 'The membership roll consists of seven corresponding members, six life members, 155 ordinary members, and six associates. During the year eight new members and one associate were elected. One correspond- ing member and two life members died. The deaths of the Honourable A. J. Thynne (a trustee), Mr. Chas. Hedley (corresponding member), Mr. R. H. Roe (life member), and Mr. W. Weedon (life member) are reported with regret. There were ten meetings of the Council. The attendance was as follows E. W. Biek 9, J. V. Duhig 8, W. D. Francis 9, C. D. Gillies 5, E. J. Goddard 4, R. W. Hawken 5, D. A. Herbert 7, IT. A. Longman 7, E. 0. Marks 10, IT. J. Priestley 6, II. C. Richards 5, C. T. White 9. J. V. DUHIG, President. W. D. FRANCIS, Hon. Secretary. THE KOYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. STATEMENT OP EECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE FOR TEAR ENDED 31st DECEMBER, 1926. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. .JOCDOOOOOOOCO ® r-H jCLOCOCOOOOOOCOrH ^ tH i-l i— I r-H WrHCOOOifO(McqOOOO U I « I A ® < .9 ^ m pj PM cS •+J © P P 03 2 II O © m o . © © P P | a p 3 © 03 bo bo P cS 03 1/3 © o pH PM OQ w © M3 1 £ PM . ^ £ H g bo • P pi P P t“3 • H3 fH CO • p • p pp ! o *p % ; rp p £ oo p • © • © p G> p dq p © -rH Q ^ © p « H PP § r3 X P o o o O O 00 O! Ml W M IO o o O CD s-» w I . p p o © © t»C bO p p 5 ^ PP cc 3 .s .S J £ £ p 02 co b- OJ U C3 ffi P i— I ' — I S »o © § o © Ph 43 P <1 Examined and found correct. W. BtCK, Hon. Treasurer. VI. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ANNUAL MEETING. The Annual Meeting of the Society was held in the Chemistry Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m. on Monday, 4th April, 1927. The President, Dr. J. V. Duhig, M.B., in the chair. An apology was received from His Excellency the Lieutenant- Governor, the Honourable W. Lennon. The minutes of the previous annual meeting were read and confirmed. The Annual Report and Financial Statement were adopted on the motion of Dr. Bryan, seconded by Mr. Cottrell Dormer. The following officers were elected for 1927 : — President: Professor E. J. Goddard, B.A., D.Sc. Vice-Presidents: Dr. J. V. Duhig, M.B. (ex officio), Professor T. Parnell, M.A. Hon. Secretary: Mr. D. A. Herbert, M.Sc. Hon. Treasurer: Mr. E. W. Bick. Hon. Auditor: Professor H. J. Priestley, M.A. Members of Council : Dr. W. IT. Bryan, M.C., Professor R. W. Hawken, B.A., M.E., M.Inst. C.E., Dr. E. 0. Marks, B.A., B.E., M.D., Professor H. C. Richards, D.Sc., and Mr. C. T. White, F.L.S. Professor Goddard was inducted to the position of President for 1927. Mr. J. H. Smith, M.Sc., Dr. G. C. Taylor, M.B., Ch.M., and Misses. L. Crawford, M. Fitzgerald, B.Sc., and G. Jones were proposed for ordinary membership. Mr. G. H. Barker was unanimously elected as an ordinary member. The retiring President, Dr. J. V. Duhig, delivered his address,, entitled “Nutrition.” The foods of primitive and civilised man were compared and the effects on the human system outlined. The effect of different diets upon the teeth, the influence of light on nutrition, and the vitamin content of various foodstuffs were among the subjects discussed. Ideal diets for children and adults were suggested. On the motion of Mr. H. A. Longman, seconded by Professor J. P. Lowson, a vote of thanks was accorded the retiring president for his: address. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. VII. The Royal Society of Queensland. Abstract of Proceedings, 2nd May, 1927. The ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology. Lecture Theatre at 8 p.m. on Monday, 2nd May, 1927. The President, Professor E. J. Goddard, in the chair. The following were unanimously elected as ordinary members : — J. H Smith, Esq., M.Sc. ; G. C. Taylor, Esq., M.B., Ch.M. ; Miss L. Crawford; Miss M. Fitzgerald, B.Sc. ; and Miss G. Jones. Mr. George Preston was nominated for ordinary membership. Professor H. C. Richards exhibited a number of lantern slides of tho Great Barrier Reef, illustrating its geology, fauna, and flora. Mr. H. Tryon and the President commented on the subjects. Mr. H. A. Longman exhibited — (1) the spurs of the common game- rooster used as weapons by aboriginal women ; (2) a pointing bono composed of a tibio -tarsus and fibula of an emu and used by aboriginal medicine men. (Aboriginals from mission stations visiting the museum avoid contact with these bones, even after lengthy contact with civiliza- tion! ; (3) an aboriginal calvarium (Q.E. 561) from Wynnum — this was an unusually thick and heavy dolichocephalic skull, probably in the process of becoming fossilized. Comments were made by Mr. Tryon, Dr. Marks, and the President. (The first two exhibits shown by Mr. Longman were presented to the museum by the late Mr. Thos. Ulidge.) Dr. Bryan exhibited fossil plants typical of the Ipswich series from the north bank of the Pine River almost opposite the confluence of the North Pine and South Pine Rivers. This forms a new locality record, as the area has been mapped as of Tertiary age. The chief plant present is Cladophlebis australis. Dr. F. W. Whitehouse exhibited a collection of Cambrian trilobites from most of the known Australian localities. Thirteen genera, six of them being new, were represented. Among the new locality records were the following: — (a) Species of Dinesus and (?) Notasaphus from the South Templeton River (N.W. Queensland), in a Middle Cambrian fauna ; (6) specimens of Eodiscus significans (Eth. fil.) and Agnostus elkedraensis , Eth. fil., from the South Templeton River (a new record for Queensland) (c) a species of Tsinania from Caroline Creek, Tasmania. This genus,, from the top of the Cambrian, is known otherwise onty in China and North America. The following strati graphical correlations were suggested : — Upper Cambrian : Beds of Florentine Valley, Caroline Creek, and Dolodrook ; VIII. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. High in Middle Cambrian: Beds of Alexandra Station (N.T.), Elkedra (N.T.), Templeton River, and Heathcote ; Low in Middle Cambrian : Beds of Yelvertoft (N.W. Queensland), Parara, and near Wirrialpa (South Aus- tralia) and Mount Panton (N.T.) The Secretary communicated a paper by Dr. Thos. L. Bancroft entitled Preliminary Notes on the Occurrence of Flagellates in the Juice of Certain Queensland Plants.” A flagellate was found in the latex of the Ascle- piadaceous plants Sarcostemma australe and Hoya australis, a larger species in Secomone elliptica, and a different kind again in Ficus scabra. Oncopeltus quadriguttatus, a bug which sucks the juice of the first two plants, had flagellates in its intestines. Microscopic preparations and specimens of the bug were exhibited. Comments were made by Messrs Tryon and Herbert and the President. Abstract of Proceedings, 30th May, 1927. The ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology Lecture Theatre at 8 p.m. on Monday, 30th May, 1927. The President, Professor E. J. Goddard, in the chair. Apologies were tendered on behalf of Professor H. C. Richards. Dr. W. H. Bryan, Messrs. G. H. Barker, W. D. Francis, D. A Herbert, and H. Tryon. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. Geo. Preston was unanimously elected as a member. J. R. A. McMillan, Esq., M.Sc., was nominated for ordinary membership. In the absence of the author, Mr. C. T. White communicated a paper by Mr. W. D. Francis on the “ Anatomy of the Australian Bush Nut (Macadamia ternifolia).” In addition to the structural features the author outlined the composition of parts of the nut as revealed by micro -chemical tests. A comparative description of the fruits of the other species of the genus was also given. The paper was illustrated by text-figures and photo -micrographs. A discussion took place in which Messrs. Gurney, White, Bick, and the President took part. Mr. C. T. White also communicated Dr. B. H. Danser’s “ Revision of the Queensland Species of Polygona *” This revision shows that up to the present fifteen species of Polygonum have been collected in Queensland. Four of these are recorded for the first time in Australia. On the other hand three species — P. lanigerum R. Br., P. subsessile R. Br., and P. articulatum R. Br. — recorded previously as distinct species, are now united with the others. Mr. H. A. Longman and the President commented on the paper. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. IX. Abstract of Proceedings, 27th June, 1927. The ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology Lecture Theatre at 8 p.m. on Monday, 27th June. The Vice-President, Dr. J. V. Duhig, in the chair, and fifty members and visitors present. Apologies were tendered on behalf of the President (Professor Goddard) and Mr. C. T. White. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. J. R. A. McMillan, M.Sc., was unanimously elected as an ordinary member. Dr. Duhig announced that His Excellency the Governor, Sir John Goodwin, had consented to become Patron of the Society. The evening was devoted to the celebration of the Newton Bi-centenary, and the following addresses were given : — “The Life of Newton,7’ by Mr. Heber A. Longman, P.L.S. ; “Newton as a Mathematician,” by Professor H. J. Priestley, M.A.; “Newton as a Physicist,” by Professor T. Parnell, M.A. A hearty vote of thanks to the lecturers, moved by Professor Hawken, seconded by Professor Scott Fletcher, and supported by Dr. Duhig, was carried by acclamation. Abstract of Proceedings, 28th July, 1927. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the . Geology Lecture Theatre at 8 p.m. on Monday, 28th July, 1927. The President, Professor E. J. Goddard, in the chair and thirty members present. An apology for absence was received from Dr. J. V. Duhig. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. The President referred to the death of Dr. Taylor, a trustee of the Society, and extended sympathy to his relatives. The President announced that the Society had been represented on a deputation in connection with the proposed open season for native bears, and that there was no need for further action on the matter at this meeting. Dr. F. W. Whitehouse exhibited a collection of Carboniferous corals from the Lion Creek Limestone, near Stanweli. These included Syringopora syrinx Eth. fil., 8. sp. nov., *Michelinia sp., *PalcBOsmilia retiformis (Eth. fil), Amygdalopkyllum inopinatum (Eth. fil.). X. ABSTRACT OP PROCEEDINGS. Lithostrotion columnar e (Eth. fil.), and *Petalaxis sp. nov., the species marked with an asterisk being new records. He suggested that the coral limestones interbedded in the Lower Carboniferous mudstones at many localities in Eastern Australia were all on much the same horizon, that horizon being the equivalent of D2 in the European zonal succession. Dr. W. H. Bryan read a paper by Professor H. C. Richards and himself entitled “Volcanic Mud Balls in the Brisbane Tuff.” The paper dealt with a very unusual form of volcanic ejecta in the form of spheroidal pellets of concentric structure found by the authors at Castra on the Tingalpa Creek, twelve miles east-south-east of Brisbane. The only closely similar volcanic product seems to have been formed by the eruption of Taal Volcano in the Philippine Islands in 1911. This was described by Pratt, whose explanation of the spheroids as the result of condensation of the mud balls above the volcano in much the same manner as in the formation of summer hail. Professor Richards added some comments on the paper, which was discussed by Drs. E. O. Marks and F. W. Whitehouse, Messrs. Dormer, Tommerup, Herbert, Denmead, Morwood, Professor Parnell, and the President. Professor Parnell then took the chair, and a lecture on “Bunchy Top of the Banana,” illustrated by specimens and lantern slides, was delivered by Professor Goddard. He dealt with the history of the disease in Australia from its introduction from Fiji to the present, described the symptoms, methods of investigation of the problem, and the treatment. It was pointed out that all members of the genus Musa are susceptible, including the wild bananas of North Queensland. A vote of thanks to the lecturer was moved by Mr. Longman and seconded by Professor Richards, but, owing to the lateness of the hour, no discussion of the paper took place. Abstract of Proceedings, 29th August, 1927. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology Lecture Theatre at 8 p.m. on Monday, 29th August, 1927. The President, Professor E. J. Goddard, in the chair, and about sixty members and visitors present. An apology for absence was received from Mr. McMinn. