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PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

ISSUED 20th MAY, 1936.

PRICE : FIFTEEM SKILLIPfGS.

Printed lor the Society
by

DAVID V/HYTE, Government Printer, Brisbane.

NOTICE TO AUTHORS

1. Each paper should be accompanied by the author’s name, degrees and official

address.

2. Papers must be complete and in a form suitable for publication when com-

municated to the Society and should be as concise as possible.

3. Papers must be accompanied by an abstract of not more than one hundred

words.

4. Papers should be in double-spaced typescript on one side of the paper with

ample margins.

5. The use of italics in the text should be restricted to generic and specific

names, foreign words and titles of periodicals.

6. The cost of author’s corrections to proof above what the Council considers

a reasonable amount, must be borne by the author.

7. Unless otherwise specified each author will be supplied with fifty separate

copies of his paper. Any number exceeding this may be obtained at
approximately cost price. •

8. All references should be listed at the end of each paper and arranged

alphabetically under authors’ names, e.g,y

Keilin, D. (1929) Proc. Eoy. Soc. B, vol. 104, p. 207.

Lesage, P. (1895) Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., vol. 1, p. 309.

The corresponding references in the text should be:

‘‘Keilin (1929)”, “Lesage (1895)”.

• 9. The size of the printed plate will not exceed 8 in. x 4^ in., and drawings
may be to this size, or preferably to ai convenient small multiple thereof.
The effect of the necessary reduction on lettering and fine detail should
be borne in mind. Text figures should be drawn for reduction to a width
not exceeding 4 in.

10. Drawing in line should be executed in intensely black ink, such as good

India ink, on a smooth surface, preferably Bristol board. Excessively
fine, scratchy or faint lines are to be avoided. Tints or washes cannot
be reproduced in line drawings, in which the maximum degree of contrast
is necessary.

11. Drawings or photographs for reproduction in half-tone should, where possible,

be grouped for reproduction on one plate. They should be done or
mounted on a smooth surface, such as Bristol board, as the grain of most
drawing papers becomes visible on reproduction. Single photographs
should be sent flat and unmounted. AH prints should be on glos8y
bromide or gas-light paper.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1935.

VOL. XLVII.

ISSUED 20lh MAY, 1936.

PRICE ; FIFTEEN SHILLINGS.

Printed for the Society
by

DAVID WHYTE, Government Printer, Brisbane.

The Royal Society of Qyeensland.

Patron :

HIS EXCELLENCY, LIEUTENANT-COLONEL THE EIGHT HONOUEABIiE
SIE LESLIE OEAIE WILSON, G.C.S.I., G.C.I.E., P.C., C.M.G., D.S.O.

OFFICERS, 1935^1936.

President :

EOBEET VEITCH, B.Se., F.E.S.

Vice-Presidents :

J. S. JUST, M.I.M.E.

Professor J. K. MUEEAY, B.A., B.Sc. Agr,

IS on. Treasurer:
E. W. BICK.

Son. Secretary:

F. A. PEEKINS, B.Sc. Agr.

Hon. Librarian:

E. A. O’CONNOE, M.Sc.

Hon. Editors:

W. H. BEYAN, M.C., D.Sc.
D. A. HEEBEET, D.Sc.

Menfihers of Council:

L. S. BAGSTEE, D.Se., H. A. LONGMAN, F.L.S., E. O. MAEKS, B.A., B.E., M.D.,
J. E VICKEEY, M.Sc., Ph.D., C. T. WHITE, F.L.S.

TruMees:

F. BENNETT, B.Sc., J. B. HENDEESON, F.I.C., A. JEFFEEIS TUENEE, M.H.

Hon. Auditor:

A. J. M. STONEY, B.E.E.

BanTcers :

COMMONWEALTH BANK OP AUSTEALIA.

CONTENTS.

Volume XL VII.

Pages,

No. 1. — Presidential Address: By J. S. Jmt, MJ,E. Amt. . 1-10

No. 2. — The Significance of pH Putrefactive Grade Test in Bacterio-
logical Water Analysis: By W. T. Eodertson .. .. 11-17

No. 3. — A Suggested Co-Enzyme Hypothesis for the Eipening of Fruits,

BY Ethylene Gas Treatment: By L. J. Lyneh, B.So. Agric. 18-24

No. 4. — Nev7 Australian Lepidoptera: By A. Jefferis Turner, M.D.,

E.F.E.S. . . . . . . . . 25-50

No. 5. — Contributions to the Queensland Flora, No. 5: By C. T. White 51-84

No. 6. — Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora — Part VI. —
Eremocitrus glauca: By L. F. HitcUeoch, M.So., and

T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.1 85-88

No. 7, — Notes on Some Pasture Problems of Western Queensland: By

S. T. Blaike, M.Sc 89-91

No. 8, — Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora, Part VIII. The
Identity of Melaleucol with Nerolidol: By T. G. E.

Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I., and J. M. Harvey, B.Sc. .. .. 92-93

Eeport of the Council . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . v.-vii.

Abstract of Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . viii.-xix.

List of Library Exchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . xx.-xxii.

List of Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii.— xxvii.

/

r

VoL. XLVII., No. 1.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of

Queensland.

Presidential Address.

BY

J. S. Just, M.I.E.E., M.I.E., Aust.

{Delivered before the Royal Sooiety of Queensland, 2^th March, 1935.)

The Councirs report, presented this evening, whilst indicating
satisfactory progress, also discloses the smallness of our numbers.

There are Queenslanders who should be sufficiently interested in the
work of this Royal Society to make association with it both instructive
and of interest, and we would like to welcome them as members.

Your CounciEs report also refers to the loss by death of two of its
members.

Professor B. D. Steele, F.R.S., who in 1910 was appointed first
holder of the Chair of Chemistry, University of Queensland, and the
first president of the Board of Faculties.

Professor Steele made some notable contributions to science, and
during the war served his King and country.

In the passing of Sir Edgeworth David, K.B.E., C.M.G., D.S.O.,
D.Sc., LL.D., a corresponding member of this Society, the world mourned
the loss of a great scientist and explorer, the army the loss of a great and
gallant soldier, whilst those who were privileged to know him, study
under him, or serve under him, the loss of a very dear and understanding
friend.

Professor David’s researches in the Hunter River district contri-
buted greatly to the material wealth of the Commonwealth, and through
tile inspiration of his teaching and the nobility of his character he
stimulated the thought and won the affection of all.

Australia has lost two esteemed scientists and worthy citizens.

One obligation attached to the high honour of being your President
during the year just closed is that I shall to-night present to you what
time-honoured custom has been pleased to call a ^ ‘ presidential address. ’ ’

The Royal Society of Queensland is, first and foremost, a scientific
society, and the interchange and advancement of scientific knowledge
may rightly describe the ambit of our activities. Many past presidents,
in presenting their addresses, have placed before you valuable research
work of great scientific interest — work with which they personally have
been very closely associated.

Since my association is rather with the commercial application of
scientific findings, as applied to engineering problems than with purely
scientific research work, I am prevented from following such excellent
examples.

KlOV 5 1936

2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

My term as your President commenced with the completion of the
first fifty years of this Royal Society of Queensland, and I feel that
it would be appropriate to review, in the limited way which time will
permit, the prog^ress during those fifty years of scientific research and
its commercial application, especially in the field of engineering, and to
touch lightly upon the economic and social obligations arising there-
from, including problems arising from the apparent effect of scientific
progress in relation to our social welfare. These are questions occupy-
ing the present attention of all thinking people.

Scientific advancement has crowded into a short space of fifty years
a greater amount of applied science of economic importance than can
be credited to a similar previous period. These scientific attainments
have brought with them a greater amount of social change than can be
credited to many times fifty years in all preceding history. It is
because these social changes are so closely allied with our commercial
and economic existence that I am taking the liberty, towards the close
of my address, of going beyond science and of touching lightly on
social and economic changes.

Believing the laws of nature have ordered that progress or change
is not made by leaps or revolutions, but rather, like the growth of a
snowball, by a multitude of minute additions to our knowledge, perhaps
some useful purpose might be served by looking backwards and briefly
touching on those material achievements or additions to our knowledge
which have come into the everyday lives of the people, and selecting
from the very wide variety available a few typical examples.

In its attempt to create more comfort and leisure for mankind,
the combined scientific and economic advance is a striking, concrete,
convincing, and tangible evidence of the value of scientific knowledge,
as suchj when applied to everyday affairs.

I think it may safely be stated that all electrical progress, excepting
the great initial discoveries of Faraday, Kelvin, and their contemporaries,
is the direct result of man’s activity during the past five decades - in fact,
electricity was scarcely more than a thing in embryo when this Society
held its first meeting during 1884.

In other fields of applied science we find that fifty years ago there
were no internal combustion engines of commercial note or worthy to
be called tools of marked utility, no automobile or aircraft industry,
no steam turbines; and that steam, although an enormous source of
mechanical power, was inefficiently employed in relatively small units
very akin to the things evolved by Watt.

Chemistry, perhaps the oldest of the sciences as adapted to human
interest, was still an industry dealing in simple processes with a rela-
tively limited list of materials largely inorganic in nature.

Photography as we know it to-day did not exist, whilst such indus-
tries as the manufacturing of paper and pottery, ancient though they
may be, had not advanced very far from the progenitors of ancient
times.

Agriculture was still practised by primitive methods handed down
from generation to generation. There Avas little real understanding of
the chemical control of the soil or soil mechanics, or of the possibilities
of producing new species almost at will, whilst disease or insect control
and the vast markets of the world, now made possible by refrigeration
and fast transport by land and sea, and even through the air itself,
were beyond the horizon of the imagination.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

3

Such gigantic progress did not happen by pure chance ; likewise,
substantially nothing of great value happened merely through the opera-
tion of the so-called inventive faculty — that unnatural burst into the
unknown. Nor can it be suggested that these vast and important changes
liave come about by a general awakening of the masses. Their very
magnitude and the diversity of results obtained in fields so widely
separated and unrelated bespeaks some source common to them all.

A careful investigation indicates that the common source — the
impelling force — behind the rapid progress in all these varied interests,
is scientific method and scientific technique, applied through organised
and co-ordinated research. These findings are modified to suit the
peculiar conditions of the particular industries.

In research laboratories each problem that seems w^orthy of considera-
tion, whether arising from past experience or promise of future possi-
bilities, is carefully analysed and its component parts attacked by
specialists. It is the supervised, directed, and the combined efforts of
the scientific investigators which give us the proven new ideas and
enable the engineer, the chemist, the physicist, the biologist, the geologist,
find others to build the new structure. Royal societies, by bringing
together those interested in the different branches of science, do much
to further such organised effort.

Perhaps no better illustration of the power of organised research
can be given than by referring to the progress made in the solution of
engineering problems, especially those to be found in the field of
electrical engineering. In this field the engineer, the chemist, the
physicist, the mathematician, the geologist, and other scientfic workers
have played leading parts.

If we could subtract from our present knowledge that which we
have gained during the past thirty years, our usages of electricity would
be considerably diminished, and the whole structure of industry changed.
Employment would be diminished, and our social and economic outlook
altered in a marked manner.

Perhaps one of the greatest benefits to mankind is the improvement
in lighting. How we would have managed to keep pace with the rush
and stress of business life, as conducted to-day, if compelled to depend
on the tallow ^^dip,” or even the open gas jet, need not be enlarged
upon.

Here scientific investigation has come to our aid. In electric light-
ing we first had the open arc lamp, followed by the carbon filament
vacuum lamp. Then followed such improvements as enclosed arc lamps
and other passing types. About twenty-eight years ago the metal
filament lamp, with voltages below 100, came into commercial use. This
lamp was rapidly improved to suit normal public supply pressure. The
most marked departure in recent years has been the substitution of
gas-'filled globes for vacuum globes, and a change in method of filament
design and manufacture.

Then came the tube lighting, known to the public as ‘‘Neon,” a
survival of the old vacuum tube filled with various conducting gases.

This brought further advance, and to-day we have the gas-filled
lube through which energy is passed, giving high light intensity and a
reasonable absence of glare. These lamps, although not suitable for
indoor lighting purposes, have an important claim for use on public
highways, where anti-glare, combined with maximum illumination, is
highly desirable.

4 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The transformer and the induction motor make it no longer neces-
sary to confine industry to areas where coal and water power are
available. To-day we are able to use the scientific knowledge of electricity
obtained during the past few decades to transmit electrical energy over
long distances, and to control it almost at will.

So great is the power and so delicate the control of commercially
distributed electrical energy that heavy industries and rapid transport
systems derive their energy from a common generating and distributing
system, which, in addition, lights our homes and reproduces sound
through our wireless equipments.

So satisfied are we with the control of this power that, whilst using
hundreds of horse-power of energy in industry we, with confidence,
allow our dentist to utilise the same source of energy to drill a tiny
hole in our tooth — this without the least thought of the contrast between
the high-powered physical unit transforming stored energy into elec-
tricity and the small dental motor rotating a drill within a cavity of
our tooth.

Our knowledge of the mysterious X-ray has been enlarged. It is
well known that these rays, which have no electromagnetic properties,
blacken photographic plates, and when they impinge upon certain
chemicals and minerals, these substances glow with a visible light.

These rays are used in the practice of medicine, and also play an
important part in industry for the purpose of determining the sound-
ness of structures. Much expensive machining can be voided by detect-
ing faulty castings whilst they are in their crude state. In addition,
these rays are our best and surest method of examining welds in
materials.

They are useful in examining rolled or drawn metal parts for the
presence of slag or for overdrawing by cold work. Many materials,
such as coal, rubber, wood, bakelite, etc., can be examined for defects
or for the presence of foreign materials. The field for useful employ-
ment of these rays in industry is being daily enlarged.

As previously pointed out to this Society by Professor Bagster,
the use of X-rays is now well established in the examination of oil
paintings and objects of art.

The electrical engineer has contributed to matters associated with
X-rays : Diathermy, high-frequency currents, ultra-violet radiation, and
other miscellaneous electrical treatments of the human body — all valu-
able aids to the skilled surgeon and physician.

The radiology developments include the means of preventing the
emergence of the unwanted X-radiations, the wide application of shock-
proofing X-ray tubes, generators, cables, etc., and the production of
high-power tubes and rectifying valves.

In the practice of medicine the all-important protection of the
patient and of the operator is now given by shrouding the tube itself,
thereby preventing the emergence of the ray except through a properly
controlled window.

During the past four years important developments have occurred
in the X-tubes themselves, and most modern tubes are now vacuum
type — not gas-filled, as was previously the case. High-voltage tubes are
common, the rectified current reaching 100,000 volts (peak value).

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

5

Diathermy is being applied over an increasingly wide range of
diseases, including internal secretions, rheumatic disorders, deafness,
skin trouble, and nervous complaints. This increased use has given an
impetus to improve the efficiency and compactness of the necessary
apparatus.

The introduction of the continuous-wave valve and oscillator has
added a new surgical instrument of high power ; yet in competent hands
it is flexible and easy to control.

The use of very high frequencies has permitted the production of
artiflcial fever without the necessity of placing the patient in contact
with electrodes.

Violet and ultra-violet rays are still being produced by electrostatic
jnachines, although the mercury- vapour-quartz lamp is the most powerful
and efficient source of ultra-violet radiation at present available.

Infra-red rays from banks of carbon lamps and radiating .from
bowl fires are being utilised increasingly for the relief of rheumatic and
similar ailments.

Yet another advance relates chiefly to the theory of electrical trans-
mission by telegraph and telephone.

The problem of electric and magnetic flux, which crowds into the
most important chapter in the history of electrical science, is based on
the foundations laid by Faraday and Maxwell, although these fathers of
electrical science failed to realise that the electro-magnetic flux repre-
sented electromagnetic energy of an electromagnetic field.

It was not until Hertz, in 1888 (four years after our Society was
formed), propounded his clasiscal experiments that the value of, and
possibilities arising from, Faraday’s and Maxwell’s theories dawned upon
the engineer.

With the appreciation of the new factor ‘Meactance, ” and later
a second new factor inductance”) commenced the commercial appli-
cation of electricity. From the appreciation of these new factors followed
the under-ocean telegraph cable, the dynamo for the supply of light and
power, and the commercial use of the telephone.

The radio development of to-day elegantly describes what electro-
magnetic theories, enlarged upon by later knowledge, have done for the
transmission of music, speech, and pictures across oceans and continents.

To-day the youngest schoolboy realises that messages are carried
on the wings of the electrical waves, and most of them use the terms
‘ ^ reactance ’ ’ and ‘ ‘ inductance ’ ’ in connection with the wireless receiving
sets without realising their significance or even giving a thought to the
works of the various scientists v/hose combined efforts have made wire-
less broadcasting possible.

In 1886 the British Navy carried out its earliest commercial experi-
ment with wireless telegraphy, and during the next thirty years all
naval ships were fitted with wireless signalling ec^uipment, it being the
only long-range means of communication available to them.

By 1900 about forty-three ships in the British Navy were equipped
with wireless telegraph apparatus, but it was not until five to six years
later that the wireless branch of the Navy was formed.

6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Perhaps one of the most useful applications of electrical sound-
recording is that used to ascertain the depth of the sea. There are at
present several types of marine sounding devices in regular use, but
there has recently been developed what is known as the magnetostriction
echo depth recorder. This device produces a continuous record of the
sea’s depth whilst the ship is travelling at full speed, and is claimed to
be commercially accurate w^hen used in water from 2 ft. to 200 ft. in
depth. The sea depths can be transmitted to the bridge, where they
are recorded as a well-defined line on a scale chart of chemically prepared
paper.

This apparatus is installed within the steel hull, and is not inter-
fered with by the nature of the cargo carried. The system is at present
being thoroughly tested by the British Navy,

The use of this or similar information-recordiing devices on merchant
ships when in foreign waters, during darkness or fog, and in the location
of sunken objects will be apparent to all, and should considerably
reduce the loss of life and property now occasioned by shipwreck.

The thermonic valve was rapidly developed during the great war,
and at its close was adapted for modern wireless broadcasting purposes.
This valve has improved our broadcasting programmes, and such fine
limits of control have been obtained that, quite recently and from this
city, our Royal visitor, the Duke of Gloucester, although a distance of
12,000 miles away, used this type of valve to launch a mighty ocean liner
from its cradle into the waters of the Clyde.

We now have a world-wide commercial telephone service. We are
able to use our local telephone instruments to communicate with other
countries, and also are able to carry on two-way conversations with
those on board liners a thousand or more miles from land.

To-day the picturegram is being sent the length and breadth of the
globe per medium of this thermonic valve.

Television, now in the experimental stage,' may rapidly rise to the
commercial stage, and make still more striking the wonderful progress
of electricity.

Turning now to other fields of scientific research, we have the
automobile industry made possible by the development of the internal
combustion engine. The scientific research work on this engine has
practically all been done during the life of this Society, although a few
principles, as in the case of electricity, go back to before 1884. Collateral
with and closely allied to the automobile engine is the research work
that has been involved in the development of various liquid fuels — the
life-blood of this type of machine. Were it not for the joint result of
these two scientific research activities, the internal combustion engine
could not have advanced, and we could not have had the aviation
industry, which to-day is making such rapid progress and has bridged
the gap between England and Australia. To-day we have the air mail
between the mother country and ourselves, and even the time now
taken will seem extraordinarily slow when compared with the aeroplane
of the future, which will probably reach undreamt-of speed when
traversing the stratosphere.

The dream of the heavier-than-air machine could not have been
realised had not the engineer and allied scientists combined in producing
large reliable power units of small weight.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

7

The great advance in the chemical industry has come during our
fifty years of existence, and, again, is the direct result of organised
scientific research applied to materials and to the various processes by
which new materials are evolved. Not only have materials and processes
of inorganic chemistry been amplified enormously, but the whole field
of organic chemistry has also been substantially created.

When we consider the large number of so-called elements and the
incredible number of their possible permutations and combinations, it
seems to indicate that in the years ahead continuation and amplification
by scientific methods of the activities in the field of chemistry are likely
to dwarf into insignificance its surprising progress during the last half-
century.

Agriculture, although more ancient than engineering or chemistry,
and with an origin lost in the mists of antiquity, is practically a repeti-
tion of scientific advancement of engineering and chemistry during the
last fifty years.

Apart from the application of mechanical power for the purpose
of labour-saving appliances, there is no other economic section of our
civilisation where the result of the application of scientific research has
been more marked than in the field of agriculture, and where, perhaps,
the effect on human welfare is more far reaching.

During the life of the Royal Society of Queensland more has been
learnt of soil chemistry and soil mechanics than ever before ; yet our
knowledge is still far from complete. Through intensive organised
research in the field of botanical and biological science we have learnt
to combat plant disease and plant pests which, in past years, destroyed
many forms of agriculture and laid waste fertile land. Perhaps the
prickly-pear destruction in Queensland may be quoted as an important
example.

We have learnt to control the mosquito (we do not apply our
knowledge locally^ but some day we will be forced to do so) and thereby
to remove one of the discomforts and dangers to health. We have yet
to learn, biologically or otherwise, the economic control of various forms
of fly pests so damaging to human health as well as to animal and plant
life. The control of ticks and other insect pests is in hand; yet many
more branches remain to be investigated and conquered.

Rapid transport has considerably altered some of the world’s
marketing problems. Science has opened a market for our produce
and the produce of other countries, and has made apparent the advan-
tages and disadvantages of international interchange of trade.

We have learnt to hold Queensland chilled beef over the necessary
period to enable its transport to overseas markets, and we are proud
to record that much of the scientific research work in connection with
('hilled beef transportation has been carried out in Queensland and under
the personal direction of one of our members.

The outcome of scientific research has brought into the economic
life of the nations problems which we, as a scientific Society, should
not altogether leave to others to solve.

It has been repeatedly stated that the present world-wide economic
difficulties are largely due to the vast scientific advancements of recent
times.

8

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

As scientists, we are told that we have so mechanised industry that
to-day we are the direct cause of unemployment and a contributing
cause to the social unrest which is so prominent in Europe, and, in fact,
all parts of the civilised world.

Surely such a charge, so frequently repeated, is of sufficient import-
ance to make us inquire whether such is or is not the case ! If we are
the direct cause, then it is reasonable to expect us to provide the remedy
or else close down our scientific progress. If we are not wholly, or even
partly responsible, the social condition is such that we surely cannot
pass by without making some effort towards its improvement nor allow
the stigma to remain because of our unwillingness to assist in combating
it !

Cannot we, by scientific and organised research, help to dispel the
unhealthy infiuence which we have directly or indirectly created, and
which has assumed larger proportions than, perhaps, would otherwise
have been the case had we earlier thrown our training and thought into
its solution?

Perhaps this is a field where, apart from our purely scientific work,
Ave can work together with the other leaders of thought, the statesmen,
the banker, and the economist in the common cause of uplifting mankind
and teaching him how to use the greater comforts which we have helped
to create, and employ usefully the greater leisure we have made available
to him.

Our scientific training teaches us that by combination the elements
grow in size and strength, and that by separation we can reverse that
process. As surely as division means destruction, so surely will scientific
amalgamation of facts and forces create that which will grow in size,
strength, and beauty.

From the dawn of history, and until a few generations ago, the
Avorld’s work was done by manual labour. From dawn till dusk man
toiled with his hands simply to obtain sufficient food, clothing, and
shelter to keep body and soul together. To-day science has so improved
conditions that the material comforts of the masses greatly exceed even
those of the privileged feAV in olden days.

Has the advancement been for the country ’s good ? Has the growth
of ten ears of corn where previously only one grew been to our
advantage? Have the modern methods of preparing food and clothes,
the rapid and distant transport of our grown or manufactured products,
the wider knowledge of the peoples of the globe, and freer intercourse
caused unemployment and unrest? These are the questions which we,
as scientists, should face and answer satisfactorily.

As previously stated, it has been repeatedly claimed that the
scientist, and through him the engineer, is the principal cause of
unemployment because he has so mechanised industry and increased
productivity as to create over-production and unemployment by utilis-
ing machinery instead of manual labour.

- Let us examine such a statement. To-day the requirements of the
individual are far greater than previously ; different and more compli-
cated food and more clothing than ever before are now required. These
increases demand an advance in science and in labour. It is beyond
question that industry has been mechanised, and also, unfortunately,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

9

that we have been compelled to push aside from certain classes of work
those individuals who have not fitted themselves for the greater work
made available in other industries.

Looking along some of these mechanised industries and starting
with transport, we do not find it far to glance back upon, poorly con-
structed roads and horse-drawn vehicles on land, or wind-driven ships
at sea. Yet have these transport changes caused universal or even
partial unemployment?

Instead of unemployment, they have given employment by creating
a wider field of use and a greater demand for comfort and leisure;
together with a desire to travel. It does not require a reference to
statistics to prove that the employment given to-day by railways and
steamships, automobile factories and filling stations, aerodromes, and
the supplying of fuel to the various forms of mechanical transport far
exceeds that given by the stage coach, the livery stable, and sailing ships
of fifty years ago. The mining and manufacture of metals for the
construction of, and obtaining fuel for use in, transport units give far
greater employment than growing food for horses.

The same can be said of our food and clothing. To-day our food-
stuffs are so highly refined that much labour is required for their
preparation. I could go through clothing, housing, and other necessary
commodities in a similar liianner — all of which show increased employ-
ment to supply present-day individual wants.

Apart from pecessary commodities, we have an important industry
which, whilst perhaps a partial luxury, is fast becoming an everyday
necessity. I refer to artificial air-conditioning. We have our air-
conditioned factories, stores, offices, homes, and public halls, and we
also use air-conditioned rooms for the storage of foodstuffs, thereby
materially assisting in the preservation of our food for daily consump-
tion and the regular marketing of our perishable products. We also use
air-conditioned rooms to control the ripening of our fruit.

Ventilation with conditioned air is a great aid to personal comfort,,
since adequate ventilation maintains conditions which ensure the health
and comfort of occupants in any given space. The essential comfort
factors of efficient ventilation are the control of the temperature,
humidity, and the motion of the air.

An ordinary thermometer is of only relative value for indicating
personal comfort. The sense of warmth experienced by the human body
is not due alone to the temperature registered by the dry-bulb
thermometer; neither does it depend solely upon that recorded by the
wet-bulb thermometer. Human comfort depends largely on body
temperature, which is in turn affected by —

(a) Loss of heat by convection and radiation;

(h) Loss of heat by evaporation;

(c) The motion of the air aiding both these factors.

Scientific research as applied by industry in controlling air tem-
peratures and humidity has made the artificial preservation of our
food and of our personal comfort an every day activity of maximum
importance. We also have our purely luxury or non-essential require-
ments, embracing rapid transport systems, radio, cable and telephone
service, the distribution of news service, picture theatres, organised

10 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

amusements, and a host of other similar things. These are all additions
which, during the last fifty years, have definitely created new avenues
of employment.

Even in this enlightened age we hear some proclaim that it would
be better if machinery disappeared. This is equivalent to asking that
homespun garments be used and that everyone should grow his own
spinach and potatoes, because, by so doing, all would be employed.

How many of these complainants would appreciate going back to
the rush light, to slow instead of rapid transport, to stairs instead of
elevators, to the drawing of water and hewing of firewood, and the
absence of places of amusement? I venture to say that few, if any,
who hold these retrograde views are old enough to understand or appre-
ciate what they are suggesting or can even in part visualise the
disadvantages and discomforts involved.

The luxury and convenience of the telephone at our elbow, when,
with as little effort as is taken to light the occasional cigarette, we may
talk to friends far apart, and, by even less personal exertion, we are
entertained by music through the radio loud speaker ! These enjoyments
were not available fifty or even thirty years ago.

Luxuries previously non-existent create new avenues of employment.

The scientist is not a destructor of civilisation, but a creator of
comfort, leisure, and, indeed, luxury. By comfort and leisure I do not
mean a life of idleness, but rather a process of education so that we may
have more opportunities to do those things which we want to do for
pleasure or interest, and not because the doing of them is required to
enable us to earn our food, clothing, and housing.

In addition to scientific production and distribution, are we not
now required to teach people how best they may employ that comfort
and leisure which the scientist has made available?

Our politicians, merchants, and others have failed to market the
products available. They have failed to distribute or fully utilise the
wealth at their disposal. Scientific advance has added to their work by
giving greater production coupled with distribution problems.

The prosperity of the nations depends on increasing production until
a point is reached when there is sufficient to supply the needs and desires
of everyone.

Statistics show that our present production is inadequate and
unbalanced. There are too few of some goods and too many of others.
If we interest ourselves in production only, we leave the most important
work undone. We must also distribute. I do not mean that we shall
by scientific methods evolve means of transportation, but I use distribu-
tion in the much wider sense which includes everything necessary to
place the products of industry within the reach of every worker.

Distribution should not be excluded from scientific thought and
methods of investigation, and it is here, in conjunction with the states-
man, the economist, the banker, and others, that the scientist can attempt
to influence the methods of investigation and research.

As a section of the community trained to test and investigate in a
thoroughly scientific manner the many problems of nature and science,
the Royal Society of Queensland, if not as a collective body, then
through and by its individual members, has an important part to play
in maintaining national prosperity.

VoL. XL VII., No. 2.

11

The Significance of pH Putrefactive Grade Test
J in Bacteriological Water Analysis.

By W. T. Robertson, Bacteriologist, Water Supply Department,

Brisbane City Council.

{Bead before the Boyal Society of Queensland, 2Srd April, 1935.)

What is the most reliable evidence on which to judge a potable
water? Present authorities are in favour of the results of a bacterio-
logical analysis in respect, firstly, to numbers of total micro-organisms
per cubic centimetre, and secondly, to the presence or absence of the
colon bacillus or its allied forms in quantities of water up to 10 c.c.
It is claimed that the presence of the B. coli in such a water may suggest
the likelihood of the presence also of B. typhosus. To test for typhosus
is a very arduous business in routine work, but to test for B. coli and
its allies is a far simpler task; hence it is on this organism’s appearance
or non-appearance in water supplies that the standard of purity is based.

Many and varied are the methods which have been adopted in
order that investigators may have concrete evidence of these coli-forms
in the supplies. In ordinary practice a plate of^ lactose-bile salt agar
with neutral red added is used for isolation purposes. I have found,
however, that eosin-methylene blue agar with lactose added gives better
results in water routine and is more in keeping with the results obtained
in sugar broth tests. Some investigators — MacConkey, for instance —
discovered that typical Bacillus coli preferred ox bile to grow in, whilst
at the same time it was observed that the bile inhibited the free growth
of other bacteria which are of no consequence.

It is well known to bacteriologists that certain bacteria have the
ability to split up certain sugars, thus causing fermentation, which
produces acid and gas (carbon dioxide and hydrogen mainly), the
quantities depending on the type of putrefactive micro-organisms
present.

My experience has been, however, that the bile salt broth does not
exhibit all the positive tests it should for total putrefactives, so it leads
one to wonder if the inhibiting power possessed by the ox bile does not
also inhibit certain lesser members of the coli-aero genes group. This
means, therefore, that this test by itself leaves a lot to be desired, so
that for water giving negative results erroneously other tests must be
run concurrently, in order to check one test against the other. By a
long series of routine experiments I claim to have eliminated much of
the possibility of this error.

Take an ordinary 2 per cent, peptone broth and adjust its pH
to approximately 7-10; add 2 per cent, lactose to the broth; tube in
5-c.c. quantities and sterilise at 15 lb. per sq. in. for ten minutes. When
the test is being made add 10 c.c. of water to be tested, and incubate
for forty-eight hours at 37 degrees C., but definitely no longer than
forty-eight hours, or the significance of the test will be lost.

Divide the incubated water and broth into two equal portions ; try
one portion for a low pH reading and the other for a pH between 6-2

12

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

and 7-2. When the correct reading for comparative purposes is reached
by means of prepared buffer solutions, and an appropriate indicator
added to test solution, the result obtained can be at once classified.

I grade the water under test, for convenience, into five groups,
viz. : — A, B, C, D, and E, according to the following ranges of pH : —

A Grade
B Grade
C Grade
D Grade
E Grade

pH 7.1 or 7.2 — 7.0
6.9 — 5.9
5.8 — 5.1
5.0 — 4.8

4.70 and under if necessary.

Now, as a ru^e, it will be found that faecal strains of B. coU ferment
lactose freely, and therefore a low pH can be expected (there are a
few exceptions to this, such as types with slow fermenting powers leaving
the reduction of lactose incomplete at the end of forty-eight hours).

The fascal types, therefore, are included mainly in groups D and
E, non-fascal types occur in group C and the early part of group B, and
B. cerogenes in the later part of group B, pH 6-60 to 6.90. B. cerogenes,
as a rule, ferments the lactose, causing an increased acidity for half
the incubation period; fermentation then ceases, and the broth gains
in alkalinity for the latter half of the period ; hence the range suggested
here. If a culture gives at the end of forty-eight hours a reading
greater than the initial reading of the adjusted broth, aerogenes still
may be the cause. Group A covers quality water of good potability and
beyond suspicion.

It can be seen from the above grouping that the water can definitely
be graded; thus the entire test has been named the ‘‘pH Putrefactive
Grade Test,” the putrefactive bacteria, in this case, being the lactose
fermenters. One of the most important uses to which this test can be
applied is in the checking of the effective chlorine dose; that is to
say, the absence of any fermentation in such a broth test would prove
chlorination effective. On the other hand, where residual chlorine has
decreased owing, for instance, to colour factor or increased demand,
putrefactive readings will appear to decline, slowly, perhaps, on the first
day, and reach the vicinity of 6-40^ decreasing then to 5-90, and again
later to 540, finally reaching the lower colon range (non-fsecal) of
5*20 to 5-00, and so on.

When the first decline in pH is noticed, doses of chlorine should be
increased at once so as to prevent any further lowering effect.

It is understood, of course, that other groups of bacteria, also
certain eoccal forms, have this lactose-fermenting power — for example,
members of the lactic acid group, which includes M. acidi-lactis, also
the sulphite-reducing bacteria which are found in many polluted waters,
these waters as a rule containing high concentrations of sulphates and
sulphites ; thus hydrogen sulphide is produced on incubation, due
entirely to bacterial action in a sugar broth medium. If such bacteria
as the above were present in a raw water, it is almost certain the B, coli
would also be present in fair numbers.

It might be said here that this test is particularly suitable for the
grading of raw waters in order to decide if they are potable without
treatment. Now, some actual figures will help us to value this test.
A certain number of tests on filtered waters were grouped together at

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF pH PUTREFACTIVE GRADE TEST, ETC. 13

random, and 18-3 per cent, of these gave positive B. coli results (both
faecal and non-faecal types) in this special peptone lactose broth^ whilst
for the same tests done in lactose hile salt broth only 4-6 per cent,
were positive. This would indicate that the test is four times as effective
as that of the ox bile broth for B. coli and its allied forms.

Figures appended here concern, firstly, a survey of raw water
samples from the Upper Brisbane River collected during the year
1933. Of the total number of tests made, 4 per cent, were negative in
regard to B. coH-cerogenes or any of its allied forms.

B. coli faecal showed in 38 per cent, of the tests ;

B. coli non-faecal showed in 47 per cent. ; and

B. cerogenes showed in 11 per cent.

These figures demonstrate the effectiveness of this test alone; the
positive totalled 96 per cent, of the tests done. Comparing these figures
with those obtained after immediate filtration and chlorination for the
same period, we have the following: —

B. coli faecal types showed in 1*20 per cent, of the tests.

B. coli non-faecal types showed in 8-40 per cent, of the tests.

B. cerogenes are included in the 8-40 per cent. ; therefore, 90-4
per cent, of these tests were negative.

To sum up, the claims put forward here are that this simple test is
highly effective in {a) grading waters, (&) checking purification effect,
both filtration and chlorination, and (c) checking the potability of raw
waters where treatment has not definitely been decided upon. The
grading will give the investigator knowledge concerning types of bacteria
of a polluting character likely to be present. It must be remembered,
however, that quite a number of nitrifying bacteria gathered by river .
waters during high flow over ploughed farm land are capable of ferment-
ing lactose, and this test may reveal them. However, this still is an
indication of possible pollution, which is what was aimed at when I
introduced this test into our bacteriological water practice.

Appended here will be found an experiment carried out in order
to demonstrate the use of the so-called pH putrefactive grade test.

Six (6) samples were made up from polluted water drawn from a
waterhole, and this water diluted with various quantities of sterile tap
water. A total count” was made on the raw sample, also a plate
count” taken on eosin-methylene blue lactose agar, for typical
B. coli colonies. In order to grade the degree of pollution, chemically
as well, nitrogen determined as free and albuminoid ammonia was
estimated on all six samples, also the raw sample. The pond-water had
a chloride (as Cl) value of 156 parts per million, and a total alkalinity
(as CaCOg) of 68 parts per million.

In Experiment I., I venture to state, after looking through the
results obtained, had there been a dilution sample between 1 in 100 and
1 in 200, a reading may have been obtained in the early part of the coli
non-fgecal range, say, between 5-2 and 5*7.

Another point this experiment demonstrates very particularly is
that comparative relation between total micro-organisms and nitrogen
contents means very little unless correlated with the absence or presence
of B. coli or its allied forms.

This is illustrated amply in samples D and E, E containing no
B. coli, but other less fermentative bacteria are evidently present.

14

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYxiL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Experiment

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Samples C, D, and E, are of interest for comparative purposes in respect to the two broth tests,

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF pH PUTREFACTIVE GRADE TEST, ETC.

15

Experiment II. —

Five dilution bottles taken, and c.e. of broth culture containing
B. putridum (a type nearly resembling B. fluorescens) was placed in the
first dilution bottle.

Sample.

Dilution.

Number of
Organisms in
Dilution.

Lactose Bile Broth.
Acid and Gas
Production.

La ctose-Peptone
Broth.

Grade.

24 Hours. 48 Hours.

pH in

24 Hours. 48 Hours.

0

1 to 1,000

At least 6,000

+ +

-f 5-70

C

A

1 to 1,200

2,200

+ +

-f 5-60

C

B

1 to 1,500

20

Acid only

-f 5*80

C

C

1 to 1,900

Nil

— —

- 7-10

A

D

1 to 2,400

Nil

— —

- 7-10

A

A cultural feature was the large quantities of gas generated in
the peptone lactose broth in twenty-four hours. This had completely
disappeared at the end of forty-eight hours.

Two sub-cultures were made, and one after twenty-four hours
incubation gave pH of 5-40, the other of 5*8 ; so the results regarding
a decreased pH over the final twenty-four hours are rather conflicting.

I have appended here sub-cultural data which will more fully bear
out my conclusions in connection with the pH putrefactive grade tests.

Experiment I. — The cultural medium was an adjusted lactose-
peptone broth.

A pure culture of B. cero genes cultured originally from a raw water
supply.

(a) Time cultured (&) Time cultured

pH

in hours.

pH

in hours.

7.10

Initial

7.10

Initial

6.80

17 hours

6.90

4 hours

6.80 ‘

23 hours

6.90

8 hours

7.6

40 hours

6.90

24 hours

6.90

32 hours

7.30

48 hours

Another culture originally isolated from Enoggera Reservoir and
subsequently was proven to be B. lactis-cerogenes.

This culture gave the following additional sub-cultural results : —

Voges-Proskauer reaction . .
Methyl red
Indol production
Saccharose broth

pH

7.10

6.70

6.60

6.60

7.00

6.90

6.90

+

-}- acid and gas only.

Time cultured in hours.

Initial
16 hours
. . 20 hours

24 hours
. . . . 40 hours

. . 48 hours

. . . , 64 hours

16

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Another culture taken from the same source as the one above gave

the following results: —

Voges-Proskauer reaction
Methyl red
Indol production
Saccharose broth

pH

7.10 . .

6.70 . .

6.80 . .

6.80 . .

7.10 . .

7.10 ..

7.50 . .

+

-j- acid and gas and fluorescence.

Time cultured in hours.

Initial
16 hours
20 hours
24 hours
40 hours
. . 48 hours

64 hours

This culture has proven itself to be B. lactis-cerogenes also. Both
these cultures, due to their pH figures, in forty-eight hours would be very
difficult to detect.

Cultures under the heading of ^ ^ P^secal Types ’ ’ also show interesting,
cultural features.

A culture originally taken from a plate-culture of water drawn
from Brisbane Kiver raw supply : —

Voges-Proskauer reaction .. —

Methyl red reaction . . . . -\~

Lactose bile salt broth reaction -|-
Saccharose broth reaction . . —

Indol production . . • • +

pH

Time cultured in hours.

7.10

6.30

6.20

6.00

5.20

5.0

5.20

Initial
16 hours
20 hours
24 hours
36 hours
48 hours
64 hours

This is apparently a B. coli fgecal strain.

Another culture with apparently the same cultural characteristics-
as the previous one gave the following results : —

Voges-Proskauer reaction .
Methyl red reaction . .
Lactose bile salt broth
Saccharose broth
Indol production

pH

7.10

6.40

6.10

5.20

5.0

4.9

5.0

- (C

+

4- acid only

+

Time cultured in hours.

Initial
16 hours
20 hours
24 hours
36 hours
. . 40 hours

72 hours

This culture, in order to be satisfactorily classified, should havo
given a positive methyl-red reaction as a faecal type. All other tests
bear out this conclusion.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OP pil PUTREFACTIVE GRADE TEST, ETC.

17

However, another type was cultured from the same source and
gave results more in keeping with classification: —

Voges-Proskauer reaction . .
Methyl red reaction . .
Lactose bile salt broth
Saccharose

+

-4- acid only

Indol production
Glucose fermentation

+

(?)

pH

7.10

Time cultured in hours.
Initial

6.40

16 hours

6.20

20 hours

5.80

24 hours

5.50

40 hours

5.80

48 hours

This looks to be a type of ancerogenes. A pH reading was taken
of this culture in eighty-eight hours, and a reading of 6-20 was obtained,
showing that back-to-alkalinity reaction characteristic of the oerogenes.
The above group of tests, however, do not bear out this conclusion,
showing as they do a negative Voges-Proskauer test but a positive
saccharose broth test ; so a non-faecal colon type will be the classification
in this case.

B. ancerogenes is a probability here, as very little gas was produced
in the fermentation reactions, and this feature is characteristic of the
ancerogenes.

A culture of interest to the waterworks bacteriologist might be
outlined here.

A gull ‘ ‘ dropping ’ ’ was taken from the surface of an open filter-bed
and placed in an extract broth and cultured, and then a spread-culture
made, and the predominating type was again recultured. The following
results were obtained : —

Methyl red reaction . .
Voges-Proskauer reaction
Glucose fermentation
Lactose bile salt broth
Saccharose broth
Indol production

pH

7.0-7.10

5.90

5.90 . .

5.90

5.50

5.50

5.90

6.90

+

+

4"

-j- acid, gas, and fluorescence

+

Time cultured in hours.
Initial
16 hours
20 hours
24 hours
. . 40 hours

48 hours
72 hours
1 week

In our classification at the end of forty-eight hours this culture
would appear in our C grade as a coli non-fsecal type ; it is apparently
of the ‘‘grain” type. Large numbers of grass seeds were apparent in
the excreta on examination.

These tests will in some way help to bear out the classification and
grading which I have made earlier concerning the pH putrefactive
grade tests.

The grade does not always, unfortunately, settle the question as to
the type or types of polluting organisms present, but gives us a very
good idea of the type of water and the degree of pollution with which
we are dealing.

18

VoL. XL VII., No. 3.

A Suggested Co-Enzyme Hypothesis for the
Ripening of Fruits, by Ethylene Gas Treatment.

1 By L. J. Lynch, B.Sc.Agric., Robert Philp Scholar,

f University of Queensland.

{Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 24t/i June, 1935.)

INTRODUCTORY.

The artificial ripening of fruits by ethylene gas treatment has
in recent years assumed such proportions that it is now regarded as
part and parcel of the marketing process in many branches of the fruit
industry. By reason of the commercial importance of the procedure, it
is imperative that a complete understanding of the basic scientific
principles of ethylene treatment should be made available, since in the
absence of such knowledge we cannot hope to obtain a maximum return
for energy expended. It is, therefore, with the hope of passing another
milestone towards the ultimate goal that this paper is presented.

A number of theories of a more or less tentative nature have been
advanced to account for the induction of edible maturity in many
fruits by the use of ethylene gas. It was early suggested that the sole
effect of the treatment amounted to a disorganisation of the chlorophyll
of the outer tissues of the fruit, the destruction of the green pigment
making visible the previously disguised yellow colour of the carotinoids —
e.g., as in the banana. Such a theory does not account for the internal
ripening changes which are simultaneously induced in the banana, while,
on the other hand, it is tenable in the case of citrus fruits, in which the
ripening of the pulp is not accelerated by gas treatment. Precipitation
of tannins by ethylene gas is another suggestion advanced to account
for the removal of astringency in the fruit — e.g., persimmon — but this
explanation ignores the bulk of the changes which take place during the
ripening process. The rise in the respiratory rate of treated fruits has
led to the theory of permeability change (Regeimbal, Vacha, and Harvey
(1927)®), whereby increased membrane permeability allows of the more
rapid diffusion of oxygen and in consequence a rise in the rate of tissue
oxidations. In view of the work of Denny (1924)^, this explanation
does not appeal, for, if ethylene in a concentration of 1 part in 1,000,000
of air is of sufficient potency to increase permeability, as evidenced by
the intensified respiration of gas-treated lemons, then a concentration
of 1 part of this gas in 1,000 of air would surely induce irreversible
change in; the plasma membrane. Other theories as to the mechanism
of ethylene ripening include the stimulation of oxidising enzymes both
with respect to quantity and activity, and, while it is not proposed to
review in extenso the suggestions which have been put forward, it is
considered that these latter theories have much to commend them.

SOME PHYSICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ETHY-
LENE TREATMENT OF FRUITS IN THE PRESENCE OP

OXYGEN.

From the purely physical aspect, the effect of ethylene gas upon
fruits may be twofold. It hastens the production of the normal ripe
colour in such fruits as the banana, the tomato, and the pineapple,

A SUGGESTED CO-ENZYME HYPOTHESIS FOR THE RIPENING OF FRUITS^ ETC. 19

while internally it brings about changes in texture, flavour, and degree
of sweetness or other characteristic property such that we regard the
fruit to be in an edibly mature condition. This internal effect, however,
is not uniformly produced in all ethylenised fruits, and it is a pecu-
liarity of citrus fruits that no internal ripening occurs as a result of
commercial gas treatment. The inability of citrus fruits to respond to
ethylene is of the greatest importance, and provides evidence which
will be discussed in a later section of this paper.

From the physiological point of view, commercial gas treatment
w’ould appear to accelerate the general metabolism of the fruit, as
shown by the rise in the rate of respiration ; or, alternatively, we may
regard the acceleration of metabolism to be due to a direct intensifica-
tion of respiration, since it is owing to this phenomenon that energy is
derived for expenditure in vital processes.

An increase in the respiration rate of lemons was reported by
Denny (1924)^ as a result of the use of ethylene in air in concentrations
ranging from 1 part of gas in 1,000 of air to 1 part in 1,000,000. The
percentage increase ranged from 100 per cent, to 250 per cent.

Lot No.

Weight of
Fresh Fruit.

Treatment.

Rate of Respiration Mg of CO2 per Rg per Hour.

1 (Day).

2 (Days.)

4 (Days).

6 (Days.)

8 (Days).

C

698

Ethylene

10-5

21-0

22- 0

41- 1

30-6

D

649

Ethylene

11-3

15-4

29-8

28-8

32-9

E

658

Control

10- 1

7-1

10- 1

10- 1

10- 1

F

693

Control

11*5

9-1

8*7

12-5

9-6

Effect of Ethylene upon the Rate of Respiration of Lemons (Denny, 1924)^.

Effect op Ethyi^ene upon the Rate of Respiration of Lemons

(Denny, 1924). ^

I have measured, upon a number of separate occasions, the rate of
respiration of late Valencia oranges in air and in a gas mixture of 1
part of ethylene in 1,000 parts of air, and the following is a typical
result. (Figures represent tenths of an inch, and are measurements
of manometric heights, and are purely comparative. Identical weights
of fruits were used in chambers of equal capacitjO • —

Days.

1

2

3

4

5

6
7

Ethylene.

16.2

15.9

17.3

17.8

16.6

17.0

15.7

Control.

7.5

6.5

3.6
6.0
7.1
6.8
6.9

Effect of Ethylene upon the Rate of Respiration of Late

Valencia Oranges.

It will be seen that this work provides confirmation of that of
Denny with respect to citrus fruits. At the conclusion of the experi-
ment ethylenised oranges were ripe-coloured but sour, while the con-
trols were both sour and green. During the same experiment the

20

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

effect of ethylene gas upon the respiration of bananas was also investi-
gated (measurements are in sixteenths of an inch, and are purely
comparative) : —

Days. Ethylene. Control.

1
2

3

4
^

6
7

Effect of Ethylene upon the Rate of Respiration of Bananas.

Regeimbal, Yacha, and Harvey (1927)® noted an initial stimulation
in the respiration rate of bananas treated with 1 part of ethylene in
1,000 of air, but record a subsequent decrease in less than half an hour.
They deduce from this result that oxidation rather than permeability
rate is increased. The fall in respiration rate following upon an initial
intensification has been observed by a number of workers when bananas
are subjected to a single dose of ethylene gas for a comparatively brief
period of time. Under commercial ripening conditions in Australia,
however, the treatment is repeated twice daily up to the ‘‘half-colour”
stage (Young, Bagster, Hicks, and Huelin, 1932)®, and it would appear
from my experimental results that the series of respiratory stimulations
thus induced raise the mean level of the respiration rate of treated
bananas above that of the controls.

The rise in the rate of respiration of gas-treated fruits is not
confined to those fruits already discussed. Davies and Church ( )^

report an increase in the respiration rate of Japanese persimmons
during ethylene ripening, and regard their results as similar to that
obtained by Denny with lemons. It may therefore be concluded that
the acceleration of respiration during treatment with ethylene gas is
a phenomenon of general occurrence.

39

32

34

26

25

17

15

16
16
16
in

SOME PHYSICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF VARY-
ING OXYGEN CONCENTRATION UPON FRUITS IN THE
PRESENCE AND ABSENCE OF ETHYLENE.

In 1924 Denny attempted to colour lemons with ethylene in the
absence of oxygen by the use of a gas mixture of 1 part of ethylene in
1,000 of nitrogen. Under these conditions no colouration was developed,
and it was hence deduced that the presence of oxygen is necessary for
the development of ripe colour. I repeated this experiment with
bananas, and the result was in entire agreement with that of Denny.

The concentration of oxygen in the intercellular space system of
fruits is frequently below that of the atmosphere. In the case of
the coconut (Herbert, 1923)® the gas analysis of the internal atmosphere
of the fruit was as follows : —

Very Young Coconut.

Per cent.

Nitrogen . . • . . . 81.3

Oxygen . . . . . . 18.7

Carbon dioxide . . . . trace

Old Coconut.

Per cent.

Nitrogen . . . , . . 99.8

Oxygen . . . . . . 0.2

Carbon dioxide . • . . trace

This consideration leads to the view that oxygen concentration may
be a limiting factor in the respiration of fruits, and, since respiration
rate is intimately connected with the ripening process, it was decided

A. SUGGESTED CO-ENZYME HYPOTHESIS EOR THE RIPENING OF FRUITS, ETC. 21

to test the effect of increasing the oxygen conceintration of the storage
atmosphere upon the rate of ripening of fruits. After preliminary trials
a concentration of 80 per cent, oxygen was decided upon, and in this
atmosphere oranges were found to colour within five days, whereas
there was no change in the colour of the control fruit. Oxygen-treated
oranges showed no tendency to ripen internally — a result in agreement
Avith ethylene-treated fruits.

Days. Oxygen, 80 per cent. Control.

7.5

6.5

3.6
6.0
7.1
6.8
6.9

16.5

11.0

12.0

16.5

16.0

16.0

Effec.t of Oxygen 80 per cent, upon the Rate of Respiration of

Late Valencia Oranges.

An increase in oxygen concentration to a similar extent ivas likewise
found to accelerate the ripening and respiration of bananas. The fruit
coloured nicely, and, while the internal flesh softened quickly, it was
found to be of poor flavour as compared with ethylene-treated fruits.

It was deduced from this result that a more appropriate oxygen
concentration might be used for bananas with better result: —

Days.

1

Oxygen, 80 per cent.
24

Control,

16

2

26

17

3

28

15

4

30

16

5

32

16

6

34

16

7

•

30

10

Effect of Oxygen 80 per cent, upon the Rate of Respiration

OF Bananas.

The two foregoing experiments were repeated, using, in addition,
ethylene gas at the rate of 1 : 1,000 of gas mixture, but no appreciable
differences were recorded in the results.

From the experimental data set out in this section we may assume
that ripening is essentially an oxidative process, and that the effect of
ethylene in accelerating and ripening depends upon its ability to assist,
either directly or indirectly, in the tissue oxidations. Moreover, since
internal oxidations are the direct result of respiratory activity, and, as we
have seen, artificial ripening results in intensified respiration, we may
conclude that the ripening process is primarily a respiratory phenome-
non. Respiratory studies on bananas from the time of picking to edible
maturity show that two separate and distinct phases occur — (1) pre-
ripening stage, in which respiratory activity is low and the fruit is in
a quasi-dormant condition; (2) ripening stage, in which respiration
attains a maximum and then declines.

The effect of ethylene upon the respiration rate of bananas is most
evident when applied to fruit in the pre-ripening stage. Once the fruit
has commenced to colour, little or no acceleration either of respiration
or of ripening is apparent. The reason for this may not be at once
obvious, but the work of the Cambridge Low Temperature Station

22

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYxiL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

(1932)' would suggest an explanation of such anomalous behaviour.
It was shown that ethylene is evolved from ripening apples, and may
be detected by its ability to induce malformation in germinating pea
embryos, and also by causing retardation, of germination of pea seeds.
I confirmed the result of this work by passing the storage atmosphere
of ripening Granny Smith apples over peas in a germinator, the following
statistically significant retardation being obtained : —

Number of Days to Germination.

Experiment 1. Experiment 2.

Treated. Clieck. Treated. Check.

3.10 0.041 2.63 0.035 4.04 0.005 3.80 0.037

Observations made during the investigation of Bagster, Hicks,
and Huelin (1932)® into the ripening and transport of bananas shows
that the ripening of bananas may be accelerated by storing them in a
chamber containing ripe bananas. One may reasonably conclude, there-
fore, that ethylene is evolved from ripening bananas and other fruits,
though it is suggested that further investigation be undertaken in this
direction.

RESPIRATOEY ENZYMES IN FRUITS.

In order to elucidate the reason for the non-ripening of the central
pulp of the orange with ethylene treatment, Herbert and Lynch (1934)^
approached the problem from the point of view of non-penetrability.
As a result of this work, it was shown that the rates of penetration of
the tissues of the orange and banalnas by ethylene are approximately
the same, and hence failure of the orange to ripen cannot be ascribed
to this cause. A consideration of the importance of respiration in rela-
tion to the ripening process has led me to approach the problem from
that aspect, and the fruits were, in consequence, examined with the idea
of determining the presence or otherwise of respiratory enzymes and
their distribution wdthin the tissues of the fruit. By the use of standard
methods, oxidising enzymes were found to occur in the peel and pulp
of the banana, and in the peel but not in, the pulp of oranges. Investi-
gation into other fruits upon similar lines showed that fruits which
may be coloured externally and ripened internally by commercial gas
treatment possess oxidising enzymes in both skin and pulp — e.g.,
bananas, apples, pears, pineapples, etc. — whereas those fruits which
colour externally while the internal pulp shows no indication of ripe
maturity contain oxidising enzymes in the skin alone, and not in the
pulp — e.g., orange and mandarin. I would suggest that herein lies the
solution of the problem of ethylene ripening of fruits.

DISiCUSSION AND CONCLUSION.

It has been shown in the earlier portions of this paper that internal
and external ripening of the pre-ripe banana is induced by ethylene
treatment, and that these changes are accompanied by intensified
respiratioin. The replacement of the ethylene gas mixture by an 80
per cent, oxygen atmosphere produces similar results. On the other
hand, pre-ripe bananas will not ripen in the absence of oxygen, despite
the presence of ethylene in appropriate concentration, and yet again
the ripening of bananas which have passed the pre-ripe condition is
not necessarily accelerated by traces of ethylene. From these data it

A SUGGESTED CO-ENZYME HYPOTHESIS FOR THE RIPENING OF FRUITS, ETC. 23

is deduced that ripening is a respiratory phenomenon, the intensification
of which provides energy for an acceleration of metabolism, which, in
turn, cuts down the length of the pre-ripening, semi-dormant phase of
the fruit. It has been shown further that ethylene is capable of hasten-
ing the ripening of fruits or of certain tissues of the fruit only when
those fruit or tissues contain oxidising enzymes, and, since the prime
outward manifestation of ethylene treatment is a rise in the rate of
respiration, it would appear that the gas exerts its effect through the
oxidising enzymes. Finally, it may be deduced from {a) the low
concentration of ethylene necessary to accelerate ripening, and (h) the
fact that ethylene is itself generated in the fruit once the pre-ripening
period is passed, that ethylene is responsible for the acceleration of the
ripening process by a direct stimulation of the oxidising enzymes. It
would therefore appear that ethylene plays the role of co-enzyme,
together with the oxidising enzymes, not only in the artificial process,
but also in the natural ripening of fruits. If this hypothesis be correct,
one should be able to predict with certainty those fruits which are and
those which are not amenable to artificial gas-ripening. Fruits which
contain oxidases, either as laccases or as peroxidases, distributed evenly
throughout their tissues, should respond entirely to gas treatment.
Fruits coming within this category — e.g., banana, apple, pineapple —
certainly do so, though the pineapple is frequently marketed in a coloured
but immature condition, due to difficulty of penetration owing to the
mass of the fruit. Conversely, if the respiratory theory of fruit-
ripening be correct, then a retardation of respiration should tend to
prolong storage life by lengthening the duration of the pre-ripening
stage. That this is so has been shown by Kidd and A¥est,^ who, by
decreasing oxygen and increasing carbon dioxide concentration of the
storage atmosphere, have increased the effective storage life of apples
by 150 per cent. It is suggested, in view of the co-enzyme hypothesis,
that gas storage should be far more effective for fruits which contain
i;lie oxidising enzymes distributed throughout all parts of their tissues
than for fruits in which the respiratory enzymes are deficient.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT.

It is with pleasure that I record my indebtedness to Dr. D. A.
Herbert, of the University of Queensland, for his unfailing advice and
constructive criticism during the course of my work. I also wish to
tender my grateful thanks to Professor L. S. Bagster, of the University
of Queensland, for assistance and for the loan of materials ; to Dr. J. R.
Vickery, of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, for the
use of ripening rooms ; to Mr. W. Ranger, of the Committee of Direction
of Fruit Marketing, Brisbane, for the supply of fruit; and to Mr. R. S.
Mitchell, B.Sc.Agr., for very material aid in experimental work.

SUMMARY.

1. Ethylene and oxygen each accelerate the ripening of fruits, and
in the process respiration is accelerated.

2. In the absence of oxygen, ripening cannot be induced, and hence
the ripening process is essentially a respiratory phenomenon.

3. Ethylene ripening is only successful in the presence of oxidising
enzymes, and is related to the distribution of such enzymes in the tissues
of the fruit.

24

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

4. Ethylene is naturally present in the tissues of fruits which have
passed the pre-ripening period.

5. It is suggested that ethylene acts as co-enzyme to oxidase both in
the natural and artificial process of ripening.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. Davies, W. B., and Church, C. G. : The Elf ect of Ethylene Ripening on the

Chemical Composition and Respiration of Ripening of the Japanese
Persimmon. Jour. Agric. Res., Vol. 42, No. 3.

2. Denny, F. E.: Effect of Ethylene upon the Respiration of Lemons. Bot. Gaz. 77,

322-330, 1924. ^

3. Herbert, D. A.: The Gas in the Coconut. Philip. Agric., Vol. xi.. No. 6, Jan.,

1923.

4. Herbert, D. A., and Lynch, L. J. : Tlie Relative Penetrability of Various Tissues

of the Orange and Banana to Ethylene. Proc. Roy. S'oc. Qld., 1934.

5. Kidd, F., and West, C. : The Gas Storage of Fruit. Jour. Pomol. and Hort. Sci.,

8, 67-77.

6. Regeimbal, L. O., Vacha, G. A., and Harvey, R. B. : The Effect of Ethylene upon

the Respiration of Bananas during Ripening. Plant Physiol., 2, 357-359,
1927.

7. Report of the Food Investigation Board, London, for 1932.

8. Young, W. J., Bagster, L. S., Hicks, E. W., and Huelin, F. E.: The Ripening

and Transport of Bananas in Australia, C.S.I.R. Bull., No. 64, 1932.

VoL. XL VII., No. 4.

25

New Australian Lepidoptera.

By A. Jefferis Turner, M.D., R.F.E.S.

{Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 26th August, 1935.)

For most of the eleven genera and forty-one species here described
as new, I am greatly indebted to Mr. W. B. Barnard and other valued
correspondents. Even in comparatively well collected localities there
have been unexpected discoveries, and in any untouched district new
species are sure to be found by anyone who searches for them.

Fam. Saturniadae.

Antheraea rhythmica n. sp. ^

pvdjUKoSy neat —

70-72 mm. Head grey-whitish. Palpi fuscous-brown. Antennae
pale ochreous; pectinations in male 6. Thorax reddish-orange; anter-
iorly pale purple-grey. Abdomen reddish-orange ; towards apex and
beneath pale purple-grey. Legs pale purple-grey. Forewings broadly
triangular, costa straight to |, thence strongly arched, apex rounded,
termen nearly straight, scarcely sinuate beneath apex, slightly oblique ;
orange-brown ; costa broadly suffused with grey to beyond middle ; lines
purple-reddish; first from f costa to ^ dorsum, gently waved; second
from apical blotch to f dorsum, broad, preceded by a slender parallel
line ; ocellus oval with axis longitudinal, pale crimson, slenderly edged
anteriorly with whitish, posteriorly with yellow, with an outer ring
anteriorly dark reddish, posteriorly fuscous, in its centre a hyaline dot ;
apical blotch ill-defined, irregular, whitish mixed and edged with crim-
son, containing a blackish spot beneath costa; a brown terminal line;
cilia yellow, apices grey. Hindwings strongly rounded; colour and
markings as forewings; postmedian line curved and crenate; ocellus
smaller and more circular. Underside ochreous suffused with whitish-
crimson; outer ring of ocellus exaggerated posteriorly. The female is
less brightly coloured, and has the markings less pronounced.

Queensland : Mount Tambourine in January and March ; three
specimens received from Mr. E. J. Dumigan. We owe this interesting
species to the well-known naturalist Mr. Bartlett, whose sons found
the larvae feeding on Lit sea reticulata {Lauracece). It forms a small
dark-brown, thin-shelled cocoon.

Fam. Larentiadae.

Chloroclytis embolocosma n. sp.

ifi^oXoKoafjLos, with wedge-shaped ornament —

? .18 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen grey. Palpi 1^; grey,
sprinkled with fuscous. Antenna grey. Legs pale grey ; anterior and
middle pairs sprinkled with fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa
moderately arched, apex pointed, termen very slightly rounded, oblique ;
whitish-grey partly ochreous-tinged ; markings fuscous ; a sub-basal
costal dot ; fine oblique lines in basal area ; a large truncate dark fuscous

26

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

wedge, its centre paler, extending on costa from | to f, outwardly
oblique; reaching half across disc, its outer edge being part of post-
median line, edged posteriorly by a fine white line; postmedian from
wedge to f dorsum, dentate, edged by a white line and this by a fine
fuscous line ; two finely dentate subterminal lines ; a terminal line ; cilia
whitish with obscure grey bars. Hindwings with termen rounded ; grey
with two obscurely darker subterminal lines; cilia whitish-grey.

Queensland : Brisbane, in February ; one specimen.

Euphyia propinqua n. sp. ^

propinquus, similar —

.36-40 mm. Closely allied to E. anthracinata from Victoria and
Tasmania, but in both sexes the termen of forewings is straight. The
male of the latter is immediately distinguished by its falcate forewings,
with strongly projecting apex and slightly concave termen, a unique
character in the genus. The females of the two species are difficult to
distinguish. In E, propinqua the transverse lines are more crenulate,
the antemedian and postmedian lines less strongly marked, but partly
edged with white, and there is a fine crenulate whitish subterminal line,
but these characters might not hold for a long series. I can detect no
structural differences in antennce, palpi, or neuration.

West Australia ; Denmark, in March; three specimens ( 2(J I5)
received from Mr. W. B, Barnard, who has the type.

Euphyia phaulophanes n. sp.

<j>avXo(j)avris , mean-looking —

(^5 .22-24 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi 2J; fuscous.
AntennaB fuscous; in male slightly serrate and minutely ciliated.
Abdomen grey. Legs fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa straight
except at extremities, apex pointed, termen gently rounded, oblique,
vravy; pale fuscous; a moderate slightly darker basal patch; a slightly
darker median band defined by very slender whitish lines ; anterior line
slightly curved, wavy, indistinct; posterior from f costa to f dorsum,
wavy, scarcely projecting in middle, followed closely by one or two
parallel lines ; an interrupted dark fuscous terminal line ; cilia fuscous.
Hindwings with termen strongly rounded ; pale grey ; cilia pale grey.

West Australia: Denmark, in March; two specimens received from
Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Fam. Sterrhidae.

Ghrysocraspeda eumeles n. sp.

€V[jb€Xr)s, harmonious —

*20 mm. Head rosy ; face whitish-rosy. Palpi less than 1,
slender, appressed to lower end of face, terminal joint minute ; rosy.
Antennge rosy ; pectinations in male 1, whitish. Abdomen whitish,
partly rosy on dorsum. Legs rosy ; posterior pair whitish. Forewings
triangular, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded,
slightly oblique ; rosy finely and uniformly stringulated with yellow,
except on a broad costal streak, which extends to about f ; cilia yellow.
Hindwings with termen rounded ; as forewings but without costal streak.

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

27

The genus Chrysocraspeda contains a fair number of species in the
Eastern Tropics. This is the second Australian species, and may readily
be distinguished from the variable C. cruoraria by the differently shaped
hindwings, which in that species are quadrate with strongly angled
termen.

North Queensland : Cape York, in April and May ; two specimens
received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Fam. Geometridae.

Gen. Oxyphanes nov. ^

^^v(j)avr]s, sharply formed—

Face smooth, not projecting. Tongue well developed. Palpi very
short (less than 1), slender, ascending, closely appressed to face.
Antennae in male bipectinate, towards apex simple. Thorax with a
moderate rounded posterior crest; hairy beneath. Abdomen with crests
on third and fourth segments. Femora hairy. Posterior tibiae with
middle spurs. Forewings with 3 and 4 separate, 5 from above middle
of cell, 6 from upper angle, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 and
11 from cell by a common stalk. Hindwings with 3 and 4 separate ; 5
from much above middle of cell, 12 approximated to icell at thence
diverging. Frenulum and retinaculum in male well developed.

Probably a derivative of Sterictopsis. The stalking of 10 and 11 of
tlie forewings is a peculiar character.

Oxyphanes thiohapta n. sp.

^etOjSaTTTOs*, sulphur-tinged —

^ .25 mm. Head white sprinkled with fuscous. Palpi fuscous,
towards base white. Antennae fuscous; pectinations in male 5, apical
^ simple. Forewings sharply triangular, costa straight, slightly arched
towards apex, apex round-pointed, termen slightly rounded; white
densely irrorated with fuscous, appearing grey ; markings dark fuscous ;
a subdorsal line broad to thence narrower to termen ; short oblique
streaks from costa before and after middle, the latter continued as an
obscure finely dentate line, bent inwards in mid-disc and continued to
dorsum ; cilia fuscous with white bars. Hindwings with termen rounded ;
pale yellow ; a sharply defined broad dark fuscous terminal band, contain-
ing some white scales near termen ; cilia as forewings. Underside whitish
with dark fuscous discal marks and terminal bands on both wings.

Queensland : Talwood, in November ; one specimen received from
Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Fam. Oenochromidae.

Taxeotis euryzona n. sp.

€vpv^(x)vos, broadly banded —

.28-30 mm. Head pale grey ; face blackish. Palpi ; blackish,
base sharply white. Antenme grey ; in male slightly laminate, ciliations
1. Thorax and abdomen grey. Legs grey. Forewings triangular, costa
scarcely arched, apex pointed, termen almost straight, moderately
oblique; 12 connected by a bar with areole (1(^ 1$) ; pale grey; fine
fuscous lines from J costa to J dorsum, slightly curved, and from f costa
to f dorsum, curved outwardly beneath costa, finely crenulate ; included

28

PPIOCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

space between lines fuscous except on costa; within this median band a
short median transverse subcostal blackish discal streak; subterminal
and terminal series of blackish dots; cilia pale grey. Hindwings with
termen rounded ; pale grey ; a terminal series of blackish dots ; cilia pale
grey.

The fuscous median band may not be a constant character.

Queensland : Mitchell and Charleville, in September ; two specimens.

vcorooTLKTos with dorsal spots —

$ .26-30 mm. Head grey-whitish or grey ; face blackish. Palpi
IJ; blackish, base sharply white. Antennae' grey, often whitish towards
base. Thorax and abdomen grey with a few blackish scales. Legs grey,
sprinkled with fuscous. Porewings triangular, costa gently arched,
apex pointed, termen almost straight, moderately oblique ; 12 connected
by a bar with areole (44?) ; grey; markings and some scattered scales
blackish ; an interrupted line from J costa ending in a spot on ^ dorsum ;
a second line from f costa ending in a spot on dorsum at f ; followed by
some obscure brownish dots ; a well-marked median subcostal discal dot ;
subterminal line scarcely indicated ; a terminal series of dots ; cilia grey.
Hindwings with termen slightly rounded ; grey ; cilia grey.

Queensland : Mitchell, in September ; Charleville, in August ; four
specimens.

Taxeotis pachygramma Low.

*20-22 mm. Antennae shortly bipectinate (1|) nearly to apex.
Forewings with vein 12 free.

The discovery of this sex necessitates the removal of the species
from Epidesmia. It is somewhat anomalous in the genus Taxeotis, but
has no characters justifying generic separation.

Queensland : Milmerran, in March ; two specimens received from
Mr. J. Macqueen.

This genus now includes five known species. It appears to be
characteristic of the more or less arid regions of the continent, in which
further discoveries may be expected. The species are all of sombre
colouring, and nearly allied.

yecfyvpeos, bridgfd —

.20-26 mm. Head grey. Palpi in male 5, in female 6 ; grey,
sprinkled with fuscous. Antennas fuscous; pectinations in male 6.
Thorax grey, sprinkled with fuscous. Abdomen grey, with a few fuscous
scales. Legs grey- whitish, sprinkled with fuscous. Forewings triangular,
costa straight to near apex, apex pointed, termen slightly rounded,
slightly oblique ; grey-whitish, sparsely sprinkled with fuscous ; markings
fuscous ; a short subcostal streak and a longer median streak from base,
the latter reaching first line; first line strong; from ^ costa obliquely
outwards, acutely angled inwards in middle, ending on | dorsum;
second line nearly straight, acutely dentate, from | costa to f dorsum ;

Taxeotis notosticta n. spA'

Gen. Phrixocomes Turn.

Phrixacomes gephyrea n. sp.

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

29

a strong median longitudinal streak connects first line with second ; a
sharply dentate snbterniinal line, ill-defined anteriorly, sometimes inter-
rupted ; short interneural streaks running into termen ; cilia grey whitish
barred with fuscous. Hindwings with termen rounded ; pale grey ; cilia
wliitish-grey.

Probably near P. nexistriga Warr. I have not seen that species, but
according to Warren it has a sinuous longitudinal line running from
base of costa to termen.

Queensland : In September and December ; four specimens received
from Mr. J. Macqueen.

Phrixocomes hedrasticJia n. sp.
i.hpaxjTLXoSy with basal streaks —

.19-25 mm. Head grey. Palpi 8 ; grey, sprinkled with fuscous^
base beneath whitish. Antennge fuscous ; pectinations in male 8. Thorax
grey, sprinkled with fuscous. Abdomen pale grey. Legs fuscous ;
])osterior pair grey. Porewings triangular, rather elongate, costa rather
strongly arched, apex obtusely pointed, termen slightly rounded, slightly
oblique ; grey- whitish, with rather dense fuscous irroration and mark-
ings ; two short longitudinal sub-basal streaks ; first line obsolete, or
indicated by two or three dots only ; second line from f costa to f dorsum,
slender, crenulate, white-edged posteriorly ; a subterminal line from
apex slender, slightly dentate, white-edged posteriorly; from this run
interneural whitish lines to termen ; cilia grey with some whitish bars
beneath apex. Hindwings with termen rounded ; pale grey ; a fuscous
terminal line ; cilia pale grey.

Closely allied to P. steropias Meyr. and P. ptilomacra Low., both of
which lack the basal and terminal streaks and have a sharply angled
first line.

Queensland : Milmerran, in August and December ; four specimens
received from Mr. J. Macqueen.

Pam. Notodontidae. ^

Gen. Parameces nov.

TTapafjLrjKT]? y oblong —

Tongue strongly developed. Prons with a triangular anterior tuft
of scales. (Palpi broken off in type). Antennsei in male pectinated to
apex. Abdomen wdth small crest on basal segment. Porewings smooth ;
5 from middle, areole long, 7 and 10 arising separately before its end.
Hindwings with 5 from middle, 6 and 7 connate, 12 anastomosing with
cell at thence gradually diverging.

Near PolycJioa Turn., with which it agrees in 6 and 7 of hindwings
not being stalked, but the forewings are smooth and 12 of hindwings.
anastomoses with the cell.

Parameces glauca n. sp.

glaucus, bluish-green —

45 mm. Head fuscous, with a few green scales on crowin
Antennae fuscous; pectinations in male 6. Thorax fuscous. Abdomen
grey. Legs grey ; anterior pair fuscous. Porewings suboblong, costa
slightly arched, apex round-rectangular-rectangular, termen straight not

R.S. — B.

•30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

oblique ; bluish-green ; a transverse brown fascia from costa near base
not reaching torims ; a double antemedian line at fuscous, irregularly
dentate ; posterior line at f, also double, finely dentate ; two-thirds of the
•area included between these lines is occupied by a square brown costal
blotch containing three fuscous dots forming a nearly equilateral
triangle ; a subterminal line of white dots margined with fuscous ; an
interrupted fuscous submarginal line ; cilia fuscous with obscure whitish
bars. Hindwings with termen rounded ; grey ; cilia grey, apices whitish.

North Queensland : Kuranda ; one specimen received from Mr, F. P.
Dodd. ^

Pam. Syntomidae.

Syntomis intensa Butl.

Journ, Lin. Soc. Zool. xii., p. 353 (1876).

Although this is distinguishable from S. annulata by a practised
eye, I have hitherto regarded it as a form of that species, but am now
satisfied, that it is a good species. S. intensa has proportionately longer
and narrower wings, and the spots are more transparent, except the
basal spots on both wings. These last often contrast with the peripheral
spots in their deeper colour. Both species show analogous variations in
the size of the spots. Both vary in size, but on the average S. intensa is
1he smaller. What is of more importance is that in S. intensa^ the females
are the larger, but in 8. anmilaia the males. This difference, which is
much more striking to the eye than is shown by the following measure-
ments should be decisive. In a series of 22 male 8. intensa the expanse
varies from 30 to 40 mm. ; in 11 females from 30 to 48 mm. In 17 male
'S', amiulata the expanse varies from 34 to 48 mm. ; in 11 females from
•30 to 42 mm.

North Queensland: Herberton, Queensland; Nambour; Brisbane;
Toowoomba ; Bunya Mountains (3,500 ft.) ; Mount Tambourine ; National
Park (2,000-2,500 ft.); Tweed Heads; Killamey. New South Wales:
Lismore ; Gosford ; Moruya.

8yntomis melitospila Turn.

This species may be distinguished from 8. pyrocoma by the follow-
ing characters: — Wings without iridescence; spots large, thinly scaled,
pale yellow, not orange ; proximal and distal spots of hindwings usually
confluent or closely approximated on vein 2 ; females much smaller
than males, 8. melitospila (8A), 36-44 mm. (32), 28-32 mm.
pyrocoma (26 ^ ), 32-52 mm. (14. $ ), 38-46 mm.

Queensland : Gayndah ; Toowoomba ; Dalby ; Milmerran ; Inglewood.
New South Wales: Murrurundi. It appears to be an inland species.

Pam. Noctuidae.

Subfam. melanchrinae.

8ideridis cryptargyrea B-Bak.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), xv., p. 197 (1905). Hmps. Cat. Lep.

Phal. V., p. 499. PL 91, f. 32.

North Queensland: Cape York; one specimen received from Mr.
Geo. Lyell. Also from New Guinea.

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

31

Subfam. acronyctinae.

Xenopseustis poecilastis Meyr.

Trans. Ent. Soc. (1897), p. 370 —

Having taken an example of this species I find that it is referable
to the Acronyctinoe, though aberrant in structure. Perhaps it has some
affinity with Azenia Grote and Aegle Hb.

Queensland: Duaringa, in February; Inglewood, in November.

Gen. ThalatJia Wlk.

I have come to the conclusion that Molvena Wlk. and Hedymiges
Turn, are not distinguishable from this genus. Its chief characteristics
(I refer to the Australian species) are the strongly projecting face with
slight central depression, the long cell of hindwings (f), the thorax with
posterior and sometimes slight anterior crest, and the more or less,
developed dorsal crests on first three abdominal segments. There are
six known Australian species, the two here described, aridoxa Turn.,,
melanopkrica Turn., guttalis Wlk., and psorallina Low.

ThalatJia hippolopha n. sp.
l7T7To\o(f)os, strongly crested —

.28 mm. Head white. Palpi 1 ; fuscous, terminal and apex of
second joint white. Antennse white annulated with blackish ; ciliations
in male minute. Thorax with prominent bifid posterior crest, white, a
precentral dot, lateral edges, and apex of crest blackish. Abdomen with
a small crest at base and a strong erect crest on third segment; white,
crests and irroration blackish. Legs white with blackish rings except
on posterior pair. Fore wings elongate-triangular ; costa gently arched,,
apex round-pointed, termen slightly oblique, rounded beneath; white
sprinkled with pale grey-green ; markings blackish ; a transverse basal
line ; a line from costa near base forming an oblong posterior projection
and ending near base of dorsum ; a suffused oblique fascia from i costa
to mid-dorsum, where it is broader and darker, preceded by some brown
scales in mid-disc ; a medium oblique bar from costa not reaching middle ;
four or five dots on apical half of costa ; a fine acutely dentate line from
costa near apex parallel to termen, beneath middle bent inwards to join
fascia above dorsum; a series of short streaks on veins running into
termen ; cilia white with blackish bars. Hindwings with termen rounded ;
white densely sprinkled with fuscous; a postmedian detate line faintly
indicated ; cilia as forewings.

New South Wales: Murrurundi, in A^pril; one specimen received
from Dr. B. L. Middleton.

Thalatha artificiosa n. sp.

artificiosus, artificial —

$ .35 mm. Head white ; a spot between antenme and a transverse
crescent on face blackish. Palpi IJ; blackish, apices of basal and
terminal joints narrowly white. Antenme fuscous, basal joint and dorsum
slightly beyond, white. Thorax white ; two pairs of spots, a transverse
line on patagia, and two spots on each tegula, blackish. Abdomen white,
bases of segments blackish. Legs blackish with white rings. Forewings
elongate-triangular, costa nearly straight, apex rounded, termen
rounded, slightly oblique ; white, with blackish dots and markings ; nine
costal, one basal, and three sub-basal dots; from fifth costal dot at ^ a

:32

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

tj-ansverse series of dots, first posterior, second anterior, fourth opposite
fifth on I dorsum ; sixth costal dot on middle, double, giving origin to
a n angled line of dots ending on f dorsum ^ this is followed by a post-
median transverse series ; an apical collection of dots, largely confiuent,
extending to midtermen ; a snbterminal series from this to tornus ;
terminal edge alternately white and blackish ; cilia white, with blackish
bars. Hindwings with termen rounded; white, with fuscous markings;
a median dot, faint antemedian and postmedian lines, and an apical
blotch ; cilia white, with fuscous bars except on dorsum.

Queensland : Toowoomba, in February ; one specimen received from
]\Ir. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Chasmina lispodes n. sp.

AlgttojStjs, smooth —

.28-30 mm. $ .38-40 mm. Head and thorax whitish-brown.
Palpi reaching vertex ; pale grey-brown. Antennae grey, towards base
^vhitish; ciliations in male extremely minute. Abdomen whitish-
ochreoLis. Legs brown- whitish ; posterior pair whitish. Forewings
elongate-triangular ; costa slight^ arched, apex rounded-rectangular,
termen slightly rounded, slightly oblicjue, slightly crenulate ; glossy
wliitish-brown ; a faint pale line from J costa to ^ dorsum ; a minute
pale fuscous median subcostal dot; a whitish-ochreous line from f costa
to dorsum ; a very pale fuscous crenulate subterminal line edged
posteriorly with whitish-ochreous; a submarginal series of pale fuscous
dots ; cilia pale fuscous, apices whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded ;
whitish-ochreous ; cilia whitish.

Varietal form. Forewings sparsely sprinkled with fuscous;
markings more distinct ; antemedian line fuscous-edged posteriorly ;
postmedian line fuscous-edged anteriorly. One female.

North-west Australia: Wyndham, in November and January;
four specimens received from Mr. T. G. Campbell.

Caradrina eupoiia n. sp.

eviToXtog, grey —

.30-36 mm. Head pale grey. Palpi grey- whitish ; external
surface of second joint except anterior edge and apex dark fuscous.
Antennae' fuscous; in male with fascicles of cilia (1). Thorax pale
grey, in female darker. Abdomen grey. Legs grey-whitish, sprinkled
with dark fuscous ; tarsi dark fuscous, with whitish rings. Forewings
elongate-triangular, costa almost straight, apex rectangular, termen
slightly rounded, hardly oblique ; pale grey in male, dark grey in
female ; numerous wavy, indistinct fuscous transverse lines ; post-
median from costal dot at f, outwardly oblique, angled beyond rem-
form, beneath this angled slightly inwards, ending on f dorsum,
indistinct or dotted; subterminal nearly straight; orbicular obsolete;
reniform small narrow transversely oval, brownish edged with fuscous;
i]i female sometimes obsolete ; a series of small fuscous terminal dots ;
cilia grey, apices whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded, sinuate ;
wliitish with grey suffusion towards termen and some grey scales on
veins ; cilia whitish. Underside of forewings grey ; of hindwings grey-
whitish ; forewings with obscure postmedian discal and dotted subter-
minal line; hindwings with fuscous median dot and postmedian line
of dots.

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

33

45:ix

Queensland: Jericho, in May; Barcaldine and Arainac, in June:
specimens.

Subfam. ERASTRUiNAE.

Eiihlemma stereoscia n. sp.

orepeoGKLos y straightly shaded —

$ .14-20 mm. Head and palpi brownish-ochreous. Antennae
grey. Thorax and abdomen grey-whitish. Legs pale brown ; posterior
pair whitish. Forewings triangular, costa straight, apex rectangular,
termen strongly bowed, sinuate beneath apex, not oblique; a strong
oblique straight fuscous shade from | dorsum to apex, sharply defined
posteriorly ; fuscous costal dots at and middle ; from the latter an
oblique series of four dots to J dorsum ; a fine fuscous line from f costa
angled in middle, ending on | dorsum, sometimes reduced to a series of
dots; oblique shade at apex ochreous-fuscous, with three minute whitish
marks on costa and a dark fuscous spot beneath ; terminal area suffused
with grey; subterminal line indicated b}^ some fuscous dots; a grej^
submarginal and a whitish terminal line; cilia ochreous-grey. Hind-
wings with rounded apex, termen straight to near tornus ; whitish ; a
small triangular fuscous blotch touching dorsum above tornus ; traces of
dotted postmedian and subterminal lines; terminal area and cilia as
forewings.

North Queensland: Cape York, in April and June; two specimens
received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Catohlemma trigonograplia n. sp.
rpiyovoypa^o's y with triangular marking —

.18-20 mm. Head whitish. Palpi in male 2J, in female 3 ;
whitish-grey. Antenme grey-whitish ; ciliations in male 3. Thorax
whitish ; patagia brownish-tinged. Abdomen grey- whitish. Legs

whitish ; anterior tibiae and tarsi pale grey. Porewings triangular, costa
straight, apex rectangular, termen strongly rounded, slightly oblique ;
whitish-grey very faintly pinkish-tinged ; slight fuscous irroration on
costa to f ; a paler triangle based on costa from to apex, less distinct
in female, its apex ill-defined ; an obscure suffused discal spot at | ; a
short oblique fuscous streak from apex, preceded by a white costal dot ;
sometimes a subterminal series of dots from apex of this streak ; cilia
concolorous. Hindwings with termen rounded ; colour and cilia as fore-
wings.

Near C. aorosticha Turn, and C. aplecta Turn., but almost devoid
of colour. The costal triangle, though obscure, is a good character. In
C. acrosiicha the male antennge are slightly laminate with very short
ciliations.

North Queensland : Charters Towers, in June ; one male. Queens-
land : Rosewood, in September, one male ; Roma, in November, two
female examples bred by Mr. W. A. Summerville from larvsfe feeding
on scale insects.

Gen. Ecnomia nov.

dKvopioSy unusual —

Tongue present. Face smooth, not projecting. Palpi short, curved
upwards and appressed to face, not reaching vertex ; second joint moder-
ately stout, smooth-scaled ; terminal joint minute. Antennae in male

34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

simple. Thorax and abdomen not crested. Legs smooth. Forewings;
without areole, 8 and 9 stalked, 7 and 10 separate. Hindwings with 3^
and 4 long-stalked, 5 remote, 6 and 7 separate, diverging, 12 anastomos-
ing with cell to beyond middle.

Easily recognised by the neuration.

Ecnomia hesycMma n. sp.

'qavxt'iJios, quiet —

o .15 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax pale grey. Antennae pale
fuscous. Abdomen whitish-grey. Legs pale grey ; posterior pair whitish.
Forewings elongate-triangular, costa straight, apex rounded, termen
slightly rounded, slightly oblique ; pale grey ; fuscous costal dots near u
base and at ^ ; a triangular white dorsal spot before middle, preceded
])y some brown and fuscous suffusion ; a broad suffused brown median
fascia, its posterior and lower half of anterior surface edged by fuscous
lines, the former preceded by a similar line ; these postmedian lines
connected beneath costa and preceded by a fuscous dot ; beyond fascia
a white line, suffused and broadened towards costa, where it touches
apex ; a faint whitish line from apex to tornus ; a terminal series of
fuscous dots ; cilia whitish. Hindwings with termen gently rounded ; pale
grey ; cilia whitish.

North Queensland : Kuranda, in June ; one specimen.

Gen. Amhlyzancla nov.
dy,^Xv^ayKXos, with blunt sickles —

Tongue present. Frons rounded, somewhat projecting. Palpi
long, ascending, appressed to face, exceeding vertex; second joint long,
much thickened with appressed scales, especially posteriorly, apex broad,
abruptly quadrate; terminal joint minute. Antenme of male minutely
ciliated. Thorax smooth, without crest. Abdomen with small crests on
first two segments. Legs smooth-scaled. Forewings without areole, 7,
8, 9, 10 stalked, 7 separating before 10. Hindwings with 5 closely
approximated to 4 at, origin, 12 anastomosing with cell near base.

Probably nearest Euthytoma Turn. Himerois Turn, has 10 of fore-
wings separating before 7.

Amhlyzancla declivis n. sp.

declivis, oblique —

(^5 .15-20 mm. Head brownish-oehreous. Palpi reddish-purple.
Antennge grey. Thorax fuscous-brown, anteriorly brownish-oehreous.
Abdomen grey. Legs whitish ; tarsi grey, with whitish rings ; anterior
and middle tibige reddish-purple. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa
straight to f, thence strongly arched, apex rounded-rectangular, termen
rounded, slightly oblique ; reddish-purple, with some fuscous suffusion
towards basal half of dorsum and before postmedian streak ; this runs
from mid-dorsum nearly to apex, and is there acutely angled inwards
to costa, slender, whitish, preceded by an ochreous-fuscous suffused line ;
a fuscous terminal line ; cilia pale ochreous-fuscous. Hindwings some-
what elongate, termen gently rounded ; dark grey ; cilia grey-whitish.

North Queensland: Cape York, in October, November, and April;
four si)ecimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDQPTERA.

35

Corgatha molyl)dophaes n. sp.

,fioXv^So(l)ar]s, leaden-shiniDg.

-20-22 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi 3 ; ochreous.
Antenna3 ochreous, with some fuscous scales ; ciliations in male 1^.
Abdomen brown; apices of segments fuscous; two basal segments and
underside whitish-ochreous. Legs ochreous. Forewings triangular, costa
straight to near apex, apex pointed, termen angled on vein 3 ; basal area
white ; an interrupted costal line of leaden-metallic scales to beyond
middle ; costa edge ochreous ; a narrow fascia from costa beyond middle
to mid-dorsum, with a strong posterior tooth, reddish-brown with some
fuscous scales and a subcostal leaden-metallic spot; this is preceded
towards dorsum by a pale grey suffusion, and edged posteriorly by a
white line ; beyond this a pale-grey parallel fascia edged posteriorly by
a white line ; terminal area pale-grey, with reddish-brown subapical and
supratornal and white median spots ; cilia reddish-brown, with ‘ some
ochreous bars. Hindwings with termen rounded ; reddish-brown, towards
base and costa whitish-ochreous ; transverse f ascise at middle and f ,
leaden-metallic mixed with fuscous, not reaching costa ; cilia reddish-
brown, on dorsum ochreous.

New South Wales: Murrurundi, in December and February; three
specimens received from Dr. B. L. Middleton.

Corgatha ancistrod.es n. sp.
ayKKyrpcoZrj^ , hook-shaped —

-22 mm. Head and thorax reddish-brown. Palpi 3 ; reddish-
brown. Antennai grey ; ciliations in male 2. Abdomen reddish-brown ;
underside grey. Legs grey. Forewings triangular, costa straight to
near apex, there strongly arched, apex strongly produced in a hook-
shaped point, termen strongly sinuate, not oblique ; reddish-brown, with
a few scattered fuscous scales; a fine pinkish-white line from midcosta
outwards, forming an acute angle, thence inwards to mid-dorsum; some
fuscous suffusion on costa before middle ; subcostal fuscous dots at ^ and
middle; cilia white, on apex and tornus fuscous. Hindwings with tornus
prominent, dorsum long, termen slightly rounded ; as forewings, but
median line straight.

Queensland Toowoomba, in October ; Bunya Mountains, in
February; two specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has
the type.

Corgatha^ pleuroplaca n. sp.

TrXevpoTrXaKos , v ith costal plates —

S *23 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi 2^ ; pale-grey. Antennse
grey ; ciliations in male IJ. Abdomen white, partly suffused with grey.
Legs grey ; tarsi fuscous, with white rings ; posterior femora and tibiie
white. Forewings triangular, costa straight, apex round-pointed, termen
bowed on vein 4 ; sinuate beneath apex, oblique ; white, suffused with pale
fuscous ; a large irregular blackish costal blotch extending from base to
-J ; a smaller oblong median blotch just beyond ; a short streak on dorsum
near base ; a white transverse line beyond first blotch ; a slightly dentate
white line from f costa, outwardly curved, strongly angled inwards above
dorsum, edged anteriorly by a pale fuscous line ; some fuscous suffusion
containing two white dots on costa before apex ; small fuscous blotches
on termen beneath apex and above tornus ; a terminal series of blackish

36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

dots ; cilia fuscous-brown, narrowly barred with white. Hindwings with
termen slightly rounded; pale fuscous becoming whitish towards base;,
a transverse fuscous line at -J ; a transverse white line at f ; a terminal
series of fuscous dots ; cilia white, with a median fuscous-brown line.

West Australia: Busselton, in February; one specimen received from
Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Metasada pleurosticta n. sp.

7r\€vpGTiKTos y with costal dots —

-24 mm. Head and thorax brown. Palpi 2 ; brown, sprinkled
with fuscous. Antennae grey; ciliations in male 1. Abdomen brown;,
crest and apices of postmedian segments blackish. Legs pale ochreous;
anterior pair brownish, with tibiae partly fuscous, tarsi fuscous, white-
ringed. Forewings triangular, costa straight to f, thence slightly
arched, apex pointed ; termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique, slightly
crenulate ; brown ; white fuscous-edged dots on costa at J and middle ;
other markings fuscous ; a basal costal spot ; a transverse series of minute
dots at -J ; a small median subcostal dot ; an outwardly bowed postmedian
series of dots ; a small subterminal blotch beneath costa ; a terminal
series of dots ; cilia brown, with three fuscous bars beneath apex. Hind-
wings with termen rounded ; brown ; a transverse series of dots at J and
two or three postmedian ; an irregular tornal suffusion ; a terminal series
of dots ; cilia brown.

As vein 10 of forewings arises separately from the areole, this is
hardly a true Metasada, and it will probably be necessary to form a new
genus, but I prefer to await further material.

North Queensland : Cape York, in November ; one specimen received
from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Metasada sideropasta n. sp.
oL^epoTTaGTOs, steel-sprinkled —

o -22-24 mm. Head and thorax fuscous, with some white scales.
Palpi pale-brown. Antennae grey; cilia in male 2. Abdomen fuscous-
brown, towards apex sprinkled with white. Legs fuscous, with white
tarsal rings. Forewings triangular, costa straight to near apex, there
strongly arched, apex pointed, termen bisinuate, oblique ; fuscous-grey,
becoming fuscous on costa; a basal dorsal spot and transverse lines
white ; first line from f costa to f dorsum, dentate ; second from f costa
to f dorsum, finely dentate, angled outwards beneath costa and inwards
above dorsum ; reniform transversely oblong, fuscous sprinkled with
lustrous steel-grey scales ; similar scales precede first line and also form
a wavy subterminal band; disc preceding and following second line
partly whitish ; a small subapical pale ochreous costal blotch, separated
from costal edge by a white dot between two fuscous dots; a narrow
terminal band ochreous strigulated with fuscous; cilia fuscous, with
several ochreous- whitish dots. Hindwings with termen rounded ; grey ;
basal area grey- whitish, with a grey median dot at J; a slender wavy
whitish transverse median line ; cilia as forewings.

This is a true Metasada, and 10 of forewings is connate with 7, 8, 9
from areole.

Queensland : Milmerran, in October ; two specimens received from;
Mr. J. Macqueen.

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

37

Oruza crocotoschehna^ n. sp.

Kp'jKOJTO(JX'f]l^os , saffron-patterned —

.18-21 mm. Head ochreous. Palpi 1; ochreous. Antennge
ocreous; ciliations in male minute. Thorax ochreous- whitish, anteriorly
ochreous. Abdomen and legs ochreous. Forewings triangular, costa
slightly arched, apex rectangular, termen straight, rounded beneath;
ochreous-whitish ; markings orange-brown-ochreous ; a dot on costa near
base ; a broad wavy transverse line at J ; postmedian line from midcosta,
strongly curved outwards and then inwards to f dorsum, slightly dentate,
partly enclosing and sometimes confluent with an oblong reniform ; a
.subterminal line, interrupted above middle, and a terminal line connected
with it by streaks on veins; cilia whitish-ochreous. Hindwings with
termen rounded ; whitish-ochreous, darker towards termen, with a faint
postmedian line ; cilia, whitish-ochreous.

North Queensland: Cape York, in April and May; four specimens
received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Oruza maerens n. sp.

maerens^ mournful —

$ -25 mm. Head and thorax grey, sparsely sprinkled with fuscous.
Palpi 2J ; fuscous sprinkled with white. Antennas grey. Abdomen grey.
Legs whitish, finely sprinkled with fuscous. Porewings triangular, costa
slightly arched, apex subrectangular, termen slightly rounded; slightly
oblique; grey, with scanty fuscous irroratioii; costal edge reddish to
I, beyond this whitish-ochreous, interrupted by two fuscous dots; a
fuscous mark on f costa, giving rise to a very obscure slender dark line
sinuate to f dorsum ; a white discal dot immediately precedes this ; a very
slender crenulate dark subterminal line ; cilia fuscous, apices white.
Hindwings with termen rounded; as forewings, but with a straight
median transverse line not reaching costa.

Nearest 0. litkochroma Turn.

Queensland : Mitchell, in September ; one specimen.

Gen. Pediarcha nov.

TTehiapxps, lord of the plains —

Tongue present. Frons with rounded prominence. Palpi short,
porrect, moderately thickened, with appressed scales, slightly rough
beneath ; terminal joint short, obtuse. Thorax not crested. Abdomen
with a small basal crest. Legs smooth-scaled. Forewings with areole
present, 2 from f, 3, 4, 5, well separate, 3 from angle, 5 from below
middle, 6 from upper angle, 7 from areole closely approximated, connate,
or short-stalked, with 8, 9, 10 separate from areole, 11 from |. Hind-
wings with 3 and 4 connate, 5 from well above angle (^), 6 and 7 connate,
or short-stalked, 12 anastomosing with cell from -J to

Pediarcha smgularis n. sp.

singidaris, unique —

o5 *24-28 mm. Head orange, with anterior and posterior bars
on crown blackish. Palpi 1 ; blackish, inner surface except apex
orange. Antennae fuscous. Thorax blackish ; anterior edge and a large
posterior spot orange ; Abdomen orange ; basal crest and a spot on
second segment blackish; penultimate segment in female grey; beneath
dark fuscous. Legs fuscous; posterior tibiae ochreous. Forewings
triangular, costa straight, apex pointed, termen slightly rounded,
slightly oblique ; blackish, with pale ochreous markings ; a narrow costal

38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

line from base almost to apex; a large oblique subOval spot from base
of dorsum to beneath ^ costa ; an incomplete fascia from just before
tornus, ending in a rounded extremity beneath costa beyond middle; a
broad terminal line, narrowing towards extremities, not quite reaching
apex and tornus ; cilia blackish. Hindwings with termen rounded ; orange,
with blackish markings ; a supratornal blotch, sometimes continued into a
broad line to costa ; a narrow terminal band ; cilia blackish.

Queensland : Cunnamulla, in September and March ; four specimens
received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Subfam. sarrhothripinae.

Nanaguna orhiculigera n. sp.
orhic'idigerns, bearing a small circle —

-22 mm. Head white, with a few fuscous scales. Palpi long,
ascending, appressed to face ; second joint reaching vertex ; terminal
joint f , obtuse ; white, sprinkled with reddish, a subapical fuscous dot
on external surface of terminal joint. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in
male minute. Thorax white, posteriorly sprinkled with grey; a broad
dark fuscous transverse bar on patagia. Abdomen dark grey; apices
of segments narrowly whitish. Legs white ; anterior tibiae and tarsi
mixed with fuscous. Forewings suboblong, costa strongly arched to -J,
thence nearly straight, apex rounded-rectangular, termen not oblique,,
rounded beneath ; whitish, with patchy grey and fuscous suffusion ; a
dark fuscous triangular basal patch edged by a white line from ^ costa
to J dorsum ; a median transverse fascia containing a large circular spot,
slightly brownish-tinged, defined by whitish fuscous-edged lines, anterior
from f costa to mid-dorsum, forming a posterior tooth beneath spot,
posterior from f costa to f dorsum, outwardly curved in middle ; a sinuate
dark fuscous subterminal line from apex to tornus ; a terminal series of
longitudinally elongate dots; cilia grey, obscurely barred with whitish.
Hindwings with apex strongly rounded, termen only slightly ; dark grey,
paler towards base ; cilia as forewings.

North Queensland: Tully, near Innisfail, in July; one specimen.

Gen. Lathraeolis nov.

AaOpaioXig, fitted for concealment —

Tongue present. Palpi moderate, obliquel}^ ascending, not reach-
ing vertex, moderately thickened with rather rough scales ; terminal
joint very short, obtuse. Antenna of male bipectinate nearly to apex,,
pectinations long. Thorax with a posterior crest. Abdomen with dorsal
crest on basal segment only. Fore wings with raised scales ; 2 from
angle, 3 and 4 well separate, 5 closely approximated to 4 at origin,
6 from above middle of cell, 10 and 11 free from cell, 10 approximated to
9. Hindwings ample ; 2 from f , 4 absent, 3 and 5 connate, 6 and 7
connate, 12 approximated to cell to beyond middle.

Perhaps nearest to Elesma Wlk., but the relationship appears rather^
remote.

Lathraeolis spodochroa n. sp.
oTToSoxpoos, ash-grey —

^ -28-35 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax fuscous, sprinkled with
white, appearing grey. Antennae grey ; pectinations in male 5.
Abdomen whitish-ochreous ; basal tuft grey. Legs fuscous, sprinkled
with whitish ; posterior pair mostly whitish. Forewings elongate-
triangular, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely
rounded; fuscous densely irrorated with white, appearing grey; mark--

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDQPTERA. ^ 39

ings fuscous ; an outwardly oblique line from J costa, below middle angled
inwards, and then shortly outwards to ^ dorsum; a similar line from
f costa to mid-dorsum, sometimes obsolete ; a third from f costa, inwardly
oblique, but soon bent outwards, then sharply angled, beneath angle
straight and finely dentate to f dorsum ; an obscure wavy whitish
subterminal line ; a fine terminal line ; cilia concolorous. Hindwings
broad, termen bisinuate, rounded ; grey, paler towards base ; cilia
whitish.

Queensland: Milmerran, in May; two specimens received from Mr.
J. Macqueen.

Gen. Dysapura nov.

^vaaiTovpos, anomalous —

Tongue present. Face smooth, not projecting. Palpi recurved,
appressed to face, reaching vertex ; second joint thickened with smoothly
appressed scales; terminal joint short, acute. Antennae in male shortly
ciliated. Thorax smooth. Abdomen with lateral incurved tufts on basal
segment. Porewings with 2 from before angle, 3, 4, 5 closely approxi-
mated at origin, 6 from well below angle, 7 and 8 stalked, 9 and 10
separate, 11 from f. Hindwings with 2, 3, 4 separate, 5 approximated to
6, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 approximated to cell as far as middle.

This unusual neuration is hard to interpret.

Dysapura xanthostioha n. sp.

^avdoGTLxos, yellow-streaked —

o *22 mm. Head ochreous-yellow ; side-tufts and a spot on face
reddish. Palpi ochreous-yellow. Antennse ochreous-yellow; ciliations
in male 1. Thorax dull reddish ; a posterior spot and longitudinal
streaks on tegulse ochreous-yellow. Abdomen grey; underside whitish.
Legs whitish ; anterior pair ochreous-tinged ; posterior tibiae of male with
a dense inferior tuft of pale ochreous hairs before middle spurs. Pore-
wings suboblong, costa straight to middle, thence arched, apex rounded-
rectangular, termen nearly straight, scarcely oblique ; dull reddish, with
ochreous-yellow markings and streaks on veins ; a large irregular median
spot ; an apical crescent containing a subterminal reddish line ; cilia
grey, bases reddish. Hindwings with termeni (rounded ; fuscous ; a
whitish costal blotch before f extending narrowly to base, cilia whitish,
bases fuscous.

North Queensland: Cape York, in May; one specimen received from
Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Subfam. aoontianae.

Gen. Pseudalea nov.

ifjevhaXeos, counterfeit—

Tongue strong. Palpi smooth, very long, recurved, sickle-shaped,
exceeding vertex; second joint moderately thickened, not reaching
vertex; terminal joint f. Antennas not much shorter than forewing
(^) ; in male with tufts of short cilia. Thorax smooth-scaled, but with
small bifid posterior crest. Abdomen smooth, slender, nearly as long
as forewing. Legs smooth; (posterior pair missing). Porewings with
areole present, 2 from before middle, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5
approximated, from angle, 8 and 9 stalked from apex of areole, 6 and 10
separate from before its apex, 11 from |; retinaculum bar-shaped.
Hindwings with 2 from f, 3, 4, 5 approximated, 6 and 7 connate, 12
anastomosing with cell near base, thence diverging.

40

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Probably related to Cacy parts, with which it agrees in essential
points of structure, hut in appearance strongly suggestive of the
Pyraustinw.

Pseudalea macro gastris n. sp.

fjLaKpoyacrrpLs , long-bellied — ,

^ -36 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi pale grey. Antennae i
grey ; ciliations in male f . Abdomen 15 mm. in length ; grey. Legs
grey; anterior pair fuscous, with whitish tarsal rings. Porewings
elongate-triangular, costa straight, except near base and apex, apex
round-pointed, termen obliquely rounded; fuscous; an obscure whitish
transverse line at -J, with a strong posterior tooth beneath costa
and another above dorsum ; a similar line from f costa to f dorsum, at
first outwardly oblique, soon bent to become transverse, below middle
inwardly curved, with a posterior tooth above dorsum ; traces of a pale
subterminal line ; a median fuscous discal dot above middle, cilia fuscous.
Hindwings over 1, apex and termen strongly rounded ; orange ; suffused
with fuscous at apex, along dorsum, and on terminal edge ; cilia fuscous.

North Queensland : Cape York, in June ; one specimen received from M
Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type. ']

Subfam. ophiderinae. J

Alophosoma pallidula n. sp. I

pallidulus, rather pale — J

.39-40 mm. Head and palpi whitish-brown. Ahtenn^e grey, 1
minutely ciliated with longer bristles (1). Thorax brown-whitish, 1
anteriorly brown. Abdomen whitish-ochreous. Legs whitish-ochreous ; "1
anterior tibiae sprinkled and barred with fuscous ; tarsi with fuscous. 1
rings. Porewings elongate-triangular, costa slightly arched, apex I
rounded-rectangular, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique, crenulate ;
whitish or brown-whitish, with antemedian and terminal areas suffused
with brown; fine transverse dark fuscous lines; a double irregularly
dentate sub-basal line ; a double antemedian line from | costa to ^ dorsum, :
with a slight posterior tooth beneath costa and another stronger above
dorsum; postmedian from f costa, first outwardly oblique, then trans-
verse and inwardly curved, above dorsum bent inwards in a double loop
touching lower end of reniform, thence outwardly oblique and dentate
to dorsum ; a fine dentate whitish line in brown terminal area ; a
crenulate terminal line ; reniform bilobed, lower lobe larger, grey,
narrowly edged with fuscous; cilia whitish, with slender fuscous bars,
bases partly brownish. Hindwings wtih termen rounded ; crenulate ; 1

whitish-ochreous ; a broad fuscous terminal band narrowing to a point
on tornus ; cilia ochreous-whitish.

$ -38 mm. Porewings whiter; antemedian brown area smaller,,
sharply defined, limited to a triangular area, with a rounded apex reach-
ing from costa to slightly below middle ; subterminal white line, preceded
by several dark fuscous dots; terminal brown suffusion absent.

The sexes differ markedly. The male differs little from A. syngenes-
Turn., which has similar sexes, except in colour ; but there is a difference
in the terminal palpal joint being longer {pallidula male f, female f,
syngenes both sexes J).

North Queensland: Cape York, in June; four specimens received
from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

41

Prorocopis orthogramma n. sp.
opdaypappog, with straight markings —

^ -32-33 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi 2|; whitish^,
sprinkled with fuscous. Antennae grey. Abdomen whitish-ochreous
dorsum grey-suffused; basal crest fuscous. Legs fuscous, mixed with
whitish; posterior pair mostly whitish. Forewings suboblong, costa
slightly arched, apex rectangular, termen not oblique, rounded beneath ;
grey, with blackish markings ; a sub-basal transverse line cut by a short
longitudinal streak from base of costa ; an almost straight line from
J costa to -J dorsum ; a very short transverse streak from mid-costa ;,
postmedian line from | costa, transverse and nearly straight to below
middle, thence looped backwards and upwards to unite with lower edge
of reniform, thence looped downwards and ending on f dorsum ; reniforni
slenderly outlined, large and deeply indented posteriorly so as to form
two lobes, some white irroration on its posterior edge ; an oblique streak
from apex, continued as a subterminal line to tornus, with an obtuse
posterior projection below middle ; a crenulate terminal line posteriorly
filled in partly with white ; cilia grey, sprinkled with white. Hind-
wings broad, termen rounded ; ochreous-whitish ; a moderate suffused
terminal band ; cilia ochreous-whitish, with a grey sub-basal line.

Very similar to P. peratoscia Hmps., but differs in detail. The
antemedian line is not dentate, the reniform more deeply indented, the
hindwings much whiter.

New South Wales: Scone, in January; two specimens received from
Mr. H. Nicholas.

Stenoprora eurycycla n. sp.
evpvKVKXog , with broad circles—

$ -30 mm. Head and thorax grey, sprinkled with fuscous. Palpi
2 ; grey, sprinkled with fuscous. Antennae grey. Abdomen pale
grey. Legs fuscous sprinkled, and tarsi ringed, with whitish ; posterior
pair mostly whitish. Forewings suboblong, costa strongly arched, apex
rectangular, termen obliquely rounded ; fuscous sprinkled with whitish,,
appearing grey ; markings fuscous ; a short subcostal streak at base ; a
line from ^ costa obliquely outwards, slightly toothed beneath costa,,
more strongly below middle, indented above dorsum, on which it ends
on I ; reniform narrow, crescentic, outlined in fuscous ; a line from f costa
above reniform, outwardly oblique, soon angled, transverse, and con-
cave to below: middle, then looped backwards to touch lower end of
reniform, again looped and ending on dorsum before tornus ; one or two
short longitudinal streaks from and beneath apex ; a crenulate terminal
line ; cilia grey. Hindwings with termen rounded ; white wdth a broad
fuscous terminal band narrowing to a point at tornus ; cilia white, ou
apex fuscous.

Queensland: Charleville and Quilpie, in August; two specimens.

Pandesma quenavadi Gn.

Noct. ii., p. 438, Hmps. Moths Ind. ii., p. 466.

Moore, Lep., Ceyl., iii., PL 156, f.l.

North Queensland: Cairns, Palm Is. Also from Ceylon and India.

42

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Gen. Epigrypodes nov.

^TnypvTTcohrjs , somewhat hooked—

Tongue strong. Face smooth, not projecting. Palpi ascending,
closely appressed to face, not reaching vertex ; second joint long, thick- |

ened with appressed scales ; terminal joint very short, obtuse. Antennae f

about f length of forewings; in male with a double row of tufts of
moderately long cilia (2), apical | simple. Thorax and abdomen smooth
without crests. Legs clothed with long dense hairs; midtibiae of male,
with a large basal expansile tuft of long ochreous hairs. Forewings with
neuration normal. Hindwings with cell about f ; 5 from slightly above
•angle.

Ill shape of wings similar to Amphigonia Gn., but that genus has
much longer palpi and antennae, I

Epigrypodes amplipennis n. sp.
am^plipennis, large-winged —

-50 mm. Head and face pale brown. Palpi brown; inner
surface ochreous- whitish. Antennae grey. Abdomen brown. Legs I

ochreous-whitish ; anterior coxae pale brown. Forewings elongate-tri- |

angular, costa straight, apex pointed, somewhat produced, termen angled |

on vein 4 ; pale reddish-brown ; a fine fuscous sub-basal line angled out- ||

wards ; a similar line at obsolete towards costa, beneath angle edged A

with whitish ; a white median subcostal dot ; an obscure fuscous line from |

midcosta obliquely outwards, bent beneath costa, thence dentate to mid-
dorsum ; a short white streak on costa at f ; a pale transverse line from f
costa beyond this, curved inwards below middle, then angled and again
transverse to dorsum before tornus ; disc beyond this grey ; cilia grey,
with a whitish dot beneath apical hook. Hindwings with termen pro- ^

dueed and acute on vein 3, straight above this, excavated beneath ; basal ^

half pale reddish-brown ; terminal area grey ; a discal dot before middle f

and a finely dentate line at f fuscous ; a whitish subterminal line strongly ■

angled on vein 3, preceded by fuscous dots on veins ; cilia above angle
fuscous-brown, beneath white, with fuscous apices, on dorsum wholly
white.

North Queensland : Cape York, one specimen received from Mr. Geo. j
Lyell. Type in National Museum, Melbourne.

Anomds steremochla n. sp.
arepeopLOxXos, straight barred —

-36 mm. Head and thorax pale ochreous. Palpi reaching
vertex, terminal joint J ; brown. Antennae pale ochreous ; in male
minutely ciliated with short bristles (|). Abdomen ochreous-whitish;
tuft pale ochreous. Legs brown-whitish ; anterior pair bro^vn, with white
tarsal rings. Forewings triangular, costa straight, apex rectangular,
termen strongly angled on vein 4; pale ochreous, with a few scattered
fuscous scales ; a minute median subcostal fuscus dot ; a straight fuscous
line from beneath costa near apex f dorsum, closely followed by a
parallel line ; a small irregular white subapical spot edged with fuscous ;
cilia fuscous. Hindwings angled, with an acute tooth on vein 4 ; as
fore wings, but without discal dot and subapical spot; a double post-
median line from beneath f costa almost to tornus.

North Australia ; Darwin, in November ; one specimen received from
Mr. P. P. Dodd.

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

4S

Gen. Niphosticta nov.
yi^ocrriKTog , snow-spotted —

Tongue well developed. Palpi moderately stout, smooth ascending,,
about reaching vertex ; second joint thickened with appressed scales
terminal joint moderate, obtuse. Antennge in male minutely ciliated
with short paired bristles. Thorax not crested. Abdomen with small
dorsal crests on first two segments. Forewings normal. Hindwings.
with 5 from well above lower angle of cell ( ^ ) .

In the neighbourhood of Anticarsia and Mecodina, but with dif-
ferent origin of 5 of hindwings as well as abdominal crests.

Niphosticta^ apicipuncta n. sp.
apicipunctus, with apical spot —

-32 mm. Plead and thorax fuscous. Palpi reaching vertex,,
terminal joint ^ ; whitish, densely sprinkled with fuscous. Antennee
fuscous; in male with extremely minute ciliations and short bristles (|).
Abdomen grey ; crests fuscous. Legs whitish, sprinkled with fuscous
anterior tarsi dark fuscous, with white rings. Porewings triangular,
costa gently arched, apex rectangular, termen slightly rounded,
scarcely oblique ; fuscous with scattered white dots, one at base, 5 or 6
on costa, a larger spot at apex; reniform 8-shaped, white, upper lobe
with fuscous centre, intermediate neck ochreous; an extremely fine
dentate postmedian line, outwardly curved from f costa to f dorsum,,
with white dots on apices of dentations; a terminal series of blackish
dots, each preceded by a white dot ; cilia fuscous, apices white. Hind-
wings with termen rounded ; fuscous ; cilia fuscous.

Queensland: Yeppoon, in March; one specimen received from Mr..
E. J. Dumigan.

Gen. Bertula Wlk.

Cat. Brit. Mus. xvi., p. 162 Hmps. Moths Ind. iii., p. 44 —

Type B. adjiidicalis Wlk. from India. The following characters
are drawn from the two Australian species : — The first of these has been
usually referred to Pseudaglossa Grote, but from the characters given
by Hampson it seems to be undoubtedly a Bertula. That genus is
placed by Hampson as a section of Bleptina Gn. ; whether this is advis-
able, I cannot say.

Tongue strong. Pace not projecting. Palpi long, ascending,
recurved, in male very long and curved backwards over thorax ; second
joint thickened with appressed scales, in male curved over head, in
female scarcely reaching vertex; terminal joint long, acute, in male,
with a very long expansile tuft of pale ochreous hairs. Antennge of
male moderately ciliated, sometimes with longer bristles. Porewings
with areole narrow ; 7, stalk of 8, 9, and 10 closely approximated, 10
sometimes stalked with 8, 9. Hindwings with cell | ; 5 arising from
shortly above angle.

Bertula sordescens Rosen.

Queensland: Brisbane; Stanthorpe. New South Wales: Sydney.
Victoria: Gisborne; Dunkeld.

44

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Bertula nyctiphanta n. sp.
vvKTixj)avro£, appearing by night—

-38-42 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax dark fuscous. Antennae
fuscous; in male with moderate ciliations (IJ) and longer paired
bristles (3). Abdomen and legs fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa
slightly arched, apex rounded-rectangular, termen rounded, not oblique ;
fuscous ; markings blackish, partly edged, with ochreous-whitish ; a sub-
basal line ; a slender irregularly dentate line at ; a strongly-marked
acutely dentate line from ^ costa to mid-dorsum ; a slender sinuate wavy
line from f costa to f dorsum ; a strongly-marked irregularly dentate
subterminal line ; cilia fuscous. Hindwings with termen strongly
rounded ; fuscous suffused with whitish towards base ; cilia whitish, with
fuscous bars.

New South Wales: Scone, in January, February, and March; six
specimens received from Mr. H. Nicholas.

Prionopterina modesta n. sp.
modestus, unassuming —

(^9 -23-25 mm. Head and thorax grey. Palpi 4, obliquely
ascending; second joint long, smooth, with a strong posterior tuft of
scales on apical ^ ; terminal joint short, obtuse ; grey. Antennae pale
grey; in male moderately ciliated (1), with long paired bristles (5).
Abdomen pale grey. Legs grey; posterior pair grey-whitish. Fore-
wings elongate-oval, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen very
obliquely rounded ; whitish, with more or less grey suffusion, sometimes
reddish-tinged ; three outwardly curved, slender, wavy, grey lines more
or less distinct; first from J costa to dorsum, second from costa to
mid-dorsum, third from f costa to f dorsum; two dark fuscous discal
dots, sometimes white-centred, at f and f ; a submarginal series of dark
fuscous dots before termen ; cilia grey, sometimes reddish-tinged. Hind-
wings with termen bisinuate ; pale grey ; cilia whitish, bases sometimes
reddish-tinged.

North Queensland : Banks Island, in May ; Cape York, in November ;
seven specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Subfam. hypeninae.

Gen. Saroljela nov.
aapo^eXosy with brush-like palpi —

Tongue strongly developed. Palpi in male very long, ascending,
densely thickened with appressed scales, with a posterior pencil of long
hairs from base ; second joint exceeding vertex, rough-haired on anterior
edge ; terminal joint with long rough hairs anteriorly ; in female porrect,
but terminal joint obliquely ascending ; second joint without basal pencil ;
terminal without long anterior hairs. Antennas in male shortly ciliated,
with longer paired bristles. Thorax with anterior and posterior crests.
Abdomen with dorsal crests on first two segments. Forewings with a
small areole, 7 connate with 8, 9. Hindwings with 5 from well above
lower angle of cell (J).

i/Sarohela spectabilis n. sp.
spectabilis, handsome —

(^9 *34-36 mm. Head brownish-grey. Palpi brownish-grey ; anterior
margin and apex whitish-brown. Antennas grey ; ciliations in male J,
bristles 1. Thorax pale brown, darker anteriorly. Abdomen grey.

NEW AUSTRALIAN liEPIDOPTERA.

45

Legs fuscous; posterior pair oehreous-grey. Forewings elongate-
triangular, costa straight almost to apex, apex pointed, termen rounded,
slightly oblique, wavy ; dark fuscous-brown ; basal, dorsal, and terminal
areas whitish, sprinkled with fuscous-brown ; dark area defined anteriorly
by a slender oblique white line from costa near base to above mid-
dorsum, there angled towards apex; reniform very large, extending
from near midcosta to dorsal pale area, except where continuous with
this edged by an irregular white line ; a fuscous crenulate terminal line ;
cilia whitish-grey. Hindwings ample, termen rounded, wavy; fuscous;
cilia as forewings.

North Queensland: Cape York, in November, April, and June;
four specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Hypertrocta pallida n. sp.

palUdm, pale —

^ *18 mm. Head whitish. Palpi 3J, terminal joint | ; pale brown.
Antennae whitish; ciliations in male 4. Thorax and abdomen brown-
whitish. Legs whitish, sparsely sprinkled with fuscous; anterior pair
fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa straight, apex acute, termen
angled and strongly toothed on vein 4; whitish-brown, with a few
fuscous scales ; a slender brown transverse line at ^ ; a brown spot on
midcosta, from which a similar line proceeds to f dorsum; a larger
brown costal triangle between this and apex, edged jDosteriorly by a
whitish line, which proceeds to tornus, being strongly toothed outwards
opposite terminal angle ; a slender whitish terminal line edged
anteriorly by an interrupted fuscous line; cilia vhitish-brown. Hind-
wings subquadrate, sharply angled on vein 4 ; 3 and 4 connate ; whitish-
brown ; a slender brown transverse line at J ; an indistinct, irregularly
dentate whitish line at f ; terminal lines and cilia as forewings.

In H. variahilis Swin. the terminal joint of palpi is much longer
(I), and 3 and 4 of hindwings are stalked,

Queensland: Yeppoon, in October; one specimen received from Mr.
E. J. Dumigan.

Naiarda coelopis n. sp.

KoiXojTTLSy hollowed —

^ -22-26 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen fuscous. Palpi 3^,.
laterally compressed, the dense hairs appearing grooved above and below
central stem ; fuscous. Antennas not laminate, a small dorsal hair-
tuft beyond middle, cilia 1, bristles ; fuscous. Legs fuscous ; anferior
femora and tibias. heavily clothed with dense hair. Forewings elongate-
triangular, costa slightly concave to beyond middle, thence sinuate, apex
round-pointed, termen slightly rounded, oblique ; fuscous ; obscurely
darker wavy transverse lines at 4 and f ; a pale orange dot close below J
costa ; two spots of the same colour, each with a central fuscous dot, form-
ing a figure 8 beyond middle ; a terminal series of dots ; cilia fuscous.
Hindwings with termen rounded : fuscous ; markings as forewnngs, but
without spots.

Very similar in markings to A. xanthoneplira Turn., though they are
less distinct, but very different in shape of forewings and in structure
of palpi, antennse, and forelegs, at least in male.

North Queensland: Cape York, in October, November, and May;
Kuranda, in March and June ; seven specimens.

4b PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Fam. Lymantriadae.

Lymantria diver sa n. sp.

diversus, different^ —

-58 mm. Head and thorax brown. Palpi IJ; brown. i\ntenmo
whitish-grey ; pectinations 16, fuscous. Abdomen reddish. Legs
ochreous-fuscous ; anterior coxae, anterior, and posterior femora red.
Porewings triangular, costa straight to thence arched, apex rounded,,
termen straight, moderately oblique ; pale ochreous-grey ; markings pale
fuscous ; a sub-basal line not reaching dorsum ; an angulated line of dots
slightly beyond ; a suffused transverse line at ^ ; suffused slightly dentate
lines at f and a darker series of spots forming a subterminal line; a
dark fuscous subcostal dot at f , followed by a medium lunule with con-
cavity forwards just preceding fourth line ; cilia whitish, with dark
fuscous bars. Hindwings with termen strongly rounded ; ochreous-
whitish suffused with grey towards termen ; cilia ochreous-whitish.

$ -85 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi -J; fuscous, whitish
beneath towards base. Antenngg fuscous; pectinations 2. Abdomen
whitish-ochreous, sometimes reddish-tinged towards base. Legs fuscous ;
middle tibiaB whitish; (posterior pair missing). Porewings elongate-
triangular, costa strongly arched, apex rounded-rectangular, termen
straight, strongly oblique ; white, with fuscous markings ; a very slender
sub-basal transverse line, angled in middle; a broad outwardly oblique
line from J costa, bent above mid-disc, thence narrow and interrupted to
anal vein at from which a bar proceeds to dorsum ; two dots in
median area precede/ this line ; a broad line from f costa, gradually
becoming broader to mid-dorsum, nearly straight, its anterior edge
crenulate ; a slightly wavy straight subterminal line ; a narrow post-
median spot outlined by fuscous resting on anterior edge of postmedian
line ; a fine interrupted terminal line ; cilia white, with broad fuscous
bars. Hindwings with termen rounded ; white ; towards base sometimes^
with pale red hairs on veins ; terminal edge and cilia as forewings.

North Queensland; Cape York; Cairns; Ingham. My material con-
sists of one of each sex from Ingham (E. J. Dumigan), a female from
Cairns (Miss Dodd), and another female from Cape York (W. B..
Barnard). The only male example is my type.

Fam. Anthelidae.

Anthela euryphrica n. sp.

€vpvcf)pLKog, broadly rippled —

-38-46 mm. Head and palpi brown. Antennas white ; pectina-
tions fuscous, in male 12, in female 1|. Thorax and abdomen ochreous-
fuscous ; pectus ochreous. Legs ochreous ; tarsi fuscous, with white
rings. Porewings triangular, costa straight, apex rectangular, termen
rounded, not oblique ; dark fuscous, with pale ochreous transverse rippled
lines, more whitish in female ; sub-basal from J costa to ^ dorsum,
curved, dentate ; median very slender, finely crenulate ; postmedian
from f costa to before tornus, broad, slightly curved, its inner surface
crenulate ; a crenulate terminal line, sometimes very fine and submar-
ginal ; snow-white subcostal discal spots at J and middle ; cilia pale
ochreous. Hindwings with termen rounded ; colour as forewings ; with-
out sub-basal line and discal spots; a fine and nearly straight median
line; postmedian approximated, rather broader, straight. Underside'
similar, but with snow-white median spots at i and middle.

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

47

Closely allied to A. denticulata, with which it agrees in pattern of
fore wings, but differs in its ochreous colour and especially in the hind-
wings.

New South Wales: Scone. A large number of larvse feeding on
Barley Grass (Bromus arenaria) were collected in August by Mr. H. T.
Nicholas. He describes them as very hairy, brown with blue or reddish
spots or markings, head tan colour, with cream markings. They
pupated in cocoons about one inch beneath the surface. Twenty-three
moths emerged in April and May. A large number of larva; were killed
by dipterous parasites.

Anthela callileuca Turn.

I have received from Mr. W. B. Barnard tree examples taken at
Jandowae, near Dalby, Queensland, in which a broad straight fuscous
line, dentate on its posterior edge, runs from costa before apex to dorsum
before tornus in forewings, with a similar but finer and interrupted line
on hindwings. This conspicuous form is only a variety or possibly a
local race. Traces of a similar line may be detected in the typical
form.

Fam. LxiSiocAMPiDAE.

Crexa macqueeni n. sp.

-28-30 mm. $ -40-41 mm. Head whitish, with central fuscous
spot. Palpi whitish, external surface partly fuscous. Antennse
fuscous; pectinations in male 12, in female 2. Thorax fuscous, mixed
with whitish hairs. Abdomen reddish-brown ; tuft in male fuscous ; in
female tuft and spots on apices of segments white. Legs fuscous mixed,
and tarsi ringed, with white. Porewings elongate-triangular, costa
straight to near apex, apex rounded, termen longer than dorsum, gently
rounded, oblique ; dark-grey ; in male fuscous-brown towards base ; veins
near base reddish-brown ; a sub-basal whitish line, more distinct in
female ; a reddish-brown median subcostal discal spot, edged anteriorly
and posteriorly by a fuscous dot ; beyond this a whitish suffusion more
marked in female ; a short white externally oblique streak from f costa,
giving rise to a finely dentate line to dorsum before tornus ; a sub-
terminal series of fuscous spots edged with whitish ; cilia grey. Hind-
wings with termen rounded ; in male reddish-brown, suffused with
fuscous towards costa ; in female grey with a whitish median trans-
verse line ; cilia white.

The forewings are similar in both sexes, but not the hindwings.
The male is similar in colour to C. maoroptila Turn., but unlike that
species the hindwings are of normal shape. I dedicate this interesting
species to Mr. J. Macqueen, who has made many interesting discoveries
in the fauna of his locality.

Queensland : Milmerran, in December, January, and March ; four
specimens bred by Mr. J. Macqueen.

Gen. Eremmiepsia nov.
ipyj^xaveiffLog, a desert cousin —

Eyes smooth, large, rounded. Palpi moderate, porrect, reaching
slightly beyond froms. Forewings with 2 from J, 3 from before angle,
4 and 5 connate from angle, 6 from upper angle, connate with 8, 9,
which are stalked, 11 from f. Hindwings with cell J, 2 from middle,

48

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

3 from angle, connate with 4, 5, which are stalked, 6 from upper angle,.
7 from shortly before angle, no) subcostal cell, 12 anastomosing to middle
of cell, a forked pseudoneurium from its base.

Allied to Eremonoma.

Eremanepsia agrapia n. sp.

ayparrrosy unmarked—

^ -20 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax dull reddish. Antennae reddish -
pectinations in male 4. Abdomen pale reddish ; beneath whitish-
grey. Posterior legs whitish-grey. Forewings triangular, costa straight,
apex obtusely pointed, termen slightly rounded, moderately oblique
dull reddish ; cilia dull reddish. Hindwings with termen rounded ; pale
reddish ; cilia pale reddish.

Central Australia: Tennant’s Creek (Spencer-Gillies Expedition);,
one specimen. Type in Coll, Lyell.

Digglesia diampJiidia n. sp.

SiajjLcjyLhLOs, different—

-42 mm. Head whitish-ochreous ; face fuscous. Palpi moderately
long (2J) , exceeding frontal tuft, densely clothed with long hairs;
reddish-fuscous. Antennae short ; fuscous ; in male bent beyond
middle, pectinations 6 at base, gradually shortening to apex. Thorax
reddish-fuscous ; a submarginal transverse anterior line and median
area whitish-ochreous. Abdomen fuscous-reddish; apices of segments,
beneath whitish-ochreous. Legs fuscous-reddish; tarsi fuscous with
whitish-ochreous rings. Forewings narrow towards base, dilated pos-
teriorly, costa sinuate, apex round-pointed, termen rounded, oblique ;
whitish, with fuscous markings ; fine reddish streaks on all veins, becom-
ing broader shortly before termen ; a dentate line inwardly oblique from
^ costa, angled outwards above dorsum, ending on J ; a similar line from
f costa to mid-dorsum ; a well-marked but irregularly bent subterminal
line ; a broad terminal line interrupted by streaks on veins ; some fuscous
suffusion containing a whitish median dot between first and second lines ;
cilia fuscous. Hindwings with termen strongly rounded ; fuscous-red-
dish ; cilia fuscous.

Very distinct; but the pattern of the forewings shows some resem-
blance to D. ecnoma Turn., from West Australia. The palpi are short
for this genus.

Queensland : Bunya Mountains, in November ; one specimen

received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Fam. Limacodidae.

Parasa symphonistis n. sp.
crvfjLcjxxJVLarLSy harmonious —

^ *30-32 mm. Head and palpi brown. Antennae whitish-ochreous ;
pectinations in male 6, ceasing rather abruptly at Thorax fuscous-
brown with white-tipped hairs. Abdomen grey-brown or fuscous-
brown. Legs brown ; tarsi whitish-ochreous with fuscous-brown rings.-
Forewings triangular, costa straight, apex rounded, termen rounded
slightly oblique ; pale purple-grey, disc sometimes fuscous-reddish except
towards base and termen ; a strong fuscous streak from | dorsum, extern-

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

4.9

ally oblique, sometimes short, sometimes dentate or broken and extend-
ing to near i costa ; a rounded dark line from | costa to tornus, some-
times lost in central dark suffusion; preceded by a variable median
cluster of three fuscous dots ; an interrupted crenulate grey subterminal
line; cilia grey. Hindwings with termen rounded; pale reddish; cilia
grey.

Queensland : Milmerran, in November, December, and January; three
specimens received from Mr. J. Macqueen.

ISusica fasciata. Wlk.

Through the kindness of Mr. E. J. Dumigan, I have received two
remarkably fine specimens of this species of a form with brown-
whitish thorax and dorsal blotches on hindwings. They emerged from
subterranean cocoons obtained by the pupils of Mr. Bartlett on Mount
Tambourine, while digging under a '‘Wheel of Fire” tree (Stenocarpus:
simmtus. Proteaceae).

Fam. CossiD^.

Xyleuies eremonoma Turn.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A. 1906, p. 139.

Xyleutes amphiplecta Turn.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A. 1932, p. 195.

I have received examples of both these species from Mr. A. P. Dodd,
bred from larv^ feeding in the stems of Bassia quiquecuspis in Goondi-
windi. The females of both species are remarkable in their very elongate
swollen abdomens and abbreviated, though perfectly formed, wings.
They can hardly be capable of flight.

Xyleutes spilota n. sp.

crTTiAoTOs*, spotted —

$ -25 mm. Head white. Palpi fuscous; apices white. Antenna?
white, sprinkled with fuscous. Thorax white ; two longitudinal lines
and some irroration blackish. Abdomen white, sprinkled with fuscous;
apices of segments fuscous. Legs dark fuscous. Forewings rather
narrow, costa nearly straight, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ;
white ; numerous short strigul^p and some larger spots dark fuscous, with
steel-blue reflections ; strigulie most numerous in dorsal area ; an elongate
oblong subcostal spot at J ; three partly confluent costal and subcostal
spots at I; veins marked by fine ochreous lines; a dark fuscous terminal
line ; cilia white with dark fuscous bars. Hindwings with costa sinuate,
apex round-pointed, termen nearly straight; whitish with fuscous
strigulse, which are confluent over central area, cilia as forewings.

New South Wales: Brewarrina; one specimen received from Mr.
W. W. Froggatt.

Xyleutes riparia n. sp.
riparius, frequenting river-banks —

*64-70 mm. $ 82 mm. Head fuscous; face mostly or wholly
ochreous-brown. Palpi blackish ; lower surface except at apex whitish-
ochreous. Antennae fuscous ; dorsal surface of shaft whitish ; in male
bipectinate to about middle, thence serrate, pectinations 5. Thorax
grey-whitish; a strongly curved submarginal anterior fuscous line;

50

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

three pairs of fuscous dots, with a fourth pair on tegulie. Abdomen
blackish, bases of segments whitish, apices ochreous ; first tw^o segments
grey- whitish ; tuft fuscous. Legs fuscous ; tibiae white-ringed. Fore-
wings elongate, suboblong, in female broader, costa slightly arched, apex
round-pointed, termeii slightly rounded, slightly oblique ; whitish with
numerous coarse blackish strigulm, leaving two oblique white fasciag ;
first from beyond midcosta to before mid-dorsum, where it turns inwards
to base of wing ; second from f costa to dorsum before tornus ; in female
these fascia are reduced to large spots or blotches; costa coarsely
strigulated with blackish ; terminal area blackish except for streaks on
veins and an irregular line before termen; cilia whitish. Hindwings
with termen sinuate ; dark fuscous, in female with coarse pale strigulas ;
a series of whitish spots close to termen.

Queensland: Stanthorpe, in November and January; three speci-
mens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has bred a series. Mr.
Barnard found the larvae boring the lower part of the stems of Lepio-
spermum ahnonne, which frequents the banks of rivers and creeks,
tunnelling always upwards for a distance of seven inches or more.
Before pupating each larva perforates the inner bark, leaving the outer
bark intact, so that the place of future emergence may sometimes be
detected by running the fingers over the surface and pressing on it.
The presence of the larvae is often betrayed by the ejecta beneath the
stem attacked. They are not injured by the submergence of the stems in
flood waters. They pupate in the spring and emerge from November
to January. Those of various ages are found in the same tree, and
after their feeding habits had been ascertained were found to be not
uncommon.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 5.

51

VoL. XLVII., No. 5.

Contribution to the Queensland Flora, No. 5,

By C. T. White, Government Botanist.

{Bead befo7^e the Royal Society of Queensland^ 2Qth August, 1935.)

Since the publication of the previous contribution (these Proceed-
ings, Vol. XLI., pp. 139-143, 1929) some important collections of Queens-
land plants have come into my hands for determination. Outstanding
among these is the collection made by Mr. L. J. Brass in North Queens-
land in the early months of 1932. By an arrangement with the Arnold.
Arboretum of Harvard University, U.S.A., Mr. Brass spent between
three and four months in North Queensland before leaving on an exten-
sive collecting and photographing trip to the Solomon Islands. Among
the material collected and here described is an apparently undescribed
genus of Hernandiaceae, and members of the genera Coronanthera
{Gesneracece) New Caledonia — and Dimorphocalyx {Euphorbiacem)
— Malaya — previously unrecorded as Australian. A particularly
interesting find was Ostrearia {Hamamelidac&ae) , of which flowers were
previously unknown. My best thanks are due to members of my staff
and botanists in the other States and abroad for much help received,
which has enabled me to present the present paper. Due acknowledge-
ment has been made under the different plants concerned.

Order Dilleniaceae.

Hibbertia sericea (R. Br.) Benth. PL Austr. I. 26, 1863.

Mount Barney, S.B. Queensland, alt. 4,000 ft., in rocky crevices,
rare. C. T. White (flowering specimens) 7852, 27/8/1931. (shrub or sub-
shrub, abt. 1 ft. high, stems procumbent or with ascending branches ; fls.
yellow.) Mount Ernest, S.E. Queensland, alt. 2,000-3,000 ft., in rocky
crevices, very common. C. T. White, No. 8591 (flowering specimens),
10/10/1932. (shrub or subshrub of rather dense growth, flowers yellow.)
Mt. Lindesay, alt. over 3,000 ft. Rev. N. Michael, No. 2223, 14/7/1935.
Not previously recorded for Queensland.

Hibbertia stirlingii sp. nov.

Pruiticulus parvus, virgatus ; ramulis foliisque plus vel minus dense
stellato-pubescentibus (f. stelligera) vel squamulosis (f. squamulosa).
Folia linearia apice obtusa vel minute apiculata, basem versus leviter
angustata, 1*5-2 cm. longa, margine valde recurva; costa media supra
excavata subtus valde elevata. Pedunculi 5-8 mm. longi (f. stelligera)
vel ad 2 cm. longi (f. squamulosa) dense stellato-tomentosi ; bracteis
ovatis 2 mm. longis. Sepala subrotunda, extus densissime lepidota
intus glabra, margine ciliata, 2 exteriora, 2*5 mm. longa, 3 interiora
5 mm. longa. Petala obovata 6 mm. longa. Stamina numerosa 2 mm.
longa. Carpella 2 lepidota, 2-ovulata; stylis glabris 3 mm. longis.

.52

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

(a) f. stelligera:

Ravenshoe, alt. 3,000 ft., on Eucalyptus forest slopes. L. J. Brass,
No. 1888 (flowering specimens) ; Jan. 1 (small shrub). Range road.
Miss Wheatley, No. 117 (flowering specimens) ; August 8, 1934.

(&) f. squamulosa.

Herberton, J. Stirling {type of the species) ; (flowering specimens),
July, 1904. Stannary Hills, Dr. T. L. Bancroft (flowering specimens),
June, 1908.

The two collections of the forma squamulosa were found in the
Queensland Herbarium in the K. lepidota R. Br. folder, but I think the
closest affinities of the new species lie with H. scabra R. Br., which
differs in having longer leaves, longer pedicels, acute, not obtuse, sepals,
tomentose, not lepidote, on the outside, and tomentose, not lepidote,
carpels.

It is intermediate in many ways between the two species. H. lepi-
dota R. Br. is distinguished by its very dense, not scattered, clothing of
scales on stems and leaves, the leaves being flat or concave with the
margins not at all recurved, the peduncles rather shorter, and the
sepals subacute. It was recorded for Northcote (leg. R. C. Burton) by
the late M. Bailey. I have not seen these specimens, but Mr. Brass
has collected it in two localities in North Queenslatid, e.g., Settlement
Creek, near Gulf of Carpentaria, No. 297 (flowering specimens), Feb.,
1923 (shrub 3-5 ft.) ; and Newcastle Range, between Einasleigh and
Forsayth, No. 1762 (flowering specimens), Feb., 1928 (small shrub on
sandstone ) .

H. scabra R. Br. I have not yet seen from a definite Queensland
locality.

Order Guttiferae.

Garcinia brassii sp. nov.

Arbor parva ; raniulis robustis, juvenilibus quadraiigulatis, inter-
nodiis 1-1-5 cm. longis; stipulis crasse coriaceis, ovatis, intus concavis
2 mm. longis. Folia petiolata subcarnosa (Brass) in sicco rigide
coriacea, obovata, margine recurva, apice obtusa vel emarginata, basi
cuneata ; petiolo 0-5-1 cm. longo ; lamina 3-8 cm. longa, 1-5-4 cm. lata ;
costa media notata, supra depressa, subtus elevata ; nervis lateralibus
valde elevatis, subparallelis, utrinque 14-18, prope marginem newo
marginali conjunctis. Inflorescentia terminalis. Flores ignoti ; sepalis
(sub-fructu) rotundatis, 5 mm. diam. Fructus depresso-globosus,
pallido-virens, ca. 5 cm. diam., 4 cm. altus, stigmate granuloso 4-lobato
coronatus; seminibus irregulariter ellipsoideis vel globosis, in sectione
transverse irregulariter triangularibus, dorso convexis, lateribus
applanatis.

Thornton Peak, in low scrub at the summit, L. J. Brass, No. 2277
(fruits) March 14; (small tree of various habit, but commonly with
thick, erect, dark trunk, about 7-8 ft. high, ending abruptly in a dense
flat crown of small erect branches ; sap yellow ; leaves thick and rather
fleshy, the margins recurved ; petioles reddish ; fruit terminal, depressed-
globose, pale green, acidulous).

This makes the fifth species of Garcinia to be found in North-
eastern Australia. Among previously described Australian species it
most resembles G. Warrenii F. v. Muell., which is distinguished by
larger leaves, with a more pointed apex, and smaller, not depressed,
fruits.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 5.

58

Order Pittosporaceae.

Pittosoporum O’ Reilly amim sp. nov.

Prutex vel arbor parva gracillima ; ramulis spinis numerosis arm-
atis, junioribiis hirsntis, intermediis leviter mnricatis, adiiltis glabris
cortice albo obtectis. Folia juniora subtus pilis longis paiicis obsita^
adnltis glabra, ovato-lanceolata 0-5-2 cm. longa, 2-5 mm. lata ; venis
suboscuris ; petiolis 0-5-1-5 mm. longis. Flores singnlares axillares vel
terminales, pedicello pubescent! 1-5-2 mm. longo. Calyx vix 2 mm.
longus, alte 5-lobatus. Corallae tubus 6 mm. longus ; lobis late linearibus,.
3 mm. longis. Anthera breviter exserta ; tilamentis liguliformibus.
Ovarium hirsutum. Capsula 7-8 mm. diam. ; seminibus paucis magnis.
rubris ; angularibus dorso convexis.

Mount Hob wee, Lamington National Park, near New South Wales-
Queensland border, alt. 4,000 ft., common in rain-forest. C. T. White,
6173 (type; flowering specimens). Sept. 1, 1929; (small tree, with a
very slender stem, usually weighted with a dense growth of mosses and
liverworts). Roberts Plateau, Lamington National Park, alt. 3,500-
4,000 ft.; (fruiting specimens); Mrs. Frieda Cobb Blanchard, May,
1928; C. T. White, No. 6064, Feb., 1929; T. O’Reilly, May, 1929.

Very dissimilar to previously described Australian species, and
more closely resembling some of the very small-leaved New Zealand
species.

Named in honour of my friend, Mr. Thos. O’Reilly, who, while
resident in the park, freely gave to visiting naturalists all possible
help and guidance in the pursuit of their studies.

Order Caryophyllaceae.

'^Sagina apetala Linn. Mant II., 559.

Toowoomba, H. A. Longman. Bet. Ballandean and Wallangarra, C. T.

White, 9330, 13/10/33.

The Toowoomba specimens were referred by F. M. Bailey {Queens-
land Agricultural Journal, XXV. (1910), 234) to S. prociimbens L.

Order Portulacaceae.

Portulaca digyna F. v. M. Fragm. Phytogr. Austr. 1, 171 (1859).
Glenhallam, near Boulia, S. H. Teece, March, 1934.

As far as I can ascertain, these are actually the first specimeiif? of
this Portulaca collected in Queensland. F. M. Bailey (Queensland Flora,
1, 94) recorded it from ^‘Northern interior and Stanthorpo. ’’ There
were no specimens from Western Queensland in the Queensland Her-
barium, and the Stanthorpe specimens, though fragmentary, I have little
hesitation in referring to the very widely-spread P. bicolor F. v. M,

Order Malvaceae.

Sida Dallachyi sp. nov.

Suffrutex vel herba perennis basi tandem, lignescens ; partibus omni-
bus dense et molliter stellato-pubesceiitibus. Caules erect! ; ramis paucis
strictis. Folia petiolata, anguste ovato-lanceolata, basi in foliis latioribus
subcordata, in foliis angustioribus subacuta, apice subacuta, margine
serrata, supra pallido-viridi, subtus pallidiore (‘‘argenteo-grisea” —
Brass) ; nervis praeeipuis supra leviter impressis, subtus elevatis ; petiole

54

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

0-5-2 cm. longo, lamina 3-11 cm. longa, 0-5-4 cm. lata; stipulis siibulatis
4 mm. longis. Pedunculus tenuis, uniflorus 1-5-3 cm. longus, supra
medium articulatus. Calyx ca. 8 cm. diam., turbinato — campanulatus,
pentagonus valde 10-costatus, in dimidio superiore in dentos acutes tri-
angulares divisus. Petala flava, ca. 1 cm. longa. Carpella matura calyce
fere duplo breviora, mutica, ca. 7, lateribus et dorsi, transverse rugosa,
bivalvia plerumque monosperma.

Rockingham Bay, J. Dallachy (Herb. Melbourne — fig. and ftg.
specimens), 24 VI. 1866, (herb at river). Mount Molloy, alt. 1,200 ft.,
in rocky places, L. J. Brass, No. 2443 (type — flowers and immature
fruits); 11/4/1932; (2-3 ft. high, upper surface of leaves very pale
green, lower silver-grey ; flowers yellow ) .

Amongst previously described Australian species most closely allied
to S. mutica Domin., cordifolm L. var. mutica Benth.), whichf differs
in having very much smaller leaves and very short pedicels (shorter
than the calyx).

I am much indebted to Mr. S. T. Blake for kindly comparing these
specimens with the unnamed ones of Dallachy ’s at the National Her-
barium, Melbourne, and to Mr. P. J. Rae, Government Botanist, Mel-
bourne, for their subsequent loan so that a full description could be
drawn up.

Order Tiliaceae.

Grewia papaaua Burret in Notizb. Bot. Gar. u. Mus., Berlin, IX.,
672 (1926).

Mowbray River, in rain-forests, L. J. Brass, No. 2011; (flowers and
young fruits) ; Jan. 25; (small slender tree or large bush; leaves glossy
above, paler beneath ; flowers yellowish green, secreting a large quantity
of nectar, which often sticks the points of the perianth lobes together and
prevents the proper opening of the flowers).

Only previously known from Northern New Guinea. The speci-
mens have kindly been compared with the type material at Berlin by
Dr. Burrett, who states that it is quite the same as his plant.

Triumfetta suffruticosa Bl. Bijdr. 113.

Palm Island, North-east Queensland, W. A. Somerville, May, 1926.

Determination at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (Eng.), by W. D.
Erancis. Not previously recorded for Queensland.

Order Rutaceae,

Eriostemon amhiens F. v. Muell. Fragm. Phytogr. Austr. VI. 166
(1868).

Wyberba, Southern Queensland. Mrs. Gunn; (flowering specimens),
9/9/1932.

Eriostemon salicifolius Sm. in Rees. Cyclop. XIII, No. 1.

Pyramid Mountain, abt. 30 miles from Stanthorpe. H. Jarvis,
6/11/1931.

A deflnite record for a plant previously recorded for Queensland
without specific locality.

Melicope sessili flora, sp. nov.

Arbor parva vel frutex elatus ; partibus novellis stellato-tomentosis
mox glabris. Folia opposita, petiolata, unifoliolata, in sicco chartacea

CONTRIBUTION TO THE OCEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 5. o5

vel subcoriacea, supra siibnitida, subtus pallidiora, opaca et dense atro-
punctata, elliptica vel elliptico-lanceolata, basi obtusa vel subacuta, apice
obtusa vel obtuse acuminata ; nervis lateralibus subparallelis, utrinque
25, in sicco nervis et venis utrinque prominulis; petiolo 1-1-5 cm. longo ;
lamina 8-16 cm. longa, 3-5-5 cm. lata. Flores albi sessiles in fascicules
paucifloros axillares vel laterales dispositi. Sepala 4, imbricata late
ovata, 2 mm. diam., extus stellato-tomentosa. Petala 4 linearia, coo-
cava, ad apicem in alabastro inflexa, extus dense stellato-tomentosa, intus
glabra, 7 mm. longa. Stamina 8, omnia fertilia, alterna breviora ; fila-
mentis applanatis, brevioribus glabris, longioribus intus carinatus et
apicem versus verrucoso-ciliatis. Discus annularis 8-lobatus, Gynoeciuiu
glabrum ; ovario in 4 carpella distincta diviso ; styli ramis ad apicem
conjunctis.

Mossman River Gorge, in rain-forest, L. J. Brass, No. 2108; (flower-
ing specimens and one unripe fruit) ; Feb. 9; (tall bush or small tree
with stiff brittle leaves, flowers white).

Among previously described Australian species seems to have the
closest affinity with M. Fareana F. v. Mueller, which differs in having
the leaflets cuneate at the base and the flowers on rather long slender
pedicels.

The material of the new species to hand is rather scrappy. Only a
few flowers were available for dissection. There was one-half or less
than half matured fruit and this seems to be surrounded by persistent
sepals and persistent or subpersistent petals, a character it shares with
M. Fareana F. v. Muell.

Order Burseraceae.

Canarium a^ustralianum F. v. Mueller, Fragm, Phytogr. Austr., III., 15,

1862.

Mossman River, in riverine rain-forest, L, J. Brass, No. 2044;
(flowering specimens), Feb. 4; ( stiff -branched tree up to 60 ft. high;
leaves very stiff, upper surface shining, lower greyish ; flowers v/hite ) .
Mowbray River, L. J. Brass, in rain-forests. No. 2005; (flowering and
fruiting specimens), Jan. 23; (small, slender-stemmed tree up to 18 ft.;
leaves clustered at ends of branches) .

These two specimens are recorded as — No. 2044 represents the
typical form with the lower surface of the leaves in the adult tree
clothed with a dense tomentum and the panicle branches, calyces, and
young petals densely pilose ; while No. 2005 represents a very distinctive
form. I had drawn up a description of this latter as a new species, but
on looking through the large series of specimens in the Queensland
Herbarium concluded that though very distinctive at first sight it could
not be separated specifically. It is characterised by being almost
entirely glabrous, only the young parts being pilose, this referring to the
panicle branches and calyces as well as to the leaves. The leaves on the:
whole are larger with more numerous leaflets, and the lateral veins are;
fewer and wider apart. We have specimens of what is apparently the
same species in leaf only, determined by Mueller as SanUria Icevigata
Blume, collected at Harvey’s Creek, Russell River, by W. A. Sayer in
1887, so evidently Mueller did not connect it with his C. australianum.

I have refrained from naming this form specifically, not only on
account of the known variability of members of the genus, but also from
the fact that an intermediate form occurs in which the leaves of adult
trees are quite glabrous, but the panicle branches, calyces, and young

56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

petals have the densely pilose character of the normal form. This inter-
mediate form is represented in the Queensland Herbarium from Towns-
ville (collected by the Rev. N. Micheal, No. 1360, and by C. T. White,
sine no. February, 1922 ; from Mount Molloy, Forest Officer Carlin, and
Irvinebank, F. Bennett). Another point that has restrained me from
naming it as a species is the fact that No. 2005 has been taken from a
young tree, and so far as I have observed in the field the leaves on the
young trees of C. australianiim are much larger than those of the adult
tree, and perfectly glabrous on both the upper and lower surfaces.

Order Rhamnaceae.

Crypiandra lanosiflora F.v.M. Fragm. Phytogr. Austr., III., 65 (1862).

Slopes of Mount Jibbenbar, bet. 2,000 and 3,000 ft. alt. L. C. Ball,
July, 1919.

Not previously recorded for Queensland.

Order Sapindaceae.

Arytera suhnitida sp. nov.

Arbor parva, partibus junioribus dense fusco-tomentosis. Folia
4-6-foliolata ; rachi 8-18 cm. longo tomentoso basi tumido ; foliolis lanceo-
latis utrinque costa media exeepta glabris valde reticulatis apice
obtusiuscule acuminatis vel subobtusis basi cuneatis, in sicco papy-
raceis supra opacis subtus nitidis pallidioribus, in axillis nervorum
praecipuorum valde foveolatis laminis 8-15 cm. longis, 2*5-5 cm. latis;
petiolulis ca. 5 mm. longis dense tomentosis basi leviter tumidis. Thyrsi
paniculati vel racemosi folia suboequantes ; ramis tomentosis cincinnos
numerosos breviter (2-5 mm.) pediinculatos 2-3-floros gerentibus; flori-
bus pedicellatis, pedicellis ad 3 mm. longis pilis stramineis paucis obsitis.
Calyx late cupularis 5-dentatus 2*5 mm. diam. extus pilis paucis
adspersus, lobis ovatis. Petala calycis lobos aequantes vel vix super-
antes. 2 — squamata, squamis magnis petala fere oequantibus margine
pilis longis albis obsitis. Discus carnosus, leviter lobatus. Stamina 8,
antheris 1 mm. longis, filamentis 0*5 mm. longis, basi pubescentibus.
Ovarium triloculare, in parte superiore pilis stramineis paucis obsitum,
stylo dense pubescenti.

Daintree River in riverine rain-forest, L. J. Brass, No. 2345 ; (flower-
ing specimens) ; March 19; (small tree with close grey bark, lower sur-
face of leaves smooth and shining).

Among previously described Australian species is most closely
allied to A. foveoiata F. v. M., vffiich differs in having rather smaller
leaflets with stronger primary veins and a much more branched panicle.

Mischocarpus montamis sp. nov.

Arbor parva compacta, 2-3 m. alta ; partibus junioribus tomentosis ;
ramulis purpureis. Folia abrupte pinnata, 2-4 foliolata, rachi purpureo
2-4 cm. ; foliolis ellipticis vel elliptico-lanceolatis, apice subacutis vel
obtusis basi cuneatis vel subobtusis acquilateris integris, margine subre-
volutis, coriaceis utrinque glabris et valde reticulatis ; costa media
supra excavata subtus valde elevata purpurea ; nervis lateralibus
utrinque 10-12 ; lamina 4-6 cm. longa, 2-2*5 cm. lata ; petiolulo 8 mm.
longo purpureo basi tumido. Paniculse axillares vel subterminales ad
12 cm. longae et 8 cm. latse ; ramulis tenuiter tomentosis ; pedicellis 2*5
mm. longis tenuiter pubescentibus. Calyx 1*5 mm. diam. tenuiter

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 5.

57

pubescens, lobis late triangularibus. Petala 1 mm.^ longa, margine pills
longis albis adspersa ; squamis albo-pilosis sed vix cristatis. Discus cupu-
laris crassus glaber. Stamina 8, 2 mm. longa; filamentis tenuis, albo-
pilosis. Ovarium tomeiitosum parvum stipitatum, stipite crasso.

Thornton Peak, alt. 4,000-4,500 ft. ; in low scrubs near the summit,
L. J. Brass; No. 2293; (flowering specimens) ; March 14; (compact tree
6-8 ft. high ; branches, petioles and leaf midribs purple ; leaves stiff,
curved, and with margins recurved; flowers white).

In general facies the species somewhat resembles M. mvodonta
(P. V. M.) Radik., moderately common in some parts of Queensland, in
which, however, the leaves are much longer with the margins flat; the
flowers apetaloiis and the stamens glabrous.

Order Leguminosae.

Acacia BotJiii F. M. Bail., in ‘‘Queensland Agricultural Journal,” YI. 39
(1900).

Flower heads on peduncles of 6-8 mm. ; arranged in axillary
racemes ; racemes single in the upper phyllode axils, up to 12 cm. long,
or more. Calyx lobes 5, pubescent, spathulate, free almost to the base,
1 mm. long, petals ovate, about the same length as the calyx lobes.

Cape York Peninsula. D. F. Thomson, No. 5.

Flowers not previously described.

Bauhinia maladarioa Roxb. Hort. Beng. 31 (1814) (nomen nudum).
FI. Ind. ed. 2, Vol. 2, p. 321 (1832). B. Gilesii, F. M. Bail, and
F. Y. Muell. in Wing’s Southern Science Record, Yol. 2, p. 151
(1882). B. Hmokesiana, F. M. Bail, in Queens. Agric. Journ.,
Yol. XY., 897 (1905).

Northern Territory: In the vicinity of Port Darwin, Alfred Giles.
Queensland : Coen, Cape York Penins. Mrs. R. W. Garraway.

Though the material is rather scrappy in both cases, I have little
hesitation in referring B. Hawkesiana F. M. Bail, to the earlier described
B. Gilesii F. M. Bail, and F. Y. Muell., and very much doubt if either
are really distinct from the widely distributed B. malaharica Roxb.

^Bauhmia monandra Kurz. in Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 42 (2) 73.

Mowbray River, in riverine rain-forests; L. J. Brass, No. 2023 (fig.
specimens), 27/1/32 (tree, about 15 feet, branching a few inches above
the ground; fls. pale pink, mottled with red).

This tree is much grown in North Queensland gardens, and is
evidently now quite established as a naturalised alien in the above
locality.

^Crotalaria acicularis Ham. in Wall. Cat. No. 5390, 1832 (nomen
nudum) ; Benth. in Hook. Bond. Journ. Bot. 2, 476 (1843).

D ’Aguilar. A very common weed on alluvial flats. Mrs. J. M.
Newman. 16/3/1934.

A native of Bengal, Malayan Archipelago, and Philippine Islands,
quite naturalised in the above locality. Determination verified at Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, England.

Daviesia latifolia R. Br. in Ait. Hort. Kew (2nd ed.), III., 20 (1811).
Lyra (between Wallangarra and Stanthorpe). W. R. Petrie.

58

PKOCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Not previously recorded for Queensland; the specimens are in leaf
only, but I have little doubt as to the identification.

Milletia pilipes F. M. Bailey. Second Add., Third Suppl. Synop.

Queensland Flora in Catalogue of Queensland Plants, p. 108 (1890).

Mossman River Gorge, in rain-forest. L. J. Brass, No. 2123 (pods)
9/2/32. (Large liane.)

Pods 20 cm. or more long, densely covered with a soft rusty-brown
pubescence, mostly 4-5-seeded and rather deeply constricted between the
seeds.

An interesting plant only previously known from the type gatherings
Though the type is extremely fragmentary, I think there is little doubt
of the above specimens being correctly matched. Pods were previously
unknown.

Pultenaea daphnoides Wendl. Bot. Beob. 49 (1798).

Mount Ernest, S.E. Queensland, alt. 2,500 ft. C. T. White, 8577
(flg. specimens) ; 10/10/32. (Upright shrub, 0-5 m. high, standard
yellow, wings and keel dark vinous red). S. T. Blake, 4323. (Virgatc
shrub, 2-4 ft., petals yellow, keel deep red, standard with a red mark.)

Vigna canescens sp. nov.

Herba volubilis; radice tuberosa; caulibus tenuis volubilis cane-
scentibus ; stipulis ovato-lanceolatis valde nervosis extus strigoso-
canescentibus, intus glabris, demum reflexis, 2-5 mm. longis. Foliolae
(in specimine nostro) lineari-lanceolatae, ca. 5 cm. longae, 0-5 cm. latae,
utrinque pilis albis inspersae, subtus prominule nervosae ; stipellis late
lanceolatis; petiolo communi ca. 3 cm. longo, albo-strigoso ; rhachi inter
foliolis 0-5-0-6 cm. longa, albo-strigosa. Pedunculi axillares, uniflori,,
1-5-1-7 cm. longi albo-strigosi ; pedicellis 2-5 mm. longis ; bracteis persis-
tentibus late ellipticis extus dense canescentibus intus glabris. Calyx
valde nervosus, extus canescens, intus glaber, 0-7 cm. longus; tubo
campanulato, lobis ovatis tubum aequantibus, 2 superioribus connatis,
lobo inferiori paullo longiori. Vexillum late orbiculatum, 2 cm. diam.
Alae ca. 2 cm. longae. Carina alas subaequans superne valde incurva.
Filamentum vexillare a basi liberum. Stylus glaber. Ovarium dense
hirsutum. Legumen non vidum (glabrum-teste Thomson).

Cape York Penin., Dr. and Mrs. D. F. Thomson. No. 43.

Closely allied to V. vexillata Benth., but differs in several characters.
The leaves in our specimen are linear-lanceolate, but a drawing by Mrs.
Thomson accompanying the specimens shows them to vary from this to
almost ovate. V. vexillata Benth. is a stouter plant, the pubescence is.
dark rufous in colour, the peduncles mostly two or more flowered, the
bracts deciduous, the calyx lobes longer, narrower, more acute, and the
style bearded along the inner face in the upper parts. Dr. Thomson
writes: — am sending herewith photographs of two sketches of No. 43
{Vigna canescens) and No. 44 {Vigna vexillata). These sketches were
made by my wife from fresh material in the field. The natives, who use
both for food, distinguish them, and they, (and I, too) could separate
the plants on general appearance, and roots also on general appearance
and taste, apart from the foliage. The pod of No. 44 {Vigna vexillata)
is hirsute, and of No. 43 {Vigna canescens) glabrous.’^

59

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 5.

Order Cunoniaceae.

Ackayna australiensis n. comb.

Betchea australiensis Schlecliter in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. LII., 150 (1914).

Ackama quadrivalvis White and Francis in Bot. Bull. XXII,, Dept.

Agric., Brisbane, 14 (1920).

Rockingham Bay, J. Dallachy (type) ; Glenallyn, via Malanda,
H. C. Hayes (large tree local name Pencillia) ; Atherton Tableland,
J. M. Fraser (type of A. quadrivalvis White and Francis) ; Gadgarra,
S. F. Kajewski No. 1805 (specimens in advanced fruit), 4/6/29 (large
tree common in rain forest, Daintree River) ; Ravenshoe, Forest Overseer
Manuell. Daintree River, in rain-forests, L. J. Brass, No. 2232 (flower-
ing shoots and detached fruiting panicles) ; March 2 (tree 60-80 ft.
high; bark grey, slightly fissured, f inch thick on a tree 15 inches in
diameter; a thin red layer immediately under the outer bark, dark-
brown further in ; leaves foveolate, paler on the under surface ; stipules
fugacious; flowers white, sweetly scented).

If we accept Schlechter’s view of the genus Ackama, it is at present
confined to four species — ^two, or perhaps three, in Australia, and one in
New Zealand. As regards the North Queensland plant named by
Schlechter as Betchea australiensis, and later by White and Francis as
Ackama quadrivalvis, I may say it does not appear to me to be more
than specifically distinct from A. paniculata (F.v.M.) Engl., of Southern
Queensland and Northern New South Wales. The North Queensland
plant was first collected at Rockingham Bay by Dallachy and distributed
by Mueller under the name of Ackama Muelleri Benth. The presence
ef a 3-4-celled ovary in the Rockingham Bay plant was drawn attention
to by Pulle (in Lorentz Nova Guinea, VIII., 640), but he did not even
raise it to varietal rank. A. australiensis shows some slight differences
from A. paniculata Engl. {A. Muelleri Benth.). The leaves on the whole
are less serrate, the panicle branches thicker, and the capsules smaller
and 4- (sometimes 3- or 5-) celled. In his noting under Betchea
australiensis Schlechter l.c. says that Ackama has only two carpels and
in the fruit in each only one, long-hairy, large seed. Pie had, however,
no fruiting specimens of the North Queensland plant before him. I have
compared the seeds of A. australiensis (Schlechter) C. T. White and
A, paniculata (P\v.M.) Engl, and can see no essential differences.
Whether the other species of Betchea listed by Schlechter in his account
of the genus in Engler’s Botanische Jahrbucher Band 52, pp. 146-151,
are separable from Ackama or not I would not say without an examina-
tion of the material.

Ceratopetalum succirubrum sp. nov. C. Virchowii C. T. White. Aus.

Forestry Journ., XII., 19 (1929), non F. v. Mueller.

Arbor magna 30 m. alta ; trunco 1 m. diam. Folia opposita 2-3
(plerumque 3)-foliolata ; petiolo communi 1-2-5 cm. longo ; foliolis
coriaceis lanceolatis apice leviter acutis vel subobtusis, basi cuneatis,
utrinque reticulatis, margine in parte superiore valde crenulato-serratis,
laminis 5-12 cm. longis, 1-5-4 cm. latis; petiolulis 0-7-1-3 cm. longis.
Paniculae terminates vel subterminales multiflorae ; remulis pedicel-
lisque tomentosis ; pedicellis 2 mm. longis. Calycis tubus late turbinatus,
parce tomentosus, 1 mm. diam. ; lobis 4 utrinque parcissime tomentosis,
post anthesin auctis. Stamina 8, fiilamentis 1-5 mm. longis, complanatis

60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

basem versus leviter dilatatis, connectivi apiculo prominenti leviter
recurvo. Discus subcarnosus, annulatus, lobatus. Ovarium tomentosunij,
styli glabri.

Gadgarra, Atherton Tableland, J. L. Tardent sine no (type-flowering
specimens). Received 14/12/28, several duplicates of Mr. Tardent ’s
specimens were distributed from the Queensland Herbarium as
Virchowii F.v.M., C. T. White, No. 1571 (leaves only available) ^
20/3/32 (large tree, local name, ‘‘Blood-in-the-Bark”) ; Danbulla, Ather-
ton Tableland (D. Fraser, No. 14, leaves only). Forest Reserve R. 310,,
Gadgarra; R. B. Dreghorn (leaves only available), 25/10/1934.

Closely allied to C. Virchowii F.v.M., but differing as follows : —
Leaflets distinctly acuminate, acumen often long,
margin very slightly crenate ; flowers
5-merous . . . . . . . . . . .'. C. Virchowii

Leaflets slightly acute or obtuse, margins markedly
crenulate-serrate in the upper part; flowers
4-merous . . . . . . . . . . C. succiruhrum

I had previously identified “ Blood-in-the-Bark, ” a common tree in
North Queensland, as C. Virchowii, and recently I received specimens
of a tree commonly called ‘^Dogwood” in the North Queensland scrubs
from Forest Overseer R. B. Dreghorn. These were also determined as
C, Virchowii F.v.M., but Mr. Dreghorn states that the two trees are very
distinct in the field. He writes ; —

^‘(1) ‘Dogwood’ favours the poor soils, and I have not
noticed this tree on any but the grey soil in more or less stunted
scrub or rain-forest, whilst ‘Blood-in-the-Bark’ favours richer
soils and heavy scrubs. (2) The ‘Dogwood’ crown is fairly
heavy, whilst ‘Blood-in-the-Bark’ has a very light crown. (3)
At date 26/10/34 ‘Dogwood’ is flowering heavily, whilst ‘Blood-
in-the-Bark’ is not flowering. (4) The wood of ‘Dogwood’ is
much heavier than that of ‘Blood-in-the-Bark,’ of which there is
a constant demand for timber purposes, mostly for plywood. (5)
Less ‘blood’ exudes from the bark when cut from ‘Dogwood’ than
from ‘ Blood-in-the Bark. ’ ’ ’

Critical examination of the herbarium specimens bears out I\Ir.
Dreghorn ’s opinion that the two trees are quite distinct.

Satin Sycamore is the official name for the timber of C. succiruhrum
adopted by the Queensland Forest Service, and writing of it Mr. B. H. F.
Swain, in his ‘ ‘ Timbers and Forest Products of Queensland, ’ ’ says : —

“Satin Sycamore is a wood of unusual appearance, and
capable of special application in cabinet work. It is tough and
strong, and takes glue and stain well. It is not durable in the
ground. The log cuts up very faultily. To get first-class wide
boards entails getting a large proportion of second class. It is
inclined to twist in drying, and requires careful seasoning in
stripped stacks under cover.

“Satin Sycamore is used in North Queensland as a general
building hardwood for the framing, flooring, and lining of houses.
It is also used on occasions for external sheeting, but its use for
this purpose is not recommended where more durable timbers are
available. It makes a very handsome polished floor, especially
when back-sawn. It is now being successfully used as a furniture
wood.”

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 5. 61

Order Hamamelidaceae.

Ostrearia australiana Baill. in Adansonia X., 131 (1871).

Mossman River Gorge, in rain-forests, L. J. Brass, No. 2140 (flower
buds) ; 11th February, 1932, (Small tree with weak spreading branches;
leaves aromatic, glossy above, greyish on the underside ; inflorescence
pendulous under the leaves.)

A very interesting find ; the genus was previously only known from
fruiting material and its systematic position was doubtful. The follow-
ing additional particulars to those previously known are now
published : —

Flowers hermaphrodite, borne in spikes terminal or in the upper
axils, the few lowermost flowers distant, upper ones more or less crowded ;
bracts subtending the few lowermost flowers often leaf-like, those under
the upper one narrow-linear. Calyx valvate. Petals 6. Stamens 6,,
subsessile. Ovary 2-celled, semi-inferior, loculi 1-ovulate.

The plant was originally collected at Rockingham Bay by Dallachy.
As no specimens of the plant were available for comparison in the
National Herbarium, Melbourne, where most of Dallachy ’s specimens
are to be found, a sheet of Brass’ gathering was forwarded to the Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, where it was known specimens of 0. australiana
Baill. were represented. The specimen was very kindly examined by
Dr. Hutchinson, who reported that it agreed perfectly with 0. a%istraliana
Baill., and that in his opinion it seemed to be a distinct genus and most
nearly related to Dicoryphe from Madagascar.

Order Myrtaceae.

Backhousia HugJiesii sp. nov.

Arbor magna, cortice subfibroso, ligno duro, ramulis novellis
angularibus. Folia petiolata, elliptica apice leviter et obtuse accuminata
vel emarginata, basi acuta, supra subnitida subtus pallidiora et opaca;.
petiolo ad 5 mm. longo ; lamina 3-5-5 cm. longa, 2-3 cm. lata ; nervis
lateralibus in sicco prominulis 12-15 in utroque latere. Flores albi parvi
in cymas paniculatas multifloras terminates dispositi ; braeteis paucis
foliatis ad 1 cm. longis et 3 mm. latis; ramis et pedicellis glabris vel
leviter pubescentibus, pedicellis gracilis 1-5 cm. longis, e pedunculis
communis 2-7 floris orientibus. Calycis tubum late turbinatum; lobis
suborbicularibus, majoribus 2-5 mm. diam. Petala oblonga vel suborbi-
cularia in sicco membranacea calycis lobos aequantia vel vix superantia.
Stamina numerosa; filamentis 4 mm. longis. Ovarium 2-loculatum,,
semisuperum.

Daintree River, Apicos Hughes, who remarks : —

^‘The trees grow exclusively on the hills in dense scrub,,
coming out of the ground with round barrel and round surface
roots, but no flanges. To test its lasting qualities I felled a tree
and let it lie ten years in the scrub, and when milled it showed
no sign of rot and was only discoloured in about -J inch. The
timber is very hard but works well wflth saw and carpenter ’s tools.
A peculiarity of it is that if during its growth the tree is bruised
or damaged it bleeds a grey-looking sap, which forms into a grey
cement as per sample enclosed, and is found often under the sap
wood and bark.

R.s. — c.

62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

‘^The local naiae here is Grey Teak or Stone Wood, and it is
being used extensively in building and bridge timbers. I would
be glad to know the botanical name or any information you may
have about it, as I have not found it in any other locality than
■ Daintree Eiver. ”

Among previously described species most closely allied to B.
Bancroftii Bail., which differs in having the young shoots, pedicels, and
calyx tube pubescent, the leaves very much longer, 5-13 cm. long and
2-5-5*5 cm. broad, the flowers and fruit much larger, and less numerous
on shorter, stouter pedicels.

Callistemon rigidus E. Br. in Bot. Eeg. Tab. 393 (1819).

Wyberba, between Stanthorpe and Wallangarra, in swampy country
or in seepages among granite hills. C. T. White, No. 9336 (ftg. speci-
mens) ; 13/10/33. (Shrub, mostly with a single stem 2 m. high.) Lyra,
between Stanthorpe and Wallangarra, W. E. Petrie.

Both Wyberba and Lyra are several miles within Queensland terri-
tory. The species has a wide range in New South Wales, and has been
recorded from Wallangarra (New South Wales-Queensland border).

B iicalyptus\ oreades E. T, Baker, in Proc. Linn. Soc., New South Wales,
XXIV., 596, t. XLIII. (1900).

Springbrook, S.E. Queensland, alt. 3,000 ft. C. T. White, 6233
(young buds and nearly ripe seed capsules) ; 20/9/1929. (Medium-
sized tree with persistent, rather ^Mox’Mike bark at base, leaves
coriaceous, glossy green. Coppice shoots glaucous white, the leaves dull
glaucous green, young ones (“ gum-tips,’’ a rich wine colour).

Not previously recorded for Queensland. I am indebted for the
determination to Mr. W. F. Blakely (National Herbarium), Sydney.

Eugenia sordida F. M. Bailey in Bull. 18 (Bot. Bull. Y.), Dept. Agric.,
Brisbane, 15 (1892). E. maeoorai F. M. Bailey l.c.

Bellenden Ker, alt. 4,700 ft.; F. M. Bailey (type) ; Bellenden Ker,
near the summit of the south peak, F. M. Bailey (type of E. maeoorai).
Bellenden Ker, C. T. White (old flowers), January, 1923. Eungella
Eange, W. D. Francis (rather old flowering specimens), October, 1922
(low, densely branched, spreading shrub, growing in creeks near the
mountain side) ; Gadgarra, T. Fuller; Freshwater Creek, near Cairns,
W. D. Francis (old flowers), June, 1928 (straggling tree on banks of
the creek) ; slopes of Mount Demi, alt. 2,500 ft., L. J. Brass, No. 2094
(fruits) ; 6th February (tall shrub, leaves coriaceous, paler on under
side ; solitary terminal globose fruits, 1 J inch diam. ) .

After examining the types of E. sordida F. M. Bailey and E.
maeoorai F. M. Bailey, I am convinced that both represent the same
species. The fruit was previously undescribed; the solitary specimen
collected by Brass is globose, 3-5 cm. diam., and crowned by the wide
persistent rim of the calyx, which forms a flne ring about 2 cm. diam.

Mieromyrtus hexamera Maid and Betche in Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W.,
XXVI., 82 (1901).

Charlotte Plains, 30 miles west of Cunnamulla, W. A. L. Ivory,
No. 1, September, 1894.

Not previously recorded for Queensland. (Determination by S. L.
Everist, Botanic Museum and Herbarium, Brisbane.)

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO- 5.

63

Rhodomyrtus recurva sp. nov.

Friitex glaber vel arbor parva ; raimilis robnstis. Folia lanceolata,
pennivenia in sicco subchartacea, apice subacuminata, basi cuneata ;
nervis lateralibus subtus prominulis ca. 22 in utroque latere ; vena intra-
marginali ca. 1 mm. a margine remota; margine recurva; petiolo 1 cm.
longo, in sicco nigrescenti; lamina ad 18 cm. longa et 6-5 cm. lata. Flores
in cymas axillares dispositi ; cymis brevis petiolis vix duplo longioribus.
Calycis tubus breviter cylindricus, 3 mm. longus; limbo irregulariter
5-lobato; lobis majoribus 3 mm. diam. Petala suborbicularia, stamina
numerosa petala baud superantia.

Mossman Fiver, in rain-forest, No. 2127 (flowering specimens) •
2nd February. (Tall bush or small tree with close pale-grey bark;
leaves thick, rather fleshy and brittle, margins recurved.)

The present species has its closest affinities with B. macrocarpa
Benth., which differs in having larger leaves on longer petioles, lacking
an intramarginal vein, and in the young parts and inflorescence being^
hoary-tomentose. B. cy mi flora F.v.M. differs in being much smaller in
all its parts and in having much more elongate slender loosely arranged
cymes.

Order Araliaceae.

Polyscias mollis (Benth.) Harms in Engl. Prantl. Nat. Pflanzenfam.

III. (8), 45 (1894).

Slender, erect, sparsely branched rain-forest tree, 5 m. high, upper
part of stem pithy, marked with large leaf-scars, and armed with stout
sharp prickles (Brass). Leaves simply pinnate, rhachis, including the
petiole, about 60 cm. long, tomentose, petiole itself about 25 cm. long,,
clothed on the inner side with rather numerous prickles, the prickles
gradually disappearing from the upper part of the rhachis ; leaflets 7-8
pairs and a terminal odd one, glabrous above, densely velvety pubescent
beneath, lowermost pair ovate, 10 cm. long, 6-5 cm. wide, intermediate
ones oblong-lanceolate, averaging about 15 cm. long and 5 cm. broad,
oblique and acute or subacute at the base, petiolules mostly about 1 cm.
long, tomentose, terminal leaflet lanceolate aequilateral at the base, apex
in all leaflets except commonly the lowermost pair acuminate-caudate,
the acumen itself up to 2 cm. long. Panicle terminal, thrice branched,
45 cm. long and rather more in diameter, all parts reddish purple
(Brass) ; branches tomentose, lateral branches 20-30 cm. long, bearing
numerous umbels, on peduncles of 2-5-5 cm. Umbels 10-12 flowered,
pedicels 6-8 mm. long. Flowers not seen. Fruits compressed, globose,
4 mm. diam., carpels strongly ribbed.

Daintree River, in rain-forest, L. J. Brass, No. 2343 (fruiting speci-
mens) ; 19th March, 1932. (Slender, erect, sparsely branched tree, 15 ft.
high, upper stem pithy, marked with large leaf scars and armed with
stout sharp prickles; inflorescence a terminal thrice branched panicle
18 in. long and rather more in diameter ; all parts reddish-purple ; fruits
ribbed and very much compressed.)

A description of the above species drawn up from Brass’ No. 2343
is offered herewith as Bentham’s original description of Panax mollis
in the Flora Australiensis III., 382 (1866) is exceedingly meagre; it is
supplemented by a note on the aculeate nature of the stem by Mueller
in Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae VII., 96 (1870). The species

64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

was apparently only previously known from the type locality — Rocking-
ham Bay. The dried specimens are markedly aromatic, with a celery-
like scent.

Polyscim purpureus sp. nov.

Frutex glaber 2-3 m. altus. Folia simpliciter imparripinnata 7-9
foliolata rachi cum petiolo ca. 35 cm., petiolo ipso 17 cm., basem versus
subdense lenticellato, basi in vaginam semiamplexicaulem dilatato ;
foliolis lanceolatis apice longe acutis vel subacuminatis subcarnosis
(Brass) in sicco papyraceis vel subcoriaceis ; nervis praecipuis subtus
elevatis venis et venulis sub lente prominulis ; margine crenulatis dentibus
panels praeditis ; laminis ad 23 cm. longis et 8 cm. latis ; petiolulis ad
1-5 cm. Paniculae ca. 25 cm. diam. ; ramis praecipuis 15-18 cm. lenti-
cellatis; ramis secundariis subverticellatis 1-5-3-5 cm.; ramis ultimis vel
pedunculis 1-2 cm. longis 8-12 floris ; pedicellis tenuibus 3-5 mm. Calyx
urceolatus; limbo truncato. Petala 5, ovato-lanceolata, 2 mm. longa;
stamina 5, filamentis 1 mm., antheris versatilibus 1 mm. longis. Fructus
compressus 3 mm. diam., stylis 2 valde recurvis.

Mossman River Gorge, in rain-forest. L. J. Brass, No. 2072 (type :
flowering and fruiting specimens) ; 5th February (sparingly branched
shrub 6-8 ft., rather fleshy pale-green leaves, all parts of inflorescence
purple). Mowbray River, in rain-forest. L. J. Brass, No. 1982 (flower-
ing specimens) ; 21st January (large shrub, inflorescence purple).
Ranges near Trinity Bay, F. M. Bailey (small tree). Bellenden-Ker,
H. Newport (Meston’s Bellenden-Ker Exped., 1904), determined and
recorded by F. M. Bailey as Panax Murrayi F.v.M. Kuranda, C. T.
White, No. 1532 (fruiting specimens) 28/2/1922.

Among previously described Australian species intermediate between
P. Murrayi (F.v.M.) Harms and P. Mmgillivrayi (Benth.) Harms.
The former differs in having much more' numerous leaflets (from 13-20
pairs) and a much larger differently branched inflorescence. The latter,
according to a tracing of the type made for me at the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, by Mr. W. D. Francis, has more oblong or elliptic leaflets,
and a very much larger, rather differently branched panicle, the primary
branches being 25 cm. or more long.

Order Rubiaceae.

Ixora triflora R. Br. ex Benth. FI. Austr. III. 416 (1866).

Mt. Demi, alt. 2,000 ft., on mountain slopes, L. J. Brass, No. 2080 ;
(flowering specimens) ; Feb. 6. (Shrub, about 4 ft. high, leaves thin and
soft, paler on the underside; flowers white in terminal pairs, between
very pale green bracts.)

This interesting plant was previously only known from one or two
coastal localities. The present specimens differ from these in that the
leaf-like bracts subtending the flowers are ovate-lanceolate, and sharply
pointed, not orbicular in shape. Otherwise the leaves and flowers agree.
A note on Ixora triflora R.Br. and its confusion with Diplospora ixoroides
F. V. M. was published by Spencer Moore in the ‘‘Journal of Botany,’^
LXIV. 215, 1926.

Randia Audasii sp. nov.

Arbor parva, 3-4 m. alta, glabra-, ramulis novellis, compressis.
Stipulae late ovatae 2 mm. longae. Folia brevipetiolata, in sicco
papyracea vel crasse membranacea, atrocastanea, ovato-lanceolata, basi

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 5.

65

'obtusa vel subacuta, apice obtusa, subacuminata ; petiolo 5 mm. longo ;
lamina 10-13 cm. longa, 3-5 cm. lata; iiervis lateralibus utrinqne 7-8,
supra impressis, subtus leviter elevatis. Inflorescentia terminalis 2-4-flora ;
bracteis late ovatis, 2-3 mm. longis; pedunculo 5-7 mm. longo ; pedicellis
ca. 1 cm. longis. Calyx alte cupularis, 1 cm. longus ; limbo breviter
5-dentato. Corolla albo-cremea; tubo 4 cm. longo, extus glabro, intus
dense piloso; lobis 5-elliptico-oblongis 2*5-3 cm. longis, 1-1*5 cm. latis.
Stamina in f auce inserta ; filamentis 1 mm. longis ; antheris linearibus
1 cm. longis. Stylus glaber, stigmate valde incrassato, bilamellato.

Mowbray River, alt. 1,000 ft., on rain-forest borders, L. J. Brass,
No. 1956; (type; flowering specjmens) ; Jan. 19. (Tree 10-12 ft. high,
large creamy white lioney-sucflie scented flowers). Endeavour River,
Miss Lovell.

This is evidently a striking plant in the field; it does not show
marked affinities with any previously described Australian species. Miss
Lovell’s specimens were examined by Mr. W. D. Francis while at the
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and he reported that they could not be
matched with any species of Randia or Gardenia in the herbarium there.

I take the opportunity of dedicating this plant to my friend, Mr.
James W. Audas, Curator of the National Herbarium, Melbourne, who
has rendered me valuable assistance in my studies on North Queensland
plants.

'Wendlandia mclusa sp. nov.

Frutex altus dense pubens; ramulis subrobustis. Stipulae lance-
olatae 6 mm. longae mox deciduae. Folia lanceolata vel ovtao-lanceolata,
supra atro-viridia subtus eanescentia, in sicco crasse papyracea, apice
acuta vel subacuminata, basi acuta in petiolum angustata ; lamina 10-15
cm. longa, 4-6 cm. lata ; petiolo 1-3*5 cm. longo, petiolis oppositis inter-
dum valde in^qualibus. Inflorescentias terminales, cymosae, paucifloras,
folds multo breviores. Flores rosei, pro genere magni. Calycis tubus
late campanulatus 3-4 mm. longus ; limbus 5-partitus ; lobis subsequalibus
tubo longioribus lanceolatis persistentibus. Corollae tubus breviter
infundibularis calycis lobos lequans, extus dense pilosus, intus glaber ;
limbo 5-partito ; lobis oblongis tubum subaequantibus, basi appendidculatis
et faucem includentibus, in sicco venosis. Stamina 5 inclusa ad basem
corallae inserta ; filamentis brevis applanatis, antheris magnis elongatis
corollge tubum ^quantibus. Ovarium inferum, 2-loculare ; stylus fili-
formis pubescens tubum corollae aequans ; stigma clavellatum ; ovula in
loculis numerosa, in placentis elongatis crassis inserta. Capsula oblonga,
Crustacea ; seminibus subangularibus, testa reticulata.

Daintree River, in rain-forest gullies, L. J. Brass, No. 2,327 (flower-
ing and fruiting specimens) ; March 13 (tall pubescent shrub, upper side
of leaves very dark green, lower grey with very pale, almost white, hairs
on the nerves).

The present plant is so different in appearance to other members
of the genus known to me that I drew up a description of it as a new
genus, but after going carefully into the matter consider it cannot be
separated generically from Wendlandia. The chief features are the
comparatively large flowers in a definite cymose inflorescence ; the corolla
lobes with a raised appendage at the base more or less closing the throat
and the included stamens inserted at the very base of the corolla tube.

66

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Order Compositae.

Blumea puhigera (L.) Merr. in Philipp. Journal Science, XIV. 25f>
(1919). B. cJiinensis DC. Prodr. 5.444 (1836), non Conyza chinensis
L. Conyza elata P. M. Bailey, Bot. Bull. VIII., Dept. A(^tic .
Brisbane, 78 (1893).

Kussell River, P. M. Bailey (Bellenden Ker Exped., 1889) ; Barron
River, E. Cowley; Stony Creek, near Cairns, E. Cowiey; Johnstone
River, Bev. N. Michael ; between Cairns and Herberton, C. J. Wild.

I have no hesitation in referring Conyza elata, P. M. Bailey, to the
common Blumea pubigera (L.) Merr., widely distributed through India,,
the Philippines, Malay Archipelago, and New Guinea.

Brachycome discolor C. Stuart in Benth. PI. Austr. III. 520 (1866).

Wyberba, near Queensland-New South Wales border; among rocks
in granite hills. C. T. White, No. 9378 (flowering specimens), Oct. 13,
1933 (leave® dull green above, purple beneath, fls. mauve).

This plant was previously admitted into the Queensland flora
by both Mueller and Bailey, but no Queensland specimens were pre-
viously found in either the National Herbarium, Melbourne, or the
Queensland Herbarium, Brisbane.

^Conyza chilensis Sprewg, Nov. Prov. p. 14 (1818).

Toowoomba, Darling Downs. A common weed in grassland, on red
basaltic soil; C. T. White, 6644, 27/2/1930. Toowoomba, common weed
on roadside; S. T. Blake, 5135, 10/2/34.

A native of South America. Determination by W. D. Prancis at
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

^Eleutheranthera ruderalis Schultz. Bip.

Townsville; a very common weed about the town. C. T. White,,
8956, 26/3/33. Bartle Prere. Dr. H. Plecker, No. 547 [2/6/35].

A native of Tropical America. A specimen was forwarded to the
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, where it was kindly determined
for me by Mr. V. S. Summerhayes.

''^Microlonchus salmanticus D.C. Prodr. VI. 563 (1837). Centaurea
sodmmitica L. Sp. PI. 918.

Greenmount, Darling Downs. H. Mansbridge, Nov., 1931.

A native of the Mediterranean region not previously recorded as a
naturalised alien.

^Olearia argophylla P. v. M. var. grandiflora n. var. 0. oliganthema
White and Prancis, Proc. Roy. Soc. Q. XXXV. 72; 1923 non P. v.
Muell.

Excellit capitulis majoribus, involucra 1 cm. diam. bracteis numerosis
pilis longis dense vestitis, flosculis longioribus cum gechgenia 1-2 cm.
longis.

Differs from the type in the flowers being much larger (involucre
0-5 cm. diam. in the type, 1 cm. diam. in var. grandiflora) , the involucral
bracts also are more numerous and more hairy than in type, the individual
florets are larger (0-8 cm. long in the type, including the achene, and
1.2 cm. long in the var. grandiflora).

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 5.

67

Macpherson Range, near Emu Yale, 70 miles south-west from Bris-
bane. C. P. Saunders, No. 88; W. D. Francis (flowering specimens),
Nov., 1920; Roberts Plateau, Lamington National Park, alt. 1,000 m., C.
T. White, No. 6032 28/5/1929; (leaves only) small spreading tree or
large shrub, 4 m. high, leaves dull dark green above, silvery white
beneath.

The Macpherson Range specimens were recorded by White and
Francis 1. c. as 0. oliganthema F.v.M., but on a closer examination
of the material I am convinced they more closely conform to 0. argophylla
F. V. M., though differing from the common New South Wales and Vic-
torian form in the features indicated above.

Olearia steUulata D. C. Prod. Y. 272, var. lirata, Benth. FI. Austr. 1.

473, 1866.

Springbrook, alt. 3,000 ft., W. Rudder; (flowering specimens) ;
6/9/1929. Upper Tallebudgera, C. T. White, 12/1917.

These specimens seem to agree with Bentham’s variety, though they
represent rather a robust form. The Springbrook plant has leaves,
including the 1 cm. long petiole, up to 16-5 cm. (6|^ inches) long; the
blades on flowering shoots are 7-8 times as long as broad, broader on
sterile ones. The Upper Tallebudgera specimens bear only very old
flowering branches ; they have slightly broader leaves, more bullate above,
but obviously representing the same plant. No altitudinal record is
given on the latter specimens, but they were probably gathered on the
track from Upper Tallebudgera to Springbrook, as I visited Springbrook
by that route in December, 1917.

The variety not previously recorded for Queensland.

^ Schkuhria isopappa Benth. PL Hartweg. 205.

Wyaralong, Boonah. Rev. N. Michael, No. 1967 ; (flg. specimens) ;
28/12/33.

A native of Colombia, South America. For the specific determina-
tion I am indebted to Mr. Y. S. Summerhayes, Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew ( Eng. ) .

As this was rather an unusual introduction, I asked Mr. Michael
for any particulars he could forward. In reply he wrote : —

‘Wery many thanks for jmur letter and the interesting
, information relating to my No. 1967 SchJ&uhria isopappa Bentham.
I showed your letter to Mr. Colin Philp, who owns Wyaralong
homestead some 8 or 10 miles out from here. He is unable to
throw any light on it, except to say that he has noticed it only
within recent times — a few years. I found it to be growing
abundantly in the home paddocks.

‘M had an idea that it might have been introduced in the
numerous packing cases which have for many years made their
appearance on his property from overseas. His whole back yard
and sheds are choked with many varieties of cars, trucks, and
agricultural and log-hauling machinery. It had occurred to me
some stray wind-blown pappi or achenes could quite easily come
over in some of the huge machinery cases which have from time
to time littered his yard.

68

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

‘ ‘ Then, another problem arises. Since collecting these speci-
mens at Wyar along, I have seen this same plant growing more
or less abundantly along the road following Teviot Brook towards.
Mr. Sandy Mackay’s place, ‘The Rahch,’ near the head of
the Teviot Brook, at the foot of Wilson’s Peak. A most delight-
ful spot where we often go to spend a day. Now, the Ranch is;
about 21 miles in the opposite direction from here ; Wyar along is
8-10 miles on the road to Beaudesert — a crow’s flight distance of
some 30 miles. I have another theory that this plant comes
originally from the Wilson’s Peak area, as the Teviot Brook
waters the whole country, and wanders about from there through
Wyaralong for at least 40 miles. Mr. Philp has more than 1(>
miles of it running through his property. I have an idea that
an examination of the country, at the proper time, will show that
this stream has distributed our new botanical stranger, which will
no doubt be found in the Albert River areas, which take in the
Teviot before Beaudesert.”

Spilanthes Acmella (L.) Murr. Syst. 610 (1774).

Kamerunga, Barron River, North Queensland; E. Cowley, Aug.,
(1891.)

This widely distributed tropical species does not appear to have
previously been recorded for Queensland. Determination at Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew (Eng.), by W. D. Francis.

Vittadima temdssima J; M. Black, PL Sth. Aus. p. 595. (1929.)

Ramsay, Darling Downs, Mrs. John Ramsay; Toowoomba, Darling
Downs, C. T. White.

Previous to these records the inclusion of this species in the
“Queensland Flora’’ rested on doubtful material from the Burnett
River, collected by Mueller, and from specimens from Tambourine Moun-
tain, collected by Domin, which, however, he states are not typical.

Order Sapotaceae.

Lucuma sessiliflora sp. nov.

Arbor parva, ramulis novellis angularibus dense ferrugineo-hirsutis.
Folia petiolata, juniora utrinque pilis ferrugineis sericeis plus vel minus
dense obsita, vetustiora glabra, chartacea, in sicco utrinque sub lente
minute et distincte reticulata, supra viridia, opaca, subtus fulva, sub-
nitida, elliptica vel ovato-lanceolata ; nervis secundariis utrinque 5-6 ;
petiolisl-1-5 cm. longis; laminis 6*5-8 cm. longis, 3-4 cm. latis. Flores
sessiles, solitarii axillares. Sepala 5, utrinque hirsuta 2 exteriora late
ovata subacuta 6 mm. longa, 4 mm. lata, 3 interiora, paulo longiora
(marginibus extus glabris). Corolla glabra, 1 cm. longa; lobis 2 mm.
longis, rotundis. Antherae late ovatae, 1 mm. Iqngae, subsessiles ;
staminodia paulo altius inserta, ligulata, 1*75 mm. longa, 0*75 mm. lata.
Ovarium cylindricum, liirsutiim ; stylo glabro, incluso ; stigmate capitato.

Mount Demi, alt. 3,000 ft., in light rain-forest, L. J, Brass, No. 2088 -
(flowering specimens) ; Feb. 6; (small tree, on summit of mountain).

Among previously described Australian species has very close
affinities with L. UnmacMana P. M. Bail, which has usually shorter
leaves, broader in comparison, more inclined to obovate in shape, the
lateral nerves closer together and more prominent underneath, but the
reticulations on both surfaces much less distinct and, according to the

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 5. 69

description, a 4-merous flower. When fruits are collected other differ-
ences will probably be shown. L. sericea (R. Br.) F. v. M. has usuallj^
smaller leaves, smaller pedicellate flowers clustered in the axils, and a
pubescent corolla.

Order Symplocaceae.

Symplocos Bauerleni R. T. Baker in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. XXVII.,

594, PL XXVIII. (1902).

Springbrook, alt. 1,000 m. ; W. Rudder, 6/9/1929; (small tree,
glossy green leaves, numerous white flowers, very ornamental).

Not previously recorded for Queenlsand.

-Symplocos cyanocarpa sp. nov.

Frutex glaber 1-1-5 m. altus ; ramulis junioribus angularibus. Folia
lanceolata, in sicco chartacea, apice longe acuta vel subacuminata, basi
in petiolum brevem attenuata, margine leviter recurva undulata dentibus
parvis paucis praedita ; costa media supra impressa subtus valde elevata ;
nervis lateralibus utrinciue 10-12, subtus distinctis ; i3etiolo 3 mm. longo
robusto ; laminis 11-23.5 cm. longis, 2-5-5-5 cm. latis. Inflorescentiae
sessilies in fascicules axillares paucifloros dispositae; bracteis exteri-
oribus late ovatis glabris vel glabrescentibus, interioribus ovatis pilis
fulvis longis obsitis. Flores ignoti. Fructus sessilis atro-cyaneus (Brass)
sybcylindricus 2 cm. longus, 5 mm. diam., basi brevissime stipitatus,
apicem versus tenuiter pubescens, lobis calycinis pubescentibus coronatus.

Mossman River, in rain-forest. No. 2050; (fruiting specimens) ; Feb.
4. (Shrub 3-4 ft. high, leaves paler on the underside, serrulate, margins
recurved; ripe fruits dark blue in colour.)

Among previously described Australian species most closely allied
to 8. Hayesii White and Francis, which differs in having the branchlets
clothed with long spreading hairs, the leaves more markedly dentate and
obtuse, not narrowed or cuneate at the base.

Order Oleaceae.

Linociera coriacea sp. nov.

Arbor parva, ramulis robustis, glabris, subteretibus. Folia ampla,
petiolata coriacea, lanceolata-oblonga, basi obtusa, apice gradatim
acuminata ; nervis praecipuis supra impressis subtus elevatis ; lamina
17-30 cm. longa, 5-8 cm. lata; petiolo valido ad 1 cm. longo. Flores in
racemes, 2-4 cm. longos, glaberrimos, axillares dispositi ; bracteis ovato-
lanceolatis 2 mm. longis; pedicillis gracilibus ad 1 cm. longis. Calyx
alte 4-fldus ; lobis anguste ovato-lanceolatis, 4 mm. longis. Petala 4 ovata,
'6 mm. longa, alba vel rosea, margine incurva. Stamina 4, 3 mm. longa ;
filamento applanato ; anthera magna 2 mm. longa. Ovarium subcpiad-
rangulatum ; stigmate subcapitato.

Mossman River Gorge, in rain-forest, L. J. Brass, No. 2062 ; (flower-
ing specimens); February 4; (small tree; leaves coriaceous, paler on
under side; flowers pale pink, pendulous below the branches): L. J.
Brass, No. 2125; (type; flowering specimens); Feb. 9; (tall bush or
small tree, leaves coriaceous and prominently veined; flowers white).

Among previously described Australian species the present one is
most nearly related to L. axillaris F. v, M. The differences are as
follows : —

70 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAE SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Leaves 9-13 cm. long, 3-4 cm. broad; apex acute, base cuneate-
stamens 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . L. axillaris.

Leaves 17-30 cm. long, 5-8 cm. broad; apex acuminate, base
obtuse ; stamens 4 . . . . . . . . . . L. coriacea^

I had some difficulty in placing this plant in its correct family,
so sent specimens to the Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,,
and received a reply from Mr. J. S. L. Gilmour, Assistant Director, to the
effect that they had been unable to match the two specimens, and they
seemed to be either a new species (rather aberrant) of Linociera
(Oleacese) or possibly a new genus allied to this. He further stated,,
however, that in the absence of fruit they did not feel prepared to make
a definite pronouncement.

My best thanks are due to the Kew authorities for the trouble taken.
After drawing up the description I feel fairly certain that the plant
cannot be separated from Linociera.

Order Apocynaceae.

Alyxia orophila Domin. in Bibl. Bot. XXII. (Heft. 89®), 1077. (1928).

Thornton Peak, alt. 4,000-4,500 ft.; L. J. Brass, No. 2279 (fruit-
ing specimens) ; March 14 ; (small stunted tree with thick branches; leaves
rigid and curved, the apex hooked, glossy on both sides, paler under-
neath, channelled, the margins much recurved, fruit smooth, orange-
yellow, simple, or divided into 2< or 3 articles).

A rather distinctive form that I had at first placed under the
polymorphic A. ruscifolia R. Br., but on further consideration changed
to A. orophila Domin, which seems to differ principally from A. ruscifolia
R. Br. in having single or few-fiowered axillary, not several to many-
flowered terminal inflorescences. The present plant differs from the
type in that the young branches are perfectly smooth, not asperulous,.
and the veins not at all or scarcely perceptible on the under surface
of the leaves. I have refrained from giving it a varietal name in view
of the extremely variable character of the more widely distributed
A. ruscifolia R. Br., a feature A. orophila Domin will probably be found
to share.

'^Rauwolfia canescens Linn. Sp. PI. Ed. II. 303.

North Rockhampton. Miss 0. M. Court, No. 28; (fruits); May,,
1925. (bushy tree, growing on banks and in dry beds of creeks just
outside North Rockhampton.) North Rockhampton, Miss M. Standish;
(flowers) ; Feb., 1933. (Recently made its appearance on a property.)

I am indebted for the determination of the above plant to Mr.
V. S. Summerhayes (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England), and
in a letter from the Director (Sir Arthur W. Hill) the plant is described
as a native of Tropical America, now a naturalised weed in South India,
though there is no evidence to show it has become a bad pest anywhere.

Parsonsia lenticellata sp. nov.

Suffrutex scandens, ramulis subrobustis, valde lentieellatis,.
tomentosis. Folia opposita, glabra subcoriaeea lanceolata vel anguste
ovato-lanceolata, supra leviter scaberula, subtus opaca, apice gradatim.
angustata, basi obtusa, margine revoluta; petiolo ca. 1 mm. longo; lamina
5-9 cm. longa, 0-5-1-3 cm. lata. Inflorescentiae axillares densiflorae, ca.
1-5 cm. diam. ; pedunculo 5-6 mm. longo ; cymae ramulis secundariis
brevissimis tomentosis. Pedicellus 2-3 mm. longus, furugineo-tomentosus.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 5.