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. The President called for nominations for three trustees of the Society, and on the motion of Professor H. C. Richards, seconded by Dr. E. 0. Marks, it was decided to ask Mr. F. Bennett, Mr. J. B. Henderson, and Dr. A. Jefferis Turner to accept the positions. Messrs. A. M. Epps and L. Franzen were nominated for ordinary membership of the Society. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XI. Dr. F. W. Whitehouse exhibited (a) goniatites, probably belonging to the genus Eumorphoceras, from the Rockhampton Series at the 2-mile tunnel on the Many Peaks-Monto Railway. These appear to represent an horizon about the very base of the Upper Carboniferous) ; and (6) rolled Devonian pebbles containing Spongophyllum halysitoides from the lower limestone in the carboniferous beds near Mt. Lion (Central Queensland). Dr. W. H. Bryan exhibited specimens of a non-calcareous oolite from the north bank of the Pine River, about three miles from its mouth. Professor E. J. Goddard exhibited a live specimen of a new species of Peripatus collected on Dunk Island, North Queensland, by Mr. W. Cottrell Dormer during the University biological excursion in the latter part of August. A lecture entitled ‘ 1 Giants of the Past, ’ ’ illustrated with specimens and lantern slides, was given by Mr. Heber A. Longman, P.L.S., C.M.Z.S. The principal vertebrate fossils found in Quensland deposits were concisely dealt with, prominence being given to the large marsupial cranium from Brigalow, Darling Downs, described as Euryzygoma dunense, and to the giant Dinosaur Bhoetosaurus brownei. An outline was given of the classification of the many families of Dinosaurs, and the lecturer stated that recent intensive studies of comparative anatomy had greatly enlarged our knowledge of extinct as well as living vertebrates. A vote of thanks to the lecturer was moved by Dr. E. 0. Marks and seconded by Professor H. C. Richards. Abstract of Proceedings, 26th September, 1927. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture Theatre at 8 p.m. on Monday, 26th September, 1927. The President, Professor E. J. Goddard, in the chair, and about thirty members present. Apologies for absence were received from Professor Richards and Mr. Longman. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Messrs. A. M. Epps and L. Franzen were elected ordinary members of the Society. Dr. E. 0. Marks exhibited waterworn pebbles of igneous rock from the Mesozoic sandstone at Caloundra. Dr. Bryan and Mr. F. Bennett commented on the exhibit. A paper on “Plants collected in the Mandated Territory of New Guinea by C. E. Lane-Poole,” by Messrs. C. T. White and W. D. Francis XII. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. was communicated by Mr. C. T. White. He laid on the table Mr. Lane- Poole’s Report on the Forest Resources of the Territories of Papua and New Guinea, published by the Commonwealth Government in 1925, which contained the narrative of the expedition and field notes on the specimens collected. Four species were described as new: Sarauja emarginata (Dilleniaceae), Eurya albiflora (Ternstroemaceae) , Meamsia cordata (Myrtaceae), and Hoya Poolei (AsclepiadaceaB) ; and a number of new records were made of the distribution of known species. Mr. A. K. Denmead, B.Sc., read a paper entitled “A Survey of the Brisbane Schists.” This was an account of his investigations of the basal rocks between Tweed Heads and Rockhampton. He divided the rock formations into four series: (1) The greenstone series, largely in evidence near Petrie and Dayboro’; (2) the Bunya series, mica-phy llites, found principally in the area between Brisbane and Dayboro’; (3) the Neranleigh series of greywackes, slates, &c., between Nerang and Beenleigh, and (4) the Fernvale series of jaspers, limestones, serpentines, &c. The trend of the rocks generally, he said, was from north-north-east to south-south-east. He advanced theories as to earth foldings and faults, and suggested that, in point of age, the lower beds were Silurian, passing through the Silurian into Devonian, and possibly through the Devonian into the Carboniferous. The paper was discussed by Dr. Bryan (who also communicated Professor Richards’ comments), Drs. Whitehouse and Marks, Messrs. Tryon, Massey, and Bennett. Abstract of Proceedings, 31st October, 1927. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture Theatre at 8 p.m. on Monday, 31st October, 1927. The President, Professor E. J. Goddard, in the chair, and about twenty members present. Apologies for absence were received from Professors Parnell and Richards, Dr. Bryan, and Mr. Longman. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Dr. L. Bagster exhibited two blocks of slag showing large crystals, which were probably a silicate of calcium and iron. The specimens had been presented to the Geology Department by Mr. Boyd of Mount Morgan. Comments were made by Messrs. F. Bennett and H. Tryon. Dr. J. V. Duhig demonstrated the hemolytic action of the venom of the dorsal spines of the common Stone Fish ( Synanceja horrida ), as a preliminary to a paper to be published later on the venom of this species. He showed three tubes — (1) washed guinea-pig red cells + Synanceja venom, sedimented, showing a marked zone of haemolysis; (2) the same as the first, but shaken to show the haemoglobin in solution; (3) red cells ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XIIT. -j- saline solution showing no haemolysis. Dr. Duhig also briefly explained the neurotropic action of Synanceja venom, and demonstrated the poison sacs in situ on a dissected dorsal fin spine. The exhibit was commented on by Mr. F. Bennett and the President. Mr. E. W. Bick exhibited an egg laid by a cassowary in captivity in the Botanic Gardens. This bird, when first brought to the gardens, had been considered an exceptionally fine specimen of a male by some ornithologists. The President, in commenting on the exhibit, spoke of the relative frequency of occurrence of sex reversal in birds, and suggested the possibility in this instance. Dr. Duhig said that he had a hen at his home which had developed male characters. Mr. W. D. Francis read a paper entitled, “The Pain-forest Flora of the Eungella Range.” The rain-forest flora of the Eungella Range contains constituents of both the Southern and Northern rain-forests of the State. Its species constitution has evidently been influenced b;/ the intermediate position of the area, the heavy rainfall (65 inches), and the elevation. The area contains some species which are identical with or allied to species abounding in mountain areas of Northern New South Wales, Southern and Northern Queensland, Papua, and Malaya. The paper was commented on by Messrs. Bennett, Bick, Tryon, Simmonds, Herbert, and the President. Mr. D. A. Herbert read a paper on “Nutritional Exchange between Lianas and Trees.” Small oval pieces of wood attached to rain-forest trees were found to be fused to the trunks. It was shown that these were the remains of woody vines which had rotted, leaving only small residual pieces of wood. It was contended that this was the result of the rotting away of other parts of the vine, the fungus not attacking the woody button so readily because of the presence of substances derived from the stem with which fusion had taken place. Specimens were exhibited showing stages in the formation of the buttons, one being noteworthy in showing the fusion of a dicotyledonous vine with a palm ( Archontophcenix Alexandras) . The paper was commented on by Messrs. Tryon and Bennett. Abstract of Proceedings, 28th November, 1927. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m. on Monday, 28th November, 1927. The President, Professor E. J. Goddard, in the chair. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Dr. 0. S. Hirschfeld was nominated for ordinary membership. XIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Mr. H. A. Longman exhibited (1) a specimen of the fat-tailed pouched mouse, Sminthopsis crassicaudata, with the pouch area much enlarged and containing six well-developed pouch-embryos, which had been sent to the Queensland Museum by Mr. F. L. Berney, Barcarolle, Longreach; (2) a skull of Macropus giganteus from Torrens Creek, Northern Queensland, with a supernumerary upper incisor; (3) a frag- ment of a left maxilla of Diprotodon australis, containing the second and third molars, which had been found on Urana Run, Collinvale, Bowen district, Northern Queensland, and presented by Mr. A. Garbutt. Dr. E. 0. Marks exhibited a specimen of crystalline slag from Mount Morgan. Mr. W. D. Francis exhibited a specimen of Australian ebony (from Maba humilis) which had been forwarded by Mr. Allen from the Northern Territory. Dr. Marks, Mr. G. Parker, and the President discussed the exhibits. Mr. G. H. Hardy read a paper entitled “Revisional Notes on Robber- flies of the genus Stenopogon (Diptera; Asilidie).” PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. XV. Publications have been received from the following Institutions, Societies, etc., and are hereby gratefully acknowledged. AFRICA. Algeria — Societe de Geographie et d’Archeologie d’Oran, Oran. Union of South Africa — Durban Museum, Natal. ■South African Museum, Capetown, Cape Province. Transvaal Museum, Pretoria. Geological Society of South Africa, Johannesburg. AMERICA. Argentine — Museo de la Plata, Universidad Nacional de la Plata. Brazil — Institute Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro. Ministerio de Agricultural Indus-tri'a y Commercio, Rio de Janeiro. Canada — Department of Agriculture, Ottawa. Department of Mines, Ottawa. Royal Society of Canada, Ottawa. Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Toronto. Royal Canadian Institute, Toronto. Nova Scotia Institute of Science, Halifax, Nova Scotia. United States of America — Carnegie Institution, Washington. Library of Congress, Washington. National Academy of Sciences, Washington. National Research Council, Washington. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. United States Department of Agriculture. United States Department of Commerce (Bureau of Standards), Washington. United States Department of the Interior (United States Geological Survey), Washington. United States National Museum, Washing- ton. United States Treasury (Public Health Service). Lawde Observatory, Arizona. University of California and Scripps Institute, Berkeley, California. John Hopkins University (Institute of Bio- logical Research), Baltimore. American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston. Boston Society of Natural History, Boston. Buffalo Society of Natural Science, Buffalo. John Crerar Library, Chicago. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago. Lloyd Library, Cincinnati. Ohio Academy of Science, Columbus. Ohio State University, Columbus. Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu. Natural History Survey, State of Illinois. Indiana Academy of Science, Indianopolis. Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. Cornell .University Agricultural Experi- ment Station Arnold Arboretum, Jamacia Plain, Penn. University of Kansas, Lawrence. Wisconsin Academy of Arts, Science, and Letters, Madison. Michigan Academy of Arts, Science, and Letters, Michigan. University of Michigan, Michigan. Minnesota Geological Survey, Minneapolis. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. New York Academy of Sciences, New York. American Geographical Society, New York. American Museum of Natural History, New York. Bingham Oceanographic Collection, New York. New York Zoological Society, New York. Oberlin College, Ohio. Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. American Philosophical Society, Phila- delphia. Portland Society of Natural History. Rochester Academy of Science, Rochester. San Diego Society of Natural History, San Diego. California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco. Puget Sound Biological Station, Seattle. Missouri feotanical Garden, St. Louis. University of Illinois, Urbana. Mexico — Institute Geologieo de Mexico, Mexico. Sociedad C'ientifica, “ Antonio Alzate,” Mexico. Observatorio Meteorologico Central, Tacai- baya D.F., Mexico. Secretario de Agricultura y fomento, Mexico. XVI. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. ASIA. Ceylon — Colombo Museum, Colombo. India— Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa. Government of India — Department of Agriculture. Geological Survey. Superintendent, Government Printing. Punjab University. Indian Academy of Science. Japan— Imperial University, Kyoto. Imperial University, Tokyo. National Research Council of Japan, Toyko. Java — Koninklijke Naturkundige, Batavia. Departement van Landbouw, Buitenzorg. Philippine Islands — Bureau of Science, Manila. College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines, Manila. AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Commonwealth — Australian Commonwealth Engineering Standards Association, Melbourne. Commonwealth Department of Health, Melbourne. Commonwealth Institute of Science and Industry, Melbourne. Queensland — Department of Agriculture, Brisbane. Department of Mines, Brisbane. Queensland Geological Survey, Brisbane. Queensland Museum, Brisbane. Queensland Naturalists’ Club, Brisbane. Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Queensland), Brisbane. State Statistician, Brisbane. New South Wales— Australasian Association for the Advance ment of Science, Sydney. Department of Agriculture, N.S.W. Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Geological Survey of N.S.W., Sydney. Public Library, Sydney. Linnean Society of N.S.W., Sydney. Australian Museum, Sydney. Royal Society of New South Wales, Sydney. Naturalists’ Society of N.S.W., Sydney. University of Sydney. VlCTOEIA — Bureau of Census and Statistics, Melbourne. Royal Society of Victoria, Melbourne. Field Naturalists’ Club, Melbourne. Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. Department of Mines, Melbourne. Australasian Institute of Mining and Metal- lurgy, Melbourne. Australian Veterinary Association, Mel- bourne. Tasmania — Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart. Field Naturalists’ Club, Hobart, Tasmania. Geological Survey of Tasmania. South Australia — Royal Society of South Australia, Adelaide. Royal Geographical Society of S.A., Adel. National Museum of South Australia, Adel. Geological Survey of S. Australia, Adel. Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery, ' Adel. University of Adelaide. Western Australia — Royal Society of Western Australia, Perth. Geological Survey of Western Australia, Perth. New Zealand — Auckland Institute, Auckland. New Zealand Board of Science and Art. Dominion Laboratory, Wellington. Geological Survey of New Zealand. New Zealand Institute, Wellington. Dominion Museum, Wellington. EUROPE. League of Nations, Geneva. Austria — Natural History Museum, Vienna. Belgium— Academie Royale, Bruxelles. Societe Royale de Botanique de Belgique, Bruxelles. Societe Royale Zoologique de Belgique, Bruxelles. Czecho- Slovakia — Spolecnosti Entomologicke, Prague. Plant Physiological Laboratory, Charles University, Prague. Denmark— The University, Copenhagen. France— Societe Botanique de France, Paris. Societe Geologique et Mineralogique de Bretagne, Rennes. Societe des Sciences Naturelles de l’Onest, Nantes. Musee d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. L’Observatoire de Paris. Station Zoologique de Cette (Universite de Montpelier), Cette. Societe de Geographie de Rochefort. Observations Meteorologiques de Mont Blanc. Office Scientifique des Peches Maritimes. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. XVII. Germany — Naturwissenschaftlichen Verein, Bremen. Bibliothek der B., Akademie der Wissen- schaften, Munich. Notgemeinschaft der Deutsc,hen Wissen- schaft, Berlin. Scnckenbergischen Bibliothek, Frankfurt, A.M. Naturhistorischer Verein der preus Rhein- land und Westfalens, Bonn. Sachs Akademie der Wissenschaften, Leip- zig. Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft, Berlin. Zoologischen Staatsinstitut und Zoologi- schen Museum, Hamburg. Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde, Berlin. Ccntralblatt fur Bakteriologie, Parasiten- kunde und Infectionskrankheiten. Feddes Repertorium, Berlin. Zooloogische Museum, Berlin. Institut fur Zreltwirtschaft und Seever- kehr, University of Kiel. Great Britain— Cambridge Philosophical Society. Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Imperial Bureau of Entomology, London. Literary and Philosophic Society, Man- chester. Royal Society of London. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Royal Colonial Institute, London. Royal Society of Edinbugh. Botanic Society, Edinburgh. Royal Irish Academy. British Museum (Natural History). Royal Dublin Society. Holland — Technisthe Hoogeschool, Delft. Italy — Societa Africana d’ltalia, Naples. Instituto di Bologna. Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa. Museo Civico, Genova. Poland — University of Poland. L’amon des Societes Savantes Polonaises. Portugal — Academia Polytechnicada, Oporto. .Universidade de Coimbra : Instituto Botanico (Sociedade Broteriana), Coimbra. Spain — Real Academia de Ciencias de Madrid. Real Academia de Ciencias de Barcelona. Academia de Ciencias de Zaragoza. Museo de Historia Natural, Valencia. Sweden — Geological Institute of Upsala University, Upsala. Switzerland — Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Basle. Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zurich. Societe de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle, Geneva. x?m. LIST OF MEMBERS List of Members. Corresponding Members. J.Danes, Dr. J. Y. David, Professor, Sir T. W. E., F.R.S JDornin, Dr. K ^Maitland, A. Gibb, F.G.S. ... Rennie, Professor E. H. +Skeats, Professor E. W. ... University, Prague, Czecho-Slovakia. ... The University, Sydney, N.S.W. ... Czech University, Prague. ... Geological Survey Office, Perth, W.A. ... The University, Adelaide, S.A. .. The University, Melbourne, Yic. Ordinary Members. Etc. ^Alexander, W. B., M.A Allan, R. Marshall, M.D., F.R.C.S. (Edin). Appleby, W. E. Bage, Miss F., M.Sc fBagster, L. S., D.Sc t+Bailey, J. F Ball, L. C., B.E Ballard, E., B.A ^Bancroft, T. L., M.B. Barker, Miss E., B.A. Barker, G. H Barton, E. C., A.M.I.C.E Beckman, G. H., B.Sc. Berney, F. L. +Bennett, F., B.Sc Bick, E. W Broadbent, J. E Brown, Jas., B.A., M.D., Ch.B. (Edin.). D.P.H. (Cambridge) JBrunnich, J. C., F.I.C +Bryan, W. H., M.C., D.Sc Brydon, Mrs. +Buhot, E. W Buudock, C. W., B.A Butler-Wood, F., D.D.S Buzacott, R. H. ... ... 15 Edridge Road, Croydon, Surrey, England. 33 Bruce Street, Toorak, Melbourne. Sugar Refinery, New Farm. The Women’s College, Kangaroo Point, Bris- bane. The University, Brisbane. Botanic Gardens, Adelaide, S.A. Geological Survey Office, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Bris- bane. Eidsvold, Queensland. Girls’ Central School, Maryborough. Adelaide street, Brisbane, care of National Bank of Australasia, 4 Queen Victoria Street, London. Crook Street, Northgate, Brisbane. Barcarolle, via Longreach. State School, Toowong, Brisbane. Botanic Gardens, Brisbane. Department of Justice, Brisbane. “ Widmoorene,” Margaret Street, Too- woomba Agricultural Chemist’s Laboratory, William Street, Brisbane The University, Brisbane. Department of Public Instruction, Brisbane. Department of Health, Brisbane “ Kooralbyn,” Beaudesert. Permanent Chambers, Adelaide Street, Bris- bane. Entomological Laboratory, Meringa, via Cairns. Cameron, Colonel D. C., C.M.G., D.S.O., Parliament of the Commonwealth, Canberra. M.P. Cameron, W. E., B.A. Royal Societies’ Club, St. James Street,. London. Carson-Cooling, Geo., M.Sc. Boys’ Grammar School, Brisbane. t Life Members. + Members who have contributed papers to the Society. LIST OF MEMBERS. XIX. Gayser, A. A., B.Sc Cilento, R. W., M.D., B.S. ... Coleman, F. F. JColledge, W. R. Colvin, Joseph Cottrell-Dormer, W «... Crawford, Miss L. ... Croll, Gifford., M.B Cumbrae-Stewart, Professor F. W. S., D.C.L. The University, Brisbane. Rabaul, New Britain. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Bris- bane. Friendly Societies’ Dispensary, George Street, Brisbane. George Street, Brisbane. University, Brisbane. Children’s Hospital. Sherwood, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. JDenmead, A. K., B.Sc. Dixon, G. P., C.B.E., M.B., Ch.M. ... £Dodd, Alan P Duhig, J. V., M.B Duhig, Archbishop, D.D Dunstan., B Epps, A. M Evans, C. K., M.Sc Falk, A. N Fitzgerald, Miss M., B.Sc Ford, F. Campbell Fortescue, L +Francis, W. D Franzen, L Freeman, C. B Frew, A. E. Harding, B.E. Froggatt, J. L., B.Sc. Gaukrodger, D. W Gibson, J. Lockhart, M.D tGillies, C. D., M.B., B.S., M.Sc Goddard, Prof. E. J., B.A., D.Sc. Graff, R., M.B., B.S +Grey, Mrs. B. B., F.L.S Greene, Miss A. Grenning, V +Gurney, E. H tHamlyn-Harris, R., D.Sc Hardie, Sir David, M.D., M.S +Hardy, G. H Harris, Miss N. Harris, V. E. G., B.Sc tHawken, Professor R. W., B.A., M.E., M.Inst. C.E. JHenderson, J. B., F.I.C Geological Survey, Edward Street, Brisbane Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Prickly-pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Bris- bane. “ Edmonton,” Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. “ Dara,” Brisbane. Geological Survey Office, Brisbane. Sugar Refinery, New Farm. Ipswich Technical College^ Ipswich. Geology Department, The University Bris- bane. Children’s Hospital. Surveyor-General’s Office, Brisbane. New Zealand Chambers, 334 Queen Street, Brisbane. Botanic Gardens, Brisbane. Hurworth Street, New Farm. City Buildings, Edward Street, Brisbane. T. and G. Buildings, Queen Street, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture, Brisbane. Windermere Road, Ascot, Brisbane. Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Ridge Street, Northgate. The University, Brisbane. Brisbane General Hospital, care of Queensland Trustees, Ltd., Margaret Street, Toowoomba. High School, Wynnum. Forest Service, Brisbane. Agricultural Chemist’s Laboratory, William Street, Brisbane. Town Hall, Brisbane. “ Blythsdale,” Hamilton, Brisbane. Biology Department, The University, Bris- bane. The University, Brisbane (Associate). The Southport School, Southport. The University, Brisbane. Government Analyst, Brisbane. t Life Members. t Members wfto have contributed papers to the Society. XX. LIST OF MEMBERS. ^Herbert, D. A., M.Sc. i. Biology Department, The University, Bris- bane. Herdsman, L. P .. Government Printing Office, George Street, Brisbane. Hill, J., B.Sc.. A.R.C.S Hitchcock, L. F. Hcldaway, F. G., B.Sc .. Department of Public Instruction, Brisbane .. Prickly-pear Laboratory, Sherwood. .. Department of Zoology, The University, Adelaide, S.A. Hubbard, Rev. W. P. H JHull, A. F. Bassett fHulsen, R. .. St. Alban’s Rectory, Innisfail. . . Box 704, G.P.O., Sydney. .. Valley Corner, Brisbane. Irving, C. R., B.A .. State School, Caboolture. Jack, Thos Jackson A. G Jackson, E. Sandford, M.B., Ch.B. t Jensen, H. I., D.Sc Jones, G. Jones, Hon. A. J + Jones, Owen, B.Sc +Jones, T. G. H., D.Sc., A.A.C.I .. Cunningham Street, Dalby. .. Synchronous Co., Elizabeth Street, Brisbane .. St. Helens Private Hospital, South Brisbane. .. Treasury Chambers, George Street, Brisbane. .. Children’s Hospital. .. Department of Mines, Brisbane. .. Emmanuel College, Cambridge, England. .. Chemistry Department, The University, Brisbane Jorgensen, G. H ... care of Australian Chemical Co., Grey Street, South Brisbane. Just, J. S. ... care City Electric Light Company, Boundary Street, Brisbane. Kelly, N. L ... care of Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Kemp, J. R ... Main Roads Commission, Desmond Chambers, Adelaide Street, Brisbane. Kerr, W. H., B.Sc ... “ Kilmours,” Edward Street, Toowong. ^Lambert, C. A, Lane, N. C., M.B., B.S. ... Legg, J., B.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S. ... ... care of Bank of N.S.W., Melbourne, Vic. ... 59 Wharf Street, Brisbane. ... Department of Agriculture and Stock, Towns- ville. Lloyd, W. F., M.L.A. ... Queensland Correspondence College, Victoria Park Road, Brisbane. ^Longman, H. A., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. ifcLove, W., M.B., Ch.M Lowson, Professor J. P., M.A., M.D. Lydon, R. J ... Queensland Museum, Brisbane. ... 1 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. ... “ Lauriston,” Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. ... Central Technical College, Brisbane. +Mackerras, Mrs. Ian, M.B ... care of Dr. I. Mackerras, Linnean Society of N.S.W., 16 College Street, Sydney. Marks, Hon. Dr. Marks, A. H., C.B.E., D.S.O., M.D. tMarks, E. 0., M.D., B.A., B.E. ... +McCall, T., F.I.C McDonald, S. F., M.D., M.R.C.P. ... 101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. ... Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. ... 