71

Bracteae ca. 1 mm. longae. Calycis lobi lineari-lanceolati, recurvi, extus
puberuli 2-5 mm. longi, vix 1 mm. lati. Corolla 5 mm. longa, extus
minute puberula, intus fauce deorsum setosa. Antlierae acutae, 2-5 mm.
longae; filamentis tenuis 1 mm. longis, intus albo-liirsutis. Pistillum
glabrum ; ovario subgloboso ; squamis disci oblongis subcarnosis.

Mowbray Eiver, L. J. Brass, No. 2020 (flowering specimens) ;
January 27; (small savannah climber).

Among previously described Australian species most closely allied
to P. lanceolafa E. Br., which differs in having much broader, obtuse, or
shortly acuminate leaves, and a smaller inflorescence, with smaller
flowers, with straight, not recurved, calyx lobes.

, Order Asclepiadace^.

Tylophora coloraia sp. nov.

Fruticulus volubilis parum ramosus ; partibus junioribus tomentosis ;
ramis flexuosis, laxe foliatis, internodiis 4-9 cm. longis. Folia anguste
ovata, apice acuta vel subacuminata, basi obtusa, supra glabra, subtus
pallidiora glabra, costa media et nervis praecipuis basem versus excepta ;
nervis lateralibus ea. 6 in utroque latere ; petiolo 1-1*5 cm. longo ; lamina
5-6 cm. longa, 2-2*5 cm. lata. Cymae axillares effusae, pauciflorae 3-4 cm,
longae ramis gracilibus. Flores purpurei ; pedicellis tenuibus ad 1 cm.
longis. Calyx parvus, 2*5 mm. diam., lobis ovato-triangularibus, acutis.
Corolla purpurea fere ad basem 5-flda ; lobis 4 mm. longis, 1*5 mm. latis,
obtusis. Coronae squamae carnosae, antherae quadratae ; appendice
hyalina reniformi minute apiculata ; pollinia parva ellipsoidea. Folliculi
immaturi fusiformi, 7 cm. longi, 1 cm. lati.

Mt. Demi, alt. 2,000 ft., in rain-forest, L. J. Brass, No. 2092 ; (flowers
and nearly mature follicles) ; February 6, 1932; (small twining plant,
young parts, petioles, main leaf nerves and flowers and fruit purple).

Among previously described Australian species nearest to T. harhata
E. Br., which possesses smaller leaves, subacute at the base, and smaller
flowers usually in simple umbels, and has the corolla lobes slightly hairy
inside.

Order Loganiace^.

Fagraea Bosemstromii sp. nov.

Arbor (Eosenstrom) vel frutex subscandens (Brass) ; ramulis
robustis. Folia glabra ‘‘carnosa supra nitida subtus pallidiora et opaca’’
(Brass) in sicco coriacea subtus pallidiora sed utrinque opaca, petiolata ;
petiolo 2-3 cm. longo ad basin, leviter incrassato et dilatato atque utrinque
glandula stipuliformi parva aucto ; lamina late lanceolata, apice acuta vel
subrotunda et subacuminata, basi cuneata, 10-15 cm. longa, 5-6 cm. lata ;
costa media notata ; nervis lateralibus inconspicuis. Flores ochroleuci
vel sulphurei, fragrantes, in apicem ramulorum in cymam collect!.
Cymae magnae 2-plo divisae, ramis robustis ; bracteis ovatis coriaceis
supra concavis 6-8 mm. longis. Calyx basem versus in pedicellum angus-
tatus, cum pedicello 3 cm. longus ; lobis brevis rotundis. Corollae tubus
7-10 cm. longus in parte inferiore cylindraceus, superne ampliatus,
rectus ; lobis 5 rotundatis, oblongis, 2-2*5 cm. longis, 1 cm. latis.
Genitalia non vel vix exserta ; stigmate 2-lobo, lobis ovatis 3 mm. longis.

Mossman Eiver, Gus. Eosenstrom, No. 7 ; (mango-like tree, flowers
very fragrant). Mossman Eiver Gorge, in rain-forest, L. J. Brass, No.
2054; (flowering specimens) ; February 5. (A very large, fleshy, almost

72 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

arborescent rambler growing on the river bank ; soft, brown, scaly bark ;
leaves thick, fleshy and obscurely nerved, upper surface glossy, lower
paler and dull; flowers heavy-scented, corolla pale yellow).

F. Bosenstromii is the largest flowered Australian species. Among
previously described Australian species it has the greatest affinities
with F. Gamhagei Domin, if we recognise that species as distinct from
F. Muelleri Benth. Judging from specimens in the Queensland Her-
barium, Brisbane, the former is the common lowland species in North-
east Australia, the latter the mountain one.

Distinctions between the three are as follows : —

Flowers few, in a large terminal cyme; corolla tube 7-10 cm.
long . . . . . . . . . . . . F. Bosenstromii..

Flowers many, in a short crowded terminal cyme or several
cymes, clustered from the one axil . .

Leaves 6 to 10 cm. long and 2-5 c.m. broad,

corolla tube, 1 to nearly 2 cm. long . . F. Muelleri..

Leaves up to 15-25 cm. long, 7-9 cm. broad,

corolla tube, 2-3-5 cm. long . . . . F. CamhageL

Order Convolvulace.®.

Ipomaea Brassii sp. nov.

Herba vel suffrutex glaber ; caules repentes, fistulosi. Folia cordata
ovato-cordata, vel late et obtuse hastata ; lamina 5-7 cm. longa, ad basem
5-7 cm. lata; petiolus 4-5 cm. longus. Pedunculi petiolos ^quantes vel
superantes, 1-3-flori ; bracteae ovato-lanceolatae, acutissimae, 2 mm.
longae. Flores inearnati (?); pedicellus 5 mm. longus; sepala ovato-
lanceolata, acutissima 1 cm. longa; corolla 4-5 cm. longa. Capsula
globosa ; semina villosa.

Northern Territory. — Near Queensland border — Settlement Creek,.
L. J. Brass, No. 122 (type; flowering specimens) ; January, 1922. North
Queensland : Tolkuru, between Prairie and Hughenden, F. G. A. Kriesel ;
(immature seed capsules) ; February, 1935. Received through R. W.
Bambrick, Inspector of Stock, Hughenden.

Among previously described Australian species has most affinities
with I. reptans Poir., which differs in having obtuse sepals, those of
I. Brassii being very acute. The leaves of I. reptans Poir. are also
usually much narrower.

Brass’s specimens were included in the Queensland Herbarium
under 7. Muelleri Benth., but this species differs in being a slender twiner,
not a creeping plant, in having obtuse, or scarcely acuminate, not very
acute, sepals, and in having a smaller corolla.

Order SoLANACE.ai;.

Anthocercis albicans A. Cunn. in Field’s, New South Wales, p. 335,.

tab. 2 (1825).

Between Wyberba and Wallangarra, on granite hills, C. T. White,
No. 9360 (flowering specimens) ; 13/10/33; (subshrub, 1-5 m., fis, white-
with purple lines).

Not previously recorded for Queensland.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 5. 72

Order ScrophulariacE:®.

BrowotlUa demissa L. Syst. ed. X. 1118.

Armstrong Creek, near Dayboro’ — a weed hard to get rid of; H. F.
Mead, August, 1934.

A native of South America, commonly cultivated in Queensland
gardens, but not previously recorded as naturalised.

Order Gesneriace^.

CoTonanthera amtraliana sp. nov.

Arbor gracilis 13 m. alta (Brass), ramulis junioribus patentim
hirsutis. Folia opposita, inaequalia obovato-lanceolata, apice acuta vel
subacuminata basi longe cuneata, margine dentata, utrinque leviter
scaberula; petiolis dense hirsutis, 0-5-1 cm. longis; laminis 7-18 cm.
longis, 2-5-6 cm. latis. Flores axillares pedunculo dense hirsuto 2 cm.
longo, plerumque 1-floro vel rarius 3-floro ; bracteis linearibus hirsutis
deciduis. Calyx hirsutus alte 5-lobatus, tubo 5 mm. diam., lobis 7 mm.
longis. Corolla aurantiaca vel lutea (^'orange-yellow” Brass) tubulosa
extus tomentosa, intus juxta basem filamentorum dense piloso ceteris
glabra; tubo 1-5 cm. longo, lobis perbrevis 1-5 mm. longis rotundis.
Stamina 4, propius ad basem corollae affixa; filamentis validis basem
versus pilosis et leviter dilatatis, 2 longioribus 1-2 cm., 2 brevioribus
1 cm. longis. Ovarium tomentosum. Fructus indehiscens ( ? ) , ovoideus,
rostratus cum rostro 3-5 cm. longus; seminibus minutis laevibus rubro-
brunneis.

Mt. Demi, alt. 2,500 ft., in rain-forest; L. J. Brass, No. 2087 (type;
flowering specimens); 6th February; (slender tree attaining 40 ft.;
young branches, leaves, and inflorescence pubescent, upper surface of
leaves rather scabrous; flowers orange-yellow). Mt. Spurgeon, A. L.
Merrotsy, No. 27; (fruiting specimens, without date of collection).

A very interesting find. The genus was previously only known
from New Caledonia. The leaf and floral characters are exactly those
of Coronanthera, but the only fruit available to me, and collected by
Mr. A. L. Merrotsy, seems indehiscent, and I think, judging from the
appearance of the seeds, it is ripe. It has the appearance of being
fleshy when fresh, but of this I cannot be sure. If when better known
the plant is found to bear definitely fleshy, indehiscent fruit, then it
may have to form the basis of a new genus.

Fieldia australis A. Cunn. in Field’s New South Wales, 363. (1825).

Roberts’ Plateau, Lamington National Park, common at altitude of

I, 000 m. and over. C. T. White, No. 6063; (flg. and ftg. specimens) ;
28/5/1929. (Epiphyte on trunks and branches of Nothofagus Moorei
(F. V. M.) Maiden; leaves green above, paler, often with a reddish
colour, beneath, flowers cream; fruits white, 2-5 x 1-5 cm. when fresh.
Springbrook, alt. about 1,000 m. ; C. T. White; (climbing up rock-faces
and tree trunks in deep rain-forest gorge, rather rare). Mount Lindesay

J. E. Young and C. T. White.

First recorded for Queensland by Ferd. von Mueller in the Vic-
torian Naturalist, Vol. XII., p. 99 (1896). The record was simply
made among a list of exhibits, and the plant was in consequence omitted
from F. M. Bailey’s "Queensland Flora.”

74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Order Myoporacile.

Pholdidia Gilesii (F. v. Muell) Baillon Hist. PI. IX. 421. (1888).

Eulo, South-west Queensland, L. Tambling, October, 1930.

Not previously recorded for Queensalnd. Mr. Tambling’s specimens
agree well with the right figure in Mueller ’s ' ‘ Descriptions and Illustra-
tions of the Myoporinous Plants of Australia.”

Order Yerbenace^.

Oncinocalyx Betchei F. v. Muell. in Wing’s South. Sc. Record, Yol 3,

p. 70 (1883).

Goondiwindi. Not previously recorded for Queensland.

Received from Mr. J. A. H. Fraser, Land Commissioner, Goondi-
windi, who writes : —

“I am forwarding samples of a shrub which grows to a
height of three feet, and carries a white fiower and a lot of seeds
with claws. These flowers with seeds hang over like little white
bells. The plant grows mostly on stony ground and will not
grow in swamps. If one root is left it will shoot. Spraying with
pentoxide only kills the top ; the roots are hard to kill. Owing
to the number of claw-like seed sheep carry it about in their wool
and spread it. These specimens I am forwarding were sent into
this office with the request to have them identified. Any informa-
tion you can give me on the matter I will gladly pass on to the
selector. ’ ’

Order Labiatae.

Pi^osianthem alho-hirta sp. nov.

Frutex 1*25 m. altus, ramulis robustis albu-hirsutis. Folia petiolata,
ovata vel subrhomboidea, utrinque pilis paucis albis longis praedita,
supra nervis impressis, subtus nervis valde .'^levatis, lamina dense nigro-
punctata margine crenulato-dentata, recurva ; petiolo 1-1-5 mm. longo ;
lamina 7-8 mm. longa, 5-6 mm. lata. Flores axillares solitarii, leviter
pedieellati, bracteolis linearibus albo-hirsutis 2 mm. longis; pedicello
1-1-5 mm. longo. Calyx manifeste bilabiatus, extus glandulosus albo-
hirsutus ; nervis et venis prominulis ; tubo 3 mm. longo, labio superiore
3 mm. longo, 5 mm. lato, labio inferiore 2 mm. longo. Corolla lilacina
(^ffiowers lavender” — Brass) pubescens, 1 cm. longa, bilabiata, labio
superiore 2-lobato, labio inferiore alte 3-lobato, lobo intermedio longiore.
Stamina 4; filamentis glabris; antheris 2-locularibus, 1-75 mm. longis,
loculis basi in apiculum minutum productis, connectivo leviter cristato.
Pistillum glabrum.

Summit of Mount Demi, alt. 3,000 ft., on exposed cliff faces; L. J.
Brass, No. 2102 (flowering specimens) ; 6th January; (erect densely
foliaged shrub, 4 ft. high, flowers lavender).

Among previously described species most closely allied to P. rugosa
A. Cunn., of New South Wales, which has much smaller leaves, sessile
or nearly so, and smaller flowers; the floral characters are much the
same as those of P. deniimlata R. Br., which has linear or lanceolate
leaves, and the flowers in terminal racemes.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 5.

Prostanthera linearis R. Br. Prodr. 509. (1810).

Mount French, South-east Queensland, E. J, Smith, October, 1933.

Only previously recorded in Queensland from Wellington Point
(collected by J. Wedd) ; these latter specimens are not typical; they
are somewhat fragmentary, but differ markedly from all other Prostan-
theras known to me in possessing very long pedicels.

Order Amarantaceae.

^Brayulinea densa (Willd.). Small, PI. South East United States, 394.
(1903).

Gympie, C. T. White, No. 9614 (flowering specimens) 11th Novem-
ber, 1933 (Prostrate weed, common on roadsides and earth footpaths).

A native of the Southern United States and Mexico. I am indebted
to the Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (England), for the
determination.

Trichinium corymhosum Gaud, in Preyc. Voy. Bot. 444 (non Spreng).
Yanna, near Charleville, G. D. Hutchinson.

Recorded by both Mueller and Bailey for Queensland, but these
are the first authentic Queensland specimens I have seen.

Order Chenopodiaceae.

Bassia stelligera P. v. Muell. Inconogr. Aus. Sals. PI. tab. LXVIII.
(1889).

Maranoa District: Roma, C. T. White, No. 9546 (nearly ripe fruit) ;
25/10/1933. Noondoo Station, via Dirranbandi; S. L. Everist, No. 762,
14/12/1934 (rather loosely branched subshrub, fairly common as scat-
tered plants, but nowhere dominant).

Not previously recorded for Queensland.

Kochia Georgei Diels in Engl. Jahrb. XXXV. 184.

Gregory North District : Elderslie, Winton, J. P. Kennedy, No. 19,
24/9/1934. Only in the mountains.

Not previously recorded for Queensland. Determination by S. L.
Everist.

Order Monimiaceae.

Palmeria coriacea sp. nov.

Frutex scandens, ramulis subrobustis. Folia opposita, petiolata,
glabra, coriacea, saepe rugulosa vel supra leviter bullata, elliptico-lanceo-
lata, apice acuminata vel subacuminata ; costa media et nervis praecipuis
supra impressis, subtus elevatis; venis et venulis reticulatis supra sub
lente prominulis subtus leviter elevatis; petiolo 0-7-1 cm. longo ; lamina
7-11 cm. longa, 2-5-5-5 cm. lata. Paniculae axillares 2-3 cm. longae ;
ramulis stellato-pubescentibus. Flores ignoti. Perigonium maturum
rubrum irregulariter dehiscens extus glabrum, intus pilis stramineis
longis sparsis vestitum. Drupae pisiformae nigrae 6 mm. diam.

Thornton Peak, alt. 4,000 ft., L. J. Brass, No. 2282, in low scrub
(ripe fruits) ; 14/3/32. (Scandent shrub with wrinkled recurved
leaves ; fruit bursting irregularly, the fleshy red pericarp persistent after
the black seeds have fallen.)

76

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Tlie present species was very different from the two previously
described Australian ones. Judging from descriptions it seemed to be
<ilose to P. Arfakiana Becc. A sheet was forwarded to the British
Museum (Natural History), where it was examined by Mr. J. E. Dandy,
who reported as follows: —

‘‘The only specimen of Palmeria Arfakiana Becc. at the
Museum is Gibbs 5676, collected in the Arfak Mountains. This
is not a very good specimen, consisting only of a branch with
seven leaves and a few detached flowers. It is not a good match
of the Queensland plant (Brass 2282), the leaves in the Arfak
specimen being of rather narrower (more oblong) shape with
longer acumen, and of somewhat thinner texture. I should be
inclined to keep the two plants specifically distinct on the material,
but of course I have not seen Beccari’s type of P. Arfakiana.’ ’

Order Lauraceae.

J^ndiandra reticidata sip. nov.

Arbor 25 m. alta; cortice grisea; partibus novellis furfuraceis,
ramulis junioribus angulatis. Folia subcoriacea, elliptica, apice subacuta,
basi acuta, in sicco utrinque minute et valde reticulata, 13-17 cm. longa,
4-6 cm. lata; petiolus crassus, furfuraceus. Paniculae terminates vel in
axillis super ioribus orientes ; 4-8 cm. longae ; ramulis floribusque dense
pubescentibus. Perianthii tubus brevis, late turbinatus; lobi 6, sub-
aequales, late ovati. 1-5 mm. lati. Stamina ordinum I. et II. nulla, ordinis
III. 3, bilocularia, extrorsa ; filamentis crassis, applanatis, puberulis ;
staminodia ordinis IV. nulla ; glandulae 6 glabrae. Ovarium glabrum,
ovatum, sub-trigonum.

Daintree Eiver, swampy rain forests, L. J. Brass, No. 2244 (flower-
ing specimens) ; 7th March; (erect grey-barked tree, 80 ft. high; leaves
•coriaceous and rather stiff, flowers white).

Among previously described Australian species most closely allied
to E. dichrophylla F. v Muell, which differs in possessing differently
veined leaves, markedly paler beneath, stronger and less pubescent
panicles.

Order Hernandiaceae.

Valv anther a gen. nov.

Flores dimorphi ; abortivi pedicellati vel stipitati ovoidei ; normales
sessiles, hermaphroditi. Flores normales: — Involucellus (vel calyx)
tubulosus vel cupularis. Corollae tubus brevis ; limbo 6-8 lobato ; lobis
inaequalibus. Stamina 6, filamentis brevis, connectivo incrassato,
antheris bilocularibus, loculis valva dehiscentibus. Ovarium semi-
inferum (uniloculare ?) ; uniovulatum; ovulum pendulum?; stylus
columnaris, stigmate 2-lobato, lobis recurvis. Fructus drupaceus,
ellipsoideus vel ovoideus ; endocarpio crustaceo ; semen solitarium,
exalbuminosum. — Arbor. Folia alterna. Flores panieulatae ; paniculae
axillares, ebracteatae.

Valvanthera albiflora sp. unica.

Frutex debilis (Brass) vel arbor parva ad 15 m. alta (Kajewski),
ramulis glabris. Folia petiolata, lanceolata apice acuminata, basi acuta,
•carnosula (in sicco papyracea) ; nervis lateralibus utrinque 5-7 subtus

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 5. 77

\

leviter elevatis ; petiolo ca. 1 cm. longo ; lamina 12-18 cm. longa, 4*5-6 cm.
lata. Paniculae axillares, pauciflorae, 3-4 cm. longae; ramis (vel
pedunculis) tenuis, albo-virentibus ; floribns dimorphis; abortivis parvis
pedicellatis, normalibns majoribns sessilibus. Flores normales : involvu-
ceilus (vel calyx?) tubulosus 1-1*5 mm. longus; perianthium (vel
corolla?) album irregulariter 6-8-lobatum, tnbo brevi, lobis inaequalibus,
majoribns ovatis ad 2 mm. latis, in sicco venosis. Stamina 6, blamentis
1 mm. longis, connectivo incrassato, antlieris 2-locularibus, loculis valva
dehiscentibus. Ovarium glabruni; stigmatis ramis 2, recurvis. Flores
abortivi obovoidei basin versus in stipitem 1 mm. longum angustati.
Drupa ellipsoidea, atropurpurea, in sicco 2*5 cm. longa, 1*2 cm. diam.

Daintree River, common in rain-forest. S. F. Kajewski, No. 1407
(type : flowering specimens) , 29tii November, 1929 (small tree up to 15 m.
liigh; flowers on long stems, buds light pink, petals waxy white). L. J.
Brass, No. 2226 (fruiting specimens), 2nd March, 1932 (slender tree,
30 ft. ; leaves pale, fleshy, paler on under side ; fruit fleshy, 1-1^ in.
long, reddish-purple). L. J. Brass, No. 2366 (single sheet with one
immature fruit), March, 1932 (tail rain-forest shrub). Mossman River
Gorge, in rain-forest, L. J. Brass, No. 2124 (flowering specimens), 9th
February, 1932 (tall, weak-branched, and sparsely leaved bush; leaves
dull green, fleshy, paler on under side, margins narrowly recurved;
flowers white ; petioles and peduncles greenish-wRite) .

Though the present j)lant is represented by several sheets in both
the Kajewski and Brass collections, the flowers are poorly preserved,
evidently not lending themselves to good preservation by the ordinary
methods of drying, and it is much to be desired that an examination of
flowers, either fresh or preserved in formalin or alcohol, be made at a
later date.

The plant presented difficulties to me as. to its relationships, and I
therefore sent specimens to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England,
where they were examined by Mr. V. S. Summerhayes and Mr. B. L.
Burtt, who came to the conclusion that the plant might belong to the
Lauraceae, though they recognised several objections to this.

Its principal affinities with the Lauraceae lie in its valvate anthers,
a rather unusual dehiscence, though this might, as Hutchinson has pointed
out in the Berberidales and Laurales, be due to parallel lines of descent,
rather than to definite affinities.

After some consideration I have placed the plant in the
Hernandiaceae, though when fresh floral material is available this
decision may have to be altered.

Order ProteacExVE.

Hakea verrucosa F. v. Muell. Fragm. Phytogr. Austr., V. 25, 1865.

Kupunn, via Dalby, Western Queensland. H. Cannington, 2nd
September, 1931.

Only previously known from specimens cultivated in Botanic
Gardens, Melbourne. The present ones differ from these in the branches
being glabrous, in the floral rhachis being shorter and glabreseent, and
in the flowers being on longer pedicels. The fruit is not verrucose, but
neither are those from the plant as cultivated in the Melbourne Botanic

78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Gardens. Specimens of the Queensland plant were forwarded to the
National Herbarium, Melbourne, where they were reported on by Mr.
P. P. Morris, who wrote : —

‘‘The specimen forwarded agrees fairly close with Hakea
verrucosa F. v. MuelL, but your specimen has flowers with longer
pedicels. I enclose a specimen from material labelled ‘ex Horto
Botanico Melb.’ In Fragm. V., p. 25, Mueller states ‘Capsulis
erostribus copiose et prominenter verrucosis majusculis.’ I am of
the opinion that he referred to fruiting specimens of H.
propinqua, which he had labelled H. verrucosa.

“The description by Bentham covers the material which we
have from the Botanic Gardens. It is diflicult to know which is.
the type specimen, and date of collection is not given.”

Order Thymelaeaceae.

Pimelea dioica sp. nov.

Frutex erectus, 1 m. altus, ramulis foliisque dense sericeo-villosis.
Folia alterna, sessilia, lanceolata vel obovato-lanceolata, apice acuta, ca.
1 cm, longa, 2-5-4 mm. lata. Bracteae involucrantes 6, suborbiculares
5-8 mm. latae. Flores masc. numerosi conferti, in capitula terminalia
2-3 cm. diam. dispositi. Flores fern, ignoti. Perianthii tubus 8 mm.
longus, dense sericeo-villosus ; lobis late ovatis, 5 mm. longis, 3 mm. latis,
extus sericeis intus glabris. Antherae 2 mm. longae, 1-5 mm. latae;
filamentis perbrevibus.

An erect shrub about 1 m. high, the branches and leaves densely
covered with silky hairs. Leaves alternate, sessile, lanceolate or obovate-
lanceolate. Apex acute, about 1 cm. long, 2-5-4 mm. broad. Involucral
bracts 6, suborbicular 5-8 mm. broad. Male flowers numerous, crowded,
in terminal heads 2-3 cm. . in diameter. Female flowers unknown.
Perianth tube 8 mm. long, densely clothed with silky hairs, longer in
the upper than in the lower portion. Lobes broadly ovate, 5 mm. long,
3 mm. broad, silky outside, glabrous inside. Anthers 2 mm. long, 1-5 mm.
broad. Filaments very short, the anthers being sub-sessile.

Near Goondiwindi, Darling Downs district, growing profusely on a
sandy ridge; W. Dixon (flowering specimens, 23/7/1934).

The present species is very closely allied to P. ammocharis F.v.^d.j
but may be distinguished by the following characters: —

Leaves imbricate or densely crowded ; involu-
cral bracts not markedly different from the
leaves. Capitula 1 cm. diam., 10-20-flowered.

Perianth tube 6 mm. long, lobes 2-5 mm. long . . P. ammocharis
Leaves not imbricate nor densely crowded ;
involucral bracts different from the leaves orbicu-
lar or suborbicular. Capitula 2-3 cm. diam.,

30-or more-flowered. Perianth tube 8 mm. long,

lobes 5 mm. long . . . . . . . . . . P. dioica

Order Loranthaceae.

The Loranthaceae of the L. J. Brass collection referred to in the
introductory note have been determined by Mr. W. F. Blakely, of the
Botanic Gardens, Sydney, the well-known authority on the Australian
members of this family. It contained the following previously
undeseribed variety and species : —

79

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 5.

Loranthus signatus F. v. Muell. var peiiolata, Blakely, var. nov.

Folia oblonga vel obovata, obtusa vel emarginata, margine leviter
revoliita, basem versus in petiolum sublongum breviter angustata, supra
subnitida subtus opaqua et pallidiora; venis distinctis paucis irregu-
laribus. Petala in parte superiore viridia, in parte inferiore rubra.

Leaves opposite, oblong to obovate, obtuse or emarginate, the
margins slightly revolute, shortly tapering at the base into rather long
semi-terete petioles, thin, somewhat glossy above, dull and pale-coloured
beneath, the veins distinct, few, and irregular. Flowers somewhat
similar to those of the typical form.' Lower half of petals red, upper
part green.

Mount Molloy, alt. 1,200 ft., parasitic on Casuarina; L. J. Brass,
No. 2514 (flowering specimens), 17/4/32.

Korthalsella Brassiana Blakely sp. nov.

Planta gracilis subrigida glabra articulata, 4-9 cm. alta, omni
articulo florescens. Articuli manifeste compress!, angusti-cuneati,
uninerves, in sicco, rugosissimi, luteo-brunnei, subcarnosi, 5-10 mm.
long!, 1-3 mm. lati. Flores masculi, trimeri; pedicellis gracillimis, ca.
0-5 mm. ; petalis lateralibus gibbosis, supra medium connatis, medio
petalo glabro majore ; antheris connatis, ad centrum perianthii aflixa.
Flores feminini subsessiles, ovati; petalis triangularibus crassis persis-
tentibus ; stigmate nigro, pulviniformi. Fructus ovatus brevipedicel-
latus, circ. 2x1 mm. ' semina cordata, compressa, vix 1 mm. longa.

Slender sub-rigid glabrous jointed plants 4 to 9 cm. long, flowering
at every joint ; the union causes the host to expand into a small depressed
globular swelling at the point of attachment, while the parasite does not
show any marked enlargement, the only change that takes place is in
the terete nature of the first joints, the remainder being markedly
compressed, narrow-cuneate, 1-nerved, conspicuously wrinkled when dry,
yellowish-brown, sub-carnose, 5 to 10 mm. long, 1 to 3 mm. broad.
Flowers, both male and female, surrounded by minute moniliform cilia
shorter than the flowers, protruding from the rather broad smooth
floral band which encircles every joint ; the female flowers more numerous
than the male flowers, especially on old joints, but on young tips there
are usually two female and two male flowers, the latter slightly larger
than the former, male flowers trimerous, on very slender pedicels, the
whole about 0-5 mm. long, and scarcely as broad, lateral petals gibbose,
much larger than the smooth central one, united above the centre.
Anthers sessile, connate, depressed-globular, attached to the centre of
the perianth. Female flowers sub-sessile, usually ovate, with three thick,
triangular persistent valvate petals; stigma black, pulviniform, nearly
always exposed, scarcely exceeding the petals. Fruit ovate, brevi-
pedicellate, about 2x1 mm. ; seeds cordate, compressed, less than 1 mm.
long, enclosed in a white reticulate membrane ; endosperm green ;
hypocotyl green, terete, the disc acutely conical ; cotyledons not seen.

It is readily separated from all other endemic species by its smaller
size, linear, uninerved jointed branches, very slender pedicels to the male
flowers, and in the very short moniliform cilia at the base of the flowers.

' ‘ Parasitic on the branches of many of the various trees. Thornton
Peak, alt. 4,000-4,500 ft.’^ L. J. Brass, No. 2298 (flowering specimens),
14/3/1932.

80

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Order Euphorbiaceae.

Bridelia miimtiflora Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. V. 278 (1887).

Mossman River, W. Sayer, 1886 (ex Nat. Herb., Melb.) ; Johnstone
River, H. G. Ladbrook, No. 142.

A species with a wide range through the Malayan and Papuan
region, but not previously recorded for Australia.

Croton Maideni R. T. Baker in Journ. Proc. Royal Soc., N.S.W.,,
XLVIII., 444, tab. XII.

Near Roma, J. G. Gumming.

Not previously recorded for Queensland.

DimorpTiocalyx anstraliensis sp. nov.

Prutex, partibus novellis pubescentibus, ramulis junioribus lenticel-
latis. Folia glabra, alterna, elliptica vel elliptico-lanceolata, basi obtusa
vel subobtusa, apice subacuta (subcarnosa, supra nitida, subtus pallidiora
— Brass) in sicco utrinque opaca chartacea supra atro-castanea, subtus
multo pallidiora; petiolus 0-5-1-5 cm. longus; lamina 7-11 cm. longa, 3-6
cm. lata ; nervi secundarii ca. 7 in. utroque latere. Inflorescentia
racemoso-cymosa, terminalis, strigosa ca. 3 cm. longa ; bracteis ovatis
2 mm. longis, extus strigosis intus glabris. Flores masculi albi, pedicellis
2 mm. longis, strigoso-pubescentibus. Calyx alte 5-lobatus, extus
pubescens, intus glaber, lobis elliptico-oblongis. Petala 5 elliptico-
oblonga, calyce duplo longiora. Disci glandulae 5, carnosae, magnae.
Stamina 8-9, 5 exteriora filamentis liberis, 3-4 interiora filamentis plus
vel minus alte connatis. Flores feminei ignoti.

Mowbray River, in rain-forest, L. J. Brass, No. 2019 (male flowers,.
23rd January) (very showy large shrub, leaves shining above, paler
beneath and rather fleshy in texture ; showy white flowers 1*5 cm. across
when expanded).

The genus has not previously been recorded for Australia. Though
only male flowers are known, there seems no doubt of the plant belonging
to Dimorphocalyx, though it has apparently fewer stamens than others
previously described. It is highly desirable that female flowers and
fruit of this interesting addition to the Australian flora should be
obtained.

"^Euphorbia prostrata Ait. Hort., Kew 2, 136 (1789).

Common about Brisbane on gravelled roads and footpaths, also
a common farm and garden weed, C. T. White ; Laidley, C. T. White ;
Townsville, a common weed, C. T. White ; Proserpine, Rev. N. Michael ;
Fernlees, Central Queensland, J. Garvey; Torrens Creek, C. T. White,
No. 8793 (prostrate on sandy soil) ; Rosedale, L. G. Dovey, fairly common
in yards and gardens about the township ; May ’s Creek, Gympie, V.
Cross, common weed in banana farms ; Cloncurry, J. Legg, suspected of
causing deaths of rams imported from New South Wales.

A common tropical weed now very common in Queensland. It has
probably been established here for some years, but in the past was
confused with E. Drnmmondii Boiss. A record by W. F. Blakely in
Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., Vol. XLYII., p. xxxi., of E. prostrata Ait.
from New South Wales, induced me to examine the Eiiphorhia material
in our collections. We also have specimens from Lautoka, Fiji, collected

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUEENSLAND PLORA^ NO. 5.

81

by W. Greenwood, and the plant recorded as a form of E. Drummondii
Boiss. by me in these Proceedings, Vol. XXXIV., p. 40, for Papna^
belongs here.

Phyllariikus Brassii sp. nov.

Frutex glaber ca. 60 cm. altus ; ramulis robiistis angulatis ruguloso-
striatis. Folia breviter petiolata, coriacea, lanceolata vel elliptico-
lanceolata, utrinque nitida et valde reticulata, margine leviter incrassata
et recurva; lamina 4-6*5 cm. longa, 1-5-2-5 cm. lata; petiolo incrassato,
2-3 mm. longo. Flores masc. : axillares fasciculati, pedicellis gracilibus,
ca. 1 cm. longis; sepalis 4, oblongo-ovatis 2 mm. longis, 1*25 mm. latis;
disco crasso alte 4-lobato ; staminibus 2, filamentis liberis crassis
applanatis sub antheros valde dilatatis; loculis antherarum divaricatis
longitudiner dehiscentibus. Flores fern. : axillares, pedicellis ca. 1 cm.
longis subvalidis apicem versus leviter incrassatis, sepalis perfectis non
visis, ovario 3-lobo, stylis 3, alte bilobis, lobis valde recurvis.

Thornton Peak, alt. 4,000 ft., in low scrub near the summit, L. J,
Brass, No. 2303 (male and female flowers), 14th March (bush, about
2 ft. high, leaves thick and coriaceous, smooth and shining on both sides) .

A very distinctive plant, very dissimilar in appearance from
previously described Australian species, and without any close affinities
with any of them.

According to the account of the genus by Pax and Hoffmann in the
‘ ^ Pflanzenf amilien ” (second edition), Vol. 19 c., pp. 60-66, I should
place P. Brassii in Section XXV., Eriococcodes, Muell. Arg.

Phylkmihus tenellus Roxb., FI. Beng. 69 (1814). P. brishanicus F. M.

Bailey, Queens. FI., V. 1418 (1902).

This plant, a native of Madagascar, but now' naturalised as a weed
in most tropical and subtropical countries, is a very common weed in
Queensland, growing in shady places, such as along fences, in bush-
houses., &c. It was named provisionally by F. M. Bailey, l.c., as P.
brishanicus, though he doubted whether it was really a native. As I was
under the impression that it was an alien here, specimens of the type
were forwarded to the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kewq and were
examined by Mr. V. S. Summerhayes, wffio reported: — ‘‘The type speci-
men of P. brishanicus, F. M. Bailey, agrees perfectly with P. tenellus
Roxb., apparently a native of Madagascar, and found as a weed in
Mauritius, Seychelles, &c.”

Order Orchidaceae.

Dendrobium bigibbum Lindl. var. Georgei n. var.

Planta robusta ; flores 4*5-5 cm. diam. atro-violacei vel purpurei
venis intensius coloratis; labelli discus tuberculorum atro-violaceorum
5-lineis distinctis notatus ; lobo intermedio apiculato.

Australia: Dayman Island (?), Torres Strait.

Described from cultivated specimen grown by Mr. H. J. Blockings,
Brisbane, and named at his request after Mr. J. George, who first found
the variety.

82 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The present variety is distinguished from typical D. higibhum
Lindl. by the dark-coloured (not white) calli on the disk of the labellum.
The calli are perhaps not quite so prominent as in typical D. higibhum,
and on this account appear to be in more definite rows. The end of the
labellum in D. higibhum varies from emarginate to minutely apiculate.

Probably a hybrid between D. higibhum Lindl. and D. superhiens
Reichenb., as in growth it is intermediate between the two, being much
more robust than typical D. higibhum or D. higibhum, var. phalaemopsis.
The above describes the typical form, though since the description was
drawn up I have seen some slight colour variations, principally in the
lines of tubercules on the disk being lighter in colour.

Dendrohium teretif olium R. Br. car. album, var. nov.

Racemi ca. 12 cm. longi ad 15-fiori. Flores magni. Sepala petalaque
alba ; mentum albo-cremeum. Labellum in parte superiore candidum, in
parte inferiore albo-cremeum et parce purpureo-maculatum.

Racemes mostly about 12 cm. long, up to 15-flowered. Flowers
large. Sepals and petals pure white, 4 cm. long; mentum very pale
cream. Labellum pure white in the upper part, very pale-cream in the
lower, and marked with a few purple spots. Column coloured and
marked similarly to the labellum.

Mount Spec, North Queensland, B. D. Grimes (flowered under
cultivation, 6/10/1933).

Differs from the typical form in the sepals and petals lacking any
purple marking. A very beautiful form, distinctive enough, I think, to
bear a varietal name.

Eulophia Carrii sp. nov.

Herba terrestris aphylla. Rhizoma carnosa 3-3-5 cm. crassa. Scapus
robustus cum racemo ca. 50 cm. altus in parte inferiore vaginatus;
vaginis ad 6 cm. longis, submembranaceis. Racemus 18 cm. longus.
Flores atrovinosi ; bractea membranacea, lineari ovario breviore. Sepala
elliptico-lanceolata, acuminata, 2 cm. longa, 1 cm. lata. Petala sepalis
miuores, breviter et obtuse acuminata. Labellum cremeum ( ?), rubro-vel
purpureo-venosum, petalas fere aequante, trilobum, lobis lateralibus
rotundis, lobo intermedio latis ad apicem acuminate, acumine ipso
incurvo ; disco 2-carinato, carinis in lineas indistinctas valde pupillosas
desinentibus ; calcare brevi. Gynostemium flavo-virens, 1-3 cm. alta ;
anthera leviter biloba ; polliniis suborbicularibus.

Rhizome horizontal, fleshy, with a fresh ‘‘potato” smell when cut,
3-3-5 cm. thick. Leaves none (?). Flowering scape robust, including
the flowering portion 50 cm. or more high, 1-5 cm. thick at the base,
sheathed at the base for about 10 cm. with brown submembranous bracts,
the bracts themselves up to 6 cm. long. Raceme 18 cm. long. Flowers
dark vinous purple or vinous red. Floral bracts membranous, linear,
shorter than the ovary. Sepals elliptic-lanceolate, acuminate, 2 cm. long,
1 cm. broad. Petals smaller and more shortly and bluntly acuminate.
Labellum cream (?) with dark-red veining, almost the same length as
the petals, produced behind into a short obtuse spur, 3-lobed, nearly as
broad as long, lateral lobes broad, rounded, middle lobe broad with an

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 5.

incurved, very shortly acuminate apex; disk with two more or less
distinct keels radiating out on the middle lobe into several indistinct
lines of crowded, stellate papillae. Column yellowish-green, 1*3 cm.
high, the foot slightly stained or streaked with reddish-purple. Anther
shallowly 2-lobed at the apex; pollinia suborbicular.

Julatten, North Queensland; T. Carr.

The present species is easily distinguished from the two previously-
described Queensland leafless species of EulopMa by its dark vinous
purple flowers.

Order Palmae.

Bacularia intennedia sp. nov.

Palma parva 1-25 m. alta; caudice laevi annulate. Folia petiolata
2-4-juga; petiolo cum rhachide 25-50 cm. longo, petiolo ipso 13-40 cm.
longo, basi in vaginam dilatato, vaginis apice bilobis et demun in fila
marcescentibus ; segmentis ehartaceis oppositis vel alternis linearibus vel
lineari-oblongis in foliis adultis 25-30 cm. longis, segmentis lateralibus
in latitudine saepe valde inaequalibus, angustioribus uninervis, 1-1*5 cm.
latis latioribus 5-8-plicato-nervosis 2*5-4 cm. latis; apice acutis et valde
obliquis, margine superiori integris, margine inferiori apicem versus
inciso dentatis; segmentis terminalibus basi confluentibus apice inciso-
dentatis oblique truncatis 4*5-6 cm. latis. Spicae erectae densiflorae
interfoliaceae ca. 20 cm. longae pedunculatae ; pedunculis in fructu
elongatis ad 50 cm. longis; spatha completa subpersistenti. Alabastra
juvenilia modo visa, subglobosa. Fructus cylindricus aurantiacus 1*2 cm.
longus. Sepala sub fructu rotunda 1.5 mm. diam. ; petala rotunda apice
breviter et obtuse acuminata 2*5 mm. diam.

Mowbray River, alt. 1,000 ft., in rain-forest; L. J. Brass, No. 1975
(type: very young flower buds and immature fruits), 21st January (a
forest floor plant up to 4 ft. high ; lower stem smooth, mottled and ringed
with old leaf -scars, a few dead leaf-sheaths persistent below living foliage ;
inflorescence axillary, erect, spathes persistent long after opening).
Daintree River, in rain-forest; L. J. Brass, No. 2214 (a few ripe fruits),
29th February (slender palm 2-4 ft. high, ripe fruits orange-coloured).
Kuranda, C. T. White, No. 1550 (leaves only), 28/2/1922.

The genus Bacularia as now understood is represented in Queens-
land by six species, which fall naturally into two groups : the minor
group, consisting of B. minor F.v.M., and the very closely allied B.
microcarya Domin and B. aequisegmentosa Domin, palms characterised
by possessing all similar and narrow segments; and the monostacliya
group, consisting of B. monostachya F.v.M., B. Palmeriana F. M. Bailey,
and the present species. The differences between the various species of
Bacularia are rather difficult to follow, and the following key is therefore
given, showing the intermediate position of the species here described
between B. Palmeriana F. M. Bailey and B. monostachya F.v.M. This
group is characterised by possessing either all broad-leaf segments or
broad and narrow segments on the same leaf. In the latter case the
terminal pair is always very much wider than the lateral ones and
markedly incise-dentate at the apex.

84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND

Leaves with only two pairs of comparatively short and broad
segments (very rarely a single intermediate segment on one
side of the rachis). Petiole 8-15 cm. long . . B.Palmeriana

Leaves with 2-4 opposite or alternate segments on either side of
the rachis. The intermediate segments and sometimes the
lowest pair much narrower than the uppermost. Spikes
upright. Petiole 13-40 cm. long, very early quite

glabrous .. .. .. ' .. B. intermedia

Leaves with 4-12 (usually 5-6) opposite or alternate, very dis-
similar segments. Most of the intermediate and lower pairs
narrower than the uppermost, but usually at least one pair
nearly as wide. Spikes soon curved, at length pendent.
Petiole 11-22 cm., stout, furfuraceous . . B. monostachya

Order Gramineae.

Glyceria Fordeana P.v.Mi.

Darling Downs district: Yelarbon. S. L. Everist, No. 917,

19/12/1934 slender grass in shady situations beneath Melaleuca trees.
Stems pale, panicle branches spreading. Growing in heavy white clay
soil associated with Car ex sp.

Not previously recorded for Queensland.

I am indebted to Mr. S. T. Blake for kindly comparing the speci-
mens collected with type material at the National Herbarium, Melbourne.

VoL. XLVII., No. 6.

85

Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora— Part VI.

—Eremocitrus glauca.

By L. F. Hitchcock, M.Sc., and T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.

{Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 26th August, 1935.)

Eremocitrus glauca is a small to medium sized tree abundant in
parts of New South Wales and Queensland, stretching' from near the
coast at Marmor, in Central Queensland, westwards almost to the South
Australian border. Northwards it extends as far as Charters Towers
(Queensland) and southwards to the neighbourhood of Dubbo (New
South Wales). In its young stages it is a thorny, intricately branched,
almost leafless shrub, but this character changes as the tree develops.
The adult trees are leafy, the leaves being somewhat leathery in texture,
of a greyish-green colour, and mostly 1-1-| inches long ; the small flowers
are borne in clusters in the leaf-axils, and the berries are about the size
and shape of an average marble. It is mostly known as ‘‘Wild Lime,”
or “Wild Kumquat,” sometimes as the “Desert Lime,” though this last
is rather a misnomer, as the tree thrives best in country with a rainfall
of 23-34 inches.

Supplies of leaves with occasional green fruit attached, obtained
from Dalby, collected by the Forestry Department, on distillation gave
a yield of oil approximately 4 per cent. The odour of the oil was
pleasant, but in no way resembling oil of lemon, which is, however, a
product from the rind of the latter fruit and not the leaves.

The principal constituent of the oil was found to be d-a-pinene
60-70 per cent, with nonylic aldehyde 12 per cent, and sesquiterpene
as important minor constituents. Other minor constituents were nonoic
acid (free and combined), isovaleric acid (combined), p-cymene, linalol,
a trace of phenolic bodies (probably eugenol and another crj^stalline
substance), and a trace also of citral. The higher boiling fractions of
the oil contained a constituent which readily resinified on heating, thereby
rendering isolation of minor constituents difficult. Some evidence w^as
obtained of the presence of dipentene in small amounts and of an alcoholic
body which occurred along with linalol, probably nonyl alcohol. It was
not found possible definitely to characterise these and possibly other
minor constituents present in the oil with the supplies available, and as
the oil does not appear to possess economic value, it was not considered
advisable to obtain further supplies of leaves owing to the relatively high
cost of collection.

86

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Experimentaij.

The oil, of which 700 ccs. were available for investigation, was found
to possess the following constants — little variation being noticeable in
samples of oil from different localities and collected at different periods
of the year ; —

di5-5 = '8686

[a]„ + 14

n|o 1-4691

Acid number . . . . . . . . 7

Ester value . . . . . . . . 19

Acetyl value (including acid nu,mber and ester value) 50.

Aldehyde content (hydroxylamine method) 12 per cent.

(expressed as nonylic aldehyde).

The oil 600 ccs. was washed with —

(а) Dilute NagCOg solution.

Nonoic acid (1 c.c.) was recovered and identified (as subse-
quently described).

(б) 4 per cent. NaOH solution.

A trace only of phenolic bodies was recovered. The smell

strongly suggested eugenol, but a few crystals were

slowly deposited on standing.

After washing, the oil was submitted to hydrolysis by refluxing with
dilute alcoholic sodium hydroxide solution. From the alkaline liquor
after removal of the oil, isovaleric and nonoic acids were obtained,
separation being effected by fractional distillation of the ethyl esters.
Isovaleric acid was identified by means of its characteristic silver salt
(Ag = 51*5 per cent.), and nonoic acid was identified by means of
analysis of its silver and barium salts. (Pound Ag = 404 per cent.
Ba = 304 per cent.)

The amide of the acid prepared in the usual way, melted at 99*5° C.

The oil recovered from the hydrolysis was next treated with a
solution of sodium sulphite and sodium bicarbonate^ A voluminous
deposit of the sulphite compound soon filled the liquid, the separation
of which from unchanged oil presented considerable difficulties. The
crystals were finally collected on the filter, pressed free as far as possible
from liquid impurities and then washed with ether. The crystals, on
decomposition in the prescribed manner with sodium hydroxide, gave a
liquid possessing the physical constants of nonyl aldehyde.

(I15.5 = -8290 = 1-4300

b.p. 195°-197° C. (Pound C. := 75-6 H = 12-5)

Oxidation with acetone permanganate gave nonoic acid (identified
as recorded above).

The semicarbazone prepared in the usual manner had a somewhat
low melting point (95° C. in lieu of 100° C.), indicating a somewhat
impure nonyl aldehyde, a result in agreement with the recovery of a
small amount of unidentified liquid, presumably a ketone, which had not
been attacked, from the acetone permanganate oxidation.

The sulphite liquor, obtained after removal of the crystalline nonyl
aldehyde compound, was washed with ether and carefully decomposed
with sodium hydroxide. A very small quantity of liquid separated.

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM THE QUEENSLAND FLORA.

87

which possessed the strong smell of citral. Although too small to identify
in the usual way, it gave the characteristic colour reaction of citral on
treatment with benzidine acetic acid solution^, and there could be little
doubt of its identity with citral. It is possible that the occurrence of
citral in minute quantities in the oil was due to the presence of a few
small immature fruit attached to the leaves used for the original steam
distillation, citral being the important constituent of the rind of citrus
fruits.

The oil, 400 ccs. free from aldehydes, was then fractionally distilled
under diminished pressure, the following fractions (with several inter-
mediate fractions) being ultimately obtained. It was found impractic-
able to push the fractionation of higher fractions too far owing to
pronounced loss due to resinification. Fractions (a), (b), and (d) were
finally distilled over metallic sodium: —

{a) 250 CCS. b.p. 155° C.

^15-5 *865 [a]i) = -j- 27

N|o 1-4658

This fraction, which comprised the bulk of the oil, consisted of
d-a-pinene.

The nitrosyl chloride melted at 104° C., and on oxidation pinonie
acid (melting point of semicarbazone 200° C.) was obtained.

No evidence was obtained of the presence of j8-pinene.

(5) 15 CCS. b.p. 173°-178° C.

*8529 [a]^ + 1

1-4780

This fractionation was stable to Beckmann’s chromic acid mixture
in the cold, thus indicating the absence of terpinene. No solid deriva-
tives could be prepared — dipentene waa suspected, but the characteristic
crystalline tetrabromide could not be obtained and the amount of bromine
combining with a portion of the fraction was less than half that theoreti-
cally indicated for dipentene. The presence of p-cymene was confirmed
by removal of terpene with cold permanganate and oxidation of the
recovered oil with hot permanganate in the prescribed manner®,
p-hydroxy isopropyl benzoic acid (M.P. 155° C.) being formed.

P-cymene apparently comprised the bulk of the fraction, but the
authors are of the opinion that some dipentene was present, although
definite confirmation was rendered impossible owing to the small amount
of the fraction separable in a pure condition from fraction (a). The
density of the fraction, which was lower than that either of cymene or
pinene, confirmed this view.

(c) 15 CCS. b.p. 220-235° C.; 95°-100° C. 5 mms.
di5.5 -9121 [a]p = - 13

1-5001.

This fraction possessed a pleasant rose-like odour. It gave, however,
the usual bromine acetic acid test for sesquiterpene and combustion
analysis indicated some ^9-50 per cent, sesquiterpene.

88 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROY.VL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Extraction with phthalic anhydride in boiling benzene solution
gave only a very small quantity of acid phthalate, from which was

recovered 1 cc. of alcohol, with the following constants :

b.p. 200-210° C.

di5-5 *859; [a]:, = 0; = 1-43

The constants suggested a primary aliphatic alcohol and in
particular nonyl alcohol, although the density of that alcohol is -940. The
alcohol readily reacted with phenyl isocyanate, but the melting point
was not recorded owing to accidental loss. The results indicated that
the oil contained only very small amounts of primary alcohols.

The fraction recovered from the phthalate extraction possessed
constants —

di5.5 -923; [a]i) = - 10 ; n|o 1*4805

The presence of linalol was indicated by oxidation with chromic
acid and testing for citral with benzidine acetic acid solution — positive
tests (not shown by the original liquid) being obtained.

Pinal attempts to extract the alcohols from the fraction with metallic
sodium in dry ether solution gave only about 1 ce. of alcohol, probably
linalol, while the recovered liquid still possessed the original pronounced
laevo rotation and did not react with phenyl isocyanate. Combustion
results still indicated sesquiterpene mixed with oxygenated derivative,
but further examination was prevented by absence of sufficient material.

(d) 15 CCS. b.p. 110-115° C. (5 mms.).

*9236 [aji, + 6

N|o 1-4940

Combustion results indicated sesquiterpene and the bromine acetic
acid colour reaction was most pronounced.

No solid derivates could be obtained and the sesquiterpene did not
appear identical with any known sesquiterpene.

The -authors wish to express their thanks to Mr. C. T. White,
Government Botanist, and officials of the Forestry Department for their
usual courteous assistance.

^ Compare Hibbert and Cannon, J.Am.C. Society, Vol. 6, 1924, page 121.
^ Van Eck. Pharm. Weekbl., 1923, 60, 1204.

^ Gildemeister and Hoffman, Vol. I., p. 284.

NOTES ON SOME PASTURE PROBLEMS OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND. 89

VoL. XLVII., No. 7.

Notes on Some Pasture Problems of Western

Queensland.

By S. T. Blake, M.Sc., Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic
Biology, University of Queensland.

[Emd before the Royal Society of Queensland, 26th August, 1935.)

The grazing lands of Queensland form one of the State’s greatest
assets, and on their condition depends to a great extent the prosperity of
this country. In many districts, unfortunately, these lands have
deteriorated very considerably. The deterioration is brought about either
by the more or less complete disappearance of edible plants or by the
replacement of palatable species by less palatable species. In the latter
type species of Bassia are very prevalent. This genus is widely spread in
Queensland, and is represented by numerous species. Many of these
assume considerable importance either as fodder plants or as weeds.
There follow below some notes on this and some related problems gleaned
from a field study in many parts of Queensland during the past two
years.

Bassia Birchii (galvanised burr or camel burr) has received consider-
able publicity of late. Although originally described from the Longreach
district, it is now impossible to say where was its original home. At
present it is very widely distributed, chiefly on sandy soil or on stock
routes. Only very rarely has it been noticed invading black soil
paddocks, and then only when these j)addocks have been heavily over-
stocked.

Quite diverse opinions are' held as to its palatability, but certain
it is that in some places, even where there was abundance of good grass
nearby, it has been readily eaten by cattle, and has been known to be
preferred to green pigweed {Portulaca sp.). But there is no doubt that
in denuded pastures it serves a useful purpose as a soil binder and seed
protector. An outstanding example of this came under observation in
the Springsure district. A paddock which had been rather heavily over-
stocked had been invaded by the burr, which soon took complete
possession. The paddock was then spelled, and shortly after one of the
more useful star grasses, Chloris divaricata, made its appearance and
gradually replaced the Bassia. The replacement is not yet complete,
but it seems only a matter of a brief time before the burr will have
completely disappeared, even with comparatively light stocking.

Bassia hicornis (Goathead) is a species frequently confounded with
galvanised burr on account of its very white appearance and rather
similar habit. It is, however, easily distinguished by the narrow leaves
common to most Bassias and the large two-spined ‘Hurr” (fruit). In
B. Birchii the leaves are exceptionally broad and flat, and the fruit has
five irregular spines, much shorter than in B. hicornis. Goathead is
fairly abundant on the so-called ^Hlack soil” downs between Winton
and Boulia, particularly near the latter town, where the over-grazed
country has been thickly coated with sand deposited by dust storms.

90 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Bassia longicuspis is a species which is likely to become a very great
pest in some districts. So far as observed at present, it is confined to
very stony ground. It is much more woody than the jjreceding species,
and the fruits have stout rigid spines up to inches long. It is not
likely to be eaten except when very young. Near Quilpie, where it is.
known as Pinkilla burr, it occurs in boree country, and has spread with
alarming rapidity within the last three years ; and it is stated that no
horse will pass through badly-infested country. It has also been observed
as being very common west of Winton and near Emmet, where it has.
apparently but recently arrived. In both these areas it is associated
with gidgee. It has been recorded from near Longreach. There seems
little doubt that it came from further west and may not be truly
indigenous in Queensland. It was first collected in Queensland in 1911,
near Longreach.

Bassia quinquecuspis (roly-poly) is more noticeable on heavily
stocked or definitely over-grazed country. It is an annual, and becomes
a nuisance from the fact that the dead plants readily become detached
from the ground and are bowled over the ground by the wind until they
are piled against fences or become lodged in bore-drains, which soon
become blocked up. The species seems almost to be confined to heavy
soils, and like most other species is more common in the southern and
central parts of the State than in the north.

Of the more useful species, B. aiiisamnthoides and B. echmopsUa
are characteristic of eaten-out Mitchell grass pastures of the south-west
and central-west. Thej^ are nearly always associated with Threllxeldia
proceri flora and Atriplex Muelleri (annual salt bush).

These Bassias are low-growing rather succulent plants with small
short-spined fruits, and are reported to form with the ThrelkeldAa and
Atriplex an excellent fattening pasture. As the Bassias and Threlkeldia
are almost indistinguishable without examination of the fruits, it is
difficult to form any real opinion as to the forage value of the individual
species.

It is commonly stated that over-stocking is chiefly responsible for
pasture deterioration, and in a sense this is completely true. In times
of severe drought almost any stocking is over-stocking. Rabbits,
marsupials, and emus play a big part in eating out existing forage, but
there is another factor — that of seed destruction — which is frequently
overlooked, and which is largely responsible for the failure of a pasture
to regenerate even under favourable conditions. Galahs play a major
part in this seed destruction. Another factor is grain abortion, or failure
to set seed. It has been no uncommon experience for the writer to
observe apparently full heads of Mitchell grass which, when examined,
proved to contain a large proportion of aborted grain. Similar cases,
have been observed in other grasses, notably in the genera Aristida,
Panicum, and Iseilema (Flinders grass).

It is probable that this abnormality is due to the plants having
received sufficient rain to induce flowering, but then, owing to extreme
heat or lack of further effective rain, the grain did not mature. It
should be realised that rainfall averages are frequently very misleading.
It is not the total rainfall in any given period that matters, but when
and how that rain falls. In no district is it yet known with certainty
what is the minimum effective fall — i.e., what is the smallest fall of rain

NOTES ON SOME PASTURE PROBLEMS OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND. 91

which will produce a definite positive response in the vegetation. It is,
however, quite certain that under certain circumstances rain can do
more harm than good. Light showers in winter, for instance, while
insufficient to induce new growth, invariably cause Mitchell grass and
Flinders grass to ‘ ' blacken. ’ ’ The leaf becomes distinctly dark in colour,
crumbles when touched, and is rendered quite unpalatable. The pasture
is thus destroyed. Good winter rains, however, promote in many districts
the growth of ‘ ‘ herbage, ’ ’ which is considered a better fattening pasture
than dry Mitchell grass.

Another factor which militates against a good recovery after a dry
spell is the practice of allowing stock access to a pasture before what
young growth there is has had time to become firmly established. The
result is that these plants are destroyed before maturity, and thus there
is no seed left to regenerate the pasture.

Many of these problems, including that of galvanised burr, could be
mitigated, if not completely avoided, by attention to a few points. On
any run there are two sources of water supply — ^ ^ temporary water ’ ’ and
'^permanent water.” On most runs at least little appears to be done to
make the maximum use of the ''temporary water.” It is suggested that
if tanks, permanent waterholes, river frontages, and the like were fenced
off and stock were forced to water at the temporary holes while these
lasted, not only would the temporary water be used to the best advantage
but also the pasture about the permanent holes and frontages would be
given a chance to recuperate, and when stock had to be removed from
the failing temporary water they would come on to really good pasture.

Further, if the water were pumped from the permanent sources into
troughs there would be no risk of beasts being bogged, the water would
be cleaner, and there would be much less chance of the holes silting up.
A further aid in keeping a pasture up to standard, or in improving a
depleted pasture where artificial sowing is impracticable is suggested as
follows : —

In each paddock one or more narrow strips might be fenced off at
right angles to the direction of the prevailing wind. The strips need
not be very long ones, but care should be taken that they are animal-
proof. K-wire or netting would be preferable. This strip serves as a
natural nursery, the seed being dispersed by the wind. A few such
nurseries scattered about the run would be of immense value in keeping
up a regular seed supply.

In conclusion, the fact must be stressed that conditions vary so much
in different districts that it is difficult to generalise on any pasture
problem. For the complete elucidation of every problem, it would be
necessary to stud}^ each district over a long period of years, and would
need the close co-operation of a large number of workers, both resident
and travelling, including ecologists, pedologists, meteorologists, entomo-
logists, veterinarians, and practical experienced graziers.

92

Vol. XLVII., No. 8.

Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora — Part
VIII. — The Identity of Melaleucol with Nerolidol.

By T. G. H. JoNES^ D.Sc., A.A.C.I., and J. M. Harvey, B.Sc.

(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 14:th November, 1935.)

During the course of their investigation of the essential oils from
Australian Melaleucas Smith and Baker^ isolated from the higher frac-
tions of Melaleuca Smitlim an alcohol, C15H26O, to which the name mela-
leucol was given. This alcohol, from consideration of physical constants,
was adjudged to closely resemble nerolidol, a sesquiterpene alcohol
already known occurring in neroli oil, the oil from the fresh flowers of
the bitter orange (Citrus Bigardia, &c.). The chemistry of nerolidol
had not, however, been sufficiently investigated to admit of definite proof
of the identity of melaleucol with nerolidol. During the course of an
investigation, now in progress, of the oil from a variety of Melaleuca,
viridiflora we have isolated the same alcohol in considerable quantity,
and have been able to prove the identity of melaleucol with nerolidol.
The name - melaleucol is therefore unnecessary.

The chemistry of nerolidol is closely connected with that of the
isomeric alcohol farnesol, and the constitutions of these alcohols are
represented by the following formulae : —

CH.

CH.

OH

CH-CH2-CH2 -C = CH-

-CH2-CH2- C -CH

1

CH3

nerolidol

CH3

CH-CH.-CHg-C = CH-

1

-CH2-CH2-C = CH

CH3

farnesol

CH3

It was demonstrated by Ruzicka that under the influence of acetic
anhydride nerolidol is isomerised to farnesol in a manner analogous
to the well-known linalol geraniol change, thereby losing its optical
activity. Farnesol may be characterised by oxidation to an aldehyde
farnesal and preparation of the semicarbazone. Nerolidol, similarly,
may be oxidised by chromic acid to farnesal. We have succeeded in
carrying out a similar series of changes with the alcohol ‘ ‘ melaleucol, ’ ’
and have prepared farnesol, farnesal, and farnesal semicarbazone,
possessing properties identical with those recorded in the literature for
these substances.

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM THE QUEENSLAND FLORA.

93

EXPERIMENTAL.

The physical constants of melaleucol isolated by us were as follows,
those of nerolidol being given for comparison : —

melaleucol.

nerolidol (from Neroli oil).

^15»5

•8816

•880

1*4795

1.4802

b.p.

110°C (3 mms.)

125 (4.5 mms.)

Md

+ 14

12.48

On treatment with acetic anhydride and isolation of the product
the optical rotation was found to be nil. In order to isolate a pure
sample of farnesol the oil was hydrolysed to decompose the acetate, and
farnesol extracted as its acid phthalate, from which farnesol was isolated
by hydrolysis.

The following constants were observed : —

^15*5

•8956

Nro

1*4901

[a]D

•0

These are in close agreement with those recorded in the literature
for farnesol.

Oxidation of —

(a) Melaleucol 10 grammes
(h) The farnesol obtained above, 10 grammes,
with chromic acid (4 grammes) in acetic acid solution gave in each case
a liquid possessing all the characteristics of an aldehyde. Identity with
farnesal was demonstrated by consideration of physical constants

[di5.5 *891; 1*4986] and preparation of the semicarbazone M.P. 133° C.

^Smith and Baker, 1913: Eoyal Society of N.S.W., Vol. xlvii., pp. 207-208,

R.S. — D.

ERRATA.

A Review of Queensland Charophyta, by James Groves, completed
by G. 0. Allen. These Proceedings Vol. XLIV. (4), 34-59, 1934.

Mr. Allen did not have an opportunity of reading the proofs of this
paper. The following alterations are necessary; —

Contents page — for H. J. Groves read J. Groves; p. 34, 10 lines
from bottom — for 14,000 read 15,000 ; p. 36, line 8 — for six read sixty ;
p. 38, last line — for fig. 2 read fig. lb ; p. 39, top line — for fig. 3 read
fig. Ic; p. 39, line 24 — for fig. 4 read fig. Id; p. 39, line 28 — for fig. 5
read fig. le ; p. 39, line 30 — for fig. 6 read fig. If ; p. 40, last four para-
graphs should be arranged as on separate slip ; pp. 40 and 41, key to
species 3-18 should be arranged as on separate slip; p. 41, line 10 — for
comptonii read Comptonii; p. 41, line 17 — for oligospora read oUgospira;
p. 42, line 13 from bottom — for oosporte read oospore; p. 43, line 2 —
for Qiueensland, pi. read Queensland PL, for 1, c read l.c. ; p. 43, line 19 —
for fig. 7 a-c read fig. 2 a-c ; p. 44, line 12 from bottom — for Coc. read
Soc. ; p. 45, line 4 — mucosa should be in italics; p. 46, line 2 — for 1 c
read l.c. and for fig. 8 a-e read 3 a-e ; p. 46, line 3 — for Complonii read
C omptonii ; p. 47, line 13 from bottom — for 1 c read l.c. ; p. 47, line 15
from bottom — for Microcar pa read microcarpa ; p. 48, line 2 — for Those
read Three ; p. 48, line 10 — for Orientalis read orientalis; p. 48, line
12 — for 1 c read l.c. ; p. 48, line 27 — for Furcata read furcata; p. 48,
line 2 from bottom — for Myriotricha read myrioiricha ; p. 49, line 1 —
for 1 c read l.c. ; p. 49, line 21 — for Diffusa read diffusa; p. 49, line 23 —
for 1 c read l.c. ; p. 49, line 2 from bottom — for Cristata read crisiaia;
p. 50, line 2 — for 1 c read l.c. ; p. 50, line 8 — between crest and membrane
insert a semicolon ; p. 51, line 13 — for 1 c read l.c. ; p. 51, line 19 from
bottom — for hookeri read Hookeri; p. 51, line 16 from bottom — for 1 c
read l.c. ; p. 52, line 2 — for Ihotzkyi read Lhotzkyi; p. 52, line 21 —
for 1 c read l.c. ; p. 52, line 15 from bottom — for septenrionalem read
septentrionalem ; p. 53, line 20 — for stuartii read Stuartii; p. 53, line 7
from bottom — for stuartii read Stuartii; p. 55, lines 8 and 9 — for hraumi
read Braunii; p. 56, line 9 — for preissii read Freissii; p. 56, line 21 —
for preissii read Preissii; p. 57, line 15 from bottom — for Sipulodes
read Stipulodes ; p. 57, line 14 from bottom — for Diplostach^. Corticla-
cells read Diplostich^. Cortical-cells; p. 58, line 21 — for 1 c read l.c.;
p. 59, line 19 from bottom — for Prodomus read Prodromus ; p. 59, lines
11 and 12 from bottom should be transposed ; p. 59, line 7 from bottom —
for Act, read Act. ; p. 59, line 2 from bottom — insert inverted commas
before Australasian.

I

ERRATA.

95

(PAGES 40, 41.)

KEY TO CERTAIN SPECIES OE NITEKLA.

Gymnocephalous (young fruiting heads not
enveloped in mucus).

Rays at second forking of branchlet usually
2-3 (rarely 4), the rays at each forking
usually conspicuously unequal. Apical cells
shortly conical

Rays at second forking of branchlet 4 or
more, the rays at each forking usually about
equal. Apical cells long, conical . .

GloBOcephalous (young fruiting whorls enveloped
in a cloud of mucus).

Homoeomorphous (having the fruiting whorls
similar to the upper sterile whorls).
Branchlets usually 3-times forked . .

Heteromorphous. Branchlets of fruiting
whorls much shorter than those of the
sterile whorls and usually forming definite
clusters.

Branchlets twice forked, 3-5 rays at each
forking; oospore 310-350 /x long,
membrane ‘‘thickly dotted with small
acute elongated spines ” . .

Branchlets usually 3-times forked; fertile
whorls often forming small spherical
heads. Oospore c. 300 long, membrane
finely granulate

Dactyls (or some of them) much abbreviated.

Uppermost node of branchlets almost always
sterile

Upper cells of coronula not conspicuously

elongated.

Oospore membrane reticulate.

Oogonia solitary. Dactyls some abbreviated,
some elongated

Oogonia clustered (2-3). Dactyls usually
all abbreviated and divergent

Oospore membrane tuberculate, Dactlys
some abbreviated, some elongated

Upper cells of coronula (or some of them)
conspicuously elongated.

Oogonia clustered. Dactyls all abbreviated
and divergent. Membrane reticulate . .

Dactyls all (or mostly) 3-6 celled . .

Dioecious.

Branchlets many (3-5) times forked.

Ultimate cell of dactyl ^ cylindrical at
base, acuminate at apex . .

Sterile branchlets simple or once or twice

forked, fertile 1-3 times forked.

Sterile and fertile whorls ^ alike, the fertile,
not forming dense heads. Ultimate cells
of dactyls conical

Sterile and fertile whorls dissimilar, the
fertile forming J:: dense heads.

Oospore large (300-380 fJi long) with very
strong prominent ridges; membrane
thick and decorated with tubercles

Oospore small (200-270 /x long) ; membrane
reticulate; fertile heads in mucus.
Fruiting whorls forming small dense very
gelatinous heads. Ultimate cells of
dactyls /tx cylindrical, obtuse . .
Fruiting whorls forming comparatively
loose heads. Ultimate cells of dactyls
/X tapering, acute

Oospore very small (160-180 /x long); five
ridges. Mucus not conspicuous . .

Monoecious

3. N. phmdoteles.

4. N. pseudo- flaheUat a.

5. N. mucosa.

6. N. leptosoma.

7. N. Comptonu.
Bracliydactylce .

8. N. oUgospira.

9. N. miorocarpa.

10. N. oriemtalis.

11. N. fur oat a.
PLURICELLULATiE.

12. N. myriotricha.

13. N. diffusa.

14. N. cristata.

15. N. gelatinosa.

16. N. tasmanica.

17. N. polyoephala.

18. N. Hoolceri.

■"i

The Royal Society of Queensland.

Report of Council for lB34r.

To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland.

Your Council has pleasure in submitting its report for the year

The first meeting of the year was the fiftieth anniversary of the
inauguration of the Society, and a suitable programme was arranged
for the occasion. Dr. C. F. Marks and Mr. J. H. Simmonds, who, with
Mr. H. Tryon, were the only foundation members still alive, were
unanimously elected Honorary Life Members.

Eleven original papers were accepted for publication in the
Proceedings, and nine of these were actually read at ordinary meetings
of the Society.

During the year the following lectures were delivered : — Dr. P. W.
Whitehouse on '‘Some Geological and Geographical Problems of Central
Australia”; Professor L. S. Bagster on “Heavy Water and the New
Hydrogen ’ ’ ; Dr. L. G. Miles on ‘ ‘ Some Recent Advances in Plant
Genetics and Cytology”; Miss Ursula McConnell on “The Place of
Drama and Ritual in Wikmunkan Society ’ ’ ; and Dr. J. Legg on ‘ ‘ Tick
Fevers (Piroplasmic Diseases) of Cattle in Queensland.”

One evening was devoted to a discussion on the discovery and
natural history of Moreton Bay, the leading speakers being Professors
Cumbrae Stewart and Richards, and Messrs. J. Simmonds, H. A.
Longman, and C. T. White.

Your Council takes this opportunity of thanking those who assisted
in the above phases of the Society’s work; those who provided the
numerous exhibits which were displayed for the interest of members;
the University of Queensland for housing the library and providing
accommodation for meetings ; and the Assistant Librarian of the
University, Miss Mclver, for superintending the lending of periodicals
from the Library.

The resignation of Mr. L. P. Hitchcock, Honorary Librarian of the
Society, was received at the end of the year, and the Council wishes to
place on record its appreciation of his services to the Society during
his term of office.

Again the Council reminds members that the Government subsidy
has been withdrawn, and that the whole of the income is from subscrip-
tions, and trusts that all members will endeavour during the year to get
as many new members as possible, j)articularly from among professional
workers who depend for their livelihood on a knowledge of science and
scientific methods. It must be stressed that practically the whole of the
income is utilised in the publication and distribution of the Proceedings.

VI.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Prof, H. C. Richards and Mr. E. W. Bick represented the Society
at the A.N.Z.S. meeting which was held in Melbourne in January, 1935.
At this meeting the following five members of the Society were the
Presidents of their respective sections : — Prof. R. W. Hawken, Engineer-
ing and Architecture; Mr. J. B. Brigden, Economics, Statistics, and
Social Science; Dr. J. V. Duhig, Medical Science and National Health;
Prof. J. K. Murray, Agriculture and Forestry; and Dr. D. A. Herbert,
Botany.

The membership roll consists of 3 honorary life members, 6 life
members, 4 corresponding members, 179 ordinary members, and 4
associate members. During the year there were 6 resignations, one name
was removed from the list under Rule 15, and 23 new members were
elected. It is with deep regret that the death is reported of Professor
Sir T. W. E. David, F.R.S., and Professor B. D. Steele, F.R.S., both
of whom were old and valued members of the Society.

There were ten meetings of the Council during the year, the
attendance being as follows: — L. S. Bagster, 6; E. W. Bick, 8; W. H.
Bryan, 10 ; R. W. Cilento, 0 ; D. A. Herbert, 7 ; L. P. Hitchcock, 9 ; J. S.
Just, 9; H. A. Longman, 4; P. A. Perkins, 10; H. C. Richards, 7; R.
Veitch, 8 ; J. Vickery, 7 ; C. T. White, 6.

In terms of the amendment of Rule 19, Prof. H. C. Richards, Senior
Member of the Council, automatically retires, but will be eligible for
re-election in 1936.

J. S. JUST, President.

F. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE FOR YEAR ENDED 31st DECEMBER, 1934.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

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VIII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Abstract op Proceedings, 25th March, 1935.

The Animal Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology
Department of the University at 8 p.m. on Monday, 25th March. The
President, Mr. J. S. Just, occupied the chair, and about forty members
and visitors were present. Apologies were received from His Excellency
the Governor, Drs. Bradfield, Duhig, and Graham Brown, and Messrs.
Gurney, Gipps, Bick, and Morton. The minutes of the previous meeting
were read and confirmed. Messrs. R. S. Mitchell, B.Sc.Agr., and T. H.
Strong, B.Sc.Agr., for ordinary membership, and Miss L. Archibald for
associate membership were proposed by Mr. Perkins and Dr. Herbert.
The following were unanimously elected ordinary members of the
Society: — Miss Ursula McConnell, M.A., Drs. Clifford Croll, Grahame
Brown, and C. Thelander, and Messrs. J. Mann and St. G. Thorn.

The Annual Report and Balance-sheet were adopted.

The following officers were elected for 1935: — President, Mr. R.
Yeitch; Vice-Presidents, Mr. J. S. Just and Professor J. K. Murray;
Hon. Treasurer, Mr. E. W. Bick; Hon. Secretary, Mr. P. A. Perkins;
Hon. Librarian, Mr. E. A. O’Connor; Hon. Editors, Drs. W. H. Bryan
and D. A. Herbert; Members of the Council, Professor L. S. Bagster,
Dr. E. 0. Marks, Mr. H. A. Longman, Dr. J. Vickery, and Mr. C. T.
White ; Hon. Auditor, Mr. A. Storey.

Mr. J. S. Just delivered his Presidential Address entitled ‘‘The
Commercial Application on Scientific Research.”

A vote of thanks to the retiring President, moved by Mr. Hender-
son and Professor Murray, was carried by acclamation.

P. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

Abstract of Proceedings, 23rd April, 1935.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre, on Tuesday, 23rd April, at 8 p.m. The
President, Mr. R. Veitch, occupied the chair, and about twenty members
and visitors were present. Apologies were received from Drs. Bryan and
Grahame Brown, and Mr. Weddell. The minutes of the previous meet-
ing were read and confirmed. Messrs. R. S. Mitchell, B.Sc.Agr., and
T. H. Strong, B.Sc.Agr., and Miss L. Archibald, B.Sc., were unanimously
elected members of the Society.

Mr. H. A. Longman exhibited (a) The fossilised vertebra of a
large fish, which had been found by Mr. John Struby in a sewerage
tunnel at a depth of 30 feet below Davies Park, South Brisbane, at a
distance of 40 feet from the shaft. When removed from the matrix, the
structure and contours suggested a Teleost of at least 5 feet in length,
comparable with a large groper. No definite age was suggested, but the
condition of the fossil was similar to that in certain tertiary fishes. ( 6 )
The fossilised femur of a rodent collected by Mr. R. Prost at King’s
Creek, Darling Downs. The preservation in almost perfect condition of
so small and fragile a bone had surprised Mr. Prost, who had collected
many of the large extinct marsupials and reptiles from Diprotodon beds.

Mr. P. A. Perkins exhibited living glow-worms collected in a cave
at Numinbah on the 21st April, 1935. They were the larvae of a
Mycetophilid fly belonging to the genus Arachnocam.pa, and had
previously been recorded from Waitomo, New Zealand, and Bundanoon,
New South Wales. They were numerous on the roof and walls of the
cave, but only those in the darkest corners were glowing. A pair of

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

IX.

adults collected on the roof of the cave were also exhibited. They
agreed very closely with the description of the New Zealand species
Arachnocampa luminosa Sk., differing only in the colour pattern of the
thorax. In A, luminosa the thorax is black or very deep brown, with a
median yellow stripe, whereas the specimens exhibited had a pale-brown
thorax, and no yellow stripe. An examination of a longer series would
probably prove that the Numinbah species was A. luminosa. Mr.
Longman, in discussing the exhibit, mentioned that he had found
similar glow-worms under a ledge at the foot of Mount Lindsay about
twelve years ago.

Mr. W. T. Robertson read a paper entitled ‘‘The Significance of a
pH Putrefactive Grade Test in Bacteriological Water Analysis.” The
so-called “pH putrefactive grade test” in water supply bacteriology
shows itself superior to the routine lactose bile salt broth test in the
detection of members of the Coli-Aerogenes group and other putrefactive
bacteria. Test to be strictly one of forty-eight hours’ duration for
grading purposes. Waters may be graded according to the absence or
presence of the various lactose fermenters per media of an adjusted
lactose broth, and a pH reading after forty-eight hours’ incubation at
37° C. Claims put forward in respect to investigations embodying
test: — («i) Grading waters as to potability; (5) checking purification
effect both in respect to filtration and chlorination; (c) checking
potability of raw waters where treatment is being considered.

Dr. D. A. Herbert read on behalf of Mr. E. C. Tommerup, M.Sc.,
a paper entitled ‘ ‘ Some Plant Geological Studies in South-Eastern
Queensland.” The paper was an account of the distribution of forest
trees and their associations in South-Eastern Queensland, special atten-
tion being paid to the infiuence of environmental factors. The geology,
soils, and topography of the areas was considered in detail, and recom-
mendations for forest management and utilisation suggested. The paper
was discussed by the President, Dr. Herbert, and Mr. Gipps.

P. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

Abstract of Proceedings, 27th May, 1935.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University, on Monday, 27th May, 1935,
at 8 p.m. The President, Mr. R. Veitch, occupied the chair, and about
thirty members and visitors were present. The minutes of the previous
meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. A. R. Riddle was unanimously
elected a member of the Society.

The main business of the evening was an address by Dr. M. White
entitled “Some Modern Aspects of Nutrition.”

The lecturer dealt mainly with those more recent developments in
animal nutrition with an economic rather than a purely biological
interest.

After outlining the events which brought about the present intensive
cultivation of types, the theme of feeding for maximum production was
discussed.

The chief outcome of modern research in nutrition has been the
solution of many “deficiency disease” problems which had previously
made economic production impossible.

X.

ABSTRACT OP PROCEEDINGS.

These so-called deficiency diseases are marked physiological reactions
in the animal when insufficient amounts of certain nutrients are supplied
in the diet.

Though these deficiencies are chiefly of minerals and vitamins, the
problem of special protein deficiency also occurs.

A virtual type of deficiency is found in animals which have been so
selectively bred for production that the ability to produce exceeds the
powers of assimilation. This is common in very well bred dairy cows.
So much lime, phosphorus, and protein is voided in the milk that even
a high level of concentrate feeding does not prevent the animal from
robbing her natural stores to meet the demand. Unless a liberal amount
of concentrates is fed and the breeding regulated serious disturbances,
resulting in disease, abortion, and possible sterility ensue.

Marked lime deficiency in a diet is soon reflected in the second
generation. Weak or still-born offspring is common, and in the second
or third reproduction abortion supervenes. Ordinary powdered lime-
stone, bone-meal, or wood ashes remedies the fault.

Phosphate deficiency has a number of manifestations. Inability to
fatten, brittle bones, rickets, poor digestion, and, in advanced cases,
unnatural craving for bones, wire, tins, &c., are almost invariably
ascribable to phosphate deficiency. Almost any phosphate will check
these symptoms, but bone-meal is the only one which cures the specific
craving for offal.

Iron deficiency is uncommon, but anaemia in young pigs is occasion-
ally reported. In Queensland this trouble only occurs in ultra-clean
sties. Relatively large doses of iron salts are required to restore health,
but a trace of copper with the iron reduces the dosage to a fraction of
a milligram daily.

The discovery of thyroxin — an iodine containing protein degrada-
tion product — induced a world-wide application of potassium iodide to
livestock problems. It is quite safe to say that the expensive iodide
foods advocated were without additional value. Iodine deficiency is very
rare. Hairlessness and goitre in pigs are almost too rare to bear mention.

The extensive use of sulphur in concentrates has little or no scientific
data to recommend it. There is, however, a real need for combined
sulphur in protein form. Sulphur containing proteins exert a beneficial
effect on wool production. In Australia evidence of this is being
obtained from merino sheep studies, and its commercial value is
undoubted.

The question of vitamins, though of great importance, has been
overstressed in most published works. In practice adequate supplies of
vitamins are obtained if wholesome sources of the major food groups
are used. In young animals deprived of their natural upbringing,
vitamin deficiency is the main precursor of ill-health and susceptibility
to disease. All green foodstuffs, cereals, roots, and well-stored hay are
valuable sources of vitamins, and, in general, wliere these are unobtain-
able, starvation problems are more important than vitamin deficiency.

In summing up the knowledge of ‘deficiency diseases” it is found
that those foodstuffs which contain the widest range of limiting essentials
unquestionably are the best. The high lime, phosphate, iron, sulphur,
vitamin, and protein content of lucerne, for example, has made Argentina
the pre-eminent beef cattle country of the world.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XI.

A vote of thanks, moved by Mr. Hines and supported by Drs.
Vickery and Marks, and Messrs. White and Gurney, was carried by
acclamation.

F. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

Abstract of Proceedings, 24th June, 1935.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University, on Monday, 24th June, at
8 p.m. The President, Mr. R. Veitch, occupied the chair, and about
thirty members and visitors were present. Apologies were received from
Dr. Bryan and Messrs. Kemp and Longman. The minutes of the
previous meeting were read and confirmed.

A paper entitled “A Suggested Co-enzyme Hypothesis for the
Ripening of Fruits by Ethylene Gas Treatment,” by L. J. Lynch,
B.Sc.Agr., was communicated by Dr. Herbert. From the purely physical
aspect the effect of ethylene may be twofold. It hastens the production
of the normal ripe colour in such fruits as the banana, pineapple, and
tomato, while internally it brings about other changes in texture, flavour,
and degree of sweetness or other characteristic of the edibly mature
condition. This internal effect, however, is not produced in all
ethylenized fruits, and it is a peculiarity of citrus fruits that no internal
ripening occurs as a result of commercial gas treatment. Pre-ripe
bananas will not ripen in the absence of oxygen, despite the presence
of ethylene in appropriate concentration, and the ripening of bananas
which have passed the pre-ripe stage is not necessarily accelerated by
traces of ethylene. It is deduced that ripening is a respiratory
phenomenon, the intensification of which provides energy for an accelera-
tion of metabolism, which in turn cuts down the length of the pre-ripen-
ing semi-dormant phase of the fruit. It has been shown that ethylene
is capable of hastening the ripening of fruits or of certain tissues of the
fruit only when those fruits or tissues contain oxidising enzymes, and
it would appear that the gas exerts its effect through oxidising enzymes.
It is claimed that ethylene plays the role of co-enzyme together with
the oxidising enzymes not only in the artificial process, but in the natural
ripening of fruits. If this hypothesis is correct, one should be able to
predict whether fruits are or are not amenable to artificial gas ripening.
Fruits containing oxidases, either as laccases or as peroxidases distributed
evenly throughout their tissues, should respond entirely to gas treatment.
The paper was discussed by Dr. Vickery, Professor Bagster, Mr. Hines,
and Dr. Herbert.

The main business of the evening was a lecture entitled ‘ ^ The Origin
of the Alphabet,” by Professor Cumbrae Stewart, D.C.L.

The introduction of the alphabet into Europe is ascribed by
Herodotus to people whom he calls “Phoenicians,” from Tyre in Syria.
Without accepting all that he says of the circumstances of the introduc-
tion, we may accept his account as true in the main.

The similarity of the Greek and Roman alphabets points to a
common origin, while the name ' ‘ alphabet ’ ’ adopted by both Greeks and
Latins, as well as the names of the letters themselves, are generally
accepted as conclusively proving a Semitic origin.

The Carthaginians, colonists from Tyre, used letters recognised as
Semitic, and the Carthaginians described themselves as “Canaanites, ”

XII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

a mixed race with Semitic culture. The discovery of the Moabite stone
in 1868 afforded definite proof of the similarity of the letters used in
Moab in 840 b.c. and the European letters. This is seen from a table
showing the Greek and Moabite stone alphabets. In 1929, at Ras
Shamra, on the coast north of Tyre, clay tablets were found giving
indications of similar writing of a date fixed provisionally about 1350
B.C., the writers of which represented themselves as coming from the
country between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Akabah. In 1932-3
excavations at Tel el Duweir, about 30 miles from Jerusalem, resulted
in the finding of a ewer by Mr. J. L. Starkey, which he dated as about
1280 B.c. On it was writing in the earliest form of Semitic letters, closely
resembling the old Hebrew found on Judaean coins of the Second Century
A.D. A slide of the inscription was shown. The Semitic origin of the
alphabet from this and other indications seems established. But whence
came the proto-Semitic script? Various theories have been propounded.
In 1906, Flinders Petrie found an inscription at Sarabit, in Sinai, which
has raised the question of the origin of the Semitic alphabet. Gardiner,
in a paper read before the British Association in 1915, contended that,
not later than 1500 b.c., there existed in Sinai on Semitic soil a form of
alphabetic writing. Gardiner contended that this writing was modelled
on Egyptian heiroglyphics. In the twenty years since Gardiner’s view
was published much fresh evidence has been found concerning the south
Semitic of Southern Arabia and the Red Sea. This area, known to the
Egyptians as the Divine land of Punt, and visited by them as early as
2770 B.C., produced a race capable of inventing an alphabet. Their
early civilisation has not yet been examined. The recent discovery of
an Indus civilisation, perhaps older than Egj^ptian, may lead to data
from which the ultimate origin of the alphabet may be determined. At
present all that can be done is to state the discoveries which have
established the proto-Semitic alphabet.

A vote of thanks, moved by Mr. H. Tryon, was carried by
acclamation.

P. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

Abstract of Proceedings, 22nd July, 1935.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University on Monday, 22nd July,
at 8 p.m. The President, Mr. R. Veitch, occupied the chair, and
about 110 members and visitors were present. Apologies were received
from Dr. Plerbert and Mr. Harding Frew. The minutes of the previous
meeting were read and confirmed.

The main business of the evening was a very interesting lantern
lecture on the habits and biology of spiders by Dr. J. Baum. Miss
Ursula McConnell, Messrs. Gipps, Sylow, Hines, Nixon, Nebe, and
Dr. Turner took part in the discussion which ensued, and a vote of
thanks, moved by Messrs. Longman and Barker, was carried by
acclamation.

F. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XIII.

Abstract of Proceedings, 26th August, 1935.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University, on Monday, 26th August,
at 8 p.m. The President, Mr. Veitch, occupied the chair, and about
forty members and visitors were present. Apologies were received
from Professor Murray, Mr. J. F. Bailey, and Dr. Bryan. The minutes
of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.

Dr. A. Jefferis Turner, P.R.E.S., read a paper entitled ‘‘New
Australian Lepidoptera.’’ This contribution contains the description
of twelve new genera and nearly fifty new species belonging to various
families, ranging from the Saturmadm to the Cossidce, but more than
half the species are Noctuidw. Most of them were collected by Mr. W. B.
Barnard, Mr. E. J. Dumigan, Mr. W. W. Proggatt, Mr. G. Lyell, Mr.
T. J. Campbell, and several local collectors, Mr. P. J. Dodd of Kuranda,
Mr. J. Macqueen of Millmerran, Dr. B. L. Middleton of Murrurundi,
and Mr. H. Nicholas of Scone. For the study of our Lepidoptera local
collectors such as these will prove most valuable. Even in comparatively
well collected localities there have been unexpected discoveries, and in
any untouched district a rich harvest of new species will be found by
anyone who will look for them.

A paper entitled “Contribution to the Queensland Flora,” No. 5,.
was read by Mr. C. T. White. Since the publication of the previous
contribution (Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, Vol. XLI., pp. 139-143, 1929),
some important collections of Queensland plants have come into the
hands of the author for determination. Outstanding among these is
the collection made by Mr. L. J. Brass in North Queensland in the early
months of 1932. Mr. Brass’s work was subsidised by the Arnold
Arboretum of Harvard University, U.S.A., and among the material
collected and here described from this large collection is an apparently
undescribed genus of Hernandiacem, and members of the genera
Coronanthera {Gesneracem) (New Caledonia) and Dimorphocalyx
{Euphorhiacem) (Malaya), previously unrecorded as Australian. A
particularly interesting find was Ostrearia {Hamamelidacece) , of which
flowers were previously unknown.

New species in the Brass and miscellaneous collections are described
in the following genera: — Hibheriim, Garcinia, Pittosporum, Sida,
Melicope, Arytera, Mischocarpus, Yigna, C eratopetalum, Backhousia,
Bhodomyrtus, Polyscias, Symplocos, Randia, Wendlandia, Lucuma,
Linociera, Parsonsia, Tylophora, Fagrmm, Ipomma, Coronanthera, Pros-
tanthera, Palmeria, Endiandra, Pimelea, Loranthus, Korthalsella,
Dimorphocalyx, Phyllanthus, Dendrohium, Eulophia, Bacidaria.

A description of a new Korthalsella (Loranthacece) , by Mr. W. P.
Blakely, is included.

A paper entitled “Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora,”
Part VI., Eremocitrus glauca, by L. P. Hitchcock, M.Sc., and'T. G. H.
Jones, D.Sc., was tabled. Eremocitrus glauca, the wild kumquat, is a
small to medium-sized tree, abundant in parts of New South Wales and
Queensland, the leaves of which on distillation were found to yield 04
per cent, of an oil of pleasant odour, but showing little resemblance
to oil of lemon. The oil was found on examination to consist of 60 to 70
per cent, of doc-pinene, with nonyl aldehyde 12 per cent, and sesqui-
terpene as important minor constituents. Other substances present in
very small amounts were nonoic acid, isovaleric acid, and p-cymene,.

XIV.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

linalol, traces of citral, and phenolic bodies. It is not considered that
the oil possesses any commercial value in view of its constituents and
the relatively high cost of collection.

A short paper entitled ''Notes on Some Pasture Problems of
Western Queensland,” was read by Mr. S. T. Blake, M.Sc. Among the
Queensland species of Bassia there are several weeds and several plants
of apparently excellent fodder value. Of the former, B. Birchii (gal-
vanised burr or camel burr) is practically confined to stock routes and
over-grazed sandy land. It serves a useful purpose as a soil binder and
as a lodging place for seed. If such country is rested useful grasses
appear and gradually replace the burr.

B. longicuspis (Pinkilla burr) favours stony ground. It is
associated with boree {Acacia homalaphylla) near Quilpie, and with
gidgee {Acacia Cambageana) where seen elsewhere. If allowed to
spread it will probably be a far worse pest than B. Birchii.

B. bicomis appears to be ecologically equivalent to B. Birchii, but
does not appear to spread so rapidly, nor does it grow so thickly. It
has a much more restricted range.

B. quinquecuspis (roly poly) is a pest in so much that in its old
stages it is not eaten and the dead plants block up bore drains and
damage fences.

Of the more useful species, B. anisacanthoides and B. echinop'sila
are characteristic of eaten-out Mitchell grass pastures of the South-West
and Central West. They are almost always associated with Atriplex
Muelleri (annual salt bush) and Threlkeldia proceriflora. All (or
nearly all) species appear to be eaten more or less, at least when very
young. Attention is drawn to the fact that seed-eating birds, particu-
larly galahs, are very largely responsible for seed destruction, and
so limit the chances of pasture regeneration by natural means. It
is further pointed out that rain is not necessarily beneficial, and in
some cases it is definitelly harmful, causing blackening. It is also shown
how a potential pasture may be destroyed by stocking it too soon. A
means of water and forage conservation is suggested by fencing off
"permanent” water supplies and utilising to the utmost the temporary
supplies, while a semi-natural scheme of pasture regeneration by fencing
off small plots to act as natural nurseries is also proposed.

These papers were discussed by Dr. Herbert and Messrs. Gipps and
J ust.

The main business of the evening was a very interesting address
by Dr. P. G. Holdaway on "Standard Laboratory Colonies of Termites
for Testing Timber for Termite Resistance.” In this address, which
was illustrated by lantern slides. Dr. Holdaway gave a full account of
the difficulties associated with the problem, and how they had been
overcome.

A vote of thanks moved by Dr. Turner and supported by Messrs.
Weddell, Try on, Perkins, and Blake was carried by acclamation.

P. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XV.

Abstract of Proceedings, 3rd October, 1935.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University, on Monday, 3rd October, at
8 p.m. Dr. Herbert occupied the chair, and about forty members and
visitors were present. Apologies were received from Messrs. Veitch,
AVhite, Kemp, Bick, and Blake. The minutes of the previous meeeting
Avere read and confirmed. The chairman drew attention to the recent
death of Mr. A. G. Jackson, one of the oldest members of the Society
and hon. lanternist for many years. A motion expressing sympathy
with Mrs. Jackson and family was moved by Messrs. Bailey and
Bennett, and carried.

Dr. W. H. Bryan exhibited scoriaceous lava and volcanic bombs
(including both the bipolar rotational and breadcrust varieties) recently
collected from the lip of the crater of the extinct volcano, Mt. Le Brun
(Coalstoun Lakes), in the Burnett district. The perfect and as yet
unmodified form of the volcano, together Avitli the great amount of
relatively unweathered superficial slaggy material still lying upon the
surface, show clearly that the volcano was in eruption in geologically
recent times. This conclusion is supported by the fact that lava streams
have fiowed down the present valleys of Barambah Creek and several
of its tributaries. Dr, Marks and Messrs. Bennett and Gipps commented
on this exhibit.

Mr. W. G. Wells explained some of the characters of the cotton
fibres which have to be considered in cotton-breeding, and demonstrated
by means of samples of cotton, instruments, and lantern slides, the
methods used in studying them. The discussion indicated how not only
must the cotton-breeder supply cottons which will yield satisfactorily,
but which will also produce fibre suitable for the requirements of the
cotton-spinning machinery.

Mr. J. S. Just delivered an address entitled ''The New Gaseous
Discharge Electric Lamp.” After briefly outlining the early discoveries
of electricity, and tracing the progress of electric light from the first
example exhibited before the Koyal Society in London about 220 years
ago until the present gas-filled filament lamp was developed, Mr. Just
showed how these experiments influenced the development of the modern
gaseous discharge lamp. He explained that the physicist’s "electron”
and "ion” theories had considerably enlarged our knowledge of
electricity beyond the application of Faraday’s electromagnetic induc-
tion discoveries, and which had previously constituted such a large part
of what we knew as electrical engineering. The added knowledge of
the atomic nature of electricity, coupled with Stoney’s discovery of the
electron, enables a more complete study of electrical discharge in gases.
In such discharges the mass of the negatively charged particle (or
cathode ray) was calculated to be 1/1850 of the mass of the then lightest
known atom, hydrogen. Rutherford further isolated new particles called
' ■ Beta rays, ’ ’ and proved that the speed of these rays was approximately
186,000 miles per second, or the speed of light. The electrical discharges
within gaseous-filled tubes take different forms, and are influenced by
tlie pressure of gas as well as the distance between the electrodes, being
dependent upon the number of gas molecules in the path between the
electrodes.

/

XVI. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Mr. Just pointed out that during the discharges the electrons and
ions of energy, which increased with the potential difference between
tlie electrodes, the gas molecules were in collision; and when the speed
of the ion was sufficiently increased its collision with the gas molecule
was sufficient to transfer kinetic energy to that molecule. At certain
critical stages the atom tends to return spontaneously to its normal state
and affects the inner structure of the gas molecule, thereby producing
luminous energy radiation.

When passing a gaseous electric discharge, the fall of potential at
or near the cathode is very great, and after referring to the various
sections of this discharge, such as the Anode glow, the Faraday Dark
Space, the Cathode glow, the Crookes Dark Space and the potential
gradient across the various sections, Mr. Just pointed out that only by
overcoming the pressure drop at the cathode could low voltage energy
be used or an appreciable amount of current be passed. Kesearch work
revealed that this drop of potential was due to an accumulation of
positive ‘4ons” in the neighbourhood of the cathode, and these are now
neutralised by adopting alkali metal electrodes which, under positive
“ion” bombardment, freely emit neutralised electrons. These factors
made possible the present-day hot cathode gas lamp now being tested
out in Queen street and other parts of the metropolitan area. For the
commercial lamp the new gases developed during research into the
causes of blackening of the filament electric lamp are used and are
associated with the metalic salts of sodium and mercury. The overall
length of the new luminous tube is approximately six inches, and differs
from the gas sign tube, with which all are familiar, by producing a very
high light intensity per unit length of tube, when compared with the
light intensity of the gas sign.

Mr. Just pointed out that the field for which the present lamp was
suitable was limited to floodlighting of buildings and highway lighting.
For highway purposes the absence of glare was most important, and
with the new lamp he thought that this absence of glare was probably
due more to the sensitiveness of the eyes to the wavelengths of light
given out, when compared with the filament lamp, than to the actual
lumens available.

Several graphs were displayed as well as an outline of the new
gaseous discharge tubes.

A vote of thanks moved by Dr. Herbert, supported by Dr. Bryan
and Mr. Bennett, was carried by acclamation.

F. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

Abstract of Proceedings, 28th October, 1935.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University, on Monday, 28th October,
at 8 p-m. Mr. Veiteh occupied the chair, and about thirty members and
visitors were present. Apologies were received from Drs. Vickery,
Bagster, and Jones. The minutes of the previous meeting were read
and confirmed.

Dr. Herbert exhibited the following fungi : — Puccima distinota
parasitic on Beilis perennis^ from Red Hill; (2) PuccMa calendulce
parasitic on Calendula officinalis, from Brisbane; (3) Fuccinia lolii on

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XVII.

Lolium rigidum, from Brisbane; (4) Sclerotinia sclerofiorum parasitic
on cabbage and lettuce, from Gatton; (5) TJromycladium alpinum
parasitic on Acacia decora, from Gayndah; (6) Melanopsichiura austro-
americanum parasitic on Polygommi hydropiper, from South Pine River.
He also exhibited a prickly-pear inoculated with Sclerotinia sderotiorum,
and specimens of lucerne from Gatton suffering from the recently
described virus disease, witches’ broom. Messrs. Biek and White
commented on this exhibit.

A paper by Dr. T. G. H. Jones and Mr. F. N. Lahey, entitled
^‘Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora,” Part VII., Melaleuca
pubescens, was laid on the table. Melaleuca piobescens is a very common
tree in the brigalow scrubs of South-East Queensland. The essential
oil of leaves collected from the Inglewood district was found to conform
to the usual pinene cineol type (cineol 50 per cent. Cocking ’s method).
Terpineol and sesquiterpene were also present as minor constituents.

The main business of the evening was an address on ‘‘Wool as a
Textile Fibre,” by Mr. J. J. Broe, B.Sc.

Three properties of wool, readily perceptible to the user and not
possessed by other textiles are —

(a) Its elasticity;

( h ) Its warmth ;

(c) Its capacity for absorption of moisture.

It was set out to offer some scientific basis for these properties in
terms of the structure and nature of the wool fibre itself. Each property
was first briefly enlarged upon. That wool is elastic is shown by the
fact that a wool fibre, under the most suitable conditions, may be
stretched by 100 per cent, of its length, and that if the tension be rapidly
removed it will return to its former length having suffered no
permanent strain. Silk and cotton fibres may be stretched by only
2 per cent, without undergoing permanent strain. Moreover, the extent
to which wool fibre stretched and the extent to which it recovers — each
factor of equal importance — are both largely affected by the conditions
of heat, moisture, and time of stretching to which it is subjected. The
warmth of wool is obvious to all. It possesses this property for these
reasons —

1. It is the only textile which can be felted, that is, whose fibres

may be made readily to adhere to one another to form a
compact mass-

2. Under equal conditons, this felted product diminishes the

passage of air as much as 65 per cent, and thus promotes
heat insulation.

3. An adherent beard of loose fibres on each side encloses air,

which acts an an efficient insulator.

4. Wool substance in itself is a very poor conductor of heat

compared with other textile fibres.

Wool absorbs moisture partly chemically — particularly when bone
dry — and partly physically, due to a large surface effect within the
fibre. A pound of wool fibre liberates on complete wetting sufficient
heat to raise the temperature of one pound of water 43 deg. Fahr.
Moreover, at high relative humidities the proportion of water absorbed
by wool is relatively much higher than in the case of other textiles.

XVIII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

All outline account of the manufacture of a woollen article from:
raw wool was given. Some wool articles are made with warmth and
maximum durability as the desired result. Such are made from
short wool and are deliberately felted, such as flannels, velours, blankets,
and billiard cloths. Beauty of weave and colour design are more or
less impossible as such effects would be lost in the shrinking felting
process. Articles to show such effects, varying from worsteds, serges,,
fine woollens, to carpets, are made from long wool fibres and the whole
process aimed at a very minimum of felting. Subsequent shrinking,
due to washing, friction, and mechanical twisting of fibres is miniature
felting.

Then by means of slides there was shown the detailed structure of
the wool fibre as revealed by the microscope. It consists of a multitude
of spindle-shaped cortical cells, 2J0 i^^ch long, surrounded by a thin
sheath of membranous elasticum, the whole enclosed in an outer series
of imbricated scales fixed at the base and free at the distal end in
the manner of the scales on a bamboo shoot, but much more numerous —
up to 5,000 per inch in fine wools. The presence of these scales was
early seized on as a reason for felting, it being due, so it was said, to
scalar interlocking and consequent uni-directional motion of the fibres,
when the mechanical milling began- This is now known to be only
partly the reason, and the cause is more to be sought in a definite
plasticity, which ensues when wool fibre swells in slightly alkaline
solutions.

The lectur(? concluded with a number of slides showing the finer
structure of the wool fibre as revealed by the new process of X-ray
aiialysis. Photographs by this method revealed all textile fibres to be
constructed of micelles or crystallites. Each individual cortical cell is
composed of a multitude of minute elongated crystals, running longi-
tudinally. Each crystal, fibrilla, or micelle is in turn composed of a
number of individual molecules of wool fibre substance regularly
arranged, the regular arrangement leading to the definite structure as
revealed by the X-ray photographs. The micelles are of the order of
TooFooofi'' of i^^ch in thickness, but relatively longer, the dimensions
of the molecular chains themselves being considerably smaller. Silk and
cotton fibres are somewhat similarly constituted except that the latter
are of carbohydrate constitution. In both silk and cotton the molecular
chains are already fully extended, as revealed by the fact that the
theoretical distance apart of certain atoms in the polypeptide chain of
silk substance agrees with the length of the repeat of the crystalline
structure as found by mathematical analysis of the X-ray fibre
photographs. The wool fibre molecules are, however, folded in wave-like
structure, as revealed by the same evidence. The polypeptide chain
comprising wool fibre is identical with that composing silk, whereas the
side chains differ greatly. If tension be now applied, the folded
polypeptide chain of wool is drawn out till it ultimately resembles, as
far as atomic spacings are concerned, the silk fibre chain. This is
shown by the fact that stretched wool, and silk either stretched or
normal, reveal the same type of fibre photograph, whereas that from
unstretched wool fibre is quite different. Moisture aids the stretching
by acting in a two-fold capacity, firstly by lubricating, and secondly by
penetrating the micelles and by means of hydrolysis liberating chemical
unions existing between neighbouring molecular chains.

ABSTRACT OP PROCEEDINGS.

XIX.

Wool fibre once stretched may return to its original conditions or
may remain permanently set, according to the treatment it suffers in
the stretched condition. If the tension be rapidly removed it returns
to its normal condition. If it be steam-heated in the stretched condition,
new linkages form across between the molecular chains at new points
and complete return to former length becomes impossible. Wet wool
fibres give substantially the same X-ray photograph as dry fibres, in
spite of a possible 33 per cent, moisture content. This shows that
chemical union of water with the wool substance is largely prevented
or the dimensions of the crystallites must be considerably altered by
the entry of so much foreign substance. The water must therefore be
present on the enormous micellar surface presented. This internal
surface amounts to 1,000,000 sq. cms. per gram of wool so that the
absorption of a large proportion of water is quite to be expected. Some
water enters the micelles and reacts chemically as stated above,
probably accounting for the large heat of wetting of bone dry wool.

A vote of thanks moved by Mr. Bennett and supported by Messrs.
Hines and Wells was carried by acclamation.

F. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary

Abstract of Proceedings, 25th November, 1935.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Hall of the University, on Monday, 25th November,
at 8 p.m. The President, Mr. Veitch, occupied the chair, and about
forty-five members and visitors were present. Apologies were received
from Prof. Murray, Dr. Bradfield, and Mr. C. T. White. The minutes
of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. The following were
proposed for ordinary membership : — Prof. P. E. Helmore, by Messrs.
Perkins and Hines; Mr. J. J. Broe, by Mr. Perkins and Prof. Bagster;
and Mr. W. L. Haenke, by Dr. T. G. H. Jones and Prof. Bagster.

Exhibits were tabled by Mr. Riddle, Prof. Bagster, Mr. C. T. White,
Mr. Weddell, Dr. Jones, and Mr. Longman. Prof. Bagster, Drs. Herbert
and Robertson, and Messrs. Veitch, Perkins, and Bennett discussed the
exhibits.

A paper entitled “Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora, Part
VIII. — The Identity of Melaleucol with Nerolidol,’’ by Dr. T. G. H.
Jones and Mr. J. M. Harvey, was laid on the table.

F. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

XX

PUBLICATIONS REC.EIVED.

Publications have been received from the following Institutions* Societies, etc.»
and are hereby gratefully acknowledged: —

Algeria —

Societe de Geographie et d ’Archaeologie
d ’Oran.

Argentine —

Universidad Nacional de la Plata.
Australia —

Commonwealth Bureau of Census and
Statistics, Canberra.

Department of Agriculture, Melbourne.
Department of Mines, Melbourne.
Eoyal Society of Victoria.

Field Naturalists’ Club, Melbourne.
Council for Scientific and Industrial
Eesearch, Melbourne.

Department of Mines, Adelaide.
Waite Agricultural Eesearch Institute,
Glen Osmond.

Eoyal Society of South Australia.
Eoyal Geographical Society of Aus-
tralasia, Adelaide.

Public Library, Museum, and Art
Gallery, Adelaide.

University of Adelaide.

Standards Association of Australia,
Sydney.

Naturalists’ Society of New South
Wales.

Department of Agriculture, Sydney.
Department of Mines, Sydney.

Eoyal Society of New South Wales.
Linnean Society of New South Wales.
Australian Museum-, Sydney.

Public Library, Sydney.

University of Sydney.

Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Australian Veterinary Society, Sydney.
Queensland Naturalists ’ Club, Brisbane.
Department of Mines, Brisbane.
Queensland Museum, Brisbane.
Department of Agriculture, Brisbane.
Eegistrar-General ’s Department, Bris-
bane.

Eoyal Geographical Society of Aus-
tralasia (Queensland), Brisbane.
Field Naturalists’ Club, Hobart.

Eoyal Society of Tasmania.

Mines Department, Hobart.

Mines Department, Perth.

Eoyal Society of Western Australia.

Austria —

Naturhistorische Museum, Vienna.
Belgium —

Academie Eoyale de Belgique.

Societe Eoyale de Botanique de BeL
gique.

Societe Eoyale Zoologique de Bel-
gique.

Brazil —

Institute Oswaldo Cruz, Eio de Janeiro..
Ministerio de Agricultura Industria y
Commercio, Eio de Janeiro.

British Isles —

Eoyal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

British Museum (Natural History),
London.

Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Literary and Philosophical Society,,
Manchester.

Leeds Philosophical and Literary
Society.

Eoyal Society, London.

Conchological Society of Great Britain
and Ireland, Manchester.

Eoyal Empire Society, London.

The Bristol Museum and Art Gallery.
Imperial Bureau of Entomology,
London.

Imperial Agricultural Bureau, Aberyst-
wyth.

Eoyal Society of Edinburgh.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

Eoyal Dublin Society.

Eoyal Irish Academy, Dublin.

Canada —

Department of Mines, Ottawa.

Eoyal Astronomical Society of Canada..
Eoyal Society of Canada.

Eoyal Canadian Institute.

Nova Scotian Institute of Science.
Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.

Ceylon —

Colombo Museum.

China —

Sinensia, Nankin University, China.
Cuba — ■

Sociedad Geografica de Cuba, Habana.
Denmark —

The University, Copenhagen.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

XXI.

France —

Station Zoologique de Cette.

Societe des Sciences Naturelles de
FOuest.

Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris.
Societe Botanique de France.'

Societe Geologique et Mineralogique de
Bretagne.

Societe de Geographie de Eochefort.

Germany —

Zoologisches Museum^ Berlin.

Gesellschaft fur Erdkimde, Berlin.

Deutsche Geologisclie Gesellschaft,
B'erlin.

Naturhistorischer Verein der preus
Eheinland und Westfalens, Bonn.

Naturwissenschaitlicher Verein zu
Bremen.

Senckenbergische Bibliothek, Frank-
furt a. Main.

Kaiserlich Deutsche Akademie der
Naturforscher, Halle.

Zoologisches Museum, Hamburg.

IS aturhistorisch-Medizinischer Vereins,
Heidelberg.

Akademie der Wissenschaften, Leipzig,

Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaf-
ten, Munich.

Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie.

Hawaii —

Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum,
Honolulu.

Holland —

Technische Hoogeschool, Delft.

Italy —

Institute di Bologna.

Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali,
Pisa.

Societa Africana dHtalia, Naples.
Museo Civico, Genova.

India —

Geological Survey of India.
Agricultural Eesearch Institute, Pusa.

Japan —

Berichte der Ohara Institut, Kurashiki,
J apan.

Imperial University, Kyoto.

Imperial University, Tokyo.

National Eesearch Council of Japan,
Tokyo.

Java —

Koninklijk Naturkundige Vereeniging,
Weltevreden.

Departement van Landbouw,
Buitenzorg.

Mekico —

Institute Geologico de Mexico.
Soeiedad Cientifica ‘ ‘ Antonio Alzate, ’ '
Mexico.

Secretario de Agriculture y Fomento,
Mexico.

Obscrvatorio Meterorologico Central,
Tacaibaya.

New Zealand —

Dominion Museum, Wellington.

New Zealand Institute, Wellington.
Auckland Institute and Museum.
Dominion Laboratory, Wellington.
Council for Scientific and Industrial
Eesearch, Wellington.

Geological Survey of New Zealand.

Peru —

Soeiedad Geologiea del Peru, Lima.

Philippines —

Bureau of Science, Manila.

Poland —

Polskie Towarzystwo Przyrodnikow ini
Kopernika, Lwow.

University of Poland.

Societes Savantes Polonaises.

Portugal —

Academia Polytechnicada, Oporto.
Sociedade Broteriana, Coimbra.

Institut Botanico, Coimbra.

Eussia —

Academie des Sciences Eussie, Lenin-
grad.

Bureau of Applied Entomology, Lenin-
grad.

Publications of the Institute of Plant
Industry, Leningrad.

Spain —

Eeal Academia de Ciencias y Artes de
Barcelona.

Eeal Academia de Ciencias, Madrid.
Museo de Historia Natural, Valencia.
Academia de Ciencias de Zarogoza.

Sweden —

Geological Institute of Upsala.
Switzerland —

Societe de Physique et d’Histoire
Naturelle, Geneve.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zurich.
The League of Nations, Geneva.

South Africa —

Geological Society of South Africa,
J ohannesburg.

South African Museum, Capetown.
Durban Museum, Natal.

Transvaal Museum, Pretoria.

XXII.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

United States of America —

United States Geological Survey,
W ashington.

'Natural History Survey, Illinois.

Lloyd Library, Cincinnati.

Wisconsin Academy of Arts, Science,
and Letters, Madison.

California Academy of Sciences.

Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

University of Minnesota.

University of Calif orna.

Library of Congress, Washington.

rield Museum of Natural History,
Chicago.

American Museum of Natural History,
New York.

Buffalo Society of Natural History.

Boston Society of Natural History.

American Philosophical Society, Phila-
delphia.

American Geographical Society, New
York.

Smithsonian Institute, Washington.

Carnegie Institute, Washington.

United States Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington.

Oberlin College, Ohio.

National Academy of Science, Wash-
ington.

Rochester Academy of Sciences.

Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila-
delphia.

New York Academy of Science.

Indiana Academy of Science.

American Academy of Science and
Arts, Boston

Institute of Biological Research, Balti-
more.

John Crerar Library, Chicago.

Ohio Academy of Science, Columbus.

Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plains.

Michigan Academy of Arts, Science,
and Letters.

University of Michigan.

Minnesota Geological Survey.

New York Zoological Society.

Wistar Institute of Anatomy and
Biology, Philadelphia.

Portland Society of Natural History.

San Diego Society of Natural History.

Puget Sound Biological Station, Seattle.

Missouri Botanic Gardens, St. Louis.

University of Illinois, Urbana.

State College of W^ashington, Pull-
man.

Bureau of Standards, Washington.

National Research Council, Washing-
ton.

United States National Museum, Wash-
ington.

Public Health Service, Washington.

Peabody Museum of Natural History,
Yale.

Lawde Observatory, Arizona.

The University of California, Los
Angeles, California.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXIII.

List of Members.

Honorary Life Members.

Marks, Hon. Dr. C. F., M.D. . . 101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Simmonds, J. H., senr. . . . . Hillsdon Eoad, Taringa, Brisbane.

♦Tryon, H. . . . . • . • • Gladstone Eoad, Highgate Hill, Brisbane.

Life Members.

Bagster, L. S., Prof., D.Sc. . .
*Bailey, J. F. . .

Hulsen, E.

Jensen, H. I., D.Sc.

Eiddell, E. M. . .

Tilling, H. W., M.E.S.C. (Eng.),
L.E.C.T. (Lond.)

Walkom, A. B., D.Sc. . .

The University, Brisbane.

Maynard Street, Woolloongabba, South
BTisbaiie.

Valley Corner, Brisbane.

Attewell Street, Nundah.

Department of Public Instruction, Bris-
bane.

Nairobi, Kenya, Africa.

Science House, 159 Gloucester Street,
Sydney.

Barton, E. C., A.M.I.C.E.

*Domin, Dr. K. . .
*Maitland, A. Gibb, F.G.S.
*Skeats, Prof. E. W., D.Sc.

Corresponding Members.

Care of Decimal Association, Finsbury
Pavement, Moorgate, London, E.C.2.
. . . . Czech University, Prague.

Melville Place, South Perth.

The University, Melbourne, Victoria.

Ordinary Members.

Atherton, D. O., B.Sc.Agr.

Bage, Miss F., M.Sc. . .

Ball, L. C., B.E.

Barker, F.

Barker, G. H . .

Beckman, G. H., B.Sc.

*Bennett, F., B.Sc.

Bennett, F. C., B.Sc., B.App.Sc. . .

Bick, E. W

*Blake, S. T., M.Sc

*Blumberg, B., M.Sc.

Bostock, J., M.D., B.S., D.P.M.,

M.E.C.S., L.E.C.P.

Bradfield, J. J. C., D.Sc. (Eng.,), M.E.

Brigden, J. B., M.A. . .

Briggs, Mrs. C.

Brimblecombe, A. E. . .

Brown, Graham, M.E.C.S., L.E.C.P.,
F.E.A.C.S'.

Brown, Jas., B.A., M.D., Ch.B.

(Edin.), D.Ph. (Cambridge)

*Bryan, W. H., M.C., D.Sc

Bryan, W. W., B.Sc.Agr.

Bosworth, F. O., B.A. . .

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Atherton.

Women ^s College, Kangaroo Point, Bris-
bane.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane

Eailway Audit Office, Brisbane.

Adelai'ie Street, Brisbane.

Crook Street, Northgate, Brisbane.

113 Annie Street, Toowong. ^

Sirius Street, Coorparoo, Brisbane.

Botanic Gardens, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Inkerman Street, South Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Bureau of Industry, 4QG Building,
Brisbane,

Department of Labour and Industry,
Brisbane.

First Avenue, Eagle Junction, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

371 Queen Street, Brisbane.

Widmoorenej” Margaret Street, Too-
woomba

The University, Brisbane.

Agricultural High School and College,
Gatton.

Agricultural High School and College,
Gatton.

^'Members wlio have contributed papers to the Society.

XXIV.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Buzaeott, J. H., B.Sc.

Caldwell, N. E. H., B.Sc.Agr.

Cameron, Colonel Sir Donald, C.M.G.,

D.S.O.

Carson-Cooling, Geo., M.Sc. . .

Cayzer, A., B.Sc.

Chamberlain, W. J., M.Sc.

Cilento, Sir E. W., M.D., B.S.
Cottrell-Dormer, W., B.Sc.Agr.

Cribb, H. G., B.Sc. )

Croll, Gifford, M.B.

Cumbrae-Stewart, Professor F. W. S.,
D.C.L., K.C.

*Denmead, A. K., M.Sc.

Dixon, G. P., C.B.E., M.B., Oi.M. . .
*Dodd, Alan P. . .

Donaldson, E. J.

Duncan, Miss E., B.Sc.

*Duhig, J. V., M.B

Evans, C. K., M.Sc. . .

Fisher, N., B.Sc.

Ford, F. Campbell

Forteseue, L. . .

Fraser, C. S.

Fraser, K., B.Sc.

^Francis, W. D.

Frew, A. E. Harding, D.E. . .

Gaffney, T. . . . . s. .

Gibson, J. Lockhart, M.D.

*Gillies, C. D., M.B., B.S., M.Sc.
Gipps, F.

*Goddard, Prof. E. J., B.A., D.Sc. . .
Goldfinch, H. A., D.D.S.

Graff, E., M.B., B.S

Grant, D. J., B.Sc. . . . . . i

*Grey, Mrs. B. B., F.L.S.

*Gurney, E. H

Hall, G., B.Sc

*Hamlyn-Harris, E., D.Sc.

Hamon, W. P., B.Sc.Agr.

Hardie, Sir David, M.D., M.S.

*Hardy, G. H

Harris, V. E. G., B'.Sc.

Sugar Experiment Station, Meringa, via
Gordonvale.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Nambour.

Cooksley Street, Hamilton, Brisbane.

Bovs ’ Grammar School, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Water Supply and Sewerage Department,
Brisbane City Council.

Department of Health, Brisbane.

Fairymead Sugar Plantations Ltd.,
Bundaberg.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

Sherwood, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Geological Survey, Edward Street, Bris-
bane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Prickly-pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Bris-
bane.

care of Gibbs, Bright, and Co., Queen
Street, Brisbane.

Girls’ Grammar School, Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Ipswich Technical College, Ipswich.

Government Geologist, Wau, New
Guinea.

^‘Stanford,” Kennedy Terrace, Eed Hill,
Brisbane.

New Zealand Chambers, 334 Queen Street,
Brisbane.

229 Edward Street, Brisbane.

St. John’s College, Kangaroo Point,
Brisbane.

Botanic Gardens, Brisbane.

T. and G. Buildings, Queen Street, Bris-
bane.

Engineer in Charge, Pumping Station,
Pinkenba.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Eidge Street, Nerthgate.

8 Miles Street, Wooloowin.

The University, Brisbane.

414 Sandgate Eoad, Albion.

487 Sandgate Eoad, Brisbane.

Church Street, Indooroopilly.

care of Chartered Bank of Australia,
India, and China, Singapore, S’.S.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

Mount Isa Mines Ltd., Mount Isa, N.Q.

The University, Brisbane.

‘ ‘ Clifton, ’ ’ Ubobo, via Gladstone.

‘ ‘ Blythsdale, ” Hamilton, Brisbane.

Prickly-pear Station, Goondiwindi.

The Southport School, Southport.

^Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXV.

*Hawken, Professor R. W., B.A., M.E.,

M.Inst.C.E.

*Henderson, J. B., F.I.C.

*Herbert, B. A., D.Sc.

Herdsman, L. P.

♦Hill, Miss D., M.Sc., Ph.D, . .

♦Hines, H. J., B'.Sc.

Holdsworth, Miss N. M., B.Se,

♦Hitchcock, L. F., M.Sc.

Hirschfeld, E., M.B. . .

Hirschfeld, O. S., M.B.

Hossfeld, P, S., M.Sc.

Jack, Thos.

Jones, Inigo
♦Jones, Owen, M.Sc.

♦Jones, T. G. H., D.Sc., A.A.C.I.

Jorgensen, G. H.

Just, J. S.

Kemp, J. R.

Knight, C. L., B.Se. . .

Kyle, W. M., M.A.

♦Lambert, C. A. . .

♦Legg, J., D.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S.

L ’Estrange, W. M.

Lewcock, H. K., M.Sc.

♦Longman, H. A., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S.
Lowson, Professor J. P., M.A., M.D.

Lydon, R. J.

Lynch, A. J., M.B., Ch.M.

♦Lynch, L. J., B.Sc.Agr.

♦Mackerras, Mrs. Ian, M.B. . .
Mandelson, L. F., B.Sc.Agr. . .

Mann, J.

Marks, A. H., C.B.E., D.S.O., M.D. . .
♦Marks, E. O., M.D., B.A., B.E.
Mathewson, J. H. R., M.B., Ch.B. , .

McConnel, Miss U., M.A. . .
McDonald, S. F., M.D., M.R.C.P. . .

McDougall, W. A., B.Se.

McDowall, Val., M.D.

McKenzie, A. D., M.B., Ch.M.
McPherson, R.J., B.Se.

Meyers, E. S., M.B. . .

The University, Brisbane.

Government Analyst, Brisbane.

Biology Department, University, Bris-
bane.

Government Printing Office, George
Street, Brisbane.

Newnham College, Cambridge.

The University, Brisbane.

care of Q.jST. Bank, 8 Princess Street,
London, E.C.2.

care of Commissioner for Australia,
Cunard Building, 25 Broadway, New
York.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Department of Home Affairs, Canberra.

Cunningham Street, Dalby.

Crohamhurst Observatory, Beerwah, Q.

Ebun Drive, Ascot, Brisbane.

Chemistry Department, The University,
Brisbane.

care of Australian Chemical Co., Grey
Street, South Brisbane.

Box 1067N., G.P.O., Brisbane.

Main Roads Commission, Albert Street,
Brisbane.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

care of Bank of N.S.W., Melbourne, Vic.

Department of Agriculture and Stock
Townsville.

Box 546 H, G.P.O., Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture, Brisbane.

Queensland Museum, Brisbane.

‘ ^ Inclicolm, ” Wickham Terrace, Bris-
bane.

Central Technical College, Brisbane.

413 Brunswick Street, Valley, Brisbane.

Fruit Branch, Department of Agriculture,
Sydney.

B'ox 109, Canberra, F.C.T.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

Prickly-pear Laboratory, Sherwood.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane.

Cressbrook, via Toogoolawah.

^^Fancourt,” Wickham Terrace, Bris-
bane.

Department of Agriculture, Mackay.

Preston House, Queen Street, Brisbane.

Russell Street, Toowoomba.

The University, Brisbane.

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane.

♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXVI.

Mitchell, E. S., B.S'c.Agr.

Moorhouse, F. W., M.Sc.

Morris, L. C., A.M.I.C.E.

Morton, C. C., A.C.T.S.M. ..
Murphy, Ellis, M.D. . .

*Murray, Professor J. K., B.A.,
B.Sc.Agr.

O ’Connor, E. A., M.Sc.

Ogilvie, C., B.E.

Ohman, A. F. S., M.V.Sc

Parker, W. E., L.D.S.

*Parnell, Professor T., M.A. . ,

Payne, W. L. , .

*Pearce, Mrs. T. E., M.Sc.

*Perkins, F. A., B.Sc.Agr.

Phillips, T. J. . .

Preston, G.

Price, T. A,, M.B., B.S.

*Eeid, J. II

*Eeye, A. J., M.B

*Eichards, Professor H. C., D.Sc.
Eiddle, A. E., M.Sc. . .

Eidgeway, J. E.

Eimmer, T., M.Sc.

*Eobertson, J. . .

Eobertson, W. N., C.M.G., M.B.

Eoscoe, G. M., M.A. . .

Eussell, E., M.B., Ch.M,

Scott, Miss F. E., B.Sc.

Shaw, B. E., A.M.I.E.

Shaw, J. G., B.Sc.Agr.

Shell, G. W

*Shepherd, E. M., B.E.

Simmonds, J. H., M.Sc.

Simonds, Prof. E. F., M.A., B.Sc.,
Ph.D.

Sinclair, W. M., M.B.

Sloan, W. J. S., B.Sc.Agr.

*Smith, F. B., B.Sc., F.I.C

Smith, J. H., M.Sc. . .

Steel, W. H., M.B.

Stephenson, S., M.A. . .

Stoney, A. J., B.E.E. . .

Strong, T. H., B.Sc.Agr.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

216 Latrobe Terrace, Paddington, Bris-
bane.

Department of Public Instruction, George
Street, Brisbane.

care of Mining Warden, Charters Towers.

97 Wickham Street, Brisbane.

Agricultural High School and College,
Gatton.

The University, Brisbane.

District Engineer, St. George.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Toowoomba.

A.M.P. Building, Edward Street, Bris-
bane.

The University, Brisbane.

Lands Department, Brisbane.

Box 332, P.O., Lismore, New South
Wales.

The University, Brisbane.

care of Courier-Ma/il, Queen Street, Bris-
bane

Gregory Terrace, Brisbane.

Toowoomba.

Geological Survey Office, Eockhampton.

97 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

The Abattoir, Cannon Hill, Brisbane.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Assistant Bacteriologist, City Hall, Bris-
bane.

“Craigston, ” 217 Wickham Terrace,

Brisbane.

State School, Macknade.

63 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Oxford House, Bundaberg.

Irrigation Commission, College Eoad,
Brisbane.

Children’s Hospital, Brisbane.

care of Shell Oil Co., Breakfast Creek
Eoad, Brisbane.

131 Gladstone Eoad, South Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Toowoomba.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Eockhampton.

Hutton’s Factory, Zillmere.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Nambour.

Eosemount Hospital, Windsor.

Boys’ Grammar School, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Waite Institute, Adelaide, S.A.

* Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXVII.

Summerville, W. A. T., M.Sc.

Sylow, Paul
Tarleton, A., M.B.

Taylor, G, C., M.B., Ch.M.

Thelander, C., M.B., Ch.B., F.R.A.C.S.

Thomas, L., M.Se.

Thompson, C. L., B.D.Sc.

Thorn, St. G. . .

•Tibbits, P. C. . .

Tommerup, E. C., B.Sc.

Trist, A., B.Sc.

*Turner, A. J., M.D., F.E.S. . .

Veitch, R., B.Sc.

Vickery, J., M.S’c., Ph.D.

Waddle, I., M.Sc.

Wadley, J. B. . .

Watkins, S. B., M.Sc.

Weddell, J. A

Wells, W. G

*White, C. T., F.L.S

White, E. L. D., B.E. . .

White, M., M.Sc., Ph.D.

*Whitehouse, F. W., Ph.D., M.Sc.

Wiley, W. J., D.Sc

Wilson, R.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Nambour.

Angus Street, Bardon.

69 Vulture Street, West End, Brisbane.

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane.

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane.

Post Office, Stanthorpe.

Club Chambers, Creek Street, Brisbane.

Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly.

Irrigation Commission, College Road,
Brisbane.

4 John Street, Ashfield, N.S.W.

Forestry Department, Brisbane.

Dauphin Street, Highgate Hill.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

The Abattoir, Cannon Hill, Brisbane.

Brisbane State High School, Musgrave
Park, Brisbane.

Salt Street, Albion.

Central Technical College, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

Government Botanist, Botanic Gardens,

Brisbane.

‘ ‘ Doonliolm, ’ ’ Walmsley Street, Kan-
garoo Point.

Abattoir, Cannon Hill, Brisbane.

Geological Department, University, Bris-
bane

care of Government Analyst, Brisbane.

Kirkland Avenue, Coorparoo.

Associate Members.

Archibald, Miss L., B.Sc. . . . . The University, Brisbane.

Fison, D. G., B.Sc. . . . • . . O ’Connell Street, Kangaroo Point, Bris-

bane.

*Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

David Whyte, Government Printer, Brisbane.

i

if

N

»

^ 4-.

}i

"iMr/

CONTENTS.

1 ' ! Volume XL VII.

PAGEfc

-ISTo. 1. — Presidential Address: By J. S. Just, M.I.E.E., MJ.E.Aust. .. 1-10

No. 2. — The Significance of pH Putrefactive Grade Test in Bacterio-
logical Water Analysis : By W. T. Bobertson . . . . 11-17

No. 3. — A Suggested Co-Enzyme Hypothesis for the Eipening of Eruits,

BY Ethylene Gas Treatment: By L. J, Lynch, B.Sc. Agric. 18-24

No. 4. — New Australian Lepidoptera: By A. Jefferis Turnef, M.B.,

B.E.E ,S , .. .. .. ... 2o — 50

No. 5. — Contributions to the Queensland Flora, No. 5: By C. T. White 51-84

No. 6. — Essential Oils prom the Queensland Flora — Part VI. —
Eremocitrus glauca: By L. F. Bitchcock, M.Se., and
T. G. H. Jones, B.Sc., A.A.C.I. .. .. .. .. 85-88

No. 7. — ^Notes on Some Pasture Problems op Western Queensland: By

S. T. Blake, M.Sc. . . . . . . . . . . . . 89-91

No. 8. — Essential Oils from tee Queensland Flora, Part VIII. The
Identity of Melaleucol with Nerolidol: By T. G. H,

Jones, jD.Sc., A.A.C.I., and J. M. Harvey, B.Sc. .. .. 92-93

Beport of the Council

V.-Vll.

Abstract op . Proceedings

viii.-six.

List op Library Exchanges

xx.-xxii.

List op Members

xxiii.-xxvii.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1936.

VOL. XLVIII.

ISSUED 24th MAY

.((#7. MAY 27 1938

AL^^'

Pi^lCE ; FIFTEEN SHiLLiNSS.

Printed for the Society
by

DAVID WHYTE, Government Printer, Brisbane.

! t I I i I I

NOTICE TO AUTHORS.

1. Eaeli paper should be accompanied by the author's name^ degrees and oihciai

address. ^ ^

2. Papers must be complete a7ul in a form suitable for j)ubli6ation when com-

municated to the Society and should be as concise as possible.

3. Papers must be accompanied by an abstract of not more than one hundred

words.

4. Papers should be in double-spaced typescript on one side of the paper with.

ample margins.

5. The use of italics in the text should be restricted to generic and specific

names^ foreign words and titles of periodicals.

6. The cost of author’s eorrections to proof above what the Council considers

a reasonable amount, must be borne by the author.

7. Unless otherwise specified each author will be supplied with fifty separate

copies of his paper. Any number exceeding this may be obtained at”
approximately cost price.

8. All references should be listed at the end of each paper and arranged

alphabetically under authors’ names, e.g.,

Keilin, D. (1929) Proe. Boy. Soc. B, vol. 104, p. 207.

Lesage, P. (1895) Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., vol. 1, p. .309.

The corresponding references in the text should be :

^‘Keilin (1929)”, ‘‘Lesage (1895)”.

9. The size of the printed plate will not exceed 8 in. x 4^ in., and drawings

may be to this size, or preferably to a convenient small multiple thereof.
Tlie effect of the necessary reduction on lettering and fine detail should
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10. Drawing in line should be executed in intensely black ink, such as good

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11. Drawings or photographs for reproduction in half-tone should, where possible,

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should be sent flat and unmounted. All prints should be on glossy
bromide or gas-light paper.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1936.

VOL. XLVIII.

ISSUED 24th MAY, 1937,

PRICE ; FIFTEEN SHILLINGS.

Printed for the Society
by

DAVID WHYTE, Government Printer, Brisbane.

The Royal Society of Queensland

Patron :

ms EXCELLENCY, LIEUTENANT-COLONEL THE EIGHT HONOUEABIiE
SIE LESLIE OEME WILSON, G.C.S.I., G.C.I.E., P.C., C.M.G., D.S.O.

OFFICERS, 1936^1937.

President :

Professor J. K. MUREAY, B.A., B.Sc.Agr.

Vice-Presidents :

ROBERT VEITCH, B.Sc.Agr., B.Sc.For., F.R.E.S.
Professor L. S. BAGS TER, D.Se.

Hon. Treasurer:
E. W. BICK.

Hon. Secretary:

F. A. PERKINS, B.Sc.Agr.

Hon. Librarian:

T. BENNETT, B.Sc.

Hon. Editors:

H. A. LONGMAN, F.L.S.

D. A. HERBERT, L.Sc.

Members of CounoU:

E. O. MARKS, B.A., B.E., M.D., J. S. JUST, M.I.M.E., F. W. WHITEHOUSE,
M.Sc., Ph.D., W. G. WELLS, W. W. BRYAN, M.Sc.Agr.

Trustees:

F. BENNETT, B.Sc., J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C., A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D.

Hon. Auditor:

A. J. M. STONEY, B.E.E.

Bankers :

COMMONWEALTH BANK OF AUSTRALIA.

CONTENTS

Volume XL VIII.

Pages..

Xo. 1. — Presidential Address : By Robert Veitch, B.Sc.Agr,, B.Sc.For,,

F. R.E.S 1-19

Xo. 2. — Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora — Part VII. —
Melaleuca pubescens : By T. O. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.,
and F. N. Lahey, B.Sc. . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-21

Xo. 3. — XoTES ON Australian Muscoidea II. Subfamily Muscineae : By

G. H. Hardy . . . . . . . . , . . . . . 22-29

Xo. 4. — The Analysis of Co-variance and its Use in Correcting for
Irregularities of Stand in Argicultural Trials for
Yield : By L. G. Miles, B.Sc.Agr., Ph.D., and W. W. Bryan,
M.Sc.Agr 30-34

Xo. 5. — A Small Collection of Fossil Cockroach Remains from the
Triassic Beds of Mount Crosby, Queensland : By R. J.
Tillyard, M.A., Sc.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.E.S 35-40

Xo. 6. — Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora — Part IX —
Melaleuca viridiflora : By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.G.I.,
and W . L. Haenke, B.Sc., B.Sc. (App.) . . . . . . . . 41-44-

Xo. 7. — Erinosis, a Disease of Laportea ; By D. A. Herbert, D.Sc 45-47

Xo. 8. — Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora — Part X. —

Melaleuca Linariifolia : By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I. 48-50

Xo. 9. — Studies in Australian and Oriental Trypaneidae, Part I.

New Genera of Dacinae.: By F. A. Perkins, B.Sc. Agric. . . 51-80

Xo. 10. — New Australian Pyraloidea : By A. J. Turner, M.D., F.R.E.S.. . 61-8S

No. 11. — Notes on Australian Cyperaceae I. : By S. T. Blake, M.Sc. . . 89-94

Queensland Assets: An Address by His Excellency Sir Leslie Wilson. . .. 95-99-

Report OF THE Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v.-vii.,

Abstract of Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii.-xxi..

List of Library Exchanges

xxii.-xxiv.

List of Members

xxv.-xxix.

VoL. XLYIII., No. 1.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of

Queensland.

Presidential Address.

BY

Robert Veitch, B.Sc.Agr., B. Sc. For., F.R.E.S.

{Delivered before the Iloyal Society of Queensland, SOth March, 1936.)

PART I.— GENERAL.

The preparation of a presidential address in any society is
frequently and quite appropriately preceded by a perusal of the
addresses delivered by earlier occupants of the presidential chair, a
sound practice which I have adhered to partly with the object of refresh-
ing my memory as to the manner in which my predecessors dealt with
the subjects chosen by them and partly to ensure that I should select
as the theme of to-night’s address some phase of scientific activity not
previously discussed on such occasions.

The perusal of the volumes of our Proceedings, which was necessi-
tated by this decision, was definitely interesting. One feature that
impressed me in their perusal was the extraordinary variation in the
length of the presidential addresses, the shortest occupying some two
pages of print, whilst the longest extended to a total of eighty -two pages.
I decided to steer a middle course' in so far as to-night ’s address is
concerned.

While achieving the two main objectives aimed at in the perusal
of my predecessors’ efforts I came across many interesting items to one
of which I desire to make reference to-night. It occurs in the presidential
address delivered by ]\Ir, A. Norton, M.L.A., on 8th July, 1887, and is
the following short paragraph which I think worthy of quotation : —

“It is disappointing to have still to hold our meetings in a
room for the use of v/hich the Society is indebted to the Trustees
of the Museum. In consequence of this it is impossible to give
members free access to the many valuable books and pamphlets
which have been presented to the Society by numerous donors.”

Practically fifty years have passed since these words were spoken
and the position is still the same as indicated by President Norton, i.e.,
the Society is indebted to another institution firstly for a lecture theatre
in which to hold its meetings, and secondly for a room in which to
house its valuable and steadily growing library. I do not wish to be
misunderstood on this subject, for the Society is deeply appreciative
of the assistance granted to it by the University of Queensland in making
available this splendid lecture theatre in which to hold its meetings and
in providing housing for its library. It, nevertheless, appears to me
that the time is fast approaching when this and kindred societies should
consider whether or no the acquisition of or erection of a building to
house all the scientific bodies meeting in the metropolis is desirable and
practicable. I realise that very appreciable financial difficulties will

2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

have to be faced if a decision be made to proceed with the acquisition,
of a Science House, but with the transfer of the University to the new
St. Lucia site, it may, and probably will, be necessary for this and other '
societies, which are dependent on the good graces of the University for
accommodation, to seek it elsewhere.

The year’s activities in the Eoyal Society of Queensland have been |
outlined in the Council’s report which has already been presented to
you, and comment thereon will be restricted to drawing your attention
to the fact that a small trust fund of £70 has been constituted during
the year under review and additions to that fund will doubtless be
welcomed by the new Council and its successors.

Passing now to the realm of general scientific activities and follow-
ing a custom set by many of my predecessors, I propose to comment ^
briefly on events of general interest in scientific circles in this State ^ ^ s
during the year 1935. ^ ^

The celebration of the silver jubilee of the University of Queensland
was undoubtedly one of the most important of these events, the jubilee > S
year witnessing the success of negotiations for the establishment of |
faculties of medicine, dental surgery, veterinary science, and law. The f '
initiation of the last-mentioned faculty was largely the outcome of a
munificent gift from Mr. T. C. Beirne, while special Government grants ^
made possible the establishment of the faculties of medicine and veter-
inary science. The year was also rendered memorable by the decision
of the Government of Queensland to proceed with the erection of new
University buildings on the St. Lucia site at an estimated cost of half
a million pounds for buildings and equipment. I feel sure that these
developments must have been extremely gratifying to all members of W|
this Society, but more particularly to those members who, in the earlier M
years of the existence of the Koyal Society, were advocates of tho K
establishment of a University in this State. H

The steady expansion of University activities is of very material f 1
interest to the Department with which I am associated, namely the 1 1
Department of Agriculture and Stock, for that Department has a growing
list of University graduates on its staff, now numbering in the vicinity
of fifty, many of whom are the product of our own University. The-^ffl
policy of recruiting numbers of University graduates thus renders any^^B
development of academic training facilities in the various branches of-B^
scientific endeavour a matter of considerable importance to the DepaiT- 5
ment. The volume of research work carried on within the Department^aB
is expanding rapidly, and in connection therewith an important stepTH
was taken towards the end of 1935 in the establishment of a Bureau of . JB
Tropical Agriculture to handle the many pressing problems awaiting
solution in North Queensland. Considerable additions were made to thel^®
Departmental buildings in Brisbane, one of the chief objectives in the
building programme being the provision of adequate accommodation ■ HI

for the new Dairy Research Laboratory. ®

'

Another noteworthy development during the year under review. *
was the formation of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science, p
which is now well established with a membership rapidly approaching
the maximum limit of three hundred. This Institute publishes a S
quarterly journal which appears to be performing a useful function as S
a medium of publication and as a bond of union between workers in fi
agricultural science in Australia. B

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

3

The year -also witnessed the holding of the fifth triennial congress
of the International Society of Sugar-cane Technologists, the formal
sessions being successfully held in Brisbane.

Before concluding the general portion of my presidential address
I must refer to the death of two highly esteemed members of the Society,
namely Mr. E. R. Gross and Mr. A. G. Jackson. Both were respected
members of the business community of Brisbane and, as was indicated
by their membership of this Society, both were supporters of scientific
activities witliin the State.

PART II.— THE DEVELOPMENT OF APPLIED ENTOMOLOGY

IN QiUEENSLAND.

As already mentioned I perused the volumes of our Proceedings
before commencing the preparation of this presidential address. The
perusal disclosed the fact that it was not until January 27th, 1908, that
a subject with definite entomological implications was chosen for a
presidential address. ^Ihis address was entitled ‘Hnsects and Disease,”
und was delivered by Dr. A. Jelferis Turner. A fev^ years later, on
February 25th, 1911, Mv. W. R. College chose as the title of his presi-
dential address ‘‘Notes on a Brush-tongued Mosquito.” No president
since that date has chosen an entomological subject and as neither Dr.
Turner nor Mr. College dealt with general entomology I decided to
address you on “The Development of Applied Entomology in
Queensland. ’ ’

1 propose commencing the discussion of this subject by briefly
outlining the difiiculties with which the early settlers were faced in
establishing primary production in this continent. We shall then see
how the absence of efiicient quarantine in the early days of settlement
led to the introduction of many pests, and from that point I shall pro-
ceed to a consideration of the development of modern quarantine as a
means of limiting the spread of pests. The next and final step will be
to discuss some representative pests, illustrative of the ditferent methods
used, with varying degrees of success, in minimising losses from insect
pests already established within the quarantine barrier.

Let us now attempt to visualise the conditions facing the pioneers
of Anglo-Saxon civilisation in this continent, and, if possible, let us
ascertain what influence, if any, these conditions had on the incidence
of entomological problems in Queensland. These pioneers had to travel
great distances to reach their new home and the journey had to be made
in small slow boats. Food supplies, at' least in essential lines, had to
be produced locally on a large scale and almost concurrently with the
arrival of the earlier batches of settlers, and in this connection it is
important to note that Australia did not yield a single plant that could
be utilized as an important article of food for a European race, nor did
it produce a single animal that could be domesticated.

The general circumstances under which settlement took place there-
fore necessitated the importation of seeds, plants, and cuttings on a
large scale for, as I have just indicated, everything required to make
this continent habitable for a white race had to be imported. It is
unfortunate that important insect pests accompanied these introduc-
tions, but the pioneers can hardy be considered blameworthy on that
account. The importance of the insect menace was realised by very few
people anywhere in the world at that time, but even had the pioneers

4

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSIjAND.

realised the risk they were running in such importations imposing a
heavy burden on all subsequent generations of primary producers, it is |
unlikely that they would have been able to do anything about it. They
were struggling for a foothold in a strange country in the face of the
opposition of a somewhat hostile aboriginal population, and plant
quarantine was doubtless a subject that was very far removed indeed i
from their thoughts.

I have, however, during the course of my official duties, sometimes
deeply regretted the fact that there was no effective plant quarantine
service in operation in the early days of settlement in this country.
We, of course, now possess an efficient organisation which materially
reduces the risk of the importation of further insect enemies of plants-
and animals. It is, however, interesting to note that even had a most
efficient quarantine service been instituted at an early stage in our
national history, and even if it had been able to exclude all insect pests
reaching our shores, a feat that has never been accomplished by the
most efficient service in the world, this State would still have been faced
with a muUipli'city of entomological problems.

This fact is borne out by the results of a classihcation which curiosity
recently prompted me to make of the insects referred to in a handbook
at present in course of preparation for publication by the Department
of Agriculture and Stock. The insects, which are all important pests,
were placed in two categories, namely, native and introduced. The
results are rather interesting for they reveal the fact that of the hundred-
odd insects dealt with a slight majority are native species. Hence even
had a most efficient plant and animal quarantine service' accompanied the
initiation of settlement, Queensland primary producers would still have
had to face a wide range of serious entomological problems. It is never-
theless regrettable that laxity in the early days of settlement has appreci-
ably added to the entomological difficulties of the primary producer. Had
adequate precautions been taken some of the important pests that now
afflict us might still be on the right side of the quarantine barrier, while
the establishment of others might have been deferred for an appreciable

number of vears.

</

Intelligently conceived and efficiently controlled quarantine, both
domestic and foreign, is such an important weapon in the campaign
against insect pests that I think it requires further consideration before
proceeding to a discussion of the type of warfare that can be effectively
waged against already established insects. So far I have merely indicated
what happens in the absence of effective quarantine, but I now wish to
show what is possible with modern quarantine methods, while at the
same time indicating their limitations.

As has been mentioned our records indicate that many of our intro-
duced pests such as the potato tuber moth {Pkthorimwa operculella Zell.),
the woolly apple aphis (Eriosoma lanigenim Hausm), and the codling
moth {Cydia pomonella L.) arrived during the early days of settlement
in Australia, but since these early records many additional introduced
pests have been discovered, a large proportion of which have now doubt-
less occupied all the territory suitable to their development. Others,
however, are still spreading slowly but surely, and in quite a number
of cases it is rather difficult to formulate any reasonable plan for the
prevention of that spread. In making this statement I have in mind
such pests as the green vegetable bug {Nezara viridula L.) and the brown

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

b

•vegetable weevil {Listroderes costir ostris Schh.), both introduced
species which, during the last few years, have occupied a steadily
expanding area of territory in this State.

It is impossible to determine with any degree of accuracy just when
and how such relatively recent arrivals broke through our quarantine
barrier, but I think we must accept the fact that no matter how effici-
ently our quarantine service is organised there will be occasions on
which an insect will succeed in passing that barrier and subsequently
establishing itself on suitable host plants or animals. It is probably
correct to say that the United States of America has one of the most
efficient quarantine services in the world, and in spite of that fact the
dreaded Mediterranean fruit fly {Geratitis icctpifata Wied.) gained
access to Florida, where it was discovered early in April, 1929.

It will, I think, be instructive to review the manner in which the
Mediterranean fruit fly problem was tackled in the United States and
to ascertain just what measure of success was achieved in dealing with
it. In the first place, it is important to note that Congress made avail-
able for control and eradication work a sum of $4,250,000, and what
was just as important as the granting of such a large appropriation of
money was the fact that instalments thereof were made available within
a few weeks of the discovery that the fruit fly had reached Florida. The
whole of the subsequent eradication campaign was conducted with equal
vigour, and on November 15th, 1930, all quarantine restrictions were
lifted, i.e., nineteen months elapsed between the date of the discovery
of the presence of the fruit fly in Florida and the lifting of all restric-
tions, thus indicating that in the opinion of the Government eradication
had been achieved. That the task of eradication was by no means a
simple one is indicated by the fact that 72 per cent, of the total citrus
areas of Florida were found to be infested, the degree of infestation in
many cases being very high.

Certainly the expenditure involved was great, but a tremendously
valuable fruit industry extending north to the New England States and
west to California was at stake, and its importance fully justified the
drastic and costly measures adopted. The ultimate success achieved
in this campaign was due partly to the fact that the entomological staff
knew just what to do, because the Mediterranean fruit fly problem had
been intensively studied by some of its members in Hawaii and else-
where for years before the advent of the insect in the United States.
The Bureau of Entomology in the United States felt that sooner or
later the Mediterranean fruit fly might break through the quarantine
barrier, and a tribute must be paid to the foresight displayed by that
Bureau in accumulating a vast amount of information to be used for
dealing with the problem when it did arise. Another and most important
factor influencing the prospects of success was the promptness with
which the Legislatures concerned, both Federal and State, took the
necessary steps to furnish the financial and legislative weapons for the
eampaign.

There are other instances of successful efforts to eradicate an
introduced insect, e.g., the Colorado potato beetle {Leptinotarsa decem-
Hneata Say) has twice broken through the quarantine barrier in
England, but on each occasion it has apparently been eradicated.

It must be admitted, however, that these cases are exceptions, and
■once an insect passes the quarantine barrier and breeds through a few

6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

generations its eradication is highly improbable, and it will sooner or
later occupy all the territory possessing conditions favourable to its
permanent establishment.

"What, then, should be done with an insect which has broken the
foreign quarantine barrier ? Should we remain apathetic and' take no
steps to stem its progress'/ My answer to that question is that all
reasonable measures should be adopted to delay its spread, and that,
generally speaking, it will be found that the expenditure involved in
retarding its invasion of uninfested territory is more than recouped by
the saving to those districts which obtain a number of years additional
freedom from the pest. Indeed in some cases we may succeed in more
or less indefinitely postponing the spread of the pest to many important
areas suitable for its propagation.

We have in Queensland a very good example of the value of quaran-
tine measures imposed on a pest already established- in the State, and
here I am referring to the buffalo fly {Lyperosia exigua de Meij.).
Immediately following the discovery of the presence of that insect in
the north-west portion of Queensland certain restrictions were placed
on the movement of cattle, the restrictions operating as from late in
1928. It can now be claimed that, in large measure as a result of these
and other subsequently imposed restrictions, the territory infested by
the buffalo fly at the end of last rainy season was still only a relatively
small proportion of the north-west, and what is equally important the
fly has failed to cross large stretches of uninfested territory and to
establish itself hundreds of miles from its previous boundaries, a possi-
bility that is always present when trucking cattle over long distances
from territory containing a blood-sucking fly associated with the cattle day
and night, and capable of breeding in the droppings in the cattle trucks.
This, I think, is a striking case in which domestic quarantine regulations
have successfully protected a most valuable State asset by restricting
a serious pest to a relatively small corner of our territory. Long may
the restrictions succeed in the objective for which they were designed.

South of our own border we are witnesses of a determined and
costly effort to stem the southward march of the cattle tick {Boophilus
microplus Canes), and here again we are encouraged by the degree of
success achieved in the United States where the first Federal appro-
priation for cattle-tick eradication was made available in July, 1906.
Speaking in December, 1927, Harned^ pointed out that as a result of
the tick eradication programme, “750 of the 985 counties had been
released from quarantine and 653 were entirely tick free.’’

Although the instances I have just quoted are encouraging, my
listeners should remember that an- omnivorous phytophagus insect such
as the green vegetable bug already mentioned possesses peculiarly
difficult features in so far as the stemming of its progress is concerned.
In spite of the common name conferred on it, this species feeds on such
plants as maize, lucerne, and citrus, and also breeds freely on a wide
range of weed host plants. Its eradication appears to me to be an
impossibility, no matter what funds were placed at our disposal, and
it is difficult to see just how it would be practicable to prevent its
steady spread to areas at present uninfested.

With respect to the future our experience will probably be similar
to that of other countries, i.e., insects will still be able to occasionally
gain a foothold in spite of the vigilance of our quarantine officers, for

PRESIDENTLIL ADDRESS.

7

it must be realised that the danger of such an eventuality is in some
respects an increasing one. The duration of the average voyage to
Australia is automatically decreasing with the increasing speed of the
steamers serving the main trade routes, the danger of the survival of
new insect immigrants being thereby correspondingly increased.
Furthermore we now have a weekly air mail service from England and
the mail planes pass through tropical countries teeming with insect
life. I know that all 3'easonable precautions will be taken at Darwin,
but the danger of insects accompanying planes in their flight across the
Timor Sea is pretty obvious, and it is well to remember that the dura-
tion of a plane’s flight from the Dutch East Indies is a matter of only
a few hours, thus permitting a high degree of survival of insect life.
It must also be remembered that many airports are of necessity located
in the country, where the chances of picking up undesirable insect
passengers are definitely greater than in the crowded dockyards of a
large seaport.

In this connection I should like to mention that a very considerable
amount of information on the association of insects with aeroplanes has
been obtained during the course of the field experimental work on cotton
boll weevil control in the United States, and writing thereon in
November, 1927, Goad, who was responsible for the work, states in a
communication to Howard^ —

^‘Certainly, in years to come, a quarantine measure attempt-
ing to restrict movement of insects will be forced into consideration
of airplane transportation,”

^md again —

“Personally I have very frequently watched insects remain
in the cockpit with me for a flight lasting several hours.”

Incidentally I might mention that Goad’s work on dusting cotton
fields from aeroplanes aJforded an excellent opportunity for studying
the insect fauna of the upper air, and that he Ixas actually found insects
at an elevation of eighteen thousand feet. He has demonstrated that air
currents can carry Avingless insects or delicate insects possessing little
power of flight to great elevations, aphids and leaf hoppers being among
the insects obtained in the trap collections at great heights. Howard,
in discussing this important matter, points out that at extreme elevations
the insects are killed by the cold but at lesser heights that is not the
case; hence the possibility of our air mail service acting as a means of
■entrance for insects which might not otherwise reach our shores cannot
be ignored. As I have said, however, I do not doubt that the Federal
quarantine authorities are alive to, this possibility and are doing
Avhatever is practicable to deal with the problem.

HevieAving the existing position it therefore appears to me that
reasonable quarantine precautions are now in force to prevent, as far
as it is pi’acticable to do so, any new and undesirable insect immigrants
establishing themselves in this country. Furthermore, I think the fact
must be accepted that there is virtually no hope of eradicating the
important introduced plant-feeding insects already established in the
State, but that in certain cases much good can be accomplished by local
quarantine restrictions designed to prevent the spread of introduced
pests for at least a few years and designed in some cases to achieve their
more or less permanent exclusion from territories at present uninfested.

8 PROCEEDINGS OF TPIB ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Having reviewed the quarantine position, let ns now pass to a.
discussion of the forging of suitable weapons for use in the warfare
against the pests that are now with us, the eradication of which we have
just ruled out of the realm of possibilities. Much has already been
accomplished in that direction, and I think the best procedure will be
to select a few important insect pests representative of the dilferent
types of problems with which we are confronted and illustrative of the
manner in which we have succeeded in solving or are attempting to
solve these problems. The insects I have chosen as illustrations are the
Queensland fruit fly {Climtodacus tryoni Froggatt) the wooly apple
aphis, the cattle poisoning sawfly (Pterygophorus intermptus King),,
the pinhole borer of North Queensland cabinet woods {Crossotarsus
grevillece Lea), and the paspalum white grub {Le'pidioia caudata Blkb.).
These pests I shall now refer to in a arying degree of detail.

Queensland Fruit Fly.

The first insect I desire to discuss in some detail as illustrative of
the methods we are adopting in attempting to solve entomological
problems is the well-known Queensland fruit fly. The manner in which
the maggots of this fly feed in infested fruit is doubtless well known to
all of you and therefore requires no discussion; hence we can proceed
immediately to the consideration of the problem of its control.

The discussion of this problem occupies a very prominent place in
the early entomological literature of the State and Tryon,® writing in
1886, produces evidence that fruit fly was well known in Toowoomba
orchards in 1853. He, at the same time and in the same publication,
made certain recommendations with respect to its control one of which,
the collection and destruction of infested fruit, is still a leading feature
in any fruit fly campaign.

Since Try on’s report was published the Queensland fruit fly has
been the subject of a great deal of attention. Various Departmental
officers investigated it from time to time until with the advent of the
growing of deciduous fruit on a large scale in the Stanthorpe district,
which occurred shortly after the war, the pest assumed still greater
importance, because of the marked increase in the production of fruits
susceptible to attack. Accordingly, two entomologists were stationed in
that district in 1922, one being a special research fellow associated with,
the Biology Department of the University of Queensland. His appoint-:
ment was financed by the growers in the Stanthorpe district, and he
devoted the whole of his time to fruit fly investigations during the four
years in which he was stationed in the district and also carried out
large-scale luring experiments during the summer months of a further
five successive years. The other entomologist, a Departmental officer,
who is still in charge of the Stanthorpe Entomological Field Station,
featured the fruit fly problem as the major item in his research, pro-
gramme. Both these investigators accumulated a mass of valuable
information on this most difficult problem and as a result of their work
important advances have been made in the direction of its successful
solution.

The investigators were faced with one very important point requiring
elucidation early in the investigations, namely whence did the annually
recurring fruit fly infestation in the Stanthorpe district originate ? Did
the pest survive the rigours of the Stanthorpe winter either as a fly or
in one of its immature stages, the surviving population thus renewing

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

9

infestation of the early fruits in the following season? Alternatively,
was the importation of infested fruit from coastal districts or else-
where responsible for the seasonal reinfestation, or did that occur as
the result of the migration of flies from warmer areas in which the insect
is able to survive the winter in considerable numbers? These were
possible explanations and it will be interesting to see just how the
evidence obtained in the course of the investigations supported or
discredited the various possibilities.

I think it is now agreed that the evidence secured gives little sup-
port to the possibility of over-wintering being the main source of the
early summer fruit fly infestation at Stanthorpe. Indeed it very
definitely indicates that the fly has little chance of surviving the Stan-
thorpe winter, although a few individuals may occasionally carry over
in an immature stage. In this connection Jarvis^ obtained evidence
that maggots developing in very late fruit, such as quinces and late
apples, stored in the district, may survive the winter, but only a very
small percentage can do so, and even if such survival does take place in
any particular season it is improbable that it is of any consequence in
starting the spring infestation. Indeed in all cases observed by Jarvis
a breakdown in the tissue of the stored fruit occurred in spring and
the insects succumbed before completing their development and emerg-
ing as flies. Furthermore, Perkins® obtained evidence that pupise may be
alive as late as October 1st, although he was unfortunately unsuccessful in
breeding the flies from these pupge. The fact, however, that they were
alive on the date mentioned indicates a possibility of successful over-
wintering. All efforts to obtain evidence that the flies themselves may
survive the Stanthorpe winter have been fruitless. Hence it would
appear that survival within the district during the winter months is
merely a remote possibility.

Let us now turn to the second possible explanation, which was that
the importation of infested fruit from coastal districts and elsewhere
is responsible for the constantly recurring Stanthorpe infestation. The
validity of this explanation received no support from a large-scale
experiment specially designed to test it. For several years in succes-
sion fruit was admitted to the Stanthorpe district only after it had
been cold stored for a period sufficiently long and at a temperature
sufficiently low to kill any eggs or maggots that might be present in the
fruit, the fruit being held in cold storage for three weeks at a tempera-
ture not exceeding 35 deg. Fahr. As a further precaution this fruit
was carefully inspected at Warwick. It seems reasonable to assume
that the elimination of infestation in fruit brought into the district would
have been followed by a period of freedom from fruit fly attack, if the
importation of infested fruit were the cause of the seasonal reinfestaticn
in the district. Yet severe fruit fly infestation occurred in many orchards
during the years in which this interesting and important experiment was
in progress.

Our first two possible explanations of the infestation having received
little or no support during the progress of the investigations, let us see
whether or no the migration theory has fared any better. The evidence
in 'favour of the probability that migration is the major factor in the
annual infestation is as follows.

Firstly, it has frequently been observed that the first sign of infesta-
tion each season is the appearance of considerable numbers of fruit flies
with somewhat frayed wings and well developed ovaries and other

10

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

features indicating that several weeks had elapsed since these flies
emerged from the pup^e. A very careful watch is kept by both the
general Departmental officers and the orchardists for the first appear-
ance of the pest, and it is difficult to believe that the first batches of
flies would again and again escape detection for several weeks after their
emergence from the pupal stage. It is believed that these flies hatched ^
out weeks before their discovery in the Stanthorpe orchards in some
areas possessing less rigorous winter conditions and that they migrated
thence to Stanthorpe.

Secondly, it is a known fact that the Jarvis fruit fly {GJimtodacus
jarvisi Tryon), which attacks deciduous fruit, occurs in the Stanthorpe
district each season, but it does not put in an appearance before the
beginning of February. It is well nigh incredible that this fly could
remain undetected in the district until so late in the season each year,
if it were permanently present therein. Furthermore, it is known to
breed freely in the cockatoo apple {Carey a australis F.v.M.), the distri-
bution of which is from Cairns to the vicinity of the Mary River, and
the known circumstances of its appearance in the Stanthorpe district
are apparently explicable only on the assumption that it migrates from | |
coastal areas each season to the more elevated and more inland areas |i|i|
'SUch as Stanthorpe, arriving there early in February each year. 1 1 *

t'

Thirdly, the Solanum fruit fly {Chcetodacus dorsalis Hendel) appears | ^
in the Stanthorpe district in early spring and may be taken in fruit flv
traps in that district in almost any orchard before the Queensland fruit i
fly appears. Yet it does not attack deciduous fruit and its common
recorded host plants, namely two species belonging to the genus Solanum>
do not occur within the Stanthorpe area.

Such briefly, is the evidence on which we have been forced to the
conclusion that migration from lower lying warmer areas is the chief
means whereby reinfestation occurs each year in the Stanthorpe district,

I would like to make clear the fact that I do not consider the
Stanthorpe problem is constituted wholly by migration. Certainly
migration is the chief, if not the only, factor causing the initial infesta- “
tion each season, but much of the continued infestation is due to the
local breeding of the flies.

From what I have said it is obvious that the attempt to answer the
question as to how the annual infestation of the new crop is initiated
has involved a great deal of laborious and expensive work. It was,
however, a most important question that we were seeking to answer,
because had it been demonstrated that the fly did not over-winter and
that it regained its foothold only by means of the importation of infested
fruit to the district, then obviously it could have been more or lessll'
permanently excluded at little cost by the imposition of cold storage
on all fruit going into Stanthorpe.

It may interest you to know that migration of the type now regarded
as occurring in the case of the Queensland fruit fly is not unique ; e.g.,
it was recently shown by Smith and Allen® that the spotted cucumber
beetle {DiahroUca duodecempunctata F.) regularly migrates up the
Mississippi valley each year during the early spring and summer months
and breeds in the northern territory thus temporarily occupied. With
the advent of the autumn months the offspring of the northern migrants
move southward, none of the beetles surviving the winter in the northern

PRESIDENTIATj address.

11

sections of the temporarily occupied territory. The observations on this
beetle showed that a distance of ''five hundred miles or more may be
travelled during a period of three or four days of favourable weather. ’
Collections of beetles made in aeroplane flights showed that the
migration may take place at altitudes ranging up to one thousand feet.

Accepting migration as being responsible for the annual reinfesta-
tion, the next question is what can be done when it does occur? — and
to that question it appears to me that the investigators can supply a
fairly satisfactory answer. In the first place a good proportion of the
invading flies may be trapped by the use of suitable lures. Harvey
produced a lure which succeeded in doing so, while Jarvis^ demonstrated
tiie value of a cheap lure! composed of a sjmthetic essence of vanilla,
household ammonia and water. Subsequently Perkins and Hines®
obtained promising results in a preliminary experiment with ammonia
alone. The possibility of improving the existing lures has not been
overlooked, and a new lure is at present being experimented with by
the Department of Agriculture and Stock, the first experiments, con-
ducted in citrus orchards‘by Summerville,® giving very hopeful results.
The most recent line of investigation at Stanthorpe has been the use
of repellent sprays and in the course of these experiments Jarvis^® has
obtained definitely satisfactory results on certain fruits with a nicotine
sulphate-white oil mixture. Confirmation of these results has recently
been obtained by the New South Wales Department of Agriculture in the
course of experiments conducted in the Gosford district. The Queensland
Departmental work on this pest also included a series of experiments
by WeddelP^ Avith heat treatment of infested fruit, the experiments
having been suggested by similar Avork carried out during the course
of the eradication campaign conducted against the Mediterranean fruit
fly in Florida.

The investigation of the fruit fly problem has been attended by
many difficulties, one of the most important of which is the erratic
nature of the incidence of the pest, e.g., the fly is almost non-existent
in the Stanthorpe district this season, and that fact has rather played
havoc AA'ith our plans for the tests of the new fruit fly lure to which I
have already referred. Last year fruit fly was much more prevalent,
but some of our most promising experiments were ruined by hail. Othei
difficulties occur, such as those that Avould be encountered in any attempt
to demonstrate the power of the fly to migrate from, say, the Warwick
district to the Stanthorpe orchards. All our available evidence indicates
that it does so, but Ave would like to demonstrate the fact by liberating
large numbers of marked flies at suitable spots between WarAvick or
Toov/oomba and Stanthorpe and recovering some at least of the marked
flies in fruit fly traps, thus ascertaining just how far the flies would
travel from the centre at which they Avere liberated. The difficulties
to be faced in such an experiment are, however, \ery considerable, as
attendance upon an enormous number of traps would be necessary, and
furthermore, a A^ery cool reception would be the fate of any entomolo-
gist who liberated twenty or thirty thousand marked fruit flies even
in a district containing practically nothing but backyard fruit.

Not unnaturally the question of the possibility of the biological
control of this pest has frequently been raised, but it must be confessed
that the prospects of success in this direction are by no means bright.
Nevertheless the New South Wales Department of Agriculture has
recently thought it worth while to import parasites from India and

12

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Fiji, the importation from the former country having been financed in
part by the Federal Government. This experiment will be followed with
sympathetic interest and in the hope that some beneficial results may I
ensue.

The biological control of a species of fruit fly has already been
attempted in Hawaii where in 1913 and 1914 four parasites of the
Mediterranean fruit fly were introduced and established, three of the *
parasites having been obtained from Africa and the fourth from Aus-
tralia. The Australian species is an enemy of certain of our own
Queensland fruit flies which has sometimes been recorded as attacking
a large percentage of fruit fly maggots in native fruits, e.g., Perkins
and Hardy^^ found that of two hundred pupae of an unknown species
of fruit fly obtained in the soil beneath a mock olive tree in the Stan-
thorpe district, 76 per cent, had been parasitised. Unfortunately,
however, parasitism in cultivated fruits in Queensland is far from
common, the parasite evidently being more effective in the native fruits
possessing a relatively thin pulp.

Reporting on the results of the Hawaiian introductions in the
1922-24 period, Willard and BisselP^ state that the four species between
them '^parasitise nearly 50 per cent, of the larvae about Honolulu,
causing a corresponding decrease in infestation of the commercial hosts. ’ ’
They significantly add, in referring to the three Braconid parasites,
^'The host maggot must therefore be near the surface of the fruit in
order to be within reach of the parasite. Consequently in fleshy fruits
which afford an opportunity for maggots to burrow some distance beneath
the skin parasitism is low, whereas in small fruits and those containing
a large seed covered by thin pulp, where the maggots are necessarily
always near the outer surface of the fruit, parasitism is high.” The
fourth parasite, a Chalcid, can reach the fruit fly maggots only through
a break in the skin and its usefulness in commercial orchards must
obviously be restricted to fleshy fruits, the skin of which breaks readily |
when the fruit falls to the ground. f

Bach and Pemberton^^ were associated with the attempt to control
the jMediterranean fruit fly by the introduction of natural enemies to
Hawaii, in which country the pest was first recorded in June, 1910. The
introductions from Africa took place between May, 1913, and October,
1914, and v/riting in 1918 these two investigators state “Since adult
fruit flies can live many months and lay eggs quite regularly, they have
been able, with the aid of the unprecedented variety and abundance
of host fruits in Hawaii thus far to keep such an ascendency over their
parasites that they cause the infestation of practically all fruits ripening.

It would appear that unless effective pupal and egg parasites are intro-
duced, or more care is given to the elimination of host fruits which more
thoroughly protect the larvae from parasite attack, or to the planting of
fruits which make possible the reproduction of large numbers of para-
sites, little practical value will result from the work of the parasites
from the standpoint of rendering host fruits free from attack ’ ’ ; and
again they state “In Kona, Hawaii, where the percentage of parasitism
in coffee berries has been phenomenally high for three years, it has not
been high enough to free more than an occasional berry from attack.”

This must conclude my review of the fruit fly problem in the State,
a problem to which I have given a good proportion of my available
time partly because it is a definitely important one, and partly because
many, if not ail, of you, have some personal knowledge of the fruit fly.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

13

It is a problem in which we have made a considerable amount of progress,
but it is one in which we have not yet achieved a wholly satisfactory
solution. We claim, however, that we have probably made as much
progress with our fruit fly problem as has been made in the attack on
-other permanently established species of fruit flies overseas.

Woolly Apple Aphis.

Let us now pass to the consideration of another important deciduous
fruit pest, namely the woolly apple aphis. As many of you are prob-
ably unacquainted with this species, I might mention that it is a very
small sap-sucking insect feeding in enormous numbers in colonies on
the roots and branches of apple trees. The vernacular name has refer-
ence to the insect ’s habit of covering its body with long waxy threads.
Infested trees are very seriously impaired in health if severely attacked
bj^ this insect, a characteristic reaction to infestation being the produc-
tion of large unsightly excrescences where the colonies have been feeding.
The control of this serious pest has been attempted and successfully
achieved along three distinct lines and it is accordingly a good example
for present purposes.

The flrst attempt at control was in the direction of eliminating
infestation of the root system, the attempt, which was crowned with
complete success, being initiated in Victoria in 1868.^® This attempt was
suggested by a reference in Lindley ’s ^ ^ Guide to the Orchard, ’ ’ in which
attention is drawn to the fact that an old apple tree growing at Norwich
in England remained conspicuously free from woolly apple aphis infesta-
tion above ground, thus being in marked contrast to the neighbouring
trees which were all more or less severely attacked. The tree had been
grafted at a height of three feet, the graft being Winter Majetin, the
whole of which remained completely free from attack. Trees of this
variety were accordingly imported from England and were used as root
stocks in experiments during the years 1868 to 1870. As was hoped
would be the case those root stocks remained free from infestation.
Experiments were also conducted with Northern Spy root stock and these
were similarly successful. The problem of the control of the root infesta-
tion was thus solved by the introduction of resistent root stocks, and it
is pleasant to be able to record the fact that Australia pioneered the
work in this direction, the innovation being one which was soon followed
by California and other large fruit-producing countries.

The problem of the above ground infestation still remained to be
solved and eventually, with the introduction and increased popularity
of nicotine sulphate, it was generally dealt with by the use of that insecti-
cide. The position was appreciably improved by the use of nicotine
sulphate, but it was by no means wholly satisfactory because efficient
control could be achieved only by frequent applications of the spray,
thus involving the orchardist in a very considerable expenditure of both
time and money. Furthermore, the spray applications had mostly to be
made at a time when the orchardist was at his busiest harvesting and
packing fruit. It therefore not infrequently happened that the applica-
tions were not made as systematically as should have been the case and
effective control was accordingly not achieved.

Such was the position until 1923, when a colony of a small wasp
parasite {Apheliniis mali Ilald.) was obtained from New Zealand by
Jarvis^^ and liberated in the Stanthorpe district. The parasite multi-
plied rapidly and was soon distributed throughout the whole of the

14 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

various sections of the district. It has since functioned as a highly
efficient control factor during the months in which insect propagation
is normally at its peak. It has thus been possible to reduce the number
of spray applications from six or seven annually to two — one in spring
and the other in late autumn.

Thus we see that root infestation has been controlled by the use of
resistant root stocks, the above ground infestation has been largely held
in check by the introduction of a parasite and spray applications have
been reduced from six or seven per annum to, at most, two. I think we
are therefore justified in regarding the woolly apple aphis problem as
one which has been well nigh solved.

Cattle Poisoning Sawfly.

The insect to which I now desire to draw your attention is the cattle
poisoning sawfiy which differs in two important respects from those
already dealt with. Firstly, it is really a stock pest, being of import-
ance only as a result of the losses of cattle associated with its presence
in certain of our pastoral areas, and secondly, it is an instance of a
native species which was of no economic importance in the early days
of settlement, but which is now a menace to cattlemen in three important
cattle-raising areas.

Perhaps it might interest you to know just why this insect is of
economic importance and for that reason I shall give you a brief outline
of its association with cattle. Its larvae feed on the leaves of the silver-
leaf ironbark {Eucalypius melanophloia F.v.M.) and are particularly
abundant in the Maranoa, Warrego, and Leichhardt districts. They feed
voraciously on the leaves, and in those districts in which cattle fatalities
occur the larval population is frequently greatly in excess of the avail-
able food supply in the shape of silver-leaf ironbark foliage. With the
progress of defoliation the larvge each day drop to the ground in increas-
ing numbers, partly to escape Ihe high sun temperatures to which they
are increasingly exposed as a result of the progressive defoliation of
the host trees, and partly as a result of hunger following on the decrease
of food supplies. In the cool of the evening, however, the movement is
reversed, and many lavrsQ return to the feeding trees. Koberts^® has
pointed out that many soon become too weak to continue the daily
upward and downward movement and they die in great masses at the
foot of the trees wliere they form putrid heaps.

Now in iiortions of the districts mentioned the cattle feed with
avidity on the living and dead sawfiy larvse and even on the black
putrid decaying heaps. Following the ingestion of the decaying larvae
the cattle are described by Koberts as being affected in the following
manner. ‘‘They become excited and walk with a high stepping gait in
front, and a straggling gait behind and if startled will charge fiercely. ’ ’
Death may occur within fort^^-eight hours of the appearance of the
symptoms and the affected cattle seem to suffer acutely. It has been
suggested that death may be due to the presence of a toxin produced
by bacterial infection of the heaps of decayed larvae and that the living
larvae may be eaten with impunity. Such is the problem constituted
by the cattle poisoning sawfly, and having stated the problem the next
question is, what are we going to do about it?

I think it is obvious that direct control of the insect itself is out
of the question, for most of the land involved has such a low capital

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

15

value as to preclude expenditure on spraying even if an effective spray
■and spray plant were available. It has therefore been considered neces-
sary to attack this problem from quite a different angle, namely, by
attempting to ascertain why the cattle should feed on the putrid heaps
of dead sawfly larvae. It is considered possible that the depraved appe-
tite displayed by the cattle in the consumption of the putrid masses
may be a manifestation of a dietetic deficiency. It may be a phosphatic
deficiency, a theory that receives some support from the freedom from
loss which coincided with the use of phosphatic licks on a large holding
whereon serious losses occurred prior to the use of such licks. On
the other hand, the deficiency may be in proteins; but whichever, if
either, be the explanation of the depraved appetite, we are now obviously
in the province of the chemist and the veterinarian, and to them we
must look for a solution of the problem. Experiments with cattle whose
rations are controlled are now actually under way at the Animal Health
otation, Yeerongpilly, and in one of the affected pastoral areas, and we
are hopeful that these experiments will tell us whether or no a dietetic
■deficiency is responsible for the trouble. If the presence of a dietetic
deficiency be demonstrated then its correction should be a relatively
simple problem and, having eliminated the depraved appetite, the
presence of sawfly larvm on a pastoral holding should no longer be a
menace to the cattleman.

The Pinhole Borer of North Queensland Cabinet Woods.

For my next example of entomological investigational methods I
•sliall ask you to accompany me to the domain of forest entomology
and to see how we have attacked the problem of the control of the pinhole
borer of North Queensland cabinet woods.

Most of you are probably aware that during recent years there has
been a steadily growing appreciation of the value of these cabinet
Avoods, one of which, walnut bean {Endiandra Palmer stonii Bail.), was
lately and still is in great demand both overseas and in Australia for
the manufacture of veneers. Unfortunately a pinhole borer is a very
common pest of such timbers and if milling of the log is delayed for
any reason, it may become seriously infested throughout its whole
length. Such infestation does not necessarily reduce its value as struc-
tural timber, but its value for furniture making and for veneers is very
much greater than for building purposes, and pinhole borer infestation
either greatly reduces or completely eliminates its value to the manu-
facturer of furniture or veneers. Hence this insect constituted a very
serious menace to the satisfactory utilization of some of our North
Queensland timber resources.

The control of forest pests is generally a more than usually difficult
entomological problem and we entered on this investigation with grave
doubts as to our ability to produce results that the timber man would
regard as at all satisfactory. A comprehensive investigation, however,
was undertaken by Smith^^ on the Atherton Tableland where he worked
mainly in the forest reserves at Gadgarra and Wongabel. The life
history of the insect was closely studied, its association with the various
stages in the weathering of logs under different conditions and its
reaction to the general environmental factors receiving particular
attention.

Some interesting facts emerged from these studies, to three of which
I shall refer because of their important bearing on the problem of

16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

control. The first is that ‘^Mass infestation of log surfaces takes place
when temperatures are in the vicinity of 82 deg. Fahr. ’ ’ ; the second
that ‘ ‘ Logs held under complete canopy where temperatures seldom rise
above 80 deg. Fahr. are rarely attacked, ’ ’ and the third that ' ^ Similarly
logs more than 5 chains outside the rain forest escape infestation. In
the latter case the chemotropic stimulus peculiar to the felled log or'
sap wood surfaces of barked logs is insufficient to draw the insect from
the rain forest area. ’ ^

Control recommendations have been based on these and other
important points elucidated during the life history and environment
studies and the problem may be regarded as having been solved, for
either of two alternatives in the disposal of newly felled logs, not removed
immediately to the timber yard, can now be adopted with safety.

The logs may be removed from the rain forest to open country
ramps outside the zone of chemotropic attraction to the beetle, which
is very definitely a rain forest inhabiting species, and can be held there
with a reasonable degree of safety. If, on the other hand, it is imprac-
ticable to arrange for the immediate haulage of the logs from the rain
forest, the}^ can be held with safety in ramps established under canopy
for under unbroken canopy in North Queensland the temperature is
normally too low to permit of mass infestation by the beetle. The
problem is thus solved by modifications in logging practices, these
modifications being designed to eliminate either the chemotropic
influence or the temperature essential for severe infestation.

P ASP ALUM White Grub.

The Atherton Tableland also furnishes my final example to-night,
the insect in this case being the species commonly known as the paspalum.
white grub.

Agricultural activities on the Tableland, as most of you are prob-
ably aware, consist mainly of dairying and maize growing^ the former
being dependent in, large measure on paspalum (Paspahmv dilatatum
Boir.) pastures, i.e., the farming in the dairying sections is predomi-
nantly grassland farming. Malanda may be regarded as the main
dairying centre and there the farms have been gradually established in
the rain forest belt during the last thirty years.

The paspalum paddocks maintained a high carrying capacity for
quite a number of years following the inception of settlement, but in
certain localities there has since been a marked deterioration and the
present position is that on an area of approximately 25,000 acres, with
Peeramon as its centre, the carrying capacity has been seriously affected,
heavy white grub infestation being mainly but by no means wholly
responsible for the deterioration in the position. In certain cases the
situation has become sufficiently acute to cause the temporary
abandonment of the properties.

Perhaps I had better explain at this juncture that the white grub
feeds in the soil and, when present in large numbers, it completely
destroys the root system of the paspalum. The grass naturally dies
off, and not infrequently it can then be rolled up in long strips just
like a carpet.

This species has a two-year life cycle, the eggs being laid in the
soil during the flight period of the beetles, which takes place after the
occurrence of good spring or early summer rains. The grubs emerging

PRESIDENTIAIj address.

17

from these eggs feed in the soil until the second winter after hatclnng,
and it is during the later stages in the development of the grubs that
the heaviest injury is inflicted on paspalum paddocks. When full
o-rown, they pass through the pupal stage to the beetle stage, the beetles
subsequently emerging when the soil has been softened by the storm
rains of spring or early summer.

I have given you a brief outline of the life history of this species
as some knowledge thereof is essential to an appreciation of the reason
for its abnormal abundance during recent years and to an understanding
of what we are attempting to do in the matter of control.

Naturally the investigations, which have been conducted by
Smith^° and Atherton, included an effort to determine why the Table-
land should have been practically free from white grub losses until
about 1928. In this connection Smith investigated the rainfall records
and was forced to the conclusion that the degree of intensity of infesta-
tion was largely dependent on the volume of the spring and early
summer rainfall, the explanation of this association being somewhat as
follows. The grubs pupate* at a depth of two or three feet and it was
found that the beetles, on the completion of the pupal period, were
unable to work their way to the surface of the soil until it had been
thoroughly softened by rain. Should the spring or early summer rains
fail a very large percentage of the beetles are unable to reach the soil
surface and perish without mating and laying eggs. Hence adverse
climatic conditions during the flight period automatically reduce
infestation.

The weather data show that dry springs maintained an effective
check on beetle emergence for quite a number of years but that in
1929, 1931, and 1933 wet springs were experienced and these produced
a high percentage of beetle emergence from the soil. The white grub
population has as a consequence been steadily building up until a
culmination was reached in the disastrous losses of the autumn and
winter of 1935.

The investigations disclosed no natural control factor of conse-
quence other than the rainfall influence just mentioned. Furthermore,
it was soon evident that little could be hoped for from insecticidal control.
Soil fumigation has certainly been demonstrated to be a satisfactory
measure for the control of white grubs on the high priced coastal areas
under sugar-cane. The cost of such a control measure, however, is
prohibitive on the much less valuable dairying country on the Tableland.

It may be that a natural enemy such as the giant American toad
{Bufo marinus L.) will prove of value in control if and when it spreads
from the coastal belt to the Tableland. The prospects, however, of
biological control by the introduction of insect enemies are by no means
bright for here we are dealing with a native species and experience
indicates that the biological control method offers reasonable prospects
of success only in the case of introduced pests.

Under these circumstances we have been forced to the conclusion
that the solution of the problem lies in the direction of an alteration
in farming practice in the infested areas. The required alteration is
a change from grassland dairying to mixed farming and it is believed
that such a change is desirable agriculturally as well as entomologically.

18

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSIjAND.

Although the entomological investigation has yielded no direct
measures of control in this particular case, it has made available a very
considerable mass of valuable information which is essential to the
success of the proposed alteration in farming practice.

The magnitude of the flight of the beetles is an easily observed
incident and we know that heavy losses of pasture will occur during
the late summer and winter of the second year following a large flight
of beetles. We also know that losses will- not be severe until then, i.e,,
until the grubs are in an advanced stage of development. The farmer
thus has ample warning of the extent of the losses he is likely to sustain
eighteen months from the date of the flight and he thus has a reasonable
period in which to make preparations for meeting the impending short-
age of grass by growing cow cane or winter cereals and by producing
silage. Fortunately general fleld crops are not menaced by the white
grub for ample evidence has been obtained that the beetles do not lay
their eggs in cultivated soil. Therefore in view of their freedom from
attack, except by carry-over grubs from newly broken up grass paddocks,
cultivated crops, which constitute a satisfactory source of milk, should
feature much more conspicuously in the programme of the Tableland than
is the case at present and grass should be treated as one of a number of
crops in a rotation. With this objective the Department of Agriculture
and Stock has established a considerable series of experimental plots
to obtain information required to facilitate the change to mixed
farming.

Conclusion.

In the time at my disposal to-night I have endeavoured to show how
we are striving to prevent additions to our entomological problems in
Queensland by paying reasonable attention to quarantine measures. I
have also endeavoured to indicate how we are dealing with the existing
problems, the five insects discussed having been chosen because each
represents a different type of problem in which the sum of the various
lines of attack covered most of the field of entomological control
measures.

As is the case in all investigational work varying degrees of success
have been achieved, but the measure of success in entomological work
in this State has, I think, been sufficient to warrant some degree of quiet
optimism. Whether or no that be the case, the insect menace is a ver>^
real one for it is no exaggeration to say that the future may well witness
a still more serious struggle between man and insect for the world’s
available food supply. Even the present position is, in *all truth, serious
enough and it constitutes a challenge which cannot safely be ignored.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. Harned, E. W. : ^‘Entomology in the Southern States.” Journ. Eeon. Ent., Vol.

21, p. 59, 1928.

2. Howard, L. O. : “The Insect Menace,” p. 150, London, 1931.

3. Tryon, Henry: “Eeport; Insect and Fungns Pests No. 1,” p. 54, Brisbane,

1889.

4. Jarvis, Hubert; “Progress Eeport on Fruit Fly Investigation.” Cyclostyled

Eeport, Qld. Dept. Agr. and Stock, 1926.

5. Perkins, F. A. : “ Eeport of the Stanthorpe and District Eesearch Fellowship

during the period 1st October to 31st December, 1923. ’ ’ Cyclostyled Eeport,

Brisbane, 1924.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

19

6. Smith, Chas. E., and Allen, Norman: ‘‘The Migratory Habit of the Spotted

Cncumber Beetle.’^ Journ. Econ. Ent., Vol. 25, p. 53, 1932.

7. Jarvis, Hubert: ‘‘Experiments with a New Fruit Fly Lure.’’ Qld. Agr. Journ.,

Vol. 36, p. 485, 1931.

8. Perkins, F. A., and Hines, H. J. : “A Note on Some Preliminary Experiments

with Ammonia as a Lure for the Queensland Fruit Fly.” Proc. Roy. Soe.
Qld., Vol. 45, p. 29, 1933.

9. Summerville, W. A. T. : “Report on Fruit Fly Luring Experiments.” Cyclo-

styled Report, Qld. Dept. Agr. and Stock, November, 1934.

10. Jarvis, Hubert; “Spraying Experiments for the Control of Fruit Fly in the

Stanthorpe District.” Qld. Agr. Journ., Vol. 42, p. 470, 1934.

11. Jarvis, Hubert: “Spraying Experiments for the Control of Fruit Fly in the

Stanthorpe District.” Qld. Agr. Journ., Vol. 44, p. 560, 1935.

12. Weddell, J. A. : “ Experiments with the Heat Treatment of Fly-infested Fruit. ’ ’

Qld. Agr. Journ., Vol. 36, p. 141, 1931.

13. Perkins, F. A., and Hardy, G. H. ; “The Hibernation and Parasitism of a Fruit

Fly in the Stanthorpe District.” Qld. Agr. Journ., Vol. 23, p. 431, 1925.

14. Willard, H. F., and Bissell, T. L. : “Parasitism of the Mediterranean Fruit

Fly in Hawaii, 1922-24.” Circ. No. 109, U.S. Dept. Agr., 1930.

15. Back, E. A., and Pemberton, C. E.; “The Mediterranean Fruit Fly.” Bulletin

No. 640, U.S. Dept. Agr., 1918.

16. French, C. : “Handbook of the Destructive Insects of Victoria.” Part I., p.

35, 1891.

17. Jarvis, Hubert: “Apple Tree Woolly Aphis and Its Subjugation by ApJielinus

mAli Hald. ” Qld. Agr. Journ., Vol. 23, p. 314, 1925.

18. Roberts, F. II. S. : “The Cattle Poisoning Sawfly. ” Qld Agr. Journ., Vol. 37,

p. 41, 1932.

19. Smith, J. Harold: “The Pinhole Borer of North Queensland Cabinet Woods.”

Qld. Agr. Journ., Vol. 43, pp. 442 and 532, and Vol. 44, pp. 9 and 145, 1935.

20. Smith, J. Harold: “White Grub Damage to Pastures on the Atherton Table-

land.” Qld. Agr. Journ., Vol. 46, 1936.

21. Atherton, D. O.: “Grass Pests of the Atherton Tableland.” Qld. Agr. Journ.,

Vol. 36, p. 474, 1931.

20

VoL. XLVIII., No. 2.

*

Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora — Part

VII. — Melaleuca pubescens.

By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I., and F. N. Lahey, B.Sc.

(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 2Sth October, 1935.)

Melaleuca pubescens is a very common tree in Queensland in the
Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) scrubs of South-eastern Queensland where
it presents rather a serious problem in clearing the country as it suckers
freely and is rather hard to kill. It is a small tree with rather tight blackish
bark. The leaves are small and narrow and measure about one centimetre
in length. They are commonly recurved. The flowers are borne in great
abundance in mid-summer and are white and arranged in spikes of two
to four centimetres in length. The seed capsules are borne on the older
wood and remain on the tree for some time and are the size and shape of a
small pea.

100 lb. of leaves collected from the Inglewood district gave 140 ccs. of
oil with a strong odour of cineol. Owing to the cost of collection a second
supply was not obtained. The oil on examination conformed to the pinene,
cineol type of oil, cineol being present to the extent of 50 per cent.
(Cooking’s method). Terpineol was also present, together with sesqui- »
terpene, probably aromadendrene.

Experimental.

The oil possessed the following constants : —

n5 1-4600

Md +8*6

Ester value . . . . . . 4-5

Acetyl value . . . . . . 22*7

After a preliminary washing with dilute sodium hydroxide solution,
which removed a trace only of a phenolic body and examination for aldehydes
(absent) the oil 120 ccs. was submitted to fractional distillation under
diminished pressure 24 mms. and fractions obtained as under a, b, c —

(a) The fractions of lower boiling point (60-95° C.) 90 ccs. so obtained
were shaken with 50 per cent, resorcin solution to remove cineol and the
residue refractionated giving a head fraction with the following constants : —

di5.5 -8664

N2 1-4637

Md 16-2

Identity with d- a -pinene was established by the preparation of the
nitrosyl chloride (M.P. 109°C.) and of pinonic acid (M.P. of semicarbazone
204° C.).

Cineol, liberated from the resorcin compound by steam distillation
possessed the following constants : —

^15. 5 *930

1-4588

b.p. 176°-177°C.

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM THE QUEENSLAND FLORA — PART VII., ETC. 21

Identity with cineol was established by formation of the o-cresol
compound M.P. 55° C.

(6) The fraction 95°-115° C. (10 ccs.) possessed the following constants: —
di5.5 -9174

[a]D —25

N® 1-475

It was washed with resorcin solution and together with tail fractions
from {a) after separation of pinene and cineol was refractionated.

2 CCS. of liquid with the characteristic odour of a-terpineol were
obtained with the following constants : —

^15-5 *932

Wd -1-5

1-480

Combustion results indicated CioHigO (Found C = 78 per cent. H =-
11*7) and confirmation as terpineol was obtained by preparing the phenyl
urethane (M.P. 113° C.).

(c) The fraction 115-130° C. (5 ccs.) possessed the following constants —
di5.5 -9258

Wn +1*5

1-4910

Presence of sesquiterpene was demonstrated by the acetic acid, bromine
vapour colour test. No solid derivatives were obtained, thus suggesting
aromadendrene, but the amount available did not admit of further
examination.

The authors are indebted to the Forestry Department for collection
of leaves and to Mr. C. T. White for botanical assistance.

22

VoL. XLVIII., No. 3.

Notes on Australian Muscoidea II.

Subfamily Muscinae.

By G. H. Hardy.

{Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland, 21th April, 1936.)

In Australia only five valid genera of the family Mnscidse come
within the subfamily Museinge but many more names have been given
generic status and brought into the Australian section of this fauna.
Also Gordonia Malloch has been placed in this section but the descrip-
tion is too inadequate for determining its true status and I have not
succeeded in recognising a specimen.

Key to genera of Muscince.

]. Metallic flies. Eidge bordering squama bare {Fyrellia) or hairy. In the latter
case the presutural dorsocentrals may be absent (PseudopyrelUa) or present
(Orthellia). Presutural acrostichals absent. Pteropleura with hairs.
Prosternum varying from hairy to quite bare. Bristles on lower branch of
radial vein extend for a considerable distance . . . . . . Fyrellia

Non-metallic flies. Eidge bordering squama bare . . . . . . . . . . 2

2. Pteropleura with hairs. Presutural acrostichals absent. Prosternum hairy only at

edges. E'ristles on lower branch of radial vein, when present, restricted to
the base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Musca

Pteropleura bare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3. Arista bare (unique to genus). Presutural acrostichals leresent. Prosternum

hairy. Bristles on lower branch of radial vein restricted to base. Inter-
frontalia hairy but wdthout outstanding bristles . . . . SyntJiesiomyia

Arista plumose. Prosternum bare. Bristles extending a considerable distance
along lower branch of radial vein . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

4. Both sexes with wide hairy interfrontalia containing a pair of bristles (unique^. K

to genus). With presutural acrostichals. Eyes hairy .. Fasseromyiaf-

Interfrontalia bare. Eyes bare. Without presutural acrostichals Graphomya

' Genus Pyrellia Desvoidy. ^ J

Eobineau-Desvoidy, Essai Myodaires, 1830, 462.

There are three sections in this genus named in the key, but |
characters are found to grade on exotic forms they cannot be regarded^
as genera of satisfactory status. The identity of the species listed below,
rests on material identified somewhere about 1920 by the late Professor ■
M. Bezzi, by Major E. E. Austen who compared specimens with Walker’s !
types, and by the late Dr. J. M. Aldrich. This material, handled origin- I
ally by Professor T. Harvey Johnston, has long been under my charge,
together with some material bred by Johnston and Bancroft. .

Key to species of Fyrellia.

1. Without presutural dorsocentral bristles. Eidge bordering squama hairy. Vivid
blue species with antenna) usually yellow. Upper eye-facets enlarged on
male. On female the frons is as wide as, or wider than, the eye-width, and
the interfrontalia much narrower than parafrons . . . . . . . • 2

W^ith two presutural dorsocentrals, often very short and the second pair of
bristles may be weak or even missing. The antennae are usually black. The
frons narrower than the eye-width and the interfrontalia wider than the *
i parafrons on the female . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • •

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA II.

23

2. Larger species. Eyes of the male separated by the width of an eye-

facet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lauta Wied.

Smaller species. Eyes of male separated by the width of three eye-
facets . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . caeruJeaWied.

3. Ridge bordering squama hairy. Legs entirely black . . . . . . .. 4:

Ridge bordering squama bare. Femora metallic green . . tasmaniae Macq.

4. Eyes of male with well defined area of enlarged facets and separated by the width

of one facet. Larger bluer species, anterior spiracle usually faun . . egle Bigot

Eyes of male without defined area of enlarged facets and separated by width of
ocellar triangle. Smaller greener species with anterior spiracle usually
black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . maronea Walk.

Pyrellia lauta Wied.

Musca lauta Wiedemann, Ausserenr. zweifl. Ins. ii. 1830, 410.

OrthelUa lauta Anbertin. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10) xi. 1933, 141.

Musca proerna Walker. List Dipt. B. Mns. iv. 1849, p. 888.

One specimen was identified by Austen under Walker’s name and
another by Bezzi as being Wiedemann’s species. The synonymy has
alreadj^ been published by Aubertin.

Hah. — Queensland. Although it occurs in Brisbane, this is mainly
a North Queensland species which extends through the islands, Java being
the type locality.

Pyrellia caerulea Wiedemann,

Musca caerulea Wiedemann. Zool. Mag. III., 1819, 23.

Lucilia viricUceps Macquart. Dipt. Exot. suppl. iv. 1849, 249.

Pyrellia proerna Johnston and Tiegs. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland,
xxxiv. 1922, 100 — nec AValker, 1849.

This common Brisbane species breeds in cow-dung and a specimen
so bred was identified by Aldricli as viricUceps. Johnston and Bancroft
did not recognise it as distinct from the prior species and I have been
unable to find a satisfactory character for separating the females of
these two closely allied forms although they seem to stand separated on
colour, the present one being referred to by Johnston and Tiegs as
cobalt blue. It is the form known to Johnston, Bancroft and Tiegs as
being proerna and they placed it in Pseulopyrellia on characters, I think,
other than those given in the key and which I find are unsatisfactory
for the Australian material. The species also occurs in Sydney.
Aubertin placed Macquart ’s name as a synonym.

Pyrellia egle Bigot.

Pyrellia viridifrons Macquart. Dipt. Exot. suppl. 4. 1849, 251.

(Preoccupied by Lucilia viridifrons Macq., 1843, also a Pyrellia.)

Pyrellia egle Bigot. Ann. Ent. Soc. France (5), viii. 1878, 37.
Brauer. Denk. K. Ak. Wiss. m.-n. Cl. cviii. 1899, 527.

PseudortheUia viridiceps Townsend. Ins. Ins. Mens. iv. 1916, 44.
Nee. Macquart, 1849.

In literature this species seems to have been confused owing to
Townsend who apparently made it the type of his PseudortheUia^
erroneously giving Macquart ’s name viridiceps as genotype. Characters
given by Townsend certainly suggest this. Johnston and Tiegs (1922, p.

24

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

100) make the remark that Aldrich considered viridifrons and viridiceps,
may be the same species. This suggests that a confusion existed in
America between two forms and Aldrich was following Townsend. The
presutural dorsocentrals are often difficult to detect, leading to possible
misalliances, but the frons is( so very much narrower in the present
case that errors of this nature may be readily detected. No specimen
of the present form existed in the Johnston collection and hence it had
not been identified.

Of the forms known to me, only two can fit the description of egle,
the other one being w.aronea. The latter, however, almost invariably
has the anterior spiracle black, only one specimen before me being
otherwise coloured, whereas the spiracle is usually reddish on the present
species conforming to Bigot ’s description ' ' cicitrice, subhumerali f ulva, ’ ’
and exceptions are rare.

Hob. — Queensland. Common around Brisbane.

Pyrellia maronea Walker.

Musca maronea Walker. List Dipt. B. Mus. iv. 1849, 886.

Orthellia maronea Aubertin. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10) xi. 1933,

142.

Musca donysa Walker. List Dipt. Brit. Mus. iv. 1849, 886.

Pyrellia nigriceps Macquarf. Dipt. Exot. suppl. 4. 1849, 252.

Schiner, Novara Keisa. Dipt. 1866, 304.

The synonymy is given by Aubertin and a male specimen before me
was compared with the type by Austen, this fixing the identity of the
species.

Hah. — Queensland: Brisbane. New South Wales: Sydney.

Pyrellia tasmaniae Mac quart.

Pyrellia tasmaniae Macquart. Dipt. Exot. suppl. 1. 1846, 199.

Musca extrema Walker. Ins. Saund. Dipt. 1853, 348.

Pyrellia australis of Authors is probably this species — nec. Macq.

There is only one species of Pyrellia known to me from Tasmania
and it extends to Brisbane where it is quite common. Macquart ’s
description of this, the first Pyrellia he described from the Common-
wealth, is very short and unsatisfactory, but Walker mentions the green
metallic femora which leaves little doubt concerning the identity of
his form.

None of the authors give information for the determination of their
identification of australis and no specimens are marked as such in the
Johnston collection. Moreover I have not seen any Pyrellia that fits
Macquart ’s description, the figure of the wing iri this case being
extraneous to the genus whilst his other figures conform.

Hah. — Queensland to Tasmania. Generally distributed.

Note. — The specimens identified by Proggatt for Johnston as being
tasmanicB belong either to lauta or ccerulea, perhaps both, but the label
is attached to the former. ^

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA II.

25

Pyrellia sp.

Specimens bred by Johnston and Bancroft, and identified as being
near australis, are very small and seem to have a wider frons on the
male than is the case with tasmaniae. No male captured conforms to
them, but a female comes from the Queensland National Park (A. J.
Turner, March, 1929) which specimen certainly has a wider frons sug-
gesting it is a new and undescribed minute species, half the length of
a normal specimen of P. tasmaniae, and a quarter that of P. egle. The
femora are green, at least in part on the captured specimen, but this
character is not apparent on the four bred specimens before me. Pre-
sumably the species has been overlooked owing to its minute size.

Hab. — Queensland.

Species unidentified. ;i

P. australis Macquart. Dipt. Exot. suppl. 3, 1848, 57.

P. analis Macquart. Dipt. Exot. suppl. 5. 1855, 114.

Genus Musca Linn.

Linnmis. Syst. Nat. 1758, 589.

There have been attempts to divide this genus, the characters given
being quite inadequate for the purpose, but Patton has shown that there
are quite natural groups within it. The known Australian species wxre
dealt with by Johnston and Bancroft and the synonymy by Patton.

Key to species of Musca.

1. With pleural hairs lying in front of anterior spiracle and below humeral callus.

Interfrontalia exceptionally wide on both sexes. With two pairs of stripes
extending full length of thorax. Abdomen of male reddish-yellow, of
female dark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . domestioa L.

Without pleural hairs lying in front of anterior spiracle. Interfrontalia usually
much narrower on female, always narrower on male. Inner stripes of
thorax usually shorter than, or fused with, outer ones . . . . 2

2. Only the male with abdomen reddish-yellow, that of the female being

dark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

B'oth sexes with abdomen reddish-yellow. Eyes of male narrowly separated,
stripes of thorax separated . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3. Larger species, 6 mm. or more with inner stripe of the thorax separated

from the outer one. Eyes of male practically contiguous. Inter-
frontalia of female exceptionally narrow, ocf’unving barely half width of
frons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . fergusoni J. & B.

Smaller species with inner stripes of thorax fused with outer. Eyes of male
separated by width of half ocellar triangle. Interfrontalia of female
slightly over half width of frons . . . . . . . . Walk.

4. Larger species, 6 mm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MIK J. & B.

Smaller species, 4i mm. . . , . . . . . . . . . terraereginae J. & B,

I do not know how to define differences between hilli and terrae-
reginae. They are listed as valid species by Patton, but Johnston and
Bancroft’s specimens show so much variation that a line of demarka-
tion does not seem to be available and the authors did not draw up a
list of comparative characters. Evidently they left differences to be
inferred by the drawings and these show nothing conclusive, distinctions
showing there not always showing on the specimens.