101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. ... Government Analyst’s Department, Brisbane. ... “ Fancourt,” Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. t Life Members. t Members who have contributed papers to the Society LIST OF MEMBERS. XXI. McDowall, Val., M.B McKenzie, A. D., M.B., Ch.M. ... McLean, J. B., D.S.O., M.B., B.S. McMillan, J. R. A., M.Sc McMinn, J ^Massey, Rev. C. H Mathewson, J. H. R., M.B., Ch.B. Meyers, E. S., M.B Michael, Rev. N. Morris, L. C., A.M.I.C.E Morton, C., A.C.T.S.M Morwood, R. B., B.Sc. Muir, Miss E., B.Sc. Mundell, R. C., B.Sc Murray, J. K., B.A., B.Sc ... Preston House, Queen Street, Brisbane. ... Russell Street, Toowoomba. ... General Hospital, Brisbane. ... Agricultural High School and College, Gatton. ... State School, Wooloowin, Brisbane. ... Cleveland. ... New Farm, Brisbane. ... Vulture Street, South Brisbane. ... The Rectory, Ayr, North Queensland. ... Department of Public Instruction, George Street, Brisbane. ... Geological Survey Office, Brisbane. ... Department of Agriculture and Stock, Bris- bane. ... Girls’ High School, Gympie. ... Westwood, Central Queensland. ... Agricultural High School and College, Gatton. Ogilvie, C., B.E. Irrigation Commission, Finney’s Chambers, Adelaide Street, Brisbane. Parker, Geo., L.D.S. (Eng.), H.D.D., R.C.S. (Edin.) Parker, W. R., L.D.S Parnell, Professor T., M.A. Partridge, A. F. tPearce, Mrs. T. R., M.Sc Perkins, F. A., B.Sc. Phillips, Miss R Phillips, T. J JPound, C. J., F.R.M.S Preston, G. Price, T. A., M.B., B.S ^Priestley, Professor H. J., M.A Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. 185 Edward Street, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Irrigation Commission, Finney’s Chambers, Adelaide Street, Brisbane. Queen street, Stanton Hill, Townsville. The University, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane (Associate), care of “ Daily Mail,” Queen Street, Bris- bane. Bacteriological Institute, Yeerongpilly. Gregory Terrace, Brisbane. Toowoomba. The University, Brisbane. Reid, J. F. F. ... JReid, J. H ♦Richards, Professor H. C., D.Sc. .. IRiddell, R. M Roberts, F. H., B.Sc. Russell, E., M.B., Ch.M Saunders, G. J., M.Sc., B.E. Sharp, A. F., B.E Shaw, B. E., A.M.I.E Shepherd, S. R. L Simmonds, J. H., B.Sc Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Geological Survey Office, Brisbane The University, Brisbane. Department Public Instruction, Brisbane. Prickly-pear Laboratory, Sherwood. 63 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. ... Central Technical College, Ipswich. ... Irrigation Commission, Finney’s Chambers, Adelaide Street, Brisbane. ... Irrigation Commission, Finney’s Chambers, Adelaide Street, Brisbane. ... Geological Survey Office, Brisbane. ... Department of Agriculture and Stock, Bris- bane. t Life Members. + Members who have contributed papers to the Society. R,S, — L XXII. LIST OF MEMBERS. Simmonds, J. E, senr. JSmith, F„ B.Sc., F.I.C Smith, J. H., M.Se Steele, Professor B. D., D.Sc., F.R.S. ... Stephenson, S., M.A Sutton, M. G., M.B., Ch. M., F.R C.S. (Edin.) Swain, E. H. F. Sylow, Paul Taylor, G. C., M.B., Ch.M Theodore, Hon. E.G. Thompson, C. L., B.D.Sc JTibbits, P. C £Tiegs, 0. W., D.Sc tTilling, H. W., M.R.C.S. (Eng.), L.R.C.T. (Lond.). Tommerup, E. C., B.Sc iTryon, H. Turnbull, F. C., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. ... ^Turner, A. J., M.D., F.E.S Veitch, R., B.Sc. Waddle, I., M.Sc Walker, A. R., D.D.S., L.D.S fWalkom, A. B.. D.Sc .Watkins, S. B., M.Se. Wearne, R. A., B.A 4 White. Cl T., F.L.S White-Haney, Mrs. Jean, D.Sc. ... JWhitehouse, F. W., Ph D Winks, W. R., B.Sc Wood, E. J. Ferguson, B.Sc Yates, Miss Dorothy Young, J. E. ... Hillsdon Road, Taringa, Brisbane. Hutton’s Factory, Zillmere. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Bris- bane. The University, Brisbane. Boys’ Grammar School, Brisbane. “ Crookston,” Vulture Street, South Bris- bane. Director of Forests, Brisbane. Sugar Refinery, New Farm. Children’s Hospital. Commonwealth Offices, Sydney. 89-91 Queen Street, Brisbane. care of Irrigation Commission, Brisbane. The University, Melbourne. Town Hall, Brisbane. Men’s Common Room, The University, Bris- bane (Associate). Botanic Gardens, Brisbane. Proserpine. 131 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Bris- bane Brisbane State High School, Musgrave Park, Brisbane. Edward Street, City. Linnean Society House, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney. Central Technical College, Brisbane. Central Technical College, Brisbane. Government Botanist, Botanic Gardens, Brisbane. Melbourne. Geological Department, The University, Brisbane. Agricultural Chemist’s Laboratory, Depart- ment of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Biology Department, The University, Bris- bane (Associate). St. Cuthbert’s, Mt. Eden, Auckland, N.Z. Graceville, Brisbane. t Life Members. J Members who have contributed papers to the Society. Anthony James Gumming, Government Printer, Brisbane, i'l PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY ISSUED 1 2th MARCH, 1929. Printed for the Society by ANTHONY JAMES GUMMING, Government Printer, Brisbane. Price: Fifteen Shillings . PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY QUEENSLAND FOR 1928. VOL. XL. ISSUED 12th MARCH. 1929. Printed for the Society by ANTHONY JAMES CUMMING, Government Printer, Brisbane. Price: Fifteen Shillings. The Royal Society of Queensland. ===== Patron : His EXCELLENCY SIR JOHN GOODWIN, K.C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., F.R.C.S. OFFICERS, 1928-1929. President : Professor T. PARNELL, M.A. Vice-Presidents : Professor E. J. GODDARD, B.A., D.Sc. Professor J. P. LOWSON, M.A., M.D. Hon. Treasurer : E. W. BICK. Hon. Secretary : D. A. HERBERT, M.Sc. Hon. Librarian : Hon. Editors : J. V. DUHIG, M.B. H. A. LONGMAN, F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. W. H. BRYAN, M.C., D.Sc. Members of the Council : Professor R. W. HAWKEN, B.A., M.E., M.Inst.C.E. T. G. H. JONES, D.Sc., A.A.C.I. E. O. MARKS, B.A., B.E., M.D. Professor H. C. RICHARDS, D.Sc. C. T. WHITE, F.L.S. Trustees : F. BENNETT, B.Sc. J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C. A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D. Hon. Auditor : Professor H. J. PRIESTLEY, M.A. Bankers ; QUEENSLAND NATIONAL BANK. CONTENTS. VOLUME XL. No. 1. — Presidential Address : By Professor E. J. Goddard, B.A., D.Sc. Issued 30th August, 1928 No. 2. — Investigation into Sewage Disposal in the Brisbane Estuary : By J. V. Duhig, M.B., Director, Brisbane and District Laboratory of Pathology. Three Text-figures. Issued 30th August, 1928 No. 3. ClNNAMOMUM LAUBATII The CHEMICAL CHARACTERS OF THE Essential Oils of Leaves and Barks : By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I. ; and F. Smith, B.Sc., F.I.C. Issued 30th August, 1928 . . . . No. 4. — Revision of Four Genera of Australian ScELioNiDiE : By A. P. Dodd. Issued 30th August, 1928 No. 5. — The Location of Saponin in the Foam-bark Tree (Jagera pseudorhus) : By W. D. Francis, Assistant Government Botanist. Plates I. and II. Issued 2nd October, 1928 No. 6. — Revisional Notes on Described Australian Robber Flies of the Genus Ommatius : By G. H. Hardy Eight Text- figures. Issued 14th November, 1928 No. 7. — A Geological Reconnaissance of the Aitape District, New Guinea : By H. G. Raggatt, B.Sc., Geological Survey of New South Wales. One Geological Map and Section, three Text-figures, Plates III. — V. Issued 21st December, 1928 No. 8. — Notes on the Breeding Habits of Culex fatigans, Wied. and its Associated Mosquitoes in Queensland : By R. Hamlyn-Harris, D.Sc. Plates VI. and VII. Issued 26th November, 1928 No. 9. — Stress Transmission in Frictional-Cohesive Material : By R. W. Hawken, B.A., M.E. Fifteen Text -figures. Issued 1st February, 1929 No. 10. — The Essential Oil of Eucalyptus Andrewsi from Queens- land: By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I. , and M. White, B.Sc. Issued 17th January, 1929 .. No. 11. — Petroleum from the Roma Bores : By J. B. Henderson, F.I.C. , and W. J. Wiley, M.Sc. Three Text-figures. Issued 24th January, 1929 No. 12. — The Brisbane Tuff : By C- Briggs. Plates VIII. and IX. Issued 13th February, 1929 No. 13. — The Major Factors in the Present Distribution of the Genus Eucalyptus : By D. A. Herbert, M.Sc., Depart- ment of Biology, University of Queensland. Issued 13 th February, 1929 Abstract of Proceedings List of Library Exchanges List of Members Pages. 1-12 13-26 27-29' 30-50 51-60’ 61-65 66-90: 91-103 10L-13I 132-1 3 J 134-146 147-164 165-193 iv. xvi. xix. Vol. XL., No. 1. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland. Presidential Address. By Professor E. J. Goddard, B.A., D.Sc. {Delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland , 19th March , 1928.) It is my pleasing duty, as President of the Royal Society of Queensland, to record a year of sound scientific activities on the part of the Society. The general nature of those activities is set out in the Annual Report of the Council which has been read to you this evening. Before referring to general matters which have the interest of the Society, I wish, on behalf of the Royal Society of Queensland, to express appreciation of the association with the Society of such men as the late Professor Liversidge and the late Professor Rennie, both of whom were corresponding members of the Society ; and of the services rendered during a long period of years by the late Dr. W. F. Taylor, who acted as a Trustee of the Society. We regret very much the deaths of these gentlemen, and in realising the value of the help which they gave through their association to the Society at a period when science and scientific effort, such as manifested by the Royal Society, was of less value in the eyes of the community than it is at the present time, we offer to their relatives and friends our sincerest sympathy. There are several matters which, as retiring President, I consider should be mentioned on such an occasion as this in the interests of the Society. The Royal Society of Queensland is dependent for its existence on a membership roll which is far too limited in numbers, and on financial support from the Government of Queensland, which assistance we gratefully acknowledge. As President of the Society, I do feel that there are many members of the community whose professional interests and general outlook on life are scientific or incline in that direction, and who might be expected to throw in their lot with the Society. It is frequently stated that the subjects which constitute the basis of discussions at our ordinary meetings, and which form the substance of our Annual Proceedings, are limited and specialised to an extent that denies interest to many of the class to whom I have alluded. I would like to say, as President of the Society, that this is no fault of the Society itself. Any restriction on the nature of subjects coming before the 2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Royal Society arises from the restricted interests of the members constituting the Society. The Council would welcome a greater variety of scientific contributions, and would be pleased to welcome to the mem- bership of the Society all those who take a real interest in matters scientific. There is one other matter in connection with the activities of the Society that calls for specific mention, and that is that the Royal Society not only places no limit on the nature of the scientific contributions placed before it, but is anxious to foster all forms of economic or applied research. The Council notes with satisfaction the increased and intensified interest being manifested by Commonwealth and State Governments in matters scientific, and while this interest is largely in the direction of scientific research in relation to industry and production, yet it indicates practical sympathy with scientific effort. It is noted with pleasure that the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research is appointing a staff of first-class scientific men to deal with problems of importance to industry and production in all its branches, and in so doing is setting an example by offering emoluments sufficient not only to attract first- class men but to encourage younger men to appreciate that there are better opportunities ahead than has been the case in the past. The Council notes with pleasure the appointment of a Board of Agriculture by the Government of Queensland, and representative of the various bodies concerned in agricultural research within the State, with a view to co-ordinating the activities of these various State bodies inter se as well as with the activities of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and the Development and Migration Committee. The Royal Society of Queensland, as the oldest scientific body in this State, can view with satisfaction these happenings and developments, for the Royal Society of Queensland has, from its beginning, encouraged interest in scientific research for the sake of science, realising long before any appreciation of science was engendered in the minds of the community, that scientific research lay at the basis of human development. The Society welcomes the activated interests of Governments in scientific research, and while recognising that there is still a long way to go before industry in general appreciates to the full the dependence of its future efficient development on science, yet faces the future in