26

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Musca domestica Linn.

Miisca domestica Linn. 1758. Johnston and Bancroft. Proc. Roy.
Soc. Qiueensiand, xxxi. 1920, 181-203, figs. Johnston and Tiegs. Proc.
Roy. Soc. Queensland, xxxiv. 1922, 91. Patton. Bull. Ent. Res.
London, xii. 1922, 424 ; and Philippine Journ. Sci. xxvii. 1923, 312.

Musca australis Macquart. Dipt. Exot. suppl. 4. 1849, 266.

AValker. List Dipt. B. Mus. iv. 1849, 901. Patton. Philippine Journ.
Sei. xxvii. 1925, 186. Nec. J. and B. 1920 (Preoccupied Boisduval).

Musca minor Macquart. Dipt. Exot. suppl. 4. 1849, 253. Patton.
Philippine Journ. Sci. xxvii. 1923, 195.

The very wide interfrontalia on both sexes is a character useful for
the ready recognition of this species which occurs throughout the
Commonwealth.

Musca vicina Macq.

M. vacina Macquart, described from America, was originally
regarded by Patton as an atypical species of domestica, but more*
recently he has established it as a distinct species inhabiting the tropics

with a distribution reaching the Mediterranean and North China.

%

A record of M. domestica Linn, as a bush fly in Australia by G. F.
Hill (Ann. Trop. Med. and Parisit. xv., 1921, p. 93) may possibly refer to
this species for Austen identified material submitted by Hill as being
a variety of domestica which Hill recorded without accepting.

The possibility of Hill having made an error in his identification
must not be overlooked and his is the only reference I have found that
suggests M. vicina Maccj, occurs in the Northern Territory and North
Queensland.

The species is to be distinguished by the frons of the male being
slightly narrower, and the female has perhaps more brown in its colour
pattern. Patton records differences in the terminalia of the male and
records overlapping in its distribution and that of M. domestica.

Musca fergusoni J. and B.

Milica convexifrons (Thomson, 1868). Patton. Philippine Journ.
Sci. xxiii. 1923, 334; and xxvii. 1925, 186, 198. ■ G

* i

Eumusca australis Townsend. Ins. Insc. Mens. iv. 1916, 44. 1 1

Musca australis Johnston and Bancroft. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queens-
land. 1920, xxxi., 182. Nec. Macquart, nec. Boisduval. ^

Viviparomusca fergusoni Johnston and Bancroft. Mem. Queens-
land Mus. vii. 1920, 31. f

Musca fergusoni Johnston and Tiegs. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland,,
xxxiv. 1922, 97. Patton. Bull. Ent. Res. London, xii. 1922, 425 ; and
Philippine Journ. Sci. xxvii. 1925, 198; and Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit.
xxvi. 1932, 382.

For the ready recognition of this species it will be noted the eyes
of the male are practically contiguous and the interfrontalia on the
female is less than half the width of the frons. The species is only
known to me from Queensland for certain, as the identified female I
examined from Darwin does not conform in head characters whilst the

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA II.

27

male with it is evidently vetustissima. The stripes, often to be distinctly
seen with the inner pair short, may be traceable to the full length of
the thorax, depending largely on the incidence of the light and the
condition of the specimen.

Musca vetustissima Walker.

fMusca pumila Macquart. Dipt. Exot. suppl. 3. 1848, 58.

Musca vetustissima Walker. List Dipt. B. Mns. iv. 1849, 902.
Johnston and Bancroft. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xxxi. 1920, 195 ;
and Mem. Queensland Mus. vii. 1920, 41 (Eumusca) . Johnston and
Tiegs. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xxxiv. 1922, 95. Patton. Philip-
pine Journ. Sci., xxiii. 1923, 315 ; and xxvii. 1925, 186, 196.

Musca corvina Froggatt, nec. Fabricius. Patton. Philippine
Journ. Sci., xxiii. 1923, 314.

Musca pumila Patton. Bull. Ent. Res. London, xii. 1922, 424.

Macquart described two species from Australia, one as australis
the type of which was found to be domestica, and the other Patton first
identified as being the present species, then later relinquished the name
pumila as the type was lost. Macquart ’s material was obtained entirely
from south-eastern Australia and Tasmania where apparently only two
species of Musca occur, suggesting that Patton’s original identification
is correct, so the name might be revived with this assurance as to the
identity of Macquart ’s species.

The species is distributed throughout the Commonwealth, and
causes considerable annoyance, swarming (sometimes in many
hundreds) around persons and animals.

Musca hilli J. and B.

Musca hilli Johnston and Bancroft. Mem. Queensland Mus., vii.
1920, 35. Johnston and Tiegs. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xxxiv.
1922, 99. Patton. Bull. Ent. Res. London, xii. 1922, 425 ; and Philip-
pine Journ. Sci., xxvii. 1925, 198.

Hah . — Queensland.

Musca. terraereginae J. and B.

fMusca prisca Walker. List Dipt. B. Mus., iv. 1849, 903.

Musca terraereginae Johnston and Bancroft. Mem. Queensland Mus.,
vii. 1920, 31. Johnston and Tiegs. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xxxiv.
1922, 98. Patton. Bull. Ent. Res. London, xii. 1922, 425 ; and Philip-
pine Journ. Sci., xxvii. 1925, 198.

Patton examined Walker’s type which is in poor condition and
suggested the species might be the same as that described by Johnston
and Bancroft.

Hah. — Queensland.

Genus Synthesiomyia B. and B.

Synthesiomyia Brauer and Bergenstamm. Muscaria Schizometops,
iii. 1893, pp. 96, 110, 159, and 178.

t

Synthesiomyia hrasiliensis.

fCyrtoneura flavico7'nis Macq. 1849, nec. Macq., 1843.

28

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Synthesiomyia hrasiliensis Brauer and Bergenstamm. Muscaria
Schizometops, iii. 1893, pp. 96, 110, 159, and 178.

In 1813, Macquart gave tlie name Cyrtoneura Jlavicornis to a Oy
from ' ' 1 ’isle de France ’ ’ and again in 1849 to a fiy without locality, but
the second species had been regarded as Australian and seems to be the
form subsequent described by Brauer and Bergenstamm.

I believe this species is also known as 7mdistyla v.d.Wulp, at the
British Museum, but no specimens were labelled as such by Ahsten.,
Doubtless the synonymy has been published somewhere but I have not
found it.

A specimen before me was identified as 8. brasilie^isis B. and B. by
Aldrich and was the record upon which Johnston and Bancroft first
recognised its presence in Australia. One specimen is labelled as having
been reared from larvie in carrion, presumably by Johnston and Tiegs.

The species is readily recognised by its bare arista and red-brown
tip on the abdomen. It is very common in Brisbane over the winter
months.

Genus Passero77tyia R. and Y.

Passeromyia Rodham and Villeneuve. Bull. Soc. Path. exot. 1915^

428.

Ortliomusca Townsend. Ins. Insc. Menst., iv. 1916, 45.

Passeromyia longicornis Macquart.

Cyrtoiieura loiigicornis IMacquart. Dipt. Exot. suppl. 4. 1849, 255,

Muscina heterochaeta Villeneuve. Bull Soc. Ent. Prance. 1915, 227.

I

Passero7nyia lieterocJiaeta Rodhain and Villeneuve. Bull. Soc. Pathl |
exot., viii. 1915, 428. *

Omithomusca victoria Townsend. Ins. Insc. Mens., iv. 1916, 45.

This fly figures rather extensively in the Australian literature as
it is readily bred from newly deserted bird ’s nests and in these cases it is
heavily infested by three genera of blowfly parasites, Mormoniella,
Paraspilomic7ms and Tachmaephcegiis. A series bred from nests of
Myzantha garrula (Noisy Miner) and some captured specimens are
before me.

Hal). — Queensland to Victoria, but probably occurs widely over the
Commonwealth.

Genus Oraphomya Desvoidy.

Robineau Desvoidy. Essai Myod. 1830, 403. Mackerras. Proc.
Lin. Soc., N.S. Wales, Ivii. 1932, 361.

Graphomya maculata rufitihia Stein.

Stein. Ann Mus. Hung., xvi. 1918, 147. Mackerras. Proc. Lirm,
Soc., N.S. Wales, Ivii. 1932, 361.

Hah. — Queensland and New South Wales. Two males and six
females before me were taken in Brisbane during the months of June^

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA II.

29

July, October and November from 1928 to 1933. All were taken at
rest on leaves, most of tliem on a mango tree at Sunnybank. The fly is
probably not uncommon though seldom seen.

Graphomya campbelli Mackerras.

Mackerras. Proc. Lin. Soc., N.S. Wales, Ivii. 1932, 363.

Hah. — North Australia. The species was descrif)ed from a unique
male.

R.S.— B.

30

VoL. XLVIII., No. 4.

The Analysis of Co-variance and its Use in
Correcting for Irregularities of Stand in
Agricultural Trials for Yield.

By L. G, Miles, B.Sc.Agr., Ph.D., and W. W. Bryan, M.Sc.Agr.

{Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland, 21th April, 1936.)

Irregularities in stand have proved a frequent source of trouble in
agricultural yield trials. The effects of such irregularity may be reflected
in an increased residual variability, or ‘‘ error ” component, coupled with
decreased precision of the experiment, or they may actually affect certain
varieties or treatments more than others, resulting in biassed or altogether
erroneous conclusions. With root crops or transplanted crops, marked
differences in stand may result through the complete failure of certain
hills, while even with sown crops such as maize, yield results may be
seriously affected by missing hills, or plants. Such gaps with sown crops
are often caused by soil pests or diseases which destroy young seedlings,
or may be due to inherently poor germination of the seed. In the former
case, it is obviously not fair to penalise any one or more treatments because
they have chanced to coincide with unfavourable soil areas. Even in
the latter case, where the seed itself is at fault, the losses due to poor
germination are almost always attributable to age of the seed or lack of
care in its handling, and not to any failing of the variety itself. In such
cases the question naturally arises : Are we justified in correcting our
yields on a basis of stand counts ?

Numerous maize workers have studied the effects of missing hills on
the yield of adjacent hills and on the plot yield ; the general conclusion
has been that, with ordinary rates of sowing, losses due to missing hiUs
may be partially but not wholly counteracted by the increased yield of
neighbouring hiUs or plants.^ ® Where two or more adjacent plants are
missing the reduction in yield will of course be more marked than if the
same number of non-ad jacent plants had been lost. The actual extent to
which variations from a perfect stand affect yields can never be definitely
worked out however, as it will vary with season, with soil type, and with
rate of planting adopted. Nevertheless, it has been the invariable practice
of some workers to correct yields for stand differences before analysing
their results. Such corrections, though perhaps very desirable, are quite
arbitrary since they imply unity correlation between yield and the figures
taken to represent stand. The “ co-variance ” technique, however,
described by Fisher^ in 1932, and later by Wisharf^ and Snedecor,^ has
offered the most logical and reasonable method of adjusting yields on a
basis of stand.

This method of analysis has numerous applications, but in cases such
as that in question it aims at determining the residual unit plot correlation
between yield and stand, after block and treatment effects have been
removed ; treatment means are then corrected on the basis of a regression
of stand, which is actually proven to exist.

The application of the method is well illustrated in the case of a recent
maize varietal trial conducted at the Queensland Agricultural College
during the summer 1934-35. Ten varieties were under test (here indicated
by the letters A to J), the plan of the experiment being a 10 x 10 Latin

IRREGULARITIES OF STAND IN AGRICULTURAL TRIALS FOR YIELD. 31

Square, with 6-row plots, 54 ft. by 27 ft. These varieties were from different
sources, and examination of the seed lots of G, H, and J showed them to
be rather badly damaged by weevil, and to contain a number of dead grains.
This condition was reflected in the impaired stands of these varieties after
germination. Plant counts were therefore made on all plots, and recorded
together with resultant plot yields.

An analysis of variance of Yield (Y), was made in the usual way.
Portion of this analysis will be found under the heading Y in Table II.
Application of the z test showed that highly significant differences between
varieties were to be expected, and a summary of the results is given in
Table I. It was evident that the four varieties lowest in yield were also
those lowest in stand, so that had stands been equal in all cases, the order
might have been very different.

The next step, therefore, was an analysis of variance of stand counts
(X), proceeded with in exactly the same manner as that of yield. The
salient features of this analysis also appear in Table II. under heading X.
Here again the z test showed that the observed inter -varietal differences
were probably highly significant, and that therefore correction of yields
would be justified if yield were shown to be correlated with stand.

TABLE I.

Summary of Unadjusted Yields.

Variety.

Yie

Lb. per Plot.

LD.

Bu. per Acre.

Signiflcaptly

Exceeds.

A

86-76

46-3

DEFGHIJ

B

80-60

43-0

EFGHIJ

\J

78-09

41-7

FGHIJ

D

73-51

39-2

IJ

E

69-92

37-3

IJ

F

68-01

36-3

J

G

65-00

34-7

J

H

64-68

34-5

J

I

60-72

32-4

J

J

43-46

23-2

S.E. (Mean of 10 Plots) = 3'058 lb. Signif. diflf. ■= 9U7 lb.

The third step was an analysis of co -variance of X and Y. This is
proceeded with in a manner closely parallel with that of the analysis of
variance of X and Y, except that its basis is sums of products of X and Y,
instead of sums of squares of either X or Y. Thus the formula for “ total
sum of products becomes UX.Y — X'X(My) ; and that for varieties,
UXyYy -y N — YX (My) ; where Xy represents varietal stand totals, Yy
varietal yield totals, and N the number of plots per variety. Similar formulae
of course hold for rows and columns, while the sum of products for error is
obtained by subtraction. The quotient, sum of products devided by degrees
of freedom, represents “ mean product ” or “ co -variance,” and is
comparable with the mean square or variance obtained in analyses of
variance. The analyses of variance and co-variance are shown in condensed
form in Table II.

32

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

TABLE IT.

Analyses op Variance and Co-Variance.

Due to —

D.F.

Yield (Y)

Stand (X)

Co -VARIANCE (XY)

Sum sqs.

Mean Sq.

Sum sqs.

Mean Sq.

Sum Prod.

M. ' Prod.

r

Rows

9

3475-090

386-121

58652-0

6516-89

10456-328

1161-814

-732

Columns

9

1184-783

131-642

68660-4

7628-93

6686-631

742-959

-741

Varieties

9

13103-303

1455-923

113949-8

12661-09

35225-108

3913-901

-912

Error

72

6732-363

93-505

75513-8

1048-80

16722-319

232-254

-742

Total

99

24495-539

316776-0

69090-386

z (Y) = 1-373. z (X) = 1-245. 1% point (Fisher) approximately -46.

From the Tables of variance and co-variance, coefficients of correlation
(between yield and stand), can be calculated for rows, columns, varieties,
error and also total if desired. These are obtained by dividing the sum
of products in each line by the square root of the product of the correspond-
ing sums of squares for X and Y. Thus from Table II., rxy (for Error) =

V6732-3631^x^75513-8 “ *742. The significance of these correlations is
determined by the ‘‘ t ” test, or by the use of tables provided by Fisher^ or
by Wallace and Snedecor.® It must be remembered in using these tests
that the number of degrees of freedom for correlation is in each case one
less than in the analysis of variance. AU the values shown were significant,
those for varieties arid error being highly significant. The high inter-
varietal correlation coefficient of *912 is of interest, since it indicates
that yield differences between varieties are to a very high degree associated
with differences in stand. ^

The important coefficient, however, is that of *742, which represents
the residual plot correlation after block and varietal effects have been
removed. Since this correlation is highly significant, we are justified in
correcting our yield values on a basis of their regression on stand. Had it
not been significant, it would still have been allowable to make the adjust-
ments, but such procedure would probably have been of little or no value
in increasing the precision or validity of the results.

The regression of yield on stand is now determined for the ‘‘ error ”
components, by dividing the sum of products by the sum of squares for
stand. The regression coefficient, b, is thus found to be -2214472. The
correction equation is now : Y' = Y — b (X — - Mx) ; where Y represents
actual individual yields, Y' adjusted yields, X individual stands, and Mx
the mean of all stands. The necessary adjustment is made by substituting
varietal mean stands and yields for X and Y respectively in the above
formula. Table IV. shows the adjusted varietal mean yields and the manner
in which they were obtained.

There remains to be computed the analysis of variance of these adjusted
yields. The sum of squares now becomes U(Y' — My)^ which (substituting
for Y'), equals U{Y — My — b (X — Mx)}^ or X(y — bx)^, where x
and y are deviations of X and Y from their respective means. X(y — bx)^ =
27y2 — 2b Uxy b^Xx^, i.e. sum of squares for yield, minus 2b times the
sum of products, plus b^ times the sum of squares for stand. These com-
putations are made using the values for sums of squares and products in
Table II., and the computed figures, -049039 and — -442894 for b^ and
— 2b respectively. This has been done in Table III. Take for example
the computation for varieties : Sum of squares for Y, 13103-3031, is entered

IRREGULARITIES OF STAND IN AGRICULTURAL TRIALS FOR YIELD. 33

unchanged ; sum of products, 35225-108, is multiplied by — -442894 to
gjye — 15600-9890 ; and sum of squares for X, 113949-8, is multiplied
by -049039 to give 5587-9842. The algebraic sum of these three quantities,
3090-298, is the new sum of squares (using adjusted yields), for varieties.
The other sums of squares may be obtained in a similar manner. It is
important, however, to remember that one degree of freedom has been
lost from the error complement, through the computation and use of the
regression coefficient, b. The analysis of variance of adjusted yields is
completed by dividing sums of squares by corresponding degrees of freedon>
to obtain mean squares.

TABLE III.

Analysis of Vakianoe of Adjusted Yields.

Due to

D.F.

Sum Sqs. Y

—26 (S. Prods.)

b2 (S. Sqs.
X)

Sum Sqs.
Y'

M. Sq. Y'

Rows

9

3475-0904

-4631-0449

2876-2354

1720-281

191-142

Columns

9

1184-7825

-2961-4688

3367-0374

1590-351

176-706

Varieties

9

13103-3031

-15600-9890

5587-9842

3090-298

343-366

Error

71

6732-3631

-7406-2148

3703-1212

3029-269

42-666

z — 1-043. 1% point (Fisher) = approximately -46.

S.E. (Mean of 10 Plots) = \/4:-2666 = 2-066.

In comparing this analysis with that of original yields in Table II., a
striking feature is the reduction of the mean square for error from 93-5
to 42-7, indicating that considerably greater precision has been attained
by eliminating the effects of stand variability. It is also evident, however,
that the mean square for varieties has been still more reduced, though the
application of the z test indicates that highly significant inter-varietal
diferences still exist.

The new standard error for a mean of 10 plots becomes ^ 4-266 or
2-0656 lb., and the minimum difference between adjusted mean yields
which can be classed as significant, 3 X 2-0656 or 6.20 lb. Table IV. presents
the 10 varieties in the order of their adjusted yields. It will be seen on
comparison with Table I., that the varieties A, B, C, D, E, F, I, and J have
not altered their relative positions, though their range has been considerably
reduced. H, however, which was previously eighth in order of yield, and
significantly below A, B, and C, has now risen to third place, where it is
on a par with A and B, and significantly better than E, F, I and J. The
only other variety which has improved its position is G, which was previously
seventh in order, and significantly superior to J alone. This variety is
now in fifth position being superior to I and J, and significantly exceeded
only by A.

TABLE IV.

Adjusted Varietal Mean Yields.

Variety.

X

X -Mx

-b(X - Mx)

Y

Adjusted

Lb. per
plot.

Yields.

Bu. per
acre.

Significantly

exceeds.

A

279-4

40-0

-8-858

86-763

77-90

41-6

GDEFIJ

B

260-6

21-2

-4-695

80-602

75-91

40-5

DEFIJ

H

201-5

-37.9

8-393

64-681

73-07

39-0

EFIJ

C

266-6

27-2

-6-023

78-095

72-07

38-4

FIJ

G

214-4

-25-0

5-536

64-996

70-53

37-6

IJ

D

267-8

28-4

-6-289

73-507

67-22

35-9

J

E

255-8

16-4

-3-632

69-917

66-28

35-4

J

F

249-0

9-6

-2-126

68-008

65-88

35-1

J

I

232-5

-6-9

1-528

60-719

62-25

33-2

J

166-4

-73-0

16-166

43-463

59-63

31-8

• •

34

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

These results are more in keeping with past experience, since it has
been impossible over a period of nine years to separate B and H with respect
to yield. The application of the co-variance technique may therefore
be said to have raised the trial from one on which little reliability could
be placed on account of stand discrepancies, to one of considerable value
in the varietal trial series.

This method should be applicable with even more striking results to
experiments with wider spaced plants w^here individual losses might be
more serious than with maize. Sanders^ has shown how the method might
be used to correct yields of plots in an experimental year for variations in
yield of the same plots during a preliminary uniformity trial. Probably
the greatest application of the analysis of co-variance in field experimentation
will be however with .perennial crops, where blank tests can be conducted
for a number of years prior to the imposition of fertilizer, cultural or pruning
treatments. Correction of the experimental yields on the basis of their
regression on the preliminary yields will be a very important factor in
reducing the standard error, and greatly increasing the precision of such
experiments.

REFERENCES.

1. Brewbaker, H. E., and Immer, E. R. : Variations in stand as sources of experi-

mental error in yield tests with corn. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 23: 469-480.
1931.

2. Fisher, R. A.: Statistical Methods for Research Workers. 4th Edition. Oliver

and Boyd. Edinburgh and London. 1932.

3. Kiesselbach, T. A., and Weihing, R. M. : Effect of stand irregularities upon

the acre yield and plant variability of corn. Jour. Agr. Res. 47 : 399-416.
1933.

4. Sanders, H. G. : A note on the value of uniformity trials for subsequent experi-

ments. Jour. Agr. Sci. 20 : 63-73. 1930.

5. Snede'COR, G. W. : Calculation and interpretation of analysis of variance and

co-variance, pp. 96. Collegiate Press Inc. Ames, la. 1934.

6. Wallace, H. A., and Snedecor, G. W. : Correlation and Machine Calculation.

Iowa S.C. Offic. Publ. 30 (4) : pp. 71. 1931.

7. WisHART, J. : Statistics in agricultural research. Jour. Roy. Stat. Soc. (suppl.)

1 (1): 26-61. 1934.

VoL. XLVIII., No. 5.

35

A Small Collection of Fossil Cockroach Remains
from the Triassic Beds of Mount Crosby,
Queensland.

By R. J. Tillyabd, M.A., Sc.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., P.R.E.S.

{Communicated to Royal Society of Queensland, 315^ August, 1936.)

The small collection of fossil cockroach remains which forms the
subject of this paper was made by Messrs. 0. A. Jones, M.Sc., and
A. K. Denmead, M.Sc., both graduates of the University of Queensland,
Portion 205, Parish of Chuwar, near Mount Crosby, South Queensland.
The collection was forwarded to me by Dr. W. H. Bryan, of the Depart-
ment of Geology, University of Queensland.

In his letter to me. Dr. Bryan writes as follows : — ‘ ^ The locality had
previously been regarded as of Tertiary age, but these gentlemen (i.e.,
Messrs. Jones and Denmead) have shown that the beds concerned
(including that containing the insects) belonged to the bottom of the
Ipswich Series, being even lower than the so-called ‘ basal conglomerates. ’
The Denmark Hill insects, you will remember, came from the top of
the Ipswich Series.”

The fossil insects are impressions of cockroach forewings or tegmina
on a medium ochreous to greyish shale, of rather coarse and slightly
sandy texture, such that the finer details of the venation, though fairly
clear, are not as good as those found in shales of finer grain. There are
nine specimens in the collection, seven of which are merely fragments,
too incomplete for description, while the other two, represented by both
obverse and reverse impressions, are of very nearly complete forewings.
All the specimens appear to belong to the same genus, and the two
complete forewings or tegmina belong to two distinct but related species,
both new to science.

Order Blattaria.

(Cockroaches.)

Family mesoblattinidae Handlirsch.

Genus Triassohlatta Tillyard.

Tillyard, Mesozoic Insects of Queensland. No. 6. Blattoidea. Proc.

Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1919, xliv., pt. 2, p. 367.

Genotype : — Triassohlatta typica Till., from the Upper Triassic Beds of

Denmark Hill, Ipswich, Queensland.

The genus contains medium to large tegmina (12 to 21 mm. in
length), distinguished by the following characters: — Humeral area
narrow to moderately wide, distinctly shorter than the anal area.
Subcosta (Sc) ending up on costa at from one-third to nearly one-half
the wing-length, and consisting of from four to seven branches. Radial
system (R) with posterior main stem, formed originally from Rs,
having only very slight sigmoidal curvature, so that its lowest point
(about midway along the wing) is well above the middle line of the
tegmen. R ends only slightly above apex. Media (M) poorly developed,

36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

occupying only a narrow triangular area ending around the apex and
extending at most not more posteriorly than about the apical one-fourth
of the posterior margin. Anterior cubitus (CuA) well developed, occupy-
ing a wide triangular area along posterior margin, and with many
branches. Intercalated longitudinal striae occur throughout the cubital,
median and distal part of the radial regions. Clavus or anal region
large, always longer than one-third of the wing, strongly cultriform;
vein lA and at least the first branch of 2A end on the vena dividens
(CuP), which is very strongly developed.

The above definition is modified from the one originally given by
me (1919, p. 367) but does not differ in any essential particular from
the original.

Two species were originally described by me from the Upper Trias
of Ipswich, Q., viz. T. typica Till., the genotype, having a tegmen only
about 12 mm. long, and T. insignita Till, with a tegmen about 21 mm.
long. The two species differed also in the amount of curvature of the
costal margin, which was much greater in T. typica, in the size of the
humeral area, which was very narrow in T. typica but broadly lanceolate
in T. insignita, and in the branchings of Sc, which was short and had
only four branches in T. typica, considerably longer and with seven
branches in T. insignita.

The two new species from Mount Crosby approach T. insignita in
size, ranging from 18 to 19 mm. in length. They both fit well within
the generic definition, but both possess also well marked specific
characters which clearly distinguish them from one another and also
from the Ipswich species.

In order to make the position quite clear, I give here a Key to the
four species of Triassohlatta now known : —

Key to the known species of Triassohlatta Till.

1. Comparatively small tegmina, about 12 mm. long, with narrow humeral

area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T. typica Till.

Comparatively large tegmina from 18 to 21 mm. long (Genotype; Denmark Hill,
Ipswich). With moderately wide humeral area .. .. ..2

2. Tegmen about 21 mm. long; Sc. comparatively long, with seven branches

T. insignita Till. Denmark HiU, Ipswich).

Tegmen from 18 to 19 mm. long, with Sc. much shorter and only possessing from
four to five branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3. Comparatively narrow wing; clavus long and comparatively sharply angled

distally .. .. .. .. T. jonesi n. sp. (Mount Crosby).

Comparatively broad wing; clavus much shorter and comparatively bluntly angled
distally . . . . . . . . T. denmeadi n. sp. (Mount Crosby).

Triassoblatta Denmeadi n.sp.

(Fig. 1.)

Foreiving or tegmen (not quite complete), 17-5 mm. long by 7*0
mm. wide, representing a complete tegmen about 19 mm. long.

Humeral margin strongly curved at base, but quickly flattening
out to a gentle curvature, the humeral area being moderately wide and
lanceolate in shape. Rest of costal margin only very gently curved.
Extreme apex missing, but probably broadly rounded as shown in the
restoration in fig. 1. Posterior margin more markedly curved than
costa. A slight embayment of the margin at end of vena dividens
(CuP). Sc ending up on costa at about one-third of the wing-length,

A SMALL COLLECTION OF FOSSIL COCKROACH REMAINS, ETC.

37

cubitus (convex). CuP, posterior cubitus or vena divindens, lying in
a deep groove separating the clavus, or anal area, from the rest of the
wing, hm, humeral area. M, media. E,, radius. Es, radial sector,
which, in the Cockroaches, becomes the main stem of the raidial system.
Sc, subcosta. Length 18 mm.

Fig. 2. Triassohlatta jonesi n.sp. Forewing or tegmen. Lenght 19 mm.
Lettering as in fig. 1.

In both figures, parts missing in the actual fossils and restored in the
figures are shown by broken lines.

38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

with four branches fairly evenly spaced. a simple vein, subparallel
to Sc. Main stem of radial system (Rs) bent slightly at its junction
with Ri, then very slightly curved to apex, its lowest point being about
the middle of the wing, and the width of the radial area at that point
being not more than two-fifths of the width of the wing. Intercalated
longitudinal striae developed only in distal half of radial area, all
the striae being faint. M weakly developed, with only three branches,
the first fork occurring a little before half-way; longitudinal striae
strongly developed. CuA apparently arising from the arch of CuP
somewhat before its highest point ; main stem of CuA faintly sigmoid in
curvature and ending not very far below apex; number of branches
five, of which the two most basal posterior ones are closest and most
strongly curved; of these, the most basal converges very closely to the
descending arch of CuP and then diverges strongly away from it, sending
off two descending branches to the posterior margin, the first of these
being simple, the second branched triangularly and reaching the margin
at a slight angle; the second descending branch from the main stem of
CuA runs subparallel to the first and forks about half-way ; the remain-
ing branches are simple; longitudinal striae are well developed in the
cubital region. Clavus strongly cultriform, the arch of CuP being
stronger than the curve of the anal margin; the distal angle of the
clavus is about 55°, and CuP descends to the margin almost in a
straight, oblique line. lA is markedly less curved than CuP and ends
fairly high up on the oblique descending portion of that vein. 2A has
eight branches, of which all are simple except the second, which is
strongly forked at about one-third from base ; the first and second
branches of 2A end on the descending part of CuP, the next branch on
the wing-margin just before CuP.

Type. — llolotype forewing, Specimen No. P. 3175 a-h, in the collec-
tion of the University of Queensland, Brisbane. Both obverse (F. 3175a.)
and reverse (P. 31756) impressions are equally good, though it is
difficult to follow the exact courses of the longitudinal striae in the
distal portion of the wing. The extreme apex is missing for about the
last 1-5 mm. but is shown restored by broken lines in fig. 1. The
specimen represents a right forewing.

Triassoblatta Jonesi n.sp.

(Fig. 2.)

Forewing or tegmen (complete except for missing clavus and a small
excision from just above apex) 18-0 mm. long by 6.0 mm. wide.

This species can be distinguished at once from the previous one by
the considerably narrower tegmen and by the following characters: —
Humeral margin strongly curved at about middle, the shape of the
humeral area being a hyperbolic curve cut off by a straight chord. Sc
short, as in previous species, but with five branches, all simple and
fairly evenly spaced. R^ forked close to origin ; general course of main
stem of radial system (Rs) very similar to that in previous species, but
with fewer branches. (The details of the branchings of the radial
system vary from one individual to another in all cockroaches, so are
deliberately not further specified here) . M much as in previous species,
but the first fork occurs a little nearer to both base and Rs, the second
fork considerably further distad (these may possibly be only individual
variations). General plan of the forking of CuA much as in previous
species, but the forking of the first descending branch from the main

A SMALL COLLECTION OF FOSSIL COCKROACH REMAINS, ETC. 39

stem is much deeper and more complete, this branch covering a much
larger triangular area of the wing than in the previous species. Inter-
calated longitudinal striae beginning faintly in radial area just distad
from Hi and extending throughout radial area ; in median and cubital
areas, these striae become much stronger, and the longer middle members
of the distal sets are just as strongly chitinized as the branches of the
main veins themselves. Vena dividens (CuP) less strongly arched than
in previous species, descending to posterior margin at a much smaller
angle, about 45° ; length of clavus fully two-fifths of wing-length, as
against about one-third in previous species. Clavus missing; in fig. 2,
it has been restored by broken lines. A small squarish incision distally
above the apex actually spoils the contour of the tegmen in the type
specimen, but the small portions of the margin and veins of the radial
system missing on this account have been added to fig. 2 without using
broken lines.

Types. — Holotype foreiving, Specimen] No^ F. 3176 a-b in the
collection of the University of Queensland, Brisbane. Both obverse
(F. 3176a) and reverse (F. 31766) impressions are equally good. As
in the previous species, the courses of the longitudinal striae become
somewhat difficult to follow distally. This specimen, like the previous
one, represents a right forewing.

Age of the Mount Crosby Beds.

As both the species of fossil cockroaches discovered in the Mount
Crosby Beds belong to the family Mesoblattinidae, characteristic of the
Mesozoic (Trias to Lias), and to the genus Triassoblatta, so far found
only in the Denmark Hill Beds at Ipswich, Queensland, there can be
no doubt that the age of the Mount Crosby Beds is not very far removed
from that of the Denmark Hill Beds. As already pointed out at the
beginning of this paper, Messrs. Jones and Denmead have proved that
the Mount Crosby Beds belong to the bottom of the Ipswich Series,
whereas the Denmark Hill Beds belong to the top of the same series.
The conclusion reached from a study of the fossil insects of Denmark
Hill, of which about one hundred and twenty specimens are known, was
that they were of Upper Triassic age, certainly not younger than
Rhaetic. Hence it appears safe to place the insects in the present collec-
tion as of Upper Triassic age, but older than the Denmark Hill insects.

Without other collateral evidence, it would not have been possible,
from the material before me, to state definitely that the insects were
older than those of Denmark Hill. The fact that they belong to the
genus Triassoblatta could only be taken to indicate that they were not
far removed in age from the insects of Denmark Hill. A comparative
study of the four known species of Triassoblatta is of interest in showing
that the two species from Mount Crosby are more primitive than the
two species from Denmark Hill in one important character, viz., the
feeble development of the median vein. This is a character which,
curiously enough, separates the most primitive of all Cockroach families,
the Upper Carboniferous and Permian Archimylacridae, from other
Palaeozoic and Mesozoic families, and, so far as I know, no other
Mesozoic cockroaches except only these two species of Triassoblatta
possess this character. Nevertheless, the archaic condition of the median
vein, by itself, does not, in my opinion, justify the erection of a new
genus for these two species.

40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

By contrast, the two Mount Crosby species appear to be more
specialized than the two Denmark Hill species in the evolution of the
anal veins. In T, typica Till. (Denmark Hill) lA ends on the vem
dividens and the first branch of 2A ends close to the claval angle, pos-
sibly just at the end of CuP. The ends of these two veins are missing
in T. insignita Till. (Denmark Hill). But, in the allied genus Samaro-
blatta Till., also from Denmark Hill, the condition is even more
primitive, lA ending either just near the end of CuP or on the posterior
margin. The more archaic condition of the anal veins in the Mount
Crosby specimens must be held to counterbalance somewhat the more
archaic condition of the media, leaving us with little or no clear indica-
tion of the comparative ages of the two sets of species beyond the fact
that both should be regarded as Upper Triassic.

Canberra, F.C.T., 7th March, 1936.

VoL. XLVIll., No. 6.

41

Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora, Part
IX. — Melaleuca viridiflora, Part I..

By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I., and
W. L. Haenke, B.Sc., B.Sc. (App.).

{Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland, 315^ August, 1936.)

Investigations of the essential oil from the broad leafed tea tree,
which is a very common tree in Eastern Australia, have been carried
out by several workers, and the main constituents of the oils examined
by them placed on records Botanical investigation has likewise pro-
ceeded and the tree is referred to in this paper as Melaleuca viridiflora,
although other names, such as Melaleuca Leucadendron (var. lancifolia)
and Melaleuca Maideni have from time to time figured in the literature.
Owing to the reported high cineol content of the oil, it has never been
of economic value, but in view of several inconsistencies which appeared
in the results of various workers, it appeared desirable to make a new
and systematic investigation of the whole problem of the essential oils.
In this work the authors have had the co-operation of the Forestry
Department, which supplied many of the consignments of leaves and
assisted the investigation as far as possible. It soon became apparent
that at least two varieties of Melaleuca viridiflora existed, one in which
cineol was the principal constituent, but the other contained no cineol,
and trees of this type were readily differentiated from the cineol variety
by the marked difference of odour of the crushed leaves. This particular
variety was first located from a consignment of leaves from the neigh-
bourhood of Maryborough, and fortunately the leaves were collected
from two trees only which were kept separate until their identity was
established. Trees of this same type were subsequently discovered in
close proximity to Brisbane and, while a complete survey of the Brisbane
area has not yet been carried out, it would appear that its distribution
is considerably less than that of the cineol variety, although the two
varieties grow together.

The investigation of the oil from this variety has been completed
and forms the subject of this paper. It is intended to submit the results
obtained from the examination of the cineol and possibly other varieties
at a later date.

The oil described in this paper has been found to consist almost
exclusively of the two alcohols linaloj and nerolidol with a little ses-
quiterpene, eitral and traces of a phenol. As the alcohols can be
readily separated from one another and appear uncontaminated with
other substances, the oil may be regarded as a convenient source of
these alcohols, and in view of the linalol content (at least 50 per cent.)
is of undoubted economic value.

It appears likely that the oils examined by previous workers were
mixtures of the two varieties mentioned above, as indiscriminate picking
of leaves was no doubt indulged in by collectors.

Experimental.

One and a-quarter cwt. of leaves collected at Antigua (near Mary-
borough) on 18th June, 1935, gave 700 ccs. of oil, while 200 lb. collected

near Brisbane gave 1,000 ccs. of oil, the yield being in each case

42

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

approximately 1 per cent. In the case of the Maryborough consignment
the leaves were from two trees only and kept separate till their identity
was established, while with the Brisbane leaves, careful selection of
trees was resorted to in order to obtain samples from the same variety.

The following constants were recorded: —

N-

[a]D

Ester Value
Acetyl Value
[a]D after acetylation

Maryborough Sample.

•8764
1-4700
+ 15-5
Nil
146-2
- 2

Brisbane Sample.
•880
1-4719
+ 14-26
Nil
150
- 2

Both oils possessed a pleasant rose-like odour due to the presence
of linalol.

The oils were washed with dilute NaoCOg, and then dilute NaOH
solutions. The NaOH washing gave in each case about ^ ccs. of dark-
coloured oil smelling of eugenol. The colour reaction with ferric chloride
solution was reddish-brown (eugenol gives a green). Tests for j8
diketones were negative. A small quantity of crude benzoyl derivative
was obtained, but it could not be sufficiently purified for identification.

Tlie oil 790 ccs. (Brisbane sample only described as the Mary-
borough oil gave similar results) was next submitted to fractional dis-
tillation under diminished pressure 4 mm. and the following fractions
collected ; —

Temp.

Vol.

^15-5

N^

20

I.

0-59°C.

18 CCS.

•884

1-4654

-f 9-39

II.

59-62°C.

355 CCS.

•868

1-4607

+ 16-70

III.

68-1 I 8°C.

20 CCS.

•900

1-4780

+ 5-29

IV.

. . II8-I2I°C.

370 CCS.

•884

1-4785

+ 11-54

Resinous Residue

25 CCS.

-■

Repeated refractionation ultimately resolved the various fractions
into two main fractions (h) and (d) with a small head fraction (a) and
a sesquiterpene fraction (c).

The small head fraction {a) 10 ccs. possessed the following con-
stants:—

-8858 ■ H

1-4660 3

a = +6-65 ; : I

b.p. app. 186°C.

Examination revealed the presence of linalol (as would be expected
in view of fraction (&), which required, therefore, that some consti-
tuent of density higher than -8858 should be present. Cineol was
naturally suspected under these circumstances, but only negative tests
were obtained and similarly tests for pinene and other terpenes were
negative.

It appears certain however by analogy with other oils containing
linalol that some linalol monoxide (d^g.g *9520) would be present.”
Aerial oxidation of linalol while still in the tree is stated to give rise to
small amounts of linalol monoxide. In all probability fraction (a)

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM THE QUEENSLAND FLORA PART I., ETC. 43

consisted of linalol with some contamination with monoxide sufficient to
raise the density to that indicated.

Fraction (h) consisted essentially of linalol. The following
constants were determined: —
d.

U5'5

N-

20

[a]n

b.p.

•868
1-4607
+ 18-5

60°C. 4 mms.

The fraction was submitted to critical examination in the following
experiments : —

Prirmry alcohols. — Extraction with phthalic anhydride in benzene
solution gave no indication of primary alcohols.

Terpenes. — Purification of the linalol was accomplished by the
formation of sodium linalol ; the non-alcoholic portion being then removed
by vacuum distillation. Dihydromyrcene (a by-product of the action of
sodium on linalol) was identified by means of its tetra bromide M.P.
88°C. The constants for this dihydromyrcene were as follows: —

N,

15-5

P

20

•783

1-4523

indicating that it was almost pure and that there could not be any
appreciable quantities of non-alcoholic bodies in fraction (h). Linaloi
purified from its sodium compound possessed the following constants : —

dig.g -869

N| 1-4618

[u]d + 18-5

which do not differ markedly from those of the original fraction.

Identification of Linalol. — The phenyl and napthyl urethanes
(M.P’s 66°, 54°C.) were prepared and oxidation with dichromate gave
good yields of citral. M.P. of semicarbazone 164° C. Acetylation. The
acetylation of the fraction gave geramyl acetate as main product while
the rotation became slightly negative in accordance with the well-known
behaviour of linalol in this reaction.

Acetic Acid Benzidine Test. — The main linalol fraction gave a
pronounced test with acetic acid benzidine solution, indicating the
presence of an aldehyde. This test was also readily given by a sample
of commercial linalol, but not with linalol prepared from sodium
linalol. Extraction with semicarbazide acetate solution gave on isolation
about 4 per cent, of aldehyde material which gave a pronounced benzi-
dene test similar to that of citral (which substance is a normal oxidation
product of linalol). It appears therefore that the linalol is contaminated
with small amounts of citral insufficient for isolation.

Fraction (c). — 20 ccs. of this fraction were available. The following
constants were determined: —

•900
1-4780
[a]D + 5-29

b.p. 68-1 18°C. 4 mms.

The bromine-acetic acid test for sesquiterpene was strongly positive.
The usual method of removing alcohols from sesquiterpene fractions,

dl5-5

N-

20

44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

that is distillation over sodium, could not be used in this instance owing
to the production of hydrocarbons from linalol and nerolidol (fraction
d) by the action of sodium.

No solid derivatives could be obtained, and the fraction apparently
consisted of some sesquiterpene in admixture with linalol and nerolidol.

Fraction (d). — 360 ccs. possessed the following constants: —

^15-5 -8836

1*4782

[a]i) -f- 1*5

Identification of this fraction with nerolidol (melaleucol) has
already been described in this Journal.®

Purification of nerolidol by the sodium method (as described above
for linalol) gave as by-product a hydrocarbon with the following con-
stants : —

dj5-5 *8335

N| 1-4700

[“Id 0

[Pound C = 87-4 II = 12-6 C15II20 requires C = 87-3 PI = 12*6. |

This hydrocarbon gave a characteristic solid bromide M.P. 131 °C.
by addition of bromide.

The percentage of bromide was 69-5 per cent, and evidently corres-
ponded with a hexa bromide [Br. = 69-9].

Although this hydrocarbon does not appear to have been previously
described, its constitution by analogy with dihydromyrcene and linalol
is that of dihydrofarnesene.

CH3-C=CH-CH2-CH2-C=CH-CH2-CH2-C=CH-CH3

CH3 CH3 CH3

This hydrocarbon was subsequently prepared by reduction of farne-
sene (from nerolidol via farnesol) with sodium and alcohol, and the same
liexabromide prepared, M.P. 131°C., alone or in admixture with the
abovementioned sample.

Our thanks are due to Mr. C. T. White, Government Botanist, for
critical examination of the leaves submitted as samples.

^ The Essential Oils (Eiiiiiemore) 556,. 557.

^ Seliimmel & Co. Eeports 1912. October, 80,
^ Jones and Harvey. E.S.Q. 1936 2-3.

Yol. XLYIII., No. 7.

45

Erinosis, a Disease of Laportea.

By D. A. Herbert, D.Sc., Department of Biology, University

of Queensland.

{Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland, 30th November, 1936.)

(Plate I.)

The occurrence of downy or velvety islands of hairs on the upper
and lower surfaces of leaves is not uncommon. At first the tufts were
eonsidered to be of a fungal nature, and were assigned to the genus
Erineum of Persoon. They are now recognised as an abnormal develop-
ment of hairs, and the condition is known as erinose or erinosis. Well-
known examples are the erinose of the beech in Europe, of the mountain
maple in America (the tufts in this case being red or scarlet), and of
the various species of Vitis including the cultivated grape vine. In the
vine the felt-like patches are suggestive of a downy mildew, and were
at one time described as Erineum vitis, Dunal. They are figured by
•Viala.^

The leaves of the giant stinging tree {Laportea gigas, Wedd.) and
of the shining leaved stinging tree {L. photiniphylla, Wedd.) are
frequently covered by pure white felt-like patches on the upper' and
lower surfaces (Plate I.). The patches vary in size, but are for the
most part about a quarter of an inch in diameter. There is sometimes
a tendency for scattered white hairs to be distributed along the veins in
the vicinity of the white patches. In Laportea gigas the leaf is convex
beneath the erinosis patch, which stands up as a white cushion about
an eighth of an inch above the surrounding surface, with a correspond-
ing pock-mark, with no hair proliferation, on the other side. As many
as two hundred of the patches may occur in a single leaf 9 inches long
and 9 inches wide, while the whole of the petiole may be covered with a
continuous white tomentum. Typically the patches are pure white, but
with advancing age they assume an orange-brown tinge. In Laportea
photiniphylla the hairs are produced in depressions, and mostly on the
upper surface of the leaf. The corresponding convexity on the other
side is smooth.

In section, the lesions are found to be a dense cluster of stout hairs
with numerous short, blunt branches at the top producing a felt of
arbuscules. Figures 1 and 2 represent the common types. Figure 3
represents a type seen vary occasionally. The hairs arise by hyper-
trophy of epidermal cells, and sometimes of the stinging hairs. They
are similar in both species of Laportea.

The normal leaf of Laportea^ gigas, the giant stinging tree, is
covered with minute hairs interspersed with large rigid trichomes with
a bulbous base — the stinging hairs (Figs. 4 and 5). They are figured
by Petrie.“ W. H. Brown^ figures those of L, Meyeniana, a
Philippine species. The trichomes of L. gigas are silicified to the base.
The typical hairs of the erinosis patches are not silicified. They respond
readily to the chlor-zinc-iodine test for cellulose, and stain readily with
ordinary cellulose stains like normal epidermal cells. Interspersed
amongst them, however, are trichomes silicified in the upper part but
hypertrophied below. This hypertrophied region is not silicified. It
may be irregularly swollen (Figs. 6 and 7), branched at the

46

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

base (Fig. 8), or unbranched in the lower part and branched just below
the silicified apex (Figs. 9 and 10). These partially silicified outgrowths
are modified stinging hairs. They are fairly numerous, but are
enormously out-numbered by the typical branching hairs with no
impregnation of silica.

The majority of branching hairs are produced by the proliferation
of epidermal cells (Fig. 11 and 12), and not from the alteration
of stinging hairs. In Laportea photimphylla the leaves are smooth and
sparsely scattered with stinging hairs. The erinosis is, however, similar
to that of L. gigas, and the felt is of equal density.

Large numbers of species of a mite, Phyllocoptes sp., are found
associated with the lesions. This acarid may be regarded as standing
in causal relationship to the erinosis of Laportea. Closely related species
cause erinosis of the vine and other plants.

Proc. Eoy. Soo. Q'lanp, Vol.XLVIII

Plate I

Erinosis, a disease of Laportea.

/

(

ERINOSIS, A DISEASE OF LAPORTEA.

47

The material examined was collected at Springbrook and Mount
Glorious. The disease has also been observed on the same species in
other South Queensland localities such as Tamborine Mountain and
the Blackall Range, and on the giant stinging tree of the Atherton
Tableland near the Tully Falls, North Queensland.

1 am indebted to Mr. F. A. Perkins, B.Sc.Agr., for the identifica-
tion of Phyllocoptes.

EEFERENOES.

1. ViALA, P. : Les Maladies de la Vigne, p. 570, Paris, 1893.

2 Petrie, J. M. : The stinging properties of the giant nettle. Proe. Linn. Soe.
N.S.W., XXXI., 530-545, 1906.

3. Brown, W. H. : A text -book of general botany, p. 75, G-inn & Co., 1925.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plate I. : Leaf of Laportea gigas with numerous white erinosis lesions.

Text Figures, 1-12,: 1 and 2, types of branching hair in the erinosis leaves of
Laportea gigas; 3, type of hair occasionally found; 4, silicified trichomes;
5, section of base of silicified trichome; 6-10, hypertrophied trichomes
silicified in the upper part; 11, section of base of a branching hair with a
cystolith in the adjoining cell; 12, base of branching hairs, showing
epidermal nature.

48

VoL. XLVIIL, No. 8.

Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora — Part
X. — Melaleuca linariifolia.

By T. G. H. JoNES^ D.Sc., A.A.C.I. .

{Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland^ SOth November, 1936.)

The essential oil of Melaleuca linariifolia has been investigated by
Baker and Smith^ and later by A. R. PenfokB to the latter of whom most
of our knowledge of the constituents of this oil are due. As a result of
Penfold ’s investigation with leaves collected near Sydney, the oil was
found to contain as principal constituents a and y terpinene, cymene,
terpinenol —4, cineol, sesquiterpene, and sesquiterpene alcohol, and in
view of the pleasant odour of the oil and its high germicidal value, it
has become of economic importance. The tree also grows in Southern
Queensland, notably near Logan Village, and several samples of oil
obtained from this latter source have been examined by the author,
confirming the results of Penfold, although there appeared to be little,
if any, cineol in the oil.

Near Loganlea, however, a second variety of this tree was dis-
covered, the leaves of which possessed a pronounced cineol odour on
crushing and later samples of leaves were obtained from Maryborough
which gave the same cineol odour.

After confirmation of botanical specimens by Mr. C. T. White,
the oil appeared to be worthy of investigation and the results obtained
form the subject of this communication.

It is noteworthy that the oil of this new variety bears no resemblance
to that of the previously investigated variety, and contains as principal
constituents cineol 61 per cent., with lesser quantities of pinene,
dipentene, a terpineol, sesquiterpene, and sesquiterpene alcohol. The

germicidal value is low and the oil is of little economic value.

Experimental.

Original samples of oil were obtained from the neighbourhood of
Loganlea and were submitted as samples by commercial distillers, but
the oil from Maryborough was distilled at the University, yield 1-5 per
cent. The same results were obtained from both supplies of oil and
those of the Maryborough oil only are given below:

The following constants were determined: —

•9180

+4-3 i

1-4650 j

19.6 1

49

61-5 per cent. (Cookings method)

^15-5

[ct]n

N-

20

Ester Value
Acetyl Value
Cineol Content

ESSENTIAL OILS PROM THE QUEENSLAND FLORA — PART X._, ETC. 49

The oil 900 ccs. was washed with NaOH, which removed only a trace
of phenolic body, giving a red-brown colour with ferric chloride and
then submitted to fractional distillation at 4 mms. when the following
fractions were obtained: —

Temp.

CtD

^16-5

N-

20

0- 50° C.

+ 2

•9076

1-4605

50- 55° C.

+ 2

•9080

1-4648

55- 77° C.

+ 14

•9372

1-4800

77-110° C.

+ 11

•9458

1-4870

110-140° C.

+ 3

•9515

1-4850

(2) which

contained

the

bulk

of the cineol

were extracted with 50

per

cent.

resorcin solu-

Volume.

(1) . . 665 CCS.

(2) . . 48 CCS.

(3) . . 100 CCS.

(4) . . 45 CCS.

(5) . . 25 CCS.

tion and the voluminous crystalline cake triturated with petrol ether
(50°-60° b.p.). The petrol ether solution was further extracted with
resorcin solution and finally dried and fractionated giving a terpene
fraction 50 ccs. with the following constants: —

di6-5 -8546

[“]d +

N| 1-4680

It was found (after further fractionation) to consist of a mixture
of pinene and dipentene.

A small head fraction d^g.g -8596 a nz -|-9 gave a good yield of
nitrosyl chloride, M.P. 103° C. and consisted largely of pinene, while
the residue readily reacted with bromine in acetic acid solution, giving
dipentene tetrabromide in excellent yield. The M.P. after crystallisation
was 125° C., and no limonene appeared to be present. No other terpenes
could be detected.

The solid cineol resorcin compound was decomposed by steam
distillation and the cineol 500 ccs. recovered; the constants agreeing
chiefiy with those recorded for that substance. The o-cresol compound
melted at 55° C.

Praction (3) was further fractionated to remove cineol and the
residue possessed the following constants : —

di5-5 *9389

[a]n +16

1-4814

It was found an analysis to possess the molecular composition
CioHigO, and in view of its sluggish reaction with sodium as distinct
from the ready reaetion with potassium judged to be a tertiary alcohol.

Identity with a terpineol was demonstrated by the preparation of
the nitrosyl chloride M.P. 115° -116, the phenyl urethane M.P. 113° C.
and the naphthyl urethane M.P. 146° C. These derivatives were care-
fully compared with those from terpinenol — 4 the characteristic alcohol
present in the other variety of Melaleuca linariifoUa, and with those
from an authentic sample of a terpineol, but no evidence of the presence
of any alcohol other than a terpineol could be obtained.

50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. I

Fraction (4). — The usual tests for sesquiterpene (bromine vapour
in acetic acid solution, &c.) were strongly positive for this fraction. It l
was repeatedly distilled over metallic potassium and the resultant
product possessed the following constants : —

dig. 5 *9359

[a]D +11 ’

N| 14939 '

• The molecular composition C15H24 revealed on analysis, confirmed
the presence of sesquiterpene. No solid derivatives could be prepared
and as no aromadendrone was obtained on ozonisation, aromadenrene
appeared to be absent.

Fraction (5) was treated with metallic potassium until all reaction
had ceased and the sesquiterpene removed by distillation at 4 mms.
The alcohol recovered from the potassium salt (5 ccs.) possessed the
following constants: —

di5-5 -9404

[a]D + 3

1-4895

b.p. 120-130°C (4 mms)

It was not further examined but the above results indicate a sesqui-
terpene alcohol.

1. Baker and Smith: Eoyal Society of N.S.W. Vol. XL. (1906), p. 65-69,

2, A. E, Penfold: Eoyal Society of N.S.W. Vol, LIX. (1925), pp. 306-324.

VOL. XLVIII., No. 9.

51

Studies in Australian and Oriental Trypaneidae.
Part I. New Genera of Dacinae.

By F. A. Perkins, B.Sc.Agric., Lecturer in Economic Entomology,

Queensland University.

{Read before the Royal Society of Queenslafrid, ZDth November, 1936.)

In the subfamily Dacinae considerable confusion exists with regard
to the limits of the genera. Some workers evade the issue by recog-
nising only one genus, Dacus P., with a number of poorly-defined
sub-genera, a procedure which only adds to the confusion, and makes
many problems for the economic entomologists working on the group.
The Dacinae contains so many species, is so widely distributed, and is so
important, that it is necessary to divide it into clearly defined genera.

A number of authors have erected genera based on quite good
morphological characters, but with the exception of Shiraki (1933),
have not used such characters consistently. I refer to the chaetotaxy of
the thorax, the ciliation on the posterior lateral margin of the third
abdominal tergite of the male, the presence of a supernumerary lobe in
the wing of certain males, the completeness of the thoracic suture, the
length of the antennae compared with that of the face, and the
length of the basal segment of the ovipositor compared with the length
of the abdomen. African workers use two other characters — the fusion
of the abdominal tergites, and the presence of a median abdominal
Carina, characters which appear to be confined to African species.

These are all good morphological characters, and are used exten-
sively to separate genera in other sub-families of the Trypaneidae, and
in other families of the Diptera. If used consistently throughout the
Dacinae, a number of new genera will be required, and the classification
might be criticised on the ground that it is too artificial. Such a criticism
might, to a certain extent, be sound; but surely the advantages of
having a definite straightforward classification are preferable to the
doubt and complexity which have existed for a number of years.

At present I am working on collections of Trypaneidae from the
Federated Malay States Museum, Kuala Lumpur ; the Australian
Museum, Sydney; C. S. I. R., Canberra; McLeay Museum, Sydney;
Queensland Museum, Brisbane ; Department of Agriculture, Brisbane ;
University of Queensland, Brisbane ; collections which include prac-
tically all the more important Oriental and Australian genera and
species, many of which are undescribed. Unless I follow Shiraki (1933),
and use consistently the characters mentioned above, it is very difficult
to classify the material in these collections.

This paper is an attempt to do so for the Oriental and Australian
species of Dacinae. Six new genera and one new species are described,
and comments made on the other genera. Provided the scheme I have
put forward is generally adopted, two new African genera will be neces-
sary— one for lotus. Bez. and its allies, and another for niesomelas. Bez.
{aethiopicus Mro.). I have not included Toxotrypana, an American
genus, because it is so distinct that it will fit into any scheme.

I do not regard Marquesadacus Mall, as a valid genus; it is only
distinguished from Strumeta by the number of lower orbital bristles, a
character which is very variable in the Dacinae, even in a particular
species.

52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. K 1

i

In my comments on the genera I shall include a list of species which,
according to my card index, belong to the particular genus. This list^ i
is by no means complete, and only represents species which I have been , , ^
able to place generically either by actual examination or by a study of' i
the original, and subsequent descriptions. Naturally it is impossible to i
place many species owing to lack of material, inadequate description,
and, in some cases, the fact that the male has never been recorded. |

Genus Dacus Fab. 1805. !

tSynonym : Tridacus Bez. 1915.

I

Genotype : Dacus armatus Fab. ^

The genus Dacus was erected by Fabricius (1805) for the species
armfUus, urribrosus, ferrugineus, and caudafus. He did not designate
a type, but armatus has page priority, and I strongly agree with Speiser
(1924), Hendel (1927), and Collar! (1935) who have accepted armatus
as the type. Through the kindness of Dr. C. H. Curran, of the American |
Museum of Natural History, I have been able to examine specimens of
armatus. Its generic characters are as follows: — 2sc., 1 a.sa., no pr,sc. j
bristles, 3rd abdominal tergite of male with post-lateral cilia, basal
segment of the ovipositor shorter than the abdomen, abdomen without j
median carina, abdominal tergites fused, no supernumerary lope in
wing of male, and antennae not noticeably longer than face.

The genus appears to be confined to Africa, and according to my j
index the following species belong to it : — armfitus Fab., hequaerti Coll.,
hidens Curr., hivUtatus Big., chrysomphalus Bez., d^emmersi Bez.,
disjunctus Bez., ehurneus Bez., fumosus Coll., ghesquierei Coll., humeralis |
Bez., linearis Coll., lulongaensis Coll., pectoralis Walk., punctatifrons
Karsch, purus Curr., sphaero stigma Bez., schoutedeni Coll., sphaeristicus
Bpeis., telfaireae Bez., transitorius Coll.

Genus Leptoxyda Macq. 1835.
^Genotype : Leptoxyda longistylus Wied.

This genus was erected in 1835 by Macquart for testacea, a species
which was later proved to be a synonym of longistylus Wied. The
generic characters are: 2^c., no pr.sc., no a.sa., no supernumerary lobe
in wing of male, 3rd abdominal tergite of male not ciliated, basal segment
of ovipositor as long as abdomen. This last character distinguishes it
from all other genera of the Dacinae. I have a specimen from North
Borneo which has a similar long ovipositor, but I am not certain that
it is not an abnormality, the ovipositor having been stretched when the
insect was dying. According to Collart (1935) aspilus Bez. belongs to
this genus.

Genus Bactrocera Guerin-Meneville 1838.

I;

\

Genotype : B. longicornis Guer.

The type of the genus is longicornis Guer., and it was described
and figured by Macquart in 1835. Since then it has not been
rediscovered ; and, as the type is no longer available, it is almost
impossible to place this genus. Some authors consider longicornis Guer.
to be a synonym of umhrosus F., but the description of the former
differs in several respects. The dark middle bands of the wings are
confiuent towards the hind border of the wing, and the scutellum is
said to have a black spot above in the middle. _ j

NEW AUSTRALIAN AND ORIENTAL GENERA OF DACINAE.

53

Bezzi (1913) decided to include in this genus all species with
handed wings, but admitted in 1919 that with the discovery of species
like hamatus Bez. and trig onus Bez., which are definitely not congeneric
with umbrosus F., it was very doubtful whether such a character was of
generic value. Most workers will agree that wing markings, because
of variation, are very unsatisfactory generic characters, and should be
avoided as much as possible. In the Dacinae species such as cucurbitae
Coq., sy7inephes Hend., pulcher Tryon, strigatus F. A. Perk., frauenfeldi
Sch., hamatus Bez., umibrosus F., cnrvifer Wlk., all have banded wings
varying from a short incomplete band in cucurbitae Coq. to a complex
pattern in umbrosus F. and curvifer Wlk. Moreover, the species men-
tioned belong to at least three, and possibly four, different genera.

The position of Bactrocera longicornis appears to me to be as
follows. From the description given by Macquart (1835) it might be
assumed that it probably belongs to the Dacinae. Until either the type
is found, or the species rediscovered, Bactrocem must remain a doubtful
genus with one doubtful species. The type locality is given as Sydney,
N.S.W., but I have examined all the collections in Eastern Australia,
jind have yet to see a specimen which resembles the description and
figures given by Macquart. Bezzi (1913) stated that Btrumeta umbrosus
F. (conformis Wlk.) was perhaps synonymous with B. longicornis Guer.
Apart from the differences mentioned above, the fact that umbrosus F.
has not yet been collected in Australia, indicates that it is very unlikely
that such synonymy is correct. Personally I can find no justification
for sinking Strumeta as a synonym of Bactrocera,: and as I shall show
later, I regard Strumeta as a valid genus with which Chaetodacus Bez.
is synonymous.

Genus Strumeta Walk. 1856.

Synonymus: Dasyneura Saunders 1841 (nec. Rondani 1840).

Chaetodacus Bezzi. 1913.

Marquesadacus Mall. 1932.

Genotype : Dacus umbrosus F.

Saunders (1841) erected the genus Dasyneura designating zonatus
as the type. Walker (1856) described the genus Strumeta for conformis
which was afterwards proved to be a synonym of umbrosus F. Bezzi
(1913) made a new genus, Chaetodacus, for ferruginous and its allies.
All three species, zonatus Saund., untbrosus F., and ferrugineus F.,
have the same generic characters, namely, 2 sc., 1 a.sa., 2 pr.se. bristles,
3rd abdominal tergite of the male ciliated, a supernumerary lobe present
in the wing of the male, basal segment of the ovipositor shorter than
the abdomen, abdominal tergites not fused, and antennae not definitely
longer than the face.

Dasyneura was preoccupied by Rondani in the Asilidae, and conse-
quently had to fall. In view of what I have said with regard to
Bactrocera, I can see no sound reason why Strumeta should be regarded
as a synonym of Bactrocera, and in my opinion Strumeta (type umbrosus
F.) is a valid genus of which Chaetodacus Bez. is a synonym. If
eventually Strumeta umbrosus F. is proved to be a synonym of
Bactrocera longicornis, then both Strumeta and Chaetodacus will
become synonyms of Bactrocera.

54

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

For mesomelas Bez. {aethiopims Mro.) a new genus is necessary,
for it cannot be included in Strumeta because the male has no cilia on the
3rd abdominal tergite, and no supernumerary lobe in the wing.

According to my index, the following are species of Strumeta: —
antennalis Shir., hancroftii Try., harringtoniae Try., higiittatus Bez.,
bryomae Try., cilifer Hend., costalis Shir., cucurbitae Coq., diaphoriis
Hend., dorsalis Hend., ferrigineus Fab., Jiyalinus Shir., latifrons Hend.,
limbiferus Bez., McGregori Bez., musae Try., occipitalis Bez., okinawanus
Shr., parvulns Hend., passiflorae Frogg., pedestris Bez., perfuscus Aub.,
sarcocephali Try., tryoni Frogg., umbrosus Fab., zonata Saund.

The distribution of the genus is very wide, ranging from Egypt,
through India and the East Indies to Formosa, Australia and the
Islands of the Pacific. It has not yet been found in Central and South
Africa.

Genus Call antra Walk. 1860.

Synonym: Mellesis Bezzi 1916.

Genotype : C allantra smieroides Walk.

Hendel (1927) has already pointed out that this genus is the same
as Mellesis Bez. erected in 1916 for crabronif ormis and other species.
The chief distinguishing characters appear to be — antennae longer than
face, 1st segment of antennae as long as 2nd, the petiolated, club-shaped,
abdomen, and the large tubular ovipositor in the female, no pr.sc., 2
sc.y a.sa. present or absent, no supernumerary lobe in the wing of the
male.

I have only seen two species which appear to belong to this genus ;
one is aequalis Coq. which has no a.sa. bristle, and in which the 1st
antennal segment is not quite as long as the 2nd; and the other,
loimsburyi which also has no a.sa. bristle, but which has the 1st antennal
segment quite as long as the 2nd. They are both wasp-like, and have club-
shaped abdomens, and in other respects agree with the characters of the
genus Callantra. They both have the 3rd abdominal tergite of the male
ciliated, a character which, with the exception of bioculata Bez. in which
it is not mentioned, is common to all the species of the genus, of which
a description of the male is available.

Until I have had the opportunity of examining more of the Oriental
species of the genus, it is my intention to regard it as a valid genus with
the following generic characters : — 2 sc., 1 or no a.sa., no pr.sc. bristles,
3rd abdominal tergite of the male ciliated, no supernumerary lobe in
the wing of the male, antennae definitely longer than the face, and held
away from it. I am not satisfied that the proportional length of the ,
1st and 2nd antennal segments is a good generic character. ^

At present I include in this genus the following species : — aequalis
Coq., apicalis Shir., bioculata Bez., brachycera Bez., craVroniformis Bez.,
destillatoria Bez., eumenoides Bez., icariiformis End., longicornis Wied.,
lounsburyi Coq., nummularia Bez., pedunculata Bez.', polistiformis Sen.
White, smieroides Walk., spliaeroidalis Bez., subsessilis Bez., unicolor
Hend.

Genus Monacrostichus Bezzi 1913.

Genotype : Monacrostichus citricola Bezz.

This peculiar genus was created by Bezzi (1913) for citricola Bezz.
It is easily distinguished from all other Dacinae by the fact that the
thoracic suture is complete, a most unusual feature in the Trypaneidae,
and, in fact, in the Acalyptrata. ^

NEW AUSTRALIAN AND ORIENTAL GENERA OP DACINAE.

55

Genus Tetradacus Miyaki 1919.

Genotype: Tetradacus tsuneonis Miyaki.

This is another genus erected for a single peculiar species. The
most important distinguishing feature of the genus is the presence of
2 a.sa., and no pr.sc. bristles. The other generic characters have been
very fully described by Shiraki (1933).

Genus Daculus Speis 1924.

Genotype : Musca oleae Gmel.

This appears to be a good genus, and it is surprising that more
species with similar generic characters have not been found. The only
species appears to be the type Hendel (1927) included in this genus
annulat'us Beck., which has been transferred to Psilodacus by Collart
(1935), and semisphaereiis Beck., of which only the female is known.

Genus Aprodacus Bezzi 1924.

Genotype : Chaetodacus higuMulus Bez.

Bezii (1924) created this genus for higuttulus Bez., a South African
species, which only differs from Strumeta in having no a.sa. bristles.
He does not state whether the abdominal tergites are fused ; but in his
description he very briefly mentions the characters by which the genus
can be distinguished from what he called Chaetodacus, so that I think it
can be assumed that the tergites are not fused. The name of the genus
is rather unfortunate, for jarvisi Tryon is congeneric with higuttulus;
and I also have another undescribed species from New Guinea which
also belongs to Afrodacus. I have not seen a specimen of higuttulus, but
from the published descriptions there seems little doubt that it is a
valid genus with a very peculiar distribution.

Genus Zeugodacus Hendel 1927.

Genotype: Dacus caudatus F.

This is a good genus which is well represented in the Oriental
region, one species at least, synnephes Heifd., extending its range to
Queensland. It is the largest of the five genera with four scutellar
bristles. It is rather interesting that no species with four scutellar
bristles have been found in Africa, all being confined to the Indian,
Oriental, and Australian regions.

The genus has been well defined by Shiraki (1933). According to
my index, the following species belong to this genus: — ambiguus Shir.,
arisanicus Shir., caudatus dobaensis depressus Shir., duplicatus
Bez., Uageni de Meij., lipsanus Hend., maculipennis Dol., nigrifacies
Shir., nubilus Hend., okunii Shir., quadrisetosus Bez., scutellaris Bez.,
scutellatus Hend., synnephes Hend., tihialis Shir.

Genus Paratridacus Shiraki 1933.

Genotype: Dacus yayeyamanus Matsum.

When erected by Shiraki (1933) the only species was the type, but
garcinae Bez., certainly belongs to this genus, and in the near future I
feel sure that other Oriental species will be added. It is very close to
Zeugodacus, from which it differs in having no supernumerary lobe in
the wing of the male, and no cilia on the 3rd abdominal tergite of the
male.

56

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Genus Parazeugodacus Shiraki 1933.

Genotype : Parazeugodacus matsumurai Shir.

Another Oriental genus in which a number of previously described
species will have to be included. For example, hipiisiidata Bez. belongs
to this genus, and I expect to find others before I complete my work on
the Oriental and Australian Dacinae. It is very close to ZeugodacuSy
from which it differs in having no supernumerary lobe in the wing of the
male.

Genus Psilodacus Collart 1935.

Genotype ; Dacus anmdatus Beck.

A recently described genus, the species of which are confined to
Africa. According to my index, th^ following species belong here : —
annulatus Beck., apoixanthus Bez., higemmatus Bez,, decolor Bez.,
inarnatus Bez., marsJialli Bez,, maynei Bez., mochii Bez., purpurifroTis
Bez., rubicundus Bez., woodi Bez.

Genus Lophodacus Collart 1935.

Genotype : Dacus hamatus Bezzi.

Collart has recently created this genus for hamatus Bez., which has
a peculiar medium longitudinal abdominal carina. Apparently it is the
only species in the genus.

Genus Didacus Collart 1935.

Genotype: Dacus ciliatus Loew.

Although I have not seen enough specimens to be sure about the
generic value of the fusion of the abdominal tergites, this appears to be
a valid genus with a large number of species all confined to Africa.

According to my index, it contains the following species : — abbahae
Mro., africanus' Adams, attenuatus Coll., bistrigidatus Bez.,
blepharog aster Bez., chapini Curr., ciliatus Loew., duplex Mro.^
elutissimus Bez., erythraeus Bez., ficicola Bez., gypsoides Mro.,
immacidatus Coq., insistens Curr., langi Curr., marginalis Bez.,
mimeticus Coll., mulgens Mro., ostiofaciens Mro., plagiatus Coll.^
vertebratus Bez.

Genus Austrodacus nov.

Genotype : Dacus cucumis French.

It is necessary to create a new genus for cucumis French, a peculiar-
species which is so different from other Dacinae that previous workers
have had great difficulty in placing it. Usually it has been left as Dacus
cucumis, in spite of the fact that it is in no way related to Dacus armatus
and its allies. This new genus may be defined as follows : — Dacinae with
4 sc., no a.sa., no pr.sc., and no hm. bristles, no supernumerary lobe in
the wing of the male, no post lateral cilia on the 3rd abdominal tergite
of the male, antennae held close to and not longer than the face, basal
segment of the ovipositor not as long as abdomen. It is very easily
distinguished from all other genera with four scutellar bristles, by the
absence of both the a.sa. and pr.sc. bristles. ^

Genus Notodacus nov.

Genotype: Dacus xanthodes Brown.

I am compelled to erect this genus for xanthodes Brown, a species
which differs from all other Australian and Oriental Dacinae in having

NEW AUSTRALIAN AND ORIENTAL GENERA OP DACINAE. 57

*

a strong humeral bristle (I consider that Matsumurania belongs to the
subfamily Adraminae), and from most in having no definite super-
numerary lobe in the wing of the male.

The genus can be defined as follows: — Dacinae with 2 sc., 1 a.sa.,
2 pr.sc., and 1 bristles, 3rd abdominal tergite of the male with post
lateral cilia, no definite supernumerary lobe in the wing of the male,
antennae not definitely longer than the face, basal segment of the ovi-
positor shorter than the abdomen, abdominal tergites not fused. The
characteristic form of the scutellum might be included in the list of
generic characters, but at present I prefer to regard it as a specific
character. Natodacus xanthodes is confined to a number of the Pacific
Islands.

Genus Nesodacus nov.

Genotype : Chaetodaeu^ atrichus Bez.

It is necessary (to provide a new genus for atrichus Bez. and
ahlepkarus Bez. and their varieties. These species agree with some of
the African genera in having no pr.sc. bristles, but differ in other
respects.

It may be defined as follows : — Dacinae with 2 sc., 1 a.sa., no pr.sc.,
and no Jim. bristles, a supernumerary lobe present in the wing of the
male, no post lateral cilia on the 3rd abdominal tergite of the male,
basal segment of the ovipositor not as long as the abdomen.

The two species, each with a variety, are confined to the Philippine
Islands.

Genus Melanodacus nov.

Genotype: Dacus niger Tryon.

I am erecting this genus for niger Tryon, a small black species
which does not fit into any of the known genera of the Dacinae with four
scutellar bristles. Some of the Oriental species which I am studying
at the present time will probably fit into this genus. It can be defined
as follows : — Dacinae with 4 sc., 1 a.sa., 2 pr.sc., and no hm. bristles, no
post lateral cilia on the 3rd abdominal tergite of the male, basal segment
of the ovipositor shorter than the abdomen, antennae shorter than face,
a supernumerary lobe present in the wing of the male, abdominal
tergites not fused.

It is confined to Eastern Australia, and is close to Zeugodacus, from
which it differs in having no abdominal cilia on the 3rd tergite of the
male.

Genus Asiadacus nov.

Genotype : Chaetodacus hakeri Bez.

This genus includes at least two species — hakeri Bez. from
Philippine Islands and diversa Coq. from India and Ceylon. It differs
from other genera with two scutellar bristles, in having a supernumerary
lobe present in the wing of the male, but no ciliation on the 3rd
abdominal tergite.

The genus is defined as follows : — Dacinae with 2 sc., 1 a.sa., 2 pr.sc,,
and no hm. bristles, no cilia on the 3rd abdominal tergite of the male,
a supernumerary lobe present in the wing of the male, basal segment of
ovipositor shorter than abdomen.

58

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Genus Neodacus nov.

Genotype: Neodacus newmani n. sp.

In the collection of Trypaneidae belonging to the Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research is a small series of an undescribed
species of Dacinae from West Australia. It is the first member of
the sub-family that I have seen from that State, and it differs in many
ways from the Dacinae found in the Eastern States. I am compelled
to make a new genus, for it does not fit into any of the other genera
which I have listed above. In many respects it looks more like an
African than an Australian species, and I shall not be surprised if later
on some African species are found to be congeneric with it.

The genus can be defined as follows: — Dacinae with 2 sc., 1 a.sa.,
no pr.sc., and no hm. bristles, 3rd tergite of male ciliated, a super-
numerary lobe present in the wing of the male, antennae not longer than
the face, basal segment of the ovipositor shorter than the abdomen, and
thoracic suture incomplete. This genus is very close to Dacus, from
which it can be distinguished by the presence of a supernumerary lobe
in the wing of the male.

Neodacus newmani n. sp.

Male and female. — Length of body, 6-5-7-0 mm.; of wing, 4-6 mm.
Head. — General colour brownish-yellow. Frons nearly as wide as long,
the proportions when measured from, but not including, the lunule to
the median ocellus being 18 :16 ; wdth no black spots ; ocellar triangle
black; vertical calli, and lunule brown. Antennae not quite reaching
the lower lateral angles of the face; 3rd segment nearly three times as
long as the 2nd ; 2nd segment bearing a short black dorsal bristle ; dorsal
edge of 3rd segment dark brown near the tip. Antennal grooves slightly
darker yellow, with a short dark-brown fieck on either side of the facial
plate just above the epistoma; normal facial spots absent. Genal spot
present. Occiput brownish-yellow with a bright post orbital band extend-
ing as far as the genal bristle. Chaetotaxy vt. 2, pvi. present, s. or 1,
i. or 3 (middle pair weaker than the others), genal bristle; all black;
occipital row vestigial.

Thorax. — General colour rich reddish-brown, punctulate,' with short
pale pubescence, with no black markings, but a faint mottling of dark
brown at the sides of the mesonotum, and a very thin faint dark-brown
median streak, which starts to expand, about the level of the a.sa. into
a triangular area, which terminates at the scutellum. With the follow-
ing yellow markings — humeral calli ; on each side, a triangular-shaped
mesopleural stripe, the anterior border forming an obtuse angle, and
cutting the mesopleural suture where it meets the sternopleural suture,
the posterior border practically straight, and representing the longest
side of the triangle, the upper edge coinciding wth the end of the
thoracic suture, and the lower apex being the extension on to the
sternopleuron ; a very short, post-sutural, median elliptical spot ; prac-
tically the whole of the upper, and the anterior four-fifths of the lower
hypopleural calli; (a peculiar feature is the absence of the post-suturai
lateral stripes) . Scutellum yellow with a narrow slightly curved dorsal
basal band. Mesophragma and post-seutellum with a thin median longi-
tudinal black streak. Chaetotaxy scp. 4, n.pl. 2, a.sa. 1, p.sa. 2, mpl. 1,
pi. 1, set. 2 (apical) all black.

NEW AUSTRALIAN AND ORIENTAL GENERA OF DACINAE.

59

Legs. — The same colour as the rest of the thorax, except the first
segments of the tarsi, which are paler.

Wings. — Hyaline with a dark costal band which terminates just
beyond the end of K4 + 5; it includes the 1st C., the first quarter of
2nd C., all of Sc., all of Kl, the distal margin of R3, and a small rounded
extension in the upper distal corner of R5 ; most of 2nd C. is practically
hyaline; and an anal streak which, in the male, extends across vein
Cul + lA in the usual way. Vein R4 + 5 slightly wavy beyond the
R-M cv. The proportions of vein Ml + 2 in the 1st M2 before and after
the R-M cv. 38: 15. The anal extension of Cu. distinctly lanceolate, i.e.,
narrowed, then swelling out, and finally tapering to a point, definitely
jiot parallel sided; the proportion of the extension to the rest of vein
Cul -\- lA being 15 : 12 in the female and 19 : 10 in the male. A
definite, but not pronounced, supernumerary lobe is present in the wdng
of the male.

AhdomeTv. — General colour a uniform rich reddish-brown, slightly
darker at the sides, and covered with pale pubescence ; a sub-circular
depression on either side of the 5th tergite which is of the same colour as
the rest of the abdomen, but is noticeable because of an apparent differ-
ence in the texture of the exocuticula. Ovipositor very flat, much darker
in colour than the abdomen, nearly black ; basal segment slightly longer
than the 5th tergite, very broad at the base and blunt at the apex.
Sternites slightly darker in colour than the tergites. Male with a row
of post-lateral cilia on the 3rd abdominal tergite.

Described from 2 males and 5 females labelled ^^Bred from native
fruit, Carnarvon, W.A., 1918, Newman”; and one female, ^‘Carnarvon,
W.A.., Sep., 1929, I. M. Mackerras.”

This species differs from all other Australian Dacinae with two
scutellar bristles, in the absence of the post-sutural lateral yellow stripes ;
and from most liy the absence of pr.sc. bristles. I have called it after
Mr. L. J. Newman, the Government Entomologist of West Australia,
whose work on the control of fruit flies in his State is well known. He
was the first to collect specimens of this species.

KEY TO GENEEA OF THE DACINAE.

1. Abdomen club-sliaped, narrowed or stalked at base
Abdomen ovate, not narrowed or stalked at base . .

2. Ovipositor longer than abdomen, bent, cylindrical . .
Ovipositor shorter than abdomen, straight . .

3. One pair of sc. bristles . .

Two pairs of sc. bristles . .

4. Thoracic suture complete

Thoracic suture incomplete . . . . . .

5. Basal segment of ovipositor shorter than the abdomen
Basal segment of ovipositor as long as the abdomen

6. With a median abdominal carina
Without a median abdominal carina . .

7. No pr. sc. bristles . .

One pair of pr. sc. bristles

8. 2 a. sa. bristles . .

1 a. sa. bristle

No a. sa. bristle . .

9. 3rd abdominal tergite of male ciliated

3rd abdominal tergite of male not ciliated . .

R.S. — C.

2.

3.

Toxotrypcma Gerat.
C allantra Walk.

4.

18.

MonacrosticJius Bez.

5.

6.

Leptoxyda Macq,
Lophodacus Coll.

7.

8.

14.

Tetradacus Miyaki

9.

11.

10.

13.

60

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

10. Supernumerary lobe present in wing of male
No supernumerary lobe present in wing of male

11. 3rd abdominal tergite of male ciliated

3rd abdominal tergite of male not ciliated . .

12. Abdominal tergites fused
Abdominal tergites not fused ' . .

13. Supernumerary lobe present in wing of male
No supernumerary lobe present in wing of male

allies.

14. 1. a. sa. bristle . .

No a. sa. bristles

15. 3rd abdominal tergite of male ciliated

3rd abdominal tergite of male not ciliated . .

Neodaom n.g.

Daevs F.

12.

Psilodaevs Coll.

Didaous Coll.

Daoulvs Speis.

Nesodams n.g.

{lotus Bes. and
A new genus required.)

15.

Afrodaous Bez.

16.

Asiadacus n.g.

16, Hm. bristle present
Hm. bristle absent

Notoidacus n.g.
17.

17. 3rd abdominal tergite of male ciliated . . . . Strvmeta Walk.

3rd abdominal tergite of male not ciliated . . . . {mesomelas Bez.

and its allies. New genus required.)

18. Pr. so. bristles absent . . . . . . . . . . Austroidaous n.g.

Pr. so. bristles present . ,

19. 3rd abdominal tergite of male ciliated

3rd abdominal tergite of male not ciliated . .

20. Supernumerary lobe present in wing of male
No supernumerary in wing of male . .

21. Supernumerary lobe present in wing of male
No supernumerary lobe in wing of male

.. 19.

. . 20.

. . 21.

Zeugodaous Hend.

. . Para^eugodacus Shir.
. . Melanodacus n.g.
Paratridacus Shir.

LITERATURE.

Bezzi, M. (1913) : Mem. Ind. Mus., III., 3.

Bezzi, M. (1913) : Phil. Jour. Science, VIII.

Bezzi, M. (1918-19-20) : Bull. Ent. Res., VIII., IX., X.
Bezzi, M. (1919) : Phil. Jour. Sc., XV.

Collart (1935): Bull. Mus. roy. d’Hist. nat, de Belg., XI.
Eabricius (1805) : Syst. Anti.

Hendel, F. (1927) : Der. Flieg. Pal. Reg. 49.

Macquart, J. (1835) : Hist. nat. Ins. Dipt.

Malloch, J. R. (1932) : Bui. Bern. Bish. Mus., 98.

Saunders, W. W. (1841) : Trans. Ent. Soc, Lond,, III.

Shiraki, T, (1933) : Mem. Taih. Imp. Uni., VIII.

Walker, F. (1856) : Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., I.

Walker, F. (1860) : P'roc. Linn. Soc. Lond., IV.

VoL. XLVIII., No. 10.

61

New Australian Pyraloidea (Lepidoptera).

By A. Jefferis Turner, M.D., F.R.E.S.

{Head before the\ Royal Society of Queensland, November, 1936.)

We still await a revision of the Australian species of this snper-
family; and this makes work on this group difficult. The wide range
of many species, some of which are found throughout the Eastern Tropics,,
is another likely source of error. I have tried to avoid this as much as
possible, but cannot be sure that a few of the species here described may
not have been previously described from other regions. This would be
regrettable, but the publication of complete descriptions should be of
value, even if a few names may eventually be discovered to be synonyms.

That we are able to work at this group at all, we owe firstly to some
admirable papers by Mr. Edward Meyrick, P.R.S., mostly dated before
the end of last century. Secondly, to the extensive work of Sir George
Hampson, which alone has rendered possible the identification of genera
and species by one who has no longer access to the collection in the
British Museum. This refers especially to the Pyraustidae. I may say
that in former years I have had opportunities of studying this collec-
tion, and in the past have had much generous assistance from Sir George
Hampson in identifying species. I have never followed Hampson
blindly; and have therefore the greater pleasure in acknowledging the
debt that we owe to his work, a debt that has not always been recognised.
He has provided a large and spacious foundation, on which smaller
specialists may build.

Earn. Galleriadae.

Gen. MecistopJiylla nov. /
fjLr]KLGTO(j)vXXo9, long-winged — •

Tongue absent. Labial palpi in male very short; in female very
long. Maxillary palpi obsolete. Forewings elongate, cell long (f to f ) ;
diseocellulars angled inwards ; 2 from f, 2, 3, 4, 5 in male nearly equi-
distant, in female 3 from near angle, 4 and 5 connate from angle, 6, 7,
8, 9 stalked, 10 and 11 from cell. Hindwings with cell Open; 3 and 4
stalked, 5 absent, 7 anastomosing with 12 for more than half its length.

Type 31. sienopepla Turn, formerly referred in error to Paralipsa
Butl. ^

3Iecistophylla psara n. sp.

ijjapos, speckled grey —

(^25 mm. Head and thorax whitish-grey; face and palpi fuscous.
Antennae grey. Abdomen grey; dorsum except basal and apical seg-
ments dark fuscous. Legs fuscous mixed with whitish ; tarsi fuscous with
whitish rings. Forewings elongate-oval, costa straight to f, thence
arched, apex pointed, termen straight, very oblique ; whitish-grey ; mark-
ings and some scanty irroration dark fuscous ; a transverse bar from ^
costa, beneath middle continued by a fine line not reaching dorsum; a

€2

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

mark on f costa giving rise to a line of dots, angulated above middle,
to f dorsum ; a series of dots on termen and apical third of costa ; cilia
whitish-grey. Hindwings with termen slightly sinuate, grey ; cilia grey.

Queensland : Toowoomba in November ; one specimen received from
Mr. W. B. Barnard.

TToXtoKVfjios, grey-waved —

^ 20 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax pale grey. Antennae grey.
Abdomen grey-whitish with three postmedian blackish bars on dorsum.
Legs whitish; anterior tibiae and tarsi grey with whitish rings. Fore- |
wings comparatively broad, posteriorly dilated, costa strongly arched,
apex rounded-rectangular, termen slightly rounded, scarcely oblique;
whitish-grey; two broad grey transverse lines; first from J costa to |
dorsum, outwardly curved; second from f costa obliquely outwards, ^
above middle curved through a right angle, thence to f dorsum; a
minute fuscous median subcostal dot, closely followed by a similar dot;
a dotted fuscous line on termen and apical i of costa ; cilia whitish-grey.
Hindwings with termen slightly sinuate ; grey-whitish ; cilia grey-whitish.

aorepiKTos , unstable —

^ 19 mm. Head, thorax, abdomen, and legs ochreous-whitish.
Antennae pale grey. Forewings suboval, costa strongly arched, apex
subrectangular, termen slightly rounded, oblique ; ochreous-whitish with
some brownish suffusion towards apex and termen, and a few scattered '
dark fuscous scales; a fuscous dotted line on termen and apical J of
costa ; cilia grey, bases whitish. Hindwings with termen slightly sinuate ;
whitish-ochreous ; cilia as forewings.

$ 21 mm. Head and thorax pale brownish. Palpi 5; pale
brownish. Antennae pale grey. Abdomen whitish-brown. Legs brown-
whitish. Forewings whitish densely sprinkled with dark brown, which
tends to form streaks on veins towards termen ; a large greenish-ochreous
dorsal suffusion ; a fuscous dotted line on termen and apical ^ of costa ;
cilia grey with basal and median whitish lines. Hindwings with termen
rounded; grey; base and dorsum ochreous, the two colours blending;
cilia grey.

I believe these represent one species, but further material is wanted
for confirmation, and to determine whether the differences are sexual or
varietal.

North Queensland: Kuranda in May (one male) ; Babinda near
Innisfail in September (one female type).

Gen. Aphomia Hb.

This name supersedes Melissollaptes Zel.

Aphomia poliocyma n. sp.

New South Wales: Sydney in October; one specimen.

Aphomia astericta n. sp.

NEW AUSTRALIAN PYRALOIDEA (lePIDOPTERA) .

63

Harpagoneura distorta n. sp.

distortus, deformed —

^26-28 mm. Head ochreous-grey- whitish ; face and palpi white.
Antennae grey, towards base ochreous-grey-whitish ; in male simple.
Thorax and abdomen ochreous-grey-whitish. Legs ochreous-whitish.
Fore wings narrow, oblong, termen nearly straight, apex rounded, termen
rounded, not oblique ; in male with a short subcostal groove containing
altered scales before apex on upper side, cell very long, produced in an
oblong process to f, veins 7, 8, 9, 10 shortened and twisted over
prominence corresponding to groove on upper surface ; ochreous-grey-
whitish slightly pinkish-tinged with a few scattered fuscous scales; a
large medium oblong pale fuscous subcostal spot, sometimes grey partly
outlined with fuscous ; a broad fuscous terminal line, its inner edge more
or less crenulate ; cilia grey with an ochreous-grey-whitish basal line and
an interrupted dark fuscous sub-basal line. Hindwings broad, termen
rounded ; pale ochreous ; cilia whitish-ochreous.

In structure this corresponds with H. acrocausta Meyr., which
Hampson records from Cooktown.

North Queensland : Kuranda ; Dunk I. in May ; two specimens. I
have seen also a female taken at Yeppoon.

KadapojTTo^j of chaste appearance —

28 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen whitish-grey. Palpi white.
Antennae grey, base whitish; in male simple. Legs ochreous-whitish.
Forewings narrow, suboblong, costa slightly arched to J, thence straight,
apex rounded, termen rounded, not oblique ; cell in male very long,
produced by an oblong process to J ; pale ochreous-grey ; a suffused
whitish streak on costa to f ; a transverse line of fuscous dots from
before apex to tornus ; these are connected by pale neural streaks with a
submarginal series of fuscous dots ; cilia ochreous-whitish. Hindwings
broad, termen rounded ; whitish and thinly scaled ; cilia whitish.

Though lacking the distortion of the subapical veins of forewings,
this must be referred to the same genus as the preceding. Its structure
corresponds to that of H. pseudocomplana Hmps., which is recorded from
Innisfail.

North Queensland: Charters Towers in June; one specimen.

^ 18 mm. Head, palpi and thorax ochreous. Antennae grey ;
basal joint ochreous. Abdomen and legs whitish. Forewings suboval,
costa moderately arched, apex round-pointed, termen straight, oblique;
ochreous-yellow ; a short fuscous costal streak from base followed by some
irroration ; a slightly sinuate fuscous line from f costa to f dorsum ; a
series of fuscous dots shortly before termen ; between this and post-

Heteromicta xuthoptera n. sp. ^

^ovdoTTT€po£ , yellowish-winged

64

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

median line the terminal area is partly suffuse with fuscous; cilia
ochreous, on termen fuscous. Hindwings with termen nearly straight;; *
whitish-oehreous ; cilia whitish-ochreous, above apex fuscous.

North Queensland : Cape York in April ; one specimen received from
Mr. W. B. Barnard. >

Lamoria inostentalis Wlk. Cat. Brit. Mus. xxvii., p. 88. ^

28-32 mm. (Head, thorax and abdomen ochreous- whitish.,
h'rontal tuft long (1). Labial palpi in male slender, curved, ascend-
ing, rough-haired anteriorly ; in female 6, porrect, terminal joint curved
downwards, oehreous-whitish with a few fuscous scales. Antennae
ochreous- whitish, legs oehreous-whitish with a few fuscous scales. Fore-
wings elongate, subovah in male narrower, costa moderately arched,
more strongly in female, apex rectangular, termen slightly rounded,
slightly oblique; oehreous-whitish with a few scattered fuscous scales;,
usually a terminal series of dark fuscous dots; cilia oehreous-whitish.
Hindwings with termen scarcely sinuate ; in male grey, in female whitish;
cilia whitish.

North Australia: Darwin in January. North Queensland: Cook-
town in April; Magnetic Island in June; also from New Guinea, Borneo,
China, and Japan.

Fam. Crambidae. . ij

Ptocliostola asaphes n.sp. ^

6.oa(f)7]9, indistinct, obscure —

^ 17-20 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen oehreous-whitish. Palpi 1
7; oehreous-whitish sprinkled with fuscous. Antennae grey; ciliations I
in male minute. Legs oehreous-whitish. Forewings narrow, costa |

moderately arched, apex subrectangular, termen slightly) rounded,
slightly oblique ; brown-whitish ; some fuscous scales in disc
between veins; a very fine dentate line, sometimes scarcely perceptible-
from costa shortly before apex to tornus, fuscous, posteriorly partly
edged with whitish, connected with termen beneath apex by two white
lines ; cilia grey interrupted by continuations of these white lines. Hind-
wings with termen slightly rounded; pale-grey; cilia whitish.

The forewings have the costa much more rounded than in
P. microphaeella, and have no central white streak.

North Australia: Darwin in October and November; four specimens
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

Neargyria persimilis Hmps. /

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) iii., p. 275 (1919) —

14-16 mm. Head white. Labial palpi 5 ; golden-ochreous,,
upper edge white. Maxillary palpi white, at base golden-ochreous.
Antennae whitish-grey ; in male thickened, slightly serrate towards apex.
Thorax white with two golden-ochreous longitudinal lines. Abdomen
grey-whitish. Legs golden-ochreous ; posterior pair whitish. Forewings

, : NEW AUSTRALIAN PYRALOIDEA (lEPIDOPTERA) . 65

triangular, costa slightly arched, apex rectangular, termen almost
straight, scarcely oblique; snow-white; markings golden-ochreous some-
times mixed with fuscous ; a narrow costal streak from base to middle ; a
broad line from f costa to middle of dorsum, curved and produced on
costa nearly to apex ; dorsal edge golden-ochreous ; a terminal line inter-
rupted by blackish dots; cilia ochreous or ochreous-grey, bases white.
^Hindwings with termen rounded; white; cilia white.

North Queensland: Cape York in May and June; seven specimens
received from Mr. W. B. Barnard. Also from New Guinea.

Calamotropha leptogrammella Meyr.

Mr. A. Brimblecombe has reared this species from larvae feeding
on the Nut Grass {Cyperus rotundus Lin.). The earliest stages were
not observed; the larva tunnels downwards through the stalk, eating
all the internal tissue and leaving a silken coating on the inner surface
of the ensheathing leaf base. It then eats out the nut and may proceed
from this to other nuts. The cocoon is constructed within the nut or
stem. The larvae were found in July, the moths emerging in August.
Considerable damage was done to the host plants.

Gen. Phanomorpha nov. y
<j)avopop(l)og, of cheerful appearance —

Tongue present. Face smooth, not projecting. Palpi moderately
long, porrect; second joint stout, rough-haired above and beneath;
terminal joint very short, obtuse. Maxillary palpi large, strongly
triangularly dilated. Antennae in male minutely ciliated. Tibiae with
outer spurs about 4 inner. Forewings with 2 from well before angle,
3 from angle, 8 and 9 stalked, 7 and 10 separate. Hindwings with
strong cubital pecten ; cell about f , 2 from f , 3 separate, 4 and 5 connate,
6 from upper angle of cell, 7 anastomosing strongly with 12, 12
approximated to cell throughout.

Near Argyria Hb., differing in the minute terminal joint of labial
and stronger dilatation of maxillary palpi.

Phanomorpha leucoxantha n. sp. ^

XcvKo^avOos white and yellow —

^ 17 mm. Head white ; back of crown blackish. Palpi 2 ; white,
basal half of second' joint fuscous. Antennae fuscous. Thorax blackish;
tegulae except bases and a post-median pair of spots white. Abdomen
pale yellow. Legs fuscous; posterior pair except tarsi whitish. Fore-
wings elongate-triangular, costa straight to near apex, apex pointed,
termen straight, oblique ; white with blackish markings ; a costal streak ;
narrow transverse fasciae near base, at ^ and |, the last dilated and
touching tornus; a small apical blotch narrowly produced to tornus,
containing a white dot on costa before apex ; a short oblique streak from
apex, and a terminal series of dots; cilia fuscous. Hindwings with
termen gently rounded; pale yellow; a broad fuscous terminal band;
cilia fuscous, on dorsum pale yellow.

Queensland : Charleville in August ; one specimen.

66

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Platytes erythroneura n. sp.
ipvdpovevpoSi red-veined —

$ 18 mm. Head and thorax pale red mixed with fuscous. Palpi
4; fuscous, beneath whitish. Maxillary palpi strongly dilated; fuscous,
apex whitish. Antennae fuscous. Abdomen ochreous-reddish. Legs !
whitish, reddish-tinged ; tarsi with fuscous rings. Forewings narrowly
triangular, costa straight almost to apex, apex round-pointed, termen
straight, oblique ; grey mixed with pale red and dark fuscous ; a broad
red streak from beneath J costa dividing into neural streaks in terminal
area; a similar median streak from base dividing similarly; a suffused
red dorsal streak from base to J; a large oblong median dorsal dark |
fuscous spot, preceded and followed by whitish spots ; costal spots at ^ '
and f, and a line between red streaks, fuscous stigmata beneath costa
before and after middle, the latter and sometimes the former pale- ,
centred ; a line acutely dentate fuscous line from f costa, ending in a [
suffused tornal spot; cilia whitish, bases barred with dark fuscous., I
Hindwings with termen rounded; grey; cilia whitish, bases grey.

South Australia: Ooldea in July; one specimen received from Mi\

J. A. Kershaw. ^

Platytes oxycampyla n. sp.
o^vKapiTTvXos ) sharply bent —

^ 21 mm. Head and thorax grey. Palpi 2^ ; grey, white beneath
towards base. Antennae grey; ciliations in male minute. Abdomen
grey ; towards base whitish with an ochreous bar on second segment.
Legs whitish-grey. Porewings narrowly triangular, costa almost straight,
apex pointed, termen straight, oblique ; grey ; two fine fuscous transverse
lines ; first from ^ costa obliquely outwards, sharply bent at an acute
angle in mid-disc, not reaching dorsum; second from beneath f costa
to f tornus, slightly dentate, followed by two or three fuscous dots in
costal area ; cilia grey. Hindwings with termen rounded ; grey-whitish ;
cilia grey-whitish.

Victoria: Sea Lake in November; one specimen received from Mr.

H. Goudie. /

Platytes pediopola n. sp. /

TreStoTToAo?, living on the plain —

22-28 mm. Head and thorax grey. Palpi 3 ; fuscous, upper
edge grey. Antennae fuscous; in male minutely ciliated. Abdomen
pale grey with a sub-basal brown transverse dorsal bar. Legs grey,
sprinkled with whitish. Porewings narrow, gradually dilated posteriorly,
costa straight to f , thence arched, apex round-pointed, termen obliquely
rounded ; grey ; markings fuscous, often indistinct ; fine streaks on upper
and lower margins of cell and on fold ; short diverging streaks from cell
on veins ; short streaks on veins before termen ; cilia grey ; median line
and apices whitish. Hindwings pale grey ; cilia whitish with a grey
basal line.

Queensland: Mitchell and Cunnamulla in September; Quilpie in
August; abundant at light in the last locality.

NEW AUSTRALIAN PYRALOIDEA (lEPIDOPTERA) .

67

Sedenia leucogramma n. sp. /

XevKoypaixgoSy inscribed with white —

^22 mm. Head, thorax,, and abdomen grey. Palpi 2^; fuscous,
lower edge white. Antennae grey; ciliations in male Legs fuscous.
Porewings triangular, costa straight to near apex, apex rounded, ternien
almost straight, slightly oblique ; grey ; a suffused fuscous line from
beneath J costa to J dorsum ; a white discal spot beyond middle, its dorsal
portion broader; an outwardly curved oblique white line, anteriorly
fuscous-edged, from f costa, becoming sinuate above dorsum, on which
it ends at f ; cilia brown-whitish with median fuscous line, apices grey.
Hindwings with termen gently rounded; grey; a faint whitish trans-
verse line from f costa; cilia whitish, apices and a median line grey.

Queensland: Charleville in September; one specimen.

Diadexia parades Turn.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q. xix. p. 56 (1905) —

Catancyla hrunnea Hmps. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) iv. p. 140
(1919). — The male antennae are bipectinate.

North-West Australia : Roeburne ; Kimberley.

Tails dicJiospila n. sp. /
dixocTTuXog, double-spotted —

$ 25 mm. Head and thorax brownish-fuscous. Palpi 6 ; grey,
beneath whitish. Antennae fuscous. Abdomen grey. Legs fuscous.
Porewings narrow, dilated, costa straight, apex pointed, termen straight,
slightly oblique ; brownish-fuscous, paler towards base ; a fuscous costal
streak from base to f, suff'usedly edged with whitish, which extends on
costa to f ; a small fuscous transverse mark in disc at another larger
at J ; a very slender white line inwardly oblique from costa before apex,
soon curved outwards and sinuate to tornus; a white apical spot pre-
ceded by a fuscous costal spot ; a pair of blackish-edged white spots on
termen above tornus ; a slender blackish terminal line ; cilia grey with a
slender white basal line. Hindwings wdth termen slightly sinuate ; pale
grey; cilia whitish.

Western Australia : Perth ; one specimen received from Mr. W. H.
Matthews.

Tails radlalls Hmps.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) iv. p. 147 (1919) —

T. dlargyra Turn. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust. 1925 p. 42 is a synonym.

Tails crypslchroa Low.
T. dlscilunalls Hmps. is a synonym.

New South Wales: Broken Hill, Victoria; Birchip, Melbourne
Gisborne, South Australia; Adelaide, Mount Lofty.

Pam. SCHOENOBIADAE.

Sclrpophaga haplostlcha n. sp.
dTrXoGTLxo^, with simple lines —

14-16 mm. Head, thorax, abdomen, and legs white. Labial
palpi 2^ ; white. Antennae grey ; in male shortly laminate with moderate
ciliations (1). Porewings elongate-triangular, costa nearly straight, apex

68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

pointed, termen obliquely rounded; white with extremely pale fuscous
markings; a straight line from i costa to i dorsum; a discal mark i
beyond middle, touching a sinuate line from f costa to f dorsum ; a faint
subterminal line ; cilia white. Hindwings over 1, elongate, termen gently
rounded; white; cilia white.

North Queensland : Cape York in April ; two specimens received from '
Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Fam, Pyralidae.
Ane^nosa polyrrhoda.

Polyterpnes polyrrhoda Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc., S.A., 1932, p. 188

I was mistaken in referring this species to the Crambidae. There
is no cubital pecten in the hindwings, but some long hairs between the 1
bases of the cubital and first anal may be easily mistaken for one. The
forewings are narrower than in A. isadalis Wlk., but it agrees with this ^
species in all essential structural points. The facial projection is formed
by a long tuft of hairs. In both species 6 of forewings may be connate ,j
or short-stalked, and 7 of hindwing may anastomose at a point or for
some distance. In one example of A. isadalis this vein is merely closely
approximated. >

North Australia: Mary R. (Campbell) in June. North Queensland:
Cape York in June (Barnard). North-West Australia: Wyndham
(Campbell) in January. "

Gen. Blechrophanes nov. ^
pXrjXpo(l>cLvrjs, weak-looking —

Tongue strong. Palpi ascending, recurved, appressed to face, reach-
ing vertex; second joint thickened with smooth scales; terminal joint
short, pointed. Maxillary palpi short, filiform. Antennae in male
simple. Forewings with 4 and 5 stalked, 6 separate, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 stalked*
Hindwings with 4 and 5 connate, diverging.

Blechrophanes crocoptila n. sp. /

KpoKOTTTiXos, saffron-winged — |

14- 16 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen orange. Palpi whitish!

Antennae grey-whitish. Legs ochreous-whitish. Forewings elongate-
triangular, costa straight to thence arched, apex rounded, termen
slightly rounded, not oblique ; orange, median area sometimes paler ; two
nearly straight pale yellow transverse lines; first at -J; second at
narrowly edged with brown posteriorly; cilia orange. Hindwings with,
termen slightly rounded ; as forewings. |

North Queensland: Banks Island in May; Cape York in June and
November ; five specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has
the type.

Endotricha microphylla n. sp. /
lUKpo(j)vXXos y small-winged —

15- 16 mm. Head and thorax dull crimson, in female ochreous-
grey. Palpi grey. Antennae ochreous-grey ; ciliations in male 2|. Legs
whitish-ochreous ; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings elongate-tniahgular,
costa straight to f, thence arched, apex pointed, termen straight, oblique;
dull crimson, in female purple-grey ; an undulating fuscous line from \

NEW AUSTRALIAN PYRALOIDEA (lEPIDOPTERA) .

69

•1 costa to i dorsum ; another from | costa to f dorsum, edged posteriorly
i)y a pale line ; costal edge between these lines strigulated with fuscous
and whitish-ochreous ; a fuscous median subcostal dot; cilia fuscous,
apices in male dull crimson or whitish-ochreous. Hindwings triangular,
termen straight, tornus prominent ; as forewings.

North Queensland: Cape York in October and November; seven
specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Endotricha dinosticha n. sp.

SivoGTLxos, with curved line —

16-17 mm. Head and palpi dark fuscous. Antennae pale
grey; in male with fasciles of long cilia (3). Thorax including tegulae
grey-brown; patagia fuscous. Legs brown- whitish partly suffused with
fuscous ; posterior pair mostly whitish. Forewings triangular, costa
sinuate, nearly straight to |, apex pointed, termen nearly straight,
oblique ; fuscous-brown ; basal area edged by a slender whitish outwardly
curved line, from f costa to f dorsum; beyond this is a pale suffusion,
and some fuscous and whitish costal strigulae ; a whitish line from costa
at at first outwardly oblique, then angled and strongly curved inwards,
finally becoming submarginal and ending on tornus, edged on both sides
with fuscous; a short doubly toothed whitish line follows this above its
upper angle ; cilia fuscous with a white basal line ; but mostly white
beneath apex and above tornus. Hindwings with termen rounded ;
fuscous; a paler fascia before middle, edged by whitish lines, which in
their turn are edged with fuscous ; cilia as forewings, but mostly whitish
on and beneath apex.

Near E. puncticostalis and E. scioessa, best distinguished by the
peculiarly formed subterminal line of forewings.

North Queensland: Cape York in October; five specimens received
from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Endotricha peripJiaea n. sp.

^€pL(f>atos, dark-edged —

$ 22-26 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax ochreous-grey.

Abdomen and legs ochreous-grey lightly sprinkled with fuscous, h’ore-
wings elongate-triangular, costa straight almost to apex, apex pointed,
termen gently rounded, moderately oblique ; 4 and 5 stalked or closely
approximated for some distance ; ochreous-grey lightly sprinkled with
fuscous, on termen purplish -tinged ; a series of pale costal dots; a
darker basal patch edged by a slender curved whitish line from J costa
to f dorsum ; a slender curved whitish line from costa near apex running
close to termen, partly edged with fuscous; an interrupted blackish
terminal line ; cilia fuscous, bases pale, apices whitish. Hindwings with
termen strongly rounded, less so towards tornus ; 4 and 5 closely approxi-
mated at base ; purple-fuscous ; a paler median band edged by whitish
lines; first line curved at second straighter, fuscous-edged on both
sides; terminal line and cilia as forewings. *

Near E. mesenterialis, but differing in colour and especially in cilia.
That species has 4 and 5 of both wings long-stalked.

Queensland : Noosa in October ; three specimens.

70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. :

/

Scenidiopis heterozyga n. sp.
irepo^vyos, unequally mated —

^ 17-18 mm. Head reddish-brown. Palpi fuscous-broTO.

Antennae grey ; ciliations in male 4. Thorax brown, more or less mixed
with ochreous. Abdomen brown; tuft partly ochreous. Legs fuscous;
posterior tibiae and tarsi whitish. Forewings triangular, costa straight '
to beyond middle, thence sinuate, apex round-pointed, termen slightly
rounded, oblique; purple-fuscous; transverse lines whitish, obscure,
partly obsolete, wavy ; first from ^ costa to ^ dorsum ; second from f costa
to before tornus, well-marked on costa; a terminal series of blackish
dots ; cilia purple-grey. Hindwings with termen gently rounded ; colour,
terminal dots, and cilia as forewings ; transverse lines much more distinct,
outwardly curved, finely dentate, at about f and f. „

$ 20 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen ochreous-grey. Forewings |

with termen straight to near apex ; ochreous-grey partly sprinkled with |
fuscous ; lines slender, edged suffusedly on both sides with fuscous. Hind-
wings as forewings, but terminal area suffused with dull crimson.

North Queensland : Cape York in October and April; four specimens !
received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type. |

Petta alternata "Warr.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), xvi., p. 469; Hmps. Moths. Ind., iv., p. 138. r

Auchmophoba tynnuta Turn, Proc. Roy. Soc. Q. 1912, p. 142, is a1
synonym. I I

North Queensland : Kuranda. Queensland : Stradbroke Island, ^

Coolangatta. Also from the Archipelago and India. : "

'V

Cangetta mimiscula n. sp. V" '4 J

minusculus, small —

^ 12 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, and abdomen whitish. Antennae

whitish; in male shortly ciliated (-J). ’ Legs whitish; anterior pair
fuscous. Forewings elongate, narrow, slightly dilated, costa nearly
straight, apex pointed, termen sinuate, slightly oblique; whitish with
slight grey suffusion towards costa and termen; markings fuscous; a
very slender line from -J costa to | dorsum, strongly angled outward
below middle; a median subcostal discal dot; a costal dot at f ; post-
median line double, sinuate from f costa to f dorsum ; a distinct terminal ^
line ; cilia whitish with a fuscous median line. Hindwings with termen |
bisinuate ; as forewings ; antemedian line obsolete towards costa ; discal j
dot at J, larger; a double transverse wavy postmedian line; terminal line ,
indistinct; a dot on termen at -J.

Queensland: Montville (1,500 ft.), near Nambour, in March; ona]
specimen.

Cardamyla JiercopJiora Meyr.

Trans. Ent. Soc. 1884, p. 281. Correctly referred here.

North Australia: Darwin.

Cardamyla eurycrocu n. sp

./

€vpvKpoKog, broadly saffron-tinged —

26-36 mm. Head yellow; face whitish with a pair of fuscous.,
dots. Palpi reaching middle of face; fuscous-whitish. Antennae

NEW AUSTRALIAN PYRALOIDEA (lEPIDOPTERA) .

71

fuscous; in male minutely ciliated. Thorax whitish with some yellow
suffusion; patagia, apices of tegulae, an interrupted transverse median
line, and a posterior spot, fuscous. Abdomen whitish more or less tinged
with yellow towards apex; transverse fuscous bars, often interrupted,
on apices of segments. Legs fuscous with whitish rings. Forewings
triangular, costa straight to f, apex round-pointed, termen slightly
rounded, slightly oblique; fuscous with whitish markings; a transverse
fascia at J, sometimes broad, sometimes reduced to a dentate line; a
costal or subcostal blotch containing a fuscous median discal dot, variably
prolonged towards or to dorsum, sometimes partly confluent with sub-
basal fascia; a dentate line from | costa, strongly sinuate to f dorsum,
often partly yellow, sometimes partly obsolete; sometimes a flue sub-
marginal line connected by fine streaks with termen; cilia fuscous or
grey sometimes indistinctly barred with whitish. Hindwings with termen
very slightly rounded; mostly yellow, in parts whitish; a subdorsal
fuscous spot towards base ; a fuscous median fascia not reaching costa ;
a terminal fuscous band ; subterminal line and cilia as forewings.

Near G. didy malls Wlk., but the ground-colour is fuscous not
greenish-grey, and the markings differ in detail.

North Queensland : Stannary Hills, near Herberton. Queensland :
Clermont, Eidsvold ; Gayndah ; Brisbane in February ; Bunya Mountains
in January. New South Wales: Scone in November and March; twelve
specimens. Larvae on leaves of Gelastrus cunninghamii (Hr. T.
Bancroft), and on AlpMtonia excelsa (H. Nicholas).

Catamola funerea Wlk.

In his valuable publication, Exot. Micro, v., p. 1 (1936), Mr. Meyrick
lias proposed a new generic name, Elaphernis, for this species. This
name cannot stand, because funerea is the type of Meyrick ’s genus
Catamola. Trans. Ent. Soc. 1883, p. 62. Of the three species, there
referred to Catamola, for which no type was indicated, only funerea
strictly corresponds to Meyrick ’s description, in that vein 6 of hindwings
anastomoses strongly with 7. In thyridalis these veins may be either
closely approximated, or anastomose at a point, or for a very short
distance only. Of xantliomelalis I have only one example, and in that
those veins are only approximated.

In case this may not be convincing, I must state that I fixed funerea
as the type of Catamola in the Proc. Roy. Soc. Q., 1905, p. 60.

Gen. Agastophanes nov.

ayauTof)avrjs , admirable —

Tongue present. Labial palpi ascending, appressed to face, reaching
vertex ; second joint long, slightly thickened, nearly smooth, with a small
posterior tuft at apex; terminal joint short, acute. Maxillary palpi in
male, with a strong terminal pencil of long hairs. Antennae in male
moderately ciliated, with a short but strong dorsal process from basal
joint, ending in a triangularly dilated tuft. Forewings with tufts of
raised scales; 2 from near angle, 3 from angle approximated to 4, 5,
which are connate but diverging, 6 from upper angle connate with
stalk of 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 stalked. Hindwings with 4 and 5 connate and
diverging, 7 anastomosing with 12.

72

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Nem^est Titanoceros Meyr.
Agastophanes zophoxysta n. sp.
^o^o^voTos, darkly polished —

20-24 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen dark fuscous, in male
reddish-tinged. Palpi dark fuscous; maxillary hair pencil in male j
reddish. Antennae fuscous ; dorsal process of male not reaching beyond
patagia, ciliations 1. Legs reddish-fuscous in male, dark fuscous in
female; tarsi with slender white rings; posterior pair mostly whitisli-
oclireous. Forewings triangular, costa straight, slightly concave before
apex, apex pointed, termen strongly sinuate, not oblique ; reddish-fuscous
in male, dark fuscous in female, with lustrous reflections in both; a
rounded spot beneath costa before middle, and a reniform spot after
middle, the latter with a process running almost to apex, pale green;
some whitish irroration before termen; cilia grey-whitish with a darker
sub-basal line. Hindwings with termen rounded ; pale ochreous-reddish ;
veins and a large tornal suffusion deep red; a suffused fuscous streak
on vein 4 ; cilia as forewings, but interrupted by a fuscous bar opposite
median streak.

North Queensland: Cape York in October and November; four
specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type. «

Gen. Diastrophica nov. ^

SiaorpocfiLKos, distorted —

Tongue strongly developed. Palpi long, very slender, appressed to ii
face, reaching vertex; second joint very long; terminal joint minute,
acute. Maxillary palpi very short, filiform, ending in a short pencil ot*
hairs. Antennae in male with a moderately long, densely scaled dorsal
process from base. Legs not hairy. Forewings with raised scales; in
male with a small costal fovea beneath before middle, edged anteriorly
with raised scales; cell open; 4 and 5 apparently stalked, radial veins
in male distorted. Hindwings with 4 and 5 connate or stalked, 3 closely
approximated at base, 7 anastomosing at a point with 12.

It does not seem possible to refer the following little species to any
received genus, but further material is necessary for full understanding
of its structure.

Diastrophica tephrophanes n. sp. ^

T€(f)po(l)avrig , like ashes —

15-16 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax blackish,
x^ntennae of male slightly laminate and shortly ciliated (|) ; dorsal |
process nearly reaching mid thorax. Abdomen grey-whitish sprinkled |
with fuscous. Legs fuscous sparsely sprinkled with whitish. Forewings
elongate-triangular, costa moderately arched, apex round-pointed, termen Y
obliquely rounded; fuscous, towards base blackish; median area suffused j
with whitish; cilia fuscous. Hindwings with termen scarcely rounded; "
fuscous; cilia fuscous.

Queensland: Banana in March (Mrs. Hobler) ; Chinchilla in||
October ;, two specimens. j I

Gen. Oncohela nov. ^

oyKo^eXos, with swollen palpi — J

Palpi in male with third joint immensely swollen with a terminal
brush of hairs. Antennae in male without dorsal process.

The corresponding joint in the male of Hetrobela is minute and^
-smooth-scaled ; otherwise the two genera are similar. , ;

NEW AUSTRALIAN PYRALOIDEA ( LEPIDOPTERA ) .

73

Oncohela philohrya n. sp.

(j)iXo^vosy moss-loving —

30-35 mm. Head and thorax green with some brownish scales.
Palpi green; terminal joint in female slender, moderately long (I),
fuscous, extreme apex whitish. Antennae pale grey; ciliations in male
J. Abdomen ochreous-whitish slightly greenish-tinged, dorsum sprinkled
with reddish-brown. Legs fuscous with reddish irroration and green or
whitish rings; anterior coxae reddish; posterior tibiae mostly whitish.
Forewings elongate-triangular, costa almost straight, apex rounded,
termen rounded, slightly oblique ; green with fuscous and reddish mark-
ings ; a basal dot ; a su&sed fascia from -J costal to J dorsum, broad on
costa narrowing towards dorsum ; fine wavy interrupted transverse lines,
from costa to f dorsum and from f costa to f dorsum; an irregular
reddish-fuscous median blotch with a median process towards base;
sometimes an interrupted subcostal line beyond middle and a spot on
I dorsum reddish; a subterminal fuscous line touching small reddish
fuscous blotches above and below middle; a terminal series of dots;
cilia whitish, reddish-tinged, with a basal series of blackish bars.
Hindwings with termen rounded ; fuscous ; cilia as forewings.

North Queensland: Cape York in November; three specimens
received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Heterohela nubilalis Hmps.

111. Het. ix., p. 157, pi. 172, f. 9.

Moths Ind., iv., p. 112 —

North Queensland : Cape York ; Palm Island ; Townsville. Also from
Ceylon and India.

Macalla nepJielodes Turn.

North Queensland: Cairns; Townsville. Queensland; Yeppoon;
Tweed! Heads; Toowoomba.

Macalla cholica Meyr.

EpipascTiia lygropa Turn, is a synonym.

Queensland: Duaringa; Brisbane; Toowoomba. New South Wales:
Sydney. Victoria: Melbourne; Gisborne.

Macalla ebemna Turn.

North Queensland: Herberton; Mount Mulligan. Queensland:
Brisbane ; Tweed Heads ; Toowoomba ; Charleville ; Adavale. Tasmania :
Ross; Launceston.

Larvae feeding in spun-together shoots of sapling Eucalyptus.

Macalla glyceropa n. sp.
yXvK€p(x)7Tos , delightful—

28 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen ochreous-green. Palpi
fuscous-green. Antennae grey ; in male serrate, ciliations 1, dorsal process
stout, not reaching midthorax, fuscous-green. Legs ochreous-whitish
sprinkled with reddish and ringed with fuscous; posterior pair mostly
ochreous-whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa straight to f ,
thence gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen slightly rounded,
slightly oblique ; ochreous-green with patchy reddish suffusion and
fuscous markings; a triangular fuscous suffusion on costa near base;
antemedian line illdefined, represented by a very slender outwardly

74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

oblique line from f costa, obsolete in disc, inwardly oblique and dark
fuscous near dorsum, ending on 4; a short • longitudinal dark fuscous
line in disc above middle, preceded by some raised scales, before this line ;
postmedian from f costa very obliquely outwards, forming a rounded
prominence in middle, thence inwards and slightly dentate, strongly
indented inwards above dorsum, on which it ends at f ; included area
mostly reddish, with a minute fuscous discal dot beyond middle preceded
by some raised scales ; a broad dark fuscous streak from postmedian line
to termen above middle, edged beneath by a pale spot; some fuscous
terminal dots above this, and some reddish tornal suffusion, cilia reddish
with fuscous bars, apices paler. Hindwings with termen slightly
rounded; fuscous; cilia fuscous, apices whitish.

Queensland: Brisbane in March; one specimen.

Epipaschia polypsamma n. sp.

TToXvijjapLpios i sand-coloured —

^ 33 mm. Head and thorax brown. Palpi whitish-ochreous

sprinkled with fuscous and brown. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in
male 1, dorsal process greatly expanded, not reaching midthorax, brown.
Abdomen pale brown. Legs brown; tarsi fuscous with whitish-ochreous
rings. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa gently arched, apex
rounded, termen slightly rounded, oblique ; ochreous-whitish sprinkled
with brown; markings dark brown; a basal patch sharply defined by a
pale line from ^ costa to ^ dorsum; a costal dot immediately beyond
and another in middle; a spot on mid-dorsum; an apical blotch con-
tinuous with a terminal fascia, edged anteriorly by a pale line from

1 costa obliquely outwards, becoming transverse above middle and
acutely and finely dentate to f dorsum ; cilia brown-whitish with fuscous
bars. Hindwings with termen slightly rounded ; fuscous, paler towards
base ; cilia as forewings.

North Queensland: Kuranda; one specimen received from Mr. F. P.
Dodd.

Epipaschia hica nodes n. sp. '

iKavcoSp^, comely —

(J 35-36 m.m. Head brown sprinkled with fuscous. Palpi pale
grey. Antennae grey; in male serrate with tufts of cilia (1^) ; dorsal
process dilated, brown sprinkled with fuscous, not reaching midthorax.
Thorax brown-whitish ; patagia brown sprinkled with fuscous. Abdomen
grey- whitish. Legs fuscous with whitish rings; posterior pair mostly
whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa nearly straight, apex
round-pointed, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique ; whitish mostly
suffused with brown ; markings distinct ; a darker basal patch to ante-
median line ; antemedian from J costa to mid-dorsum, slender, fuscous,
angled inwards beneath costa, edged anteriorly by a pale line ; a slender
transverse brown median discal mark ; a finely serrated fuscous line from

2 costa to before tornus, obtusely angled outwards in middle, thence
incurved, edged posteriorly by a pale line ; this is followed by a brown
shade containing some fuscous wedges; an interrupted fuscous terminal
line; cilia brown mixed with whitish and barred with fuscous. Hind-
wings with termen rounded ; grey, paler towards base ; a dentate grey
postmedian line; cilia as fore wings.

West Australia: Denmark in April; five specimens received from
Mr. W. B. Barnard, who hasi the type.

NEW AUSTRALIAN PYRALOIDEA ( LEPIDOPTERA ) .

75

- Epipaschicu loxophaea n, sp.

Xoio(j)aLoSi obliquely dark —

22-28 mm. Head, thorax, and palpi whitish sprinkled with
fuscous. Antennae whitish-grey; in male serrate with tufts of cilia (1),
dorsal process much dilated, not reaching midthorax, whitish sprinkled
with fuscous. Abdomen ochreous-whitish. Legs fuscous with whitish
rings. Forewings narrow, costa straight to f , thence arched, apex round-
pointed, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique; white with fuscous
irroration and markings ; a spot on base of dorsum ; a broadly suffused
line from costa to tornus, in female slender or obsolete ; costal dots at
middle and J ; from the latter a slender dentate line outwardly oblique
to middle of wing, thence incurved to tornus; a broad interrupted sub-
terminal shade; a terminal series of dots; cilia white mixed with pale
reddish, bases barred with fuscous. Hindwings with termen slightly
rounded ; grey, paler towards base ; cilia white, bases barred with fuscous.

North Queensland : Cape York in November ; Kuranda in February
and June ; five specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the
type.

/

Epipaschia peratophaea n. sp/^

7T€paTO(f)aLos y dark at the apex —

22-26 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen whitish-brown. Palpi
pale brown; in female fuscous. Antennae grey; ciliations in male 1,
dorsal process short, not reaching beyond patagia. Legs ochreous-
v/hitish sprinkled wdth brown; tarsi fuscous with whitish rings. Fore-
wings elongate-triangular, costa straight to f, thence arched, apex
rounded ; termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique ; ochreous-whitish
with fuscous and brown irroration and markings; some basal irroration
in male ; an interrupted costal streak from base to J ; a short slender
fuscous line from base surrounded by more or less brown suffusion; a
dentate line from ^ costa to ^ dorsum, not always developed ; a subcostal
discal dot at f ; a line from f costa obliquely outwards to middle, there
angled inwards to f dorsum, often cutting through a large dorsal blotch
extending from middle to tornus ; a well-defined apical blotch, darker in
female ; some fuscous terminal dots ; cilia whitish tinged with red, some-
times with fuscous basal bars. Hindwings with termen gently rounded ;
fuscous, paler towards base ; cilia as forewings.

North Queensland : Cape York in October and November ; Kuranda
in January. Queensland : Stradbroke Island in March ; Tweed Heads in
January; fourteen specimens.

Epipaschia, hasiochra n. sp.

^aaicoxpos, pale at the base —

$ 23-25 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen pale brown. Palpi

fuscous. Antennae grey. Legs ochreous-whitish sprinkled with fuscous ;
tarsi fuscous with whitish rings. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa
straight to f, thence arched, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded,
slightly oblique ; ochreous-whitish with fuscous and brown irroration and
markings ; an indistinct transverse line at J ; a suffused dark fuscous line
from I costa to f dorsum ; a finely dentate dark fuscous line from before
I costa to before tornus, bent outwards above and inwards below middle,
edged posteriorly by a pale line; area between lines fuscous, beyond
second line pale fuscous; an interrupted terminal line; cilia fuscous with

76

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

indistinct pale bars. Hindwings with termen gently rounded; pale
fuscous; a terminal series of whitish-ochreous dots; cilia brown-whitish
with a darker sub-basal line.

North Queensland: Cape York in October and November; five
specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Fam, Pyraustidae.

Araeomorpha limnophila n. sp.

At/xpo<^tAos‘, loving marshes —

21-30 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, abdomen, and legs fuscous.
Antennae fuscous; in male thickened, ciliations minute. Porewings
narrow, moderately dilated, costa straight to f, apex rounded, termen
obliquely rounded ; fuscous ; markings whitish-grey ; obscure ; a sub-basal
fascia ; a discal dot at f , preceded and followed by a blackish dot ; a
suffused outwardly curved line, sometimes obsolete, from f costa to f
dorsum; sometimes a submarginal line interrupted on veins; cilia grey,
apices paler. Hindwings broad, termen rounded ; grey ; cilia as
forewings.

Larger than A. atmota Turn., and with postmedian line of forewings
differently formed.

North Queensland : Kuranda in September and June ; six specj.mens.

Gen. Blechroglossa nov.

^XexpoyXossosy weak-tongued — ^

Tongue weakly developed, rudimentary. Labial palpi recurved,
ascending, reaching middle of face; second joint thickened with rough
scales; terminal joint short, stout, obtuse. Antennae in male minutely
ciliated. Tibiae with outer spurs about | inner. Forewings with 2
from near angle, 3, 4, 5 approximated from angle, 8, 9, 10 stalked.
Hindwings with 3, 4, 5 approximated from angle, 6 from upper angle,
7 anastomosing with 12 to near its apex.

Blechroglossa pelochyta n. sp. ^

7T7]XoxvTog, muddy —

(J 22 mm. Head and thorax pale brown. Palpi ochreous- whitish ;
second joint sprinkled with fuscous. Antennae grey. Abdomen dark
grey. Legs fuscous. Forewings narrow, dilated, costa straight to
thence strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; pale
brown sprinkled with fuscous ; a pale spot beneath f costa, surrounded
by fuscous ; cilia grey. Hindwings with apex broadly rounded ; termen
only slightly rounded; grey; cilia grey.

Queensland: Charleville in August; one specimen.

Cataelgsta polyrrapha n. sp. /

TToXvppa^os, highly wrought —

^ 14-18 mm. $ 16-22 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi grey.

Antennae whitish; in male thickened and very shortly ciliated (J).
Abdom^^n grey, sometimes partly white; first two segments white with
j)airea fuscous dots. Legs white ; anterior tibiae and tarsi broadly
ringed with fuscous; Forewings elongate-triangular, costa straight to
I, thence arched, apex round-pointed, termen obliquely rounded; white;
air oblong fuscous patch on base of costa, containing a sub-basal ochreous

NEW AUSTRALIAN PYRALOIDEA (LEPIDOPTERA) . 77

clot; an ochreous line edged with fuscous from costa to f dorsum,
strongly indented inwards beneath costa; an inwardly oblique fuscous
fascia from | costa to mid-dorsum; an outwardly oblique ochreous line
edged with fuscous from | costa nearly to termen below middle, there
acutely angled, thence slender and curved to before tornus; a simular
line from J costa to termen beneath apex, and another along termen, the
latter interrupted above and below middle; cilia fuscous with several
white bars. Hindwings with termen slightly rounded; white; a round
central fuscous blotch containing an incomplete ochreous ring ; a narrow
terminal fascia a crenulate ochreous line, a terminal series of ochreous
dots, and a series of silvery dots between these two ; cilia as forewings.

North Queensland: Cape York in April, May, and June; nine
specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Cataclysta haematera n. sp.
alyarripos, blood-stained —

^ 15-16 mm. Head white ; side-tufts and face grey. Palpi white.

Antennae grey- whitish with slender incomplete fuscous annulations.
Thorax white, with a median fuscous transverse bar. Abdomen grey;
first two segments, apices of remaining segments, and tuft, white. Legs
white; anterior tibiae and tarsi with fuscous rings; mid-tibiae fuscous
on basal half of dorsum. Porewings elongate-triangular, costa straight
to f , thence arched, apex round-pointed, termen slightly rounded, slightly
oblique; white with fuscous markings; a basal costal dot; a transverse
fascia at i; a broad antemedian fascia with irregular edges, sometimes
interrupted ; a transverse line from f costa, bent slightly inwards below
middle, thence transverse to f dorsum; this is followed by a broad
ochreous-reddish suffusion, leaving extreme terminal area white; three
dark fuscous marks on termen beneath apex ; cilia white, with a fuscous
median line, often restricted to subapical area. Hindwings with termen
rounded ; dull reddish ; a small apical fuscous blotch ; costal area before
middle, and a subapical spot prolonged on terminal edge toward tornus,
white ; cilia as forewings.

North Queensland: Cape York in October and November; five
specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Cataclysta argyrilinalis.

Oligostigma argryrilinale Hmps. Trans. Ent. Soc. 1897, p. 168 —

Hampson distinguishes Oligostigma Gn. by the hindwing being
excised beneath apex, but this excision is often very slight, and the
distinction does not seem to me natural or reliable. I regard the genus
as a synonym of Nymphula. Cataclysta is distinguished from that genus
by the smooth-scaled acute filiform maxillary palpi, and the longer outer
tibial spurs (about f). In Nymphula the maxillary palpi are loose-
baired and obtuse, and the outer tibial spurs about -J.

North Queensland: Cooktown; Cardwell.

Cataclysta marginip%ncta n. sp. y
warginipunctus, with marginal dots —

^ 16 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, abdomen, and legs white.

Antennae annulate ; white ; in male minutely ciliated. Porewings
triangular, costa straight almost to apex, apex pointed, termen slightly
sinuate, oblique; white, suffused with pale-yellow beneath costa; a short

78

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

perpendicular streak on costa at a suffused line from costa at
at first perpendicular, forming a rounded angle above middle, thence
sinuate to f dorsum, pale-yellow, towards costa mixed with fuscous-
a pale-yellow subterminal line from before apex to tornus ; a pale-yellow
terminal line edged anteriorly with fuscous ; cilia fuscous, apices white.
Hindwings with termen gently rounded; white, suffused with pale-
yellow before middle and on a broad terminal band, but leaving apex
white; a submarginal series of six circular blackish dots; cilia as fore-
wings.

North Queensland: Cape York in October; one specimen received
from Mr. W. B. Barnard.

Gen. Trigonophylla nov. /

Tpiyovo(j)vXXo9, with triangular wings —

Tongue present. Palpi curved, ascending, appressed to face, con-
siderably thickened, anterior edge rough; terminal joint short, obtuse.
Forewings with cell 2 from f, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5 approxi-
mated from angle, 6 from middle of cell, 7 from upper angle, 8, 9, 10
stalked, 11 free. Hindwings with cell J, 2 from 4 absent, 3 and 5
connate from angle, widely diverging.

Allied to Aulacodes, but differs in structure of hindwings.

Trigonophylla trichroma n. sp.
rpixpojpog, three-coloured —

o 20 mm. Head white ; crown ochreous-tinged. Palpi white.
Antennae pale-grey; in male minutely ciliated. Thorax yellow; sides
and a posterior spot white. Abdomen white sprinkled with fuscous ; first
three segments yellow on dorsum ; last two segments and tuft with
fuscous apices. Legs white ; anterior pair yellow with white rings. Fore-
wings elongate-triangular, costa straight to f, thence arched, apex
rectangular, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique ; white ; a yellow
basal patch, short on costa, on dorsum extending to J ; a small fuscous
tornal patch containing two white; dots; a yellow spot on costa; four
converging costal streaks; first outwardly oblique from before middle,
fuscous but yellow on costa, very slender, sometimes running into
second ; second from mid-costa, similar but longer, reaching beyond middle
of wing ; third from f , less oblique, mostly yellow ; fourth broadly wedge-
shaped, from costa before apex, yellow, connected with termen beneath
apex; a broad yellow line on lower half of termen; cilia white, bases
yellow, on tornus fuscous. Hindwings broadly triangular, termen nearly
straight; white; a broad fuscous terminal band extending inwards on
veins 2 and 3 ; dorsal edge fuscous ; terminal edge and an apical spot
white; cilia white with a yellow basal line, which becomes fuscous
towards tornus, on dorsum fuscous.

North Queensland : Cape York in April and June ; two specimens
received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Strepsinoma repititalis Warr. ^

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) xvii., p. 205 —

20 mm. Head and palpi pale-yellow. Antennae pale-grey.
Tliorax pale-yellow with three posterior fuscous spots. Abdomen pale-
yellow ; first segment and tuft whitish ; second segment and apices of
those following fuscous. Legs ochreous-whitish ; anterior coxae of male

NEW AUSTRALIAN PYRALOIDEA (LEPIDOPTERA) . 79

with a broad internal tuft of fuscous hairs at apex. Forewings narrow,
costa gently arched, apex pointed, termen obliquely rounded ; an
elongate triangular fovea in cell beneath; 2, 3, 4, 5 closely approxi-
mated at origin, 11 stalked or approximated; basal part pale-yellow ; a
fuscous sub-basal median fuscous spot; a large triangle extending on
dorsum from J to f, its/ apex reaching above middle, coarsely irrorated
with blackish, and edged with fuscous; an oblique fuscous wedge from
mid-costa to above tornus; beyond this a broad obtuse transverse white
vv^edge ; a broad yellow fuscous-edged fascia from f costa, at first trans-
verse, then narrower and curved inwards ending on tornus, but sending
a process along outer edge of dorsal triangle; a yellow terminal line
edged with fuscous; space between last two markings white towards
costa, becoming fuscous and narrow towards tornus ; a terminal series
of fuscous dots, that one beneath apex larger ; cilia pale fuscous. Hind-
wings with termen only slightly rounded; whitish, towards dorsum
suffused with yellow ; four blackish spots, edged for the most part with
orange, on middle portion of termen; these are enclosed in a curved
blackish line containing three silvery dots; above these markings a
curved yellow line edged with fuscous and preceded by fuscous irrora-
tion; an orange apical spot; cilia fuscous, on dorsum whitish-ochreous.

North Australia : Melville I. North Queensland : Cairns ; Innisfail ;
Herberton ; Ingham. Queensland : Yeppoon.

Strepsinoma foveata n. sp.
foveatus, with conspicuous fovea —

23 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax pale-yellow. Antennae pale-
grey. Abdomen pale-yellow ; apices of segments whitish. Legs whitish ;
anterior femora and tibiae fuscous. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa
slightly arched, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique;
on upper surface a triangular fovea in cell preceded by an angular
raised edge ; on lower surface a large fovea occupying whole of cell, with
three swollen transverse corrugations ; fuscous with yellow streaks and
lines ; a slender median streak from base to tornus ; a broader dorsal
streak to f ; a white wedge at f , its base not touching costa, its apex
rounded above tornus, its posterior edge indented; this is edged v/ith
fuscous and surrounded with yellow, broadly on sides, narrowly around
apex; a broad yellow terminal line edged on both sides with fuscous:
cilia fuscous. Hindwings with termen rounded, sinuate beneath apex;
whitish ; a transverse yellow fuscous-edged postmedian line not touching
costa and dorsum; four blackish spots on median portion of termen,
each containing a central white dot, separated by yellow streaks; some
fuscous irroration between these and postmedian line ; a yellow fuscous-
edged line on apex and another on termen between central spots and
tornus ; cilia fuscous, on tornus and dorsum whitish.

New South Wales: Casino in March; one specimen.

Gen. Sericophylla nov.
o€pLKo6v)^og, with silken wings —

Face smooth, not projecting. Tongue well developed. Labial palpi
ascending, curved, appressed to face, not reaching vertex; second joint
moderately thickened with appressed scales, rough anteriorly ; terminal
joint very short, obtuse. Maxillary palpi filiform. Antehnao. not
annulate ; in male thickened with moderately long ciliations., Tibiae

80

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

with outer spurs J or less. Forewings with cell -J, 2 from f , 3 from near
angle, 4 and' 5 connate, 6 from above middle, 7 from upper angle, 8, 9,
10 stalked, 11 free. Hindwings with cell nearly 2 from near angle,
3 from angle connate with 4, 5, which are short-stalked, 7 anastomosing
with 12 to f of wing.

This genus approximates in structure to Diathraustodes Hmps.

nivalis, snowy —

16-18 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, abdomen, and legs white.
Antennae white; ciliations in male IJ. Forewings elongate-triangular,
costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, oblique;
white with grey markings; an outwardly curved line from 1 costa to J
dorsum; a median discal dot; a line from f costa, strongly curved out-
wards, bent below middle, thence transverse to | dorsum; cilia white,
bases pale-grey. Hindwings with termen rounded; colour and cilia as
forewings; a slender postmedian line curved outwards in costal half.

North Queensland: Cape York in October and November; seven
specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Kiaaaxpcoos, coloured like a magpie —

Head smooth, not projecting. Tongue well developed. Labial palpi
short, curved, ascending, not reaching middle of face; second joint
moderately thickened, rough anteriorly ; terminal joint very short, obtuse.
Maxillary palpi short, filiform, concealed. Antennae of male with
moderately long ciliations. Posterior tibiae with outer spurs half inner
or less. Forewings with cell -J, 2 from shortly before angle, 3, 4, 5
approximated at origin, 6 from above middle, 7 from upper angle,

8, 9, 10 stalked, 11 free. Hindwings with cell short (about and open,

2 from I, 3, 4, 5 approximated, 7 anastomosing with 12 to | of wing.

The maxillary palpi can be seen only after removal of the labial
palpi.

Cissachroa callischema n. sp.

KaWiGyriixos y prettily patterned —

(^5 12-16 mm. Head blackish; face white. Palpi white, base
more or less fuscous. Antennae whitish-grey; ciliations in male 1^.
Thorax white with a posterior blackish spot. Abdomen fuscous with
some white rings ; terminal segment white. Legs white ; anterior pair
fuscous. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa straight almost to apex,
apex pointed, termen straight, rounded beneath, oblique; white with |

blackish markings ; a moderate basal fascia ; a costal streak to f ; a »

narrow fascia from mid-costa curved outwards to tornus ; this is joined
by a fascia from f costa, at first narrow and sometimes interrupted, ^

dilated in middle of wing, at the point of junction is a short obtuse 1 1

inward process; an oblong apical blotch extending to mid-termen, pro- f

longed slightly on terminal edge ; cilia white with a fuscous median line,
on apex and tornus fuscous. Hindwings with termen sinuate ; white ;
a large triangular apical blackish blotch; a terminal line from tornus p
to ^ termen; cilia as forewings, on dorsum wholly white. M

North Queensland: Cape York in October, November, and May; S
nine" specimen^ received from Mr. E. J. Dumigan and Mr. W. B. ^
Barnard.

Gen. Cissachroa nov.

NEW AUSTRALIAN PYRALOIDEA (lEPIDOPTERA) .

81

Gen. Streptobela nov.

GTpeTTTOpeXog, with bent palpi —

Tongue strong. Face smooth, not projecting. Labial palpi witli
second joint obliquely ascending, clothed with long hairs anteriorly;
terminal joint long, smooth, acute, strongly bent downwards. Maxillary
palpi short, filiform. Antennae of male with moderately long ciliations.
Tibiae with outer spurs nearly as long as inner. Forewings with 2
from f, 7 well separate, 8, 9, 10 stalked. Hindwings with cell open,
short oblique, 2 from f, 3, 4, 5 diverging, 7 anastomosing strongly
with 12.

Probably nearest Margarochroma Warr.

KpoKo^a(j)7]g' saffron-dyed —

16 mm. Head and thorax orange-yellow. Palpi whitish, terminal
joint and a median bar on second joint orange-yellow. Antennae pale-
grey ; ciliations in male 2. Abdomen whitish broadly barred with orange-
yellow on dorsum. Legs whitish ; anterior tibiae and part of tarsi
ochreous-grey. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa straight to |, thence
gently arched, apex rounded, termen rounded, slightly oblique; basal
area orange-yellow ; postmedian area except a strip along costa and
another on termen pale fuscous; two slender fuscous transverse lines;
first slightly dentate, from mid-costa to dorsum beyond middle ; second
from I costa, outwardly curved to below middle, where it ceases abruptly ;
cilia pale-yellow. Hindwings with costa gently rounded ; fuscous ; costal
area whitish ; basal hairs and a terminal strip not reaching apex orange-
yellow ; cilia as forewings.

North Queensland : Kuranda in June ; two specimens.

papLapcohris i like marble —

22 mm. Head whitish. Palpi white. Antennae fuscous
Thorax white; shoulders and a broad longitudinal median stripe dark
fuscous. Abdomen fuscous with broad basal and sub-basal bars, a narrow
terminal bar, and underside white; tuft in male grey-whitish. Legs
white with dark fuscous rings ; posterior pair almost wholly white. Fore-
wings elongate-triangular, costa straight to f, thence arched, apex
subreetangular, termen gently rounded, moderately oblique ; fuscous with
white markings ; a basal spot ; an erect sub-basal dorsal mark ; a narrow
fascia from costa to mid-dorsum, angled outwards below middle, but
sometimes interrupted; an incomplete fascia from f costa to below
middle, dilated in disc; an oblong costal subapical spot, from which
arises a slender acutely dentate line to dorsum beyond middle, sometimes
joining lower end of first fascia ; a tornal spot ; cilia white. Hindwings
with termen sinuate ; white with fuscous markings ; a slender line from
near base of costa to tornus ; a large antemedian spot ; an S-shaped line
from f costa to tornus; a terminal band containing two submarginal
white spots towards tornus ; cilia white, on tornus fuscous.

North Queensland: Mossman and Tully in June; two specimens.

Streptobela crocohaphes n. sp. ,

Tabidia marmarodes n. sp.

82

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Tatohotys ceramochra Meyr.

Trans. Ent. Soc. 1885, p. 443 —

Considerably smaller than T. janapalis Wlk., the fore wings narrower
and less rounded at apex, more brightly coloured, without sub-basal line,
subcostal spots darker and more distinct, dentations of postmedian line
much smaller and sharper.

North Australia : Darwin ; Brock’s Creek. North Queensland : Moss-
man ; Cairns ; Innisfail. Queensland : Duaringa.

Sylepta ocellifera n. sp.
ocellifer with eyed spots —

d? 22-30 mm. Head pale-brown; face whitish. Palpi fuscous;
])ase whitish. Antennae pale-grey ; ciliations in male Thorax whitish
partly suffused with grey ; tegulae long, with central brown or fuscous
stripe. Abdomen whitish sometimes partly ochreous-tinged ; apices
of segments sometimes fuscous; tuft in male dark fuscous. Legs pale-
grey ; posterior tibiae whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa
straight to f, thence strongly arched, apex rounded, termen slightly
rounded, slightly oblique ; 7 not curved at base ; white with purple reflec- ,
tions ; markings pale-o<^hreous edged with fuscous ; a subcostal fuscous !

line from base to f; costal and dorsal sub-basal spots in a fuscous '

suffusion; an oblique line from i costa (in female -i)'to f dorsum (in
female with a posterior spur below middle; a large longitudinally
oval subcostal blackish spot beyond middle, broadly edged with pale
ochreous and outside this with fuscous, with a minute central whitish
dot; a sinuate line from f costa to dorsum before tornus; a narrow
terminal band containing a suffused fuscous spot above middle; cilia |
wdiite, on apex and terminal spot fuscous. Hindwings triangular, termen I f |
nearly straight ; colour as forewings ; a small discal circle connected by a -^j
line with costa at | fuscous ; a sinuate fuscous subterminal line ; a fuscous I
terminal spot; a pale ochreous fuscous-edged terminal line; cilia white, ^
on apex fuscous.

North Queensland: Cape York and Cooktown in October, November,
and December; seven specimens received^ from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who ,
has the type. t :

Sylepta argillitis n. sp. ^ '

apytAAtri?, clay-coloured —

$ 22-24 mm. Head and palpi fuscous. Antennae grey, towards

base fuscous. Thorax ochreous-brown ; anteriorly broadly fu^ous.
Legs grey ; anterior tibiae fuscous ; tarsi fuscous with pale rings. Fore-
wings elongate-triangular, costa straight to f, thence arched, apex
rounded, termen slightly rounded, oblique ; ochreous-brown with fuscous
markings ; a broad suffused costal streak to beyond middle ; a slender
line from ^ costa to J dorsum ; discal spot before middle, broadly edged
anteriorly and posteriorly, open above and beneath ; postmedian from
f costa, slender, finely and irregularly waved, deflected above tornus to
beneath discal spot, thence to f dorsum ; submarginal and terminal series
of dots ; cilia grey with a fuscous sub-basal line. Hindwings with termen
slightly rounded ; ochreous-brown, paler towards base and costa ; a
slender discal mark at J; postmedian slender, wavy, its median portion
approximated to termen; marginal dots and cilia as forewings.

North Queensland: Cooktown in April; Tully, near Innisfail, in
June and July ; three specimens.

NEW AUSTRALIAN PYRALOIDEA ( LEPIDOPTERA ) .

83

Sylepta cyclotypa n. sp.

KVKXorv7T09, with rounded markings —

? 30-32 mm. Head pale ochreous; face and palpi pale fuscous.

Antennae grey. Thorax fuscous mixed with pale ochreous. Abdomen
ochreous-whitish ; dorsum barred with pale fuscous. Legs fuscous. Fore-
wings elongate-triangular, costa straight to f, thence arched, apex
rounded, termen rounded, slightly oblique ; whitish-ochreous with fuscous
markings; a short subcostal streak from base joined at its apex by a
streak from base of dorsum; a transverse line at J, with posterior projec-
tions from middle and on dorsum; a small oval subcostal spot beyond
this ; a much larger oval spot beneath mid-costa ; a dentate line from f
costa to f dorsum; a large apical and a small tornal blotch; these are
connected by three dots in a curved transverse line ; a terminal series
of minute whitish-ochreous interneural dots ; cilia with a whitish-ochreous
bar on tornus and another shortly above. Hindwings with termen
slightly rounded ; colours as forewings ; veins outlined with fuscous ; a
dentate transverse line at J ; small apical and tornal blotches ; connected
by a line of three 'dots ; terminal dots and cilia as forewings.

In coloration very similar to RhimpJialea sceletalis Wlk., but differ-
ing in detail of pattern and in structure of antennae and palpi.

North Queensland : Kuranda in April ; two specimens received from
Mr. F. P. Dodd. " /

Bocclioris zopliopJianes n. sp.

^o(f)0(f)avrj£, dusky —

25-26 mm. Head and thorax fuscous-brown. Palpi fuscous-
brown; basal half white. Abdomen and legs brown. Forewings tri-
angular, costa straight to near apex, apex round-pointed, termen slightly
rounded, slightly oblique ; fuscous-brown ; markings fuscous ; a line from
i costa to 4 dorsum; a pale-centred narrow median discal spot; post-
median finely dentate from f costa, indented inwards above middle,
beneath middle bent inwards to beneath discal spot, thence transverse
to f dorsum ; a terminal series of dots ; cilia pale-brown. Hindwings
with termen rounded; colour as forewings; postmedian from f costa,
angled inwards or interrupted beyond middle, thence transverse to
tornus; terminal dots and cilia as forewings.

Queensland: Bunya Mountains (3,000 ft.) in January; two. speci-
mens.

Nausinoe euronalis Swin.

Polythlipta euroalis Swin. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1889, p. 420, PI. 44, f. 12.

Phalangiodes rivulalis Snel. Trans. Ent. Soc. 1890, p. 637, PI. 20, f. 1.

North Queensland: Cape York in May, June, and October (W. B.
Barnard). Also from Java, Sumatra, and India.

Margaronia actorionalis Wlk.

Cat. Brit. Mus. xvii., p. 498, Moore. Lep. Ceyl. iii., PI. 180, f. 1.

Glyphodes zelleri Led. Wien. Ent. Mon. 1863, p. 478, PL 14, f. 8.

Glyphodes conclusalis Wlk. xxxiv., p. 1354.

Glyphodes tumidalis Warr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) xviii., p. 118.

Glyphodes violalis Warr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) xviii., p. 118.

Lypotigris jovialis Feld. Reise Nov., PI. 136, f . 25.

North Queensland: Cape York in June (W. B. Barnard). Also
from Archipelago, Ceylon, and India.

84

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Margaronia hasiferalis^ Hmps.

Proc. Zool. Soc. 1898, p. 743, PL 50, f. 16—

^ 28 mm. Head and thorax whitish-grey-ochreous. Palpi grey;

beneath sharply white towards base. Antennae grey- whitish ; ciliations
in male minute. Abdomen whitish-grey. Legs whitish; anterior pair
except coxae ochreous. Forewings triangular, costa straight to |, thence
arched, apex round-pointed, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique;
oehreous-whitish, thinly scaled ; markings pale-brown ; a straight oblique
line from J cost to dorsum, preceded by two slender lines; a fascia
from mid-costa to f dorsum, moderately broad on costa, gradually
narrowing, containing a fine whitish central streak beneath costa; a
straight line from f costa to f dorsum, immediately followed by a darker
line ; terminal area grey with a suffused line from apex ; cilia whitish with
a dark fuscous basal line towards apex. Hindwings broad, termen nearly
straight to near tornus ; colour as forewings ; median and subdorsal longi-
tudinal streaks in basal area ; terminal band as forewings but not reach-
ing tornus; cilia whitish with a dark fuscous sub-basal line towards
tornus.

North Queensland: Cape York in November; one specimen (W. B.
Barnard). The locality ‘‘Bathurst” given by Hampson for this species
is quite impossible. Probably the real locality is Bathurst Island, North
Australia.

ArcJiernis mitis n. sp. /

mitis, mild, gentle —

38-40 mm. Head and thorax pale ochreoiis-brown. Palpi 2,
porrect; second joint dilated with scales towards apex; terminal joint
short, obtuse; ochreous-brown, sharply white towards base beneath.
Antennae pale-grey ; ciliations in male 1. Abdomen pale-brown, beneath
white. Legs white; anterior pair mostly grey. Porewings elongate-
triangular, costa gently arched, apex pointed, termen slightly rounded,
oblique ; pale ochreous-brown, markings faintly darker ; traces of a trans-
verse line at J ; a faint discal dot at f ; a slightly dentate line from | costa,
at first slightly oblique, below middle bent inwards and upwards to
beneath discal dot, then downwards to mid-dorsum; cilia grey. Hind-,|
wings with termen gently rounded; grey; cilia whitish-grey. f fl

North Queensland : Townsville in February ; two specimens received
from Mr. F. P. Dodd. Queensland: Yeppoon. L

/ ■

Metallarcha umbrifera n. sp. /

umhriferus, shaded —

16-18 mm. Head whitish-oehreous ; face with rounded promin- '
ence. Palpi 2J; dark fuscous, sharply white towards base beneath.
Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male Thorax fuscous. Abdomen
fuscous apices of segments whitish. Legs fuscous ; middle and posterior
tibiae and all tarsi fuscous-whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa j
straight almost to apex, apex round-pointed, termen slightly rounded,
moderately oblique ; fuscous sprinkled with whitish, appearing grey ; a
moderate pale ochreous-tinged fascia edged with fuscous from before

NEW AUSTRALIAN PYRALOIDEA (LEPIDOPTERA) .

85

mid-dorsum narrowing to a point beneath costa before middle ; a second
similar fascia from f costa, ending in a rounded extremity well above
tornus, constricted in middle ; a fine pale terminal line ; cilia fuscous,
flindwings with termen rounded; orange; a subcostal spot at a broad
apical patch narrowly prolonged to tornus, and dorsal edge, blackish;
cilia fuscous.

Near M. diplochrysa Meyr., but lacking the clear orange markings
and basal patch on forewings.

West Australia : Albany and Busselton in February ; four specimens
received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Metasia polytima Turn.

31. nyctichroa Turn, is a synonym.

North Australia : Darwin ; Melville Island. North Queensland :
Herberton; Townsville. Queensland: Yeppoon; Bundaberg; Nambour;
Killarney.

Noorda pyrsodes n. sp.

TTvpaojSrj?, fiery —

$ 18 mm. Head yellow. Palpi 3 ; reddish-orange, sharply white

towards base beneath. Maxillary palpi dilated; reddish-orange,
xintennae pale ochreous-grey. Thorax yellow; shoulders and an inter-
rupted postmedian line red. Abdomen yellow, partly suffused with red
on dorsum ; apices of segments) and underside white ; two posterior seg-
ments purple. Legs white ; anterior pair yellow with red tibiae. Pore-
wings triangular, costa straight to near apex, apex pointed, termen
obtusely bowed on vein 3 ; 8, 9, 10 stalked ; yellow reticulated with red ;
narrow sub-basal and antemedian red fasciae ; fine red streaks on veins ;
costal edge’ fuscous ; a finely-dentate line from | costa, curved inwards
above middle, thence to f dorsum, upper half reddish-fuscous, lower half
red; a yellow line follows this; terminal area suffused with reddisii-
fuscous; cilia reddish-fuscous, apices white, but fuscous on apex, angle,
and tornus. Hindwings with termen gently rounded ; yellow ; a moderate
purple terminal band ceasing at tornus ; cilia as forewings, on dorsum
pale-yellow.

V

North Queensland : Cape York in May ; one specimen received from
Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Noorda miltosoma n. sp.
puXTOGcopLos, red-bodied —

$ 22 mm. Head red on crown ; face fuscous. Labial palpi dark

fuscous; at base beneath white, reddish-tinged. Antennae fuscous.
Thorax dark fuscous with a large anterior red spot. Abdomen bright
red ; dark fuscous beneath. Legs dark fuscous with white rings ;
posterior tibiae and tarsi mostly white. Forewings triangular, costa
straight to f , thence gently arched, apex pointed, termen slightly rounded,
moderately oblique ; dark fuscous sparsely sprinkled with minute whitish
scales ; cilia fuscous. Hindwings with termen rounded ; dark fuscous ;
cilia fuscous.

A species of singular colouration. Queensland : Eidsvold in October;
one specimen.

86

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Pitacanda spilosomoides Moore.

Lep. Ceyl. iii., p. 334, PI. 183, f. 10-

North Queensland: Cape York in October and November (W. B.
Barnard). Also from Ceylon and India. /

Gen. Nyctiplanes nov. ^
vvKTiTrXavrjs, wandering by night —

Tongue present. Face smooth, rounded, not projecting. Palpi
moderately long, porrect ; second joint shortly rough-haired above and
beneath ; terminal joint moderate, obtuse. Maxillary palpi stout with a
short forwardly directed apical tuft. Tibiae with outer spurs about J
inner. Forewings with 3 from well before angle, 7 straight, 8, 9, 10
stalked, or 10 closely approximated. Hindwings with cell f, 4 and 5
approximated at origin, immediately diverging, 7 anastomosing with 12
for some distance.

Probably near Noorda, but the palpi are much shorter. The male
antennal ciliations are an additional character.

Nyctiplanes polypenthes n. sp.
TToXvTrevd'qs t very mournful —

^ 24-25 mm. Head and thorax dark fuscous. Palpi 2 ; dark

fuscous, beneath whitish-brown. Antennae fuscous ; ciliations in male 1.
Abdomen fuscous ; tuft and underside grey-whitish ; dorsum of second
segment whltish-ochreous. Legs fuscous; posterior tibiae and all tarsi
grey- whitish ; the latter with fuscous rings. Forewings elongate-
triangular, costa slightly arched, apex rectangular, termen obtusely
bowed on vein 3, not oblique ; fuscous, darker towards base ; a small
whitish-ochreous triangle on costa just before middle ; a whitish-ochreous
spot on f costa; a dark fuscous crenulate line cuts through this and
curving outwards and then inwards ends on tornus, obscurely edged with
whitish posteriorly; an oblong whitish-ochreous spot on termen before
apex, and a much smaller spot above tornus ; cilia fuscous barred with
whitish-ochreous. Hindwings with termen rounded ; fuscous ; an obscure
darker subterminal line obscurely whitish-edged ; a whitish dot well
above tornus; cilia as forewings. | f

North Queensland: Cape York in June; two specimens received
from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

Gen. Ectadiosoma nov.

iKrahLocrojfjLoSy long-bodied — ^ I

Tongue strong. Face smooth, not projecting. Labial palpi mode-
rately long, porrect, triangularly scaled ; terminal joint concealed.
Maxillary palpi slightly dilated at apex. Antennae about f ; annulated
towards apex; ciliations in male minute. Tibiae with outer spurs less
ihan half inner. Abdomen slender and very elongate, projecting far
behind hindwings. Forewings with 2 from f , 3, 4, 5 approximated from
angle, 7 slightly curved, 10 closely approximated to 8, 9. Hindwings
with cell about |, 3, 4, 5 approximated at origin, thence diverging, 7,j
anastomosing strongly with 12.

Near Hyalohathra. Differs in the very long slender abdomen and
shorter cell of hindwings.

Ectadiosoma pleurocapna n. sp.

TrXevpoKarjvoSy with smoky costa —

27-30 mm. Head ochreous-grey. Palpi 2 J ; beneath sharply
white. Antennae pale-grej^. Thorax pale-yellow ; anterior margin

■I

NEW AUSTRALIAN PYRALOIDEA (lEPIDOPTERA) .

87

fuscous. Abdomen brownish-fuscous; towards base pale-yellow. . Legs
whitish ; anterior pair partly pale-grey. Forewings elongate-triangular,
slightly arched near apex, apex pointed, termen straight, oblique ; pale-
yellow with some grey suffusion towards termen; a median pair of
blackish dots at each angle of cell; a broad fuscous costal streak from
base to I ; a fine fuscous transverse line at J ; a fuscous line from f costa
slightly outwardly curved to f dorsum, indented below middle; cilia
whitish-grey. Hindwings with termen rounded; pale-grey; a blackish
dot in disc at J; a curved fuscous transverse line at f not reaching
dorsum, cilia as forewings.

North Queensland: Townsville in September. Queensland: Bris-
bane and Toowoomba in March. Three specimens; I have also seen one
from Yeppoon in October.

Hyalohatlira rliodoplecta n. sp.

PoSottAc/cto?, rosy-braided —

25-28 mm. Head and thorax crimson mixed with pale-yellow.
Palpi pale-yellow with basal, median, and apical crimson bars. Antennae
grey, towards base crimson-tinged ; ciliations in male 1. Abdomen pale-
yellow with dorsal crimson bars. Legs crimson ; tarsi whitish-ochreous ;
anterior tarsi with crimson bars. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa
straight to f, thence arched, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded,
slightly oblique ; pale-yellow with coarse crimson lines and streaks ; a
costal streak to middle ; dentate transverse lines near base and at ; a
line from f costa outwardly oblique, strongly curved outwards, retracted
below middle, sinuate and dentate to mid-dorsum, connected by a short
dentate line with f costa ; a finely-dentate line at f connected with termen
by streaks on veins ; cilia crimson. Hindwings with termen rounded ;
pale-yellow becoming whitish towards costa; a sinuate crimson line from
f dorsum, not reaching costa ; subterminal and terminal crimson lines ;
cilia crimson.

North Queensland: Kuranda in December, May, and July; five
specimens.

Gen. Phenacodes nov.

<f)€vaK(jj^r]£ , like an impostor —

Tongue strongly developed. Face smooth, not projecting. Labial
palpi short, stout, porrect, thickened with appressed scales, but rough
beneath towards base; terminal joint short, stout, obtusely truncate.
Maxillary palpi widely dilated with scales at apex. Antennae in male
without basal process, minutely ciliated. Forewings with raised scales ;
2 from f, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5 rather approximated at' origin,
6 separate, 7 separate from neai^ upper angle, 8 and 9 stalked, 10 from
well before angle, 11 from f. Hindwings with 2 from f, 3, 4, 5 approxi-
mated from angle, 6 from upper angle connate with 7, which anastomoses
with 12.

This is an anomalous genus. By strictness of definition is must be
referred to the Pyraustidae, but its shape, raised scales, pattern and
coloration of forewings, suggest the Pyralidaef to some of which it is
closely similar. On the other hand its short palpi with very short obtuse
terminal joint support the evidence furnished by the neuration.

88

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Phenacodes aleuropa Low.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1903, p. 59 —

North Queensland: Atherton; Mackay. Queensland: Brisbane;
Toowoomba; Mount Tambourine. New South Wales: Lismore; Murru-
rundi. Mr. A. R. Brimblecombe has bred this species from larvae feed-
ing on Platycerium alcicorne, the Elkhorn fern. They have also been
noted to feed on other ferns. The larva shelters during the day in a
tunnel within the peat, and emerges at night to feed on the fronds, or
it chews olf a piece and consumes it at the entrance of the tunnel, in
which it pupates.

Heliothela floricola Turn.

Pros. Roy. Soc. Q. 1912, p. 159—

When I described this species I confused it with the following,
thinking the two forms sexes. This was an error, for I have both sexes
of each, and actually the type of H. floricola is a female. From the other
Australian species it may be readily distinguished by its smaller size
10-12 mm.) and the presence of a white spot on the hindwings,
hut it is extremely similar to the New Zealand H. atra Butl.

New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (5,000 to 6,000 ft). Tasmania:
Cradle Mountain (3,000 ft.). I have received twm examples labelled
‘‘Altona” (near Melbourne?) but doubt this locality.

Heliothela aterrima n. sp.
aterrimus, very black —

14-18 mm. Head and thorax blackish with a few white scales.
Palpi 3J; blackish with some white scales, wholly white towards base
beneath. Antennae blackish. Abdomen blackish with few white scales
on apices of segments and in tuft. Legs blackish ; tarsi with white rings.
Forewings elongate-triangular, costa straight, apex rounded, termen
slightly rounded, slightly oblique ; blackish with few . scattered white
scales ; three obscure black transverse lines ; first sub-basal ; second at
slightly waved; third median, sinuate; an obliquely elongate white spot .
beyond middle, touching costa, edged posteriorly by a black line, which
runs inwards beneath spot into third line; beyond this a line of white
scales from costa ending in a white dot on tornus ; cilia fuscous, on apex j
with white apices. Hindwings broad, termen rounded,; blackish; cilia
fuscous with white apices. - ” |

New South Wales : Mount Kosciusko (5,000 to 6,000 feet) in January
(4 males) and in March (3 females). w

Fam. Pterophoridae.

Platyptilia hracJiyniorplia Meyr.

l\tr. A. Brimblecombe has found the larvae of this species feeding
in lantana berries. Though this cannot be its native host, the fact is of
interest and suggests that the species may be somewhat of a general
feeder.

I

VOL, XLVIII,, No. 11. 89

Notes on Australian Cyperaceae I.

By S. T. Blake^ M.Sc., Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic
Biology, University of Queensland.

{Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, SOth November, 1936.)

Plates II. and III.

Tribe Rynchosporeae.

TrachystyUs S. T. Blake gen. nov. ; affinis Actmoschoeno Benth. et
Arthrostylidi R. Br. sed planta foliosa, spiculis umbellatis, stylo bifido
superne liispido, staminibus 2 differt.

Spiculae umbellatae bisexuales plerumque unitlorae, giurnae undique
imbricatae, suprema vacua, 1-2 succedentes hermai^iiroditae, ceterae
(plures) vacuae. Setae hypogynae nullae. Stamina 2. Stylus elongatus
hispidus, basin versus conico-dilatatus glaber in nuce artieulatus, facil-
lime deciduus; rami 2 long! liispidi. Nux magna complanata cellulis
extimis minutis hexagono-rotundis.

Rliizoma liorizontale, culmi caespitosi, basin versus dense foliati,
iiidorescentia umbellata; internodus inter flores elongatus, alatus, ceteri
brevissimi.

Species unica, Queenslandiae australis incola.

T. foliosa S. T. Blake sp. nov. Rhizoma breve. Cidnd dense
caespitosi, 1-4 dm. alti, graciles, triquetri, sulcati, angulis antrorsim plus
minusve scabridae. Folia 4-6, internodis brevissimis ; vaginae scariosae,
albae vel pallide brunneae; laminae ad 2 dm. longae, 04-0-5 mm. latae,
rigidae, erectae vel interdum curvatae, concavae, tenuiter nervosae,
niarginibus nerviformibus scabridis exceptis laeves, apicem obtusam
versus plus minusve triquetrae. Bracteac perpaucae, ima ea. 1 cm. vel
raro ad 3*5 cm. longa, foliis subsimilis, superiores brevissimae. Umbella
simplex vel subcomposita, raro ad unicam spiculam redacta ; radii usque
ad 8 subaequales ad 1 cm. longi, graciles, campressi, interdum 1-2 divisi ;
bracteolae squamiformes. Spiculae in radiis radiolisque soIitaria,e,
pallidae vel pallide brunneae, ovato-laneeolatae, acuininatae, aliquantum
compressae saepissime unitlorae, ca. 5 mm. longae, 2-2.5 mm. latae.
Gliimae 6-7, dorso virides carinatae, lateribus tenuiter coriaceae,
pallidae vel pallide brunneae vel subhyalinae, marginibus integerrimis
glaberrimae (mucronibus hispidis exceptis) ; gluma suprema vacua
oblongo-elliptica vel oblanceolata, obtusa, mutica, 2.8-3 mm. longa, 1-2
succedentes liermapliroditae maximae, laiiceolatae, obtusae, apicem
versus involutae, inferne sub-5-nerves cum mucrone dorsal! brevissima
4.5-5 mm. longae ; inferiores gradatim breviores, cum mucrone terminali
liispida longiore ; glumae 1-2 infimae deltoideo-ovatae obtusae, cum
mucrone 0.5 mm. longa 1. 8-2.0 mm. longae quasi bracteolaeformes.
Internodus inter flores (in spiculis bitloris) elongatus, curvatus, late
alatus ad 1.1 mm. longus, ceteri brevissimi. Stamina 2 antherae lineares
aristatae. Stylus 3.5 mm. longus, teniiior, superne teretiuseulus, plus
minusve antrorsim dense hispidus, basi anguste compresso-conicus
glabrescens ; rami 2 dense liispidi, 3 mm. longi exserti. Nux aliquantum
opaca pallida vel cinerascens vel fuscescens, late elliptico-obovata vel
suborbicularis admodum asymmetrica, minute stipitata, biconvexa sed
compressa, marginibus obtusis, 2. 0-2, 2 ram. longa 1.5-1.75 mm. lata;
eellulae extimae minutae, sed conspicuae, siibrotundae.

90

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Queensland. — Burnett District: Bustard Head Keys 6. Moretou
District : Bribie Island C. T. White Easter 1914 ; on loose sand in mixed
open forest near sea-level, 5. VI. 1933, S. T. Blake 4830; sandridges in
lightly timbered country, 25. IX. 1934, 8. T. Blake 7057 ; Stradbroke
Island, C. T. White V. 1915, hillsides on sand in mixed open forest, 5.
XII. 1934, 8. T. Blake 7110 (type).

A distinctive and interesting plant. Its 1-2 dowered spikelets with
several empty glumes place it in the Bynchosporeae, and the style dilated
at its base and articulate on the ovary and nut suggest its affinity with
Actinoschoewus and Arthrostylis. But its densely leafy habit, umbellate
infiorescence and bifid style differentiate it sharply. In many characters
it is not unlike Fimhristylis of the 8cirpeae, but apart from the tribal
characters, the characters of the style and nut are rather different.

The spikelet is ahnost always one flowered. Of the material cited
above, all of White’s specimens and Blake 4830, 7057, comprising a very
large number of specimens, carry 1-flowered spikelets only. Key’s
specimens are few and carry a few 2-flowered spikelets. In Blake 7110,
among a large number of specimens, about flve 2-flowered spikelets occur,
tliough at the time of collection such spikelets were diligently sought
for. It ^vould thus appear that this state is very exceptional.

Tribe Scirpeae.

8(‘irpus congnius, S. T. Blake comb. nov. Isolepis congrua Nees
in PL Preiss II. 75 (1846-47). 7. castanea P. Muell. MS. in Herb.

Alelb. 8cirpus KocJiii Maiden and Betche in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.
XXXIII., 318 (1908).

West Australia. — Swan Kiver: Preiss 1747 type of 7. congrua
Nees ! ; Cowcowing M. Koch 1239 type of 8. Kochii! ; between Esperance
Bay and Fraser Range, Dempster in 1876; Northampton, 8palding in
1883 ; basaltic valleys north of Stirling Range, Oct. IS'67, F. Mueller ;
west from Kangaroo Hill, XI. 1891 Helms (Elder Expedition).

South Australia. — In collibus siceis Bethaniae prope Grawlertown,
Sept. 16, 1848, F. Mueller.

This distinctive little species is readily recognised by its extremely
hyaline prominently fenestrate glumes and its minute (about 0-5 mm.
long and broad), acutely triquetrous, silver grey nut. It is most nearly
allied to 8. stellahis C. B. Clarke, which has thicker glumes and a
different nut, as well as a coarser habit. With 8. cartilagineus Spreng.
iz=:8. antarcticus Linn.) with which the authors of 8. Kochii compare
their iilaiit, the species has little in common beyond tlie possession of a
trifid sty hi and somewhat similarly shaped glumes.

Boeckeler, according to Bentham, FI. Austr. VII. 328, treated /.
congrua as conspecific with 8. riparius {8. cernuus Vahl), but it is just
as distinct from this species as it is from 8. antarcticus.

The type collection of 7. congrua, Preiss 1747, is represented in the
Melbourne Herbarium by a single stem, bearing a spikelet from whicli
the lower glumes have fallen away. Though a poor specimen, there is
no doubt that the above cited collections are conspecific with it. The
type collection of 8. Kochii includes some taller plants than the others,
some stems bearing up to four spikelets instead of the usual 2-3.

The Section Isolepis is richly developed in southern Australia, where
a bewildering variety of forms occurs. It is hoped that a complete
revision of these will be completed in the near future.

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE I.

91

On Schyus sterilis Maiden and Betche Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.
XXXIII., 315 (1908). An examination of the type collection of this
species (Narrabri, J. Boorman^, VIII. 1907 in Herb. Sydney) shows it
to be identical with Bidbostylis barbata Kunth (Stenophyllus barbatus
Cooke, Fimbristylis barbata Benth., Scirpus barbatus Eottb., Isolepis
barbata E. Br.). The writer has frequently noticed the abortion of
ovules in many species of Cyperaceae and Gramineae from the drier
areas.

Fimbristylis humilis, S. T. Blake sp. nov. ; affinis F. setaceae E. Br.
et F. nutanti E. Br., sed ab ilia (quoad habitu approximat) spiculae
forma coloreque, glumis brevioribus obtusissimis et nuce minore, ab hac
habitu et in omni parte multo minore differt.

Annua parva caespitosa, viridis vel glaucescens, glaberrima ; culmi
vel obliqui vel erecti vel arcuati, anguloso-striati, ad 10 cm. alti., 0-3-0-35
mm. diam. Foliorum vaginae 2 laxiusculae, in dorso tenuiter herbaceae,
plurinervesque in marginibus scariosae insuper glanduloso-striatae, apice
vel ovatae vel lanceolatae vel superior laminifera : lamina rarissime ad 4
cm. longa, fere plana, ca. 04' mm. lata, 3-5 nervis. Spicula unica ebrac-
teata, terminalis, erecta vel obliqua, ovoidea subobtusa densifiora, briin-
nea, 4-5 mm. longa 1-7-2 mm. lata. Glumae facile deciduae, rhachilla
alata, concavae, late ovatae, obtusissimae, 1-5 mm. longae 1-2 mm. latae,
Carina lata 3-nervi breviter excurrente, lateribus rigidiusculae nitide
castaneo-brunneae enerves, in marginibus auguste hyalinae integerrimae ;
ima sterilis brevior rigidor minus obtusa, bracteiformis. Stamen 1,
anthera lineari-oblonga, acutiuscula vix apiculata ca. 0-4 mm. longa.
Stylus latiusculus, complanatus, in marginibus angustissime hyalino-
alatus parce ciliatus, inf erne admodum dilatatus, 0-75-0-8 mm. longus,
0-3-0-35 mm. latus. Stigmata 2 cum stylo aequilonga. Nux obovata plus
minusve cuneata, obtusa, biconvexa ca. 0-8 mm. longa, 0-55 mm. lata,
nitide albida, manifeste transversim 4-costata, cellulis extimis obscuris.

Queensland. — Cook District: Wyaaba Eiver, 16° 45'S. 142° O'E.,
in swampy patch 18.VIII.1936, S. T. Blake 12622 ; Cairns in Melaleuca
swamp near sea-level 14. VI. 1935, S. T. Blake 9354 (type). Burke
District: Normanton, depression in mixed forest 25.V.1935, S. T. Blake
9171; Gulliver in 1876; Glenore near Normanton on edge of waterhole
22.V.1935, S. T. Blake 9135 ; Croydon, in depressions and on stream beds
and banks on whitish sand 350 ft., 2^V.1935, S. T. Blnke 9080. North
Kennedy District: Pentland on dry sandy stream bed 1,300 ft. 12.VI.
1934, S. T. Blake 6153.

Central Australia : Macdonnell Eange : Tietkens in 1889.

This distinctive little species is easily recognised by its dwarf annual
habit, the solitary small brown obtuse spikelet either erect or oblique
on different stems of the same plant, and the small biconvex 4-wrinkled
nut. Tietkens ’s plant is referred by Tate in Horn Expedn. III. 181
(1896) to F. acuminata Vahl.

Fimbristylis rara E. Br. Prodr. 227 (1810) ; Benth. FI. Austr. VII.
316 (1878) as to Brown’s specimens only; P. Muell. First Census 126
(1882), Sec. Census 212 (1889) ; C. B. Clarke in Kew Bull. Add. Ser.
VIII. 108 (1908), Ewart and White FI. North. Terr. 61 (1907) (as to
Brown’s specimens) ; Domin. in Bibliot. Bot. XX. Heft. 85, 461 (1915).
F. obtusangulaF. Muell. Fragm. 1. 198 (1859), First Census 126 (1883),
Sec. Census 212 (1889), Benth. FI. Austr. VII. 315 (1878). F. M. Bail.
Syn. Queens. FI. 599 (1883), Catal. Plants Queensl. 53 (1890), Queens.

R.s. — D.

92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

FI. VI. 1765 (1902), Compreh. Catal. 595 (1913), Ewart and White FL
North. Terr. 61 (1917). F. miliacea F. Muell. Fragm. IX. 12 (1875),
partly not of Vahl. F. rara var. ohtusangula Domin in Bibliot. Bot. XX.
Heft. 85, 461, Fig. 102 (1915).

North Australia. — North Coast B. Brown Iter Australiense 5950
(type) ; Depot Creek F. Mueller IV. 1856 (type of F. oMiisangula). ^

Queensland. — Burke District : Normanton on low sandy flat '
1S.Y.1935, 8. T. Blake 8984 ; Normanton on open slightly saline swampy
ground 7.VIII.1936, 8. T. Blake 12490. Mitchell District : Bowen Downs,
Birch. North Kennedy District: Pentland Domin (ex Domin loc. cit.
n.v.) .

Brown’s specimens in Herb. Melbourne are immature, 1-2 dm.
high with very narrow leaves and few spikelets in the inflorescence.
Through the courtesy of the Director a better developed spikelet from
the same collection was obtained from the Herbarium of the Royal
Botanic Gardens at Kew, though it also was immature. Mueller’s
specimens are mature, taller, and with coarser more numerous leaves (up
to 4 per stem) and more numerous spikelets. It probably repre- i
sents one extreme form, while the other is represented by Blake 8984,
which consists chiefly of depauperate specimens with mostly 1-2 spikelets I
per stem. Blake 12490, however, exhibits a complete series of forms
from those depauperate ones to the extreme F. ohtusangula form.
Brown’s specimens can be exactly matched by some of the incompletely l|
developed stems, while frequently in the same tuft other stems bear
inflorescences exactly matching those of Mueller’s plats. Birch’s
specimens consist almost entirely! of inflorescences.

The affinities of the species are with F. Allenii Turrill and F. J
miliacea, Vahl, It differs from both in foliage and in the much larger nut
(0*9 mm. long, 0-7 mm. wide). It further differs from F. Allenii in the
broader, more obtuse spikelets, and the white or glassy character of the
nut, and from F. miliacea in the usually fewer but larger spikelets,
glumes frequently ciliate at the edges, and the nut comparatively broader |
with the external cells rounded, not oblong. From F. trachycarya F.
Muell., from which Bentham’s description of F. rara is drawn, it is much
further removed (see below).

Fimbristylis trachycarya F. Muell., Fragm. I. 199> (1859). F. rara
Benth. FI. Austr. VII. 316 (1878) as to descript, and Mueller’s specimens.

F. miliacea F. Muell. Fragm. IX. 12 (1875) and Domin Bibliot. Bot. XX.
Heft 85, 769 (1915) in small part not of Vahl. F. salhundm C. B.
Clarke ex Domin. loc. cit. 463 not of Kunth.

North Australia. — Upper Victoria River F. Mueller IV. 1856
(type) ; XII. 1855; Victoria River F. Mueller V. 1856.

A great deal of confusion has arisen about this species which is to be
recognised by the keeled obtuse glumes with broad hyaline margins, the
ragged rhachilla of the spikelet, the oblong obovate trigonous tuberculate
nut with transversely oblong external cells, and by the leaves with
thickened nerve-like margins and prominent midrib. It is very close to
F. salhundia Kunth, F. miliacea Vahl, and F. qidnquangularis Kunth.
The glumes are very similar to those of the Indian F. salhundia but
smaller, the nut very similar to that of the two latter species. From F.
miliacea it differs in the more distinctly angled spikelets, the glumes more
acutely keeled with broad hyaline margins, the ragged rhachilla, and very
sharply in the foliage. From F. quinquangularis it differs in the

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE I. 9S

more obtuse spikelet, the non-apiculate glumes with broad hyaline
margins and the more prominent midrib to the leaves. It really has
no very close affinity with F. rara, from which it differs in nearly every
character except in the possession of a trifid style and a trigonous nut.

Fimbristylis microcarya F. Muell. Fragm. I. 200 (1859), First
Census 126 (1882), Sec. Census 212 (1889) ; Benth. FI. Austr. VII.
316 (1878); F. M. Bail. Syn. Queensl. FI. 599 (1883), Catal. Plants.
Queensland 53 (1890), Queensl. FI. VI. 1765 (1902), Compreh. CataL
595 (1913), Ewart and White FL North. Territ. 61 (1917). F. cyperoides
F. Muell. Fragm. IX. 11 (1875) not of R. Br. F. ienera Boeck. in Flora
LVIII. (1875) in part, not of R. and S. F. complanata Link var,
microcarya C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. VI. 646 (1893)
microcar pa^ Domin. Bibliot. Bot. XX. Heft. 85, 462 (1915). F^
autumnaUs R. and S. var. microcarya Kuek. in Herb. Sydney.

Widely distributed in North Australia (whence the type: Depot
Creek IV. 1856 F. Mueller in Herb. Melbourne), Queensland (except in
the extreme south and south-west), the East Indies, and Eastern Asia.

The species is certainly related to the widespread F. complanata
Link, and the American F. autumnaUs R. and S., but is as sharply defined
as most members of this genus are. In its slender strictly annual habit
and very small spikelets, it is very similar to F. autumnaUs. The nuts,
however, are quite different, those of the latter species beng acutely
triquetrous with concave sides and quadrate external cells, while those
of F. microcarya are trigonous- and 3-ribbed with convex, mostly tuber-
culated sides with the external cells transversely linear-oblong arranged
in about four vertical rows on each face. The nut of F. complanata is
very much larger with the external cells much shorter, shortly oblong or
almost quadrate, arranged in many vertical rows on each face. This
species is further distinguished by the broad flat almost praemorse leaves
and bracts, usually broad and very flat stem and coarser inflorescence
with larger spikelets.

F. complanata var. macrocarya Domin loc. cit. 463 (F. macrocarya
Domin loc. cit. in note) is said to be characterised by the broad obtuse
leaves, the elongated involucral bracts, the contracted inflorescence, and
the nut. The type (North Australia: Chillagoe Domin II. 1910) has not
been seen, but Blahe 8691 (Queensland: Burke District: — Gregory River,
Riversleigh, approximately 19° 0' S., 138° 45' E. at water’s edge shaded
by Pandanus and Melaleuca 20.IV.1935) agrees with the description
perfectly. Some nuts are not quite so densely tuberculate as most, and
these differ in no way from those of F. complanata Link. sens, strict.,
while the other characters of leaf and bracts are exactly those of this
species. The absolute length of the bracts is much the same, but owing
to the looser inflorescence of the typical form, they are there relatively
shorter. There thus remains nothing to separate var. macrocarya from
F. complanata besides a contracted inflorescence. In Blake 8691, which
consists of a large number of plants, the umbel rays of some plants show
a strong tendency to lengthen,, and those plants are very similar to the
typical form.

On the evidence offering, it seems advisable to treat F. complanata
var. macrocarya Domin {F. macrocarya Domin) as a mere synonym of
F. complanata Link.

94 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

EXPLANATION OP PLATES.

Plate II. — Tracliystylis foliosa S. T. Blake (from Blake 7110). Fig. 1, portion of ^
plant, natural size ; 2, spikelet x 5 ; 3, flower x 10 ; 4, nut x 10 ; 5 surface of
nut X 45; 6, transverse section of nut; 7, rhachilla of spikelet (all glumes
fallen) x 10: dotted lines indicate position of topmost (empty) glume;

8, rhachilla of 2-flowered spikelet with all glumes except upper fertile one ^
removed to show prolongation of rhachilla, x 10.

Plate III. — JiumiUs S. T. Blake (from Blake 9354). Fig. 1, plant,
natural size; 2, spikelet x 5; 3, glume x 25; 4, surface of glume x 50;

5, nut and style x 25; 6, surface of nut x 50; 7, author x 25.

Proc. Eoy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLYIII.

1’late II.

Trachystylis foliosa S. T. Blake

-♦

Peoc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLVIII

Plate III

F vnibristylis humilis S. T. Blake

QIJEENSLAND ASSETS.

95

Queensland Assets.

By His Excellency Sir Leslie Wilson.

{An Address Delivered Before the Royal Society of Queensland,

^2th October, 1936.)

I fear that I made a rash promise when I accepted your kind
invitation to give an address to the Royal Society of Queensland, nor
did I appreciate how rash that promise was till I read a volume of the
Proceedings of the Royal Society, and gathered that the usual papers
read before you were on very deep and erudite subjects.

When I read these theses — much of which I failed to understand
at all — I very nearly wrote and said that I could not come, more
particularly as in another rash moment, I remembered I had said that
I would speak to you on ‘‘ Queensland Assets ’’ — a subject on which
many may hold the most varying opinions.

On my way out to Queensland over four years ago, I met a man
who told me something about this State, and, among other things, he
informed me that I should have to make innumerable speeches. I asked,
What on He said, ‘‘ On every occasion,” and he spoke very truly.
I then asked, ‘ ‘ What about ’ ’ ? He replied that the main theme of
Governors seemed to be on the potentialities of Queensland.” I said
that I could not possibly talk for five years (and now it seems that I
have to talk for ten) on Queensland’s potentialities, and in fact, since I
have arrived, I have always avoided the words ‘‘ potentialities ” or
possibilities,” and when I speak of the future of this State, I allude
always to the undoubted assets Avhich Queensland possesses. I had this
in my mind when I wrote to your Hon. Secretary, and, in response to
his urgent request for a title of my address, said that it would be
Queensland’s Assets.”

I doubt much if I can say anything to you which you do not
know already. It may be that I have travelled through a greater part
of this State than most of you during the last four and a-half years.
If one measures in mileage my travels, perhaps I have done so, for I
am approaching 70,000 miles, and I have seen nearly every district
except those somewhat distant areas around Birdsville and Boulia.

The only justification for my attempting to speak on this subject is
that I view Queensland with an outlook which is not influenced by a life
spent in the State, or by any preconceived ideas, but by views based on
the knowledge of many other countries in the world, which may not be
so present to those who have lived most or all of their lives in Australia.
I have no other justification whatever.

Only shortly before I came here, I had lived for five years in a
high administrative capacity in India — a country three times as large
as Queensland, but with a population thirty-five times as great, and
when I came here, and had travelled through the rich coastal districts,
over the great fertile Downs, and in other parts, I confess to a feeling
of amazement that Queensland, with all its assets, had less than 1,000,000
people, compared with the 350,000,000 in India, who live and have their
being on land which cannot be compared, as regards fertility and
climate, to this great State.

96 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

As I believe that my address is not private, I am handicapped in
what I should like to say, and I must not enter into any controversial
subjects, and it might be that, in any comparison between India and
Queensland, I trend on the question of a White Australia; but, believe
me, I have no intention of even suggesting that this question comes into
my argument or comparison between these two great continents.

The fact remains that Queensland is far richer than India in
agricultural soil, in minerals, in marine wealth, and its healthy climate,
in the practical non-existence of tropical disease, and in that most
important question — the total absence of destructive and dangerous
wild animals. Yet Queensland has less than 1,000,000 people, whereas,
even if conditions were equal, and not weighted as they are in Queens-
land’s favour as regards India, she ought to have a third of India’s
population, but even so, allowing for that great part of Queensland,
suitable only for cattle or sheep, and allowing also for a higher standard
of living, to put the comparison at a very low figure, say, one-thirtieth —
which would give Queensland a population of some 10,000,000 people

I am not here to-night to tell you what you know yourselves — to
quote you a mass of statistics about our output of butter, our sugar, our
cheese, our maize, our minerals, our wool or our chilled beef. Anyone
can read those figures, but the fact remains that, year by year, the
quality and quantity of what Queensland produces is increasing and,
year by year, more land, especially in the great fertile North on the
Coast and Tablelands, is producing more wealth, and in the Gulf and
Cape York Peninsula, where hitherto unknown mineral wealth is being
found from month to month to an ever increasing degree.

Then may I say a word about that part of Queensland known as
the Gulf Country? Few go there, and few know it and few have the
very haziest idea about it, except that there are large cattle stations
there, where the areas are only known in miles and not acres, and where,
in days gone by, gold was at one time found. Here certainly is one of
the assets of Queensland. Even the people living there, living so far
apart as they do (for I believe that in the Shire of Bourke, about 17,000
square miles in area, there are only some 300 men, women and children),
even they know little about it, only their own part.

Glance yourselves at a map of Australia, and you will see that the
Gulf of Carpentaria itself offers a natural port to a sea outlet of
thousands of square miles of well watered country — not perhaps very
rich to-day, but watered by great rivers such as the Bynoe, the Flinders,
the Leichhardt, the Gregory, and about ten others, with all their tribu-
taries, the waters of which are all now allowed to run to waste into the
seas of the Gulf. Are there no undeveloped assets here, and I ask
myself again, thinking of India— would all this land, fertile but for
water, be allowed to remain unfertile and this great gift of nature —
water — allowed to be wasted if we realised the value of this asset.
The 350,000,000 in India would starve if they did not conserve the water
of the rains and their rivers.

Again, we think, or ought to think, of fresh markets, I am always
thinking of them, as I know that, if Queensland is to prosper, she must
find new markets for her exportable surplus of primary produce, and
is not this great Gulf country far nearer to the populous centres of the
East than any other?

QUEENSLAND ASSETS.

97

Those who know not the Gulf country cannot talk of the climate.
Often I have heard it said it is not a white man^s climate, but I doubt
if between April and September you will find a finer or more healthy
climate in the world, and even between October and March — hot as
those months are — ^you have only to go there to see the people and
children, and then you will realize that, with the practical total absence
of any tropical disease, there are very many worse places in the world
where white men and women live and prosper.

I do claim that, apart from all the well known parts of Queensland,
of which I need not speak for you know them well, here is this great
Gulf country, populated now with some 10,000 people, about one to
every 20 square miles, Queensland has a great and undeveloped asset —
how great no one knows.

I have, however, never been one of those who has pinned his faith
to the development of Queensland by the spasmodic discovery of gold
or some rich mineral. It is true that, in the past, practically every one
of our coastal towns has owed its origin to the discovery of gold; in
fact, one might say every one from Gympie to Townsville, with the
possible exception of Mackay, but the wealth of Queensland will only be,
in my opinion, fully discovered when the settlement of the distant parts
of the State becomes an accomplished fact. In the past, you have had
gold rushes to this North — Croydon and Cooktown are outstanding
examples — to-day of little importance and of very small population,
but I consulted many eminent mineralogists who told me that there was
no doubt that, under present metallurgical processes, the ore yet
untouched could be made a paying proposition, which also applied to
other fields only yet scratched, while, on the Gilbert and other rivers,
there was alluvial gold, tin, and other rare and valuable metals, the
value and extent of which were entirely unknown.

The assets of Queensland ! I myself believe their magnitude is
unknown. I have spoken of the Gulf country. I have not touched on
those you know yourself much closer to Brisbane, or our coastal district,
of the fertile areas around Cooktown, or those rich and healthy table-
lands above Cairns, many of which are only partially developed. Perhaps
I am biassed too much about the value of water from my life in India,
but it certainly does hurt one to see so much of the water in Queensland
going to the sea in waste when, in so many parts of the State, the most
simple and economic dams could be constructed to conserve it for
irrigation purposes. I am not thinking of great irrigation schemes
such as the unbuilt Nathan Dam at Theodore, but of just simple dams
on the innumerable rivers and creeks which flow throughout the State
— so often quite dry, but where the very cheap dam could hold the
water when the rain comes for the immense benefit of the land when the
rains do not come. Divine Providence seems to have gifted Queensland
with great opportunity in this direction by the formation of the land,
and yet what use do we take of this ?

Opportunities are seldom labelled — we have to look for them and
take them — and here, in Queensland, we do not seem to have looked for
them to develop these great assets of ours. We do not seem to realise,
except in a very few cases, such as the hydro-electric scheme in Cairns,
how we could use our water for power and light. We set up local electric
supplies, when, by the use of hydraulic power, we could light our towns
and give our industries power from water at a far cheaper cost. We

98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

are not, and here again I hesitate for fear I am indulging in controversial
subjects, making the best use of the assets of the State, provided by most
beneficent natural gifts. I could ask you and myself many other
questions, for instance, as to why others — not of our own race — succeed
in intensive cultivation — some of our best citizens in Queensland, and
yet we do not.

Another important question is why we do not think of the vital
necessity of realising that the development of our wide spaces, particu-
larly in the North, is so bound up with the question of defence of our
land, why we will not appreciate the fact that the world is far closer
to us by air and the advance of science in so many ways than it ever
was before, and why it is not of the greatest importance to appreciate
that fact, more particularly in view of the land hunger of the crowded
nations of the world? The days of splendid isolation ” are gone —
science has seen to that. We have assets here which, perhaps, no other
part of the British Empire or the world has. Providence has been more
than kind to Queensland — Providence provides for the provident, and
for the provident only. Let us, therefore, be foreseeing. It is not too
late, and certainly it is not too early, to take all the steps in our favour
to develop all those great assets which have been given to us as a very
favoured people.

Just one other point. I think we ought to ask ourselves two more
questions. One — whether we are doing all in our power to develop
these assets to the best advantage of Queensland and its people, and,
secondly, whether, if we are not, what further steps we can take in this
all important matter? Here, again, I have no political thought in my
mind, and nothing I say has anything to do with any action or lack of
action by Governments, past or present.

We have these definite assets — in land, water, and minerals. We
have the man power — we have a splendid young generation growing up
under ideal conditions of climate and instruction, to take the place of
the present generation. Here is another great asset. In time to come,
and even now, we shall need more man power — a larger population, but
I have no intention of touching on the question of migration this evening.

The practical, as well as the academic instruction of our younger
generation improves every year, and we have laid sound foundations for
the future in such valuable institutions as the Queensland Agricultural
College and High School at Gatton, and in our Technical Colleges, in
our young University, and in many other ways. We must, however,
remember that we are very young as a State.

I agree that the progress that has been made in the seventy-seven
years of the State ’s existence as a self-governed State is remarkable, but
any effort to a real appreciation of our assets began a comparatively few
years ago.

The best school of all is undoubtedly experience — experience teaches
slowly at the cost of mistakes. Of course, mistakes have been made in
other countries, but I often think that many mistakes could have been
avoided and more progress made if we, here in Australia, had availed
ourselves more of the experience and mistakes of the older world. For
instance, I have spoken of irrigation and water conservation. I suppose
there has been no more valuable work done in the world in this matter,
not even in Egypt or America, than that done by the European engineer

QUEENSLAND ASSETS.

99

officers working in India, and the experience gained in the great
irrigation schemes there, which keep the huge population of India alive,
and without which there would be famine, is beyond value. Could we
not utilize to good advantage, some of that knowledge which is the out-
come of centuries of practical experience, for certainly many of the
problems which confront the development of the North are very similar,
in practically every way, to those of India, both as regards its climate
and its monsoonal rains, and very much the same argument applies to a
great deal of Queensland. We have in Queensland some very valuable
and highly efficient irrigation officers, and I have often wondered whether
it would not be a very wise step to make an exchange of a few of our
irrigation officers here with a few of those in India. This, I believe,
would benefit both India and Queensland. Our officers going there
would, no doubt, bring the fresh ideas of a new country to an old one,
and those from India would bring that practical experience gained over
many centuries to the progress of a young State. The world is so much
closer to-day than it ever was, that I honestly believe that, in this matter
of irrigation and in many other matters affecting the full use of our
assets in Queensland, there would be a reciprocal advantage if we sent
more of our representatives, versed in all highly technical questions, to
the older countries, and they sent us some in return. The cost would be
infinitesimal, and the advantage to both must be great.

Gentlemen, I have nearly finished. I have said perhaps little
which is not prominent in your own minds, nor have I given you, as
you are accustomed to, an address on natural or applied sciences, or any
learned argument on research. There is, of course, much more one
could say, if I had time, and particularly if I were not handicapped to
some extent, as I must necessarily be, by the position I hold, but I am
one of those who feel that there is much that can and will be done in
this State of Queensland if all give to the work of development, the
determination to undertake a task which means so much for the future,
not only of this State and Continent, but of the British Empire.

One word more. Let us not forget how young we are, and the old
Latin motto: Festina lente. Let us “ hasten slowly,” and lay our
foundations well.

I

t

The Royal Society of Queensland.

Report of Council for 1935.

To the Memhers of the Boyal Society of Queensland.

Your Council has pleasure in submitting its report for the year
1935.

Nine original papers were accepted for publication in the Proceed-
ings, and seven of these were actually read at ordinary meetings of the
Society.

During the year the following lectures were delivered: — Dr. M.
White on ‘‘Some Modern Aspects of Nutrition’’; Professor Cumbrae
Stewart, D.C.L., on “The Origin of the Alphabet”; Dr. J. Baum on
“The Habits and Biology of Spiders”; Dr. P. G. Holdaway on
“Standard Laboratory Colonies of Termites for Testing Timber for
Termite Resistance”; Mr. J. S. Just on “The New Gaseous Discharge
Electric Lamp”; and Mr. J. J. Broe on “Wool as a Textile Fibre.”

One evening was devoted entirely to exhibits, and as usual proved
to be most interesting and attractive.

Your Council takes this opportunity of thanking those who assisted
in the above phases of the Society’s work; those who provided the
numerous exhibits which were displayed for the interest of members;
the University of Queensland for housing the library and providing
accommodation for meetings ; and the Assistant Librarian of the Univer-
sity, Miss Mclver, for superintending the lending of periodicals from
the Library.

Realising that the time is rapidly approaching when the Society
will be compelled to provide a home of its own, your Council has founded
a trust fund as a step in this direction. It is hoped that members, who
are in a position to do so, will aid the Council in this worthy objective.
Donations, however small, will assist materially in building up a fund
which will enable the Society, either alone, or in conjunction with other
scientific societies, to provide a central meeting place, and suitable
library accommodation.

On the death of His Majesty, King George V., a message of sympathy
was sent by the President, on behalf of the Society, to His Excellency
the Governor. A reply has been received stating that the message has
been forwarded to the Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs, for
transmission to His Majesty the King.

VI.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

The membership roll consists of 3 honorary life members, 7 life
members, 4 corresponding members, 170 ordinary membersl, and 2
associate members. During the year there were 6 resignations, 14
names were removed from the list under Rule 15, and 11 new members
were elected. It is with deep regret that the death is reported of two
of the older members of the Society: Messrs. A. G. Jackson and E. R.
Gross.

There were ten meetings of the Council during the year, the

attendance being as follows: — L. S. Bagster, 8; E. W. Bick, 9; W. H.

Bryan, 9 ; D. A. Herbert, 10; J. S. Just, 6 ; H. A. Longman, 3; E. 0.

Marks, 9; J. K. Murray, 2; E. 0. O’Connor, 6; F. A. Perkins, 10;

R. Veitch, 9; J. Vickery, 7 ; C. T. White, 5.

In terms of Rule 19, Mr. C. T. White, Senior Member of the Council,
automatically retires, but will be eligible for re-election in 1937.

R. VEITCH, President.

P. A. PERKINS, Hon. Secretary.

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE FOR YEAR ENDED 31st DECEMBER, 1935.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

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VII.

VIII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Abstract of Proceedings^ 30tpi March, 1936.

The Annual Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology Depart-
ment of the University at 8 p.m. on Monday, 30th March. The Presi-
dent, Mr. R. Veitch, occupied the chair, and about forty members and
visitors were present. Apologies were received from His Excellency
the Governor and Messrs. Kyle and Wells. The minutes of the previous
annual meeting were read and confirmed. Prfofessor Helmore and
Messrs. J. J. Broe and W. L. Haenke were unanimously elected members
of the Society. The following were proposed for Ordinary Member-
ship: — Mr. R. Bambrick by Messrs. Blake and Perkins, Mr. B. Jones
by Drs. Bryan and Whitehouse, Mr. H. J. Sparks by Dr. Herbert and
Mr. Hines, Mr. C. Schindler, M.A., by Messrs. Perkins and Kyle, Dr.
P. H. Roberts by Mr. Perkins and Mr. Veitch, and Mr. Edmiston by
Prof. Bagster and Dr. Jones.

The Annual Report and Balance-sheet were adopted.

The following officers were elected for 1936 : — President, Prof.
J. K, Murray; Vice-Presidents, Mr. R. Veitch and Prof. L. S. Bagster;
Hon. Treasurer, Mr. E. W. Biek; Hon. Secretary, Mr. F. A. Perkins;
Hon. Librarian, Mr. P. Bennett; Hon. Editors, Dr. D. A. Herbert and
Mr. H. A. Longman; Members of the Council, Dr. E. 0. Marks, Mr.
J. S. Just, Dr. P. Whitehouse, Mr. W. P. Wells, and Mr. W. W. Bryan;
Hon. Auditor, Mr. A. Stoney.

Mr. Veitch, the retiring president, then delivered his presidential
address, the first portion thereof consisting of a general review of out-
standing events of importance in Queensland scientific circles during
the year 1935. The Society’s attention was also drawn to the fact that
consideration might soon have to be given to obtaining other accommoda-
tion for the holding of meetings when the transfer of the University to
the nev/ St. Lucia site eventuates.

The second portion of the presidential address was devoted to a
review of “The Development of Applied Entomology in Queensland.”

It was first pointed out that the absence of adequate quarantine
precautions in the early days of settlement in Australia had led to the
introduction of a considerable number of pests, some of which might not
yet otherwise have become established in Australia. The efficiency of
the existing overseas quarantine organisation was emphasized, and atten-
tion was directed to added dangers arising out of the institution of a
weekly air mail service passing through the Dutch East Indies. The value
of local quarantine measures was exemplified by the success achieved in
stemming the progress of the buffaloi fly, and reference was made to
such achievements as the eradication of the Mediterranean fruit fly in
Florida. It was pointed out, however, that the eradication of an intro-
duced insect pest once it had bred through a few generations was
generally regarded as being impracticable.

The remaining section of this portion of the presidential address
was devoted to a consideration of the various lines of investigation
adopted in the case of the Queensland fruit fly, the woolly apple aphis,
the cattle-poisoning sawfly, the pinhole borer of North Queensland
cabinet woods, and the paspalum white grub.

Particular attention was devoted to a consideration of the evidence
on which it was finally concluded that the annual reinfestation of the
Stanthorpe district by the Queensland fruit fly was due to migration.

ABSTRACT OP PROCEEDINGS.

IX.

The woolly apple aphis was considered as a problem in which
success had been achieved by the use of resistent root stocks and by the
introduction of a natural enemy supplemented by the occasional use
of sprays.

The cattle-poisoning sawfly was Selected for discussion on account
of the peculiar nature of the problem and of the unusual methods
adopted in an attempt at solution — i.e., an endeavour to determine
the cause, of the dietetic deficiency responsible for the depraved appetite
displayed in eating the putrid masses of dead sawfly larvae and counter-
acting this dietetic deficiency by the use of suitable licks.

The pinhole borer of North Queensland cabinet woods was submitted
as an illustration of the successful elucidation of a difficult forest entomo-
logical problem, the solution in this case being dependent on an accurate
knowledge of temperature relationships of the insect and its reaction
to chemical stimuli.

The paspalum white grub problem of North Queensland was dis-
cussed as one in which no definite entomological control was possible,
its solution being dependent on a change in farming practices in the
infested area.

A vote of thanks, moved by Dr. Hamlyn Harris, supported by
Messrs. A. P. Dodd and F. Bennett, was carried by acclamation.

Abstract op Proceedings, 27th April, 1936.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University, at 8 p.m., on Monday,
27th April. The President, Professor J. K. Murray, occupied the
chair, and about seventy members and visitors were present. Apologies
were received from Drs. Bryan and Whitehouse and Mr. C. T. White.
The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Messrs.
R. Bambriek, B. Jones, H. Sparks, C. Schindler, and E. S. Edmiston,
and Dr. P. H. S. Roberts were unanimously elected ordinary members
of the Society. The following were proposed for membership : —
Ordinary membership : Professor H. R. Seddon by Mr. Perkins and
Professor L. S. Bagster and Miss K. Watson, B.A. ; Associate
membership : Messrs. S. Everist and McMahon by Mr. Perkins and
Dr. Herbert, and Miss A. W. Newman by Messrs. Perkins and Hines.

A paper entitled ‘‘Notes on Australian Muscoidea, ii. Subfamily
Museinae,” by G. H. Hardy, was laid on the table. The subfamily
Muscinae is poorly represented in the Australian region, but most of
the species are very common and widely distributed. In the past
most of the species have been confused. In this paper satisfactory
keys are provided for all the known genera and species, together with
notes on distribution and synonymy.

A paper entitled “The Analysis of Co-variance and its Use in
Correcting for Irregularities of Stand in Yield Trials,” by L. G. Miles
and W. W. Bryan, was laid on the table. Irregularities in stand have
proved a frequent source of trouble in agricultural field trials for

X.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

yield. To overcome these irregularities arbitrary methods of correc-
tion, implying unity correlation between yield and the figures taken to
represent stand, have been used in the past. The method of
‘ ‘ Co-variance ’ ’ of Fisher offers the most logical and reasonable method
of adjusting yields on a basis of stand. In this the actual correlation
found to exist in any trial between yield and stand is used in correct-
ing yields. The paper dealt with the application of this method to a
maize variety trial conducted at the Queensland Agricultural College
in 1934-35. The trial was thereby raised from one on which little
reliability could be placed on account of stand discrepancies, to one of
considerable value in the varietal trial series.

The main business of the evening was a very interesting lecture
on ‘‘The Story of the Brisbane River Bridge,” by Dr. J. J. C. Brad-
field. The lecture was illustrated by a very fine set of lantern slides
and dealt very fully with the site, the preliminary work on the founda-
tions, the nature of the underlying rock formations, and the result
of the boring operations which preceded the work. Excellent pictures
were shown of the methods adopted in testing all the materials to be
used in the construction of the bridge, and of the preparation of such
materials.

A vote of thanks, moved by Mr. Longman, and supported by
Dr. Marks and Mr. Bennett, was carried by acclamation.

Abstract op Proceedings/ 25th May, 1936.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m. on Monday,
25th May. The President, Professor J. K. Murray, occupied the chair,
and about forty members and visitors were present. Apologies were
received from Messrs. Kemp, Just, Longman, Bradfield, Perkins, Bryan,
Richards, Whitehouse. The minutes of the previous meeting were read
and confirmed. The following were unanimously elected members of
the Society : — Ordinary members — Professor H. R. Seddon and Miss
K. Watson, B.A. ; Associate members — Miss A. W. Newman, Mr.
McMahon, Mr. S. Everist. The following were proposed for ordinary
membership : — Dr. P. G. Booth, Dr. N. M. Gutteridge, Mr. T. B.
Paltridge, B.Sc., and Professor Wilkinson.

The main business of the evening was a series of short addresses on
the history, geology, botany, and agriculture of South-Western
Queensland.

Professor J. K. Murray dealt briefly with the different types of
agriculture practised in South-Western Queensland.

Mr. C. Ogilvie gave a very interesting account of the origin,
distribution, and utilisation of artesian water in Queensland.

Professor P. W. Cumbrae-Stewart dealt with the early history of
South-Western Queensland.

The first Europeans to enter South Western Queensland were the
party under Captain Charles Sturt, 39th Regiment. The Expedition
was organised in South Australia for the purpose of examining the

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XI.

country to the north of Lake Torrens. At that time it was supposed
that an inland sea existed, and from observations of the flight of birds
it was thought that Central Waters would be found west of the Darling
and near the 29th parallel. Sturt, however, found nothing but an arid
desert, althouglii he reached Eyre Creek, now called the Mulligan, in
September, 1845, crossing the present site of Birdsville and the lower
course of the Diamantina, at the time a dry, stony desert. He then
returned and discovered and examined Cooper’s Creek 3rd November,
1845. At the extreme point of his discoveries he was but 150 miles
from the centre of the Continent.

In 1847 Kennedy followed down the supposed Victoria River and
Mitchell (really the Barcoo) until he was satisfied that it was Sturt’s
Cooper’s Creek.

In 1858 A. C. Gregory, in search of Leichhardt, discovered the
Thomson, and followed it down to Cooper’s Creek. He descended
Cooper’s Creek to the junction of Hizlecki Creek, and from thence
reached Adelaide.

The expedition of discovery of Burke and Wills (1860-1) led to the
opening up of all Western Queensland south of the Selwyn Range
which divides the Gulf waters from those flowing into South Australia.
Burke and Wills went north from Cooper’s Creek and, crossing the
waters, had reached the Gulf of Carpentaria. On their return to the
Cooper they became lost, and relief expeditions were sent out. Dr.
Howith’s search disclosed their fate. McKinlay went in the direction
which the lost explorers had taken as far as the Gulf and returned by
way of Bowen. Landsborough went by sea to the Gulf, and after
examining the Barkly Tableland crossed the Divide on to the head waters
of the Thomson, and from the Thomson reached the head of the Warrego.
Descending the Warrego, he reached Melbourne by way of the Darling.

By 1861 pastoral occupation of South-Western Queensland had
begun. In this work John Costello and Patrick Durack were among
the earliest run holders in what are now the Pastoral Districts of North
and South Gregory. Shortly afterwards the head of the Thomson and
its tributaries were occupied.

In 1866 Landsborough and George Phillips, on their way to Swan
Island, in the Gulf, went west from Bowen and definitely fixed and
named the Diamantina, the lower course of which had been discovered
by Sturt, and later by McKinlay.

In 1873 the Eyre Creek and Mulligan Waters were examined by
W. 0. Hodgkinson in charge of a Government expedition.

The work of the regular explorers was devoted to establishing the
broad outline of the area and the larger watercourses. It was supple-
mented by private persons in search of pastoral country. By their
journeys and hardships the unknown land of a century ago has become
a province of Queensland, extraordinarily fertile in wet seasons but a
dry and arid land in time of drought.

Dr. Herbert read a paper prepared by Mr. C. T. White entitled,
“The Plants of South-Western Queensland.”

The flora of South-Western Queensland is a definitely xerophytic
one, and the perennial plants that live there mostly as trees or shrubs
possess special qualifications to withstand long periods of drought.
Following summer rains there is always a good crop of grasses, though

xn.

ABSTRACT OP PROCEEDINGS.

some of these may be ephemeral in character, seeding and completing
their life cycle almost within a few weeks. One of the most widely
spread of these and quickest growing is Tripogon loliiformis, familiarly
known on this account as Five Minute Grass.

Succulent plants are represented mostly by members of the
Portulacaceae, Aizoaceae, and Chenopodiaceae.

The area has been the subject of two published papers — one, by
Mr. J. F. Bailey, on the ‘‘Plants of Rabbit-infested Country, Bulloo
River,” published in the “Proceedings of the Australasian Association
for the Advancement of Science,” 1898, and the other, more recently, by
Mr. W. D. Francis, being observations of the plants of Charleville,
published in the “Queensland Agricultural Journal” in December,
1925.

The most outstanding tree of the South-West, as in many other
parts of Inland Australia, is the Mulga {Acacia aneura). This tree
is the standby of stockowners over long periods. The peculiarities
of Mulga, particularly the various races and their relative palatability,
the response of the adult trees to different methods of lopping, and the
natural regeneration of the species, is a matter worthy of attention.

Trees associated with the Mulga are the Poplar Box {Eucalyptus
populifolia) , Moreton Bay Ash {Eucalyptus tessellaris) , Cypress Pine
{Callitris glauca), Apple Tree {AngopJiora melamoxylon) , and one or
two species of Hakea, familiarly known as Needle Bushes or Cork Trees.
In some parts, where the Mulga has been cut out, the country is overrun
by a large-growing Cassia {Cassia pleurocarpa) familiarly known in the
South-West as Acacia.

Apart from the Poplar Box the most important Eucalypts are E,
coolibar and the River Red Gum {E. rostrata). Two Eucalypts, both
known as Yapunyah or Napunyah, are common in parts of the district —
one, a small-fruited form, E. thozetiana, is commpn on hillsides, the
other, a larger-fruited one, E. ochrophloia, is much less widely
distributed, and is mostly found along creek banks.

The Chenopodiaceae or Salt Bush family is well represented, and
it is one of the few localities in Queensland where the Old Man Salt
Bush {Atriplex nummularia) is found growing wild.

From an economic point of view the outstanding grasses of the
South-West are the Mitchell Grasses of the Mitchell Grass Plains. Pour
kinds of Mitchell Grasses are known in Australia, and all four are
found in the South-Western area of Queensland. In addition to the
Mitchell Grasses, mostly associated with them, but sometimes forming
almost pure stands, is the Flinders Grass {Iseilema memhranaceum) .

Two of the most important grasses of the Mulga country are the
so-called Mulga Mitchell {Neurachne Mitchelliana) and a species of
Danthonia. Very characteristic features of the South-West are the
large claypans. On these a particular grass grows which is quite a
feature of the landscape. This is LeptocMoa subdigitata, commonly
known as Cane Grass. Mr. Bailey, in his account of the plants of the
Bulloo River, mentions that the claypans are composed of hard, white,
grain-like soil in which the cane grass is found growing. Though to
all appearances dead after a long period of dry weather, following a
shower of rain all the apparently dead stems soon produce tufts of
green shoots from the nodes-

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XIII.

Other features of the landscape are the Lignum swamps, the
characteristic plant of these areas being the Lignum Bushes (Muehlen-
heckia Cunninghamii) , a plant growing mostly round the edges of
swamps, along creek banks, &c., with a definite xerophytic structure,
perhaps due to periods of dry weather.

The following took part in the discussion which followed; — Messrs.
Gunn, Herbert, Gipps, and Bennett.

Abstract op Proceedings, 30th June, 1936.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m. on Tuesday, 30th
June. The President, Professor J. K. Murray, occupied the chair, and
about forty members and visitors were present. Apologies were
received from Messrs. Wells, Veitch, Koberts, Richards, Bryan,
Whitehouse, and W. W. Bryan. The minutes of the previous meeting
were read and confirmed. The following were proposed for member-
ship : — Ordinary membership — Professor D. H. Lee, by Mr. Hines
and Prof. Bagster; and Miss G. Ferguson, B.Sc., by Drs. Bryan
and Whitehouse ; Associate membership — Mr. Connah and Miss
M. Whitehouse, by Drs. Bryan and Whitehouse. The following were
unanimously elected ordinary members of the Society : — Professor
Wilkinson, Dr. F. G. Booth, Dr. N. M. Gutteridge, and Mr. T. B.
Paltridge.

Mr. C. T. White exhibited fruits of Trichosanthes pentaphyUa, a
climber of North Queensland with handsome red globose fruits.

Dr. D. A. Herbert exhibited specimens of the following Myxomycetes
hitherto unrecorded from Queensland: — Physarum nucleatum Rox.,
PJiysarum melleum Mass., Physarum nutans Pers., and Diderma treve-
lyoni Fr. Physarum nutans was collected on Tambourine Mountain,
the other species in Brisbane. He also exhibited the fasciated apex of
a hoop pine, Araucaria Cunninghamii, 2 feet across at the broadest part
and showing very marked convolutions. The specimen came from the
Upper Brisbane Valley.

The main business of the evening was a very interesting address
by Dr. E. Hirschfeld entitled, “Some Biological Problems of Western
Queensland.” Following the address a discussion took place in which
Messrs. White, Gipps, Herbert, Fraser, Christian, and the President
participated. A vote of thanks moved by Mr. C. T. White was carried
by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings^ 27th July, 1936.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday,
27th July. The President, Professor J. K. Murray, occupied the
chair, and about eighty members and visitors were present. Apologies
were received from Dr. Robertson and Messrs. Just, Edmiston, and

XIV.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Watkins. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and con-
firmed. Mr. R. G. Bahr was proposed for ordinary membership by
Messrs. Watkins and Perkins. The following were unanimously
elected members of the Society: — Ordinary Membership — Professor
H. D. Lee and Miss G. Ferguson, B.Sc. ; Associate Membership — Mr.
T. L. Connah and Miss M. Whitehouse. The President mentioned the
death of one of our older members, Mr. P. Sylow, and a motion of
condolence was carried by the members standing in silence for one
minute.

The main business of the evening was a very interesting address
by Professor H. C. Richards, D.Sc. The title of the address was
“Research, Ways and Means.” A vote of thanks moved by Professor
Bagster and seconded by Mr. Veitch was carried by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 31st August, 1936.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday, 31st
August. The President, Professor J. K. Murray, occupied the chair, and
about forty members and visitors were present. Apologies were received
from Prof. D. H. K. Lee, Dr. J. J. Bradfield, and Mr. Kemp. The
minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. R. G.
Bahr was unanimously elected an Ordinary Member of the Society.

Mr. F. A. Perkins read a paper by Dr. R. J. Tillyard, F.R.S.,
entitled “A Small Collection of Fossil Cockroach Remains from Mount
Crosby, Queensland.” This collection contains nine specimens from
Mount Crosby. Queensland, the age of the beds being unknown. All the
specimens are remains of cockroach tegmina, seven being fragmentary,
and two nearly complete and in good preservation. These are shown to
belong to the upper Triassic genus Triassohlatta Till., so that the age of
the beds is thereby determined as either Upper Triassic or very close to
to it. A key to the four known species of TriassohlaUa, is given, the
genotype and one other species being from Ipswich Q;. Triassohlaita
denmeadi n.sp. : T. jonesi n.sp. Messrs. Whitehouse, Denmead, 0. Jones,
and Perkins commented on this paper.

A paper, “Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora,” Part IX., by
T. G. H. Jones and W. L. Haenke, was read by the former. Two varieties
of Melaleuca viridiflora (the broad leaf Melaleuca) have been found
to exist growing together in various localities and the essential oil from
one of these varieties has been examined. The main constituents were
found to be the two alcohols, linalol and nerolidol (melaleucol) , and in
view of the high linalol content was considered to be of economic value.

Professor Bagster showed the rotation or twisting of a beam of
polarised light when passing through a column of sugar solution. The
beam was made visible by addition of a small amount of colloidal sus-
pension of rosin particles.

Mt*. H. A. Longman exhibited: — (1) Fossils — fragments of Trionyx
austraUensis, a fresh-water tortoise ; fragment of a crocodile jaw with a
tooth, and a claw of an unknown animal. These Pleistocene fossils had

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XV.

been discovered by Mr. R. 0. Cooper on the southern slope of Boat Moun-
tain, seven miles east of Murgon, after a land slide, the result of heavy
rain. (2) Nests of an arboreal trapdoor spider found on ‘‘box-trees”
at Thursday Island, and sent to the Queensland Museum by Mr. H.
Hockings, with associated spiders, which had been identified by Miss K.
Watson as Conoihele sp. The nests were somewhat similar to those of C.
arhoricola, figured by Pocock in Willey’s “Zoological Results” (1902),
Plate X., fig. 3a. (3) A large living specimen of Phyllnrus platurus, from
Glenapp, S.E.Q., collected by Mr. B. Keats. A study of cranial charac-
ters shows the distinction of Fhyllurus from Gymnodactylus, in which
genus this species was usually placed.

Mr.. J. H. Simmonds exhibited on behalf of Mr. R. S. Mitchell
culture of three strains of Thielaviopsis paradoxa (De Seyn) Hoehn
isolated respectively from banana, pineapple, and sugar-cane. The
results of inoculating these strains into banana fruit and cane was
illustrated, and it was evident that, while the banana isolation was
strongly parasitic on the banana and not on cane, the pineapple and
cane strains exhibited the opposite tendency. Temperature relationships
also suggested that the banana organism was a strain distinct from the
more common pineapple and cane pathogens.

Mr. C. T. White exhibited several imported species of CMoris
grasses, including C. distichophylla, which has recently been given
prominence in the Agricultural Press as Winter Growing Rhodes Grass.
Like some others of the genus it is cosmopolitan.

Dr. M. White exhibited two ox bones — (a) Showing extensive coral-
like proliferation of the periostium after injury from a stricture by
wire ; and ( 6 ) a broken femur showing great thickening and fore shorten-
ing. He also showed the fore leg of a pig with eight toes.

Mr. W. T. Robertson exhibited some bacterial plates demonstrating
the effect of filtration and chlorination on the percentage bacterial
reduction in water supply purification. Also some broths showing
reaction to putrefactive bacteria (chiefly the B. coli cerogenes group) in
water supply.

Dr. E. 0. Marks exhibited an old microscope which had been in the
possession of his family for seventy years. It was manufactured before
the discovery of the achromatic lens, which took place in 1829, and,
consequently, was more than 100 years old. It had no fine adjustment,
and focussing was done by moving the stage.

Mr. P. Bennett showed some rocks from the Mackay breakwater.
Originally the contract price was 3s. 6d. per cubic yard, but in practice
it was found to cost nearer 8s. per yard. It was contended that the
increase in cost was due to the fact that the rock was more siliceous and
brittle than was expected, resulting in quick blunting of drills and
inability to blast the rock in large pieces.

Dr. D. A. Herbert exhibited a living specimen of MyrmecocUa
echinata^ an ant plant of North Queensland. A similar specimen had
been grown in his bush house in Brisbane for several years in the absence
of ants. During that time it had flowered freely.

The above exhibits were discussed by Messrs. Herbert, Denmead,
Bennett, M. White, C. T. White, Vickery, and Longman.

XVI.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Abstract of Proceedings^ 28th September, 1936.

The Ordinary Mjonthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday, 28th
September. The President, Professor J. K. Murray, occupied the chair
and about thirty-five members and visitors were present. Apologies were
received from Professor Bagster, Dr. Bryan, and Messrs. Wells, Long-
man, and Watkins. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and
confirmed. The President, on behalf of the Council, proposed Mr. J. B.
Henderson for Honorary Life Membership.

The business of the evening was a symposium on “Concretions.’'

Dr. F. W. Whitehouse exhibited a large series of concretions from
Queensland rocks. He showed a group of concentric limonitic structures
due to percolation of solutions towards the kernels of jointed blocks,
and stressed the factor of the liesegang type of precipitation in the
production of such forms. Exhibited with these were analagous weather-
ing structures (spheroidally weathered basalt, &c.). In contrast there
were displayed several series of concretions formed by accretionary
processes. Some of these had originated in free media (air or water)
others within the rocks. Growth factors were discussed (normal crystal
accretion, colloidal features, the occasional effect of algae and bacteria,
the presence of open structures in the rock, and so on). Special refer-
ence was made to spiral concretions, particularly the giant forms of
Western Queensland. A few striking abnormal types of concretions
were also shown, including some circular calcareous discs 4 inches across
but only J inch thick (from Jurassic coal measures), and some eddy-like
structures in Cambrian cherts. Some notes were given about the distri-
bution of such forms in stratigraphical horizons (early palaeozoic
stromatoliths, horizons of cone-in-cone limestonesi, the concretionary
sequence in the Cretaceous deposits of Qjueensland, and so on).

Professor H. R. Seddon dealt with the subject from the veterinary
aspect, and pointed out that in animals concretions were of three kinds,
and exhibited specimens of many of the following types : —

1. Calculi. — Various body fluids, such as bile, urine, saliva, &c.,
contain organic and inorganic substances, which are liable to be deposited.
In all such cases the deposition occurs around some central nucleus, and
on section calculi thus show a laminated appearance. Analogy of pearl,
which is, in fact, a concretion. Calculi seen in old rather than young
animals.

Urinary Calculi. — May form in kidney, ureter, bladder, or
urethra. Most cases seen in females. Reason — Size and shape very
variable — when single, spherical to ovoid, but may be irregular, or
in the ease of renal calculi may follow the form of the renal pelvis;
if multiple, often angular or facetted. Cause cannot be stated
definitely, but evidently related to diet, though local inflammatory
conditions (due to diet or local presence of bacteria) often predis-
posing cause. Nucleus often a small mass of cells..

Dog and Cat — common — may lead to death.

Composition — ^Urates.

Sheep — common, especially in rams and wethers, where small
shot-like calculi may block urethra near filiform appendage and
cause death ; believed often associated with bore water, and certain
feeding, such as turnips.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XVII.

Composition — Ammonium magnesium phosphate.

Another type composed of Xanthin.

Pig — Not so common. Ammonium magnesium phosphate.

Borse and Ox — relatively rare, but cystic calculi may attain
very large size. Composition, carbonates. In horse may also see
amorphous calcium carbonate in bladder — sometimes large quantity
of this sabulous material.

Note. — Renal pelvis of horse commonly contains granules of
calcium carbonate, lying in thick mucus ; normal.

Salivary Calculi. — Seen especially in Stenson’s duct in horse.
Shape typically cylindrical, but may be broken into two or three
pieces. Seen chiefly in districts where much lime in the drinking
water.

Biliary Calculi. — Two types. —

(а) Largely inspissated — bile and bile salts.

(&) Result purely of salt deposition. Salts chiefly car-
bonates and phosphates. Commonest in ox and pig (Horse no
gall bladder). Dog rare.

Pancreatic CatcuU. — Sometimes seen in ox.

Enteroliths. —

{a) Stoneballs — colon, horse. Nucleus, pebble or nail, with
deposition of ammonium magnesium phosphate and calcium
carbonate. Supposed to result from high phosphorous diet —
bran — ^millers’ horses.

(б) Oat-hair Calculi — Result from deposition of ammonium
magnesium phosphate along with fine hairs from oats ; therefore,
a mixed type.

2. Animal and Vegetable Tissue Concretions. —

Note. — Oat-hair calculus a mixed type of true calculus and
vegetable tissue concretion.

(a) BairbalU^^ommoiii. Single large massi — spherical or
ovoid — sometimes irregular; sometimes covered with thin layer
of salts on the outside, forming thin plate-like covering. Seen
commonly in calves and pigs — result of licking themselves or
one another. Therefore, animal may contain hairball of hair
foreign to it — pigs, stomach ; calves, rumen, abomasum
(especially).

(&) Wool-balls — Generally not so well formed, and often
small and irregularly flattened: seen especially in lambs.

(c) Butter-fat Concretions — Seen in galactocysts. Can
actually get lacteal calculi of phosphatic material, but such are

rare.

{d) Vegetable Fibre Concretions — Plant hairs, often
downy spicules from plant leaves, felt together forming single
or multiple masses; multiple usually facetted (cubical or pyra-
midal). Seen in sheep and cattle (rumen and abomasum) j
scrub feeding.

XVIII.

abstract of proceedings.

3. Mineral D&position in Tissues. —

Either in or on the tissues. —

(a) Inflammatory^ tissues, e.g., tissue killed by toxin of
tubercle bacilli get calcium depositions ; also with other microbes.
As deposition generally occurs first in the central part and
extends peripherally may get some lamination, though often
merely amorphous depositions and not lamella formation.

(&) Around Dead Parasites and perhaps replacing them,
e.g., degenerated measles; cystieerci; hydatids; strongylus m
liver of horse.

(c) Lining vessels, e.g., blood vessels in atheroma. Bile
; ducts of ox in case of liver fluke (not in sheep).

{d) Putty Brisket.

(e) Tartar, Gold’’ on Sheep’s Teeth — Mica.

Dr. Noel M. Gutteridge dealt with the subject of concretions from
the standpoint of human pathology. Just as in geological concretions,
in which the nucleus could be formed by organisms such as algae, so in
the human gall-bladder or kidney a concretion could form around a
clump of bacteria as a nucleus. Human gall-stones usually consist of
either cholesterin or calcium bilirubinate or a mixture of these two sub-
stances arranged in concentric laminations.

With regard to concretions in the urinary tract, students of history
will remember that Samuel Pepys underwent the operation of ‘‘cuttiug
for the stone.

Recent work has suggested that the formation of concretions in this
situation had a nutritional basis coupled with a too great concentration
of the renal secretion.

Dr. Herbert gave an account of the deposition of organic and
inorganic substances in plant tissues. He exhibited a specimen of a
stone fungus, Polyporus tumulosus, which produces a subterranean
mycelial mass containing pebbles and soil.

Dr. W. H. Bryan exhibited and described a number of concretion-
ary structures found within the soil, and produced as a result of soil-
forming processes. These showed a considerable variety in shape, size,
colour, and chemical composition, and each occupied a significant posi-
tion in the soil in which it was found. But not all of these bodies were
concretions in the literal sense. On the contrary, some were to be
regarded as residuals of an originally continuous material that had
become progressively smaller and rounder. Dr. Bryan suggested that some
simply descriptive term, such as “soil nodules,” would cover both the
true concretions and these other structures that simulate them.

The President, on behalf of the members present, thanked the
speakers for their contributions, and the meeting closed at 9.55 p.m.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XIX.

Abstract of Proceedings, 12th October, 1936.

A Special Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture Tlieatre of the
University, at 8 p.m., when His Excellency the Governor Sir Leslie Orme
Wilson delivered an address entitled ‘^Queensland Assets.” (These
Proceedings, pp. 95-99.) The President, Professor J. K. Murray,
occupied the chair, and there was a large and representative attendance.
A vote of thanks was tendered to His Excellency on the motion of
Professor H. C. Richards, Mr. J. B. Bridgen seconding.

Abstract of Proceedings, 26th October, 1936.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday, 26th
October, 1936. The President, Professor J. K. Murray, occupied the
chair, and about thirty members and visitors were present. Apologies
were received from Messrs. J. S. Just, A. Trist, and W. W. Bryan,
The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Mr.
J. B. Llenderson was unanimously elected an Honorary Life Member
of the Society. The motion was carried by acclamation.

A film prepared by Professor Douglas H. K. Lee, Dr. E. J. Booth,
and Mr. G. H. Tommerup was shown by Professor Lee.

The film illustrates observations made upon a man who, for surgical
reasons, had had the left naso-orbital tissues almost completely removed,
and in whom on this account the movements of the soft palate could
be seen during normal speech and other activity. The film demon-
strates the following points: —

(i.) The palate rises to different heights with different pure
vowel sounds.

(ii.) The attachment of nasal consonants to vowels reduces the
height to which the palate rises, while the association of an
explosive consonant neutralises any nasal reduction.

(iii.) Singing does not modify pure vowel actions.

(iv.) Yawning, swallowing, and coughing produce marked palatal
action in which almost the whole of the naso-pharynx is
covered.

(v.) Forced respiration is accompanied by some palatal move-
ment, snoring by a little, quiet respiration by none.

Mr. McGrath read a paper by Mr. A. R. Trist, M.Sc., entitled
“Some Silvicultural Research Problems in Queensland.”

The definition of the forest types having a good representation of
commercial species and capable of the production of utilisable wood
is the primary consideration, and from that viewpoint the State is
resolved into five major divisions.

In the attack of the problem presented by any particular research
region two basic facts require early realisation, viz., that although
Queensland forestry “may profit materially from European silvicul-
tural experience it must develop cultural methods to meet the require-
ments of its own complexes, ’ ’ and secondly that the fundamental

XX.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

approach is impracticable. Consequently, broad observational experi-
ments on a large scale are adopted up to the point where a clear
conception is gained of the correct line of silvicultural procedure. From
that point research is concentrated on securing answers to points of
recognised practical difficulty. The underlying principle of the
detailed research has been simplicity and concentration on the variation
of the factor being investigated, and no other factor. The methods
employed in this connection take into account the necessity of statis-
tical analyses of results, and wherever possible balanced experimental
layout is adopted. The paper touches on merely a few of the main
points which have received attention, but pf main interest is the
theory underlying the adopted practices regarding pruning and thinning
of plantations.

The regions recognised and the main research problems encountered
in each of them are outlined as follows: —

1. The Hoop Tine Tain Forest Formation. — -This region is recog-
nised as the most important silvical unit of the State almost solely on
account of the occurrence of the main dominant. Hoop Pine, the source
of the majority of the State’s softwood requirements. The volume of
associated species is relatively negligible, and the problem concerns the
perpetuation of the diminishing resources of the conifer. The history
of the observational experiments leading to the formulation of the
policy of open plantation establishment is briefly reviewed, and from
that point detailed research on individual problems of nursery and
plantation technique is outlined. Geographical strain experiments,
season of planting, method of tending, pruning, and yield experiments
are touched on as illustrating the type of work being carried out, and
the observations regarding open plantation effect on site quality are
indicated.

2. The Northern Bain Forest Formation. — The decidedly different
composition of this forest type presents the more complex problem of
perpetuating the wide variety of cabinet-wood species which occur.
Large-scale experiments on natural regeneration methods have for the
time being been abandoned. Instead, a thorough understanding of the
silvicultural requirements of the constituent species is aimed at by
establishing them as individual sections in open plantations. Thus,
while the technique of open plantations is being worked out information
is being obtained for later employment in natural regeneration
experiments proper.

3. The Coastal Hardwood Formation. — Generally the type has a good
representation of the younger age classes, and research is directed
towards methods of improving the specific composition, and cultural
methods aiming at the production of the best-quality timber in the
shortest time. In other cases, however, the problem of obtaining satis-
factory regeneration is a necessary prelude. In any work in this type
of forest the main difficulty is to obtain comparable experimental plots,
and the criteria of comparability is discussed.

4. The Cypress Pine Hardwood Formation. — The main value of the
formation lies in its extent and the ease with which simple and effective
silvicultural treatment can be applied. The problem here concerns
primarily cultural treatments, and of particular interest are the results
already obtained from thinning experiments.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XXI.

5. The Exotic Areas. — '‘Exotics are utilised in Queensland only
in so far as it is necessary to supplement the planting of the main
indigenous softwoods.” Thus exotics are being employed to produce
commercial forests on areas carrying species of little or no value, viz.,
at Beerwah, Pechey, and Paschendaele. The problem concerns the
choice of species, their nursery and plantation treatment, and par-
ticularly is research directed to the pathological and entomological
difficulties which are encountered.

The paper was discussed by Dr. Herbert and Messrs. White, Bennett,
and Blake, and a vote of thanks moved from the Chair was carried by
acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 30th November, 1936.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday, 30th
November. The President, Professor J. K. Murray, occupied the chair,
and about thirty members and visitors were present. Apologies
were received from Dr. Whitehouse and Messrs. Wells and Perkins.
Mr. R. J. Carroll was proposed for Ordinary Membership by Professor
R. Hawken and Professor L. S. Bagster.

The following papers were either read in part or tabled : —

(1) "New Australian Pyraloidea (Lepidoptera) by A. Jeffew
Turner, M.D., P.R.E.S. ; (2) "Essential Oils from the Q^ieens-
land Flora, Part X., Melaleuca linariif olia, ” by T. G. H.
Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I. ; (3) "Erinosis, a Disease of

Laportea,” by D. A. Herbert, D.Sc.; (4) "New Genera of
Oriental and Australian Dacinae (Trypaneidae),” by P. A.
Perkins, B.Sc.Agr. ; (5) "Notes on Australian Cyperaceae,
Part 1,” by S. T, Blake, M.Sc.

The papers were discussed by Messrs. Bennett, White, and Longman.

XXII.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

Publications are being received from the followmg Institutions) Societies, etc.»
and are hereby gratefully acknowledged: —

Algeria —

Societe de Geographie et d ’Archaeologie
d ’Oran.

Argentine —

Universidad Nacional de la Plata.
Australia —

Commonwealth Bureau of Census and
Statistics, Canberra.

Department of Agriculture, Melbourne.
Department of Mines, Melbourne.
Royal Society of Victoria.

Field Naturalists’ Club, Melbourne.
Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Melbourne.

Australian Chemical Institute,
Melbourne.

Department of Mines, Adelaide.
Waite Agricultural Research Institute,
Glen Osmond.

Royal Society of South Australia.
Royal Geographical Society of Aus-
tralasia, Adelaide.

Public Library, Museum, and Art
Gallery, Adelaide.

University of Adelaide.

Standards Association of Australia,
Sydney.

Naturalists’ Society of New South
Wales.

Department of Agriculture, Sydney.
Department of Mines, Sydney.

Royal Society of New South Wales.
Linnean Society of New South Wales.
Australian Museum, Sydney.

Public Library, Sydney.

University of Sydney.

Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Australian Veterinary Society, Sydney.
Queensland Naturalists’ Club, Brisbane.
Department of Mines, Brisbane.
Queensland Museum, Brisbane.
Department of Agriculture, Brisbane.
Registrar-General ’s Department, Bris-
bane.

Royal Geographical Society of Aus-
tralasia (Queensland), Brisbane.
Field Naturalists’ Club, Hobart.

Royal Society of Tasmania.

Mines Department, Hobart.

Mines Department, Perth.

Royal Society of Western Australia.

Austria —

Naturhistorische Museum, Vienna.
B'ELGIUM —

Academie Royale de Belgique.

Societe Royale de Botanique de Bel-
gique.

Societe Royale Zoologique de Bel-
gique.

Brazil —

Institute Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro.
Ministerio de Agricultura Industria y
Commercio, Rio de Janeiro.

British Isles —

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

British Museum (Natural History),
London.

Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Literary and Philosophical Society,
Manchester.

Leeds Philosophical and Literary
Society.

Royal Society, London.

Conchological Society of Great Britain
and Ireland, Manchester.

Royal Empire Society, London.

The Bristol Museum and Art Gallery.
Imperial Bureau of Entomology,
London.

Imperial Agricultural Bureau, Aberyst-
wyth.

Royal Society of Edinburgh.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

Royal Dublin Society.

Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.

Canada —

Department of Mines, Ottawa.

Royal Astronomical Society of Canada.
Royal Society of Canada.

Royal Canadian Institute.

Nova Scotian Institute of Science.
Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.

Ceylon —

Colombo Museum.

China —

Sinensia, Nankin University, China.
Cuba —

Sociedad Geografica de Cuba, Habana
Denmark —

The University, Copenhagen.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

XXIII.

Ubance —

station Zoologique do Cette.

Societe des Sciences Naturelles de
UOuest.

Museum d^Histoire Naturelle, Paris.
Societe Botanique de France.

Societe Geologique et Mineralogique dc
Bretagne.

Societe de Geographie de Rochefort.

Germany —

Zoologisches Museum^ Berlin.

Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde, Berlin.

Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft,
Berlin.

Naturhistorischer Verein der preus
Rheinland und Westfalens, Bonn.

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu
Bremen.

Senckenbergische Bibliothek, Frank-
furt a. Main.

Kaiserlich Deutsche Akademie der
Naturforscher, Halle.

Zoologisches Museum, Hamburg.
aturhistorisch-Medizinischer Vereins,
Heidelberg.

Akademie der Wissensehaften, Leipzig.

Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaf-
ten, Munich.

Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie.

Hawaii —

Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum,
Honolulu.

Holland —

Technische Hoogeschool, Delft.

Italy —

Institute di Bologna.

Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali,
Pisa.

Societa Africana dHtalia, Naples.
Museo Civico, Genova.

India —

Geological Survey of India.
Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa.

Japan —

Berichte der Ohara Institut, Kurashiki,
Japan.

Imperial University, Kyoto.

Imperial University, Tokyo.

National Research Council of Japan,
Tokyo.

Java —

Koninklijk Naturkundige Vereeniging,
Weltevreden.

Departement van Landbouw,
Buitenzorg.

Mexico —

Institute Geologieo de Mexico.
Sociedad Cientifica “Antonio Alzate, “
Mexico.

Secretario de Agriculture y Fomento,
Mexico.

Observatorio Meterorologico Central,
Tacaibaya.

New Zealand —

Dominion Museum, Wellington.

New Zealand Institute, Wellington.
Auckland Institute and Museum.
Dominion Laboratory, Wellington.
Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Wellington.

Geological Survey of New Zealand.

Peru —

Sociedad Geologica del Peru, Lima.

Philippines —

Bureau of Science, Manila.

Poland —

Polskie Towarzystwo Przyrodnikow im
Kopernika, Lwow.

University of Poland.

Societes Savantes Polonaises.

Portugal —

Academia Polytechnicada, Oporto.
Sociedade Broteriana, Coimbra.

Institut Botanico, Coimbra.

Russia —

Academic des Sciences Russie, Lenin-
grad.

Bureau of Applied Entomology, Lenin-
grad.

Publications of the Institute of Plant
Industry, Leningrad.

Spain —

Real Academia de Ciencias y Artes de
Barcelona.

Real Academia de Ciencias, Madrid.
Museo de Historia Natural, Valencia.
Academia de Ciencias de Zarogoza.

Sweden —

Geological Institute of Upsala.
Switzerland —

Societe de Physique et d^Histoire
Naturelle, Geneve.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zurich.
The League of Nations, Geneva.

South Africa —

Geological Society of South Africa,
Johannesburg.

South African Museum, Capetown.
Durban Museum, Natal.

Transvaal Museum, Pretoria.

XiXIV.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

United States of America —

United States Geological Survey,
Wasliington.

Natural History Survey, Illinois.

Lloyd Library, Cincinnati.

Wisconsin Academy of Arts, Science,
and Letters, Madison.

California Academy of Sciences.

Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

University of Minnesota.

University of Californa.

Library of Congress, Washington.

Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago.

American Museum of Natural History,
New York.

Buffalo Society of Natural History.

Boston Society of Natural History.

American Philosophical Society, Phila-
delphia.

American Geographical Society, New
York.

Smithsonian Institute, Washington.

Carnegie Institute, Washington.

United States Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington.

Oberlin College, Ohio.

National Academy of Science, Wash-
ington.

Rochester Academy of Sciences.

Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila-
delphia.

New York Academy of Science.

Indiana Academy of Science.

American Academy of Science and
Arts, Boston

Institute of Biological Research, Balti-
more.

John Crerar Library, Chicago.

Ohio Academy of Science, Columbus.

Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plains.

Michigan Academy of Arts, Science,
and Letters.

University of Michigan.

Minnesota Geological Survey.

New York Zoological Society.

Wistar Institute of Anatomy and
Biology, Philadelphia.

Portland Society of Natural History.

San Diego Society of Natural History.

Puget Sound Biological Station, Seattle.

Missouri Botanic Gardens, St. Louis.

University of Illinois, Urbana.

State College of Washington, Pull-
man.

Bureau of Standards, Washington.

National Research Council, Washing-
ton.

United States National Museum, Wash-
ington.

Public Health Service, Washington.

Peabody Museum of Natural History,
Yale.

Lawde Observatory, Arizona.

The University of California, LOs
Angeles, California.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXV.

List of Members.

Honorary

Marks, Hon. Dr. C. F ., M.D.
Simmonds, J. H., senr.

*Tryon, H.

^Henderson, J. B., F.I.C.

Life Members.

101 Wickliam Terrace, Brisbane.

Hillsdon Bead, Taringa, Brisbane.
Gladstone Hoad, Highgate Hill, Brisbane.
‘ ‘ Bangamba, ’ ^ Talardo, via Miles

Life Members.

Bagster, L. S., Prof., D.Se. . .
*Bailey, J. F. . .

Hulsen, R.

Jensen, H. I., D.Sc.

Riddell, R. M. . .

TiUing, H. W., M.R.S.C. (Eng.),
L.R.C.T. (Lend.)

Walkom, A. B., D.Sc. . .

The University, Brisbane.

Maynard Street, Woolloongabba, South
Brisbane.

Valley Corner, Brisbane.

Attewell Street, Nundah.

Department of Public Instruction, Bris-
bane.

Nairobi, Kenya, Africa.

Science House, 159 Gloucester Street,
Sydney.

Barton, E. C., A.M.I.C.E.

*Domin, Dr. K. . .
*Maitland, A, Gibb, F.G.S.
*Skeats, Prol. B. W., D.Sc

Corresponding Members.

. . Care of Decimal Association, Finsbury
Pavement, Moorgate, London, E.C.2.
. . . . Czech University, Prague.

. . Melville Place, South Perth.

The University, Melbourne, Victoria.

Ordinary Members.

Atherton, D. O., M.Sc.Agr. . .

Bage, Miss P., M.Se. . .

Bahr, R. G.

Ball, L. C., B.E.

Bambrick, R.

Barker, F.

Barker, G. H . .

Beckman, G. H., B.Sc.

^Bennett, F., B.Sc.

Bennett, F. C., B.Sc., B.App.Sc. . .
Bick, E. W.

*Blake, S. T., M.Sc

*Blumberg, B., M.Se. . .

Booth, F. G., M.D, . . . .

Bostock, J., M.D., B.S., D.P.M.,

M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

Bradfield, J. J. 0., D.Sc. (Eng.), M.E.

Brigden, J. B., M.A. . .

Briggs, Mrs. C.

Brimblecombe, A. R. . .

Broe, J. J., B.Sc.

Brown, Graham, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,
F.R.A.C.S'.

Brown, Jas., B.A., M.D., Ch.B.

(Edin.), D.Ph. (Cambridge)

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Atherton.

Women’s College, Kangaroo Point, Bris-
bane.

248 Hamilton. Road, Hamilton.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane
Stock Inspector, Hughenden.

Railway Audit Office, Brisbane.

Adelaide Street, Brisbane.

Crook Street, Northgate, Brisbane.

113 Annie Street, Toowong.

Sirius Street, Coorparoo, Brisbane.
Botanic Gardens, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Inkerman Street, South Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Bureau of Industry, 4QG Building,
Brisbane.

Department of Labour and Industry,
Brisbane.

First Avenue, Eagle Junction, Brisbane.
Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

Central Technical College, Brisbane.

371 Queen Street, Brisbane.

‘‘Widmoorene, ” Margaret Street, Too-
woomba

^Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

XXVI.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

*Bryan, W. H., M.C., D.Sc, . .
*Bryan, W. W., M.Sc.Agr.

Bosworth, F. O., B.A. . .

Buzacott, J. H., B'.Sc.

Caldwell, N. E. H., B.Sc.Agr.

Carson-Cooling, Geo., M.Sc. . .

Cayzer, A., B.Sc.

Chamberlain, W. J., M.Sc.

Cilento, Sir E. W., M.D., B.S.
Cottrell-Dormer, W., M.Sc.Agr.

Cribb, H. G., B.Sc

Croll, Gifford, M.B

*Denmeaid, A. K., M.Sc.

Dixon, G. P., C.B.E., M.B., Cb.M. . .
*^Dodd, Alan P. . .

Donaldson, E. J.

*Duhig, J. V., M.B.

Edmiston, F., M.Sc. . .

Evans, C. K., M.Sc. . .

Ferguson, Miss G., B.Sc.

Fisher, N., B.Sc.

Ford, F. Campbell

Fortescue, L. . .

Fraser, C. S. . .

Fraser, K., B.Sc.

^Francis, W. D.

Frew, A. E. Harding, B.E. . .

Gaffney, T.

Gibson, J. Lockhart, M.D.

*Gillies, C. D., M.B., B.S., M.Sc.
Gipps, F.

^Goddard, Prof. E. J., B.A., D.Sc. .
Goldfinch, H. A., D.D.S.

Graff, E., M.B., B.S

Grant, D. J., B.Sc.

*Grey, Mrs. B. B., F.L.S.

*Gurney, E. H. . .

Gutteridge, N. M., M.B., B.S.
*Haenke, W. L., B.Sc.

Hall, G., B.Sc

*Hamlyn-Harris, E., D.Sc.

Hamoii, W. P., B.Sc.Agr.

The University, Brisbane.

Agricultural High School and College,
Lawes.

Agricultural High School and College,
Lawes.

Sugar Experiment Station, Meringa, via
Gordonvale.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Nambour.

Boys’ Grammar School, B'risbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Water Supply and Sewerage Department,
Brisbane City Council.

Department of Health, Brisbane.

Fairymead Sugar Plantations Ltd.,
Bundaberg.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

Sherwood, Brisbane.

Geoloffical Survey, Edward Street, Bris-
bane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Prickly-pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Bris-
bane.

care of Gibbs, Bright, and Co., Queen
Street, Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Ipswich Technical College, Ipswich.

Eohde Eoad, Nundah.

Government Geologist, Wau, New
Guinea.

^‘Stanford,” Kennedy Terrace, Eed Hill,
Brisbane.

New Zealand Chambers, 334 Queen Street,
Brisbane.

229 Edward Street, Brisbane.

St. John’s College, Kangaroo Point,
Brisbane.

Botanic Gardens, Brisbane.

T. and G. Buildings, Queen Street, Bris-
bane.

Engineer in Charge, Pumping Station,
Pinkenba.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Eidge Street, Northgate.

8 Miles Street, Wooloowin.

The University, Brisbane.

414 Sandgate Eoad, Albion.

487 Sandgate Eoad, Brisbane.

Church Street, Indooroopilly.

care of Chartered Bank of Australia,
India, and China, Singapore, S'.S.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

Inchcolme, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Eockton Street, East Ipswich.

Mount Isa Mines Ltd., Mount Isa, N.Q.

The University, Brisbane.

‘ ‘ Clifton, ’ ^ Ubobo, via Gladstone.

^Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXVIL

Hardie, Sir David, M.D., M.S.

*Hardj, G. H

Harris, V. E. G., B.Sc.

*Hawken, Professor E. W., B.A., M.E.,
M.Inst.C.E.

Helmore, Professor P. D., D.D.Sc. . .
^Herbert, D. A., D.Se.

Herdsman, L. P.

*Hill, Miss D., M.Se., Ph.D

*Hines, H. J., B.Sc.

Holdsworth, Miss N. M., B.Se.

*Hitchcock, L. E., M.Sc.

Hirschfeid, E,, M.B, . .

Hirschfeld, O. S., M.B.

Hossfeld, P. S., M.Sc.

Jack, Thos.

Jones, B.

Jones, Inigo
*Jones, Owen, M.Sc.

*Jones, T. G. H., D.Sc., A.A.C.T.

Jorgensen, G. H.

J ust, J . S. .. .. •• ••

Kemp, J. E.

Knight, C. L., B.Sc. . .

Kyle, W. M., M.A.

*Lambert, C. A. . .

Lee, Professor D. H. K., M.Sc., M.B.,

Gh.M., D.T.M

*Legg, J., D.V.Sc., M.E.C.V.S.

L ’Estrange, W. M.

Lewcock, H. K., M.Sc.

*Longman, H. A., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. . .
Lowson, Professor J. P., M.A., M.D.

Lydon, E. J.

Lynch, A. J., M.B., Gh.M

*Lynch, L. J., B.Sc.Agr.

*Maekerras, Mrs. Ian, M.B. . .
Mandelson, L. F., B.Sc.Agr. . .

Marks, A. H., C.B.E., D.S.O., M.D. . .
♦Marks, E. O., M.D., B.A., B.E.
Mathewson, J. H. E., M.B., Ch.B. . .

McConnel, Miss IT., M.A. . .
McDonald, S. F., M.D., M.E.C.P. . .

McDougall, W. A., B.Sc.

‘ ‘ Blythsdale, ” Hamilton, Brisbane.

Station Eoad, Sunnybank.

The Southport School, Southport.

The University, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Biology Department, University, Bris-
bane.

Government Printing OfSce, George
Street, Brisbane.

Newnham College, Cambridge.

The University, Brisbane.

care of Q.N. Bank, 8 Princess Street,.
London, E.C.2.

care of Commissioner for Australia,
Cunard Building, 25 Broadway, New
York.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Department of Home Affairs, Canberra.

Cunningham Street, Dalby.

First Avenue, Eagle Junction.

Crohamhurst Observatory, Beerwah, Q.

Ebun Drive, Ascot, Brisbane.

Chemistry Department, The University,
Brisbane.

care of Australian Chemical Co., Grev
Street, South Brisbane.

Box 1067N., G.P.O., Brisbane.

Main Eoads Commission, Albert Street,
Brisbane.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

care of Bank of N.S.W., Melbourne, Vic-

The University, Brisbane.

Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly.

Box 546 H, G.P.O., Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture, Brisbane.

Queensland Museum, Brisbane.

“Inchcolm, ” Wickham Terrace, Bris-
bane.

Central Technical College, Brisbane.

413 BTuiiswick Street, Valley, Brisbane.

Fruit Branch, Department of Agriculture,
Sydney.

B'ox 109, Canberra, F.C.T.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane.

Cressbrook, via Toogoolawah.

‘‘Fancourt, ” Wickham Terrace, Bris-
bane.

Department of Agriculture, Mackay.

^Members who have contributed papers to the Society.
R.S. — E.

XXVIII.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

McDowall, VaL, M.D.

McKenzie, A. D., M.B., Ch.M.
MacPherson, E, K., M.Sc.

Meyers, E. S., M.B.

:\titclie]l, R. S., M.Sc.Agr. . .

Morris, L. C., A.M.I.C.E

Morton, C. C., A.C.T.S.M.

Murphy, Ellis, M.D.

■^Murray, Professor J. K., B.A.,

B.Se.Agr.

O’Connor, E. A., M.Sc.

Ogilvie, C., B.E.

Oilman, A. F. S., M.V.Sc

Paltridge, T. B., B.Sc.

Parker, W. R., L.D.S.

^Parnell, Professor T., M.A. . .

Payne, W. L. . .

“®^Pearc8, Mrs. T. E., M.Sc.

^Perkins, P. A., B.Se.Agr.

Phillips, T. J. . .

Preston, G.

Price, T. A., M.B., B.S

^Reid, J. II.

^Reye, A. J., M.B-

^'Richards, Professor H. C., D.Sc.

Riddle, A. R., M.Sc

Ridgeway, J. E.

Rimmer, T., M.Sc.

Roberts, F. H. S., D.Sc.

■^Robertson, J. . .

Robertson, W. N., C.M.G., M.B.

Roscoe, G. M., M.A. . .

Russell, E., M.B., Ch.M.

Schindler, C., M.A.

■Scott, Miss F. E., B.Sc.

Seddon, Professor H. R., D.V.Sc.
Shaw, B. E., A.M.I.E.

Shaw, J. G., B.Se.Agr.

Shell, G. W

^'Shepherd, E. M., B.E.

Sinimonds, J. H., M.Sc.

Simonds, Prof. E. F., M.A., B.Sc.,
Ph.D.

Sinclair, W. M., M.B'.

Preston House, Queen Street, Brisbane.

Russell Street, Toowoomba.

The University, Brisbane.

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

Department of Public Instruction, George
Street, Brisbane.

care of Mining Warden, Charters Towers.

97 Wickham Street, Brisbane. ^

Agricultural High School and College,
Lawes.

The University, Brisbane.

District Engineer, St. George.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Toowoomba.

Agricultural College, Lawes.

A.M.P. Building, Edward Street, Bris-
bane.

The University, Brisbane.

Lands Department, Brisbane.

Box 332, P.O., Lismore, New South
Wales.

The University, B'risbane.

care of Courier-Mail, Queen Street, Bris-
bane

Gregory Terrace, Brisbane.

Toowoomba.

Geological Survey Office, Rockhampton.

97 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

The Abattoir, Cannon Hill, Brisbane.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

xVnimal Health Station, Yeerongpilly.

Assistant Bacteriologist, City Hall, Bris-
bane.

‘ ‘ Craigston, ” 217 Wickham Terrace,

Brisbane.

State School, Macknade.

63 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Oxford House, Bundaberg.

The University, Brisbane.

Irrigation Commission, College Road,
Brisbane.

Children’s Hospital, Brisbane.

care of Shell Oil Co., Breakfast Creek
Road, Brisbane.

131 Gladstone Road, South Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Toowoomba.

•^Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXIX.

Sloan, W. J. S., B.Sc.Ag'r,

. .

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Rockhampton.

*Smith, F. B., B.Sc., F.I.C.

• • « •

Hutton’s Factory, Zillmere.

Smith, J. H., M.Sc. . .

. .

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Nambour.

Sparks, H. J. . .

• • . •

350 Queen street, Brisbane.

Steel, W. H., M.B.

• * * •

Rosemount Hospital, Windsor.

Stephenson, S., M.A. . ,

. . • •

Boys’ Grammar School, Brisbane.

Stoney, A. J., B.E.E. . .

. .

The University, Brisbane.

Strong, T. H., B.Se.Agr.

• • • •

Waite Institute, Adelaide, S'.A.

Summerville, W. A. T., M.Sc.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Nambour.

Tarleton, A., M.B.

• • • •

69 Vulture Street, West Enl, Brisbane.

Taylor, G. C., M.B., Ch.M.

. .

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane.

Thelander, C., M.B., Ch.B.,

F.R.A.C.S.

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane.

Thomas, L., M.Sc.

Post Office, Stanthorpe.

Thorn, St. G. . .

. • • •

Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly.

Tommerup, E. C., B.Sc.

. .

4 John Street, Ashfield, N.S.W.

Trist, A., M.Sc.

« • • •

Forestry Department, Brisbane.

■^Turner, A. J., M.D., P.E.S.

Dauphin Street, Highgate Hill.

-W^eitch, K, B.Sc.

. .

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

Vickery, J., M.Sc., Ph.D.

. • • •

The ilbattoir. Cannon Hill, Brisbane.

Waddle, I., M.Sc.

. .

Brisbane State High School, Musgrave
Park, Brisbane.

Wadley, J. B. . .

Salt Street, Albion.

Watkins, S. B., M.Sc.

Central Technical College, Brisbane.

Watson, Miss K., B.A.

Queensland Museum, Brisbane.

Weddell, J. A

. .

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

Wells, W. G

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

^White, C. T., F.L.S. . .

. .

Government Botanist, Botanic Gardens,
Brisbane.

White, E. L. D., B'.E. . .

. .

‘‘Doonholm,” Walmsley Street, Kan-
garoo Point.

White, M., M.Sc., Ph.D.

Abattoir, Cannon Hill, Brisbane.

^Whitehouse, F. W., Ph.D., M.Sc.

Geological Department, University, Bris-
bane

Wiley, W. J., D.Sc. . .

care of Government Analyst, Brisbane.

WTlkiiison, Professor H. J.

M D. . .

The University, Brisbane.

Wilson, E.

. .

Kirkland Avenue, Coorparoo.

Associate

Members.

Archibald, Miss L., B.Sc.

. . • •

The University, Brisbane.

Connah, T. H., B.Sc. . .

• * . •

The University, Brisbane.

Everist, S. L. . .

• • . .

Botanic Gardens, Brisbane.

Fison, D. G., M.Sc. ..

. .

O’Connell Street, Kangaroo Point, Bri^i-
bane.

MacMahon, P. G.

Health Department, Brisbane.

Newman, Miss A. W. . .

« *

Wilson Road, Nundah.

Whitehouse, Miss M., B.Sc.

. .

The University, Brisbane.

*Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

David Whyte, Grovernment Printer, Brisbane.

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CONTENTS.

Volume XLVni.

Pages.

No. 1. — ^Presidbntiai- Addbbss : By Robert Veitch, B.Sc.Agr., B.Sc.For.,

F. B.E,S, . . . . 1-19

No. 2. — ^Essbntial Oils fbom the Queensland Floka — Pabt VII. —
Melaleuca pubescens : By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.GJ.,

and F, N. Lahey, B.Sc, . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-21

No. 3. — Notes on Austbalian Muscoidea II. Subfamily Muscineae : By

G. H. Hardy . . . . . . .... . . . . 22-29

No. 4. — The Analysis of Co-vabiance and its Use in Cobbecting fob
Ibbegulabities of Stand in Abgioultubal Tbials fob
Yield ; By L. G. Miles, B.Sc.Agr., Ph.D., and W. W. Bryan,
M.Sc.Agr, .. .. .. .. .. ... 30-34

No. 5. — A Small Collection of Fossil Cockboach Remains fbom the
Tbiassic Beds of Mount Cbosby, Queensland : By E. J.
Tillyard, M.A., Sc.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.E.S. . . . . . . 35-40

No. 6. — Essential Oils fbom the Queensland FYoba — ^Pabt IX —
Melaleuca vibidifloba ; By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.,
and W. L. Haenke, B.Sc., B.Sc. {App.) . . . . . . . . 41-44

No. 7. — Ebinosis, a Disease of Lapobtea : By D. A. Herbert, D.Sc 45-47

No. 8. — Essential Oils fbom the Queensland Floba — Pabt X. —

Melaleuca Linabitfolia : By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I. 48-50

No. 9. — Studies in Austbalian and Oeiental Tbypaneidae, Pabt I.

New Oeneba of Dacinab.; By F. A. Perkins, B.Sc. Agric. . . 61-60

No. 10. — New Austbalian Pybaloidea : By A. J. Turner, M.D., F.R.E.S.. . 61-88

No. 11, — ^Notes on Austbalian Cypebaceae I. : By S. T. Blake, M.Sc.

Queensland Assets : An Address by His Excellency Sir Leslie Wilson. .

Repobt of the Council

Abstbact of Pboceedings . .

List of Libeaby Exchanges . . . . . . . . ....

List of Members

. . 89-94

. . 95-99

. . v.-vii.

vii.-xxi.

xxii.-xxiv.

xxv.-xxix.

A, ;

■ ,'-i.

PROCEEDINGS

•j* ’ K-

OF THE

l‘»ROYAL SOCIETY

tsrnm

OF

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1937.

VOL. XLIX/"^ ,t -iU

[☆ JAN 5

Si^v'

ISSUED 29th JUNE, 1938.

PRICE ; FIFTEEN SHILLINGS.

Printed for the Society

l>y

DAVID WHYTE, Government Printer, Brisbane.

't • , , ii'J j

At,

NOTICE TO AUTHORS.

1. Eacli paper should be aceompanied by the author name, degrees and official

address.

2. Papers must be complete and in a form suitable for publication when corn-

munieated to the Society and should be as concise as possible.

3. Papers must be accompanied by an abstract of not more than one hundred

words.

4. Papers should be in double-spaced typescript on one side of the paper with

ample margins.

5. The use of italics in the text should be restricted to generic and specific

names, foreign words and titles of periodicals.

6. The cost of author ^s corrections to proof above what the Council considers

a reasonable amount, must be borne by the author.

7. Unless otherwise specified each author will be supplied with fifty separate

copies of his paper. Any number exceeding this may be obtained at
approximately cost price.

8. All references should be listed at the end of each paper aiid arranged

alphabetically under authors ^ names, e.g.,

Keilin, D. (1929) Proc. Soy. Soc. B, vol. 104, p. 207.

Lesage, P. (1895) Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., vol. 1, p. 309.

The corresponding references in the text should be :

‘^Keilin (1929)’’, ^‘Lesage (1895)”.

9. The size of the printed plate will not exceed 8 in. x in., and drawings

may be to this size, or preferably to a convenient) small multiple thereof.
The effect of the necessary reduction on lettering and fine detail should
be borne in mind. Text figures should be drawn for reduction to a width
not exceeding 4 in.

10. Drawing in line should be executed in intensely black ink, such as good

India ink, on a smooth surface, preferably Bristol board. Excessively
fine, scratchy ur faint lines are to he avoided. Tints or washes cannot
be reproduced in line drawings, in which the maximum degree of contrast
is necessary.

11. Drawings or photographs for reproduction in half-tone should, where possible,
. be grouped for reproduction on one plate. They should be done or

mounted on a smooth surface, such as Bristol board, as the grain of most
drawing papers becomes visible on reproduction. Single photographs
should be sent flat and unmounted. All prints should be on glossy
bromide or gas-light paper.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1937.

VOL. XLIX.

ISSUED 29th JUNE, 1938.

PRICE ; FIFTEEN SHILLINGS.

Printed for the Society
by

DAVID WHYTE, Government Printer, Brisbane.

The Royal Society of Qyeensland

Patron :

HIS EXCELLENCY, COLONEL THE EIGHT HONOUEABLE SIE LESLIE
OEME WILSON, G.C.S.I., G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., P.C., D.S.O.

OFFICERS, 1937^1938.

President :

Professor L. S. BAGSTEE, D.Sc.
Vice-Presidents:

Professor J. K. MUEEAY, B.A., B.Sc.Agr, {ex officio).
Professor H. C. EICHAEDS, B.Sc.

Hon. Secretary:

. A. PEEKINS, B.Sc.Agr. "

Hon. Editors:

H. A. LONGMAN, F.L.S.
D. A. HEEBEET, D.Sc.

Hon. Treasurer:
E. W. BICK.

Hon. Librarian:

A. E. EIDDLE, M.Sc.

Members of Council:

Professor J. V. DUHIG, M.B., J. S. JUST, M.I.M.E., Professor H. E. SEDDON,
D.V.Sc., J. H. SMITH, M.Sc., F, W. WHITEHOUSE, M.Sc., Ph.D.

Trustees :

F. BENNETT, B.Sc., J. B. HENDEESON, F.I.C., and A. J. TUENEE, M.D., F.E.S.

Hon. Auditor:

A. J. STONEY, B.E.E.

Bankers:

COMMONWEALTH BANK OF AUSTEALIA.

CONTENTS.

Volume XLIX.

No. 1. — Presidential Address: Agriculture and Migration in Queens-
land: By Professor J. K. Murray, B.A., B.Sc.Agr.

No. 2. — ^Euryphyllum, a new Genus of Permian Zaphrentoid Corals:
By Dorothy Hill, M.Sc., Ph.D.

No. 3. — An Investigation of the Taint of Eib Bones op Bacon; the
Determination of Halophilic Vibrios (n. spp.) : By
F. Berry Smith, D.Sc., F.I.C. . .

No. 4. — Notes on Australian Muscoidea III Subfamilies Dexiineae
Phasiineae, some Tachineae, and Appendix : By G. H.
Hardy

No. 5. — The Zeolites op Queensland: By Marjorie J. Whitehouse, B.Sc.

1

No. 6. — The Genus Iseilema in Queensland: By S. T. BlaTce, M.Sc. ..

No. 7. — Essential Oils prom the Queensland Flora, Part XI.,
Melaleuca viridiplora: By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., mid.
W. L. HaenJce, B.Sc., B.Sc. (App.) . .

No. 8. — Essential Oils prom the Queensland Flora, Part XII. —
Cinnamomum Oliveri: By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., and
F. N. Lahey, M.Sc.

No. 9. — The Establishment op a Seismological Station in Queensland:
By W. H. Bryan, M.C., D.Sc. . .

No. 10. — The Gayndah Earthquake op 1935: By W. H. Bryan, M.C.,
D.Sc., and F. W. Whitehouse, M.Sc., Ph.D. . .

No. 11. — Studies in Oriental and Australian Trypaneidae — Part II.:
By F. A. PerMns, B.Sc.Agr. . .

No. 12. — The Upland Savannahs of the Bunya Mountains: By D. A.
Herbert, D.Se.

No. 13. — Alternaria Passiplorae, n. sp., the Causal Organism of Brown
Spot op the Passion Vine : By J. H. Simmonds, M.Sc. . .

No. 14. — Essential Oils prom the Queensland Flora, Part XIII. —
Backhousia Hughesii: By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.,
and F. N. Lahey, M.Sc. . .

No. 15. — Notes on Australian Cyperaceae II. : By S. T. Blake, M.Sc. . .

No. 16. — The Plant Communities op Western Queensland and their
Eelationships with Special Eeperence to the Grazing
Industry : By S. T. Blake, M.Sc.

Pages.

1-22

23-28

28-52:

53-70

71-81

82-94

95-98

99-103

104-105

106-119

120-144

145-149

150-151

152-153

154-155

156-204

VOL. XLIX., No. 1.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of

Queensland.

Presidential Address.

AGRICULTURE AND MIGRATION IN QUEENSLAND.

By Professor J. K. Murray, B.A., B.Sc.Agr.

(Delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland, 30th March, 1937.)

The Annual Report discloses that the year has been a successful
one. The membership is higher than at any previous time in the history
of the Society, and the papers to be printed in the Year’s Proceedings
reveal that the society’s task of encouraging research has been fulfilled.

The Society was honoured during the year by an address from the
Patron, His Excellency the Governor, the Right Honourable Sir Leslie
Orme Wilson, on ‘‘Queensland’s Assets.” His Excellency has been
pleased to signify his intention of being present at this evening’s Annual
Meeting. The Societ}^ and its Council wish to express their appreciation
of His Excellency’s interest in pure and applied research, an interest
which has characterised His Excellency’s period of office as Governor
of this State.

I regret to have to record the death of Dr. R. J. Tillyard, F.R.S.,
who contributed several valuable papers to the Proceedings.

Mr. J. B. Henderson, who was an active member of the Society
for over forty years and its President on three occasions, was elected a
life member of the Society during the past year. Mr. Henderson
had a very distinguished career, commencing with research work on the
gravimetric composition of water. He was an original member of the
Prickly Pear Board, first President of the Queensland Branch of the
Australian Chemical Institute, and a member of the Munitions Board
during the war, for which he was made an Officer of the Order of the
British Empire. Mr. Henderson was a member of the Senate of the
University from its foundation.

INTRODUCTORY.

The title of this address has been selected because of the many
somewhat ill-considered statements of persons, including bishops and
movie managing directors, who have more than insinuated that the
Australian attitude towards immigration has “a dog in the manger”
component, its agriculture is less efficient than that of Britain, and
that the position is provocative of offensive measures by overcrowded
nations to obtain for their nationals “a place in the sun” and, for
their countries, supplies of raw materials, food, and clothing.

2 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The possibilities of absorption of migrants involve, of course,,
consideration of the absorptive capacity for migration in primary,,
secondary, and what Fisher has called tertiary production/ With regard
to the last two I am interested only in so far as their expansion will
increase the demand for agricultural products and thus enhance the
ability of producers already on the land to stay there (despite the
increasing productivity per human unit), or to add to their number.

With regard to the primary industries, agriculture in the broad
sense is the section to which I wish to devote attention, but it is not
intended to include afforestation as an agricultural process.

The problem demands a perspective and thorough going attention
which it cannot receive in the scope of this address. In an attempt,,
admittedly inadequate, to contribute something to the consideration
of the problems raised we may commence with migration, and follow
with agriculture and markets and then the inter-relationship of the
three.

A. MIGRATION.

The desirability of migration to Australia has been argued from
many points of view. Adequate utilization of the world’s resources is
one of them; defence problems of the British Empire (and Australia
in particular) another; the attainment of an optimum population at an
optimum immigration rate a third ; the betterment of the lot of migrants
moving from the depressed industry and lower living standard areas of
various countries to the higher living standard here ; the market which a
greater Australian population would make for British products of the
secondary and tertiary industries , the market- which an increased popu-
lation will make for all Australian industries ; and so on.

Adequate Utilization of the World’s Resources.

There has been much confused thinking in connection with this
aspect. People have been impressed by the size of the Australian
continent and by the exaggeration of Australian possibilities by
Australians and others. A corrective was the work of Griffith Taylor,
and, of recent years, the work of many economists — this year’s meetings
of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement
of Science in Auckland and the Australian Institute of Political Science
at Canberra are cases in point.

Some Climatic Considerations.

With regard to Australia, it is frequently forgotten that it is
possible to travel from Thargomindah to the vicinity of Port Hedland
without passing through an area of any size with an average rainfall
of as much as 10 inches per annum or, probably, an evaporation rate
from a water surface of less than six times this amount. On the other
hand it is impossible to consider that the maximum productivity has
been obtained from Commonwealth resources and, of all the States with
potential increases in agricultural production, Queensland in my view
has most promise. There has been little sympathy and less understanding
of the Australian problem in agricultural production. Agriculture in
Australia is a very different problem from that of North-Western Europe.

^ Present Large Scale Migration Policy by Professor A. G. B. Fisher, A.N.Z.A.A.S.
Meeting, Auckland, 1937.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

3

Many people have almost consistently considered annual rainfalls in
Australia without cognisance of the limitations of rainfall values
imposed by distribution and evaporation. In connection with this matter
the following figures are presented by courtesy of T. Rimmer^ : —

Some Mean Annual Values of Evaporation and Rainfalls at

Selected Stations.

station.

Evaporation.

No. of Years.

Rainfall.

P/E.

Inch.

Inch.

Queensland —

Blackall . .

86-2

(24)

20-8

0-241

Brisbane

59-0

(17)

45-3

0-768

Boulia

123

(?)

10-2

0-083

Charleville

82- 1

(9)

19-7

0-240

Home HiU (Inkerman) . .

72-7

(16)

31-4

0-432

Rockhampton . .

52-6

(16)

39-7

0-755

St. George

71-3

(10)

20-0

0-280

Taroom . . . . . . '

66-4

(15)

270

0-406

Warwick

56-5

(15)

27-5

0-487

Winton . .

97-6

(16)

15-6

0-160

Tasmania —

Hobart . .

32

(?)

24

0-75

South Australia —

Adelaide . .

55

(?)

21

0-38

Great Britain —

Harrogate

18-9

(18)

29-5

1-56

Stoney Hill

16-5

(8)

40

2-4

It will be noted that in some cases the rainfall (precipitation) is
greater than the evaporation during the year, in other cases that the
evaporation is a multiple of the precipitation. For instance even in
Brisbane, which is quite close to the coast, the evaporation considerably
exceeds the rainfall; while at Stoneyhill in the environs of Edinburgh
and near the Firth of Forth, the rainfall is getting on for two and a-half
times the evaporation. At Boulia the evaporation is eleven times the
rainfall, at Winton six times the rainfall, at Blackall and Charleville
four times the rainfall, at St. George three and a-half times the rainfall,
and Home Hill, Warwick, and Taroom over twice the rainfall, whereas
in . Harrogate in mid-England, about 15 miles north of Leeds, the
evaporation is two-thirds of the rainfall. At Rothamsted Agricultural
Experiment Station, Harpenden, Herefordshire, the evaporation from
the soil surface over an average of sixty years is 14*5 inches and the
rainfall 29*4 inches.® Facts such as these have been ignored by well-
intentioned people who have chidingly criticised the Australian wheat
yield per acre when compared with that of North European countries
and New Zealand. It is safe to say that, given equal skill and working
knowledge of the climatic and other farming conditions, good European
or New Zealand farmers would not obtain higher yields under Australian
conditions than a good Australian farmer.

^ Lecturer in Meteorology, University of Queensland.

^ Soil Conditions and Plant Growth by Sir John Bussell, page 453.

4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

The Merino Industry.

As a counter to the limitations associated with crop-growing under
low P/E ratios, there has been the development of the merino sheep
industry. Australia has the greatest number of sheep, 113 millions,^
a figure 10 millions greater than that of the sum of the sheep of the
next two nations, the United States of America and the Union of the
Socialist Soviet Kepublies. In wool, too, the 1,015^ million pounds,
of Australia (expressed as ‘"greasy”) is 176 million pounds more than
the production of the next two countries, the United States of America
and the Argentine.

The merino sheep industry does not employ a big population in
relation to its production ; the small numbers per square mile in
Australian sheep country are a direct consequence of the climatic and
pasture conditions which have favoured the merino and the production
of the finest wool at a low cost in units of human labour.

THE WHEAT INDUSTRY.^

Wheat Yields.

Country.

Average 1931-1933.

Denmark

42-60

Netherlands

42-23

Belgium

38-84

United Kingdom

33-16

Germany

32-62

Sweden

32-45

Switzerland

31-65

New Zealand

31-11

Yugoslavia

16-32

Argentine Republic

14-40

Manchuria

14-15

United States of America

13-60

Spain

13-57

Rumania

13-27

Canada . .

13-20

AUSTRALIA

12-81

Uruguay

9-75

Soviet Union

9-73

Union of South Africa

8-05

Algeria . .

7-64

Tunis . . . . . . '

6-63

It will be noted from the world’s yields that countries like Argentina^
Australia, and the United States of America with extensive farming
conditions have comparatively low yields. It shows a poor appraisal
of the relative farming conditions to expect that the Australian average
should approach closely the average yield for Denmark, Great Britain,
or New Zealand.

Agricultural scientists have sound ground for pride in achievements
of the Australian wheatgrower and the agricultural machinery inventor.

* Official Year Book of the Commonwealth of Australia, 1936, page 63.

® Official Year Book of the Commonwealth of Australia, 1936, page 639,

Official Year Book of the Commonwealth of Australia, 1936, pages 657-8.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

5

The Open Door to Australian Farming.

No ban has been placed in the migration of European farmers to
Australia. If a potential migrant with farming experience really
considers that his good farming and resources applied to Australian
conditions would make a ready fortune for him, there is no Australian
restriction which prevents his undertaking such work. Indeed,
recent attempts have been made in the Commonwealth to settle migrants
permanently in agricultural areas and often at very great cost. For
instance, in the West Australian group settlement 1,700 settlers may
be regarded as having been permanently settled at a cost of some nine
million pounds ; there is, of course, subsidiary industry serving these
settlers. It will be remembered that the Development and Migration
Commission with thirty-four million pounds available mainly for
migration purposes found itself unable to recommend many schemes
which would justify considerable expenditure from this amount. The
most productive lands, have, of course, mostly been settled for farming
or pastoral purposes except in those cases where they have been reserved
for forestry purposes or are very remote, or are small areas and remote.

Tile newcomers have to make good as pioneers of country which is
marginal or else be provided with or possess sufficient capital to enable
them to buy into areas of greater safety and production. This latter
procedure cannot be justified urless the output from the area is increased
in proportion to the capital expended. Mere replacement of individuals
has only problematical economic value. The world has, as yet, no
solution to the problem of large scale settlement of Northern Australia
which will permit of an approximation to the present Australian standard
of living.

Defence Problems of the British Empire and Australia in

Particular.

Migration to Australia has been discussed as a means of improving
tJie defence of the Empire, it being considered a strengthening of the
present position to move rapidly people from Britain, with a surplus
population over available employment, to another component of the
Empire like Australia where it is considered that there is ample oppor-
tunity for the British unemployed to work and live under better
conditions. Were the case as stated, it would be unanswerable. There
is, however, the cross demand of considerable numbers of unemployed
in Australia, the absorption by armament requirements in Britain of
many of the men who would be useful in Australian secondary industries
and, moreover, the agricultural development policy of the British Govern-
ment would appear to be holding people with agricultural interests in
Britain and also decreasing the market for Australian exports.
Unemployed men from, for instance, the Welsh coalfields present a
similar sort of problem to that already existent in Australia in the
Queensland and New South Wales coalfields as a consequence of the
development of crude oil and its derivatives for transportation and
stationary power purposes. Unemployment in the coal industry would,
of course, be alleviated by successful commercial use of methods for the
hydrogenation of coal which would also partly solve the Empire’s oil
fuel problem.

It has been pointed out by H. Burton® that the greatest net immi-
gration (all ages) to Australia of recent decades was 261,000 for 1922
to 1933 and that this was only about one-fourth of the figure due to

® Australian Migration Policy Since the War, A.N.Z.A.A.S., Auckland, 1937.

6 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

natural increase. Even in the ’fifties, during the gold rushes, fhe
immigration increase was but 50,000 per annum. If the defence problem
were an immediate one and we were able to induce as satisfactory net
immigration rates as those of 1922 to 1931, which were higher than at
any period since the ’eighties, this increase in the Australian population
could not be regarded as a significant defence factor. From the point
of view of long time effect the result would be valuable, but the addition
of 100,000 (all ages) within four years to a population of six and
a-half millions, supposing that any blow to be struck did not occur
during this period, could not be expected to have a decisive effect. From
the psychological and place maintenance points of view greater encour-
agement of migrants from Germany and Italy might help to satisfy the
demand for a place for excess population. W. B. Reddaway, in
“‘Migration from the British Point of View,” puts this aspect in this
way, “If we really want to base a case for migration to the Dominions
on the defence argument, we must favour migration not from Britain
but from the dissatisfied countries.”

If “The jealous eyes of more crowded countries are focussed upon
Australia,”'^ it is partly due to a belief that the unoccupied or lightly-
occupied areas are on lands much more potentially productive than we
know them to be. Some of these lands, like the poor forested lands of
coastal Queensland, may be capable of fiowing with milk and honey and
of supporting a large population at a reasonable standard of comfort,
but we do not know the answer to their grassland problems yet; and
it is true that we have not made a research effort in quality or quantity
commensurate with this problem.

Fisher t quotes Adam Smith, “Defence is more important than
opulence” — a consideration which may cause some hesitancy at present
in affirming that living standards must be kept where they are in the
face of a threat to the existence of anything like their present level.
A lively imagination may picture an impact of modern war on a people
generally lacking the purpose to do something to lessen the chance of it.

An Optimum Population at an Optimum Immigration Rate,

In a paper on “Absorption of Immigrants in New Zealand,” by
Professor A. B. Tocker® he discussed the optimum population from the
point of view of the increasing return for labour with increasing popula-
tion to a culminating point, followed by the operation of the law of
diminishing returns as further increments of population were absorbed.

For any one set of conditions there may be an optimum population
and also an optimum rate at which it may be increased, but the problem
is a constantly changing one and the optimum in each case will not be a
fixed quantity from year to year. There are general considerations which
dictate that steps to increase the population of any country by immigra-
tion require a measure of consideration, investigation, and planning that
lias rarely been given. One such consideration is that the general
result should not be such as to reduce permanently the high standards of
living in countries (such as have attained them) simply as a consequence
of the pressure of countries deliberately producing a surplus population

''Lord Huntingfield ; quoted by A. S. B. Fisher. A.N.Z.A.A.S. Meeting, Auck-
land, 1937. The defence aspect of production of fuel alcohol from sub-tropical cropa
is discussed under Agriculture (Industrial Alcohol).

t See earlier reference.

® A.N.Z.A.A.S. Meeting, Auckland, 1937.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

7

by encouragement of numbers of children beyond the capacity of the
family or State to care for adequately. W ith the adoption of steps similar
to those suggested in the section under agriculture, the optimum popula-
tion for Queensland will be very much higher than it is now. The actual
optimum rate of increase in our present population will depend much
on markets, and the solution of the many problems concerning more
-efficient use of the large areas of (at present) low productive country,
having favourable rainfall, which we more than any other Australian
State, possess. The sub-tropical and tropical problems involved have
not yet been solved elsewhere. It might again be mentioned that there
is no bar to the migration of people from Europe to the Commonwealth
now, provided that it is reasonably certain that they will not become a
charge upon Government revenues.

The Betterment of the Lot of Migrants Moving from the Depressed
.VND Low Living Standard Areas of Various Countries to a
Higher Standard.

The migrant of whom large numbers might be expected from
'Britain, in the face of the schemes for the training of young workers
of initiative in new vocations, is not likely to be a type which will have
a reasonable prospect of succeeding on the land when there are large
numbers of young Australians with Australian farming experience who
find it difficult to obtain areas to meet their needs. There may, however,
be the desirability of obtaining farming stock particularly from
Germany; the experience of Queensland and South Australia is that
these German farmers are hard working folk who have established
themselves under Australian conditions and that their children may
possess an Australian outlook. Queensland has, of course, absorbed
more Italians of recent years than any other State in the Commonwealth
and continues to absorb them. The absorption of Asiatic people would
be in conflict with the policy of Australia since Federation ; it is question-
able whether anjThing internationally useful could be done in Australia
to cope with the single problem of the Japanese annual increase of
one million people. Moreover the sometimes accepted view that North
Australia might be a Mecca for Japanese migration seems somewhat in
conflict with climatic facts. The major portion of the Japanese Empire,
with the exception of Formosa, lies between 49° and 33° of north latitude,
whereas the whole of Queensland lies between 29° and 10° of south
latitude. It would appear then that New Zealand, lying between 34°
and 47° of south latitude and Southern Australia, lying between 29°
and 44° south might be much more attractive. It is hardly likely that,
were the whole of Australasia open to Japan, they would choose to settle
on those portions of it most dissimilar from the climatic and crop
experience of the main portion of their own Empire — unless there were
political factors forcing such a decision.

No doubt the Japanese could make a success of New Zealand and
South Australian settlement at least as easily, if not more easily, than
that of Australia ‘‘North of Twenty Eight.”

The Market which a greater Australian Population would make
FOR THE Products of the British Industries.

It has been argued that migration from Great Britain to Australia
would increase the market for British export products while easing the
strain on the foodstuffs required for the population of the United
Kingdom. Tliis Avould, of course, be the case were the migrants of a

8 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

type which could satisfactorily place themselves in Australian industries^
produce things of which there is not a surplus already in view, and
increase Australian purchasing power. It does not, of course, follow
that persons newly settled in Australia will consume the same quantity
of products of British secondary industries as before ; many such products
consumed will be the produce of Australia. A most satisfactory form
of migration might be of organised industrial units producing something
in Australia which is at present a matter of importation and for which
the Australian demand is sufficient to guarantee the economic stability
of the industrial unit. Such a transfer would call for adjustments in
Britain since the purchasing power of such people in British subsidiary
industries would have been lost.

The Market which an Increased Population will make for all

Australian Industries.

Provided that an increment in population finds no difficulty in
selling its products within the Commonwealth or outside, this increment
will add by its own needs to the demand for materials produced in the
Commonwealth. If, however, a thousand additional farmers by
producing additional foodstuffs and raw material for clothing increase
the supply of products for which the demand is stationary or actually
weakening, they may lower returns for farmers and make average
returns approximate to the lower ones which their ingress has brought
about.

Ability to market produce at satisfactory rates, or lower the cost
of production by greater efficiency, are of first rate importance. Whereas
in pre-war years there appeared to be the likelihood of an insufficient
supply of foodstuffs to meet the European demand, the major trouble
at the moment is to find markets for the increased production of the
nations exporting foodstuffs and raw materials for clothing. There is,
of course, nothing like a real world excess of food and clothing, but a
country like China needing much, lacks purchasing power per family;
still other nations direct purchasing power along other channels than
those supplying family needs.

In the encouragment of migration it would appear that young
men will have a better chance of establishing themselves than older ones.
They have fewer cares and responsibilities and can afford to take lower
rates of pay while gaining their experience of farming conditions and
do their subsequent pioneering of undeveloped areas with hardships of
a similar degree but of a different kind from those experienced by earlier
groups of pioneers.

AGRICULTURE.

A permanent system of agriculture depends on the conservation of
land capital which generally means the conservation of the surface
soil and its fertility. The recent emphasis on the prevention of erosion
is not before its time. It is possible in a trip from Gatton to Brisbane
to see paddocks in which the subsoil is exposed, the surface soil has been
transported to lower levels. The worst of these results may develop
within a lifetime on steep slopes, but on the gentler slopes where herbage
protection has been removed, the process may take longer but nevertheless
occupy a short time in the history of the State. Every bale of greasy
wool, each bushel of wheat, and each hundredweight of cheese exported,
represents removal from the soil of ingredients which older agricultural
systems find it necessary to replenish. We are at present working on
soil, more or less virgin, in which there is the accumulation of available

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

9

phosphates and potash from geological periods of weathering. Forest,
scrub, or grass cover prevented these materials being lost by erosion.
Careless agriculture may lose in a decade what nature has accumulated
in centuries. Although Nature may add small amounts of available
phosphates and potash to soils each year, we are exceeding this amount
and working on capital; efforts should be made to postpone the time
when we will have to fertilise as liberally and at a similar cost to older
agricultural communities. ^Fliis, of course, affects population since the
country which loses its land capital may eventually not only he unable
to attract migrants but have difficulty in caring for its natural increase.

Droughts.

A factor which will permit of the settlement of a number of farmers-
permanently and safeguard the interests of the present population and
of migrants is the development of a scheme in which fodder reserves are
accumulated for the drought years which assuredly will occur in
Queensland’s future as they have in its past. Since 1888 there have been
at least eighteen years which might be regarded as drought years.
Droughts have seen losses indicated by such things as minimum average
yields per acre of 4j bushels of wheat, 14f tons of cane, and 19 bushels
of maize.

The fall in cattle numbers from 7,470,000 in 1921 to 5,209,000 in
1929 was accounted for to a considerable extent by drought losses. The
fall in sheep numbers from 20,663,000 in 1925 to 16,861,000 in 1926 was
largely a drought phenomenon ; the low lambing percentage of thirty-
four in 1926 may be similarly ascribed. In ^‘A History of Queensland
Dairying” published in December, 1923, by the Queensland Council of
Agriculture, the total loss to the Dairying Industry as a consequence
of the 1915 drought was stated to be £2,300,000. Besides the direct
loss to the agricultural and pastoral industries there is a consequential
Jack of business and using up of some reserves in the secondary and
tertiary industries. The State experiences a period o'l depression
which adversely affects the security of almost every member in the
community. A severe Queensland drought may not cost the State less
than five million pounds. Suitable lands with irrigation facilities could
be used to accumulate stock foodstuffs for drought purposes conserving
the State’s assets and producing power. The methods of conservation
and the economics of such a scheme are not part of the present problem,
but it should be remembered that mere consideration of costs of conserved
fodder ignores the heavy indirect losses whicli are part of drought’s
disorganisation, the widely-spread hardships which a drought entails, and
the difficulties besetting orderly planning of the future. Migrants
arriving during a drought as at present tackled would have a parlous
time.

IRRIGATION.

Irrigation settlements being areas of close settlement, it is natural
to enquire what possibilities there are here.

The development of the Dawson scheme with the Nathan dam and
the extension of the project was not favoured by the Development and
Irrigation Commission as an area in which to spend largely from the
funds available under the £34,000,000 agreement. The area is suitable
for rice varieties of a longer growing period than the M.I.A. area which
now supplies the Australian market. It might be developed for the
production of a drought foodstuffs reserve, including cotton-seed meal
as a by-product of irrigated cotton.

10 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

It would appear that there are helpful things that can be done for
established farming areas. The provision of frequent weirs along creeks
and rivers to hold water for irrigation of nearby farming lands may be
economic, particularly if unemployed relief fund moneys could provide
some of the expenditure without proportionate capital charges. All
materials required are Queensland produced.

While our State has not snow-capped mountains to feed its rivers
and streams, the bulk of its rainfall does come during a period of high
evaporation from land surfaces and offsets these losses. Irrigation makes
for surety of farming income and for intensive farming. These are
favourable to migration. Development in irrigation areas in Queensland
of fruits of the types which the Sugar Industry (itself protected) now
subsidises to the extent of £216,000® per annum will not help us.

Crops and Stock.

I am taking agriculture in the wide sense embracing all crop and
. stock industries. As far as the practice of crop raising and dairying
are concerned, there are large areas of the State which, after certain
preliminary work, can be made available for increased production. No
great agricultural problem would be presented in increasing the produc-
tion of sugar one and a-half times as much again. The difficulties are
associated with the economics of the industry. The estimated value of
the production of crops in the year 1934, perhaps a fair average year,
was as follows : —

Crop.

£

Maize . .

562,095

Wheat

776,689

Other Cereals

40,402

Green Forage

676,624

Hay and Straw

615,985

Sugar-cane

. . 6,934,764

Apples

89,940

Bananas

335,685

Grapes

68,715

Oranges and Mandarins

97,900

Pineapples

207,870

Other Fruits

147,985

Cotton

397,263

Peanuts

79,500

Potatoes (English and Sweet)

208,955

Pumpkins

119,224

Tobacco . . . .

69,400

Tomatoes

194,140

All Other Crops

282,670

Taking these crops in turn —

Maize.

The climate of Queensland favours summer crops — maize, sorghums,
and millets^ — and, were a greatly increased demand to develop for maize,
at a price, the State would find little difficulty in meeting it. An
important food for horses, the demand for it is not keeping up with the

^ Official Year Book of the Commonwealth of Australia, 1936, page 686.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

11

growth of Australian industry because of the substitution of cars, trucks,
and tractors for horse-drawn vehicles. Maize is a summer crop flourish-
ing under conditions of summer incidence of rainfall. Maize products,,
particularly glucose, are making an increasing demand and much of the
production of the Atherton Tableland has been used up this way. As
a reserve grain for drought conditions maize offers distinct possibilities.
It is easily fed, and the technique and economics of its storage are well
known. The United States produced more than 2,500 million bushels
in 1934, Queensland averaged 4 million bushels over ten seasons, 1925-
1935; U.S.A. yield per acre, 1925-1929 was 27 bushels, and Queensland
24i ( 1925-1935

The possibilities are in pig food, industrial alcohol, and drought
reserve.

Wheat,

There have been many demands and rosy forecasts with regard to
the growing of increased quantities of wheat in Queensland. The
acreage under wheat has not increased very greatly over a considerable
period of years. The industry is mostly located on the black earths of
the Darling Downs, and the Queensland average per acre is the highest
State average of continental Australia. Some of the lowest costs of
production flgures presented by the Wheat Industry Commission have
been from Queensland. Within the area of the Darling Downs wheat
production has been a stable industry although subject to fluctuations in
3d eld from 4-75 to 18-8 bushels per acre.

The wheat country is located in the most southern portion of the
State, where favourable winter rains are more likely than in the more
northern areas. This, coupled with the use of varieties of short growing
period, early ploughing, and bare fallows to conserve the monsoonal
rains, for the wheatgrowing period, have made the industry on this area
a reasonably safe one over an average of seasons. Considerable extension,
however, is hard to see unless there be a plant-breeding development
which will permit of wheat being grown over a different portion of the
year than that normal in Queensland. This industry does not offer a
great deal in the way of increased settlement. Actualh^ witli the
continued progress on the mechanical side, it is possible that fewer
people will be required for the handling of the acreage at present in
use. Queensland has imported some wheat from the Southern States to
meet her domestic requirements on many occasions. The Southern States
have climatic advantages with wheat, a winter cereal, as we have them
with maize, sorghums, and other summer grains.

Grain, Hay, &c.

Queensland presents excellent possibilities for the increased growth
of summer crop grains, green and dried forage, particular^ also with
the making of grass and other silage — as simple labour saving methods
such as those associated with trench silos become a normal portion of
farm management. The coastal strip presents a farming problem which
time will undoubtedly solve and we shall witness the increased production
of pastures and forage for cattle, and probably cross-bred or British
sheep.

Sugar-cane.

As Australian requirements increase, so can additional cane sugar
be produced in Queensland ; there is no shortage of agriculturally suitable

Official Yea.r Book of the Commonwealth of Australia, 1936, pages 670-1.

12 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

land. The difficulties associated with beet sugar production in Australia
are best emphasised by the fact that, though the Maffra supply is sold
at the Australian price, there has not been the remarkable increase in
beet sugar production which would follow such a price applied to the
whole of the cane sugar output. With the economics of the sugar
industry as they are at present, an increase in sugar production can
only result in increasing hardships on large numbers of the industry’s
pioneers. A cane harvester of merit would greatly alter the economics
of the industry.

Certain sugar-canes and allied plants will furnish some of the green
feed ill the extension of coastal dairying.

Fuel Alcohol.

The petroleum and shell spirit imported into Queensland in the
year 1934-35 was about 34 million gallons.^^

• It is probably conservative to assess Commonwealth requirements
at 6^ times the Queensland figure ; some 200 million gallons of such
products may be required annually.

With both main methods of hydrogenation of coal disappointingly
commented on, little immediate likelihood of obtaining fuel supplies from
well sources, the comparative lack of adoption of suction gas for propul-
sion of vehicles here (or in France), and the limitations in supplies from
shales, Sarina may be the precursor of alcohol production in a big way.
This State is agriculturally suited for the grain and root crops suitable
for the production of fuel alcohol. The possibilities from molasses are
not great; 4^ million gallons out of a total of 18^ million gallons^^ of
molasses were used by distilleries in 1934; 7-| million gallons were used
as fuel or manure, and 1 million run to waste. The fuel value of molasses
is about 10s. per ton. Australian consumption of petroleum being over
200 million gallons per annum, there is not much real relief in sight
from alcohol from molasses; but defence requirements might make the
production of alcohol from sub-tropical and tropical crops advisable.
An Australian policy of fuel alcohol production would mean an oppor-
tunity for settling many thousands of migrants in Queensland. Peace
time strategy would require the mistakes in production and manufacture
to be made now, and expansion in war be based on a cadre of skilled
farming and manufacturing personnel.

Cotton.

This is a crop for which Queensland is well suited. Experimental
work is being continuously carried out and, despite many serious seasonal
difficulties, the trend of the industry has been upward; difficulties should
not be experienced in continuously meeting the raw cotton requirements
of the Commonwealth. The export outlook for cotton is not good. The
quality of the cotton is satisfactory. Picking is at present done by hand.
A good mechanical cotton picker would reduce harvesting costs and
alter the economic aspects of the Queensland industry.

Tobacco.

The prospects for tobacco are good. It requires too great a stretch
of imagination to believe that this continent and, in particular, Queens-
land, cannot combine human ingenuity and soils so as to make Australia

A.B.C. of Queensland Statistics, 1936, page 213.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

13

eventually independent of other countries for the supply of the bulk
of its tobacco requirements ; tobacco-growers would increase in numbers
ill Queensland.

There are, too, certain of the vegetable crops, such as tomatoes and
pumpkins, and many tropical fruits, besides bananas, which have an
expanding future in this State.

Merino Sheep.

Allowing for the swing from sheep to beef cattle and vice versa
it remains true that the potential carrying capacity for sheep in the areas
devoted to the Merino in Queensland has not yet been reached. Better
methods for the management of pastures will enable the reseeding of
native grasses, the preservation of edible shrubs, and the reservation of
pasture areas ; the formation of grain and fodder reserves will help in
the process. Sheep numbers, of course, are not an exact measure of the
productivity of the industry. Wool is better, and the weight of wool
per fleece has notably increased in Australia as a consequence of the
activities of sheep breeders. The importance of breeding sheep for
Queensland conditions has not yet received the attention it should.
Nutritional studies, already commenced, will lower feed costs. Better
Vv ater facilities and conservation in this State, which is so extraordinarily
fortunate as to possess the major portion of the world’s greatest artesian
basin, will help in increased carrying capacity also. The tendency to
decrease size of holdings results in carrying a greater human population
and, with suitable financial backing for smaller graziers to tide over
adverse times, closer settlement of the pastoral areas should become
stable. Linked up with the stability of the stock industries must be some
measure of mitigation of the effects of droughts, and its importance
becomes greater as smaller men enter more and more into the sheep
industry, and have not the alternative grazing properties or financial
resources of the pastoral companies.

British and Cross Bred Sheep.

The North Island of New Zealand carries large numbers of Romney
Marsh sheep which are crossed with the Southdown for the lamb trade.
These New Zealand lambs sell well, the best weights bringing 8Jd. per
pound last year. The perennial Rye Grass — Certified White Clover —
pastures are extraordinarily good but, of course, pass through periods of
shortage in the winter months when hay, grass silage, and roots are used
to tide over. It is impossible for me to believe that much of the elevated
country facing the coast in Queensland cannot become good British
sheep country. The pastures for such country are a problem but, with
the work being done by the Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, the Department of Agriculture and Stock, private breeders
like J. M. Newman, Esq., and the extension of this work on a scale
proportionate to the importance of these lands and the grasslands
industries, the solution will come within a comparatively short time
judged from a national viewpoint. Parasites are troublesome in New
Zealand and are satisfactorily handled. There should be less difficulty
from this source here.

«

The extraordinary rise in the comparative values of crossbred wool,
which characterised recent sales in New Zealand, is abnormal, and may
be a result of the war preparation measures of the buyers’ countries;
but, with the pre-war low rates in comparison with the merino, the New
Zealand crossbred and British sheep industry was then on as sound a

14

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

basis as most agricultural industries. Large areas east of the Divide
are envisaged as potential crossbred and British sheep areas for mutton
and fat-lamb production.

Beef Cattle.

Much of what has been written with regard to sheep applies also
to beef cattle. There are the great possibilities presented by the chilled
baby beef industry on the eastern side of the Divide. Research will
reveal grassland establishment and management measures of which
we are now ignorant. “North of twenty-eight’’ presents a whole series
of animal and grassland problems to which most temperate regions ’ grass-
land research stations, including those of New Zealand, Southern
Australia, Great Britain, and North Germany have no answer. The
production of pastures in sub-tropical and tropical areas for sheep,
beef cattle, and dairy cattle have not yet been attempted in a measure
suited to its importance to Queensland and to the Commonwealth’s,
interest in the development of Northern Australia. The research work
of Dr. Vickery, as discussed by him at a meeting of this Society, indicated
that hotter climates (Wyndham, Townsville) are in some ways more
favoured for the production of chilled beef of a satisfactory keeping
quality because of the low atmospheric and soil content of micro-
organisms which can grow (comparatively) rapidly at chilling-room
temperatures. This indicates in some degree the special nature of
Northern Australian investigations. Some investigations to determine
the beef animal of most value under the conditions are now in being.

Dairying.

The Queensland dairying industry has shown much growth in
recent years and the State has become one of the important butter
exporting States, and it has for many years been the most important
exporter of cheese. The industry extends from the Warwick factories,
on the Downs, latitude about 28° S to the Daintree, latitude about 16° S.

The range of country and climate which this represents presents-
problems, a solution of which will, I believe, make Queensland the
greatest dairying State in the Commonwealth and one of the great
dairy States of the world. The contribution of engineers in refrigeration
and the marked use which can be made of rural electrification schemes,
together with modern transportation, have removed some of the diffi-
culties associated with the technology of tropical dairy manufacturing,
hut the grassland problems remain unsolved. The present Molasses and
Para grasses of the Daintree, and the Paspalum, Rhodes, and Kikuyu
and native grasses of the South are but a pioneering stage in the grass-
land work of Queensland’s eastern areas. We can expect varietal
work in these grasses which will greatly improve their contribution to
pastures. It is likely, too, that varieties of new species will be intro-
duced with success and that the legume problem of the Queensland’s
coastal areas will be solved. The building up of poor lands to ones of
high fertility is a distinct accomplishment of the New Zealander in
Waikato and much of the Pumice lands. The Queensland problem is
no greater, but unfortunately we have not New Zealand’s access to
climatically parallel grassland work such as that of North-Western
Europe, which formed the basis of the New Zealand endeavour and
which New Zealand has surpassed in some phases by its own
contributions.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

15

Provided that the markets are available dairying, with coastal
sheep raising and baby beef production offers the greatest promise for
expansion, not only for Queensland as a State but in Queensland’s
development as a factor in Australian defence.

Horses.

The horse-breeding industry has been affected in a similar way to
the maize industry. The demand for draughts for farm and city haulage
work has been greatly lessened as a consequence of truck and tractor
haulage, while lighter horses are a rarity in city streets and have been
replaced to a somewhat unexpected extent in country towns by motor
cars and motor cycles. The mechanisation of armies has lessened the
requirements for remounts, and consequently this demand is a fading
one. The figures for horses in Queensland are as follows: —

Year ended 31st December. Horses.

1860 • 23,504

1890 365,812

1900 456,788

1910 593,813

1914 743,059

1920 742,217

1921 747,543

1922 714,055

1923 661,593

1924 660,093

1925 638,372

1926 571,622

1927 548,833

1928 522,490

1929 500,104

1930 481,615

1931 469,474

1932 452,486

1933 450,024

1934 448,604

and the picture needs little comment.

Low prices for farm products have discouraged the use of compara-
tively high-priced fuels but, given good prices, tractors and trucks have
an abiding place in many Queensland farming districts where high
humidities and temperatures are hard on horse efficiency but do not
adversely affect suitably designed tractors and trucks.

Pigs.

In both New Zealand and Australia the consumption per head of
pig products is low compared with England, the United States of
America, and Canada. The pork average for Australia was 9 lb. compared
with 66 for Canada and 72 for the United States of America.^^
would appear then that there are possibilities of increased consumption

A.B.C. of Queensland Statistics, 1936, page 172.

” Official Year Book — Commonwealth of Australia, page 714.

16 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

in Australia for pork products ; probably this can only be at the expense
of some other form of meat such as beef and mutton. The consumption
of meats per head in Australia and some other countries is as follows ; — ’ ^

Per Capita Consumption, Australia, and Other Countries.

Description.

Australia,

1934-35.

New

Zealand,

(a).

Great

Britain,

1933.

Canada,

1934.

United
States of
America,
1933.

Lb.

Lb.

Lb.

Lb.

Lb.

Beef and Veal

120-93

117-00

62-80

68-66

54-20

Mutton and Lamb

77-44

110-00

(d) 31-10

6-28

7-00

Pork

9-31

6-00

(b) 47-80

66-36

72-20

Totals

207-68

233-00

141-70

141-30

133-40

Bacon and Ham . .

10-36

11-00

F)

(c)

G)

Total, all Meats

218-04

244-00

141-70

141-30

133-40

Average, three years ending 1933-34. (&) Including lard,

(c) Probablj^ included with pork. {d) 1934-35.

Australian consumption of meats may reach the higher New Zealand
figure if economics, taste, and nutritional desirability favour it. There
are possibilities for increased consumption of meats in Great Britain,
Europe, Canada, the United States of America, and particularly the
countries to the north of us (the Far East) and, had these peoples the
required purchasing power, countries like Australia, and in particular
Queensland, would be hard put to it to supply a fraction of the world’s
additional meat requirements. It will be remembered that the Nutrition
Committee of the League of Nations included meat as one of the important
requirements for good nutrition. It is, of course, possible that the
Australian uses more meat and less of other substances, particularly
fresh fruits and vegetables, than is wise. The above figures do not
encourage a view that the consumption of meats in Australia is likely
to greatly increase though pork products may displace portion of the
beef, veal, mutton, and lamb. Queensland produced more bacon and
ham than any other Australian State in 1934-35, the total being

22.000. 000 lb. as against 20,000,000 lb. for New South Wales,® the next
most important producer.

The pig industry has generally been regarded as a subsidiary of the
dairying industry, and first-rate carcases are produced where mixed
farming, including dairying, is practised. The United States of America
has shown that pigs can be produced in very large numbers from areas
devoted mainly to the production of maize, provided that supplementaiy
feeds are used — abattoirs by-products play a large part. Queensland is
better fitted for the production of maize than any other Australian State,
and it has many meatworks at intervals along its coastline. The number
of cattle (including calves) slaughtered in Queensland in 1934 was

851.000, ^® so it would appear that shortage of meatworks by-products
is not likely to restrict the pig industry in this State when the demand
for meat meal as a supplement to maize for pig feeding is made in a
big way. The United States of America, however, does not favour for

O.Y.B., C. of A., 1936, page 625.
O.Y.B. of C. of A., page 630.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

17

this type of pig-raising any of the breeds commonly in use in Queensland
or Australia, At the Chicago saleyards, or any. of the centres handling
large numbers of pigs, it would be found that the lard type of pig, the
Duroc- Jerseys and Poland-Chinas together outnumber other breeds by
something of the order of 10 to 1. American packing houses have solved
the production and marketing problems associated with pork products
from this type of pig, and Queensland’s interests in the development of
the pig industry cannot afford summarily to dismiss these breeds because
pigs of other types are somewhat easier for the manufacturers to handle
and market. The pig feed possibilities of Queensland and Victoria are
not similar, and eventually we may not closely follow Victoria, New
Zealand, and Great Britain in the type of pig selected to make the most
of our pig-feeding possibilities. A Queensland packing house handling
pig products in the mode of any of the big five of Chicago might quite
conceivably revolutionize the demand and requirements of the Australian
trade. We are experimenting with Zebu blood in our beef cattle industry
and the Duroc- Jersey and Poland-China may help us too. Just as our
grassland problems differ from those of temperate climes so also our
materials for pig feeding need not slavishly adhere to those found
successful in temperate regions. Most of our bacon and ham is consigned
chiefly to the Paciflc Islands and to the East, a trade not unfavourable
or unfamiliar with pig products of the United States of America.

The pig figures for Queensland are as follows : —
Year ended 31st December.

1860

1890

1900

1910

1914

1920

1921 '

1922

1923

1924

1925

1926

1927 . .

1928 . .

1929

1930

1931

1932

1933

1934

Pigs.

7,147

96,836

122,187

152,212

166,638

104,370

145,083

160,617

132,243

156,163

199,598

183,662

191,947

215,764

236,037

217,528

222,686

213,249

217,448

269,873

These figures show that the trend is up although irregular. Irregu-
larities, as usual, are a reflex of market and seasonal conditions. When
Queensland had 270,000 pigs — 1934 figures — New South Wales had
398,000. With the expansion possible in Queensland dairying and the
possibilities of pig production on American lines, there is a reasonable
prospect of Queensland being the important pig-producing State of
Australia.

ABC of Queensland Statistics, page 172.

18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

C. MARKETS.

The opening up of something approaching the 1913 situation, when
international markets were relatively free, might produce a degree of
prosperity in the Commonwealth which would enable migration to be
resumed in a thoroughly satisfactory way to all concerned. Continental
markets which were competitors for Australian exports are virtually
closed. Self-sufficiency has obtained such a hold in so many continental
political systems that a rapid expansion of Australia’s exports to the
old markets hardly looks likely. An old idea of each country producing
that for which it was best fitted had some basis in reality in 1913, but
now seems unlikely as an objective of international policy within the
near future. Such an organisation of production necessarily must take
cognisance of living standards to which nations have attained; a
tolerant, scientific attitude in discussions of a matter of such importance
and complexity is basic, but impossible now to obtain.

The British market has been and is the most important factor in
Australian exports; for instance, the United Kingdom took 90-5 per
cent.^^ of the total shipments of Australian beef in 1934-35 ; it took
98 per cent.^® of the frozen mutton and lamb, and 35 per cent, of wool
in 1935-36^® (computed from figures) ; 54 per cent, of wheat in 1934^®
(computed from figures) ; 94 per cent, of sugar in 1935^^ (computed
from figures) ; 94 per cent, of wine 64 per cent, of the raisins and
currants for 1934-35 65 per cent, of the exported cotton 93 per cent,

of the Queensland butter, cheese, and milk 99 per cent, of the eggs
exported from Queensland^^ (computed from figures).

Nutrition Councils and Committees have been established in
Australia with a view to improving the human dietary. A Committee
of the League of Nations has drawn attention to the importance of
certain articles and their products in the diet. A greater amount of
attention is being given to nutrition in journals and newspapers than
at any previous time. The publicity with regard to sounder methods of
selecting foodstuffs is increasing, and it would appear that a continuous
and progressive effort will be made to cause the foodstuffs and their
amounts eaten to coincide approximately with recommendations based
on our nutritional knowledge. This factor will certainly increase the
demand for milk, fresh fruits, and green vegetables A¥ithin the Common-
wealth, but increased demand is much less certain in the case of butter
since Australia is already consuming 31 lb. per head as against 25 lb.
in the case of the United Kingdon, a colder country. In the case of
cheese, however, the United Kingdom consumes 9-5 lb. per annum whereas
the Australian consumption is 3-5 lb. per annum. The New Zealand figure
for cheese is ^ a lb. greater than ours, but their butter consumption is
40 lb. per head. It would appear that the Australian consumption of
cheese could be quite easily increased, both on the basis of present
consumption and nutritional desirability. Cheese is generally the dairy
pioneer’s marketable product. Ten or twelve suppliers reasonably close
together can keep a cheese factory going, but many times this number

O.Y.B. of C. of A., 1936, page 630.

O.Y.B, of C. of A., 1936, page 635.

O.Y.B. of C. of A., 1936, page 641.

O.Y.B. of C. of A., 1936, page 660.

ABC of Queensland Statistics, 1936, page 207.

-- O.Y.B. of C. of A., 1936, page 689.

O.Y.B. of C. of A., 1936, page 691.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

19

are required for a modern butter factory. Tlie production of cheese in
Queensland in 1934-35 was 12,200,000 Ib.^^ and the net Australian
exports for the same year were 16,750,000 Ib.^^ With 6,500,000 people
in the Commonwealth and an increase in cheese consumption from
3| lb. per head to 7 lb. per head (still well under the United Kingdom
figure) the amount of cheese exported in 1934-35 would be required for
Australian consumption. The figure of 16,750,000 lb. of exported cheese
is the highest figure in the last five financial years, ending 1935-36.

The quantity of milk recommended for consumption in a well-
balanced diet is much in excess of that now used per head ; the approxi-
mation of the quantity used to the figure recommended would greatly
increase the consumption of milk in the Commonwealth. These Austra-
lian factors are somewhat encouraging from the point of view of the
marketing of additional dairy produce, due to an expansion of the
Queensland dairying industry which, as previously remarked, seems to be
a certain development.

The market for wool has been considered to be threatened by
substitution of products such as woolstra and lanital. The threat from
woolstra, which is not a protein material like wool, may be less
dangerous, from the point of view of quality, than that from lanital,
which is produced from casein. It is estimated by Oxholt-Hove“^ that
30,000 tons of artificial casein wool would be required to replace present
Italian imports of wool. He estimates that this would require the
milking of an additional 450,000 cows and that one of the problems
would be the disposal of the butter produced, roughly the same amount,
about 30,000 tons, of which only 1,000 tons would be required to meet
the present Italian imports.

With nations ’ thoughts running towards self-sufficiency with regard
to the materials for manufacturing industries, it is possibly not desirable
that the price of wool should rise to a figure which will encourage greater
efforts to produce^ a satisfactory substitute. Experience with regard to
margarine and butter on the English market has been that there are
certain critical prices for butter which must not be passed, otherwise
butter sales rapidly decrease and the margarine sales increase. If
international markets become freer than they are at present, a somewhat
similar relationship between avooI and wool substitutes might obtain.
Wool substitutes which are protein in origin may not only bear a
chemical family resemblance to avooI but, with increasingly better methods
of manufacture, may closely approximate its physical properties.

The Ottawa agreement witnessed an endeavour, amid the self-
sufficiency efforts in countries which originally traded freely with Great
Britain and other countries of the British Empire, to obtain a measure
of self-sufficiency within the Empire itself by reciprocal trade relation-
ships. Obviously many political beliefs and attitudes were cut across
and, in the case of Great Britain, radical changes were made in fiscal
policy. From some points of view the effort was late timed since
preferential trade in Australia Avas initiated in the early Federal years.
Recognizing that Britain has very large capital interests in non-Empire
countries like the Argentine, and the closeness of these countries as a
factor in the necessary protection of trade routes during war, it still
remains somewhat more than desirable that inter-Empire trade should
be encouraged until such time as a return to freer trade relationships
becomes feasible.

^^O.Y.B. of C. of A., 1936, page 73 2.

O.Y.B. of C. of A., 1936, page 713.

Hansen Dairy Bulletin — Oct., 1936.

20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Markets are largely a matter of business relationships when
iininterfered with by political considerations. Political considerations
now, perhaps more than ever before, indicate the necessity for placing
Australian trade where possible within the Empire, but Australia cannot
afford to weaken herself as an Empire unit by neglecting the development
of markets which strengthen her economic position nor can she afford
rashly to offend nations whose decisions in the Pacific may be critical
for the Commonwealth. Markets and migration obviously are inter-
dependent. The prosperity which increasing demand for Australian
goods would occasion would bring migration in its train.

D. AGRICULTUEE, MIGRATION, AND MARKETS.

Consideration of the three factors and their inter-relationships
leads me to believe that, markets being available which will give a margin
of profit to efficient farmers, deliberate, fully-planned migration to
Queensland can be encouraged with benefit to the State. It is funda-
mental to realise that this required margin of profit can come in two
ways of which there is apt to be emphasis only on the first, that is, higher
prices for products. The other is nationally even more important —
lower production costs. It does not follow that a lower production cost
will reduce the standard of living on a farm.

The profit margin is the essential feature. Reducing the cost of
production by better farming also makes for more interesting farming,
which keeps young men of initiative and business ability on the land.

It is apparently not possible under present conditions to farm or
graze hundreds of thousands of acres of country along the Queensland
coast, but I feel sure that, given the necessary research and experi-
mental work, solutions can be found to the problems which prevent
settlement of much of this land now. Of these problems the greatest is
the grasslands problem. Pasture surveys, the investigation of species
and varieties of grasses and of legumes, their combination to produce
sub-tropical and tropical pastures, and the determination of methods of
management of such pastures which will give maximum paying produc-
tion and enable settlement on areas now unused — these phases must
be investigated. The continuation of suitable grassland management
will convert many second class grazing areas into first class ones.

Fodder conservation in Queensland has only begun. Conservation
of grassland products (by the simplest possible methods available for
areas with moist conditions during the harvest period) should be
adopted; ensiling in trenches” costs little in capital and harvest time
labour. Successful migration necessitates that grassland research
bears in its personnel and the money devoted to its activities a close
relationship to the value of Queensland’s grasslands products, and
their obviously even greater future. In 1934 the production of the
dairying industry was £5,950,000 and the pastoral industry £14,600,000,
a total of over £20,000,000, of which the bulk was from grassland
products. The production of the agricultural industry in the narrow
sense, grain, crops, green forage, hay and straw, sugar-cane, fruit, and
all other agricultural products was £11,906,000.^® Had there been as much
attention and money devoted in research and experimentation to the
problem of grasslands as there were to all crops in the ordinary sense,
the provision for grasslands would still be below that which could be

“ ABC of Queensland Statistics, 1936, page 188.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

21

justified by consideration of the State's interests. This is more than
ever the case if the State’s financial basis is considered to rest on its
exports, since 1934-35 export values were as follows: —

£

Butter 3,676,486

Hides and Skins, including furred . . 211,908

Meat —

Bacon, ham, and pork . . . . : . 288,244

Frozen beef . . . . . . . . 2,040,770

Other 506,601

Tallow . . . . . . . . . . . . 231,898

Wool —

Greasy . . . . . . . . . . 6,047,655

Scoured . . . . . . . . . . 1,322,278

Mainly Grassland Products . . £14,326,278

Crop products. —

Sugar 2,178,536

Wheat . . . . . . . . . . 102

Crop products . . . . . . £2,178,638

These are the only items given as principal ones relating to crops.

In connection wth the planning of migration, may I quote these
words of the Rt. Hon. Sir Leslie Wilson : — ■

‘H am one of those who feel that there is much that
can and will be done in this State of Queensland, if all
give to the work of development, the determination to
undertake a task which means so much for the future, not
only of this State and Continent, but of the British Empire.

‘‘One word more. Let us not forget how young we
are, and the old Latin motto : Let us ‘ hasten slowly, ’ and lay
our foundations well. ’

I have mentioned many possibilities and lines of action to ensure
the success of migration, but the first basic step in a sound scheme appears
to me to be thoroughly well endowed and staffed grassland research
for our sub-tropical and tropical areas.

The activities in connection with the grasslands would be almost
in the words of Professor Wadham —

“ ((x) Learning how to develop the poor soil types cheaply and
effectively; and

“ (5) Increasing the intensity of production of the better soils.

A method of approach, although a subsidiary one, is the procedure
adopted in connection with New Zealand prison farms at Hautu and
Rangipo, These farms had numbers of prisoners placed on them who

ABC of Queensland Statistics, 1936, page 213.

The Eight Honourable Sir Leslie Wilson ^ ‘ Queensland Assets ’ ’ ; an address to
this Society 12-10-1936.

S. M. Wadham — Australian Absorptive Capacity — The Primary Industries,
Australian Institute of Political Science, Canberra, 1937.

22 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

erected their own buildings, cleared the manuka, and established (Hautu)
or were establishing (Rangipo) pastures on pumice lands previously
regarded as entirely valueless. The older farm (about 700 acres) will
probably be divided up into a number of farms and leased to settlers.
A method of exploratory prison farms using the labour to clear areas
of country at present not producing and, in collaboration with the grass-
lands research people, finding the methods of producing a maximum
return from pastures, is one that has possibilities. The fitness and
expediency of such farms being settled by persons whose sentences have
expired might not be lost sight of.

The type of migrant who will meet with the most success as an
agricultural settler is the young man ambitious to make a home for
himself out of the bush and who has had sufficient training to carry out
the work of clearing, fencing, and routine dairy farming operations.
The comparative failure of some closer settlement schemes, group settle-
ments, and soldiers’ settlements has been due to poor, unsatisfactory
preliminary surveys of the problems to be met, exaggerated land values,
and areas unsuited to the type of production to be undertaken.

A perusal of the rainfall map of Queensland shows a very large
area of country with more than 30 inches of rainfall. The incidence of
this rainfall is mainly a summer one, and the settlement of this country
in a much closer and somewhat new way seems to be a certainty. The
industries which will make this possible are dairying, pig raising, a
British and cross-bred sheep industry, and baby beef raising. For the
success of all of these, it is repeated that it is necessary to determine
grasslands mixtures and managements which will justify the expenditure
involved in clearing and fencing the areas, providing and sowing the
grasslands mixtures, and the provision of fertilizers as the research
work will indicate to be necessary. As to the number of migrants that
this area of Queensland can absorb there is no telling, but provided
that the basic grasslands work is undertaken at once and in sufficient
volume, subsequent settlement will take place on a surer and less costly
basis than has characterised other development schemes in the Common-
wealth.

23

VoL. XLIX, No. 2

Euryphyllum : A New Genus of Permian
Zaphrentoid Rugose Corals.

By Dorothy Hill, Ph.D., Associate of Newnham College, Cambridge.

(Plate I.)

(Tabled before the Royal Society of Queensland, 31st May, 1937.)

This paper describes the type species and gives the distribution of
a new genus of Permian zaphrentoid Eugose corals. It briefly defines
five morphological groups of zaphrentoid genera from Devonian, Carboni-
ferous and Permian strata.

Rugose corals may in general be divided into two types, those with
dissepiments, and those without. Those with dissepiments seem to
have arisen from those without, either directly, or through other dissepi-
mented forms. Usually they quickly become compound and inhabit the
reefs. No case is known where a form without dissepiments has evolved
from one with. Those without dissepiments are nearly always solitary,
and they can exist in more diverse conditions than their descendants with
dissepiments. They may give rise to series of non-dissepimented forms
also. Thus we must look amongst them for the root-stock or stocks of
the Rugosa, and the study of phytogeny in Rugosa resolves itself into
an endeavour to recognise any such root-stocks, and the series of forms,
with or without dissepiments, evolved from them. Their characters
have usually been summarised by the adjectives strep telasmoid and
zaphrentoid, which imply a corallum in which all development is at a
primitive stage. Thus it is solitary ; the arrangement of the septa is
still pinnate, dependent on the septal insertion, the cardinal and alar
fossulae being very obvious; major septa extend to the axis ; minor septa
are very short, and dissepiments are not developed ; tabulge are complete,
and dilatation of the skeletal tissue may be great.

A survey of the Rugosa shows a large number of such genera, and
parts of the evolutional history of some of them are known. As
examples of the evolution of forms with dissepiments from forms without,
we may cite the Silurian Phaidactis, shown by Ryder (1926) to be
evolved from Pycnactis, the Devonian H eliophyllum, which can be shown
to be evolved from Zaphrentis phrygia, and the Carboniferous Caninia
with dissepiments, shown by Salee (1910), following the work of
Carruthers (1908), to be evolved from the non-dissepimented Caninia
cornucopice. The classic example of an evolutional series of forms without
dissepiments is that proved in the Lower Carboniferous by Carruthers
(1910), Zaphrentis delaneoui leading to tachylasmoid and amplexoid
forms.

In the. Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian, we may distinguish
at least five morphological groups of zaphrentoid corals. The morphology
of each of the genera in a group is remarkably similar. Some or all
may form a related series, or be homeomorphs, or some of the names may
be synonymous, but speculations on their relations seem profitless in
the present state of our ignorance, and in this paper I wish only to draw
attention to the groups. Grabau (1922 and 1928) has studied many of

24 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

the zaphrentoid corals, and has arranged them in different groups from
those which I suggest. He has given his groups the status of families,
and his works should be consulted for this alternative treatment.

(1) All the septa unite to form a wall around the fossula, which
is on the concave side of the corallum; e.g., the Lower Carboniferous
Zaphrentis delaneoui of Europe (Carruthers, 1908, p. 63), Hapsiphyllwm
Simpson (1900, p. 203) of America, and Cypellophyllum Tolmatchaff
(1933, p. 287) of Russia.

EXPLANATION TO TEXT FIGUEES.
Text-figures 1-17.

1. Zaphrentis dclaneo-ui (after Carruthers). 2. HapsipJiyllum (after Simpson),
o. Menopliyllum (from Edwards and Haime). 4. Zaphrentis JconincTci (after
Carruthers). 5. Homalophyllum calceolum (after Grove). 6. Stereolasma (after
Brown). 7. Lopholasma (after Simpson). 8. Metriophyllum (Sedgwick Museum
A8477f). 9. Zaphrentis omaliusi (after Carruthers). 10. Densyphyllum Thomson

non Dybowski (after Vaughan). 11. Disophyllum (after Tolmatchoff). 12.
Zaphrentis costata (McCoy) (from the lectotype, S.M.A. 2392b). 13. Lophocarino-

phyllum, young stage (after Grabau). 14. Meniscophyllum (after Simpson). 15.
Allotropiophyllum (after Grabau). 16. Triplophyllum (after Simpson). 17.
Zaphrentis ennisTcilleni group (after Thomson), a, alar septum; c, cardinal septum;
ct, counter septum. In all figures the cardinal fossula is at the bottom.

EURYPHYLLUM.

25

(2f) All the septa unite to form a wall round the fossula, which is
on the convex side of the corallum. This is seen in the Devonian
Menophyllum Edwards and Haime (1851, p. 348) and the Lower Carbo-
niferous Z. honinclii ot Europe (Carruthers, 1908, p. 67), and in
' Homalophyllum calceolum of America (Grove 1935, p. 354).

(3) All the septa unite at the axis, the cardinal fossula is on the
convex side of the corallum, and a false counter fossula appears.
Examples are the Devonian Stefeoiasma Simpson (1900, p. 205) and
Lopholasma Simpson (1900, p. 206) of America, and Metriophyllum
Edwards and Haime (1851, p. 306) of Europe, the Lower Carboniferous
Zaphrentis omaliusi (see Carruthers, 1908, p. 25), Fasciculophyllum
Thomson (1883, p. 448) [= Densyphyllum Thomson (1883, p. 445) non
Dybowski, and Centrocellulosmn Thomson (1883, p. 452) ] and
Disophyllum Tolmachoff (1931, p. 341) of Europe, and Lopholasma of
Asia (Grabau 1922, p. 43), and the Permian Lophocarinophylliim
Grabau (1922, p. 46) of Asia.

(4) Only the septa of the counter quadrants and the alar septa
unite, forming a crescentic group ; the fossula is on the concave side
and the remaining septa are amplexoid;^ e.g., the Lower Carboniferous
Meniscophyllnm Simpson (1900, p. 199) of America and AlJotropio-
phyllum Grabau (1928, p. 130), which occurs in the Lower Carboniferous
of Europe and the Upper Carboniferous and Permian of Asia.

(5) The septa are arranged as in Group 1, but do not form a com-
plete wall round the fossula because they are slightly amplexoid; e.g.,
the Devonian and Carboniferous Triplophyllum of America (Grove,
1935, p. 339) and the Zaphrentis enniskilleni group of Europe and
America (Lewis, 1935, p. 125).

The new Permian genus described below has the morphology of
Group 1; it differs from Cypellophyllum and Zaphrentis delaneoni
(which are possible synonymous), in having more septa, a characteristic
dilatation of the tissue, and a narrower fossula expanded at the axis,
and from Hapsipiiyllum in the shortness of the minor septa.

Genus Enryphyllum nov.^

Genotype : Enryphyllum reidi sp. nov., here described, from the
Permian of Queensland.

Diagnosis. — Simple, turbinate to ceratoid Rugose Corals, erect except
at the tip, which is turned aside ; with well-marked interseptal ridges, and
typically an oblique calical floor. The major septa, which are never
carinate or serrate, extend to the axis and are pinnately grouped about
a long closed cardinal fossula, bisected by a long cardinal septum on
the concave side of the corallum; alar fossulas are present. The septa
are dilated, and first are laterally contiguous throughout, but during
ontogeny dilatation decreases in a widening zone midway between the
periphery and the axis, leaving a wide peripheral stereozone, and an

^ It is possible that Heptaphyllum Clark (Geol. Mag., 1924, p. 416) and
Caenophyllum Clark (Geol. Mag., 1926, p. 86) have been misinterpreted, and that
they are members of this group.

^ Owing to delay in the publication of this paper, the genus EurypiliylUim dates
from the diagnosis given on p. 150 in Hill,, D., 1937 (April), ^‘Type Specimens of
Palaeozoic Corals from New South Wales in W. B. Clarke’s First Collection, and in
the Strzelecki Collection,” Ge\ol. Mag. Lond., LXXIV., 145-153, 9 text-figs., while
other species of the genus are described in Hill, D., 1937 (June), “The Permian
Corals of Western Australia,” J. Boy. Soc. West. Aiist., XXIII., 43-63, 11 text-figs,

1 pi.

26

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

axial structure formed by the conjoined dilated axial ends of the septa.
Very short minor septa appear late, and remain buried in the stereozone.
Tabulag are distant, usually dilated, complete or incomplete, and there
are no dissepiments.

Distrilntt ion. Species, other than the genotype are distributed as
follows : —

Stromhodes?” australis McCoy (1847, p. 227, pi. xi., fig. 9,
Sedgwick Museum No. A8002, from the calcareous [Permian]
Upper Marine shale of Wagamee, Illawarra District, New
South Wales) ; doubtfully included in the genus.

“ Zaphrentis sp. c.f. Gregor:yana^^ (Trechmann, 1917, p. 61, pi. iv.,
fig. 7, from the Permo-Carboniferous Maitai Limestone of
New Zealand).

Stereolmma'^ minus Sochkine (1925, pi. i., figs. 6, 6a) in the
Artinskian (Lower Permian) of the Western Urals.

Some of the Zaphrentis spp. described by Koker, 1924, pp. 6-11,
from the Permian of Timor, probably belong here.

Euryphylliim sp. nov. from the Permian of Fossil Cliff, Irwin
Kiver, Victoria District, Western Australia.

Euryphyllum sp. nov. from the Permian Callytharra Limestone
of Creek half a mile west of Callytharra Springs, Wooramel
River, W.A.

My statement that Euryphyllum is a Permian genus rests on its
occurrence in the Artinskian of the Western Urals, and with a coral
fauna in Western Australia whose age I am showing elsewhere^ to be
Permian.

Euryphyllum reidi sp. nov.

Holotype. — Specimen F3243 in the University of Queensland Collec-
tion from the [Permian] Upper Dilly Stage of Cabbage Creek, Spring-
sure District.

Horizons and Localities of Other Specimens, from various Permian
Localities in Queensland are : L238, U. of Q. collection, Dilly A Horizon,
Consuelo Creek, 2^ miles above the junction with Cattle Creek, Spring-
sure District. F3245, U. of Q. coll., Productus bed 1^ miles N.W. of
Consuelo Homestead, Springsure District. L236, Somerton (Springsure
District). 14, J. H. Reid collection, Peawaddy Creek, Springsure
District. 22-26, J.H.R. coll.. Little Gorge Creek, Springsure District.
31-32, J.H.R. coll.. Fifteen-mile Swamp. 33-35, J.H.R. coll., Jabores
Dam. 11-13 J.H.R. coll., Mt. Bora, 30 miles S.S.W. of St. Lawrence.
L229, U. of Q. coil., Castle Creek, Theodore.

Diagnosis. — Euryphyllum with oblique calice ; the peripheral stereo-
zone is irregular and very wide, and septal dilatation does not decrease
till very late.

Description. — The corallum is simple, trochoid, almost erect save
for a short apical part which is turned aside, and regularly expanding.
The smallest corallum attained a diameter of 10mm. in a height of
20 mm. The largest corallum, incomplete, had a calical diameter of
30 mm. In none of the specimens is the steeply sloping calical platform
preserved unbroken, but the calice was probably nearly half as deep as
the corallum was tall. The floor of the calice is very oblique ; it shows a
deep cardinal fossula on the shorter side of the corallum, and a shallow
trough between the platform and the wide axial boss formed by the

^ Journ. Eoy. Soc. W.A., 1937.

EURYPHYLLUM.

27

conjoined axial ends of the septa. The epitheca shows well-marked
longitudinal ridges and grooves, the number of grooves indicating that
minor septa were potential from the beginning. Growth annulation and
growth swellings are pronounced.

Usually only major septa can be seen in transverse section, and they
vary in number between 34 and 48, the average being 40. The septa
are dilated throughout, with plane sides, and, as far as can be ascertained,
a smooth upper edge. They may be laterally contiguous throughout,
but typically dilatation decreases slightly towards the top of the
corallum, in a gradually widening zone midway between the axis and
the periphery, leaving a very wide if somewhat irregular peripheral
stereozone, and an axial structure which consists of the conjoined and
dilated axial ends of the septa. The axial ends of the septa are arranged
about the cardinal and alar fossulae, and the axis of the corallum is
excentric on the counter side. All three fossulae are typically widest at
their axial ends. The cardinal septum usually extends to the axis,
bisecting the cardinal fossula. Usually the tissue of the dilated septa
shows growth lamination very plainly. The lamination is to be seen
at right angles to the direction of the fibres, when, rarely, the latter
can be distinguished. In some specimens the tissue has split along the
divisional planes between the growth laminae. The median dark line
of the septum is usually very distinct. In transverse section the growth
laminae of two neighbouring septa are continuous in the stereozone,
where they form an arch, and are parallel to the median dark line in
the middle parts of the septum.

The tabulae are rarely seen, owing to the excessive dilatation of
the septa. They are complete or incomplete, and dilated, and are steeply
inclined downwards from the excentric axis to the periphery.

Remarks. — The specimens from Castle Creek, Theodore, and from
Jabores Dam are larger than the others, having an average height
of 40 mm., with a shorter calical diameter of 20 mm., and a longer
calical diameter of 25 mm. One specimen, J.H.R. 23, from Little Gorge
Creek, Springsure District, shows a much greater decrease in dilatation
than the others, and in transverse section it has a regular peripheral
stereozone, septa very thin in their middle course, and an axial structure,
as in Eurypliyllum sp. nov. from the Irwin River of Western Australia.

Acknowledgments.

This work was done while I held consecutively the Old Students'
Research Fellowship of Newnham College, Cambridge, and a Senior
Studentship of the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851. I
am also indebted to Dr. Stanley Smith, of Bristol, for constructive
criticism.

REFEEENCES.

Carruthers, E. G. 1908. A Revision of some Carboniferous Corals. Geol. Mag.,
XLV., 20-31, 63-73, 158-171, pis. iv.-vi.

. 1910. On the Evolution of Zaphrentis delaneoui in Lower Carboniferous

Times. Quart. J. Geol. Soo., LXVI., 523-538, pis. xxxvi.-xxxvii.

Edwards, H. M., and Haime, J. 1851. Monographie des Polypiers Fossiles des
Terrains Palaeozoiques. Archw. Mus. Hist. Nat., Paris, V., 1-502, 20 pis.
Orabau, a. W. 1922 and 1928. Palaeozoic Corals of China. Part I. — Tetraseptata.

Palaeont, sinica (B) II., Fasc. 1, 1-76, 1 pi., 1922; Fasc. 2, 1-175, pis. 6,
1928.

Grove, B. H. 1935. Studies in Palaeozoic Corals III. A Revision of some Missis-
sippian Zaphreutids. Amer. Midland Nat., XVI., 337-378, pis. 8-13.

28

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Hill, D. 1935. British Terminology for Rugose Corals. Geol. Mag.^ LXXII.,
481-519.

Koker, E. M. J. 1924. Aiitliozoa uit het Perm van het eiland Timor. Jaarl), vJk
MijmveBen in Nederlandsoh Oost-Indie (1922), 1-50, 11 pis.

Lewis, H. P. 1935. The Lower Carboniferous Corals of Nova Scotia. Ann. M<ig.
Nat. Hist. (10), XVI., 118-142, pis. v.-vii., 1 text-fig.

McCoy, F. 1847. On the Fossil Botany and Zoology of the Rocks associated with
the Coal of Australia. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., XX., 145-157, 226-236, 298-312,
pis. ix.-xvii.

Reid, J. H. 1930. Geology of the Springsure District. Queensland Govt. Mining
Journal, 87-98.

Ryder, T. A. 1926. Hycnactis, Mesactis, Phaulactis, gen. nov., and Dinophyllim
Lindstrom. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (9), XVIII., 385-401, pis. ix.-xii.

SalIie, a. 1910. Contribution a 1 ’Etude des Polypiers du Calcaire Carbonifere
de la Belgique. Le Genre Caninia. Nouv. Mem. Soo. helgie Geol., Fasc, 3,
62 pp., 9 pis.

Simpson, E. B. 1900. Preliminary Descriptions of New Genera of Palaeozoic
Rugose Corals. Bull. New York State Museum, VIII., 199-222.

Smith, S. 1931. Some Upper Carboniferous Corals from South Wales. Summary
of Progress, Geol. Surv. Gt. Britain for 1930. Part III., 1-13, pi. i.

SoOHKiNE, E. 1925. Les Coraux du Permien inferieur (etage d’Artinsk) du versant
occidental de I’Oural. Bull, de la S'oc. des Naturalistes de Moscou, Section
geol., VI. (3-4), 76-104, 3 pis.

Thomson, J. 1883. On the Development and Generic Relation of the Corals of the
Carboniferous System of Scotland. Proc. E. phil. Soc. Glasgow, XIV.,
196-520, pis. i.-xiv.

Tolmatchofp, I. P. 1924 and 1931. Faune du Calcaire Carbonifere du Bassin
Houiller de Kousnetzk. Mater. Geol. gen. appl., Leningr., Livr. 25. Part I.
1924, 1-320, 12 pis. and map. Part II., 1931, 321-663, 11 pis.

• . 1933. New Names for Two Genera of Carboniferous Corals. Geol. Mag.,

LXX., p. 287.

Trechmann, C. T. 1917. The Age of the Maitai Series of New Zealand. GeoL
Mag. LIV., 53-64, pis. iv.-v.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE 1.

Euryphyllum reidi gen. et sp. nov. from the Permian of Queensland.

All figures except figs. 1 and 12, x 2 diameters.

Fig, 1. Paratype, Upper Dilly Stage, Cabbage Ck., Springsure District. Natural
size. F3244. University of Queensland collection.

Fig. 2. Holotype F3243. U. of Q. collection. Transverse section.

Fig. 3. The same. Vertical section along the line AB in fig. 2.

Fig. 4. J.H.R. collection No. 22. Transverse section. Shows growth lamination
(g.l.) in the septa, and the median dark line. Little Gorge Creek,,
Springsure District.

Fig. 5. The same. Vertical section.

Fig. 6. J.H.R. 23. Transverse section. Shows, with fig. 7, an unusual degree of
decrease in the dilatation (see p. 27). Little Gorge Creek, Springsure
District.

Fig. 7. The same. Vertical section along line AB in fig. 6.

Fig. 8. F3245, U. of Q. collection. Transverse section. The fossula is completely

, filled by the dilatation of the septa,. Productus Bed (Lower Bowen),

miles N. W. of Consuelo Homestead, Springsure District.

Fig. 9. The same. Vertical section along line AB in fig. 8.

Pig. 10, F3246, U. of Q. Transverse section. Castle Ck., Theodore.

Fig. 11. The same. Vertical section along the line AB in fig. 10.

Fig. 12. F3247, U. of Q. Natural size. Castle Ck., Theodore

Plate I.

PROC. Koy. Soc. Q’land, A^ol. XLIX.^ No. 2.

Euryphylhim D. Hill.

1

VOL. XLIX., No. 3.

29

An Investigation of a Taint in Rib Bones of Bacon.
The Determination of Halophilic Vibrios (N.Spp.).

By Frank Berry Smitei, D.Sc., F.I.C.

(Plate II.)

CONTENTS.

Abstract.

1. The Status of the Halophile.

2. Descriptive.

A. Morphological and Physiological Characters of Vibrio costicolus.

B. Morphological and Physiological Characters of Vibrio halonitrificans.

3. Experimental.

A. Methods.

B. The Saline Relations of Vibrio costicolus and of Vibrio halonitrificans.

C. Conditions affecting Production of Malodour by Vibrio costicolus in Culture

Media..

D. Identification of Vibrio costicolus as Causal Agent in Taint of Rib Bones.

E. Isolation of Vibrio costicolus and Vibrio halonitrificans from Curing Brines.
P. The Rib as Medium for Growth.

4. Further Data and Discussion.

A. The Microflora of Curing Brines.

B. Tnfection of the Rib by Vibrio costicolus and the Development and Control of

Taint.

C. The Mode of Action of Nitrate.

5. Summary.

C. Main References.

7. Appendix.

The Australian ‘‘Regular’^ Cure.

8. Plates.

ABSTRACT.

The bacterial cause of a taint in ribs of bacon is identified
as an obligate halophile to which the designation Vibrio
costicolus (n.sp.) is accorded. A description of the saline
relations of this organism as well as of a second obligate halo-
phile, Vibrio halonitrificans (n.sp.), isolated from curing brines,
is given; and methods of control of taint based both on the
saline relation of the causal organism and on regulation of an
oxygenated metabolism in the rib by means of nitrate. It is
believed that the implied dependence of production of malodour
by a bacterium on the oxidation-reduction potential of the
medium has not hitherto been drawn attention to. Study of
these halophiles focuses attention on the function of salinity
of curing media in regulating adaptation of potential halo-
philes from non-saline environments and infection by them.

R.s. — B

30

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

1. THE STATUS OF THE HALOPHILE.

Involvement of an halophilic vibrio as causal agent in taint of ribs
of certain Australian bacon adds an instance of technical damage by a
salt preferent organism to those already exemplified in the reddening of
salted fish (Harrison and Kennedy, 1922; Fetter, 1931; Cloake, 1923 ),i
the ‘‘red-heat” of salt-cured hides (Lochhead, 1934; Lloyd, Marriott,
and Robertson, 1929 ),^ and a fermentation of pickled olives (Estey,
1930). 3 The taint, distinguished from deep-seated taint of cured meats
by occurrence in a surface albeit special structure, affords an apparently
rare example of spoilage initiated through pickle;^ and thereby an
extreme illustration of the observation of Horowitz- Wlassowa (1931)
that the flora of the curing medium may be in part detrimental. The
art of curing in its micro-organic relation is, indeed, the maintenance
of an environment to discourage the harmful and favour the beneficial
factors.

The derivation of the micro-flora of the concentrated saline solutions
employed in curing practice, whether autochthonous or adaptations or
bacterial forms common in non-saline habitats, is comprehended in the
broader issue of the nature and origin of halophiles. According to
Hottinger (1911) some bacteria become accustomed to salt and may grow
well in heavy brine. Le Fevre and Round (1919) questioned vdiether
obligate halophiles may not be “common saprophytes which by growth
in salt solution have developed mutants which demand salt for their
growth.” van Niel (1931), dealing with the definiteness of species
adapted to high salt concentration, quoted the work of Baars in genus
Vibrio, and the latter’s opinion that differing environments are without
significance in diagnosis of species. He cited also the investigations of
Haag, of Oesterle, and of Stahl on the variability of Bacillus mycoides
which showed that under highly saline conditions a common soil
bacterium can develop forms resembling in several respects bacteria
isolated from natural brines, van Niel then concluded that “it would
not be surprising if further studies on ‘halophilic’ organisms show that
they are nothing but growth forms of ordinary soil bacteria. ’ ’ Kluyver
and Baars (1931), on demonstrating the interconvertibility of non-
halophilic Vibrio (Microspirum) desulphimcans (Beijerinck) and halo-
philie Vibrio {Micro spinmi) aestuarii (van Delden) by gradual
alteration of the salinity of the medium, suggested derivation from a
common parent pluripotent organism and specific identity of the non-
halophilic and halophilic forms.

Kluyver and Baars (1931) have propounded the doctrine of “physio-
logical artefacts” by which it is held that halophilism is developed by the
conditions of artificial culture in saline media from a prepotency latent

^ Serratia {Pseudomonas) salinaria (Harrison and Kennedy).

Bacterium JialoMum (Fetter), probably Serratia in the American classification.

Sarcina morrhuce, Klebahn (Fetter).

MJiodocoocus (Cloake).

Serratia cutirubra (Lochhead).

Sarcina sp. (Lloyd, Marriott and Kobertson).

® Saccharomyces sp. (Estey).

^ Dr. W. S. Sturges (private communication) writes:

“We have rarely encountered (in curing brines) anything we could
consider a spoilage organism. ’ ’

INVESTIGATION OP A TAINT IN RIB BONES OP BACON.

31

in the habitant of the saltless environment. The anticipations of van Niei
and others that the halophile is evolved by adaptation from the common
non-saline form thus find embodiment. Kluyver and Baars, indeed,
have adduced evidence that the halophilic habit tends to be fixed by
continued saline culture. Hof (1935) has latterly shown that adaptation
may be immediate, obligate, and irreversible for certain strains trans-
ferred from natural non-saline environments to highly saline culture
media. She has demonstrated, further, that power of adaptation to
saline growth is confined to bacteria in natural habitats and is lost by
these on artificial non-saline culture ; that capacity for adaptation is
apparently graduated for strains of the one organism to various concen-
trations of salt ; and is lacking in certain type bacteria.

In regard to the specific distinction of halophilic from non-halophilic
forms Hof expresses the view that ''bacterial variations (in salt prefer-
ence) should be considered as functional phenomena comparable with
those occurring in the individual existence of the higher organisms. ’ ’
She cites in support of this opinion the dictum of van Loghem that the
clone rather than the bacterial individuum should be considered the
entity.

^ Prior, however, to the modern denial to the halophile of a specific
entity entailed by the halophilic property Sturges and Heideman
(1923-4), from the number, diversity, and special characters of isolations
of halophilic bacteria from curing brines, had advocated formulation in
systems of classification of new genera and species and of tribe Ilalo-
philece to include them. Nor is it apparent, halophilic character apart,
that separate specific identity should be withheld from the obligate
halophiles here described. They possess no counterpart in the sum of
biological characters presented in established classification by described
soil and water forms of genus Vibrio with which they may be iudged
kin (Table 1).

There is proposed, therefore, for the etiological factor in taint of
rib bones of bacon, from which isolation was primarily effected, the
designation Vibrio costicolus. The second yibrio, isolated in course, is
apparently closely kin to species isolated by Sturges and Heideman
(1923-4) from curing brines, differing in property of slowly liquefying
gelatin. Its prominent property of actiye nitrite formation from nitrate
and its obligatory halophile character suggest for it the specific naming
halonitrificans.

2. DESCRIPTIVE.

Detailed examination of isolations from the following sources setwed
to determine the specific characters of Vibrio costicolus, namely: —

From ribs of bacon cured at
factory 0.

Prom tank brines, factory O.

Prom ribs of bacon cured at
factory P.

From ribs of bacon cured at
factory W.

Isolations 0 11, 0 13, 0 34,.
O 35.

Isolations OB 1, OB 3, OB 5.
Isolations P 1, P 3, P 4, P 6.

Isolation W.

32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE RO'YAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Strain Variation. — Evidence of strain variation was observed in
isolations of Vibrio costicolus in the following particulars, namely;
pellicle in broth absent to pronounced; an appreciably higher saline
optimum for growth of isolations P. Of twelve isolations five^ — namely
0 11, 0 34, OB 3, P G, and W. possessed the property of liquefying
gelatin. These afford basis for differentiating Vibrio costicolus var.
liquefaciens.

TABLE I.

Comparison of Characters of F. costicolus and V. halonitrificans with those
of Established Species (Bergey et al. 1934).

Gel liq.

Milk

coag.

Indol.

Nitrate

red.

Dextrose.

Acid.

Gas.

V. aquatilis . .

+

9

9

percolens . .

—

—

—

—

—

—

neocistes . .

+

9

T

—

+

—

cyclocistes

—

?

9

—

—

cuneata . .

+

?

?

—

—

—

berolinensis

+

—

+

+

9

9

schuylkilliensis . .

+

+

+

+

9

9

danubicus

+

+

+

+

?

9

COSTICOLUS . .

—

+

+

—

HALONITRIFICANS". .

+

—

—

+

—

—

? — not recorded by Bergey et al.

A. Morphological and Physiological Characters of Vibrio costicolus
and Vibrio costicolus Var. liquefaciens. Halophilic.

(All media saline.)

Curved rods, usually 2-0 to 4-0 by *5 micron. Occurs singly. Actively
motile with single polar flagellum. Spores not formed. Young cultures
show pronounced beaded staining ; older coccoid and lenticular forms.
Variation in form in media of various salinity not marked. Gram
negative. On agar slant growth abundant. Aliform, transparent or
translucent. Colonies glistening, convex, circular with entire edge,
non-viscid, maximum diameter 2 mm. In broth pellicle formation varied
from virtually absent to pronounced, whitish, non-coherent. Growth
on potato moist, sparse, brownish layer.

Gelatin not liquefied by some strains; some liquefied within two
days at 32° C. (var. liquefaciens) . Milk not coagulated, growth minute
or absent.

Indol not produced. Nitrate reduced to nitrite. Hydrogen sulphide
formed. Acetyl-methyl-carbinol not produced. Catalase formed.

® Variable with strain.

"Description of Vibrio spp. (Sturges and Heideman, loc. eit.). '‘Obligate or
preferential halophiles, gram negative, comma or spiral forms, motile, non-
spore forming. Gelatin not liquefied. Nitrate is reduced. Dextrose, lactose,
and sucrose fermented only slightly or not at all. Milk not coagulated. ^ ’

INVESTIGATION OP A TAINT IN RIB BONES OF BACON.

38

Dextrose, laevulose, sucrose, mannose, mannite, and glycerin
-fermented with production of acid-, but not gas. No action on galactose,
lactose, maltose, rhamnose, raffinose, arabinose, xylose, sorbite, dextrin,
starch, and salicin.

Non-lipolytic.

Aerobe, facultative anaerobe. Optimum temperature for growth
30 to 35° C.; limiting temperatures 2 and 42° C. Thermal death of 24-
hour culture in 10 per cent, saline broth in 10 minutes at 55° C.
Limiting reactions for growth pH 5*2 and pH 9-8. Saline limits for
growth 2 and 23 per cent. NaCl ; '^optimum 6 to 12 per cent.

The vibrio makes good growth on peptone media. No growth was
observed in dilute gelatin and casein broths, in diluted sterile blood
serum, or with ammonium salts, asparagin, or urea as sources of nitrogen
with or without added dextrose. Growth in pork infusion without
peptone was sparse.

The characters of Vibrio halonitrificans were studied in five isola-
tions, two from tank brines of factory 0., and three from tank brines of
factory Z. These showed little evidence of strain variation.

B. Morphological and Physiological Characters of Vibrio halo-

niiriiicaAis (N.Sp.) Halophilic,

(All media saline.)

Curved rods, usually 1-2 to 2-5 by -3 micron. Occur singly. Motile
with single polar flagellum. Spores not formed. Stains somewhat faintly
with usual stains. No marked variation of form in media of various
salinity. Gram negative.

Colonies on peptone-agar light amber, glistening, convex, trans-
parent, non-viscid, slightly spreading. Growth on potato moist, fairly
abundant, whitish.

Gelatin liquefied within seven days at 35° C. ; at 20° C. shallov/
superficial liquefaction was evident in twenty days. Milk not coagulated,
growth absent or slight.

Indol not produced. Nitrate reduced to nitrite. Hydrogen sulphide
not formed. Acetyl-methyl-carbinol not formed. Catalase negative.

Dextrose, laevulose, galactose, lactose, maltose, sucrose, mannose,
.rhamnose, raffinose, sorbite, and glycerin not fermented.

Non-lipolytic.

Aerobe, obligate. There was no growth of the organism either in
plain or nitrate broth under the micro-aerobic condition imposed by a
paraffin oil seal.® Optimum temperature for growth 30 to 35° C.
There was sIoav growth at 4° C., inoculated agar slants showing visible
colonies within fourteen days. Thermal death of 24-hour culture (6 per
cent, saline broth) in ten minutes at 55° C. Saline limits for growth
1 and 23 per cent. ; optimum growth at 4 to 6 per cent. NaCl. Limiting
reactions for growth pH 54 and pH 9*2.

No physiological reaction was observed in guinea pigs or in mice
into which these organisms were injected in normal saline.

^ Saline concentrations are expressed in grammes per 100 ml.
«Hall (1921).

34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

3. EXPERIMENTAL.

A. Methods.

The following methods and tests were employed in cultural work with Vibrio^
costicolus and Vibrio hul'onitrificans.

Flagella were well demonstrated by the staining methods of Safford and
Fleischer® and of Bailey^®. Culture media were generally 2*5 per cent, peptone
(Witte) broth or peptone-agar^ made appropriately saline. Anserobic cultures were
over alkaline pyrogallol in exhausted jars^ or beneath vaseline-paraffin seals.

Indol was tested for by the Ehrlich reagent. Nitrite by sulphanilic acid-a-
naphthylamine. Hydrogen sulphide by lead acetate paper held by the cottonwool
plug. Acetyl-methyl-carbinol by the usual Vosge-Proskeaur reaction. Catalase by
evolution of oxygen on flooding agar slants with dilute hydrogen peroxide.

The fermentation reactions were determined at 2, 4^ and 7 days in peptone
broth (pH 7*4) at optimum salinity to which 1 per cent.' of the substrate was added;
acid by marked acid change of brom-thymol blue; gas by means of Durham tubes.
Lipolysis, employing lard and cottonseed oil, by the Nile blue sulphate test according
to Collins and Hammer^^.

Eeactions of media were determined colorimetrically, introducing Parsons and
Douglas’ corrections for salinity’^ Saline and temperature optima were determined
by close turbity comparisons of cultures in peptone broth. In examination of the
nutritional requirements of Vibrio costicolus methods and media prescribed by Frazier
and Rupp were employed’®.

B. The Saline Relations of Vibrio costicolus and of Vibrio

Ualonitrificans.

The vibrios are obligate halophiles making no growth in media of
usual salinity (-5 per cent. NaCl). Minimum growth of Vibrio costicolus
was shown at 2 per cent. NaCl; the range of of vigorous growth being
from approximately 4 to 15 per cent, above which growth markedly
declined. Minimum growth was maintained at 23 per cent. NaCl, estab-
lished by initial and subsequent plate counts. At 24 to 25 per cent,
salt there was a definite death rate. Held in sterile tap water the
organism was found non-viable within one hour. It retained viability,
however, for some days in water of as low salinity as 1 per cent. NaCl.
Air-dried on salt from an active culture Vibrio costicolus was found
non-viable within four days on retransfer to saline peptone broth. The
detail of certain of these experiments is given in Table 2.

As shown in Table 3 vigour of growth of Vibrio costicolus is
unaffected by concentrations of potassium nitrate as high as 1 per cent. ;
and is not markedly affected by nitrite below -08 per cent. Nitrate is
reduced to nitrite ; but 100 per cent, recovery of nitrite was made from
a seven-days culture of the organism in -02 per cent, nitrite broth. The
concentration of nitrite produced by growth of the vibrio in nitrate
broth is shown in Table 4.

The saline optimum for Vibrio halonitrificans was determined as
4 to 6 per cent. ; the upper limit for vigorous growth 10 per cent. ; and
the .saline death point as at 24 to 25 per cent. NaCl. There was survival
of the organism for many days in dilute saline, and for some days in
water. Nitrite formation from nitrate was abundant, but nitrite was
not further reduced.

® Stain Tech 6, 41 (1931).

Science 72, 1856, 195 (1930).

” Journ. Bact. 27, 487 (1934).

Journ. Bact. 12, 263 (1926).
Mourn. Bact. 16, 57 et seq. (1928).

INVESTIGATION OP A TAINT IN RIB BONES OF BACON.

35

TABLE 2.

The Saline Survival of Vibrio costicolus.

40-hour culture transferred to dilution approx. 10- to 20,000 per ml.

Viability.*

At Hours.

At Days.

1

24

120

240

30

40

60

In water

+

+

—

—

—

1 p.c. NaCl

+

+

+

5 p.c. NaCl

+

+

+

25 p.c. NaCl 75°C.

-h

—

—

25 p.c. NaCl —

+

+

peptone 5°C.

27-5 p.c. NaCl —

—

—

peptone 5°C.

* 4- indicates viable, — non-viable.

TABLE 3.

Tolerance of Vibrio costicolus for KNO3 and NaNOg in Saline Peptone

Broth.

KNO3, per cent. . .

0

•2

•4

1-0

Growth

100

110

90

100

* ,

• •

NANO2, per cent.

0

•01

•02

•04

•08

•12

•20

Growth

100

100 '

110

100

80

70

40

TABLE 4.

Concentration of Nitrite produced by growth of Vibrio costicolus in 10
per cent. NaCl-Nitrate Broth (32-35 deg. C.).

Present KNO3 per cent. . .

0

00

•20

•40

1-0

Formed KNO3 per cent. —
48 hours

•04

•08

•15

•20

96 hours

•06

•10

•16

•22

C. Conditions affecting Production of Malodour by Vibrio costicolus

IN Growth in Culture Media.

A slight sourness only was developed by the vibrio in saline egg-pork
medium (Kettger), and no odour in other saline cooked meat media,
.saline blood serum, saline pork broth containing no peptone, saline pork
gelatin broth, or in a saline cooked bone medium consisting of one part
ground caneellar tissue of rib and two parts water, either autoclaved or
fractionally sterilised in flowing steam. Growth in all these media was,
however, sparse or absent.

"When placed under anaerobic conditions in saline peptone-agar or
in saline peptone or nutrient broth, cultures of all strains of the organism
developed a distinctly foetid odour, evident in culture jars and absorbed
on cottonwool plugs. In aerobic culture production of malodour was

Growth in twenty-four hours at 32-35 deg. C. expressed comparatively with
growth in 10 per cent. NaCl peptone broth (100).

86 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

variable. With pellicle forming strains PI and 034 in growth at 32-3d^
deg. C. in S' to 12 per cent, saline peptone broth held in 100 ml. bulk
in globular boiling flasks so as to expose a free surface of 50 sq. cm.,
the incubator was strongly permeated within forty hours, and the odour
of the medium remained distinctly foetid till the fourth or fifth day;
thereafter it became mawkish rather than foetid. The quality of odour
produced under the same conditions by the non-pellicle forming strain
035 was at any time no more than mawkish. Relatively well aerated
in shallow layers, e.g., in 100 ml. bulk with free surface of 150 sq cm,
the culture of any strain became no more than mawkish in odour.^^ It
was considered significant that the gradations of odour noted in these
and subsequent experiments with culture media paralleled the odours
observed about the ribs of affected bacon.

The inter-related effects of temperature, salinity, and aeration on
production of malodour by Vibrio costicolus in a peptone medium are-
included later in the data of Table 5.

The Effect of Nitrate. — It was early observed that presence of
nitrate in culture media markedly restrained production of malodoiir by
the vibrio. Parallel effect of nitrate in the rib was demonstrated by the
following technique. Rib bones excised from chilled pork sides and
freed under as aseptic conditions as possible of adherent meat were
either (a) subjected to antiseptic treatment for some days by steeping
in 60 per cent, alcohol and then pickled in changes of 10 per cent, saline ;
or (h) pickled in saturated brine and the salinity finally adjusted by
immersion in 10 per cent, brine. Transferred from pickle to sterile
wide-mouthed bottles the bones were then incubated some days at 32-35
deg. C., and any evidencing even slight malodour rejected. Covered
with sterile 10 per cent. NaCl or sterile 10 per cent NaCl containing
•5 to 1-0 per cent potassium nitrate, and infected therein by means of
an active culture of the vibrio (strain 034), the bones were ultimately
retransferred to sterile bottles and held singly in two series at 30-35 deg.
C. for development of odour. At end of four to six days the bones of
the nitrate series compared with uninfected controls were virtually
odourless ; the series pickled and infected in brine without nitrate were
mawkish or foetid. Examination of all infected bones by smear or
culture showed abundant presence of the vibrio as sole or predominant-
organism.

To elucidate further the relation of foetidness to the factors of
temperature, aeration, and salinity, and particularly to indicate the
concentration of nitrate in the medium sufficient to avoid production of
malodour, the following series of experiments was carried out. Freshly
autoclaved peptone medium was held, generally at 30 to 35 deg. C., in
approximately 50 ml. bulk in containers chosen to afford varying free
surface, and at varying salinity and nitrate content. Inoculated with
active culture the media were frequently examined over a period of ten
days following initially vigorous growth for quality of odour and
condition of oxygenation as indicated by permanence or decolorisation
of added methylene blue. Typical results are summarised in Table 5.

In these and in all other experiments involving noting of odour the author’s
observations were checked by two or more independent observers.

INVESTIGATION OF A TAINT IN RIB BONES OF BACON.

37

TABLE 5.

Correlation of Factors affecting Production by Vibrio costicolus of

Malodour in Culture Media.*

strain.

Temp. °C.

Ratio

Surf/Vol.

NaCl 1
p.c.

KNO3

p.c.

Odour.

Meth.

Blue.

Pellicle

17-25

• : 1

10

0

f

0 34

•08

s.m.

—

•16

s

•20

0

+

Pellicle

30-35

•33 : 1

10

•08

f

0 34

•16

f

—

•20

m/f.

—

•24

s.m.

—

•30

0

+

15

•16

m.

—

•20

0

+

•24

0

•

20

•16

0

+

•20

0

+

Pellicle

30-35

•66 : 1

10

•08

f.

0 34

•16

f.

—

•20

s.m.

—

•24

0

+

Pellicle

30-35

•33 : 1 Par.

10

0

f.

0 34

t

•08

f.

—

•16

m.

—

•24

0

+

20

•08

s.

±

•16

0

+

Non-pellicle . .

30-35

•33 : 1

10

0

f.

0 35

•08

f/m.

—

•16

s.m.

—

•20

0

+

Non -pellicle . .

30-35

•66 : 1

10

•08

m.

0 35

•16

s.

-f

•20

0

Notes —

* Ratio surface/volume sq. cms./c. cms.

t Par = covered with layer of paraffin oil (2 cms.) to further reduce seration.

Odour. 0 = DO odour. s. — sweetish. s.m. = slightly mawkish,
m. == mawkish. f. = foetid.

Methylene Blue. — = decolorised. + = not decolorised.

D. The Identification of Vibrio costicolus as Causal Organism of

Taint of Rib Bones.

Pronounced taint was observed in the product of a southern factory
P. — where it was reported to have been of summer seasonal recurrence —
shipped green to a northern Australian port and there finished for
market. Much of the bacon was merchantable only after removal of the
rib plates. The concavity left by lifting the ribs was malodorous and
the meat superficially tainted ; but the taint speedily disappeared on
exposure and was not afterwards manifested. Rib bones broken across
emitted a mawkish or distinctly foetid odour.

A milder manifestation of taint was subsequently revealed in bacon
cured in a northern establishment 0., where it had been recurrent at
summer seasons. The causal organism in both occurrences was found to
be specifically identical.

38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Rib bones from a number of affected flitches, some strongly tainted
and some less so, were freed of adherent meat, flamed, and broken across.
Smear preparations from the substance of several showed abundant
presence of a bacillus curved in form. Fragments or scrapings from
the interior of the bones were inoculated on to nutrient pork-agar (-5
per cent. NaCl) and held both aerobically and anaerobically. Generally
there developed a micro-coccus with fewer straight bacillary forms.
Employing, however, a medium of peptone-agar with from 3 to 10 per
cent. NaCl and inoculating from freshly exposed cancellar tissue there
vms obtained in the majority of cultures, both aerobic and anaerobic,
from tardy to vigorous growth of the ‘ ^ curved bacillus. ’ ’ The organism
was not recovered in culture from the meat surface of the concavities
•eft by lifting the rib plates.

Typical and well isolated colonies cultured from ribs were repeatedly
subcultured on peptone-agar (10 to 15 per cent. NaCl), and the purity
of the isolated organism assured.

The bacillus was regularly isolated at all seasons from the ribs of
many flitches, both tainted and apparently normal, product of affected
factories. In 126 cultures of rib bones taken indiscriminately from bacon
cured at factory 0. the presence of the vibrio was ascertained in 102
instances. In course of the enquiry some twenty examinations at all
seasons, involving approximately 120 cultures, were made by the proce-
dure described for presence of the vibrio in ribs of bacon cured in seven
establishments at which occurrence of ‘Gnb taint” had not been reported,
it was not discovered. It was, however, identified in a single examina-
tion of ribs forwarded from a western factory W. but occurrence of taint
there was not admitted.

Typical taint was reproduced in ribs of flitches by agency of the
vibrio in the following manner, utilising the principle of low nitrate
content of curing medium which appeared to be established by experi-
ments on production of malodonr by the organism in artificial culture.
At factory Z., at which it had been established by numerous examinations
of the product that infection by the organism did not normally occur,
three lots of three each flitches were cured in brines containing respec-
tively *4, -8, and 1-6 per cent, of potassium nitrate after infection of
the brines with -1 per cent, of an active culture of the organism (Isol.
PI). At end of the usual curing procedure and period the flitches
were soaked, dried, and smoked in the customary manner, and stored
at summer temperature for fourteen days. The flitches cured in 4
per cent, nitrate brine were then found to show strongly all the characters
of the original affected meats. Many of the ribs were foetid or mawkish,
and the concavities beneath the ribs were more or less tainted. The
'flitches from cure in -8 per cent, nitrate brine were but slightly affected,
but mawkishness was noticed in some ribs. The flitches cured in 1-6
per cent, nitrate brine were not tainted, but, in contrast to the normal
product of the establishment they reproduced a typical sweetish odour
about the rib region that had been a feature of slightly affected meat
of the shipment from factory P. Three lots of flitches cured as controls
in the same range of brines uninfected with the bacillus were normal in
odour. Twenty other flitches cured at factory Z. in infected brines
containing from 1-0 to 1-5 per cent, nitrate showed no pronounced taint,
but there was apparent a slight mawkishness in a few ribs of the lower
nitrate cures. In examination of sixty ribs, tainted and untainted, of
this experimentally infected bacon the vibrio was identified in 80 per

INVESTIGATION OF A TAINT IN RIB BONES OF BACON.

39

<3ent. of the cultures. Coccus and straight rod forms only were observed
in smears prepared from cancellar tissue of ribs of the control flitch es, or
were recovered in culture on saline peptone-agar.

E. Isolation of Vibrio costicolus and of Vibrio nitrificans from

Curing Brines.

Direct plating of tank brines on peptone-agar of a range of salinity
failed to reveal presence of either vibrio. By enrichment culture of loop
inoculations in 10 per cent, saline peptone broth, however, and plating
therefrom on 10 per cent, saline peptone-agar good growth of Vibrio
halo nitrificans was obtained. By enrichment in and subculture on media
containing 20 per cent. NaCl the predominant organism secured from
four out of six tank brines of factory 0. cultured was Vibrio costicolus.
When media containing 15 per cent. NaCl were employed a mixed
culture of the vibrios was sometimes obtained. Presence of Vibrio
costicolus was detected in tlie mixed growth secured by direct plating
of stack brines of factory 0. on 20 per cent, saline peptone-agar.

The identity of the vibrio isolated from brines was fully established
after repeated subculture of typical well isolated colonies of the original
plate growth.

F. The Rib as Medium for Growth.

Apparent dependence of manifestation of taint on saline and nitrate
concentration, deduced from work in culture media, warranted
analytical survey in respect thereto of ribs of bacon in course of cure.

Analytical Methods. — The moisture content of cancellar tissue was determined
usually by drying at water oven temperature; sodium chloride by titration of the
a,queous extract or of brine with N/20 silver nitrate with potassium chromate as
indicator.

Nitrate in brines by measure of nitric oxide from ferrous chloride reduction
(Schloesing-Wagner), following detail jDrescribed by the Institute of American Meat
Packers (1930)^®. Nitrate and nitrite conjointly, and reported as nitrate, by prior
drying in vacuo over sulphuric acid, repeated extraction at below 80 deg. and
determination in the extract by reduction with Devarda alloy in presence of magnesia,
with colorimetric reading by a Klett comparator of the Nessler registration of the
ammonia obtained in standardised distillation, correcting for the NHg blank
obtained with fresh cancellar tissue. The amount of rib substance taken for each
determination was usually *5 to 1*0 gramme.

The substantial accuracy of the method for nitrate in rib substance was
assured by the following test determinations of definite amounts of KNOg and
NaNOg.

TABLE 6.

Taken in Aqueous Extract of Rib.

Recovered.

Per Cent.
Recovery.

KNO3 ’004 grm.

•0038 grm

95

•008

•0082

102

•016

•0164

103

NaNOa -OOPs

•0009

90

Method of Determining Nitrate in Lean Meat.

^Tnstit. Amer. Meat Pekrs. publ. (1930). Recommended Proc^;dure for Deter-
mining Nitrite in Meat.

From 1 ml. 1 per cent, solution absorbed in 1 gramme cancellar tissue, dried
a,nd extracted as detailed.

40 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

The salient features of saline distribution in the ‘'regular’’ cure^®;,
summarised in the following protocols, are the considerable variation in
sections of a single rib and from rib to rib in bacon issuing from tank
brines ; greater uniformity on issue from stacks apparently from
equilibrium reached with the salinity of stack brines ; and further
marked irregularity of distribution in the ribs of finished bacon. The
small variation shown throughout in range of moisture in the bone shows,
that as a factor in concentration changes dehydration need be taken
little into account. The figures for NaCl and KNO3 in ribs in Tables 7,.
7a, 8, 9 and 10 express percentage concentrations in the moisture of the
tissue.

TABLE 7.

Concentration of NaCl and KNO3 in Brines, and Distribution in Ribs,,

Regular Cure Factories 0. and Z.

Moisture.

NaCl.

KNO3.

Max. Min. Av.

Max. Min.

Max. Min.

Ribs of bacon from Tanks . .

51*2 22-0 39-7

*(68)

26-0 7-3

(68)

100 *41

(14)

Stack Brines . .

21*0 17-3

(8)

•68 -43

(12)

Ribs of Bacon from Stacks . .

46-8 28-5 37-0

(55)

23-3 170

(21)

•72 -38

(14)

Finished Bacon

52-6 22-6 35-8

(94)

26-8 9-0

(103)

•50 -12

(28)

* Figures iu brackets indicate number of determinations.

The frequency distribution of the determined salt and nitrate con-
centrations in ribs of the finished bacon are shown on a percentage basis,
in Table 7a.

TABLE 7a.

Frequency Dstribution of Determinations of NaCl and KNO3 in

Ribs of Finished Bacon.

NaCl, per cent.

9-12

12-14

14-16

16-18

18-20

20-22

22-25

25-

range

Number, per cent. . .

5

10

17

17

22

11

9

9

KNO3, per cent, range

[

d>

0

•20-30

•30-40

•40-50

Number, per cent.

7

28

50

15

The uneveness of salt distribution is exemplified by the following
typical determinations of salt in ribs of bacon from tanks and of finished
bacon, the determinations being made on five sections in each taken
progressively from the dorsal to the sternal end.

Vide Appendix.

INVESTIGATION OP A TAINT IN RIB BONES OF BACON.

41

TABLE 8.

The Distribution of Salt in Ribs.

Bacon from Tanks. ^

Finished Bacon.

1.

2.

3.

1.

2.

3.

NaCl, per cent.

7*8

9-5

19*0

16-7

11-6

9-5

7-3

8'2

15-5

19-2

18-2

12-5

12-8

8-8

15-4

23*4

16*0

12*3

22-2

12-5

18-4

260

18-4

16-0

26-0

14-3

•

15-9

20-5

12*7

14*3

The Salt and Nitrate Content of Tainted and Untainted Rib. — The
hypothesis that taint follows free growth of the causal organism at
favourable salinity and at relatively low concentration of nitrate in the
rib is apparently confirmed by comparative salt and nitrate determina-
tions in tainted and untainted rib. The cases examined were of regional
taint in ribs of bacon rejected as tainted in commercial handling, and
the determinations apply to neighbouring tainted and untainted sections.

TABLE 9.

Comparative Salt and Nitrate Concentrations in Tainted and

Untainted Rib.

Tainted —

NaCl per cent.

13-6

11-5

11-5

10-6

9-1

12-8

KNOg per cent.

•12

•13

•13

•15

•18

•16

Untainted —

NaCl per cent.

16-8

14-8

17-4

15-8

15-8

15-0

KNOg per cent.

•20

•22

•24

•28

•25

•25

Tainted —

NaCl per cent.

12-7

9-6

10-3

13-2

KNOg per cent.

• .

• •

• .

, ,

Untainted —

NaCl per cent.

15-7

17-3

16-6

, ,

KNOg per cent.

•25

•28

The Effect of Soaking on Saline Concentration in Ribs. — The effect
of prolonged soaking in reducing the concentration of salt in the rib is
refiected in the following determinations (Table 10) of salt in excised
single pork ribs brought uniformly throughout to a salinity of 20-5 per
cent, by some days immersion in 20-5 per cent. NaCl solution, and then
partially depleted of salt by soaking in water in two series for two and
four hours respectively. Preliminary experiments had shown that the
former period yielded a general level of salt content in the rib compar-
able to that of ribs in situ after regular six to eight hours’ soaking of
fiitches. It was deemed legitimate to assume that four hours would
parallel in effect the practice of twelve to sixteen hours’ soaking of
fiitches, the occasional adoption of which to meet the trade demand for
extra-mild bacon was suspected to have conduced to manifestation of
taint.

42

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

TABLE 10.

The Salinity of Ribs from Regular and Long Soaking.
Initial salinity 20-5 per cent. NaCl.

Per Cent. Concentration NaCl.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Time, 2 hours (6 to 8 hours)

16-6

100

13-7

19-8

19-0

13- 1

18-2

14-7

18-0

19'6

19-8

14-5

18-6

14-7

15-7

19-7

19-8

13*3

14-7

15-5

16-5

190

19-6

13-7

17*7

11-7

13*8

Time, 4 hours (12 to 16

7-9

7-3

140

150

140

9-3

hours)

8-8

8-8

13-8

16-5

14- 1

16-8

8-0

9-7

13-8

110

12- 1

6-2

8-4

14-4

13-8

110

12- 1

7-5

14-2

6-5

13-3

13-2

* Determination on five sections of rib, progressively from dorsal to sternal end.

There is shown for the longer soaking period more marked approach
of salinity to the optimum of the causal organism of taint. Increased
depletion of nitrate concentration would be concomitant.

4. FURTHER DATA AND DISCUSSION.^^

A. The Microflora of Curing Brines.

The survey of Sturges and Heideman (1923-24) shows the essentially
halophilic character of the microflora of curing brines, the most
prominent bacterial forms among their isolations being salt facultative
micrococci, salt preferential and salt obligate vibrios, and salt preferential
rods which suggest Aehromobacteria. Haines (1933) and Empey and
Vickery (1933) have shown the preponderance of low temperature type
Aehromobacteria on carcases receiving usual slaughter floor treatment
and proceeding through the chilling process. The prominence in Sturges
and Heideman ’s isolations of forms common in manure, soil, and water,
or air-borne is notable; and it is to be inferred that the origin of the
brine flora is in adaptation from the non-saline environment, probably
largely by introduction on meat surfaces.

Establishment as constituent of the microflora of brine will depend
on capacity for adaptation to the saline concentration of the latter. It
is to be remarked that the salinity of brines in the Arnerican curing
system is substantially below^^ that operated in the Australian ‘‘regular”
cure, and the halophilic flora of the latter is likely to be more highly
selected and less diverse than that illustrated by Sturges and Heideman.
In the bacterial population enumerated by them genus Vibrio occupies
a conspicuous place as comprising the bulk of the obligate halophiles
isolated. In the present instance Vibrio costicolus and Vibrio halo-
nitrificans are seemingly sparsely oceurrent, and are apparently to be
accounted members of a “ temporary ’ ’ flora.

It is deemed warrantable, indeed, both for purposes of classification
and from practical considerations to distinguish “permanent” and

^‘’For explanation of technical terms here included see Appendix.

Eeceding from about 22 per cent, salt (75 deg. salinometer) (Inst. Amer. Meat
Fekrs., 1924).

INVESTIGATION OP A TAINT IN RIB BONES OP BACON.

43

^‘temporary” brine floras, the distinction being, however, dependent on
the maintained saline concentration of the brine. It is conceived that
on introduction to brine of environmental organisms there will be death
more or less speedy, depending on the saline strength of the brine and
the intensity of the inoculation, survival short of saline adaptation, or
adaptation with proliferation in the brine at suitable temperature. There
may, however, apart from adaptation, be considerable capacity for
survival, for Horowitz-Wlassowa instances retention of viability by
certain micrococci for as long as thirty to fifty days in brine saline
above the saline death point of the organisms.

In case of preferential and obligate halophiles in relation to saline
strength there is displayed a gradation in adaptability. One-^organism
studied by Le Fevre and Round (1919) failed to grow in media
containing 15 per cent, salt ; other three showed an upper saline limit
to growth of 25 per cent. Growth of Micrococcus Jipolyticus is terminated
by 18 per cent. NaCl ; and 22 per cent, is fatal to some other micrococci
occurrent in curing brine (Horowitz-Wlassowa, 1931). The saline death
point of the present isolations. Vibrio costicohis and Vibrio halonitri-
ficans, is at 24 to 25 per cent. salt. Bacillus Jialobicus, a brine bacterium
of Horowitz-Wlassowa, survives 25 per cent, salt; and Serratia salinaria
and other chromogenic halophiles grow in saturated salt solution
(Harrison and Kennedy, 1922; Fetter, 1931; Lochhead, 1934).

Among early investigators Forster (1889), de Freytag (1890), Petri
(1890), and van Ermengen (1897) noted that some pathogens possessed
considerable power of survival in highly saline solutions. On the other
hand, Stadler (1899) determined the limiting concentration of salt at
which a number of non-halophilic bacteria grew was not above 7 to
10 per cent, and Petterson (1900) demonstrated a marked toxic action
for salt, putrefying bacteria and obligate anaerobes being sensitive to
as low as 5 per cent.^^ The studies of Matsuschita (1900) and of Sperlich
(1912) relate to salt optima, growth, and morphology, generally at low
salinity, of a number of common bacteria previously isolated on artificial
media; and it appears, therefore, that apart from the experiments of
Hof (1935) on the capacity for adaptation of some type bacteria to
various high saline concentrations there is little in literature that is
applicable to the question of ultimate tolerance, survival times, or
adaptability to growth in highly saline media of the common saprophytes,
air, soil, or water-borne, as introduced from natural liabitaTs. In view
of the now recognised contribution of bacteria to cured flavour, and of
the definition by Horowitz-Wlassowa of favouring and detrimental micro-
organic factors in curing media, there appears need for more intimate
study both of the derivation from the non-saline environment of the
bacterial flora of curing brines and of its determination by environmental
factors and by saline concentrations^^ maintained in the curing media,
and of the contribution of individual species and strains to the course
and quality of cure.

This much, however, may be- predicated : infection of brined and
salted meats by micro-organisms derived in the curing medium will
depend on survival of these through the saline concentrations encountered
in the operations of brining and salting and on their subsequent
development.

Early investigators cited by Le Fevre and Eound (1919) and by Hof (1935).

A selective action of salt on tlie surface bacterial flora of chilled pork, and
predominant survival of Micrococcus spp. at higher salt concentrations is already
referred to by Ingram (Dept. Ind. Sci. Res.; Rept. Pd. Invest. Bd., 1934).

44 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

B. Infection of the Rib by Vibrio costicolus and the Development

AND Control of Taint.

Failure of Vibrio costicolus and of Vibrio JialonitrificoAis to propa-
gate on direct plating on a favourable medium in competition with other
brine bacteria is indication of relatively sparse occurrence in tank
brines. In view of the saline death point of the organisms (24-25 per
cent. NaCl) they cannot be regarded as part of the ‘"permanent” flora
of tank brines maintained at saline concentration above 25 per cent.
NaCL Portions of tank brines at this salinity in which presence of the
vibrios had been demonstrated during tanking, withdrawn at time of
removal of flitches from tanks to stacks and held at cellar temperature
in sterile bottles, failed to reveal the organisms on re-examination after
ten to fourteen days.

It is conceived in terms of the tenet of “physiological artefacts”
that the vibrios are saline adaptable forms from the non-saline environ-
ment carried into tank brines possibly on introduced meats. Infection
of brines heavy enough to ensure survival through the tanking period
at the salinity at which these are usually maintained, and transference
on the meat surfaces still viable to stacks, would permit subsequent
development at the more favourable salinity shown for stack brines in the
“regular” cure, and invasion of the rib by Vibrio costicolus.

On the other hand it was apparent that single acquirement from the
non-saline environment by tank brines might not ensure survival
through the tanking period in a medium at concentration above the saline
death point of the organism. The validity of this assumption was subse-
quently apparently established. Salinity of the brines, however,
occasionally falling to and remaining for a period following introduction
of meats at a saline level permitting adaptation and proliferation would
create a “reserve of infection.” It is to be remarked that Vibrio
costicolus grows at usual curing cellar temperature. There was, indeed,
evidence that the infecting organism in brines at factory 0. had been
assisted in establishment by occasional failure to maintain fully the
saline strength of tank brines. It was anticipated that raising the level
of salinity throughout the cure would delimit infection of the rib.

The above outlined mode and course of infection of the rib by Vibrio
costicolus and the anticipated reduction of infection by increase of
salinity are substantiated by the following experimentally established
facts

{a) In four attempts, involving cultural examination of thirty-two
ribs, to establish presence of the vibrio in the rib in the pre-curing period,
wherein at factory 0. ribs were excised from chilled pork sides, freed
as aseptically as possible of adherent meat and pickled in sterile 20 per
cent, saline prior to examination, only negative results were obtained.

(5) Although cultural experiments with material from the interior
of ribs excised cleanly from flitches on removal from tanks failed to
reveal presence of the vibrio, due it is thought to. removal in cleaning of
the light surface infection, derivation of infection from tank brines at
factory 0. was subsequently well demonstrated by prompt transference
therefrom of flitches to factory Z. where they were dry salted as in the
“regular” cure, soaked, and smoked. Vibrio costicolus was recovered
by culture in twenty-five of thirty-six examinations of ribs of these.

INVESTIGATION OP A TAINT IN RIB BONES OP BACON. 45

(c) The vibrio Avas repeatedly recovered from ribs immediately on
removal from stacks.

[d) By maiutainiug salinity of stack brines at a higher level than
in the ‘‘regular” cure by the device of somewhat heavier salting, parti-
cularly at the rib concavities, incidence of infection of the rib was
reduced to 36 per cent. (67 examinations) compared with 80 per cent,
infection following “regular” salting (vide p. 38). The saline concen-
tration of the stack brines in the amended salting was found in eighteen
out of twenty-three samples examined to be raised to between 25 and
28 per cent. ; and the saline concentration in the ribs of finished bacon
proceeding therefrom did not fall below 14 per cent. (45 determinations).

{e) By preserving further high saline level of the curing medium
by means of careful avoidance of depletion of tank brines below 25 per
cent. NaCl and by prompt restoration of maximum salinity immediately
on removal of flitches by stirring up “salt bottoms” there was, after a
period during the winter season, failure to recover Vibrio costicolus
from tank brines previously infected, examined by enrichment culture
of -1 ml. at time of removal of flitches to stack. Concordantly, there was
ascertained the complete absence of the vibrio in culture of numerous
ribs of bacon issued from cure. In replicate experiments in early
summer, when infection from the non-saline environment was anticipated
to likely approach maximum, there was recovery of Vibrio costicolus
in one only of six tank brines examined. The occurrence was apparently
extremely sparse, as not more than 5 per cent, of the colonies of the
mixed growth obtained on plating from the initial enrichment culture
were positively identified. Concomitant examination of ribs of upward
of twenty flitches from as many salt fortified tanks, lightly salted in
stack to afford the most favourable condition for development, failed,
however, to reveal presence of the organism. It is to be inferred that by
maintaining sufficient saline concentration in tank brines it may be
possible, depending on the intensity of inoculation from the non-saline
environment, to check transfer of the organism viable to stacks, and
thereby prevent entirely infection of the rib by it. The persistence of
Vibrio Jialonitrificans, recovered generally from these tank brines by
appropriate culture, indicated either more intense initial infection by
it or slower saline death rate.

It has been demonstrated by work with Vibrio costicolus in peptone
culture that manifestation of malodour follows prolific growth in absence
or deficiency of molecular oxygen or of nitrate. The factors determining
prolificacy of growth are favourable temperature and suitable saline
concentration. There is, indeed, dependence on saline concentration in
the medium of the amount of nitrate required to obviate malodour, and
a lesser influence of such gradation in aeration as is comprehended in the
cultural experiments (Table 5). The efficacy of salinity and nitrate
content of the rib in regulating taint has been amply shown by controlled
experimental cures.

It is significant in relation to effect of temperature on evidence of
taint that in course of the experiments rib-plates of infected bacon passed
as free of taint in commercial handling not infrequently developed
marked and typical malodour in certain ribs when held for some days at
temperature near optimum for the causal organism.

The effect in the rib of degree of aeration on evolution of taint is less
certain. It would appear, particularly from the fact that in many
examinations of rib tissue the obligate aerobe Vibrio halonitrificans was

46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

in no case isolated, that the internal condition of the rib is one of
considerably restricted oxygenation. It is believed possible, however,,
that a limited aeration may be a determining factor in some cases of
critical nitrate content. Nor can there be ignored the possible specific
stimulating effect on the facultative anaerobe of traces of atmospheric
oxygen, to be inferred from the finding of Knaysi and Dutky (1934)
with Bacillus megatherium. There is, indeed, some evidence of this
stimulating action on Vibrio costicolus in the data of Table 5.

It is apparent that a salinity favourable to prolific growth and a
concentration of nitrate insufficient to inhibit taint in the active growth
of the causal organism is found in a proportion of ribs of bacon issued
from the ‘‘regular’’ cure. A concentration of -25 per cent, nitrate
may be taken as requisite to avoid malodour in peptone culture under
conditions most favourable to growth (Table 5). The apparent limiting
saline conditions for taint in ribs of infected bacon in commercial summer
storage are approximately 15 per cent, salt and nitrate substantially
above -20 per cent, concentration.

In measures designed to avoid taint of the rib in infected bacon it
was found possible, as would be anticipated from the thermal death
point of the causal organism and the surface situation of the rib, to
apply successfully elevated drying temperature. In one experiment in
which six flitches from an infected line were held at 125-135° Fahr.
air temperature in accordance with American drying schedules^^ for
three hours there was complete failure to recover the organism in twenty
cultures of rib substance. Since, however, application of this method
at affected factories would have entailed expensive structural alteration
of drying plants, for technical control of taint of ribs reliance was
placed on manipulation of saline and nitrate concentrations in cure.
As additional measure it was laid down that undue depletion of the rib
of salt and nitrate should be avoided by appropriate restriction of soaking
periods.

Major occurrence of taint in the product of factory P., following
partial study of its manifestation, was relegated to relatively insignificant
proportions by appropriate increase of nitrate in the low nitrate cure
derived from tank brines containing as little nitrate as -5 per cent.
Vibrio costicolus was subsequently still found abundantly in ribs. Conse-
quent on heightened nitrate and saline levels in the cure at factory 0.,
employing 5 per cent, admixture of nitrate in salt employed in salting
in stacks and additionally lightly salting rib concavities, there was no
reported taint during the 1935-36 summer, wherein approximately 40,000
flitches were handled to the trade. Occasional examination of the ribs
of this output showed a restricted occurrence of the causal organism of
taint (vide p. 45). The general level of nitrate concentration found in
the rib was from 43 to 1-00 per cent, (twenty-four determinations). It
is apparent that by meticulous management of tank brines and consistent
maintenance of their saline strength at maximum it may be possible to
still further reduce infection or avoid altogether establishment of the
causal organism of taint of ribs (vide p. 45). The complete efficacy of
this measure may, however, be held to be dependent on the intensity of
inoculation of the brine from the non-saline environment.

The Mode op Action of Nitrate.

Application of the potential conception of oxidation-reduction to
bacterial systems, originally made by Gillespie (1920), has been much

Inst. Amer. Meat Pekrs. publ. “ Beadings in PacMng House Practice, Porh
Operating ’ ^ ( 1924) .

INVESTIGATION OF A TAINT IN RIB BONES OF BACON. 47

extended in a voluminous literature bearing on the relation of potential
to initiation and maintenance of growth (Fildes, 1929; Allyn and
Baldwin, 1930; Knight, 1930 ; Knaysi and Dutky, 1934, 1936), and on
changes in potential occurring in bacterial culture (Thornton and
Hastings, 1929; Hewitt, 1930; Frazier and Whittier, 1931). Oxidation-
reduction systems involved have been extensively studied by Quastel
st al (1924-1928).

From the literature cited, particularly from the work of Hewitt,
it may be deduced that (a) the facultative anaerobe is adapted to active
growth at a wide range of potential; (5) the potential of a medium falls
to a maximum negative value during the logarithmic phase of growth;
(c) the reducing activity of an organism is directly proportional to its
growth concentration ; (d) oxygen supply to the medium has a very
marked effect on the potential developed in cultures; (e) the most intense
reducing conditions may in certain instances follow limited oxygen
access; (/) in absence of hydrogen peroxide (that is, in case of catalase
formers) a high reduction potential is well maintained subsequent to the
logarithmic phase of growth.

Cannan, Cohen, and Clark (1926) stated that a fundamental
importance of potential lay in its fixing of the direction of the oxidative
or reductive reactions induced by bacterial growth. In bacterial cultures,
according to Mansfield Clark, there is a correlation of the appearance
of certain products of growth and the attainment of certain levels of
reduction intensity. It is a feature of anaerobic growth that a high
reduction potential is set up in the medium and that the products of the
substrate assume more highly reduced forms characteristic of that
potential. Hewitt (1930) states that varying degree of access of
atmospheric oxygen must affect the metabolism of bacteria and their
general biological behaviour, and that fermentation reactions, products
of metalbolism, morphology, and toxin production are correlated with
oxidation-reduction potential. The analysis of Wurmser (1930) showed
that the bacterial synthesis of alanine (1923) by reduction of pyruvic
acid by glucose in presence of ammonia is on thermodynamical
grounds possible only at below an upper limiting potential. It may,
indeed, be affirmed that attainment of a certain potential is a pre-
condition for realisation of given reactions, although it is conceded that
potential alone may not be a sufficient condition. The organism must
bring into play mechanisms requisite for accomplishment of the reactions.

Knaj^si and Dutky (1936) point out that the role of free oxygen in
bacterial growth and metabolism is two-fold. It maintains a favourable
or less favourable potential, and it furnishes energy to the cell through
oxidative processes. In the first role it may be adequately replaced by
certain other substances ; in the second its replacement may or may not
be possible. It is apparent that the second eventuality will depend on
presence in the bacterial system of activating mechanisms appropriate to
the substitute. Replaceability of molecular oxygen by other hydrogen
acceptor is, indeed, notably shown by Wieland’s (1912) successful
reliance on methylene blue in the acetic fermentation under anaerobic
conditions.

It was early recognised that anaerobic growth of facultative
anaerobes rvas frequently promoted by presence of nitrate' in the medium,
and there is now general acceptance that the biological significance of

Cited by Stephenson, ‘‘Bacterial Metabolism’^ (1930).

48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

nitrate is that by its agency oxygen may be supplied the purposes of the
organism when free oxygen is no longer available. Quastel, Stephenson,
and Whetham (1925) showed that nitrate could produce anaerobic
growth of some facultative anaerobes on inclusion in media otherwise
unsuitable to anaerobiosis although capable of supporting aerobic growth.
They demonstrated, in other words, that nitrate could take the place of
molecular oxygen. Quastel and Whetham (1924) showed that this
utilisation of nitrate as hydrogen acceptor depended on power of the
organism to activate the nitrate molecule, and Stickland (1931) has
apparently demonstrated that there is an activating enzymic mechanism
specific for nitrate. Stickland has shown also that oxygen of nitrate is
utilised by Bacterium coli as molecular oxygen both in manner and
degree, each serving equally for oxidation of formate, lactate, and
succinate to carbonate, pyruvate, and fumarate respectively.

It may be opportune here to refer to the observed failure of Vibrio
kalonitrificans to initiate growth in nitrate broth under micro-aerobic
conditions. The organism actively reduces nitrate in usual aerobic
culture, and it is to be inferred that the enzymic factor adapted to
nitrate activation is not produced by the cell, or is inoperative, under
the condition of greatly reduced oxygen supply. In light of modern
conceptions of activation of substrates by the bacterial cell, it will appear
that the term ‘‘obligate anaerobe” is in fact a relative one.

Quastel, Stephenson, and Whetham (1925), dealing further with the
mode of participation of nitrate in bacterial metabolism, suggest activa-
tion of nitrate at the cell so that it becomes capable of oxidising substances
at the cell surface. Each cell may then be regarded as in a state com-
parable with that which exists under aerobic conditions. A quantitative
conception also is introduced in the view that the cell surface may
become “saturated” with regard to activated nitrate, and that the
oxidative condition about the cell is then at a maximum and will be
maintained if the nitrate in the medium remains at above a certain
concentration. Nitrite, product of the oxidative function of nitrate,
is not activated by Bacterium coli (nor by Vibrio costicolus) and will
not, therefore, participate in oxidation of hydrogen donators by the
cell. It appeared possible, however, in the present experiments that
nitrite formed might disturb the equilibrium of potential through
inhibition of further bacterial proliferation ; a contingency, indeed,
referred to by Stephenson (1930) in connection with growth of
Bacterium coli in nitrate broth. This effect was produced in 10 per cent,
saline peptone cultures of a non-pellicle forming strain of Vibrio
costicolus with surface volume ratio -66 : 1 (vide Table 5) by addition
after forty hours’ growth of -1 to -2 per cent, sodium nitrite. There was
recovery of potential more positive that the transition point of methylene
blue within a few hours, and inhibition of malodour in the incubated
cultures for the further six days of the experiment.

Correlation of production by Vibrio costicolus of some degree of
malodour in a peptone medium with ability of the medium to decolorise
methylene blue is clearly defined (Table 5). It is evident that production
of malodour in the medium, and inferentially in the rib, is consequent
on metabolic activity of the organism at reduced potential more negative
than the full transition point of methylene blue to the leuco form,^®

The function of methylene blue as an indicator of the anaerobic condition in
culture media has been discussed from the aspects of oxygen tension and composition
of media, by Hall (1921). Wliitehead (1930) revives the statement of Clark, Cohen
and Gibbs (1928) that the dye when present in small amount in culture media is
m^erely an indicator of reducing potential analogous to an indicator of hydrogen ion
concentration.

INVESTIGATION OF A TAINT IN RIB BONES OP BACON.

49

and on evolution of malodorous bodies in the metabolism at the main-
tained negative potential. The conditions for attainment of sufficiently
low potential level are vigorous growth of the organism and restricted
oxygen supply, either molecular or afforded by nitrate. At the same
time, in accordance with the recorded influence of traces of free oxygen
on fall of potential (Hewitt, 1930), it is conceived that a very limited
aeration such as may obtain in the rib may be a conducing influence. The
efficacy of sufficient nitrate in inhibiting malodour is consequent on its
capacity to maintain, equally with free oxygen, an oxygenated metabolism
unsuited to production by the organism or accumulation of malodorous
bodies.

An efficacy, parallel to that displayed by nitrate, in maintaining
high potential level with avoidance of malodour in growth of Vibrio
costicolus was demonstrated likewise for ferric ammonium citrate,
previously employed by Knaysi and Dutky (1934) to raise the oxygen
potential in culture of Bacillus megatherium. Decolorisation of
methylene blue and production of malodour in abundant and apparently
unimpeded growth of the organism were avoided by inclusion in the
medium of 4 and -5 per cent, of the ferric salt; but both were evidenced
at lower concentrations.

The conception in terms of potential of differentiation of ‘‘aerobic’^
and “anaerobic” metabolisms of the facultative anaerobe and of the
quantitative effect of a poising agent such as nitrate on these metabolisms
is still furthered by the views of Hewitt and of Clifton, Cleary, and
Beard. Hewitt (1935), dealing with oxidation-reduction equilibria in
cultures states: “Other systems will have a poising effect and tend to
obstruct oxidation or reduction processes since they themselves have to
be oxidised or reduced before the level of the electrode potential can be
altered appreciably. It will be seen, therefore, that the quantity present
of such systems as well as their oxidation-reduction level of intensity will
affect the drift in potential.” Clifton, Cleary, and Beard (1934),
following Boyd and Reed (1931), discussing the growth of a facultative
anaerobe {Eschirichia coli) with restricted oxygen write: “As growth
begins an aerobic type of metabolism occurs for a varying time during
which the bacteria utilise oxygen and other oxidising agents in the
medium. As concentration of these reagents is decreased and the total
metabolic activities of the cells increase the potential falls and an
anaerobic type of metalbolism predominates in the culture. The
potential reaches a maximum reducing value when the total metabolic
requirements of the cells are at a peak value and all available reduction
(sic) systems are employed to meet these demands.”

Capacity (in relation to oxygen supply) for production of malodour
and property of pellicle formation are evidently connected in strains of
Vibrio costicolus (vide p. 36 and Table 5). It is noteworthy, therefore,
that in case of C orynebacterium diphlheriae and haemolytic streptococci
Hewitt (1930) correlates pellicle formation with attainment of more
intense reducing conditions, and prevented the former by maintenance
of more positive potentials by means of aeration of the cultures. Strains
of Vihrio costicolus usually pellicle forming cultured in nitrate broth
formed no pellicle.

It is notable that bulk cultures of Vibrio costicolus in 10 per cent,
saline peptone broth containing *5 and 1-0 per cent, potassium nitrate,
which in course of the experiments failed to decolorise methylene blue on
incubation for ten to fourteen days, invariably became malodorous and

50 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

acquired the power to decolorise on subsequent long standing. It is
suggested that the effect was consequent on liberation of reducing
endoenzymes on death of the bacterial cells. A parallel effect on long
storage has yet not been observed in infected ribs of bacon in which
manifestation of taint for usual storage periods was obviated by high
nitrate cure.

The results of McNeal and Kerr (1929) showed but feeble bacteri-
cidal action for nitrate; nevertheless, later investigations indicate that
in conjunction with salt it may exercise a distinct protective action.
Not only is nitrate source of fixative for cured colour, but either per se
or through its reduction product, nitrite, exercises a specific effect against
bacterial action greater than that of an equal amount of salt (Inst. Amer.
Meat Pckrs., 1930). A distinct inhibition of proteolysis by Clostridia,
inferentially through unfavourable influence on oxidation-reduction
potential, was demonstrated.

Recent work in the technical field confirms the conception of the
^‘preservative” action, in certain circumstances, of nitrate. Jensen,
Wood, and Jansen (1935) describe an alteration of type of spoilage
in low temperature processed canned chopped ham according to whether
nitrate or nitrite was included in the cure. Nitrate by inducing potential
unfavourable to Clostridia and other anaerobes discouraged putrefaction,
but not “aerobic” spoilage with gas formation. Nitrite in the amounts
employed in the cure failed to inhibit putrefactive change, but did not
afford in the can conditions of potential favourable to fermentation.

The prevention by nitrate of taint in ribs of bacon through growth
of Vibrio costicolus is probably unique in illustrating function of nitrate
in obviating spoilage by alteration of the course of metabolism, as
opposed to inhibition of growth and activity, of an infecting organism.

5. SUMMARY.

The causal agent in a taint of rib bones of certain Australian bacon
is an obligate halophile. Vibrio cosUcolus (n.sp.). The organism was
isolated from curing brine and from the product of three widely separated
curing factories. Characteristic taint of ribs of bacon was reproduced
by means of the isolated organism under controlled conditions of cure.

A second obligate halophile. Vibrio halonitrificms (n.sp.), isolated
from curing brine, the specific designation of which is suggested by its
most prominent character of nitrite formation from nitrate, differs
from the vibrio group isolated from American curing brines by Sturges
and Heideman, and briefly described by them, in property of gelatin
liquefaction. A strict aerobe. Vibrio halonitrificans is probably to be
regarded as possessing little importance in the curing process under
conditions prevailing generally in the Australian “regular” cure.

Both halophiles are on the hypothesis of “physiological artefacts”
acquirements from the non-saline environment. Their saline death points
would constitute them mere survivals at the salinity of tank brines
generally prevailing in the Australian “regular” cure; to be adapted,
however, at the lower salinity of stack brines.

The narrow margin obtaining between the upper saline limit of
growth of Vibrio costicolus (23 per cent.) and the saline death point
established for it (24 to 25 per cent. NaCl) indicates the importance of
close regulation of the salinity of the curing medium in control of the
taint of ribs of which the vibrio is causal agent.

INVESTIGATION OF A TAINT IN RIB BONES OF BACON.

51

The conditions in the infected rib inducing manifestation of taint
are favourable temperature and salinity favourable to an active
de-oxygenated metabolism in presence of low nitrate concentration.
Higher nitrate content of the rib inhibits taint through maintenance of
metabolism of the organism on the ‘ ‘ aerobic ’ ’ plane.

Measures for eradication or for control of taint of rib bones due to
Vibrio costicohis are to be found in obviation of infection by maintenance
of higher saline level in the curing process at or above the saline death
point of the organism ; in maintenance of its metabolism in the rib on the
‘ ‘ aerobic ’ ’ plane by high nitrate cure ; or in destruction of the organism
in the infected rib by adoption in post-cellar treatment of the flitch of
a drying temperature at or near its thermal death point.

There is demonstrated in this study a ‘‘preservative” action of
nitrate exercised through effect on oxidation-reduction potential and,
thence, on the course of metabolism of a potential spoilage organism.

There is emphasised the need of more intimate knowledge of the
derivation of the halophilic flora of the curing medium from non-saline
environments, of its determination by salinity, and of its participation
in the curing process.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The author is indebted to Mr. J. A. Rudd, Director, for grant by
consent of the Minister for Agriculture (Hon. F. W. Bulcock) of
laboratory facilities at the State Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly. ,

Factory data and reference to processes are here included by kind
permission of Mr. E. E. Forth, Governing Director, United Provisions
Limited.

Acknowledgment is made of suggestions relating to text kindly
preferred by Dr. J. R. Vickery on perusal of this paper in manuscript.

State Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly, and Establishments of
United Provisions Limited, Brisbane.

1st December, 1936.

6. MAIN EEFEEENCES.

Allyn and Baldwin.* 1930. Journ. Baet. S3, 369.

Bergey et al. 1934. ‘ ‘ Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, ’ ^ 4th edit.

Boyd and Eeed. 1931. Canad. Journ. Ees. 4, 605.

Cannan, Cohen and Clark. 1926. U.S. Pub. Hlth. Epts Sup. No. 55.

Clark, Cohen and Gibbs. 1928 IMd Hyg. Lab. Bull. 151.

Clifton, Cleary and Beard. 1934. Journ, Baet. S8, 541.

Cloake. 1923. Dept. Sci. Ind. Ees. Fd. Invest. Bd. Spec. Ept. No. 18.

Empey and Vickery. 1933. Journ. Counc. Sci. Ind. Ees. 6, 233.

Estey. 1930. Proc. Ann. Tech. Conf. Calif. Olive Assoc. 9, 41. cited by Tracy,
1924. Journ. Baet. S8, 249

Fildes. 1929. Brit. J. Exp. Path. 10, 151.

Frazier and Whittier. 1931. Journ. Baet. SI, 239, 253.

Gillespie. 1920. Soil Sci. 9, 199.

Haines. 1933. Journ. Hyg. 33, 165, 175.

Hall. 1921. Journ. Baet. 6, 1.

Harrison and Kennedy. 1922. Proc. Eoy. Soe. Canada., 16, 101.