this respect with optimism. It is hoped that in this march towards advancement younger members of the present and future generations possessing a love or aptitude for science will be attracted to the fields of scientific research. This is one of the great needs in Australia at the present day. Virus Diseases and their Bearing on the Cell Theory and other Biological Concepts. I have chosen as the title of my Presidential Address this evening that of “Virus Diseases and their bearing on the Cell Theory and other biological concepts.” I do not propose to attempt anything of a PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3 monographic nature on virus diseases — such would be premature — but to indicate to you the importance of these diseases and their relation to humanity from an economic and scientific standpoint. Any investigator concerned with researches into virus diseases is constantly being drawn in mind towards many somewhat abstruse and very imper- fectly understood fundamental biological problems. Although I do not claim any specific originality in respect of the general subject matter of this address, yet I would say that association with certain investigations into a plant virus disease has for the past few years largely dominated my mental horizon in so far as biology is concerned. I feel that a Presidential Address offers a special opportunity— which should be seized — of presenting some subject which has wider scientific incidence, more constructive value, and greater general interest than a specialised scientific paper which might be expected to find its place in the Proceedings of 'the Society. To my mind no biological problems have more fundamental scientific significance immediately than those of virus diseases, nor is there any biological problem confronting us to-day which appears to have greater significance in so far as humanity is concerned. We know comparatively little about the problem of living matter ; we have been nurtured with certain ideas that dominate our biological horizon, such as the cell theory, which occupies in the mind of the biologist the position that the atom occupied in the mind of the chemist until comparatively recent years. The atom still constitutes a necessary unit in our mental catalogue for descriptive chemical purposes, but a desire for a more profound understanding of the inorganic world, and the attainment of that philosophic perspective which is synonymous with the term “ scientific,” compels us to have regard for such ideas as the identity or equation between energy and matter and the quantum theory. In the same way the cell will always remain as a useful working unit in our mental a catalogue for descriptive biological purposes, but the tendency to regard such a unit as the ultimate entity in considering problems within the realms of biology must be avoided. The cell theory will remain, but biological ideas will progress. Virus diseases have a variety of interest. Firstly, their significance from an economic standpoint is being forced on us with increasing stress each succeeding year, and it seems highly probable that gradually the most important of our domesticated plants will yield examples of these insidious maladies. They have their incidence also in the animal kingdom^ where numerous diseases have been proved to be due to the presence of an ultra- virus. In so far as plants are concerned, it would not be stigmatised as a gross exaggeration of the present position to prophesy -that virus diseases directly and indirectly will ultimately dominate the science of plant pathology. Such a statement need not necessarily be construed as suggesting that something of a catastrophic character has been delivered by Nature ; it simply means that with increased knowledge, not only of natural living objects themselves, and arising out of that, the availability of more subtly devised means and technique, we are enabled in our attempt to diagnose the .mysterious 4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. ills of plants to get down nearer and nearer to the basic idea concerning the problems of living matter. The ultimate goal will never be reached; we are simply passing milestone after milestone, reaching nearer and nearer to that unattainable goal. New problems will arise as we progress ; what once merited the status of a cause will be relegated to that of effect ; what appears to be a basic idea of to-day becomes merely a further acquisition of knowledge to-morrow. Further, it may well be that, in plant-virus diseases at least, we are viewing the results of a disturbance in the balance of Nature in a way which will be indicated later in this address ; or it may be that we are paying the price for an intensive effort in the direction of plant domestication. Such ideas have arisen in the past, and still continue to arise in the minds of investigators confronted with the problem of virus diseases. The whole matter of plant- virus diseases was considered recently at the Imperial Agricultural Conference, and it was there decided that one of the most important avenues of research meriting attention throughout the British Empire was that of fundamental research into virus diseases. This may serve to indicate that I have not exaggerated the importance of my subject from an economic standpoint. Secondly, virus diseases would, according to our present interpreta- tion of their nature and cause, seem to open up a sphere of investigation of intense scientific interest, inasmuch as they lead us directly in our present state of knowledge to an intensive attempt to unravel the mechanism and physiology of the cell. Thirdly, bound up with what I have mentioned above, is the high possibility that investigations into virus diseases may lend very important help to an understanding of the nature and cause of cancer, as well as unravelling the reasons which lie behind the beneficial effects which are derived in certain cases at the present time by various types of irradiation. The idea that there were beings of such minute size as to be invisible under the highest powers of the microscope received mention as early as 1674, i.e., over two centuries ago. Even Pasteur, who did so much to throttle the idea of spontaneous generation and secured a firmer and firmer basis in biology for the cell theory by his bacteriological studies, once stated that if the causal organism of rabies could not be seen under the microscope, then it was simply because its dimensions were too small for the limits of visibility of this instrument. As I propose to devote attention this evening, in so far as virus diseases are concerned, to examples drawn from the plant kingdom, I may be permitted to give a brief resume of the history of plant-virus diseases. The earliest discovery of a plant- virus disease was made in 1893 by Iwanowski, who showed that a mosaic disease of tobacco was a contagious disease, and that the causal agent could be passed through a filter candle. Later experiments within the next two years corroborated the extreme minuteness of the contagious element, and led to the development of the PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5 hypothesis that the contagious element was a contagium fluidum vivum. Since that time many other filterable viruses have been discovered, although it has been proved that some of these are no longer to be regarded as true viruses, i.e., ultra- viruses, but represent minute organisms, such as bacteria, etc. Virus diseases are now known to be represented among the diseases affecting such a wide range of plants as tomato, turnip, potato, sweet pea, asters, beans, bananas, beet, cabbage, celery, cucumber, sugar-cane, hop, lettuce, melon, pea, peanut, raspberry, pepper, cineraria, clover, cotton, corn, spinach, soy bean, tobacco, etc. The list is not to be regarded as complete. For a very long time many of these diseases were placed in the category of physiological diseases/ but gradually as suspicion of the presence of an ultra- virus was aroused a development of our knowledge of the symptoms led to a systematising of those symptoms which now places us in a position to at once suspect the virus nature of the causal agent in such diseases. One feature common to all virus diseases is their transmissibility from diseased to healthy plants, due to the presence of something which we term a virus or ultra-virus, — perhaps the latter term might be used. There is one significant feature about virus diseases, and that is the symptoms of the disease in a particular plant may include certain appearances, malformations, etc., which occur in otherwise healthy plants as the result of environmental influence, some due to one particular environmental factor, others to another,, and so on. With respect to transmissibility, virus diseases fall into three groups, namely, those in which the disease can be transmitted by inoculation of the juice from a diseased plant into a healthy plant, by grafting or through an insect vector ; those in which insects and grafting serve to transmit the disease ; and those in which the disease is transmitted by budding or grafting, no insect vector having yet been discovered, and inoculation experiments having failed. In general, those types of virus disease in which transmission can be effected by inoculation are termed mosaic diseases, but, not only is there no reason for regarding causal agents as falling in a different category to that in which is included the causal agent of other plant- virus diseases, but there are so many points of resemblance between the two groups that, in the present state of our knowledge, we should not stress the importance of our inability to effect the transmission by artificial inoculation. Both groups are systemic diseases, that is to say, all parts of the plant are affected, and further, there is no hope of recovery on the part of the plant when the disease has once appeared. In the case of mosaic diseases the symptoms are fairly uniform, but in the case of non-mosaic types there is a wider variety of symptoms, although, as in the former, the foliage is markedly affected and there is a conspicuous dwarfing of the shoots. In Australia several outstanding examples of virus diseases have called for investigation, and it is pleasing to record that in some cases investigation has resulted in a determination of the nature and mode of transmission of the disease. I refer to tomato wilt 6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. and bunchy- top in bananas. The former has been proved to be a virus disease of the non-mosaic type which is transmitted from plant to plant by the insect Thrips tabaci ; the second is also a non-mosaic virus disease which is transmitted from plant to plant by the banana aphis, Pentalonia nigronervosa. In the investigation of the latter disease, a very thorough pathological examination which was continued throughout the period of investigation failed to reveal any bacterial or fungal organism which could be regarded in any way as contributing to the cause of the disease, although various investigators previously considered the possibility that some fungus would be associated with the disease. The experiments which proved, or were regarded as proving, the virus nature of this disease, have been repeated many times since, not only here but elsewhere, and it is satisfactory to record that the theory of the virus nature has in every case been substantiated. The association of an insect vector in both these cases was rendered difficult of detection at first in the field, and to some extent this is linked up with the fact that a considerable period elapses after the transfer of infected insects to healthy plants before the symptoms of the disease appear, sixteen to twenty days being required in the case of tomato wilt, twenty-six in the latter case. No doubt this period is spent in the propagation of the virus within the plant, for it must be said that one cannot get away from the idea that the symptoms and development of a virus disease insistently proclaim that the virus substance is capable of propagation. Rather does this appear to be the case than that any developmental phases are passed through within the insect, comparable to the phases of the life-history specifically restricted to the period within the insect in the case of protozoan diseases, such as malaria. While sufficient has been discovered in the case, of bunchy-top to enable the framing of recommendations which are proving effective in the direction of controlling and eradicating the disease, there still remains a great deal to be done on the scientific side, especially in view of the fact that the banana plant offers excellent material for the investigation of a virus trouble. Researches are still being conducted, and these embrace such studies as the determination of the lif e-history of the aphis, the number of generations of aphides through which the virus may persist, the determination of other possible host plants of the aphid, the examination of such plants, other possible vectors of the disease, and the possible relation of other host plants to the infection of the banana, determination of the possible locus or loci of infection in the banana by aphides with special relation to the meristematic tissues. The last-mTentioned inquiry is one of extreme interest inasmuch as the phloem of the banana plant is affected by the virus in such a way as to suggest the possibility of throwing light on such problems of disturbed metabolism, growth and reproduction of cells, as occurs in cancerous tissue. Further, the disease, in so far as the tissues of the plant are concerned, is not retrospective, that is to say, non-meristematic tissue developed before the introduction of the virus, is not visibly affected from a structural point of view ; and this leads PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 7 in the direction of offering opportunities for work on readily accessible material which may throw light on the persistence of the meristematic or embryonic function of cancerous tissue. Another very suggestive line of inquiry is that of a study of means of preventing the development of the disease when loci of infection are discovered. This opens up an opportunity of testing out the effect of different types of irradiation in a very convenient way. Irradiation in relation to meristematic tissues and cancer problems opens up an alluring field of investigation. It is of interest to record in this connection that the only record that we have of anything approaching the status of observed evidence in support of the now commonly accepted belief that the so-called ultra-viruses are particulate, comes from ultra-microscopic investigations associated with cancer investigation. I hasten to add, however, that the evidence cannot yet be regarded as overwhelmingly convincing. Then arises the advisability of carrying out investigations bearing on the latency of a virus disease, for which again the banana plant offers excellent material. There is more than a suspicion at the present day that banana plants may act as carriers of bunchy-top, that is to say, they remain as apparently healthy plants, serving to distribute the disease either through descendent portions of the plant or through the insect vector. Then there is the important point of the transmission of the disease to other plants of other species, which may throw very important light, not- only on the nature of the virus, but more particu- larly on the origin of the virus or virus particle in the first place. The inability to detect any visible causal agent was responsible, as we have heard, for the idea that some new type of agent w^as responsible for the disease, and so arose the idea of a contagium vivum fluidum. Opposed to this have been developed other theories which embrace bacterial origin, enzyme origin, protozoan origin, etc., of the causal agent. There are to-day at work in every civilised country investigators concerned with virus diseases, and there is a general concensus of opinion among these workers as a result of intensive study of the development of the symptoms of various virus diseases that not only are we concerned with what we term a virus, but that that virus is also particulate. This interpretation is consistent with the occurrence of filter -passing bacteria and the reasonable suggestion that still smaller bacterial (?) forms might be expected to exist — all this leading to a continuity of serial forms the ultimate members of which would be inadmissible as cellular forms. By means of special filters comparative measurements of the size of these supposed particles have been made, although it can hardly be accepted that the precautions adopted and the results attained are by any means beyond reproach. Further work along these lines will have, in my opinion, a very important bearing on the scientific problems of the cell. With the aid of the ultra-microscope and the assistance of bio -physics possibilities are offered, after establishing beyond doubt the existence of a particulate virus, for determining the relation of, say, protein molecule or molecular aggregate to micella and to the ultimate particle which patently carries all the attributes of living matter. 8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Less than a century ago the enunciation of the cell theory opened up a new line of attack on biological problems, and this idea began quickly to dominate biological thought. Thus it came about that the cell theory was accepted as fundamental to biology as the atomic theory to chemistry, and the present status of biological science rests on the advancements made by the adoption of this cell theory which offered to the world the idea of a unit or entity which marked the starting point of the animal or plant individual, and dominated the make-up of the fully grown animal. From’ a historical standpoint it is of interest to record the activities of a group of naturalists who, at the period referred to, were developing a knowledge of the facts demonstrating the idea of organic evolution. Their investigations proceeded along independent lines, taking no cognisance of the newly discovered basic unit. This was actually the position when the idea of organic evolution had taken concrete shape in the hands of Darwin. During the last quarter of the nineteenth century the clearer conception gained of the cell led to a great advance of our knowledge of this unit of the animal and plant bodies, and such studies began to link together the problems of structure, development, growth, heredity, and evolution. The beginning of the twentieth century initiated a series of illuminating advances which have served to encourage biological knowledge of a more exact and quantitative order, and are yearly bringing us to a more profound and fundamental outlook on the problems of living substance. By a strange coincidence the rediscovery of Mendel’s Laws of Heredity was made in the year 1900 by three independent workers, and the theoretical interpretation of the phenomena dovetailed in a most complete and satisfying way into the development of knowledge on the cytological side. Since that year our knowledge of the cell has forged ahead, and all this has served to substantiate more and more strongly the aphorism omnis cellula e. cellula. The idea that the cell represents the ultimate unit of life or living material has thus become more and more the working idea of the biologist, — at least, in so far as the individual organism is concerned. The complexity of the cell with its organisation slightly more comprehensible to us to-day lends very little weight to any idea of the possibility of cells arising de novo or by any form of spontaneous generation. Our knowledge of bacteria has added weight to this attitude and helped very materially to effect a sort of stabilised position in so far as the cell theory is concerned. Even when danger threatens by the inability to determine under the microscope a specific organism, its ultra-microscopic nature and filterable size was accepted, and yet the cellular entity of the organism maintained. For a very long time — in fact the old idea still persists in the minds of many — it was believed that protoplasm possessed a definite physical structure, and such structure was regarded as a necessary feature of protoplasm, enabling it to discharge its vital functions. The heterogeneity of the particles commonly found in the cytoplasm led to the elaboration of various theories of visible structure, such as the reticular, alveolar, granular, etc., theories. The position at the present day is that there is no acceptable theory of visible structure, and the appearances of oft- PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9 claimed structure are regarded either as temporary phases in the individual cell or as artifacts. The development of reticular and alveolar structure as the result of experiments in the coagulation of solutions of albumens, etc., has been demonstrated. The adoption of this idea is not tantamount to denying an organisation in protoplasm, but any fundamental structure is certainly of an ultra -microscopic order. Recent work along the line of micro -dissection of cells demonstrates very definitely the absence of any plan or organisation of a grosser or visible order. The activities of protoplasm are carried through in a visibly homogeneous mass that subscribes to the condition of a colloid, such a nature being demonstrated by its behaviour and not structure. When structures do appear at times within the protoplasm of the cell the decision as to whether they are to be regarded as living or non-living structures exercises no prejudical influence on the conception that protoplasm has an ultra-microscopic fundamental make-up. While the idea of a grossly homogeneous protoplasm represents a modern point of view, the suggestion that it possesses an ultra-microscopic pattern is by no means new. Hosts of investigators have suggested such a metastructure, and have offered definite names and functions for the particles which were regarded as of the order of aggregates of molecule or micellae, capable of growth and division. I need refer only to a few of these, such as the physiological units of Spenser ; Darwin’s gemmules ; de Vries’ pangens ; Nageli’s micellae ; Altmann’s bio-plasts ; Weisman’s bio-phors. Such ideas of ultra-microscopic units have met with much opposition from cytologists, who regarded cell structure as the last word in the structure of protoplasm. The modern view of geneticists that there exist in the nucleus particles of specific make-up responsible for definite characteristics of the individual organism must stand for the present, in view of the success in interpreting genetic problems that result from the adoption of the idea. What obtains in the nucleus might reasonably occur in the cytoplasm. If we are prepared to retire from a prejudiced position which would regard the cell as not merely a colloidal system but as the ultimate entity in so far as life is concerned, and to examine the matter from the standpoint of evolution, the existence of virus particles possessing the power of growth and reproduction would appear to offer ground for adopting a broader and more constructive view of the cell. If living substance was derived originally from non-living material, that is to say, there has been a transformation of inorganic to organic, then surely there must have been stages in that evolutionary scheme when something much more primitive and less highly organised than the cell represented the living material, and to that something we must give a particulate nature. While admittedly there are shown, among living cellular organisms, varied conditions of differentiation with respect to cytoplasm and nucleoplasm, yet even in the simplest of these there is a complexity of structure and organisation which defies us in any attempt to regard them as approaching in simplicity the earliest forms of life. 10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. There are, within the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm of cells, bodies which maintain their identity and autonomy and possess the power of repro- ducing themselves. I refer to structures which *are actually visible under the microscope, such as plastids ; but on top of this again, we impress the idea of certain hypothetical, ultra -microscopic particles which likewise possess the power of self -propagation and independence, such as the genes whose existence, based on the result of accurate genetic studies, can be assumed with as much assurance as that of atoms and molecules. The term “ living ” may have absolute or relative significance for different minds, but adopting the qualities by which we are accustomed to distinguish living from non-living material, we must bestow the term ‘■living” on such visible masses as plastids ; and such hypothetical bodies of a smaller order as genes. We may readily attribute to such particles as genes, which, in the present state of our knowledge we regard as the agents responsible for the carrying of specific qualities to the individual, that is, to the cell, an individuality of an intrinsic order — something, may I be permitted to say, corresponding to what we have learned to speak of within recent years as the psychical element of psychism. It is no doubt desirable in a scientific paper to restrict