Hewitt. 1930. Biochem. Journ. 18, 512, 669, 676.

. 1935. “Oxidation Eeduetion Potenials,’^ 3rd edit.

Hof. 1935. Eec. trav. bot. neerl. 32, 92.

Horowitz- Wlassowa. 1931. Ztschcr.f. Enters d. Lebens. 62, H.5, 596.

Hottinger. 1911. Ann. Ecol. Poly. Sao Paulo. 11, 119, cited by Tanner, 1930.

52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Inst. Amer. Meat Pckrs. 1930. Tech. Publ. Ham Souring Bulletin, No. 4.

Jensen, Wood and Jansen. 1935. Inst. Amer. Meat Pckrs. Publ. 29th Annual
Conven.

Kluvver and Baars. 1931. Kon. Akad. Wetsch. A’dam. Proc. JJ, 370.

Knaysi and Dutky. 1934. Journ. Bact. 27, 109.

. 1936. Ihid., 31, 137.

Knight. 1930. Bioehem. Journ. 24, 1066.

Le Pevre and Bound. 1919. Journ. Bact. 4, 177.

Lloyd, Marriott and Bobertson. 1929. J. Leath. Tdes. Chem. 13, 539.

Lochhead. 1934. Journ. Bact. 27, 61 (abstr.).

McNeal and Kerr. 1929. Vol. 2, Univ. Illinois, cited by Tanner, 1930.

Matsuschita. 1900. Ztschr. f. Hyg. u. Inf. Bd. 5, 495.

Better. 1931. Kon. Akad Wetsch A’dam Proc. 34, 1417.

Quastel and Whetham^ 1924. Bioehem. Journ. . 18, 519.

Quastel, Stephenson and W]hetham, 1925. Bioehem. Journ. 19, 304.

Sperlich. 1912. Bakt. Centr. Abt 2, 34, 406.

Stephenson. 1930. ‘‘Bacterial Metabolism.”

Stickland. 1931. Bioehem. Journ. 25, 1543.

Sturges and Heideman. 1923-4. Abst. Bact. 7, 11; 8, 14; 9, 2.

Tanner. 1930. “Microbiology of Foods.”

Thornton and Hastings. 1929. Journ. Bact. 18, 293, 319.

van Niel. 1931. Arch. f. Microbiol. 3, 1, citing.

Baars. 1930. Diss. Delft.

Oesterle. 1929. Centr. f. Bakt. 79, 1.

Haag. 1926. Centr. f. Bakt. 69, 4.

Stahl. 1929. Centr. f. Bakt. 79, 16.

Whitehead 1930. Bioehem. Journ. 24, 579.

Wieland. 1912. Ber. d. Deutsch. Ges. 45, 2606.

Wurmser. 1923. Bui. Soc. Chem. 5, 487

. 1930. “Oxydations et reductions” cited by Knaysi and Dutky, 1936.

7. APPENDIX.

The Australian “Begular” Cure.

The method of curing bacon widely used in Australian curing factories, and
referred to in this paper as the “Begular” cure, is a combination of tanking and
dry-salting. Curing is by middle, flitch, or side with ribs in situ. Tanking is in
brines maintained nominally at not below 90 deg. salinometer (25 per cent, w/v
NaCl), and containing usually about 1-5 per cent. KNOg. The brines are not
periodically pasteurised as in American practice. In tanking it is customary to
stir up the tanks and raise to about 98 deg. salinometer just prior to immersion of
the meats, which are “salted in” by addition with them of an allowance of dry
salt. During the tanking period, about six days, there is normally a recession of
the brines to about 90 deg. salinometer, at which strength they may lie idle for a
period until tanking of further meats.

Tanking is succeeded by dry-salting in stacks for a period of three to five weeks,
salt being applied to the thicker portions of the cuts. During dry-salting brine
accumulates in the rib concavities (“stack brine”). No addition of further nitrate
is usually made in dry-salting. Cellar temperatures are usually 38-40 deg. Fahr.

Soaking, for the purpose of removing excess, principally surface salt, is
customarily for six to eight hours. Temperatures in drying and smoking vary with
season, but do not in current practice at any time exceed 105 deg. Fahr. for relatively
short periods.

Plate II.

pROC. Eoy, Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLTX., Xo. 3.

1. Vibrio costicolus (n. sp.).
Mag, X 900. Bailey Flagella Stain.

2. Vibrio halo nitrifimns (ii. sp.).

Mag. X 900. Bailey Flagella Stain.

The author is indebted to Mr. C. W. Leece, Bureau of Sugar Experiment
Stations, for photo-micrographs.

VoL. XLIX., No. 4.

53

Notes on Australian Muscoidea III.

Dexiinae^ Phasiinae^ some Tachininae and Appendix.

By G. H. Hardy.

(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 26th July, 1937.)

In the first part of this series of papers, the Taehinidae were divided
into fonr subfamilies on the system then standing, but an advance was
made in so far as the Dexiinae were defined on a better basis than
previously attempted. In the present paper the same principles then
used have been applied to the rest of the Tachinidae, resulting in
subfamily divisions given in the following key: —

Key to subfamilies of the Tachinidae.

1. Primitive terminalia in which the aedeagus consists of membrane and

chitin, never very long and the general features parallel with
those of the Calliphorinae. The forceps may be (a) paired
structures in the normal type, or (b) fused into one median
structure lying between the accessory plates; though widely
varying, these main features remain consistent

Advanced terminalia in which the aedeagus is invariably long, bristle-
like and chitinous throughout, except perhaps hyaline at the
extreme apex . .

2. Aedeagus consisting of one elongate bristle-like part, rarely expanding

towards apex and then provided with some minute appendages
there. Forceps fused or paired . .

Aedeagus in two bristle-like parts, the apical one articulating with
the basal one, and the forceps are invariably paired structures

The old subfamily Ameniinae becomes merged into the Tachininae
and appears to be the most primitive of the Australian forms extant
and hardly, at sight, distinguishable from the primitive genus of the
Dexiinae. The structure referred to as “fused forceps” has yet to be
ascertained morphologically for it seems to be highly important
phylogenetically.

The new rendering of the Phasiinae is one which cannot be avoided
at present, for it has to dispose of those forms before me which are
apparently heterogeneous but do not conform to the more typical
Tachininae. The group thus incorporates Palposioma and certain other
genera, but I do not know its limits. When these genera are better
known, doubtless they will be viewed in true perspective and hence
re-allotted to their natural affinities.

Tachininae

2

PhasUnae

DexUnae

Subfamily Dexiinae.

It is doubtful if the Australian Dexiinae contains more than seven
to ten valid genera for which there are some thirty -five names propo.sed.
I am acquainted with the terminalia of most of these and have concluded
that possibly Chaetogaster Macq. 1849, and Paramphiholia B. & B. 1891,
may be too closely related to Amphiholia Macq. 1832, to warrant more
than one distinct generic conception.

54

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Many of the names proposed may be allotted to snbgeneric rank
when the species are adequately revised, but at present it would seem
those known to me fall into the following synonymy : —

IS’49

Butilia Desvoidy 1830. — Formasia Guer. 1843, Diapliania Macq.
1843 (probably a good subgenus), Grapholostylum Macq.
1849, Pseudoformosia B. & B. 1889, Ghrysorutilia Towns.
1915, Prodiaphania Towns, (new name for Diapliania) and
Euamphiholia Towns. 1916.

Prosena St. F. & Serv. 1826. — Prosenina Mall. 1930.
Bhynchiodexia Bigot 1885. — Austrodexia Mall. 1930, Lasio-
calypter Mall. 1930, and Lasiocalyptrina Mall 1930.
Chaetogaster Macq. 1849.

Parampkiholia B. & B. 1893.

Amphiholia Macquart 1846.

Thelaira Desvoidj^ 1830.

Heterometopia Macq. 1846.

Apatemyia Macq. 1846. — Toxocnemis Macq. 1854, Anatropomyia
Mall. 1930.

Other genera may come here but I have not examined the typical
species and in addition I am at a loss to account for Senosioma Macquart
1847, in literature. A species before me is evidently congeneric and
also from Tasmania. If it be a Butilia then it is comparable to
Diapliania, but apparently it belongs to Bhynchiodexia which name it
may supersede. Brauer and Bergenstamm treat the genus in quite a
different way, using a different genotype, and Malloch may have been
unnecessarily giving the genus a new name in his Chaetogastrina. The
type is variegala, said to have a variegated abdomen and Malloch refers
to ‘^checkered” in his genus. The whole matter is very confusing and
having only the female I ^m unable to place Macquart ’s genus. I
suspect the produced oral margin in Macquart ’s figure is an exaggera-
tion, for on my specimen the extension of the oral margin is present but
of moderate dimensions. At mmst it seems to be a valid generic con-
ception lying between subgenus Diapliania and Bhynchiodexia. I can
see no alliance with the Amphiholia group.

Key to the genera of the Dexiinae.

1. With a broad carina, flat on its outer surface

With a Carina reduced and rounded on its outer surface, or knife-
edged, but exposed between antennae
With Carina, absent, or at most represented by a keel below the
contiguous antennae and thus more or less hidden

2. With a large broad abdomen, or if conical then metallic, and the

legs normal

With conical, non-metallic abdomen and the legs frequently
elongate

3. Proboscis very elongate, several times longer than the oral cone

and longer than the head depth; it cannot be withdrawn
entirely into the oral cavity (unique to genus)

Proboscis normal, not much longer than the oral cone or head
length, and readily withdrawn into oral cavity

4. Highly metallic species with yellowish wings
Non-metallic species

5. Brown species, marked only with black

Black species with large well defined ashy-grey markings

2

4
6

Butilia

3

Prosena

Bhynchiodexia

Chaetogaster

5

Paramphiholia

Amphibolia

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA III.

55

6. First and fifth radial veins with setae (unique to genus). Eyes

occupying in profile almost the whole depth of the head
(unique to genus)

First radial vein without setae. Eyes occupying in profile only
about two -thirds of head depth

7, Frons on both sexes broad, and together with face bare, highly

silvery throughout (unique to genus) and bristles much
reduced on male

Frons normal, that of the male reduced in width, hair and bristles
normal though variable

Thelaira

7

Heterometopia

Apatemyia

The term ‘^proboscis” in the above key follows the restricted use,
referring to the part lying beyond the oral cone which bears the palpi.
The key does not attempt to isolate the genera on valid structures for
which further study is needed, but it covers enough to permit recognition
of each segregation. Frosena and Thelaira are widely distributed, the
rest being restricted to the Australian region or practically so.

Subfamily Phasiinae.

Tribe Phasiini.

Morphology . — The mouth parts are subject to wide variation and
in one genus the oral cone and proboscis form a single organ, short,
apparently functional and with palpi almost equal in length and cylin-
drical. In another genus the proboscis articulates with the short movable
oral cone that bears large broad palpi and the total length does not or
hardly exceeds the oral cavity. More frequently the oral cone is found
to be long and the palpi either short or very long and even the oral
cavity is adjusted to meet these varying lengths w^hich again reflect
on the shape of the face.

The nature of the female terminalia is well known and varies from
an apparent simple type to that which has one or more horny appendages
that constitutes a specialised ovipositor ; the advancement may even
include a ventral sheath for the structure. The terminalia of the male,
however, seems more important at the moment as half the species are
described from unique males. Typically the aedeagus is bristle-like in
structure and of considerable length, sinuous, curving forward at the
basal half and rearwards at the apical half, the amount of curvature
varying. On each side of the aedeagus a pair of claspers occurs, small,
probably not particular^ functional and perhaps even missing at times,
or at least not readily seen. In the more generalised species a pair of
forceps is present, flanked by the accessory plates, but a modification
takes place in the majority of species examined, and there is only one
central process, referred to as the fused forceps and is somewhat
claw-like.

Taxonomy. — -It is my intention to use these characters (hitherto
neglected) for the formation of genera, this proposal being of course, the
fundamental principle upon which the generic conceptions rest. The
following four definitions cover all the species knowni to me, and appear
quite valid as genera.

Genus 1. — Proboscis extremely short, only one apparent segment
standing in an ill-defined oral cavity ; palpi well developed, about as
long as the proboscis. Accessory plates large and much broader than
the fused forceps. Vein and do not meet. Apparently no species
have been described from Australia and I do not know any exotic genera
that conform.

56 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Genus 2. — Proboscis short, not longer than the oral cavity within
which it lies, the oral cone being very short and bearing large broadened
palpi that reach nearly to the apex of the proboscis. Accessory plates
tapering, slender, claw-like and conspicuously shorter than the fused
forceps. Vein Rj and do not meet. Apparently no species are
described.

Genus 3. — Proboscis normal ; i.e., when protruding is seen to extend
further than the oral cavity, the oral cone being long. Palpi cylindrical
but short. Accessory plates and fused forceps apparently always short
and equal in length. Wings of normal breadth with Rg and Mj uniting
before reaching the wing margin. fHyalomyia. Most of the described
species seem to fall here.

Genus 4. — Proboscis normal; palpi very long and slender, cylin-
drical. Forceps normal, the two branches being broad and separated;
accessory plates very slender and about as long as forceps. Wings
conspicuously broadened, the male at least having an inflated costal
margin. Veins Rg and uniting before reaching wing margin.
fAlophora. Evidently aureiventris Curran comes here.

I do not know how many species have been described, but there
are fifteen names in literature that definitely are placed in the tribe,
and six generic names applied to the various species. I have seen two
of Curran’s species (paratypes) and find one may prove to be another
genus lying lietween the second and third given above — Catharosia
varicolor Curran 1927.

Macquart recorded Gymnosoma rotundata Meigen, from Tasmania,
and I note from Townsend’s manuscript catalogue of Muscoidea of
Australia, he has added the record of Verreauxia auripilis also from
Tasmania and attributed to Desvoidy in 1863, but I have not seen the
record. Apparently the first of these is referable to the list of exotic
species erroneously labelled in locality and of whicli there are quite a
number now known.

Tribe Palpostomini.

The outstanding character of this tribe lies in the lateral process
each side of the labrum and which is palp-like in shape ; the feature is
mentioned by Desvoidy.

On fresh material these processes are quite palp-like, cylindrical
and isolated ; they stand at right angles to the broad surface from which
they arise and may be flexed at their base to lie in any direction but
invariably return when released, for there seems to be no ''joint”
involved but they arise as a direct continuation of the cuticle of the
labrum. On drying the distortion of the labrum may cause these pro-
cesses to lie directed in some other manner and even the processes may
partially collapse.

Palpostoma Desvoidy.

Falpostoma Desvoidy 1830 ; type P. testacea Desy.

Opsophasiops Townsend 1915 ; type flava Coquillett quoted but this
was misidentified by that author.

Pseudopalpostoma Townsend 1926 ; type P. desvoidiji Aldrich.

Eustacomyia Malloch 1927 ; type E. hreuiseta Mall.

Apalpostoma Malloch 1930; type A. cinerea Mall.

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA III.

57

Synonymy. — I may be premature in placing Apalpostoma as being
a synonym, but in the description there is nothing mentioned that makes
a valid genus, even the spur on the radial vein is encountered as an
abnormality in normal Palposioma species. I would suggest that the
mouth parts and terminalia be examined to see if the genus should be
validated.

Palpostoma aldrichi new name.

Palposioma testacea Aldrich. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus Ixii., 1922, 4.
nec Desvoidy 1830.

Synonymy. — The host of this species, Lepidoderma albohirtum
Waterhouse, is a North Queensland beetle and it seems impossible for
Desvoidy to have received its parasite over 100 years ago and so the fly
can hardly be the same species as Aldrich suggested at a venture.
Desvoidy ’s species is more likely to be P. apicalis Malloch.

Note. — There are three species before me reared from Pseudoholo-
phylla furfnracea Burm., Lepidioia trichosterna Lea and Anomolopha
sp. by Mr. R. Mungomery whilst several more have been reared in other
States and again further ones, captured in Brisbane, New South Wales
and Tasmania, are before me. It would seem that every large species
of Melolonthinae is affected by a different species of Palpostomia. There
are ten specific names already published and only three of them are
likely to be recognised again without access to types.

Subfamily Tachininae.

Section 1. — Genera in which the terminalia have normal, paired
forceps.

Genus Amenia Desvoidy.

The species in this genus have apparently become so confused that
110 two authors apply the specific names in the same way. The synonymy
has thereby become very involved. The following key is built up on the
common forms that have been closely studied, and it will be found that
many of the characters given are incorporated in their original descrip-
tions. Several species have been compared with types at the British
Museum.

Key to species of genus Amenia.

1. Costa of wing on male with the apical half bowed forwards
Costa of wing normal

2. Second tergite of male abdomen without long median

bristles; fourth tergite dark coloured and less metallic
than the others

Second tergite of male abdomen with long median bristles;
fourth tergite coloured as the others

3. Frons of the male extremely narrow, at the narrowest point

being only the width of one ocellus
Frons of the male about the width of the ocellar tubercle . .

4. Frons of the male narrow, the eyes being separated by little

more than the width of the ocellar tubercle. Small
species under 10 mm. long and with silvery postocular
orbits

Frons of the male wide, being four times the width of the
ocellar tubercle

6

2

3

4

parva Schiner.

5

chrysame Walker
dul)italis Malloch.

o. Species with a pair of coppery longitudinal stripes on the

thorax, embedded in the blue or green ground colour . . leonina Fab.

Species without such stripes and smaller in average size . . alhomaculata Macq,

6. Frons of the male narrow as on chrysame to which it conforms

in most characters including silvery postocular orbits . . near chrysame

Frons of the male as wide as or wider than that of duhitalis 7

58

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

7. Medium sized species with froiis about five times the width

of the ocellar tubercle: proportion 11:2 .. .. neai dubitalis

Large species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

8. Frons nearly four times the width of the ocellar tubercle:

proportion 11:3 . . . . . . . . . . , . sp. near imperialis

Frons about seven times the width of the ocellar tubercle;

proportion 14:2 .. .. .. .. .. .. impenalis I>eaYoidj

I do not claim that every species so isolated in the above key is a
distinct form, for it has to be determined exactly which characters are
specific ; nevertheless structural characters like the width of the frons
have proved elsewhere very useful for specific recognition and may be
relied upon here. The bowed part of the costa is a feature that may
prove deceptive and must be used with caution. Malloch added
sexpunctata to the eastern species, relying on colour characters ; I believe
I have his form before me, but hestitate to place it at present and
anyhow it does not become involved with the purpose of these notes.

Amenia leolina Fabricius.

This was redescribed by Wiedemann and recorded by Macquart.
Specimens identified at the British Museum coincide with Wiedemann’s
description and they correspond with what is presumably alhomaculata
but differ in accordance with the characters given in the key. I do not
know if the two forms are eonspecific as generally supposed. Engel and
Malloch apparently give the name to other species which correspond
neither with the coppery stripes, nor with size except the latter in the
case of Engel’s determination. When the coppery colour occurs on
the other species, it is diffused and not stripe-form.

ximemia alhomaculata Macquart.

This, I think, is the leolina Schiner, and may prove to be a variety
of the previous species.

Amenia imperialis Desvoidy.

The confusion between this form and leolina seems to have started
with Walker and followed by Engel, for I have seen specimens bearing
Engel’s labels. From Malloch ’s description it is not possible to tell if
he had the present species or the one marked in the key as allied.

Amenia chrysame Walker.

There can be no doubt concerning this determination as specimens
have been compared with the type. It is the parva of Engel and
Malloch and the latter made an error in putting it as a synonym of
parva. Schiner.

Amenia panva Schiner.

This seems to be the leolina of Townsend, Aldrich and Malloch,
and I have seen specimens so labelled by Aldrich. Evidently Coquillett
was responsible for the initial error. Engel described it as stricia
Schiner MS., following Brauer and Bergenstamm who evidently regarded
another specimen as the type described later by Engel as parva but in
reality was chrysame.

To validate this, reference must be made to the original description
of parva which is definitely described as having a linear frons and there
is no other species known with such a character. It will also be noted
that the words ‘‘parva” and “stricta” both apply to the frons and
Schiner may have made an error in his labels.

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA III.

59

Zehromyia ornata Maeq.

Phorocera ornata Macquart. Dipt. Exot. siippl 4, 1849, 199.

Zehromyia ohesa Malloch. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, liv., 1929, 321.

This synonymy is new and can hardly be disputed. Both sexes are
before me. Notwithstanding the marked differences, the species seems
to be related to the Microtropeza-groui^, joining it to Tritaxys.

Male. — The characters are identical with those of the female except
the slightly narrower frons and the fronto-orbital bristles are missing;
the summit is about five times the width of the ocellar triangle. The
markings of the body are bolder than those on the female but otherwise
the same.

Hal). — Tasmania Zeehan, 1924, one male allotype and a female with
the head missing. Another female from Hobart, 14th March, 1917.

Tritaxys Macquart.

Tritaxys Macquart. Dipt. Exot. suppl. 2, 1847, 65.

Goniophana Brauer and Bergenstamm. Denk. Akad. Wiss. Wien.,
Ivi., 1889, 97.

Anamastax Brauer and Bergenstamm. Ibidem., Iviii., 189^1, 349.

AcnepJiana Townsend. Canad. Ent. xlviii.,, 1916, 153.

Opsopliana Townsend. Ibidem., 153*.

Quadra Malloch. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, liv., 1929, 320.

Gonanamastax Townsend. Journ. N. York Ent. Soc., xl., 1932, 472.

A group of genera containing species commonly bred from Lepi-
doptera and very confused in the literature includes Sturmia Desv. and
three other genera apparently all valid. The line between some of these
genera is not well defined, for Sturmia approaches Winthemia but has
the fringe on the posterior femora interrupted at least by one outstand-
ing long bristle about the centre. Winthemia, from two other genera,
is separated by the less broad frons containing less bristles and the three
are to be recognised in the following key: —

1. Frons very broad in both sexes, the bristles being arranged in
two rows each side of the interfrontalia. The fringe of
the posterior tibiae is variable but usually present and
interrupted by one outstanding long bristle .... 2

Frons narrower, normally with only one row of bristles each
side of the interfrontalia, although occasionally
fortuitous bristles may simulate a second row and then
the uninterrupted uniform fringe of the posterior tibiae
may be relied upon in cases of doubt . . . . . . Winthemia Desv.

2., With a grey-white pulverulent overlay on all tergites. Usually

dull coloured species .. . . .. .. .. Tn/aaji/s Macq.

Without such covering, or at most limited to the fourth
tergite. Much brighter species with claws irregular in
length . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calopygidia Mall.

In Tritaxys there are variations in the fringe on the anterior dorsal
side of the posterior tibiae and some very small specimens seem to have
the row reduced to scattered bristles ; these small specimens conform to
the named forms in other respects and do not seem specifically distinct.
Like all the other larger Tachinidae there is a wide range in size of
specimens and characters regarded as important for specific recognition
are not invariably consistent, making it necessary to check
determinations with reliably named material.

60

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Key to species.

1. Discal bristles on third abdominal tergite and often on the

second

Discal bristles absent on second and third abdominal tergites.
Normally without bristles on the ocellar tubercle

2. Without bristles on the ocellar tubercle. Eyes bare. Arista

with second segment about four times longer than wide,
reaching one quarter the length of the thickened part,
but the first segment is longer than usual. The radial
and median veins meet at or before costa. Abdomen
distinctly banded black and white with a slight median
interruption of the white ( Quadra)

Male with a pair of bristles on the ocellar tubercle. Second
segment of arista very short, only as long as wide . .

8. Eadial and median veins meet at or before reaching costa.

Abdomen with marginal bristles on second, and norm-
ally on first tergite and discal bristles on third with
which it agrees with ornata, but in addition, there are
normally discal bristles on the second tergite. Eyes
normally bare. Female with bristles on ocellar tubercle
Eadial and median veins widely separated at wing margins.

Eyes normally hairy. Female without bristles on the
ocellar tubercle. (Tritaxys, Opsoyhaua, and G-onana-
mastax) . .

4. Marginal bristles on second abdominal tergite and may be
indicated on first . ,

2

4

ornata Mall.

3

dissimilis Mall.

goniaeformis Macq.

5

Marginal bristles absent on second abdominal tergite. Second
segment of arista about as long as broad or less.
Normally with antennae very short, the third segment
being about twice the length of the others combined.
Eyes bare. (Anamastax)

\ Second segment of arista abnormally long, occupying up to
one half of the thickened portion. Normally eyes
hairy on male, bare on female

Second segment of arista occupying up to one third of the
thickened part. Normally eyes hairy. {Amepliana)

Second segment of arista occupying one quarter the length
of the thickened part. Eyes hairy. (Goniopitana) . .

traueri n. name.

milas Walker.
rubrifrons Macq.
heterocera Macq.

From Tasmania comes a specimen (female) differing from rubri-
frons Macq. by having yellow-brown legs and a very short second segment
on the arista, whilst from the National Park, Queensland, there is a male
with brownish legs largely suffused with black on the femora, bare eyes,
and bristles on the ocellar tubercle. Both these run to section 5 of
the key.

Tritaxys ornata Malloch.

Quadra ornata Malloch. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, liv., 1929, 320.

Hat). — Western Australia: Perth. One male allotype, 16th

November, 1912. This specimen has the head less brightly coloured than
Malloch ’s description would indicate, but otherwise it agrees with the
female. The frons is about the narrowest I have seen in this genus. I

Tritaxys dissimilis Malloch.

Quadra dissimilis Malloch. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, Iv., 1930, 343.

Hab. — New South Wales, Queensland. Two males and three females,
the latter forming the allotype and paratype series. This is quite a
common species of typical Tritaxys differing only in two veins meeting.
On both sexes the frons is narrower than on T. goniaeformis Macq.

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA III.

61

Tritaxys goniaeformis Macquart.

Blepharipeza goniaeformis Macquart. Dipt. Exot. suppl. 1, 1846,
157. — Townsend, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10), ix., 1932, 50; Townsend,
Journ. N. York Ent. Soc., xl., 1932, 472 (Gonanamastax) .

Tritaxys australis Macquart. Dipt. Exot. suppl. 2, 1847, 66.

Masicera rufifacies Macquart. Ibidem., 71. — Brauer, Sitz. Akad.
Wien, cvi., 1897, 340; Townsend. Canad. Entom., xlviii., 1916, 153
( Opsophana) .

Synonymy. — The above are all described from Tasmania, the first
as having bare eyes, the second put into a new genus, and the third in
yet a third genus all by the one author. Brauer only examined the
type of the third, and characters given by him strongly suggest the
present position. The synonymy, as here accepted is new, although it has
previously been suggested that the first two are conspecific.

The antennae are of average length and the frons is as wide on
both sexes as on the majority of the mainland species.

Hal). — Tasmania: Hobart, Garden Island, Eagle-hawk Neck and
Strahan, October to March, 1916 and 1924. Two males, four females.
.Apparently the species is limited to the island.

Tritaxys riihrifrons Macquart.

Gonia heterocera Macquart. Dipt. Exot. suppl. 1, 1846, 153, Males
from Tasmania only.

Masicera riCbrifrons Macquart. Ibid., suppl. 2, 1847, 69. —

Brauer, Sitz. Akad. Wied. cvi., 1897, 339 ; Townsend, Canad. Ent., xlviii.,
1916, 153 (Acnephana).

Tritaxys heterocera Townsend. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10), ix.,
1932, 50.

The antennae are very long, the yellowish head is more or less
suffused with red, the abdomen is brown, the black being limited to a
broad median line and the apex. The ocellar tubercle occupies one fifth
the width of the summit which is exceptionally wide, instead of the
normal one third.

Hah. — Tasmania : Hobart, November, 1916, and Wynyard,.

February, 1924. '

Tritaxys milas Walker.

Gonia milas Walker. List Dipt. B. Mus., iv., 1849, 799.

ITritaxys heterocera Malloch. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, liv.,.
1929, 113 (at least in part).

I use the name given by Walker, pending comparisons on the type
as it would seem this form and heterocera are the only two species likely
to be involved. The head characters on the male show slight variations
but the ocellar tubercle occupies approximately one-fifth the width of
the summit. Malloch ’s description and figure seem very poor and
possibly confused more than one species.

Hah. — Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria. A long series
including five males that form the allotype and paratype series. Western
Australia : A single female from Perth apparently belong to this species.

R.s. — c

62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Host. — Clania ignohilis Walker (Psychidae). Two females were
reared from the pupa by Dr. A. J. Turner, collected at Dalby (24-1-26),
Queensland.

Tritaxys heterocera Macquart.

Gonia heterocera Macquart. Dipt. Exot. suppl. 1, 1846, 153 ; suppl.
3, 1849, 44 — females only.

Macquart ’s species is clearly indicated by bis comparison with the
Tasmanian form, and Mallocb may have the species under this name
too, although his remarks fit better the species here referred to as ndlas
On the average the summit is a little smaller in the present form.

Hah. — Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria. A long series
including five males that form the allotype and paratype series.

Host. — Noctuidae : Heliothis armigera Hubn., Bendgera^ frngalis
Eab., and also some abnormal specimens reared from Exoa radians Gn.
All reared specimens in the Queensland Department of Agriculture.

Tritaxys hraueri new name.

Anamastax goniaeformis Brauer and Bergenstamm. Dank. Akad.
Wiss. Wien., Iviii., 1891, 349 ; lx, 1893, 123. — iTownsend, Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist. (10), ix., 1932, 50 — nec. Macquart; ?nec Malloch, 1929.

Anamastax australis Townsend. Journ. N. York Ent. Soc., xL,
1932, 473.

This is the genotype of Brauer and Bergenstamm ’s Anamastax,
although Macquart ’s species is quoted by them. I think Malloch ’s
determination cannot be the same as he gives his figure a wrong length
for the antennae. The ocellar tubercle is so small that it occupies one
fifth of the summit which is only normally wide, comparable to that on
or^iata.

Hah. — Queensland. The species is represented in every collection
I have examined.

Host. — Cirphis unipunctata Haw. (Noctuidae), in the Queensland
Department of Agriculture.

Genus Calopygidia Malloch.

Calopygidia Malloch. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, Iv., 1930, 349.

Malloch ’s definition does not hold good for his typical species, based
on a variation using three specimens, one said to be damaged. I am
unable to define the genus on structure as it bears wide variations that
bring it into genus Tritaxys, differing, perhaps in having the claws of
the anterior legs elongate and short on the others, whereas in Tritaxys
the species have them either all long or all short. The ridge of the face
mentioned by Malloch again is met with in Tritaxys, some species having
it there, thus invalidating its importance, and I can see no marked
difference in the terminalia. The name is worthy of retaining at least
as being of subgeneric value.

Calopygidia analis Malloch.

Calopygidia analis Malloch. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, Iv., 1930,

350.

This abundant species has possibly been named by an earlier author,
but I have not detected it in Macquart ’s works and I have not yet made
the necessary search amid Walker’s descriptions. Malloch compares it

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA III.

63

with Winihemia which is somewhat misleading, the two not being com-
parable. The colour of the abdomen is normally black with tracings of
brown lateral areas more or less defined and is made conspicuous by
the dense pulverulent covering of the apical tergite, this being ashy-
white.

Hob. — Queensland to Tasmania. A long series of both sexes. On
the wring, the male of this fiy is likely to be mistaken for Calliphora
dispar Macq. as it has the same deportment and general features.

Host. — PJiytometra argentifera Guen. (Noctuidae), in the Queens-
land Department of Agriculture.

Calopygidia castanea n.sp.

A large chestnut-browm species with a large part of the thorax
dorsally, the antennae and tarsi black, together with the median
abdominal line and a variable amount of the abdomen at apex which may
also be infuscated.

Male. — Frons very wide, approaching one third the head-width and
slightly less golden than the rest of the head, with a red-brown inter-
frontalia and bristles somewhat weak, but two are clearly directed
rearwards followed by a series that reaches level to the apex of the
second antennal segment and ends not far from the eye margin. There
are no ocellar bristles and the hairs that descend down to the face are
mainly restricted to about twenty below the frontal bristles and follow
the area near the eyes. The facial ridge has about twelve small bristles
above the vibrissa reaching from half way to two thirds towards the base
of the antennae.

The chaetotaxy of the thorax shows slight variations from the
normal, the sternopleurals being arranged 2:1 (normally 1:1 in analis).
In colour the black of the dorsal area is bordered by brown at sides and
apex and has the normal four thin deeper black lines. The abdomen
lias the marginal bristles of the first two segments clearly defined and
the discals may develop on the second and third tergites.

The fringe of bristles on the anterior dorsal side of the hind tibiae
is conspicuously present on the basal half, then becomes broken by three
or four outstanding bristles in the central area followed by another
bristle extra long after which comes the normal fringe but represented
by smaller bristles. The claws of the anterior legs are conspicuously
longer than those of the others. In many of these and apparently all
other characters, it agrees with analis.

Hah. — Tasmania. Holotype, one male, Mount Wellington, January,
1924, and two male paratypes. Mount Wellington, February 1917, and
Cradle Mountain, January, 1917.

This fiy is very similar in appearance to the blowfly Calliphora
mgritkorax for which it can be readily mistaken as it has the same size,
colour and general deportment. It is very quick on the wing and
elusive.

Genus Winthemia Desvoidy.

Winthemia Desvoidy. Essai Myodaires, 1830, 173.

The vicissitudes through which this genus is passing have com-
plicated the literature beyond my ability to unravel. The Australian
material before me forms quite a valid unit to which several names have
already been applied. Austen separated one section as Blepharipada

64

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

and Malloeh another as W intliemia, whereas a third may be involved in
Cmxelia, but no modern author seems to have dealt with them. I use
the name having priority and am able to apply quite a number of specific
names to the group. Other names are excluded from here, as on recog-
nising their identity I have concluded they belong elsewhere. Exorista
diversicoior and dispar Macquart, together with E. trichopareia Schiner,
said to be a synonym of the latter, will be dealt with in the Stvrmia
complex as they do not belong to the present group unless the generic
conception be widened.

All the following forms are consistent in having the fringe of
bristles on the anterior dorsal area of the posterior tibiae entirely with-
out interruption, all bristles being of uniform or uniformly grading
length, none outstanding nor yet any marked break in the series. No
species has more than one normal row each side of the interfrontalia, but
one species is liable to have up to three fortuitous ones simulating a
second row.

Key to species of Winthemda.

1. Male Vvdtliout, female with one, rearwardly directed bristle on

frons, or if more they are weak . . . . . .

Both sexes with rearwardly directed bristles on frons ; the
female always with two ( W'arceliu)

2. Abdomen without marginal bristles on the second tergite. Eyes

bare. (Blephoripoda)

Abdomen on male usually without, on female with marginal
bristles on second tergite. (Wintliemia)

3. Pace entirely bare

Pace hairy only on the upper half (female unknown) . .

4. Pace especially unusually narrow; hair weak on male, minute

• on female. Legs entirely black
Face and frons broader, tibiae distinctly brownish
Pace and frons still broader, male with marginal bristles on
second tergite

5. Without marginal bristles on second tergite. Male with one

rearwardly directed bristle on frons. Eyes and face hairy
With marginal bristles on second tergite. Pace bare

6. Male with one rearwardly directed bristle on frons, the summit

rather broad

Male with two rearwardly directed bristles on frons, the summit
much narrow^er (try Podomyia B.B.)

Winthemia australis Walker.

Tachina australis Walker. Ins. Saund. Dipt., 1856, 279.

Tachina zehina Walker. Austen, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), xix.,
1907, 332, 346 {BlepJiaripoda) .

Synonymy. — Austen has dealt with synonymy, claiming that the
Indian species zehina reaches through the orient to Queensland and New
South Wales, whereas before me two species are apparent and yet come
here. I do not wish to dispute the synonymy at the present time but
think it advisable to retain the name of Walker’s species until the
complex, if it be one, is revised once more. A third apparently distinct
species in Australia is isolated in the key but is only known to me by
a male. This form has distinctly indicated, the frontal hairs descending
far below the bristles reaching half way down the face, thus approaching
the more typical Winthemia spp., but in every other respect it comes
into the amtralis-group which is liable to develop fortuitous bristles on
the frons.

australis Walker.

sp.

transhwens Macq.
sp. (Tasmania)

lata Macq.

lateralis Macq.

6

varipes Macq.
marginuta Macq.

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA III.

65

Host. — Ochrogaster contraria Walker (Notodontidae) ; the Proces-
sion moth. The parasite reared is the dark form and was identified by
Austen as zehina in the Queensland Museum which indicates this should
be the typical T. australis.

Papilio aegeus Don. The same dark form was reared from this
butterfly by myself in 1922.

Sphingidae. The light form has been reared by others as well as
myself from the pupa of hawk-moths, the genera not being determined.

Winthemia translucens Maequart.

Exorista translucens Maequart. Dipt. Exot., suppl 4, 1849, 189.

Malloch has put in Winthemia two species which apparently fall
into the main section and he had but one male in each case and used
minor differences in distinguishing them. A very long series before
me, largely bred, shows variations especially in size, so I have to leave
the determination of Malloch ’s form but believe diver sa Mall, will prove
a synonym of the present species.

Hob. — New South Wales and Queensland.

Host. — Euploea corinuo) Macleay (Nymphalidae) ; Anaphaeus
ieutonia Fab. (Pieridae) ; Ochrogaster contraria Walk. (Notodontidae) ;
all in the Queensland Museum.

Winthemia sp.

Hab. — Tasmania : Hobart. Two males only.

I have found no name that can be applied to this species ‘ which
seems quite distinctive in head characters.

Winthemia lata Maequart.

Exorista lata Maequart. Dipt. Exot., suppl. 3, 1848, 47.

The broad white parafacial area with white hairs is unmistakable
for the identification of this species and Malloch may have it under his
■albicens.

Hab. — New South Wales and Queensland. Only a few specimens
are available to me and one I have marked as the allotype female.

Host. — Ochrogaster contraria Walker (Notodontidae) ; in the
Queensland Museum.

Winthemia lateralis Maequart.

Masicera lateralis Maequart. Dipt. Exot., suppl. 1, 1846, 163.

Hab. — Queensland and New South Wales. Allotype female and a
long series of paratypes as well as males.

Host. — Papilio aegeus Don. A very long series was reared from
this source. Also Papilio sthenelus Macleay. Both cases in the Queens-
land Museum.

Winthemia varipes Maequart.

Masicera varipes Maequart. Dipt. Exot., suppl. 1, 1846, 163.

Hab. — Tasmania : Hobart, October and January, 1913, 1914, and
1924. Four males and one allotype female.

66

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Winihemia marginata Macquart.

Exorista marginata Macquart. Dipt. Exot., suppl. 4, 1849, 188.

Masicera similis Macquart. Dipt. Exot., suppl. 4, 1849, 194.

This is the common Brisbane species met with throughout the year.
The female was described as similis probably from Sydney, a damaged
specimen being used judging from the remark “en grande partie
denudee. ” The coloration and markings of the abdomen correspond
to Macquart ’s figure of E. marginata and according to Macquart
methods should have been placed in Masicera, but presumably he over-
looked the two backwardly directed, sometimes small frontal bristles, on
the narrow frons of the male.

Hal). — Queensland and New South Wales.

Section 2. — Tachininae that have the terminalia with the forceps
fused into one central organ lying between the paired accessory plates.

Genus Peleteria Desvoidy.

Peleteria Desvoidy. Essai Myodaires, 1830, 39.

This palaearctic genus has not hitherto been recorded from Aus-
tralia but belongs to the Echinomyia-gTowp, or in accordance with
Lundbeck, belongs to the TacMna-gvoup, if the rules of priority are to
stand. The Australian species is very typical of its genus, is black with
a densely haired fourth tergite entirely red, resembling somewhat a bee
of the genus Megachile. There is no name given for the Australian
species as far as I have ascertained unless it be P. javanica Desv., ,from
Java.

Host. — Heliothis ohsoleta FslIot. (Noctuidae).

Genus Tricholyga Kondani.

Tricholyga Rondani, 1859.

Several palaearctic species are in this genus and one at least
reaches Australia. I think I am correct in this as Lundbeck states the
forceps of sorhillans Wied. contains a covering of dense, yellow-red hairs
and the colour on the specimens before me is ‘ ‘ old-gold ’ ’ and the species
is from Tasmania.

From Queensland come two further species, one having a curved
tuft of yellow-red hairs standing erect at the base of the forceps, the
hairs changing from red to yellow with the incidence of the light, and
the other species has only a light covering of black hairs, the dense tuft
being entirely absent. The first and third species have a golden head,
the other has this more silvery and the only female I have belongs to it.
The genus is represented in several collections.

Tricholyga sorhillans Wiedemann.

Tachina sorhillans Wiedemann. Auss. zweifi. Ins., ii., 1830, 311.
Canary Islands.

Exorista flaviceps Macquart. Dipt. Exot., suppl. 2, 1847, 6/.
Tasmania.

Synonymy . — Brauer is responsible for placing the species described
by Macquart, in a generic position, but it seems from species already
known in Australia it is referable to the one form.

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA Ul.

67

Hal^. — Tasmania to New South Wales, and probably Queensland.

Host. — Cirphis unipuncta Haw., in the Queensland Department of
Agriculture, is the host of apparently this fly but I have not examined
1:he terminalia of the parasite.

The Microp<dpm-Clmet ophthalmias complex.

There are a number of species described from the Commonwealth
as having small palpi and as the group has been associated with para-
sitism on Lepidoptera, I have made the attempt to straighten out the
very involved taxonomy. I do not regard the generic status given below
as well established but it certainly brings together groups of related
species. I refer Micropalpus vittatus Macq. and M. pilifacies Macq., to
genus Cuphocera, whilst Aprotheca rufipes Macq. (try Dexiinae) is
apparently a representative of a genus unkno^vn to me. I have failed
to discover the identity of Myohia rufi facies and tenuisetosa Macq., both
placed in Chaetophthalmus by Brauer notwithstanding the long palpi in
the original figures and so doubt if they belong here.

Linnaemyia nigripalpis Tryon, in accordance with its name, should
•come into this section, but the specimens described seem to be lost and
the illustrations somewhat confusing as if the present series, Tritaxys
and the head of Metallea ( Calliphoridae ) have been .mixed.

The genera as here isolated are tentative, the problem of nomencla-
ture being involved in the world’s fauna.

Key to genera.

1. Both sexes with frontal orbital bristles. Face hairy.

Third and fourth tergites strongly tending to
amalgamate, although the division between them
is discernible even in the most advanced cases . .

Only the female with fronto -orbital bristles. Third and
fourth tergite not amalgamating . .

5. Face distinctly hairy
Face bare

Genus Amphiholosia Surcouf.

Amphiholosia Surcouf. Nouv. Arch. Hist. Nat., Paris (5), vi., 1914,
109. Type, Ochroynyia flavipennis Macq.

Ballardia Curran. Bull. Ent. Res., xviii., 1927, 166. Type, B.
pallipes Curran.

Surcouf described Macquart’s species from the type, a female, in
such an excellent manner that its identity is not in doubt. In revising
collections I was able to incorporate paratypes of Curran’s species and
it has proved not practical to separate them into another species thus
leaving three units that are definitely recognisable as valid. When the
terminalia have been subject to more intensive study, it may be possible
to define the three forms into more than one species each but I do not
think this likely.

Key to species of AmpMbolosia.

1. Summit of head very wide, the ocellar tubercle being about

one fifth of it. Acrostichal bristles frequently only 2:3
but varies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pallipes Curran

Summit of head narrower, the ocellar tubercle being only about

one third the width. Acrostichal bristles invariably 3:3 2

2. Ocellar tubercle about one and a quarter its own width from

the eyes. Fifth sternite relatively small . . . . . . sp.

Ocellar tubercle hardly more than its own width from the eyes.

Fifth sternite enlarged. Frons usually much darker
than on the others and in addition there is a conspicuously
well develoj)ed tuft of hairs at the base of each accessory
plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nudistyltm Macq.

Amphiholosia Surcouf.

2

ChaetopMthalmnis B. & B.
Micropalpus Macq.

68

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Amphiholos’ia pallipes Curran.

Ochroniyia flavipennis Macquart. Dipt. Exot., suppl 4, 1849, 245,
preocc. Macq. 1843.

Ballardia pallipes Curran. Bull. Ent. Res., xviii., 1927, 166.

Hah. — Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria. This is a very
common species and very variable.

Amphiholosia nudistylum Macq.

Ochromyia nudistylum Macquart. Dipt. Exot., suppl. 5, 1854, 111.

Hab. — South Australia to Tasmania. This species which is abundant
in Hobart is also represented from the type locality, Adelaide.

Chaetophthalmus similis Walker.

Tachina similis Walker. Ins. Saund. Dipt., 1856, 266.

Whaetophihalmus hiseriatus Malloch. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales,
Iv., 1930, 311.

I do not know all the characters of the male on Walker’s species as
the only male before me has had the terminalia mounted and in the
extracting the sternites have broken away, but if Malloch ’s species
proves the same, as expected, then it should have a second row of out-
standing black bristles situated on the sternite anterior to that of
hrevigaster. There are other species before me on which no such
bristles occur and I have found no names yet that apply to them.

Hah. — New South Wales. This is the common Sydney species.

Chaetophikalmus hremgaster Macquart.

Micropalpus hrevigaster Macquart. Dipt. Exot., suppl. 1, 1846, 149.

Hah. — Tasmania. Very abundant in the island and recognisable by
the male having a dense row of apical bristles on the preapical ventral
sternite.

Micropalpus hicolor Macq.

Micropalpus hicolor Macquart. Dipt. Exot., suppl. 3, 1848, 44.

Hah. — New South Wales. I have no specimens from the type locality
which is probably Sydney, but Tasmanian specimens before me agree
except in having a jet black area on the parafrons and Malloch gives
his specimen as being greenish-black there, whilst Macquart states
^‘brunatre. ” I cannot judge how many species may be involved.

Micropalpus concavicomis Macq.

Micropalpus concavicomis Macquart. Dipt. Exot., suppl. 4, 1849,

173.

This species is not a 31icropalpus in the restricted sense as the shape
of the palpi and the very long spur of the radial vein are characters it
bears in common with Cuphocera.

Hah. — Queensland to Tasmania. A very abundant Brisbane species.

Genus Actia Desvoidy.

Actia Desvoidy. Essai Myodares, 1830, 85.

These very small parasites of Lepidoptera are well known owing to
their abundance, but the species are so dealt with that without types
or specimens from the type localities, it is not often that they can be

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA III.

69

recognised again. Like all the Tachinidae they are subject to variations
and doubtless several species are not valid and two names are reduced
to synonymy here.

The Australian species described so far are recognisable by the
venation which has setae at least along the fifth radial vein as far as the
radio-median cross-vein and a pair of dorsal marginal bristles on the
third tergite of the abdomen, no discal bristles on the second and third
tergites. These together with other species yet to be described are allied
to the European forms. There are three marked groups amongst those
described and species within each show considerable intergrading.

A. eucosmae-gr ou-p incorporated eucosmae Bezzi., darwini Mall.,
haldwini Mall., ruaritula Mall., pleheia Mall., and probably argentifrons
Mall. There are five valid species certain.

A. fergusom-gvoup incorporated fergusoni Bezzi, valida Curran,
parviseta Mall., and probably invalida Mall., together with a number
yet to be described. Three names are definitely valid.

A norma-gvoup is a temporary name for a group containing species
not certainly recognised and some undescribed forms. The former 1
would judge to be norma Mall, and lata Mall, although the descriptions
are inadequate for this recognition. The forms before me are apparently
associated but not necessarily con specific.

The following key shows the leading features for the recognition of
these three groups : —

1, Outer cross-vein remote from inner cross-vein (radio-median)

being about half way towards the bend of the median

vein .... . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Outer cross-vein near to, and not much more than its own

length from, the inner cross-vein. Antennae short . . eucosmae-grovi^.

2. Arista short, second segment often elongate and at most the

third segment of arista as long as the third antennal

segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . fergusoni-gvo\xp.

Arista long, second segment always short and the third segment

of arista always longer than the third antennal segment ? wormn-group.

Host. — There are two species in collections reared from Noctuidae,
namely A. pleheia Mall, from Erias Jmegeli Rogen, and A. nigritida Mall,
from one of the plague caterpillars on grass.

Actia darwini Mall.

A, darwini Malloch. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, liv., 1929, 334.

A, hrevis Malloch. Ibidem., Iv., 1930, 309.

A. quadriseta Malloch. Ibidem., lx., 1936, 20.

Synonymy. — The name hrevis applies to a reduced number, and
quadriseta to an increased number of setae on the lower median vein,
whilst the latter also -has the fourth postsutural dorsocentral bristle
present. Before me are specimens that incorporate these and other
variations showing the synonymy can hardly be disputed.

Hah. — Widely distributed over the northern half of Eastern Aus-
tralia and it is the most common Actia in the Brisbane district.

70 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

APPENDIX TO PART 2.

Pyrellia australiensis Curran.

P. australiensis Curran. Ent. Mitt., xvi., 1927, 345.

P. sp. Hardy. Proc. Roy. Soc., Queensland, xlviii., 1936, 25.

The name given by Curran was overlooked and the description
indicates the identity of the species is that form left unnamed by me..

Genus Balioglutum Aldrich.

Balioglutunv Aldrich. Proc. Nat. Mus., Ixvi., 1925 9 (Smithsonian
separates No. 2555).

This genus, hitherto unknown to me, belongs to the non-metallic
group, with stern opleurals arranged 0:1 according to Aldrich and 1:1
on the specimen before me, and has the squama, pteropleura, pros-
ternum, interfrontalia bare ; wings as described by Aldrich except the
'Hew distinct hairs below, none above,’’ seems not to apply invariably
within the genus, the third vein being entirely bare on the specimen
before me. Preseutellar acrostichals absent and the arista with only a
few filaments on the basal half. The typical species is described as
having parafrontals and parafacials golden, which does not apply to
the form before me where these are black.

Balioglutum illingworthi Aldrich.

B. illingworthi Aldrich. Ibidem., 1925, 10.

North Queensland.

An allied species, from Goondiwindi, represented by a single female
lias the superficial colour nearest to the slate blue of Passeromyia, red
antennae, and an entirely dark frons which approaches best the shape
of that on Graphomya.

VOL. XLIX., No. 5.

71

The Zeolites of Queensland.

By Marjorie J. Whitehouse, B.Sc., Department of Geology,

University of Queensland.

{Read before the Royal Society of Queensland^ SOth August, 1937.)

The object of this paper is to give as complete a list as possible of
the known Zeolites of Queensland together with the mode of occurrence
of each, and its associated minerals. In addition a short account of the
mode of formation of Zeolites in general is presented.

The peculiar properties of these minerals, particularly their
continuous dehydration curves and capacity for base exchange, have
attracted almost as much attention as their beauty and delicacy.

Zeolites, although hydrous minerals, are so often found filling
cavities in igneous rocks that much interest in their origin has been
aroused. The original theory, as stated in many works on mineralogy,
is that they are secondary minerals derived by surface weathering and
similar processes and owe their origin to the decomposition of minerals
in the igneous rocks long after consolidation. A Harker (1904)^ in
“The Tertiary Igneous Rocks of Skye” introduced the radically different
idea that Zeolites are products of the final phase of consolidation of
the rocks and stated that the minerals produced by rock weathering
differ from Zeolites in many important respects.

An intermediate position was taken by C. N. Fenner (1910)^ for
although he concluded that the vesicles of the Watchung Basalt were
filled while it cooled, he thought the water concerned in the process was
drawn not from the lava but from the underlying sediments.

J. J. Sederholm (1910)-^ introduced the term “deuteric” for
“certain products occurring as an intergrowth of two minerals by
reason of the action of magmatic end-stage emanations.” R. J. Colony
(1923) extended this term to cover not only the minute structures to
which Sederholm referred but also to “all magmatic end-stage emana-
tion phenomena, which frequently cause large scale changes and very
profound effects, especially in the way of mineralisation.”

J. L. Gillson, W. H. Callahan and W. B. Millar^ in 1928 stated
that the Adirondack .gabbro was intruded by emanations or distillations
of volatile constituents wdiich rising from the chamber whence the gabbro
came, produced “deuteric” minerals and afterwards pegmatites. F. F.
Osborne® though he agreed with these facts thought the process was,
nevertheless, secondary, not deuteric, and restricted the latter term to
changes resulting from emanations derived by the crystallisation of the
rock itself, and therefore produced in the rock towards the close of the
period of crystallisation.

^ A. Harker (1904). Tertiary Igneous Rocks of Skye, p. 41.

‘ C. N. Renner (1910). Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. 20, Pt. 2, pp. 95-187.

® J. J. Sederholm (1916). ^^On Synantetic Minerals and Related Phenomena.”
Bull. Geol. de Finlande, No. 48, p. 142.

^Gillson, J. L., Callahan, W. H., Millar, W. B. (1929). ‘‘Adirondack studies,
the age of certain of the Adirondack gabbros and the origin of the reaction rims
nnd peculiar border phases in them.” Jour, of Geol., Vol. 36, pp. 149-163.

F. P. Osborne (1929). Econ. Geol., Vol. 24, p. 335.

72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Sederholm® in 1929 redefined the term ‘‘deuteric’^ saying that his
original purpose was ‘‘to make it possible to discriminate between such
metasomatic changes as belong to a later period of metamorphism, i,e.^
are secondary in the strictest sense of the word, and those that have
taken place in direct continuation of the consolidation of the magma
of the rock itself.” The term was not meant to be descriptive of the
process, but to denote changes in the minerals caused by the process.
He thought it difficult to decide whether the solutions had emanated
from the nearest portions of the rock masses undergoing crystallisation
or from the magma still remaining liquid at depth, but he was inclined
to lay more stress upon the first of these processes.

Inasmuch as many writers have now accepted this view that Zeo-
lites are formed as final stages of consolidation and not as the first
stages of destruction, they are now usually regarded as deuteric minerals.

Judging from the interest taken in these minerals overseas, it is
rather remarkable that they have escaped attention for so long in
Queensland. One of the first accounts of them is E. B. Linden’s paper,
‘‘A Catalogue of such minerals as are at present known in Queens-
land, with their principal associations and places of occurrence,”
published in 1887. In this Lindon records eight Queensland Zeolites
known at the time.

E. L. Jack, with his usual keen powers of observation, noted several
occurrences which are scattered through his reports.

In “The Queensland Mineral Index” Zeolites are recorded and all
laj own localities are noted. This was published in 1913. From then
until 1926 it is of interest to note that no Zeolites are mentioned in the
reports of the Geological Survey.

QUEENSLAND ZEOLITES.

A brief account of the known Zeolites of Queensland with their
localities is set out below. Those marked with an indicate hitherto
unrecorded specimens.

1. Analcite. Chem. Comp. Na A1 (SiOg)2 + HgO.

Crystalline form: Isometric. Sp. Gr. 2.22-2.29.

A. In cavities and amygdules in altered igneous rocks associated

with Prehnite, Thomsonite and Laumontite.

Loc. Bowen Eiver about 50 to 60 miles S.S.W. of Bowen;
at Pelican Creek a branch of the Bowen River, and at
Strathmore Creek.

Ref. “Report on the Bowen River Coalfield,” by R. L. Jack.
Geol. Surv. Qld. Pub. 4, 1879, p. 6.

See 7a and 12a.

B. In basalt.

Loc. Peak Downs Goldfield, Clermont.

Ref. “Handbook of Queensland Geology,” by R. L. Jack,
1886.

C. Associated with Natrolite and Calcite.

Loc. Morinish Goldfield, 29 miles N.W. of Rockhampton.

Ref. “Qld. Mineral Index,” by B. Dunstan. Geol. Surv. Qld.
Pub. 241, 1913.

See 8k.

® J. J. Sederholm (1929). Eeon. Geol., Vol. 24, p. 869.

THE ZEOLITES OF QUEENS!. AND.

73

D. In decomposed basalt.

Loc. Fitzroy River, Rockhampton.

Ref. ‘‘Qld. Mineral Index,’’ by B. Dunstan. Geol. Surv. Qld.
Pub. 241, 1913.

2. Apophyllite. Chem. Comp. H^K Ca4 (SiOg) Og -|- H2O.

Crystalline form: Tetragonal. Sp. Gr. 2. 2-2.4.
(Although not a true Zeolite this mineral is so closely
related that it is included in this report.)

A. In basalt.

Loc. Evelyn Run, 11 miles S. of Herberton.

Ref. ‘'List of Minerals, Walsh and Tinaroo Mining District,
North Queensland,” by J. Stewart Berge, J. Harrison
Brownlea, R. Colin Ringrose. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., vol. 15,.
1900, p. 61.

B. In basalt.

Loc. Jump-Up Mine, Herberton road, 9 miles S.S.W. of
Alberton Rail Station. Walsh and Tinaroo Mineral Fields.
Ref. “List of Minerals, Walsh and Tinaroo Mining District^
North Queensland,” by J. Stewart Berge, J. Harrison
Brownlea, R. Colin Ringrose. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., vol. 15,
1900, p. 61.

C. In vein of Quartz in granite country.

Loc. Hidden Treasure Mine, East side of Mundic Creek, 24
miles S.S.W. of Rockhampton.

Ref. “Qld. Mineral Index,” by B. Dunstan. Geol. Surv. Qld.,
Pub. 241, 1913.

3. Chabazite. Chem. Comp. (Ca. Nag) Alg Si4 Oi, + 6HgO.

Crystalline form: Rhombohedral. Sp. Gr. 2-08-2-16.

A. In basalt. Peak Downs Goldfield, Clermont.

Ref. “Handbook of Queensland Geology,” by R. L. Jack, 1886.

B. In basalt, associated with Stilbite. Found by A. C. Gregory.
Loc. Toowoomba.

Ref. “Catalogue of Minerals exhibited in the Qld. Court
Colonial and Indian Exhibition of 1886,” p. 131.

See 11a.

C. In decomposed basalt. Freestone Creek, north of Warwick.
Ref. “Qld. Mineral Index,” by B. Dunstan. Geol. Surv. Qld.,

Pub. 241, 1913.

Note : Specimen in Queensland Museum labelled
“Chabazite Loc. Darling Downs” may also refer to this,
specimen.

*D. In cavities in basalt associated with Natrolite, Calcite, and
Quartz.

Loc. Round Mountain, 12 miles S. of Beaudesert.

See 8n.

74

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

3. Chabazite (var. Phacolite).

E. Associated with Calcite, Perro-calcite and Natrolite in basic
volcanic tuff.

Loc. Railway cutting between Spring Bluff and Harlaxton
Railway Station, 5 miles north of Toowoomba.

Ref. “Qld. Mineral Index,’’ by B. Dunstan. Geol. Surv. Qld.,
Pub. 241, 1913. See 8B.

P. Associated with Calcite, Magnesite, and Natrolite in decom-
posed basalt.

Loc. Mt. Davidson, 5 miles S.S.E. of Toowoomba.

Ref. ‘ ‘ Qld. Mineral Index, ” by B. Dunstan. Geol. Surv. Qld.,
Pub. 241, 1913.

See 8h.

4. Gismondite. Chem. Comp. Ca.Al2 (SiOg)^ + 4H20( ?).

Crystalline form: Monoclinic. Sp. Gr. 2.265.

A. In basalt. Rosewood Goldfield, 32 miles N.W. of Rockhampton.
Recorded from specimen in Queensland Museum.

Ref. E. B. Lindon “Catalogue of such minerals as are at
present in Queensland, with their principal associations
and places of occurrence.” Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., vol. 4.
1887, p. 68.

B. In vughs in “granite” associated with Laumontite,
Prehnite, Calcite, Chlorite, and Pyrite.

Loc. Enoggera.

Ref. “The Deuteric Mineral Sequence at Enoggera, Queens-
land,” by M. J. Whitehouse. Min. Mag., vol. XXIV., No.
157, June, 1937.

See 7g.

5. Harmotome. Chem. Comp. IT2(K2 Ba) Alg Sig O^g.

Crystalline form : Monoclinic. Sp. Gr. 2.44-2.50.

A. Muldiva Mines, 7 miles W.S.W. of Almaden Railway Station
(Chillagoe Line). Walsh and Tinaroo Mineral Field.

Ref. “Qld. Mineral Index,” by B. Dunstan. Geol. Surv. Qld,
Pub. 241, 1913.

6. Heulandite. . Chem. Comp. Ca AI2 Sig O^g -j- 3H2O.

Crystalline form : Monoclinic. Sp. Gr. 2-18-2.22.

A. Associated with Calcite and Quartz.

Loc. Plant’s Shaft, Golden Gate Gold Mines, Golden Gate
Reef, 4 miles N.W. of Croydon Railway Station, Croydon
Gold Field.

Ref. “Qld. Mineral Index,” bv B. Dunstan. Geol. Surv. Qld.
Pub. 241, 1913.

B. As a lining in geodes in granite.

Loc. Enoggera.

Ref. Geol. Surv. Museum.

(This Zeolite is not Heulandite but Laumontite q.v.)^

^ See ‘ ‘ Deuteric Mineral Sequence at Enoggera, Queensland, ’ ’ by M. J.

Whitehouse. Min. Mag., Vol. XXIV., No. 157, June, 1937.

THE ZEOLITES OP QUEENSLAND.

75

*C, With Natrolite on melophyre.

Loc. Agricultural Reserve, Rockhampton, Qld.

Ref. Queensland Museum.

See 8o.

D. (or Stilbite) In Quartz veins.

Loc. Plant’s Shaft, Golden Gate Reef, 4 miles N.W. of Croydon
Railway Station.

Ref. ‘‘Qld. Mineral Index,” by B. Dunstan. Geol. Surv. Qld.,,
Pub. 241, 1913.

See 11d.

7. Laumontite. Chem. Comp. Ca Alg Si4 + SHoO.

Crystalline form : Monoclinic. Sp. Gr. 2.25-2.36.

A. In cavities and amygdules in altered igneous rocks associated

with Prehnite, Thomsonite, and Analcite.

Loc. Bowen River, about 50-60 miles S.S.W. of Bowen, at
Pelican Creek, a branch of the Bowen River, and at Strath-
more Creek.

Ref. “Report on Bowen River Goldfield,” by R. L. Jack.

Geol. Surv. Qld. Pub. 4, 1879, p. 6.

See 1a and 12a.

B. Associated with Calcite, Chalcedony, and Agate in basic rock.
Loc. Nr. McGregor, 2J miles N.E. of Mt. Toby, 2J miles N.N.E.

of Mirani Railway Station (Mackay Line).

Ref. “Report on Geological Features of Hazledean with notes
on the Coal, Limestone, and other Mineral Products of
the Mackay District.” Geol. Surv. Qld., Pub. 164, 1901.

C. In altered igneous rocks.

Loc. Bowen River, about 50 miles S.W. of Bowen.

Ref. “Qld. Mineral Index,” by B. Dunstan. Geol. Surv.
Qld., Pub. 241, 1913.

D. Associated with Quartz, Calcite, and Stilbite, in andesite.

Loc. Cracow.

A chemical analysis of this mineral is : —

Per cent.

Water . . . . . . . . . . 14-2

SiOg 50-5

AI2O3 22*4

CaO 12-5

Soda (by Dif.) . . . . . . 0.4

Ref. ‘ ‘ The Cracow Goldfield, ” by A. K. Denmead. Qld. Govt.

Mining Jour., September, 1932, p. 374.

See He.

E. As veinlets or lining joint planes associated with Calcite,
Chlorite, Pyrite, and Stilbite in the andesitic lode material.
Loc. Mt. Coolon.

Ref. “Mount Coolon Goldfield,” by C. C. Morton. Qld. Govt.

Min. Jour., June, 1930, p. 199.

See Hh.

76

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

F. As a lining in geodes in granite.

Loc. Enoggera.

Ref. GeoL Surv. Museum.

G. In veins and vughs associated with Prehnite, Gismondite,

Caleite, Chlorite, Epidote, Tourmaline, Fluorite, Sphalerite’
Molybdenite, and Kaolin in ‘ ‘ granite. ’ ’

Loc. Enoggera.

An analysis of this is —

Per cent.

SiO^ . .

A1,03
Fe^Os . .
CaO . .
MgO . .
Na20 . .
H2O ..

5243

23-04

0-20

11- 85
trace

0-14

12- 64

Ref. ^‘Deuteric Mineral Sequence at Enoggera, Queensland,”
by M. J. Whitehouse. Min. Mag., Vol. XXIV., No. 157,
June, 1937.

See 4b.

8. NatrOlite. Chem. Comp. Nag Alg Sig O^o + 2H2O.

Crystaline form: Orthorhombic. Sp. Gr. 2.20-2.25.

A. In basalt. Peak Downs Goldfield, Clermont.

Ref. ‘‘Handbook of Queensland Geology,” by R. L. Jack, 1886.

B. In basalt.

Loc. Toowoomba and near Ipswich.

Ref. “Catalogue of such minerals as are at present known
in Queensland with their principal associations and places
of occurrence,” by E. B. Lindon. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld.,
vol. 4, 1887, p. 67.

C. At Muldiva, 7 miles W.S.W. of Almaden Railway Station

(Chillagoe line). Walsh and Tinaroo Mining Fields.

Ref. “List of Minerals, Walsh and Tinaroo Mining District,
N. Qld.,” by J. Stewart Berge, J. Harrison Brownlea, and
R. Colin Ringrose. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., Vol. 15, 1900,

p. 61.

D. In basalt.

Loc. Deep Lead, Herberton, 12 miles S.S.W. of Atherton
Railway Station. Walsh and Tinaroo Mining Fields.

Ref. “List of Minerals, Walsh and Tinaroo Mining District,
N. Qld,” by J. Stewart Berge, J. Harrison Brownlea, and
R. Colin Ringrose. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., Vol. 15, 1900,

p. 61.

E. Associated with Chabazite (var. Phacolite), Caleite, and Ferro-

calcite in basic volcanic tuff.

Loc. Railway cutting between Springbluft' and Harlaxton
Railway Stations, 5 miles N. of Toowoomba.

Ref. “Qld. Mineral Index,” by B. Dunstan. Geol. Surv. Qld.,
Pub. 241, 1913.

See 3e.

THE ZEOLITES OP QUEENSLAND.

77

F. In decomposed basalt.

Loc. Rosella Creek, Havilah, Bowen River.

Ref. ‘‘Qld. Mineral Index,” by B. Dunstan. Geol. Surv. Qld.,
Pub. 241, 1913.

G. Loc. Boonah, 55 miles S.S.W. of Brisbane.

Ref. ‘‘Qld. Mineral Index,” by B. Dunstan. Geol. Surv. Qld.,
Pub. 241, 1913.

H. Associated with Calcite, Chabazite, and Magnesite in decom-

posed basalt.

Loc. Mt. Davidson, 5 miles E.S.E. of Toowoomba.

Ref. “Qld, Mineral Index,” by B. Dunstan. Geol. Surv. Qld.,
Pub. 241, 1913.

See 3f.

J. In vesicular basalt. Collected by L. C. Ball.

Loc. “The Palls,” Mapleton, about 7 miles S.W. of Nambour
Railway Station.

Ref. “Qld. Mineral Index,” by B. Dunstan. Geol. Surv. Qld.,
Pub. 241, 1913.

K. Associated with Analcite and Calcite.

Loc. Morinish Goldfield, 29 miles N.W. of Rockhampton.

Ref. “Qld. Mineral Index,” by B. Dunstan. Geol. Surv. Qld.,
Pub. 241, 1913.

See Ic.

*L. Loc. Minden, Rosewood District.

Ref. Geol. Surv. Museum.

"^M, Associated with Chalcedony in basalt.

Loc. Ravenswood.

Ref. Qld. Museum, Reference Collection.

*N. In cavities in basalt associated with Chabazite, Calcite, and

Loc. Round Mountain, Beaudesert District.

See 3d.

"^0. With Heulandite on melaphyre.

Loc. Agricultural Reserve, Rockhampton.

Ref. Queensland Museum.

See 6c.

9. ScoLEciTE. Chem. Comp. Ca(A10H)2 (8103)3 + 21120.

Crystalline form : Monoclinic. Sp. Gr. 2.16-2.4,

A. Magnet Copper Mine, Cloncurry Field.

Ref. Geol. Surv. Museum.

B. Associated with Calcite in granite.

Loc. Mary Mine, Charters Towers Goldfield.

Analysis ; — Per cent.

Quartz.

49.04

26-64

12- 24

13- 30

H2O (by ignition)

trace

78

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

C.

Ref. the Mineral Scolecite occurring on Granite, Charters.
Towers,” by A. W. Clarke. Proc. Roy. Soc. Old., Vol. 4,
1887, p. no.

Associated with Calcite in granite.

Loc. Mexican Mine, Charters Towers Goldfield.

Analysis : —

Per cent.

SiO^ . .

AI2O3

CaO . .
H^O . .

Fe20o . .

47-24

26-64

12-95

14-20

trace

Ref. ‘ ‘ On the Mineral Scolecite occurring on Granite, Charters,
Towers,” by A. W. Clarke. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., Vol. 4,
1887, p. no.

D. Associated with Calcite in granite.

Loc. Queen Block Extd. Mine, Charters Towers Goldfield.

Analysis : —

Per cent.

SiO^ ..

AI2O3

CaO . .
H2O ..

46-25

27-35

13-95

13-47

FegOg . . . . . . . . traces

Ref. ‘ ‘ On the Mineral Scolecite occurring on Granite, Charters-
Towers,” by A. W. Clarke. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., Vol. 4^
1887, p. no.

{Note. — In the same year the above report was
published, E. B. Lindon wrote : “ A Note on a paper entitled
‘On the Mineral Scolecite occurring on Granite, Charters
Towers,’ in which he questioned whether the mineral was
really Scolecite and suggested Laumontite for it.

CJarke replied that on comparing chemical analyses
it was nearer to Scolecite.)

10. Sloanite. Chem. Comp. Hydrated aluminous silicate of lime

and magnesium.

Crystalline form: Orthorhombic. Sp. Gr. 2.441.

A. Indentified from basalt of Darling Downs.

Ref. “Catalogue of Minerals exhibited at Queensland Court,
Colonial and Indian Exhibition, 1886,” p. 131.

{Note. — M. H. Hey in “Studies of the Zeolites, Part
II. ’ states ‘ ‘ Sloanite is another species set up by Meneghini
and Bechi (1852) ; their original analysis is very poor,
but the description suggests laumontite, and this the
British Museum specimen (b.M. 31348, presented by the
Chevalier Sloane in 1860) unquestionably is. E. Manasse
(1906) analysed a specimen of natrolite under this name,
and Dana (Syst. Min. App. II. 1909, p. 74) says this
analysis proves sloanite to be a variety of thomsonite, a
slip several authors have copied).”

^ Min. Mag., Vol. XXIII., No. 137, 1932, p. 114.

THE ZEOLITES OF QUEENSLAND.

79

11. Stilbite. Cliein. Comp. (NaaCa) Al^ Si« + GH^O.

Crystalline form : Monoclinic. Sp. Gr. 2.094-2.205.

A. In basalt associated with Chabazite.

Loc. Toowoomba.

Ref. ''Catalogue of the minerals exhibited in the Queensland
Court, Colonial and Indian Exhibitions of 1886,’’ p. 131.
See 3b.

Ih Loc. On the Fitzroy River, Rockhampton.

Ref. "Catalogue of such minerals as are at present known in
Queensland, with their principal associations and places
of occurrence,” by E. B. Lindon. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld.,
Vol. 4, 1887, p. 67.

C. Associated with Haematite, Wolfram, Garnet, and Mica in

lode in granite.

Loc. Eungella Station, Broken River.

Ref. "Report on the Geological Features )of the Mackay
• District,” by R. L. Jack. Geol. Surv. Qld., Pub. 39,
1887, p. 6.

D. (or Heulandite). In Quartz veins.

Loc. Plant’s Shaft, Golden Gate Reef, 4 miles N.W. of Croydon
Railway Station.

Ref. "Qld. Mineral Index,” by B. Dunstan. Geol. Surv. Qld.,
Pub. 241, 1913.

See 6d.

E. Associated with Quartz, Laumontite, Calcite in veins and

fissures, sometimes with payable gold in andesite.

Loc. Rainbow, Spec, and Golden Gate Leases, Cracow.

Ref. "Recent Developments at Cracow,” by A. K. Denmead,
Qld. Govt. Min. Jour., 1933, p. 238.

See 7d.

F. With Calcite, Pyrite, and Quartz in regular or irregular veins

in andesite tuff and conglomerate.

Loc. Walhalla, 8 miles by road N.N.W. from Cracow.

Ref. "Recent Developments at Cracow,” by A. K. Denmead.
Qld. Govt. Min. Jour., 1933, p. 239.

G. In veins in granite with Quartz, Calcite, pink Kaolinic

material and a waxy mineral resembling Halloysite.

Loc. Golden King Claim, Almaden.

Ref. "Golden King Claim, Almaden,” by A. K. Denmead.
Qld. Govt. Min. Jour., 1934, p. 75.

H. Occurs with Laumontite, Calcite, Pyrite, and Chlorite in

andesitic lode material either as disseminated particles or
as veinlets lining joint planes.

Loc. Mt. Coolon Goldfield.

Ref. "Mt. Coolon Goldfield,” by C. C. Morton. Qld. Govt.
Min. Jour., 1935, p. 199.

See 7e.

80

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

^J. In rhyolite.

Loc. Cave on south side of Glen Rock, Esk.

Ref. Univ. of Qld. Dept, of Geology Museum.

*K. Associated with Calcite.

Loc. Aramac.

Ref. Qld. Museum, Reference Collection.

12. Thomsonite. Chem. Comp. (Na, Ca) Alg (Si04)2 + SJHgO.

Crystalline form: Ortl^orhombic. Sp. Gr. 2.3-2.4.

A. In cavities in amygdaloidal volcanic rock associated with
Prehnite, Analcite, and Laumontite.

Loc. Bowen River, about 50-60 miles S.S.W. of Bowen, at
Pelican Creek, a branch of the Bowen River, and at Strath-
more Creek.

Ref. ‘‘Report on the Bowen River Coalfield,” by R. L. Jack.

Geol. Surv. Qld., Pub. 4, 1879, p. 6.

See 1a and 7a.

13. Zeolites.

(References are sometimes found to Zeolites in general,,
the particular variety not being mentioned.)

A. A stellate group of Zeolites growing on Cassiterite.

Loc. Chance Mine, Watsonville.

Ref. “Catalogue of Minerals exhibited in the Queensland
Court, Colonial and Indian Exhibition of 1886,” p. 25.

B. In basalt.

Loc. Burleigh Heads, Point Danger, and Tambourine
Mountain.

Ref. “Handbook of Queensland Geology,” by R. L. Jack, 1886.

C. Associated with Prehnite in volcanic rocks, both basic and

acid in the Lower Bowen beds.

Loc. Outcropping along the Nogoa River from Nandowrie
Peak to Springsure.

Ref. “Geological Reconnaissance between Roma, Springsure,,
Tambo, and Taroom,” by H. I. Jensen. Qld. Geol. Surv.,
Pub. 277, p. 14.

D. In geodes lined internally with Chalcedony.

Loc. Nanango.

Ref. E. 0. Marks. Abstract Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., August,.
1926, p. xiii.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF QUEENSLAND ZEOLITES.

Ber«e, J. Stewart, Brownlea, J. Harrison, Eingrose, E. Colin. '^List of
Minerals Walsh and Tinaroo Mining Districts, N. Qld. Proc. Eov. Soc..
Qld., Vol. 15, 1900.

Clarke, A. W. ‘‘On the Mineral Scolecite occurring on Granite, Charters Towers.”
Proc. Eoy. Soc. Qld., Vol. 4, 1887.

Denmead, a. K. “The Cracow Goldfield.” Qld. Govt. Min. Jour., 1932, p. 374.
“Eecent Developments at Cracow.” Qld. Govt. Min. Jour., 1933, p. 238.

“Golden King Claim, Almaden. ” Qld. Govt. Min. Jour., 1934, p. 75.

Dunstan, B. “Eeport on the Geological Features of Hazledean, with notes on the
Coal, Limestone and Other Mineral Products of the Mackay District.”'
Geol. Surv. Qld., Pub. 164, 1901.

“Queensland Mineral Index.” Geol. Surv. Qld., Pub. 251, 1913.

THE ZEOLITES OF QUEENSLAND.

81

Jack, E. L. ((Eeport on the Bowen Eiver Coalfield.” Geol. Surv. Qld., Pub. No. 4,
1879.

‘^Handbook of Queensland Geology,” 1886.

“Eeport on the Geological Peatures of the Maekay District.” Geol. Surv.

• Qld., Pub. No. 39, 1887.

Jensen, H. I. “ Geological Eeconnaissanee between Eoma, Springsure, Tambo and
Taroom. ” Geol, Surv. Qld., Pub. No. 277, 1926.

Lindon, E. B. “Catalogue of such minerals as are at present known in Queensland
with their principal associations and places of occurrence.” Proc. Eoy.
Soc. Qld., Vol. 4, 1887, p. 69.

Marks, E. O. Abstract of Proc. Eoy. Soc. Qld., August, 1926, p. xiii.

Morton, C. C. “Mount Coolon Goldfield.” Qld. Govt. Min. Jour., 1935, p, 199.

Whitehouse, M. “The Deuteric Mineral Sequence at Enoggera, Queensland.” Min.
Mag., Vol. XXIV., No. 157, June, 1937.

“Catalogue of minerals exhibited in the Queensland Court, Colonial and Indian
Exhibition,” 1886.

82

VoL. XLIX., No. 6.

The Genus Iseilema in Queensland.

by S. T. Blake, M.Sc., Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic
Biology, University of Queensland.

(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, SOth August, 1937.)

(Plates III. and IV.)

Species of the genus Iseilema are well known to Queensland graziers
under the collective name of “Flinders -grass.” In Hooker’s leones
Plantarum tt. 3284-6 (1935) appears a monograph of the Australian
species of this genus by C. E. Hubbard. Nine species are described, of
which eight occur in Queensland. Of these, two are based on solitary
specimens (I. ciliatum C. E. H., and I. doUchotrichum C. E. H.), and
one (I. convexum C. E. H.) is based chiefly on cultivated specimens.
Two supposed hybrids are also described.

As a result of intensive fleld work carried out over large areas of
the State during the years 1934-6, knowledge of the genus has been
considerably extended. In 1936 the species were particularly abundant
over large areas and copious herbarium material was secured, while an
excellent opportunity was afforded for working out the fleld relations
between the species.

In the following brief account of the results of this investigation,
the species are discussed collectively and individually. Two new species
are described, two more hybrids are indicated, and a key to all known
forms is included. In constructing the latter, characters have been
employed which require some explanation as they were not mentioned
bv Hubbard.

The usual raceme of the Andropogoneae consists in Iseilema of a
cluster of seven spikelets, of which the four outer are pedicelled with
the pedicels fused together at the base. Within this group of
involucral spikelets is a short internode (the rhachis) bearing the
sessile fertile spikelet (female in the Australian species) and two
pedicellate male or neuter spikelets. The involucral spikelets may be
male or neuter, and in the latter case may be considerably reduced or
represented merely by rudimentary pedicels. In most species they are
contracted rather abruptly just below the junction with the pedicel,
and in such cases there is a fairly prominent transverse furrow at
the actual junction (as seen from the front). In some cases, however,
the spikelet is attenuate at base with usually no transverse furrow, so
that, when viewed from the front, the spikelet appears to pass gradually
into its pedicel.

Each raceme is subtended by a spathe, and one or more spathes, each
with its raceme, is more or less enclosed, at least when young, in a
leaf -sheath. At maturity, the racemes of most species become laterally
exserted and finally disarticulate, thus forming a special kind of “seed.”
In three species, however, the mature racemes remain more or less
tightly embraced by the floral leaf -sheaths. The inflorescence breaks up
at maturity, and the “seed” consists of the floral leaf with the raceme
enclosed in its sheath. This is referred to as a “ leafy seed. ’ ’

THE GENUS ISEILEMA IN QUEENSLAND.

83

The species are tufted, branched, shallow-rooted annuals, though
under favourable conditions growth may continue for many months.
For the most part they occur in soils of a heavy nature, and they are
essentially summer-growing grasses. But it is interesting to note that
on 11th May, 1936, at Kalkadoon Station, south-west of Winton, plants of
/. memhranaceum and 1. vaginiflorum were collected which were
evidently the result of a germination following a shower which fell nine
days previously. Though scarcely an inch high, they were flowering.
And in July, the Flinders grasses were in full vigour at Birdsville,
where also I. membranaceum was found in a most unusual habitat,
playing the role of coloniser on a low sandhill.

When in full vigour, the leaf is usually rather pale green in colour,
rarely purplish, while the culms and sheaths are frequently highly
coloured, reddish or purplish; sometimes the culms are slightly pruinose.
As the plants dry off the leaf assumes a characteristic reddish-brown hue
seen also in other Andropogoneae {Themeda, Eulalia, ScMzachyrium,
(fee.). The precise shade of brown Agarics from species to species, while
the tint is also influenced by local conditions. A few points of rain in
winter bleaches the grass, rendering it very brittle and unpalatable.
This ‘"blackening,” as it is generally called, is not confined to these
grasses.

Several species, as indicated below, possess a A-ery characteristic
fragrance Avhich is lost on drying. The scent is precisely that of the
inflorescence of Capillipedium parviflorum Stapf. I. dolichotrichum has
the peculiar resinous odour of the Triodia among which it groAvs, and
which is also possessed by several other plants of the region, such as
xicacia costinervis Domin, and Cyperus Cunninghamii (C. B. Clarke)
C. A. Gardner.

Some of the species have been found attacked by the smut Ciniractia
iseilematis D. A. Herbert.^

The Flinders grasses as a whole are considered to be among the most
palatable and most nutritious of grasses, and they produce excellent
liay. The one great drawback is their annual habit. On the Darling
Downs, where they appear to be recent invaders, they are apparently
not so valuable.

Most of what is known of the genus in this regard refers to the tAVO
most widely distributed species, /. memhranaceum and I. vaginiflorum.
Around the Gulf of Carpentaria I. macraiheruni is the common species,
and is considered to be less Amluable than the species further south.
Whether this is due to local climatic conditions or is an inherent
quality of the species remains to be proved, but it is worthy of remark
that some grasses, including the Mitchell grasses (Astrehlu spp.j,
definitely do depreciate in Amine in this region. Of the other species
nothing is knoAvn beyond the fact that in August, 1936, I found
/. Windersii to be closely grazed in good mixed pasture north of
Hughenden.

There follow the descrii^tions of the two new species, the types of
which are in the Queensland Herbarium, Brisbane.

Iseilema erernaeum S. T. Blake sp. nov. affinis I. membramaceo
(Lindl.) Domin sed basibus racemorum pilis albis usque ad 5 mm. longis
dense barbatis, pedicellis spicularum involucralium tantum leviter sul-
catis, spathis parce glandulosis, gluma inferiore spiculae fertilis parce
pubescente vix scabrida.

^ D. A. Herbert: “Eecords of Queensland Fungi II.’’ Queensland Naturalist X.
(3), 59-60, 1937.

84

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Gramen annuum usque ad 20 cm. altum, plerumque multo humilius.
Culmi caespitosi, obliqui vel erecti, graciles, vix compressi, rigidi, ramosi
(raro simpliees), infra inflorescentiam plerumque 1-nodes, glabri
laevesque. Folia plerumque pallide viridia (in sicco nee glaucescentia) ,
saepe purpurascentia, vetera brunnescentia ; vaginae compressae et
acute carinatae, laeves, baud glanduliferae, internodis saepe longiores,
tenuiter nervosae, marginibus hyalinae ; ligulae truncatae, tenuiter
membranaceae, ciliatae, 0-7-0-9 mm. longae ; laminae lineares vel superiores
angustae lanceolatae, acutae, usque ad 6 cm. longae, sed plerumque
breviores, carinatae, conduplicatae vel explanatae usque ad 4 mm.
iatae, rigidae, marginibus carinisque scabridulis exceptis glaberrimae
laevesque. Inflorescentia foliacea, densa, 2-10 cm. longa; internodia
primaria filiformia, inferiora usque ad 1*3 cm. longa, superiora gradatim
breviora; foliorum vaginae 8-10 mm. longae, acute carinatae, herbaceae,
pallide virides vel purpurascentes tandem pallide brunneae, tenuiter
nervosae, marginibus late hyalinae, carina superne scabridae, ceterum
laeves baud glanduliferae ; spathae ambitu lanceolatae vel elliptico-
lanceolatae acutae, herbaceo-membranaceae vel demum papyraceae,
tenuiter nervosae, marginibus late hyalinae, 6-10 mm. longae, acute
carinatae, carina glandulas minutas sessiles paucas praedita superne
bispida. Racemi tandem later aliter exserti, 7-8 mm. longi, oblongi vel
elliptico-oblongi, tandem a pedunculis disarticulantes ; pedunculi
filiformes 1-5-2-0 mm. longi, apice tuberculos minutos gerentes vel laeves ;
rbacbis 0-5-1-0 mm. longa, pilis albis paucis ad 3-2 mm. longis praedita.
Spiculae involucrales masculae (vel neutrae?) fere contiguae, ellipticae
vel oblongo-ellipticae, acutae, 3-4 mm. longae, dorso compressae, pallide
virides vel purpurascentes ; pedicelli graciles compressi, ca. 1-5 mm. longi,
glabri, apice levissime transversim sulcati, basi connati et pilis albis
sericeis ad 5 mm. longis dense barbati; gluma inferior dorso plana vel
leviter convexa, tenuiter coriacea, marginibus angustis inflexis tenuiter
membranaceis, 7-11-nervis, dorso sparse asperula vel fere laevis,
carinis scabrida et interdum glandulis minutis sessilibus perpaucis
praedita ; gluma superior oblanceolato-oblonga, acutiuscula, coriacea
vel membranacea, 3-nervis, glaberrima, 3-3*6 mm., longa; lemma
inferius anguste oblongum, obtusum, byalinum, enerve, glabrum, usque
ad 3*3 nun. longum; lodiculae cuneatae truncatae; antherae 0-8-1-0 mm.
longae. femina lanceolata, acuminata, 5-0-5-5 mm. longa; "

gluma inferior coriacea, biloba, inferne marginibus incurva, superne :
bicarinata carinis scaberula, dorso in parte superiore parce et breve
pubescens, ceterum glabra laevisque, 8-nervis ; gluma superior lanceolata,
acute acuminata, coriacea, marginibus incurvis, hyalina, 3-nervis; nervo
medio apicem versus scabridula, ceterum glabra laevisque ; lemma inferius
ovatum, obtusum, emarginatum, byalinum, enerve, 2*9-3*3 mm. longum; "
lemma superius lineare integrum, 3*5 mm. longum; arista 13-16 mm.
longa, columna minute scaberula, 5-0-6-5 mm. longa; paleae desunt; |
caryopsis ellipitica, 2*5 mm. longa. Spiculae pecUcellatae masculae (vel
neutrae ?), lanceolatae, subacutae, 2-3 mm. longae; pedicelli filiformes [
2-5-3-0 mm. longi, scabridi et pilis longis sericeis paucis praediti ; gluma
inferiora membranacea, 7-9-nervis, carinis superne scabrida nonnunquam
parce glandulifera, ceterum laevis; gluma superior hyalina, 3-nervis;
lemma inferius anguste oblanceolatum, byalinum, usque ad 2*5 mm.
longum.

THE GENUS ISEILEMA IN QUEENSLAND.

85

Gregory North District : Marion Downs between Bedoiirie and
Bonlia on upper slopes of low stony hill ca. + 150 ft., 23-7-1936 Blake
12347, Gregory South District : Birdsville, on fine drift sand on gibber
slopes 19-7-1936, Blake 12213 (type).

The species can be recognised by the complete absence of glands on
culms, leaves and floral sheaths, the rather small long-bearded racemes,
the pedicels of the involucral spikelets glabrous except at the very base,
and the slightly hairly low^er glume of the fertile spikelet.

Most interesting is the discovery of this species so far from the
centre of concentration of the genus, and in a region of such low rainfall
(5-8 in.). At Birdsville the plants were found on the slopes of the
gravelly downs (Sturt’s Stony Desert) at some few miles both to the
east and to the north of the town in company with I. vaginiflorum
and the hybrid swarm between them. In the former place the accom-
panying plants W'cre chiefly Bassia spp. and Stenopetalum lineare. In the
latter place they were associated with scattered trees of the peculiar
almost PinusAkkQ ^^waddy” {Acacia Pence F. Muell.), CJienopodiaceae,
and scattered Astrehla pectinaia. On Marion Downs the plants were
found on the slopes of one of the flat-topped sandstone hills wdiich are
scattered over the gravelly downs in this region. Other annual plants
were associated.

Iseilema fragile S. T. Blake sp. nov. affinis I. vaginifloro Domin, a
quo differt inflorescentia fragillima, vaginis floriferis (induratis)
subcylindricis convolutis, spathis inferne semicylindricis, spiculis
involucralibus cum earum pedicellis semper ad squamas minutas
redactis.

Gramen annuum fragillimum usque ad 20 cm. altum. Culmi
caespitosi, obliqui vel erecti, graciles sed rigidi, admodum compress!,
laeves, ramosissimi, ramis saepissime fasciculatis. Folia pallide viridia,
vetera rubro-brunnea ; vaginae compressae carinatae, nervosae, superne
scabridulae ; ligulae membranaceae, laceratae vel ciliatae, ca. 0-75 mm.
longae ; laminae lineares usque ad 7 cm. longae et ad 4 mm. latae, acutae
utraque pagina plus minusve scabridulae. Inflorescentia foliacea, partes
ultimae densae 1-3 cm. longae ; internodia primaria 3-5, facillime disar-
ticulantia, gracilia, usque ad 4 mm. longa, superiora gradatim breviora,
trigona, glabra, laevia; foliorum vaginae vix vel hand carinatae, sub-
cylindricae, cartilagineae, marginibus tenuiores convolutae, 5-7 mm.
longae, ca. 1 mm. diam., plurinerves, laeves. Racemi (aristis exceptis)
cum spathis fere omnino obtecti, anguste lineares 8 mm. long!. ; spathae
ambitu linearo-oblanceolatae, acutae, plurinerves, cartilagineae, albidae,
apicem versus herbaceae vel subpapyraceae et nervis viridibus manifestis,
marginibus anguste hyalinae, 8-12 mm. longae ; pedunculi graciles
0-75-1-0 mm. longi, glabri laevesque ; rhachis glabra ca. 0-75 mm. longa.
Spiculae involucrales nullae, earum pedicelli ad squamas minutas semper
redact!. Spicida fertilis feminea, anguste lanceolata, acuminata, 7 mm.
longa; gluma inferior lanceolata, acuminata, breviter acuteque biloba,
marginibus inferne incurvis apice versus bicarinatis, carinis hispidulis
exceptis glabra, 8-nervis, tenuiter cartilaginea ; gluma superior lanceolata
acuminata, 3-nervis, marginibus inflexis hyalina; lemma inferius
hyalinum, lanceolatum, obtusum apice laceratum, 4-0-4-2 mm. longuni;
lemma superius lineare, bilobum, lobis filiformibus 0-5-0-7 mm. longis,
hyalinum, 1-nerve, 5 mm. longum; arista valde geniculata 16-18 mm.
longa, columna scabridula, 7 mm. longa ; caryopsis oblongo-elliptica,
3-75 mm. longa. Spiculae pedicellatae dimorphae, quaruni una mascula

86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

vel neiitra, iina semper neutra, lanceolatae vel anguste lanceolatae,
acutae, usque ad 4-2 mm. longae ; pedicelli gracillimi, complauati,
margiiiibus hispiduli, 3-0-3-5 mm. longi; gluma inferior tenuiter mem-
branacea, 4-6-nervis, laevis, vel minuta ; gluma superior hyalina, 3-nervis
vel nulla; lemma inferius lineare, apice acute trilobum, hyalinum,
enerve, usque ad 2-75 mm. longum vel nullum; lemma superius nullum;
lodiculae lineares bilobae, vel nullum ; antherae 1-3-1-6 mm. longae.

Burke District: Iffley Station, approx. 19° 25' S., 141° 1' E.,
on grassland (Astrehla, &c.) plain on heavy dark grey soil, 20-8-1936,
Blake 12636 ; Rocklands Station, Camooweal, grassland plain on grey
gravelly clay loam, 750 ft., 1-5-1935, Blake 8844a ; Julia Creek, 3-1934,
Moodie; comm. Agric. Chemist lab. 4747 (mixed with 7. vaginiflorwm
Domin) ; Richmond, river flats and channels on heavy brown loam ca.
700 ft., 9-6-1936, Blake 11676; Hughenden, grassland downs on grey-
brown clay loam ca. 1,100 ft., 19-5-1936, Blake 11545 (type). Mitchell
District: Prairie, grassland plains on heavy dark soils, 1,400 ft.,
22-5-1936, Blake 11616. Moreton District: Brisbane, cultivated on sandy
soil from seed of type-collection, 11-4-1937, Blake 12924.

Easily recognised by its copiously branched habit, its extreme
fragility, the hard and shining nearly terete floral sheaths with convolute
margins, the spathes semicylindric and hardened in their lower part,
and the absence of involucral spikelets, this distinctive and most interest-
ing species exhibits the greatest amount of reduction in the genus. The
involucral spikelets are constantly reduced to the merest rudiments
of pedicels, one of the pedicellate spikelets appears to be constantly
neuter and reduced, while one raceme was found bearing apparently
perfect grain where both pedicellate spikelets were reduced to a more
or less rudimentary glume.

In /. vaginiflorum Domin, which the species most resembles, the
floral sheaths are rounded on the back with slightly convex sides
and appressed margins and enclose two or more racemes of which
the outermost has at least some of the involucral spikelets prominent
though usually reduced to the lower glume. The others show increasing
degrees of reduction and approach those of I. fragtile. As in the other
species, however, the spathe is acutely keeled.

In habit J. fragile resembles I. macratherum, but is a smaller and
more slender plant. Because of the ease with which the plants break
up, perfect herbarium specimens are difficult to prepare.

The species was fairly abundant in the neighbourhood of
Hughenden where it appeared to be quite indifferent to variations in
drainage conditions. Nothing is known as to its particular merits as a
fodder grass.

THE GENUS ISEILEMA IN QUEENSLAND.

87

KEY TO THE AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF ISEILEMA AND

THEIR HYBRIDS.

Racemes becoming laterally exserted and finally disarticulating
from their peduncles ; involucral spikelets abruptly contracted into fheir
pedicels with a transverse furrow at junction, or if not, then the racemes
bearded at base with hairs up to 5 mm. long ; inflorescence not disarticu-
lating at maturity, the floral leaf sheaths herbaceous, always sharply
keeled.

Racemes either glabrous at base or bearded with hairs 1-3 mm.
long, or if up to 5 mm. long, then involucral spikelets at least
5 mm. long on short pedicels; involucral spikelets abruptly con-
tracted into their pedicels and transversely furrowed at junction.

Involucral spikelets 4-6*5 mm. long
on pedicels J-J their length.

Racemes glabrous, lower lemma
L3- nerved . . . . 1.

Racemes bearded at base, lower
lemma nerveless.

Leaf-blades with long tubercu-
late-based hairs ; keels of
involucral spikelets long-
. ciliate . , . . . . 2.

Leaf-blades glabrous, keels of
involucral spikelets pubes-
cent or scabrous.

Floral leaf-sheaths glandular
on keel, involucral spike-
lets flattened on back,
densely pubescent.

Racemes bearded at base
with hairs 2-3 mm.

long . . . . . . 3.

Racemes bearded at base
with hairs 4-5 mm.

long . . . . . . 0.

Floral leaf-sheath eglandular,
lower glume of involu-
cral spikelets very con-
vex on back . . . . 4.

Involucral spikelets 3-4 mm. long,
on pedicels their length,
scabrous on back . . . . 5.

Racemes densely bearded at base with hairs up to 5 mm. long,
involucral spikelets attenuate on to their pedicels which are
their length and not or but slightly furrowed at the junction.
Pedicels of involucral spikelets
bearded only at base ; plants
eglandular except for scattered
glands on keels of spathes and

sometimes of involucral spikelets 6. 1. eremaeum

Pedicels of involucral spikelets
bearded throughout ; upper
part of internodes and keels of

floral sheaths closely glandular 7. I. doUcJiotrichum

I. calvum

I. ciliatum

I. Winder sii
I. trichopus

I. convexum

. membrcmaceum

88

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Racemes either quite enclosed within the floral sheaths, or if more
or less exserted, then glabrous or shortly bearded (hairs rarely up to
3 mm. long),. the involucral spikelets attenuate on their pedicels which
are about ^ their length, with no or only an indistinct transverse furrow,
or the spikelets reduced or absent; inflorescence usually readily dis-
articulating at maturity, the racemes usually falling with their sheaths.

Floral leaf -sheaths herbaceous or somewhat indurated, keeled,
racemes at length more or less exserted, sometimes disarticulating ;
involucral spikelets more or less developed, rarely absent.

Awn 2-3 cm. long ; plant rather
. regularly glandular on edge
and keel of leaf and on keel of

floral sheath . . . . . . 8. I. macratherum

Awn rarely attaining 2 cm. long;
p]ant eglandular or with few
scattered glands.

Lower lemma 1-3-nerved . . 11.

Lower lemma nerveless.

Racemes bearded at base with
hairs 2-3 mm. long

12.

or very

Racemes glabrous
shortly bearded.

Involucral spikelets faintly
furrowed at junction

Involucral spikelets not fur-
rowed at junction

I. vaginiflorum
X Z. calvum

I. vaginiflorum
X I. eremaeum

13. I. vaginiflorum
X Z. memhranaceum

14. Z. vaginiflorum

X Z. macratherum^

r

Floral leaf-sheaths becoming indurated and cartilaginous,
rounded on back downwards ; racemes almost wholly enclosed and
tightly embraced by the spathes and floral sheaths; involucral
spikelets usually reduced to a more or less hyaline lower glume or
absent ; plants entirely eglandular or with but few scattered glands

on keel of sheath. ^

i

Each floral sheath with 2-3 spathes '

and racemes of which the lowest
(outermost) at least has involu-
cral spikelets ; floral sheaths
with slightly convex sides and
appressed margins ; spathes
acutely keeled
Bach floral sheath with one raceme,
subcylindric with convolute
margins ; involucral spikelets
constantly reduced to minute

rudiments of pedicels . . . . 10. Z. fragile

■i

9. Z. vaginiflorum

I. trichopus (No. 0 in the key) has not yet been found in Queensland.

In the following enumeration of species a vernacular name for
popular usage has been suggested for each species. Two of these were

THE GENUS ISEILEMA IN QUEENSLAND.

89

proposed by Everist in Queensl. Agric. Journ. n.s. xliii., 382, 1935, but
it must be admitted that in our present state of our knowledge of the
genus the names are unfortunately chosen.

Unless stated to the contrary, all the collections cited were made
by myself.

1. /. calvum C.E.H., Coarse Flinders Crass (in allusion to its
habit) is pre-eminently a species of the channels and the deeper, damper
depressions where it usually forms small patches. It is the coarsest
species in the genus, the culms are more regularly erect, and the old
leaves are of a paler, less reddish tint than usual. The large glabrous
raceme and the unique 1-3-nerved lower lemmas are very characteristic.

The type comes from Jardine Valley about 12 miles east of
Hughenden, and Hubbard records it also from Hughenden and Nonda
in the Burke District and from the Gilbert River in the Cook District.
I found it common between Hughenden and Jardine Valley (No. 11626)
where it occupied depressions as described above, and at the following
new localities : —

Burke District : Iffley Station, about 130 miles south of Normanton,
grassland {Astrebla, &c.) plains on heavy dark grey soil 20-8-1936, No.
12635 ; Oorindi, 40 miles east of Cloncurry, on grassland plain on light
brown gravelly sandy loam, 428 ft., 18-5-1936, No. 11626. Gregory
North District : Prensham Station, near Kynuna, in stream channels,
ca. 700 ft., 13-5-1936, No. 11498 ; Tranby Station, about 60 miles south-
v/est of Winton, in stream channels, 9-5-1936, No. 11427.

Also seen but not collected at various places between Hughenden
and Winton in depressions in the grassland in May, 1936.

2. 7. ciliatv/m C.E.H., Hairy-leaved Flinders Grass, was based on a
solitary specimen collected by Domin in February, 1910, near
Hughenden, in grassy places towards Mount Walker. The Hughenden
district has been well searched since without the species being redis-
covered. I visited the locality in 1934 and twice in 1935, but it was
not until May, 1936, that a small patch was finally located near the foot
of Mount Walker towards the northern end. The plants were growing
with 7. convexum near the head of a small gully in scattered Gidgea
country. It is a very distinctive species, very strongly scented in the
living state. One of its most outstanding characters was not described
by Hubbard. Scattered along the margins of the leaves, particularly
near the base, are rather long, slender, tuberculate-based hairs, a
character unknown in any other species. The grain, also hitherto
nndescribed, is elliptic and 3*5 mm. long. The densely long-ciliate keels
of the involucral spikelets are a prominent character.

Burke District: Near Hughenden near Mount Walker, on yellowish
brown gravelly sandy loam at head of small gullies in Gidgea {Acacia
Cambagei) parkland, 1,250 ft., 24-5-1936, No. 11628. Moreton District:
Brisbane, cultivated on sandy soil, 18-4-1937, No. 12932.

3. 7. Windersii C.E.H., Scented Flinders Grass, occurs chiefly on
open Mitchell grass plains and downs, not however in association with
Astrebla pectinata. It is usually somewhat stouter and less spreading
than the widespread 7. vaginiflorum, while its strong sweetish smell is
very pronounced in its native habitat, though less so on cultivated
specimens. Hubbard records the species from near Camooweal, near
Nonda and near Hughenden. Recent records are : —

Burke District : Normanton, in dried-out swampy Eucalyptus
niicrotheca parkland on yellowish sandy loam — one dead plant 2 ft.

90

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

long — 8-8-1936, No. 12493 ; near Camooweal on Rocklands Station, grass-
land plain on grey gravelly clay loam, 750 ft., 1-5-1935, No. 8843;
Yelvertoft Station, between Mount Isa and Camooweal, on muddy edge
of waterliole, 21-4-1935, No. 8624; Oorindi, 40 miles east of Cloncurry,
grassland plain on light-brown gravelly sandy loam, 428 ft., 18-5-1936,
No. 11538; Torver Valley Station ca. 30 miles north of Hughenden, on
grassland tableland on grey-black clay ca. 1,300 ft., 24-8-1936, No. 12654.
Gregory North District: Frensham Station, near Kynuna, in open
Astrehla grassland on grey-brown clay silt, ca. 750 ft., 13-5-1936, No.
11495 ; Manuka Station, near Corfield, in channels, ca. 850 ft., 7-6-1936,
No. 11666 ; Mitchell District : Prairie, grassland plain on dark-grey clay
loam with fine gravel, 1,400 ft., 22-5-1936, No. 11612.

4. I. convexum C.E.H. Yellow Flinders Grass. In general habit
this species closely resembles J. Windersii, but it is not or only very
faintly scented. The bulging usually yellowish racemes serve to dis-
tinguish it. This grass has a tendency to restrict itself to depressions,
forming a zone outside I. calvum, or else occupying the centre of
depressions too shallow to support that species.

1. convexum was described chiefly from cultivated specimens, and
the only natural habitats cited are in the neighbourhood of Hughenden.
In May, 1936, I found it very common in the latter region (Nos. 11548,
11627, 11639), and also in the following localities:

Burke District: Iffley Station, 130 miles south of Normanton, in
grassland {AstreJbla, &c.) on heavy dark grey soil, 20-8-1936, No. 12634;
Richmond, on river flats and channels on heavy brown loam, ca. 700 ft.,
9-6-1936, No. 11672; Tarbrax Station, about 30 miles south of Max-
welton, on open grassland downs, 28-7-1936, No. 12406. Gregory North
District: Tranby Station, about 60 miles south-west of Winton, in
channels, 9-5-1936, No. 11428.

5. 7. memhranaceum (Lindl.) Domin. This species was called
“Small Flinders Grass” by Everist, but it grows as tall as most other
species though it is frequently rather more slender. The statement that
it dries off to a pale straw colour is incorrect. Normally it becomes
reddish brown. The best distinguishing characters of this very widely
spread species are the very small racemes very shortly bearded or nearly
or quite glabrous at the base, and the scabrous involucral spikelets.
Though usually found on heavy soils it is occasionally to be found on
sandy soils particularly on railway embankments, and an extreme and
very interesting habitat cited below is the crest of a low desert sand-
dune where it was behaving as a coloniser.

Among the very numerous localities from which this species was
collected, the following are cited to indicate its geographical distribution
or peculiarities in habitat. If a locality or a neighbouring locality has
been cited by Hubbard, it is marked with an asterisk. ^

Burke District: Rocklands Station, ^Camooweal, grassland plain
on grey gravelly clay loam, 750 ft., 1-5-1935, No. 8845; Flinders River,
lat. 19° 30' S., “common on Iffley on black soil,” 20-8-1936, No. 12644;
Oorindi, 40 miles east of Cloncurry, in grassland on light brown gravelly
sandy loam, 428 ft., 18-5-1936, No. 11537 ; Richmond, on banks and
dry beds of channels, ca. 700 ft., 17-6-1934, No. 6281; Hughenden, grass-
land downs on grey-brown clay loam, ca. 1,100 ft., 19-5-1936: Mitchell
District : *Prairie, grassland plains on heavy grey soils, 1,400 ft.,
22-5-1936, No. 11617 ; Dundonald and Rodney Downs Stations, between

THE GENUS ISEILEMA IN QUEENSLAND.

91

'^Longreach and Aramac, on open grassland downs on greenish grey
elay, 3-5-1936, No. 11361. Gregory North District: Frensham Station,
near Kynuna, in open Astrebla grassland on grey-brown clay silt, ca.
750 ft., 13-5-1936, No. 11496; Manuka Station, near Corfield, in open
grassland, ca. 850 ft., 7-6-1936, No. 11665; Tranby Station, ca, 60 miles
south-west of Winton, in channels, 9-5-1936, No. 11425 ; near Boulia on
grassy plain, 24-7-1936, No. 12370; 35 miles south of Bedourie on Eyre^s
Creek flood, 21-7-1936, No. 12302. Gregory South District: Birdsville,
on Diamantina flood, 19-7-1936, No. 12214; on low sandhill. No. 12244;
Betoota, in channels, 17-7-1936, No. 12168; near Windorah on flood-
plain of Cooper’s Creek, 11-7-1936, No. 12077; Mount Howitt Station,
ca. 100 miles west of Eromanga, in channels of Cooper’s Creek, 6-7-1936,
No. 12020; Nockatunga Station, approx. 27° 30' S., 143° 0' E., on silt
beds, 28-6-1936, No. 11876; Warrabin Station, between Quilpie and
Windorah, near pools (crab-holes) in mulga country, 24-4-1934, No.
5503. Warrego District: Chesterton Station, approx. 25° 20' S., 147°
20' E., in mixed grassland on dark grey clay silt, ca. 1,750 ft., 9-4-1936,
No. 11168; ^Charleville, depressions in lightly timbered country, ca.
950 ft., 19-4-1934, No. 5334 ; Cunnamulla, grassland plain on light brown
silt clay, 600 ft., 12-4-1936, No. 11199 ; Thargomindah, on creek bank,
400 ft., 24-6-1936, No. 11774; Morven, on grassland on dark brown silt
clay, ca. 1,400 ft., 1-5-1934, No. 5668 ; and also associated with myall
{Acacia pendula), 2-4-1936, No. 10989. Maranoa District: Roma, in
open grassy places on heavy soils, ca. 1,000 ft., 29-3-1936, No. 10885 ;
"^Noondoo Station, south-east of Dirranbandi, on grassland with
Eucalyptus coolahah on dark brown silt clay, 28-2-1936, No. 10571.
Leichhardt District: Minerva, north of Springsure, grassland on dark
grey clay loam, 800-1,000 ft., 7-3-1935, No. 7932. Darling Downs Dis-
trict: Dulacca to Palardo, in railway enclosure (very common at
Palardo), on sandy soil, 15-2-1935, No. 7581; ^Jondaryan, grassland on
dark grey clay, 1,250 ft., 22-2-1935, No. 7581. Moreton District:
— Brisbane, spontaneous beside pathway, 26-4-1937.

Also recorded from North Kennedy District (Pentland) and from
Port Curtis District (Biloela, and between Rockhampton and Westwood).

6. I. eremaeum S. T. Blake. Bunch Flinders Grass — in allusion to
its dense compact habit. See above.

7. I. doUcliotrichum C.E.H. Rough-stemmed Flinders Grass is
suggested as a vernacular on account of the stems (culms) being
roughened by small glands just below the nodes. This species was
described by Hubbard from a solitary plant collected by himself at
Duchess in February, 1931, during a very dry period. As the result of
excellent rains earlier in the year it was very abundant near that town in
May, 1936, near one of the rugged ridges so characteristic of the region.
Most of the plants were growing near the foot among Triodia,
EnneapogoUf and NeuracJine, but quite a number ascended the ridge,
growing in the little pockets of soil between the boulders. The plants
formed small tufts mostly 3-4 in. high, with a distinct resinous odour.
The old leaves were less reddish and paler than usual in the genus. At
the base of the plants were small masses of ‘‘seed” held together by the
long hairs at the base of the racemes.

Gregory North District : Duchess, in valleys on stony brownish red
loam associated with Triodia and scattered Eucalyptus leucophylla at
1,200 ft., 18-5-1936, No. 11519. Moreton District: Brisbane, cultivated
on sandy soil from seed from above, 11-4-1937, No. 12920.

92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

8. 1. macratJierum Domin, Bull Flinders Grass (name recorded
in C. T. White 1478 as the local name on the Gilbert River) This
species is usually recognisable by its profusely branched habit and its
faint but distinct odour similar to that of I. Windersii. It is however
very closely allied to the following species and this relationship will be
discussed below. Until recently known only from Chillagoe and the
Gilbert River, its known range now extends into the region of greatest
concentration of species. The new records are : —

Cook District: Koolatah Station, approx. 15° 50' S., 142° 15' E.,
on parkland to open grassland on yellowish silt clay, 16-8-1936, No.
12582. Burke District : Normanton, in dried-out swampy Eucalyptus
rnicrotheca parkland among tall grass on yellowish sandy loam, 8-8-1936,
No. 12494; Magoura Station, west of Normanton, on river bank,
31-5-1935, No. 9191; between Normanton and Burketown on “black
soil” plains, 31-5-1935, No. 9213; Burketown, in Astrehla grassland on
yellow-brown clay loam, ca. 30 ft., 1-6-1935, No. 9250; Riversleigh
Station, approx. 19° 0' S., 138° 45' E., old alluvial flats on grey-brown
fine sand, 21-4-1935, No. 8702; Rocklands Station, near Camooweal,
grassland plain on grey gravelly clay loam, 750 ft., 1-5-1935, No. 8844;
Pymurra, 18 miles east of Cloncurry, on dark brown soil with scattered
gidgea (Acacia Camhagei) , 611 ft., 18-5-1936, No. 11534; Oorindi, 40
miles east of Cloncurry, in grassland on light brown gravelly sandy loam,
428 ft., 18-5-1936, No. 11535; Quarrel’s Siding, near Julia Creek, in
grassland on greenish grey fine silt, 496 ft., 18-5-1936, No. 11542;
Hughenden, grassland downs on grey-brown clay loam, ca. 1,100 ft.,
19-5-1936, No. 11543. Gregory North District: Manuka Station, Corfield,
on grassland downs, 840 ft., 7-6-1936, No. 11664. Mitchell District:
Morelia, between Ijongreach and Winton, grassland on dark brown clay
loam, 828 ft., 28-5-1936, No. 11640.

9. I. vaginiflorum Domin. Called Red Flinders Grass by Everist.^"
When well grown this species has usually a loosely spreading habit, but
small plants are more rigid and erect. Generally speaking, the culms
and sheaths are of a rich purplish colour — often more highly coloured
than in other species — but very rarely as in No. 11656 from near Long-
reach, these parts are very pale and not at all purplish. Such plants
were very few and were growing with highly coloured plants. The
species is further discussed below in dealing with hybridism. It is very
widely distributed, and, as a rule, very common in any one locality,
occurring under a variety of drainage conditions. Very rarely indeed
is it found on light soils.

Distribution. — Burke District : Almost throughout the southern part
as far north as Camooweal and Iffley (No. 12643). Mitchell District:
Widely spread on the grasslands. North Kennedy District : Charters
Towers (ex Hubbard). Gregory North District: near Boulia on grassy
plain, 24-7-1936, No. 12369; Frensham Station, near Kynuna, in open
Astrebla grassland on grey-brown clay silt, ca. 750 ft., 13-5-1936, No,
11497 ; Winton, grassland downs on stony light yellowish brown clay
loam, 600 ft., 30-6-1934, No. 6536 ; Kalkadoon Station, approx. 22° 30'
S., 142° 25' E., in channels of Diamantina River, 11-5-1936, No. 11463,
tiny plants ca. 1 in. high; Tranby Station, ca. 60 miles south-west of
Winton, in channels, 9-5-1936, No. 11426. Gregory South District’
Birdsville, on fine drift sand on gibber slopes, 19-7-1936, No. 12212a;

^ By some mistake Hubbard records this name as ^ ‘ Bull Mitchell Grass. ’ ’

THE GENUS ISEILEMA IN QUEENSLAND.

9S

45 miles west of Windorah on stony hilly country in Acacia scrubs
14-7-1936, No. 12118 ; Warrabin Station, between Quilpie and Windorah,
24-4-1934; grassland plain on light grey silt loam. No. 5491; edge of
pools (crab-holes) in mulga country. No. 5502; '“'AVindorah, on flood
plain of Cooper’s Creek, 12-7-1936, No. 12080. Warrego District: West
of Thargomindah on pale grey silt clay flats, ca. 400 ft., 25-6-1936, No.
11788 ; Cunnamulla, on sandy patch, 29-4-1934, No. 5629 ; on grassland
plains on light brown silt clay, 12-4-1936, No. 11198. Leichhardt Dis-
trict: Minerva, north of Springsure, very common in mixed grassland
on dark grey clay loam, ca. 800 ft., 6-3-1935, No. 7907 ; (cited by Hubbard
from Emerald and Peak Downs). Port Curtis District; Rockhampton,
a weed in sports ground on sandy soil, 2-3-1935, No. 7787.

10. 1. fi-agile S.T. Blake. Brittle Flinders Grass. See above, p. 85.

All but two of the above species are very distinct and can be readily
distinguished either in the herbarium or in the field. There is, however,
a difficult series of forms apparently connecting 7. macratlierum and I.
vaginifllorum, species which, when typically developed are readily
distinguished as follows : —

7. macrathemm. — Plant copiously branched, frequently sub-erect,
distinctly scented when fresh ; floral leaf-sheaths acutely keeled at least
in upper half, herbaceous throughout or only slightly hardened near the
base, glandular on the keel ; margins and keel of the leaves also rather
closely glandular, at least near the base ; mature racemes partly exsert ;
involucral spikelets well developed with firm glumes and a lower lemma ;
awn 2-3 cm. long.

7. vaginifloruni. — Plant less branched, more slender, usually droop-
ing or spreading, not scented ; floral leaf-sheaths not keeled, becoming
hardened and rounded on the back downwards at maturity, keel
eglandular or with a very few scattered glands ; leaves not glandular ;
racemes always almost completely enclosed; involucral spikelets usually
reduced to a membranous lower glume or even still further reduced ;
awn rarely so long as 2 cm.

The other forms of the series vary in habit with more or less
distinctly keeled and somewhat hardened floral sheaths and partially
exsert racemes with shorter awns than in 7. macratherum. Involucral
spikelets are variable, even on the same specimen, but are usually better
developed than in 7. vaginifloriim. Glands are usually present, but few
in number, and irregularly scattered. One or more frequently occurs
on the keels of the lower glume of the involucral spikelets. It certainly
seems probable that such forms are hybrids of which 7. vaginifloruni
is one of the parents. Such forms appear to be very rare ; as a rule
only isolated plants have been found, and then mostl^y in company with
both suspected parents. In one case (No. 12 below) a hybrid swarm
seems to have been detected, and it is in this collection alone that well-
formed grain was found.

11. 7. vaginifloruni x. 7. calvum. — This form is only known from
the two specimens collected by Hubbard and AVinders at Jardine A^alley
where it was found growing in company with its supposed parents. One
of these specimens is now in the Queensland Herbarium. AVith the
habit of 7. calvum the racemes look rather like those of 7. vaginifloruni ,
but are somewhat exsert, and the lower lemma is 1-3-nerved.

12. 7. vaginiflorum x. 7. eremaeum. — Numerous specimens of this
form were collected at Birdsville on fine drift sand overlying gibber

R.s. — D

94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

slopes in company with its supposed parents (19-7-1936, No. 12212).
The three forms here occurred as small compact tufts, very similar to
one another in appearance. The inflorescence disarticulates at the nodes
as in the first species, but the racemes are subexsert and frequently fall
jjefore the inflorescence breaks up. The racemes approach those of I.
vaginifiorum in general appearance, but the hairs at the base are up to
3 mm. long. The involucral spikelets are either male or neuter; when
male they resemble those of I. eremaeum; when neuter, they are very
similar to those of L vaginifiomm.

13. I. vaginifiorum x J. memljranaceum. — There are two distinct
forms of this. In the original form described by Hubbard, the habit is
that of I. vaginifionm , but by reason of the thinner, more distinctly
keeled floral sheaths, and the partly exsert racemes with better developed
involucral spikelets, it resembles 7. niacratherum rather closely. But
the awns are shorter, the involucral spikelets are furrowed at the junc-
tion with the pedicel, and glands are almost confined to a few scattered
ones on the keels of the involucral spikelets. This form has only been
found in the Leichhardt District. I have seen one of the three collections
cited by Hubbard {White 3418 from Clermont) and my 8064 from
Blair Athol on grassland, 16-3-1935, is the same form.

Another collection from Hughenden (on grassland downs on grey-
brown clay loam, ca. 1,100 ft., 19-5-1936, No. 11547) appears also to be
a hybrid between the same two species, but the habit is similar to that
of 7. membranaceum. Very few specimens were found though others
were diligently sought for.

14. 7. vaginifiorum x 7. macratherum.- — To this is referred a
curious series of specimens from Prairie (grassland plains on heavy
dark soils, 1,400 ft., 20-5-1936, No. 11614). In habit some specimens
approach one species, some the other. Racemes are included to sub-
exsert, the involucral spikelets mostly reduced to a thin lower glume,
the floral sheaths hardened but strongly nerved, glands are numerous,
few or absent, and leaves glandular or not. There is no degree of
constancy, even on the same specimen.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.*

Plate III. — Iseilema eremaeum S. T. Blake (from Blake 12213).

Fig. 1, plant, natural size\ 2, ligule; 3, spathe; 4, raceme; 5, involucral spikelet;
6-9, details of involucral spikelet: — 6, lower glume, from inside; 7, upper glume, from
outside; 8, lower lemma; 9, male flower; 10, fertile and pedicellate spikelets; 11-17,
details of fertile spikelet: — 11, lower glume, from inside; 12, upper glume, from
outside; 13, lower lemma; 14, upper lemma; 15 and 16, caryopsis; 17, transverse
section of caryopsis. Figs. 2-17 x 6.

Plate IV. — Iseilema fragile S. T. Blake (from Blake 11545).

Fig. 1, part of plant, natural size\; 2, ^‘seed’’ — disarticulated floral slieath with
spathe and raceme enclosed; 3, spathe; 4, raceme; 5-11, details of fertile spikelet: —
5,' lower glume, from inside; 6, upper glume, from outside; 7, lower lemma; 8, upper
lemma; 9 and 10, caryopsis; 11, transverse section of caryopsis; 12-15, details of
male pedicellate spikelet: — 12, lower glume, from inside; 13, upper glume, from
outside; 14, lower lemma; 15, flower; 16, transverse section, partly diagrammatic,
of “seed’^ (fig. 2). Figs. 2-15 x 6, fig. 16 x 9.

* Due to an error in the preparation of the plates, the magnification of the figures
is slightly less than that stated in the Explanation.

pROc'. POY. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLIX., No. H.

Plate III.

ip ^

%lill S.IB, lJ

T schema eremacum S. T. Blake.

] '

PROO.

Roy. Soo. Q ’land, Vol. XLIX., No. H.

Plate

TV.

IseUema fragile S. T. Blake.

i

ii

VOL. XLIX., No. 7.

95

Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora — Part
XL Melaleuca viridiflora, Part II.

By T. G. II. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I., and W. L. Haenke, B.Sc., B.Sc.

(App.).

{Read before the Royal SocAety of Queenslandy, 30th August, 1937.)

In a previous communication to the Society^ it was stated that the
essential oils of the broad leafed tea tree {Melaleuca viridiflora) were
being examined and the existence of at least two varieties determined.
The first variety already described was found to contain essentially
linalol and nerolidol as principal constituents and to show certain
resemblance with the essential oil of M. Smithii- with which there is
some confusion of identity. It is noteworthy, however, that in the
publication of Baker and Smith regarding 31. Sniithii, no record of the
occurrence of linalol is mentioned and presumably this constituent was
absent from the oils examined by them from materials obtained near
Sydney in N.S.W.

The present communication deals with the essential oil from the
more common cineol variety of the broad leafed Melaleuca. Other
investigators® have examined this oil from time to time and various
reports of its constituents have been published, particularly with refer-
ence to the cineol content, but examination of the result suggests that
in most cases the leaves were mixtures and some of the constituents
obtained by us were not recorded.

The oil to be described was all obtained from one tree, but similar
results were obtained from other trees of the cineol variety, and there
appears little doubt at present that there is a constancy of constituents
with respect to that variety. Our samples were, however, all obtained
from the neighbourhood of Brisbane and it is possible that examination
of leaves from other centres may give difi^erent results.

The oil as examined by us was found to contain 45-6 per cent, of
cineol (Cockings’ method) together with d-a-pinene, 1-limonene,
dipentene, a-terpineol, sesquiterpene, a crystalline alcohol apparently
not previously described and traces of xfiienob Tfie crystalline alcohol
isolated readily from the last distillation of oil appears to be distinct
from eudesmol and to be related to the hydrocarbons of the blue azulene
class. It readily loses water and the sesquiterpene obtained gives an
azulene on dehydrogenation as well as a reduced hydrocarbon (CigHge)
but no trace of eudalene or of cadalene. The investigation of this alcohol
and the accompanying sesquiterpenes of the oil is being actively pursued
and will form the subject of another communication. In the meantime
the name ^ ‘ viridiflorol ” is tentatively proposed for this alcohol.

In view of the cineol content and the readiness with which its
percentage can be increased by distillation the oil can be regaraed as a
commercial source of cineol.

96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Experimental.

Three and a-half cwt. of leaves collected from one; tree near
Wynnum, Brisbane, were distilled and 2,040 ccs. of oil (1 per cent.)
obtained. Towards the end of the distillation solid matter crystallised
and was separated from the main oil supply.

The following constants were determined : —

^15-5

•929

N-

■^^20

1-4759

[a]D

- 2-7

Ester Value

Nil

Acetyl Value

23

Cineol

45*6 per cent. (Cockings Method)

The oil was washed with {a) sodium carbonate and (h) sodium
hydroxide solution. A trace of acid and | cc. phenol only were recovered
from the alkaline liquors. The phenol gave a greenish colour with ferric
chloride, but the small amount present precluded further examination

As tests also revealed the absence of aldehydes the dried oil — 1,420
CCS. — was submitted to fractional distillation under diminished pressure
(3 mms.) and the following fractions collected: —

Temp.

Volume.

^15-5

N^

20

[a]D

I.

. . 0-30°C.

35 CCS.

•9003

1-4703

+

II.

. . 30-34°C.

130 CCS.

•9007

1-4652

+ 1-6

III.

. . 34-36°C.

173 cc.

•9173

1-4653

- 1-2

IV.

. . 36-66°C.

701 CCS.

•9178

1-4629

- 5-6

V.

. . 66-68°C.

98 CCS.

•9379

1-4828

-5-5

VI.

. . 68-74°C.

34 CCS.

•9387

1-4850

- 4-5

VII.

. . 74-88°C.

86 CCS.

•9348

1-4953

-f 10

VIII.

. . 88-1 10°C.

5 CCS.

not taken

1-4985

not taken

IX.

.. 110-114°C.

• 78 CCS.

•9472

1-4985

+ 19

X.

.. 114-116°C.

42 CCS.

•9765

1-4990

0

XI.

Residue

12 CCS.

As the earlier fractions 1-4 were rich in cineol they were washed
with 50 per cent, resorcin solution and extraction of the terpene from
the resulting solid cakes by petrol ether (b.p. below 60°C.) resorted
to. The petrol ether solutions were repeatedly washed with resorcin
solution until free from cineol. Considerable difficulty was experienced
in removing the large amount of cineol in fraction 4. The cineol
400-500 CCS. was recovered from the resorcin compound and identified
in the usual way.

The terpenes after removal of cineol were further fractionated and
fractions possessing the following constants ultimatelj^ obtained : —

(a)

d,5-5

•8735

N5

20

1-4700

[a]D

(<•)

^15-5

•8590

N-

^20

1-4720

[a]D

- 38

The fraction (a) consisted largely of a-pinene.

The nitrosyl chloride prepared in the usual way melted at 108° C.

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM' THE QUEENSLAND FLORA — PART XI. 97

Fraction (h) gave a crystalline tetrabromide.

Fractional crystallisation gave —

dipentene tetrabromide M.P. 125° C.
and 1-limonene tetrabromide M.P. 105° C.

Fractions 5 and 6. — Further fractionation to remove diepentene and
1-limonene gave ultimately a pleasant smelling oil with the following
constants : —

di5.5 *9394

14841

[a]D - 6

Identity with a terpineol was established by formation of the
nitrosyl chloride M.P. 112°C. and the napthyl urethane M.P. 144-5°C.

Fractions 7 and 8, which gave strong colour tests for sesquiterpene
with bromine acetic acid, were further fractionated and finally distilled
over potassium.

The following constants were then recorded: —
di5-5 -9268

N| 14990

[a]D + 23-5

b.p. 95°-97°C. 2 mms.

Dehydrogenation with selenium gave a blue azulene hydrocarbon
(M.P. of Picrate 118 °C.) and at the same time a hydrocarbon possessing
the following constants : —

di5.5 -916

N|* 14930

[a]D 0

Combustion results [C =:87-l H = 12-1 per cent.] indicated CigHgs
and it appeared obvious that some hydrogenation of sesquiterpene had
accompanied the dehydrogenation to azulene. Tlie reducing action of
hydrogen selenide in the dehydrogenation of sesquiterpenes has been
noticed by other workers and reviewed in the Annual Reports of the
Chemical Society, 1936.

No trace of eudalene could be observed and it was concluded that
eudesmene was not present. ■

Ozonisation gave a small yield only of aromadendrone (M.P. of
oxime 103° C.) and this sesquiterpene is therefore not the main
constituent of the fraction.

Investigation of the sesquiterpene fraction is being actively pursued,
but as no solid derivatives have been obtained, and as there is evident
relationship to the azulene class of hydrocarbon, it is clear that some
more accurate knowledge of the constitution of azulene is a preliminary
requisite.

yiridiflorol. — In the original steam distillation of the leaves
crystalline material was obtained towards the end of the distillation
and similarly the last higher boiling fractions of the oil solidified. The
solid buttery material was collected, and spread on a porous plate to
remove adhering oil and then repeatedly crystallised from methyl
alcohol in which and other organic solvents it is rather soluble. It was
eventually obtained as a white crystalline mass. M.P. 71°C.

98

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

It was at first thought that it was impure eudesmol, but the subse-
quent examination of the material indicated that it could not be identical
with that substance.

The optical rotation in chloroform solution was -f 54 (eudesmol

+ 33) .

Treatment with formic acid on the water bath for half an hour
gave a sesquiterpene with the following constants: —

d.15-5 *9217

N| 14972

[a]D + 9

A deep blue colour reaction was given in acetic acid with bromine
vapour.

The alcohol itself under similar conditions developed only a purple
colour after some time.

Attempts to prepare the acetate by heating with acetic anhydrice
were unsuccessful, dehydration taking place. The resulting liquid
possessed the following constants: —

dig. 5 *9315

14978

[a]D + 32-2

Combustion results were only approximate for C15H24 and as the
liquid possessed a small ester value, it appeared to be a mixture of
sesquiterpene with a small amount of acetate. Its density was somewhat
higher than that of the sesquiterpene obtained by the formic acid treat-
ment and presumably indicated some admixture with the acetate.
Dehydrogenation of the sesquiterpenes obtained by the formic acid and
acetic anhydride treatments was accomplished by heating with selenium
at 280°C.

In both cases an azulene (M.P. of Picrate 118°C.) was obtained
together with a colourless liquid of molecular formula CigHgg. The
constants in the case of the hydrocarbons obtained in this way from
the sesquiterpene derived b}" the formic acid treatment were as follows : —

c1i5-5 *9016

14929

[a]i) - 5

b.p. 135°C. 20 mms.

These results clearly indicate an alcohol apparently corresponding
to a hydrocarbon of the azulene class, regarding which no precise consti-
tutional knowledge is at present available, although formulae for azulene
have been tentatively suggested.

It is hoped to investigate the constitution of this interesting alcohol
and the accompanying sesqiterpenes further.

Our thanks are due to Mr. C. T. White, Government Botanist, for
his usual generous assistance in connection with botanical problems. It
should be stated that we have adopted the name Melaleuca viridifiora
in this and the previous paper on his advice.

REFERENCES.

^ Jones and Haenke. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q., 1936, 41-44.

^ Baker and Smith. Proc. Roy. Soe. N.S.W., 1913, 205.

® Cowley. Chem. and Drug., 1910, 76, 832.

VoL. XLIX., No. 8.

99

Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora, Part
XII. — Cinnamomum Oliver!.

By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I., and F. N. Lahey, M.Se.

{Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25th October, 1937.)

The oils from the bark and leaves of Cinnamomum Oliveri were
investigated by Hargreaves (1) in 1916, who recorded the presence of
pinene, camphor, saffrol, and methyl eugenol in the bark oil and camphor
(65 per cent.), pinene, a trace of a phenol and an unidentified terpene
possibly phellandrene, in the leaf oil. In view of the economic possi-
bilities associated with this high percentage of camphor and the proba-
bility that the leaf oil would contain other constituents than those
recorded, we have reinvestigated this oil. We were unable to confirm
the percentage of camphor recorded by Hargreaves, as in both samples
of oil distilled by us only 51 per cent, was present.

Other constituents of the oil were found to be a- pinene and a trace
of phenol, as recorded by Hargreaves, but we have also determined the
presence of dipentene, d-limonene, myrcene, methyl eugenol, an unidenti-
fied acid, bornyl formate, a sesquiterpene and a sesquiterpene alcohol.

The terpene regarded by ITargreaves as being probably phellandrene
and yielding a nitrosite has not been identified by us. We obtained a
similar nitrosite (M.P. 84° C.), but this does not appear to be identical
with either a- phellandrene nitrosite (M.P. 112° C.) or jS- phellandrene
nitrosite (M.P. 97° C.). The small proportion of this constituent present
in the oil and the difficulty of separating it from associated terpenes
prevented our identification of this terpene.

It is noteworthy that the leaf oil contains no saffrol, although this
is an important constituent of the bark, and pinene, camphor, and
methyl eugenol are present in both.

No oil was obtained from a sample of wood investigated by us.

EXPERIMENTAL.

Leaves of Cinnamomum Oliveri (1301b.) collected from the Beech-
mont district yielded on steam distillation oil equal to 1-23 per cent, of
the weight of leaves. On cooling camphor crystallised out. The oil
was further cooled to —10° C. and the camphor filtered off at the pump.

Two hundred pounds of leaves from the Montville district yielded
IT per cent, of oil. This was treated in the same way as the first oik
The residual oils were then found to have the following constants : —

N^

20

[a]D

Ester value
Acetyl value

Sample A.
(Beechmont.)

•9322

L4755

+ 40-2
17-9
42-5

Sample B.
(Montville.)

•9239

1-4722

+ 411
10-3
32

300 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Each oil was then shaken with the following solutions in turn : —
(a) Sodium carbonate, (b) dilute sodium hydroxide, (c) saturated
sodium bisulphite. The residual oil was washed and dried and submitted
to fractional distillation under reduced pressure (2 mm.), when the
following fractions were collected: —

Sample A.

Temp.

^15*5

N-

20

[a]o

I.

Oil from liquid

•8614

1-466

+ 34-8

ammonia trap

II.

. . 30-35°C.

•8554

1-469

+ 35-1

III.

. . 35-37°C.

•852

1-469

+ 36-3

IV.

. . 37-41°C.

•8677

1-4695

+ 41-4

V.

. . 64-92°C.

•9722

1-4793

+ 14-4

VI.

. . 92-98°C.

1-0099

1-5000

-f 5-5

Sample B.

Temp.

^15-5

20

[otju

I.

Oil from liquid

•8625

1-469

-f 31-3

ammonia trap

II.

. . 28-38°C.

•8584

1-469

+ 32

III.

. . 38-41°C.

•8693

1-4710

+ 33-3

IV.

. . 68-78°C.

•9456

1-4741

-f 19-3

V.

. . 78-82°C.

•9379

1-4893

+ 10-6

VI.

. . 82-88°C.

•9411

1-5000

-f 9

VII.

. . 88-92°C.

•9570

1-4992

+ 11-7

VIII.

. . 92-99°C.

•9610

1-5000

-f 14-6

When the distillation of the terpenes was completed (41° C. at
2 mm.) camphor commenced to distil. The oil in the still was then
cooled to — 10° C. and filtered. The last trace of camphor was removed
by distilling it into the column and from there removing it with petrol
ether. All the camphor was then recrystallised from petrol ether, the
final mother liquor yielding some oil which was returned to the main
bulk after removal of the dissolved camphor by freezing and distillation.
The camphor was further purified by sublimation, after which a melting
point of 176° C. was obtained. It readily formed an oxime m.p. 118° C.
After rigorous purification of the total yield of camphor it was found
to be present to the extent of 51 per cent, in both oils. This is not in
agreement with Hargreaves’ observations, who recorded 65 per cent,
camphor.

Terpenes. — {a) d a-pinene. The first fraction of each oil consisted
mainly of d a-pinene as shown by oxidation with permanganate to
pinonic acid, the semicarbazone of which melted at 205° C. No sodium
nopinate was obtained, indicating the absence of /3-pinene.

(5) Dipentene and d-limonene. Fraction 3 (B) gave on refrac-
tionation a sample B.P. 30-31° C. at 1 mm.

diij.5 -8693

[cI'Id “h 38.5

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, PART XII.

101

It was thought that the high density and rotation might be due to
dissolved camplior. A portion of this fraction was consequently treated
with semicarbazide under reflux for two hours. The solution was then
neutralised and steam distilled. The resultant oil had -|-34-5 and

djg.g *81:08. A similar portion with specific rotation +38*5 submitted to
phenyl hydrazine treatment by the method recommended by Simonsen
(2) yielded an oil with [ajp -|~38 and d^g.g -8615. The semicarbazide
method was thus found more effective for removing traces of camphor
than the phenyl hydrazine method.

The fraction now with density *8408 and [a]D -|-34'5 had the
characteristic odour of limonene. On treatment with bromine in cold
amyl alcohol-ether solution it yielded a tetrabromide. By fractional
crystallisation using alcohol, crystals melting at 125° C. and 108° C.
were obtained. Further recrystallisation was prevented by lack of
material. However, the evidence available indicates the presence of
dipentene and d-limonene.

(c) Myrcene. By repeated fractionation of fraction 2 (B) an oil
was obtained with —

B.P. 27-28°C. @ 1 mm.

di5*5 *8330

[ctJn + 31*8
n5 1.4758

This contained a large percentage of dipentene and limonene, as
shown by the ready production of tetrabromide from it. However, the
low density and high refractive index seemed to indicate the presence
of an olefinic terpene. On reduction with sodium and alcohol the
characteristic odour of dihvdromvrcene could readilv be detected. The

t/ t/ t/

density and refractive index of the reduced product showed a marked
decrease due to reduction of myrcene present in the oil. The reduced
oil had —

di5*5 -8262

N| 1-4684

The isolation of dihydromyrcene tetrabromide was prevented by
the presence of dipentene and limonene.

Although oeimene also yields dihydromyrcene on reduction, it would .
have been readily rcognised by its strong odour and tendency to absorb
oxygen.

Although the evidence above is not absolutely conclusive, there
appears little doubt that myrcene is present in the oil. It is worthy of
note that myrcene occurs in the oil from the leaves of the sassafras tree
— a similar type of oil to the one under discussion.

{d) Unidentified terpene. — Fraction 3 (B), besides containing

dipentene and limonene, contained a terpene which yielded a nitrosite
m.p. 84° C. The yield of this nitrosite was extremely small, as previously
mentioned by Hargreaves, who thought it was possibly phellandrene
nitrosite. After recrystallisation from chloroform and methyl alcohol,
however, the melting point could not be raised. It did not behave like
phellandrene nitrosite, for even in an impure state it was found to be
quite stable. Camphene was tested for by the isoborneol method, but
could not be detected.

102

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Bornyl formate. — Fractions 4 and 5 (B) had ester values of 91 and
54° respectively. From these on fractionation a sample with ester value
103 was obtained. This was hydrolised with alcoholic potash and the
recovered oil allowed to stand at 0° C. A solid soon separated which,
when filtered, dried and recrystallised from petrol ether, melted at
204° C. A mixed melting point with pure borneol showed no depression.

The alkaline solution from the hydrolysis of the ester was acidified
with dilute sulphuric acid and steamed distilled. The aqueous distillate
was exactly neutralised and silver nitrate added. The silver salt formed
was very rapidly reduced to metallic silver, indicating the presence of
formic acid. No trace of acetic or other acids was found. The ester
present was thus bornyl formate.

Methyl eugenol and sesquiterpenes. — The remainder of the oil showed
the characteristic colour reactions of the sesquiterpenes. At this stage
the only difference in the two samples of oil was observed. Fraction
6 (A) had density 1-0099, and finally on refractionation yielded an oil
which had —

B.P. 84-90°C. @ 1 mm.

di5.5 • 1-0263

[o-Id + 1

1-5000

This was readily recognised as methyl eugenol by the preparation
of monobrom-methyl eugenol dibromide M.P. 79° C.

In sample B, although methyl eugenol was found present, it was
there in smaller quantities, and the sesquiterpenes in larger quantities
than in sample A. It was found impossible to effect the separation of
these substances by fractional distillation. Three fractions were
obtained —

{a) 92-100°C. @ 3 mm.

di5.5 *9615

[q-Id 1^’^

This contained 26 per cent, methyl eugenol estimated by methoxy
determinations —

(6) 100-I04°C. @ 3 mm.

di5.5 -9644

[a]D + 15

27-5% methyl eugenol.

(c) 107-108°C. @ 3 mm.

dig.g -9696

[ab 17-8

24% methyl eugenol.

In an attempt to remove the methyl eugenol fraction (&) was
treated with Ziesel’s hydriodic acid, followed by extraction with caustic
soda to remove the eugenol. The oil recovered had a light blue colour
and contained iodine, apparently due to the addition of hydrogen iodide
to a double bond in the sesquiterpene.

Fraction (a), after treatment with selenium at 280° C. for two
hours, yielded a deep blue oil (azulene) and a colourless oil of density
•958. Azulene was identified by its picrate M.P. 119° C. The other oil
failed to yield a picrate, and could not be identified as cadalene or
eudalene.

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, PART XII.

103

Attempts at forming a solid hydrochloride of the original sesqui-
terpene were nnsnccessful, but this may have been due to the presence
of methyl eugenol.

With bromine vapour on a glacial acetic acid solution of the sesqui-
terpene a violet colour was formed.

A drop of concentrated sulphuric acid in a solution of the sesqui-
terpene in acetic anhydride immediately gave a bright green colouration.

Caryophyllene could not be detected by the characteristic blue
nitrosite method.

Fraction (c) was probably a sesquiterpene alcohol, for on treatment
with formic acid its densit}^ was lowered to -9661 and its rotation altered
from -j- 17*8 to 0.

Unidentified acid and phenol. — The sodium carbonate wash on acidi-
fication and extraction yielded about one c.c. of an acid of a light yellow
colour which did not solidify at the temperature of liquid ammonia.

Combustion results —

C 71-59 per cent.

H 9-69 per cent.

0 18-72 per cent.

C11H18O2 requires C 71-9 per cent., IT 9-89 per cent., 0 18-21 per cent.

Titrations with alcoliolic potash indicated a molecular weight of
184, the duplicate being 182. CiiHjs02 has molecular weight 182.

The acid thus appeared to be an open-chain unsaturated mono-
carboxylic acid. A more thorough investigation was prevented by lack
of material.

The phenol recovered from the sodium hydroxide washing was a
yellow oil of density 1*0945. With ferric chloride it gave a green
colouration, thus resembling creosol (dig.g 1*0956).

The phenol behaved as a mixture, for on benzoylation a portion of
it was converted into a solid benzoyl derivative M.P. 73° C. The
combustion of this gave —

C 73*84 per cent.

H 6*2 per cent.

The phenol itself gave —

C 68-86 per cent.

H 7*53 per cent.

CgHioOg requires C 69*56 per cent., II 7-24 per cent.

The corresponding benzoyl derivative CigHi^Og would require
C 74*38 per cent., II 5*78 per cent. These results are in moderate
agreement with those of creosol, the benzoyl derivative of which melts
at 74° C. A mixed melting point, however, of the above benzoyl deriva-
tive and benzoyl creosol showed they could not be identical, as the
mixture melted at 58° C. As no sample of the corresponding isocreosol
was available, we were unable to prepare its benzojT derivative for
comparison, and in any case only about 1 c.c. of phenol was available
for identification, so that the problem could not be finalised.

Our thanks are due to the Queensland Forestry Department for
assistance in the collection of leaves; to Mr. S. B. Watkins, M.Sc., for
permission to collect leaves on his property at Montville ; and to Mr. C. T.
White, Government Botanist, for the identification of the samples.

EEFEKBNCES.

(1) Hargreaves, J.C.S., 1916, 751.

(2) Simonsen, J.S.C.I., London, 1920, 297 T.

104 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

VoL. XLIX., No. 9.

The Establishment of a Seismological Station in

Brisbane, Queensland.

By W. H. Bryan, D.Sc., Department of Geology, University of

Queensland.

{Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland, 2bth October, 1937.)

During the past there has existed very little local interest in
seismology. This lack of enthusiasm for a science that elsewhere has
many ardent stuldents is almost certainly due to the fact that perceptible
earthquakes are( of rare occurrence in Queensland. Thus since the
establishment of the University of Queensland twenty-seven years ago
there have been only two noteworthy earthquakes within the State. The
first of these occurred in 1918, and was investigated by Hedley^ some
years later. The second, which took place on 12th April, 1935, and
which has been described by Bryan and Whitehouse,^ was of sufficient
intensity to arouse considerable popular interest. In a statement made
in the public press at this time, the writer deplored the fact that there
was no seismograph in operation within the State and urged the neces-
sity of establishing a seismological station in this part of Australia.

Following this appeal a gentleman who wishes to remain anonymous,
but who was an early student at the University of Qi^censland, gener-
ously offered to provide the money necessary to purchase a Milne-Shaw
Seismograph (No. 58).

Subsequent to the acceptance of this generous offer the Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research was approached with the request that
a second similar Milne-Shaw instrument be obtained in order to make
the proposed station of greater value and more self-contained. This
request was favourably received and a second instrument (No. 60) thus
secured.

THE SITE.* *

The temporary site selected for the station in which these instru-
ments are housed is in the basement of the new University Library.
This position has many things to recommend it, the principal being its
convenience, for it is closely adjacent to the Department of Geology,
from which the station is controlled. The chief adverse factors are the
absence of solid rock on which to base the foundations (the Library
building having been erected on a relatively unconsolidated river terrace
alluvium), and the nearness to the city. But since many excellent
stations are successfully operating under somewhat similar conditions
these objections were not thought sufficiently strong to warrant the
selection of a less convenient site.

The most suitable part of the basement having been selected, it
was bricked off to form a light-proof and draught-proof room with a
reasonably equable temperature.

The exact position of the site was carefully fixed by Mr. F. James.
M.Sc., Lecturer in Surveying at the University of Queensland, |
Latitude 27° 28' 41" S., Longitude 153° 1' 52" E., Elevation 15 metres.lj

Mr. James was also responsible for fixing the direction of the *
meridian within the seismograph cellar. m

‘ Trans. Roy. Geog. Soe. Qld. Vol. 1, p. 151, 1925.

^ Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld. Vol. 49, pp. 106-119. I

* Tho permanent site of the station will be within the University of Queensland
grounds at St. Lucia, where eminently suitable conditions should be found ‘when^K
the University is finally established there.

ESTABLISHMENT OF A SEISMOLOGICAL STATION IN BRISBANE. 105

THE FOUNDATIONS.

The two instruments are set up on a single foundation designed bv
the writer in co-operation with Mr. N. L. Thomas, of the Government
Architect ’s Department.

The foundation consists of a solid monolith of concrete weighing
approximately tons. It is not reinforced in any way, and the
concrete was poured as one continuous operation. The foundation is
L-sharped, one side of the L being carefully aligned on the meridian
and the other side at right angles to this. The whole concrete monolith
is sunk 2 feet into the earth, is independent of and free from the
foundations of the building, and is separated from the concrete floor of
the cellar by a dry moat 5 inches wide and 8 inches deep.

THE SEISMOGRAPHS.

The instruments consist of a pair of Milne-Shaw horizontal pendulum
seismographs with electro-magnetic damping. Each instrument has been
adjusted to a period of 12 seconds, a damping ratio of twenty to one,
and a magnification of 250.

Of the instruments as set up No. 58 registers the north-south
component and No. 60 the east-west component.

The recording system is an optical one, the record being received
on special Bromide B paper secured to a drum which is operated by a
clockwork mechanism.

THE TIMING ARRANGEMENTS.

The time signals appearing on the record are controlled by a
synchronome clock with half -minute impulses, alternate pulses of which
are selected by another synchronome mechanism to give minute breaks
on the record, each with a duration of 3 seconds. The hour is recorded
as the first of three half -minute signals. The daily error in the station
time is determined by comparing it by means of a radio receiving set
with Eastern Australian Standard Time as broadcast by Station 4QG.

Corrected times are finally converted to Greenwich Mean Time for
purposes of record.

CONCLUSION.

The trials already conducted have on the whole been most satis-
factory. Local disturbances obtrude themselves only when heavy
hammering is being done on the floors and walls of the still incomplete
building that houses the station. On the other hand, those records of
earthquakes that have been recorded are very satisfactory on account
of their clarity, and more particularly in the ease with which the initial
impulse of the preliminary waves can be marked off from the microseisms.

The station is in touch with other earthquake observatories in
Australasia and elsewhere, both directly and indirectly, through the
Seismological Research Committee of the Australian and New Zealand
Association for the Advancement of Science.

Situated as it is on the margin of the actively seismic Pacific basin,
this new observatory should play an important part in international
seismology, more particularly as it helps to bridge the large gap in the
chain of circum-Pacific stations that hitherto has existed between Sydney
and Java.

106

Yol. XLIX., No. 10.

The Gayndah Earthquake of 1935.

By W. H. Bryan, M.C., D.Sc., and F. W. Whitehouse, Ph.D., M.Sc.,
Department of Geology, University of Queensland.

(Text figures 1 and 2.)

{Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25th October, 1937.)

1. INTRODUCTION.

Queensland has been remarkably free from earthquakes, at least
from those that can be readily appreciated by the human senses.

Although slight local tremors and occasional rumbles that may
represent earth noises have been reported from, time to time, only two
shocks of notable magnitude have occurred within the last twenty-five
years.

The first of these occurred on 7th June, 191S', and has been recorded
by Hedley.^ The second, with which this paper is particularly concerned,
took place on 12th April, 1935.

Other than notices in the public Press the only account that has yet
been published is a short note by Ball.^ Bryan^ has briefly referred to
the main features in so far as they affect another problem.

2. TIME OF OCCURRENCE.

The Gayndah earthquake occurred towards noon on 12th April,
1935. The exact time could not be determined from local evidence, for
there were no clocks of the required exactitude within the meizoseismal
area. Nor were prompt observations made of the times shovui by those
clocks that were available.

Information obtained by courtesy of the Deputy-Director of Posts
and Telegraphs shows that — 1. The Post Office clock at Gayndah stopped
at 11.35 a.m., and 2. The shock reached the Post Office at Wondai (50
miles south of Gayndah) at 11.35 a.m.

The Port Master at Maryborough (70 miles east of Gayndah)
reported the shock as having reached there at 11.34^ a.m., but did not
check his time against Eastern Australian Standard.

In the absence of more satisfactory local evidence as to the time of
the disturbance, recourse was made at a later stage of the investigation
to less direct methods. Thus, the position of the epicentre having been
determined by local evidence, the several seismological stations in
Australia were notified. With the knowledge which they then had of
(a.) the position of the epicentre, (b) the distance of the epicentre from
their particular recording station, and (c) the precise time of arrival of
the preliminary phase of the earthquake at that station, calculations as
to the time of the disturbance were possible. Estimates arrived at on
this basis are as follows ; — Riverview College 11 hours 32 minutes 00
seconds, Sydney 11 hours 34 minutes 45 seconds, Melbourne 11 hours
34 minutes 08 seconds, and Adelaide 11 hours 35 minutes 03 seconds.
The reason for the considerable discrepancies shown in these results is

^ Trans. Roy. Geog. Soc. Qld., Vol. 1, No. 16, 1925, p. 151.

2 Qld. Govt! Min. Jour., Vol. 36, No 419, 1935, p. 133.

® Proc. Gt. Barrier Reef Committee, Vol. IV., Pt. 2, 1936, p. 50.

THE GAYNDAH EARTHQUAKE OF 1935.

107

almost certainly to be found in the difficulty of determining on the
records of small earthquakes the precise moment when the first of the
preliminary waves arrive, as these are frequently masked by
microseisms.

It will be seen that the indirect method of determining the epicentral
time was no more successful than that based on direct local evidence.
Averaging the results from Sydney, Melbourne, and Adelaide, we get
11 hours 34 minutes 39 seconds Eastern Australian Standard, or 1 hour
34 minutes 39 seconds Greenwich Mean Time. This corresponds reason-
ably well with the local estimates, but shows a marked discrepancy from
the estimate of Riverview College Observatory, which, it must be
remembered, is the best equipped station in Australia.

3. SEISMOLOGICAL RECORDS.

Any attempt at an accurate study of the Gayndah earthquake was
made impossible by the fact that at the time there was no seismograph
in Queensland itself* or in any adjacent regions to the east, north, or
west, the five Australian stations then in operation all lying to the south
of a line joining Sydney and Perth. Thus, although each of these
stations recorded the earthquake, satisfactory intersections of the
individual results were not obtained.

The nearest seismographs are situated at Sydney, New South Wales.
Of these that at the Sydney Observatory, although it responded to the
tremor at 1 hour 37 minutes G.M.T., does not allow of recording of
individual phases of disturbances such as that under consideration, the
rate of the machine being too slow.

The other Sydney station (at Riverview College) is better equipped,
having Wiechert instruments recording all three components, in addition
to a Mainka and a Galitzin.

The following records are extracted from the relevant portions of
the Riverview College Seismological Bulletin : —

No.

Date.

Phase.

Time.

(Greenwich).

Period.

Amplitude.

Remarks.

An

Ae

Az

1935.

h m

s

mm

mm

mm

km

49

12 April

ePZ

01 34

20

1

0-1

1,080

eSZ

36

19

2

0*3

(9*7°)

On N-S and B-W

iNEZ

36

42

2

+ 6-5

-f 8-0

+ 0-8

Comp. S in min-

iNZ

36

52

2

-f 12-4

-f 2-0

ute mark.

mN

36

55

2

12-4

iZ

37

04

2

+ 3*6

Felt in Queensland.

iNE

37

08

2

- 13-2

+ 21*0

mZ

37

09

3

5-1

iE

37

12

2

+ 18-7

LZ

37

33

5

iN

37

42

4

- 13-2

iMB

37

51

4

- 15-3

MZi

37

52

4

3-5

MEt

37

59

6

21-8

iN

38

02

4

-f 26-0

MN

38

06

5

19-4

MEa

38

16

5

27-5 -!-

F 01 55

MZa

38

24

3

4-9

* Fortunately this serious deficiency has now been rectified through the
generosity of a gentleman, who wishes to remain anonymous, who has presented
a Milne-Shaw Seismograph to the University of Queensland. This, and a second
similar instrument provided by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research,
are housed in the newly-established University of Queensland Seismological Station.
See the preceding article in this volume.

108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

ThG SGisiROgraph at Melbourne Observatory (a Milne-Shaw register-
ing the East-West component) recorded the tremor, but the P waves
were rather obscure owing to microseisms. The exact time of the
emergence of the S waves is also somewhat doubtful, but the L waves
are more definitely recorded at 1 hour 39 minutes 41 seconds. At
40 minutes 06 seconds: the maximum showed an amplitude of 64 mm.
and a period of 4 seconds.

At Adelaide Observatory a Milne-Shaw instrument registering the
North-South component recorded the arrival of the P waves at 1 hour
38 minutes 59 seconds, the S at 1 hour 41 minutes 04 seconds, and the
L at 1 hour 41 minutes 20 seconds, with a maximum disturbance of
1-9 mm. of waves of 7-5 seconds period at 1 hour 42 minutes 40 seconds.
The calculated epicentral distance based on these observations was 1240
kilometres.

At Perth is a Milne-Shaw instrument recording the North-South
component. The time of arrival of the P and PP waves is somewhat
doubtful owing to their traces being mixed with microseisms as large as
themselves, but may be 1 hour 38 minutes 07 seconds and 1 hour 39
minutes 25 seconds respectively. The S waves are more confidently
placed at 1 hour 43 minutes 55 seconds. The L waves arrived at 1 hour
48 minutes 05 seconds. The epicentral distance based on the times of
arrival of S and L was calculated at 2390 miles (3848 kilometres).

The Dominion Observatory at Wellington, New Zealand, reported
that no records of the tremor were recorded by any instrument in New
Zealand.

The authors are most grateful for this information, which has been
su;pplied by the officers in charge of the respective stations, but these
records, although of great interest, could not be used as a basis for exact
work, as they are somewhat discordant. Thus it would be impossible
to fix the position of the epicentre even approximately from a correlation
of the data contained in the several reports.

4. COLLECTION OF EVIDENCE.

The authors early realised the possibility of obtaining some light
on the nature and origin of the earthquake if a sufficient number of
reliable reports could be gathered from the personal experience of people
situated within the area perceptibly affected. In view of this possibility,
an immediate appeal for information was made through the Brisbane
press and by means of the Australian Broadcasting Stations at Brisbane
(4QG) and Rockhampton (4RK).

These appeals brought forth a most gratifying response in the
shape of numerous replies. Most of these appeared to be thoroiighly
reliable, while very few were worthless. Some contained information
collected by the sender from a number of different sources, and several
were prepared with a scientific precision and exactitude that must have
involved a great deal of patient work.

In addition to these replies there were available the numerous
messages sent in to the Brisbane newspapers by country correspondents
and the more localised details set out in those country newspapers
published in the affected area.

In order to fill the numerous gaps in our knowledge that remained
after these replies had been received, a questionnaire was drawn up
based on the Rossi-Porel Scale and despatched to school masters and

THE GAYNDAH EARTHQUAKE OF 1935.

109

Others likely to be in a position to help. Nearly all of the forms were
eornpleted and returned, thus affording a great deal of additional
information. As a result of these various methods reports have been
collected from nearly 200 localities.

5. INTERPRETATION OP DATA.

The information thus obtained was summarised and placed on
numbered cards on which the names of the localities did not appear.
The intensity represented by each summarised account was then assessed
independently by each of the authors and the localities afterwards
ascertained by reference to a key. In this way it was hoped to ensure a
more complete detachment in the investigation, and in particular to
prevent the overemphasis of geologically ‘‘likely” districts.

6. USE OF THE ROSSI-FOREL SCALE.

The intensity assessed for each locality was expressed in terms of
the Rossi-Forel scale. Although this has long been used internationally
and has met with general acceptance, it is not easily applied to conditions
in Queensland.* Originally constructed for use in investigating'earth-
quakes in Italy, it is particularly suitable for a country where the
people are largely concentrated into towns, where they live in brick and
rubble houses that are in many cases not soundly constructed, and where
brick chimneys are numerous. Thus intensity No. 8 on the Rossi-Forel
scale is based solely on “ fall of chimneys, cracks in the walls of
buildings.” It is obviously impossible to apply these criteria in the
smaller country towns of Queensland, where the vast majority of people
live in wooden (“frame”) houses which have no brick chimneys, Again,
intensity No. 7 is based in part on “. . . general panic, without

damage to buildings.” But is the panic point the same in a Sicilian
slum and on an Australian farm? It is doubtful. In view of the
relatively scattered population, the absence of brick houses and chimneys,
and the somewhat phlegmatic character of the average Australian
country man, it may be that the absolute intensities in this paper have
been somewhat underestimated in terms of the Rossi-Forel scale. With
regard to the estimation of relative intensities the authors feel
considerably more confidence.

7. DISTRIBUTION OF APPARENT INTENSITY.

One of the maps accompanying this paper (text figure 1) shows a
series of isoseism al lines, each based on the assessed intensity in terms
of the R.F. scale. It should be noted that such a map shows the distribu-
tion of apparent intensity, not of intrinsic intensity, the distribution of
which should be far more regularly concentric.

Concerning this question of “anparent” intensity Wood,* who made
a detailed study of San Francisco after the earthquake of 1906, writes; — -
“It is a general fact of observation that strong earthquakes are far more
destructive on loose, water-soaked soil, or made ground, than where
fresh, crystalline rock outcrop's at the surface. This has been observed
over and over again. Also, intermediate grades of destructiveness are
generally found on ground of intermediate degrees of firmness. . . .

It seems obvious that the relationship is one of cause and effect, and the

* An analysis of the records obtained has suggested certain adaptations that
may be used for local conditions. Some of these are set out on pages 113 and 114.

110

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

received.)

TPIE GAYNDAH EARTHQUAKE OF 1935

111

\

Map of Soutli-Easterii Queensland, showing the distribution of (1) i)alaeozoic
and earlier rocks (plain), and (2) mesozoic and later rocks (stippled areas).

112 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

mechanism is considered to be well understood. ‘Apparent’ seismic
intensity, therefore, is in part a function of the geologic materials and
structures at or near the surface in the epieentral region. This has long
been known. . .

In many areas from which numerous reports were received there
was a noticeable variation in intensity that quite patently was related
to the different geological structures. For instance, in the Brisbane
area, nearly 200 miles from the epicentre and towards the limit of the
perceptibly affected region, the following examples illustrate this point:—

A. The Pile Light in Moreton Bay near the mouth of the Brisbane
River is a structure supported on steel piers. The piers themselves are
embedded in blocks of concrete which are not attached to a solid rock
foundation but “float” in incoherent sand. Here the earthquake was
felt more violently than anywhere else in the Brisbane area. Although
the occupants were accustomed to vibrations of the building as a result
of the biiffetings of heavy seas, nothing like this experience had occurred
in many years. Heavy furniture was moved, crockery rattled, water
in the rainwater tank slopped over, and a man in bed was almost thrown
to the floor. The structure was shaken so severely that an inspection of
the foundations by a diver was deemed necessary and was carried out
the following day.

B. At Cribb Island (a small settlement built on sand just above
tide level on the shores of Moreton Bay) seaside cottages were so violently
shaken that some people rushed out into the streets in alarm.

C. In some of the suburbs to the south of the City, which are on
fresh water shales and sandstones of Triassic age, the tremor was felt
by many people at rest and by some in action.

D. In those parts of the city built on metamorphosed sediments of
^Ordovician age the tremor was noticed only by people at rest in the
upper portions of tall buildings, and then not very strongly.

The apparent intensity within the Brisbane area thus varied from
at least 5 in the R-P. scale to as low as 2, the variation depending upon
the compactness of the underlying rock, which in this case was directly
related to the age of the geological formation.

When viewed broadly, there are certain interesting inferences that
may be drawn from a study of the distribution of apparent intensities.
In south-eastern Queensland the strike of the palaeozoic rocks is almost
constantly a few degrees west of north. Ten degrees west of north
may be taken as perhaps the average. Text figure 2 shows the distri-
bution of palaeozoic and mesozoic rocks. If this map is compared with
Text figure 1, a map of the isoseismals, the following features will be
noted : —

i. Adjacent to the epieentral region the isoseismals are elongated in
a north-easterly direction — that is, quite independent of the geological
‘ ‘ grain. ’ ’

ii. In spite of this the isoseismals generally in the province are
grouped around areas elongated in the direction of the trend lines of
the palaeozoic rocks. Two such elongated areas are well shown — a zone
of low intensities along an axis N.N.W. from Brisbane, and a N.N.W.
zone of relatively high intensities between Toowoomba and Rockhampton.

* ‘‘Physics of the Earth — VI. Seismology,’^ Nat. Res. Council, U.S.A., Bull.
90, 1933, Chiapter VII., p. 67.

THE GAYNDAPI EARTHQUAKE OF 1935.

113

iii. In the south-west of the province, where the greatest develop-
ment of the mesozoic sediments occur and where the palaeozoic rocks are
completely covered, the isoseismals seem to lose this N.N.W. relationship
and are developed parallel to the palseozoic-mesozoic junction.

It would appear, therefore, that in the major portion of the province,
where both palaeozoic and mesozoic rocks occur, the trend of the palaeozoic
series has been the dominant control in the alignment of the isoseismals.
In this portion of the region the apparent intensities do not diminish
concentrically from the epicentre, but have maxima and minima along
certain belts of these older rocks. In contrast to this, in the south-
western part of the area, where the pala30zoic rocks are completely
buried, the intensities seem to diminish in a normal way.

8. POSITION OF EPICENTRE.

The exact positon of the epicentre has not been found, but the
evidence points to its being approximately 10 miles north-east of the
town of Gayndah at about 25° 30' S., 151° 40' E. The area within the
innermost isoseismal is somewhat elongate and encloses a number of
places where the apparent intensity reached R.F. 7, and it is possible
that higher unrecorded intensities may have occurred within this sparsely
settled area. This zone of greatest intensity is elongate in a direction
E.N.E.-W.S.W. In addition to the main epicentral area near Gayndah
there is another smaller area of equal or almost equal intensity at
Monto, some 60 miles to the north-west. Somewhat surprisingly the
intensity in this latter area seems disconnected from that of the Gayndah
area, for, although it has been difficult to obtain information on account
of the thinly populated nature of the intervening country, such records
as have been obtained all tend to separate the two. The simplest explana-
tion is that the Monto tremor was a subsidiary sympathetic disturbance
practically synchronous with the Gayndah shock.

No reliable quantitative estimate can be made on the data available
as to the depth of the movement that produced the earthquake, but the
fact that the disturbance was clearly recorded at Perth (some 2,220
miles away), and yet unrecorded at Wellington (less distant by 400
miles) , suggests a comparatively shallow origin, the Thomson Deep
apparently acting as an effective barrier to the propagation of the
earthwaves in a south-westerly direction.

9. SELECTED REPORTS.

There was a wealth of pertinent detail in the 200 reports that the
authors received.

A survey of these has brought to light certain features that may be
useful in future in adapting the Rossi-Porel scale to local conditions.
In order to appreciate these it should be noted that in Queensland the
usual type of residence is a wooden ‘‘frame” house set high on wooden
stumps. Water tanks are corrugated, galvanised iron cylinders placed
unanchored on wooden platforms supported by wooden blocks. These
tanks hold, as the usual maximum, 1,000 gallons of water. The usual
type of cooking stove is an iron structure, about 3 feet by 2 feet by
2 feet, supported on small legs.

In areas of intensity 3, of the Rossi Forel Scale, residents reported
that the effect was similar to that of a horse rubbing itself upon one of
the house stumps. This statement was made so frequently and by so

IM PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

many independent observers that it is worthy of record for future
correlation. When the intensity was R.F. 4 water became agitated in
the tanks. In the zones of intensity 6 and 7 tanks developed cracks,
and leaks were set up in the seams. Two observers in the meizoseismal
area (intensity 7) have noted that their tanks of water moved on the
platforms. Stoves were shifted in several houses where the intensity
was at least 6.

Three reports from residents within the meizoseismal area may be
quoted —

(1) Mr. R. T. Netterfield, living some 7 miles north-west of

Wetheron, reported that ‘'about 11.30 a.m. and without warning the
first and main ’quake of two connected spasms occurred, accompanied
by a heavy ‘booming’ detonation comparable only to a deep-seated heavy
charge of explosive, and too continuous to be placed to any particular
point of the compass. The rapid horizontal play (fully a foot) of the
ground and surface being on a line south-west to north-east. . . .

Green foliage ‘tangled’ but did not sway. Dead, pliant limbs ‘clacked’
together like sawn pine on a moving waggon and fell in showers. Cow-
dung and light sticks hopped back and forth off the ground, while queer
little jets of dust spurted from around tree butts. As nearly as could
be judged 8 seconds would be about the duration of this shock. . . .
Despite eighteen anchor-bolts my 28 by 36 pine and weather-board house
moved an inch on some of its unanchored blocks. All tanks were
somewhat damaged. A 5-foot cast-iron separator drew its three large
anchoring coach screws. All yard and shed posts were joggled loose,
and the rubble in the stock yards shook down level and smooth. . . .

Crockery from northern and eastern shelves suffered severely.”

(2) “Mount Lawless is a rocky region, and cliffs rise abruptly from
the river bed to the height of some 70 feet. Small rocks and stones fell
from these cliffs. I noticed that one gum tree of a diameter about
8 inches had fallen from the cliff side. Houses at the foot of Mount
Lawless were shifted 1 inch on their blocks, and a stove was moved 1 or
2 inches. Fishermen [in the river] under the cliffs declare that the
water rose between 1 and 2 feet. Numerous tanks started leaking. One
tank shifted about 9 inches, blocks and all. Trucks on the railway line
swayed. Books fell from shelves in the houses, many clocks stopped,
and small cracks developed in two cement buildings.” (Mr. F. T.
Borchardt, Ideraway.)

(3) “At the Bymingo School books and other articles fell from the

shelves. Unsound timber fell from a shed. . . .Beams spanning the

roof showed that the^iwlls had been displaced for -J to ^ inch. Marks on
stumps after the shock showed that the school had been raised about
-J inch. . . . Several cement floors [in neighbouring buildings] were
cracked, and a tank burst. Clocks stopped. . , . Two terrific explo-

sions were followed by the loose earth, twigs, leaves, &c., being raised
from 10 inches to 1 foot above the ground. Dead limbs fell from the
trees, and buildings shook violently.” (Miss M. Pittman, Bymingo.)

The most impressive evidence seen by the authors of the paper on
their visit to the area was on the south-western slopes of Mount Lawless,
where great masses of trachyte many tons in weight had fallen from
the mountain sides. From the trachyte cliffs of the Burnett River near
Mr. Netterfield ’s residence other large blocks had been dislodged. They
were informed that these falls took place during the tremor of 12th April.

THE GAYNDAH EARTHQUAKE OF 1935.

115

It may be of valuie to note some of the effects in localities a little
further removed from the epicentre. The head teacher of the Abbey wood
school (where the intensity was interpreted as 6) reported that “pictures
were shaken from the rail that supported them, and the school clock
was moved fully an inch from its centre level mark, but did not stop.
Children reported seeing the tree guards in motion. . . . It is reported
by others that the ground was seen to move in three small waves. . . .
Workers picking corn a short distance from the school reported feeling
sick after the shock.”

Mr. C. Realf, of Childers (in an area of intensity 6) stated that —
“My garage is 60 feet long, with the apex of the roof about 26 feet high
running almost north and south. I observed a very pronounced sway
of the whole roof from east to west. The movement was enough to cause
me to bolt for the open air, and I can state that almost every person in
the district left his house. A large quantity of moveable objects leaning
against the inside walls of the workshop were overthrown ; and from
the movement of a 12-foot piece of 2-inch-by-l-inch pine leaning against
a beam I estimated the sway to be at least 1 foot. ... It was com-
parable to the effect of earth movement caused by heavy shell fire falling
too close for comfort.”

A report from Yenda, typical of many in isoseismal region 6, stated
among other evidence that cattle and horses ran startled in mobs."^ A
stove shifted an inch out of place. Dead limbs fell from trees, and plaster
fell from roofs, and several tanks leaked.

An observer at Goomeri (intensity 5) noted in his report that
“motorists while travelling felt the shock by the rear of their cars
leaving the ground similar to bumping over some solid object.”

From Aramara (intensity 4) Miss M. Bange wrote that — “People
in the open, working in the garden or drilling in the school ground, did
not notice the shock ; but men working with heavy logs on railway trucks
and with timber in the scrub felt it. Butchers’ hooks danced on the
rod. Water in barrels was agitated, and continued so for a few minutes
afterwards. Some commodities fell from the shelves in the general
store, and doors and windows rattled.”

Such are a few reports typical of those from various isoseismal zones.

10. AFTERSHOCKS AND SYMPATHETIC DISTURBANCES.

Although this account is concerned primarily with the earthquake
of 12th April, 1935, it would be incomplete mthout some reference to
the long train of less intense disturbances which followed. Some of
these may be regarded as aftershocks in the strictest sense, and all may
be assumed to be more or less directly related to the main shock, although
some occurred as long as eight months after the initiation of seismic
activity and others were well outside the original meizoseismal region.

The seismic history for the Gayndah area for 1935 may be set out
as follows : —

1. The shock of 12th April came without any warning fore-shocks,

but was followed by —

2. A large number of after-shocks, each with its accompanying

detonation. These occurred intermittently but with declining
frequency until 4th May. Then after an interval of eleven
days came —

* Several observers noted that cattle and horses were not disturbed by the
earth sound, but became very nervous during the period of the tremor.

116

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

3. A series of earth tremors occurring intermittently until 23rd

May. About a week later there was felt —

4. The relatively strong disturbance of 1st June. The following

short account of the tremor is taken from the ^‘Maryborough
Chronicle” of 3rd June, 1935: —

'‘Between 10.15 and 10.30 on Saturday night Gayndah
experienced an earth tremor almost as severe in intensity as
that which occurred on 12th April. On this occasion many
residents had retired to bed, and received a rude awakening.
The shock set houses swaying. Crockery rattled on shelves,
and doors swung. No reports of damage were received, but
the shock caused alarm to many. . . . Fortunately the

shock only lasted a few seconds at the most. . . . Several

outlying centres experienced the tremor. Reid’s Creek and
Ideraway, 10 and 5 miles away from Gayndah respectively,
noticed the shock, and Coalstoun Lakes also reported having
felt the tremor.”

This shock was. not recorded at Riverview College
Observatory, nor was it followed by any pronounced system
of aftershocks. The fact that it occurred at night may have
caused some exaggeration of its intensity.

5. Occasional tremors were recorded during the next five weeks,
but became more frequent from 8th July. These ushered in —

6. The relatively strong shock of 19th July, which the “Mary-

borough Colonist ’ ’ described as follows : — •

“The Burnett district experienced an earthtremor about
5.30 this morning. The shock in parts was as severe as the
tremor of April last. At Mundubbera houses shook violently
and tanks on high stands swayed.”

This was not recorded at Riverview College.

7. Further tremors were reported from time to time until 14th

December, 1935.^

.

Consideration of the reports on which these items are based shows ^
that the seismic disturbances of 1935 continued intermittently for eight
months t and covered a considerable area, of which the region to the
east of Gayndah appears to have been the most sensitive locality and to
have been most consistently affected. In the important initial shock
Monto appears to have been a subsidiary centre, but at a later date
Mundubbera was strongly affected. ^

11. GEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE.

As geologists the authors were natu;rally interested in the possible
geological significance of the Gayndah earthquake from the announce-
ment of the first sharp shock, and this interest grew with the growth of
the long train of aftershocks and sympathetic disturbances reported from *
the region. - ;j

Two questions appeared to be worth investigation. The first con-* ’
cerned the possibility of detecting some unstable geological structure in i
or adjacent to the epicentre of the initial shock. Was the Gayndah I

* As recently as 7th October, 1937, another severe tremor was felt in the area, f
t Detailed records during the period from 12th April to 22nd July were kept!
by Miss M. Pittman, of the Bymingo State School. Seventy -three tremors of
varying intensity were felt during this period. J

THE GAYNDAH EARTHQUAKE OF 1935.

117

earthquake caused, for example, by a renewal of movement along- an old
fault plane? The second question was of a more general nature, and
was concerned with the reason for the prolonged seismic activity of the
year 1935, and the virtual restriction of this activity to the Burnett
region. Why should the valley of the Burnett be more susceptible to
earthquakes than other parts of the State?

The first attempt to answer these questions was based on an examina-
tion of such geological accounts and maps of the area as were in existence.
These were not sufficiently detailed to warrant confident conclusions.
They were, however, very suggestive. Thus the epiceiitral area seemed
to lie quite close to a major structural line, namely, that separating a
great palaeozoic terrain to the east, and a narrow strip of mesozoic rocks
to the west. Moreover, this junction marked the northern extension of a
tectonic feature of the first importance, which was best known in the
heavily faulted strip of country between Ipswich and Northbrook. This
great system of faults had first been recognised by Cameron.^ Its
importance and significance was later emphasized by Reidf when he
wrote: ^Mn Southern Queensland there appears to be a sharp boundary
to the coastal folding of Tertiary age. This boundary takes approxi-
mately a regular N.N.W.-S.S.E. line, and passes from Gayndah, through
Ipswich, to Beaudesert. Faulting and intense folding mark this line,
and west of it the Mesozoic strata are scarcely disturbed ; to the east they
are, in some cases, only slightly disturbed, but are frequently heavilv
folded.’^

At about the same time Bryan,t independently, and as the result
of a different line of approach, arrived at a similar conclusion with
regard to the significance of the Ipswich-Gayndah line, which he regarded
as the most iihportant of the four great ‘'anticlinal axes” of Southern
Queensland. Bryan , tentatively extended this tectonic feature to the
north-north-west of Gayndah, and Reid§ subsequently established the
presence of heavy faulting near Monto on the line as thus extended.
Writing of this he states: “Just to the east of the [Mulgeldie] coal basin
lies the junction of Lower Carboniferous and Low^er Mesozoic rocks.
This junction is marked by great disturbance in both series on the Monto
road. . . . This fault line is one of major structural importance,

whereby the coalfield was dropped down and overthrust from the east
by Lower Carboniferous rocks. This fault line bears approximately 35°
west as plotted over a few miles to the north-east of Monto.”

A few miles south of this faujlt but not in alignment with it (being
somewhat further west) R-eid describes another important structure as
“a fault and crush line which has been mapped in detail from Abercorn
to the south-west corner of the coalfield, a distance of eight miles. . . .
This fault line is apparently not one of very great displacement, but
consists of a linear strip perhaps only 10 to 20 chains wide, in which the
strata are broken and crushed into postures approaching the vertical,
while on either side the rocks are only very gently folded.” The inset
map accompanying Reid’s report shows springs emerging from two
points on this second fault line. One of these, called ‘ ‘ Soda Springs, ’ ’ is

* Qld. Geol. Sur. Pab. No. 147, p. 2.
t Aust. Assoc, for Adv. of Sci., Vol. 17, 1924, p. 310.
I Proc. Eoy. Soc. Qld., Vol. 37, p. 35, 1925.

§ Qld. Govt. Min. Jrnl., Vol. 28, p. 185, 1927.

118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

shown where the railway line to Monto crosses the fault line just to the
north of Abercorn. (It was at this point that a crack 120 feet long
running in the direction of the fault and an accompanying subsidence
of 12 inches were discovered on the permanent way by the railway
authorities on the day following the earthquake.)

With regard to the Burnett region in general the only significant
geological fact that might be related to its seismic sensitivity was that
it contained the most striking evidence of recent volcanic action to be
found in the southern half of Queensland. In particular the extinct
volcano Mount Le BrunA with its twin crater lakes (The Coalstoun
Lakes), might possibly be regarded as a related phenomenon.

The facts enumerated above were all of them suggestive and war-
ranted a closer examination of the geology of the area. Consequently
at the first opportunity, which occurred dujring the University vacation
in August, 1935, the authors made a hurried visit to the area accompanied
by Dr. D. A. Herbert.

The results of this excursion were most satisfactory, in as far as
they provided a clear picture of the geological structure of the critical
area, but were disappointing in that they did not reveal any evidence
as to the immediate cause of the earthquake.

The authors were not so sanguine as to expect to find newly formed
scarps or any other marked disturbance of the surface — the earthquake
was not nearly so intense as to warrant such an expectation — but they
did hope to find other geological evidence that would enable them to
locate the epicentre more definitely and that might throw some light on
the origin of the shock.

It is true that the anticipation that the epicentre would be found
to be near the junction of the Pahuozoic and Mesozoic terrains was
justified by an examination in the field, but it is equally true that (1) No
part of the meizoseismal area was actually on tliis junction, (2) The
long axis of the meizoseismal area was discordant both with the direction
of the junction as locally developed and with the general trend of the
Ipswich-Gayridah line, (3) The junction is locally sealed by the presence
of a large granitic intrusion.

The only suggestive geological relationship was one that was not
anticipated. It concerns the rough coincidence in-both size and direction
of a large mass of biotite trachyte with the epicentral area as finally
determined. The outcrop of the trachyte extended for 7 miles in an
E.N.E. direction.

This mass is particularly well developed at its south-western
extremity, where it forms the prominent feature known as Mount Law-
less. There it is seen to be intrusive into conglomerates of the Upper
Esk (Triassic) Series. Another notable exposure is on the banks of the
Burnett River where this passes Mr. Netterfield^s property.

it is probably very significant that it was at these points that those
Iieavy rock falls occurred that have' been noted in an earlier section.

While in the Burnett area the authors took the opportunity of
investigating the evidence of recent volcanic activity.! The perfect
and, as yet, unmodified form of the cone and craters of Mount Le Brun,
and the large quantities of relatively unweathered slaggy material still

* First described and named by N. W. Broun. Bee Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld.,
Vol. X., p. 44, 1894 and Vol. XI., p. 88, 1895.

t See Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., Vol. 47, p. xv., 1935.

THE GAYNDAH EARTHQUAKE! OF 1935.

119

lying upon the surface, together with the clear evidence that basaltic
lava streams have flowed down the present valleys of the Burnett River,
Barambah Creek, and several tributary streams, all clearly demonstrate
that important volcanic eruptions have occurred within the present cycle
of denudation, and at no distant date.

These facts at first appear to be full of significance when it is borne
in mind that the Burnett area is one relatively sensitive to seismic
activity — at least as compared with the rest of Queensland — but a more
detailed examination of the position in the field showed that Mt. Le Brun,
which must be regarded as the focal point of the recent volcanic activity,
is situated well outside the meizoseismal area.

There is certainly no direct evidence for regarding the Gayndah
disturbance as a volcanic earthquake. But it is equally certain from
the shallow depth of the focus that it cannot be considered as a plutonic
earthquake. There is then no alternative but to place it in the only
remaining category and class it as a tectonic earthquake, in spite of
the fact that no close correlation with earlier tectonic phenomena has
been established in the field.

^ 12. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

The authors are deeply indebted to the many correspondents who
responded to their appeal for help, and many of whom went to consider-
able trouble in providing carefully prepared accounts of the main shock
and the many succeeding tremors. They also thank the officers of the
several Australian and New Zealand seismological stations for the
information and copies of seismograms that they so readily supplied.
Lastly they would express their deep appreciation of the hospitality and
help provided by Mr. R. T. Netterfield, of Wetheron.

120

VoL. XLIX., No. 11.

Studies in Oriental and Australian Trypaneidae —

Part II.

Adraminae and Dacinae from India^ Ceylon^ Malaya^
Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Philippine Islands, and Formosa.

By F. A. Perkins, B.Sc.Agr., Lecturer in Entomology,

^ University of Queensland.

{Bead before the Royal Society of Qiieensland, 25th October^ 1937.)

(Plate IVa.)

After having worked for several years on the Trypaneid^ of Austra-
lasia, it was with great pleasure that a collection of about 500 specimens
was received from Dr. H. M. Pendlebury, Curator of the Selangor
Museum, P.M.S., for study and identification. Subsequently additional
material was received from the British Museum, Macleay Museum,
Sydney, Australian Museum, Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Canberra, F.C.T., South Australian Museum, and the Queens-
land Museum. A total of over 3,000 specimens was received, the addi-
tional material prolonging but at the same time simplifying the task.
Owing to difficulties of publication it is not possible to deal with the
whole of the material in one paper.

Most of the species can be divided into three distinct groups^

{a) Species from India, Ceylon, Malaya, Sumatra, Java, Borneo,
Philippine Islands, and Formosa.

(5) Species from Celebes, Aru Island, New Guinea, and the
islands of the South Pacific.

(c) Species from Australia.

Groups {a) and (5) are the countries east and west of Wallace’s
Line. No special significance is attached to this, the grouping being
merely one of convenience.

I wish to express my sincere thanks to those who have assisted me
in this work, and in particular to Mr. H. K. Munro, B.Sc., Dr. H. M.
Pendlebury, Curator of the Selangor Museum, Dr. J. Smart and the
Trustees of the British Museum, Mr. A^ Tonnoir and Dr. A. J. Nicholson,
C.S.I.R., Mr. A. Musgrave, Australian Museum, Mr. Salter, Macleay
Museum, Dr. Walther Horn, Deutsches Enlomologisches Institut, Berlin,
and Dr. C. H. Curran, American Museum of Natural History, and
Mr. H. M. Hale, Director, South Australian Museum.

With regard to the subdivision of the family, the classification
adopted is that proposed by Bezzi (1924), in which the family is divided
into six sub-families. Five of these sub-families are represented in the
material before me; and two, Adraminoe and Dacince, from countries
under group {a) are considered in this paper.

Sub-family ADRAMIN AE .

This sub-family is represented by only one species — Adrama
determinata Walk.

Of this widely distributed and well-known species there are fourteen
males and eleven females from the following localities: — -Larut Hills,
PeraJr, February, 1932 (H. M. Pendlebury) ; Kuala Lumpur, Selangor,

STUDIES IN ORIENTAL AND AUSTRALIAN TRYPANEIDAE^ — PART II. 121

October, 1921 (H. M. Pendlebury) ; Fraser’s Hill, Pahang, January,
1929; Bnkit Kutu, Selangor, September, 1929 (H. M. Pendlebnry) ;
Bettotan, near Sandakan, N. Borneo, July and August, 1927 ; Kedah
Peak, March, 1928; D|jampang Tinggh, Preanger, West Java, March,
April, September, October, 1935 J Moenia, N. Java, 2-4,000 feet,
November, 1935.

Sub-family DACINAE.

This sub-family is well represented, and 10 genera are considered
in this paper. The genera found in India and the oriental region west
of Wallace’s Line can be separated by means of the following table: —

1. One pair of sc. bristles . .

Two pairs of sc. bristles

2. Thoracic suture complete
Thoracic suture incomplete

3. Basal segment of ovipositor longer than abdomen . .
Basal segment of ovipositor shorter than abdomen . ,

4. Ovipositor cylindrical throughout
Ovipositor flattened distally . .

5. No pr. sc. bristles

One pair of pr. sc. bristles

6. Two ICO. sa. bristles
One a. sa. bristle
No a. sa. bristles

7. One a. sa. bristle . .

No a. sa. bristle . .

8. Third abdominal tergite of male ciliated . .

Third abdominal tergite of male not ciliated

9. Pr. so. absent

Pr. so. bristles present . .

10. Third abdominal tergite of male ciliated . .

Third abdominal tergite of male not ciliated

11. Supernumerary lobe present in wing of male

No supernumerary lobe present in wing of male . .

2.

9.

MonaarosticJms Bez.

3.

Leptoxyda Macq.

4.

Caliantra Walk.

5.

6.

7.

Tetradaous Miyak.
Daoulus Speis.
Nesodacus F.A.Perk.

8.

Afrodac%s Bez.
Strumeta Walk.
Asiadacus F.A.Perk.
Paradacus n.g.

10.

11.

Paratridacus Shir.
Zeugodaous Hend.
ParaBcugodacus Shir.

Genus STRUMETA Walk. 1856.

Sjm. Chaetodacus Bezzi 1913.

In a previous paper (Perkins, 1937) it was pointed out that there
is no definite evidence to justify making Strumeta umbrosa F. (syn.
conformis) a synonj^m of Bactrocera longicornis Guer. Certainly they
both have banded wings, but the figure of the wing of B. Imgicornis is
quite different from that of S. umbrosa. Moreover, the description of
the two species differs in other respects {see Bezzi, 1928; Perkins, 1937).
Unfortunately the type of B. longicornis is missing, and it is impossible
to fix its generic characters until it has been rediscovered. Consequently
Bactrocera (type longicornis) and Strumeta (type umbrosa, which is
well known) must be regarded as distinct genera. Bezzi (1913) thought
the two species were the same, and then assumed that they were, for he
certainly had no proof. Sinking Strumeta, he put into Bactrocera all
the species of Dacinae with banded wings, and erected a new genus,
Chaetodacus, for those species with only a costal band and anal streak.
The recent discovery of new species, and the rediscovery of several old
species, all with banded wings, have demonstrated very definitely that
such a character has very little generic value. Species with banded
wings are placed in at least five different genera. Ignoring the banding
of the wings, Strumeta (type umbrosa) and Chaetodacus (type ferru-
gineus) have exactly the same generic characters; and Strumeta Walk,
has priority.

122

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

'll

If, eventually, Bactrocera longicornis Guer, and Strumeta umhrosa
F. are proved to be congeneric, then both Strumeta and Chaetodaciis
will become synonyms of Bactrocera.

KEY TO SPECIES FOUND IN INDIA, MALAYA, JAVA, BORNEO,

SARAWAK, &e.

1. Mesonotum with median, longitudinal yellow stripe . .
Mesonotum without median longitudinal yellow
stripe

3. Seutellum with black median longitundinal band . .
Scutellum entirely yellow

4. 1st and 2nd femora fulvous, with black apical ring
1st and 2nd femora almost entirely black, only the

base slightly yellowish

5. Three i. or. bristles
Tw'o i. or. bristles . .

6. A large apical spot at apex of wing
Costal band normal, no apical spot . .

7. Wings with markings in addition to costal band

and anal streak

Wings at most with costal band and anal streak . .

8. With only one transverse band on wing . .

With more than one transverse band . .

3.

7.

4.

5.

tappmvus Shir.

scutellarms Bez.
cuciirhitcB Coq.

6.

apicalis de Meij.
diaphorus Hend.

8.

11.

9.

10.

9. Costal band beyond stigma represented by only a
faint yellow* tinge; scutellum marked wdth black
in middle

Costal band normal

10. Three i. or; scutellum with black markings . .

Two i. or.; scutellum yellow . .

11. Humeral and notopleural calli joined by a broad

yellow band . .

Humeral and notopleural calli not joined as above . .

12. Seutellum entirely yellow
Scutellum not entirely yellow , .

13. Face wdthout usual black markings . .

Black facial markings present

14. Yellow^ lateral post-sutural stripes absent . .

Yellow^ lateral stripes present . .

15. Mesonotum entirely ferruginous
Mesonotum mostly black

16. Costal band discontinued beyond stigma; small apical

spot

Costal band normal ; no apical spot . .

17. Mesonotum entirely ferruginous
Mesonotum with definite black pattern

18. Costal band incomplete; anal streak wanting
Costal band and anal streak normal . .

19. For© and middle femora entirely dark brown or

black

Fore and middle femora not as above

20. Costal band broad, extending to R4 5 . .

Costal band normal, not extending to R4 + 5

21. Facial markings in form of black band
Facial markings normal, circular spots

22. Abdomen black . .

Abdomen pale with black markings . .

23. Costal band extending to R4 + 5

Costal band narrow, not extending to R4 5

24. Occiput, femora, fore and middle tibiae fulvous
Occiput dark brown or black with yellow border;

femora with black apical bands; all tibiae dark
brown or black

frauenfeldi Bch.
albistrigatus de Meij.
hignttatus Bez.
umhrosa F.

continuus Bez.

12.

17.

13.

14.

15.

tillyardi n. sp.
MeGregori Bez.
versicolor Bez.

16.

hyalimis Shir.
incisus Walk.

18.

19.

sonata San. ‘

ferruginea F.

20.

21.

nigro tibialis
var. lata nov.
iiigrotihialis n.sp
22.

23.

cilifer Hen. .

oorrectus Bez.

24

25.

bryouice Tryon. ;

pedestris var. Ivmhiferus
Bez.

STUDIES IN ORIENTAL AND AUSTRALIAN TRYPANEIDAE — PART II, 123

25. Facial spots absent
Facial spots present

26. Costal band absent, only stigma yellow
Costal band present

27. Wings with distinct apical spot; frons broad; hind

tibias yellow

Wings without distinct apical spot; frons narrow;
hind tibige dark brown or black . .

28. Lateral post-sutural yellow stripes absent . .

Lateral stripes present . .

29. Small species; 3rd, and nearly all 4th, abdominal

tergites black; femora with conspicuous apical

ring . . . .

Medium size species; fore-margin only of 3rd
abdominal tergite black

30. 3rd antennal segment about 4 times as long as wide . .
3rd antennal segment about 3 times as long as wide . .

31. Costal band extending into cell F3 in middle of the

wing . .

Costal band not extending into cell R3 in middle . .

32. Occiput, coxae, trochanters, fore and middle tibiae

fulvous

Occiput dark brown or black, with yellow border;
coxge, trochanters dark brown; tibim' dark brown
or black

impunotatus de Meij.
26.

tuberculaius Bez.

27.

latifrons Hend.

28.

ohsmratus de Meij.

29.

30.

31.

\parvulus Hend.
antennalis Shir.
piedestris var. occipitalis
Bez.

32.

dorsalis Hend.

pedCstris Bez,

Assuming that ritsemae Weyen., figuratus Walk., strigifinis Walk.,
tail Walk., and nehulosa Walk,, should be placed in the genus Strumeta,
it is not possible to place them in the key because of the inadequacy of
the available descriptions.

The following species^ — scutellarius Bez., frauenfeldi Sch., albistri-
gatus de Meij,, apicalis de Meij., continuus Bez., tillyardi n.sp., of which
the generic characters of the male have not been recorded — are placed in
Strumeta on the assumption that the male has a supernumerary lobe in
the wing, and the third abdominal tergite ciliated.

Strumeta ferruginea P.

The identification of this species, the first of the sub-family to be
described, has caused more confusion than all the other species com-
bined. It was originally described in 1794; and transferred to the genus
Dacus in 1805.

During the nineteenth century several workers included in this
species most of the species of Strumeta which have no outstanding
character, such as — banded wings, spotted scutellum, median post-
sutural yellow stripe. It was usually said that the species was very
variable. For example, Froggatt (1908) wrote as follows: — ‘Mf my
determination is right, it is in regard to» ^colouration and^size a very
variable species, running from black in the thorax, and even the ’body,
to reddish-brown.” Bezzi (1913, a), after repeating the remarks made
by Froggatt with regard to the variation in size and colour, indicated
that he was by no means convinced that they were correct, by the
following statement: — ‘‘This is a widely spread species, since w^e have
records from India, Ceylon, Java, and Amboina; but it is very doubtful
if the species has ever been exactly recognised.^ ^

Bezzi (1916), for the first time, defines ferruginea, and makes the
following admission: — “In my paper of 1913, under the name ferru-
gineus are comprised the present and the following threq forms —

124

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

dorsalis, incisus, and versicolor; they may be considered as varieties of
a single species, inasmuch as all are to be found living at the same time
in the same fruits,” Bezzi had the advantage of examining a series of
specimens from Bengal, the type locality of ferruginea, and his definition
appears to be quite valid. The chief characters of ferruginea as defined
by him and subsequently by Shiraki (1933) are as follows: — Bristles of
the head, thorax, and scutellum yellow; complete absence of any black
pattern on the mesonotum ; reddish occiput with yellow border ; poorly
developed frontal spots ; narrow costal band, not extending to cell R3 ;
hyaline costal cells ; and the fulvous legs with only the hind tibiae
darkened. So defined, S. ferruginea is easily recognised, and should be
regarded as a distinct species with a rather restricted range.

At different times the following have been described as varieties of
S. ferruginea: — dorsalis Hend., incisus Walk., versicolor Bez., occipitalis
Bez., limbiferus Bez., ohscuratus de Meij., okinmvanus Shir., and tryoni
Frogg.

In considering some of the above forms to be varieties, Bezzi was
influenced by the fact that they were often bred from the same fruits.
Experience gained in Australia during the last few years indicates that
such a deduction is quite unsound. Over 15,000 specimens comprising
fifteen to twenty species have been bred from over 120 different hosts. It
is quite usual to breed two, three, and even four distinct species from
one tree, and even from one individual fruit. Moreover, the study of a
large number of series of bred specimens, the number of individuals in
the series varying from 50-300, has demonstrated that marked variation
in size and colouration is the exception rather than the rule. In most
series of bred specimens the following characters are particularly
constant : —

1. The presence of facial spots. In some species the shape of the
spots varies slightly. 2. The fronto-orbital spots, the central frontal
blotch, and the vertical cross band. These markings can be seen in
freshly emerged specimens even before the ptilinum has been retracted.
3. The yellow thoracic markings. These are constant both in position
and shape. 4. The black pattern of the mesonotum and the pleural region
is surprisingly coiistant. 5. The median black longitudinal line on the
third, fourth, and fifth abdominal tergites is very constant. 6. The
colour of the round or oval shining areas on the fifth abdominal tergite.
7. The colour of the legs, particularly the femora and the tibiae. 8. The
fulvous or dark brown markings of the wings, the colour of the costal
cells, and the width of the costal band.

N.B. — When breeding Dacinoe, I examine the specimens alive a few
hours after emergence, and then keep them alive for ten-fifteen days,
exposing them to direct sunshine for several hours each day, and provid-
ing them with a diet of mixed fruit, dates, &c. After such treatment
they have their true colours; the body, especially the abdomen, is not
shrivelled and misshapen ; and the markings of the wings are particularly
constant.)

Of the above so-called varieties, versicolor is the only one which
might be a variety. Bezzi (1916) separates It from ferruginea on the
‘ grounds that the anal streak is wanting, the costal band is incomplete,
and the scutellum has definite brown markings. If these characters are
constant, and not due to immaturity, then versicolor Bez. would appear
to be a distinct species. Like ferruginea, it breeds in the mango, and the

STUDIES IN ORIENTxiL AND AUSTRALIAN TRYPANEIDAE PART II. 125

breeding and examination of a long series of specimens would decide
this point. None of the other forms agree even closely with the
description of ferrugMea, and should be regarded as distinct species.

In spite of the fact that there are over 500 specimens of Dacinae in
the material which, is being studied, there is not one which agrees with
the description given above. Shiraki (1933) states that it is very rare
in Formosa, where he bred it from mangoes. The evidence suggests that
ferrugmea is confined to India, and perhaps Formosa ; and that the
numerous forms from the Indo-Malayan region, identified as
S. ferrugvnea, belong to one or more of the following species : —

Strumeta dorsalis Hend. 1912.

The description of this species was based on a large series of
specimens from Formosa. Thanks to Dr. Walther Horn, of the Dputsches
Entomologisches Institut, it has been possible to examine a pair of
HendeFs paratypes. It appears to be quite a distinct species, the very
pronounced black pattern of the mesonotiim separating it from ferniginea
F. In dorsalis the mesonotum is black, with the following reddish-brown
patches : —

1. A triangular patch above each humeral callus. 2. A small patch
surrounding the thoracic suture, and extending from the notopleural
callus to the end of the suture. 3. A short strip connecting 1 and 2 and
surrounding the anterior npl. bristle. 4. The whole of the supra-alar
region below, and posterior to, the post-sutural yellow stripes.

Other details worth repeating are : —

{a) The propleura are reddish-brown; (5) the occiput fulvous, with
a couple of faint black streaks; (c) the legs are fulvous, with the excep-
tion of the hind tibiae, which are darkened dorsally; (d) the colouration
of the abdomen is ill-defined, the ground colour being dark fulvous
speckled with brown, but the anterior border of the third visible tergite
is definitely black, the black pattern extending on to the fourth and fifth
tergites at the sides; {e) the median longitudinal black stripe on the
. third, fourth, and fifth tergites is very conspicuous ; (/) the central
portion of the postscutellum reddish-brown, remainder black; {g) bristles
of the head and thorax dark brown, almost black; {h) costal band does
not extend even faintly into cell R3 below R2 -f- 3 ; {i) ovipositor dark
fulvous.

None of the specimens from Indo-Malaya, Java, Borneo, New
Guinea, Pacific Islands, and Australia agree with this species, suggesting
that it has not the wide distribution other authors have claimed for it.
In the material before me it is only represented by the two paratypes
from Formosa.

Strumeta pedestris Bezzi 1913.

This species was first described by Bezzi (1913, b) as a variety of
ferniginea F. In 1919 he added to his original description, but still
regarded it as a variety of ferruginea. Actually it is much more closely
related to dorsalis Hend., with which it agrees in having the mesonotum
almost entirely black, the cephalic and thoracic bristles almost black,
well-developed frontal spots, narrow costal band, and conspicuous median
longitudinal black stripe on the third, fourth, and fifth abdominal
tergites. It differs from both dorsalis and ferruginea in having the
occiput black, or very dark brown, with a narrow fulvous border, the
propleura mostly black, the coxae and trochanters either dark brown

R.S. — E •

126

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

or black, fore and hind tibiae either dark brown or black, usually an
oval black patch on the outside of the fore-femora, and the postscutellum
entirely black.

Strumeta pedestris appears to be the commonest species in the East
Indies ; and probably most of the records of S. ferruginea and 8. dorsalis
should be referred to it. It is of definite economic importance, and

infests a wide range of fruits. Represented by the following specimens :

9(^(^ and 2?$, Bukit Kutu, Selangor, Malay Peninsula, September, 1929
(H. M. Pendlebury) ; 3cJ(^, Kedah Peak, Malay Peninsula, March, 1928;
1 S and , West Coast, Angoa Lighthouse, at light, October, 1926
(E. Seimund) ; 1$ , Bettotan, near Sandakan, North Borneo; 1 $, Kuala
Lumpur, July, 1921 (H. M. Pendlebury); 2^^, Buitenzorg, Java,
January (A. M. Lea); 5 $?, Java (Dr. Roepke), 1912; 2 d'd', 1
Bangalore, India; 2<^^ , 1$, Federated Malay States (B. A. R. Cater);

, Ceylon, 1908 — oil lure — (W. W. Proggatt) ; 1 Moenia, North
Java, 2 — 400 feet, November, 1935; 1 c^, 1$, Kuala Lumpur, Federated
Malay States, March and May, 1926 (O. H. Corbett), from Baninca
cerifera (3164) and Cucurbit pips (3239) ; 1 Kuala Lumpur,
Federated Malay States, May, 1921, on rotting pomelos* (Dr. W. A.
Lambom) ; 3 7?$, Penang, Selana, Seramban, Kuala Lumpur,

Federated Malay States, bred by officers of Department of Agriculture
from Psidium guajava, Citrus aurantium, Solanum v erh as ci folium,
Averrhoa caramlola (Nos. 8671, 4703, 7729, 5223, 8834, 8723) ; 4
Ceylon, 8101, from Mangifera sp., 6752 from Citrus aurantium, Lindila;
8169 and 4097 from Anona cherimolia, Haptuale, and Bandarawela.

Strumeta pedestris var. occipitalis Bez.

Bezzi regarded this form as a variety of ferruginea F., but judging
by a specimen from Batbatan Island, collected by McGregor, and labelled
occipitalis in what appears to be Bezzi ’s writing, it is very closely
related to pedestris. It differs from pedestris in having a costal band
which extends into the middle of cell R3 in the middle of the wing, the
middle tibiae are dark brown or black like the other tibiae, whereas in
pfidestris the middle tibiae are lighter. In all other respects it resembles
pedestris. Represented by 2 and 2 $$, Bukit Kutu, Selangor,
Federated Malay States, March, 1931, and September, 1932 (H. M.
Pendlebury) ; 1(^ and 2i$$, Kedah Peak, Federated Malay States; 1$
Larut Hills, Perak, February, 1932 (Pendlebury) ; 1 ?, Taiping,
Federated Malay States, W. B. Orme, 1911.

Strumeta pedestris var. limbiferus Bez.

Although this form is not represented in the collections before me,
from Bezzi ’s description it is obvious that it is very closely related to
pedestris, from which it differs in having a much wider costal band. It
may be a distinct species, but, until a long series has been examined, it
seems preferable to regard it as a variety of pedestris.