Oneself to the detailing of facts, reasonings, and observations, and to refrain from any ultra-imaginative effort to construe the meaning of such except along such lines as might be regarded, from the scientist’s standpoint, as fully justified by the facts. In a Presidential Address, however, one may, perhaps, claim a little license and depart so far from the purely scientific arena as to venture on to ground which is the prerogative of the metaphysicist. Chemistry and Physics have been fundamental to a comparative understanding of biological problems, but it may be said with as much truth that biology has much to offer those sciences for an understanding of Nature. The ultra-materialistic attitude which would, in uncontrolled language, express itself by alleging that the problem of life is interpretable in terms of the laws of chemistry and physics, fails to recognise that the dominion of physics, for example, has been so widened as to now vaguely include the very problems which He intrinsically at the basis of life, and that a wider interpretation of biological science may render clearer to the physicist many of these fundamental problems. The developing knowledge of to-day suggests that biological science requires, for the elucidation of its problems, more than the application of known physical and chemical laws. The living cell is a psychic unit. Whether that psychism is restricted to the organic world we do not know — so far, needless to say, it has not called for specific consideration by the chemist or physicist. No doubt when we know more of the ether and of the fundamental relation of space, time, and thought, an appreciation of psychism will be dominant in the mind of the future bio-physicist and bio-chemist. Is the ether particulate ? Is there a unit of psychism ? What is the relation of such a psychon to the ether, etherion, electron, atom, molecule, gene ? Such are problems which are suggested in any attempt to interpret aright the make-up and genesis of the cell. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 11 The development of the idea that the cell was a biological unit was accompanied by what is regarded as definite disbelief of the possibilities of spontaneous generation. The idea that an organised cell could arise in any way other than as a descendent of a pre-existing cell would to-day be regarded as preposterous, and rightly so, in view especially of what we know of the complexity of cell architecture. All this points in the direction of suggesting that the organised cell arose at some definite period in the history of the earth, and that the necessary conditions then existing no longer obtain. The exact nature of those conditions we do not know, although many theories are advanced. Foremost among such theories, and probably meriting major support, although relegated to the status of speculation, are such as attempt to associate the origin of living matter with the special phase of solar-irradiation ; accompanied by special conditions obtaining on our planet at that time. Developments in physics during recent years would seem to lend some weight to this idea, as also do the results attained chemically by the utilisation of ultra- violet rays in certain otherwise impossible chemical syntheses. On the whole it would appear that the other sciences uphold the biological argument with respect to spontaneous generation in so far as the "cell is concerned. I do not feel it incumbent on me to meticulously follow through the stages in the evolution of the cell. Such would be an impossible task — a mere speculation without even any supporting gesture of fact. The general theme which I have so far outlined to you suggests that the protoplasm of the cell is particulate, that these particles possess the attributes of life, and that such probably represented a stage of living matter antecedent to the organised cell. How and why that organisation was affected I would not attempt to postulate, nor would one care to pronounce definitely that the particles which are postulated as the component units of protoplasm cannot arise de novo at the present time, although the acceptance of such a possibility would be very difficult. I may, however, refer to the fact that in the investigation of virus diseases the possibility of a development of the disease de novo is rightly kept in view. So far there has been no record of any observations carrying the weight of evidence behind them in support of such an idea, which quite possibly might be used as an argument, but certainly not convincing, in favour of the particulate nature of the virus. Such ultra-microscopic particles entering into the make-up of proto- plasm might be regarded as endowed with specific qualities — possibly endowed with psychism — and the characteristic qualities of the cell would be determined by the inter -reaction of the various particles in much the same way as it is considered by geneticists that the genes in the chromatin of the nucleus exert their influence. What the nature of these bodies from a physical or chemical standpoint would be we do not know, but our ignorance in that respect could be attributed to the same cause as our ignorance of many things, physical and chemical, of a fundamental order. 12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. The latter part of this address may appear to be far removed from the subject of virus diseases, but I have attempted to indicate that the study of virus diseases has a truly scientific interest far beyond that of a mere economic order. Some observations made by an American worker less than three years ago bring out the connection between the earlier and later parts of this address in a very suggestive way. This worker claimed to have produced a mosaic disease in tobacco by inoculation of the tobacco plant with extracts from what appeared to be normal and healthy potato plants. If such observations are proved to be correct, and if the particulate nature of the virus were substantiated, then it might be suggested with much reason that the origin of virus diseases might lie in the transporta- tion of minute living particles from one species of a plant to another. In the experiment mentioned, the two species are comparatively closely allied, and, adopting the idea of genetic relationship, we might regard the particle from the potato substance as being sufficiently closely allied to the particles entering into the make-up of the cells of the tobacco plant as to ensure their fitting in with the scheme of organisations which constitute tobacco cell life, but at the same time sufficiently foreign or riotous as to engender a pathological condition. The experiments just outlined have not been substantiated, but at least. they suggest a sane possibility for the origin of virus diseases, and furthermore, indicate that possibly insects which, as we have seen, play an important part in transmitting various virus diseases, may have been responsible for the origin of these diseases. We have a parallel in the case of many protozoan parasites where we find forms restricted to the alimentary canal of insects, and other closely allied forms which spend part of their time in the alimentary canal of insects, and other phases of their existence as parasites in the blood system of other animals, the insect serving as the vector. Aphides in particular play a very important part as vectors of virus diseases, and, it is noteworthy, the meristematic tissues at the growing point are particularly attractive to aphides. Further, aphides in general have a complicated life-history, and during that life-history they become variously adapted in many cases to different host plants. All this is very suggestive. The field of virus disease is thus a very attractive one, and must ultimately enlist the interest of the future bio -chemist, and notably of the future bio -physicist. The study of these diseases combines in an excellent way attractions for the pure biologist and the economic biologist. Vol. XL., No. 2. 13 Investigation into Sewage Disposal in the Brisbane Estuary. By J. V. Duhig, M.B., Director, Brisbane and District Laboratory of Pathology. (Three Text-figures.) {Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 30th April, 1928.) At the request of the old Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board, I made an investigation into the Board’s method of disposal of sewage into the estuary of the Brisbane River. It had been suggested that this method was or was likely to be a nuisance and/or a danger to the public health. In this work I collaborated with Mr. Thom, Sewerage Engineer to the Board (who has supplied me with all the engineering data) and with Mr. Chamberlain, the Board’s chemist, who not only assisted in the actual work in the field but also supplied check results of the chemical tests used in examining water samples taken. The results given are those of bacteriological and chemical examinations of samples of water taken in conditions set out in the tables. In an investigation of this kind, the only result possible is to show whether a sewage disposal system of a given kind is or is not suitable for a given place. The conditions in which this system functions are so numerous and vary so much individually from hour to hour that, in the present state of knowledge, I should hesitate to advise sewerage engineers to draw any but tentative conclusions from my findings. It is almost certain that in no other city in the world do conditions exist exactly analogous to those of the Brisbane system. All that it is desired to establish in this paper is : — 1. Whether the Brisbane method of sewage disposal is suitable for Brisbane in the sense that it can most economically dispose of sewage without subjecting the population to the risk of aesthetic anno3rance and/or danger, and 2. That my methods are sound and universally applicable. The conditions in which sewage disposal is conducted into the Brisbane estuary are as follow: — 1. Volume of sewage discharged. 2. Volume of diluent available. 3. Rate of flow of diluent. 4. State of the tide. 5. Direction of the wind. 6. Oxygen content of the diluent, depending on {a) salinity of the diluent, (&) temperature of the diluent, (c) barometric pressure, {d) depth of diluent. 14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. The value of any- method of sewage disposal depends on rapid oxidation of organic material and this in turn is a function of (a) the dilution available, (b) the oxygen content of the diluent. All the above factors are taken into account in this investigation, although very early in its course it became evident that they could be disregarded as rigidly serious components of the problem under investigation. As will later be shown, for instance, wide variation in these factors would have had little influence on the safety of the particular system investigated. I set out my findings under four heads: — (A) Engineering data. (B) Facts deduced from these data and from their operation. (C) Facts obtained by experiment. (D) Comparison with common standards. (A) The main sewer from North Quay to Luggage Point is eleven miles long. The main sewer (diagram exhibited) varies in diameter from 2 ft. 6 in. at North Quay to 5 ft. at Luggage Point, and can carry 29,000,000 gallons of sewage per day. At Pinkenba the sewage is raised 50 ft., and at Luggage Point 30 ft., and at both these points, is incidentally aerated. The volume of sewage discharged at Luggage Point outfall is now 4 x 106 gallons per day. This is equivalent to a depth of between 1 ft, and 1 ft. 6 in. in the 5-ft. sewer. The total volume of water passing* Luggage Point in the Brisbane estuary is equal to about 200 x 106 gallons at any given moment at mean spring range. The 02 saturation of sea water containing 15 x 103 chlorides varies with the temperature as follows: — At 15° C. 8*63 parts per 106 to 7-15 parts per 106 at 25° C., s€a water containing 20 x 103 parts chloride is saturated when it holds 8-14 parts of 02 per 106 at 15° C. to 6-74 at 25° C. [1]. In my earlier tables I have shown the 02 as parts per 106. In the later tables 02 is shown only as percentage saturation, the amount per unit volume being easily available by calculation from the tables referred to in [1]. (B) From these data I have made the following general observations. The sewage from the city and suburbs of Brisbane is brought to Luggage Point through some miles of piping. On the way it is exposed in a relatively wide stream to the action of the atmosphere. It is pumped into sedimentation tanks provided with baffles to retain sludge. Here it remains many days. Inspection of these tanks shows that only relatively less destructible matter, such as orange peel, insects, matches, fish-bones, &c., is not destroyed. The human waste is almost completely reduced to sludge by the time it leaves these tanks. From there it flows at a fast rate into the outfall sewer, and observation will show that in falling the 8 ft. or so against the sewer wall, efficient oxidation takes place so INVESTIGATION INTO SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE BRISBANE ESTUARY. 