Strumeta umbrosa F. 1805.

Synonyms —

Dacus umhrosus F. 1805.

Dacus fascipennis Wied. 1819.

Bactrocera fasciatipennis Dolesc. 1856.

Strumeta^ conformis Walk. 1857.

STUDIES IN ORIENTAL AND AUSTRALIAN TRYPANEIDAE PART II. 12 (

This widely distributed species is represented by 1 and 5 from
Kuala Lumpur, Federated Malay States, August, 1921, October, 1922,
August, 1923, July and August, 1926 (H. M. Pendlebury) ; 6(^c^, Buiten-
zorg, Java (A. M. Lea) ; 1 (Dr. Roepke), Java, 1910, ex Artocarpus
mtegrifolia; 18 from Kuala Lumpur, January, 1921, on falling and
rotting pomelos (Dr. W. A. Lamborn) ; 2 fromi Singapore ,(^-
Hamilton and H. N. Ridley) ; 1 from Selangor, 1902 (Dr. H. E.
Durham) .

Strumeta cucurbitae Coq. 1899.

Another economic species with a wide distribution. Represented
by 4 (unlabelled) and 2 from Kuching, January, 1907 ( J.H.) ;
1(^, 3 $$, India, 1908 (W. W. Froggatt) ; 1$, Kuala Lumpur, Federated
Malay States (A. M. Lea) ; 1 ?, W. Ghats, India (R. L. Barringer) ; 1
Buitenzorg, Java (A. M. Lea) ; 2^S, 19? Sungei Besi, Federated Malay
States, December, 1923, ex cucumber (729); 1 $, Pusa, India, 1909
(W. W. Froggatt) ; 3 Bengal; 2 , 3 99, from Kuala Lumpur,

Federated Malay States, May, 1926, from Cuciimis sativis and Endio-
spermmn malaccensis (G. H. Corbett), Nos. 3207, 3239, 3184; 2 from
Preanger, West Java, September, 1935; 1 from Cameron Highlands,
Federated Malay States, October, 1928, from C. sativiis (G. H. Corbett).

Strumeta latifrons Hend. 1915.

This species, previously only known from Formosa, is represented
by 3 and 1 ? from Kudat, North Borneo, September, 1927 ; 1 from
Bengal; and 1^ from Peradenyia, Ceylon, March, 1924, from Solanum
melongenae (6310).

The broad frons is very noticeable, the proportions in one specimen
being — width of eye to width of frons, 17 : 20, and the width in propor-
tion to the length, when measured from, but not including, the lunule to
the median ocellus being 20 : 22.

Strumeta cilifer Hend. 1912.

Another species previously only known from Formosa ; represented
by 2 $$ from Bettotan, near Sandakan, North Borneo, July and August,
1927 ; 1 9, Singapore, 1903 (H. N. Ridley).

Thanks to the kindness of Dr. Walther Horn, of the Entomologisclies
Institut, Berlin, it was possible to check these specimens with a paratype
of S. cilifer Hend.

Strumeta correctus Bezzi.

Represented by 1 from Bangalore, India, 1908 (W. W. Froggatt).

Strumeta bryoniae Try on 1927.

Synonymy —

Ghaetodacus 'bryoniae Tryon, 1927.

Chaetodacus cosiaUs Shir., 1933.

Tryon described C. bryoniae in 1927 from specimens bred from
Bryonopsis laciniom Naudin. in Queensland. Shiraki described C.
costalis in 1933 from specimens bred from the same host in Formosa,
and his description agrees in every detail with specimens of bryoniae
Tryon. I feel certain that the synonymy quoted above is correct.

128

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The species is not represented in the collection before me, but this is
not surprising, the adult flies being rarely collected in the field in spite of
the fact that the fruit of Bryonopsis laciniom is usually heavily infested.
It is most probable that the fly occurs in most places where the host plant
is to be found.

Strumeta frauenfeldi Sehiner.

Two specimens from Singapore have been identified as S. frauenfeldi
in spite of the fact that Sehiner ’s specimens came from Stuart’s Island,
which is understood to be a small island south of Fiji. If so, the distribu-
tion is rather remarkable, but no characters were observed which do not
agree with Sehiner ’s description. Hendel (1932) states that alhistrigatus
de Meijere is the same species. It is probable that he is right, in spite
of the fact that in the figure of alMstrigaius the costal band is shown to
be dark and conspicuous, whereas in frauenfeldi only a faint yellowish
tinge is noticeable. De Meijere also fails to mention the black markings
of the scutellum which Hendel states are variable. The following
description is included to supplement that of Sehiner: —

Female. — ^Length of body, 7-7-5 mm.; wing, 6-7 mm.

Head. — Froiis fulvous, paler beside the eyes and above the lunule;
frontal spots very faint, longer than wide, the proportion, when measured
from the lunule to the median occellus, being 19 : 13, and narrower than
an eye, the proportion being 18 : 13 ; ocellar triangle black ; no transverse
black vertical cross-band ; lunule brownish-orange ; antennae about as
long as face ; fulvous ; the outer side of third segment darker ; third
segment bilaterally flattened, and more than twice as long as the second,
the proportion being 19:8; a short dorsal bristle on second segment ;
face fulvous, with two large subcircular black spots; antennal grooves
distinct ; a slight transverse furrow in carina ; palps bright fulvous, the
upper edge straight, and the lower slightly curved; occiput black, with
a narrow yellow^ band which expands towards the lower part of the head.

Chaetotaxy. — Vt. 2, s.or. 1, i.or. 2, genal bristle, occipital row
distinct, all black.

Thorax. — Shining black with a broad hoary median longitudinal
band extending to the scutellum; the following yellow markings; — two
thirds of the humeral calli ; post-sutural lateral stripes which are sharply
pointed behind, and terminate well before the upper post-alar bristle;
no median yellow stripe ; notopleural calei ; a large mesopleural stripe,
the latter extending on to the sternopleura, the upper anterior corner
reaching as far as the anterior n.pl. bristle ; hypopleural spots with the
posterior two-thirds of the lower, and the posterior sixth of the upper
black ; rest of thorax black. Scutellum yellow ; a distinct basal black
band which is pointed posteriorly, the apex extending backwards nearly
to the middle of the scutellum ; a brown spot at the apex between the
bristles ; convex above and rounded at the sides.

Chaetotaxy . — Sep. 4, n.pl. 2, a.sa. 1, p.sa. 2, pr.se. 2, mpl. 1, pt. 1,
se. 2 (apical) all black.

Legs. — Yellow, with the middle and hind coxae, half the middle and
hind femora, and the hind tibiae very dark brown or black.

Wings. — Hyaline, with the following brown bands; — a transverse
band which starts at the stigma, and includes the two cross veins, which
are close together, it is nearly as wide as the stigma, but tapers pos-
teriorly and is quite narrow when it reaches the inner margin ; an anal

STUDIES IN ORIENTAL AND AUSTRALIAN TRYPANEIDAE — PART II. 129

streak which barely reaches the inner margin; the usual costal band is
lacking, but there is a faint, indistinct, yellowish tinge along the costal
border. The proportion of the second costal cell to stigma is 19:22;
the sections of Ml + 2 before and after the r-m cross-vein are in the
j)roportion of 34:10; the extension of cell Cu is constricted basally,
and the proportion of the extension to Cul -(- lA measured along lA
is 19:12; the last section of K4 + 5, and the last section of Ml 2 are
distinctly curved.

Abdomen. — Dark brown or black, with a faint yellow posterior
margin of the first tergite, a broader, very distinct, yellowish posterior
band on the second tergite, and then a distinct longitudinal yellowish-
brown band on either side of a thin black median stripe; oval patches
on fifth tergite distinct, and brown in colour. Ovipositor dark brown in
colour, and very short and broad; from above, the basal segment is
twice as wide as long, from below the proportion of length to terminal
width is 25 : 10. Two females from Singapore, June, 1926.

Strumeta nigrotibialis n.sp.

Male and Female. — Length of body, excluding ovipositor, 7-5 mm.;
of wing, 6 mm.

Head. — Frons nearly as wide as long, the proportion when
measured from, but not including, the lunule to the median ocellus
being length to width, 17 : 13 in the male, and 19 : 15 in the female;
width of frons to eye, 13 : 16 in male, and 15 : 18 in female ; very dark
fulvous mottled with brown; frontal spots black; ocellar triangle black,
and connected on either side to the eyes by a narrow black transverse
band; vertical calli distinct, shining, fulvous. Lunule dark brown.
Antennae extending to bottom of antennal grooves ; third segment
bilaterally flattened, rounded at the tip, darkened distally, and covered
with fine white pubescence ; arista longer than third segrhent, black ;
third segment three times as long as second, the proportion when
measured along the lower margin being 17 : 6 ; a short black dorsal bristle
on the second segment. Face dark brown, nearly black, with an elongated
black spot extending backwards along two-thirds of the inner side of
the antennal grooves ; carina with a transverse furrow. Palps fulvous,
bilaterally flattened, with rounded tips. Occiput black with a narrow
fulvous margin. A dark spot beneath each eye.

Chaetotaxy. — Yt. 2, s.or. 1, i.or. 2, genal bristle, occipital row
distinct, all bristles dark brown or black.

Thorax. — General colour black, with a narrow hoary stripe on either
side of the median line, diverging slightly after passing the thoracic
suture. With the following yellow markings : — humeral calli ; noto-
pleural calli ; on each side a mesopleural stripe, whose front margin
is slightly curved, and hind margin straight; about the width of the
notopleural callus above and half that width below, continued on to
the sternopleuron ; on each side a short narrow post-sutural stripe which
is rounded in front, only the extreme tip reaching the suture, sharply
pointed posteriorly, ending some distance before the upper post-alar
bristle ; no median post-sutural stripe ; hypopleural calli with the excep-
tion of the posterior fourth of the lower, and the extreme tip only of
the upper, which are black. Seutellum yellow with a very distinct black
curved basal band, whose greatest width is about one-quarter the length
of the seutellum; convex above, and rounded at the sides, and between
the bristles.

130 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Chmtotaxy. — Sep. 4, 7i.pl. 2, a.sa. 1, p.sa. 2, pr.se. 2, mpl. 1, pi. 1,
set. 2 (apical), all black.

Legs. — Very dark brown or black, with basal two-thirds of the
hind femora, and all the tarsi, fulvous.

Hyaline with brown costal band and anal streak. The
costal band includes the stigma, all of cell Rl, starts to extend to cell
R3 just before the end of R2 + 3, and terminates on the margin between
R4 -f- 5 and Ml + 2, about one-quarter of the distance from R4 + 5 ;
definitely no apical spot. R-m cross-vein oblique and slightly curved,
the sections of Ml + 2 before and after it being in the proportions
of 30 : 21 in the male, and 39 : 21 in the female. The proportional lengths
of the 2nd costal cell and the stigma measured along C. are 18 : 21 in
the male and 21 : 33 in the female. , Anal streak short, not reaching
beyond the extension of cell Cu., and definitely not reaching the wing
margin. Extension of cell Cu. somewhat narrowed basally, definitely
not parallel-sided, its length measured along lA in proportion to Cu.lA
being 22 : 8 in the male and 20 : 14 in the female. Last section of Ml + 2
slightly curved. Supernumerary lobe in male very distinct, but not
excessive.

Ahdmnen. — General colour black with fine white hairs. First
visible tergite black; 2nd tergite variable — in some almost entirely
black, in others with an extensive transverse pale-brown area on each
side towards the posterior part of the tergite. 3rd, 4th, and 5th tergites
mostly black with a pale-brown longitudinal marking on either side of
the black median longitudinal stripe on the 4th and 5th. These pale-
brown areas are variable ; in some they are very faint, and in others
very distinct. The shining oval areas of the 5th tergite very distinct,
and dark-brown or almost black in colour; 3rd tergite of male with a
row of black cilia on the postero-lateral margin. Base of the 1st segment
of the ovipositor slightly swollen and black in colour, the apex very
fiat and dark-brown in colour. Its proportions measured from beneath,
length : greatest width : apex : being 30 : 21 : 8. Described from 5c^c^
and 5?? from the following localities:. — Larut Hills, Perak, Feb., 1932
(H. M. Pendlebury) ; Bukit Kutu, Selangor, Sept., 1929 (H. M. Pendle-
bury) ; Kedah Peak, Malay Pen., March, 1928 ; Malay Pen., West Coast,.
Pulan Lighthouse, Oct., 1926 (E. Seimund). Types returned to
Selangor Museum.

This species is distinguished from nearly all other species in the
genus by the entirely dark-brown, or black, fore, and middle femora, the
peculiar elongated facial markings, and the very dark-brown colour of
the frons and the face. The short sharply-pointed post-sutural lateral
yellow stripes are also unusual.

Strumeta ni^otibialis var. lata. nov.

In the collection are two specimens which agree in most respects
with S. nigroiihialis, particularly in the colour of the legs. They differ
in having a broad costal band which extends almost to R4 + 5
throughout its whole length; the occiput is fulvous; the post-sutural
lateral yellow stripes are broader, square in front and extend to the
upper post-alar bristle, and they are definitely larger in size. This may
be a distinct species, but in the absence of a longer series, it is preferable
to regard it as a variety.

Length of body, excluding ovipositor, 9 mm.; of wing 7*5 mm..

STUDIES IN ORIENTAL AND AUSTRALIAN TRYPANEIDAE — PART II. 131

Two ?? from Kedah Peak, Malay Pen., March, 1928, and 1 d from
Singapore, 1904 (H. N. Ridley).

Strumeta tillyardi n.sp.

Female. — Length of body, 6-6-5 mm. ; of wing, 5-5-5 mm.

Head. — Frons reddish-brown with a narrow fulvous border just
above the lunule; vertical calli very distinct, slightly raised, smooth,
shining, black; no frontal spots; ocellar triangle black, and connected
to the eyes by a narrow transverse black vertical band; frons parallel-
sided, its proportions being — length (measured from, but not including,
the lunule to the median ocellus) to width, to width of eye 18 ; 15 : 16.
Antennae, basal segment brown the same as the lunule ; 2nd segment
paler; 3rd segment pale fulvous on the inner side, and dark-brown on
the outer ; bilaterally flattened, and round at the tip ; the proportion
of the 3rd and 2nd segments is 14 : 6 measured along the ventral
border; arista about twice as long as the 3rd antennal segment, pale
at the base, otherwise black. Face uniform, pale fulvous; no black
markings ; antennal grooves distinct ; carina slightly concave. Occiput
black with a small dusky fulvous triangle about the size of the scutellar
triangle and immediately behind it. Palps orange ; bilaterally flattened ;
tlie upper edge slightly concave, the lower edge correspondingly convex.

Chaetotaxy. — Vt. 2, s.or. 1, i.or. 3 (lower two pairs close together
and well separated, from the third), genal bristle, occipital row distinct,
all black.

Thorax. — General colour shining black with unusually long, fine,
silvery hairs, with the following yellow markings : — humeral calli, except
the anterior corners, black or dark-browm ; notopleural calli ; parallel-
sided mesopleural stripes, about as wide as the notopleural calli above,
and slightly narrower below, not extending on to the sternopleura ;
hj^popleural calli, except the posterior two-fifths of the lower, and the
posterior sixth of the upper, which are black; no post sutural median
and lateral yellow stripes. Prosternum fulvous. Remainder of the
thorax black. Scutellum convex with rounded sides, yellow with a
very distinct curved black basal band which at its apex is about half
the length of the scutellum.

ChaetotcDxy.—Scp. 4, n.pl. 2, a.sa. 1, p.sa. 2, pr.sc. 2, mpl. 1, pt. 1,
sc. 2, all black.

Legs. — Fulvous, with the hind coxae and the outer side of the
hind tibiae dark-brown.

Wings. — Hyaline, with the following brown markings: — the stigma,
a short narrow costal band which starts at the end of R2 -|- 3 and
terminates half-way between R4 -f- 5 and Ml 2; a narrow band along
each of the cross-veins, these bands not being connected, the band along
the posterior cross-vein extends to the margin of the wing; a short
anal streak which barely reaches the margin of the wing. The two
cross-veins are distinctly approximated, the proportion of Ml -j- 2
in the 1st Mg before and after the r-m cross-vein being 40 : 14. Last
vsection of R4 5 sligthly curved, and the last section of Ml + 2
])raetically straight. The length of the 2nd costal cell in proportion to
tliat of the stigma, measured along the C. is 20 :25. Extension of the
cell Cu narrowed basally, and definitely not parallel-sided, the propor-
tions of the extension, measured along lA, and Cul + lA being 16 : 16.

132 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Abdomen. — Black, with the following fulvous markings: — Posterior
borders of the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th tergites uniting in the middle in
the 3rd, 4th, and 5th, to form a median fulvous stripe. Oval areas on
5th tergite brown and distinct. Basal segment of the ovipositor approxi-
mately an equilateral triangle, convex above and below, and fulvous in
colour, the portion of the basal segment seen from above being as
long as the 5th tergite.

Described from 2 females from Bukit Kutu, Selangor, P.M.S.,
11/9/29 (PI. M. Pendlebury) ; and Fraser’s Hill, Pahang, 29/1/29.

This species is placed in the genus Strumeta on the assumption that
the male has the 3rd abdominal tergite ciliated, and a supernumerary
lobe in the wing. It is distinguished from other species of the genus,
and from species in closely-allied genera, by the peculiar markings of
the wings, the unspotted face, absence of lateral and median post-sutural
yellow stripes, and the presence of three i.or. bristles.

This species is named in honour of the late Dr. R. J. Tillyard,
whose tragic death was reported to me while working on this particular
species. It is only fitting that, the name of one who has done so much
for Australian entomology, should be perpetuated in a group, which
already contains the names of well-known Australian entomologists such
as Froggatt, Tryon, Gurney, and Bancroft.

Genus AFRODAOUS Bezzi.

In the collection from the British Museum there is one female
which appears to belong to this genus. Until the male has been
described, it is impossible to say so definitely. It has no a.sa. bristles,
2 pr.sc. bristles, 2 scutellar bristles, and a flattened ovipositor. The
only other species found in the Oriental and Australian region with
this combination of characters is Afrodacus jarvisi, Tryon, from
Australia. Tentatively, until the male has been described, this new
species is placed in this genus.

Afrodacus javanensis. n.sp.

Femcole. — Length of body, excluding ovipositor, 7-5 mm.; of wing,
6 mm.

Head. — Frons dark, fulvous; no frontal spots; two black spots on
the vertex adjacent to the upper corner of the eyes, these spots not
connected to the black ocellar triangle by a transverse band; vertical
calli distinct, shining, fulvous; very wide, wider than an eye, the
proportion being width of frons to width of eye, 18 : 14, slightly
wider than long, the porportion being, width to length, measured from
lunule to median ocellus, 18 : 17. Lunule brown. A black spot on each
side of the lunule, level with the basal segment on the antennae. Face
fulvous, with a short black transverse band on the lower margin, not
extending to the antennal grooves at the sides. Antennae dark reddish-
brown, with the 3rd segment darkened along the upper margin and at
the tip ; not extending below the lower corners of the face ; apparently
the short bristle on the 2nd segment absent ; 3rd segment bilaterally
flattened, and distinctly pointed ; arista fulvous at base, remainder
black ; 3rd segment two and a-half times as long as 2nd, the proportion
being 15 : 6. Occiput mostly dark -brown or black with a fulvous border,
centre also fulvous; a reddish suboeular spot.

STUDIES IN ORIENTAL AND AUSTRALIAN TRYPANEIDAE — PART II. 133

Chaeiotaxy. — Yt. 2, s.or. 1, i.or. 3, occipital row very weak, a distinct
but weak pair of ocellar bristles, all black ; genal bristle very pale and
weak.

Thorax. — Black, covered with short pale hairs ; lower part of
propleura, and prosternum reddish-brown. With the following yellow
markings : — humeral calli, except the extreme anterior angle ; noto-
pleural calli ; a mesopleural stripe which is very broad above, extending
from the posterior corner of the humeral callus to the base of the wing,
the anterior border sinuous, the lower border slightly less than the
notopleural callus in width, and extending on to the sternopleura ;
a median post-sutural stripe which starts just about level with the
suture, and terminates just in front of the pr.sc. bristles, pointed
anteriorly and rounded behind ; on each side a very broad post-sutural
stripe which commences just in front of the suture, and extends to the
upper post-alar bristle, the anterior portion in front of the suture about
twice the width of the remainder of the stripe, posterior end slightly
narrower, and rounded ; hypopleural calli except the posterior 5th, which
is black. Scutellum yellow with a narrow black basal band whose
posterior border is straight ; very slightly convex above, rounded at the
side and between the bristles.

Chaeiotaxy. — Sep. 4, npl. 2, mpl. 1, pi. 1 (weak), p.sa. 2, pr.se. 2,
se. 2 (apical), all black. No a.sa.

Legs. — Fulvous but very brightly and distinctly marked as
follows : — Middle and hind coxae brown ; apical third of the fore-femora,
the apex only of the middle, and the apical quarter of the hind-femora ;
the base of the fore-tibiae, the whole of the middle and hind tibiae, and
the whole of the distal segments of all the tarsi black.

Wings. — Hyaline, v/ith dark-brown costal band, anal streak, and
infuscation of the posterior cross-vein. The costal band includes the
stigma, the whole of cell Bl, the end of cell R3, and the upper corner
of cell R5 ; it does not extend to cell R3 until just before the end of
R2 3, continues without widening for a short way, and then suddenly
becomes enlarged to form a large distinct apical spot; it terminates
about half-way between R4 5 and Ml -f- 2. Stigma nearly twice as
long as the 2nd costal cell, the proportion being 37 : 20. The r-m
cross-vein oblique, the sections of Ml + 2 before, and after it, being
in the proportion of 32 : 25. Anal streak short, not reaching the wing
margin. Extension of cell Cu. narrowed basally, definitely not parallel-
sided, its length measured along lA in proportion to Cul + lA being
15 ; 19. Last section of Ml -1- 2 distinctly curved. Posterior cross-vein
broadly and distinctly infuscated.

Abdomen. — Bright fulvous with the following distinct black mark-
ings : — The anterior border of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd, visible tergites ; the
antero-lateral border of the 4th and 5th tergites; and a median longi-
tudinal stripe on the 3rd, 4th, and 5th tergites. Oval areas on the
5th tergite, distinct, shining, fulvous. Ovipositor flat, dark-brown, the
proportions of the basal segment measured from below being — length;
greatest width ; apex : 40 : 20 : 12. Sternites dark-brown, almost black."

Described from 1 $ from Mt. Ardjoena, East Java, 6,000 feet,
Jan., 1936. Type returned to British Museum.

This very distinctive species can be separated from other species
of the genus, and from other species of the subfamily,. by the following
combination of characters — the short transverse facial band; the very

134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

broad mesopleural stripe; the black thorax; yellow markings of the
mesonotum ; the apical spot on the wings ; the broadly-infuscated
posterior cross-vein ; and the colour of the legs and abdomen.

Genus ASIADACUS F.A.Perk. 1937. .

It was necessary to erect this genus for diversus Coq. and hakeri
Bez., two species which differ from species in other genera with two
scutellar bristles, in having no ciliation on the 3rd abdominal tergite
of the male. The two species are easily distinguished by means of the
following key : —

KEY TO SPECIES OF ASIADACUS.

Wings with a very pronounced apical spot . . . . . . , . hakeri Bez..

Wings with normal costal band, no apical spot . . . . . . . . diversus Coq*

Asiadacus diversus Coq.

This species is represented by 1 and 2 from Pusa, India,,
and Ceylon, 1908 (W. W. Proggatt), caught with oil; 2 females from
Bihar, Pusa, Jan., 1915.

Genus NESODACUS F.A.Perk. 1937.

Nesodacus ablepharus Bez. 1919.

This species previously only known from the Philippine Islands^
is represented by 1 $ from Bettotan, nr. Sandaken, North Borneo,
Aug., 1927. Bezzi (1919) suggests that either N. ahlephurus or Strumeta
cilifer Hend. might be terminifer Walk. This is not so, for Dr. Smart,
of the British Museum, who very kindly examined the type of terminif er ,
informed me that it has 4 sc. bristles, whereas ahlepharws and cilifer
have only 2.

The following description is included to supplement that of Bezzi.

In the head the vertical calli are very distinct, and shining brown
in colour ; the frons is perfectly flat, and its proportion when measured
from the lunule to the median ocellus is — length to width 17 : 14 ; width
of frons to an eye being 14 : 14. Face with the antennal grooves black,
and the carina brovuiish-yellow. Third segment of the antennae not
quite twice the length of the second, the proportion being 13 : 8.
Mesonotum behind the suture very flat, not slightly convex as in most
Dacinae. Scutellum conspicuously flattened above, and the hind margin
between the, bristles noticeably straight. Legs black, except the extreme
base of the middle femora, the basal half of the hind femora, and all
the tarsi, which are yellow. In the wing the stigma is definitely longer
than the 2nd costal cell, the, proportion being 25 : 18, the two sections of
Ml + 2 before and after the r-m cross-vein are in the proportion of
23:21; length of extension of cell Cu. to Cul + lA measured along lA
being 12 : 13.

It is surprising that Bezzi did not mention the conspicuous
flattening of the thorax and the scutellum, for they are most striking.

Nesodacus ? longicaudatus n.sp.

Female. — Length of body, 7-5-8-5 mm.; of wing, 6*5-7-5 mm.

^lead.—General colour fulvous. Frons nearly as wide as long, the
jiroportion when measured from, but not including, the lunule to the
median ocellus being length to width 20 : 17 ; width of frons to eye

STUDIES IN ORIENTAL AND AUSTRALIAN TRYPANEIDAE PART II. 135

17 : 19 ; spots at the base of the orbital bristles very faint ; ocellar
triangle black, and connected on either side, to the eyes by a narrow
black, vertical transverse band. Lnnule dark-brown. Antennae not
quite reaching the lower lateral angles of the face ; 3rd segment
bilaterally flattened, thickly covered with fine white pubescence ; darker
than other segments; arista longer than the 3rd segment, orange at the
base, the remainder being black ; 3rd segment nearly three times as long
as the 2nd, the proportion being 19:7; a short black dorsal bristle on
the 2nd segment. Face with a slight bulge below the. base of the
antennae, beneath which is a shallow transverse furrow ; antennal grooves
distinct; large triangular black facial spots, one side of the triangle
being the lower margin of the antennal groove, and the apex being about
halfway up the groove. Palps orange ; bilaterally flattened ; the upper
edge straight and the tip and lower edge distinctly curved. A small
black spot immediately beneath each eye. Occiput very dark reddish-
brown, almost black, with an orange border whose width is about that
of the ocellar triangle.

Chaetotaxy. — Vt. 2, s.or. 1, Lor. 2, genal bristle, all black. Occipital
row entirely absent.

Thorax. — General colour black, with a narrow hoary stripe on
either side of the median line, diverging slightly after passing the
thoracic suture. With the following yellow markings : — humeral calli ;
notopleural calli; on each side a mesopleural stripe whose front and
hind margins are fairly straight, about the width of the notopleural
callus above, and a little narrower below, continued on to the sterno-
pleuron, where it becomes slightly wider, on each side a post-sutural
stripe which is fairly wide, round behind, extending as far as, and
including, the upper post-alar bristle, connected with a small rectangular
spot which is immediately in front of suture ; no medium post-sutural
stripe ; hypopleural spots, with the exception of the posterior third of
the lower and the posterior sixth of the upper, which are dark reddish-
brown, almost black. Remainder of the thorax brown or black, except
the prosternum, which is brownish-yellow, but not very conspicuous.
Scutellum yellow with an extremely narrow black basal band. It is
convex above, and rounded at the sides, and between the apical bristles.

Chaetotaxy. — Sep. 4, n.pl. 2, a.sa. 1, p.sa. 2, no pr.se., mpl. 1, pt. 1,
set. 2 (apical), all black.

Legs. — Dark reddish-brown or black with the extreme base of the
front femora, the basal half of the middle femora, and the basal three-
quarters of the hind femora, and all the tarsi, orange-yellow.

Wings. — Hyaline with brown costal and anal bands. The costal
band includes the stigma, all of cell Rl, starts to extend to cell R3
immediately beneath the end of Rl, then gradually widens, and beneath
the end of R2 -j- 3 it reaches R4 -|- 5 and then encroaches on cell R5,
the lower margin curving round and terminating on the margin halfway
between R4 5 and Ml -j- 2, forming a definite apical spot. R-m cross-
vein very oblique, and slightly curved, the sections of Ml -)- 2 before
and after it being in the proportion of 37 : 30. Anal streak short,
extending very little bej^ond the extension of cell Cu, and definitely not
reaching the wing margin. Extension of cell Cu. somewhat narrowed
basally, and definitely not parallel-sided, its length measured along lA
in proportion to Cul + being 21:17. Last section of Ml -j- 2
distinctly curved. The proportional lengths of the 2nd costal cell and
stigma measured along C. are 17 : 38.

136 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Abdomen. — General colour dark reddish-brown, covered with long
line white hairs. First visible tergite black with a narrow pale-brown
posterior border; 2nd tergite with the fore-border almost black, the
middle pale-brown, and the hind border almost white ; 3rd, 4th, and 5th
tergites reddish-brown, slightly darker at the sides, with a few indistinct
specks of dark-brown or black. Oval areas on 5th tergite of the same
colour as the rest of the abdomen, and are only distinguished by the
different texture of the exocuticula. Ovipositor a uniform reddish-
brown and very long. Viewed from above it is almost parallel-sided,
somewhat convex above, and concave below; the proportion of the
length of the abdomen, the basal segment of the ovipositor, the 2nd
segment of the ovipositor, and the Avidth of the basal segment are
82 : 55 : 23 : 13. Wlien viewed from beloAV, the base of the 1st segment
of the ovipositor is distinctly bulbous, and twice the Avidth of that
portion AAliich projects beyond the 5th tergite.

Described from one female from Bettotan, nr. Sandakan, Nth.
Borneo, 4th Aug., 1927. Types returned to Selangor Museum.

Until the male of this species has been described, its exact generic
position is uncertain. In the: Oriental and Australasian regions three
genera are found in which the species have 2 sc., and no pr.sc. bristles.
It cannot be placed in Callantra Walk, because of its short antennae
and ovate abdomen. It might belong to either of the other genera —
Neodacus F. A. Perk., and Nesodacus F.A.Perk., and for the present
it is placed in the latter, because it appears to be more closely related
to the two species of that genuS' — N. atrichiis Bez. and N. ahlepharus Bez.
Ifc differs from them only in the black markings of the face, the
abdominal markings, the wing pattern, and the size and shape of the
ovipositor.

Genus CALLANTRA Walk. 1860.

Callantra splendida n.sp.

Female. — Length of body, excluding OAupositor, 8-5 mm. ; of wing,

7 mm.

Head. — Frons fulvous, with a dark-broAvn central blotch and distinct
frontal spots; ocellar triangle black, vertical cross-band reddish-broAvn ;
vertical calli distinct; slightly longer than wide, the proportion being
length, measured from median ocellus to lunule, to width 23 : 19 ; lunule
brown. Face dark fulvous ; an elongated black spot in each antennal
groove extending from the mouth border to well past the middle of the
groove ; a small brown spot in the centre at the mouth border ; trans-
A’^erse furrow in carina very distinct. Antennae dark-brOAvn Avith the
third segment darkened distally and externally, 2nd segment long,
nearly tAAdce as long as 1st, and 3rd about two and a-half times as long ;
as the 2nd, the proportion being : — first, second, third, 6:9:23; a short ^
black bristle on 2nd segment; arista longer than 3rd segment, broAvn j
at base and black distally. Occiput fulvous with a pale-yellow border, \
genal spot reddish -broAvn. ^ ’

Chaetotaxy. — Vt, 2, pvt. absent, s.or. 1, i.or. 2, genal bristle, ■
occipital row distinct, all black.

Thorax. — Mostly black with pale-pubescence; a broad hoary stripe
on each side of the median line ; reddish-broAvn above the humeral calli,
in front of the suture, above the wings, and on the propleuron and . ^

STUDIES IN ORIENTAL AND AUSTRALIAN TRYPANEIDAE PART II. 137

prosternum. With the following yellow markings: — humeral 'calli;
notopleural calli; a strip connecting the humeral and notopleural calli;
a median post-sutural stripe, sharply pointed at both ends, the anterior
point just in front of the suture, and almost reaching the scutellum
liehind ; on each side a post-sutural stripe, bordered by the suture in
front and rounded behind, extending to the upper post-alar bristle; a
mesopleural stripe which is about the width of the notopleural callus
above, and half that width below, the fore-border straight, extending on
to the sternopleuron below; hypopleural calli, except the posterior
fourth, which is black. Scutellum yellow with a narrow slightly-curved
black liasal band.

Chaetotaxy. — Sep. 4, npl. 2, p.sa. 2, mpl. 1, pt. 1, sc. 2 (apical), all
black. A.sa. and pr.se. absent.

Legs. — Dark-brown or black, except the base and apex of the fore-
femora, the basal third of the middle femora, the whole of the hind
femora, and all the tarsi, which are fulvous.

Wings. — Hyaline with a broad costal band. No anal streak. The
costal band starts at the base of the wing, includes the costal cells, the
stigma, the whole of cells R1 and R3, and extends as a small but distinct
apical spot into the upper corner of cell R5 ; the extreme tip the costal
band is very pale, and terminates just past the end of R4 + 5. The
r-m cross-vein, the posterior cross-vein, and the last section of Ml + 2
all distinctly curved. Extension of cell Cu. narrowed basally, its length
measured along lA in proportion to Cul -j- lA being — female 24: 21 and
male 32 : 15. The proportional lengths of the 2nd costal cell and stigma,
measured along C., are 26 : 37. The sections of Ml -|- 2 before, and
after it, are in the proportion of 42 : 28.

Abdomen. — Definitely club-shaped. First visible tergite black,
second tergite with four bands, a fulvous band along the fore-border,
then a black transverse band which becomes more extensive at the sides ;
behind this another fulvous band, and along the whole of the posterior
part of the tergite a pale-fulvous band ; 3rd tergite mostly black, only
the posterior border with a narrow fulvous band, which is widened in
the centre ; the sides only of the 4th and 5th tergites black, the rest
fulvous. The oval areas on the 5th tergite black. No median black
stripe. Ovipositor characteristic, dark-fulvous or brown, long,
cylindrical; the basal half of the first segment of uniform diameter,
becoming constricted about halfway and then tapering; in profile,
convex dorsally, and concave beneath. Proportions — length : greatest
diameter: diameter of tip — 60:20:11, measured from below. Male
similar to female. Wings with no supernumerary lobe. Third

abdominal tergite ciliated.

Described from one male and two females from Djampang Tenggah,
Preanger, West Java, Feb. and Sept., 1935. Types returned to British
Museum. This species agrees with Strumeta continnus Bez., Afrodacus
jarvisi Tryon, and Z eugodacus tetrachaetus Bez., in having the humeral
and notopleural calli joined by a broad yellow stripe, but differs
generically.

Genus ZEUGODAOUS Hend. 1927.

In the Oriental and Australasian regions Zeugodacus, which is
represented by a number of large handsome species, is the dominant

138 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

genus with four scutellar bristles. It contains over twenty species
which can be separated by the following key. Certain species like
ierminifer Walk., pendlehuryi n.sp., &c., are included tentatively, pend-
ing the discovery and description of the males. It is assumed that in
the male the wing has a supernumerary lobe, and the third abdominal
tergite is ciliated. Z. caudatus has been included twice because in all
East Indian specimens the infuscation of the posterior cross-vein is so
faint that it is very difficult to decide whether it is present or not.

KEY TO SPECIES OF ZEUGODACUS HEND.

1. At least one cross-vein infuscated . . . . . . 18.

Neither cross- vein infuscated . . . . . . . . 2.

2. Median post-sutural yellow stripe absent . . . . 3.

Median post-sutural yellow stripe present . . . . 6.

3. Face black

Face yellow with black markings

4. Face yellow with double black band
Face yellow with usual round spots

terminifer Walk.

4.

duplicatm Bez.

5.

5. Anal streak absent

Anal streak wide and distinct . .

6. Scutellum yellow with black apical spot
Scutellum yellow with no apical spot . ,

7. Three i.or. bristles
Two i.or. bristles

8. Costal band incomplete between stigma and apical

spot

Costal band complete beyond stigma . .

9. Humeral calli surrounded with reddish, femora

entirely yellow

Humeral calli surrounded with black, femora with
brown apical ring

pendlehuryi n.sp.
quadrisetosus Bez.

7.

11.

8.

10.

soutellaris.

9.

pubescens Bez.
caudatus var. maculatus

nov.

10. Face with two black spots

soutellinus Bez.

Face with three short longitudinal black bands

. .

lipsarms Hend.

11. Three i.or. bristles

16.

Two i.or. bristles

• ,

12.

12. Face shining black with yellow lateral margins

linibipennis Macq.

Face mostly yellow

. .

13.

13. Face entirely yellow, no spots . .

• •

olmnii Shir.

Face with two black spots

. .

14.

14. Humeral and notopleural calli joined by a broad

yellow band . .

. •

tetraohcetus Bez.

Humeral and notopleural calli not joined by yellow

band

. •

15.

15. Costal band dilated to form a distinct apical spot

hageni de Meij.

Costal band not so dilated

. -

gavisus Mro.

16. Face yellow with anterior transverse band . .

. .

maculipennis

Face yellow with usual round black spots . .

. -

17.

17. Lateral frontal spots absent . .

nubilus Hend.

Lateral frontal spots present . .

omidatus F.

18. Both cross-veins infuscated, face black

nigrifacies Shir.

Only posterior cross-vein infuscated . .

• .

19.

19. Scutellum yellow . .

20.

Scutellum yellow with black or brown apical spot

24.

20. Costal band dilated to form an apical spot . .

21.

Costal band not dilated . .

« •

tibialis Shir.

21. Face entirely yellow, no spots . .

• •

iw/iindus Bez.

Face with black spots . .

. .

22.

22. Median post-sutural yellow stripe surrounded

by

reddish-brown . .

synnepJies Hend.

Median post -sutural yellow stripe surrounded

by

black

23.

STUDIES IN ORIENTAL AND AUSTRALIAN TRYPANEIDAE — PART II. 139

23. Apical spot extending below Ml -1-2
Apical spot not extending to Ml -j- 2

24. All tibiae black, facial markings two oblong spots

and median line
Middle tibiae yellow or fulvous

25. Anterior part of mesonotum entirely black
Anterior part of mesonotum not entirely black . .

26. race with 2 pairs of black spots . ,

Face with 2 triangular spots which meet in the
centre of the transverse furrow . .

27. Face with 3 black spots, seutellum with a definite

apical spot

Face with 2 black spots, seutellum with only brown
tinge at apex

chrysotaoMs Hend.
caudatus F.

aris<imi(Ms Shir.

25.

26.

27.

scutellattis Hend.

caudatus var. ma^mlatus
nov.

amhigums Shir.
depressus Shir.

Of the above species, terminifer AValk., chrysotaxus Hend., and
quadrisetosus Bezz., have not yet been recorded from the group of
countries dealt with in this paper.

Zeugodacus caudatus F. 1805.

This common species is represented by 18c?(^ and 26 from the
follovdng localities : — Kedah Peak, P.M.S., March, 1928 ; Bukit Kutu,
Selangor, F.M.S., April, 1926, October, 1929, September, 1920 (H. M.
Pendlebury) ; Pahang, F.M.S., July and November, 1921, and January,
1929 (H. M. Pendlebury) ; Larut Hills, Perak, P.M.S., February, 1932
(Pendlebury) ; Samaway, near Sandakan, North Borneo, July, 1927,
Langkawilis, West Coast, F.M.S., April, 1928; Cameron Highlands,
October,* 1^.^ ex C. sativus (O. H. Corbett, No. 5358); Mount Tanga-
moes, Lampong, South Sumatra, 1,500 feet, July, 1935 (H. M. Pidley)
Singapore, 1900; Malay, ex Achras sapoia (G. H. Corbett) ; Kuala
Lumpur, May, 1926, Cucurbit Tips No. 3239 (Dr. Roepeke), Java, 1912;
Buitenzorg, Java, November, 1929 (G. L. Windred) ; Djampang,

Tenggah, Preanger, West Java, May, June, and July, 1935, Mount
Ardjoeno, East Java, 6,000 feet, January, 1936; Mount Tanggamoes,
Lampong, South Sumatra, 1,500 feet, July, 1935.

Thanks to the kindness of Dr. Walther Horn, of the Deutsches
Entomologisches Institut, it was possible to examine a specimen from
Formosa identified by H. K. Munro as Z. caudatus. In this specimen
the ovipositor is certainly long and cylindrical, like that described by
Shiraki (1933). In every one of the series of twenty-six females listed
above, the ovipositor is flat and triangular, and not as long as in the
specimen from Formosa. Moreover, the series is from Malaya, Borneo,
Sumatra, and Java, and it must be remembered that the type of
Z. caudatus came from Java. If the ovipositor is described by Shiraki
is constant, it is quite possible that the species found in Formosa is not
Z. caudatus. A careful examination of a long series would decide this
question. In the series listed above, a very constant character is the
reddish-brown area on the anterior part of the mesonotum. It is difficult
to describe, but looks like a narrow, irregular patch on either side of
the median line, extending from the anterior border of the mesonotum
to the suture. The two patches practically fuse posteriorly.

Zeugodacus caudatus var. maculatus var. nov.

In the collection from Selangor there is one specimen which
resembles Z. caudatus F., but differs very noticeably in five v/ays: —

140 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

1. The scutellum has a large black apical spot. 2. The costal band
does not extend to cell R3 in the middle, whereas in Z. caudatus it does
so throughout its whole length. 3. The costal band does not become
dilated to form a pronounced apical spot as in caudatus. It becomes
slightly enlarged after passing the end of R2 3, but there is no
distinct round spot as in caudatus. 4. The reddish-brown patches on
the anterior part of the mesonotum, so characteristic of Z. caudatus,
are absent, the whole of the mesonotum being black. 5. The facial
markings are in the form of two triangular black spots, whose apices
reach the oral margin, and whose bases run along the transverse furrow
of the Carina, meeting in the middle.

In all other respects this variety resembles typical specimens of
Z. caudatus. It may be a distinct species, but until a long series is
available for examination it seems better to regard it as a variety.

One female from Bukit Kutu, Salangor, F.M.S., 3,000 feet, Sep-
tember, 1932 (H. M. Pendlebury). Type returned to Selangor Museum.

Zeugodacus maculipennis Doles. 1856.

This handsome and easily recognised species is represented by 1
in poor condition from Pahang, F.M.S., December, 1921 (H. M. Pendle-
bury) ; 2 from Djampang, Tenggah, Preanger, West Java, March
and November, 1935.

Zeugodacus limbipennis Macq. 1843.

In the collection from the Selangor Museum there is one specimen
which was at first considered to be a new species, and a description
was prepared. Subsequently it was found to agree very well with
Macquart’s description of limhipennis. The outstanding character is
the shining black face with yellow margins. Macquart’s description is
very brief, and it is possible that the two species are distinct, in which
case the name atrifacies is suggested. A full description is included.

Male. — Length of body, 5|-6 mm. ; of wing, 5-5^ mm.

Head. — Frons fulvous, paler at the sides, with brown spots at the
base of the bristles, and a central biloped brown spot; vertical calli
distinct; ocellar triangle black; transverse vertical band black; slightly
concave, and a little longer than wide, the proportion when measured
from the lunule to the median ocellus being 18 : 14 ; a little narrower
than an eye, the proportion being 16 : 14. Lunule shining brown,
h'ace shining black with a narrow yellow band at each side on the
outer slope of the antennal groove. Antennae dark brown, nearly black,
and shorter than the face ; second segment a little longer than the first ;
third segment only twice as long as the second; a short black dorsal
bristle on the second segment. Palps yellow, bilaterally fiattened, the
upper edge almost straight and the lower edge distinctly curved. Genal
spot brown and very large. Occiput black with a narrow yellow border
about the width of the ocellar triangle.

Chaetotaxy- — Yt. 2, s.or. 1, i.or. 2 (very widely separated, the lower
of the two being level with the lunule), genal bristle, occipital row
distinct, all black.

Thorax. — Black, punctulate, covered with short white pubescence,
and with a broad hoary band on either side of the median line. With
the following yellow markings : — humeral calli ; notopleural calli ; a

STUDIES IN ORIENTAL AND AUSTRALIAN TRYPANEIDAE PART II. 141

small triangular spot in front of the suture which is connected with a
long narrow lateral post-sutural stripe, which terminates at the upper
post-alar bristle; a broad triangular mesopleural stripe which is wider
than the notopleural callus above, and which tenninates on the sterno-
pleura below; the anterior margin distinctly curved; three-quarters
of the anterior, and five-sixths of the posterior hypopleural calli ; a long
narrow median post-sutural stripe which terminates at about the level
of the pr.sc. bristles. Scutellum yellow with a very narrow slightly-
curved black basal band.

Chaetotaxy. — Sep. 4, n.pl. 2, mpl. 1, pt. 1, a.sa. 1, p.sa. 2, pr.sc. 2,
sc. 4, all black.

Legs. — Fulvous, with the coxae, front femora, distal two-thirds of
the middle femora, half the hind femora, the base of the front tibiae,
and about half the hind tibiae, dark brown or black.

Wings. — Hyaline with a very narrow costal band, and a rather
broad anal streak. The costal band starts at the end of Sc. and
terminates half-way between R4 + 5 and Ml + 2 ; it extends to cell
R3 at the end of R2 + 3, and then becomes slightly wider, forming a
small but distinct apical spot. The stigma is nearly twice as long as
the second costal cell, the proportion when measured along C. being
33 :19. The sections of Ml -J- 2 before and after the r-m cross-vein
are 36 : 24. A very pronounced supernumerary lobe at the end of
Cul -j- lA. Extension of cell Cu. slightly curved, and practically
parallel-sided basally, its length in proportion to Cul + lA being
18 : 6. R-m cross-vein very oblique ; R1 and R4 -f- 5 bristly.

Abdomen. — Punctulate ; covered with long pale pubescence ; black,
except the posterior margin of the second tergite, which is reddish-
brown, and the two oval areas on the fifth tergite, which are fulvous.
A row of post-lateral cilia on the third tergite. One male from Bukit
Kutu, Selangor, F.M.S., Sep., 1929 (H. M. Pendlebury). This species
is very close to terminifer Walk., which also has a black face, and four
seutellar bristles. In terminifer, however, there is no median post-
sutural yellow stripe, the lateral yellow post-sutural stripes are very
short, and the colour of the legs is slightly different.

Zeugodacus pendleburyi n.sp.

Female. — Length of body, 1-1^ mm.; of wing, 5-5-6 mm.

Head. — ^Frons dark fulvous, somewhat lighter at the sides, and
above the lunule ; frontal spots distinct ; vertical calli distinct, shining
brown in colour; no transverse vertical cross-band; ocellar triangle
black; above the lunule a slightly raised area sparsely covered with
short black hairs; slightly longer than wide, the proportion when
measured from the lunule to the median ocellus being 18 : 14 ; and
narrower than an eye, the proportion being 17 : 14. Lunfile shining
brown. Face .fulvous, with a large black spot in the lower part of
each antennal groove ; carina with a distinct, but shallow, transverse
groove. Antennae about as long as, face; first and second segments
fulvous; third segment dark brown, lighter on the inner side, covered
with white pubsecence ; second segment slightly longer than the first ;
third segment a little more than twice as long as the second, the pro-
portion being 15:7; a short black dorsal bristle on the second segment ;
arista longer than antennae. Palps pale fulvous, bilaterally flattened,
distinctly concave above, and convex below. A dark brown genal mpot.

142 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Occiput black with a narrow yellow border about the width of the
ocellar triangle.

Chaetotaxy. — Vt. 2, s.or. 1, i.or. 2, genal bristle, occipital row
distinct, all black.

Thorax. — Black, coarsely punctulate, covered with pale pubescence ;
a hoary band on either side of the median line. With the following
yellow markings : — humeral calli ; notopleural calli j post-sutural
lateral stripes, which are round in front, pointed behind, and very
short, about half the usual length, terminating just past the a.s.a.
bristle ; a parallel-sided mesopleural stripe which is about as wide as
the notopleural callus above, and slightly narrower below, which extends
on to the sternopleura below ; the upper two-thirds of the anterior, and
the upper five-sixths of the posterior hypopleural calli. Scutellum
yellow with a very distinct, fairly wide, curved, basal, black, .band;
convex above; apex slightly curved.

Chaetotaxy. — Sep. 4, n.pl. 2, mpl. 1, p.t. 1, a.sa. 1, p.sa. 2, pr.se.
2, sc. 4, all black.

hegs. — Dark brown, almost black, with the basal two-thirds of the
femora fulvous, and the tarsi paler, the basal segment being almost
white.

Wings. — Hyaline with a very narrow costal band, which starts at
the end of Sc. and terminates just past the end of R4 + 5 ; it does
not extend into cell R3 until it reaches the end of R2 -f- 3, and is
very little wider at the apex of the wing. There is no anal streak.
The stigma is nearly twice as long as the second costal cell, the pro-
portion measured along C. being 32 : 18. The sections of Ml -j- 2 before
and after the r-m cross-vein are in the proportion of 34:27. The
extension of cell Cu. is very narrow, and slightly restricted basaUy,
its length in proportion to that of Cul -}- lA when measured along
lA being 17 : 18. The r-m cross-vein in very oblique, and the lower
cross- vein slightly 'Wavy.

Abdomen. — First tergite black; 2nd tergite with a faint dark
fulvous anterior border, and a wide posterior fulvous border, the
anterior border of the latter being wavy; 3rd tergite black; 4th
and 5th tergites black with dark fulvous patches on either side of the
dark median line ; oval areas distinct, and dark reddish-brown in colour.
Ovipositor reddish-brown; when measured from below, the proportions
of the basal segment, length to greatest width, to width of apex, to
width of second segment, are 40:20:5: 10. ]?rom above, the length
of the 5th tergite to the whole ovipositer — 19 : 28.

Described from 3 ? $ from Bukit Butu, Selangor, F.M.,

Sep., 1929 (H. M. Pendlebury) ; and Larut Hills, Perak, Feb., 1932
(H. M. Pendlebury). Types returned to Selangor Museum.

This species is named after Dr. H. M. Pendlebury, who collected
the 3 specimens on which the description is based.

This species comes very close to ternvinifer Walk., with which it
agrees in having very short post-sutural lateral yellow stripes, the
black curved basal band on the Scutellum, and four scutellar bristles.
In terminifer, however, the tibiae of the 1st and 2nd pairs of legs are
fulvous, the face is black, and there is an anal streak present. It is
placed in the genus Zeugodaens on the assumption that the 3rd tergite
of the male is ciliated, and that there is a supernumerary lobe present
in the wing of the male.

STUDIES IN ORIENTAL AND AUSTRALIAN TRYPANEIDAE PART II. 143

Genus PARADACUS n.g.

The characters of this genus are : — Dacince with four scutellar,
one anterior supra-alar, two posterior supra-alar, no hrumeral, and no
pre-scutellar bristles; a row of post-lateral cilia on the 3rd abdominal
tergite of the male ; a supernumerary lobe in the wing of the male at
the end of Cul -f- 1^ ; aiid antennae not longer than the face. The
only other genus with four scutellar and no prescutellar bristles is
Austrodacus F.A.Perk., in which, however, there is no anterior supra-
alar bristle, no cilia on the 3rd tergite of the male, and no super-
numerary lobe in the wing of the male. Included in this genus is
perplexus Walk., and the following new species: (The generic characters
of perplexus Walk, were sent to me by Dr. Smart, of the British
Museum, who very kindly examined the type on my behalf.)

Genotype, the following new species.

Paradacus fulvipes n.sp.

Male. — Length of body, 6-6| mm. ; of wing, 5J-6 mm.

Head. — Prons fulvous, paler above the lunule, with some indistinct
darker markings in the centre ; frontal spots pale brown, but distinct ;
vertical calli distinct, but not differently coloured ; vertical cross-band .
dark brown ; ocellar triangle black ; a slight bulge or swelling just
above the lunule ; slightly longer than wide, the proportion measured
from the lunule to the median ocellus being 19 : 16 ; and very little
narrower than an eye, the proportion being 17 : 16. Lunule shining
brown. Antennae fulvous with the 3rd segment darker on the outer
side; 2nd segment a little longer than the 1st; 3rd three times as long
as the 2nd; short black dorsal bristle on 2nd segment. Pace fulvous,
with an elliptical spot in the lower part of each antennal groove.
Dark brown genal spot present; occiput fulvous.

Chaetotaxy. — Vt. 2, s.or. 1, i.or. 2, genal bristle, occipital row
absent, all black.

Thorax. — Black with reddisK-brown patches above the ki^ertion o^
the wings, and below the humeral calli ; punctulate ; and covered with
pale pubescence. With the following yellow markings : — humeral
calli; notopleural calli; a small rectangular mark in front of‘tK'6 suture
connected with the long wide lateral post-sutural stripe, which
terminates behind the upper post-alar bristle ; a triangular mesopleural
stripe which extends on to the sternopleuron below; four-fifths of the
anterior and practically all the posterior hypopleural calli. Scutellum
yellow with a very narrow black basal band ; convex above ; apex between
the bristles practically straight.

Chaetotaxy. — Sep. 4, n.pl. 2, mpl. 1, pt. 1, a.sa. 1, p.sa. 2, no. pr.se.,
sc. 4, all black.

Legs. — Pulvous with the fore and hind tibiae slightly darker.

Wings. — Hyaline with a broad costal band, which widens as it
reaches the apex, so that the w’hole of the apical portion of the wing
is of a pale brown tint, the apical blotch extending a little below
Ml -[- 2 ; posterior cross-vein slightly infuscated ; a very broad anal
streak which extends to the margin of the wing. Second costal cell
much smaller than the stigma, the proportion when measured along
C. being 22:34. The sections of Ml + 2 before and after r-m cross-
vein in the proportion of 35 : 24. The extension of cell Cu. only slightly
restricted at the base, and its length in proportion to that of Cul + lA
measured along lA is 23 : 11. R-m cross-vein very oblique. R1 and
R4 -f- 5 bristly.

144

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Abdomen. — Pale reddish-brown with the anterior margin of the
2nd and 3rd tergites black; 3rd tergite darker at the sides, and
indistinct small darker marks on the 4th and 5th tergites. Oval areas
on 5th tergite dark fulvous. No median black stripe. Third tergite
with a row of post-lateral cilia.

Described from one male from Bettotan, nr. Sandaken, North
Borneo, Aug., 1927. Type returned to the Selangor Museum.

This species is easily distinguished from the only other species
in the genus, per plexus Walk., by the wing pattern.

P. perplexus Walk, has a very complex wing pattern, something
like that of Neodacus curvifer Walk., and also a median post-sutural
yellow stripe.

Genus PARATRIDACUS Shiraki, 1933.

Paratridacus garciniae Bez. 1913.

Synonymy. — Bactrocera garcinice Bez. 1913.

This species is represented by 2 from Fraser’s Hill, Pahang,
F.M.S., Jan., 1929, and West Coast, Malay Pens., Pulan Angoa
Lighthouse at light, Oct., 1926 (E. Seimund). They are darker
than the specimens described by Bezzi, the mesonotum being nearly
black, but the markings of the face, abdomen, legs, and wings, as well
as other characters, agree so exactly, that there is little doubt about
the identification. Bezzi ’s material was bred from the host plant
Garcinia, and naturally would be lighter in colour than field-collected
specimens. It seems to be remarkably close to the other species of
the genus P. yayeyamanus Mats., the main difference being the general
lighter colour; but this again might be due to the difference between
bred and field-collected material.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Bezzi, M. (1913) : Mem. Ind. Mus., III., No. 3.

Bezzi, M. (1913) : Philippine Journ. Sei., VIII.

Bezzi, M. (1919) : Philippine Journ. Sci., XV.

Froggatt, W. W. (1908) : Dept. Agric. N.S.W., Farm Bull. No. 24.

Perkins, F. A. (1937) : Proc. Roy. Soe. Q. Vol. XLVII.

Saunders, W. W. (1841): Trans. Ent. Soc. London, III.

Shiraki, T. (1933) : Mem. Taih. Imp. Uni., VIII.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IVa.

1. C allantra splendida n. sp. Wing of
female (photographed from type).

2. Zeugodacus Umbipennis Macq. Wing

of male.

3. Strumeta nigroUMalis var. lata nov.
Wing of female, anal lobe folded
(photographed from type).

4. Zeugodamis pendleburyi n. sp. Wing

of female (type), anal lobe slightly
folded.

5. Afrodacus javanensis n. sp. Wing
of female (type).

6. Strumeta tillyardi n. sp. Wing of
female (type), anal lobe folded.

7. Strumeta nigroUMalis n. sp. Wing
of female (type), anal lobe out of
focus.

8. Paradacus fulvipes n. sp. Wing of
male (type), anal lobe slightly folded
and out of focus.

9. Strumeta frauenfeldi Schiner. Wing
of female, apex and inner margin
slightly broken.

10. Nesodacus longicaudatus n. sp.
Wing of female (type). Unfor-
tunately it Avas impossible to avoid
including the legs in the photo-
graph. They partially obscure the
anal streak, which, hoAvever, is very
short.

11. Callantra splendida n. sp. Ovi-
positor of type photographed from
the side.

12. Nesodacus longicaudatus n. sp.
Ovipositor of type photographed
from above.

>A«MW«VUM< ««!

M-^-V«H-<- '*1

5^1

l^ROC. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol, XLIX., No. 11

RiATE IV A.

Fig. 1

VoL. XLIX., No. 12.

145

The Upland Savannahs of the Bunya Mountains,

South Queensland.

By D. A. Herbert, D.Sc., University of Queensland.

(Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland, 2^th October, 1937.)

(Plate V.)

About thirty miles to the north-east of Halby, the Bunya Mountains
rise up from the low foothills and reach their greatest height on the
bald summit of Mount Mowbullan, 3,611 feet. A general account of
the vegetation, and a list of species collected at an altitude of 2,000
feet or over, is given by C. T. White (1). He points out that there
are four main types of vegetation, all very sharply defined from each
other; they are open grasslands, open eucalyptus forest, rain forest,
and swamps — the open grassland being on the slopes and tops of bald
hills and backed up by a solid wall of rain forest. Treeless patches
are one of the most conspicuous features as the mountains are
approached from the plains that stretch away to the south and west.
From a distance they contrast strongly with the dark rain forest
dominated by Bunya Pines {Araucaria BidwilUi), and are reminiscent
of the blady grass-covered clearings in the rain forests of the Malayan
Islands. They commence about 800 feet from the top of the range, and
often run up the steep western slopes to the ridges and about a hundred
yards down the other side, where the rain forest suddenly rises up
like a dark wall. The patches are mainly found on the steep western
slopes, but isolated balds may be found on almost any exposure.
Usually they are on spurs, and the creeks and gullies fianking them
are lined with rain forest, or, where conditions are suitable, with
swamp types.

Plants of the Savannahs.

The sharp line of demarcation between grassland and rain forest
is striking. Lantana camara, which elsewhere in Queensland commonly
fringes rain forests, is absent ; Acacia maidenii, Ruhus moluccanus, and
Ruhus rosaefolius may grow in intermittent narrow strips around the
forest margin, but are not continuous. In general, there is little sugges-
tion of that dynamic equilibrium that is so commonly observed. It
appears as if in the course of time the rain forest has progressed to the
limit of its powers, and has then stopped ; its pioneers have fulfilled their
function, and the climax formation occupies its potential territory to
the fullest extent; or alternatively, that the grassland is so firmly estab-
lished under the present conditions of grazing that encroachment of
the usual ecotone types is not taking place.

The grassy areas vary in size from a few acres up to several
hundred acres in extent. Their plant cover is well grazed, and forms
a sward, the common grass species being Themeda australis (Kangaroo
Grass), Cymbopogon refractus (barbed-wire grass), Danthonia longi-
folia (Wallaby Grass), Cynodon dactylon (Indian Couch), Aristida
vagans, Festuca bromoides, and Poa caespitosa (Tussock Grass), the
lastnamed being conspicuous on account of its habit. Amongst tlie
non-grasses are Viola betomcae folia, Hydrocotyle vulgaris, Apinm
leptophylluwj, and Tillaea verticillaris.

146 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

It is to be noted that the bald patches are chosen as sites for farm
houses and buildings and that a considerable number of weeds — native
and introduced — make their appearance round them; included amongst "
these are Sidkt T^UombifoUcby Acmna ovina, A. sanguisorhae, Verhena
officinalis, Bumex acetosella, B. crispus, B. Brownii, SoncMis aleraceus,
and Lepidium ruder ale.

Though the grassy areas of these mountains stand out in such
sharp contrast to the surrounding rain forest, they are not entirely
devoid of trees. Occasional trees, or sometimes groves, are to be found
(Plate I., Fig. 2). On a large bald patch, across which climbs the
road from Dalby to Mount Mowbullan and Kingaroy, may be seen
Acacia decurrens var. pauciglandulosa (Black Wattle), Bhodosphaera
rhodanthema (Deep Yellow Wood), Grevillea rol)usta (Silky Oak),
Laportea gigas (Stinging Tree), Ficus eugenioides (Small-leaved Fig),
Sterculm diversifolia (Kurrajong), and Eucalyptus tereticornis (Blue
Gum). On a smaller area above the Big Falls is a large cedar,
Cedrela toorm var. australis, growing about ten yards from the rain
forest margin, while in the middle of the area is a tree of Ficm
eugemaides. Sida rhombifoUa is another ligneous plant scattered
through the grassland.

Of these trees, the two which tend to form communities are
Eucalyptus tereticornis and Acacia decurrens var. pauciglandulosa,
both common further down the mountain, but sporadic in the upper
part within 800* feet of the top of Mount Mowbullan. On a large bald
near Munroe’s camp there is a fine grove of mature Eucalyptus
tereticornis forming a pure stand on a ridge ; the road passes this
particular grove. Elsewhere single trees or groups may be seen
occasionally.

Near the bald top of Mount Mowbullan, groves of the black wattle
dot the grassy slopes; many of these are perhaps not more than ten
years old, but are full grown, the plant being quick growing and short
lived. Some of the trees carry large numbers of the beautiful little
epiphytic orchid Sarcochilus falcatus, a common epipliyte of the nearby
rain forest, but which is absent from the wattles at the foot of the
range. A point to be specially noted is that these two tree species
both provide good firewood, and are used for that purpose very com-
monly on the mountains, most of the rain forest trees being compara-
tively worthless for that purpose, besides being more difficult to get at.

The other trees that have been mentioned as occurring on the
balds are isolated individuals. They are usually to be found at the
foot of sudden steep dips, or on the rocky areas where the grasses
are not as dominant. Ficus eugenioides is occasionally found perched
on exposed rocks, clasping them with its roots

Ecological Conditions.

Unfortunately there are no meteorological records of these
mountains. Stations on the plains below record about 26 inches rain-
fall per annum, but that of the mountains is obviously much higher,
as is evidenced by the luxuriance of the vegetation. In the absence
of data, the vegetation itself must be taken as the sole indicator of
the rainfall. The 26-inch country is quite incapable of supporting
rain forest. At the base of the mountains the creeks are still
lined by Eucalypts, but in the foothills Grevillea rohusta (Silky Oak),
(Jastanospermum australe (Moreton Bay Chestnut), and other trees

UPLAND SAVANNAHS, BUNYA MOUNTAINS, SOUTH QUEENSLAND. 147

common in such situations near the better watered coast make their
appearance. On the lower parts of the mountains themselves a rain
forest first makes its appearance along the creeks, the flats and ridges
being clothed with open Eucalyptus forest — Eucalyptus tereticornis,
Eucalyptus eugenioldes, Angophora intermediaf Acacia decurrens var.
pauciglandulosa, and Sterculia diversifolia as the common trees. About
800 feet from the top of the ranges the bald patches appear. They
take the place of the open forests. The Eucalypts disappear at about
this level, and persist only as isolated individual trees or groves,
infrequent enough to be overlooked by casual observers. The rain
forest, however, continues in its expected habitat. At the top of the
mountain it spreads out over the spurs and ridges, though not in
every case. If the grasslands were replaced by Eucalyptus forest
there would be nothing surprising in the distribution of the natural
vegetation; the alternation of open forest on the spurs with rain forest
in sheltered situations and the upper mountain ridges would be a
repetition • of what is commonly found in the coastal mountain ranges
of Queensland. Those trees which do invade the grassland are species
found in the open forest, though some of them are also common rain
forest types.

It can be agreed that the grassland is characteristic of the drier
situations in the upper parts of the mountain. It forms a sward
which makes tree invasion difficult, especially as cattle are pastured on
the balds. Further down the mountain the grass growth is much more
sparse when the Eucalyptus and other open forest trees are cleared,
and there is more opportunity for forest regeneration. Where on the
balds a tree does become established, its competition with the grass
makes conditions a little more favourable for its seedlings, and there
is a tendency towards the establishment of groves.

Origin of the Grassy Areas.

The bald areas of the Bunya Mountains have existed in the present
state for a very long time, and have not been tree-covered within
living memory. Trees, however, have come and gone. Evidence of
this is afforded by Acacia decurrens var. pauciglandulosa, a short-lived
tree, which may be found at all stages as isolated individuals or in
groves; and by the presence of dead roots of Eucalyptus and Cedrela
in the soil in places where no trees now grow. No theories as to the
origin of the grass patches have been published. One current opinion,
not held locally, is that the soil is too shallow to support trees. This
may be dismissed, as the soil along the road is often a foot deep, and
in one place near Munroe’s camp a hole was sunk for five feet before
rock v/as encountered. Further, the isolated trees of the balds are
usually in very shallow, rocky soil, and Ficus eugenioides may even
perch on bare rocks. There is, too, the obvious evidence of sporadic
trees, and of the dead roots already mentioned.

The question of the effect of winds is worthy of notice. Most
of the balds are on the slopes exposed to the dry westerly winds, which
from time to time sweep across the plains and up over the mountains.
These are the driest slopes of the region, and their exposure and steep
slope, which latter naturally has a marked effect on run-off, are reflected
in the restriction of rain forest, which on the other slopes occupies most
of the territory. It does not, however, explain the absence of open
forest trees, which in other mountain ranges in South Queensland

148 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

dominate sucli slopes. There is no sign of wind shearing even in
isolated trees growing right out in the middle of a grassed area.
Further, epiphytes such as SarcocMlus falcatus grow on the Acacias;
their absence from the Eucalypts is due to the unsuitable nature of
the bark. Along the rain forest margin, too, the trees are commonly
invested with epiphytes, including Platycernim alclcorne and orchids.

At the edge of one open stretch the luxuriant growth of Dicksonia
antarctica following a stream, made it apparent that wind was not a
factor at that particular spot. Wind has been suggested as the factor
in the production of balds in the southern Appalachians; they are a
conspicuous feature of the Great Smoky Mountains in North Carolina.

(I am unable to trace the paper in which this claim was made; it
was not, however, supported by evidence, and was advanced as a
suggestion only.) Clements (2) states that these balds are serai com-
munities of heaths or grasses initiated and maintained primarily by
fire.

Sub-climax grasslands are of widespread occurrence, and in most
cases fire is the important factor in their origin and persistence.

Myers (3) has described a somewhat similar occurrence of upland
savannahs often on steep slopes in the Pakaraima Mountains of British
Guiana. He regards the present vegetation as so eminently adapted
to burning that it is justifiable to regard it as a fire climax (sub-
climax in Clements’ terminology). Lane Poole (4) has discussed the
grasslands of the mountains of New Guinea, and advanced strong
evidence of their being the result of persistent firing by natives, van
Steenis (5) collected a vast array of evidence for the anthropogenous
nature of grasslands in Malaysia. One very pertinent remark, made
in another paper (6) is: “Climate is not the cause of, but only the
condition under which deserts originate.” This is equally applicable
to grasslands in general, and as far as this paper is concerned, to the
Bunya Mountains in particular.

My opinion is that the grasslands of these mountains were induced
by fire. The aboriginal tribes formerly travelled over great distances
to the Bunya Mountains for the fruiting season of the bunya pines
(January to March), collecting the large starchy seeds by day and
camping in the Eucalyptus forest below to roast them at night. Accord-
ing to some estimates, thousands of blacks gathered in the bunya •
season. I can trace no records of their having habitually fired the
open forest area; but with great numbers camping in a limited area
very susceptible to fires, it seems reasonable to assume that this would
be the case. Captain Cook noted bush fires all along the Queensland
coast, and great areas in coastal Queensland, formerly savannah, have,
following protection from fire, become re-clothed with trees. I have
been informed by Mr. Romeo Lahey that when his father came to
Brisbane, One Tree Hill, which is now heavily forested, was open
savannah. That the balds have had trees in the past is shown by the
fact that roots can be dug up. Repeated firing of the forests would
result in destruction of the trees and the establishment of a grassland |
sub-climax. Within about 800 feet of the top of the range the
increased rainfall has produced such a grass cover that the regeneration
of trees is particularly difficult, except in a few spots such as rock
outcrops and the foot of small cliffs. The pasturing of cattle helps
to hold the sere in the grassland stage, though in a few patches the open
Eucalyptus forest climax has re-established itself (or persisted). It

pROC. PoY. Soc. Q’land, A^ol. XPIX., No. 12. Platk A"'.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 3.

. '--V

■ ■ - ■ . ’ ■ . * ■ '.

. . .... .,.

> '^>'V.,|H

• . .«r.'

■ ;::-4-'-

v-> >,...:' -'’■

m

'. ••'■'. ■«:.:<.■■■ : .. ■ -- iv.i ■■ ■/■ ■■' ■-' >

'. ■ i- - 'A* ; n,:‘-y ,:■■■ r

.•■ •'::i

f:

UPLAND SAVANNxVHS, BUNYA MOUNTAINS, SOUTH QUEENSLAND. 149

is a remarkable fact that below the rain forest the open forest has
not given way to grassland, except where it has been cleared by
settlers. Whether the areas away from the rain forest levels were not
so persistently fired by the blacks is a point which cannot now be
settled. Observation, however, indicates that regeneration of forest
takes place more readily on the sparser induced grassland of thle lower
and drier foothills than on the mountain. Even assuming that upper
and lower levels had been equally burnt over, regeneration on the lower
and drier slopes would re-clothe them before the upper. On the lower
slopes the Eucalypts are not aged trees; this is indicated in Plate VI.,
Fig. 3, which is a photograj^h of the eucalyptus forest just below a
bald, and about 800 feet from the top of Mount Mowbullan. They
would thus appear to represent a returned forest rather than a
primaeval one.

SuMMxVRY.

Grassy areas varying in size from a few acres to several hundred
acres are interspersed with rain forest on the Bunya Mountains, about
30 miles north-east of Dalby. These replace the open eucalptus
forest at an elevation of about 2,800 feet. They represent a grassland
sub-climax, and only in isolated places does the Eucalyptus tereiicornis
forest climax become established. It is considered that the grassed
slopes are the result of destruction of Eucalyptus forest, probably by
fire by the blacks in the days when they gathered for the collection of
bunya pine seeds.

EEFERENCES.

1. White, C. T. : Flora of the Bunya Mountains, Queensland Agr. Journal, Jan.,

1920, 25-31.

2. Clements, F. E.: Nature and Structure of the Climax, Journal of E*cology,

XXIV. (1), 252-284, 1936.

3. Meyees, J. G. : Savannah and Forest Vegetation of the Interior Guiana

Plateau, Journal of Ecology, XXIV. (1), 162-184, 1936.

4. Lane Poole, C. E. : The Forest Resources of the Territories of Papua and New

Guinea, 1925.

5. VAN Steenis, C. G. G. J. : On the Origin of the Malaysian Mountain Flora.

Bull. Jard. Botanique de Buitenzorg, Series III., Vol. XIII., 129-417, 1935.

6. VAN Steenis, C. G. G. J. : Cycles of Drought in the U.S.A., seen in the light

of a new botanical hypothesis on the origin of deserts in general. Bull.
Jard. Botanique de Buitenzorg, Series III., Vol. XIV., 50-55, 1936.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plate V.

Big. 1. — Typical grass-covered balds in the Bunya Mountains near Munro ’s Camp,
with rain forest in a gully.

Fig. 2. — Rain forest edge near Munroe’s Camp, with a narrow ecotone of Acacia
Maidenii.

Fig. 3. — Eucalyptus tereticornis forest abutting on rain forest (right) at about
2,800 feet altitude. Above this level, such a situation would be occupied
by grassland.

150

VoL. XLIX., No. 13.

Alternaria Passiflorae n.sp. the Causal Organism
of Brown Spot of the Passion Vine.

By J. H. SiMMONDS; M.Sc., Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

{Read before the Royal Society of Queenstand, 29th November, 1937.)

(Plate VI.)

Brown spot, a serious disease of the passion vine, has been known
for a number of years in the three Eastern States of Australia, and
has been referred to on several occasions, in the publications of the
respective Departments of Agriculture.

Tryon (8) in 1917 ascribed the disease to the presence of a fungus
belonging to the genus Macrosporium, and the results of further
investigations by the author (5) supported this contention. Cultures
and herbarium material were later forwarded to the Imperial Myeo-
logical Institute when the organism was examined by S. P. Wiltshire.
In a letter dated 9th June, 1933 (slightly amended), Wiltshire makes
some interesting comments on the systematics' of the fungus, which
can best be summarised by the following extracts from the communi-
cation itself.

''I believe the fungus received is new to me. It shows a tendency
for the base of the beak of spores formed in culture to become zig-
zag. . . . Another feature is the variation exhibited by the
fungus in culture, spores formed where the surface of the agar is only
cut being shorter on the whole, and with thicker beaks than those
formed when a portion of the agar is removed.

Comparing your fungus with other allied species, I find that A.
solani differs from it in its longer, narrower, more robust spore body,
longer beak, and especially in the stiff, straight base to the beak.
A. crassa has a longer beak in the natural material and the spore body
is much narrower, while A. tomato has considerably smaller spores
than your fungus. An undescribed Alternaria belonging to the A.
solani group from chicory recorded from Florida and Cyprus has
ionger, more flexuous beaks, which are sometimes branched, almost
dichotomously. Both A. macrospora from cotton and A. cucumerina
from water-melon have some resemblance to your species; the former
has smaller spores in the natural material, with a proportionately
much longer beak, the latter has spores nearly the same width, but
are tapered more distinctly towards the base, the cross walls are more
numerous, and the beak is longer. Both species are quite distinct
from your fungus in culture.

Pathogenicity has been regarded by some as important from the

systematic point of view I am not aware of the range

of hosts to which your species is pathogenic, but such information might
prove interesting. No species of Alternaria or Macrosporium is
recorded on Passiflora by Saccardo in the Sylloge, nor by Seymour in
his host index of American fungi. Neither is there any such record
in the host index of fungi maintained at this Institute.

There are, I think, therefore, good grounds for giving a new name,
I)rovisionally at least, to your fungus, if you consider this advisable.

I’Ror. Koy. Soo. Q’land, Vol. XLTX., No. lo.

Plate VJ

[Photo. Ini W. J. Sanderson, Depart inent of AfiricnUiire and Stock.

Plate VI.

Alternaria pa.ssiflorce. Tato collections froin lesions on Passrflora illustrating

some of tlie possible variations in sjAore characters.

CAUSAL ORGANISM OF BROWN SPOT OF PASSION VINE.

151

As regards the choice of genera, Moicrosporium and AUernaria are
really identical but for various reasons, the latter is to be pre-
ferred Your species I have observed to form chains of five

spores in culture, which agrees with the popular notion of an
AUernaria. ’ ^

The AUernaria Alacrosporium concept was elaborated more fully
by Wiltshire (9) in a paper published in 1933, and although the
organism from Fassiflora has been known to form chains of spores
in culture only, his suggestion was accepted, and the fungus was
accordingly referred to the genus AUernaria in a recent brief review
of passion vine diseases (6).

Brown spot now appears to be more widely distributed than was
hitherto realised, and in view of this fact, the association of a specific
name with the causal organism is desirable. As the Imperial Myco-
logical Institute prefers that new species should be described by workers
primarily concerned with them, it is here proposed that a new species
AUernaria passiflorae be erected for the causal organism of brown spot
of Fassiflora spp. in Australia. A brief Latin diagnosis is appended.
For a more detailed account of the morphology, physiology, distri-
bution, and host range of this species, reference should be made to
the literature listed. Type material will be lodged with the Kew
Herbarium.

AUernaria passiflorae.

Maculis foliicolis, -caulicolis, fructicolis, limitatis, brunneis vel
brunneopurpureis. Hyphis hyalinis dein saepius nonnihil coloratis,
cellulis 15-38 x 2-8 /x praeditis. Conidiophoris solitariis, vel caespitosis,
brunneis, versus apicem hyalinis erectis, simplicibus vel rare ramosis,
sparsis geniculatis. Conidiis acrogenis et pleurogenis, singulatim
productis, vel in culturis observatis interdum 2-5 catenulatis, oblongis
vel obclavatis, brunneis, 5-13, in medio 8-7, transverse-septatis et ad septa
constrictis septis longitudinalibus nullis vel panels, in medio 2.5,
instructis; frequentissime in rostrum hyalinum 3-4 p latum, simplex
vel, in culturis observatum, 1-5 ramosum, basi flexiiosum productis;
44-135 X 14-27 p , in medio 83 x 20 p , (erostratis) ; 106-253 p
longis (rostratis). Hah. Parasitice in foliis fructibusque vivis
Passiflorae eduUs, P. alhae, P. quadrangularis, P. herbertianae, P.
incarnatae, Australia.

Obs- Galore optimo 23°-28°C., maximo 33°C.

ILLUSTEATIONS.

Plate VI. — AUernaria passiflo-rce. Two collections showing possible variations.

LITEBATUBE CITED.

1. Anon: Brown spot of passion vine. New South Wales Dept. Agr., Leaflet No.

14, 1923 and 1926.

2. Farrell, J. : Passion fruit culture, Victoria. Journ. Agr., XXI., 603, 1923.

3. Noble, E. J. : Some observations on the woodiness or bullet disease of passion

fruit. Proc. Eoy. Soc. N.S.W., LXII., 79-98, 1928.

4. Noble, E. J. et alia: Plant diseases recorded in New South Wales, N.S.W,

Dex>t. Agr. Sci. Bull. 46, supplement 1, 1937.

5. SiMMONDS, J. H. : Brown spot of the passion vine, Queensland Agr. Journ.

XXXIV., 564, 1930.

6. SiMMONDS, J. H.: Diseases of the passion vine. Queensland Agr. Journ. XLV.,

322-330, 1936.

7. Tryon, H. : Diseases of the passion vine. Queensland Agr. Journ. XXIX.,

497-498, 1912.

8. Tryon, H.: Queensland Dept. Agr. Ann. Eepts., 1917 and 1918.

9. Wiltshire, S. P. : The foundation species of Alterna/ria and Macrosporiwn.

Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc., XVIII., 135-160. 1933.

152

VoL. XLIX., No. 14.

Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora — Part
XIII.— Backhousia Hughesii.

By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I., and F. N. Lahey, M.Sc.
{Head before the Royal Society of Queensland, 29th November, 1937.)

On account of the great diversity of composition and of the
importance of some of the constituents of the oils from those species
of Backhousia already studied (1, 2, 3, 4), it was thought ‘desirable
to investigate the other species of this genus occurring in Queensland.
The present paper deals with one of these.

The tree grows abundantly in the timber forests of north-east
Queensland, particularly in the Cairns district, where it is cut for its
timber commonly known as Stonewood.

The oil was found to closely resemble that from Backhousia
sciadophora, consisting principally of d — a and d — pinene and

sesquiterpenes, the minor constituents being sesquiterpene alcohol, a
trace of an acid and a phenol and an unstable coloured body.

The cost and difficulty of collection and transport of leaves
precluded the possibility of obtaining large supplies in good order,
with the result that a thorough investigation of the minor constituents
was not possible.

EXPERIMENTAL.

Dried leaves of Backhousia Hughesii weighing 130 lb. yielded on
steam distillation -78 per cent, of an oil with the following properties : —

*8722

[ct]n + 30

1-4935

Ester Value Ml.

Acetyl Value 46-6

The oil was extracted first with sodium bicarbonate and then with
sodium hydroxide solutions. These aqueous extracts on acidification
and extraction with ether yielded traces only of an acid and a phenol
respectively. The remaining oil after washing and drying was sub-
jected to fractional distillation under reduced pressure (1 mm.) when
the following fractions were collected: —

Temp.

^15-5

[ct]n

N-

D

Oil from liq. ammonia trap

•8617

+ 43

1-4718

21-22J° C.

•8624

-f 40-6

1-4716

3.

60-78° C.

•897

+ 6-2

1-4921

4.

78-88° C.

•9035

+ 10

1-4981

5.

88-89° C.

•9119

+ 20-8

1-4994

6.

89-911° C.

•9214

+ 30-4

1-5000

7.

91^-95° C.

•9375

-f 24-3

1-5004

8.

95-96° C.

•9565

+ 9-6

1-5003

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM THE QUEENSLAND FLORA PART XIH.^ ETC. 153

Identification of a and ^ Finene. — By repeated fractional dis-
tillation at 2 mm. pressure fractions (1) and (2) yielded samples of
oil with the following constants: —

Oil from

liquid ammonia trap.

(6) 25-28° C.

^15*5

•8638

dl5-5

•8628

[a]i>

-f 46-2

Wd

-f 44

N-

D

1-4676

^ D

1-4688

Fraction {a) on oxidation with neutral permanganate gave an
excellent yield of pinonic acid m.p. 67 °C., the semicarbazone of which
melted at 204° C.

Fraction (5) on oxidation with alkaline permanganate yielded
the insoluble sodium salt of nopinie acid on concentrating the aqueous
solution. This on acidification gave nopinie acid which when recrystal-
lised from benzene melted at 125 °C.

Thus the presence of d — a and d — ^ pinene was established.

Sesquiterpenes. — The remainder of the oil consisted of sesquiter-
penes and sesquiterpene alcohol, except for a small quantity of an
unstable substance, which coloured the oil a deep yellow, and rapidly
resinified during distillation. Although we suspected this substance to be
of the nature of an unsaturated ketone we were unable to form any
derivatives of it. Distillation over potassium purified the sesquiter-
penes of this unknown but at the expense of the latter. Further frac-
tional distillation pointed to the presence of at least two sesquiterpenes,
for the following head fractions were obtained: —

72-75° C.

(b)

84-86° C.

^15-5

•8935

dig. 5 -919

Md

-4-4

[a]D -f 39-2

' D

1-4925

1-4994

Both fractions (a) and (5) were treated with selenium at 280° C.
Each gave a small quantity of azulene, the picrate of which melted
at 119°C.

The recovered oil from fraction (5) after this treatment showed
no trace of either cadalene or eudalene, although fraction (a) appeared
to yield one of these, for the recovered oil had density *93, compared
with -8935 for the original oil. However, we were unable to prepare
a picrate of this oil, and insufficient material prevented further
purification by fractionation.

Our thanks are due to Mr. C. T. White, Government Botanist,
for botanical assistance, and to the Forestry Department for the
collection of the leaves.

EEFERENCES.

(1) Penfold: Tech. Mus. Bull. No. 5, Sydney, 1923.

(2) J. and Proc. Eoy. Soc. N.S.W., 1923, 57, 300.

(3) Ibid., 1922, 56, 125.

<4) Ibid., 1924, 58, 113.

154

VoL. XLIX., No. 15.

Notes on Australian Cyperaceae II.

By S. T. Blake^ M.Sc., Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic

Biology, University of Queensland.

{Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 29th November, 1937.)

Eleocharis Brassii S. T. Blake, sp. nov. aff. E, nuda C. B. Clarke,
sed differ! habitu robustiore glumis minus appressis, nuce multo
majore, setis persistentibus.

Perennis, caespitosa, stolonifera ; stolonibus ea. 1*5 mm. diam.
Culmi erecti vel suberecti, 40-50 cm. alti, rigidi, subteretes, sub spicula
vix trigoni, 3-5 mm. diam., in sicco plus minusve compressi, leviter
striati, rugulosi nec septati. Vaginae pro more 2 laxiusculae, orifice
obliquae, membranaceae, purpurascentes, superior plus minusve striata,
orifice firma, brevissime mucronata. Spicula 3-5 cm. longa, 4-5 mm.
lata, linearis, acuta, densifiora, spiraliter angulata. Glumae (prima
latiore brevique excepta) ovatae, obtusae, concavae nec carinatae,
pluristriatae, stramineae sed intus marginibus brunneozonatae et tota
parte anteriore brunneo-punctatae, rigidae, marginibus extremis
tenuiter byalinae, 4.8-5 mm. longae, 2.5 mm. latae. Stamina 3,
antherae lineares apiculatae, ca. 2-8 mm. longae. Stylus bifidus. Nux
late obovata, subtruncata, l-S'-2 mm. longa, 1-6-1-7 mm. lata, aequaliter
turgide biconvexa, leviter costata, nitide f ulva vel brunnescens, utroque
latere cellulis extimis hexagonis ca. 20-seriatis striata vel reticulata,
apice parte angustiore, annulo toroso instructa ; stylobasis

pallida, eellulosa, complanata, triangulari-ovata, f-| nueis aequans.
Setae hypogynae 6 quarum 4 (interiores) nuce paullo breviores dentibus
firmis retrorsim scabrae, 2 (interiores) tenuissimae minimae vel nullae.

Type : Queensland, Cook District — Forest Home Station, Gilbert
River, in the swamps, April, 1931, Brass 1864. (Herb. Bris.).

Distrib. : North Australia, North Queensland.

Eleocharis pailens S. T. Blake sp. nov. aff. E. acuta R. Br. a qua
culmis gracilioribus densissime caespitosis, rhizomate brevissimo, spicula
tandem pallida, antheris breviore apiculatis, nuce breviore marginibus
costata, stylobasi plerumque breviore differ!.

Perennis, densissime caespitosa, rhizomate brevi hand repenti.
Culmi pernumerosi, erecti vel suberecti, ad 5 dm. alti, graciles, sub-
teretes, laeves sed longitudinaliter manifeste 9-10 sulcati, 0- 6-1-0 mm.
diam. Vaginae firme membranaceae, arete appressae, leviter striatae,
superior orifice truncata, incrassata et discolorata, muerone erecta ad
2 mm. longa munita. Spicula linearo-cylindrica, basi obtusa, apice
acuta vel subacuta, brunnea vel fulva, plerumque pallida, densifiora,
plerumque 1-2 cm. longa, 2 mm. lata. Glumae numerosae, arete
appressae, vel raro aliquantum patentes, facillime deciduae, ovatae vel
oblongo-ovatae, acutae apice triangulares, scariosae, dorso leviter
carinatae, plus minusve brunneo-tinctae, ceterum hyalinae, 2-9-3-3 mm.
longae. Stamina 3, antherae lineares, apiculato-cristatae, cum crista
0.15 mm. longa 1. 6-2.0 mm. longae. Stylus trifidus (rarissime de casu
bifidus). Nux late obovata vel suborbicularis vel basin versus
nonnunquam aliquantulum attenuata, plus minusve inaequaliter

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE II.

155

biconvexa vel subplanoeonvexa, saepe turgida, marginibus costata,
fulva vel brunnea vel noniiunquam fusca, nitida, lateribus laevis vel
riigulosa, plerumqne leviter reticulata (cellulis extimis parvis verticaliter
breviter oblongis, saepe prominulis ) 1-1-14 mm. longa, 0-9 mm. lata.
Stylohasis multo variabilis in eadem spicula, plerumqne plus minusve
deltoidea vel ovato-triangularis, saepissime compressa, pallida vel fulva,
in parte inferiore plus minusve spongiosa et fimbriolata, ad -J nucis
aequans; saepe tamen valde depressa ovata, vel substipitata. Setae
hypogynae 7-10, plerumqne validae, retrorsim scabrae, pallidae vel
})runnescentes, plerumqne subaequales nuce breviores longioresve,
nonnunquam breves vel longissimae.

Type: Queensland, Warrego District, Olfham ca. 25 miles south of
Wyandra, in depressions in grassland, 700 ft., April 13, 1936, Blaise
11235 (Herb. Bris.).

Distrib. : Widely spread in the drier parts of the mainland of
Australia.

Eleocliaris plana S. T. Blake sp. nov. aff. E. acuta R. Br. sed
praecipue culmo valde complanato latiusculo differt.

Bhizoma longe repens ca. 2 mm. diam., culmorum caespites distantes
ferens. Culmi rigidi, erecti vel obliqui, ad 80 cm. alti, plani vel
leviter piano- vel concavo-convexi, 2-4 (pro more 3) mm. lati, longi-
tudinaliter striati, transversim irregulariter rugulosi. Vaginae rigide
iiiembranaceae vel subherbaceae, striatae, superior apice discolorata
incrassata truncata vel fere truncata mucrone rigida 1-5-3 mm. longa
munita. Spicnla pallida vel brunnescens, lineari-cylindrica, subacuta,
plerumqne 10-15 mm. longa, 2-2-5 mm. diam. Glumac 2 infimae
bracteiformes, ceterae fertiles ovatae, acutae, leviter carinatae, tenuiter
inembranaceae, stramineae, marginibus apice triangulari inclusa late
liyalinae, 3. 4-3. 7 mm. longae. Stamina 3, antherae lineares, 1.4 mm.
longae, crista lineari 0.2 mm. longa inclusa. Stylus trifidus. Nux
tandem nitide brunnea, obovata, turgida, biconvexa, vix costata, minute
])unctulata vel rugulosa, 1-2-1-8 (p»lerumque 1*4) mm. longa, l-O-l-l
mm. lata, cellulis extimis minutis breviter verticaliter oblongis ;
stylobasis triangularis vel ovata, compressa, pallida, cellulosa, basi
tumida, aliquantum hispidula, 0-6-0-8 mm. longa (ca. nucis aequans),
0.5 mm. lata ; setae hypogynae 6-8, tenues, retrorsim scabrae, nucem cum
stylobasi subaequantes.

Type: Queensland, Darling Downs District; Palardo, west of Miles,
in swamps, 1,100 ft., February 16, 1935, Blake 7615 (Herb. Bris).
'‘Rhizome creeping, stems erect ca. 2 ft., dull green, rigid, nearly flat,
faintly longitudinalh^ striate, and more faintly transversely so.”

Distrib.: Queensland (Port Curtis District, Moreton District,
Darling Downs District), New South Wales.

The species described above will be fully discussed in a revision
of the Australian members of the genus, which is almost complete.

156

VoL. XLIX., No. 16.

The Plant Communities of Western Queensland
and their Relationships, with Special Reference
to the Grazing Industry.

By S. T. Blake^ M.Sc., Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic

Biology, University of Queensland.

{Head before the Eoyal Society of Queensland, 29th November, 1937.)

(Plates VII — XXVI., two maps and two text figures.)

In a State such as Queensland, where the national wiealth is
dependent to such an enormous extent upon the success of the grazing
industry, an accurate survey of the pasture lands, and indeed of all
vegetation, would seem to be a prime necessity. Such a survey has
yet to be made. It is true that three previous maps, featuring the
vegetation of Queensland, have been published. The first was ‘‘The
Forest Conditions of Queensland,’^ prepared for the British Empire
Forestry Conference of 1928 by E. H. F. Swain.^^ As this deals
purely and simply with commercial timbers and their occurrence, its
application is very limited, and is quite misleading to the student of
general vegetation. Two maps were published by the Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research. The first of these is “The Soils
of Australia in Relation to Vegetation and Climate,” by J. A. Prescott,
published in 1931.^^ Then in 1936 appeared “A Survey of the Pastures
of Australia. . . .,” by A. McTaggart.^^ Both dealt with Australia

as a whole, and as a result Queensland was very inadequately treated.
Serious errors occur, and while some are the natural result of the
method of preparation and the practical impossibility of obtaining
reliable data about many districts, others are less easy to explain,
particularly the inconsistency in nomenclature,. Some of the most
serious of these will be pointed out when discussing the communities.
A most useful purpose was served by these maps in that they stressed
the necessity for detailed work in this direction. The best general
accounts of Queensland vegetation have been given by Domin^^ and
Whited^ while its general relationships have been discussed by Herbert.

In the present paper an attempt has been made to describe all
the important plant communities that occur in the area usually referred
to as Western Queensland. The paper is based entirely on field work
carried out in connection with general botanical investigations on
pasture problems. A large part of the area was hitherto practically
unexplored botanically, and the floristics of a large part of the remainder
imperfectly known. As the result of intensive field work, carried out
over the period of three years as a Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow,
material has now been accumulated for a fairly thorough knowledge of
the area. Considerable time wiU be required before all the botanical
material can be worked up, but in view of the increased interest and
activity which is being manifested in pastoral problems, it has seemed
advisable to present the general results of this work, leaving the details
to be filled in later. As the work progresses material will be available
for a more comprehensive account of the vegetation of Queensland
• than has yet been possible.

PLANT COMMUNITIES OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND^ ETC. 157

The limits of the occurrence of some communities have been in part
plotted from surveys and other data made available to me through the
courtesy of officers of the Department of Public Lands. However, I take
full responsibility for the discrimination of the communities as such,
and for their arrangement.

It is with deep pleasure that I offer my sincere thanks to the many
persons who have assisted me in diverse ways. First and foremost I
wish to express my deep gratitude to the members of the Walter and
Eliza Hall Trust. This Trust made the work possible, and has con-
tinued to finance it, and it is through the courtesy of the members
that it has been possible to bring the work to its present extent.
Throughout the prosecution of field work in all parts of the State,
transport facilities have been afforded me by many people. To the
officers of the Department of Agriculture and of the Department of
Public Lands I am indebted in this and other ways. Through the
courtesy of many graziers, I have been enabled to study the composition
of pastures in relation to stocking and other aspects. The section on
soils has been prepared with the assistance of members of the Depart-
ment of Geology in this University. To others who have assisted in
any way whatsoever, I tender thanks.

The area here discussed covers nearly 330,000 square miles, and.
embraces the greater part of purely pastoral Queensland with the
exception of the very large area surrounding the Gulf of Carpentaria,
which constitutes a definite botanical province to be defined later.
The southern boundary of this province is approximately the northern
limit of the area described in the present paper. The climate, topo-
graphy, soils, river systems, and available water are discussed. The
plant communities, of which about forty-five are recognised, are
arranged in fourteen groups, and described as to habitat, dominant
species, fioristic detail, reaction to stocking, their . relationships,
and their history. To account for certain features, including the
instability of some of the large communities, the idea of a fiuctuating^
climax is introduced. Maps showing the distribution of the chief soil-
types and plant associations are included.

Climate.

The whole of the area lies within the 30-inch isohyet and the
greater part within the 20-inch isohyet, while in the far south-west
the average annual rainfall falls below 6 inches. Extremes of
temperature are usual. By far the greater part lies within
Davidson ’s Desert Zone and the greater part of the remainder is within
his arid zone^^ (see, however, discussion under Simpson Desert on p. 199) .
The rainfall is rather erratic throughout and in the south-west is
sporadic. There are occasional years of heavy rainfall and frequent
periods of prolonged drought.

To the north rain falls almost exclusively in summer, while to the
south-east winter rains become increasingly important. No reliable
data are available as to the minimum effective fall, but on the ^'downs’'
it is commonly considered that isolated falls of less than half an inch are
of no value. On light soils smaller falls produce a definite response
in the vegetation. It has been proved that in the very low rainfall areas
of South Australia^® and elsewhere that dew is of considerable
importance to plant growth, and this is probably true for parts of
Queensland.

R.s. — F

158

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND,

s&c/ztu/ u/

Text Fig. 1. — Graph showing average monthly rainfall throughout the year for three stations each with an average
annual rainfall of about 15 inches. The full line is the graph for Mackinlay, the broken line is that of Longreach^ and the
dotted line that of Cunnamulla. Note the increasing importance of winter rains towards the south and! the very pronounced
summer rainy season towards the north.

Proc. Poy. So

Ti?xt Fig. 2. — Grajilis slmwiiig variation yearly in min tail for Maekinlay (ul)ove) and Cnnnanuilla (ladow).

Proc. Kov. Soc. Q’i.and, Von. Vf-LX., No. IR.

PLANT COMMUNITIES OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND, ETC. 159

In Western Queensland the term “season’' is almost invariably
used in relation to rainfall. A “good season” is a period in which rain
has been sufficient in quantity and distribution to produce a good
permanent growth of grass, &c., and a relative sufficiency of surface
water ; while a ^ ‘ bad season ’ ’ is one in which these effects have not beeu
attained.

Some idea of the nature of the rainfall is shown by the graphs in
text figs. 1 and 2. These and also the isohyets on map 1 have been
prepared from official records from earliest times to 1936.

Topography and Geology.

The greater part of the area does not exceed 1,000 feet above sea-
level, and near the border of South Australia descends almost to sea-
level. Much of the country consists of plains and undulating country.
Many of the plain areas are alluvial in origin. The Barkly
Tableland in the north-west, on which Camooweal is (situated, is an
extensive, nearly flat, area with a gentle southern slope. Its greatest
height is about 800 feet. It is composed largely of the sometimes
siliceous Georgina limestones of Cambrian age. On the eastern margin
are the rocks of the Templeton Series, also of Cambrian age, consisting
of sandstones, siltstones, cherts, and siliceous shales (Whitehouse^^).
Apart from a few basalt tablelands, of which the most striking is one
which extends for about 100 miles in a general east-west direction from
the Great Dividing Range to the north-east of Hughenden, the
remainder of the non-hilly country consists of rolling downs gradually
flattening out to plains in some places. These downs and plains are
within the Great Artesian Basin, and rest upon calcareous shales of
Cretaceous age belonging to the Winton, Tambo, and Roma Series.

There are three groups of mountainous or hilly areas. In the
Cloncurry-Mount Isa district is an extensive development of rugged,
frequently knife-edged ranges and hills exceeding 1,500 feet above
sea-level in places, composed of a wide, variety of gneisses, schists, and
other rocks of Pre-Cambrian age. In the east is the Great Dividing
Range running in a general north-south direction, with its offshoots —
the Drummond, Warrego, and Chesterton Ranges. The rocks are of
varied nature and age, but sandstones are common and gneisses occur.
The eastern scarp of the Great Dividing Range is well marked, but on
the westward side the country flattens out with no definite scarp.
Much of the Warrego Range, with its extensions and branches, the
Gowan, Cheviot, and Grey Ranges, are merely elevated regions of the
rolling downs, though Tertiary sandstone hills are often associated.

Over a large part of the rolling downs and to the south-east is a
great development of flat-topped ironstone capped sandstone hills and
tablelands of chiefly Tertiary age in all grades of weathering (figs. 29,
II, 13.) Towards the South Australian border, the tablelands which
are here scarcely 50 feet above the valleys, form with the downs a
characteristic topography intermediate between the two. The whole
system is frequently called the “Desert Sandstone.”

Everywhere associated with the sandstone area, and particularly
in the far south-west, are the gibbers (cf. figs. 5, 6, 11). These gibbers
are boulders or pebbles varying in size from that of a man ’s head down-
wards. They are the fragmentary remains of the ironstone capping

160 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

(duricrust) of the hills broken down by weathering, and by a continu-
ation of the same process reduced to polished, irregularly-rounded
fragments stained brown, reddish-brown, or purplish-brown by iron
oxides. On the gibber plains of Sturt’s Stony Desert the gibbers attain
their greatest size and often form a thick layer, but elsewhere they are
more usually represented by a surface layer or thip scattering of small
pebbles rarely exceeding an inch in diameter and often quite small.
In this state the pebbles are frequently referred to as “gidgba gravel.”
On the sides of the hills every stage in the weathering of the duricrust
can be seen. The uppermost edge frequently assumes fantastic forms.

Superimposed on the gibber plains and elsewhere in the south-west
is a big development of sand-dunes. They are in some way related to
the sandstones and the gibbers, and it seems likely that they were
derived from them. They have been discussed previously by Madigan^^
and Ratcliffe.^^ Their greatest development is in the Simpson Desert,
where they form a series of long parallel ridges, usually pale-yellowish
in colour, mostly 30-50 feet high, rarely if ever exceeding 60 feet, and
spaced from one-sixth to one-quarter of a mile apart. The direction
of their length varies from N 20° W at Birdsville to N 40° W where
they cross the Central Australian border in about latitude 23° S.
Between the dunes are nearly perfectly flat claypans. Crystals of
gypsum, commonly known as ‘‘copi” (also spelt ‘‘copai,” “kopi,” and
‘"kopai”), are frequently associated.

The direction of the dunes is governed by the direction of the
prevailing wind. On their naked crests are superimposed small
crescentic dunes caused by secondary winds. The latter are accordingly
frequently undergoing change, and sand being shifted and blown about
by the wind (fig. 21). This sand is not always blown off the the dune.
In the few instances where personal observation was possible the sand
was first blown off the crest and was then caught in an eddy on th^^
leeward side and carried up the dune and deposited a few yards behind
the point of departure. The net result is merely an alteration of the
conformation of the crest.

On one occasion efforts at throwing light objects from the top of a
sandhill were consistently defeated, such objects being regularly caught
by these eddies and returned to the crest of the dune.

But under certain conditions sand is removed from the mass. On
the edge of the desert, and sometimes at a considerable distance from
any dune, small pockets of fine sand occur among the gibbers. They
may be formed in situ, but it seems more likely that they are the result
of sandstorms, the sand being transported in the manner described by
Bagnold^ for the Libyan Desert.

There is, however, as pointed out by Madigan,^^ a definite move-
ment of the dunes in the direction of their length. This is well shown
where the northern end of a dune is close to a watercourse where there
is a tendency for trees to be buried. It is likely that this movement,
comparatively slow as it is, is stopped by large streams. It is also
stopped in places by low, stony ridges.

Near large streams and swampy areas the dunes tend to lose their
regular arrangement.

To the north and east of the Simpson Desert proper is an area
where sandhills occur different in many respects from the true desert
dunes, but, nevertheless, closely related thereto. This is the ‘‘marginal

PLANT COMMUNITIES OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND, ETC. 161

country” of Ratcliffe. They are usually of a bright brick-red colour,
though neighbouring hills may differ in this respect. They are scattered
over the gravelly downs and alluvial flats and occasionally occur between
river channels (fig. 38). Sometimes they form small clusters, very
frequently small isolated dunes occur, and only rarely are they of any
length. There appears to be no well-marked prevailing wind, but
meteorological data on this point are lacking.

Very many of the dunes have' hollows on the crest, and occasionally
in such hollows masses of dune rock are exposed. From the large
number of stone chips and occasional nardoo-stones and other imple-
ments found in these hollows, it is evident that the dunes were often
occupied by aborigines. It is very likely that this occupation was the
cause of the hollows being produced by wind eddies.

There is generally a limited area surrounding the dune or dune
complex covered by sand. Beyond this area no sand is to be found
(fig. 25). Within the dune mass small claypans may occur, and they
may retain water for a considerable time (fig. 26).

Still further aAvay from the desert the sandhills gradually lose
their individuality, finally being represented merely by small sandy
patches. These will be discussed below in dealing with the vegetation.

Drainage and Surface Water.

Several long rivers belonging to the four great drainage systems of
the State traverse this part of the country. Though of noble proportions
in times of flood, yet for a large part of the year they are little better
than a string of waterholes. Those rivers with sandy beds are frequently
quite dry for long distances, though water can be obtained without much
trouble by digging. Such streams are the Flinders and the Maranoa.

The comparative paucity of surface water has exerted a powerful
effect on the history of pastoral settlement, and accordingly the effect
of the latter on the vegetation. But important changes followed on
the discovery and wide utilisation of artesian water. Both artesian
(flowing) and sub-artesian (non-flowing) bores are numerous. With
flowdng bores it# is the general practice to lead narrow drains (bore-
drains) from the bore-head over the country, sometimes for many miles,
making use of the undulations of the ground to traverse as large an area
as possible before they are finally led into a stream bed. The presence
and lay-out of the drains are, of course, of inestimable value to the
grazier, as they assure him of a permanent wat^r supply for his stock.
At the same time they indirectly control the nature of the pasturage
by controlling the movements of grazing animals, and even produce a
few distinctive communities of their own.

The construction of earthen tanks in many places has likewise been
a factor in vegetation control by controlling the movements of stock, and
])erhaps also by the divergence of rain water.

The average fall of the rivers is about 12 inches per mile, and in
the lower courses may be considerably less. The stream is not restricted
to a single channel as a rule, but is divided among several. In times
of flood these channels overflow and their united waters may spread
for many miles, thoroughly saturating the soil and depositing silt. The
rate of flow of such water is very slow. Fig. 39 shows a portion of the
Diamantina River after the flood waters had receded a considerable
distance.

162 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The country between the channels is referred to as ‘ ‘ channel
country,” and that affected by flood waters as ‘‘flooded country.”
Some of the large lakes of the south-west, such as Lake Yamma Yamma
and Lake Machattie, are large areas of flooded country.

A few centres of inland drainage occur, giving rise to lakes of a
different nature. Nearly all are more or less brackish. Lake Buchanan
particularly so, producing a heavy thickness of salt in drying up.
The other important lakes of this type are Galilee, to the north-east of
Aramac and south of the previous, and the Dynevor Lakes, between
Eulo and Thargomindah.

Soils.

So far there has been little detailed work done on the soils of the
area. Profiles have been studied in very few places indeed. Most of
the present discussion is based on my samples of surface soils now in
the Department of Geology of the University of Queensland, supple-
mented by field notes. This is indeed the only source for a great part
of the area. For the area between St. George and Cunnamulla I have
had the assistance of Dr. F. W. Whitehouse, who has kindly placed
his unpublished field notes at my disposal. For some localities I have
relied entirely upon his work. Dr. W. H. Bryan has assisted me in
classifying the soil samples.

There is a fairly sharp distinction between sandy and non-sandy
(heavy) soils, and these are closely correlated with rock type. The
line of demarcation between the two is often remarkably sharp, as is
shown in fig. 1. This line of division between the so-called “desert”
and the “downs” is one of the most remarkable and most important
features in the State.

PrescotU^ recognises ten major soil types as occurring in Australia,
and in a later publication^^ figures profiles. Five of these types are
indicated as occurring in our area. These are the desert soils, the
soils of the semi-desert and desert steppe, the black earths, grey and
brown soils, and podsolised soils. To these must now be added his
lateritic sand plain. True alluviums are also widespread.

The first type embraces the desert sands which have been discussed
above. The soils of the semi-desert appear to be represented by a
development of deep, excessively fine-grained, bright-reddish sandy loam
extending from east of Cunnamulla to Thargomindah. Whitehouse
considers this to be a fossil alluvium. It is readily affected by the wind
when the plant cover has been removed. For reasons detailed below
I do not consider the gibber and gravel plains to belong to this type,
but to the brown soils.

The black earths and the grey and brown soils are collectively
known in Queensland as “black soils,” a term also used to designate
such alluvial soils as are very sticky when wet. True black earths occur
widely in the Clermont- Springsure belt, extending east, south, and some-
what to the west. In some places they occur patchily. They are derived
both from basalt and from shales. In the extreme north, similar soils
occur on the basalt tableland to. the north and north-west of Hughenden,
and near Prairie. (Slightly to the north-east of Hughenden and to the
north of Springsure soils of a much lighter texture are derived from
vesicular basalt. In the latter case a thin sandy soil is produced. Both
must be regarded as very exceptional cases.)

PLANT COMMUNITIES OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND, ETC. 163

Grey and brown soils are of wide occurrence. They are the typical
soils of the rolling downs and the Barkly Tableland, and extend to the
Stony Desert. They are chiefly clay loams, clay silts, and silt loams,
rarely becoming somewhat sandy, and then chiefly on the crests of
undulations. There are two well-defined types within the group. What
appears to be the typical grey soil is friable, contracts greatly on drying,
and distinctly grey in colour. The other, which is invariably associated
with gidgea gravel, is much less friable and distinctly yellowish-brown
in colour. This type characterises the “gravelly downs’’ and underlies
the gibbers of the gibber plains. In an area to the west of Betoota the
soil is remarkably fine and incohesive, and is known locally as “bull-
dust.”

Large tracts of sand, apparently comparable in nature with the
lateritic sand plains of Western Australia, occur between the Balonne
and the Warrego Rivers, and to the north-east, south-east, and west of
Windorah.

Part of the large sandy area associated with the Great Dividing
Range also appears to be comparable, while modifications occur in the
neighbourhood of Quilpie and Adavale.

Podsolised soils occur in the north and central-east, in the former
case alternating with lateritic soils.

Over a considerable part of our area occur the formations known
as claypans. These are flat expanses with a hard, more or less polished
surface, and usually devoid of permanent vegetation. They are of
regular occurrence between the sandhills of the Simpson Desert and
are frequently found beside stream channels. Another development is
found in the Cunnamulla district on old alluvium. Claypans may also
be found under other conditions.

Both impregnation by salts and scouring by wind and water seem
to be important factors in the production of claypans. Before wind can
play a part a bare surface has to be produced by drought or other
means. Some are merely the dry beds of large shallow lakes.

The soil of claypans varies, but is usually silty in nature and nearly
impervious to water. Frequently there appears to be little, if any,
difference between the soil of a claypan and the soil of an adjacent
well-vegetated patch, but no detailed work has been done in this
direction. In many claypans there occur small patches of a slightly
different nature, frequently sandy, and these often support vegetation.
The appearance is produced of small islands scattered about the claypan,
an effect which is enhanced when water is lying on the claypan (fig. 14).

While soil-erosion has no doubt played a part in the formation of
some of these claypans, erosion on a large scale appears possible only
on two types of soil. In each case it is dependent on the destruction
of the plant cover. Soil drift is very noticeable on the reddish sandy
loam west of Cunnamulla under such conditions, and can occur on
the sandy tracts near Windorah. It is likely to occur also in the
timbered sandy country in the south-east if wholesale clearing is allowed
to continue.

Erosion due to water is important in places on the rolling downs,
chiefly as gully erosion. Water erosion in these places is a natural and
inevitable phenomenon, and through long periods of time has produced
the marvellously rich “channel country.” In some places, however,
such erosion has become serious, due to the combined effects of trampling
by stock and drought. These cases are discussed below when dealing
with the effects of stock on vegetation.

164 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

There is no evidence whatsoever for the contention that an encroach-
ment of the desert is in active progress as alleged by Hirschfeld.^^

Vegetation.

The major factors influencing the vegetation appear to be soil type,
incidence of rainfall, and drainage. As periodic droughts are experi-
enced, it is perhaps natural to find that many species, apparently the
more highly drought-tolerant or drought-escaping, enjoy a wide
geographical range. Towards the south, as the winter rains increase
in importance, a marked change in the floristic detail takes place.
Other important factors influencing distinctive community formation
are the remarkably sharp western boundary of the sandy soil associated
with the Great Dividing Range, the distribution of the desert sandstjone,
the increasing aridity towards the south-west, the trend of the
rivers in this direction, and the effect of settlement. The effects of
the white man and his introduced grazing animals are not capable of
exact estimation, but in many eases they ai'e very pronounced and
distinctive communities have resulted. It is convenient to classify these
as induced communities as does Cockayne.

The terminology here employed calls for some explanation. It
has been usual for non-Queenslanders to describe the E ucalyptus-
dominant communities of Queensland as ^fsavannah” (savanna), or
more frequently '‘savannah woodland,” as for example Prescott, and
Domin^^ ( “ savannenwalder ” ) .

In Queensland they are commonly referred to as eucalyptus forest,
or, particularly if other tree species are important, as “open forest,”
or simply “forest.” The first has been employed by Warming.^® The
grasslands have been variously described as ‘ ‘ savannah, ” “ grass steppe, ’ ’
“open grassland,” “downs,” and ‘‘plains.”

Owing to the loose application of the term “savannah,” both in
Australia and elsewhere, it has seemed advisable to employ the terms
“eucalyptus forest” to those communities dominated by species of that
genus and in which the trees are fairly close together, and “eucalyptus
parkland” to those in which the trees are more scattered. Although
in such eucalyptus forests grasses are always prominent, they rarely
bear any relationship to neighbouring grassland species.

The use of the term savannah is here restricted to a type of grass-
dominant community with scattered shrubby trees usually of a stunted
appearance. There appears sufficient precedent for such usage, though
it includes part of Prescott’s “sclerophyll scrub.”

Scrub is here used in its generally accepted sense of a closed asso-
ciation of small trees or tall shrubs, and frequently consists of pure
stands of individual species. In many cases, however, some of these
scrubs should be described rather as forests if tree height be any
criterion. However, for the present at any rate, the local usage will
be followed in this respect.

The descriptive names of the individual communities have been
selected, so far as freedom from ambiguity permitted, from terms in
common use. Where practicable also, vernacular names of plants have
been introduced, but it must be stressed that many of these are used
very loosely, and variations in spelling may be found. Apparently
many of the incongruities present in McTaggart^® are the result of an
attempt to identify plants by means of local names alone.

PLANT COMMUNITIES OP WESTERN QUEENSLAND^ ETC. 165

The chief community types recognised as occurring in our area can
he arbitrarily arranged as follows : —

A. Primitive Communities.

I. Grasslands.

II. Triodia communities (^^Spinifex country”).

III. Regional Forests.

IV. Scrubs.

V. Fringing Forests and Scrubs.

VI. Channel Country.

VII. Communities dominated by Chenopodiaceae (Saltbush, &c.).

VIII. Communities of the Sandhills.

IX. Miscellaneous communities of the more arid regions.

X. Miscellaneous communities of the Great Dividing Range.

B. Induced Communities.

XI. Artificial grassland.

XII. Communities of the Bore-drains.

XIII. Communities of the Stock Routes and Reserves.

XIV. Introduced species.

A. PRIMITIVE COMMUNITIES.

Strictly speaking, primitive communities are communities which have
not been affected by and are not the result of man’s action. All, or nearly
all, primitive communities have been modified in some way or other, and
owing to the practical impossibility of determining exactly how much
modification has taken place, it has been found convenient to group
together here those communities which have not been profoundly affected
b}^ man’s activit}^

The importance of railway enclosures and cemetery reserves in
arriving at a concept of truly primitive vegetation is discussed below.

I. Grasslands.

In grasslands tall woody plants are nearly or quite absent. Trees,
w^hen present, are mostly stunted, usually very scattered^ but sometimes
numerous enough to produce parkland.

According to the dominant genus the grasslands fall into three
w^li-marked groups : —

1. Blue grass country with Dichanthium sericeum (blue grass)

dominant.

2. Mitchell grass country with Asirehla spp. (Mitchell grasses)

dominant.

3. Triodia grasslands, which are more conveniently described

below.

The Blue-grass Grasslands (fig. 2).

These are characteristic of the better rainfall areas and the soil is
usually a black earth. The grasses are tufted species, the tufts being
very leafy, fairly close together, and not very large. The more prominent
v^pecies are less fibrous and shorter lived than the dominant species of
the other grasslands. They are numerous and frequently two or
more are co-dominant. The most characteristic are the blue grass
{Dichanthium sericeum and certain closely allied forms), Bothriochlo(f
erianthoides (satin top, silver top), Paspalidium glohoideum (shot

166 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

grass, sago grass, tapioca grass), Panicum decompositum, P. queens-
landicum, Digit aria divaricatissima (all known as star grass, a term
also applied to Chloris spp.), and Thellungia advena (water grass).
Other characteristic plants are Ixiolaena hrevicompta, generally known as
“chamomile” and highly esteemed as a fodder plant, Caspedia uniflora,
Sida pleiantha and other species, various legumes such as species of
Indig of era and Nepiunia, and others.

Two climatic subtypes occur. The southern zone lies chiefly in the
Darling Downs district and lies beyond the scope of the present paper.
With a pronounced winter rainfall, the genera Danthonia and Stipa
with Aristida leptopoda are important. Themeda avenacea is also
important in places. This species, though widespread, elsewhere rarely
occurs in grassland.

In the northern zone Stipa and Danthonia are absent, and Astrehla
and Iseilema occur, usually sparsely and frequently as the result of
invasion. Aristida leptopoda is common in places and is alleged to
have been introduced by stock from further south, whence its usual
vernacular name of “Darling Downs spear grass.”

On small bare places are to be found such species as Brachyachne
convergens and B. tenella, Enneapogon nigricans (“fluffy top” is one
name in common use). Tragus hiflorus, and a few other grasses, together
with Portulaca intraten^anea (pigweed), Trianthema crystallina,
Tnhulus terrestris, Atriplex semibaccata, Euphorbia Drummondii
(caustic or caustic weed), and Boerhaavia diffusa (tahvine). Cheno-
podium alburn^ (fat hen) is seasonally prominent, sometimes attaining
considerable height.

Degradation of the pasture gradually results in the progressive
dominance of the comparatively worthless Panicum decompositum,
often with Aristida leptopoda common.

For the most part blue grass country is treeless (except along water-
courses), but its continuity is broken by patches of forest on differing
soils, and occasional trees stray into the grassland. These are prin-
cipally Eucalyptus popuUfolia (box), E. melanophloia (ironbark), and
E. terminalis. The weeping myall {Acacia pendula) sometimes occurs
chiefly on the forest edge, usually as copses (scrubs). Isolated brigalow
{Acacia harpophylla) scrubs are not uncommon.

The Mitchell grass Grasslands (figs. 3, 4, 6-9).

Mitchell grass dominates very large areas of plains and rolling
downs on soils belonging to the group of grey and brown soils. Con-
siderable areas also occupy old alluviums, which are usually strongly
silty. Over a very large part of these plains and downs trees are
completely absent except along the deeper watercourses. Acacia
faxnesiana (mimosa or prickly acacia) occurs as scattered compact
shrubs of 6-8 feet or so along shallow gullies in the north and north-east.

Over much of the country, however, trees are more or less
prominent. They are confined almost entirely to the following species:
— Atalaya hemiglauca (whitewood), Ventilago viminaUs (vine tree or
supple jack), Flindersia maculosa (leopard-wood), Owenia acidula (emu-
apple or gruie), Apophyllum anomalum (mustard bush). Acacia
Cambagei (gidgea, gidgee, gidyea, gidya, giddia, or gidiya), A. homalo-
phylla (boree), and A. pendula (myall or weeping myall).

Of these whitewood, vine-tree, gidgea, and boree are widely spread,
while emu-apple, leopard-wood, and mustard bush occur chiefly in such

* Introduced.

PLANT COMMUNITIES OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND^ ETC. 167

places as the crests of those undulations as have a shallow slightly sandy
soil. Myall occurs only towards the south-east, and usually on the edge
of grassland as described above. All with the exception of gidgea are
useful fodder plants, and even this is eaten.

Whitewood is usually a small tree with grey scarcely fissured bark,
and an open somewhat irregular crown of pinnate glaucous leaves. In
its very young stages the leaves are very coarse and frequently simple.
Under certain conditions, particularly when in flower or young fruit,
it may be poisonous, but nowhere in our area is walkabout produced
as in the far north-west of the State or in the Kimberley district of West
Australia. (Murnane and Ewart.^^)

Vine-tree commences life as a cluster of two or more slender stems
which later on intertwine to produce the characteristic trunk-system.
The crown is usually dense and weeping, of a dark dull green, but small
stunted shrubs are common. It is one of the best forage trees.

Boree is mostly a straight tree with a rather light grey somewhat
fissured bark, and a rather sparse somewhat obovate crown composed of
numerous crownlets of glaucous narrow pendulous phyllodia.

Gidgea is usually a dull glaucous bushy-headed tree with dark grey
fissured bark, but occasionally approaches boree in appearance. The
flowers always, and the phyllodia when moist, have a powerful somewhat
foetid odour.

Leopard-wood commences life as a divaricate prickly shrub, from
the centre of which arises the characteristic slender trunk with its
smooth mottled grey and cream-coloured bark and rather dense oblong
crown of small simple scented leaves.

Mustard-bush, when mature, has a comparatively short, sometimes
irregular, trunk with dark grey hard furrowed bark, and a dense rounded
leafless crown of long, rather rigid, but more or less pendulous, some-
what flexuose dull green branchlets. The spiny stipules prominent in
the younger plants are usually small or rudimentary.

The emu-apple is a small shapely tree with a very dense rich-green
crown of pinnate leaves and a strong tendency to sucker.

The characteristic grasses are the four species of Astrehla (Mitchell
grasses), Eulalia fulva (browm top, sugar grass), dJi^Eragrostis setifolia
(never-fail). Dichanthium sericeum (blue grass) occurs over the areas
of better rainfall, and is fairly common at times.

These species of Astrehla, Eulalia, and Eragrostis are all long-lived
species with short thick branching rhizomes closely covered by shining
horny scales. They form dense tussocks, withstand heavy grazing, have
the ability to sprout from the lower nodes, and respond very rapidly to
rain. The Eragrostis is the least palatable.

In normal grassland these tussocks are spaced from to 3 feet
apart, rarely closer.

In Astrehla, the older leaves are flat and more or less recurved
when dry, and of a characteristic whitish colour. When in full vigour
they are usually of a rich green, though a tendency to glaucousness is
shown in A. pectinata and A. elymoides. They flower freely, but seed
sometimes fails to mature, partly due to insect attack, and perhaps
flue partly to local climatic variations. A smut, Tilletia sp. aff. T. fulva,

168 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

has been found near Dirranbandi. The awned spikelets are readily
transported by stock. Contrary to general opinion the grain germinates
freely and under a variety of conditions. The young seedlings are,
however, readily torn up by stock. As a rule the old plants are not
grazed until the other plants of the pasture are eaten.

The species vary somewhat in habit. A. squarrosa (bull mitchell)
and A. pectinata (barley mitchell) produce erect-growing tufts with
comparatively short, dense, bristly inflorescences, the former attaining
4-6 feet, and green, the latter mostly about 2 feet, and somewhat glaucous.
Distinct races are included in the other species, but both are more
spreading in habit. The leaves of A. elymoides (weeping mitchell or
hoop mitchell) are frequently slightly glaucous and dry off before those
of any other species. The flowering culms are long, very slender, and
weakly spreading or strongly flexuose. A. lappacea (common mitchell
or curly mitchell, sometimes also downs mitchell) is rather intermediate
in habit with a stouter inflorescence.^ The leaves show a more
pronounced tendency to curl when dry than in the other species.

Eulalia fulva forms erect, leafy tufts of varying height with a
tawny or bright-brown inflorescence of two or more erect or slightly
oblique closely appressed densely but shortly hairy racemes. The old
leaves are flat and reddish-brown in colour.

Eragrostis setifoUa forms rather compact tufts rarely attaining
2 feet, with rigid inrolled sometimes slightly pungent leaves.

Ungrazed vigorous areas of the more spreading species may show
an almost complete though undulating cover when viewed from a short
distance, but otherwise the tufts are very distinct. Under suitable condi-
tions the spaces between the tufts are closely occupied by a rich variety
of short-lived perennials or facultative perennials and ephemerals
belonging to a variety of families, chiefly grasses, Chenopodiaceae,
Malvaceae f Leguminoseae, and Compo sitae.

The chief grasses are Iseilema spp. (Flinders grasses),! Fanicum
Whitei (pepper grass or pigeon grass), P. decompositum (variously
but inconstantly known as star grass, windmill grass, and sometimes as
neverfail), EriocMoa spp. (sometimes known as summer grass), Chloris
divaricata, C. trancata (both known as star grass), Aristida latifolia
(feather top), with A. leptopoda and other spp. in the south, Ennea-
pogon avenaceiis, E. Lindleyanus, E. nigricans (white top, fluffy top),
Dactyloctenium radulans (button grass), Sporoholus australasiousy
S. Caroli (both known as fairy grass), and S. actinocladus.

Of the chenopods the most important are Salsola australis (roly^
poly), Atriplex spp. (salt bushes and salt weeds), Bassia spp. (goat-
head, prickly bush or roly poly, red and other burrs, &c.), Kochia
coronata, Threlkeldia proceriflora, and the shrubby Chenopodium
auricomum (blue bush), and Rhagodia parabolica.

Among the legumes the following are important; — Seshania Bentha-
miana (seshania or seshania pea), Rkynchosia minima, Crotolaria
d/issitiflora, Glycine falcata, Psoralea graveolens, P. cinerea, Indigofera
spp., Aeschynomene inddca, Neptunia spp., and Cassia spp. (including
some shrubby spp.).

* Ore race approaches C. elymoides rather closely,
t These have been discussed in a previous paper (®).

PLANT COMMUNITIES OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND, ETC. 169

The Malvaceae are numerous in individuals belonging to the genera
Ahutilon (chiefly A. malvifolium) , Sida {S. virgata, S. corrugata, and
others'^), Hibiscus {H. trionum, H. b7*achysiphonius, H. ficulneus, this
last being known as wild rosella), and Malvastrum spicatum.

Some of the composites are Caloiis hispidula (martagai, bogan flea,
or bindey-i), C. scapigera, C. lappulacea, and other spp. (bindey-i,
daisy burr), Brachycome spp., Helipterum spp., Butidosis helichrysoides,
Gnaphalium indicum; &c.

Among other families the following spp. are important : — Trian-
thema crysiallina (bastard pigweed), T. decandra, Portulaca spp. (pig-
weed), Amaranthus Mitchellii (bogabri, smooth roly poly), Corchorus
G'ilocularis and spp.. Euphorbia Drummondii (caustic or caustic
creeper) and spp., Daucus bi'achiatus (carrot), Plantago varia (lamb’s
tongue), Solamim esuriale (wild tomato), Ipomoea Brassii (cow-vine)
and spp., Boerhaavia dijfusa (tahvine), and Eremophila maculata
(native fuschia — a low shrub).

The annual and sub-perennial vegetation is of the greatest import-
ance, for upon its nature depends the value of the pasture. The great
value of Mitchell grass lies not so much upon any high nutritional
qualities it possesses, but upon the fact that the plants do not break up
when dry, and while in that state are still acceptable to stock, and
retain sufficient nutriment to carry stock long after the other plants
have been eaten off or in times when drought has hindered the develop-
ment of other plants. Such a pasture is in reality a paddock of standing
hay. In mixed pasture it is usual for Mitchell grass not to be grazed
until the other members of the pasture have been eaten, and indeed,
there is sufficient evidence to show that in some localities, at least, pure
Mitchell grass has little value for fattening.

The plants other than grasses are popularly referred to under the
collective term ‘ ‘ herbage, ’ ’ and the broad distinction is useful.

The shorter-lived vegetation varies tremendously in composition,
and several minor communities are distinguishable. The nature of
these is a reflection, not only of minor variations of surface and
drainage, but very largely of ‘^season” and of stocking in previous
years. These communities can thus be designated ^ Indicator communi-
ties,” Incidence of rainfall also plays a very big part in determining
the communities, sum-mer and early autumn rains tending to produce
grass growth, while winter rains usually produce a preponderance of
herbage. But there is no absolute rule, and in the more arid parts the
actual amount of rain that falls seems to be the most important factor.
Light rain in winter frequently results in the so-called ^‘blackening”
of grass, rendering it brittle and unpalatable. (Blake® ®),

The Astrebla grasslands are by no means homogeneous, even when
certain local variations are neglected. There are several well-marked
types which may be arranged in three groups characterised by differences
in soil type, dominant species of Astrebla, nature of the chenopods if
present, reaction to stocking, and other features. Probably when the
floristic detail has been adequately studied, it will be found that these
types can be defined in other terms as well, and perhaps further
subdivided.

* Some are undescribed.

170 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

1. The Ashy Downs Group. — On the typical “ashy downs” which
occupy the north and east portions of the Mitchell grass communities
(fig. 3), the soil is grey to dark-grey in colour, very fine-grained, friable,
and nearly free of gravel. When dry it opens out in large deep cracks,
and swells considerably when wet. Trees are usually absent; when
present they are restricted to sparsely scattered, more or less stunted
whitewood or vine tree, or occasional shrubs of Acacia sentis (gunda-
bluie). Astrehla pectinata is rare or absent, chenopods are restricted to
Salsola, though Atriplex Muelleri occurs as a product of degradation,
and Iseilema is well represented, both in species and individuals. In
most years herbage is comparatively scanty.

On badly-drained areas A. squarrosa is the dominant species. This
is the “bull mitchell country” so characteristic of large areas in the
neighbourhood of Nelia, Nonda, and Julia Creek. A. elymoides (weep-
ing mitchell), Eidalia fulva (brown top), Chenopodium auricomum
(blue bush), and other plants of damp places such as Iseilema
convexum, 1. calvum (Flinders grasses), Eragrostis leptocarpa, Cyperus
Gilesii, Seshania Benthamiana (sesbania), Neptunia spp., and Minuria
integerrima are associated.

On better drained country the characteristic species are Astrehla
lappacea (common mitchell) and A. elymoides (weeping mitchell) often
as alternes. On the rolling downs this is the characteristic community,
frequently with small bull mitchell communities in the depressions.

Kelated to the true ashy downs are areas to the north and north-
west of our area, but represented in part by the country near Camooweal.
Bull mitchell is the characteristic grass, but the other species may all be
present in some proportion. A large glaucous species of Eriachne
occupies the smaller channels. To the north, towards the Gulf of
Carpentaria, other communities dominated by bull mitchell grass occur,
but they lie without the scope of the present paper. All these communi-
ties have one character in common ; the dry grass does not support stock
in the same way as it does further south.

2. A south-eastern development, which may be regarded as the
extension of the ashy downs to the regions of higher or more evenly
distributed rainfall. In places a gradation to blue grass is shown, a
feature which will be dealt with in more detail when discussing the
relationships of the grasslands.

The soil is frequently a black earth, and the characteristic species
are Astrehla lappacea, A. elymoides, Aristida leptopoda, an undescribed
species allied to A. muricata, Thellungia advena, Panicum queenslandi-
cum, Paspalidium glohoideum, and other grasses, while Calotis scapigera,
Brachycome spp., and Sida pleiantha are among the herbage plants.
Iseilema is represented chiefly by I. ntemhranaceum, though I. vaginir
florum occurs in places. In depressions Panicum prolutum, Eragrostis
parviflora, E. leptocarpa, Cyperus hifax, and an undescribed species
allied to C. Gilesii and C. fulvus are prominent.

Myall, either as scattered trees or “scrubs,” occurs in places, but
in many instances has been destroyed.

On the basalt tableland to the north and north-west of Hughenden
a community of a very similar grass composition occurs, though Iseilema
is represented also by the northern I. Windersii.

PLANT COMMUNITIES OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND, ETC. 171

There is a type of community botanically related to both ashy downs
and gravelly downs which is to be found on areas of old alluvium near
Cunnamulla and elsewhere (fig. 4). The soils are sometimes somewhat
yellowish in colour, claypans are frequent, but though chenopods are
frequent at times the plant composition is rather of the ashy downs.
It has been described by Francis.^^

3. The Gravelly Downs group (figs. 6-9). — ^^The gravelly downs
(also called stony downs and pebbly downs) takes its name from the
fact that the soil, a yellowish brown to light chestnut clay silt or clay
loam (rarely somewhat sandy), is invariably associated with gidgea
gravel, and is more compact than that of typical ashy downs. Towards
the South Australian border, the gravelly downs grade imperceptibly
into Sturt’s Stony Desert.

A characteristic feature, particularly of the more arid parts, is
the occurrence of small, shallow depressions, comparatively free from
gravel, which are known as '‘crab-holes” or "gilgais.”

The dominant grass is Astrehla pectinata (barley mitchell). In
the less arid parts the other species are usually associated to some
extent, and A. lappacea is often locally dominant, while it is to be
found occasionally in the drier parts. Annual species of Bassia and
Atriplex are very characteristic of the gravelly downs, sometimes
mixing freely with the grasses and other herbage, sometimes forming
definite communities as described below and then alternating with
portions of the grass community (fig. 7). Within the gravelly downs
as thus defined, three broad trends may be recognised. In two of
these there is a fairly close and regular ground cover, and the bull
mitchell community above described occurs in some form or other in
depressions (fig. 8). In one trend Acacia Cambagei (gidgea) is
prominent, either as the scattered scrubs described below, or as more
scattered trees (gidgea downs). In the other trend boree {Acacia
liomalophylla) appears as scattered trees tending to form a parkland
(boree downs). Very frequently there is an intermediate state
(gidgea-boree downs) (fig. 9). Except for an isolated area near
Hughenden, where chenopods (except Salsola) are rare, the char-
acteristic species of Bassia are B. lanicuspis on the gidgea downs, and
B. anisacanthoides and B. ecJiinopsila on the boree downs.

The third trend is found in the area within the 10-inch isohyet.
The vegetation tends to restrict itself to the margins of the crab-holes,
and along gullies, while large areas are at times quite devoid of plant
life. The characteristic Bassia is a form closely allied to B. divaricata
and Atriplex Muelleri, so common elsewhere, is rare or absent. A
typical crab-hole near Haddon’s Corner (fig. 6) carries at its margin
Astrehla pectinata^ Sporoholus actinocladusy Panicum decomp ositwm^
Bassia sp. aff. B. divaricata, Atriplex spongiosa, and A. conduplicata.
Except for a comparatively small area to the north of Birdsville (fig. 12),
where occur scattered plants of the very peculiar almost pine-like
"waddy” Acacia Pence, with its exceptionally hard and heavy wood,
trees are absent or represented by occasional shrubs of Acacia
tetragonopUylla (dead finish) or Cassia spp. At the head of gullies
in the low ridges an occasional shrub of the handsome Eremophila
Latrohei occurs, to be replaced lower down by Acacia cyperophylla
(minaritchie) and still lower down by gidgea. Acacia cyperophylla
appears to be restricted to the east and south of the Diamantina River,
so that between Birdsville and Boulia much of the upper part of the
gully is bare of shrubs.

172 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

On the little pockets of drift sand among the gibbers in areas
adjacent to the Simpson Desert, a varied and interesting plant population
frequently occurs. Mitchell grass (the usual A. pectinaia) may itself
occur here, though more frequently the plants are shorter-lived species,
such as Iseilema eremaeum (restricted apparently to this area), 1. vagini-
florum, Stenopetalum lineare, Goodenia sp., Bassia spp.

II. Triodia Communities (figs. 28-33).

Triodia is a genus of grasses restricted to Australia, and widely
known as ‘‘spinifex’’^ or ‘‘porcupine grass.” From many points of
view it is a very interesting group, closely allied to both Asirehla and
Danthoniu, but differing widely in habit from 'nearly all other grasses.
The culms are freely branched below, and the plants form dense tus-
socks, or large somewhat hemispherical hummocks, spiny by reason of
spreading, hard, rigid, often rather long, more or less strongly pungent
leaves, which are for the most part convolute and apparently terete.
The hummocks may attain six feet or more in diameter and four feet in
height, though usually they are smaller than this. The flowering
culms, borne one to three feet higher, are usually exceedingly numerous,
but the flowering period is brief, and appears to be dependent on
rainfall. The seedlings commence to branch when very young; old
plants frequently die in the centre, the hummocks then assuming an
annular or crescentic or even an S-shaped form. The production of
stolons is common, but this feature appears to depend to some extent
on habitat, and is not constantly specific in nature.

Some species are very viscid, with a strong resinous odour. These
produce mostly compact green tufts with less pungent, less rigid, but
often longer leaves than is usual in other species, and are rarely
stolonif erous. This type is sometimes referred to as “ turpentine grass ’ ’
or “turpentine spinifex.”

All species are readily inflammable when green. The less pungent
species have a distinct fodder value dependent largely on their
extreme resistance to drought and the readiness with which they put
forth fresh growth after rain or burning. The grain is an excellent
stock food, particularly for cattle and horses. The resin was used by
the aborigines in preparing cements. The upturned plants have been
used as bed-mattresses. The sand-dwelling species are most important
agents in preventing soil-drift.

The genus is widely spread in Queensland, and is to be found
occupying a great variety of habitats. The species enter into the
formation of several distinct communities, usually referred to collectively
as ‘ ‘ spinif ex country. ’ ’ These communities are usually exceedingly
xerophytic in appearance, but curious anomalies occur, chiefly outside
our present limits. True trees are nearly always absent, but crooked
or gnarled, single- or several-stemmed shrubs or tree-shrubs are not
uncommon, particularly species of Acacia, Hakea, and Eucalyptus,
the latter thus partaking of the mallee-form. As pointed out below,
gradations to true Eucalyptus forest occur, in which Triodia is present
merely as a member of the ordinary grass-flora of the latter. Occasion-
ally a type of grassland or steppe is produced, in which the species
of Trioda are the tallest members of the community.

* Not to be confused with the genus Spinif ex.

PLANT COMMUNITIES OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND;, ETC.

173

In the typical Triodia communities, the hummocks of Triodia
completely dominate the landscape. A complete cover is never attained,
though occasionally the edges of the plants are sufficiently close to
prevent a person from walking between them with any degree of
comfort. Usually, however, the plant masses are much further apart.
Between the masses various perennial and numerous annual plants,
often small, find a footing. An undes'cribed creeping species of
NeuracJme is widespread, and is noteworthy from the fact that it is
one of the two distinctly creeping grasses indigenous in Western
Queensland.

The species of Triodia do not as a rule mix Mt^ffiernating stands
are common. It seems probable thaf some speMpare very sensitive to
variations in the substratum, but owing present chaotic state

of the genus it is not possible to discu^fij^j^fe^in detail.

The habitats are frequently highly^ilicepi|s in nature, either sand
or sandstone or acid volcanic rocks, but silic^eous limestone and silt
beds are also supporters of such communities.

Several well-marked major communities are known, and there
occur numerous small or scattered ones in special habitats. The more
important are as follows : —

1, The grassland community of the north-west. This is found on
undulating siliceous Cambrian limestone east of Camooweal and north-
east of Duchess. The surface is stony, and there is scarcely any soil,
though in =^e hollows small patches accumulate which support Mitchell
grass, ji^efly, if not entirely, bull mitchell. The community is very
pq^^ known. In the Duchess development, T. pungens appears to be
.^^sportant species. The species of the other area are unknown, but
^$^ieast two are important. Annual plants, such as species of
'0^ea/pogon, Eriachne, Polycarpaea, &c., are common after rain.
Trichinium is well represented. The mallee-like Eucalyptus leucophylla
occurs in places, sometimes as a prominent member of the association.
There appears to be a definite gradation to the following.

2. The Eucalyptus pallidifolia - E. leucophylla - Triodia community
(mountain gum — spinifex country) (fig. 32). This is well developed
on the rugged mountainous country of the Cloncurry — Mount Isa
district. Except in the valleys where there is a varying depth of
fine sandy or loamy soils, reddish in colour, soil is practically absent.
The characteristic ‘‘trees’’ are Eucalyptus pallidifolia (mountain gum
or snapping gum) and E. leucophylla (generally, though incorrectly,
known as coolibah). The mountain gum usually produces a cluster of
two or more rather crooked or spreading rather slender trunks with a
pure white smooth bark, and a sparse crown of rather small glaucous
leaves. It is specially characteristic of the hills, and is invariably
associated with Triodia. Its timber is very brittle. E. leucophylla is
of somewhat similar growth-form, but the bark is a brown or grey
shortly fibrous ‘ ‘ box ’ ’ bark, the leaves are longer and the young
growth is very glaucous. The species occurs on the low ridges, but is
particularly characteristic of the valleys and flats.

Another eucalypt, E. pruinosa (silver box, silver-leaved box, silver
leaf), occurs jnear the north and north-eastern edge, but is more
characteristic of a very different community to be described in a
later paper. It is usually stouter than the preceding species, with
a dark grey, rugged, somewhat coarsely-flaky bark, and large rounded

174

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

opposite sessile silvery leaves. In the present case it occurs chiefly on
lower ground often where Triodia tends to be partly replaced by
Aristida.

Frequently on the more rugged peaks and scarps are to be found
isolated trees of Sterculia australis (bottle-tree), where it makes a
striking spectacle with its very stout, swollen trunk and dense green
crown of deciduous leaves.

Other characteristic shrubs and small trees of the community are
Terminalia aridicola, Ficus opposita, Eucalyptus pyropkora (blood-
wood), Eremophila sp. nov. (?), Cassia spp., and several species of
Acacia, including the ubiquitous gidgea. A. costinervis is the most
striking of these. It is a handsome fastigiate shrub with curly, flaky,
reddish and grey bark, rich green viscid phyllodia, and when in flower,
with a profusion of brilliant yellow spikes.

Several species of Triodia occur. Of these T. pungens is very
abundant over large areas, but on the more precipitous slopes is at
least partly replaced by two much more pungent non-stoloniferous
species. Eriachne is a characteristic genus, and particularly the series
of forms described under the names E. mucronata and E. sclerantlioides.
In its extreme form the latter is a peculiar grass, forming small dense
patches among rocks in the more rugged places. The culms are only
a few inches long, but are closely covered by several short slightly
recurved rigid pungent, convolute leaves, and a very short inflorescence
of one or very few spikelets.

Several plants are viscid, some strongly so. Among the most
striking are the abovementioned Triodia pungens (some forms only)
and Acacia costinervis, two smaller species of the same genus, the
annual Polanisia viscosa, and the following grasses and. sed^ges: —
Eragrostis desertorum, Enneapogon asperatus, Cyperus ixiocarpus, C.
CunningJiamii, and C. xerophilus. The latter is associated with Eriachne
scleranthoides.

Other important species are the glaucous, leafless, bushy or climbing
Sarcostemma australe (caustic bush or caustic climber), with its
cylindrical, somewhat fleshy stems, various species of Abutilon, with
their handsome lemon-yellow or deeper yellow flowers, which open only
at dusk or when well shaded, and close in bright sunlight, an occasional
variously coloured Hibiscus, numerous species of Trichinium, with their
dense spikes of hairy flowers of green, pink, crimson, or mauve, the
woolly Scaevola densivestita, spiny, thick-leaved, and more or less
velvety species of Solanum, Indigofera spp., Tephrosia spp., small species
of Polycarpaea, Euphorbia, and Heliotr opium, the widesp^’ead annual
Bulbostylis barbata, and many grasses. The chief of these are
(perennials) : the lemon-scented Cymhopogon bombycinus, a char-
acteristic form of Themeda australis, Sehima nervosum, Aristida spp.,^
particularly A. arenaria, A. longicollis, A. inaequiglumis, and A.
pruinosa, the creeping Neurachne mentioned above, afld the annuals:
Iseilema dolichotrichum, Rottboellia formosa, ScUizackyrium sp.,
Paspalidium rarum,' Digit aria ctenantha, Enneapogoin^pp., Chloris
scariosa, Sporobolus australasicus, Eriachne ciliata, E. puldhella, and
E. tuberculata. , :

3. Extensive Triodia — dominant communities are to be found on
the hills of Desert Sandstone except in the south and south-east. They
occur on the tops of the larger hills, but more particularly over con-
siderable areas on the broken tablelands (figs. 29-31). Small trees are

PLANT COMMUNITIES OP WESTERN QUEENSLAND, ETC. 175

usually associated, but they may be very scattered. These are usually
an Acacia, of which gidgea {A. Camhagei) , lancewood {Acacia sp.),
and mulga {A. aneura) are the most important, though other species
also occur. On the lower ground the mallee. Eucalyptus norman-
ionensis, is found in some places (fig. 31). Several species of Triodia
occur, but most, if not all, are undescribed. Usually they form rather
large and comparatively widely spaced masses. Between these Bassia
eriacantha, B. lanicuspis, B. tricuspis, B. longicuspis, and Kochict
Georgei occur chiefly on the hills. Otherwise there is little difference
between the details of the flora of the hills and the shallow valleys
between. Sida^ spp., Ahutilon spp. the woody crucifer Lepidium
strong ylophyllum, Trichmium spp., Polycarpaea spp., Frankenia
serpyllif olia, and a few grasses, including two undescribed species of
Neurachne, an undescribed Sporobolus, Aristida arenaria, Brachyachne
ciliaris, Brachiaria Oilesii, Paspalidium rarum and an undescribed
species, Eriachne sclerantJioides, E. pulcKella, and E. tuberculata.

On Mount Walker, near Hughenden, and probably also on the
neighbouring hills, a rather different community occurs more nearly
related to parts of the forest country to the east. The Triodia is
T. pungens, and scattered trees of Eucalyptus Whitei and E. pyrophora
occur, together with lancewood, dead finish {Alhizzia hasaltica), and
other shrubby plants.

4. The Spinifex Sand-plain of the south-west (fig. 28). On the
lateritic sand-plain between Windorah and the South Australian border
and to the east of Jundah, a Triodia-communitj covers large areas of
country. Over considerable areas shrubs of any kind are absent, but
elsewhere more or less scattered small shrubby trees or shrubs are
found. Chief among these are a very stunted form of Eucalyptus
papuana, with its pure white smooth bark and sparse crown of narrow
drooping leaves, and Hakea Ivoryi, a narrow irregular shrub up to
15 ft., with terete pungent lobes to the pinnate leaves. A bloodwood,
Eucalyptus pyrophora, and mulga {Acacia aneura) are also important,
while to the north-east, where the eucalypts assume tree dimensions,
the peculiar ‘Mesert oak’’ {Acacia juncifolia), with its long terete
phyllodia, and an occasional beefwood {Grevillea striata) are notice-
able. Occasionally, also, almost a parkland effect is produced.

The dominant species of Triodia is T. Basedowii, and over the
greater part at least is the only species. It is a large stoloniferous
species, and occurs also on the sandhills of the Simpson Desert. Indeed,
the present community may be considered to occur in a modified and
disconnected way along the bases of many of these sandhills. So far
as is at present known, the associated plants are chiefly grasses of
which Eragrostis eriopoda, Aristida Muelleri, A. arenaria, Neurachne
sp. are most important. Other plants known to occur are Calandrinia
spp. (parakeelya), Bassia Cornishiana, Brunonia australis, and a few
composites. The parakeelya is a famous fodder plant with thick fleshy
leaves, and stock can live on it for a considerable time without water.

5. There is an ill-defined community developed to the east of
Barcaldine, in which Triodia pungens and Eucalyptus papuana are
associated on sand. In many respects it is intermediate between the
north-eastern development of the previous community and Eucalyptus
forest. Desert oak is generally present. It might be considered as a

176 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

very extreme case of the south-western community in which Triodia
pungens replaces T. Basedowii, hut it is desirable to draw attention to
it by reason of its connection with Eucalyptus forest.

6. Communities of silt-beds. These communities are found in a
few places on a fine silt, which is nearly impervious to water. ‘So
far as known the area of greatest development, which lies some miles
to the east of Barcaldine, appears to be a centre of inland drainage,
and water may lie on the surface for a considerable time. The species
is allied to T. irriians, and forms large masses with stout, excessively
rigid and pungent leaves. It is locally known as ‘‘porcupine grass, ’’
and the community as ‘ ‘ porcupine plain. ’ ’ Apart from a few scattered
irregular shrubs of Hakea acacioides (needlewood), with its pungent
terete leaves, and the peculiar diminutive composite Eriochlamys Behrii,
very little else grows, and the country is almost worthless.

7. The communities of Triodia Mitchellii and allied species. Under
this heading are arranged those communities in which very viscid species
predominate. They appear to be developed no further west than long.
145° 15' E., roughly a line passing through Burra on the crest of
the Dividing Range west of Pentland, and Cunnamulla. T. Mitchellii
is the most important species.

There are two major trends in the communities. In one of these
the characteristic habitat is the rocky crests of the hills in the neighbour-
hood of Springsure, and of those associated with the Great Dividing
Range. In the nature of the numerous eucalypts and ericoid shrubs
which are usually present, as well as in a few other features, these
communities should be regarded rather as slightly modified forms of
the range communities described below.

In the other case a true Triodia savannah is formed. Scattered
individuals or groups of dwarfed eucalypts are always present, but
diseontinuously. The habitat is a slightly elevated tract of loose, usually
reddish sand. The eucalypts are the irregular white to grey-barked
E. dealhata to the west of St. George, and stunted E. melanophloia to
the south of Charleville, in both places accompanied by the characteristic
Angophora ^nelanoxylon, while in communities lying between Jericho
and Barcaldine (fig. 33) these are replaced by the bushy-crowned E.
setom^ (nut-wood), a mallee-form of E. exserta, and the widely tolerant
E. erythrophloia. Several shrubs occur throughout, including the root-
parasite Leptomeria sp., Grevillea juncifolia, Acacui spp. (A. argentea
is a handsome plant of the more northern area), Olearia spp., &c. Many
of the smaller herbaceous plants occur throughout, and indeed many of
these are characteristic of loose sandy places in many parts of the State..
The chief species or genera are Calandrinia spp., Stackhousia vinvinea,
Goodenia spp., Brunonia australis, several composites belonging to the
genera Calotis, Butidosis, and Craspedia, and numerous grasses, such as
Panicum effusum, or a closely allied species, Digitaria Broivnei, D.
anvmophila, Cymbopogon spp., Schizachyrium sp. nov., Themeda australis,
numerous spp. of Aristida, Eragrostis eriopoda, Eriachne mucronata, E.
aristidea, N eurachne sp., and a few sedges such as Fimhristylis Neilsonii
and Bulhostylis barbata.

To the west of Pentland, near the upper part of the Great Dividing
Range, on shallow sand overlying sandstone, is a community mentioned
and figured by Prescott as a “desert scrub.” It is in many respects
intermediate between a Triodia savannah and a range community.

PLANT COMMUNITIES OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND, ETC. 177

Triodia sp. aff. T. Mitchellii is everywhere prominent, usually forming
large masses. Eucalyptus setosa, E. erythrophloia, shrubby E. exserta,
stunted E. mela7iophloia, and the peculiar Melaleuca tamaxiscma with
its whitish somewhat papery bark and long slender pendulous branchlets
with minute almost scale-like, closely set leaves are in more or less
prominence, but the characteristic feature is the frequency of .numerous
species of brilliant-flowered ericoid myrtaceous and leguminous shrubs
belonging to such genera as Calythrix, Thryptomene, Baechiaf Bu^'tonia^
and Jacksonia.

III. Regional Forests.

Under this heading are included those forests and related com-
munities which occupy fairly extensive and continuous areas. There
are three well-marked types: (1) Eucalyptus forests and parklands;
(2) Cypress pine {Callitris glauca) forest; and (3) Ooline {CadelUa
pentastylis) forest.

1. Eucalyptus Forest. The communities dominated by species of
Eucalyptus have been variously described as pointed out above. Owing
to the frequently rather sparsely foliaged crown with its vertical leaves,
the forest floor receives a considerable amount of light, and a rich ground
vegetation is usually present. In parkland, as here understood, the
trees are more widely spaced, without as a rule any other alteration in
the community. The genus is represented in Queensland by about
120 species. Of these, about 45 are actually known from our area,
though only about 30 are of any real importance, and some of these
are restricted to special habitats and have a small range. The discrimina-
tion of the species is a difficult task. Species, which may be very similar
as herbarium specimens, are often very distinct in the field, while
others are almost indistinguishable in the field in the absence of fruit.
Besides, some species vary considerably in habit under different con-
ditions. Shrubby states of E. papuana and E. exserta have already
been mentioned. Both may occur as large trees, the former particularly
being often very shapely.

Popular classification is based largely on the nature of the bark,
and as this is an obvious character which is often correlated with others,
it is most useful. Sometimes it affords the readiest means of distinguish-
ing species otherwise closely related.

The chief groups based on this character are : —

{a) The Gums, possessing a smooth bark which is shed yearly
in thin scales or strips, leaving a very clean, smooth trunk
and branches. Usually there is some grey, persistent flaky
or scaly bark at the butt. E. papuana and E. pallidifolia
are previously mentioned species belonging to this group.

(5) The Boxes, with grey or mealy, fibrous, much interlocked,
persistent bark. In this, as in all groups, the small branch-
lets are almost invariably smooth, the characteristic bark not
developing until a later date. E. populifolia is the widest
spread species of this group.

(c) The Ironbarks, with a hard, rough, deeply furrowed, dark
grey or black bark more or less impregnated with a dark red
kino (‘‘gum”). E. melanopMoia is a previously mentioned
species of this group.

178

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

{d) The Stringy-barks, possessing a very fibrous, persistent bark.
True stringy-barks are scarcely represented in this area.

(e) The Bloodwoods. Typical bloodwoods possess a persistent
bark, which is somewhat spongy, friable, and more or less
distinctly tessellated. They are not common in the interior,
where the term is used for closely related species with a
distinctly scaly but friable bark on the trunk, but with a
gum bark on the branches. An allied typ,e is the “Yellow
Jack,” with a yellowish, very spongy but more or less friable
and tesselated bark.

Sometimes the bark of the upper part of the tree may be different
from that on the greater part of the trunk. Such a tree is said to be
“half-barked,” and is described in such terms as “gum-topped box,”
and “gum-topped ironbark.” The line of demarcation may be very
sharp. Sometimes the shed bark of the upper part may remain as long
strips hanging from the line of junction.

A few cases of intermediate type are met with, as in the case of
E. pruinosa and E. exserta, where the bark is intermediate in nature
between the ironbark and the box.

The seedling leaves of many species are very different in shape,
venation, and disposition from the mature leaves. Sometimes there is
a pronounced intermediate stage, usually with very large leaves. When
damaged by fire or ring-barking, trees sucker freely, and the leaves of
such suckers are very similar to those of seedlings. The intermediate
stages are, however, passed through more Rapidly.

Eucalyptus forest in some form or other occupies extensive areas
in Queensland, and definite Eucalyptus-prommeYit communities are to
be found almost throughout the State on a variety of soil types. Many
of the communities grade into one another, and sharp distinctions are
not possible. The extreme forms are, however, so well marked that it
is equally impossible to regard the whole development as a single com-
munity. It is not feasible in the present paper to deal with the forest
areas in detail, and trends only will be indicated. As an initial generali-
sation it may be stated that ironbarks tend to occupy hilly .or stony
ground with shallow soil. On the crests of ranges and similar places
yellow jacks replace the ironbarks. Boxes are characteristic of fiattish
or low-lying ground, while gums are commonly to be found on river
banks, though a few are restricted to barren rocky hills.

In describing the communities it is convenient to select a central |

type as it were, point out its prominent features, and then indicate I

how the other communities differ. This is the box-ironbark {E. pop%li-
folia — E. melanophloia) community so common in the so-called “desert
country” to the east of Barcaldine and elsewhere (fig. 34). The soil is j
chiefly sandy, mostly lateritic in nature, but podsolised soils occur in
places.

■I

E. populifoUa (poplar box, or box), usually a straight tree
attaining 40 ft. or more, is a typical box with a grey or mealy bark, a '
rather dense crown obovate in shape, and shining green broadly ovate
to broadly lanceolate leaves on long very slender petioles. Near the
border of New South Wales some of the smaller branches are gum-

barked.

PLANT COMMUNITIES OP WESTERN QUEENSLAND, ETC. 179

E. melanophloia (silver-leaved ironbark, or called simply ironbark,
where no other tree of this group is present) has the characteristic
bark of the group. In this community it is usually a straight or slightly
crooked tree with a rather broadly oblong somewhat dense crown ; the
leaves are opposite, sessile, rigid, glaucous, and more or less orbicular-
ovate, and not very different from the juvenile leaves. The young
growth is strongly pruinose.

The two species grow either mixed or in separate alternes, and
both enter into other communities. When alternes occur, the ironbark
occupies areas of shallower soil. Another species of extensive range
frequently enters the community. This is E. papuana, variously known
as cabbage gum, sugar gum, and pudding gum. When associated with
box and ironbark, it forms straight, shapely trees with a fairly compact
crown with more or less pendulous branchlets and narrow undulate
varnished sap-green or rarely glaucous-green leaves. The species has a
typical pure white gum bark, sometimes with a little persistent grey
scaly bark at the base, but this is of very irregular development. The
leaves are relished by cattle. Other smaller trees and shrubs frequently
enter the community, but a definite undergrowth is not formed. Among
the important species are Eremophila Mitchellii (buddah or sandal-
wood), Petalo'stigma quadriloculare (quinine) with its short, dark grey,
rough-barked trunk and a broad very dense crown; Bursaria incana
(prickly pine), usually a narrow small tree more or less spiny; Albizzia
hasaltica (dead finish), usually shrubby, though sometimes assuming
tree size; Capparis Mitchellii (bumbil), a small tree with a rather large
bushy crown; Pittosporum phillyraeoides (cattle bush), a slender pale-
green tree or tall shrub with a smooth light grey bark and an excellent
stock food; Sterculia diversifolia (kurrajong), a shapely deciduous tree
and another excellent fodder plant; and several species of Acacia.
Carissa lanceolata (currant bush) forms large prickly bushes; Parsonsia
lanceolata, Pandorea pandorana, and the prickly Capparis lasiantha are
characteristic lianas. Loranihus spp. parasitises some of the trees, and
in places the leafiess and rootless parasitic Cassytha filiformis covers some
of the larger plants with a maze of yellowish, filiform stems. The orchid
Cymbidium canaliculatum is an epiphyte in parts.

The forest floor is dominated by grasses. Chief among these are :
Chrysopagon pallidus, Bothriochloa Ewartiana (desert mitchell, forest
mitchell, desert blue grass), B. decipiens (chiefly the luxuriant var.
cloncurrensis) , Themeda australis (kangaroo grass). Sorghum
plumosum, Cymhopogon spp., Panicum spp., Digitaria spp.,
Aristida spp. (very common), Enneapogon spp., Eragrostis spp., and
Triodia pungens. Other plants which are widely spread are : Er odium
cygnorum (crow foot), Waltheria americana, Abutilou otocarpum,
Ipomoea spp., Evolvulus alsinoides, Trichinium alopecuroideum, Bassia
convexula (a slender form), B. Birchii (galvanised burr), Trichodesma
zeylauicum, Goodenia spp., various legumes such as species of Zomia,
Glycinef C rot alarm, Tephrosia, Swainsona, and Indig of era, such com-
posites as Calatis spp., Brachycome spp., Helichrysum spp., Ixiolaena
tomentosa, Craspedia uniflora, and Senecio sp., and a few sedges, of
which Cyperus fulvus, C. conicus, Fimbristylis Neilsonii, F. dichotoma
and allied forms on the drier ground, and Cyperus concinnus, and C. iria
on the damper ground are most important.

180

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

To the south the ironDark tends to drop out of the community,
tending to form separate communities on stony ground with Eriachne
prominent. Two small trees, not common in the centre, become
important. Geijera parviflora (wilga) usually forms a handsome plant
with a dense broad somewhat weeping crown of narrow pendulous pale
somewhat olive-green leaves. There are two races, one of which is freely
eaten by stock, and the other ignored. They are apparently inseparable
morphologically. Eremophila Mitchellii (buddah, sandalwood, false
sandalwood) is a smaller single-stemmed shrub with a rounded dense
dark dull green crown. It also is eaten by stock, at least in some places.
Heterodendron oleifolium (boonery or rosewood), myall (Acacia
pendula) , and whitewood (Atalaya hemiglauca) occur in places where
the soil becomes somewhat clayey. Triodia is absent, or is represented
in places by T. Mitchellii. Angophora melanoxylon (apple) is common
in places. The genera Stipa and Danthonia become prominent, and
N eiirachne Mitchelliana (mulga mitchell) and Arriphihromus sp. nov.
are often important, particularly where mulga (Acacia aneura) enters
the community, Paspalidium spp. are also important, and the distinc-
tive Sida pedunculata^ may be prominent.

To the north E. populifolia is replaced by the closely similar
E. Broivnii, which differs chiefly in the narrower adult leaves and
differently shaped juvenile leaves. E. melanophloia frequently tends to
be restricted to the rather stony hillsides, its place in the community
being taken by a narrow-leaved species, of which E. racemosa is most
widely spread. In the neighbourhood of Prairie the smaller, more
glaucous E. Whitci is important. These ironbarks often occur pure, and
E. racemosa frequently attains considerable size. Usually it is a well-
formed tree with a fairly large crown of narrow pendulous leaves. Other
plants are the trees Grevillea glauca (nut-wood), G. parallela (silky oak),
Melaleuca spp,, an occasional Terminalia, the shrub Astrotricha
pterocarpa, the peculiar fern Gleichenia microphylla, the sedge
Fimhristylis cymosa, and such grasses (chiefly annuals) as Botthoellia
formosa, Schizachyrmm spp., Elyonurus citreus, Thaumastochloa
puhescens, Ectrosia leporma, Brachiaria holosericea, and Arundinella
setosa. Bothriochloa pertusa is known from the far north-east corner,
and Aristida hygrometrica occurs along the northern edge. Both these
species are very characteristic of the communities further north.

Two other eucalypts are prominent in the central and northern
areas. These are the bloodwood E. erythrophloia and the yellow jack ||
E. similis. They tend to form separate communities on areas of loose '
reddish sand. The bloodwood tends to form an open parkland, and its ?
association with Triodia Mitchellii has already been described. Some- 1
times, however, the ground vegetation is that characteristic of the
3"ellow-jack community. The yellow jack usually forms fairly large
spreading trees, fairly close together, and between them is a dense
growth of typical loose-sand grasses — Aristidq spp. Perotis rara, Trira- j
phis molliSf Enneapogon sp., and others. Particularly in the central ?
parts Aristida sciuroides is very prominent. Sometimes exceeding 6 feet I i
and rarely shorter than 5 feet, the species forms close tufts of slightly ;
branched, erect slender culms with long, narrow, gracefully inclined or | ^

weeping inflorescences.

* Sida pedunculata. A. Cunn., not of Domin.

PLANT COMMUNITIES OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND, ETC. 181

Associated with the steeply undulating country of the Drummond
Kange, and also further north and south, is a parkland of a narrow-
leaved ironbark {Eucalyptus racemosa, at least in part) with E. erythro-
pliloia and E. melanopliloia in varying proportions. The grasses appear
to be chiefly kangaroo grass {Themeda austraUs) and black spear
(Heteropogon contortus) .

In the hilly country near Springsure and the Carnarvon Range
the handsome but poisonous Macrozamia Moorei (zamia) is frequent.

2. Cypress Pine Forest. — The chief species is Callitris glauca, which
ideally is a handsome, conical, more or less glaucous tree, sometimes of
considerable size, sometimes small. Frequently it is more or less broken.
The community varies from forest to parkland, and almost invariably
is developed on loose, pale-coloured sand. Transitions to Eucalyptus
forest (box-ironbark) are common. Trir aphis mollis, Perot is rara, Nico-
tiana spp. (wild tobacco), Abutilon spp., Sida spp., are common plants,
but sometimes the vegetation is much richer with Aristida spp.. Digit aria
spp., Panicum effusuni, or an allied sp.. Sorghum plumosum, Fimhristylis
Neilsonii, Bulhostylis barhata, Clematis microphylla, and others.

3. Ooline Forest. — Ooline {Cadellia pentastylis) sometimes at least
forms a close forest of fairly tall trees, which in appearance is not unlike
rainforest. Lianas and epiphytes, except algae, lichens, and mosses, are,
however, absent. The dominant and sometimes the only tall tree is the
ooline itself, with a dense crown of deep-green leaves. A tall acacia
{A. aneura) is sometimes present as isolated trees, sometimes forming
alternes ; Eucalyptus pillagaensis, a slender gum-topped box, is occasional,
as also are other species. There is a distinct second story, in which
Acalypha nemorum is most prominent as a dense shrub of 4-5 feet, with
small leaves, dark green above paler below. With it is associated a large,
massively shrubby, strongly glaucous species of Rhagodia, the shrubby
Notelaea punctata, the shrubby grasses Stipa ramossissima (up to 5 feet),
Eragrostis megalosperma, and “ Panicum’^ uncinulatum^ (2-3 feet).
Other plants include species of Olearia, Sida, Abutilon, Nyssanthes, and
Dodonaea, the fern Cheilanthes, Pagpalidium, Stipa, Eragrostis lepto-
stachya, and other spp., the peculiar diffuse Calypiochloa graeillima with
cleistogamous spikelets hidden in the base of the leaf-sheaths, Chloris
unispicea, Cyperus gracilis, and Car ex inversa (a form or very closely
allied species).

This is a most interesting community with a curious assemblage of
species. In many ways, both in aspect and composition, it recalls certain
coastal communities. The community is known to me only from the
development on a low ridge (altitude, 1,600 feet approximately) about
20 miles west of Mitchell on a greyish, gravelly silt loam. On removal
of the forest large tussocks of Aristida ramosa var. and small ones of
A. caput -medusae, together with a rather small, densely tufted
Paspalidium and other plants, take possession.

Other communities are said to occur in similar circumstances to
the south of Morven.

* This is not a true Panicum, but its true genus is still uncertain.

182 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

According to Jensen^^ ooline occurs associated with other species in
brigalow scrub to the east of our area.

IV. Scrubs.

Scrubs are widespread in Western Queensland, and while in many
parts they possess a varied composition, over most of our area they
consist of nearly pure stands of some species of Acacia, with or without
a definite ground vegetation. The scrubs may be of large extent or they
may occur scattered through forest and grassland, sometimes along
watercourses. In such cases their boundaries are often sharply marked.
Frequently a nearly complete canopy is produced; at other times the
individuals are more scattered. To the eastw^ard some of the scrubs
attain forest size.

The genus Acacia is represented in Queensland by well over 120
species, the great majority of which possess no true leaves except in the
seedling stage. The functions of the leaves are carried out by phyllodes
— the enlarged, usually flattened, often broad petiole — which vary con-
siderably in size, shape, and nervature in different species, but is by no
means constant on the same plant. The flowers are small, usually yellow
or cream, and borne in variously arranged heads or spikes.

As in the case of Eucalyptus, classification is most difficult, but
presents greater problems than in that genus. The chief characters
relied upon are the presence or absence of leaves, the capitate or spicate
nature of the inflorescence, the shape and nervature of the phyllodes,
and the characters of pod, seed, and funicle. Owing to the very erratic
nature of the flowering period of most species, flowers and particularly
pods of many forms are rarely met with, and even yet the taxonomic
status of some widely spread forms is quite uncertain.

The differences in habit are enormous, some species being low under-
shrubs, others being tall trees, while many types of branching occur.
Some species are viscid. The bark varies considerably, but in. a few
species only is it suffieiently characteristic to be of practical importance.

Several forms have received popular names frequently of aboriginal
origin, and while some are of local importance only, in many cases these
names are most useful in community-description.

The most important scrub-forming species are Gidgea, Laneewood,
Mulga and Bendee, Minaritchie, and Brigalow.

Gidgea {A. Camhagei) has been described previously. Indeed,
it is difficult to treat of most communities without mentioning
it, for of all trees and shrubs in Western Queensland the gidgea enjoys
the widest range of habitats. Though generally distinctive enough in
the field, it occasionally approaches boree {A. homalophylla) in appear-
ance, while in the herbarium the two species are scarcely separable, and
for a very long time were treated as one in scientific literature.

In the basin of the Georgina River, in its middle part, gidgea is the
name of the somewhat similar but usually more gnarled A. Georginae.

PLANT COMMUNITIES OP WESTERN QUEENSLAND, ETC. 183

Lancewood is the name applied to a group of species of similar
growth form and habitat requirements, and of which A. Shirleyi appears
to be the most common. Others have not yet been identified. The dull-
coloured crown of numerous rather pendulous long narrow phyllodes is
borne on a fairly straight trunk, sometimes tall, with a grey fissured but
somewhat flaky bark and numerous inclined rather straight branches.

Mulga and Bendee at present appear to represent different states
of the very variable species, A. aneura. Typical mulga possesses a
trunk, sometimes very short, with a compact slightly fissured or nearly
smooth bark. The main branches are fairly numerous, are oblique, and
the secondary and other branches tend to be horizontal, so that the
glaucous phyllodes appear to be arranged in tiers. The phyllodes are
very variable in size and shape. Several types are recognised depending
on size of plant (‘‘dwarf mulga” and “tree mulga”), shape of phyllode
(“narrow-leaved mulga,” “broad-leaved mulga,” &c.), and palatability
to stock. Some forms are readily and even greedily eaten, others are
avoided when possible. “Red mulga” is A. cyperophylla below.

Bendee is used in two senses. It is mostly used to designate a tall
form usually with an irregularly furrowed trunk, and less
strongly glaucous crown. This form is frequent in the south-east in the
Eucalyptus forest on stony ground, either as scrubs or perhaps more
frequently as scattered trees. In many places the names mulga and
bendee appear to be used indiscriminateljL

In the more arid districts, however, “bendee” appears to designate
a stunted trunkless form, also growing on barren ridges, often with no
other vegetation whatsoever. This, however, appears to be a distinct
though undetermined species.

A, hr achy st achy a is also called mulga.

Minaritchie is the name applied to at least two species with a
characteristic curly-flaky bark, grey on the outside, pinkish within. One
of these is A. cyperophylla with characteristic long sub-terete phyllodes
arranged in a graceful bushy crown. More particularly in South
Australia it is also known as ‘ ‘ red mulga, ’ ’ and is considered an excellent
stock feed. The other is an undetermined and possibly undescribed
species with entirely different botanical characters.

Brigalow {A. harpophylla) is a small or large tree with a hard dark-
grey or black furrowed bark, and a very dense rounded glaucous crown
of rather large strongly falcate phyllodes. It suckers freely from the
roots, and almost invariably occurs in scrubs. Like other species of
Acacia it is parasitised by Loranthus Quandang, often very freely.

Gidgea Scrubs (figs. 10, 11, 17). — These occasionally occur in Euca-
lyptus forest, and on claypans, and are frequently scattered over the
less arid parts of the gravelly downs. In the more arid regions they are
to be found in places as fringing scrubs along the channels (fig. 11).
Big developments of scrub, sometimes rather open, occur on and between
the Desert Sandstone hills and tablelands. Gradations between scrub
and grassland are common. The characteristic associated plants of
typical scrub are Chenopodiaceae (Bassia longicuspis, B. tricuspis, B.
diyaricata, B. ecMnopsila, B. lanicuspis, the peculiar foetid Chenopo-
diuni rhadinostachyum^y and other species of that genus, the shrubby
Kochia Georgei and occasionally other spp., Atriplex spp.), Tetragoma
expansa (wild spinach), large-flowered spp. of Ahutilon such as A.

184 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Mitchellii and A. calliphyllum, Trichinium nohUe with its large mauve-
grey inflorescence, and a few other spp., and other plants. Near the
Wilson River the Bassia population is very varied, and though B. longi-
cuspis and B. tricuspis are absent, B, intrioat a, B. patenticuspis, and, B.
decurrens are common. In some places Sarcostomma australe, occurring
as a climber is prominent.

On destroying gidgea a rich herbaceous vegetation usually results,
with an abundance of grasses, but according to some reports this is not
permanent. In Mitchell grass country, however, the mitchell grass may
take possession.

The details of the communities of Acadia Georginae are scarcely
known. The soil in the area studied is a light brown silt loam. Eremo-
pfiila maculata (fuchsia). Cassia spp., Atriplex spp., Ehretia salicina,
and certain widespread annuals are known, but at the time of my only
visit the country was badly drought-stricken and very little ground
vegetation was recognisable. Possibly several of the plants recorded by
Bailey^ for the Georgina River find their home with the gidgea. For a
very long time this community has had a bad reputation of being very
deadly to cud-chewing animals at certain times of the year. A hypo-
thetical explanation of this long-known mysterious poison was put
forward by Finnemore^^ in which it is claimed that the pods contain a
substance which in association with fuchsia liberates prussic acid from
the latter. As a matter of fact, a saponin or closely related substance is
present in the young leaves and pods of the gidgea but is absent from
the old leaves, and this may be the actual cause of the deaths. Field
observations seem to support this view% but the subject cannot be
discussed here.

The Lancewood Scrubs. — These are found chiefly on the more rugged
slopes or tablelands of sandstone connected with the Great Divide and
in similar situations elsewhere, such as Mount Walker near Hughenden,
to the south-west of Winton, west of Eromanga, and to the east of Eulo.
The forest -floor is often littered with fallen branches, and there is very
little ground vegetation. In the more western areas the lancewood seems
to be a local replacement of gidgea, and what vegetation there is consists
of scattered individuals of species characteristic of gidgea scrub. Eremo-
pliila sp. aff. E. Latrohei is frequently present as a handsome shrub of
4-5 feet. In the eastern development scattered plants of the suffrutescent
grass Cleistochloa suhjuncea may occur as plants of 1-1-| feet.

Mulga Scrubs (figs. 18-20). — Mulga scrub in some form or other
is found over extensive areas in Western Queensland. It forms a most
valuable reserve fodder in times of drought. If the plant is not cut down
entirely, but pruned so that a leading branch is left, it readily recovers,
and an almost constant supply is assured. Complete lopping, however,
destroys the plant, and in areas where this has been done a large part
of the vegetation has been destroyed, and soil drift has become locally
serious. Figs. 19 and 20 illustrate the differences. Generally speaking
the plants decrease in size westward. In the east mulga scrub grades
almost imperceptibly into Eucalyptus forest. In the south-west open
or partly open patches often occur. Whether these are natural or have
been induced is difficult to say. It seems likely that some at least are
induced. Clapyans also occur.

Apart from the communities of the spinifex sand-plains and the
sand-hills in which mulga is important and which are discussed else-
where, there are three distinct habitats for mulga scrubs. The first is

PLANT COMMUNITIES OP WESTERN QUEENSLAND, ETC. 185

the reddish fine sandy soil mentioned above, with extensions further
east. The second is reddish ‘‘iron-shot loam” (silty clay with fine
gravel) of apparently lateritic origin, as for example between Quilpie
und Windorah. The third is the desert sandstone hills and the more
or less broken country between which often is intermediate in character
between the hills and the second type. With the exception of the actual
hills these three types are frequently referred to as “red country.”

In the neighbourhood of Charleville, for instance, box {Eucalyptus
populifolia) , ironbark {E. melanopkloia) , and ironwood {Acacia excelsa)
occur in the community as scattered plants, but further west they are
replaced by various Myoporaceae belonging to the genera Myoporum
{M. deserti, the ellangowan, a powerful poison) and Eremophila, of
which E. Latroiyei, E. Daly ana, E. Freelingii, and E. Gilesii are thej
chief. The bloodw^ood {E. pyrophora), beefwood {Grevillea striata) , and
kurrajong { St erculia diver si folia) are scattered through the communities.
Alternes with gidgea are common in places, while on some of the low
stony ridges the mulga is replaced by the low bendee. Eucalyptus
Thozetia^ia (mountain yapunyah) occurs on many of the ridges. Other
rather similar low ridges carry only a few shrubs of the rigid Acacia
ietragonophylla (dead finish).

The ground vegetation is varied and sometimes, chiefly in the more
open places, rather dense. Characteristic species are the various so-called
“mulga grasses” {Aristida arenaria, A. antlioxanthoides, A. latifolia),
mulga mitchell {NeuracJine Mitchellii) , Ampkipogon sp. nov., Chloris
pectinata, Eragrostis eriopoda, E. Kennedyae, Tripogon loliiformis,
Fimhristylis sp. aff. F. dichotoma (the two latter known as “eight-day
grass” or “five-minute grass” on account of their rapid response to rain) ,
Sida platy calyx (“noodle” or “lifesaver,” another excellent fodder
which responds very rapidly to rain), S. pedunculata, Atriplex spp.,
numerous spp. of Bassia, of which B. paradoxa, B. uniflora, B.
Cornishiana, B. parallelicuspis, and B. convexula are specially character-
istic, occasional plants of Kochia Georgei, K. triptera, and Calotis sp.,
E volvulus alsinoides, and Velleia connata.

In the more open parts of the community, crab-holes sometimes
occur lined by Aristida antkoxantkoides, Eragrostis xerophila,
Enneapogon spp., and a Bassia or so.

[Note. — According to McTaggart^^ Centotheca lappacea is a
prominent member of the Queensland mulga scrubs. It is, however,
restricted to the rain forests of the north-east coast.]

Minaritchie Scrubs. — These occur almost entirely fringing the
gullies in the more arid parts. A. cyperophylla appears to be almost
restricted to the area between Cooper ’s Creek and the Diamantina River.
It occurs in the upper part of the gullies, and on the flatter ground tends
to be replaced by gidgea. Ground vegetation, if any, is scanty.

Another minaritchie occurs either as scrubs or associated with
gidgea and mulga on sandstone hills in the arid parts.

Brigalow' Scrubs. — Brigalow scrubs cover or used to cover very large
areas in Queensland. Their greatest development lies outside our
present limits, so that a full treatment must be reserved until later.
Bor the present they will be discussed rather in their relation to the
other communities than as to their detailed composition.

186

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

A well-developed scrub is very dense and occupies a very heavy^
very dark grey or black soil. They may occur scattered in grassland or
in Eucalyptus forest, or may be very extensive. According to Jensen^®
the soil occupied contains a high percentage of sodium carbonate.
Casuarina lepidophloia (belar or belah), Geijera parviflora (wilga),
Eremophila MitchelUi (budda), and other shrubs and small trees are
frequent in places. Until comparatively recently these scrubs were
heavily infested with prickly-pear {Opmiia inermis).

V. Fringing Forests.

Along all the larger watercourses in the grasslands are to be seen
communities dominated by trees with which are associated a few smaller
plants which are rarely, if ever, found elsewhere. These fringing
forests may be very narrow, or may extend some little distance into the
grassland, and more or less gradually merging into it. In forest, the
rivers are lined with a few species which do not enter into the general
make-up of the community, thus forming a type of fringing forest. And,
thirdly, there is another kind which is developed along some of the
larger northern rivers with a wide sandy fossil flood plain. In the far
south-west fringing forest is intimately associated with and forms part
of the channel country.

In forest, the characteristic trees lining the rivers are Eucalyptm
carnal dulensis (more generally known as E. rostrata, and in Queensland
Iiopularly called ‘‘river gum,” though other names are used) and
Melaleuca saligna (tea-tree or paper-bark). The latter occurs chiefly in
the north, and is a tall tree with a thick whitish many-layered papery
bark, and a dense, rather glaucous crown with long slender branchlets and
narrow, pendulous leaves hanging in graceful festoons. The gum is a large
tree of varied habit, sometimes straight, sometimes irregular, with a
whitish or pale grey bark and rather green lanceolate leaves. The forests
of the fossil alluvial plains usually have, in addition to the above, several
other trees. In the neighbourhood of Hughenden, for example, there
occur also E. coolabahy E. pyrophora, E. papuana (as a very handsome
tree), Bauhinia Carronii (bauhinia). Acacia salicina, A. Sentis, Owenia
acidula, Atalaya hemiglauca, Eremophila Mitchellii, Eremophila hig-
noniiflora, the two rounded spiny spreading shrubs Carissa lanceolata
and Capparis nummularia (Flinders rose, elsewhere called split-heart),
the climbing cucurbitaceous Melothria argent ea, the handsome parasitic
Loranthus Miquelii, L. Exocarpi, a few “herbage” plants such asPortu-
laca spp. (pigweed), Ahutilon spp., Sida spp., Malvastrum spicatum,
Bassia anisacanthoides, Psoralea patens, Calotis spp., and numerous
grasses, including Chrysopogon pallidus, Bothriochloa Ewartiana, B.
decipiens var. cloncurrensis, Dichanthium annulatum, Themeda
avenacea, Brachiaria Gilesii, B. Winder sii, Digitaria ctenantha, Chloris
pectinata, C. acicularis var. queenslandiae, and more or less frequent
spp. of Aristida and Enneapogon.

Minor variations occur elsewhere, but they rarely alter the general ^
character of the type.

The typical fringing forest of the “downs” is of very different
character (figs. 14, 37, 39). The characteristic tree is Eucalyptus
coolahah (coolibah, coolibar, coolabah), a “gum-topped box” of irregular
habit with the lower bark dark grey and somewhat rugged, and the
light grey upper bark varying in the extent of its development. Small
trees which are frequently associated are the green bushy-crowned

PLANT COMMUNITIES OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND, ETC. 187

Eremophila hignomiflom (river angee or emu-bush) and the somewhat
glaucous willowy Acuaa salacina (the “bellalie” of the Cooper country),
and Bauhinia occurs in places.

A fairly definite herbaceous vegetation is associated. At the edge
of pools a zone of Cyperus dactylotes, the rather shrubby cane-grass
LeptocMou digitata, and sometimes also C. exaltatus is usual. On the
bank a dense growth of Cyperus victoriensis and Paspalidium jubiflorum
IS most characteristic, and C. bifax and Panicum Whitei are often asso-
ciated. In damp places generally, but chiefly where the Cyperus is
absent, or less dense, Eragrostis japonica, Dichanthium annulatum,
Eleocharis pallens, Alternanthera nodiflora, Morgania glabra, Mentha
australis, and Minuria integerrima occur.

Towards the southern border in the fringing forests of the Warrego,
Paroo, Bulloo, and Wilson Rivers a characteristic tree accompanies the
coolibah. This is the yapunyah {Eucalyptus ochrophloia) , a much
narrower and greener tree than the coolibah and usually more regular.
The upper bark is somewhat reddish in colour.

The yapunyah extends further away from the channels than does
the coolibah, so that there is often a broad intermediate zone in which
Mitchell grass and chenopods may be frequent.

Near Dirranbandi there is a modification of the fringing forest in
that a broad belt of coolibah parkland is formed in which Mitchell grass
is prominent and is sometimes dominant. In other places a salt-bush
community is associated.

VI. Communities of the Channel Country.

Channel country is most strongly developed along the lower courses
of the Bulloo, Wilson, Cooper, Diamantina, and Mulligan (including
Eyre’s Creek). A fringing forest is present along the deeper
channels, but it is in the more or less open country between that the
characteristic communities are developed. These communities are almost
entirely herbaceous, and often entirely annual. Their existence depends,
not to any marked degree on local rainfall, but on the extent of the
periodical floods. After big floods the vegetation is most luxuriant,
and forms a fine fattening pasture. The floristic detail is imperfectly
known. The tall, handsome-flowered Lavatera plebeia (hollyhock) is
frequent near the coolibahs in some places. Two grasses are charac-
teristic and are highly esteemed. These are the so-called “soghum,”
Echinochloa Turneriana, an erect, succulent annual of several feet and
a heavy producer of grain, and the ‘‘pepper grass,” Panicum Whitei.
This is not so tall. The herbage is particularly rich, the more outstand-
ing plants being Trigonella suavissima (clover), Blennodia canescens
(heliotrope), B. nasturtioides and other spp., Lepidium rotundum and
spp., Craspedia chrysmitha (yellow top), Helipterum spp., Senecio
Gregorii, Calocephalus sp., Gnephosis eriocarpa, Goodenia spp., various
Scrophulariaceae, Marsilea Drummondii (nardoo), and occasional plants
of Bassia spp. and Atriplex spp. (fig. 38).

In many places communities of Cyperus victoriensis occur, and in
the wetter places lignum swamps (fig. 39) and cane-grass swamps are
I developed, (^ee below under “Miscellaneous Communities”). Claypans
are well developed in places, and rarely chenopod communities occur.

188

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

VII. Communities Dominated by Chenopodiaceae.

The family Chenopodiaceae is strongly represented in Queensland
in species and individuals. A few species are widely spread, including
some on the sea-coast, but the majority are characteristic of the drier
parts of the interior. Some species have already been mentioned when
describing other communities. Here it is proposed to deal with the
several communities in which chenopods are not only dominant, but in
which other plants are relatively rare or even absent.

Several species are long-lived, compact shrubs, many are annual
or short-lived plants, usually bushy in habit. Several of the latter enter
into the formation of communities which are the degradation products
of heavily over-grazed country. As such they are actually induced
communities, but for the sake of continuity and clarity it is better to
describe them here and then refer back to them later. Others are
definitely of a serai or quasi-climax nature, and they also will be
discussed in this connection elsewhere.

Communities of Shrubby Species (Shrub Steppe). — Within this
group come the salt-bush steppe and blue-bush steppe of South Australia.
These communities appear to be of minor importance in Queensland.
Two areas of Kochia steppe occur some distance to the north of Birds-
ville on a heavy grey soil derived from a Tertiary limestone. The sole
perennial vegetation consists of the dense dull greyish shrub Koohda
planifoUa. When examined the only other vegetation consisted of a
fairly close covering of Enneapagon sp. on small patches of fine drift
sand.

Small communities of a somewhat similar nature {K. Georg ei and
other spp.) have been observed on stony ground comparable with gravelly
downs near Thargomindah, and another on red soil near Eromanga, so
that it is possible that small patches of like nature may be scattered
about in the drier regions.

Two types of Atriplex communities (saltbush) are to be found. Old
Man Saltbush (A. mi/mmularia) dominates communities chiefiy of
limited extent which occur along the Georgina Elver and Eyre’s Creek,
some of the tributaries of the lower Diamantina and of Cooper ’s Creek,
and also the lower Bulloo (Bailey ^) . There is an apparently isolated
development associated partly with coolibah {Eucalyptus caolahah) and
partly with box {E. populifolia) to the south-east of Dirranbandi.
Probably, however, similar communities occur elsewhere near the New
South Wales border. Old man saltbush forms large, dense, silvery-
glaucous shrubs which can attain 8 feet or more in height, but they are
usually kept very much smaller by grazing, as the leaves and young
shoots are very palatable to stock. |

In all cases so far observed this type of community is developed
either near or on flooded ground. Herbaceous plants are usually those |
of such areas, in the far west often those of claypans. *

The communities of Atriplex vesicaria of South Australia have
been described in great detail by Osborne, Wood, and Paltridge (^®’
^^). Such communities are rare in Queensland. The best develop-
ment so far seen is on Narine Station, to the south-east of Dirranbandi,
where the complete dominance of the saltbush is due at least in part to
the removal (by horses) of Mitchell grass which had at one time been
associated. Saltbush, at least in this locality, appears not to be relished
by horses. The soil is a grey clay silt common in the district. A few

PLANT COMMUNITIES OP WESTERN QUEENSLAND^ ETC. 189

trees of box {Eucalyptus popuUfoUa) , leopardwood {Fliudersia macu-
losa), and sandalwood {Eremophila Mitcliellii) occur, while herbaceous
plants are those common in degraded Mitchell grass pasture, of which
Sida virgata, Malvastrum spicatum, and annual species of Atriplex and
Bassia are prominent.

On Narine and Noondoo both species of Atriplex mix in places, and
Bhagodia spmescens is frequently associated. This mixed community
is developed in association with either box or coolibah. In the far
south-west of the State A. vesicaria occurs within the limits of the
gravelly downs. A fairly well-marked development occurs on the eastern
slope of the Grey Range west of Thargomindah on reddish brown to
yellowish brown gravelly fine sandy loam (fig. 35). Various species
of Bassia, with occasional trees or patches of gidgea and Eremophila
Dalyana, are associated.

In several places traces of similar communities occur, as for instance
to the west of Eromanga. Scattered plants sometimes form a kind of
fringing community beside some of the gullies in the Stony Desert,
usually in association with a few shrubs of Eremophila or Cassia.

Chenopodium auricomum (blue bush) and C. mtrariaceum< are
rather tall shrubs which sometimes form definite communities under
somewhat swampy conditions. The former species is usually associated
with bull mitchell grass, but not always. It is widespread. The latter
s})ecies has so far only been observed in the very arid regions.

Communities of Annual Species (Herb Steppe). — Although the
individuals of these short-lived communities have no permanence in
themselves, yet the actual communities are, on the whole, well defined,
and may persist for many years. Many are, however, quite unstable.
The numerous species which go to form these communities belong
particularly to the genera Salsola, Atriplex, Basda, Kochia, and Threl-
keldia. Many species regularly form the ground communities of gidgea
scrub, and several enter the composition of grasslands. These have been
•mentioned above. The communities here described are, with one
exception, developed on treeless country.

Salsola Communities. — Salsola Kali is a very widespread poly-
morphic species, of which the Australian forms have sometimes been
considered as distinct under the name of S. australis. In Queensland
the species extends from the east coast to the Simpson Desert. Two
varieties have been noted from the interior, of which var. strohiUfera is
most characteristic. The species is fairly generally known as roly-poly,
and the var. strohiUfera is frequently called buck-bush. The latter is a
characteristic coloniser of the sand-hills, and will be considered later in
this respect, though it also occurs in other places.

The species in all its forms is a more or less rounded bush,
more or less prickly except when young, which at maturity breaks off
at the ground-level and is bowled over the ground by the wind, scattering
seeds as it does so, until it is finally brought to rest by a fence or bore
drain. In this stage it is a great pest, but when young it is readily
eaten by stock.

Roly-poly is present in grassland almost everywhere, and at times
assumes physiognomic dominance. Sometimes it forms pure or nearly
pure communities on stock-routes, and possibly because of this the domin-
ance or apparent dominance on grassland has been interpreted as due
to over-grazing. While this may be true in some cases, it is quite certain

R.s. — G

190 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

that in many, possibly the majority, of instances this dominance is an
example of ‘ ^ seasonal dominance. ’ ’ Gregory^® notes that on the Peak
Downs (near Capella) Salsola was very abundant long before the
country w^as stocked.

Species of Atriplex and Bassia may form pure stands or they may
mix with one another and with Threlkeldia proceriflora to form certain
distinctive communities. The species of Atriplex concerned form low
rounded or spreading bushes of whitish aspect with flat, more or less
mealy leaves. Bassia is by far the largest genus, and is represented by
about thirty species in our area. A few are true perennials and dis-
tinctly shrubby. The majority are facultative perennials. Usually
annuals, they can perennate under favourable conditions, though they
probably are only relatively short-lived. They are nearly all dense, low
bushes, branching freely close to the ground. In many the branches are
rather short or intricate ; in others they are often longer and divaricate.
In the former case more or less rounded bushes are usually produced;
in the latter the plants are usually less compact. The leaves are fleshy
and in most species very narrow or terete, green to sub-glaucous, but
very frequently the whole plant is more or less covered with a hoary or
white tomentum. The fruits are sessile and axillary, and usually soli-
tary, furnished with two or more usually rigid spines, which may be
quite short or, in B. longicuspis, may attain inches. In some the
fruits fall at maturity; in others they remain firmly attached, and
distribution depends on the breaking up of the .plant. In most cases the
species furnish good forage at least when young. Some become somewhat
v/oody when old, and long-spined forms are avoided as much as possible.

Threlkeldia proceriflora resembles in general habit some of the
smaller species of Bassia.

The Communities. — A widespread community consists of a mixture
of Atriplex Maelleri (annual salt-bush), Bassia anisacanthoides, B.
echinopsila (red burr), and Threlkeldia proceriflora. The community
is invariably developed on a heavy soil, and appears in some places to
be a climax community. In such cases it is usually associated to some
extent with gidgea. In other cases it is certainly an induced community,
resulting from the degradation of Mitchell grass grass-land by over-
grazing. These eases have been discussed by Francis,^® and will be
further considered below.

The proportion of the species in the community varies considerably,
and one or more may be missing. Owing to the relative unpalatability
of the saltbush there is a tendency for it to dominate the situation, and hi
places it occurs as a pure stand. Towards Dirranbandi there is a marked
tendency for it to be replaced by A. leptocarpa.

To the far south-west this community is represented by others
(fig. 11), of which the characteristic species are Bassia sp. aff. B.
divaricata, Atriplex spongiosa, and A. conduplicata. This type of
community is widely distributed over the gravelly downs with many
variations. Several species of Bcrssia are usually present, including
those of the former community. Near the Cooper B. hrachyptera is
prominent, and in the north of the gravelly downs area B. lanicuspis
frequently dominates.

Bassia Birchii, commonly known as galvanised burr, though also as
camel burr and Woolerina burr, has a strong tendency to form com-
munities on sandy soil. In most cases these are the result of heavy

PLANT COMMUNITIES OP WESTERN QUEENSLAND,, ETC. 191

overgrazing. The burr acts as a coloniser soil-binder and seed bed, and
its character has been briefly discussed in a previous paper.®

Other species assume physiognomic dominance at times. Bassid
quinquecuspis (roly-poly or prickly bush), B. hicomis (goat-head), and
others form communities in grassland, usually induced.

Samphire and Cottonbush Communities (flg. 36). — On the saline
sandy shores of the Dynevor Lakes, and on the extensive silt beds of the
middle and lower course of the Wilson, near Haddon’s Corner, and still
further to the north-west, is developed a type of community not closely
connected with the foregoing. Annual and perennial chenopods are
prominent, but other plants are very important. Those most widely
spread are Pachycornia spp. and Arthrocnermim spp. (samphire),
Kochia aphylla (cotton-bush), Bassia tricuspis, Gunniopsis quadrifida,
and Glyceria ramigera (cane grass). Near the Wilson the peculiar
Kochia-VikQ shrub Hemichroa is common. Gyperus victoriensis is
common in places in depressions, but on the edge of the Dynevor Lakes
it appears to be replaced by G. gymnocaulos. Several annual plants
occur, notably Bassia spp., Babhagia dipterocarpa, Malacocera tricorms^
Eragrostis Dielsii, E. leptocarpa, a distinctive undescribed species of the
same genus, and others.

VIII. The Communities of the Sandhills (figs. 22-27).

The communities of the sandhills are numerous and varied, their
composition being influenced by their position on the dune and the
nature of the latter. Weather conditions are, of course, very important.
The present discussion will be confined to the dunes of the Simpson
Desert and those of the ‘‘marginal country” surrounding it. Perennial
plants — at least long-lived ones — are relatively few. For a large part of
the time a great part of the dune and, perhaps, the crest always is at
the mercy of the wind, and is frequently undergoing minor changes.
Thus a very special kind of habitat is produced. On the lower part,
which may be relatively stable, a more or less permanent vegetation may
exist, closely related to the Triodia community of the lateritic sand-
plain as pointed out above.

A few small trees and large shrubs are occasionally to be found on
sandhills. The commonest are Acacia aneura (mulga), A. ligulata, A.
dictyophlebia, and Hakea leucoptera (needlewood), while in the marginal
country Glerodendron floribundum, Owenia acidula (emu-apple), Atalaya
hemiglauca (whitewood), and Eremophila spp. are occasionally to be
seen. The common shrubs to be found throughout, or nearly throughout,
the sandhill area are the large bushy dull-greyish Grotolaria Gunnmg-
hamii (parrot bush or bird flower), with its peculiar large green-veined
greenish yellow flowers and the smaller very glaucous G. eremaeq with its
bright yellow flowers while two grasses are widely spread. Triodia
Basedowii (spinifex or porcupine grass) has already been described. On
the sandhills it tends to form irregular masses, particularly if on the
upper slopes. Spinifex paradoxus (sandhill cane grass or simply “cane
grass”) (fig. 22) is a dioecious rhizomatous dense intricately-branched
green shrub up to 5 feet high, with rather few short rigid leaves. Both
these species are excellent sand-binders. Other more or less distinctly
perennial plants of wide distribution are Scaevola depauperata,
Leschenauliia divaricata, Pfilotus latifolia, Neivcastlia cephalantha,
Psoralea eriantha, Echinospermum concavim, Solanum ellipticum, and
the slender more or less herbaceous Sida argentea and Andrachne
Decaisnei.

192 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

A host of short-lived plants appears after rain. Of these some are
commonly and, perhaps, restrictedly colonisers. Among these are the
grasses Plagiosetum refractum and Paractaenum novae-hollandiae. The
former is common on the marginal hills (fig. 24), hut in the true desert
it seems to be replaced by the latter. Both species form large masses
on the sides of the dunes, tending tO' stabilise the sand. The other
coloniser is the ubiquitous buckbush {Salsola australis var. strohilif era) .
Another plant which colonises the hills, in some localities at least, is the
brilliant yellow-flowered Trihiilus hystrix with its large grotesque spiny
fruits. It is often to be seen partially buried, the long trailing and
flattish pinnate leaves holding the sand. Calandrinia spp. (parakeelya)
are common at times. In the Simpson Desert, and at least in parts of
the marginal country, occur the brilliantly yellow-fiowered Goodenia
cycloptera f, the lilac or white-flowered, sweet scented Blennodia ptero-
sperma, the yellow and white flowered Myriocephalus Stuartii (poached
eggs), the brilliant yellow Senecio Gregarii, and others.

Apparently under some conditions Crotolaria can act as a coloniser,
though probably only in the marginal country.

On the spread of the sandhills in the marginal country there is
very frequently a fairly dense community of varied composition. Some-
times a patch of mulga scrub is present, while fig. 25 shows a community
on Mount Howitt in which a close growth of Eriachne ovata with
Eragrostis eriopoda, Aristida Muelleri, Neurachne sp., Eriachne
oAustidea, Amphipogon sp. nov., and Sida argentea. In another case
occurred an interesting and unusual community of Mitchell grass
{Astrehla pecfmata), the sand having apparently acted as a mulch. At
the edge of the spread an occasional tree is often to be found, such as
BauJiinia or the bloodwood Eucalyptus pyrophora.

Moving north and east from the centre of the desert shrubs and trees
become prominent. Firstly, mulga and needlewood come into greater
prominence. In the east these tend to be replaced, firstly, by hop-bush
{Dodonaea sp.), and still further east by cypress pine {Callitris glauca),
Towards the north the mulga and needlewood are gradually replaced by
two eucalypts, E. papuana and E. pyrophora. The extreme case of this
is shown in fig. 27, illustrating a community some miles to the south of
Boulia. The sandhill is reduced to a broad slightly elevated patch of
sand supporting Eucalyptus papuana^ Eragrostis eriopoda, Aristida
Muelleri, and Atriplex elachophylla.

The further away from the desert the greater the tendency for the
occurrence of sandhills to be restricted to the neighbourhood of water-
courses.

IX. Miscellaneous Communities op the More Arid Regions.

There still remain several communities of local importance to be
considered. These are often small in extent, and occur scattered through
the area, frequently restricted to special habitats. Some of these are
dominated by or consist entirely of a single species. One group is treated
separately below, the others may be grouped as follows. Some of these
have already received incidental mention : —

1. Communities dominated by a single species, which is more or less
:shrubby —

{a) Lignum swamps.

( 5 ) Cane-grass swamps.

(c) Cassia phyllodinea communities.

(d) Eremophila communities (except E. Mitchellii) .

PLxVNT COMMUNITIES OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND^ ETC.

193

2. Communities of ephemeral species —

(e) Communities of claypans.

(/) Communities of sandy river beds, &c.

(g) Communities of muddy or silty river beds, &c.

Lignum {Muehlenhechia CunningJiamii) forms large more or less
hemispherical masses of nearly leafless cylindrical stems (fig. 39) . Indivi^
dual plants may be several feet in diameter. They form distinctive
communities either lining channels or occupying depressions chiefly in
grassland or channel country. The plants may be contiguous or some
distance apart. The intervening space may be bare or populated by
various plants, the species being those of damp places. Lignum com-
munities are always subject to flooding in such a way that water lies on
the ground for a considerable time.

Cane grass is the name given to two stout rigid, branched, shrubby
grasses up to 8 feet high, with comparatively short, rigid, more or less
inrolled leaves. They are characteristic of areas where water lies for a
considerable time. One of these grasses is Leptochloa digitata of fairly
wide range, except in the driest areas, where it is replaced by the other.
It frequently forms a zone around waterholes. Associated plants, if any,
are those typical of damp places. The other species is Glyceria ramigera,
which is nearly restricted to the more arid regions except for an
apparently isolated development to the east of Cunnamulla. Large
communities sometimes occur on claypans, and other plants seem to be
rare or absent. It is eaten by stock. It is almost certain that the cane
grass referred to by Bailey^ belongs to this species, and not to the
previous.

Cassia idiyllodinea is a compact glaucous leafless shrub mostly
2-3 feet high, with flat narrowly obovate vertical phyllodia and yellow
violet-scented flowers. Communities, sometimes dense, sometimes open,
are formed on flats of a claypanny nature or in open places in mulga
scrub. In the former case other plants are often absent. In the latter,
where the community is often more open, plants of the crab-hole
development previously described are often present.

Eremophila spp. occasionally form small communities chiefly in
mulga scrub or occasionally on the tops of the desert sandstone hills.

Communities of the Claypans (figs. 14, 40). — It has already been
pointed out that several communities may be associated with claypans.
In the extreme development of claypans, however, vegetation is restricted
to scattered plants of ephemeral species, particularly grasses. The
characteristic species are Aristida anthoxantJioides. Tragus hifloruSy
Enneapogon spp., sometimes Urantkoeciuni truncatum, Brachyachne
ciliaris, Eragrosiis Dielsii; besides Trianthema decandra, Portulaca sp.,
and an occasional Bassia. All these are pioneer species, and many are
characteristic of bare places generally. Cyperus bulbosus (mungeroo), a
species perennating by tunicated bulbils, is present in many places.

The Communities of River Beds. — After a stream has dried up quite
a variety of plants spring up to form a very open but short-lived
community. Many of these are found in damp situations generally;
others appear to be more or less restricted to the rivers. Species of wide
occurrence are Cyperus pygmaeus, C. iria, Brachiaria WindersU,
Echinochloa colona, Diplachne Muelleri^ Eragrostis japonica, E. parvi-
jiora, E. leptocarpa, Glinus lotoides, Ammannia spp., Alternanthera nodi-
Jlora, Centipeda spp., &c. On the sandy beds, particularly in the north.