15 that by the time the sewage reaches the outfall the solid material is reduced to a sludge so finely divided that it takes some hours to settle even in so small a quantity as 1,000 c.e. of fluid. ( This fact was demonstrated before the Society.) The risk of creating a nuisance is so small that it can be disregarded. Colonel Longley raised certain objections to the Luggage Point site and works to deal with all the sewage on economic grounds alone. He advocated preliminary treatment of sewage in various suburban areas before final discharge at a point higher up the river than Luggage Point. The distance of travel must, however, be a matter of opinion. The establishment of subsidiary treatment works in settled areas would involve bitter opposition and very great expense as compared with Luggage Point which has, to my mind, certain outstanding advantages. (1) The relatively longer pipe line results, as I have shown, in oxidation which is so considerable as to be almost complete ; • (2) the Luggage Point area is not likely to be settled for a long time, if at all; (3) discharge into the estuary provides an ideal, because cheap and safe, method as against costly and possibly offensive suburban systems. (C) I made seven examinations of Luggage Point effluent as it reached the estuary. I. 16-11-27. Wind N.E. moderate. Tide — Flood at beginning of experiment. Slack at end of experiment. Temperature of water 26° C. Sewage flowing for three hours. The effluent formed a sharply marked zone about 30 yds. wide immediately opposite the outfall. The sharpness of the line is indicated in the plate counts shown in Table I. TABLE I. Origin of Sample. Plate Count per c.c. 02 in Solution. Parts per 10 6 . Chlorine content. Parts per 106. O2 Satura- tion %. 1. Centre of “ zone” |g| Uncount- able 3-3 15 x 103 50 2. Edge of zone „ m i 3. 100 yds. east Uncount- able 3-1 20 x 103 33 2 4-02 20 x 103 62 4. 50 yds. south 1,600 5-15 20 x 103 79 5. 100 yds. south 4,250 5-25 20 x 103 80 6. 200 yds. south 1 1 . . . .* 640 5-30 20 x 103 80 7. 400 yds. south 344 4-95 20 x 103 76 8. 500 yds. south . . ^ . . 80 6-4 20 x 103 99 9. 10 yds. inside zone (north) Uncount- able 4-75 20 x 103 73 10. 30 yds. north of ’zone 45 20 x 103 11. 100 yds. north of zone . . 15 5-23 20 x 103 80 16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. The area examined was shaped as shown in Map 2 (Text-figure 1). Samples taken are shown thus in map 1, *2, &c. The plate count of Sample 3 shows the sudden drop in pollution just outside the “zone,” and shows how restricted is the polluted area. As the effluent is dispersed by the tide the pollution is reduced to vanishing point. 02 Saturation (on which disinfection depends) — The high saturation in Sample I. is quite evidently due to the relatively low Cl content due to admixture with fresh water. The whole table shows how much more pollution the water would stand before oxygenation would cease. II. 21-11-27. Wind E., moderate. Tide — Slack, at end of ebb. Temperature of water, 27° C. Sewage had been discharging many hours. It was intended to investigate the northern end of the zone, but so many banks were uncovered that the launch could not cope with the projected investigation. However, the results obtained are as follows : — TABLE II. Origin of Sample. Plate Count. Cl Content. Parts per 106. Cl Content. Parts per 106. 0-2 Satura- tion %. 1. Centre of zone Uncount- able 6-0 15 x 103 87 2. 50 yds. east . . . . Very low 6-6 20 x 103 100 3. 100 yds. south 17,000 5*5 20 x 103 83 4. 200 yds. south . . 9,600 5-45 20 x 103 82 5. 400 yds. south 12,000 305 20 x 103 33 6. 600 yds. south 4,000 5-3 20 x 103 81 7. Lighthouse 1,720 6-0 20 x 103 92 8. Lytton 10 6-15 20 x 103 97 9. Pinkenba Wharf 300 See Map 3 (Text-figure 2). All these samples were taken within 30 yds. of the shore of the sewage reserve, and still show rapidly diminishing pollution owing to dispersion and oxidation. It will be noted that the pollution at Pinkenba wharf is almost as bad as that 400 yds. south from the outfall after a two-hours’ “run” on a flood tide. The oxygen content still remains high enough to deal effectively with The pollution. III. 8-12-27. Wind E., strong. Tide — Half hour before end of ebb at beginning of experiment. Slack at end of ebb at end of experiment. Temperature of water 26° C. Sewage running two and a-half hours. INVESTIGATION INTO SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE BRISBANE ESTUARY. 17 Table IIIa deals with samples taken within 20 yds. of the shore to the north of the outfall. Table IIIb deals with samples taken just off the shore. TABLE IIIa. Origin of Sample. Plate Count per 1 c.c. O2 Content. Parts per 106. Cl Content. Parts per 106. 0 2 Satura- tion. %. 1. 50 yds. north of centre of zone Uncount- able 1-2 20 x 103 18 2. 100 yds. north of centre at edge Uncount- able 1-0 20 x 103 15 3. 100 yds. north of centre over edge 700 1-5 20 x 103 22 4. 200 yds. north 800 20 x 103 5. 300 yds. north 600 2*5 20 x 103 37 6. 400 yds. north 700 2-2 20 x 103 33 7. 450 yds. north 700 2-6 20 x 103 40 8. 500 yds. north 300 3-9 20 x 103 59 9. 550 yds. north 60 7-0 20 x 103 100 10. 600 yds. north . . 500 4-3 20 x 103 65 See Map 4, which shows area of investigation set out in Tables IIIa and IIIb (Text- figure 3). TABLE IIIb. Origin of Sample. Plate Count per 1 c.c. O2 Content. Parts per 106. Cl Content. Parts per 10 6. O2 Satura- tion %. 1. 100 yds. north Uncount- 1-0 30 x 103 C 17 able 2. 200 yds. north 600 1-2 30 x 103 C 20 3. 250 yds. north 1,040 1*5 30 x 103 26 4. 300 yds. north 500 2-0 30 x 103 34 5. 350 yds. north 1,280 30 x 103 6. 400 yds. north 400 3-6 30 x 103 62 7. 450 yds. north 150 5-0 30 x 103 86 8. 500 yds. north 426 3-8 30 x 103 65 See Map 4 (Text-figure 3). The samples dealt with in Tables IIIa and IIIb were taken simultaneously and independently. They show that, on the ebb tide and with a strong easterly breeze, pollution is pretty uniform for a considerable distance northwards along the estuary, though the zone is extraordinarily narrow — not more than 25 yds. The low oxygen saturation is striking and must evidently be a function of the shallowness of the water on the end of the ebb tide, probably due to evaporation and redissolution of inorganic salt from the silt, resulting in a greatly increased Cl content. IV. 20-3-28. Tide— Ebbing. Work commenced about 2.15 p.m. B 18 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Work finished at 2.45 p.m. Low water at 2.57 p.m. Sewer discharging six hours. Wind S.E. by E. fresh. Temperature of water, 26° C. TABLE IV. Origin of Sample. Plate Count per 1 c.c. O2 Satura- tion %. 1. Southern end of “ Zone” i.e., 40 yds. south of outfall 2,280 60 2. Just at edge of zone, i.e., 40 yds. south of outfall 1,224 86 3. 20 yds. off shore opposite outfall 1,480 77 4. Inside edge of zone (20 yds. off shore), 100 yds. north of outfall 784 81 5. 200 yds. north of outfall 1,040 92 6. 300 yds. north of outfall ' 896 88 7. 400 yds. north of outfall 1,000 90 8. 500 yds. north of outfall 1,520 87 9. 600 yds. north of outfall 760 88 10. 700 yds. north of outfall 964 Not taken 11. 800 yds. north of outfall 1,040 Not taken 12. 900 yds. north of outfall 1,280 86 It will thus be seen that — 1. On the ebb tide no sewage can travel any but a very short distance upstream. In this case the zone to the south of the outfall was very sharply defined and extended up stream only about 40 yds. 2. Under the influence of the wind and tide-stream1 the zone of pollution is very narrow, estimated at 25 yds. at its maximum. 3. Owing to eddies the pollution is neither uniform nor uniformly graduated downstream. It is almost as heavy 900 yds. north of the outfall as at the outfall, showing how thorough mixing must be under the influence of wind and tide. 4. The pollution is obviously very slight, only one plate showing a count of over 2,000 organisms per 1 c.c. 5. The pollution is indeed so slight that the oxygen saturation (which is an index of the sterilising power of the water) was reduced at its lowest, by only one-third. In all cases it still remained very high indeed. So that even in the polluted area the water still retained a very high proportion of its sterilising power. V. 14-4-28. Wind S.W., light. Tide — 1 Ebbing. Low water, 11.5 a.m. INVESTIGATION INTO SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE BRISBANE ESTUARY. 19 Work started at 10.45 a.m. Work stopped at 11.8 a.m. Sewage discharging 16 hours up to 10 a.m. TABLE V. Origin of Sample. Plate Count per 1 c.c. Parts per 106. Chloride Content. Parts per 106. O2 Satura- tion %. 1. Beacon A* 2,080 15 x 103 88 2. 50 yds. north of beacon A 2,800 15 x 103 81 3. 100 yds. north of beacon A 3,080 15 x 103 85 4. 150 yds. north of beacon A 2,320 15 x 103 88 5. 200 yds. north of beacon A 3,520 15 x 103 88 6. 250 yds. north of beacon A 2,360 15 x 103 80 7. 300 yds. north of beacon A 1,440 15 x 103 88 8. 350 yds. north of beacon A 1,160 15 x 103 82 9. 400 yds north of beacon A 1,200 15 x 103 74 10. 450 yds. north of beacon A 1,320 15 x 103 86 Just before this investigation, sewage had been running into the estuary from within 2 hours 20 mins, of low tide on the night of 13-4-28, continuously through the flood tide from 9.24 p.m. that evening until the “turn” at 4.1 a.m. on 14-4-28, and continued on the ebb until stopped at 10 a,m., 14-4-28, about an hour before low water. VI. Table VI. shows plate counts of samples of water taken within 25 yds. of the shore with the wind slightly onshore. The average depth of the water was about 3 ft. 6 in. The plate counts are all very low and the 02 saturation always remains high. 14-4-28. Wind S.E., fresh — i.e., blowing onshore. Tide — Flood (2 hours 10 min. after turn). Work started at 1.15 p.m. Work finished at 1.50 p.m. Sewage stopped discharging after 16 hours run up to 10 a.m. 14-4-28 (See Table V.). TABLE VI. Origin of Sample. Plate Count per 1 c.c. Chloride Content. Parts per 10 6 . O2 Satura- tion %. 1. 200 yds. south of beacon A* 1,000 20 x 103 84 2. 500 yds. north of outfall See f note. 20 x 103 81 3. 400 yds. north of outfall [ ’ 210 20 x 103 89 4. 300 yds. north of outfall 990 20 x 103 85 5. Outfall 10,080 20 x 103 85 6. 100 yds. south of outfall 640 20 x 103 84 7. 200 yds. south of outfall 1,120 20 x 103 86 8. 300 yds. south of outfall 960 20 x 103 90 9. 400 yds. south of outfall 840 20 x 103 89 10. 500 yds. south of outfall 760 20 x 103 85 * Beacon A is about 900 yards N. of the outfall. f Sample II. was contaminated by tap water during manipulation, and colonies of B. sublilis vitiated the accuracy of the plate count. 20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. From this table it seems reasonable to assume that considerable sterilisation has taken place downstream, but that also some portion of the sewage remains as a residue in the zone at the outfall and is washed upstream on the flood tide. Subcultures were made of colonies selected at random from plates inoculated from water which is treated in Tables V. and VI. Two plates yielded lactose-fermenting organisms, but their distribution was so capricious I think it quite possible that similar organisms could be found in other situations. It must, however, be stated that the organisms INVESTIGATION INTO SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE BRISBANE ESTUARY. 21 which predominated most definitely in plates made from water at a distance from the outfall were fluorescent bacilli which did not ferment lactose but invariably fermented dextrose, and capable apparently of longer survival than those organisms usually regarded as significant of faecal contamination. VII. 17-4-28. Wind S.E., fresh. Tide — Ebbing. Low water 1.39 p.m. Work started at 12.15 p.m. Work finished at 12.45 p.m. Sewage discharging up to 11.30 a.m. Temperature of water 18° C. TABLE VII. Origin of Sample. Plant Count per 1 c.c. Parts per 106 Chloride Content. Parts per 106 O2 Satura- tion %. 1. 30 yds. south of outfall Parts 900 per 106. 15 x 103 Not < 90 2. Outfall 500 15 x 103 Not < 90 3. 20 yds. east of outfall 300 15 x 103 Not < 90 4. 50 yds. north of outfall 600 15 x 103 Not < 90 5. 100 yds. north of outfall 700 15 x 103 Not < 90 6. 200 yds. north of outfall 450 15 x 103 Not < 90 7. 300 yds. north of outfall 800 15 x 103 Not < 90 8. 400 yds. north of outfall 1,300 15 x 103 Not