194 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Fimhristylis miliacea, F. microcarya, Bulhostylis harbata, Brachiarm
piligera, B. miliiformis, Setaria surgens, Ghloris virgcda, Polanisia viscosa
occur in addition, while on muddy beds Pterigeron adscendens, P. odorus,
Pterocaulon glandidosum, Mimiria integerrima, Morgania glabra, Nep-
tunia spp. Marsilea Drummondii (nardoo) and Sporobohis Benthamii,
a rather wiry stoloniferous grass, are characteristic. The three species
last named are perennial, but can be included here.

X. Miscellaneous Communities of the Dividing Range.

On the uppermost rocky slopes of the Great Dividing Range and
some of the adjacent ranges and hills is developed a peculiar and most
i]iteresting type of community. Eucalypts and Acacia spp. are present,
sometimes stunted, either mixed or certain species of Acacia tending to
form scrubs. The characteristic feature is the development of an often
dense undergrowth of shrubs of ericoid habit belonging to the families
Epacridaceae {Aarotriclie, Leucopogon, Melichrus) , Myrtaceae {Caly-
thrix, Thryptomene, Baeckia), Butaceae {Boronia, PJiebalium),
Legnminosae (Burtonia, Jacksonia, d^aviesia, Aotus, Bossiaea, also-
Hovea), and prickly, thick-leaved spp. of Solanum. A characteristic
grass is the wiry suffruticose Cleistocliloa subjuncea, with its cleisto-
gamous spikelets in the leaf-axils. The dioecious, rigid Scleria sphacelata
occurs in places. Its presence is interesting, as it also occurs in the
coastal rain-forests.

In the steep gorges of the Carnarvon Range the tropical fern
Angiopteris evecta has been found, while on the cliff faces Platycerium
Veitchii occurs. The eucalypts of this district are varied, and include
the ironbark E. nubilis, the gum-topped ironbark E. decorticans, E.
riaculata (spotted gum), E. citriodora (scented gum), E. trachyphloia
(yellow bloodwood), E. tesselaris (Moreton Bay ash or carbeen), Ango-
phora intermedia, and other trees. Further north E. peliata, a yellow
jack, is abundant.

This type of community appears to occur throughout the length of
the Great Divide, and a full account cannot be given in the present
paper. A most interesting feature is the similarity of the shrubs to
the shrubs of the Wallum of the east coast.

B. INDUCED COMMUNITIES.

XI. Artificial Grassland.

In many timbered localities attempts have been made to improve
the natural pasture by killing, usually by ringbarking, and frequently
by the ultimate removal of the trees. This has been freely practised
to the south-east, chiefly beyond our present limits. The result is usually
the production of an artificial grassland, in which the original herbaceous
members of the forest community dominate, at least at first. A close
ground cover is produced, usually with one or more species dominant.
On the more usual sandy soils there is always a tendency for certain
species of Aristida to dominate, of which A. ecJiinata is most prominent
in the south-east. With continued stocking Bassia Birchii tends to
replace the grass. Careful stock management is necessary to maintain
a satisfactory pasture.

On the heavier soils in the south-east there is not such a pronounced
tendency for the dominance of Aristida. Ghloris divaricata (star grass)
is usually prominent, though Sporobolus Garoli dominates at times.

PLANT COMMUNITIES OP WESTERN QUEENSLAND, ETC. 195

I'here seems to be no definite mle. Further change takes place in one
'of two ways. Sometimes, particularly when coolibah was present in
tlie original vegetation, Mitchell grass, particularly weeping Mitchell
{AstreMa elymoides) , gradually assumes dominance with Eriochloa sp.
prominent. On the other hand, many chenopods may enter the pasture,
the most characteristic species being Atriplcx neurivalvis, Bassia stelli-
gera, and B. quinquecuspis and its var. villosa. Heavy over-grazing
results in the dominance of the Atriplex leptocarpa-Bassia-TTirelheldia
community described above.

Eremocitrus glauca (lime-bush) frequently enters the pasture, and
tends to form scrubs of erect, glaucous shrubs or small trees.

Gidgea scrub has been rung or felled in places, but full details of
the induced communities are not available. In some places the final
result is grassland (Mitchell grass) with a percentage of chenopods, and
possibly some of the chenopod communities are also of similar origin.
In one locality studied to the west of E rag rostis spp. dominated.

The commonest species were E. Kennedyae and an undescribed species
with small spikelets widely spread in Western Queensland. It has been
reported that in freshly rung gidgea scrub a wealth of herbage appears,
but does not persist for any length of time.

XII. Communities of the Bore-drains.

Along all bore-drains, and particularly at the end where they
spread out, sometimes to form swampy areas, species are to be found
which rarely, if ever, occur elsewhere in our area. Along the banks of
most drains is to be found a close mat of couch {Cynodon dactylon),
and sometimes on the lower ground Sporo])olus\ Benthamii. With these
may be associated a tall, stout species of Eriochloa. Near the bore-head
a few chenopods, notably Atriplex Muelleri and Bassia spp., are often
to be found.

Lower down the drain, where the stream is slower, or in the channel
into which drains are usually led, there sometimes occurs a dense stand
of the bullrush Typha angnstifoUa var. Brownii.

In a swampy area near Barcaldine at the end of a bore-drain in
Eucalyptus forest several coastal sedges occur, including KylUnga hrevi-
folia, Fimhristylis depauperata, F. dichotomy var., Fuirena ciliaris,
and Cy perils difformis.

XIII. Communities of Stock-routes and Reserves.

Effects of Grazing.

Artificial stocking by cattle, sheep, and horses, together with the
introduction of the ral3bit, must have produced a profound effect on the
original vegetation. Not only have the plants been subjected to more
intensive grazing than previously, but this has been of a much more
destructive nature. Rabbits are practically restricted to the southern
parts, but it is difficult, if not impossible, to assess the extent of change
wrought by them alone. All that can be attempted, in the present paper
at least, is to describe some of the results brought about by stocking,
and to indicate the trends of the changes taking place.

' For purposes of comparison it has been usual to study the vegeta-
tion in railway enclosures and cemetery reserves, but difficulties are
numerous. In the first place, railway enclosures are of value in open

196 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

country only. Then many stray species are distributed by passing trains.
Frequently in severe drought stock has been turned into the enclosures ;
and, finally, in many places there are no enclosures.

Cemetery reserves are often located on atypical areas, particularly
on the downs, where they are regularly located on a slightly sandy rise,
if such is available in the district. And it is always likely that the
vegetation may have been interfered with in some way.

Although, from the grazier’s point of view, the effects of continued
heavy stocking are very deleterious, yet there is no doubt that over
large areas, particularly on the ashy downs, the pasture has been con-
siderably improved by stocking. A striking example of this came under
observation to the north of Barcaldine on typical ashy downs, and is
illustrated in fig. 15. The paddock on the right had been consistently
heavily stocked with sheep for several years. On the right is a piece of
land which has lain idle for many years. The photograph was taken in
December, 1935, following good rains, which were preceded by a long,
severe drought. The stocked paddock carries a very fine stand of mixed
Mitchell grass and herbage, while the idle ground carries a very sparse
vegetation, consisting chiefly of young Salsola and the bottle caustic,.
Euphorbia Stevenii.

This is certainly an extreme case, but comparable examples are
not wanting. Frequently, when a paddock is spelled or but lightly
stocked for a period, differences are noticeable between it and neighbour-
ing paddocks, sometimes in favour of one, sometimes of the other.

These different reactions to stocking seem to be connected with the
nature of the soil. The loose, '^cracky” nature of the ashy downs has
been alluded to above. The continual trampling tends to pack the soil,
making it more compact, when it holds moisture better. A better and
more permanent plant growth is induced. Heavy stocking on the
gravelly downs, at least for short periods, may also result in an
improvement in the pasture.

The tendency for sheep to graze up-wind also produces its effects
on the pasture. Thus the dominantly leeward side of a paddock is
more continuously and closely grazed than is the windward side, which,
indeed may be comparatively little grazed (fig. 16). The position of
v/ater in a paddock modifies the effect of this tendency, so that where
fences are judiciously arranged with respect to watering facilities a more
even grazing of paddocks is secured.

There is, however, a limit to the permanent carrying capacity of any
particular area, and when this is regularly exceeded a very different
state of affairs results. Sooner or later the more palatable species are
gradually eaten. out. Young plants are not allowed to reach maturity,
so that seed becomes scarcer and scarcer, and as the older plants die
there are no young ones to replace them. There is thus a tendency
for the palatable species to be replaced by others less palatable, and
ihese again by species still less palatable.

The extreme case of such replacement is well shown near towns on
the reserves and commons. This is due largely to the communal herds of
goats, sometimes assisted by cattle and travelling stock.

The plant communities of such places are often most striking. The
perennial plants are the least palatable species, and associated are
various short-lived annuals. On sandy soil Bassia Birchii (galvanised

PLANT COMMUNITIES OP WESTERN QUEENSLAND^ ETC. 197

burr) finds its greatest development, associated with such plants as
Aristida spp., Tragus biflorus, and Perotis rara. On the heavy soils
the communities are often remarkably different in neighbouring localities.
At Hughenden the very conspicuous Pimelea liaematostachya (wild
poppy or bottle brush) with its tufted, erect, nearly simple stems, very
glaucous leaves and dense scarlet to crimson flowering spikes becoming
white in fruit, dominates the situation in places. It is absolutely ignored
by all classes of stock, including goats. In more open situations are found
Flaveria ausiralasica, Brachyachne convergens (spider or fern grass),
Enneapogon avenaceus, Malvastrum spicatum, Sida virgata, Atriplex
Muelleri, Cassia planitiicola, and frequently Iseilema spp. These are
common species of these reserves. Towards the south ehenopods become
numerous and varied, chiefly Bassia spp. and Atriplex spp.

On stock routes — those great arterial highways along which many
thousands of stock pass annually from pasture to pasture, or from
pasture to market — the original vegetation has undergone many pro-
nounced changes. Here, possibly more than anywhere else, do extremes
of environmental conditions operate upon plant life. The trampling
effect of the passage of manj^ thousands of animals must in itself be a
severe test on the plant. Added to this is the grazing of these same
animals. And perhaps equally important is the effect of the continual
manuring and urination on the plants and on the soil. On the downs
l]ie position of even comparatively old sheep camps can be recognised
by the presence of a community of Atriplex Muelleri. And this is one
of the commonest plants of stock routes on heavy soils, frequently
forming large communities. In the central and southern parts The chief
vegetation consists of the Atriplex Muelleri-Bassict-TJirelkeldia com-
munity described above. (See also Francis,^^ where the history of the
community on the AVard Plain is discussed.) Other plants commonly
found on stock routes are Wedelia asperrima (sunflower weed), Penni-
setum Basedowii (these two chiefly in the north, and the latter probably
introduced by stock either from still further north or from North
Australia), Bassia bicornis (goat head; chiefly found in the central
parts), Salsola (ubiquitous), Bassia qidnquecuspis (chiefly towards the
south), and some annual grasses, chiefly Enneapogon and Tragus.
Iseilema spp. (Flinders grasses) are common at times, chiefly in the
north.

[Note. — In this connection it is interesting to note the results of an
irrigation experiment carried out near Ilfracombe in 1935-6. An area
of ashy downs was flooded with bore water. A crop of ehenopods at
fli'st appeared, but after rain there was practically no plant growth.]

Bare places are not uncommon (fig. 13), and true claypans are
frequent in places, particularly as the result of concentrated trampling
followed by scouring near watering places. These carry the annual
vegetation described above for these places.

It must not be thought that stock routes carry only this degraded
vegetation. Actually every gradation from grassland to claypan occurs,
and on the larger stock routes Mitchell grass may be abundant in places.
]\lueh depends on the season and the amount of stock that passes.

On sandy soil Aristida spp., Trir aphis mollis, Perotis rara, and
Bassia Birchii are the characteristic species, the lastnamed tending
to assume dominance.

198 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

At the present time recuperation of stock routes is a serious problem^
and drastic measures in their control will be necessary. Regeneration
on the routes and on over-grazed areas generally is possible, but the
time factor is important. Manj^ instances of some degree of regeneration
have come under my notice, usually as the result of spelling or partial
spelling. A great deal depends, of course, on the season.

XIV. Communities op Introduced Species.

The most important species are Parkinsonia aculeata (parkinsonia),
Xanthium pungens (Noogoora burr), X. spinasum (Bathurst burr), and
Argemone mexicana (Mexican poppy).

Parkinsonia aculeata was introduced from the West Indies as a
shade and fodder tree, and has been freely planted about homesteads
and towns. It has a tendency to form copses, and occasional small
patches are to be seen in some localities. In a few places! a string of
trees may be seen along shallow channels on the downs.'

The species of Xanthium are among the worst pests of the grazing
districts. Both are poisonous when young, and the spiny burr-like
fruits are a terrible nuisance in wool and hair. Bathurst burr is of
(mmparatively little importance in our region, and rarely persists for
any length of time. It can be controlled by judicious pasture manage-
ment. Noogoora burr presents a very different and much more serious
problem. It is almost invariably restricted to watercourses and edge of
channels, and is being continually distributed further down stream..
Not infrequently it forms an impenetrable barrier to sheep, so that they
are unable to reach water.

It is most unfortunate that the burr was first introduced to the
upper courses of the streams.

V Argemone mexica/na is gradually extending its range westward,,
sometimes forming more or less definite communities on dry stream
beds. It is avoided by stock.

Prickly pear (Opuntia inermis and other spp.) once formed dense
communities over large areas, but it is being rapidly exterminated by
CactoMastis cactorum.

THE STATUS OP THE COMMUNITIES AND THEIR

RELATIONSHIPS.

On examining the field-interrelationships of the communities
described above the following features stand out very clearly: —

1. Brigalow scrub is slowly but surely extending its range, many
changes having taken place within the memory of living men. Both
grassland and Eucalyptus forest have been invaded and replaced. All
stages in the invasion can be seen, and in some older scrubs box stumps
are to be found. With the invasion of forest the nature of the soil
gradually changes until the very heavy nearly black soil of old-established
scrubs is obtained.

2. There is a tendency for gidgea to invade the grassland of the
gravelly downs.

3. The reverse process is also in operation. Gregory records large
areas of dead Acacia, presumably gidgea, along the Barcoo. And in
1935-6 large areas of dead gidgea were to be seen to the south-west of
Winton and elsewhere (figs. 10, 11), with grass coming in.

4. Mitchell grass has replaced blue grass over large areas. At the
beginning of the present century blue grass dominated a far larger area

PLANT COMMUNITIES OP WESTERN QUEENSLAND, ETC. 199

than it does to-day. The exceptionally severe drought of 1902 appears
to have been one of the factors concerned in the change, but the lower
palatability and the longevity of Mitchell grass appear to have decided
the issue. For in recent years blue grass has been fairly common in
railway enclosures though absent or nearly absent elsewhere. This
change has occurred in the pastoral districts of Warrego and Maranoa,
and appears to be still in progress in the Leichhardt district. It is not
of a continually progressive nature, however, for in parts of the
Maranoa and MitcheU districts at least, Mitchell grass was very common,
if not dominant, many years previous to 1902,* and, indeed, prior to
settlement (MitchelP®).

5. The relationship between the chenopod communities and the
grasslands is a very unstable one. Some of the communities of the
former group are plainly of a serai nature, such as those induced by
overgrazing. Sometimes an apparently stable system is to be found
where alternes (fig. 7) occur but in which the actual area occupied by
each alterne varies from time to time. A similar system occurs on a
very large scale on the fringe of the Stony Desert. The usual state of
affairs is a mixed grass-chenopod vegetation confined to the crabholes
(fig. 6). In some years perennials may be lacking or chenopods alone
may occur (fig. 11), or even these may be absent (fig. 5, see also
SturD®). At other times this country is said to be continuously though
lightly covered with Mitchell grass.

6. The Simpson Desert is a distinctly stable formation as a whole,
and its northern and eastern boundaries are clearly limited by the
direction of the prevailing wind and the river channels. The sandhills
of the marginal country appear to be quite stable except for minor
variations in conformation. Some occur among river channels and are
obviously older than the latter (fig. 38). (It may be pointed out that
the northern and eastern limits of the marginal country approximate to,
but lie within, the limits calculated by Prescott^^ as the theoretical
limit of the Australian Desert. However, it must be stressed that
meteorological data for Western Queensland generally, and for the
more arid areas particularly, a're so very meagre that very little
importance, if any, can be attached to theoretical considerations based
upon them. Furthermore, complications are introduced by the presence
of gibbers and gravel and by the little pockets of drift sand, both of
which check evaporation, and by the presence of ridges and hills. It is
only in times of severe drought that true desert conditions prevail.)

Beyond the marginal country there is another series of sandhills
which gradually disappear to the north and east. It has already been
pointed out that there is a complete gradation in character and vegeta-
tion from the dunes of the Simpson Desert to these low, scarcely discern-
able, far-outlying ridges. It would seem that at one time the desert
occupied a greater area than it does to-day, and as it regressed the
dunes gradually became more stable, were weathered lower and lower,
and began to support an increasingly stable vegetation.

7. Lake Eyre and some associated lakes in South Australia used to
be fed by Cooper’s Creek, the Diamantina, and Mulligan Rivers. These
streams very rarely reach Lake Eyre now. It has been generally
considered that this, together with the occurrence of dead and dying
coolibahs along the banks, was evidence of an increasing aridity of
climate. But the failure of these streams to reach the lake appears to
be due to a very different cause. It has been pointed out that the country

* According to records in the Department of Public Lands.

200 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

in these re^ons is often excessively flat, and that very extensive alluvial
plains occur. These plains are being continually built up, slowly it is.
true, but sufficient maybe to hinder the very slow flow of the stream
and each year making it more difficult for the rivers to reach the lake.
It is now only in years of exdeptionally heavy flood that the streams
have sufficient power to scour out the silted channels to reach the lake.

8. It may be not out of place here to mention that changes in
vegetation are in progress elsewhere in Queensland. In many instances
rainforest is spreading at the expense of open forest. Young plants
of open forest species are never found within the rainforest, though
young plants from the latter invade open forest. As in the case of
invasion by brigalow the character of the soil changes with the appear-
ance of rainforest, becoming richer in humus. Many instances of
pockets of Eucalyptus forest entirely surrounded by rainforest occur.
The only feasable explanation seems to be that the Eucalyptus forest
was formerly of far greater extent and that these pockets were isolated
by advancing rainforest. The sere in parts of South Queensland has
been described by Swain.

Similar instability exists between the Wallum country of the east
coast and Eucalyptus forest on the one hand and rainforest on the other.

The point which is desired to be stressed is that almost throughout
Queensland the vegetation is of an unstable nature, so that it is
frequently difficult to state what are serai and what are true climax
communities. For Western Queensland it has been shown that these
changes are oscillating, not progressive. It is convenient to use the term
'‘fluctuating climax’’ to denote that condition which appears relatively
stable, but which in reality is in a state of unstable equilibrium. A
true static climax may never exist. The communities of blue grass and
of Mitchell grass in the districts abovementioned are an example of an
fluctuating climax. So also are the chenopod communities and the
Mitchell grass communities at the edge of the stony desert, and elsewhere.
The major communities concerned in the fluctuating climax may be
termed “complementary communities,” “complementary associations,”
&c., as the case may be. Each complementary community is a climax
under the existing set of conditions. What these conditions are is at
present doubtful. Rainfall and, since settlement, stocking appear to
be two of the factors concerned, but only indirectly, and it is possible
that cyclic variations in the salt content of the soil may be an important
factor. It has been well proven that there is a pronounced tendency for
salts to accumulate in the upper layers of soils in dry climates, while
the opportunities for lessening the concentration are few. Whatever the
actual cause it is scarcely necessary to stress the importance of the
changes in relation to the carrying capacity of the country.

With this concept in mind it is possible to recognise the following
formations and associations in Western Queensland*: —

I. The Open Forest Formation, in which the chief associations are —

1. Eucalyptus Forest. In addition to the Eiicalyptus-&ommsLixt
communities, the following communities occur often as
deflnite sub-associations or consociations: —

* In the sense of Clements (’®).

PLANT COMMUNITIES OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND^ ETC. 201

(а) Cypress pine (CalUtris glauca) forest.

(б) Fringing forest in part, principally such communities
as described above as occurring near Hughenden.

(c) Eucalyptus papuana — Triodia pungens community.

(d) Eucalyptus — Triodia Mitchellii communities.

2. The mixed Eucalyptus — Acacia — ericoid shrub association of
the Great Dividing Range.

Other associations occur elsewhere in Queensland.

II. A Closed Forest Formation, represented by the two associationSj.
ooline forest and (mature) brigalow scrub. The formation is richly
developed further east, and includes true rainforest and other associa-
tions.

III. The Acacia Scrub Formation, including the following associa-
tions : —

1. Gidgea scrub (fig. 17).

2. Mulga scrub and its variations, including most of the com-

munities ol Cassia phyllodinea and some clay pans (figs..
18-20).

3. Lancewood scrub.

ly. The Triodia Formation, with four well-defined associations —

1. The Eucalyptus pallidifolia — E. leucophylla — Triodia Asso-

ciation, comprising the first and second Triodia communities
described above (fig. 32).

2. The Desert Sandstone Association, consisting of the Triodia

communities associated with Eucalyptus normantonensis^
gidgea, lancewood, and mulga. (The third community
figs. 29-31.)

3. The Spinifex Sand Plain. (The fourth community — fig. 28.)

4. The sixth community {T. irritans or an allied species) is best

regarded as a distinct association belonging to this formation.

V. The Grassland Formation with the following associations: —

1. The Blue Grass Association. (Fig. 2.)

2. The Ashy Downs Mitchell Grass Association. (Figs. 3-4.)

3. The Gravelly Downs Mitchell Grass Association. (Figs. 6-9.)

4. A Herb Steppe Association. (Fig. 11.)

Each of the first three associations consist almost entirely of the
communities described above under these names. The various types
described may be regarded as sub-associations. The fourth association
consists of a small part of the annual chenopod communities, particularly
those in which Atriplex Muelleri, A. spongiosa, A. conduplicata, Bassia
lanicuspis, B. aff. divaricata, and B. anisacanthoides play an important
part. The first association is complementary with both the second and
third, and the third and fourth with one another. The second and third
intergrade or alternate and may be in part complementary, but there is
insufficient evidence on this point.

VI. The Channel Country Formation, included in which are : —

1. A Fringing Forest Association, including the Eucalyptus
coolahah and E. coolahah — E. ochrophloia communities, and
the minor communities described under these. (Fig. 37.)

202 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

2. The Herbaceous communities of the alluvial plains. (Figs.

37, 38.)

3. Most of the communities of Atriplex nunvmwlaria (old man
' saltbush).

4. Some of the cottonbush and samphire communities.

5. Some claypans.

The formation is a heterogeneous and discontinuous one, but the
communities cannot be satisfactorily arranged elsewhere. They are
all dependent more or less for their existence on the actual flooding of
the country. Where water lies for any length of time, swamp conditions
prevail, and as similar conditions occur beyond the limits of the true
channel country, these communties have been considered to form a
separate but likewise discontinuous formation.

yil. The Swamp Formation. — There is possibly but one association
with, however, three well-marked consociations.

1. Lignum swamp. (Fig. 39.)

2. Glyceria ramigera (cane grass) swamp.

3. Chenopodium (including Blue bush, C. auricomum) swamps.

VIII. The Shrub Steppe Formation. — The best developed associa-
tions are —

1. The Kochia planifolia Association and other KocMa com-

munities.

2. The Atriplex vesicaria Association, consisting of scattered

communities of this species. (Fig. 35.)

3. The cotton-bush communities (in part).

The first of these associations is small in area and consists of
scattered communities, the others are closely connected with, and grade
into, associations of other formations.

IX. Desert. — The true desert in Queensland embraces the Simpson
Desert (figs. 21-23) and Sturt’s Stony Desert. The Simpson Desert
consists of the true desert sandhills alternating with claypans, the latter
of which sometimes carry gidgea, mulga, coolibah, or cotton-bush steppe.
Near Poeppel Corner mulga occurs on the sandhills themselves.

The Stony Desert grades into the gravelly downs, and in places is
complementary thereto. In its extreme form it carries a few plants of
Eremophila, &c., and scattered plants of annual species of Gheno-
podiaceae, particularly Bassia spp. (fig. 5).

Ecotones. — Some of the above formations and associations are
remarkably well defined, as for example, Mitchell grass grassland and
Eucalyptus forest, grassland and the various Triodia associations, &c.,
but in others broad ecotones occur. This is particularly noticeable
between Eucalyptus forest and mulga scrub. Sometimes gidgea scrub
acts almost as an ecotone between the Mitchell grass associations and
the other associations.

Explanatory Notes to the Map. — It has been found advisable to
omit the swamp formation and not to distinguish the different associa-
tions of the forest, shrub steppe, and channel country formations. Broad
ecotones are indicated by diamonds, alternes by narrow horizontal bands.

PLANT COMMUNITIES OP WESTERN QUEENSLAND^ ETC. 203

and scattered small areas by triangles. These diamonds, bands, and
triangles refer merely to areas in which these features occur, not to
definite areas occupied. Likewise areas in which fluctuating climaxes
occur are indicated by vertical bands.

The height of the geological hammer to be seen in some of the
plates is 13 inches.

EEFEEENCES.

(A few of these have not been specially cited in the text.)

(1) Bagnold, E. a.: The Movement of Desert Sand. Geogr. Journ. Ixxxv., pp.

342-369, 1935.

(2) Bailey, F. M. ; Queensland Flora, i.-vi., 1899-1902.

(3) Bailey, J. F. ; Plants of the Eabbit -infested Country of the Bulloo Elver,.

South Queensland. Proc. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vii,, pp. 448-454, 1898.

(4) : Poisonous Weeds in the Springsure District. Queens. Agr. Journ. vi.,

pp. 39-40, 1900.

(5) Blake, S. T.: Notes on Some Pasture Problems of Western Queensland.

Proc. Eoy Soe. Queens, xlvii., pp. 89-91, 1936.

(6) : The genus Iseilema in Queensland. Proc. Eoy. Soc. Queens, xlix.,

pp. 82-94, 1938.

(7) Bryan, W. H. : The Physiography of Queensland. Handbook for Queensland,

Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1930.

(8) Cambage, E. H. : Notes on the Native Flora of Tropical Queensland. Proc.

Eoy. Soc. N.S.W., xlix., pp. 389-447, 1915.

(9) Clelanl, J. B., Black, J. M., and Eeese, L.: The Flora of the North-east

Corner of South Australia, North of Cooper ^s Creek. Trans. Eoy. Soc.
S. Aust., xliv., pp. 103-120, 1925.

(10) Clements, F. E. : Plant Succession, an Analysis of the Development of

Vegetation. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publ. 242, 1916.

(11) Cockayne, L. : Vegetation of New Zealand in Die Veg. der Erde, xiv., 2nd

ed., 1928.

(12) David, T. W. E.: Geological Map of Australia, Sydney, 1932.

(13) Davidson, J. : Bioclimatic Zones in Australia. Proc. Eoy. Soc. S. Aust.,

lx., pp. 88-92, 1936.

(14) Domin, K. : Queensland's Plant Associations. Proc. Eoy. Soc. Queens., xxiii.,

57-74, 1910.

(15) : Beitrage zur Flora und Pflanzengeographie Australiens. Bibliotheca

Botaniea, Heft. 85, &c., 1914-1929.

(16) Everist, S. L. : Eesponse during 1934 Season of Mitchell and other Grasses

in Western and Central Queensland; compiled from Eeports Eeceived.
Queens. Agr. Journ., xlvi., pp. 374-387, 1935.

(17) Finemore, H. : Proc. Austr. Ass. Adv. Sci., xxi., pp. 382-397, 1933.

(18) Francis, W, D. : Observations on the Plants of Charleville. Queens. Agr»

Journ., xxiv., pp. 598-602, 1925.

(19) ; The Mitchell Grasses of the Warrego District of Western Queensland.

Queens. Agr. Journ., xlvi., pp. 270-281, 1935.

(20) Gregory, A. C. and F. T. : Journals of Australian Explorations. Brisbane,

1884.

(21) Herbert, D. A.: The Eelationships of the Queensland Flora. Proc. Eoy.

Soc. Queens., xliv., pp. 2-21, 1932.

(22) Hirschfeld, E. and E. S. : Some Pasture Problems of Western Queensland.

Queens. Agr. Journ., xlvi., pp. 229-245, 1936.

(23) Jensen, H. I.: Some Notes on the Soils and Forest Flora of the Dividing

Eange — North of Eoma. Queens. Agr. Journ., xvi., pp. 239-242, 297-299,
358-361 (1921); xvii., 13-18, 1922.

(24) Madigan, C. T.: The Australian Sand-ridge Deserts. Geogr. Eev., xxvi., pp.

205-227, 1936.

204

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

(25) McTaggart, a.: A Survey of tlie Pastures of Australia Embodying Eclogical

Information and Discussion Explanatory of the Accompanying Pasture Map
of the Commonwealth. Coun. Sci. Ind. Ees. Aust., Bulletin 99, 1936.

(26) Mitchell, T. : Tropical Australia, 1848.

(27) Murnane, D. and Ewart, A. J. : Kimberley Horse Disease. Coun. Sci. Ind.

Res. Aust., Bulletin 36, 1928.

(28) Osborne, T. G. B., Wood, J. G. and Paltridge, T. B.: On the Growth and

Reaction to Grazing of the Perennial Saltbush Atriplex vesiearium. Proc.
Lin. Soc. N.S.W., Ivii., pp. 377-402, 1932.

(29) : On the Climate and Vegetation of the Koonamoore Vegetation Reserve

to 1931. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., lx., pp. 392-427, 1935.

(30) O’Shanesy, P. : The Botany of the Springsure District. Proc. Linn. Soc.

N.S.W., vi., pp. 730-744, 1881.

(31) Prescott, J. A.: The Soils of Australia in Relation to Vegetation and

Climate. Coun. Sci. Ind. Res. Aust., Bulletin 52, 1931.

(32) : Soil Zones of Australia. Soil Research, vol. iii.. No. 3, pp. 133-145,

1933.

(33) : The Climatic Control of the Australian Desert. Proc. Roy. Soc. S.

Aust., lx., pp. 93-95, 1936.

(34) Ratclifee, P. N. : Soil Drift in the Arid Pastoral Areas of South Australia,

Coun. Sci. Ind. Res. Aust., Pamphlet 64, 1936.

(35) : Further Observations on Soil Erosion and Soil Drift, with Special

Reference to South-Western Queensland. Coun. Sci. Ind. Res. Aust.,
Pamphlet 70, 1937.

(36) Sturt, C. : Narrative of an Expedition into Central Australia during the

Years 1844, 5, and 6, London, 1849. Extracts cited by E. Pavenc, The
History of Australian Exploration from 1788 to 1888. Sydney, 1888.

(37) Swain, E. H. P. : The Forest Conditions of Queensland, Brisbane, 1928.

(38) Warming, E. : Oecology of Plants, an Introduction to the Study of Plant

Communities. Oxford, 1909.

(39) White, C. T. : Queensland Vegetation, and Queensland Pastures in Hand-

book for Queensland. Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., 1930.

(40) Whitehouse, F. W. : Geology of Queensland in Handbook for Queensland.

Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., 1930.

(41) : The Cambrian Faunas of North-Eastern Australia. Memoirs of Queens.

Museum, xi., pp. 59-112, 1936.

(42) Wood,, J. G. : The Selective Absorption of Chlorine ions and the Absorption
of Water by the Leaves in the Genus Atriplex. Aust. Joum. Expt. Biol.
Med. Sci., ii., pp. 45-56, 1925.

— : Regeneration of the Vegetation of the Koonamoore Vegetation Reserve,
1926-1936. Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., lx., pp. 96-111, 1936.

(43)

77»

4:

i

f

«

V

■«>

■V

<4

riioc. Eoy. Soc. Q'land, A"ol. XIAX., No. 16.

Plate VII.

Fig. 1. — Near Barcaldine. Junction of the ‘‘desert” (tire sandy forest country
on tlie left) and the “downs” (the grassland on heavy soil to the right. A gidgea
scrub is visible in the extreme distance).

Fig. 2. — Chesterton. Blue-grass grassland with chiefly Bichanthium sericeumy
Thellungin advena, Ariistida leptopoda, Bothriochloa erianthoides, and Themeda
avenacea- Eucalyptus melanopliloia in the distance.

t

ll

II

Frog. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLIX., No. 16

Plate VI 1 1

Fig.

3.- — Freiisliam^ near Kynuna. Asliy
A. lappucea, Js'eilema spp.,

Downs with Astrehla
and other plants.

elymoides,

Fig. d. — About twenty miles south of Wyandra. Ashy Downs (on old
alluvium) showing Astrebla lappacea, A, elymoides, Iseilema spp. and other plants..
F'dnging forest in the background.

Frog. Eov. Soc. Q'laxd, \'ol. XLIX.,

Platk IX,

Fio-. o.— East of Bivdsville, lat. 25° 45' 8. 140° E. on Sturt’s Stony

Desert; vegetation restricted almost eiitii'ely to a. few shrul)s of Ere)n(>t>hUa lAitrohei
in the gullies of the ridges. A solitary plant of Bassia sp. aft. divaricata in left
foreground.

4 ig. 6. South-east of Haddon Corner. Gravelly Downs showing crabholes ;
the plants, chiefly Astvehhi pectinata , S jwyoholus cictitwcladus, Bassici spp., and
Atriplex spp.j are restricted to the crabholes.

Proc. Eoy. Soc. Q'Lx\nd, Yol. XLIX., N^o. 16.

Plate X.

Fig. 7. — Elderslie Station, west of Winton. Gravelly Downs showing alteriie
of Bassm Janiougpis (in foreground) and Astrehla pecUnata. Gidgea (Acacia Cam-
ha pci) in far distance.

Fig. 8. — Elderslie Station, west of Winton. Gravelly Downs showing heavy
coating of Mitchell grass, &c., chiefly Astrehla pectinata and A. elymoides with A.
squarrosa in crabholes (as at bottom right), together Avith Iseilemn memhranaceum,
Fanicum Whitei, AhutiJon malrifolium, &c.

Froc. Boy. Soc. Q’laxd, For. XTJX., No. 16.

Plate XT

Pig'. 9. — Near Longreacli. Gidgea — l)oree Downs showing grazed Mitcdiell grass,
chiefly Astrehla pe'cHnata and A. lapparea, with A. sqmrrosa in erabholes; young
AtripJex Mueller 1, Ba.ssia echinopsila, and Sa'sola also present. Most of the trees
are gidgea, Yuth boree in centre distance.

Pig. 10. — Kalkadoon Station^ south-iAest of Winton. Gidgea and Bassia spp
being replaced by grass (the whitish plants).

J 'ROC. EOY. Soc. Q, ’land, Yol. A’TJX., Xo. Ki.

Plate XI i.

M

0

Fig. 11. — West of Tliargoiiimdali on 'uesteni slope of Grey Eange. Gravelly
Downs, lierl) steppe stage; eliielly Bas,sia spp. and Atriplex spp,, with a few plants
of AstrebJa pectinatcu (whitish plants) and, in foreground, dead dwarf gidgea.
In the distance is a gidgea-fringed creek, and on the skyline a range of desert sand-
stone hills.

Pig. 12. About ten miles north of Birdsville. Gravelly Downs with drift
sand carrying waddy (Ar-acia Pence, the tree), Kochia sp., Cassia sp., Stenopetalum
hneare, Iseilema eremaeurn, and other plants.

Peoc. Ecy. Poc. Q'i.axi), A'ol. .\LTX., Xo. 16.

Plate XII 1.

Fig. 13. — Near Middleton. Stock route on Gravelly Downs overgrazed to bareness.

Hills of desert sandstone in the distance.

Fig. 14. — Cunnanmlla. A claypan in an old alluvium, showing a sandy “island’’
with annual plants, including Tragus Infloriis, Aristida anthoxanthoides, Bactyloc-
tenium radulans, and Bassia lamcuspis. Fringing forest of EueaJy i>tus coolahali in
the background.

Frog. Eoy. Soc. Q^land, Vol. XLIX., No. 16.

Plate XIV.

Fig. 15. — Near Bareakliiie. A boundary fence on Asliy Downs; on tlie right
is a heavily-stq.cked ])addock, showing a good growth of Mitchell grass; while on
the left is vacant ground with a. sparse vegetation of chiefly SaUoJa and Euphorbia
Stevenii.

tendency for sheep to graze into the prevailing easterly wind. The country is
intermediate between true gravelly downs and ashy downs, but approaches the
former. ' . I ! ,

Peoc. Pcy. Ror. Q’land, \'oe. XLIX., No. 1(3.

Plate XVP

Fig', 17. — Twolity-five miles south of Wyandra. Gidgea scrub with a si)arse
ground cover of Tripogon toUiformis, Atrip'Jex spp. and Salsola. Eremopiiila
MitcheUU, in right middle distance.

wv

'T'

Fig. 18. — West of Eromanga, in hilly sandstone country. Overlooking mulga
scrnh, showing the spatial distribution of the trees. In the left foreground can be
seen Kucahi p>tus Thozetiaxa growing on the side of the hill.

Froc. Eoy. Soc. Q’LAiXD, VoL. XLIX., No. 16.

Plate XV \.

Fig. 19. — About twenty miles west of Cunnaimilla, Mulga regenerating from
pruning; Enneapogon sp., Bassia spp., and Sahola in foreground.

Fig. 20. — About forty miles south of Eromanga. Mulga country showing destruction

caused by improper methods of cutting.

Frog. Eoy. Soc. Q'land, Vol. XLTX., No. 16.

Plate XVll.

Fig. 2i. — Near Birdsville. Sandhill desert; north end of sandhill showing sand
blowing. Channel country of the Diainantina beyond.

Fig. 22. — Near Birdsville. View along the length of the sandhill figured above
(western side), showing the characteristic naked crest, and the sandhill canegrass
(Spinifex paradoxus) holding the sand on the lower slopes.

Frog. Boy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLTX., No. 16,

Plate XVI FT

Fig. 23. — Near Birdsville. Near the base of the sandhill in Figs. 21 and 22,
showing wealtli of flowering annuals, chiefly Goodenia oiiGoptera ? (small flowers),
and Myrioceidmlus Stiiartii (with large flowers), together with Blennodia canescens
and Hpvnifex paradoxus (the shrubby plants in centre).

Fig. 24. — Nockatiinga country. A sandhill of the marginal country, with
Plac/iosetum. refract win colonising the bare side and a shrub of Acacia Hgulata on
top. Note the irregular direction of the hill.

I'ROC. Ecy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. XLTX., No. 1G.

Plate XIX.

Fig. 25. — Mount HoAvitt. Marginal couiiti'y showing “spread’’ of sandliilJ.
The extent of the “spread’’ is shoAvn by the whitish area carrying a mixed
partly perennial Amgetation, of which Crotolaria eremaea (small shrubs in fore-
ground), Eriacline spp., Aristiaa spp., Neurachne sp., and Salsola are most prominent.
The tree is a, bloodAvood (Eucalyptus pyrophora) , the dark shrubs in the mid-
distance are Cassia s^ip., and beyond is oj)en plain (graA^elly doAvns, Bassia stage).

Fig. 26. — Mount Howitt. A shallow lake, not yet dry, actually in a sandhill,
Avith pigweed (Portulaca sp.) and nardoo (Marsilea BrummoudU) , Avhile beyond is
a heavily-vegetated part of the ridge carrying, among other plants, Hal’ea leucoptera
and Ehagodia paraholica.

Fkoc. Eoy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. YLIX., No. 1G.

Plate XX.

Fig. 27. — Near (south of) Boulia. The final stage in the degradatioii of the
desert ^sandhills; a low, scarcely perceptible ridge of sand with large trees of
Encd yptus papuana.

Y\g, 28. — Tanbar coniitry, sonth-west of Windorah. Spiiiifex sand-plain with
Triodia Basedowii, Senecio Gregorii (the small, large-flowered plant) and shrubs of
Hakea Ivoryi behind.

I'ROC. "Roy. Soc. Q'land, Yol. YLLX., No. JC.

Plate XXT.

Fig. 29. — Ti’anby. Edge of part of tlie Desert Sandstone sbowiii.^' the
eliaracteristic flat-topped, dnricrnst-capped hills in various stages of weatliering
and vegetated by gidgea, lancewood, and Triodia.

Fig. 30. — Tranljy. Desert Sandstone tableland with lancewood and Triodia;

Encalifpiiis sp. in centre.

Froc. Eoy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLIX., X^o. J(>

TM.ate XX it

Fig. 31, — T'ranby.

A valley in tlie Desert Sandstone rvitli Eucalyvins thorma'^^i ton^ciis^is
and Triodici.

Fig. 32.—

Between Dueliess and IMalbon. Eucalyptus pallidifolia and Triad la
pungens with Cassia^ sp., and Triohimum sp.

Froc. Eoy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLIX., No. 16

Plate XXIII

Fig. 33. — Near Alice. Eucalyptus cry thro phloia and Triodia Mitchellii on red sand.

Fig. 34. — Minerva, north of Springsiire. Eucalyptus populif olia — E

mclanophloia forest.

it

Froc. Eoy. Soc. Q'land, Vol. XLIX., No. 16.

Plate XXIV

Fig'. 35. — West of Tliargomindah on sloj^es of the Grey Range. Saltbush
steppe; the large bushes are Airiplex vesicaria, Avith chiefly annual spp. of Atriplex
and Bassia between; in the centre distance is EremopMla Dohjcma (shrubby trees)
with gidgea beyond.

36, — Nockatunga. Shrub steppe on silt bed, with Kocliia aphylJa, Bassia
s]>p. Eraprostis Dielsii and spp. and other plants. Yapunyah {Eucalyptus
ochrophloia) in the distance.

pROC. Ecy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLIX., No. 1(5.

Plate XXV.

Fig. 37. — Nockatuiiga. Cliaiiiiel country of the Wilson Eiver, showing a slight
fringing forest of yapunyah (Eucalyptus ochropliloia) and coolibah (E. coolahah),
bluebush, nninerous annual chenopods, pepper grass, and Eragrostis spp.

Fig. 38. — Mount Howitt. Channel counti-y of Cooper’s Creek with Trigonella
suavissima, Blennodia spt>., numerous composites, and pe])]>er grass. In the distance
is a low sandridge.

pROC. Eoy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. XLIX., No. 16.

Plate XXVI

Fig'. 39. — Al)out sixty miles east of Birdsville overlooking the Diamaiitiiia Eiver
in partial flood. Lignum swamp in the foreground with fringing forest of Eucalyptus
coolahah behind.

Fig. 40. — About twenty miles south of Wyandra. A elaypaii in grassland
being colonised by pigweed, Aristida antlwxantlioides, Bassia lanicuspis, and button
grass {Dactyloctenium radulans).

The Royal Society of Queensland.

Report of Council for 1936.

Ta the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland,

Your Council has pleasure in submitting its report for the year
1936.

Ten original papers were accepted for publication in the Proceed-
ings, and seven of these were actually read at ordinary meetings of the
Society.

During the year the following lectures were delivered : — Dr. J. J. C.
Bradfield on ‘'The Story of the Brisbane River Bridge”; Dr. E.
Hirschfeld on “Some Biological Problems of Western Queensland”;
Professor H. C. Richards, D.Sc., on “Research, Ways and Means”; and
Mr. A. R. Trist, M.Sc., on “Some Silvicultural Research Problems in
Queensland. ’ ’

Two special meetings were held, at the first of which His Excellency
the Governor, Colonel the Right Honourable Sir Leslie Orme Wilson,
delivered an address on ‘ ‘ Queensland Assets ” ; at the other Mr. J. A.
Steers, M.A., delivered an address on “Features of the English Shore-
line.”

One meeting was devoted to a series of short addresses on the
history, geology, botany, and agriculture of South-Western Queensland,
the speakers being Professor Cumbrae Stewart, Dr. P. W. Whitehouse,
Mr. C. T. White, and Professor J. K. Murray.

At another meeting the main business was a symposium on “Con-
cretions,” the speakers being Dr. F. W. Whitehouse, Professor H. R.
Seddon, Dr. N. M. Gutteridge, Dr. D. A. Herbert, and Dr W. H. Bryan

One evening was devoted entirely to exhibits, and as usual proved
to be most interesting and attractive.

Your Council takes this opportunity of thanking those who assisted
in the above phases of the Society’s work; those who provided the
numerous exhibits which were displayed for the interest of the members ;
the University of Queensland for housing the library and providing
accommodation for meetings ; and the Assistant Librarian of the Univer-
sity, Miss Mclver, for superintending the lending of periodicals from
the Library.

It is with great regret that the resignation of Mr. W. D. Francis
was accepted at the end of the year. For several years, first as Secretary,
and later as Librarian, he performed very valuable work for the
Society, and your Council takes this opportunity of recording its
appreciation of the service rendered by him.

During the year Mr. J. B. Henderson was elected an Honorary Life
Member on the recommendation of the Council. Mr. Henderson
was President on three occasions, and has been a member of the

.^.BSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Society for over forty years. He has retired from the position of
Government Analyst after many years service during which he won the
very sincere respect of the whole, community. Your Council trusts that
he will live to enjoy many happy years of well-earned rest.

At the meeting of the A.N.Z.A.A.S. which was held in Auckland
in January, 1937, the Society was represented by Professor J. K. Murray
and Mr. E. W. Bick.

A request was made to the Government to renew the subsidy which
was discontinued during the depression. In the reply it was stated
that it was impossible to make provision for such a grant on this year’s
estimates. Your Council recommends that another application should
be made in 1937.

Eealising that the time is rapidly approaching when the Society
will be compelled to provide a home of its own, your Council has
founded a trust fund as a step in this direction. It is hoped that
members who are in a position to do so will aid the Council in this
worthy objective. Donations, however small, will assist materially in
building up a fund which will enable the Society, either alone or in
conjunction with other scientific societies, to provide a central meeting
place and suitable library accommodation.

The membership roll consists of 4 honorary life members, 7 life
members, 4 corresponding, 176 ordinary members, and 7 associate
members. During the year there were 8 resignations, and 23 new mem-
bers were elected. It is with deep regret that the death is reported of
Mr. P. Sylow, an old and valued member of the Society.

Your Council sincerely regrets the tragic death of Dr. R. J. Tilly ard,
F.R.S., who, though not a member, contributed several valuable papers
to its Proceedings, and extends its deepest sympathy to his widow and
daughters.

There were ten meetings of the Council during the year, the
attendance being as follows: — L. S. Bagster, 7; P. Bennett, 3; E. W.
Bick, 9 ; W. W. Bryan, 3 ; D. A. Herbert, 8 ; J. S. Just, 2 ; H. A. Longman,
5; E. 0. Marks, 8; J. K. Murray, 10; P. A. Perkins, 8; R. Veitch, 9;.
W. G. Wells, 6 ; P. W. Whitehouse, 5.

In terms of Rule 19, Dr. E. 0. Marks, Senior Member of the
Council, automatically retires, but will be eligible for re-election in 1938.

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE FOR YEAR ENDED 31st DECEMBER, 1936.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

VII

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Audited and found correct.

A. J. M. STONEY, B.E.E., Hon. Auditor. E. W. BICK, Hon. Treasurer.

3rd March, 1937.

vm.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Abstract op Proceedings^, 30th March^ 1937.

The Annual Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology
Department of the University at 8 p.m., on Tuesday, 30th March. The
President, Professor J. K, Murray, occupied the chair, and about forty
members and visitors were present. Apologies were received from
Professors Goddard and Richards, and Dr. P. W. Whitehouse. The
minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. , The
following were proposed for ordinary membership : — Mr. C. S.
Christian, B.Sc.Agr., by Professor Murray and Mr. Perkins; Mr. Lahey.
B.Sc., by Professor Bagster and Dr. Jones; Mr. R. Peters, by Messrs,
Wells and Perkins. Associate Membership : Mr. P. J. Callaghan by
Messrs. Hines and Perkins.

The Annual Report and Balance Sheet were adopted on the motion
of Dr. Hamlyn Harris, seconded by Mr. C. T. White.

The following officers were elected for 1937 : — President, Professor
L. S. Bagster, D.Sc. ; Vice-Presidents, Professor J. K. Murray and
Professor H. C. Richards; Hon. Treasurer, Mr. E. W. Bick; hon.
Secretary, Mr. F. A. Perkins ; Hon. Librarian, Mr. A. R. Riddle ; Hon.
Editors, Dr. D. A. Herbert and Mr. H. A. Longman ; Hon. Auditor,
Mr. A. J. Stoney; Members of the Council, Dr. J. V. Duhig, Mr. J. S.
Just, Professor H. R. Seddon, Mr. J. H. Smith, and Dr. P. W. White-
house.

The retiring President, Professor J. K. Murray, delivered an
address entitled ‘^Agriculture and Migration in Queensland.” A vote
of thanks moved by Dr. W. H. Bryan was carried by acclamation.

A vote of thanks to His Excellency the Governor, Sir Leslie Orme
Wilson, for his interest in the Society and his presence at the Annual
Meeting was carried by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings^ 23rd April, 1937.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Department of the University at 8 p.m., on Friday, 23rd April.
The President, Professor L. S. Bagster, occupied the chair, and about
forty members and visitors were present. Apologies were received from
Professors Seddon, Hawken, Richards, Drs. Bradfield, Hamlyn Harris,
Messrs. White, Carroll, Wells, and Longman. The minutes of the
previous meeting were read and confirmed. The following were proposed
for Ordinary Membership : — Rev. Father Fahey by Dr. J. J. Bradfield
and Professor J. K. Murray ; and Mr. G. S. Bongers, by Messrs. Robert-
son and Perkins. The following were unanimously elected members of
the Society: — Ordinary Membership — Messrs. C. S. Christian, R. J.
Carroll, F. N. Lahey, R. Peters; Associate Membership — Mr. J. P.
Callaghan.

Mr. S. T. Blake exhibited a series of grasses belonging to the genus
Ectrosia, and collected by himself in 1935. The collections represented
were used by Mr. C. E. Hubbard in his recent revision of the genus in
Hooker’s leones Plantarum in which four new species from Queensland
are described. These are E. hlakei, C.E.H., from Croydon ; E. confusa,.
C.E.H., from Normanton and district; E. scabrida, C.E.H., from near
Normanton, whence it extends west to North Australia and north to the
Mitchell River. A living plant of this species;, which appeared spon-
taneously in his garden, was also shown. E. anomala, C.E.H., the fourth

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

IX.

new species was not shown, as the only specimen found was still at Kew.
A living plant of Isulima memhranacea, Domin, found on a pathway at
the University, was also shown.

The main business of the evening was an address entitled
Scientist Abroad,” by Dr. J. V. Duhig.

Dr. J. V. Duhig gave a description of the matters of scientific
interest he had observed during a nine months’ tour of the world. The
speaker visited the Dutch East Indies and noticed a wide variation in
customs and culture as one went from East to West. The colour and
pattern, for example, of the sarong, the garment which covered the body
from the waist down, differed enormously as in Macassar, the capital
town of the Celebes, where the natives favoured single colours, extremely
bright in hue — vivid green, peacock blue, and scarlet-mauve being those
most favoured in these parts — from those of, for example. Central Java,
which were mainly of Batik pattern in black or dark brown on a white
ground. Racially also marked differences could be observed by anthropo-
logists. The Dutch Colonial administration of Tropical Agriculture was
highly scientific and eminently successful from the scientific point of
view. Probably nowhere else in the world was such skilful use made of
water resources as in these islands in connection with rice cultivation.
Moreover, this industry was not only efficient but extremely picturesque.
Sugar cultivation was most admirably conducted on scientific lines. The
speaker visited the Sugar Experiment Station at Pasoeroean, one of three
such on the island of Java. Every science which had any possible bearing
on the industry was represented by University trained scientists working
in a very large institution. One of the lines of investigation which struck
the speaker most was the elaborately minute soil analyses and their
results, mapped in colour. Here, too, the library was very large, and
evidently a most important feature. The same care is given to coffee,
rubber, and tobacco cultivation. The Sumatra leaf is actually exported
to Cuba as cigar wrapping. The marvellous botanic garden of Buitenzorg,
a short train journey from Batavia, was visited. It is a beautifully
arranged museum of tropical botany. Which must be unrivalled in the
world.

The speaker next spoke of the physiography of Spain and its
influence on the character of the Spanish people of different racial
strains, and of their agriculture. Coming to the north of Spain, one
noticed on the seaward slope of the Cantabrian mountains the beginning
of the huge network of electric power extending all around the Bay of
Biscay up as far as Bordeaux and across the northern foot of the
Pyrenees, almost into Italy. All railway traction and industrial power
in this corner of Europe was electric, drawn from the snows of the
high Pyrenees. The speaker noticed an unmistakable turnover in the
dietary and agricultural economy of the French people since his last
visit in 1919 from, that is, animal husbandry and horticulture to cereal
farming and its products. A very large proportion of the urban popula-
tion was attempting to subsist on bread and wine. The speaker discussed
the relationship of these facts with population problems generally in
France and Europe.

After a description of the admirable forestry policies of Sweden
and Finland, ‘which the speaker visited, specially mentioning the

o

exquisite beauty of the boat trip from Stockholm to Turku (Abo) in
Finland, he described the scientific work now being done in the Soviet

X.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Union, which is enormous in scope, embracing the whole of the planned
economy of the nation of nearly 180,000,000 people, and excellent in
quality of which the work of N. I. Vavilof is a brilliant example. He is
agreed to be the most outstanding authority on variation in plants since
Darwin. With his 2,000 assistants he has a profound influence on the
national nutrition policy. The whole basis of the national economy is
Science. As the New York Times once said^ Where the Soviet Union is
spending thousands of rubles for research, we (U.S.A.) are spending
pennies. There can be but one result. In another generation, perhaps
in another decade, Soviet science may lead the world. ...” The speaker
ended on a note of warning that the terrible effects of unregulated
exploitation of natural resources in U.S.A. may be repeated here if not
tackled immediately. One should read Stuart Chase ’s ‘ ‘ Rich Land, Poor
Land.”

A vote of thanks, moved by Professor J. K. Murray, was carried by
acclamation.

Abstract op Proceedings, 31st May, 1937.

The ordinary monthly meeting of the Society was held on Monday,
31st May in the Geology Department of the University at 8 p.m. The
President, Professor L. S. Bagster, occupied the chair and thirty-five
members and visitors were present. Apologies were received from
Messrs. J. S. Just and F. A. Perkins and Dr. J. R. Vickery. The
minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.

Messrs. F. James and Gumming were nominated for ordinary
membership by Professor L. S. Bagster and Dr. D. A. Herbert.

Professor H. C. Richards exhibited rock specimens collected at
Cape Moreton.

Previous geological information about Cape Moreton, as recorded
in the Queensland Mineral Index, indicated the existence of coal
measures of Mesozoic age, while at Mt. Tempest some 8J miles to the
S.S.W. it was stated there existed an acid volcanic rock associated
with the Mesozoic sandstones.

Some three or four years ago Mt. Tempest was visited by a small
party of geologists and nothing other than coastal sand dune material
was encountered all the way from Tangalooma to Mt. Tempest, while
all around as far as could be seen similar material existed.

A visit to Cape Moreton on 30th May last by Drs. E. 0. Marks,
W. H. Bryan, A. K. Denmead and the contributor found the acid
volcanic rock — fluidal rhyolite — very well developed at North Point
and outcropping for about one mile in a south-westerly direction along
the Pacific foreshore towards the Cape Moreton lighthouse.

Rocky Hill nearby rising to a height of 250 feet was capped with
coarse quartzites which elsewhere overlie conformably carbonaceous
shales containing Thinnfeldia acuta and other fossil flora remains.

The headland immediately to the east of the Cape Moreton light-
house some 200-300 feet high is made up of sandstones and shales, in
part coalbearing, and on the fossil evidence apparently belonging to
the Ipswich series. They dip northerly at a very gentle angle. The
coal-seams are small and not workable on the evidence of their outcrops.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XT.

Underlying the basal conglomerate beds of this coal-bearing series
one may find the fluidal rhyolite, while boulders of rhyolite in the con-
glomerate are abundant. It is possible that this centre marks the focus
of the rhyolitic volcanic activity which yielded the Brisbane Tuff material
as the latter is found at the base of the Ipswich series in the neighbour-
hood of Brisbane.

The most southerly projecting headlands about one half-mile south
of the lighthouse are made up of andesitic agglomerate very angular
in character with abundant epidote developed and purplish colour
generally. In these latter respects it bears some resemblance to the
andesites of the Gympie goldfield.

Professor Richards ’ exhibit was discussed by Drs. Bryan and Marks
and Messrs. Denmead, Tryon and Bennett.

A paper by Dr. Dorothy Hill, “ Euryphyllum, a new genus of
Permian Zaphrentoid Rugose Corals,” was laid on the table on the
motion of Professor Richards and Dr. Whitehouse, who stated that as
Dr. Hill would be shortly returning to Queensland she might be asked
to speak on the subject later in the year.

A paper entitled, “An Investigation of a Taint in the Rib Bones of
Bacon; the Determination of Halophilic Vibrios (n. spp.) ” was read
by Mr. Prank Berry Smith.

The remainder of the evening was devoted to bacteriological exhibits.

Dr. Duhig exhibited a collection of bacterial cultures mainly of the
pigment form types, pathogenic for man, with explanatory comments
on the special features of the biology of different genera.

Dr. J. R. Vickery exhibited plates of a concentrated beef fat
emulsion which had been inoculated with pure strains of • (1) an
asporogenous yeast Geotrichoides sp. and (2) Pseudomonas sp. No. 303.
In both samples, extensive hydrolysis of the fat had taken place; in
the case of the yeast, the liberated fatt/ acids had been, in part, broken
down to caproic, caprylic and capric acids, giving the sample a character-,
istic sharp, cheesy flavour and odour. In the case of fat acted upon by
Pseudomonas sp. No. 303, the nature of the malodorous degradation is
unknown.

Mr. A. R. Riddle exhibited ultra-violet spectrograms of the mercury-
in-quartz arc “photographed” in bacteria. Energy in certain regions
of the ultra-violet spectrum possessed the power to kill bacteria. Hence
when an agar plate coated with bacteria was exposed to spectrally
dispersed ultra-violet radiation, the organisms at the points of impinge-
ment of all bactericidally potent wave-lengths would be killed. Upon
incubation, these lines would show up as clear rectangles of agar. In
that way the region of bactericidal potency could be determined and
relative bactericidal power of the various wave-length roughly estimated.

Dr. D. A. Herbert exhibited specimens of crown gall {Pseudomonas
tumefaciens) of turnips, root nodules of legumes and of Casuarina
Cunninghamiana, and leaf galls on Pavetfa natalensis. He spoke of
recent developments in the study of symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria.

A vote of thanks to the exhibitors, moved by Professor Bagster,
seconded by Mr. Longman, was carried.

xn.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Abstract of Proceedings^ 28th June^ 1937.

The ordinary monthly meeting of the society was held on Monday,
28th June, in the Geology Lecture Theatre of the University at 8 p.m.
The President, Professor L. S. Bagster, occupied the chair, and about
fifty members and visitors were present. The minutes of the previous
meeting were read and confirmed. The following were proposed for
ordinary membership: — Mr. C. Ellis, B.E. (Investigations Officer,
Forestry Department, Queensland) by Mr. Perkins and Dr. Herbert;
Dr. H. C. Webster, F.Inst.P., (Lecturer in Biophysics, University of
Queensland) by Professor Bagster and Dr. T. G. H. Jones, Messrs. R.
Greenham, S. Carter, and C. W. Ball (Students in the Geology Depart-
ment of the University) were proposed for associate membership by
Drs. W. H. Bryan and P. W. Whitehouse. The Rev. Father Fahey,
and Messrs. G. S. Bongers, F. James, and R. Cummings were unanimously
elected ordinary members of the society.

Dr. E. 0. Marks exhibited some volcanic ash which was thrown out
in the recent eruption and brought back by Dr. K. B. Fraser.

Dr. F. W. Whitehouse exhibited two australites from South-Western
Queensland, one from Mooraberrie Station and the other from Bedourie.
Apart from a reference in a popular book, ‘‘Our Sandhill Country”
by Mrs. Duncan Kemp (Sydney 1932), where mention is made of
australites at Mooraberrie, there does not appear to be any authentic-
ated reference in literature to australites in Queensland (Professor
H. C. Richards, in Memoirs Queensland Museum, Volume 10, page 67,
1930 has noted a doubtful occurrence of australites in Northern Queens-
land). The present specimens were presented to the University of
Queensland by Mrs. Duncan Kemp (Mooraberrie) and Mrs. G. Gaffney
(Bedourie). Bedourie and Mooraberrie are some 120 miles apart.
According to local report the australites are not rare at Mooraberrie.
So far as is known only this one specimen has yet been collected from
Bedourie.

The main business of the evening was a lecture entitled “Inter-
action of radiation with living matter” by H. C. Webster, Ph.D.,
F. Inst. P.

The lecture was limited to one region of the spectrum of electro-
magnetic radiation, viz., that usually included under the terms X-rays
and gamma-rays. The relation

Ve = hvm hcy^Am

expressing the relation between the (peak) potential V applied to an
X-ray tube, and the maximum frequency vm, and minimum wavelength
Xm of the radiation then emitted from the tube, — (h, e, c, being
universal constants) — was used to determine frequency (strictly
quantum energy) in terms of V, viz., in “electron-volts” (eV). The
quantum theory, which states that when energy is transferred between
radiation and matter, the radiation behaves as if comprised of particles
(quenta) of energy h , where is the frequency of the radiation,
vdll be used to describe the processes that occur when radiation of
frequency (more correctly, quantum energy) between 150,000 electron-
volts and 20,000,000 electron-volts reacts on matter.

The primary processes that occur are known to be limited to the
following four : —

1. Photo-electric.

(Quantum-)- Atom) gives (Ionized atom + High speed electron)

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XIII.

2. Scattering.* (Compton effect).

(Quantum + Atom) gives (New Quantum (lower frequency)
Ionized atom + High-speed electron.)

3. Pair-production.

(Quantum -|- Atom) gives (Atom (unaffected) High-speed
electron -j- High-speed positron.)

4. Nuclear disintegration.

(Quantum -|- Nucleus) gives (New nucleus -j- High-speed proton
or neutron)

(It should be explained that a positron is similar to an electron except
that it has a positive instead of a negative charge. A proton is a normal
hydrogen nucleus, a neutron is an uncharged particle of nearly the
same mass as a proton.) The first two processes occur for all frequencies
considered (the second always predominates in the case of living matter).
The third process commences to occur for frequencies over 1,800,000
eV, but is unimportant compared with process 2 for living matter,
except above about 5 million eV. The fourth process is known to occur
only for a few types of nucleus, none of which are present, except in
very small proportions, in living matter.

The third process, and in some cases the -fourth, involve the
conversion of energy into matter. This process, regarded as impossible
until the advent of Kelativity theory, has previously been discovered
to occur in several types of nuclear disintegration.

Considering the action of the above processes on biological material,
it is evident that the first step in the production of biological action by
X- and gamma-rays is the creation of channels of ionized matter in
the material. In the case of photo-electrons, for instance, these channels
extend through 40 individual cells of the material cell assumed to have
a diameter of 5 x 10~^ cm) for 150,000 eV radiation, and 800 cells for
1,200,000 eV radiation.

When considering the biological action of these rays it is usual
to measure the ‘‘dose” in units which are approximated proportional
to the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume of the material.
It is therefore important to know the total length of ionized channel
for unit dose, i.e., the total lengths of all the channels placed end to end.
In the case of water, the major constituent of biological material,
Mayneord has shown that the total length is approximately constant
between 10,000 and 80,000 eV, decreases to a minimum near 100,000,
increases to about seven times this value near 1,000,000 eV, then again
decreases.

Referring these results to practical problems in cell destruction,
Mayneord has shown that if one assumes that a single passage of an
ionized channel through a cell kills it, gamma-rays are more effective for
cell destruction than X-rays. If, however, a specified amount of ioniza-
tion within the cell is necessary for destruction, gamma-rays may be
more or less, or equally, destructive as X-rays, according to the dose.
In actuality, of course, it is doubtful if any such simple assumptions
are adequate.

A vote of thanks moved by Dr. J. Vickery was carried by
acclamation.

* The^ process of scattering without loss of energy, which sometimes occurs,
IS of no importance in the present connection.

XIV.

ABSTRACT OP PROCEEDINGS.

Abstract of Proceedings, 26th July, 1937.

The ordinary monthly meeting of the society was held on Monday,
26th July, at 8 p.m., in the Gieology Lecture Theatre of the University.
The President, Professor L. S. Bagster, occupied the chair, and about
thirty members and visitors were present. Apologies were received from
Messrs. Just and Cummings. The minutes of the previous meeting were
read and confirmed. Mr. V. Robinson was proposed for ordinary
membership by Drs. W. H. Bryan and F. W. Whitehouse. Mr. C.
Ellis and Dr. H. C. Webster were unanimously elected ordinary members
of the society. Messrs. R. Greenham, S. Carter, and C. W. Ball were
unanimousl}^ elected associate members of the society.

Mr. G. H. Hardy read a paper entitled Notes on Australian
Muscoidea III. Dexiinae, Phasiinae, and Tachininae.” The paper
includes keys to the more important genera and subfamilies. Valuable
notes are also given on a number of species which have been bred from
Lepidopterous caterpillars of economic importance in Eastern Australia.

The main business of the evening was a very interesting address
by Mr. S. Clarke, B.E., on ^'the New Laboratories of the Division of
Forest Products, C.S.I.R. ; Its Equipment and Activities.” The lecture
was illustrated by a very fine set of lantern slides A vote of thanks,
moved by Dr. Herbert and Professor Richards, was carried by
acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 30th August, 1937.

The ordinary monthly meeting of the society was held on Monday,
30th August, in the Geology Lecture Theatre of the University, at
8 p.m. The President, Professor L. S. Bagster, occupied the chair, and
about 45 members and visitors w^ere present. The minutes of the
previous meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. C. Rowe was proposed
for ordinary membership by Messrs. Christian and Perkins. Mr. Y.
Robinson was unanimously elected an ordinary member of the society.

Mr. S. T. Blake, M.Se., read extracts from a paper entitled ^‘The
Genus Iseilema in Queensland.”

The genus Iseilema, the group of grasses known collectively as
Flinders Grass, which was revised by C. E. Hubbard in 1935. They
are among the most valuable of the forage grasses of the interior of
Queensland, and their field relationships were closely studied during
the years 1934-1936, but particularly in the last year when they were
very abundant. Two new species were discovered and are described,
raising the known number of Queensland species to ten. A key to all
known Australian forms is included, and a vernacular name is sug-
gested for each species. The genus as a whole, and then each species,
are discussed as to morphology, field characteristics, ecological require-
ments and economics. The distribution of each species is indicated by
representative locality records. Some species are as yet known in but
one or two localities. Two are very widely spread, while the distribu-
tion of some others depend on conditions of drainage. The probability
of hybridism is discussed, and two new hybrids are indicated.

This paper was discussed by Messrs. White, Ogilvie and Bennett.

ABSTRACT OP PROCEEDINGS.

XV.

Miss M. Whitehouse read extracts from a paper entitled ^‘The
Zeolites of Queensland.’’ This paper consists of a list of known
zeolites in Queensland, twelve in number, with the mode and places of
occurrence of each and its associated minerals. A short account of the
mode of formation of zeolites in general and a bibliography of Queens-
land zeolites are also presented.

Professor H. C. Richards and Dr. W. H. Bryan commented on
this paper.

Mr. Haenke read extracts from a paper entitled ‘‘Essential Oils
from the Queensland Flora Melaleuca Viridiflora” (Part II), by T. G. H.
Jones, D.Sc., and W. C. Haenke, B.Sc. (App.).

The essential oil of the cineol variety of the broad leaved Mela-
leuca has been examined in detail and the following constituents
reported: — - a Pinene, dipentene, terpineol, cineol, sesquiterpene and a
crystalline alcohol apparently not previously described.

The oil thus in no way resembles that from the other variety of
Melaleuca viridiflora, which contains mainly linalol and nerolidol.

This paper was discussed by Messrs. White, Blake, Bennett, and
Bagster.

The main business of the evening was supplied by Messrs. C. S.
Christian, B.Sc.Agr., and T. B. Paltridge, B.Sc.

Mr. Christian spoke about “Co-operative Pasture Plant Improve-
ment Investigations in Queensland.”

The subject of the lecture delivered by Mr. Paltridge was “Plant
Introduction Investigations in Queensland.”

Both lectures were very interesting and informative. A vote of
thanks, moved by Professor Richards, ^pported by Professor Murray
and Messrs. White and Blake, was carried by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 27th September, 1937.

The ordinary monthly meeting of the society was held on Monday,
27th September, in the Geology Lecture Theatre of the University, at
8 p.m. The President, Professor L. S. Bagster, occupied the chair, and
about forty-five members and visitors were present. The minutes of
the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. R. Rowe was
unanimously elected an ordinary member of the society.

Dr. E. 0. Marks exhibited a coarse-grained gabbroid rock collected
at Conondale. Professor H. C. Richards commented on this exhibit.

Mr. Ogilvie exhibited two examples of bore pipes 6 inches in
diameter which were practically blocked by deposits of calcium
carbonate. Mr. P. Bennett commented on this exhibit.

The main business of the evening was a series of short addresses
on phosphorus. Dr. W. H. Bryan dealt with the inorganic source of
phosphorus.

Every particle of phosphorus found in every living thing comes
in the first place from the rocks forming the earth’s crust, and in
the end every particle returns there. Phosphorus does not occur in
rocks as a native element like sulphur, but is always found in chemical

XVI.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

combination. There are a number of phosphatic minerals, such as
turquoise, wavellite, vivianite, pyromorphite, and apatite, but although
each has an interesting story to tell they may all be ignored as sources
of phosphorus save apatite. This mineral provides an overwhelming
preponderance of the phosphorus found in living things, in spite of
the fact that it rarely occurs in large quantities. But although it lacks
impressive bulk it is virtually ubiquitous in the crust of the earth,
occurring in practically every rock in small or smaller amount. It
occurs in largest quantity in basalts, of which it forms one-half of 1
per cent., while granites and limestones contain about half as much
and sandstones still less.

A certain amount of phosphorus is available to plants directly
from apatite in the soil, especially that lying above igneous rocks, but
much of the naturally acquired phosphates and all of the phosphates
added by man have only a very indirect relationship to the original
apatite. The history of the successive changes is not completely
understood, but the essentials seem to be as follows: —

Much of the apatite in igneous rocks is leached out and carried
away in solution, ultimately to reach the sea. Here it is taken up by
marine animals and either expelled as ejecta or absorbed into the
tissues, whence on the death of the animal it sinks with the skeleton
to the sea floor. In this way marine deposits of phosphatic limestone
slowly accumulate. If these are, as a result of great earth movements,
converted into land the phosphorus content tends as a result of
several different geological processes to become concentrated into
various kinds of phosphatic deposits.

Variants of the cycle thus briefly outlined are found where the
phosphorus secreted by animals is returned in the shape of cave
earth, in which phosphatic skeletons occur mingled with phosphatic
excreta ; or on certain islands and shores where sea-birds congregate
and great deposits of guano are formed. A particularly interesting
extension of the phosphate cycle is found where guano accumulates on
islands which are really uplifted coral reefs. In these cases phosphoric
acid leached from the guano by occasional rains makes its way down
to the coral, which it converts into calcium phosphate.

But always in the phosphorus cycle the main features are the
same. The cycle starts with calcium phosphate and it ends witli
calcium phosphate. It is true that the initial material is crystalline
and called ^‘Apatite,” and that the final product is amorphous and
known as ‘‘Phosphorite,” but chemically these things are identical,
and the Cycle is complete.

Dr. M. White briefly traced the course by which phosphorus
becomes available to animals, and then devoted the main part of his
address to the assimilation of phosphorus by the various classes of
animals and its physiological role in the body proper.

The occurrence of phospho-proteins in the animal kingdom only
vas a notable feature. Casein in milk and vitellin in egg were the
most studied phospho-proteins because of the ease of obtaining pure
material. It is interesting to note that the milk of the egg-laying
monotreme, the echidna, contained casein.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XVII.

The importance of phosphorus in milk and the relation it bore
to rate of development in the young of mammals was illustrated by
showing the parallel in time taken to double birth weight and the
phosphorus content of the milk.

The phosphorus requirements of ruminants was discussed and the
methods employed in arriving at an estimate outlined.

The role of phosphorus in muscle contraction was described. The
physiological importance of phosphorus in the skeleton, the blood,
nuclei acids, hexose phosphates, fat and water-soluble phospholipides
was stressed, and a brief outline of the functions of these groups given.

Dr. A. W. Turner gave an account of a phosphorus deficiency
disease known as '‘Pegleg,” which is very prevalent in two large
areas in North Queensland, one near Charters Towers and the other
north-east of Cloncurry. The disease is characterised by unthriftiness,
a tendency to chew bones, a low reproductive index, and general poor
condition. In the early stages of the disease the animals develop a
stilted gait, the back becomes arched, and the bones readily fracture.
Post-mortem examination shows a definite softening of the bony
tissue. By repeating the South African experiments it was found
that phosphatic supplements like dicalcium phosphate and finely
ground bone meal were satisfactory.

Dr. J. V. Duhig spoke about the role of phosphorus in human
nutrition and human pathology.

A rather prolonged discussion took place in which the following
participated: — Professor H. R. Seddon and Messrs. Gurney, Bennett,
Tryon, and Blake.

A vote of thanks to the speakers moved by Professor Murray
was carried by acclamation.

Abstract of an Address given by Mr. C. S. Christian, B.Sc.Agr., M.Sc.,

on Co-operative Pasture Plant Improvement Investigations.

These investigations are being conducted by the Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research in co-operation with the Queensland
Departments of Public Instruction and of Agriculture and Stock.

Any method of pasture improvement involves one or both of two
things : Firstly, by a change in the environment, rate, quantity, time,
and quality of growth, together with the relative importance of the
naturally occurring species, may be altered. Secondly, species new
to the pasture may be utilised, either by sowing them, in mixtures
or otherwise, on prepared land, to form an entirely new pasture, or
by introducing them into the existing pasture merely as a part of the
total population. It is with the provision of such new pasture plants
that much of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research work at
Lawes is concerned. This talk deals with the work of the Genetics
Section of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in this
regard.

The problems included in the programme of work to be under-
taken include several fundamental problems of pasture development
in Queensland.

(y The provision of suitable legumes for inclusion in grass
mixtures is recognised generally as being one if not the most
important pasture problem.

AVIII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

(2) Most native pastures in Queensland make their maximum
growth in the summer, and grow poorly in winter. Requests are
frequently received for winter- growing species. As most of Queens-
land pasture areas have a very limited winter rainfall it may not
prove to be efficient farming to attempt to grow winter-growing
perennials over a wide area. The possibility of producing a suitable
winter-growing pasture plant is being investigated.

(3) Summer is the natural growing period in Queensland. Every
possible advantage should be taken during that period of producing
feed, not only for summer consumption, but, by some means of con-
servation, for utilisation during winter and during droughts. Summer
species are being studied in an attempt to increase their yields, to
prolong their growth period, thereby shortening the winter feeding
period, and also to improve them in regard to their value as standing
hay during the winter months.

The main species under investigation are Medicaga sativa and
related species, Lespedeza species, Pihalaris tnberom and related species,
Astrebla species, and CJiloris gayana.

Species are the product of evolution, but evolution is still con-
tinuing. Thus collections of material botanically known as the one
species, from different localities, show inherited variations in general
type and behaviour. Some of these regional strains are superior
agronomic types, and their collection, testing, and multiplication are
the first steps in plant improvement. Inherited variations also exist
within each of the regional strains. It is. the object of the geneticist
to study as many of these variants as possible to determine their
agronomic value, and then to produce pure-breeding or nearly pure-
breeding strains of the best agronomic types. Breeding involves selec-
tion, strain breeding by controlled pollination, and interspecific
hybridisation. The strains produced will be subjected to exhaustive
field trials, and the best multiplied and distributed.

Some details of the work already done in each of the species
were then given.

Reference was made to the unlimited scope of plant-breeding
outside the recognised fields of selection and character combination
within a species. In conclusion, a few remarks were made concerning
the possibilities resulting from and the necessity for further informa-
tion concerning the fundaments of inheritance of quantitative charac-
ters, fertilisation, cell division, origin and production of polyploid
forms, interspecific and intergeneric hybridisation. •

Abstract op Proceedings, 25th October, 1937.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held on Monday,
25th October, in the Geology Lecture Theatre of the University, at
8 p.m. The President, Professor L. S. Bagster, occupied the chair, and
about thirty members and visitors were present. The minutes of the
previous meeting were read and confirmed.

The business of the evening was a series of papers which were read
or communicated in part.

1. ^ ^ Euryphyllum, a new genus of Permian Zaphrentoid Rugose
Corals, ’ ’ by Dr. Dorothy Hill.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XIX.

2. ''Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora, Part XIII.;
Cinnmnomum Oliveri,” by T. G. H. Jones and F. N. Lahey, was
eommunicated by the latter.

This oil, previously investigated by Hargreaves, has been
re-examined. We were unable to confirm the 60 per cent, camphor
content recorded by Hargreaves, 51 per cent, being obtained from two
samples of oil.

Other constituents not previously recorded were d-limonene,
dipentene, myrcene, bornyl formate, a sesquiterpene and sesquiterpene
alcohol, and methyl eugenol.

3. " The ' Establishment of a Seismological Station in Brisbane,
Queensland,” by Yf. H. Bryan, D.Sc.

A seismological station has recently been established in Brisbane.
The station is maintained and operated by the Department of Geology
of the University of Queensland assisted by a grant from the Common-
wealth Government through the Australian Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research.

The room in which the instruments are housed is in the basement
of the new University Library. The equipment consists of two Milne-
Shaw horizontal pendulum seismographs with electro-magnetic damping
and optical recording. One of these instruments was presented to the
University of Queensland by a generous donor who wishes to remain
anonymous. The other was provided by the Australian Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research.

Accurate time is provided by an electrically driven synchronome
clock which is checked by radio against standard time signals.

The station is in continuous operation, and issues and transmits to
many parts of the world monthly bulletins containing readings and
interpretations of all earthquakes recorded at the station.

Situated as it is on the margin of the actively seismic Pacific basin,
this new observatory should play an important part in international
seismology, more particularly as it helps to bridge the large gap in the
chain of circum-Pacific stations that has hitherto existed between
Sydney and Batavia.

4. "The Gayndah Earthquake of 1935,” by W. H. Bryan, D.Sc.,
and F. W. Whitehouse, Ph.D. (communicated by Dr. Whitehouse).

On 12th April, 1935, at about 11.35 a.m. Eastern Standard Time,
an earth tremor was felt over a large area of South-Eastern Queensland.
Some 200 personal records were collected and analysed. From a study
of these data intensities of the shock were calculated. The disturbance
originated from a region about 10 miles north-east of Gayndah. In
the meizoseismal area intensities of at least R.F. 7 were felt. It was
apparently a tectonic earthquake originating at shallow depth, probably
along a north-easterly line. The distribution of apparent intensities had
certain unusual features, and some curious correlations with geological
structure have been noted. Following upon the main tremor a series
of aftershocks occurred at intervals until 14th December. Seventy-three
such aftershocks were recorded by an observer in the meizoseismal area
between 12th April and 22nd July.

5. "Studies in Oriental and Australian Trypaneidae, Part II.
Adramince and Dacinm from India, Ceylon, Malaya, Sumatra, Borneo,
Philippine Islands, and Formosa,” by F. A. Perkins, B.Sc. Agr.

XX.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

In this, the second of a series of papers on the Oriental and
Australasian Trypaneidae, one genus, seven species and two varieties
are described as new. Two species described early in the last century,
and not since recorded, are redescribed. Keys are provided for all the
larger genera. Most of the common species are discussed, particular
reference being made to their distribution, variation, and synonymy.
The new species are as follows: — Strumeta mgrotihialis, 8. nigrotihialis
var lata, Strumeta tillyardi, Afrodacus javanensis, Nesodacus longi-
caudatus, Callantra splendida, Zeugodacus caiidatus var maculatus,
Z eugodacus pendlehuryi, and Paradacus fulvipes.

6. ‘^The Upland Savannahs of the Bunya Mountains,” by D. A.
Herbert, D.Sc.

Grrassy areas varying in size from a few acres to several hundred
acres are interspersed with rain forest on the Bunya Mountains, about
30 miles north-west of Dalby. These replace the open eucalyptus forest
at about an elevation of 2,800 feet. They represent a grassland sub-
climax, and only in isolated places does the Eucalyptus tereticornis
forest climax become established. It is considered that the grassed slopes
are the result of destruction of Eucalyptus forest, probably by fire by
the blacks in the days when they gathered for the collection of bunya
pine seeds.

The following took part in the discussions which followed the
reading of the papers: — Drs. W. H. Bryan and D. A. Herbert and
Messrs. P. Bennett, J. H. Smith, T. Jack, S. T. Blake, and C. Schindler.

A vote of thanks moved by Mr. Gr. H. Barker was carried by
acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 29th November, 1937.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held on Monday,
29th November, at 8 p.m., in the Geology Lecture Theatre of the Univer-
sity. The president. Professor L. S. Bagster, occupied the chair, and
about fifty members and visitors were present. An apology was received
from Mr. Just. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and
confirmed. The president drew attention to the death of Professor
Howchin, and Professor Richards moved that a letter of condolence be
sent to his relatives.

Professor Richards exhibited a graph of the Barrier Reef Bore at
Haymaii Island and showed some of the material obtained at different
depths. Mr. Riddle showed some new apparatus for controlling
temperatures in refrigeration work.

Mr. Watkins showed some pictures of a small vertical fault in the
Spicer’s Gap district.

Mr. J. PI. Simmonds read short paper entitled ‘‘Alternaria
passiflorae n. sp., the Causal Organism of Brown Spot of Passion Vine.”

Mr. S. T. Blake read two papers entitled : —

1. ‘‘Notes on Australian Cj^peraceae, Part II.”

2. “ The plant communities of Western Queensland and their

relationships, with special reference to the grazing industry. ’ ’

A vote of thanks to the speakers moved by Mr. White was carried by
acclamation.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XXI.

Publications are being received from the following Institutions, Societies, etc.,
and are hereby gratefully acknowledged: —

Algeria." ■

Societe de Geographie et d ’Arcliaeologie
d 'Oran.

Argentine —

Universidad Nacional de la Plata.
Australia —

Commonwealth Bureau of Census and
Statistics, Canberra.

Department of Agriculture, Melbourne.
Department of Mines, Melbourne.
Eoyal Society of Victoria.

Field Naturalists’ Club, Melbourne.
Council for Scientific and Industrial
Kesearch, Melbourne.

Australian Chemical Institute,
Melbourne.

Department of Mines, Adelaide.
Waite Agricultural Eesearch Institute,
Glen Osmond.

Royal Society of South Australia.
Royal Geographical Society of Aus-
tralasia, Adelaide.

Public Library, Museum, and Art
Gallery, Adelaide.

University of Adelaide.

Standards Association of Australia,
Sydney.

Naturalists’ Society of New South
Wales.

Department of Agriculture, Sydney.
Department of Mines, Sydney.

Royal Society of New South Wales.
Linnean Society of New South Wales.
Australian Museum, Sydney.

Public Library, Sydney.

University of Sydney.

Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Australian Veterinary Society, Sydney.
Queensland Naturalists’ Club, Brisbane.
Department of Mines, Brisbane.
Queensland Museum, Brisbane.
Department of Agriculture, Brisbane.
Registrar-General’s Department, Bris-
bane.

Royal Geographical Society of Aus-
tralasia (Queensland), Brisbane.
Field Naturalists’ Club, Hobart.

Royal Society of Tasmania.

Mines Department, Hobart.

Mines Department, Perth.

Royal Society of Western Australia.
North Queensland Naturalists’ Club.

R.S. — H

i Austria —

Naturhistorische Museum, Vienna.
B'ELGIUM —

Academic Royale de Belgique.

Societe Royale de Botanique de Bel-
gique.

! Societe Royale Zoologique de Bel-

I gique.

! Brazil —

j Institute Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro.
5 Ministerio de Agricultura Industria y
I Commercio, Rio de Janeiro.

! British Isles —
i Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
i British Museum (Natural History),

London.

Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Literary and Philosophical Society,
Manchester.

Leeds Philosophical and Literary
Society.

Royal Society, London.

Conchological Society of Great Britain
and Ireland, Manchester.

Royal Empire Society, London,
i The Bristol Museum and Art Gallery.

I Imperial Bureau of Entomology,

I London.

Imperial Agricultural Bureau, Aberyst-
wyth.

Eoyal Society of Edinburgh.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

; Royal Dublin Society.

; Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.

i Canada —

j Department of Mines, Ottawa.

I Royal Astronomical Society of Canada.

I Royal Society of Canada.

I Royal Canadian Institute,

j Nova Scotian Institute of Science,

j Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.

j Ceylon —
j Colombo Museum.

I China —

I Sinensia, Nankin University, China.

; Cuba — ■

I Sociedad Geografica de Cuba, Habana

i

' Denmark —

The University, Copenhagen.

XXII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Finland —

Societas iiro Fauna et Flora Feiinica,
Helsingfors.

France —

Station Zoologique de Cette.

Societe des Sciences Natureiles de
1 ’Quest.

Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris.

Societe Botanique de France.

Societe Geologique et Mineralogique de
Bretagne.

Societe de Geographie de Eochefort.

Germany —

Zoologisches Museum, Berlin.

Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde, Berlin.

Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft,
Berlin.

Naturhistorischer Verein der preus
Eheinland uiid Westfalens, Bonn.

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu
Bremen.

Senckenbergische E'ibliothek, Frank-
furt a. Main.

Kaiserlich Deutsche Akademie der
Naturforscher, Halle.

Zoologisches Museum, Hamburg.

ISl aturhistorisch-Medizinischer Vereins,
Heidelberg.

Akademie der Wissenschaften, Leipzig.

Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaf-
ten, Munich.

Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie.

Hawaii —

Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum,
Honolulu.

Holland — •

Technische Hoogeschool, Delft.

Italy —

Institute di Bologna.

Societa Toscana di Scienze Natural!,
Pisa.

Societa Africana d ’Italia, Naples.
Museo Civico, Genova.

India —

Geological Survey of India.
Agricultural Eesearch Institute, Pusa.

Japan —

Berichte der Ohara Institut, Kurashiki,
Japan.

Imperial University, Kyoto.

Imperial University, Tokyo.

National Eesearch Council of Japan,
Tokyo.

Java —

Koninklijk Naturkundige Vereeniging,
Weltevreden.

Departement van Landbouw,
Buitenzorg.

Mexico —

Institute Geologico de Mexico.

Soeiedad Cientifica ‘ ‘ Antonio Alzate, ’ ^
Mexico.

Secretario de Agriculture y Fomento, •
Mexico.

Observatorio Meterorologico Central,
Tacaibaya.

New Zealand —

Dominion Museum, Wellington.

New Zealand Institute, Wellington.
Auckland Institute and Museum.
Dominion Laboratory, Wellington.
Council for Scientific and Industrial
Eesearch, Wellington.

Geological Survey of New Zealand.

Peru —

Soeiedad Geologiea del Peru, Lima

Philippines —

Bureau of Science, Manila.

Poland —

Polskie Towarzystwo Przyrodnikou ini
Kopernika, Lwow.

University of Poland.

Societes Savantes Polonaises.

Portugal — ■

Academia Polytechnicada, Oporto
Sociedade Broteriana, Coimbra.

Institut Dotanico, Coimbra.

Eussia —

Academie des Sciences Eussie, Lenin-
grad.

Bureau of Applied Entomology, Lenin-
grad.

Laboratory of Palaeontology, Moscow
University, Mokhovaja II.,
Moscow.

Publications of the Institute of Plant
Industry, Leningrad.

Spain —

Eeal Academia de Ciencias y Artes de
Barcelona.

Real Academia de Ciencias, Madrid.
Museo de Historia Natural, Valencia.
Academia de Ciencias de Zarogoza.

Sweden —

Geological Institute of Upsala.
Goteborgs Kungl. Vetenskops.

Switzerland —

Societe de Physique et d’Histoire
Naturelle, Geneve.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zurich.
The League of Nations, Geneva.

South Africa —

Geological Society of South Africa,
Johannesburg.

South African Museum, Capetown.
Durban Museum, Natal.

Transvaal Museum, Pretoria.

ABSTRACT OP PROCEEDINGS.

XXIII.-

United States of America —

United States Geological Survey,
Washington.

Natural History Survey, Illinois.

Lloyd Library, Cincinnati.

Wisconsin Academy of Arts, Science,
and Letters, Madison.

California Academy of Sciences.

Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

University of Minnesota.

University of Californa.

Library of Congress, Washington.

Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago.

American Museum of Natural History,
New York.

Buffalo Society of Natural History.

Boston Society of Natural History.

American Philosophical Society, Phila-
delphia.

American Geographical Society, New
York.

Smithsonian Institute, Washington.

Carnegie Institute, Washington.

United States Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington.

Oberlin College, Ohio.

National Academy of Science, Wash-
ington.

Eochester Academy of Sciences.

Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila-
delphia.

New York Academy of Science.

Indiana Academy of Science.

American Academy of Science and
Arts, Boston

Institute of Biological Eesearch, Balti-
more.

John Crerar Library, Chicago.

Ohio Academy of Science, Columbus.

Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plains.

Michigan Academy of Arts, Science,
and Letters.

University of Michigan.

Minnesota Geological Survey.

New York Zoological Society.

Wistar Institute of Anatomy and
Biology, Philadelphia.

Portland Society of Natural Plistory.

San Diego Society of Natural History.

Puget Sound Biological Station, Seattle.

Missouri Botanic Gardens, St. Louis.

University of Illinois, Urbana.

State College of Washington, Pull-
man.

Bureau of Standards, Washington.

National Eesearch Council, Washing-
ton.

United States National Museum, Wash-
ington.

Public Health Service, Washington.

Peabody Museum of Natural History,
Yale.

Lawde Observatory, Arizona.

The University of California, Los
Angeles, California.

XXIV.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

List of Members.

Honorahy Life Members.

*Henderson, J. B., P.I.C.
Marks, lion. Dr. C. F., M.D.
Simmonds, J. H., senr.
*Tryon, H.

Walkom, A.B., D.Sc.

.. ‘ ‘ Bangamba,^ ’ Palardo, via Miles.

. . 101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

. . Hillsdon Eoad, Taringa, Brisbane.

. . Gladstone Eoad, Highgate Hill, Brisbane.
Science House, 159 Gloucester Street,
Sydney.

Life Members.

Bagster, L. S., Prof., D.Sc. . .
*Bailey, J. F. . .

Hulsen, E.

Jensen, H. I., D.Sc.

Eiddell, E. M

Tilling, H. W., M.R.S.C. (Eng.),
L.E.C.T. (Lond.)

The University, Brisbane.

Maynard Street, Woolloongabba, South
Brisbane.

Valley Corner, Brisbane.

Attewell Street, Nundah.

Department of Public Instruction, EHs-
bane.

Nairobi, Kenya, Africa.

Corresponding Members.

*Domin, Dr. K Czech University, Prague.

*Maitland, A. Gibb, F.G.S Melville Place, South Perth.

*Skeats, Prof. E. W., D.Sc. . . . . The University, Melbourne, Victoria.

Ordinary Members.

Atherton, D. 0., M.Sc.Agr. . .

Bage, Miss F., M.Sc. . .

Ball, C. W., M.Sc

Ball, L. C., B.E

Bambrick, R.

Barker, F.

Barker, G. H . .

Beckman, G. H., B'.Sc.

*Bennett, F., B.Sc.

Bennett, F. C., B.Sc., B.App.Sc. . .
Bick, E. W. . . . . . .

^Blake, S. T., M.Sc

*Blumberg, B., M.Sc. . .

Boiigers, G. S. . . . .

Booth, F. G., M.D

Bostock, J., M.D., B.S., D.P.M.,

M.E.C.S., L.E.C.P.

Bradfield, J. J. C., D.Sc. (Eng.), M.E.

Brigden, J. B., M.A. . .

Briggs, Mrs. C.

Brimblecombe, A. R. . .

Broe, J. J., B.Sc.

Brown, Graham, M.R.C.S., L.E.C.P.,
F.R.A.C.S.

Brown, Jas., B.A., M.D., Ch.B.

(Edin.), D.Ph. (Cambridge)

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Atherton.

Women’s College, Kangaroo Point, Bris-
bane.

Broken Hill Pty. Ltd., Newcastle.
Geological Survey Office, Brisbane
Stock Inspector; Hughenden.

Railway Audit Office, Brisbane.

Adelaide Street, Brisbane.

Crook Street, Northgate, Brisbane.

113 Annie Street, Torwood.

Sirius Street, Coorparoo, Brisbane.
B'otanic Gardens, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Inkerman Street, South Brisbane.

Evans Deakin, Ltd., Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Bureau of Industry, 4QG Building,
Brisbane.

Department of Labour and Industry,
Brisbane.

First Avenue, Eagle Junction, Brisbane.
Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

Central Technical College, Brisbane.

371 Queen Street, Brisbane.

^ ‘ Widmoo-rene, ’ ’ Margaret Street, Too-
woomba

^Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

ABSTRx\-CT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XXV.

*Bryan, W. H., M.C., D.Sc. . .
*Bryan, W. W., M.Sc.Agr.

Bosworth, P. O., B.A. . .

Buzacott^ J. H., B'.Sc.

Caldwell, N. E. H., B.Se.Agr.

Callaglian, J. P., B.Se.

Carroll, B. J. . .

Carson-Cooling, Geo., M.Sc. . .
Carter, S. B.Gc.

Chamberlain, W. J., M.Sc.

Christian, C. S., B.Ag.Se.
*Cilento, Sir R. W., M.D., B.S.
Coiinah, T. H. B.Sc.
Cottrell-Dormer, W., AI.Sc.Agr.

Gribb, H. G., B.Se

Croll, Gifford, M.B.

Cummings, E. P.

*Denmead, A. K., M.Sc.

Dixon, G. P., C.B.E., M.B., Ch.M.
*Dodd, Alan P. . .

Donaldson, E. J.

*Duhig, J. V., M.B.

Edmiston, F., M.Sc.

E'llis, C., B.E.

Evans, C. K., M.Sc

Everist, S. L., B.Sc., . .

Fahey, Eev. Father
Ferguson, Miss G., B.Sc.

Fisher, N., B.Sc.

Fisoii, D. G., M.Sc., AI.B., Ch.M.
Ford, F. Campbell

Fortescue, L. . .

Fraser, C. S.

Fraser, K., B.Sc.

Frew, A. E, Harding, B.E.
Gaffney, T.

Gibson, J. Lockhart, M.D.
Gipps, F.

*Goddard, Prof. E. J., B.A.,
Goldfinch, H. A., D.D.S.
Graff, E., M.B., B.S. . .
Grant, D. J., B.Sc.

D.Sc.

. . The University, Brisbane.

Agricultural High School and College,
Lawes.

Agricultural High School and College,
Lawes.

. . Sugar Experiment Station, Meringa, via
Gordonvale.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Nambour.

. . Brisbane General Hospital, Brisbane.

. . Q.C.E. Eooms, Workers Building, Eliza-
beth Street, Brisbane.

. . Boys ’ Grammar School, Brisbane.

Mount Isa Mines, Ltd., Mount Isa.

. . Water Supply and Sewerage Department,
Brisbane City Council.

Queensland Agricultural College, Lawes.

Department of Health, Brisbane.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

Fairymead Sugar Plantations Ltd.,
Bundaberg.

. . Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

. . Sherwood, Brisbane.

University of Queensland, Brisbane.

. . Geological Survey, Edward Street, Bris-
bane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane,

Prickly-pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Bris-
bane.

care of Gibbs, Bright, and Co., Queen
Street, Brisbane.

. . Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Forestry Department, Brisbane.

. . Ipswich Technical College, Ipswich.

Department of Agriculture, Blackall.

^ ‘ Wynberg, ’ ’ Brunswick Street, Brisbane.

Rohde Road, Nundah.

. . Government Geologist, Wau, New
Guinea.

0 ’Connell Street, Kangaroo Point.

^ ^Stanford,” Kennedy Terrace, Red Hill,
Brisbane.

New Zealand Chambers, 334 Queen Street,
Brisbane.

229 Edward Street, Brisbane.

.. St. John’s College, Kangaroo Point,
Brisbane.

T. and G. Buildings, Queen Street, Bris-
bane.

Engineer in Charge, Pumping Station,
Pinkenba.

. . Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

‘^Blaina, ” Simpson’s Road, Bardon.

The University, Brisbane.

414 Sandgate Road, Albion.

487 Sandgate Road, Brisbane.

Church Street, Indooroopilly.

^Members who have contributed papers to the Society,

IXXVI.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Greenliam, B., B.Sc.

^Grey, Mrs. B. B., F.L.S

^Gurney, E. H. . . , .

Gutteridge, N. M.B.^ B.S.
^Haenke. W. L., 'B.Sc.

Hall, a, B.Sc

^Hamlyn-Harris, E., D.Sc.

Hamon, W. P., B.Sc.Agr.

Hardie, Sir David, M.D., M.S.

^Hardy, G. H

Harris, V. E. G., B'.Sc.

*Hawken, Professor E. W., B.A., M.E.,

M.Inst.C.E.

"*^Herbert, D. A., D.Sc.

Herdsman, L. P.

*Hill, Miss D., M.Sc., Ph.D

^Hines, H. J., B.Sc

Holdsworth, Miss N. M,, B.Sc.

■^Hitchcock, L. P., M.Sc.

Hirschfeld, E., M.B. . .

Hirschfeld, O. S., M.B.

Hossfeld, P. S., M.Sc.

Jack, Thos.

James, F. W., M.Sc.

Jones, B.

Jones, Inigo, F.E.A.S., F.E.Met.Soc.,
F.Am.Geog.Soc., F.E.S.A. . .

Jones, Owen, M.Sc.

*Jones, T. G. H., D.Sc., A.A.C.T. ..

Jorgensen, G. H.

"^Just, J. S

Kemp, J. E. . . . .

Knight, C. L., B.Sc

Kyle, W. M., AI.A

Lahey, F. N., M.Sc

^Lambert, C. A. . .

Lee, Professor D. H. K., M.Sc., M.B.,

Ch.M., D.T.M

♦Legg, J., D.V.Se., M.E.O.V.S.
Lewcock, H. K., M.Sc.

^Longman, H. A., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. . .
Lowson, Professor J. P., M.A., M.D.

Lydon, E. J.

Lynch, A. J., M.B., Ch.M.

*Lynch, L. J., B.Sc.Agr.

Geology Department, University of
Queensland.

care of Chartered Bank of Australia,
India, and China, Singapore, S'.S.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

. Inchcolme, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Eockton Street, East Ipswdch.

Mount Isa Mines Ltd., Mount Isa, N.Q.

The University, Brisbane.

' ‘Clifton,’^ Ubobo, via Gladstone.

' ‘ Blythsdale, ’ ’ Hamilton, Brisbane.

Station Eoad, Sunnybank.

The Southport School, Southport.

The University, Brisbane.

Biology Department, University, Bris-
bane.

Government Printing Office, George
Street, Brisbane.

Geology Department, University, Bris-
bane.

The University, Brisbane.

care of Q.N. Bank, 8 Princess Street,
London, E.C.2.

care of Commissioner for Australia,
Cunard Building, 25 Broadway, New
York.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Department of Home Affairs, Canberra.

Cunningham Street, Dalby.

Department of Engineering, University
of Queensland, Brisbane.

Island Exploration Ltd., Mandang, New
Guinea.

Crohamliurst Observatory, Beerwah, Q.

Ebun Drive, Ascot, Brisbane.

Chemistry Department, The University,
Brisbane.

care of Australian Chemical Co., Grey
Street, South Brisbane.

Box 1067N., G.P.O., Brisbane.

Main Eoads Commission, Albert Street,
Brisbane.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Department of Chemistry, University of
Queensland, Brisbane.

care of Bank of N.S.W., Melbourne, Vic.

The University, Brisbane.

Animal Health- Station, Yeerongpilly.

Department of Agriculture, Brisbane.

Queensland Museum, Brisbane.

“ Inchcolm, ’ ^ Wickham Terrace, Bris-
bane.

Central Technical College, Brisbane.

413 BTunswick Street, Valley, Brisbane.

Fruit Branch, Department of Agriculture,
Sydney.

■^Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XXVII.

*Mackerras, Mrs. Ian, M.B. . .
MacMahon, P. G.

Mandelson, L. F., B.Sc.Agr. . .

Marks, A. H., C.B.E., D.S.O., M.D. . .
*Marks, E. O., M.B., B.A., B.E.
Mathewson, J. H. K., M.B., Ch.B. . .

McConnel, Miss U., M.A. . .
McDonald, S. F., M.D., M.R.C.P. . .

McDougall, W. A., B.Sc.

McDowall, Val., M.D.

McKsn2ie, A. D., M.B., Ch.M.
Macpherson, R. K., M.Se.

Meyers, E. S., M.B.

Mitchell, R. S., M.Sc.Agr. . .

Morris, L. C., A.M.I.C.E

Morton, C. C., A.C.T.S.M

Murphy, Ellis, M.D. . .

*Murray, Professor J. K., B.A.,
B.Sc.Agr.

Newman, Miss A. W., B.Sc.
O'Connor, E. A., M.Sc.

Ogilvie, C., B.E.

Paltridge, T. B., B.Sc.

Parker, W. R., L.D.S.

*Parnell, Professor T., M.A. . .

Payne, W. L. . .

*Pearce, Mrs. T. R., M.Sc.

*Perkins, F. A., B.Sc.Agr.

Peters, R.

Phillips, T. J. . .

Preston, G.

Price, T. A., M.B., B.S

*Reid, J. II

*Reye, A. J., M.D

*Richards, Professor H. C., D.Sc.
Riddle, A. R., M.Sc. . .

Ridgeway, J. E,

Rimmer, T., M.Sc.

Roberts, F. H. S., D.Sc.

*Robertson, J. . .

Robertson, W. N., C.M.G., M.B.

Robinson, V.

Roe, R., B.Sc.

Russell, E., M.B., Ch.M

Schindler, C., M.A.

Scott, Miss F. E., B.Sc.

Seddon, Professor H. R., D.V.Sc. . .
Shaw, B. E., A.M.I.E.

B'ox 109, Canberra, F.C.T,

Health Department, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane.

Cressbrook, via Toogoolawah.

‘ ‘ Fancourt, ' ' Wickham Terrace, Bris*
bane.

Department of Agriculture, Mackay.
Preston House, Queen Street, Brisbane.
Russell Street, Toowoomba.

The University, Brisbane.

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

Department of Public Instruction, George
Street, Brisbane.

care of Mining Warden, Charters Towers.
97 Wickham Street, Brisbane.
Agricultural Pligh School and College,
Lawes.

Wilson Road, Nundah.

The University, Brisbane.

District Engineer, St. George.
Agricultural College, Lawes.

A.M.P. Building, Edward Street, Bris-
bane.

The University, Brisbane.

Lands Department, Brisbane.

Box 332, P.O., Lismore, New South
Wales.

The University, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture, Brisbane,
care of Courier-Mail, Queen Street, Bris-
bane

Gregory Terrace, Brisbane.

Toowoomba.

Geological Survey Office, Rockhampton.
97 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

The Abattoir, Cannon Hill, Brisbane.
Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly.
Assistant Bacteriologist, City Hall, Bris-
bane.

^ ' Craigston, " 217 Wickham Terrace,

Brisbane.

Geology Department, University, Bris-
bane.

Queensland Agricultural College, Lawes.
63 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Oxford House, Bundaberg.

The University, Brisbane.

Irrigation Commission, College Road,
Brisbane.

^■Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

XVIII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Shaw, J. G., B.Sc.Agr.

Shell, G. W

*Shepherd, E. M., B.E.

*Simmoiids, J. H., M.Sc.

Simonds, Prof. E. F., M.A., B.Sc.,
Ph.D.

Sinclair, W. M., M.B.

Sloan, W. J. S., B.Sc.Agr.

*Smith, F. B., B.Sc., F.I.C

Smith, J. H., M.Sc

Sparks, H. J

Steel, W. H., M.B

Stephenson, S., M.A. . .

Stoney, A. J., B.E.E. . .

Strong, T. H., B.Sc.Agr.

Summerville, W. A. T., M.Sc.

Tarleton, A., M.B.

Taylor, G. C., M.B., Ch.M

Thelander, C., M.B., Ch.B., F.E.A.C.S.

Thomas, L., M.Sc.

Thorn, St. G. . .

Tommern.p, E. C., AI.Sc.

Trist, A., M.Sc.

*Turner, A. J., M.D., F.E.S

*Veitch, R, B.Sc

Waddle, I., M.Sc

Wadley, J. B

Watkins, S. B., M.Sc.

Watson, Miss K., B.A.

Webster, H. C., AI.Sc., Ph.D., F.I.P.,

F.E.M.S.

Weddell, J. A. . . . . . .

Wells, W. G

*White, C. T., F.L.S

White, E. L. D., B-.E

White, M., M.Sc., Ph.D

*Whitehouse, F. W., Ph.D., M.Sc.

Whitehouse, Miss M., M.Sc.

Wiley, W. J., D.Sc.

Children’s Hospital, Brisbane.

care of Shell Oil Co., Breakfast Creek
Eoad, Brisbane.

131 Gladstone Eoad, South Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Toowoomba.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Eockhampton.

Hutton’s Factory, Zillmere.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Nambour.

350 Queen street, Brisbane'.

Eosemoimt Hospital, Windsor.

Buys’ Grammar School, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

W^aite Institute, Adelaide, S.A.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Nambour.

69 Vulture Street, West End, Brisbane.

Ballow Chambers, W’ickham Terrace,
Brisbane.

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane.

Post Office, Stanthorpe.

Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly.

Agricultural Experiment Station, South
Johnstone.

Forestry Department, Brisbane.

Dauphin Street, Highgate Hill.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

Brisbane State High School, Musgrave

Park, Brisbane.

Salt Street, Albion.

Central Technical College, Brisbane.

Queensland Museum, Brisbane.

University of Queensland, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

Government Botanist, Botanic Gardens,
Brisbane.

^‘Doonholm, ” Walmsley Street, Kan-
garoo Point.

Abattoir, Cannon Hill, Brisbane.

Geological Department, University, Bris-
bane

Glennie School, Toowoomba.

care of Government Analyst, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Kirkland Avenue, Coorparoo.

Wilkinson, Professor H. J., M.D,
Wilson, E.

Associate Member.

Archibald, Miss L., M.Sc. . . . . The University, Brisbane.

*Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

David Whyte, Government Printer, Brisbane.

Ik

t

CONTENTS.

Volume XLIX.

No. 1.-
No. 2.-

-Presidential Address: Agriculture and Migration in Queens-
land: By Professor J. K. Murray, B.A., B.Sc.Agr.

-EURYPHYLLUMy A NEW GENUS OF PERMIAN ZAPHRENTOID CoRALS :

By Dorothy Eill, M.Sc., Ph.D.

No. 3.-

No. 5.-
No. 6.-
No. 7.-

-The Zeolites of Queensland: By Marjorie J. Whitehouse, B.Sc.
-The Genus Iseilema in Queensland : By ,S. T. Blake, M.Sc. . .

No. 8.-

-Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora, Part XII. —
CiNNAMOMUM Oliveri: By T. G. E. Jones, D.Sc., atid
F. N. Lahey, M.Sc, . . . . . .

No. 9.-

-The Establishment of a Seismological Station in Queensland :

By W. E. Bryan, M.C., D.Sc. . . . .

PAGES/^Si

•^VS,

1-22#^

23-2&'f^

-An iNVESTTGA-noN OF THE Taint OF Bib Bones OF Bacon; the
Determination of Halophilic Vibrios (n. spp.) : By
F. Berry Smith, D.Sc., F.I.C. . .

28-52 ®

- ■

No. 4. — ^Notes on Australian Muscoidea III Subfamilies Dexiineae
Phasiineae, some Tachineae, and Appendix: By G. E.
Eardy . . . . . . . . . . . . ^ . .

53-70 :

71-81 V

.1

82-94

-Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora, Part XI.,
Melaleuca viridiplora: By T. G. E. Jones, D.Sc., and
W. L. Eaenke, B.Sc., B.Sc. (App.) ..

95-98

99-103 ,

104-105

No. 10.-

-The Gayndah Earthquake of 1935: By W. H. Bryan, M.C.,
D.Sc., and F. W. Whitehouse, M.Sc., Ph.D. . .

106-119

No. 11.-

-Studies in Oriental and Australian Trypaneidae^ — Part II.:
By F. A. Perkins, B.Sc.Agr. . . ....

120-144

No. 12.-

-The Upland Savannahs of the Bunya Mountains: By D. A.
Eerhert, D.Sc.

145-149

No. 13.-

-Alternaria Passiplorae, n. sp., the Causal Organism op Brown
Spot op the Passion Vine : By J. H. Simmonds, M.Sc. . .

150-151

No. 14.-

-Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora, Part XIII. —
Backhousia Hughesii: By T. G. E. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.,
and F. N, Lahey, M.Sc. '. . . . ....

No. 15.-
No. 16.-

-Notes on Australian Cyperaceae IJ.: By S. T. Blake, M.Sc.

152-153 :

154-155 :

-The Plant Communities of Western Queensland and their
Eelationships with Special Beference to Tiffi Grazing
Industry: By S. T. Blake, M.Sc. ..

156-204 S

PROCEEDINGS

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OFFICERS, 19384939.

President :

Professor H. C. EICHAEDS, H.Sc.

V ice-Presidents :

Professor L. S. BAGSTEE, D.Se.
H. A. LONGMAN, F.Z.S.

Hon. Treasurer: Hon. Secretary:

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CONTENTS.

Volume L.

No. 1. — Presidential Address: Alchemy, Ancient and Modern: By

Professor L. S. Bagster, D.Sc.

No. 2. — Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora, Part XIV.,
Eucalyptus conglomerata : By F. N. Lahey, M.Sc., and

T. G. H. Jones,.. D.Sc., A.A.G.I

No. 3. — 1-g-Phellandrene and Its Monohydrochloride, Part I. By
N. C. Hancox, B.Sc., and T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.G.I.

No. 4. — The Eed Earth Eesiduals and Their Significance in South-
Eastern Queensland: By W. H. Bryan, D.Sc.

No. 5. — Notes on Australian Muscoidia IV. : By G. H. Hardy . .

No. 6. — A New Derivative of Terpinen — 4 — ol. : By N. C. Hancox, B.Sc.,
and T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.G.I.

No. 7. — Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora, Part XV.,
Backhousia Bancroftii and Daphnandra rapandula: By
F. N. Lahey, M.Sc., and T. G. E. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.G.I.

No. 8. — Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora, Part XVI.,
Eucalyptus microcorys: By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.G.I.
and F. N. Lahey, M.Sc.

No. 9. — The Gastro-Intestinal Helminths of Cattle in Queensland:
Their Distribution and Pathogenic Importance: By F.

E. S. Boherts, D.Sc.

No. 10. — The Middle Devonian Eugose Corals of Queensland, I. Douglas
Creek and Drummond Creek, Clermont District: By
Dorothy Eill, M.Sc. (Qld.), Ph.D. (Gantah.) . . , . .

No. 11. — Contributions to the Queensland Flora, No. 6: By C. T. White

No. 12. — A Monograph of the Genus E'Leocharis in Australia and New
Zealand: By S. T. Blalce, M.Sc

No. 13. — New Australian Lepidoptera: By A. Jefferis Turner, M.D.,

F. B.E.S

No. 14. — Artificial Eipening of Oranges: By L. S. Bagster, D.Sc.,

A.A.G.I., and MadoUne V. Gonnah, M.Sc.

Pages.

1-9

10-13

14-20

21-32

33-39

40

41-42

43-45

46-54

55-65

66-87

88-132

133-152

153-160

VOL. L., No. 1.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of

Queensland.

Presidential Address.

ALCHEMY, ANCIENT AND MODERN.

By Professor L. S. Bagster, D.Sc.

(Delivered before the Royal Society of Qiceensland, 28th March, 1938.)

Perhaps the first step taken by one under the necessity of writing
a presidential address is to find what his predecessors in office have
talked about. I find, as is natural, addresses on general or particular
scientific subjects, especially recent advances; though on several
occasions speakers have rather discussed scientific aspects of human
affairs in general, and our own in particular. This I consider all to the
good. While a Royal Society exists for the encouragement of science
and the extension of scientific knowledge, it would be quite wrong to
neglect the relationship of that knowledge to the community.

With increasing application of scientific knowledge to practical
ends and evidence that some social disturbance is so created, it is a
bounden duty of the scientist to take his part in helping towards a
scientific ordering of the general life. You may not agree with the
suggestion that the people who pay the piper should call the tune, but
those who pay certainly would. It is our duty to show that our music
is the best — that a scientific outlook and ordering of affairs will lead to
greater general progress.

If in my subject to-night — ‘‘Alchemy, Ancient and Modern” — I try
to give a human interest to the historical development of science and to
point to practical and useful results of most modem developments, I
make no apology, for I feel that none is needed.

The popular idea of the mediieval alchemist as a knave and impostor
taking advantage of the credulity of the time is far from the truth.
The early history of science is largely the early history of chemistry,
and the many important early discoveries are entirely the work of the
alchemists.

As the first scientists, lost in prehistoric time, we may consider
the men who reasoned out the cause of fire and learned how to produce
it at will. Given fire, we have other prehistoric Newtons who developed
crude cooking and metallurgy. Accidental use of ores, such as those
of iron, in the fireplace would give rise to metal, followed by cmde
metallurgy. As chemistry deals largely with changes produced by
change of conditions, we have here crude chemical operations — af course,
treated as yet as arts.

By the beginning of the Christian era knowledge of arts had so
developed that intelligent beings had sufficient facts to attempt to
reason as to cause and effect.

The Greeks were among the first in the field with a theory of matter
not very different from that at present accepted — that matter consisted of
atoms alike for one type of matter, indestruetible but composed of some

5EP 1 1 W39

2 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROiYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

common constituents. Though nearly true, it was based on speculation
rather than evidence. The G-reeks, and later the Eomans, seem to have
despised labour, and experimental work was hardly thought of.
Soldiering and administration were accepted occupations ; work was
left to slaves. Even the engineers of Greek and, especially, Roman
times were often slaves. (I have even heard friends in that profession
suggest that their case is not very different now.) Practical achievement
only began when the Greek theories were taken up practically by workers
in Egypt at Alexandria, where alchemy apparently originated. It has
been suggested that actually there was a considerable chemical know-
ledge in Egypt centuries earlier, in the hands of the priests. If so, they
were careful to keep their knowledge secret, and we know nothing of
it. It would be a valuable source of miracles and wonders with which
to amaze and awe a very ignorant and superstitious populace. Be this
true or not, there is no doubt that by the third century a.d. a consider-
able knowledge of chemical operations was gained, classed under the
name, at first, of ‘‘chemeia,’’ later by the Arabs named ‘‘alchemy.”
Alchemy is now usually associated with the early period when, following
Greek theory, transmutation of elements was considered possible, and
early experimental work was chiefly directed to this end, particularly the
conversion of base metals to gold.

Much of the Alexandrian knowledge has been lost to us through
this belief. Though most of the workers were honest and convinced of
the possibility of converting one metal to another, there were, as at
present, those ready to take advantage of an opportunity, and these,
selling various alloys as gold, finally became such a nuisance that the
Roman emperor Diocletian, who was in control of Egypt, ordered all
books on alchemy to be destroyed. Although Egypt was the birthplace
of alchemy, its cradle was Arabia, for by the sixth century Islam had
spread over Asia Minor, Arabia, North Africa, and Spain. The centres
of this empire were Damascus and Baghdad, where culture and know-
ledge were encouraged, the learning of Greece and Egpyt being fully
utilised. Here from 600 to 800 a.d. — the European dark ages — learning
flourished and alchemy grew exceedingly. Its exponents were still
guided by the search for transmutation, believing in the common origin
of matter. They were not impostors, however, but serious and
exceedingly intelligent workers. The ordinary chemical operations of
calcination, extraction, filtration, distillation, &c., were developed.
Naturally, many new substances were produced, including nitric acid —
not an easy substance to handle.

The most famous of these Arabians — Geber — lived and worked at
the time of Haroun al-Raschid. He wrote a number of works still in
existence describing his discoveries, and I might quote from one to
show his outlook: —

‘ ‘ The first essential in chemistry is that thou shouldst
perform practical work and conduct experiments, for he who
performs not practical work nor makes experiments will never
attain to the least degree of mastery. But thou, 0 my son, do
thou experiment so that thou mayst acquire knowledge.

“Scientists delight not in abundance of material; they
rejoice only in the excellence of their experimental methods.”

With the revival of learning in Europe which was coincident with
the decay of the Arab empire, Arabian knowledge spread to Europe,
particularly through the monasteries.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

3

Through the Middle Ages the practice of what we may call
“alchemy” flourished and increased in Europe. Still transmutation
was a guiding principle. Though workers believed in the “philosopher’s
stone” that, if discovered, would enable them to achieve their object
of making gold, they followed up any discoveries with a true spirit of
inquiry. Apart from, the monks, interest spread among the nobility —
the only other group with leisure and wealth to devote to it. In
England Prince Rupert was a skilled worker. Often princes and rulers,
interested but not skilled, would support and employ alchemists. This
naturally lead to imposture, and several impostors in Europe were
hanged for their pains. One alchemist, wiser than most, refused the
invitation of a German noble on the grounds that if he could make
gold he had no need for the prince, and if not the prince had no need for
him. Another German prince and his court were persuaded by an
Arab impostor that he could make gold, but that he needed some gold
to start his process. The whole court gathered in the workroom and
threw their contribution into a furnace. The Arab threw in his own
preparation, when there was an explosion, with much fume and smoke.
When the smoke cleared, so had the Arab and the gold.

Happenings of this sort do not alter the fact that the real alchemist
was an investigator who made many discoveries of new chemical com-
pounds and investigated their properties. Astrology and similar
nonsense were mixed with the more serious work at times. This mixture
of humbug and valuable knowledge is used by Scott in “Kenilworth,”
where Weyland Smith poses to the ignorant as something of a magician,
but on occasion is able to provide drugs necessary for saving of life.
The humbug doubtless impressed the ignorant, and from them could
be collected the wherewithal to carry on.

Although the doctrine of transmutation persisted until the
seventeenth century, it was realized by the fifteenth century that its
actual achievement was unlikely, and gradually interest turned to
various substances discovered and their possible use in medicine.

The most, famous name in this connection is Paracelsus, a Swiss,
born in 1493, the son of a physician, who taught him the scientific
knowledge of the time. Time would not permit an account of his life,
but while quite young he wandered through Europe gathering further
knowledge of alchemy, astrology, and medicine. Possessed of forceful
personality and great conceit of his own ability, he was able to persuade
others to take him at his valuation, and secured the post of city physician
at Basel. Being exceedingly bombastic and quarrelsome, he soon had
the whole of his medical fraternity ‘ ‘ b}^ the ears. ’ ’ He attracted general
attention by his attacks on alchemy as then practised, and he preached
the doctrine of medical chemistry, possibly mainly to be in opposition
to his colleagues. While one shudders at the probable sufferings of the
mute, inglorious victim of his experiments, his preaching did much to
start alchemy on more useful lines.

Before leaving the alchemists I will mention one of the earliest
scientific nutrition experiments of which we have record. This was due,
according to tradition, to a German monk — Basil Valentine — who is
supposed to have lived at the same period as Paraicelsus, but who,
unlike him, was the author of a large volume of chemical discovery,
including antimony and some of its compounds. His antimony residues
were thrown out and eaten by the monastery pigs, who grew and
flourished exceedingly. Ascribing this to the antimony, Valentine

4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

decided to see whether it would have a similar effect on his fellow
monks. With true scientific spirit, he added an antimony preparation
to their food, but, in accord with scientific procedure, he used a control
whose food had no antimony added. He himself was the control. The
derivation of the word ‘‘antimony” is supposed to be “anti moine”
— monks’ enemy. Evidently pigs and monks present different nutrition
problems.

This tale of the old alchemists ends with the Civil War in England.
A new one begins with Charles II. During his reign lived two of
England’s most famous men — Newton and Boyle. During his reign,
also, was founded the Royal Society of London. To Boyle we owe the
final abandonment of the doctrine of transmutation accepted for nearly
2,000 years. He set out the actual position of what he called the
elementary substances, which could by no means be split up. From
Boyle’s time — say, 1660 — until the end of the last century, we have
what we might call the “atomic period,” when it was accepted that the
group of about ninety substances so called elements were quite
indestructible and unchangeable — as, indeed, they were with the means,
chemical and physical, at that time available. It was J. J. Thomson,
of the Cavendish Laboratory, who in 1897 first shattered the beliefs of
the chemists in the unique nature of their atoms when he showed that
electrons less than one-thousandth the size of the smallest atom
(hydrogen) could be produced by electric discharge from all types of
atoms, and that all atoms furnished identical negatively charged
electrons. The discovery of radium and other radio-active elements a
little later, in the hands of Rutherford — Thomson’s successor at Cam-
bridge— gave rise to what I may call the modern period of alchemy
where first elements were shown to be changing and later new elements
were built up.

One need refer biit briefly to the general facts of radio-activity —
that radium and other radio-active elements emit radiation of three
types — a very penetrating group: first, gamma rays, which are a true
radiation of the same nature as X-rays; second, the beta rays, identical
with the negatively charged electrons of the electric discharge tube ; and
third, the alpha radiation ; this was found to consist of positively charged
particles of considerable mass, actually about four times as heavy as the
hydrogen atom. The alpha particles were soon shown by Rutherford
and Soddy to end their life as helium atoms. Helium is a gas present
in very small amount in the air. It has not been very difficult to prove
that the loss of alpha particles leaves new and lighter atoms behind
until finally an inert residue of lead only remains. This disintegration
theory is now generally accepted, and consequently the nineteenth-
century conception of the atom as something unalterable and indestruc-
tible has had to be modified. Until quite recently, however, man had
no control over such atomic disintegration. No change of condition
within his reach had any effect whatever on the rate or nature of radio
change. Of these radiations, the alpha particles have proved the most
interesting scientifically, as they have enabled the interior of the atom
to be explored and for the first time have enabled the actual breakdown
of non-radio-active atoms to be accomplished. The alpha particle moves
with a velocity of tens of thousands of miles per second and can pene-
trate not only through matter but through the atoms themselves, usually
in a straight path. This path can be determined by electrical measure-
ments and actually demonstrated photographically. Occasionally the
particles are deflected from the straight path. A study of the deflection

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

5

enabled Rutherford to give us a very definite picture of an atom. The
atom consists of a small central nucleus positively charged, with sufficient
negative electrons, forming a sort of planetary system, just to neutralise
the positive charge of the nucleus. By study of specti’a, of alpha
particle scattering, and of the nature of X-rays emitted from different
elements, the actual number of electrons has been determined for all
atoms, the extremes being one only for hydrogen and ninety-two for the
heaviest atom — uranium. The weight of an atom lies in the nucleus;
the simplest and lightest atom (hydrogen) is considered to have a simple
nucleus. This hydrogen nucleus or proton is almost certainly the unit
from which the nucleus of heavier atoms is built. The proton carries a
positive charge of electricity. Heavier atoms contain in the nucleus
sufficient protons to balance the total negative charge of the surrounding
electrons. The atoms in general have, however, a greater weight com-
pared with hydrogen than can be accounted for by the number of
electrons (and corresponding number of protons). The extra weight is
accounted for by neutral groups consisting of pairs of electron plus
proton actually contained within the nucleus. Those electrons are in
addition to what may be called the free electrons surrounding the
nucleus. Such neutral pairs, called ‘‘neutrons,” have recently actually
been detected, driven from atomic nuclei by alpha-ray bombardment.

The chemical properties of atoms are due almost entirely to the
external electron grouping; the weight and certain physical properties
depend on the nucleus. Recently it has been found possible to separate
most chemical elements into separate fra'ctions whose atomic weights
are slightly different though their chemical properties are identical.
For our purpose we may consider the atomic weight as the weight of an
atom compared with the weight of an atom of hydrogen; thus the
atomic weight represents the number of protons and neutrons in the
atom. The different atoms with the same electron grouping have the
same chemical properties, and all represent chemically one element.
They are called “isotopes.” They differ only in the number of inert
neutron groups in the nucleus. While a few elements have no isotope,
some have two and many have several; tin has about a dozen. Except
in one case, the isotopes of one element have atomic weights close
together. The exception is hydrogen, which contains but the one proton
and one free electron ; it is the one element that contains no neutron.

It has one isotope now called “deuterium,” which still has one
free electron and one proton, but has also one neutron in the nucleus.
In this case one isotope is twice as heavy as the other; this great
difference causes considerable difference in properties, and deuterium is
the one isotope that has been separated in a pure state. Hydrogen and
its isotope differ from other atoms in another way. I have already told
how a high-tension electric discharge in a vacuum can remove electrons
from atoms. Actually, it is very difficult to remove more than one
electron, so that hydrogen and deuterium are the only elements that
have a bare nucleus left in the process.

Atoms with an electron removed have, of course, a positive charge
and are said to be ionised. Such ionised gases quickly pick up the
necessary electron and revert to ordinary atoms. The only other
particles with no electrons that we know of are the neutron already
mentioned and the alpha particle. This last is formed by break-up of
the nucleus of radio-active elements. It is formed of two neutrons and
two protons. Ejected with high velocity, it quickly slows down and

6 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

picks up the necessary electrons to form helium. Although the bare
particle can apparently penetrate actually through atoms, the final
helium atom has lost this power. While the planetary electrons occupy
only a minulte fraction of the effective volume of the atom, they are
in such rapid movement that different portions are continually occupied
and interpenetration is entirely prevented. Thus it is easy to remove
an electron, but very difficult to reach the nucleus, which it is necessary
to attack if a permanent change in the atom is to be effected. Success
has been attained by the use of four high-speed particles free from
planetary electrons — the proton, deuteron, alpha particle, and neutron.
Of these, the neutron is itself obtained by bombarding atoms of small
atomic weight with alpha particles, and is itself a product of actual
atomic break-up.

All four are now used to attack the nucleus, and all cause nuclear
rearrangement with the actual formation of new elements. The first
and classic experiment is that carried out in Rutherford’s laboratory,
where nitrogen gas was exposed to alpha-ray bombardment. There is
a very beautiful method for following the passage of the alpha or similar
fast-moving particles through moist gas, where they leave a trail of
ionised gas in their track. The ions act as nuclei for condensation of
water vapour and produce a thin fog track which can be photographed.
The alpha-ray track is nearly always a straight line, but in nitrogen
very occasionally a forked track appears, one branch of the fork being
longer than the original tracks. From its behaviour, this new track
could only be ascribed to a proton or hydrogen nucleus, which, of course,
as it slowed down, would acquire an electron and become an ordinary
atom. The second branch of the fork is shorter than the original. As
we have to assume that the helium and nitrogen nuclei hawe collided
and the proton has escaped, we must regard the second track as due
to the combined residues. From the number of protons (8) and
neutrons (9), we should have a new combined nucleus with an atomic
weight of 1-17, but with an electron grouping and chemical properties
of oxygen, atomic weight 16 — an oxygen isotope. It is interesting to
know that quite recently this isotope has been found to exist in small
proportion in the atmosphere, and a partial separation has even been
effected. This experiment, carried out in 1925, is an effective demon-
stration of the first artificial transmutation of an element. The actual
amount of material changed was almost infinitely small and quite
incapable of chemical recognition. Later it was found that protons
could be driven from most of the lighter elements up to potassium, but
that the heavier elements could not be attacked, possibly because the
greater number of positively charged protons in the nucleus exerted
so great a repulsive force on the positively charged alpha particle that
it could not app.roach the nucleus.

Rutherford’s explanation of transmutation was at first regarded
as ingenious and very probable, but later accumulation of evidence
has shown him to have been actually correct. The most important of
the recent discoveries was that made by the daughter of Madam Curie,
the discoverer of radium, in collaboration with M. Joliot. They found
that some of the lighter elements already known to undergo nuclear
change also acquired a temporary radio-activity which persisted after
removal from the alpha-ray bombardment. Next it was shown that both
protons from hydrogen and deuterons from its isotope, accelerated to
high speed in an electric field, could also induce temporary radio-
activity.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

7

There is no doubt that we have here an actual transmutation with
formation of new elements. The projectile particles penetrate the
atomic nuclei, forming new and unstable atoms. So far the quantities
produced have been far too small for actual' chemical isolation, but
there is undoubted chemical proof that new properties have been
developed. Electrical methods are far more sensitive than chemical,
and the radio-activity of the minute quantities is readily detected and
may be used to follow the atoms during chemical reactions. As an
example, we may take aluminium bombarded with alpha particles. The
aluminium is dissolved in acid containing a small amount of phosphate.
The added phosphate is then separated from the aluminium. All the
radio-activity is now with the phosphorus, and no chemical process will
separate it. The new element is thus a new isotope of phosphorus;
in fact, all of the many new radio-active elements are isotopes of common
stable elements. During their radio change they revert sometimes to
an ordinary stable form of an element, sometimes to a new stable isotope.
If carbon is bombarded with protons and then burnt, a minute quantity
of gas is produced which gives all the tests for nitrogen except that it is
radio-active. From the numbers of protons and neutrons involved, this
unstable nitrogen has the same 7 protons as nitrogen, but has 6 instead
of 7 neutrons and an atomic weight of 13 instead of 14. Both these new
elements have a short life, half-disappearing in a few minutes.

Transformations produced by protons and deuterons are more
definitely artificially produced than those first discovered with alpha
particles, as these are natural products, while the protons are themselves
artificial and the whole series of changes becomes artificial.

An interesting feature of many of the large number of artificial
elements now known is that they emit, not electrons, but particles of
electron size with a positive instead of negative charge. These positrons
had just been discovered as a product of the strange cosmic rays that
reach us from space, when their production in quantity from the new
elements was discovered. They disappear when they lose their velocity,
by interaction with electrons, both apparently being converted to some
form of radiant energy. The loss of a positron causes a positive proton
of the nucleus to change to a neutron, and the nucleus, with now a
different total charge, forms a new type of atom naturally more stable.
Thus the active nitrogen previously described has in its nucleus 7 protons
and 6 neutrons. The radio change evolves a positron, leaving a nucleus
with 6 protons and 7 neutrons. This will hold externally 6 electrons,
as does carbon, of which it will be an isotope.

The neutron, already mentioned as a nuclear constituent and as a
product driven from lighter nuclei by alpha particles, can itself be
used as a projectile with most interesting results. Having no electric
charge, it can penetrate the larger nuclei that, as already explained,
the charged proton and alpha particle cannot reach.

An Italian worker (Fermi) claims to have thus added a neutron
to the nucleus of uranium, the heaviest known element, producing a
new element heavier than any natural one.

With sulphur, neutrons produce an isotope of phosphorus that must
be assigned an atomic weight of 32. This is different from natural phos-
phorus of atomic weight 31, and also it is radio-active. It is also
different from the active phosphorus from aluminium, which must have an
atomic weight of 30. This sulphur product has a life of several weeks.

8 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

instead of the few minutes of the aluminium product. All three forms
of phosphorus have the same chemical reactions and cannot be separated
from one another. All have 15 protons in the nucleus, but the different
forms have 15, 16, and 17 neutrons.

The sulphur product gives off electrons from the neutrons in its
nucleus and reverts to sulphur. Not all the active elements revert to
their original parent. Sodium bombarded with deuterons sets free
protons which can be detected by the method already described for
nitrogen.

The neutrons of the deuterium are absorbed by the sodium. This
produces no change in the electron system. The new product is still
sodium, but it is an isotope, and the new nucleus is unstable ; the product
is radio-active. Like the phosphorus just described, it gives off an
electron from its neuclear neutron. This electron omission, of course,
is readily measured. The original sodium contained 11 electrons and
12 neutrons in the nucleus ; the radio-active sodium 11 electrons and 13
neutrons. After emitting an electron from a neutron, the nucleus will
contain 12 electrons and 12 protons. This is a change to an entirely
new element — magnesium. At present some of the changes have an
entirely speculative basis. I have described some of the ehemical

evidence in the case of the radio-active bodies, but once stable products
are formed this method fails, and, as the quantities are so small, we are
left only with the evidence of the various types of interacting groups
and emitted particles. In this case there is no direct evidence for the
magnesium.

This radio-active sodium is one of the most interesting of the new
bodies. Professor Lawrence, of California, has built an exceedingly
powerful apparatus for producing by electrical acceleration a very
intense stream of deuterons. With this he has produced sufficient
radio-active sodium to have for a few hours an activity nearly equal to
a milligram of radium: — a quantity often used medicinally. This has
two important aspects : First, it suggests a cheap source of material for
cancer treatment — a material, moreover, that would in a few days
become a harmless natural substance already in the body in quantity,
while radium products may maintain harmful activity; second, with a
more powerful deuteron stream, which is possible, quantities sufficient
for chemical examination and determination of nature of final product
may be obtained.

As another example of the practical value of the new discoveries,
I will describe how radio-active phosphorus from sulphur has been used
to trace the history of the phosphorus in living organisms. Rats have
been fed with a ration containing sodium phosphate which itself
contained sufficient radio-phosphorus for easy detection electrically.
All chemical tests have shown that the active and ordinary phosphorus
are quite inseparable, and where one is the other will be.

By examining the excreta and finally killing the animals, it was
possible to trace the movement of all the phosphorus fed. It was thus
shown that the average phosphorus atom only stays in the body of the
rat a couple of mjonths, and even in the skeleton 30 per cent, of the
element is replaced every three weeks. Similar experiments were made
with maize seedlings. These were grown in ordinary nutrient medium
containing phosphate till two leaves had fully developed, when radio-
phosphorus was added to the solution and the two next leaves were

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

0

developed. Both sets of leaves had the same radio content, showing that
phosphorus taken up later was added equally to all the leaves. This^
of course, means that the element was continually shifting and that
phosphorus compounds are not permanently fixed in a plant. Possibly
we are at the beginning of a new era in physiological as well as chemical
and physical history.

10

VoL. L., No. 2.

Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora — Part
XIV. — Eucalyptus Conglomerata.

By F. N. Lahey, M.Sc., and T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.

Department of Chemistry, University of Queensland.

(Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland, 21th June, 1938.)

The botanical characters of this Eucalypt have been described by
Maiden and Blakely. As pointed out by them, it closely resembles the
common stringybark. Eucalyptus eugenioides, except that it favours
sandy, swamp country, whence its common name — Swamp Stringybark.
Unlike E. eugenioides, however, its distribution seems to be limited to a
few small areas, those recorded being at Beerwah (Queensland) and
Glen Innes (New South Wales).

Mr. C. T. White, Government Botanist, drew our attention to it,
growing in the swamps around Beerwah. It was found easy to
distinguish it from E. eugenioides by smelling the crushed leaves of
each, for the odour of the former is very unusual and, if anything,
unpleasant, while that of the latter is the common cineol-pinene odour.
The oil from the leaves of this Eucalypt has been investigated.

The yield of oil obtained from the leaves was low, ranging from
•12 to *2 per cent.

The principal constituents identified in the oil are 1-a-phellandrene,
two sesquiterpenes, a sesquiterpene alcohol, a trace of cineol, and an
unidentified alcohol. Pinene was not identified, although it may have
been present in amounts too small to be recognised. Of particular
interest was the isolation of a white crystalline solid from the aqueous
distillate from the steam distillation of the leaves. The solid appeared
to be soluble in water, for it came out of solution very slowly on standing,
but was rapidly thrown out on the addition of salt. The same solid was
also found in the residue in the still after the first distillation of the
oil. The present paper deals only with the preliminary work carried
out on this solid. The work so far seems to indicate that the substance
has not been described previously, and consequently a thorough investi-
gation into its properties and constitution is necessary. This work is
in progress.

EXPERIMENTAL.

Leaves and terminal branchlets weighing 250 lb. were subjected
to steam distillation, and yielded 140 c.c. of oil. The water from the
steam distillation was kept and coarse salt dissolved in it. The crude
white solid which came out was filtered off. This weighed 7 grams.
Three hundred and forty pounds of leaves, collected in November, 1937,
yielded 305 c.c. of oil and 15 grams of crude solid from the aqueous
distillate.

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM THE QUEENSLAND FLORA — PART XIV., ETC. 11

The two samples of oil had the following constants : —
A B

dig. 5

•9451

d

U-lg.g

•9547

[a]D

5-7

C^]d • • • * • •

7-3

1-4980

lijj

1-4986

Ester Value

0

Ester Value

0

Ester Value after

62-8

Ester Value after

56

Acetylation
Acid Number

0

Acetylation
Acid Number

0

The oil (B) was subjected to fractional distillation at 2mm. pressure,
when the following fractions were obtained : —

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

d

15-5

Oil collected in liquid ammonia trap

Md

•8636 18-5 1-4723

70-80°C. . .

80-92°C. . .

92-1 12°C. ..
112-128°C.

insufficient for determinations
. . -921 11 1-5033

. . -961 6-3 1-4984

(a thick green oil).

The residue in the flask solidified on cooling. After removing the
adhering oil on a porous plate and purifying further by recrystallisation,
the solid proved to be identical with that separated from the aqueous
distillate from steam distillation.

The characteristic odour of pinene was not observed in the oil
collected in the liquid ammonia trap. Furthermore, the oil failed to
yield any sign of a nitrosochloride. This fraction, however, readily gave
a nitrosite in good yield, which when recrystallised from acetone —
water, melted at 112° C. and was identical with 1-a -phellandrene- -nitrite.

The remainder of this fraction was shaken with 50 per cent, resorcin
solution. From this was recovered a trace only of cineol. No solid
derivative of cineol was formed, but the unmistakable odour and the
method of extraction are taken as proof of its presence.

The oil recovered after this treatment (IJ c.c.) was oxidised with
permanganate, but no trace of pinonic acid was found.

The small fraction b.p. 70-80° C. at 2 mm. had a very pleasant
odour and gave no reaction with 2, 4-dinitro-phenylhydrazine. Combus-
tion results indicated the presence of an oxygenated body. As only one
c.c. was available, an attempt was made to identify the probable alcohol
by means of its naphthyl urethane. Although a small quantity of
urethane was obtained, it was never isolated in a sufficiently pure state
to be identified by its melting point.

Fractions 3, 4, and 5 gave on repeated fractionation three principal
fractions, two of which contained sesquiterpenes, and the third a
sesquiterpene alcohol. These fractions had the following constants: —

(a)

80-82°C. (distilled over

^15*5

•9144

potassium

Md

-8-4

D

1-4913

(b)

91J— 92°C. (distilled over

^15-5

•9272

potassium)

Wd

d- 22-1

D

1-4950

(c)

107-109°C

• • dlg.g

•986

12

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

The constants of fraction (a) somewhat resembled those of aroma
dendrene. Five c.c. of this oil in carbon tetrachloride were treated with
ozone until absorption was complete. The oil recovered after decom-
positoin of the ozonide with warm water had the characteristic odour
associated with aromadendrone, although none of the latter crystallised
out even when kept for two months in the ice-chest.

Ten c.c. of the same fraction were treated with selenium at 280° C.
for two hours. A small quantity of an azulene (m.p. of picrate 120° C.)
was separated by means of phosphoric acid. The main bulk of the
recovered oil had density -9062 and gave combustion results indicating
it to be a CigHge body.

Combustion results: — Found — C 86-9 H 12-3

C15H26 requires C 87-38 H 12-62

Similar results were obtained with the other sesquiterpene
(b.p. 91^-92° C. at 2 mm.) on treatment with selenium. The recovered
oil this time had d^g.g -9156.

Combustion results: — Found — C 86-9 H 12-26

C15H26 requires C 87-38 H 12-62

No trace of either cadalene or eudalene could be found in either

case.

The results of combustion of fraction (c) supported the belief that
it was a sesquiterpene alcohol.

Found — C 80-8 H 11-8

C15H26O requires C 81-09 H 11-71

On treatment with formic acid under reflux for one hour, the

alcohol was
constants : —

converted into a

sesquiterpene

with the following

dig. 5

• • • •

•9208

Md

• • • •

28-2

20

D

• • • •

1-4942

Combustion results — C 87-7 H 11-9

C15H24 requires C 88-23 H 11-77

Unidentified Crystalline Solid. — This solid w^as removed from the
aqueous distillate derived from steam distillation by filtering at the
pump. It was purified by recrystallisation from petroleum ether, from
which it crystallised in white glistening needles m.p. 63-64° C. The
combustion results do not conform closely with any particular formula,
and the substance may therefore be a mixture of two homologues. The
formula which best fits the results is CigH^gO^.

Molecular weight determinations by East’s method gave values
of 227 and 246, and by the depression of freezing point of benzene a
value of 227 was obtained.

Ci3Hi8^4 has molecular weight 238.

Methoxyl results of 39, 38-9, 36, and 39-4 per cent, were obtained.
Three methoxyl groups are equivalent to 39-07 per cent, based on
formula C13H18O4.

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM THE QUEENSLAND FLORA — PART XIV., ETC. 13

On treatment with bromine in carbon tetrachloride the bromine was
only slowly absorbed with the evolution of HBr yielding a mixture of
bromides which could not be separated by recrystallisation.

On treatment with hot concentrated nitric .acid, dense fumes of
oxides of nitrogen were evolved. On pouring the resulting solution into
water a small quantity of a reddish solid was isolated. This had m.p.
165° C. The amount of this material available was too small for analysis.
It was thought that it might be identical with dinitrophloroglucinol-
trimethyl-ether, a white solid which rapidly turns reddish-brown on
keeping and has m.p. 165° C. This substance was synthesised, but
greatly depressed the m.p. of the nitro body mentioned above.

Oxidation and other reactions which are expected to throw light
on its constitution are at present being carried out, and the results of
these will be published at a later date.

EEFERENGE.

1. Maiden, J. H., and Blakely, W. F., Grit. Eev. Gen. Eucalyptus, Part LXXI.,

14

VoL. L., No. 3.

l-<^-Phellandrene and its Monohydrochloride.

Part I.

By N. C. Hancox, B.Sc., and T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.

Department of Chemistry, University of Queensland.

(Bead before thf Boyal Society of Queensland, 21tJi June, 1938.)

The present paper contains a description of the following work: —
{a) Isolation of pure 1-aphellandrene and determination of its
physical constants ;

( h ) Observations on the loss of optical activity of a-phellandrene,
and its stabilisation ;

(c) Investigation of the products obtained by hydrolysis of
phellandrene monohydrochloride.

(a) The a-phellandrene used was obtained from the essential oil
of Eucalyptus dives by fractional distillation under diminished pressure.
Besides phlellandrene, the oil was known to contain pinene; piperitone,
and a little cineol. Repeated fractionation removed the pinene and
piperitone, while the cineol, whose boiling-point is too close to that of
phellandrene to admit of separation in this way, was removed from the
product in the final stages by extraction with resorcinol. As phellan-
drene is extremely susceptibile to change on heating, the temperature
during distillation was kept as low as possible by working at pressures
between 1 and 5 mm. of mercury. The phellandrene fractions then
distilled at temperatures below 45° C. Any rise in temperature above
about 50° resulted in rapid destruction of the phellandrene, as indicated
by impoverished yields and a falling-off in thte rotation of the product.
The final material obtained had a much higher specific rotation than
any previously recorded in the literature, and so may be regarded as
the purest samples of 1-a-phellandrene hitherto obtained.

The first lot of oil distilled, consisting of about 1,400 c.c., yielded
122 c.c. of phellandrene with the following constants: —

(5 m.m.) 41°C.

•8455

1-4727
.. -133

A fresher sample of oil used to obtain material for later work
yielded a product of still greater purity. The purest sample obtained
consisted of about 240 c.c. withi the following constants: —

b-p . . . . . . . . (4-5 m.m.) 39°C.

-8369

ng 1-4728

[a]n • • • • • • • • — 168*5

Tile purest sample previously described in the literature (Smith,
Hurst, and Read, 1923), obtained also from E. dives, had the
constants : —

df -8410

1-4732

[a]i) . . . . . . . . — 112

b-p

4

n?5

D

[a]n

1-a-PHELLANDRENE AND ITS MONOHYDROCHLORIDE PART I.

15

The phellandrene used in the experiments on the hydrolysis of
phellandrene hydrochloride had specific rotations of between -136 and
-146, and material of this quality could be obtained in yields of about
12-14 per cent, of the original oil.

By repeated fractionation of the residual phellandrene fractions
to remove phellandrene as far as posssible, a product was obtained with

a rotation of —1°, and n^ 14880. This was identified as practically
pure p-cymene.

(1)) The Lass of Activity of 1-a-Phellandrene and its Stabilisation,
— The instability of phellandrene to heat has already been remarked on.
It also undergoes rapid decomposition on standing in contact with air
at atmospheric temperatures, with diminution of rotation, finally turning
to a yellow, viscous, and extremely sticky material. Observations on
the change in rotation with time were taken, with a view to finding the
conditions necessary for succesful preservation of samples of pure phel-
landrene. The use of solid hydroquinone as a preservative was suggested
by the known efficacy of this substance as an antioxidant in other eases.
The accompanying table contains readings, taken over a period of several
months, of the rotations of two samples of phellandrene, to one of which
hydroquinone was added, while the other served as a control. No special
care was taken to exclude air, the test-tubes containing the samples being
stoppered with ordinary corks. It will be seen that the hydroquinone
has the effect of diminishing the rate of change and, finally, after a value
of about — 80° had been reached, of stopping it entirely. Hydroquinone
was added to samples of phellandrene intended for use, but the most
important precaution was found to be the use of tightly-fitting rubber
stoppers to exclude air, for it can be seen from the table that hydro-
quinone alone will not entirely prevent the very rapid initial fall that
the rotation of highly purified phellandrene suffers. A sample of
phellandrene, of initial rotation -102*2°, without preservative, but very
carefully stoppered, showed a diminution in rotation of only 04° on
keeping in the dark for three months. On removing the stopper and
allowing to stand for a further two days, the rotation fell by 3*0°.

Table showing the Effect of Hydroquinone on the
Optical Activity of l-a-PnELLANDRENE,

Days.

Sample 1 (Control).

Sample 2 (1 gm. Hydroquinone).

0

105-2

105-2

2

102-0

103-5

9

93-5

98-2

14

87-0

94-7

24

74-9

88-1

35

64-4

85-8

52

54-8

82-7

72

45-0

81-3

100

39-8

81-1

154

28-1

80-0

218

14-9

79-3

246

9-0

78-8

356

0

78-8

Curves on the attached graph are from the above figures.

(The above figures are actual rotations in degrees, not specific
rotations.)

16

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

(c) Hydrolysis of Phellandrene Hydrochloride. — Bacon (1909) has
described a monohydrochloride of a-phellandrene, prepared by passing
dry hydrochloride acid gas to saturation into a solution of the pheUan-
drene in light petroleum. On distilling off the solvent, he describes the
monohydrochloride obtained as distilling at 80-83° (10 mm.), under-
going slight decomposition if heated above 84° C, and having the
constants : —

Cl == 20*2 per cent, (theoretical for CioHi^ Cl = 20-6 per cent,
erroneously given' at 20-3 per cent, in the original paper).

On treatment under reflux for six hours with alcoholic soda, he
claims that the material is converted to dipentene, which he identified
by means of its tetrabromide. Referring to Bacon’s work, Simonsen
(1931) says: ‘‘These results are somewhat unexpected, since the forma-
tion of dipentene requires a curious rearrangement of the ethylenic
linkages, and the formation of a-terpinene might have been anticipated.
Wallach has, in fact, shown that, with an alcoholic solution of HgSO^,
a phellandrene does isomerise to , a-terpinene, and a possible explanation
of Bacon ’s results is that the a-phellandrene used contained some dipen-
tene.” The present work fails to confirm Bacon’s results, either as
to the nature of a-phellandrene monohydrochloride, or as to the forma-
tion of dipentene. On the contrary, it is shown that the hydrolytic
product is a mixture of substances, among which the expected product,
a-terpinene, is actually present.

To prepare the hydrochloride, 1-a-phellandrene with (specific
rotations of between 136 and 146 was used. It was treated with HCl,
as in Bacon ’s experiment, using a solution of the material in an approxi-
mately equal volume of petroleum ether. In order to determine the
number of molecules of HCl added per molecule of phellandrene, an
analysis was carried out on a small portion of the hydrochloride obtained
as described above. The passage of HCl was continued until copious
evolution of fumes indicated that saturation had been reached, and the
material was then transferred to a known volume of standard alcoholic
soda. The whole was boiled under reflux, and the excess NaOH titrated
with standard acid. The result indicates only a small excess of HCl
over that required for the monohydrochloride, so that the formation of
dihydrochloride does not appear to occur to any appreciable extent.

Details : —

2 c.c. of phellandrene taken — i.e., 1-688 gm.

Hydrochloride treated with 30 c.c. alcoholic NaOH, equivalent to
22-8 c.c. N.Acid.

After hydrolysis 9-5 c.c. of acid was required to titrate excess
NaOH.

.'. HCl used = 13-3 c.c. ; 1 mol. of HCl requires 12-4 cc.

An attempt was made to isolate the phellandrene hydrochloride in
the pure state by removing the solvent at the water-pump. Contrary
to Bacon ’s observations, however, it was found that the material under-
went considerable decomposition with loss of HCl during this process,

1-4770

•960

1-a-PHELLANDRENE AND ITS MONOHYDROCHLORIDE — ^PART I. 17

and that, on attempting to distil the material obtained, under a pressure
even as low as 3 mm., complete loss of HCl occurred, although the
temperature was niuch lower than the published boiling-point of 83°
(10 mm.).

The material obtained after removal of the solvent at the water-pump
had the following constants; —

d||t -9000

15-5

n . . • • • • • • 1‘4731

D20

[^(xJd •• •• •• •• 45

A chlorine analysis gave the result Cl 1=: 12-3 per cent., very much

lower than the theoretical — viz., 20-6 per cent.

This material smeUed strongly of HCl, and gave off fumes at the
room temperature. It was then distilled at 3-4 mm. ; distillation occurred
at 40-44°, and the distillate gave no reaction at all when tested for the
presence of chlorine. Its constants were : —

-8476

1-4770

-44°

= 88-0 per cent., H = 11-9 per cent.
88-2 per cent., H = 11-8 per cent.).

1 15-5
15-5

20

n—

D

Md

Combustion results : — C :
(theoretical for C^oHie: — C =

Examination disclosed the presence of a-phellandrene and a-terpi-
nene. a-Phellandrene was identified by means of its nitrosite, which
melted after recrystallisation at 112° C. A portion of the substance was
next subjected to oxidation with alkaline permanganate in order to
obtain the characteristic oxidation product of a-terpinene. This
substance, ad -dihydroxy a-methyl d isopropyl adipic acid, after repeated
crystallisation from ethyl acetate melted at 190° C., and showed no
depression in a mixed melting-point test with a sample of the acid
obtained from authentic a-terpinene. The terminal decomposition of
phellandrene hydrochloride is thus found to follow the course expected
in theory.

In the first experiment on the hydrolysis of phellandrene hydro-
chloride with alcoholic soda, as performed by Bacon, the product was
partially separated into two fractions. These had the constants : —

•8645
. . 1-4802

.. -30°

(i) b.p. below 45° (4 m.m.)

d.

15*5
D

[a]n

n

(ii.)

b.p. 50°-65^

d.

15*5
20
D

[a]n

n

•8793
1-4660
. . -31°

Combustion results (i.) C = 87*8 per cent. H = 11*8 per cent.

(ii.) C = 80-1 per cent. H = 11-8 per cent.

18

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

These figures are consistent with the assumption that the fraction
(ii.) is an oxygenated compound of formula CioHieO or CioHjgO,
contaminated with fraction (i.) of the formula CioHig. Fraction (i.)
contained a -phellandrene and a-terpinene ; no tetrahromide could be
obtained, contrary to Bacon’s observation. Fraction (ii.), which, in
view of its physical constants, was thought to be of a ketonic nature,,
gave a product containing nitrogen after treatment with hydroxylamine,.
but only a very small amount of semicarba^ide could be prepared.

In a second experiment, using 180 c.c. of phellandrene, the hydro-
chloride was submitted to hydrolysis without previous removal of the
light petroleum solvent, in order to ensure that the alcoholic soda played
the greatest possible part in bringing about the removal of HCL The
product was then treated with semiearba^^ide, which yielded only a small
amount of non-volatile material. The portion recovered was separated
into two fractions: —

(i.) b.p. 40-45° (4 m.m.)

dj5.5 -8519

ni)2o 1-4751

[a]u -20°

(ii.) b.p. 60-66° (4m.m.) ; 207-210° (760 m.m.)

dig.g . . . . . . . . -8828

ni)2o 1-4450

[a]j) -36°

Fraction (i.) appeared to be similar to the hydrocarbon fractions
obtained in previous experiments.

Fraction (ii.) was found to absorb bromine readily, indicating an
unsaturated character. A combustion gave the following results: —

C = 77-3 per cent., H = 11-6 per cent, (theoretical for CioHigO: —
C = 77-9 per cent., H = 11-7 per cent.), which suggest an unsaturated
secondary alcohol of the formula CioHigO.

A portion (10 c.c.) was submitted to oxidation with chromic acid;
4 c.c. of a material was recovered with the constants : —

b.p. (760 m.m) . . . . 200°

djg.g . . . . . . . . -9148

noao 1-4783

[a]D - 29°

A combustion gave the results : —

C = 78-9 per cent., H = 10-7 per cent, (theoretical for CioHigO: —
C = 79*0' per cent., H = 10-5 per cent.).

On the assumption that fraction (ii.) above consists of secondary
alcohol, this substance would be the corresponding ketone. Attempts
to determine the constitution of the material in fraction (ii.) by isolation
of the decomposition products firstly with permanganate in acetone
solution and secondly with aqueous alkaline permanganate were, however^
unsuccessful.

A third and much larger sample of phellandrene (400 c.c.) was
used to obtain material for further investigation of the oxygenated
products. This, treated as previously described, yielded a hydrolytic

1-a-PHELLANDRENE AND ITS MONOHYDROCHLORIDE PART I.

19

product, which was separated into the hydrocarbon fraction and a
higher boiling fraction, these being obtained in equal amounts (180 c.c.
of each). The hydrocarbon fraction was similar to that obtained in
the other experiments and had the constants : —

^D20

[a]n

•8476

1-4770

A different method (Read and Storey, 1930) was used in this case
to establish the presence of a -phellandrene and a-terpinene — viz., by
separating the mixed nitrosites with ether, making use of the solubility
of the a -terpinene nitrosite and the insolubility of a -phellandrene
nitrosite in this solvent. After recrystallisation, the phellandrene
nitrosite melted at 113°, and the terpinene nitrosite at 146°.

The higher fraction was found to be non-homogeneous, as further
fractionation resolved it into two further fractions: —

(i.) 240 c.c. b.p. (5 m.m)

^15*5
^D20 • •

Md • •

(ii.) 10 c.c. b.p. (5 m.m)

^15*5

^D20 * •

[(X]j) . .

65°-68°
•8840
1-4580
- 24°
72°-75°
•8914
1*4634
+ 34°

The most striking difference here is the change of sign of rotation
of the second fraction.

With the object of removing any possible ketonic material, fraction
(i.) was treated under reflux with semicarbazide. An unexpected result
was here obtained, as, when the material was distilled to separate what
should have been unchanged product, the latter was found to have been
practically completely decomposed, and now distilled uniformly at 52° C.
(7-8 mm.), and had the constants: —

I1D20

[a]n

•8428

1-4730

It consisted of a -phellandrene and only a small amount of a-terpi-
nene. The semicarbazide obtained in this experiment was decomposed
with 10 per cent, oxalic acid, and the liberated ketone recovered by
steam distillation. It had the constants : —

djg.g . . . . . . . . *8751

nj)2(j • • • • • • • • 1*4741

•• •• • • •• 35

As it was considered that the acetic acid generated in the course
of treatment with semicarbazide might be responsible for the behaviour
described above, a small portion of fraction (ii.) was treated under
identical conditions, but with 2 per cent, acetic acid and no semicar-
bazide. The material was, however, recovered quite unchanged. It was
also recovered unchanged after treatment with semicarbazide alone ; a
faint nitrosite test was obtained, but its constants were not appreciably
affected, and no material of lower boiling point could be obtained on
distillation.

20

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

Theoretical Considerations. — a-Phellaiidrene has the constitution I. I
Assuming the addition of HCl proceeds in the normal manner to the
conjugated double-bond system, phellandrene monohydrochloride has
either of the constitutions II. or III. Loss of HCl from III. would then '
be expected to regenerate the original a-phellandrene, while II. v/ould be '
expected to give a-terpinene, IV., and it is difficult to see how any other
product, especially dipentene, could be formed.

I n nr 32:

I. These expectations have been confirmed by experiment. If,,
however, instead of causing the -Cl atom to unite with a neighbouring
H-atom, the hydrolysis were to bring about the exchange of a -Cl atom
for an -OH group, one would expect an alcohol. The following are
possibilities: — Assuming normal addition of HCl to the conjugated ,,
system, we might obtain V. or VI., or in the event of abnormal addition," l|
to one or other of the double bonds individually, VI., VIII., IX., or X.
might result: — 1

rS

A

h6ch ^

A

A

V

X

V

v:

m

3HL

vnr

is:

X

Of

these, VIII.

is identical

with VI. V.

is the known

alcohol

piperitol, while the others have not been described. The physical con-
stants of piperitol, however, are completely unlike those of the substances
actually obtained. There is still the possibility of some more complex
change, but the reconversion of the oxygenated material to phellandrene
seems to preclude this.

Summary. — 1-a-Phellandrene has been prepared in a higher state
of purity than hitherto described, and its constants recorded. Addition
of dry HCl in petroleum ether gives a monohydrochloride which is very
unstable and readily decomposes to a mixture of a-phellandrene and
a terpinene. Decomposition with alcoholic soda yields, not dipentene, as
previously stated, but {a) a mixture of the above two hydrocarbons
and (&) a complex mixture of substances of higher boiling point with
the probable formula CioHigO, which have not yet been identified and
which probably have not been previously recorded. No trace of
a-terpinene was observed in any of the terpene fractions examined.
Further work is in progress in connection with the alcohol recorded
above, and the action' of HCl gas on phellandrene in other solvents is also
being investigated.

EEFEEENCES.

Bacon, , (1909). Philipp. J. Sei., p. 105.

Bead, J., and Storey, E. A. (1930). J. Chem. Soc., p. 2781.

SiMONSEN, J. L. (1931). “The Terpenes, ” vol. 1, p. 174.

Smith, H. G., Hurst, E., and Eead, J. (1923). J. Chem. See., p. 1657.

ERRATUM.

Page 20, line 31. a-terpinene should read y-terpinene.

t

no

100

90

80

70

60

50

30

20

10

O

Text Figure 1

’roc. Eoy. Soc. C

rvat/ve

13 30 '-o

t

I

I

no

too

90

so

70

eo

50

40

30

20

/o

o

Ti:xt Figuke 1.

C. Kov. .Soc. y'l.AND.. \'OL. L., No.

GRAPH

Loss of Opfica/ Activity of a-Phellandrene with and without Preservative

IS 30 45 CO 75 90 105 !ZO 135 ISO 165 ISO 195 210 225 240

Time m days from commencement

VoL. L., No. 4.

21

The Red Earth Residuals and Their Significance
in South-Eastern Queensland.

By W. H. Bryan, D.Sc., Department of Geology — University of

Queensland.

{Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25th September, 1938.)

(Plates I., II., and III.)

I. GENERAL STATEMENT.

During an investigation into the distribution of soils in South-
Eastern Queensland one particular group was found to be of especial
interest. Although this suite embraced a considerable variety of soils,
in accordance with the somewhat varied lithological terrain on which it
was developed, its essential unity was shown not only by the generic
characters that these varieties possessed in common, but by the important
differences that divorced them from the other soils of the area.

The points possessed in common are notably: (1) Their relatively
great depth; (2) their striking red colour; (3) their loamy texture;
(4) the presence of a well-defined zone of ironstone nodules; and (5) the
absence of any other sharp change in the profile. These place the group
as such in the Red Earths, with a tendency to laterisation as a
characteristic feature.

The soils of this group have, too, their peculiar agricultural and
ho<rticultural value, supporting, as they do, many market gardens and
small-crop farms.

In contrast with the Red Earths, the great majority of the soils
of the area are of relatively shallow depth, are grey in surface colour,
and their profiles are sharply divided into eluvial and illuvial horizons
that differ in colour, in texture, and in structure. Clearly, podsolisation
was the dominant process in their formation. They are for the most
part of little agricultural value.

These podsolic soils are found over a wide variety of rock types
and have a wide topographical range. They are present, too, in various
stages of development on the alluvial river terraces. As Bryan and Hines
(1931) have shown, there is every reason for regarding them as the
normal soils of the area under present climatic conditions^.

The one and only link connecting the Red Earths with the Podsolic
Soils is the fact that the former often show mild podsolisation, the upper
part of the soil being rather paler in colour and somewhat lighter in
texture.

The most satisfactory explanation alike of the many marked differ-
ences between these two soil series and of the one point of resemblance
is that the Red Earths were formed, as such, under an earlier climate,
and one considerably different from that in operation at present; and
that mild podsolisation has been superimposed on them by the current
pedogenic process.

^ Cf . Prescott ’s Soil Map of Australia, which shows this area as occupied by
* ‘ Podsolised Soils. ^ ’

22 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

Having arrived at this conclusion solely from a study of the soils,,
attention was transferred to the physiographic conditions under which
the Eed Earths are found.

As a result of numerous observations in the field, it became more
and more apparent that the Red Earths commonly occupied a series of
isolated fiat-topped areas^ — plateaux in miniature — with gentle scarps.
The disp/osition of the individual plateaux clearly indicated that they
were not to he considered as complete in themselves, but as remnants,
of a once continuous surface. This is abundantly clear in the field, and
is apparent, too, on the military maps, although the large contour interval
of these is too great adequately to demonstrate the remarkable homo-
geneity and independence of this physiographic unit.

The conclusion seems inescapable that the Residuals once formed
part of a continuous and relatively level surface, out of which many of
the present surface features have been carved.

Thus, just as the strictly pedogenic evidence points to the Red
Earths as a distinct soil suite inherited from an earlier climate, so does
the strictly geomorphic evidence point to the Residuals that they occupy
as a distinct topographical feature inherited from an earlier physio-
graphic epoch.

Moreover, these two independent lines of evidence are mutually
confirmatory where, on the scarped edges of the plateau remnants, the
profiles of the Red Earths are clearly bevelled and exposed by the present
physiographic contours.

This convergence of evidence fortifies one in the belief that the Red
Earth Residuals may be regarded, not merely as an interesting survival
of an earlier landscape, but almost as a stratigraphic unit — a datum to
which earlier and later events might be referred.

In the absence on the one hand of any evidence of Pleistocene
glaciation, and on the other of any sedimentary series later than the
Oligocene, such a datum should be doubly welcome in South-Eastern
Queensland.

The value of the Red Earth Residuals from this stratigraphical
point of view will largely depend on the possibility of recognising them
or their legitimate equivalents elsewhere. Consequently, it is of prime
importance to establish reliable criteria for their recognition in the field.
To this end it seems advisable to select and describe a particular develop-
ment in a named locality that may then be regarded as the type.

II. DEFINITION OF TYPE.

The type locality has been selected at a site on the Eight-miie Plains
where these are crossed by the Brisbane-Southport road. The exact
position can be described in terms of the Military Survey of Australia
as ‘‘Beenleigh, B, 17, d, 3-3.”

(The following description of the soil profile at this point has been
kindly supplied by Mr. R. Mitchell, M.Sc.Agr., who is at present assisting
the author in a study of the soils of Greater Brisbane : —

‘ ‘ The soil at the type locality at Eight-mile Plains as selected
by Dr. Bryan appears to be considerably deeper than 113 inches.

‘‘The following is a description of the profile as found
immediately below the 200-ft. level of a small plateau. The
surface is practically flat at this point.

THE RED EARTPI RESIDUALS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE, ETC. 23

‘‘The surface soil to a depth of about 7 inches is a dark-
brownish orange in colour^ a coarse sandy loam in texture, with
a soft and loose consistency and a single grain structure. Grass-
roots are numerous.

“The soil gradually changes to a dark yellowish red loam
which is soft, loose, and of a single grain structure.

“Between 56 inches and 113 inches the soil becomes compact
with a clay loam texture, and the colour changes to a dark pinkish
buff which varies to a light reddish yellow.

‘ ‘ Ironstone nodules form an important feature in the profile.

. In the upper part they occur in the form of a few rounded
individuals. With increase in depth these nodules are more
numerous and the individuals larger and less regular. Between
90 and 113 inches they form a band of very irregular nodules
which makes up the bulk of the soil.

“Throughout the profile small pebbles of quartz are found.
In the upper part these are few in number, but they become
relatively abundant between 90 and 113 inches.

“The vegetation forms a Eucalyptus open forest association
with a moderately close canopy. The principal species are
Eucalyptus gummifera, E. micrantha, E. paniculata, Tristania
suaveolens, Acacia Ciinninghamdi, A. aulacocarpa, and Aristida
vagaTisd’

III. VAEIATIONS FROM THE TYPE.

{a) Variatians in the Sails.

Direct field evidence shows that a considerable amount of variation
is present even in the Red Earth Residuals immediately surrounding
the type area. Thus where, as in the type, the soils are developed from
sandstone the band of limonite nodules is strongly developed, but where
the parent rock is a shale this striking feature is absent or but poorly
developed. On the other hand, one character absent in the type, but
present in many other sections, is the presence of a noticeable colour
mottling (“Plecken zone”) towards the bottom of the profile.

The more important of the variants from the type and the way in
which these grade laterally into each other in the field is indicated in
Plate III., Pig. 1. But, since a too liberal interpretation of possible
variants renders less effective the value of the series as a basis of
correlation, a more critical examination of the criteria is necessary.

Taken individually, it might at first appear that, of the more notable
features of the Red Earth suite, colour would be the most persistent
character, and, as such, the most useful single criterion on which to
base correlation. Indeed, place names such as Redcliffe, Redland Bay,
and Redbank Plains are based on this striking property, and it is fitting
that it should be recognised in the name of the suite.

But, since the most pronounced effect of the pedogenic processes
now in operation on the Red Earths is in leaching the iron oxides from
the upper part of the profile, it is only to be expected that, where the

^ All colour names used in this description are of air-dried samples, and are
based on the Soil Classification Colour Charts of the Queensland Main Roads
Commission.

24 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

local conditions are especially favourable for rapid podsolisation, much
of the original red colour might by now have been washed out of the
soil ; hence it would seem inadvisable to use colour as a sole criterion.

iDepth of soil, too, is only of limited use as a criterion, although
the average Red Earth is far deeper than the average Podsol in the area,
depths of 30 feet being common. But the Red Earth may be unusually
shallow in some places, due to the removal by erosion of the overlying
portion, while, on the other hand, Podsols may form locally and under
optimum conditions relatively deep soils.

The presence of large masses of nodular pseudoconcretions, concen-
trated into a well-marked band, is perhaps the safest single criterion.
There are two chief reasons for this. In the first place, assemblages of
this type are never found in those soils which show evidence of having
been formed by present-day activities (although true concretions may be
found in limited quantities). Secondly, these nodules, protected as they
are by skins of insoluble limonite, are virtually indestructible by soil-
forming processes. It follows that, even if a Red Earth be bleached
nearly white by podsolisation, even if the upper horizons be truncated
and lost by erosion, these masses of limonitic nodules remain as evidence
of the original nature of the soil. It is indeed fortunate for the purposes
of correlation that this horizon was so commonly developed in the Red
Earths.

( ~b ) Variations in Topography.

Although the shape and appearance of the Residual plateaux are
sometimes so striking that one would be tempted to claim them for the
series on this evidence alone, a safer and more conservative attitude is
to regard the physiographic evidence as inadequate without the comple-
mentary evidence of the soils.

On the other hand, it is demanding too much to insist on the presence
of the perfect development of plateau topography as an essential accom-
paniment when the more important soil criteria are satisfied.

It is quite clear that a number of relatively steep-sided hills, of
the more resistant rocks, rose above the level of the plateau remnants
(in much the same way as they now rise above the general surface),
and it is likely that the almost flat-topped residuals were connected with
these steep-sided hills by slopes of an intermediate value. Within the
old erosion surface, too, there were almost certainly valleys, and even
if these were wide and shallow they would give rise to appreciable
slopes. But although it is reasonable to expect to find occasional patches
or pockets of the Red Earths on remnants of these slopes, and although
it would be difficult to explain their presence there in terms of present
processes, nevertheless a safe policy, in so far as the physiographic
criterion is concerned, would seem to be the insistence on the presence
of a relatively level and mature surface out of which the present valleys
are being carved.

(c) Admissible Variants of the Bed Earth Residuals.

Combining the pedologic and physiographic criteria discussed above,
the following basis for the correlation of lateral equivalents with the
Red Earth Residuals as typically developed may be stated : —

Where deep red soils and/or large accumulations of limonitic
nodules occur associated with plateau remnants, or with mature surfaces

THE RED EARTH RESIDUALS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE, ETC. 25

at a higher elevation than the immediately surrounding area, they may
be regarded as acceptable variants of the Red Earth Residuals and
correlated with them.

IV. DISTRIBUTION OP THE RED EARTH RESIDUALS.

Red Earth Residuals as defined above may be readily recognised

in a group of occurrences all of a similar nature, the centre of which
lies about 10 miles south of Brisbane. The group comprises Rochdale,
Eight-mile Plains, Sunny bank. Cooper’s Plains, Brown’s Plains, Acacia
Ridge, and Park Ridge^. The combination of the plateau topography
and Red Earths is well shown where the Brisbane-Southport, Brisbane-
Beaudesert, and Suiinybank-Mount Oravatt roads cross the region. The
plateau tops are remarkably level and are for the most part about
200 feet above sea-level, but at two spots they coincide roughly with the
300-foot contour. A particularly good vantage point for contrasting
the old topography with the new is near the Sunnybank School.

Essentially similar, but less striking, occurrences are found as one
proceeds north from Brisbane. First in the Albany Creek- Raff’s Hill
area, then near Strathpine, and again in the neighbourhood of Dakabin,
the series is clearly represented, while still farther north in the Glass
House Mountains region the Red Earth Residuals are seen again in their
complete development.

West of Brisbane, and away from the coast, the series has few
representatives, although typical occurrences may be seen at Redbank
Plains, between Ipswich and Marburg, and where the Ipswich-Esk road
crosses Wivenhoe Hill.

Along the coastline the series is strikingly developed at Redland
Bay, Cleveland, Wellington Point, Manly, Sandgate, Redcliffe, and
Scarborough. These occurrences are in large part on basalt, and all
occupy quite flat or relatively level areas about 30 feet above Moreton
Bay, to which they present steep cliffs, and into which they project
elongate flat-topped peninsulas. The former extension of the Red Earth
Residuals beyond the present shoreline suggested by these occurrences
is confirmed by the finding of typical examples on St. Helena Island,
Peel Island, and other islands of Moreton Bay. Associated with the more
normal developments of the Red Earths in these coastal regions, and
quite patently variants of them, are laterites very similar to those
originally described by Buchanan from the Malabar Coast of India, and
recently redescribed by Fox (1936). Of the local laterites, that at
Scarborough has already been briefly described by Bryan (1929), while
that at Sandgate is shown on Plate II.

It should be pointed out that, while the above list of occurrences
aims at being sufficiently long and representative to establish the Red
Earth Residuals as a series that does exist in fact, there has been no
attempt to make the list aU inclusive.

V. THE PROBLEM OF THE BASALTIC RED LOAMS.

One very important series, the inclusion of which within the Red
Earth Residuals warrants careful consideration, is made up of deep red
soils found on basaltic plateaux. Such are numerous in South-Eastern

^ The '‘ridges’^ from which Acacia Ridge and Park Ridge get their names are,
in fact, long narrow plateaux.

26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

Queensland and may be exemplified by the occurrences at Tamborine to
the south, Toowoomba to the west, and Maleny to the north of Brisbane
respectively.

A decision on this point is of vital importance, for, if the red volcanic
soils are admitted as legitimate variants of the Red Earths, then, at one
stride, the geographical scope of the Red Earth Residuals is enormously
extended.

These basaltic soils are almost identical with those members of the
Bed Earths developed on basalts. But they also resemble the other
(non-basaltic) Red Earths in so many ways, but especially in colour,
depth, texture, and fertility, that the latter are often wrongly, but in
all good faith, advertised, sold, bought, and farmed as ‘‘Volcanic Soils,”
even when they are found covering shales and sandstones. The farmer
and the horticulturist would certainly not hesitate to correlate the two
series, which, indeed, they regard as identical. Chemical analyses also
show that the silica/alumina ratios of the Red Loams as a group are
in striking accord with those of the Red Earths, and suggest that both
series were formed under the same climatic conditions.

The volcanic soils under discussion are classified by Prescott (1931)
-as Red Loams, and are described bv him as follows : —

“Throughout the length of eastern Australia a series of
deep-red to chocolate loams, developing principally on basalt, are
characteristic of the zone of high rainfall. They are associated
'with wet sclerophyll forests with its undergro'wth of ferns, and
with the true rain-forests. Amongst eharacteristie localities for
these red loams are the Atherton Tableland, the Woongarra Scrub
near Bundaberg, the Dorrigo Tableland, and the north-west coast
of Tasmania. In spite of the high proportion of fine particles
revealed in mechanical analysis, these soils are highly permeable
and possess a loamy texture. They are usually very deep and
uniform, the parent basalt in many cases being 50 to 80 feet from
the surface .... These red loams do not possess any obvious
profile, although in some cases a definite separation of concre-
tionary oxides of iron and manganese is to be noted.”

One gathers from this description that the relationship between
the Red Loams, the vegetation they support, and the present climate
is so harmonious that the soils may be regarded as in equilibrium with
existing conditions, in which case it may seem gratuitous to suggest
that they represent an inheritance from the past.

But that the Red Loams are found, too, under climatic conditions
that seem eminently unsuitable for their formation is shown by Prescott
and Hosking (1936) in an account of “Some Red Basaltic Soils from
Eastern Australia,” where it is stated that “There is a general relation-
ship between rainfall and the [silica, alumina] ratio — the higher the
rainfall the lower the ratio. The Clifton samples afford a notable
exception. This characteristic red loam is out of keeping with the local
elimatic conditions, and the soil characteristics may have been imposed
in a previous climatic cycle of greater rainfall.” (Mr. W. R. Winks,
B.Sc., who collected this soil for Professor Prescott, informs the writer
that it was obtained from the top of a flat-topped ridge rising abruptly
above the general level and entirely surrounded by black basaltic soils).

Even where the basaltic Red Loams appear to be in harmony with
their present environment, and may, indeed, be forming at the present
day, their extraordinarily great depth is surely an indication of consider-
able age — a conclusion with which Prescott is in complete agreement.

THE RED EARTH RESIDUALS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE, ETC. 27

In keeping with this deduction is the fact that the most recent of
the basaltic flows to be seen in Queensland (those occupying the present
valleys) have shallow soils even under climatic conditions closely
resembling those under which the deep Red Loams are found.

But perhaps the strongest argument for correlating the two soil
series is the fact that the same red basaltic soil at Wellington Point
that satisfies the most stringent application of the writer’s criteria for
inclusion in the Red Earth Residuals has been claimed (Prescott and
Hosking (1936)) as a typical Red Loam.

The apparently contradictory items of evidence noted above may be
reconciled, but in only one way — namely, by regarding the Red Loams
as having been initiated contemporaneously with the Red Earths, and
as having, in part, persisted in development up to the present day where
the environmental conditions remained sufficiently favourable.

In the light of this discussion, it would appear wise to claim as
the equivalents of the Red Earth Residuals only those members of the
Volcanic Red Loams that satisfy a very strict application of both the
pedologic and physiographic criteria. In p^articular, insistence on the
combination of great depth of soil with plateau topography seems
advisable.

But even the least liberal interpretations of the criteria will bring
within the definition of the Red Earth Residuals many occurrences of
the basaltic Red Loams.

VI. THE PLACE OP THE RED EARTH RESIDUALS IN
LOCAL GEOLOOICAL HISTORY.

If the Red Earth Residuals are completely to fulfil their purpose
as a datum, it will be necessary to assign them definitely and surely
to their proper period. It may be that at some time in the future this
will be done, but at present it is impossible to do more than place them
approximately.

The next best thing is to determine the relative position of the
series in the local sequence of events, and here the position is more
satisfactory.

A convenient starting point for a study of the historical sequence
is to be found in the deposition of the Redbank Plains Series on which
the Red Earths are typically developed.

Of the age of this series Hills (1934) states: ‘‘The Redbank Plains.
Series may therefore be tentatively (in view of the paucity of com-
parative material) referred to the Oligocene .... ”

Succeeding the deposition of this series was a great outpouring
of basalts and the contemporaneous deposition of fresh water shales and
limestones. Together these form the Silkstone Series, which is con-
formably related to the underlying Redbank Plains Series.

Following the formation of the Silkstone Series, but after an
unknown interval, there was a movement of uplift accompanied by a
relatively mild orogeny.

At a still later date and after prolonged erosion, the folded sediments,
and basalts were truncated to form a relatively level surface.

It was on this surface that the Red Earth Residuals were developed
in the type area.

28

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

In other areas the sequence as set out above was modified by the
outpouring, after the folding (but possibly before the subsequent erosion
had p^roceeded very far), of a series of basalts and rhyolites several
thousand feet in thickness. On these, after only a short erosion interval,
those basaltic Red Loams were developed which have been correlated
with the Red Earth Residuals.

Unfortunately, it is at present impossible definitely to state the
age of the volcanics, but Richards (1915) placed them in his “Upper
Division” of the volcanic rocks of South-Eastern Queensland, and
regarded them tentatively as of ‘ ‘ Upper Cainozoic ’ ’ age.

The evidence from the type area, and the somewhat different kind
of evidence from the basaltic plateaux, both suggest that the Red Earths
were formed no earlier than a period late in the Cainozoic era — perhaps
Pliocene.

Comparison of Sequence of Events in the Basaltic Plateaux with

THAT IN THE TyPE AREA.

"? Pliocene

Basaltic Plateaux.

Type Area.

Bed Loams
‘ ‘ Upper ’ ’ Volcanics

Bed Earths
Erosion

? Miocene

Erosion

Uplift and Orogeny

Erosion

t Oligocene

Silkstone Series
Bedbank Plains Series

The event immediately succeeding the formation of the Red Earths
appears to have been the deposition, within their wide shallow valleys,
of gravels formed in part of pebbles and boulders of the more resistant
parts of the Red Earths. Thus at Nudgee Waterhole (See Plate 2,
Fig. 4) boulders of comparatively soft ferruginous and manganiferous
laterites are indiscriminately mixed with well-rounded pebbles of
quartzite (including “Billy”) and other resistant rocks. The quartzites
may have travelled great distances before deposition, but the less resistant
lateritic boulders must have been derived locally, for they would not
travel far in such company.

It is clear that some of the present valleys have been carved out
of those containing these redistributed Red Earths, thus forming valley-
in-valley structure. Indeed, the present stream system may well be
largely coincident with this earlier one, but, since the redistributed Red
Earths are such as would readily be removed by erosion, it is not
surprising that remnants of them are rare.

The redistributed Red Earths clearly antedated the formation of
the raised river terraces of the present stream systems, which terraces
are occupied by soils for the most part well podsolized. These terraces
in turn are earlier than the low-level flood plains with their immature
alluvial soils that mark the present physiographic stage.

The sequence of events following the formation of the Red Earths
may be represented as follows: —

Becent

Flood Plains

? Pleistocene

Baised Terraces (podsolized)
Bedistributed Bed Earths

? Pliocene

Bed Earths

THE RED EARTH RESIDUALS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE, ETC. 29

The evidence outlined above suggests that the Red Earths were formed
no later than late Pliocene times.

Collateral evidence is provided by a study of those parts of the
shoreline where the Red Earth Residuals reach the coast, for it is clear
that the Red Earth topography was in part ‘‘drowned” by the rise in
sea-level that took place supposedly in Pleistocene times.

VII. SIMILAR OCCURRENCES ELSEWHERE.

(a) Australian Occurrences.

(i.) In seeking formations comparable wdth the Red Earth Residuals
of South-Eastern Queensland, one looks first to the eastern margin of
Australia. Not only does one expect to find physiographical homologues
in this region, but, since there is a very notable similarity in the present
soil-forming processes from Cape York to Tasmania, it may well be
that, while the Red Earths were developing in Southern Queensland,
similar soils were being formed in the coastal regions to the north and
to the south.

In accordance with this expectation, several occurrences examined
by the writer between Brisbane and Sydney seem to fit quite neatly
into the series, both as regards physiography and soil type. The following
excerpts from field notes made in August, 1932, are to the point ; — ‘ ‘ Red
Earths very similar to those developed over the Tertiary shales about
Brisbane were seen in the fruitgrowing district of Moorland, north-east
of Taree, and again to the south of Port Macquarie.” “At Port
Macquarie a deep, red, lateritic soil very similar to that at Scarborough
is developed on serpentine.” “In places, as at ‘Nutbank, ’ between
Gosford and Sydney, the Hawkesbury sandstone develops a sandy soil
over a B horizon crowded with ferruginous concretions, the whole profile
resembling that over the ( ?) Bundamba Sandstone at Peel Island.”

These hurried observations are in keeping with the more mature
considerations of Browne (1928) in the Sydney-Blue Mountains region,
as is shown by the following statement from his paper ‘ ‘ On the Probable
Tertiary Age of Certain New South Wales Sedentary Soils”: —

‘ ‘ On the flat tops of the residual surface of the plateaux, and
on the very gentle slopes of the former mature valleys, there are
to be found the soils, sometimes of quite notable depth, whose
formation the writer considers took place before the Kosciusko
[late Pliocene] uplift.”

Among the instances described in support of these generalisations
may be mentioned “the dissected plateau surface about the suburbs of
Arncliffe and Earlwood, to the north-west of Botany Bay. The peneplain
has been uplifted here to a height of 150 feet above sea-level and has
been dissected . . . . ” and “in numerous places on the level upland
surface .... may be seen a variable thickness of rather sandy soil
containing, or underlain by, abundant irregular nodules of brown iron-
stone, sometimes aggregated into a solid layer on top of the sandstone.
In certain places the soil resting on the sandstone is very dark red in
colour . . . .”

Again Browne writes : —

“The Wianamatta shale itself around Sydney occupies
perhaps mainly the lower-lying areas, where uplift has been small
and relief is still but slight . . . . ” “ . . . . the soil, particularly,

R.s. — B.

30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

it would appear, near the base of the formation, is of a dark-red colour
and very ferruginous. A common characteristic of these dark shale
soils is the presence of irregular nodules of ironstone .... These may
be quite thickly embedded in the soil, or where the finer-grained soil
has been washed away they may form a thin capping of the so-called
‘ironstone gravel.’ ”

These quotations can only suggest what a perusal of the paper itself
makes evident — namely, that ten years ago, as a result of the combination
of pedologic and physiographic observations, Browne had reached for
the Sydney-Blue Mountains region conclusions almost identical with
some of those now recorded by the writer for South-Eastern Queensland.

It appears from these descriptions that on the plateau surfaces in
and around Sydney .there are developed several of the variants of the
Queensland Red Earths as shown in Plate III., Pig. 1.

(ii.) Which of the very many examples of basaltic Red Loams that
occur sporadically throughout the whole length of the eastern Australian
coastal region are to be correlated with the Red Earths can be decided
only after a careful examination of the evidence provided by each
individual occurrence, but the writer anticipates that many of them will
prove to be old soils inherited from Tertiary times.

(iii.) The correlation of the Red Earths with occurrences in the
interior of Australia is likely to be less direct and not so readily achieved,
for it involves the • solution of several problems that do not obtrude
themselves in the coastal areas. It is hoped that a contribution to the
solution of these problems may be made by an investigation now nearing
completion.^ It would be unwise to anticipate in detail the results, of
this inquiry, but it may be said that the evidence is strongly in favour
of the “Desert Sandstone,” “Duricrust,” and “Laterite” of Western
Queensland having been formed, in part at least, concurrently with the
Red Earth Residuals.

( h ) Extra- Australian.

No deliberate search of the literature has been made for occurrences
outside Australia comparable with the Red Earth Residuals. Never-
theless, that cases closely parallel to that outlined for South-Eastern
Queensland do in fact exist is shown by the following examples which
the writer has encountered: —

Thus Marbut (1927) suggested that certain of the Red Earths of
Florida were “fossil soils” in the sense that they were formed in an
earlier physiographic cycle under conditions somewhat dissimilar from
those now existing.

Fowler (1928), in his account of “Iron Accumulation in Soils of the
Coastal Plain of the South-Eastern United States” (where climate and
topography are closely similar to that of South-Eastern Queensland),
suggests “that they [the soils showing iron accumulation] are possibly
remnants and the sole remaining representatives of old soils of a former
cycle of topographic development.”

Milne (1935), in discussing the soils of East Africa, describes
concretionary ironstone (“murram”), and states that it “occurs
frequently in parts of the red-earth areas.” “Some of these occur-
rences,” he continues, “belong properly to the set of soil-forming

1 i i The ^Lateritic’ Eesidiials of Western Queensland,” by W. H. Bryan and
F. W. Whitehouse (in preparation).

THE RED EARTH RESIDUALS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE, ETC. 31

phenomena now current, but to explain others, past physiographic condi-
tions’— those of mature land surfaces existing before the formation of the
Rift Valley — will have to be taken into account.” Again Milne (1936)
mentions ' ' some of the occurrences of the Uganda catena, where the
denuded remnants of an old ‘‘plateau soil,” with its resistant beds of
concretionary ironstone, are found as a capping of the flat-topped hills,
on whose slopes and the intervening bottom-lands the succession is
continued in soils of current development. ’ ’

Thorp (1935), in his important paper on “The Geographic Distribu-
tion of the Important Soils of China,” states that the “The slightly
podsolized red soils are to be found mainly on discontinuous intersected
intermountain peneplains . . . .”

Li (1936), in summarising his close study of “The Physiographic
Significance of the Occurrence of Red Earths in Nanning Basin,”
concludes that : —

‘ ‘ The occurrence of red earth has a remarkable physio-
graphical significance : they occur exclusively on the terrace
topography where drainage is perfect. Much of the red earth
was undoubtedly developed before the present topography was
shaped. It is supposed that by the time of late Pliocene when the
basin was nearly filled up to a peneplain and when activities of
erosion and deposition were reduced to their minimum,, the red
earth was in full development.”

VIII. CONCLUSIONS.

Evidence has been brought forward to show that there exists in
South-Eastern Queensland a series of soils^ — namely, the Red Earths^ —
that cannot be explained in terms of the existing soil-forming processes,
but appear to have been inherited from an earlier wetter climate.

It has been shown, too, that the Red Earths have a restricted distri-
bution and are associated with the dissected remnants of an old erosion
surface.

The suggestion has been made that the Red Earth Residuals repre-
sent a definite epoch in the late Tertiary (probably Pliocene) history of
South-Eastern Qi^eeiisland and that they may conveniently be used as
a datum to which earlier and later events may be referred.

Moreover, the combination of Red Earth soils with dissected plateau
topography is so striking that it should be possible to use it as a basis
of correlation.

Although no attempt has been made as yet at precise correlation,
a number of occurrences have been cited from Australia and elsewhere
that resemble more or less closely the Red Earth Residuals, and some of
which may ultimately prove to be equivalent formations.

EEFEBENCES TO LITEEATURE.

Browne, W. E. (1928). Proc. Eoy. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. LXII., p. 251.

Bryan, W. H. (1929). Nature, Vol. 124, p. 512.

Bryan, W. H., and Hines, H. J. O. (1931). Soil Eesearch, Vol. II., No. 4, p. 266.
Fowler, E. D. (1928). First Int. Congress Soil Science, p. 435.

Fox, C. S. (1936). Eec. Geol. Sur. India, Vol. LXIX., p. 389.

Hills, E. S. (1934). Mem. Qld. Mus., Vol. X., Pt. 4, p. 171.

Li Libn-Chieh. (1936). Bull. Geol. Soc. China, Vol. 15, No. 4, p. 529.

Marbut, C. F. (1927). Geographical Review, Vol. 17, p. 665.

32

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Milne, G. (1935). Third Int. Congress Soil Science, Vol. 1, p. 271.

Milne, G. (1936). A Provisional Soil Map of Africa, p. 17.

Prescott, J. A. (1931). C.S.I.E. Bulletin No. 52, p. 69.

Prescott, J. A., and HocEings, J. S. (1936). Trans. Eoy. Soc. S. Aust., Vol. XL.,
p. 42.

Eichards, H. C. (1915). Proc. Eoy. Soc. Qld., Vol. XXVII., p. 125.

Thorp, J. (1935). Bull. Geol. Soc. China, Vol. 14, No. 2, p. 137.

EXPLANATION OP PLATES.

Plate I.

Fig. 1. — Lateritic Eed Earth, Sandgate.

Fig. 2. — Closer view of above profile, showing development of the Mottled Zone.

Fig. 3. — Eed Earth, Eight-mile Plains.

Fig. 4. — Closer view of above profile, showing development of Nodular Zone.

Plate II,

Fig. 1. — Podsolic soil of current development over shales of Ipswich Series, Nundah.

Fig. 2. — Immature Podsolic soil of current development over Brisbane Tuff.

Fig. 3. — Lateritic Eed Earth showing development of Cellular Zone, Scarborough.

Fig. 4. — Old Eiver Gravel, the pebbles of which include masses of Lateritic Eed
Earth, Nudgee.

Plate III.

Fig. 1. — Diagrammatic representation of some of the varieties found within the
Eed Earths. The variations are due in part to the presence of a Mottled
Zone and/or a Nodular Zone; in part to incipient podsolisation ; and in
part to truncation of the profile.

Fig. 2. — Diagrammatic section to show the relationship of the geomorphology and
pedology of the area. Eed Earths are shown as occupying dissected plateaux,
Eedistributed Eed Earths in old valleys, Podsolised Soils on steep slopes,
erosion, hollows, and river terraces, and Alluvium on present flood plains

pROC. Boy. Soc, Q’land, Vor. L,, No. 4

Plate I

o

4

Proc. Roy. kSoc. Q’land, Vol. L., No. 4.

Plate II.

1

2

■ 'jr^-

Plate III.

J Alluv'ial 5oi/s.

PEOtt EOT, Soa Q 'LAND, VOL. L.

Figure. 1.

IW'i'lWt'tM

I Undifferentiated Red Earth.

Mottled Zone.

Nodular Zone.

Figure. Z.

Red Earths.

^ Redistributed Red Earths. PodsoUc Soils.

Podsohsed Surface.

Allui^ial Soils.

I • I ''i -| ^ ■' . '■ V ^

i'

_

x,_

V^i i

itsfy : .• ^.*i»..ri ..'».

■i

“ v^.

-M'

"X£ia

\

VoL. h., No. 5.

33

Notes on Australian Muscoidea IV.

The genus Microtropeza and some Phaoniinae.

By G. H. Hardy.

(Bead before the Boyal Society of Queensland, 28th November, 1938.)

Genius Microtropeza Maequart.

Microtropeza Maequart, Dipt. Exot. suppL 1, 1846, 185.

Tasmaniomyia Townsend, Canad. Ent. XLVIII. 1916, 152.

Gerotachina Townsend, ibidem. 152.

The synonymy is new. The genus belongs to the second section
of the Tachininae in which the forceps are fused along the median
line. Its position within that section is undoubtedly with the Echinomyia-
Peletferia group of genera which is the group 3, Eutachinae, in
Lundbeck’s Diptera Danica. Several characters of the genus tend to
show this is the true relationship, as has been seen by several authors,
but it was frequently confused with the Dexiinae (see Tilly ard, Ins.
Austra. N. Zeal. 1926, p. 376), and Malloch quite unnecessarily placed
it in a tribe of its own.

In 1856, Walker placed a species in Echinomyia which is the
earliest expression of the true relationship. Schiner is credited with
the same view but I failed to find the reference. Engel in 1925
certainly indicated this position in his remarks — ^‘Microtropeza Macq.
zeigt im Ban der Genitalien eine sehr grosse Ahnlichkeit mit deren
bei Echinomyia Dumeril. ” I regard the genus as the most primitive
of those placed by me in the second section of the Tachiniini.

In the several species, there is a tendency for the third antennal
segment to grade from long to short; the character does not mark
generic values as frequently happens, and the species vary widely in
other ways, which seem to have led authors to misunderstand the
genus. All the known species are highly ornamented or brightly
coloured and therefore attractive, so it is not surprising to find the
synonymy is involved. By determining which of the characters used
by early authors are unique to the species, and aligning these v/ith those
used by recent authors, the identity of most forms is brought out with
remarkable clearness. It is therefore expected that the synonymy given
here is unlikely to need much amendment when the types are
re-examined. There is one described species for which I can find no valid
name and therefore I suggest a new name here, but leave unnamed
those species hitherto not referred to in literature.

The life history of the species is unknown, but the relationships
suggest that they may be parasitic on some large ground-frequenting
Lepidopterous larva. The flies occur in swatnipy areas, where the adults
are usually found on or near the ground, and are not uncommonly seen
on flowering tea-tree (Melaleuca sp). Possibly the fly lays its eggs
on reeds and grasses, to be swallowed later by the host, which habit is
in conformity with related genera.

34

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

Key to species of Microtropeza.

1, With a short transverse band on the second abdominal

tergite, white in colour and complete across the median
line. Pace mostly white in ground colour, this con-
trasting with yellow around it. The third antennal
segment is deep black

With the transverse band on the second abdominal segment
interrupted on the median line so as to form two white
spots. Female with the anterior tarsi very broad and
the thoracic markings are reduced
With the white on the second tergite reduced to a single
median spot or absent . .

2. The markings of the thorax have mainly disappeared, leaving

a scanty more or less uniform pulverulent white there.
The blue-black abdomen has the white restricted to
two apical tergites. Large species
Smaller in average size than fallax, with thoracic markings
highly developed, including a dense white median stripe
interrupted at suture, the apical part rarely missing
on inferior specimens. The abdominal markings
variable in extent on a blue-black ground.

With the abdomen mainly brown, the restricted black median
stripe is variable in extent. Medium to small species

nigricornis Macq.

sirmata Don.

2

fallm new name

intermedia Mall.
ohtusa Walker

All described forms fall into one or other of the species included
in the above key with the exception of viridivemtri\s Macq. that may
be allied to a new species not included above. This new species has
an entirely metallic abdomen with a slight trace of a pulveriulent
covering. The four white stripes of the thorax are complete. The
antennae are less specialised in shape than that on any other species
examined, but this structure varies widely and is of questionable value
and on two species it takes an intermediate form.

Microtropeza simtata Don.

M. sinuata Donovan, Epit, Nat. Hist. Ins. New Holland, Dipt. fig.
(Mmca). — Wiedemann, Auss. zweifl. Ins. ii. 1830, 384 (M\u\sca). Guerin,
Rev. Zool. vi. 1843, 270 {Butilia). Macquart, Dipt. Exot. suppl. 1,
1846, 186; suppl. 4, 1849, 226. Sehiner Novara Reise Dipt. 1868, 316.
Brauer and Bergenstamm, Denk. Akad Wiss. Wien. Ivi, 1889, 152; lx.
1893, 176 (possibly should be removed to stand under fallax). Townsend,
Ann. Mag. Na. Hist. (10) ix. 1932, 40. nee Engel, nec Malloeh.

T. bum Walker. List Dipt. B. Mus. iv. 1849, 760 (Tachina).

M. skusei Bergroth, Stett, Ent. Zeit. 1894, 73.

M. ignipennis Macquart MSS. — Brauer Sitz. Akad. Wiss. Wien,
cviii. 1899, 510.

M. latimana Malloeh, Proc. Lin. Soc. N. S. Wales, liv. 1929, 286 ;
Iv. 1930, 100.

The synonymy is new. I have not seen Donovan’s illustration, but
Wiedemann has given a detailed colour description of it, mentioning
‘ ' hinterleib rothlichbraun, am zweiten Abschnitte zwei weissliche punkte

,” a very decisive character. These two white spots on the

second abdominal segment, occur also in the description of T. bum Walk,
whilst M. skusei Bergroth is said to have the white fascia interrupted
on this segment, this amounting to the same character. There can be
little doubt that ignipennis B. & B. and latimmia Malloeh are the same
species because the flattened broad anterior metatarsus of the female
is also a decisive character, unique to the species. This form of the
metatarsus was used by Brauer to distinguish ignipennis from that form

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA IV.

35

regarded by him as being the typical sirmata and he did not realise the
character is limited to the sex. The species referred to as sin^ata.^ b.>'
Brauer and Bergenstamm, may be the same as a species so called by
Engel and by Malloch, and re-named below as fallax. On sinuata, the
abdomen is strongly marked with brown.; the white marking on the
second abdominal tergite is broad and no median marginal bristles
occur there. The thoracic markings are only moderately developed, and
without the white median line.

Halj. — The species is known to me only from southern Queensland
and New South Wales, but doubtless it is widely distributed over
southern areas of the mainland. It occurs also inland, at least as far
as Chinchilla.

Microtro'peza nigricornis Macq.

M. nigricornis Macquart, Dipt. Exot. suppl. 4, 1849, 226.

Macquart described this species as having a white face and a black
third antennal segment, so there can be little doubt that he had before
him a Tasmanian species; in this case his locality seems to be correct."^
In addition there is a complete white fascia on the second abdominal
segment and the anterior tarsi of the female are normal. In other
respects the fly is very like sinuata.

Hah. — Tasmania. It is one of two species known to me only from
this locality.

Microtropeza fallax, new name.

M. sinuata Engel, Zool. Jahrb. 1925, 344-6. — Malloch, Proc. Lin.
Soc. N. S. Wales, liii. 1928, 614; liv. 1929, 287; Iv. 1930, 100. nec
Donovan.

The species that is placed under this name is not uncommonly met
with in collections.

Malloch ’s description of sinuata conforms here but he may have
confused another species with it. Perhaps Engel was following sinuata
as identified by Brauer who gave no description so this too is somewhat
uncertain.

This is the largest species of the genus known to me and together
with interpiedia has a blue-black abdomen with a restricted white design ;
it differs from the latter species by the lack of marginal bristles on
the second abdominal tergite, and in having the thoracic markings
reduced to a general powdery white, the white spots being absent.

Hah. — Only known to me from Queensland where it seems to be
a widely distributed species, but it is also recorded from New South
Wales. As far as can be judged it is limited to the coastal area of these
two States. I have taken this species only once, Brisbane, January,
1928, a female which is the holotype. A female allotype from Mt.
Cotton, Brisbane, captured in February, 1928, by Mr. J. Mann, is also
in my collection. Others are in the Queensland Museum.

Microtropeza intermedia Malloch.

M. intermedia Malloch, Proc. Lin. Soc. N. S. Wales, Iv. 1930, 100.

Malloch compares the present species with his laiimana (i.e. sinuata
Don.) using minor characters for distinguishing it, but its alliance is

* Hardy (Proc. Lin., Soc. N.S.W. liv. 1929, 61-4) questions validity of type
locality “Tasmania,’’ in Macquart ’s Fourth Supplement, for nearly all species so
recorded.

36

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

with fallax. It differs by the presence of an intermediate pair of
marginal bristles on the second abdominal tergite, by the highly
developed thoracic markings, including a very conspicuous median
white stripe, interrupted at the suture, and by its smaller average size.

Hah. — This species is known to me from Queensland, and found
breeding around the swamps at Sunnybank; 5 males and 6 females,
September, 1937, and another male without a label.

Microtropeza ohtusa Walker.

Tachina ohtma Walker, Ins. Saund. Dipt. 1856, 274. — Townsend,
Canad. Ent. xlviii. 1916, 152 {Gerotaehma) — Townsend, Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist. (10) ix. 1932, 40 {Geroiachina) .

Echmomyia stoUda Walker, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lend. (2) iv. 1857,
196. — Austen, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7) xix. 1907, 330 {Microtropeza) .

Microtropeza ocJirive^itfis Malloch, Proc. Lin. Soc. N. S. Wales,
liv. 1929, 287 ; Iv. 1930, 100.

M. flavitarsis Malloch, ibidem, liv. 1929, 288 ; Iv. 1930, 100.

M. flaviventris Malloch, ibidem, Iv. 1930, 101.

Synonymy. — The two names given by Walker are conspecific accord-
ing to Austen, and Malloch seems to have described the sexes under two
other names. The third description given by Malloch under the name
flaviventris, makes it necessary for the types of Walker to be examined
again, for if one of these has a pair of apical bristles on the second
tergite, then it would conform to Malloch ’s third form. On my
Tasmanian specimens there are weak bristles in the position on two
specimens and none on the third, hence it becomes difficult to see how
the character can have specific value. This variable form bears five names
in literature and should there be more than one incorporated in the
material described, then better characters will have to be discovered to
elucidate them.

The species is subject to a variation in markings particularly on
the abdomen where the black median stripe may be almost if not quite
absent. The size also varies greatly, a common feature in parasitic
flies. All species, therefore, that have an abdomen with a ground
colour of bro^vn need to be placed here and if one is distinct, some
valid structural character m^ust be selected to establish it as a species.

Hah. — Tasmania and the mountain areas of New South Wales form
at present the known distribution of this species. The record for
Western Australia needs confirmation.

Microtropeza viridiventris Macq.

Masicera viridiventris Macquart, Dipt. Exot. suppl. 2, 1847, 68 ;
suppl. 4, 1849, 190. — Brauer Sitz. Akad. Wiss. Wien 1897, 336. —
Townsend, Canad. Ent. xlviii. 1916, 152 {Tasmaniomyia) .

There is an abnormal form of Microtropeza that is related
apparently to Macquart ’s species, the type of which Brauer placed in
his AmpMholia group, but differing from Microtropeza and he referred
to its metallic colouration. Townsend gave this a new generic name
without seeing the type, nor did he place specimens under his genus
which will fall to synonymy if the interpretation given by me be correct.
Macquart quotes the locality as Tasmania but my specimen is from
the Blue Mountains, New South Wales, January 1922 (C. Deuquet).

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA IV.

37

Subfamily Phaoniinae.

Key to genera and species incorporated below.

1. Female with a pair of bristles directed towards and

normally crossing each other, situated on the
interfrontalia between the two rows of bristles
Female without such bristles on the frons

2. First median vein with a strong bend over its apical

section, and directed towards the lower radial
vein. Femora largely brown over the apical
half, and the antennae are red or reddish over
the basal half (Introduced)

The first median vein and the lower radial vein
curving apically but very slightly towards each
other. Antennae always black and the legs
usually so . .

Other genera

Muscina stabulans Fail.

3. Anterior femora on male with a ventral notch con-

taining a si^ine

Anterior femora on male without such spine

4. Species with the face silvery, and a silver spot on the

frons, just at the base of the antennae. Highly
polished black species

Species with head entirely black, no silvery markings.
Abdomen blue, but the apical segment normally
has a greyish pulverulent overlay

5. Frons of the male about the width of the ocellar

tubercle, that of the female as wide as the
distance between the anterior ocellus and the
base of the antennae

Frons of the male narrower, about two-thirds of the
width of the ocellar tubercle, and that of the
female correspondingly reduced

6. Eyes on the posterior border with a concave section
Eyes on the posterior border without a concave section

Hydrotaea australis Mall.

Ophyra 4

»>

5

0. analis Macq.

0. rostrata Desv.
0. fuscocalyptrata Macq.
0. ? cJialcogaster Wied.

Under the name nigra, two species of Ophyra are standing in
literature as one, and it is evidently due to this that Malloeh has
introduced into the Australian literature the name cJialcogaster Wied.,
originally described from Java. This still leaves the relation with
Anthomyia nigra Wied., 1830, from China, said to be widely distributed
throughout the Orient, and reaching Australia, in a somewhat doubtful
position. It is to be noted that 0. nigra is supposed to have a white
or yellowish squama whereas the form in Australia has this darkened
at least on the majority of males. I give below a nomenclature that is
perhaps less contentious and it is to be noted that in economic literature
the names are frequently omitted due, apparently, to the general dissatis-
faction felt with the naming of forms.

Genus Hydrotaea Desvoidy.

Hydrotaea Desvoidy, Easai Myodaires 1830, 509.

There are two specific names standing under this genus, but one
is quite evidently misplaced, leaving a single recorded species acceptable
in this position.

Hydrotaea australis Malloeh.

H. australis Malloeh, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xi. 1923, 667. —
iVlalloch, Proc. Lin. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1. 1925, 40.

Hah. — Queensland and New South Wales.

Two specimens before me were reared from cow-dung (J. M,
Bancroft 1920) a well known breeding habit for the genus, but appar-
ently the species is not often met with under this condition in Australia.

38

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

Genus Ophyra Desvoidy.

Ophyra Desvoidy, Bssai Myodaires 1830, 516.

Peronia Desvoidy, ibidem, 517. — ^Mallocb, proc. Lin. Soc. N. S.
Wales, li. 1926, 554.

Amtralophyra Malloch, ibidem, 1. 1925, 40. — Malloch, Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist. (9) xi. 1923, 667.

Synonymy. — Hitherto this synonymy has been published only in
part and I would point out that Australophyra was based upon rostrata
Desvoidy, not on analis Macquart, as claimed, thus making the name an
absolute synonym of Peronia. Both these names must fall to Ophyra as
they were separated on minor characters. Malloch separated Peronia
by the presence of some hairs on the hypopleura, adjacent to the spiracle,
a character that is frequently absent in analis. Desvoidy separated it
on the more prominent clypeus with which goes also the more prominent
Carina as this is part of the same general structure. This clypeus and
its associated carina varies with the species and is valueless for generic
distinction.

Ophyra rostrata Desvoidy.

Peronia rostrata Desvoidy, Essai Myodaires 1830, 517.

Hydrotea cyaneiventris Macquart, Dipt. Exot. suppl. 5, 1855, 118. —
preoccupied Macquart 1849.

Ophyra analis of Authors in part (early authors record it under
this name.)

Ophyra nigra of some early authors.

The synonymy is new.

Hah. — Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia.
There is also a female labelled ''Ophyra analis N(ew) Z(ealand)”
brought back from those islands by Professor T. Harvey Johnston, and
is quite typical of rostrata, not analis, but possibly both species occur
in those islands.

Ophyra analis Macquart. s

0. analis Macquart, Dipt. Exo't. suppl. 1, 1846, 202. nec other
authors.

This specific determination is new and depends upon the fact that
the present species is quite unknown to me outside the island from
which it was originally described.

Hah . — Tasmania.

Ophyra fuscocalyptrata Macq.

Hydrotaea fuscocalyptrata Macquart, Dipt. Exot. suppl. 5, 1855,

119.

Ophyra nigra of authors, at least in part.

Wiedemann’s Anthomyia nigra from China, in accordance with
description does not agree with the present form. Macquart ’s descrip-
tion does agree except in so far as he quotes the presence of the
spine typical of Hydrotaea and in which character he was probably
mislead, and also he based his description on a specimen the legs of
which had become brown, a not uncommon occurrence.

Hah. — Queensland and New South Wales, but probably widely
distributed.

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOlDEA IV.

39

Ophyra chalcogaster Wied.

Malloch, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xi. 1923, 666. — which see for
such characters as are quoted there but which may not all apply. The
original description gives the abdomen as tinged with blue, which does
not apply in the present case.

The species so-called by Malloch can be distinguished from O.
fuscocalyptratd by the different posterior margin of the eye, and by the
frons of the female being much narrower.

Hah. — Queensland, but the distribution is probably wide. It occurs
throughout the year in Brisbane, and, so far, is the only one I have taken
there in winter.

Muscina stahidans Fall.

Hah. — Queensland to South Australia, but probably more widely
distributed. Introduced.

Specimens before me have been reared from rotted potatoes ( J. M.
Bancroft) and from carrion (0. W. Tiegs). The fly can be considered
one of the so-called “quaternary flies” together with Musca domestica
Lin., already recorded as such. The food in these two cases cannot
consist wholly of animal matter, as their maggots thrive in dung, and
the latter breeds in the daggs on sheep even in the early stages of
myasis, and so it would appear that the house fly becomes associated
with carrion, but not or hardly partaking of this food. Conversely
cases of certain blowflies said to be breeding in decayed vegetation were
subsequently found in this food contaminated with animal matter.

40

VoL. L, No. 6.

A New Derivative of Terpinen-4-oI.

By N. C. Hancox, B.Sc., and T. G. H. Jones^ D.Sc., A.A.C.I.

Department of Chemistry, University of Queensland.

{Read before, the Royal Society of Queensland, 2Sth November, 1938.)

Terpinen-4-ol is reported (Penfold, 1926) to form a crystalline
nitrosochloride, m.p. 115-116°. In an attempt to prepare this compound
by an alternative method, using the gases generated from sodium nitrite
and hydrochloric acid, a crystalline product, very sparingly soluble
in most solvents, was obtained ; this was, however, not the nitrosochloride
of Penfold. Preliminary investigation has led to the view that it
may be regarded tentatively as a chloronitrosdte, of formula
CioHj^gNgOgCl ; should this prove to be so, it would be a compound of a
type hitherto unreported. The substance is very easily prepared,
although the yield is somewhat low, and it would appear to be eminently
suitable for the characterisation of terpinen-4-ol.

There is also evidence that a similar compound may be prepared
from u-terpineol; this is also being investigated.

Experimental.

A solution of terpinen-4-ol (10 ccs.) in an equal volume of dry
ether was used; the gases generated by adding a saturated solution
of sodium nitrite drop by drop to concentrated hydrochloric acid were
passed through the solution, which was cooled in a freezing mixture. The
terpinenol solution rapidly became green and later deposited a copious
precipitate of the compound in question. It was isolated by filtration,
and purified by repeated washing with ether, in which it is very
sparingly soluble; after drying in the air, it melted at 105-106°. A
suitable solvent for recrystallisation has not yet been found. The
yield averages about 20 per cent, of the original material; this, as
well as the time of formation of the compound, appears to be somewhat
variable, and to depend in some way not yet understood on the experi-
mental conditions. The compound is not formed if the hydrochloric
acid is dropped into the sodium nitrite solution.

Estimation of nitrogen and chlorine gave the results : —

N = 11-1, 11-4% ; Cl = 14*0%. (Theoretical for C20H18N2O3CI,
N = 11-2%, Cl = 14-2 0/0).

The compound undergoes slow decomposition on keeping, with
development of a brown colour, and lowering of the melting point.

BIBLIOGEAPHY.

Penfold, A. E. Proc. Eoyal Soc. N.S.W., 1926, 59, 213.

VoL. L. No. 7.

41

Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora — Part XV.

Backliousia Bancroftii and Daphnandra rapandula.

By F. N. Lahey, M.Sc., and T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc. A.A.C.I., Department
of Chemistry, University of Queensland.

(Read Before the Royal Society of Queensland, 28th November, 1938.)

As part of an extensive programme of research on Queensland
plant products, made possible by a grant from the Commonwealth Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research, the oils of Bachhousia Bancroftii
and Daphnandra rapandula were obtained for examination. The yield
of oil in each case however, was too small to permit of a thorough
investigation.

Both oils were found to contain sesquiterpenes as the principal
constituents with pinene and esters as minor constituents.

Backhousia Bancroftii.

220 lb. of leaves yielded 35 cc. of oil with the following constants: —

fil5'5

[^]d • • • • • ♦

Ester value

Ester value after acetylation
Acid value . .

•926

1-4948

+ 8
29-4
66
0

On distillation under reduced pressure (2 mm.) the following
principal fractions were obtained.

(1). From liquid ammonia

trap •

^15-6

Md

n?~"

n

•8655

. . +37

1-4634

(2). 50-65°C. (2cc.) . .

Md

•9034

0

(3). 65-72°C. (12cc.) . .

^15-5

[o-Id

^20

•9154

. . +2-6

1-4894

(4). 77-87°C. (2icc.) . .

• • ^15 5

n^

•9441

1-4968

Fraction (1) was shown to contain d-a-pinene by oxidation with
permanganate to pinonic acid, identified by its semicarbazone m.p.
207°C.

Fraction (2) was principally an ester which on hydrolysis yielded
a sweet-smelling alcohol which was not identified. The acid present was
identified as acetic by silver salt estimation which yielded 64.4 per
cent. Ag.

The physical constants of fractions (3) and (4) indicated the
presence of a sesquiterpene and a sesquiterpene alcohol which was
confirmed by the characteristic colour reaction with bromine and glacial
acetic acid.

42

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

DapJmandra rapandula.

120 lb. of very dry leaves gave 140 cc. of oil with :

^15-5

Md

Ester value . . . . . .

Ester value after acetylation
Acid value

•9260

+26*4

1-4903

4-6

53-6

0

Fractionation of 100 cc. under reduced pressure (2 mm.) gave: —
(1) A fraction (10 cc.) collected in the liquid ammonia trap having

di5.5 . . -8454

[a]x) . . -f~37*4

nf . . 1-464

Oxidation with permanganate gave a product whose semicarbazone
melted at 207 °C. and at the same temperature when mixed with pinonic
acid semicarbazone. Hence the presence of d-a-pinene. The low density
material of this fraction was not identified.

(2). A fraction (Icc.) . . b.p. . . 42-46°C.

di5.5 • . -8779

On hydrolysis with alcoholic KOH acetic acid was shown to be
present by qualitative reactions. The alcohol liberated from the ester
was not identified.

(3). A fraction . . . . b.p.

• •

73-79°C.

dl5-5

• •

•9254

Md

• •

+ 5-7

D

• •

1-497

This was a sesquiterpene with constants closely

resembling those of

aromadendrene but on ozonolysis no aromadendrone was isolated.

(4). A fraction .. .. b.p.

• •

88-92°C.

^15*5

• •

•920

Hd

• •

+35-8

-r.20

^D

• •

1-4970

A drop dissolved in glacial acetic acid yielded a violet colour on the
addition of bromine vapour.

On dehydrogenation with sulphur under 40 mm. pressure, a small
quantity of an azulene was formed (m.p. of picrate 120° C.)

(5). A viscous oil . . . . b.p. . . 100-1 12°C.

dig.g . . -9559

[a]D . . +8*66

This was a sesquiterpene alcohol, for on treatment with formic acid
a sesquiterpene d^g.g -9145 was isolated which gave a deep blue colour
with bromine in acetic acid.

Our thanks are due to the Queensland Forestry Department for
the collection of the leaves and to the Council for Scientific and Indus-
trial Research for a grant.

VoL. L., No. 8.

43

Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora — Part
XVI. — Eucalyptus microcorys.

By T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I., and F. N. Lahey, M.Sc.
(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 28th November, 1938.)

Since the extensive investigations of Baker and Smith^ on the
essential oils of the Australian Eucalypts, very little work has been done
on these important oils. Meanwhile great advance has been made in
terpene chemistry and chemical technique and it was thought that oils
from some of the more abundant species of Eucalypts could, with
advantage, be subjected to a more thorough investigation.

The essential oil of Eucalyptus microcorys was chosen as it grows
abundantly in southern Queensland, where it is cut for its timber known
as Tallow wood.

The essential oil was a light-yellow mobile oil, smelling strongly of
cineol.

Baker and Smith^ recorded the presence of pinene, cineol, volatile
aldehydes and sesquiterpenes. We have confirmed these observations
and also have shown the presence of isoamyl isovalerate, borneol,
bornyl acetate, and butyrate, and have proved the volatile aldehyde
present to be isovaleric aldehyde. Also a small quantity of a carbonyl
compound was isolated but not identified.

Experimental.

Two samples of leaves of Eucalyptuis microcorys, one from Enoggera.
Brisbane, and the other from Yandina, yielded -71 and -73 per cent, of
oil respectively.

The physical constants of the two oils were very similar and also
agreed very closely with those given by Baker and Smith (loc. cit.).

^15-5

r«]n

n?~"

D

Ester value
Acetyl value
Cineol content

Sample A.

•9069
+ 17-9

Sample B. Constants by Baker and Smith.

•8953 -895

+ 18-6 +18-3

1-4690 1-4671 1-4690

23-8 22-5 19-6

60-4 62-7

46 % 43-9 % 49 %

Sample B was extraeted in turn with sodium carbonate and sodium
hydroxide solutions. These extracts yielded very small amounts of an
acid and a phenol which were not further examined.

The residual oil after drying was submitted to fractional distilla-
tion at two millimetres pressure when the following fractions were

obtained : —

„20

Md

(1). Collected

in

liquid ammonia

trap

• •

•8772

1-4595

+32

(2). 30-40°C.

• •

•894

1-4600

+ 16

(3). 40-44°C.

•8908

1-4400

- 2-5

(4). 44-56'^C.

, ,

•9548

1-4720

—28

(5). 56-60°C.

• •

•9739

1-4810

-17

(6). 60-80°C.

• •

•9484

1-4926

+24

44

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

Fraction (1) was shaken with saturated sodium bisuiphite solution.
A solid compound separated which, on decomposing with caustic soda
solution, gave a volatile aldehyde identified as isovaleric aldehyde by
the preparation of its 2 : 4 dinitro-phenyl-hydrazone, m.p. and mixed
ni.p. 123°C.

The residual oil of this fraction mixed with fraction (2) was
extracted three times with resorcin solution. The cineol recovered from
the resorcin compound had

djg'l . . . . . . *9316

[a]i) . . . . . . *45

1*4554

n

20

b

It readily formed an o-cresol compound m.p. 55°C.

The oil freed from cineol had the following constants :

djf:| *8638

[a]i) . . . . . . 45*8

1*4648

n

D

This was d-a-pinene for on oxidation with permanganate a good
yield of pinonic acid was obtained, identified by its semicarbazone m.p.
204°C.

Fraction (3) contained an ester and consequently was hydrolysed
with alcoholic KOIT. From the aqueous alkaline solution on acidifica-
tion and steam distillation was obtained an acid which formed a silver
salt giving 51-68 per cent, silver on ignition. Silver isovalerate
contains 51.65 per cent, silver.

The alcohol from the ester was extracted by means of phthalic
anhydride. It distilled at 130-140° C. and formed a naphthyl urethane
m.p. 67 °C. identical with the naphthyl urethane of isoamyl alcohol.

From a consideration of the constants of fractions (4) and (5) it
was thought that these would contain the mixture of carbonyl compounds,
cuminal, phellandral and cryptal, originally known as aromadendral.
Consequently fractions (4) and (5) were combined and submitted to
extraction by the method of Macbeth^.

The extraction with normal sodium sulphite yielded one cc. of a
carbonyl compound which, after purifying by a second extraction, had

b.p.

dill

Wd
20

11

D

60°C. at 1mm.
*978

. . -45

1*488

It yielded a 2 : 4 dinitro-phenyl-hydrazone m.p. 176°C. and so
appeared to be different from any constituent of aromadendral. This
carbonyl compound was not identified as very little was available for
experiments. Extraction with sodium bisulphite failed to remove
anything.

The oil remaining after these extractions had a strong camphora-
ceous odour. It failed to yield a positive test with 2 : 4 dinitro-phenyl-
hydrazine. By careful fractionation, a fraction was obtained with:

b.p.

dill

Md

Ester value

57-62°C. at 2 mm.
*9629

-22

=41

ESSENTIAL OILS FROM THE QUEENSLAND FLORA PART XVI., ETC. 45

This fraction was heated with phthalic anhydride in dry benzene
for 8 hours. The alcohol recovered from the acid-phthalate in the usual
way partially solidified. The solid was filtered and dried on a porous
plate. After recrystallising from petroleum ether it melted at 199 °C.
Lack of material prevented further purification but by mixed melting
point determinations it was shown to be borneol.

The recovered oil was hydrolysed with alcoholic KOH. From the
aqueous solution on acidification and steam distillation, a solution of
acids was obtained. The silver salts of these acids were formed and
analysed.

First crystals gave 55*39 per cent. Ag.

Silver butyrate requires 55.36 per cent. Ag.

Second crystals gave 59*28 per cent. Ag.

It appears as though both butyric and acetic acids are present as
esters.

The oil containing the alcoholic portion of the ester was extracted
with phthalic anhydride resulting in the isolation of borneol, and a
mobile alcohol which was not identified.

The remainder of the oil consisted of sesquiterpenes which gave
the usual colour reaction with bromine vapour and glacial acetic acid.
These were not further examined.

The authors’ thanks are due to the Queensland Forestry Department
for the collection of leaves.

REFERENCES.

1. BAkjsr, R. T., and Smith, H. G. Research on the Eucalypts and their Essential

Oils.^^ Second Edition, 1920.

2. Baker, R. T., and Smith, H. G. Ibid., p. 69.

3. Berry, P. A., Macbeth, A. K., and Swanson, T. B. J.C.S., 1939, p. 986.

46

VoL. L., No. 9.

The Gastro-Intestinal Helminths of Cattle in
Queensland: Their Distribution and Patho-

genic Importance.

By F. H. S. Roberts^ D.Sc., Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly.
{Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 2Sth November, 1938.)

INTRODUCTION.

While the tot/al number of species of helminths infecting the
alimentary tract of cattle throughout the world is relatively large,
there is comparatively little information on the pathogenic importance
of the various species recorded.

McFadyean (1896), Daubney (1933), and Taylor (1934; 1937)
have reported' Trichostrongylus axei Cobbold as causing gastritis of
cattle in England. Baker (1933) also records it as causing a chronic
bloody diarrhoea in a nine-months-old calf in the United States.

Stiles (1901) considers the loss of 10,000 head in Texas, United
States, in the wet years 1899-1900, to be due to heavy infections of
Haemonckus contortws Rudolphi, associated with Ostertagia ostertagi
Stiles, Bunostomum phlebotomum Railliet, and verminous bronchitis
(Dictyo'caulus viviparus Bloch). Powers (1909) refers to H. contortus
as a serious obstacle to cattle raising in Southern California and
describes a severe outbreak in 1904. The twisted stomach worm is also
a serious parasite of cattle iu Rhodesia (Bevan, 1929; Le Roux, 1932) ;
in Kenya (Daubney, 1929) ; in British East Africa (Montgomery, 1916) ;
in Natal (Le Roux, 1930) ; in Nyasaland (Turnbull, 1932) and in the
West Indies (Van Volkenberg, 1934).

Ostertagia ostertagi is first mentioned as pathogenic by Gilruth
(1899) when discussing the annually recurring mortalities among calves
in the South Island of New Zealand, worm infestation being associated
with malnutrition and exposure. Anaemia and diarrhoea were promin-
ent symptoms. He also considers 0. ostertagi responsible for an anaemia
prevalent among grown cattle on the west coast of the North Island.
Gastritis associated with this species has been also observed in England
(Sheather, 1923) and in the United States (Barger, 1927; Dikmans,
1923; Baker, 1937.)

Bunostomum phlebotomum has been noted (Dawson, 1903, 1906)
in association with ‘^salt sick” disease of cattle in Florida, United
States. This condition is manifested by a low fever, intermittent
diarrhoea and constipation, progressive emaciation and anaemia.
Mortalities are high. Conradi and Barnett (1908) record it as being
serious also in California; Le Roux (1932) in Rhodesia; Van Volken-
berg (1934) in the West Indies and Reisinger (1916) and Sigetw^an^
(1931) in Central Europe.

Of the several species of Cooperia recorded from cattle, only C.
oncopkora, Railliet, is implicated as pathogenic. This species was
present in large numbers in yearling cattle in Montana, United States,
among which mortalities had occurred. Nematodirus kelvetianus May,
and coccidiosis, however, were also conspicuous (Tunnicliffe, 1932).

THE GASTRiO-INTESTINAL HELMINTHS OP CATTLE, ETC. 47

The nodule worm, Oesophagostomum radiatum Rudolphi, is said
by Dihmans (1923) to be serious in Louisiana, United States. Le Roux
(1932) considers the species harmful in Rhodesia, especially when
associated with large numbers of other helminths. Losses have also
been reported from the Philippine Islands (Farinas, 1930; Boynton
and Wharton, 1916) where H. contortus and B. phlelotamum were also
present in large numbers.

Other records of pathogenicity among the nematodes concern
Ascaris vitulorum Goeze, (Turnbull, 1932) and an unidentified species
from the abomasum of calves in India, which may be Mecistocirrus
digitatus' (Sheather, 1919).

Of the numerous trematodes recorded from the alimentary tract
of cattle, only those of the Paramphistomidae appear to be harmful.
Cotylophoron cotylophoriim Fischoeder is very pathogenic to sheep in
South Africa, and is also harmful to cattle (Le Roux, 1930, 1932),
while Van Volkenberg (1934) mentions it as being serious in the West
Indies, Pandi (1935) has recorded Paramphistomum sp. as pathogenic
in Assam, India. Heavy infections cause a pronounced anaemia and
emaciation, accompanied by a profuse and foetid diarrhoea.

PARASITIC GASTRO-ENTERITIS IN QUEENSLAND.

Parasitic gastro-enteritis is by no means uncommon among cattle
in Australia. Gilruth and Sweet (1910) and Seddon^ consider
that 0. osiertagi is of importance in the southern States, while Edgar
(1938) has drawn attention to heavy infections of Paramphistomum
cervi in calves in New South Wales. In Queensland, on the other hfind,
reports on the occurrence of the disease refer only to H. contortus
(Dodd, 1908; Legg, 1923 and 1930).

Clinical cases in Queensland occur chiefly in the coastal and sub-
coastal areas. The disease may, however, be present occasionally in the
more western districts and an outbreak has been reported at Blackall,
approximately 400 miles inland.

As has been reported in other countries, (Powers, 1909; Bevan,
1929; Daubney, 1929; Van Volkenberg, 1934), young cattle are chiefly
affected, more especially from 4 months to 12 months of age. Rainfall,
rate of stocking and nutrition appear to influence outbreaks.

The annual rainfalls of the areas in which the disease is most
prevalent range from 25 to nearly 160 inches (see map). The type of
country also varies considerably. The richer areas, namely, the south-east
corner and the Atherton Tableland,! are most heavily stocked and are
most affected. In the central and much of the northern coastal districts
the country is poorer and the stocking correspondingly lighter. Here,
outbreaks are less frequent.

The disease usually occurs during the dry season, i.e., in the wfinter
and spring months. A^ little supplementary feeding is practised, cattle
frequently lose condition and become susceptible to infection. In
addition, the concentration of animals on permanent waterholes during
the dry season creates conditions conducive to heavy and rapidly acquired
infections. This factor applies chiefly to beef eattle country.

* Private communication.

t An area of high country in North Queensland, immediately south-west of
Cairns.

48 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROTiU. SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

During the past three years a number of affected animals have
been examined. Counts of each species of helminth were made when
possible, in order to ascertain their relative importance and pathogenicity.

The infections always comprised a number of species, but, as a
rule, one or sometimes two species so predominated as to leave little
doubt as to the pathogenic agents. The lungworm, Dictyocaulus
viviparus, was occasionally a contributing factor in outbreaks, a vermin-
ous pneumonia being then associated with heavy infections of worms
in the alimentary tract.

THE GASTBO-INTESTINAL HELMINTHS OP CATTLE, ETC. 49

HELMINTHS OBSERVED IN AFFECTED ANIMALS.

Genus PAEAMPHISTOMUM Pischoeder, 1901,

P. cervi Schrank, and/or P. explanatum Creplin, are assoeiated
with a disease of cattle reported only from south-eastern Queensland
and known locally as ‘'black scours.” This condition is manifested by
a progressive emaciation and anaemia, accompanied by a dark, foetid
and profuse diarrhoea. In the only two cases examined, large numbers
of immature worms were recovered from the faeces.

The adult flukes in the rumen and reticulum must be only slightly
pathogenic, if at all, as it is very common to see animals in excellent
condition harbouring manj^ hundreds of them.

Genus COTYLOPHORON Stiles and Goldberger, 1910.

C. cotylophorum Fischoeder has been seen on several occasions,
but is regarded as uncommon and of little economic importance.

Genus MONIEZIA Blanchard, 1891.

As a rule, a few tapeworms appear of little consequence, but
recently 17 well grown M. benedeni Moniez, were taken from a
six-months-old calf which was stunted, “pot bellied,” and suffering
intermittently with diarrhoea. Very few other worms v/ere present.

M. expama Rud., which has also been seen in cattle, is of rare
occurrence.

Genus HELICTOMETRA Baer, 1927.

Heliciometra giardi Moniez is apparently rare in cattle, as it has
been seen once only. It is, how^ever, not uncommon in sheep.

Genus HAEMONCHUS Cobb, 1898.

The twisted stomach worm, H. contortus Rud., is undoubtedly the
most widespread and most pathogenic helminth of calves and young
cattle in Queensland. Estimations showed the numbers harboured by
affected animals to be from 5,200 to 12,000. In several cases which
yielded 5,200 to 6,000 H. contortus, 30,000 to 60,000 Cooperia spp. have
also been present. One six-months-old animal harboured 5,200 H.
contortus and 76,000 T. axei.

H. contortus has also been implicated in serious losses among three-
year-old steers and in the death of an aged cow.

Genus OSTERTAGIA Ransom, 1907.

Three species of this genus have been seen, namely, 0. ostertagi
Stiles, 0. circumcincta Stadelman, and 0. occidentalis Ransom, but the
only species to occur in any numbers is 0. ostertagi. Calves suffering
from gastro-enteritis, due principally to H. contortus or 0. radiatum,
have contained as many as 22,500 and 31,500 worms belonging to the
genus Ostertagia. As Robertson (1933) considers that 8,000 or more
0. circumcincta are pathogenic in lambs, it is possible that at times
0. ostertagi may be of importance among young cattle in Queensland.

Genus TRICHOSTRONGYLUS Looss, 1905.

T. axei Cobbold, T. coluhriformis Giles, T. vitrinus Looss, and
T. longispicularis Gordon, have been observed but only T. axei appears
to be of any importance.

50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

Usually, the numbers of this species taken from alfected animals
have not exceeded 15,000, hut in one instance a six-months-old animal
harboured 76,000 in addition to 5,200 H. contortus and a small number
of other species. Taylor (1934) records 140,000 T. axei as causing
gastritis in a two-year-old heifer. It is possible, therefore, that the
76,000 specimens present in our case were pathogenic and contributed
to the general ill effects observed.

Genus COOPEE-IA Eansom, 1907.

Only C. pectinata Ransom and C. punctata v. Linstow, appear
important, both species usually occurring together. Cooperia spp. have
frequently been observed as a contributing factor to gastro-enteritis
in animals also harbouring large numbers of H. contortus or 0. radiatum.
In such cases 30,000 to 60,000 Cooperia spp. have been present. In
two outbreaks, these small Trichostrongyles appeared to be the principal
causal agents. Three young animals from such outbreaks harboured
72,200 C. punctata and 23,300 C. pectinata, 92,400 C. pectinata and
18,600 C. punctata, and 28,000 C. pectinata, and 110,000 C. punctata,
respectively. In all three cases the number of other species present
was small. The most prominent symptoms of a heavy infection of
Cooperia spp. are emaciation and diarrhoea. Anaemia is apparently
not conspicuous.

Macroscopic lesions are practically confined to the small intestine
which shows scattered and extensive areas of inflammation, with deposits
of a tough brownish exudate. Such changes may be visible with infec-
tions of 30,000 to 40,000 worms.

Four other species of this genus have been collected, namely C.
oncophora Railliet, C. mcmasteri Gordon, C. cwrticei Railliet, and C.
spatulata Baylis, all of which occur in only small nrumbers.

Genus NEMATODIEUS Eansom, 1907.

Both N. fiUcollis Rud., and N. spathiger RaiUiet, occur only in
small numbers.

Genus BUNOSTOMUM Eailliet, 1902.

In only one instance was B. pklehotonmm Railliet definitely
responsible for serious effects, a 15-months-old animal dying as a
result of an infection of 2,250 worms. Although this species is a
prevalent parasite of young cattle, it apparently becomes serious only
under conditions of heavy stocking. The hookworm is very troublesome
among young cattle employed for tick fever work at the Animal Health
Station, Townsville, where the rate of stocking at times becomes very
high. Attempts to control the infections by keeping the animals in
bare yards and feeding from racks has met with little success and the
heavy infections under these conditions suggest that the infective larvae
can enter the body via the skin. Cameron (1927) with B. trigonocephalum,
and Schwartz (1924) with B. phlehotomum, however, failed to produce
infection except by ingestion but, more recently Orrlepp (1937) working
with B. trigonocephalum, has established infection in sheep simply by
placing larvae on the skin behind the ears.

The disease occasioned by hookworm runs a well marked course
with progressive anaemia, weakness, emaciation and diarrhoea which
in the initial stages may be only intermittent. The anaemia is severe
and the red cell count may be reduced by as much as 75 per cent. The
worms cause small haemorrhagic punctures in the intestine, the wall of
which in heavy infections is covered by a thick layer of slimy mucous.

THE GASTKO-INTESTINAL HELMINTHS OF CATTLE, ETC. 51

Reports from Townsville indicate that animals over 18 months of
age are little affected.

Genus STRONGYLOIDES Grassi, 1879.

S. papiUosv\s Wedl., which is a common helminth in sheep and
cattle usually posseses a low degree of pathogenicity. Recently, however,
an infection of at least 54,000 worms in a three-months-old calf, which
was weak, emaciated and affected with an intermittent diarrhoea was
encountered. The duodenum and jejunum showed patchy inflammation
and here the majority of the parasites occurred.

Genus OESOPHAGOSTOMUM Molin, 1861.

0. radimtum Rud. appeared to be primarily responsible for two
outbreaks as animals from these herds yielded 4,260 and 6,510 worms
respectively. The disease was characterised by an extreme anaemia,
emaciation and weakness, accompanied by an acute diarrhoea.

As a result of infection the walls of the colon become thickened,
the mucosa shows patchy inflammation, and is thrown into folds. The
worms may be seen with their anterior ends buried into the swollen
mucosa, causing a conspicuous pitting. The mucosa is covered with a
thick layer of, blood-stained mucous and clots of blood may be present
in the lumen, to appear later in the faeces. Thickening and pitting
may be present with populations of 300 or more worms.

Genus TRICHUEIS Roederer, 1761.

T. avis Abildg. is not uncommon, but is of no importance.

EGG COUNTS IN RELATION TO AN INFECTION.

The egg output of an helminth infection as determined by the
number of eggs present in a unit weight of faeces is frequently a
useful though not always accurate indication of the degree of infection.
Very few determinations have been recorded from cattle though Taylor
(1934; 1937) considers egg counts of 400 (in grown cattle) and 500
to 1,000 (in yearlings) per gram weight of faeces symptomatic of
parasitic gastritis caused by T. axei.

Egg counts were therefore made when possible from animals mani-
festing marked symptoms of helminthiasis, the animals being later
autopsied and the numbers of w^orms present determined. In all cases
a mixed infection was present, but one or another species usually
predominated. Prom the data secured, it w^as determined : —

(1) In calves 6 to 12 months old, heavily infected with H.
contort us and/or 0. 7'adiatum, the egg counts may vary from
3,400 to 7,800 eggs per gram of faeces. The smaller count
was made from the mushy faeces of a six-months-old
animal. The count of 7,800 came from diarrohoeal faeces of
a 12-months-old animal.

(2) A serious infection with Cooperia spp. in calves 5 to 6
months old may give an egg count of only 800-1,200 eggs
per gram, in mushy to diarrhoeal faeces.

(3) In a 15-months-old animal infected with 2,250 B. phlehotomum
and suffering from diarrhoea, the egg count was only 400
to 800 eggs per gram.

52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

(4) Two six-months-old animals, which manifested marked
symptoms of parasitic disease, gave an egg count of only
200 to 400 eggs per gram of faeces. On post mortem, one
animal yielded 6,500 H. contortus, 4,220 T.axei, 2,600 C. spv
and 29 O. radiatum. Only a few H. contortus were, however,
mature. The second animal was penned on concrete and at
the end of three weeks the count had risen to 4,500 eggs
per gram of faeces. This denotes that a massive infection
may seriously affect the health of an animal before the
wnrms are mature.

DISTRIBUTION.

The distribution in Queensland of many of the species recorded
here has already been dealt with in so far as they occur in sheep
(Roberts, 1936). H. contortus was noted as widespread, occurring in
sheep as far west as Longreach and Cloncurry. It has since been
found in cattle in the Cunnamulla area and in the far north-west. This
stomach worm, therefore, is probably present throughout the State,
except perhaps towards the extreme western and south-western borders.

Of the species of Ostertagia recorded, 0. ostertagi reaches its
greatest development in the south-east. Its numbers show a gradual
decrease northwards and in the vicinity of Townsville only very small
numbers are found. On the Atherton Tableland, however, the species
appears to be slightly more prevalent than elsewhere in the north.
In the south, it extends west at least as far as Goondiwindi. 0.
Occident alis has been seen in cattle only from the south-east. There
is nothing to add to the distribution of 0. circumcincta already given
for sheep. (Roberts, 1936.)

Trichostrongylm axei has a distribution very similar to 0. ostertagi.
It reaches its greatest development in the south-east and becomes scarce
in the north. It occurs in moderate numbers in cattle in the central
west, at least as far out as Blackall. T. longispicularis was seen only
in the south-eastern sheep districts.

The distribution of T. coluhriforniis and T. vitrinus was discussed
in an earlier paper (Roberts, 1936).

Six species of Cooperia were recorded. Of these, C. pectinata and
C. punctata are most widespread. The presence of these species in
calves from the Cunnamulla district and in sheep from the Longreach
and Cloncurry districts (Roberts, 1936) indicates very hardy prepara-
sitic stages. C. pectinata appears slightly more capable of existing in
the drier districts, whilst in the wet tropical areas it is more usual
for C. punctata to form the bulk of the infections. Both species reach
their highest development on the coast and are just as prevalent in the
north as they are in the south. C. oncophora, C. curticei and C,
mcmasteri have been seen in cattle only from the south-eastern sheep
areas. Neither C. oncophora nor C. curticei are very prevalent in
Queensland and appear to be confined to the south-east. As these three
species have been seen only in small numbers, conditions in Queensland
may not be very favourable to them. Cooperia spatulata, though ken
only in small numbers, occurred along the coast from Brisbane to Cairns
and in the south as far west as Clifton.

THE GASTRO-INTESTINAL HELMINTHS OF CATTLE, ETC.

53

Nematodirus spp. have a distribution similar to that of C. oncophora,
but are more prevalent towards the south-west where they occur
frequently in sheep in the Charleville district (Roberts, 1936).

The hookworm, B. pklehotomum, is practically confined to the
coastal and subcoastal districts and in the south has been seen as far
west as Chinchilla. 8. papillosus has a similar distribution, but extends
further west.

O. radiatum is widespread, but its western limits are not so far
inland as those of H. coniortus. Calves from the Cunnamulla area are
apparently free from this parasite. It occurs, however, in the central
Gulf areas, but has not been seen in considerable numbers, except in
coastal regions.

The distribution of T. ovis has already been considered (Roberts,
1936).

P. cervi and P. explanatum are confined to the coastal and sub-
coastal areas. Little is known of the distribution of C. cotylophorum,
the few specimens seen coming from the coastal districts south of
Rockhampton.

M. benedeni has been taken only from coastal cattle. There is also
a single record of its presence in a sheep from Central Queensland.
M. expansa is widespread in sheep, reaching its greatest development
in the higher rainfall sheep country. It has been seen only twice in
cattle, both animals coming from the south-eastern sheep districts.

SUMMARY.

1. Parasitic gastro-enteritis of cattle is not uncommon in
Queensland. It is most prevalent among young cattle. Out-
breaks are most numerous during the winter and spring and
in the coastal and subcoastal districts. '

2. H. contortus, C. pectinaita and C. punctata and O. radiatum
are the helminths chiefly concerned. Pathogenic infections of
P. cervi and P. explanatum.^ M. benedeni, B. pklebotomum, and
8. papillosus have also been seen.

3. While T. axei and 0. ostertagi are not usually sufbciently
numerous to be important, infections of such proportions as
to be possibly pathogenic have been observed.

4. The symptoms and lesions in affected animals are discussed.
The numbers of helminths present in affected animals are
given.

5. Some information as to the significance of the number of eggs
passed per gram of faeces as an aid to a diagnosis of parasitic
gastro-enteritis is given.

6. The distribution of the various species throughout Queensland
is discussed.

EEFEEENCES.

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Baker, D. W. (1937): IMd., 27: 381.

Bargee, E. H. (1927): J. Amer. Yet. Med. Assn., 71: 560.

Bevan, E. W. (1929): ‘‘Parasitic Gastritis of Cattle, Minis. Agric. and Lands,
Ehodesia, Bull. 756.

Boynton, W. H., and Wharton, L. D. (1916) : Philip. J. Sci., (B) Trop. Med., 11:
285.

54

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op v^jUEENSLAND.

Cameron, T. W, M. (1927): J. Helminth., 5: 149.

CoNRADi, A. J., and Barnett, E. (1908): ‘‘Hookworm Disease of Cattle,” Agri,
Exp. Stat., Sth. Carolina, Bull. 137.

Daubney, K. (1929): “The Important Parasitic Worms of Sheep in Kenya,” Dept.
Agric., Kenya Colony, Bull. 26.

Daubney, E. (1933): Parasit., 25: 224.

Dawson, C. F. (1903) : “Hookworms in Cattle,” Agric. Exper. Stat., Florida, Press
Bull. 36.

Dawson, C. F. (1906): “Salt Sick (Bovine Uncinariasis),” Ihid., Bull. 86.

Dikmans, G. (1923): “Second Preliminary Eeport on Parasites Found in

Euminants at the Municipal Abattoir, Baton Eouge, La.,” Agric. Exper.
Stat., L'ouisana, Bull. 186.

Dodd, S. (1908): Q’land. Agric. J., October, 197.

Edgar, G. (1938) : Aust. Vet. J. 13: 27.

Farinas, E. E. (1930): Phillip. J. Agric., 1: 381.

Gilruth, j. a. and Sweet, G. (1910): Vet. J., 66: 418.

Gilruth, j. a. (1899) : Ann. Eept. Dept. Agric. N.Z.

Le Eoux, P. L. (1930): Sixteenth Eep. Dir. Vet, Serv. and Anim. Indus., Pretoria,
Sth. Africa: 243.

Le Eoux, P. L. (1930): J. Sth. African Vet. Med. Assn., 1: 43.

Le Eoux P. L. (1932) ; “Notes on the more Important Worms of Cattle, Sheep, and
Pigsi in Northern Ehodesia,” Ann. Bull., Dept. Anim. Health,, Nth
Ehodesia : 9.

Legg, j. (1923): Ann. Eep. Dept, Agric. and Stock, Q’land: 104.

Legg, j. (1930): Ihid.: 93.

McFadyean, j. (1896): J, Comp. Path, and Therap., 9: 314.

Montgomery, E. E. (1916): Ann. Eep. Vet. Bacteriologist, Brit. East Africa
(1914-1915). (Abs. Trop. Vet. Bull. (1917) 5: 63.)

Ortlepp, E. j. (1937) : Onderst, J. Vet Sc. and Anim, Ind. 8: 183.

Pandi, P. G. (1935) : Ind. J. Vet. Sci. and Anim. Husb., 5: 364

Powers, M. E, (1909): “Stomach Worm Disease of Sheep and Young Cattle,”
Agric, Exper. Stat., Sth. Carolina, Bull. 142.

Eeisinger, L. (1916): Wiener Tierarztl. Monatschr, 3: 467.

Egberts, F. H. S. (1936) : “Distribution of the Gastro-Intestinal Parasites of Sheep
in Queensland,” Anim. Health Stat., Yeerongpilly, Dept. Agric. and Stock,
Q’land, Pamph No. 8

Eobertson, D. (1933): Scot. J. Agric., 16: 320.

Schwartz, B. (1924) : J. Agric. Sci., 29: 451.

Sheather, a. L. (1919) : “A New Nematode Causing Parasitic Gastritis in Calves,”
Agri. Ees. Institut., Pusa, Bull. 86.

Sheather, A. L. (1923): J. Comp, Path, and Therap., 36: 71.

Sigetwary, A. (1931): Wiener Tierarztl. Monatsch., 18: 257.

Stiles, C. W. (1901) : Seventeenth Eep. Bur. Anim. Indus., Dept. Agric., U.S.A.:
356.

Taylor, A. L. (1934) : The Vet. Eec., 14: 474.

Taylor, A. L. (1935): Ihid., 15: 103.

Taylor, A. L. (1937): The Vet. J., 93: 353.

Tunniclipee, E. a. (1932): J. Amer. Vet. Med. Assn., 80: 251.

Turnbull, C. (1932) : Eep. Vet. Dept., Nyasaland.

Van Volkenberg, H. L. (1934): “Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of Cattle in
Puerto Eico,” Agric. Exper. Stat., Puerto Eico, Bull. 36.

55

VoL. L., No. 10.

The Middle Devonian Rugose Corals of Queensland,
I. Douglas Creek and Drummond Creek,
Clermont District.

By Dorothy Hill, M.Sc. (Qld.), Ph.D. (Cantab).

(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 28th November, 1938.)

Plates IV. and V.

Summary. — In this paper the Rngosa from the Clermont district,
Queensland, are redescribed, and their age is deduced to be Middle
Devonian, probably the upper part of the Lower Middle Devonian, i.e.,
Upper Couvinian. The paper includes a review of the Family Spongo-
phyllidae, and supplementary remarks on the family Acanthophyllidae,
and a new genus Xystriphyllum is founded.

Corals from the Clermont district were first recorded by Rands
(1886, p. 4) from a bed of dark-coloured crystalline limestone outcrop-
ping close to Douglas Creek, about 3 miles below its junction with
Drummond Creek, and about 4 miles south-east of Copperfield. Rands
tentatively referred the limestone to the Devonian. Jack (1895, p. 10)
mentioned an outcrop of limestone on Drummond Creek, about 3 miles
south of Copperfield, containing Heliolites and other Devonian corals.
Dunstan (1900, p. 3) and Morton (1931, MS map, Rockhampton Office,
Geological Survey of Queensland) have since collected from the lime-
stones, whose relation to the metalliferous mica and hornblende schists
of the district is unproved. Dunstan gave their strike as N.N.E.,
S.S.W., and that of the schists as north-easterly, and (1901, pi. 1)
regarded them as unconformable on the schists.

A study of Rands and Dunstan ’s texts and maps and the Lands
Department map of the Parish of Copperfield, County of Clermont, in
conjunction with Morton’s MS map (by courtesy of Mr. J. H. Reid,
District Geologist, Rockhampton), indicates that there are four lime-
stone outcrops near Douglas Creek, as follows: — Portion 73, Parish
Copperfield (Rands and Morton) ; Portion 85, Parish Copperfield (Rands
and Dunstan), both on the left bank of the Douglas; Selection No. 75
(Dunstan, present portion number could not be traced by the Lands
Department), on the right bank of the Douglas; and Portion 9, Parish
Theresa (Morton). In addition there is Jack’s locality on Drummond
Creek, which appears not to have been visited subsequently.

Etheridge (1911) described the Rugosa collected by Rands and
Dunstan, but did not determine the age of the limestones. Rands,
Dunstan ’s, and Morton’s material from Douglas Creek are used in the
present work, with also one specimen from Drummond Creek, possibly
collected by Jack. The three species, Acanthophyllum clermontensis
(Etheridge), Spongophyllum cyathophylloides Etheridge, and Xystri-
phyllum dunstani (Etheridge), are common to the first three localities
cited above from Douglas Creek, and Spongophyllum cyathophylloides
occurs on Drummond Creek, so that these limestones might reasonably

56

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

be considered to be of the same age. One indeterminable Rugose coral
was collected from Portion 9, Parish Theresa, by Morton. The specimens
are in the Collection of the Geological Survey of Queensland and in the
Australian Museum.

Age of the Limestones. — Spongophyllum is known from the Upper
Silurian and the Middle Devonian; S. cyathophylloides possesses no
feature which could serve to ally it with Middle Devonian rather than
Upper Silurian species, or vice versa. Xystriphyllum has so far been
recognised only from the Lower and Middle Devonian, and X. dunstani
is closest to the New South Wales Lower (?) Middle Devonian X.
mitchelli (Etheridge). Acanthophyllum extends from Lower to Upper
Devonian, but from Wedekind’s figures of the Rugosa of the Eifel we
see that A. clermontensis has a morphology characteristic of the Upper
Couvinian. On this somewhat limited evidence it is deduced that the
Douglas Creek and Drummond Creek limestones are Middle Devonian,
and that they probably represent the upper part of the Lower Middle
Devonian, i.e., the upper part of the Couvinian.

Family ACANTHOPHYLLIDAE.

Acanthophyllidge Hill, 1939.

Range . — Devonian.

Remarks. — ^The arrangement of the axial ends of their septa sug-
gests that these further forms from the Eifel district in Germany belong
to the Acanthophyllidae : — Keriophyllum Wedekind (1924, p. 69,
Couvinian, including Cyathophyllum cylindricum Schulz) ; Leptoino-
phyllum Wedekind (1925, p. 4, genotype Leptoinophyllum mnltiseptatum
Amanshauser MS, Wedekind id. figs. 1, 2, Lower Givetian) ; and a group
consisting of the following : — T remat ophy Hum Wedekind (1924, p. 75,
Couvinian), Dohmop/ii/ZLim Wedekind (1924, p. 76, Couvinian, including
Cyathophyllum helianthoides Goldfuss, Quenstedt), St enophyllum> inter-
medium and Stenophyllum implicatum Wedekind (1925, figs. 5-7, both
Lower Givetian), and Spa\rganophyllum Wedekind (1925, p. 13, genotype
Sparganophyllum difficile Borchers MS, Wedekind id. fig. 9, Lower
Givetian).

The possibility that the new genus Xystriphyllum is a cerioid
Acanthophyllid is discussed on p. 62.

Genus Acanthophyllum Dybowski.

Acanthophyllum Dybowski, 1873, p. 339 ; 1874, p. 493.

Acanthophyllum Hill, 1939.

Ptenophyllum Wedekind, 1924, p. 36, Couvinian, Eifel.

Astrophyllum Wedekind, 1924, p. 46, Couvinian, Eifel.

Stenophyllum Amanshauser in Wedekind, 1925, p. 9, genotype
Stenophyllum diluvianum Amanshauser in Wedekind id., figs 3, 4, Lower
Givetian, Eifel.

Genolectotype (chosen Schliiter, 1889, p. 38) : Cyathophyllum
heterophyllum Edwards and Haime.

Diagnosis. — Large, simple, or weakly compound Rugosa with a wide
dissepimentarium of small, highly arched dissepiments, with shallowly
concave, axially deepened tabulae, and with long but unequal major
septa. The axial ends of the major septa are arranged in groups in the
tabularium, and are straight, or curved vertically, the curvature differing

THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 57

in degree from group to group ; the cardinal septum is typically short,
and one septum, not a proto-septum, extends to the axis. The septa
show dilferent types of modification; they are frequently much dilated,
either in the dissepimentarium, or more rarely in the tabularium, or in
both; towards the periphery they may be thin and lined with lateral
dissepiments ; in the tabularium they are sometimes waved and carinate.

Range. — Fairly common in the iLower Devonian of Europe, and
very common in the Middle Devonian of Europe. Lower and Middle
Devonian of Australia.

Remarks. — The following is added to previous remarks (Hill,
1939). I consider that Wedekind’s (1924) genera PtenopJiyllum
and Astrophyllum from the Couvinian of the Eifel are better regarded
as each forming single variable species of Acanthophyllum; also that
the following are Acanthophyllum : — Cyathophyllum sp. Wedekind
(1921, pi. 1, fig. 1, Couvinian, Eifel) ; Mesophylloides ricMeri Wedekind
(1921, pi. 1, fig. 2, Couvinian, Eifel), Stenophyllam diliwianum Aman-
shauser (Wedekind, 1925, pi. 1, figs. 3, 4, Lower Givetian, Eifel, genotype
of Stenophyllum Amanshauser, Wedekind, 1925, p. 9), and Neostringo-
phyllum spp. Wedekind (1925, x)l. 11, Upper Givetian, Eifel).

Acanthophyllum clermontensis (Etheridge).

(Plate IV., figs. 1, 2.)

Cyathophyllum f clermontensis Etheridge, 1911, p. 5, pi. B, figs.
1, 2, pi. D., fig. 3, Douglas Creek, 7 miles S.S.W. of Clermont. [Lower]
Middle Devonian.

Lectotype (here chosen) : 2C, Geological Survey of Queensland
Collection, being specimen figured Etheridge loc. cit. pi. D., fig. 3 ; portion
is P 9487 in the Australian Museum.

Diagnosis. — Sub-compound Acanthophyllum.

Description. — The lectotype consists of a number of unequal coral-
lites in a limestone block, suggesting by their manner of aggregation
that they are parts of a compound corallum, though none can be seen
to arise from another. A topotype collected iDy Morton, however, shows
an offset arising by lateral increase, its diameter being enlarged fairly
rapidly. Etheridge (1911, p. 5) noted corallites in contact and sub-
polygonal, but I have not seen such a specimen. The calice is the
‘ ' Krempenkelch ” of Wedekind; that is, the dissepimentarium has an
almost flat surface, descending steeply into the concave surface of the
tabularium. The diameter varies between 25 and 60 mm. {fide
Etheridge). The septa are numerous and very long; the major septa
extend unequally towards the axis, their axial ends usually being slightly
curved, waved and carinate, and arranged in the manner described as
diagnostic for the genus. The minor septa are three-quarters or four-
fifths as long as the major septa. Dilatation is usually apparent in the
septa, less in the minor than in the major; an irregular zone may occur
near the inner third of the dissepimentarium ; the septa may sometimes
be dilated like spindles, so that they are thickest in the middle parts,
thinning towards both axis and periphery. The tabulae are fine, close,
incomplete, and the floor of the tabularium is slightly concave with a
median depression. The tabularium may have as little as one-quarter
the diameter of the corallum. The dissepiments are rather elongate;
in a narrow zone near the inner edge of the tabularium they are inclined

58 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

vertically, but outside this zone the inclination decreases suddenly at
first and then rather gradually, the dissepiments near the periphery
being almost horizontal. Many dissepiments are geniculate in transverse
section, while lateral dissepiments lining the sides of the septa are
common.

Remarks. — Three individuals, illustrated on Plate IV., Figs 3-5, are
placed, with some doubt, in this species. That figured 3a, b, has septa
more openly spaced and a somewhat narrower tabularium than is typical,
but it has the irregular zone of septal dilatation near the inner third of
the dissepimentarium. The specimen figured 4 shows a different arrange-
ment of the axial ends of the septa from that characteristic of Acantko-
phylluWb, in that they are not all rotated in the same direction; that
figured 5 may possibly be a young stage of A. clermontensis ; the photo-
graph falsely suggests that the ends of the septa in the tabularium are
dilated (as in Wedekind’s Lower Devonian Ptenophyllum) .

1 know of no other species of AcamtJiophyllum which has advanced
from a solitary to a sub-compound habit. Wedekind’s analysis (1924,
1925) of the Cyathopkyllum heterophyllum group suggests that the
' ' Krempenkelch ” as possessed by A. clermontensis is characteristic of the
lower part (Couvinian) of the Middle Devonian. The aspect of the
Acanthophyllids from Clermont approaches very closely that of the
Upper Couvinian forms from the Eifel, called by Wedekind (1924)
Astrophyllum and Bhopalophyllum. According to Wedekind’s observa-
tions, the Lower Couvinian Acanthophyllids {Ptenophyllum s.s. Wede-
kind) show, particularly in, the young stages, great dilatation of the axial
septal ends ; the fact that such dilatation does not occur in the Clermont
forms suggests that they are later than Lower Couvinian. Our species
differs from the Givetian Acanthophyllids described by Wedekind in
that the latter have a ' ' Trichterkelch ” rather than a ^ ^ Krempenkelch ”
and have less dilated septa. In the absence of any evidence to the
contrary, I consider that we may accept for the Clermont fauna the
Upper Couvinian age suggested by Acanthopliyllum clermontensis.

Family SPONGOPHYLLIDAE.

Type Genus. Spongophyllum Edwards and Haime.

Bugose corals in which the long major septa extend unequally
towards the axis or the median plane ; the minor septa are usually degen-
erate, and both orders may be discontinuous near the periphery where
ionsdaleoid dissepiments may be developed ; the tabularium is frequently
bisymmetric, and the tabulae are close, parallel, and usually complete,
concave without a median notch.

Range. — Upper Silurian of the Baltic States, Bohemia, and New
South Wales, Lower Devonian of Styria and France, and Middle
Devonian of Europe and Australia.

Remarks. — The boundaries of this family are not clearly defined. In
pong ophy Hum itself I include only those cerioid forms in which the
tabularium is narrow and the tabulae close and but slightly concave, the
minor septa degenerate, and in which Ionsdaleoid dissepiments may be
developed in an irregular peripheral zone when the major septa are dis-
continuous ; that is, five Upper Silurian and six Middle Devonian species*

Three phaceloid species from the Middle Devonian of Germany have
usually been regarded as Spongophyllum. These are Spongophyllum
torosum^ Schlliter (1881, p. 211, pi. vi., figs. 1-5, Givetian) S. elongatum

THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 59

Schliiter (1881, p. 213, pL vii., figs. 1-5, Givetian) and S. semiseptatum
Schliiter (1881, p. 215, pi. v., figs. 1-3). They have a wider tabularium
than the cerioid genotype, and a peripheral border of very large lons-
daleoid dissepiments, and the septa are more noticeably arranged about
a median plane. They should probably be regarded as a separate genus.

Four other groups have morphologies which make it reasonable to
regard them as members of the Spongophyllidae. The first is of elongate,
solitary or weakly fasciculate corals, like 8. sedgtvicki except that the
minor septa may be well developed and lonsdaleoid dissepiments seldom
appear. These were figured by Wedekind (1925) from the Givetian of
Germany as Grypophyllum gracile, G. normale, G. ienue, G. regressum,
G. sp., and Leptoinophyllw^m sp.

The second group is of solitary coralla, which have a less regular
lonsdaleoid border than the phaceloid species of the iorosum group, and
in which traces of minor septa sometimes occur, and there is a tendency
for the tabulae to be arranged in two series in the rather vfide tabularium.
They were described from the Lower Givetian of the Eifel by Wedekind
(1925), e.g. Loipophyllum kerpense (genotype of Loipophyllum Wede-
kind (1925), L. pilaeforme, L. \sociale (a compound form), L. Mradiatum,
N eo'spongopkyUum variabile (genotype of N eospongophyllum Wedekind
1922), and N. crassum.

Another group of elongate, sometimes slightly branched, coralla has
a rather marked bilateral symmetry ; its major septa are but rarely
broken by lonsdaleoid dissepiments, and the inner ends of the minor septa
may be well developed. This group consists of the Givetian forms
described by Wedekind (1925) as Loipophyllum rotundum, L. acrophyl-
loides, Grypophyllum ismtis (Freeh) and G. schwelmense.

The fourth group is of large solitary forms from the Givetian of
Germany, and has been regarded by Wedekind (1922, 1925) as constitu-
ting two new genera, Schizopkyllum and String opJiyllum. These have a
wide tabularium of very deeply concave tabulae, a wide lonsdaleoid
border, and discontinuous septa in which, in some forms, the individual
trabeculae may easily be distinguished.

From Jones’ (1929) study of the tabularium of Endopkyllum
Edwards and Haime, it seems unlikely that this genus is a member of
the Spongophyllidae, although Freeh (1886, p. 87) merged Spongo-
phylluin with Endophyllum. Stumm (1937, p. 435, pi. 55, figs. 5-6) has
described two phaceloid species from the American Eifelian as Spongo-
phyllum. These have well-developed, rather sinuous major septa, degene-
rate minor septa and a relatively wide tabularium, but there is a possi-
bility that they may be members of the Disphyllidae.

A future, wider review of the Middle Palaeozoic Spongophyllidae
should include a discussion of their possible relations to the Lov/er
Palaeozoic Favistellidae (Columnariidae auct.) and the Upper Palaeozoic
Lonsdaleiidae.

There are in the Devonian a number of cerioid corals which have the
same type of tabularium as 8. sedgwicki, but have perfectly developed
minor septa, and only very rare lonsdaleoid dissepiments. They are dis-
cussed in this paper under the new genus Xystriphyllum, which is here
doutbfully included in the Spongophyllidae. But (see p. 62) they show
certain resemblances to the group of Cyathophyllum heterophylluni,
Edwards and Haime, and the possibility that they are related to the
Acanthophyllidae rather than to the Spongophyllidae is regarded as quite
a strong one.

60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Genus Spongophyllum Edwards and Haime.

Spongophyllum. Edwards and Haime, 1851, p. 425.

Spongophyllum; Jones, 1929, p. 88.

Genotype (by monotypy) : Spongophyllum sedgwicki Edwards and
Haime, 1851, p. 425; 1853, p. 242, pi. Ivi., figs. 2, 2 a-e, Battersby Collec-
tion, Torquay. Devonian [Couvinian, Givetian, and Frasnian limestones
occur at Torquay; the latest Geological Survey Memoir on the district
(Explanation of Sheet 350) does not mention Spongophyllum> sedgwicki,
and so there is no evidence of its position in the limestones] .

Diagnosis. — Cerioid rugose corals in which the tabularium is narrow
and the tabulae close and slightly concave, the minor septa are degenerate,
and lonsdaleoid dissepiments may be developed in an irregular peripheral
zone when the major septa are discontinuous.

Remarks. — Freeh (1886, pp. 89-90) considered Edwards and
Haime ’s illustrations to represent two species, one with septa continuous
to the epitheea, and the other with lonsdaleoid dissepiments. He equated
a specimen from the String ocephalus limestone (?) of Pelm with the
figure 2d (with lonsdaleoid dissepiments) and others from Torquay and
the String ocephalus beds of Nismes with figures 2-2c. He placed the
lonsdaleoid type in Endophyllum, and the other in CyatJiophyllum.

Jones (1929, p. 89) considered these two morphologies to represent
one species, and named as neotype British Museum Specimen E4999,
Beckles Collection, South Devonshire. He does not state, however, which
morphology the neotype shows. Smith {in litt.) has examined several
specimens, all of which fall between the extremes figured by Edwards
and Haime, and he considers the figures to represent only one species.

I have before me Sedgwick Museum Slides H 138 from Mudstone
Bay, Brixham (Couvinian, Givetian, or possibly Frasnian), and H 149
from Paignton. The former has a frequent development of irregular
lonsdaleoid dissepiments correlated with vertical discontinuity in the
septa, such as is illustrated in Edwards and Haime ’s fig. 2d. The vertical
section of this specimen is quite similar to Edwards and Haime ’s figure
2e. The slide H 149 shows very few instances of discontinuity in the
septa or irregular lonsdaleoid dissepiments, but the arrangement, length,
and number of the septa and the irregular attitude of the dissepiments
and their distance apart is the same as in H 138. It is unwise to argue
on such scanty material either that there are two species or one only
represented in S. sedgwicki Edwards and Haime, but in any case the
resemblances between the two morphologies are so great that they must
be of the same genus, and the generic diagnosis given above is based on
both.

The species which appear to me to belong to Spongophyllum are
the five Upper Silurian species Spongophyllum rectiseptoAum Dybowski
(1874, p. 479, pi. iv., figs. 3, 3a from Zone 3, Gotland), Spongophyllum
fritschi Novak (Pocta, 1902, p. 152, pi. 102, figs. 6-8, Bohemia), Spongo-
phyllum spang ophylloides (Foerste; Jones, 1932, p. 52, pi. iii., figs. 3-4,
New South Wales), Spongophyllicm inficetum Pocta (1902, p. 153, pi.
102, fig. 1, Bohemia), and Spongophyllum shearshyi Chapman (Jones,
1932, p. 51, pi. iii., figs. 1, 2, pi. iv., fig. 1, New South Wales), and six
Middle Devonian species, Spongophyllum^ ligeriensc Le Maitre (1934,
pi. vi., fig. 14, Chalonnes, Prance), Spongophyllum giganteum Etheridge
(1899, p. 158, pi. XX., figs. 1-3, pi. xxxviii., fig. 3, New South Wales),

THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. 6i

Spongophyllum varians Schliiter (1889, p. 56, pi. v., figs. 1-3, Eifel),
Spongophyllum kunthi Schliiter (1881, p. 217, pi. vii., figs. 4, 5, pi. viii.,
figs. 1, 2, Givetian, Eifel), Spongophyllum^ parvistella Schliiter (1889,
p. 65, Givetian, Eifel), and Spongophyllum cycDthophylloides Etheridge
described herein. I have not found that any special feature distin-
guishes the Upper Silurian forms from the Middle Devonian species.

Stumm (1938, p. 482, pi. 59, fig. 5) gives no vertical section of his
Spongophyllum prismatophylloides from the Middle Devonian of Nevada,
but the species appears to me to be a Prismatophyllum.

Other groups of forms with somewhat similar morphologies and
which are possibly related to Spongophyllum are discussed in the
remarks on the Family Spongophyllidae.

Spongophyllum cyathophylloides Etheridge.

(Plate V., figs. 3, 4.)

Spongophyllum cyathophylloides Etheridge, 1911, p. 7, pi. A, fig. 3
pi. C. [Douglas Creek], Clermont, Queensland. [Lower] Middle
Devonian.

Spongophyllum cyathophylloides ; Jones, 1932, p. 55.

Spongophyllum cyathophylloides ; Stumm, 1938, p. 482.

Lectotype: (chosen Jones, loc. cit.) Australian Museum P 9494-7,
figured Etheridge, 1911, pi. A, figs. 3 pi. C, fig. 2. Part of this specimen
is 26C in the Geological Survey of Queensland’s Collection.

Diagnosis — Spongophyllum in which the peripheral half of the
dissepimentarium consists of lonsdaleoid dissepiments, and in which the
minor septa are usually as perfectly developed as the major septa.

Description. — The corallum is cerioid and large — one specimen
(incomplete) was 14 x 10 x 6 cm. The corallites are unequal, varying
from 2 to 9 mm. in diameter, usually 6 to 8 mm. They are three to six
sided, and the sides are usually curved. Increase is peripheral and
possibly intermural also. The wall between corallites is formed of septal
bases, which are expanded so as to be in contact laterally, giving the
wall a scalloped appearance. The septal bases may be opposite or
alternate in neighbouring corallites. The fifteen to eighteen major septa
are long, unequal, and slightly waved and carinate, seldom curved at
their axial ends ; the two longest are opposite and almost meet at the
axis. Usually they are separated from their bases by one to three series
of irregular lonsdaleoid dissepiments, but in some parts of some corallites
they may proceed to the wall, when they may or may not increase slightly
in thickness from the axis to the wall. The minor septa vary in
development. In some corallites they are regularly present between the
major septa, and are, like their neighbours, sometimes continuous to
the wall, but are more often discontinuous ; in others they are suppressed
almost entirely, only bases on the wall and crests on the dissepiments
being found; the major septa of such corallites usually extend to the
wall, but may be discontinuous. (Like the major septa the minor septa
may be waved, and may increase in thickness towards the wall; they
are always thinner than the major septa, and extend about two-thirds
of the way to the axis. The tabulae are thin, slightly concave, and very
closely placed, complete or incomplete. The tabularium has only one-
third the diameter of the corallum. The dissepiments are usually large,

R.s. — c.

62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

unequal, and lonsdaleoid, but rather irregularly arranged; when the
septa are continuous to the wall of the corallite, however, the dissepi-
ments are small and each is confined to one interseptal loculus, and has
a concave upper surface. They are only slightly inclined at the peri-
phery, but the inclination increases towards the axis.

Remarks. — The illustrations for this species were chosen to show
its variability. Thus fig. 3a, from the lectotype, shows most corallites
with the typical structure of the diagnosis ; but one corallite shows both
major and minor septa proceeding to the wall, unbroken by lonsdaleoid
dissepiments. Figure 4 shows a portion of a corallum where most
corallites have lost the minor septa, while in some cases the major septa
are continuous to the wall so that the appearance of S. sedgwicki is
obtained. The latter type of corallite sometimes arises in Xystriphyllum
dunstani, described below, which occurs at the same locality, and leads
to the supposition that X- dunstani is a member of the Spongophyllidae
rather than the Acanthophyllidae, with which it has much in common.

The species occurs at Drummond Creek in addition to the type
locality.

Genus Xystriplvyllum nov.

^varpis = a rake ; <j>vX\ov = a leaf, hence septum.)

Genotype. — Cyathophyllum dnnstani Etheridge, 1911, p. 3, pi. A,
figs. 1, 2; [Douglas Creek] Clermont. [Lower] Middle Devonian.

Diagnosis. — Cerioid Rugose corals with long major septa and well-
developed minor septa, with close, concave tabulae and globose dissepi-
ments.

Remarks. — The following species are also considered to belong to
this new genus: — CyathopJiyllnm inequale of Swartz (1913, p. 205,
pi. XX., figs. 1-4, not necessarily of Hall; Keyser member, Helderberg
formation. Lower Devonian, Maryland), Cyathophyllum^ manipulatum
Pocta (1902, p. 103, pi. 104, figs. 6, 7, Lower Devonian, Bohemia), and
Cyathophyllum mitchelli Etheridge (1892, p. 172, pi. xi., figs. 9, 10,
pi. xii., fig. 4, Middle Devonian, New South Wales). A possible member
is Cyathophyllum hexagomim, Freeh (1886, pi. iii., figs. 20, from
Refrath, near Cologne), not necessarily C. hexagonum Goldfuss, which
(vide Lang and Smith 1935, p. 550) is a Prismatophyllum.

The genotype occurs with SpongophyUum cyathophylloides at
Clermont in Queensland; some atypical corallites of X. dunstani^ those
from which the minor septa are absent, are indistinguishable from
atypical corallites of cyathophylloides, in which the major septa are
continuous to the wall, and minor septa are absent. The resemblance
thus obtained may be homeomorphic only, but it supplies fair reason
to place these two species provisionally in the same family. It is
possible, however, that Xystriphyllum is a member of the family Acantho-
phyllidae, for the concave tabulae are usually incomplete, and especially
in the older forms the concavity increases tow^ards the axis. But the
arrangement of the axial ends of the long major septa, so characteristic
of Acanthophyllum, is not obvious in Xystriphyllum.

Xystriphyllum dunstani (Etheridge).

(Plate Y., figs. 5-8.)

Cyathophyllum dunstani Etheridge, 1911, p. 3, pi. A, figs. 1, 2,,
[Douglas Creek] Clermont. [Lower] Middle Devonian.

THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND. • 63

f Cyathophyllum dunstani; Allan, 1935, p. 6, pi. v., figs. 4, 5,
Middle Devonian, ILankey Gully Limestone, iReefton, New Zealand.

Lectotype (here chosen) : Cl. 6, Geological Survey of Queensland
Collection.

Diagnosis. — Xystripkyllum with long, unequal major septa inter-
digitating in the tabularium; in some corallites the minor septa may be
lost and lonsdaleoid dissepiments may arise.

Description. — The corallum is cerioid and large, but fragments only
are known. The corallites are unequal, varying in diameter between
2 mm. at origin, and a maximum of 11 mm., the average being 6 to 8 mm.
They are three to six sided, and the sides may be curved or straight.
Increase is peripheral, and possibly intermural also. The fairly thick
wall between corallites is formed by the rapid wedge-like expansion of
the septa, so that the inner margins of the wall appear zig-zag. The
fifteen to eighteen long major septa extend from the wall to the axial
region, where they interdigitate fairly deeply and without regularity,
and may abut on one another. The minor septa are typically regularly
developed, and are always thinner than and two-thirds to three-quarters
as long as the major septa. Both orders have a slight and rather
irregular sinuosity, and increase gradually in thickness from the axis
until they suddenly expand to form the wall. In some corallites the
minor septa may disappear except for their bases ; sometimes also the
major septa become discontinuous near the wall, and lonsdaleoid dissepi-
ments may appear. Typically the dissepiments are globose and of
moderate size ; but when the minor septa are lost, larger, less globular
dissepiments develop ; and occasionally truly lonsdaleoid dissepiments
occur when the major septa become discontinuous. The tabulae are
incomplete, thin, and close, and arranged in fioors that are slightly
concave like saucers, or concave vuth the concavity increasing towards
the axis. The tabularium is about one-third as wide as the corallite.

Remarks. — ^This species is very similar to Xystriphyllum mitchelli
{see p. 62), differing only in the more persistent and deeper interdigita-
tion of the septa in the axial region, the smaller number of the septa,
and in the occasional appearance of corallites whose morphology is that
of SpongopJiyllnm sedgwicki.

See remarks on Xystriphyllum (p. 62) and on Spongophyllum
cyathophylloides.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

This work has been carried out while the author held consecutively
the Old Student’s Research Fellowship of Newnham College, Cambridge,
a Senior Studentship of the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of
1851, and a Research Fellowship within the University of Queensland
financed by Commonwealth funds through the Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research. She is indebted for facilities for study, at
the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, to Prof. O. T. Jones, F.R.S., and
Mr. A. G. Brighton, M.A., and at the University of Queensland to Prof.
H. C. Richards, D.Sc. Specimens have been generously loaned by the
Geological Survey of Queensland (Mr. L. C. Ball, B.E., Chief Govern-
ment Geologist), by the Australian Museum, Sydney (Dr. C. Anderson,
Director), and by the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge (Mr. A. G.
Brighton, Curator). The photographs are the work of Mr. E. V.
Robinson.

64 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

EEFEBENCES.

Allan, E. S., 1935: The Fauna of the Eeeftoii Beds (Devonian), New Zealand.

Palaeont. Bull. 14, Geol. Surv. N.Z., 72 pp., v. pis.

Dunstan, B., 1900: The Permo-Carboniferous Coal Measures of Clermont and
Associated Formations. Pubn. 148, Geol. Surv. Qld., 18 pp., 1 map, 6 pis.,
and 7 figs.

., 1901: Geology of the Dawson and Mackenzie Eivers with Special

Eeference to the Occurrence of Anthracitic Coal. Pubn. 155, id., 28 pp.,
1 map, 1 plan, 6 pis.

Dybowski, W. N., 1873-1874: Monographic der Zoantharia Sclerodermata Eugosa
aus der Silurformation Estlands, Nord-Livlands und der Insel Gotland.
Arch. Naturk. Liv-, Esth- u. Kurl. (1), V. 1873, Lief. 3, pp. 257-414,
pis. i., ii. ,' 1874, Lief. 4, pp. 415-531, pis. iii.-v.

Edwards, H. M. and Haime, J., 1850-1854: A Monograph of British Fossil Corals..

1850: Introd. and Pt. 1, Ixxxv. and 71 pp., 11 pis. 1851: Pt. 2, pp. 73-145,
pis. xii.-xxx. 1852 : Pt. 3, pp. 147-210, pis. xxxi.-xlvi. 1853 : Pt. 4,

pp. 211-244, pi. xlvii-lvi. 1854: Pt. 5, pp. 245-299, pis. Ivii-lxxii.

Palaeontogr. Soc. [Monogr.].

., 1851 : Monographic des Polypiers Fossiles des Terrains Palaeo-

zoiques. Arch. Mus. Hist. nat. Paris, V., 502 pp., 20 pis.

Etheridge, E., 1892 : Descriptions of four Madreporaria Eugosa — Species of the
Genera PJiillipsastraea, Heliophyllum, and Cyathopliyllum — from the Palaeo-
zoic Eocks of New South Wales. Eec. geol. Surv. N.S.W. II., Pt. 4, pp.
165-174, pis. xi.-xii.

., 1899 : On the Corals of the Tamworth District, chiefly from the

Moore Creek and Woolomol Limestones. Id. VI., Pt. 3, pp. 151-182, pis.
xvi-xxxviii.

., 1911: The Lower Palaeozoic Corals of Chillagoe and Clermont,

Part I. Pubn. 231, Geol. Surv. Qld., 8 pp., 4 pis.

Frech, F., 1886: Die Cyathophylliden und Zaphrentiden des deutschen Mitteldevon
Palaeont. Abh. Dames u Kayser III., Heft, 3, pp. 117-234 (1-120), pis.
xiii-xx. (i.-viii.).

Hill, D., 1939 : The Devonian Eugose Corals of Lilydale and Loyola, Victoria. Proc.
E. Soc. Viet, (in press).

Jack, E. L., 1895: Annual Progress Eeport of the Geological Survey for 1894.
Pubn. 103, Geol. Surv. Qld., 32 pp.

Jones, O. A., 1929: On the Coral Genera EndopJiyllum Edwards and Haime and
Spongophyllum Edwards and Haime. Geol. Mag. Lond. LXVI., pp. 84-91,

pi. X.

., 1932: A Eevision of the Australian Species of the Coral Genera

Spongophyllum E. and H. and E'fidophyUum E. and H., with a Note on
Aphrophyllum Smith. Proc. E. Soc. Qld. XLIV., pp. 50-63, pis. iii., iv., 2
text-figures.

Lang, W. D., and Smith, S., 1935: Cyatliophyllum eaespitosum Goldfuss and
other Devonian Corals considered in a Eevision of that Species. Quart.
J. Geol, Soc. Lond. XCI., pp. 538-590, pis. xxxv.-xxxvii.

Le Maitre, D., 1934: Etudes sur la Faune des Calcaires devoniens du Bassin
d’Ancenis, Calcaire de Chaudefonds, et Calcaire de Chalonnes. Mem. Soc.
geol. Nord Xfl., 267 pp., 18 pis.

POCTA, P., 1902 in J. Barrande Systeme Silurien du Centre de la Boheme, VIII.,
Tome II.,Anthozoaires et Alcyonaires, 347 pp., pis. xx.-cxviii.

Eands, W. H., 1886 : Eeport on the Geology and Mineral Deposits of the Country
in the Vicinity of Clermont. Pubn. 27, Geol. Surv. Qld., 7 pp., 4 plans,
1 map.

SCHLUTER, C., 1881: Ueber einige Anthozoen des Devon. Verb. nat. Ver. Jahrg.

XXXVIII. 4 Folge. Bd. VIII., pp. 189-232, pis. ii.-ix.

., 1889 : Anthozoen des rheinischen Mittel-Devon. Abh. geol. Specialk.

Preuss. Thiiring. Staat. VIII., Heft 4, pp. 261-465 (3-207), pis. i.-xvi.
Stumm, E. C., 1937 : The Lower Middle Devonian Tetracorals of the Nevada
Limestone. J. Paleont. XI., pp. 423-443, pis. 53-55.

., 1938 : Upper Middle Devonian Eugose Corals of the Nevada Lime-
stone. Id. XII., pp. 478-485, pis. 58, 59.

Swartz, C. K., 1913 : Coelenterata. Maryland Geol. Surv., Lower Devonian, pp^
195-227, pis. xvii.-xxx.

pROC. Boy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. L., No. 10

Plate I’V

'•

Proc. Boy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. L., No. 10.

Plate V.

]\rifBlle Pevoiiian Eugosa.

Family S])oiigopliylli(lae.

THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OP QUEENSLAND.

65

Wedekind, E., 1921 : Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Mesophyllen. Palaeont. Z. IV.,
Heft 1/2, pp. 48-63, pis. 1, 2.

., 1922; Zur Kenntnis der Stringophyllen des oberen Mitteldevon.

Sitz. Gesell. Ford. ges. Nat. Marburg, Jahrg. 1921, Heft 1, pp. 1-16.

., 1924; Das Mitteldevon der Eifel. I. Teil. Die Tetrakorallen des

unteren Mitteldevon. Schrift. Gesell. Beford. ges. Nat. Marburg XIV., Heft
3, pp. vii. 93, 122 text-figs.

., 1925 ; Das Mitteldevon der Eifel. II. Teil. Materialien zur Kenntnis

des mittleren Mitteldevon. Id. Heft 4, pp. vii. 85, 106 text-figs.

EXPLANATION TO PLATES.

Plate IV.

All specimens are from the Middle Devonian ((?) Upper Couvinian) of
Douglas Creek, near Clermont, Queensland, and are now in the Collection of the
Geological Survey of Queensland.

All figures approximately x 2 diameters.

Fig. 1. Acanthophyllum clermontensis (Etheridge). Syntype. 1a. Vertical section;

1b. Transverse section. Coll. B. Dunstan.

Fig. 2. The same. Syntype 4c. 2a. Transverse section; 2b. Vertical section.

Fig. 3. Acanthophyllum clermontensis (?) (Etheridge). 3a. Vertical section; 3b.
Transverse section. Coll. W. H. Bands.

Fig. 4. (?) Acanthophyllum clermontensis (Etheridge). Transverse section. Coll.
W. H. Bands.

Fig. 5. Acanthophyllum clermo^itensis (?) (Etheridge). Transverse section. Coll.
W. H. Bands.

Plate V.

All specimens except those figured 1 and 2 are from the Middle Devonian ( ( ? )
Upper Couvinian) of Douglas Creek, near Clermont, Queensland, and are now in
the Collection of the Geological Survey of Queensland.

All figures approximately x 2 diameters.

Fig. 1. Spongophyllum sedgivichi Edwards and Haime. H.138, Sedgwick Museum,
Cambridge; Mudstone Bay, Brixham (Couvinian, Givetian, or possibly
Frasnian). 1a-c. Vertical sections; Id. Transverse section.

Fig. 2. The same. H. 149, Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge; Paignton. Transverse
section.

Fig. 3. Spongophyllum cyathophylloides Etheridge. Lectotype, 26c. 3a. Trans-

verse section; 3b. Vertical section.

Fig. 4. The same. Syntype, 28c. Transverse section showmg some corallites with-
out minor septa and with continuous major septa.

Fig. 5. Xystriphyllum dunstani (Etheridge). Syntype, C1.41. 5A. Transverse

section; 5b. The same photographed by reflected light, the peripheral
parts of the septa show well, but the axial parts are lost; 5c. Vertical
section.

Fig. 6. The same. Lectotype, Cl. 6. 6a. Transverse section; 6b. Vertical section.
Fig. 7. The same. Syntype, C1.33. T.S. showing a spongophylloid corallite.

Fig. 8. The same. Syntype, Cl. 5. 8a. Transverse section showing several spongo-

phylloid corallites; Sb. Vertical section.

VoL. L, No. 11.

Contributions to the Queensland Flora, No. 6.

By C. T. White, Government Botanist.

(Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland, 28th November, 1938.)

Plate VI.

Tlie present paper contains additions to the flora of Queensland
since the publication of the previous contribution (these Proceedings,
Vol. 47, pp. 235). The determinations of some of the species new to
the flora of Queensland have been made by different members of the
staff of the Queensland Herbarium. An indication of the botanist
responsible is given under the individual headings. A description of a
previously undescribed Calandrinia by Miss D. A. Goy is included.

Family Pittosporaceae.

Citriobatus linearis sp. nov.

C. multiflorus A. Gunn. var. intermedins F. M. Bail. Queensl. Agr.
Journ. XXX., 399, Plate 65 (1913).

C. multiflorus A. Gunn. var. linearis P. M. Bail. l.c. PI. 66 (1913).

Frutex robustus 2-3 m. altus, ramulis abortivis brevibus spinosis
armatus vel ramulis ordinariis in spinam pungentem terminantibus,
ramulis junioribus pubescentibus mox glabris. Folio supra nitida
linearia vel anguste obovata ad apicem acuta vel rotundata, ad basin
valde angustata vel rarius subrotunda 1-3 cm. longa, 0-2-0-5 cm. lata,
petiolo 0-5-1 -5 mm. longo, costa media supra leviter impressa, subtus
leviter elevata, venis obscuris vel in sicco subinde leviter impressa.
Flores numerosi, solitarii, axillares, pedicello 2-5 mm. longo. Sepala 5
anguste ovata 1 mm. longa. Petala in tubum longum conniventiai
tubus 3*5-4 mm. longus ; lobi ovati, 1*5 mm. longi. Antherae leviter
exsertae, filamentis ligulatis. Ovarium lageniforme, pilosum. Fructus
globosus, pisiformis, ca. 1 cm. diam. Seminibus nitidis rubro-fuscis
3 mm. diam.

A very common shrub, especially as second growth in the drier
rain-forest areas of south-east Queensland. The following is a selection
of localities from the Queensland Herbarium, Brisbane: —

Moreton District. — Yarraman, M. A. Gameron, No. 754 (flowers),
Oct., 1924. Allandale, near Boonah, Rev. N. Michael, No. 1997. Laidley,
G. T. White (a very common shrub) . IRosewood, G. T. White (fruits).
May, 1913. Gold Greek, near Brisbane, G. T. White (young flower
buds), 27th August, 1922.

Darling Downs. — Bunya Mountains, G. T. White. Main Range,
F. M. Bailey (growing to the size of a small tree).

Burnett District. — Gayndah, Dr. F. H. Kenny (type). Ghilders,
Dr. F. H. Kenny (shrub, flowers very sweet smelling). The Hummock,
Bundaberg, Rev. N. Michael, No. 1776 (low shrub 3-6 ft.).

C. linearis was placed as a variety of C. multiflorus A. Gunn, by
F. M. Bailey, but I think there is no doubt it is a very distinct species
and that its affinities lie more with C. pauciflorus A. Gunn, rather than

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 6.

67

with C. multiflorus A. Cunn. All three species are very common in
South-east Queensland. O. multiflorus is mostly found in the wetter
rain-forest areas, particularly in mountain localities such as the Macpher-
son Range, Tambourine Mountain, &c. C. linearis and C. pauciflorus
do not occur in the wetter zone. C. linearis grows in the eastern parts
of the Darling Downs, the West Moreton, and the Burnett districts
C. pauciflorus is common in the Darling Downs and Burnett districts,
and extends further west and north than 0. linearis, being common in the
Maranoa, Port Curtis, and Leichhardt districts. The northernmost
locality for it in the Queensland Herbarium is Cannon Valley (North
Kennedy district). Rev. N. Michael, No. 1035. I am not sure of P. M.
Bailey’s var. intermedius of C. multiflorus. The type of the variety
consists^ of a leafy twig with detached fruits ; the leaves approach those of
C. pauciflorus A. Cunn., but the fruit C. linearis', and if the leaves and
fruits are correctly matched it is probably only a growth form. I
cannot see how F. M. Bailey’s C. pauciflorus A. Cunn. var. Kennyi
differs from the type. The only other species of the genus, C. lancifolius,
grows in the rain-forests near Killamey and in the Lamington National
Park. I have not seen it in fruit, and the measurements are taken from
F. M. Bailey’s original description. A characteristic feature in the field
is that the leaves have a strong taste of carrots when chew^ed. A key
to the species of the genus is given herewith : —

Leaves toothed or lobed in the upper part, rarely entire or nearly so,

flowers sessile, fruit about 1 cm. diam. . . . . . . . . C. multiflorus

Leaves linear, rarely obovate, 1-3 cm. long, 0-2-0-5 cm, broad, flowers

pedicellate, fruit about 1 cm. diam. . . . . . . . . . . C. linearis

Leaves all obovate, 1-1-5 cm. long, 0-5-0-8 cm. broad, flowers sessile,

fruit 2 cm. diam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. pauciflorus

Leaves lanceolate, rarely elliptic, 2-6 cm. long, 0-8-2 cm. broad, flowers

sessile, fruit about 1 cm. diam. (Bailey) . . . . . . . . C. lancifolius

Family Polygalaceae.

Xanthophyllum fragrans sp. nov.

Arbor mediocris, partibus novellis tomentosis, ramulis lenticellatis,
cortice atro-brunneo obtectis. Folia lanceolata utrinque nitida, lamina
17-20 cm. longa, 5-7-5 cm. lata, petiolo 1 cm. longo, costa media supra
impressa subtus elevata, nervis secundariis validis, venis et venulis
prominulis. Racemi terminates vel axillares 5-12 flori ; rhachi 5-10 cm.
longa, dense tomentosa i pedicellis 2 cm. longis, dense tomentosis, apicem
versus incrassatis. Sepala inaequalia, puberula, margine ciliolata, major a
1-2 cm. longa, 6 mm. lata. Petala cremea, purpureo-maculata, 6-5 cm.
longa, 1 cm. lata. Stamina 8 ; filamentis petalis adnatis, leviter applanatis,
dense hirsutis, apicem versus exceptis; antheris glabris 2 mm. longis
PistiUum 6 cm. longum, gynophoro pubescenti 1-5 cm. longo, ovario
glabro applanato 5 mm. longo, stylo glabro applanato, stigmate capitate.
Fructus oblongus, 9 cm. longus, 6 cm. diam.

Daintree River in rain-forest, on creek-banks, foothills of Thorntoii
Peak, iL. d. Brass and C. T. White, No. 264 (type: flowering specimens),
20th September, 1937 (tree 20 m., fiowers very fragrant, cream, turning
yellow with age, streaked and fiecked with purple). Daintree River,
common in rain-forest, S. F. Kajewski, No. 1430 (fruiting specimens),
2nd December, 1929 (large tree up to 20 m. ; fruit oblong, coloured and
shaped similar to a mango ) .

68

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

Family Porttjlacaceae.

Anacampseros australiana J. M. Black.

Moonie River, Nindigully, growing in hard red soil. R. Roe,
February, 1938.

Determination by W. D. Francis — verified by comparison with the
type by J. M. Black.

Calandnnia Morrisae D.A. Goy sp. nov.

Herba debilis carnosa ; caulibus foliaceis ca. 30 cm. longis. Folia
lineari-lanceolata basem versus in petiolum brevum angustata, 1-5-2 cm.
longa; stipulis minutis, lanceolatis. Flores in racemos laxos longos
dispositi, pedicellis crassis ca. 1 cm. longis, patentibus et recurvis ;
bracteis minutis, pallidus, costa media prominenti ; sepalis subrotundis,
apice acutis ; petalis 6, lineari-lanceolatis, 7-8 mm. longis in parte
superiore purpureis in parte inferiore albis; staminibus 8-14, 5 mm.
longis, filamentis liberis;, antheris breviter oblongis; stylis 4. Capsula
ca. 8 mm. longa, anguste oblonga, obtusa ; seminibus cochleatis numerosis
nigris nitidis prominenter costatis.

Caiwarro, Eulo, S.W. Queensland, Katherine I. Morris, 31st August,
1936.

The closest affinity of the present species is C. voluhilis Benth. The
two may be differentiated as follows : —

fStyles 4; capsule narrow oblong, obtuse; seeds cochleate, black,
prominently costate, the costae very distinct and without any
transverse raised markings . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Morrisae

Styles 3 ; capsule conical ; seeds renif orm, coppery, lightly costate the

costae indistinct and with numerous transverse raised markings . . C. voluhilis

Family Tiliaceae.

Cor chorus tridens L.

Hughenden, W. D. Francis, May, 1934. Not previously recorded
for Queensland (determination by L. Smith).

Family Rutaceae.

Acr onychia pubescens sp. nov.

A. melicopoides F. v. M. var. lasiantha F. v. Muell. Fragm. VII.,
145 (1871).

Melicape pubescens F. M. Bail. Bull. IX. — Botany (Dept. Aigric.,
Brisbane), 9 (1891) ; Comprehens. Cat. Q. PL, fig. 59 (1912).

Melicope pubescens F. M. Bail. var. superba, Domin. Bibl. Bot. 89
(IV.), 843, 1927.

Sarcomelicope pubescens Domin.

Arbor mediocris, ramulis robustis, partibus novellis dense sericeo-
hirsutis. Folio 1-3-foliolata, petiole pubescent! vel deinde glabrescenti,
2-3*5 cm. longo. Foliola chartacea, lanceolata, sessilia, supra glabra vel
pilis paucis vestita, subtus pubescentia, 6-18 cm. longa, 2-6 cm. lata,
venis et venulis subtus valde elevatis. Cymae axillares, ramulis pedicel-
lisque dense et molliter pubescentibus, pendunculo communi 0*5-1 cm.
longo, pedicellis 1-3 mm. longis. Calyx extus dense sericeo-pubescens,
lobis 4, late ovatis, vix 2 mm. longis. Petala 4, extus dense sericeo-
pubescentia, intus glabra, anguste ovata 6 mm. longa, ad basin 3 mm.
lata. Stamina 8, filamentis applanatis, margine ciliatia. Ovarium
glabrum. Discus pilis longis albis dense vestitus. Fructus subglobosus,

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 6.

69

carnosus, albiis, acidulus, aromaticus, ca. 2 cm. diam. ; carpella 4, ad
margines laxe conjuncta. Semina atro-fusca vel nigra, tuberculata,
3 mm. diam.

New South Wales. — It is represented in the National Herbarium,
Sydney, by a wide range of specimens; the following is a selection
showing the range of the species in that State. Coff’s Harbour, J. L.
Boorman; Glenfernie Forest Reserve, J. H. Maiden; Acacia Creek,
Killarney, W. Dunn, J. L. Boorman; Dorrigo, W. Heron; Tweed River
district, E. Betche.

Queensland. — It is represented in the Queensland Herbarium by
a wide range of specimens. The species extends from the Tweed River
to the Blackall Range. The following is a selection: — Roberts Plateau,
Lamington National Park, alt. 3,000 ft., C. T. White, 6026 (type : flower-
ing specimens), 20th May, 1929 (small tree common in rain-forest and
as secondary growth ; leaves light green, flowers cream) . Mudgeeraba,
Dr. C. P. Ledward (fruits), Aug., 1937. Tambourine Mountain, J. H.
Simmonds. Eumundi, Bailey and Simmonds, K. E. Kandler (fruits),
Aug., 1931. Blackall Range, C. T. White (flowers), April, 1918, Bailey
and Simmonds.

I think there is no doubt this plant is specifically distinct from
A. melicopoides F.v.M., under which Mueller placed it as a variety.
A. melicopoides (type) is a very common tree in the rain-forests of
North Queensland from the Eungella Range (via Mackay) to Mount
Spurgeon (north of Cairns). The chief distinctions are as follows: —

Leaves constantly 3-foliolate, glabrous except in the bud stage.

Petals glabrous outside . . . . . . . . . . .. A. melicopoides

Leaves usually 3-foliolate, but sometimes 1 or 2-foliolate, glabrous

above, pubescent beneath. Petals densely pubescent on the

outer face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. puhescens

Phehalium gracile sp. nov.

Prutex gracilis, 1 m. altus, ramulis pubescentibus. Polio coiiferta,
linearia vel ovato-linearia, subacuta, plana vel revoluta, utrinque glabra
subtus punctis paucis elevatis signata petiolata; petiolus vix 1 mm.
longus ; lamina 7-8 mm. longa, 2 mm. lata. Plores albi in axillis supremis
dispositi; pedicelli 4-5 mm. longi, angulati apicem versus gradatim
incrassati, pilis paucis obsiti. Calyx 1-5 mm. diam., 5-lobati, lobis late
triangularibus perbrevis. Petala glabra 4 mm. longa, 1 mm. lata.
Stamina leviter exserta, filamentis subulatis glabris albis 4-25 mm. longis,
antheris roseis vix 1 mm. longis. Pistillum glabrum. Cocci rostrati cum
rostro 6 mm. longi.

Mount Greville, alt. 2,000 ft., common on rocky cliffs, C. T. White,
No. 9947 (type; buds, flowers, and nearly ripe cocci), March, 1934
(slender-stemmed shrub 1 m. high, flowers white) ; E. J. Smith (flowers
and flower buds). May, 1937. Rev. N. Michael, No. 2074 (sterile
material), Oct., 1934.

Among previously described species P. gracile has most affinities
with P. diosmeum A. Juss., which differs in having narrower, usually
pubescent leaves with tightly revolute margins, flowers in a dense head
with hairy larger calyces.

Phehalium squamulosum Vent. Jard. Malm. t. 102, var. grandiflorum
var. nov.

Folio ad 6 cm. longa et 1 cm. lata. Plores speciosi, aurei; petala
fere 1 cm. longa.

70 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Wyberba, Mrs. N. Gunn (flowering specimens), Sept., 1932 (shrub,
flowers bright yellow).

A very distinctive and showy variety, more robust in all parts than
the type ; the flowers are deeper yellow and twice the size of the normal
form. Apart from these distinctions, however, the plant shows no
fundamental differences from typical P. squamiUo'Sum Yent.

Type of the variety in the Queensland Herbarium, Brisbane ; co-type
material at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (Eng.), and Arnold Arboretum,
Boston (U.S.A.).

Family Celastraceae.

(W. D. Francis.)

Hedraianthera porphyropetalu P.v.M. Frag. Phytog., v. 59.

The genus and species were described from Dallachy’s specimens
from Rockingham Bay. What appears to be the same species is very
common in South Queensland rain-forests such as those at Kin Kin,
Eumundi, Mount Cotton, Tambourine Mountain, and Currumbin. In
these southern localities it is a shrub or a small tree attaining about
15 feet in height, and is remarkable for the fact that the dark red flowers
are often borne in clusters on protuberances arising from the stem and
branches. The peduncles and pedicels also are often deep red in colour.
In his generic description Mueller describes the filaments as none. In
the description of the species he refers to minute glands in the place
of the filaments. In several of the specimens in the Queensland Her-
barium from both Northern and Southern localities I found filaments
to be present and distinct, in some instances attaining 1 mm. in length.
The fruit are often ovate or oval, and, in the dry state, measure up to
2-5 cm. long and 1-1-3 cm. across. Northern localities represented in
the Queensland Herbarium are Yarrabah, near Cairns, and mountains
near Mossman.

Family Rhamnaceae.

Alphitonia pJiilippinensis Braid.

Cape York Peninsula, D. P. Thomson, No. 49. Sand Dunes, Barron
Beach, H. Flecker, No. 1613, 26th April, 1936. This specimen matches
those from the Philippine Islands remarkably well.

Cryptandra longistaminea P.v.M.

Moreton District. — Goodna, C. T. White; Beenleigh, J. Shirley;
Port Buchanan, common on cliff faces, altitude 2,300 ft., C. T. White,
No. 9308 (flowering specimens), 7th October, 1933 (low shrub about
1 ft. high).

Darling Downs. — Gladfield, C. J. Gwyther; jCondamine, C. H.
Hartmann; Main Range, C. H. Hartmann; Crow’s Nest, Dr. P. H.
Kenny; between Dulacca and Miles, L. J. Brass and C. T. White, No. 5
(flowering specimens), 7th September, 1937; Silverwood, C. T. White,
No. 1717 (flowering specimens), September, 1922.

Prom the above records in the Queensland Herbarium, Brisbane,
it will be seen that this plant is a very abundant one in the Darling
Downs and to a lesser extent in the Moreton district, South-east Queens-
land. Previously I had some doubt of the determination, as the speci-
mens did not agree with the note in the ‘‘Flora Australiensis ” and
repeated in the “Queensland Flora” — “Disk glabrous or very minutely
tomentose. ” The disk in all cases was very densely woolly tomentose.
A portion of the type from Severn River, C. Stuart, No. 148, kindly

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 6.

71

loaned me by Mr. F. J. Rae, of the National Herbarium, Melbourne,
showed it to have the same densely woolly, hairy disk. All the Queens-
land specimens quoted above match the type very closely.

Ventilago puhiflora sp. nov.

Frutex scandens, valde ramosus; ramulis novellis subangularibiis
pubescentibus mox glabris et teretibus ; ramis ramulisque fiexuosis.
Folia petiolata, subcoriacea, glabra, elliptica, utrinque venulosa, margine
pauci-dentata in sicco undulata ; nervis praecipuis 7-9 in utroque latere ;
lamina 4-5-8 cm. longa, 2-4 cm. lata; petiolo 0-5-1 cm. longo. Flores
in paniculas spieiformes dispositi; rhachi dense tomentosa ad 16 cm.
longa; pedicellis 2-3 mm. longis, dense tomentosis. Calyx alte 5-fidus,
dense tomentosus; lobis 1-5 mm. longis, intus glabris. Petala parva,
glabra, truncata, subeucullata. Stamina petala hand excedentes; fila-
mentis leviter applanatis. Ovarium dense hirsutum. Nux tomentosa,
cum ala 2-5 cm. longa.

Wide Bay District. — Widgee, L. D. Pryor.

Burnett District. — Biggenden, C. T. White, No. 7333 (type:
advanced flowers and young fruits), 11th October, 1930 (vine growing
over trees, common in second growth rain-forest, on the Biggenden-
Childers road). The Hummock, near Bundaberg, Rev. N. Michael, No.
1778 (fruiting specimens — a low undershrub) . Wallaville, Dr. T. L.
Bancroft.

The present species approaches V. ecoroilata F.v.M. from North
Queensland, which differs in its smaller leaves, very short panicles,
glabrous or glabrescent flowers, and the absence of petals. It is very
similar to V. neo-caledonica Schlechter and Y. vitiensis Seem., both of
which differ in having shorter panicles and in the more glabrous nature
of inflorescence and flowers.

Family Leguminosae.

Acacia Glieelii, Blakely.

Between Miles and Chinchilla. L. J. Brass and C. T. White. No.
348 (flowering specimens), 1st October, 1937. As these specimens did
not quite agree in all details with the author’s description, I forwarded
a sheet to Mr. Blakely for comparison with his type in the National
Herbarium, Sydney, and he replied, ‘‘Not quite typical. The branchlets
are non-glaucous, phyllodia straighter, and the spikes more slender than
in the typical form. It would be interesting to see what the pods are
like. It is the flrst record for Queensland to my knowledge.”

Acacia linifolia Willd. and its allies in Queensland.

Acacia linifolia Willd. is a very common shrub in parts of New
South Wales, particularly on the sandstone country about Sydney and
the Blue Mountains. Bentham in the “Flora Australiensis” synony-
mises Acacia fimhriaia A. Cunn. with A. linifolia. The two in their
extreme forms, however, are very different; A. linifolia is a straggly
shrub and A. fimibriata a tree with a dense spreading top and rather
pendulous branches. It probably flnds its greatest development in
South-eastern Queensland and North-eastern New South Wales, where
it is very common along fresh-water streams. Maiden in his “Forest
Flora of New South Wales,” Vol. V., p. 29, describes and illustrates
both species. In its typical form A. fimbriata is characterised by
pubescent branchlets, and more especially by the ciliate edge of the

72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

phyllodes. Glabrous and narrow-leaved forms of it occur, however, that
connect it with A. limfoUa. The following notes and key, I hope, will
clear up some of the confusion concerning the two species. Domin in
Bibliotheca Botanica reduces A. fimhria^a to a variety of A. prominens
A. Cunn., a fairly common species in New South Wales. I cannot
follow him in this. He also names a variety Whiteafna ( ?). I have seen
what I take to be a co-type of this, and I cannot separate it from
ordinary A. fimhriata A. Cunn., which is a very widely spread species j
like most plants with a wide distribution, it shows considerable variation.

Acacia linifolia Willd. Sp. PI. IV., 105 (1805).

New South Wales. — It is very common in the Port Jackson district
and Blue Mountains. Maiden quotes Bargo (Picton district) as the
most southerly locality in the National Herbarium, Sydney, north of
Walgan Shale Mine (B. H. Cambage) as the most westerly, and Wood-
ford, Lower Hunter Kiver, as the northernmost.

Queensland. — Blackdown Tableland, Central Queensland (H. G.
Simmons) , is the only Queensland locality represented in the Queensland
Herbarium. There is a very big gap in the known distribution from
the Hunter Biver, New South Wales, to the Blackdown Tableland,
Queensland. Domin (Bibl. Bot. 89 (III.), 808, 1926) records it from
the Darling Downs (C. Moore).

Acacia fimhriata A. Cunn. in G. Don. Gen. Hist, of the Diehlamyde-
ous Plants, Yol. II., p. 406 (1832).

Acacia prominens vars. fimbriata and ? Wliiteana Domin. Bibl. Bot.
89 (III.), 810 (1926).

New South Wales. — Maiden records it from Barber’s Creek and
Nowra (Illawarra district) to the Queensland border, and says it finds
its greatest development on the Northern Bivers and to a less extent
the Northern Tableland.

Queensland. — It has a wide distribution in Queensland, and finds
its greatest development in the south-eastern corner of the State. Our
northernmost record in the Queensland Herbarium is Bavenshoe, Ather-
ton Tableland (J. Tardent), and our westernmost records are Biggenden
(C. T. White, 7304) and Kinleymore (Miss P. H. Beutel), both in the
Burnett district.

It is a small tree mostly found along creek sides, but is sometimes
frequent as undergrowth in Eucalyptus forests.

I have seen what I take to be the co-type of Domin ’s var. Whiteana
and hardly think it worthy of a distinguishing name. A. fimbriata
A. Cunn. as I recognise it is a species with a wide distribution and
considerable variation.

Acacia fimbriata A. Cunn. var. glabra var. nov.

Tota planta glabra pilis paucis in partibus novellis excepta.

Differs from the type in being glabrous in all parts except for a
few hairs on the shoots in the bud stage. Queensland : near Biggenden,
Burnett district, W. B. Petrie, No. 18a (type of the variety) ; slopes of
Bunya Mountain, C. T. White, October, 1919.

Acacia fimbriata A. Cunn. var. peramgusta var. nov.

Tota planta glabra ; phyllodia perangusta 4-9 cm. longa, 1-1-5 mm.
lata ; glandula marginal! 0-5-1 -8 cm. supra basin.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 6.

73

Differs from the type in its glabrous character, and longer, narrower
phyllodes. In the type the marginal gland is usually near the base of
the phyllode, in var, perangusta it is placed 0-5-1-8 cm, from the base
on the upper edge ; sometimes a second gland is present further up.

Queensland. — Slack’s Creek, Rev. Norman Michael, Nos. 1936 and
2004. Wellington Point, J. Wedd (Oct., 1891). Castra, near Brisbane,
very common along creek banks, C. T. White, No. 3554, 7th August,
1927 (type of the variety; flowers in late bud stage) ; Burrum River,
C. T. White, No. 6286 (immature pods), 5th October, 1929 (tree 20 feet
high, overhanging the river).

Acacia puhicosta sp. nov.

Arbor parva, 3-5 m. alta; partibus novellis pilis aureis sericeis
vestitis (Goy, 319), ramulis junioribus subangularibus canescentibus.
Phyllodia linearia, 4-5-8 cm. longa, 2-3-5 mm. lata, utrinque canescentia
vel demum glabrescentia costa media excepta, ad apicem apiculo incras-
sato parvo rostrato superata, ad basin in petiolum brevum incrassata;
glandulum marginale obsoletum vel nullum. Racemi in axillis superiori-
bus dispositi, 3-5 cm. longi; rhachi et pedunculis pilis albis vel aureis
(Goy, 319) brevibus dense vestitis, pedicellis 3 mm. longis, bractea ad
basin pedicelli parva apiculata incrassata persistent!. Sepala ovata,
distincta, 1 mm. longa, margine albociliata. Petala glabra sepalis duplo
longiora. Legumen lineare 8-10 cm. longum, 0-8-1 cm. latum, undu-
latum; semina ca. 10, longitudinalia, funiculo leviter plicato ad apicem
incrassato.

Burnett District. — Biggenden Bluff, C. T. White, No, 7722 (type:
flowering specimens), 17th August, 1931 (small tree, 3-5 m. high, of
slender upright growth, flowers white or pale cream) ; West Mount
Morgan, Doris A. Goy, No. 319 (flowering specimens), 18th July, 1938
(small spreading tree, about 15 feet high, leaves silver, flowers pale
lemon) .

The Mount Morgan specimens possess shorter, more pubescent leaves
than the type, the young shoots are markedly golden yellow, a character
that persists for some time, and the flowers are a deeper colour. I
think there is no doubt, however, that both collections represent the same
species.

The affinities of the present species lie with Acacia fimhriata A.
Cunn.

The following key gives the distinctions between A, linifolia Willd.,
A. fimhriata A. Cunn. and its varieties, and A. puhicosta C. T. White : —

Phyllodes glabrous .......... 1

Phyllodes eiliate on the margins ...... 2

Phyllodes clothed with grey or silvery hairs on both

sides or glabrescent in age except the midrib . . 3

lA. Slender upright shrub of rather spindly growth,
phyllodes glabrous 2-4 cm. long and 1-2
mm. broad, central nerve indistinct in the

narrower phyllodes, marginal gland indistinct A. linifolia

1b. Tree with dense spreading top and rather pen-
dulous branches or shrub with ultimate
branches drooping, phyllodes 3-4 cm. long,

2-4 mm. broad, midrib distinct, marginal
gland prominent 0-5-1 cm. from the base . .

A. fimhriata var. glahra

74 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

Ic. Tree with dense spreading top and drooping
branches, phyllodes glabrous 4-9 cm. long,

1-1*5 mm. broad, midrib rather prominent,
marginal gland prominent 0*5-l*8 cm. from

the base, sometimes a second one present . . A, fiml)riata var, perangusta

2. Tree with dense spreading top and rather pendulous

branches or shrub with - ultimate branches
drooping, branchlets pubescent, phyllodes
ciliate on the margin, 2-5 cm. long, 1*5-5 mm.
broad, midrib rather prominent, marginal
gland prominent, 1-7 mm. from the base . .

3. Small tree of spreading habit or upright growth,

young parts canescent or clothed with silky
hairs of a golden colour, phyllodia 4*5-8 cm.
long, 2-3*5 mm. broad, clothed on both sides
with grey or silvery hairs, glabrescent when
old except the midrib, marginal gland obso-
lete or none

Cassia queenslandica sp. hoy.

C. Brewsteri F.v.M. var. sylvestris F. M. Bailey. Bull. No. 9 (Bot.
Bull. 3), Dept. Agric., Brisbane, p. 11 (1891).

Arbor elata, ramulis floriferis tomentosis, leviter, costatis. Folia 6-
to 8-juga, ca. 18 cm. longa, rhachis puberula, subangulata, eglandulosa;
foliola oblonga, 4-7 cm. longa, 2-2-5 cm. lata, apice obtusa, basi cuneata,
utrinque prominule reticulata, supra glabra, subtiis pilis albis inspersis
vestita ; petiolulus dense puberulus 3-4 mm. longus. Raeemi 25-35 cm.
longi, 50- to 60-flori; rhachis subangulata, dense puberula; bracteae
lanceolatae 2 mm. longae mox deciduae ; pedicelli graciles 2*5-3 cm.
longi, sepala late ovata ca. 6 mm. longa, utrinque minute puberula.
Petala flava ovali-oblonga 1*7 cm. longa, in unguem brevem contract a,
in sicco valde nervosa. Stamina 3 infima majora, petala aequilonga,
filamentis supra medium glandulo magno incrassata ; stamina 7 inferiora
3-6 mm. longa ; antherae basi leviter b,ifidae, loculi poris basilaribus
dehiscentibus. Ovarium dense pubescens. Legumen pendulum, ca. 35
cm. longum ca. 1 cm. latum, subapplanatum, suturis laevibus continuis,
inter suturas torulosum, intus transverse inter semina septatum. Semina
transversa, horizontalia (septis parallela).

Kamerunga (now Bedlynch), Barron River, E. Cowley. Bloomfield
River, W. Poland (pods), Nov., 1902. Mount Molloy, E. Fryer (type:
flowers and pods). Sept., 1936.^

The above plant was named by F. M. Bailey l.c. and ‘‘Queensland
Flora,” II., 458, as 0. Brewsteri F.v.M. var. sylvestris. He based this
opinion on the similarity of his specimens to the plant figured by
Rumphius in the “Herbarium Amboinense, ” 2, 88, t. 22, as Cassia fistula
silvestris. Merrill in his interpretation of Rumphius’ work refers this
to C. javanica L., but the Australian plant shows marked differences.

Racemes 5-8 cm. long, 20-30 fld.; bracts ovate, subpersistent ;

flowers pink and white ; pod terete . . . . . . . . C. javanica

Racemes 25-35 cm. long, 50-60 fld.; bracts lanceolate, very soon
deciduous; fls. yellow; pod applanate, much constricted
transversely between the seeds . . . . . . . . . . C. queenslandica

Pultenaea paleacea Willd. var. paucifiora var. nov.

Differt a forma typica foliis brevioribus, ad 1*2 cm. longis, in sicco
supra subconcavis ; capitulis multo minoribus, paucifloris ; tubo calycis
pilis strigosis paucis obsitis, bracteolis and basim affixis.

A. fimibriata

A. pubicosta

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 6.

75

Wide Bay District. — Near Nikenbah, in damp places in open forest,
S. T. Blake (type of the variety: flowering specimens), 5th June, 1932
(small, erect shrub, flowers yellow, keel more or less red). Goodwood,
E. W. Bick (leaves only), June, 1915.

Port Curtis District. — Byfleld, in damp places in ‘ ‘ wallum country, ’ ’
comparatively rare, C. T. White, No. 8173 (nearly finished flowering),
25th September, 1931 (slender shrub, 1-5 m., flowers yellow).

P. paleaced Willd. as at present understood is a very polymorphic
species with several named varieties. The present one is very different
in appearance from the common Queensland form — ^var. rohusta William-
son— and is much more like the typical form that grows in the Port
Jackson area. New South Wales. When the group comes to be revised
with more material I think it will have to be split up into several distinct
species, of which the variety pauciflora C. T. White will be one. The
Goodwood specimens were seen by H. B. Williamson when preparing
his monograph of the genus, and he noted on them — ‘‘Flowers may
show this to be a form of P. pdleacea Willd. ’ '

Family Myrtaceae.

Eucalyptus codonocarpa Blakely and McKie.

Lamington National Park, C. T. White, No. 11,119, 22nd October,
1934 — common on trachytic hills, in more sheltered places ; small gnarled
tree up to 5 m. or more high and with a subflbrous bark at the base ;
in more exposed places a shrub of Mallee-like growth, numerous clean -
barked stems from a common stock.

Mount Barney, altitude 3,500-4,000 feet, S. L. Everist, No. 1391,
13th October, 1935. — Small Mallee-like trees common on the upper slopes
of the mountain on granophyre cliffs ; bark grey, smooth ; leaves stiff,
coriaceous.

The determinations of these specimens have been kindly verifled by
Mr. W. P. Blakely, National Herbarium, Sydney, who adds: “The
specimens of Eucalyptus codonocarpa vary to some extent from the
type. The one from Lamington National Park has smaller and more
numerous fruits than the typical form, which is usually confined to
three in the umbel, while the specimen from Mount Barney has pedicel-
late fruits. The localities are interesting additions to the range of the
species.”

Leptospermum attenuatum J. Sm.

Darling Downs district, Q., Wyberba, C. T. White (flowering
specimens), 13th October, 1933 (large shrub or small tree, very common ;
often forms dense thickets as second growth in paddocks) .

Smith in his original description (Trans. Linn. Soc., London, Vol.
III., p. 262) gave no locality record nor any indication as to where
the specimen was obtained. I have not seen his type, but probably the
common Port Jackson form represents it. The above specimens from
Wyberba are a good match for this.

Leptospermum attenuatum J. Sm. forma.

Leichhardt District. — Ranges near Peak Downs, F.v.Mueller, Nov.,
1858. Burnett District. — Biggenden, C. T. White, 7318 (flowering
specimens), 13th October, 1930. (Shrub up to 2 m. high, moderately
common on rocky places towards the top of Biggenden Bluff, alt. 2,000
feet, flowers white.) Eidsvold, Dr. T. L. Bancroft.

76

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

The Peak Downs specimens which I have been able to see through
the courtesy of Mr. P. J. Pae have a label in addition to the official one
of the National Herbarium (Melb.). This bears no heading, and the
handwriting is unknown to me. They are named Leptospermum seri-
catum Ldl. var. ? pedunculatum, ranges near Peak Downs, Dr. M., Nov.,
’58. ’ ’ The whole group is in need of revision with much more complete
material. Wlien better known L. sericatum Lindl. may be found a good
species. Pieces of bark are included in Bancroft’s specimens from
Eidsvold, and these show the bark typical of L. steUatum Cav., under
which Bentham included L. sericatum Lindl. I am not absolutely certain
that all the specimens quoted above represent the same form.

Leptospermum attemiatum Sm. var. sut)sessile n. var.

Arbor parva, partibus novellis sericeis mox glabris. Flores singuli ;
pedicelli 1 mm. longi sericei. Calyx 3*5-4 mm. diam., tubo sericeo, lobis
albidis, late triangularibus extus tenuiter sericeis, margine ciliolatis.
Petala suborbicularia, 5 mm. longa, 4 mm. lata ad basem in unguem
brevem contract a. Capsula parva, subsessilis.

Wide Bay District. — Moderately common in sandy soils in mixed
xerophytic forest, Traverston, C. T. White, No. 6353 (flowering speci-
mens), 6th October, 1929. (Tree up to 40 feet high and trunk 6 inches
diam., with a close flbrous bark and very hard wood. Hervey Bay
District. — Rosedale, common on sandy flats, estuarine sediments, L. G-.,
Dovey, No. 988 (fruiting specimens), 26th May, 1937. (Small tree up
to 25 feet.)

At first sight the above specimens seem quite distinct from L.
attenuatum J. Sm., and when the L. stellatum-attenuatum series is
revised may have to be raised to specific rank. The following are the
chief differences: —

Young parts densely silky, the silkiness remaining
for some time but gradually disappearing.

Flowers single or in pairs. Pedicels 3-4 mm.

Calyx tube and lobes both very densely sericeous,
lobes triangular. Petals obovate, 4 mm. long,
mostly about 2 mm. but sometimes up to 3 mm.

diam. Fruiting pedicels 4-5 mm. . . . . . . L. attenuatum (typical form)

Young parts sericeous, soon glabrous. Flowers single.

Pefficels 1 mm. Calyx tube sericeous, lobes
white, broadly triangular, outside thinly sericeous,
margins ciliolate. Petals suborbicular, 5 mm.

long, 4 mm. wide. Capsule small, subsessile . . L. attenuatum var. siibsessile
Myrtus dulcis sp. nov. (Plate VI.).

M. tenuifoUa Sm. var. latifolia Maiden and Betche, Census N.S.W.
Plants, p. 143, 1916.

Frutex 1-1*5 m. altus, ramulis junioribus pubescentibus angularibus,
vetustioribus glabris, teretibus, cortice in filis deciduo. Folia ovata,
ovato-elliptica vel ovato-lanceolata, supra glabra, subtus sericeis albis
dense obsita vel glabra, margine leviter recurva ; petiolus 1 mm. longus ;
lamina l*5-2*5 cm. longa, 2*5-8 mm. lata. Pedicelli singulares, axillares,
tenues, pilis sericeis obsiti, 3 mm.-l*l cm. longi; bracteolae lineares,
pilis sericeis paucis obsitae, 1 mm. longae. Calycis tubus dense sericeus,
turbinatus, 2 mm. diam. ; lobi 5, suborbiculares, extus glabrescentes,
intus dense tomentosi. Petala suborbicullaria, 4 mm. diam., extus dense
tomentosa, intus glabra. Stamina numerosa, filamentis glabris tenuibus

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 6. 77

leviter applanatis, ad 7 mm, longis. Ovarium ad apicem pubescens,
stylo glabro. Bacca alba, nigro-punctata, dulcis ; semina straminea
nitida, sublenticularia 2 mm. diam.

This shrub is very common as undergrowth in the sandy forest lands
of North-eastern New South Wales and South-eastern Queensland.
Sometimes it grows in heavier forests a few miles inland, and most of
the latter specimens seen by me have been of a more glabrescent
character. The plant is characterised by its white berries marked mth
small blackish dots. It is familiarly known as Midgen Berry. It is
represented in the Queensland Herbarium by a number of localities from
Byron Bay in New South Wales to Fraser Island in Queensland. The
following is a selection : —

New South Wales. — Byron Bay, E. Cheel; Cudgen, C. T. White,
No. 9666 (very common on sandy hillsides, low shrub 1 m. high) ; Tweed
Heads, Dr. P. H. Kenny.

Queensland. — Palm Beach, between Currumbin and Tallebudgera
Creeks, C. T. White, No. 6506 (type, flowering specimens), Nov., 1929
(spreading shrub 1 m., leaves light green above, whitish beneath,
flowers white) ; (fruiting specimens) sine number, April, 1928, shrub
1 m., common on sandy land, fruit white with small black dots, sickly
sweet to taste) ; Pimpama, J. Shirley; Stradbroke Island, C. T. White;
Moreton Island, C. T. White; Bribie Island, C. T. White; Mooloolah
Kiver, C. T. White; Eumundi. J. H. Simmonds; Cootharaba, W. D.
Francis; Noosa Heads, C. T. White; Fraser Island, C. E. Hubbard,
No. 4656 (shrub with spreading branches, leaves green above, grey-green
below, young growth reddish, common in Eucalyptus forest on sandy
slopes) .

This plant is certainly very closely allied to M. tenuifolia Sm., but
differs in its constantly broader, differently shaped leaves and somewhat
larger flowers. In their original description Maiden and Betche state —
‘‘Bentham mentions the two forms of 31. tenmfolia in the Flora Austra-
liensis, but did not distinguish them as named varieties. The form
common about Port Jackson and the Blue Mountains has from linear
to very narrow-lanceolate leaves, and is a stiff, upright-growing, small
shrub, generally found in the rocky beds of creeks ; the variety latifolia
has lanceolate to broad-lanceolate leaves, and is a spreading shrub gener-
ally found as undergrowth in the brush-forests of Northern New South
Wales. Bentham knew the two forms only from herbarium specimens,
and could not know their marked difference in habit.”

Some time ago I sent specimens to the National Herbarium, Sydney,
where they were examined by Mr. Cheel, who remarked that he thought
the plant worthy of specific rank. Though it presents considerable
variation in width of leaf and degree of pubescence, it can always be
distinguished at a glance from typical M. tenmfolia Sm. It has also a
different habitat and geographical range.

The accompanying plate shows 3lyrtus dulcis C. T. White from two
localities compared with 31. tenuifolia Sm. from the Port Jackson dis-
trict, New South Wales.

3Iyrtus puMflora sp. nov.

Frutex elatus, ramulis junioribus pubescentibus. Folia ovata vel
ovato-lanceolata, apice acuminata, lamina 3-5 cm. longa, 1-5-2-5 cm.
lata, petiolo 2 mm. longo, nervis lateralibus et vena intramarginali in
sicco utrinque prominulis. Flores axillares singuli vel bini, pedicellis

78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

2-4 mm. longis, pu'bescentibus. Calycis tubus dense hirsutus, sub-
globosus, 2-3 mm. diam., lobis 4, utrinque sericeo-hirsutis, angusto-
triangularibus, 5 mm. longis. Petala 4, orbiculari-ovata, extus tomentosa
intus glabra, 4 mm. diam. Stamina numerosa 4 mm. longa. Ovarium
2-loculare. Bacca 8 mm. diam.

Strathdickie, near Proserpine, Rev. N. Michael, No. 1476 (type:
flowering specimens), 1497 (fruiting specimens). Strathdickie North,
Ken Macpherson, No. 81 (flowering specimens), Aug., 1936. (Mr.
Macpherson’s specimens were received from the Herbarium, North
Queensland Naturalists’ Club, under No. 2742.)

Family Oenotheraceae.

Ludwigia pro strata Roxb.

Mossman, North Queensland, H. Flecker (flowering and fruiting
specimens), 9th August, 1936, No. 2132. Erect herb, yellow flowers,
growing in alluvial soil on bank of Mossman River. A plant with a
wide range in the Indo-Malayan area, probably naturalised in North
Queensland. Det. L. S. Smith.

Family Eubiaceae.

Plectroma odorata (Forst.) Hillebrand, FI.

Hawaiian Island, 175 (1888), var. reiiculata var. nov. Folia sub-
orbicularia vel late obovata ad 9 cm. longa et 6-5 cm. lata, breviter
petiolata, supra nitida, subtus pallidora et opaca, utrinque reticulata.

Thursday Island (E. Cowley, No. 10, type of the variety, flowering
specimens); No. 29 (fruiting specimens; small tree, fruit black). A
very distinctive-looking plant; unfortunately the flowers are too badly
destroyed by insects to describe, but when better known may have to
be raised to specific rank. The specimens were labelled by F. M. Bailey
as a ‘‘form of P. odorata.” They were seen by W. D. Francis when
working at the Australian species of Plectronia at Kew, and he noted
on the sheets “Canthium species aff. C. odoratum.”

Spermacoce hispida L,

Cairns, Dr. H. Flecker, No. 1434, 21 February, 1936. Recumbent
hehb, growing near Esplanade, stems deep red, flowers white, pale mauve
when faded.

Wendlandia connata sp. nov.

Arbor mediocris, ramulis junioribus saepe in sicco valde eomplanatis.
Folia subcoriacea late lancelolata apice obtuse acuminata, basi cuneata
utrinque glabra costa et nervis primariis subtus excepta ; nervi laterales
subtus prominuli, in axillis foveolati; venae transversae immersae, sub
lente vix manifestae; lamina 9-16 cm. longa, 3*5-6-5 cm. lata; petiolus
2-3 cm. longus ; stipulae auguste triangulares in ramulis floriferis
parviores, mox deciduae. Panicula terminalis, pedunculis ramulis
pedicellisque pilis canescentibus obsitis, pedunculo communi 4-6 cm.
longo. Flores primum albi deinde rosei ; pedicelli 1*5-2 mm. pilis albis
strigosis obsiti, bracteolis iglabris 1-1*25 mm. longis. Calycis tubus
subcylindricus, 3 mm. longus, pilis albis strigosis paucis obsitus; lobi
5, glabri, 2 mm,, longi, in parte inferiore 2 mm. lati. Corolla glabra;
tubus 3 mm. longus lobi oblongi, 3 mm. longi. Stamina exserta;
filamenta in tubum connata, 4 mm. longa, ad basem tubi affixa, in parte
superiore (apicem versus) pilis albis longis obsita; antherae basifixae,

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 6.

79

3 mm. longae. Stylus 8-5 mm. longus; stigma capitata. Capsula
subcylindrica, Crustacea, 2-locularis, polysperma; sperma parva, testa
rugoso-reticulata.

Mt. Spurgeon, in rain forest along creek bank, C. T. White No.
10663 (type: flowering specimens) Sept. 1936 (medium tree, flowers
at first white, later pink, borne in great profusion). A. L. Merrotsy No.
35 (fruiting specimens) Feb. 1922 (shrub about 6 ft. high).

The specific name has reference to the stamens being united in a
tube which is aifixed to the corolla. On this account I had at first thought
to make the species the type of a new genus, but the other characters
are so much those of Wendlamdia that I think it better to leave it in
that genus.

Wendlandia urceolata sp. nov.

Arbor mediocris, ramulis novellis complanatis. Folia coriacea, late
laneeolata vel elliptica, apice obtuse acuminata, basi cuneata, utrinque
glabra, domatia in axillis nervorum subtus excepta; nervi praecipui
subtus valde elevati; venae transversae sub lente prominulae; lamina
9-16 cm. longa, 5-7 cm. lata; petiolus 2*5-3 cm. longus. Panicula
terminalis, pedunculis ramulisque roseis (Kajewski), subcomplanatis, in
medio pubescentibus, lateribus leviter incrassatis, pedunculo communi
2-3 cm. longo. Flores sessiles, glabri, roseo-virides (Kajewski). Calyx:
tubus 2*5 mm. longus; limbus 5-partitus, lobis late triangularibus vix
0*5 mm. longis. Corolla urceolata; tubus 1*5 cm. longus, lobi 5, parvi
rotundi, apicem versus incrassati et intus infra apicem ipsum inflexi.
Stamina 2 mm. longa, filamentis perbrevis, applanatis ad basem corollae
affixis. Stylus cylindricus, 2 mm. longus, leviter striatus. Capsula
subcylindrica, Crustacea, 6 mm. longa.

Foothills of Mt. Bartle Frere, alt. 800 m., common in poor rain
forest, S. F. Kajewski, No. 1349 (flowering specimens and a few old
seed capsules) 1st October, 1936 (specimens gathered off small tree about
15 m. high, bark medium grey, light pink-brown when cut, no particular
odour; young stems (branches of the panicle) bearing buds bright
pink, buds pink-green.

Remarkable on account of its urceolate corolla, the lobes indexed
inside below the rounded apex. Though they have the appearance, as
remarked by Mr. Kajewski, of being unopened, I think the flowers fully
developed.

Family Compositae.

Centipeda thespidioides F. v. M.

Maranoa District. — St. George, J. Wedd. Nindigully, in red soil,
R. H. Roe, July 1937.

Warrego District. — Murweh, R. Cameron, September 1916. Wedd^s
specimens were recorded by F. M. Bailey as Coleocoma centaurea F.
V. M. This latter species should be deleted from the Queensland Flora
until authentic specimens have been collected.

Cosmos caudatiis L.

Kuranda, North Queensland. Dr. H. Flecker, No. 2046 (flowering
and fruiting specimens, 19th July, 1936). Common weed 4 ft. high,
pink flowers. Acclimatised in the Barron River Valley.

A native of Tropical America, but now widely spread over the
tropics of the world.

80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Pterocaulon spheranthoides DC.

Received from Mr. T. H. Dowling, Oban Station, Mount Isa, 23rd
December, 1935. (Determination by D. A. Coy.)

Helichrysum vagans sp. nov.

Frutex vagans virgatus, ramulis novellis albo-tomentosis, adultis
glabris sulcato-striatis valde angulatis, angulis plerumque 5. Folia
lineari-lanceolata supra glabra subtus albo-tomentosa vel rarius glabre-
scentia, 2-5-4 cm. longa, 4-5 mm. lata, trinervia, nervis lateralibus saepe
indistinctis sed sub lente plerumque visibilibus. Capitula parva in
paniculas compactas (1-2-5 cm. diam) terminales disposita. Involucra
late campanulata 3 mm. longa 3 mm. lata, bracteis numerosis scariosis.
Flosculi ca. 12. Achenia glabra cylindracea, pappi setis 2 mm. longis
tenuiter barbellulatis ad basim coalitis.

Queensland. — Lamington National Park, Macpherson Range, alt.
1,000 m., C. T. Wkite Feb. 1920 (type; scrambling scrub 2 m. Mgb,
common on edge of rain-forest). Springbrook C. T. White No. 8226,
October 1931 (Shrub of straggling habit, 2 m. high, common on edge
of rain-forest).

New South Wales. — Murwillumbah, W. Forsayth (ex Nat. Herb.
Sydney). Mount Warning, L. J. Brass and C. T. White Jan. 1938
(straggling shrub common on edge of rain-forest).

This shrub is very common on the higher parts of the Macpherson
Range and its offshoots in south-eastern Queensland. Some time ago I
sent specimens to the National Herbarium, Botanic Gardens, Sydney,
where they were reported on by Mr. W. F. Blakely who said that he
recognised the plant at once as one that was in the H. Beckleri box
in that Herbarium. He had put it aside meaning to work out the
determination, but having greater interest in other plants he had not
bothered to draw up a description of it as a new species. The species
is most closely allied to H. Beckleri F. v.M. which is also a very common
species in many of the mountain ranges of south-eastern Queensland
and northern New South Wales. In their habits the two species are
very distinct, H. Beckleri being an upright growing shrub and H. vagans
a shrub of very straggling habit mostly growing on the edge of rain-
forest. n. Beckleri is very common as secondary growth in rain-forest
clearings in mountain localities. In this stage it is an intricately branched
shrub with very small leaves green on the upper surface and clothed
with white cottony wool on the under. H. vagans is not so common
as secondary growth but is frequently seen on the edge of new clearings.
It is a straggling shrub in its younger stages with leaves up to 6 cm.
in length. The two species may be characterised as follows: —

Upright shrub. Juvenile leaves very small, 2-5 mm. long. Branchlets
terete or nearly so, usually tomentose. Leaves mostly about 1*5 cm.
long and 4 mm. wide . . . . . • . . . . • . . . JT. BecTderi

Shrub of straggling habit. Juvenile leaves narrow-lanceolate, up to
6 cm. long. Branchlets very angular, usually quite glabrous or
nearly so in the adult stage. Leaves somewhat variable, mostly
3-4 cm. long and 4-5 mm. broad . . . . . . . . . . -S', vagans

Family Myrsinaceae.

Ardisia fasciculata sp. nov. (Subgcnus Tinus.)

Arbor parva, ramulis robustis. Folia coriacea, late lanceolata vel
anguste obovata, basi acuta, apice subobtusa, nervis lateralibus in sicco
utrinque visibilibus vix sed prominulis; petiolus crassiusculos teres 1-2

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 6.

81

cm. longus; lamina 7-10 cm. longa, 3-4 cm. lata. Inflorescentiae
3-6-liorae, glabrae, in fasciculos axillares dispositae ; pedicellis crassis
angularibus ca. 7 mm. longis. Calyx late campanulatus, 3 mm. diam.,
lobis snborbicnlaribus atropunctatis. Corrollae lobi brevi, alte connati,
crassi (in albastro modo visi). Stamina corolla aeqnilonga, antheris
anguste ovatis, filamentis brevis applanatis, ovarium glabrum, conicum,
stylo brevissimo.

Mt. Spurgeon, C. T. White No. 10673 (flowering specimens). Sept.
1936 (small tree in rain-forest).

A very distinctive species. Unfortunately I was able to get only
very limited material. The flowers available are a few in the bud stage,
and others with the corollas shed. From the appearance of the bud one
gets the impression that they may fall off in a calyptrate fashion; this
can only be proved, however, by observation in the field or by the
collection of more material. Among Australian species it is most
closely allied to A. hrevipedata F. v. M. and A. pachyrachis F. v. M.,
which are both distinct in the pedunculate inflorescence with more slender
pedicels and fewer flowers.

Family Sapotaceae.

Sideroxylon euphlehium F. v. M. var. cryptophlebium var. nov.

Folia coriacea, supra in sicco opaca, nervis secundariis et tertiariis
in foliis novellis supra leviter impressis in foliis adultis paene invisibil-
ibus, sufltus visibilibus sed vix prominulis. Flores solitarii vel bini in
axillis foliorum.

Mt. Spurgeon, C. T. White No. 10655 (flowering specimens) Sept.
1936. (Medium tree, on hillsides in rather dry rain-forest; very hard
wood.)

I had drawn up a description of this tree as a new species, but the
leaf-shape, the robust branchlets and the ferruginous tomentum of the
young shoots are so much the characters typical of 8. eupMebium F. v.
M. that I felt that at most it could only be regarded as a variety. 8.
euphlehium is represented by several sheets in the Queensland Herbarium
but only in fruit, and flowers were imperfectly known to Mueller. The
flowers in this variety are solitary or in pairs not in clusters as described
by Mueller, but this character may be variable.

Family Symplocaceae.

8ymplocos ampiUUformis sp. nov.

Arbor parva, ramulis junioribus subangularibus. Folia late lanceo*
lata, in sicco subchartacea, apice acuminata, basi cuneata, margine
leviter recurva undulata; costa media supra impressa, subtus elevata;
nervi laterales distantes, utrinque 4-5, venis et venulis prominulis;
petiolus 0-5-1 cm. longus; lamina 6-12 cm. longus, 2-5-5 cm. latus.
Inflorescentiae (simplices vel ad basem ramosae ?), in axillis inferioribus
vel in axillis defoliatis infra folia dispositae ; "^Thachis 0-5-1 cm. longa.
Fructus ampulliformis, 1-1-2 cm. longus, in parte inferiore 5-6 mm.
diam.

Mount Spurgeon, common in rain-forest, C. T. White, No. 10581
(fruiting specimens), September, 1936 (small tree, fruits green).

* The specimens are in fruit only, and it is difficult to say whether the racemes
are simple or bear very short branches simulating pedicels. When a longer branch
is borne this is situated at the very base, and has the appearance of a second
slightly shorter raceme from the axil.

82 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

In the absence of flowers it is difficult to assign this species to its
correct place in the genus. I should say it belongs to the Section
Bobua (DC.) Brand, and its closest affinity among Australian species
is with ThwaitesU F.v.M. It is still closer to 8. rnneityensis Brand,
but differs from both. The racemes are only as long as or little longer
than the petioles and are borne in the lower leaf -axils and usually below
all the leaves, not crowded in the upper axils and often pseudo-terminal
as in the two species mentioned.

8ympiacos 8tawelii F. v. Muell. Fragm. Phytogr. Austr. v. 60.
(1865) var. montana var. nov.

Folia parva (3.5-6. 5 cm. longa, 1-2 cm. lata). Inflorescentia valde
reducta 3-7-flora, spicata, pseudo-spicata vel ad basem breviter ramosa.

Mount Bartle Frere, H. Flecker, No. 857 (flowers), 7th October,
1935.

At flrst glance one would take this to be a distinct species, but on
closer examination I feel it is only a reduced mountain form of 8.
8tawelii F. v. M. Both leaves and flowers dry a deep yellow. The
inflorescence is very much reduced and is either a simple spike or with
one or two short branches at the base or with 1-2-flowered very short
branches in the lower part. The branches in this case may easily be
mistaken for pedicels like the very short secondary branches in the
compound inflorescence of 8. 8tawelii F. v. M.

Family Oleaceae.

Lino'ciera 8leumeri comb. nov.

L. carimea C. T. White, Proc. Roy. Soc. Queens., Vol. 47, 20, 1936.

Dr. H. Sleumer, of the Botanic Gardens and Museum, Berlin,
writes me that there is already a valid name, L. coriacea Vidal Rev. PL
Vase. Filip. (1886), 181. I have pleasure in naming the plant now
after Dr. Sleumer, who has helped me considerably with Queensland
and Pacifle Islands Oleaceae and other plants.

Family Solanaceae.

8olmium dimorphispinum sp. nov.

Frutex 3-4 m. altus; rami pilis stellatis dense tomentosi, aculeis
rectis vel recurvis 2-3 mm. longis a latere compressis armati ; internodia
7-9 cm. longa. Folia plerumque ad nodos bina ; petioli 2-2*5 cm. longi,
sicut rami pilis stellatis tomentosi et aculeis muniti sed aculeis tenuiori-
bus rectis et ad 4 mm. longis; lamina elliptica repanda vel raro sub-
integra, apice acuta 12-18 cm. longa, 5*5-7 cm. lata, supra glabra
inermis vel aculeis rectis ad 8 mm. longis paucis armata, subtus breviter
et dense albo-tomentosa, in costa media basem versus aculeis rectis 1-2
armata. Inflorescentia simpliciter racemosa, inermis ca. 7-flora ; rhachis
ad 2 cm. longa dense stellato-tomentosa ; pedieelli apicem versus racemi
conferta, ad 1*5 cm. longi, tenues, apicem versus incrassati sicut rachis
dense stellato-pubescentes. Calyx campsaiulatus, extus dense stellato-
tomentosus, 5-costatus, intus glaber, 1 cm. diam. Corolla violacea,
campanulato-stellata, ca. 2 cm. diam., in lobos lanceolatos 5 divisa;
lobi extus dense tomentosi intus in parte superiore pilis stellatis paucis
obsiti; membrapea inter petala glabra. Stamina glabra; fllamenta
brevia, appianata ; antherae 6 mm. longae. Ovarium pilis stellatis erebis
obsitum.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 6.

83

Mount Spurgeon, common along tracks and on the edge of clearings
in rain-forest, C. T. ^TOite, No. 10619 (flowering specimens), September,
1936 (large straggling bushes, 3-4 m. high, flowers mauve).

Very close to S. hamulosum C. T. White, but can be distinguished
as follows: —

Prickles all recurved and stout (except on the upper surface of
the leaves) ; leaves 8-11 cm. long, 4-5 cm. broad, densely
clothed with short stellate hairs above, paler and densely

and loosely stellate-tomentose beneath . . . . . . S. hamulostim.

Prickles slender and straight on leaves and young stems,
recurved on older stems. Leaves 12-18 cm, long, 5-5-7
cm. broad, glabrous above, white and densely and very

shortly tomentose beneath . . . . . . . . . . S. dimorphispinu7n

Family Sorophulariaceae.

Linatia Elatine Miller. Pointed Toad Flax.

Kangaroo Point, Brisbane. L. S. Smith, No. 372 (flowering speci-
mens), 5th December, 1938.

A native of Europe, naturalised in the Southern States, but not
previously recorded for Queensland.

Family Acanthaceae.

GraptophylUvm Thorogoodii sp. nov.

Prutex intricate ramosus; ramulis spinosis, spinis tenuibus ca.
1 cm. longis ,* ramulis junioribus angulatis, breviter pubescentibus. Folia
perbreviter petiolata, 1-5-2-5 cm. longa, 0-5-1 cm. lata, lanceolata vel
elliptico-lanceolata, margine remote dentata. Flores 3-3-7 cm. longi,
axillares, solitarii ; pedicello tenui 6-10 mm. longo ; calycis lobis lineari-
bus, acutis, 6-8 mm. longis ; corollae tubo 1-8-2-5 cm. longo ; limbo bila-
biato, lobis duobis superioribus (labio superiore) 10 mm, longis, lobis
tribus inferioribus (labio inferiore) 12 mm. longis. Stamina exserta,
stylo subaequalibus. Ovarium 5 mm. longo ; stylo t^nui, stigmata minute
b’ilobo.

Kelsey Creek, near Proserpine, H. Thorogood (No. 1, received
March, 1937), flowering specimens (shrub, grows in a thick mass almost
impossible to penetrate ; limbs often take root where they touch the
ground; main flowering time seems to be May, June, and July.)

The present species has all the vegetative characters of G. spini-
gerum F. v. M., but the flowers in that species are several on very
short pedicels in the axils of the leaves, not solitary on long, slender
pedicils, and the flowers are at most only half the size of the new
species. When better known G. spinigerum may be found to possess
more than one type of inflorescence and flower, and the present species
may have to be reduced to a synonym or at most to a variety.

Type at Brisbane.

Family Plantaginaceae.

Plcmtago coronopus Linn.

Manly, Moreton Bay. C. T. White, No. 10740, June, 1936.

Common as a weed along the esplanade in made-up land.

These specimens have been determined for me at the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, and have been identifled as the subspecies commutata
(Guss.) Pilger.

84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Family Chenopodiaceae.

Atriplex elachophyllum F. v. M.

Gregory North District : Glenormiston. A. C. Boyle, 28th January,
1935.

New for Queensland. (Determination by S. L. Everist.)

Kocliia Criliata F. y. Muell. Rep. Babb. Exped. 20.

Maranoa District. — Noondoo Station, via Dirranbandi, S. L. Everist,
No. 767, 14th December, 1934; small herb from a woody base, not
common. Between Warkon and Surat, B. A. Smith, No. 13; Nindigully,
R. Roe, No. 13, July, 1937. In hard red soil. Det. W. D. Francis. Not
previously recorded for Queensland.

The Noondoo specimens possessed a slight thickening of the upper
rim of the perianth, and it was thought at first that it might be K.
coronata J. M. Black. Specimens of both the Noondoo plant and the
Surat plant were forwarded to Mr. J. M. Black, who replied that Mr.
Smith’s specimen was typical K. ciliata, and, though the Noondoo
specimen showed a slight thickening of the upper rim of the perianth,
he could find nothing like the conspicuous crown possessed by his K.
coronatay and he would place it under K. ciliata. Both species are well
figured by Mr. Black in his ‘‘Additions to the Flora of South Australia,
No. 11,” in Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of South
Australia, Vol. 41, 1917. Both illustrations are reproduced in his
Handbook of the Flora of South Australia.

Kochia coronata J. M. Black in Trans. Roy. Soc. Sth. Aus. XLI., 43.
PL IX. (1917).

Currawilla, J. Mann. Not previously recorded for Queensland.
(Determination by W. D. Francis.)

Blackall. — S. L. Everist, February, 1938. Very common on edge
of claypans. (Determination by S. L. Everist.) )

Family Lauraceae.

Endiandra rubescens Blume ex Miq. Plantae Jungh. 176.

E. moniana C. T. White Contr. Arn. Arb. IV. 36 (1933)).

Mount Alexander ; alt. 1,300 m. Common in poor scrub on top of
the mountain. S.F. Kajewski No. 1497 (fiowering and fruiting speci-
mens), 18th Dec., 1929. (Small, twisted, and gnarled tree up to 6 m.
liigh ; flowers cream ; fruit yellow when ripe, slightly flattened on both
sides.)

When looking through some non- Australian specimens of Lauraceae
I was struck with the similarity of some specimens from Buitenzorg,
labelled Endiandra variabilis Meissner (Winckel No. 1792b) and deter-
mined by Dr. Camerloher with my recently described E. montana from
North Queensland. As I could not find the name E. variabilis in
literature, I wrote to Buitenzorg and got a reply from Dr. Van Slooten
as follows : —

Endiandra variabilis Meissner was given (on the label only) by
Dr. Camerloher (who studied only the genus Cinnamomum) for Dictyo-
dapJie variabilis Meissner, and not published by him. In the Buitenzorg
Herbarium this species is represented by one specimen only (from
Java), a duplicate of which you possess.”

CONTRIBUTIONS TOi THE QUEENSLAND FLORA^ NO. 6. 85

The Queensland specimens seem to be an exact match for the
Javanese, and I think there is no doubt about the identity of the two
species. As most botanists regard E. variahilis as only a synonym of
E. rubescens Blume, the Australian plant is now recorded as above.

Family Proteaceae.

Orites racemosa sp. nov.

Arbor elata, partibus novellis ferrugineo-pubescentibus mox glabris ;
ramulis robustis. Folia lanceolata, apice acuta, basin versus in petiolum
gradatim angustata, coriacea, cum petiolo 8-15 cm. longa, 2-3 cm. lata;
costa media supra leviter impressa, subtus leviter elevata, nervis secun-
dariis plerumque indistinctis. Eacemi axillares ca. 9-flori, 2-5-3 cm.
longi; rhachibus pedicellis bracteisque pubescentibus ; pedicellis 2-5-3
mm. longis; bracteis linearibus 2 mm. longis. Petala linearia, tenuiter
pubescentia, 4 mm. longa, 1-75 mm. lata (vix matura in alabastro modo
visa). Stamina libera vel ad basin petalorum affixa ; filamentis appla-
natis 1-75 mm. longis, in connectivum latum inter antherae loculos
productis; antheris 1-75 mm. longis. Ovarium in parte inferiori pilis
longis obsitum. Folliculus sublignosus, applanatus, margine incrassatus,
1-5-5-5 cm. longus, apice rostratus, basin versus in stipitem angustatus;
seminibus 2, compressis, ala membranacea alba cincta ; ala ipsa ad apicem
profunde emarginata; placenta compressa lignoso-spongiosa.

Mount Spurgeon, C. T. White, 10621 (nearly mature flowers and
seed capsules — mostly open). Sept., 1936 (large tree in rain-forest).

Distinguished from all previously described species by its flowers
single in the axils and on distinct pedicels. The flowers, though only
collected in the bud stage, were nearly mature. Type in Queensland
Herbarium, Brisbane. Co-type specimens at Arnold Arboretum, U.S.A.,
and Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (Eng.).

Family Euphorbiaceae.

ActepJlila Mearsii sp. nov.

Arbor ad 20 m. alta, ramulis robustis. Folia supra atroviridia,
subtus pallidiora, margine subremote crenato-dentata, petiolo 2 cm.
longo, apicem versus incrassato ; lamina 7-14 cm. longa, 2-5-5 cm. lata ;
nervis later alibus tenuibus in utroque latere 7-8, in sicco utrinque
visibilibus sed subtus prominentioribus. Pedicelli (in fructu modo
Ausi) 2-5-5 cm. longi, apicem versus gradatim incrassati, recti vel curvati
saepe valde recurvati. Sepala non-visa. Petala (vel glandula petaloi-
dea) 5, persistentes crassa dura 1-5 mm. longa. Capsula globosa vel
ovoidea 4 cm. diam., pericarpio lignoso, 1-5 mm. crasso, extus griseo,
leviter ruguloso, intus stramineo ; endocarpi cartilagineo ; semina ovoidea
arillo spongioso-pulposo rubro involuta cum arillo ca. 2-5 cm. longa,
2 cm. lata ; sine arillo ca. 2 cm. longa, 1-5 cm. lata ; testa cartilaginea,
straminea.

Millaa Millaa, J. E. Mears (leaves and unripe fruits), Dec., 1937
(type: ripe fruits and seeds), Feb., 1938. Gadgarra, alt. 800 m.,
common in rain-forest, S. F. Kajewski, No. 1139 (empty seed capsules),
24th July, 1929 (medium-sized tree, up to 20 m. high, leaves dark green).

Mr. Mears wrote under date 18th December, 1937, as follows: —
am sending you some unripe nuts, and will send on some more as
soon as they are ripe (early February). They are soft-shelled, very
sweet and palatable, but of course I should be afraid to eat them, but

86

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

the opossums get them very quickly; very prolific, it’s the only patch I
know of on the Tableland.” And later, under date 11th Februarv,
1938 : ' ‘ Herewith please find nuts as you desired — the best I could get^
The birds eat them as fast as they ripen. ’ ’

It is very distinct from previously described Queensland species,
and is a notable plant. It is most closely allied to A, grmdifolia Baill.,
which differs in its entire or nearly entire leaves on shorter petioles,
and much smaller seed capsules on shorter pedicels. I have not seen
an arillus developed in the seed of Actephila before, but it is a feature
that would be hard to observe on a dried seed.

Beyeria viscosa Miq. var. ohovata var. nov.

Frutex 2 m. altus ; partibus novellis viscosis ; ramulis jiinioribus
angulatis, complanatis. Folia plana, obovata vel spathulato-linearia,
apice obtusa vel leviter emarginata, basi cuneata in petiolum gradatim
angustata; lamina 3-4 cm. longa 1-2 cm. lata.

Torrens Creek, C. T. White, 8731 (female fiowers and capsules),
19th March, 1933 (shrub 2 m., growing on rocky sandstone hills).

I had at first drawn up a description of this as a distinct species,
for the general appearance is different from that of typical B. viscosa
and its described varieties. Apart from the broader leaves, however,
and the total lack of viscosity except in the very young leaf-buds, it
shows no essential differences.

Type of the variety at Queensland Herbarium, Brisbane. Co-type
material at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (Eng.), and Arnold Arboretum,
Boston (U.S.A.).

Bertya oleifoUa Planch, in Hook. Lond. Journ. Bot., IV., 473, tab.
XVI., fig. 1, 1845, var. glahrescens var. nov.

Folia demum supra glabra, lineari-lanceolata 4-7*5 cm. longa, 2-4
mm. lata. Bracteae stellato-tomentosae. Flores glabri. Ovarium
glabrum.

Eidsvold, Dr. T. L. Bancroft (type of the variety) ; Copperfield,
G. Smith.

A rather distinctive plant which, when better known, may have
to be raised to specific rank. There are two very small specimens from
Copperfield ; one is an exact match for the Eidsvold plant, the other is
the typical form with densely hairy ovary.

EuphorMa Jiypericifoiia L.

Trinity Beach, in sandy soil.

H. Flecker, 26th March, 1937 (North Queensland Naturalists’ Club,,
No. 2942).

A common tropical species, not previously recorded for Queensland.

Family Liliaceae.

Bhipogonum papvanum C. T. White, Proc. Roy. Soc. Queens., VoL
34, p. 19, 1923.

R. album, R.Br. var. leptostachya Benth. FI. Austr., Vol. VII.,
p. 9, 1878.

Papua Bet. Kubunah and Fofofofo, C. T. White, No. 687, August,

1918.

Plate VI

Proc. Eoy. Soc.

Left |3ay,
tenuifoUa Si

N. S. Wales.

3. M.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. Ij., No. 11.

Plate VI.

Mi/rtua (hilcix C. T, Wliite and ^f. lennifoUa Sin.

Left to Right. — 1. M. dulcis C. T. W., Euniundi, Q., 2. M. diilcis C. T. W., Bvroii Bay, N. S, Wales. 3. .1/.
tc7iuifoU(i Sm., Mossman, Port .Tackson, N. S. Wales.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE QUEENSLAND FLORA, NO. 6.

87

Queensland. — Rockingham Bay, J. Dallachy. Wlielanian Pools,
Bellenden Ker Range, P. M. Bailey. Atherton, C. T. White. Tarzali,
C. T. White. Malanda, C. T. Wliite.

Family Gr amine ae.

Ilierochloe rari flora Hook.

Lamington National Park, common in heavy Eucalyptus and
Casuarina forest, C. T. White, No. 11,163, 22nd October, 1934.

Lagurus ovatus L., Hare’s Tail. Farm School, St. Lucia, Brisbane
River. C. T. Wliite, 11160, 30th November, 1934, subspontaneous.

A native of Southern Europe, cultivated as an ornamental grass.
It is completely naturalised in the Southern States.

Neurachne Muelleri Hackel.

Frazerborough, Jundah, E. M. Bowman.

Neurachne Munroi, P. v. Muell.

Wittenburra Station, 36 miles south of Eulo. S. L. Everist and
L. S. Smith, No. 64, 7th January, 1937. Fairly common on hillside.

I am indebted to the Director and Government Botanist (Mr. P. J.
Rae), Botanic Gardens and National Herbarium, Melbourne, for the
determination of the above species of Neurachne. Mr. Bowman describes
N. Muelleri as an excellent fodder.

Themeda quadrivalvis 0. Ktze.

A native of India, naturalised in Fiji and not previously recorded
for Australia. Collected at Habana, 14 miles north-east of Mackay,
September, 1935, by J. P. Kahler, who makes the following remarks : —

‘‘Grows in dense patches, not very common. In paddocks cattle
keep it down. Tall, up to 5 ft.”

(Determination by S. L. Everist.)

88

VoL. L., No. 12.

A Monograph of the Genus Eleocharis in Australia

and New Zealand.

By S. T. Blake, M.Sc., Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic
Biology, University of Queensland.

{Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland, 2Sth November, 1938.)

Plates VII. to X.

The Australasian, and more particularly the Australian, species of
Eleocharis, in common with many other genera of Cyperaceae, seem
never to have been properly understood, and for a long time the genus
has been in a state of hopeless confusion. As the result of a prolonged
examination of a very large series of specimens, both in the field and
in the herbarium, a clarification of the situation has been possible, and
the results are presented in this paper. Not only have I been fortunate
in being able to study all but one of the Australian species in the field,
but also in that nearly every collection in Australia has been made
available to me, and for this I wish to express my sincere thanks to
the following: — Mr. C. T. White (Queensland ITerbarium, Brisbane),
Mr. B. H. Anderson (National Herbarium of New South Wales,
Sydney), Mr. P. J. Rae (National Herbarium of Victoria, Melbourne),
Mr. J. M. Black (Adelaide), Miss C. M. Eardley (Tate Herbarium,
University of Adelaide), Professor J. B. Cleland (University of
Adelaide), Mr. C. A. Gardner (National Herbarium of Western Aus-
tralia, Perth), while Dr. H. H. Allan (Plant Research Bureau, Welling-
ton) has donated a collection of New Zealand specimens. I am further
indebted to Dr. J. Mattfeld, of the Botanischer Garten und Botanisches
Museum, Berlin-Dahlem, for the donation of portions of type material,
to Sir Arthur W. Hill, Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,.
for copies of descriptions in works unavailable to me and for advice
on nomenclature, and to Dr. A. B. Walkom, secretary to the Linnean
Society of New South Wales, for a copy of a description.

Finally I wish to express my very deep gratitude to Dr. H. K.
Svenson, of the Brooklyn Botanic Gardens, New York, who for some
time past has been engaged in monographing the entire genus. His
ready and kindly criticism, his assistance in determination and donation
of specimens and in placing at my disposal copies of sketches and notes
of specimens in the herbaria at Kew and the British Museum have very
materially assisted in the preparation of this paper.

THE REVISION.

Eleocharis R. Br. Prodr. 224 (1810) (Cyperaceae-Scirpoideae-
Scirpeae). — Spikelet solitary, terminal, erect, ebracteate, few- to many-
flowered; glumes spirally imbricate, rarely more or less distichous;
flowers hermaphrodite : perianth of 0-10 hypogynous bristles, style
3-2-fid, stamens 3-2-1, nut crowned by the persistent enlarged base of
the style.

Annual or perennial leafless herbs frequently producing slender
stolons sometimes bearing tubers, or descending or creeping rhizomes.
Culms tufted or in a linear series, straight or arcuate or rarely flexuose.

A MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS ELEOC HARIS IN AUSTRALIA.

89

commonly trigonous to terete, sometimes fluted or angular-striate, often
acutely 3-4-5-angled, occasionally compressed or more rarely flattened
(often spuriously so in the dried state), frequently pitted, sometimes
prominently transversely septate ; leaf-slieatlis 1 or more, herbaceous,
membranous, or scarious, the appressed or dilated orifice horizontally
truncate to very oblique when viewed from the side, often thickened at
or immediately below the margin and frequently bearing a short, erect
mucro or more rarely a lanceolate point (rudimentary lamina), or
scarious and then often marcescent ; spikelet very variable in size and
shape from globular to linear-cylindrical, from somewhat narrower to
very much wider than the culm, sometimes flattened when laxly-flowered,
sometimes appearing spirally angular when dry or over-mature ; glumes
appressed or spreading in fruit, sometimes relatively persistent, often
readily deciduous with the spikelet continuing to grow out after the
lower ones have fallen, usually membranous, often with hyaline more or
less scarious margins, 1-nerved and more or less distinctly keeled or else
the back broad, flattened, cartilaginous to coriaceous or herbaceous, and
closely striate with fine nerves on each side of the mid-vein, 1-2 lower-
most often sterile, more rigid in texture, often rather different in size
and shape and usually more persistent than the others; style short or
long, flattened to filiform in the upper part, usually quite glabrous
below the filiform, usually fimbriate stigmatic branches, the lower part
(style-base) thickened, and persistent on the fruit; anthers ovate or
oblong to narrow-linear, the connective frequently produced beyond the
cells into an oblong, triangular, or setaceous appendage; nut most
frequently obovate to nearly orbicular in outline, less commonly pyri-
form or narrow, often contracted immediately below the apex into a
distinct neck, lenticular (piano- or biconvex) to triquetrous in trans-
verse section, the margins or angles often prominently costiform and
then usually paler in colour than the sides, which may be smooth, pitted,
wrinkled, reticulated, eancellate, or longitudinally striate or ribbed and
transversely trabeculate, depending on the size, shape, arrangement, and
prominence of the margins or corners, of the external cells, which them-
selves may be hexagonal, rounded, transversely oblong to linear or
vertically oblong or almost square, and are usually arranged in more
or less regular vertical series, often also in regular horizontal series,
rarely without any definite arrangement: sometimes also longitudinal
furrows may be present on one or more faces, chiefly the adaxial, often
due to the pressure of the hypogynous bristles; style-base variable in
size, shape, and colour, sometimes very small and continuous with apex
of nut and not readily distinguishable from it, usually very distinct and
often with a horizontally straight or variously curved thickened annulus
at the line of junction often paler in colour than the remainder, which
may be more or less spongy and is sometimes minutely hispid ; hypo-
gynous bristles stout or slender, more or less strongly flattened or fili-
form, free to the base or connate in the lower part, smooth or scabrous
or barbellate or rarely subplumose with retrorsely or rarely antrorsely
directed small teeth, sometimes caducous as the flowering advances,
frequently absent from the first and in this respect sometimes variable
in the same species.

The name has been very frequently spelt Heleocliaris, and this is
the spelling which has been most used in Australia. It is not proposed

90 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

to discuss the subject here. It has been thoroughly treated by Sprague^
and by Svenson^, and besides Sir Arthur Hill has informed me in a
recent letter that the legally correct spelling, EleocJiaris, is to be con-
served against the emended spelling of Lestiboudois. In the present
paper the example of most authors has been followed in treating the two
spellings as trivial variations of the same name.

Subdivisions of the genus have generally been based on the relative
width of spikelet and culm and then on the number of style-branches
(2 or 3) with an accompanying flattened or trigonous nut. Such an
arrangement was employed in the Flora Australiensis, and by more
recent Australasian authors, but it is very artiflcial. The width of culm
relative to the spikelet is often an illusory character, and if strictly
applied would at times separate closely related species. Then very many
species with trifld styles have lenticular nuts. This occurs in nearly
half of our species. Many other characters vary considerably within
small groups of closely related species, and sometimes even within a
species itself. While the following remarks apply chiefly to the Austra-
lasian species, ^they are in general applicable throughout the genus.

The culms often vary considerably in diameter, and this variation
may have no correlation with the len^h. Very often a second growth
following a burn, severe grazing, or other such catastrophe, produces
unusually slender culms. Generally speaking the outline in cross section
is fairly constant, though occasionally an extra, usually ill-deflned angle
may be produced on unusually robust culms. The degree of pitting or
wrinkling may vary considerably, but is often due to irregularities in
drying. During drying also the sharpness of angles is often accentuated,
while pressure may tend to obliterate others. The presence or absence
of transverse septae appears to be quite constant, at least within a
species. The nature of the uppermost leaf-sheath is relatively constant,
sometimes throughout entire groups, though at times closely similar
species may be quite different in this character. In species where the
sheath is commonly horizontally truncate at the orifice a slight obliquity
may occur in some specimens, while the mucro present in all such
Australasian species may vary in development. Where the orifice is
constantly oblique it may be somewhat lanceolate when flattened, often
with a short obtuse point or mucro. Variations may occur on the same
plant. The spikelet within a species is often fairly constant in shape
and size, but usually varies within more or less well-defined limits.
When in fruit, irregularities in pressure, &c., during drying often
produce quite different configurations in spikelets of the same species,
due chiefly to the degree to which the glumes may spread. The glume
may also tend to become somewhat incurved along its length, and to
this is due the spirally angular spikelet mentioned above. In the living
state such spikelets are terete or nearly so. The glumes may vary
considerably in size and shape, even in the same spikelet. A common
tendency is for the upper glumes to become narrower and more acute
as the apex is approached, while concurrently the keel tends to disappear
at a greater distance from the tip. The number of style-branches is in
general constant for each species, though accidental states occur in which
a reduced number is to be found, as in E. pollens. The number of
stamens is usually constant in each species. The anthers often vary
considerably in length, but the shape, nature, and size of the appendage

^ Kew Bull. 1928, 352.

* Khodora xxxi., 122-3 (1929).

A MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS ELEOCHARIS IN AUSTRALIA.

91

is nearly constant. It should be pointed out, however, that the anthers
are readily damaged, particularly the often delicate appendage, and in
fruiting specimens are often difficult to find intact. In most specimens
in the older collections they have disappeared. Where flowering material
only is available, the anthers, and particularly the appendage, sometimes
offer the readiest means of distinguishing certain species. The hypo-
gynous bristles, upon which much emphasis has at times been placed,
are often quite variable either in number or degree of development, or
both. In many species they are regularly absent. In E. nuda they are
present in flower, but fall away before the fruit matures. In E. pusilla
and some extra- Australasian species they may be present or absent in
the same species. When constantly present they are usually 6 in number,
but due to branching of the one on the adaxial face of the ovarj^ and nut
the number may be as great as 10 {E. sphacelata) . LikeAvise reduction
may occur, and, in some species with normally well-developed perianth,
specimens are occasionally seen in which the bristles are few, unusually
slender, and then short and irregular in length. The mature nut is
usually the most characteristic feature of a species. Variations in shape,
colour, lustre, and degree of surface marking sometimes occur, but
usually within very narrow limits. The presence or absence of costiform
margins or angles is a well-defined and important feature in the Austra-
lasian species. Such slight variations in surface markings as occur are
usually due to the extent of a slight thickening which sometimes takes
place at the line of junction of the external cells, particularly at the
corners. In a few species the shape of the actual cells varies somewhat,
due to a tendency towards a slight lengthening or shortening of the
prevailing form. The most pronounced variations are in the absolute
dimensions, and in the degree of turgidity of lenticular nuts. The
style-base in its general characteristics is relatively constant, often
through whole groups, although in detail it may vary widely within a
species. Variations in shape are connected with two quite independent
features. In the first place, the length, whether relative to the nut or
absolute, sometimes varies considerably; and in the second place the
degree of rounding at the base may greatly affect the form of the style-
base. When the latter is carried to extremes the style-base may appear
more or less stipitate on the nut, whether the latter has an expanded
apex or not. Generally speaking the style-base on a trigonous nut is
distinctly pyramidal at the base, though it may be dorso-ventrally
compressed in the upper part, Avhile that on a lenticular nut is strongly
compressed. Occasionally, however, in those species with a trifid style
and a lenticular nut, the style-base shows a median line or a more or
less distinct ridge on the abaxial side.

Svenson’s distribution of the species in Rhodora xxxi., pp. 127-129
(1929), is without doubt the most natural arrangement yet proposed.
The old genus or subgenus Eleogenus (Heleogenus) becomes his first
series Mutatae, while he has distributed the remainder among ten series
relying on combinations of characters drawn from the number of styles,
the colour, surface markings (and therefore the shape of the external
cells), and shape in transverse section of the nut, the style-base, and
the nature of the orifice of the leaf-sheath.

Since this paper was published, however, it has been found necessary
to modify this arrangement somewhat, and an increase in the number
of series is to be expected. One such new series is proposed in the

92 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

present paper to receive E. acuta and its allies. Otherwise, except for
a slight rearrangement in the order of the series, that arrangement is
followed here."^'

Throughout the work a binocular dissecting microscope was
employed. For general examination and for drawing up the greater
part of the descriptions a magnification of 20x-25x was used. This
was supplemented hy a study under a magnification of 40x-45x of the
small species, details of the anthers in all species, of the external cells
of the nuts, or to verify any other character which may be obscure under
the lower magnification. The shape of the glumes given is that shown
when the glume is flattened as much as possible without splitting it.
The dimensions in the descriptions apply to the great majority of
specimens, exceptional cases being noted in the discussion following
these. I have differed from Svenson’s method of giving the length of
the nut together with style-base, by giving each separately, as the latter
seems to give greater accuracy.

The Australasian species are mostly fairly well defined, and speci-
mens should be readily determinable if good material is to hand. Fruit-
ing material is preferable, and if such is available a magnification of
15x-20x should suffice when using the key. In most cases flowering
material should be determinable, particularly if the base of the plant is
present. Great care is required in measuring anther-tips. A magnifica-
tion of about 40x is usuallj^ necessary, and care must be taken that the
tips are not damaged.!

All the specimens cited have been actually examined unless expressly
stated to the contrary. In the citation of specimens attention has been
paid to geographical distribution. Generally speaking, the localities
have been arranged in a general west-east and north-south direction.

The characteristic habitats of most species are wet, muddy places
along stream banks or in swamps, often in water up to 2 ft. in depth.
The annual species are frequently found on the edges or dried-out beds
of lagoons, streams, &c. While the greatest concentration of species
occurs in the regions of higher rainfall, one, E. pallens, is restricted to
the more arid regions.

The perennial species have some fodder value, while pigs thrive on
the tubers of E. dulcis. The latter are also edible to man, are collected
by the Australian aborigines, and are largely cultivated in the Orient.

The bibliographical references are mostly confined to the original
publications of the name-combinations (including synonyms) and refer-
ences to be found in Australasian literature.

* When Dr. Svenson published this arrangement he had seen very little
of the Australian species, and it was his suggestion that this account be published
before he treated these parts of the genus.

While this paper was in press I received from Dr. Svenson papers embodying
his final opinions on the genus. Through the courtesy of the editors and the
printer I have been able to make some changes in nomenclature made necessary
by these papers, but I cannot agree with Dr. Svenson ’s broadened circumscriptions
of certain species. These involve the union of pairs of species which to me seem
quite distinct.

f Anther-tips considerably less than 0*1 mm. long are described as minute.

A MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS ELEOCHARIS IN AUSTRALIA.

93

The herbaria, in which the specimens cited are laid, are indicated
as follows; —

Queensland Herbarium, Brisbane . . . . . . (B)

National Herbarium of New South Wales, Sydney (S)
National Herbarium of Victoria, Melbourne . . (M)

Tate Herbarium, University of Adelaide . . . . (T)

Herbarium of J. M. Black, Adelaide . . . . (Bl)

Herbarium of J. B. Cleland, Adelaide . . . . (Cl)

State Herbarium of Western Australia, Perth . . (P)

When no letter is used the specimens are in the Queensland Her-
barium. All my collections are represented here, and no special mention
is made of them.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF ELEOCHARIS IN AUSTRALIA AND

NEW ZEALAND.

Glumes hardened on back, finely many-nerved with a distinct mid-
vein, not at all or only obscurely keeled, the spikelet not much wider
than the culm; style 2-fid or 3-fid; nut lenticular (Species 1-9).

Culms not transversely septate; external cells of nut hexa-
gonal or transversely oblong to linear in 10-20 vertical rows on
each face.

External cells of nut oblong or
linear, or if somewhat hexa-
gonal then the culm stout and
acutely triquetrous.

Culms exceeding 2 mm. in width.

Nut constricted below apex into
a distinct neck ; glumes
more than 4 mm. long, not

cuneate

(1)

E. fistidosa

Nut not constricted, the style-

base almost confiuent over
shoulders ; glumes less than
4 mm. long, cuneate

(2)

E. spiralis

Culms less than 1 mm. wide

(4)

E. difformis

External cells of nut more or less
regularly hexagonal ; culms
never both stout and acutely
triquetrous.

Culms usually less than 3 mm.
wide ; nut more or less
attenuate below, with a dis-
tinct neck under the
expanded apex and the
annulus curved upwards.

Culms acutely, unequally, and
re-entrantly 4-5-angled,
soft and compressible ;
bristles always present . .

Culms terete or indistinctly
trigonous, bristles absent at
maturity

(3) E. philippinensis

(6)

E. nuda

R.S. D.

94

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

Culms 3 mm. or more wide, not
prominently angled, nut not
attenuate below and only

very slightly expanded at
apex, the annulus straight or
nearly so

(5)

E. Brassii

Culms transversely septate ; external cells of nut very small,
very numerous, more or less rounded-hexagonal or elongated
vertically.

Glumes about 8 mm. long, nut
2-2-2-5 mm. long; culms in a
close linear series on a stout

horizontal rhizome .. .. (7) E.sphacelata

Glumes 5-6-5 mm. long, nut 1-3-2-1
mm. long ; culms tufted, rhizome
short and oblique or stoloniform.

Glumes rounded at apex, flattened
when dry, dull ; hypogynous
bristles strongly connate at
base ; plant often bearing
tubers . .

(8) •

E. dulcis

Glumes subtruncate, more or less
shining, somewhat concave
when dry; bristles free from
each other at the base ; stolons
never tuberiferous . .

(9)

E. equisetina

Glumes membranous, with a distinct midvein, usually distinctly
keeled, sides nerveless, the spikelet much wider than the culm unless the
latter be flat. (Species 10-25.)

Style 3-fid, or if 2-fid then the upper leaf-sheath truncate
and prominently mucronate at the summit. (Species 10-21.)

Nuts obscurely trigonous or terete,
vertically ribbed and trans-
versely trabeculate, the external
cells transversely linear or
oblong. (Species 10-11.)

Plants neither proliferous nor
tuberiferous ; spikelets ovate
to linear, often setting fruit;

glumes 2-2-2 mm. long .. (10) E- pusilla

Plants producing tubers, often
proliferous; spikelets lanceo-
late to linear, rarely matur-
ing; glumes 3 mm. long or
more .. .. .. . . (11) E.atricha

Nuts triquetrous to lenticular, finely
reticulate, alveolate, wrinkled,
or smooth, the external cells
very small and often very faint,
mostly shortly vertically oblong,
in very numerous series.

/ ; (Species 12-21.)

A MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS ELEOCHARIS IN AUSTRALIA.

95

Dwarf tufted plants with capillary
culms and thin summits to the
leaf-sheaths ; nuts less than 1
mm. long, 3-ribbed. (Species
12-13.)

Glumes numerous, spirally
imbricate ; nut 045 mm.

long, bristles absent . . (12) E. nigrescens

Glumes 4-5, subdistichous ; nut
0-9 mm. long, bristles 6,

comparatively stout .. (IS) E . caespitosissima

Larger plants, the culms usually
at least 0-5 mm. wide ; orifice
of leaf-sheath firm, often
mucronate ; nuts at least 1
mm. long. (Species 14-21.)

Nut trigonous, the dorsal angle
prominently ribbed ; style-
base narrow-pyramidal,
as wide as nut.

Rhizome at length creeping;
culms tufted or approxi-
mate compressedly ih
tetraquetrous, leaf-sheath

oblique at orifice .. (16) E. gracilis

Rhizome short, culms densely
tufted, soft, 6-9-fluted ;
leaf-sheath truncate and

mucronate .. .. (17) E . Dietrichiana

Nut trigonous or. lenticular, the
dorsal angle if present not
ribbed ; style-base sometimes
nearly as wide as nut.

Leaf-sheath oblique at orifice,
not or only minutely mucro-
nate ; bristles filiform, not
flattened at base ; style-base
pyramidal decurrent over
the shoulders of the trigon-
ous nut .. .. . . (14) E.pachycarpa

Leaf-sheath truncate and mucro-
nate at orifice ; bristles
stout, flattened at base, or
if slender then nut and

style-base different from
above.

Culms prominently 4-angled;

nut trigonous .. .. (15) E.tetraquetra

Culms terete, angular-striate,
or flattened ; nut len-

ticular.

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Ehizome creeping, nuts not
strongly costate on the
margins, anthers with a
setaceous appendage
0*2 mm. long; glumes
tardily deciduous.

Culms terete or nearly
so ; spikelet much
wider than culm . .

Culms strongly flat-
tened ; spikelet

scarcely wider than
culm

Rhizome very short; culms
densely tufted ; nuts
with prominently cos-
tate margins ; appen-
dage to anther not
exceeding 0*15 mm. in
length ; glumes readily
deciduous.

Glumes triangular-acute
at apex ; spikelet
more or less acute ;
anther-tip 0-15 mm.
long

Glumes rounded at apex ;
spikelet ih obtuse ;
anther-tip minute . . {21) E.cijlindrost achy s

Style 2-fid, orifice of leaf-sheath never mucronate (Species
22-25).

Nut more or less golden brown, 1*75

mm. long, bristles absent .. (22) E . neozelandica
Nut black or reddish brown or
greenish brown, not exceeding 1
mm. long ; bristles usually
present.

Nut 0-9-1 mm. long.

Leaf-sheath scarious or marces-
cent at apex; nut greenish

when immature

• • • •

(25)

E- minuta

Leaf-sheath firm at
shining black at
not greenish

immature . .

apex; nut
maturity,
when

(23)

'ft. genioulata

Nut 0-6-0-65 mm. long

• • • •

(24) E. atropurpurea

ENUMERATION OF THE SPECIES.

Series Mutatae. — Mostly coarse plants with swollen culms as wide
or nearly as wide as the spikelets. Glumes not at all or only obscurely
keeled, the very broad back thickened and often hardened, closely striate,
the margins hyaline ; nut lenticular ; style elongated, flat, 2-fid or 3-fid.
(Species 1-9.)

(18) E. acuta

(19) E. plana

(20) E. pollens

A MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS ELEOCHARIS IN AUSTRALIA. ' 97

1. E. fistiilosa (Poir.) Link in Spreng. Jahrb. iii. 78 (1820) ; C. B.
Clarke 111. Cyp. t. xxxv. fig. 1-4 (1908) ; Svenson in Rhodora xxxi. 152
(1929), not of F. MuelL, Benth., F. M. Bail., nor Domin. Scirpiis
jistulosus Poir. Encyc. vi. 749 (1804) not of Forsk. S. acutangidus and
8. medius Roxb. FI. Ind. i. 216 (1820). E. acutangula (Roxb.) Schult.
Mant. ii. 91 (1824). Limnochloa acutangula (Roxb.) Nees and E.
media (Roxb.) Nees in Wight, Contrib. Bot. Ind. 114 (1834). L.
fistidosa (Poir.) Nees in Linnaea ix. 294 (1835). F. planiculmis Steud.
Cyp. 80 (1855).

Stolons ca. 2 mm. diam. Cnlms tufted, erect, 3-6 dm. high, acutely
triquetrous, somewhat spongy and finely reticulate, not septate, 3-4 mm.
wide. Sheaths very thin, orifice oblique, marcescent. Spikelets cylin-
drical, acute, rather pallid, 20-35 mm. long, 3-4 mm. diam. ; glumes
dense, closely appressed, ovate or oblong-ovate, obtuse, 1-nerved and
closely many-striate, rather densely glandular-spotted within, margins
narrowly hyaline and Lz erose, 4*25-4-5 mm. long ; style 2-3-fid ; stamens
2-3, anthers linear, ca. 1-5 mm. long, shortly apiculate. Nut obovate,
turgidly biconvex, the margins scarcely ribbed, 1*5-1 -7 mm. long, 1*4 mm.
broad, constricted below the apex into a neck f as wide, the expanded
apex ^ as wide ; sides glistening straw-coloured, the external cells trans-
versely linear-oblong in ca. 15 vertical rows, the pitting very shallow ;
style-base triangular-ovate, flat, dark brown, ca. J as long as nut ; bristles
6-7, pale brown, rather stout, mostly smooth in the lower part, weakly
barbellate above, one very short, the others subequal, usually as long
as the nut together with style-base. — Plate VII., figs. 1-3.

Queensland. — Cook District : Cairns, in water in wet forest country
ca. sea-level, June, 1935, Blake 9371.

And in Tropical Asia, Africa, South America, and the West Indies.

All previous references to the occurrence of this species in Australia
belong to E. philippinensis.

2. E. spiralis {Botth.) R & 8. Syst. ii. 155 (1817) ; C. B. Clarke
111. Cyp. t. xxxv. figs. 5-7 (1908) ; Svenson, Rhodora, xxxi. 135 (1929).
8cirpus spiralis Rottb. Desc. & Ic. 45, t. xv. fig. 1 (1773). Limnochloa
spiralis (Rottb.) Nees in Wight Contrib. Bot. Ind. 114 (1834). F.
compacta R. Br. Prodr. 224 (1810) ; F. MuelL Fragm. viii. 239 (1874) ;
Domin in Bibl. Bot. xx. Heft 85, 446 (1915) in part. 8. compactus
(R.Br.) Spreng. Syst. i. 202 (1825). F. variegata Benth. FI. Austr. vii.
293 (1878) partly; F. M. Bail. Syn. Queensl. FI. 594 (1883); CataL
Plants Queensl. 52 (1890) ; Queensl. FI. vi. 1754 (1902) partly; Ewart
& Davies FI. North. Territ. 57 (1917) partly.

Stolons, soft, 3-4 mm. diam. with rather distant short ovate mem-
branous scales. Culms rather densely tufted, erect, 3-5 dm. high, 2-3*5
mm. wide, obtusely trigonous, or acutely triquetrous under the spikelet
when dry and in that state somewhat rugose, not septate, rather shining.
Sheaths firm, pallid or green or with purplish apices, orifice oblique,
firm, with a fine setaceous point up to 4 mm. long. Spikelet cylindrical,
subacute in flower, very obtuse in fruit, l*5-3*5 cm. long, 4-6 mm. wide ;
glumes densely packed, shortly and broadly cuneate and scarcely
narrowed at the subtruncate apex, pallid, somewhat coriaceous and
faintly many-striate with a rather prominent mid- vein and usually a
narrow brown zone within the broad hyaline margin, finally somewhat
incurved, 3*3- 3*8 mm. long; style 3-fid; stamens 3, anthers linear, yellow,
and with the 0*2 mm. long triangular or ovate reddish appendage 2*2-2*3

98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

mm. long*. Nut broadly elliptic or somewhat obovate, margins not
costate, sides glassy, pale straw-coloured, not pitted, external cells trans-
versely linear in about 20 vertical rows, 1-5-1-7 mm. long, 1-2-14 mm.
wide, the apical annulus indistinct; style base somewhat triangular,
stout, almost confluent over shoulders of nut and about ^ as long and i
as wide; bristles 5-6, very slender, usually about as long as nut, some-
times shorter or longer, white to pale brown with small weak antrorse
and[ extrorse teeth, or some nearly smooth. — Plate VII., figs. 4-6.

North Australia. — Arnhem Bay, Brown bOSl."*'

Queensland. — North Kennedy District: Rockingham Bay, edge of
waterhole, March, 1868, Dallachy (M., S.). Port Curtis district: Glad-
stone, brackish marshy ground at sea-level, March, 1937, Blake 12790.

Also in Malaya, Ceylon, Southern India, Mauritius, and Madagascar
(probably introduced into the latter island).

The description of E. variegata given by Bentham and Bailey refers
partly to the present species, partly to the plants cited which are E. plana
(No. 19 below).

3. E. philippinensis Svenson Rhodora xxxi. 155 (1929). E. fistulosa
F. Muell. Fragm. vi. 93 (1867) ; First Census 125 (1882) ; Sec. Census
211 (1889) ; Boeek. in Linnaea, xxxvi. 472 (1869-70) ; Benth. FI. Austr.
vii. 293 (1878) ; F. M. Bail. Syn. Queensl. FI. 594 (1883) ; Catal. Plants
Queensl. 52 (1890) ; Queensl. FI. vi. 1754 (1902) ; Compreh. Catal. 591
fig. 574 (1913) ; Domin Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85, 445 (1915) not of
(Poir.) Link. E. variegaia W. V. Fitzgerald in Proc. Roy. Soc. West.
Austr. iii. 118 (1918) not of Kunth. E. variegata var. laaciflora Merrill,
Enum. Phil. PI. 121 (1922) not of C. B. Clarke.

Stolons 1-1-5 mm. diam. ; culms tufted, more or less erect but usually
very lax, up to 10 dm. long (usually 3-5 dm.) and up to 3 mm. wide,
acutely and unequally 4-5-angled, not septate ; sheaths thin, rather lax,
deep purple, marcescent. Spikelet linear acute, up to 6 cm. long and
3 mm. wide; glumes usually green, rather remote, ovate-elliptic or
obovate-elliptic, obtuse but when dry convolute upwards and subsquar-
rose, herbaceous, rather prominently keeled and strongly striate, more or
lessi distinctly brown-zonate within the narrowly hyaline margins, 4-1-4-8
mm. long; style 2-3-fid; stamens 3, anthers linear obtuse, 1-4-1 -6 mm.
long. Nut obovate, somewhat clavate, slightly narrowed into a distinct
neck below the apex, strongly biconvex, the margins indistinctly ribbed,
the sides dark brown, deeply pitted with the hexagonal external cells in
15-20 regular vertical, series, 1-5-1-7 mm. long, 1-5-1-6 mm. wide ; style-
base flattened, deltoid, about | as long and |-| as wide as nut, the annulus
prominent outwardly curved upwards; bristles 6-7, the inner series
somewhat the longer from less than ^ the nut to as long as nut together
with style base, usually firmly toothed. Plate VII., figs. 7-10.

Western Australia. — Kimberley Division: Isdell River near Mount
Barnett Homestead, June, 1905, Fitzgerald 1038 (ex P.).

Queensland. — Cook District: Mareeba, edge of lagoon ca. 1,400 ft.,
March, 1938, Blake 13410 ; Cairns, in Melaleuca swamp ca. sea-level,
June, 1935, Blake 9361. Port Curtis District : Rockhampton, common
in wet places, November, 1867, O’Shanesy 46 (M.) ; wet places in railway

* I have not seen these specimens, the type of E. compacta B. Br., but
Br. Svenson has sent me sketches and notes on the specimens at Kew and at the
British Museum.

A MONOGRAPH OP THE GENUS ELEOCHxYRIS IN AUSTRxYLIA.

99>

enclosure ca. 25 ft., March, 1935, Blake 7820; Gracemere, in wet places,
April, 1874, O’Shamsy 1821 (M.) ; Herbert Creek, Bowman in 1870
(M.). Wide Bay District: Near Bundaberg, near water, April, 1936,
Blake 11271. Moreton District: Near Buderim Mt. on marshy ground
in water, Feb., 1934, Blake 5226, 5227 ; Durundur, round lagoon, Nov.„
1843, Leichhardt (M.) ; Petrie, near Brisbane, on muddy edge of water-
hole in open forest, April, 1932, Blake 1220; Lawnton, near Brisbane,
in dried-out swamp, March, 1932, Blake 1146 ; near The Blunder, near
Brisbane, in ditch by the roadside, May, 1932, Blake and Greenham in.
Herh. Blake 1270; near Brisbane in swamp, Feb., 1875, Bailey ; Brisbane,.
Dietrich 564 (M.) ; Bailey 21, 95 (M.) ; on mud near Bulimba Creek,
June, 1933, Blake 4863; damp places at bottom of railway embankment,,
May, 1932, Blake 1296, and in Nov., 1932, Blake 1421 ; on dry mud in
railway drain. May, 1937, Blake 12968 ; Pimpama, alongside road in
shallow waterholel and around margin, Jan., 1933, Crihh. Darling Downs
District : Palardo, between Miles and Roma, in fresh-water swamp, ca.
1,100 ft., Feb., 1935, Blake 7616.

Also in the Philippine Islands, whence it was originally described.

This species is readily distinguished from all other Australasian
species by its soft, acutely and unequally 4-angled culms, the broadest
side of which sometimes bears an incipient fifth angle. The nut
approaches that of E. nuda but is less attenuate below, is more deeply
pitted, the annulus is much less curved, and the hypogynous bristles
are invariably present . The latter are usually well-developed, but when
short they are often nearly smooth. A complete gradation is to be seen
within some of the collections cited above. Occasionally the external cells
show a tendency to lengthen transversely, but not to such an extent as
to alter the typical character of the nut. Blake 9361 consists of small,
exceptionally slender plants resembling at first sight those of E. nuda^
among which they were growing.

It differs from E. fisiidosa, with which it has been freely confused,,
by the more slender differently shaped culms, the spreading, upwardly
inrolled glumes, and the hexagonal external cells.

4. E. difformis 8. T. Blake sp. nov. aff. E. laxiflorae (Thw.) II..
Pfeiff, sed culmis tenuissimis hand rigidis, nucisi minoris cellulis extimis
oblongis differt.

Rhizoma tenuissimum repens ; culmi caespitosi, virides, hand sep~
tati, saepe filiformes (steriles), sed fertiles usque ad 0-7 mm. diam.,
subteretes, levissime 4-goni, nunc patentes vel erecti usque ad 30 cm.,
longi, nunc laxi in aqua submersi partim natantes, usque ad 100 cm.
longi; vaginae tenuissime membranaceae, arctae, superior apice obliqua
vel lanceolata baud ampliata, scariosa vel marcescens. Spicula viridis,
erecta, linearis vel linearo-lanceolata, acuta, 5-12 mm. longa, 1-3-1-5
mm. lata, paucifiora; glumae appressae, obovato-oblongae, obtusae, 4-5
mm. longae, 2-2-2 mm. latae, .ecarinatae, dorso virides, 1-nerves sed
tenuiter pluristriatae, marginibus late hyalinae ; stylus trifidus ; stamina
3,' antherae lineares minute apiculatae, 1-5 mm. longae. Nux pallida,,
obovata, turgide sed inaequaliter biconvexa, bicostata, 1-3-1 -5 mm. longa,
0-8-1-0 mm. lata, apice |— f angustior sub annulo toroso recto vel fere
recto vix constricta, verticaliter striata, cellulis extimis transversim
oblongis 15-20-seriatim verticaliter vix recte dispositis; .stylobasis
triangularis applanata sessilis (i.e. f-J nucis lata), nucis longa ; setae

100 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

hypogynae 5-6 basibus vix vel baud connatae, firmae, pallidae vel brun-
nescens, retrorsim firmule dentatae, inaequales sed plurimae nucem cum
stylobasi adaequantes vel superantes. Plate VII., figs. 11-15.

Queensland. — Moreton District : Stradbroke Island, in Lake

Karboorab, submerged to 2 ft., or on marsby ground at tbe brink, alt.
120 ft., Jan., 1938, Blake 13203. (TYPE in B.)

Readily distinguished by its habit, its exceedingly slender culms, the
very tumid bicostate nut not constricted below the apex, and the trans-
versely oblong prominent external cells in slightly irregular vertical
rows. A large number of the culms are sterile, and these are even more
slender than the fertile. There is a greater diversity in the terrestrial
individuals than in the aquatic ones in this respect.

5. E. Brassii S. T. Blake Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensl. xlix. 154 (1938).

Tufted, stoloniferous, the stolons ca. 1-5 mm. diam. Culms erect
or suberect, 40-50 cm. high, rigid, subterete, scarcely trigonous under
the spikelet, 3-5-4 mm. diam., dried specimens often flattened and up to
5 mm. wide, striate and more or less rugulose but not at all septate.
Upper leaf sheath membranous, purplish below, rather firm and oblique
at the orifice, shortly mucronate or acuminate. Spikelet 3-5 cm. long,
4-5 mm. wide, linear, acute, dense-flowered, spirally angular when dry ;
glumes ovate, obtuse, concave, rigid, many-striate, straw-coloured or
greenish but with a narrow brown zone within the narrowly hyaline
margins and the entire upper part brown-dotted, at least within, 4-8-5-2
mm. long; style 2-fid; stamens 3, anthers linear, minutely apiculate,
1-5-2-5 mm. long. Nut tawny to brown, shining, broadly obovate or
suborbicular, 1-8-2-3 mm. long, 1-6-2-1 mm. broad, equally and turgidly
biconvex, faintly ribbed on the margins, not at all or only slightly
constricted immediately below the apex, the sides striate or reticulate,
rather deeply pitted, the hexagonal external cells in about 20 vertical
rows on each face; style-base pallid to brownish, spongy, flattened,
triangular-ovate, f-f nut in length and f-| nut in width, the annulus
nearly straight ; hypogynous bristles 6-4, of which 4 are about as long
as the nut with firm retrorse teeth and 2 very slender, very small, or
absent. — Plate VII., figs. 16-19.

North Australia. — Baines Creek, in swamps, March, 1856, Mueller
(M.) ; Darwin, Holtze 412 (M.) ; Giles 62; without definite locality,
Tenison-Woods and Holtze in 1886 (M.) ; Tenison-Woods.

Queensland. — Cook District : On Wrotham Park, ca. 50 miles north-
west of Mungana, in swamps, April, 1938, Blake 13693 ; Forest Home
Station, Gilbert River, in swamps, April, 1931, Brass 1864 (Type).
North Kennedy District: Rockingham Bay, Dali achy (M.).

Mueller’s and Dallachy’s specimens were referred by Bentham
and the latter by Bailey to E. variegata Kunth. These, as are the other
North Australian specimens, are in young flower only. The original
description was based on Brass 1864, and it is only since then that I
have seen the plant growing. My specimens differ in minor points, and
the above description has been slightly modified accordingly. In these
specimens the nut is somewhat larger, rather darker in colour, the
style-base is also darker, relatively smaller, and less regular in outline.
The over-maturity of some of the material is responsible for most of
these differences.

A MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS ELEOCHARIS IN AUSTRALIA. 101

The species bears a superficial resemblance to E. spiralis due largely
to the spirally angular appearance of the spikelet, but in the shape of the
glumes and structure of the nut it is much closer to E. mida and E.
philippinensis. From these it differs in the complete or almost complete
absence of any constriction below the apex of the nut, the straight
annulus, and in the details of the style-base and the bristles. Of the
latter 4 are regularly present and well developed; the remaining 2,
when present, are very fine and small. The culms are very much stouter
than those of either species, and differ also from the latter in their shape.

6. E. nuda C. B. Clarke in Kew Bull. Add. Ser. viii. 21 (1908) ; 111.
Cyp. t. XXXV. figs. 9-11 (1909) ; Domin in Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85,
446 (1915) ; Maiden & Betche Gens. N. S. Wales PL 28 (1916) ; Svenson
in Rhodora xxxi. 162 (1929). E. aUicha F. Muell. Fragm. viii. 252
(1874) ; Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 295 (1878) excluding the citation of
Brown’s plants; F. M. Bail. Syn. Queensl. FI. 594 (1883) ; Catal. PL
Queensl. 52 (1890) ; Queensl. FI. vi. 1756 (1902) chiefly, Compreh.
Catal. 594 (1913) chiefly, not of R. Br.

Stoloniferous, stolons very slender. Culms tufted, erect or nearly
so, up to 3 dm. long, terete or trigonous, longitudinally striate, not
septate, not exceeding 2 mm. diam. ; sheaths very thin, purplish, striate,
orifice of uppermost firm, very oblique. Spikelet greenish, linear-
cylindric, acute, 15-30 mm. long, slightly wider than the culm; glumes
rather remote, appressed, ovate-elliptic, rounded at apex, 3-3-5 mm. long,
herbaceous and finely striate on the back with, one prominent nerve but
not keeled and sometimes finely glandular dotted inside, margins broadly
hyaline usually with an intramarginal brown zone; style 2-fid; stamens
2, anthers linear, acute, 0 -7-0-9 mm. long. Nut broadly obovate-pyriform
constricted into a distinct neck below the apex, biconvex, prominently
ribbed on the margins, sides glistening brown, shallowly pitted, the
external cells rounded-hexagonal in about 12-15 vertical rows, 1-2-1 -3
mm. long, 1-1-1 mm. wide ; style-base shortly ovate-triangular to nearly
truncate, J-f as long and about f as wide as nut, the prominent annulus
strongly concave upwards ; bristles usually deciduous from the maturing
nut, but apparently always present in the flower, and then usually 3-4,
irregular, very slender, weakly barbellate, usually small. — Plate VII.,
figs. 20-22.

Queensland. — Cook District : Mareeba, in somewhat open swampy
places in dwarf Melaleuca forest ca. 1,400 ft., March, 1938, Blake 13431 ;
Cairns, in Melaleuca swamp about sea-level, June, 1935, Blake 9360.
Burke District : Carron Creek between Gilbert and Norman Rivers
Gulliver 10 and 17 (M. Co-type).

New South Wales. — Northern Tablelands : Timbarra, Stuart

(M., S.).

Allied to E. pMUppinensis, differing in the more rigid differently
shaped culms, the relatively broader appressed glumes, the distinctly
pyriform nut with shallower pitting, the strongly upcurved annulus,
and the caducous bristles. The New South Wales locality, if genuine
and not due to a mixture of labels, presents a peculiar problem in
geographical and climatic distribution. The material in Herb. Sydney
consists of the basal parts of two culms and a packet of mature nuts
bearing the words “H. atricha N. Eng.” in Mueller’s writing. The
label carries the note ‘‘One unripe spike on original.”

102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

7. E. sphacelata B. Br. Prodr. 224 (1810) ; Hook. f. PL Tas. ii. 85
(1860), PL Nov. Zel. 300 (1864) ; P. Muell. Pirst Census 125 (1882)
and Sec. Census 211 (1889) partly; Boeck. in Plora Iviii. 108 (1875) ;
Benth. PL Austr. vii. 292 (1878) partly; P. M. Bail. Syn. Queensl. PL
593 (1883) partly, Catal. Plants Queensl. 52 (1890) partly, Queensl.
PL vi. 1754 (1902) partly, Weeds & Pois. PI. Queensl. 214 (1906)
partly, Compreh. Catal. 591 (1913) partly; J. H. Maiden Useful PL
Austr. 35 (1889) partly; Maiden & Betche Census N. S. Wales PL 28
(1916) ; Tate Handb. PL Extratr. S. Austr. 183, 264 (1890) ; Moore
Handb. PL N. S. Wales 450 (1893) ; Turner in Proc. Linn. Soe. N. S.
Wales xxviii. 306 (1903), xxx. 84 (1904) ; Cheesem. Man. N. Zeal. PL
767 (1906) ; Domin Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85, 445 (1915) ; Ewart &
Davies PL North. Territ. 57 (1917) ; Cleland & Black, Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Austr. li. 29 (1927) ; Ewart PL Viet. 223 (1930) ; Black PL S. Austr.
91 (1922) ; Svenson in Rhodora xxxi. 160 (1929). Scirpus sphacelatus
(R. Br.) Poir. Encycl. Suppl. 102 (1817).

Rhizome stout, woody, 5-6 mm. diam. ; culms in a close linear series,
erect, up to 2 m. high, terete, 4-12 mm. diam., transversely septate and
with a tumid ring close under the spikelet; sheaths very thin, oblique
at the orifice. Spikelet cylindric acute, 3-5 cm. long, 8-9 mm. wide ;
glumes numerous, densely packed, elliptic or oblong-ovate, obtuse, mostly
8-8-5 mm. long (rarely up to 9 mm.), firm, streaked, dotted, or stained
with brown, finely striate with a fairly prominent midrib, margins
narrowly hyaline with an internal brown zone ; style 3-fid, fimbriate in
the upper part below the trifurcation; stamens 3, anthers linear apicu-
late, 3*5-4 mm. long including the acute 0-1-0-15 mm. long appendage.
Nut light yellowish to tawny or pale brown, broadly obovate to orbicular,
very turgidly biconvex with a definite furrow on the anticous face,
margins somewhat costulate, 2-2-2-5 mm. long, 1-8-2-2 mm. wide, sides
finely reticulate, the external cells irregularly hexagonal, often elongated
vertically, without any definite vertical or horizontal arrangement;
style-base flat, the base thickened, about | as wide as nut and sometimes
slightly wider than its apex, triangular, more or less acuminate, from
-J to as long as nut, the long style usually persistent ; bristles 8-10, not
quite regular, at least as long as the top of style-base, sparsely toothed,
strongly united at the base above the prominent receptacle. — Plate VIII.,
figs. 1-5.

North Australia. — Daly River Settlement, Mair 70.

Queensland. — Port Curtis District : Rockhampton, Dietrich 561
<(M.) : common in every lagoon, Nov., 1867, O’Shamsy 52 ser. 7 (M.).
Wide Bay District: Bundaberg, Keys 350. Moreton District: Wilson’s
Lagoon, March, 1844, Leichhardt (M.) ; Nudgee Waterhole, near Bris-
bane, on mud or in water, March, 1933, Blake 4618 ; Pimpama, in creek,
Jan., 1933, Crihh. Darling Downs District: Chinchilla, in water a foot
deep in lagoon periodically flooded, April, 1934, Beasley 237 ; Wyberba,
near Wallangarra, on creek bank in mud, 2,500-3,000 ft., Jan., 1933,
Blake 4618.

New South Wales. — Northern Tablelands: Timbarra, Stuart (M.).
North Coast: Clarence River District, in 1875, Wilcox (M.) ; Gloucester
Buckets, Sept., 1897, Maiden (S.). Central Tablelands: Blackheath,
Jan., 1905, Maiden (S.) ; Mittagong, Travers (M.) ; Mossvale, Dec., 1920,
comm. Town Clerk (S.) ; Jenolan Caves, April, 1900, Blakely (S.).
Central Coast: The Clyde, Nov., 1884, B'duerlen 80 (S.M.) ; Kangaroo

A MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS ELEOC HARIS IN AUSTRALIA. 103

River, National Park, Sept., 1893, Betche (S.) ; Camden, Atkinson (M.),
Jephcott in 1883, (M.). South Coast: Near Milton, Bduerlen in 1883
(S.M.).

Victoria. — Wimmera: Wimmera River, Shire of Dimboola, Nov.^
1893, Reader (M.). Western District: River Wannon, Dec., 1873,
Sullivan 28 (M.) ; Hawkesdale, Dec., 1901, Williamson (B., S., M.) ;
Mount Emu Creek, Whan (M.) ; Australia felix, Mueller (M.). Central
District: Ballarat, Spence in 1882 (M.). North-east District: Beriambra
Creek, morass on alluvium overlying porphyry, FI. Australian Alps 97a^
(M.).

South Australia. — Flinders Range: Wilpena (T.) ; Wilpena Creek,
Nov., 1928, Cleland (CL). Southern Districts: Barossa, in water, Jan.,
1849, Mueller (M.) ; Reedbeds, Nov., 1879, (T.) ; Upper Willow Creek,
Waitpinga, Jan., 1933, Cleland (Cl.) ; Myponga, Jan., 1909, Griffith
(Bl.) ; Kangaroo Island — Cygnet River, (T), Feb., 1926, Cleland (CL),
Rocky River and between Vivonne Bay and Rocby River, Nov., 1924,
Cleland (CL).

Tasmania. — South Esk River, Stuart 556 (M.) ; Oakden in 1887
(M.) ; Swanport, Story (M.) ; Elizabeth River, Dec., 1892, (S., no
collector’s name) ; (locality illegible) Archer 56 (S.) ; without definite
locality. Rodway (S.).

New Zealand. — North Island, Auckland Province : Tauroa, in
swamp, Jan., 1913, Carse.

Apparently restricted to Australia and New Zealand, and readily
distinguished by its stout horizontal rhizome and its large size. The
strongly fimbriate margins of the upper part of the style, reminiscent
of so many species of Fvmhristylis, is also noteworthy. So far as my
observations go, it never produces tubers, and all the Australian refer-
ences to tuber-producing plants belong to the next species. Svenson
refers to E. sphacelata E. esculent a Vieillard from New Caledonia, but
as it bears tubers it is probably E. didcis also.

8. E. dulcis {Burm. /.) Trin. ex Henschel, Vita Rumph. 186 (1883) ;
Svenson in Rhodora xxxi. 158 (1929). Andropogon dulce Burm. f. FL
Ind. 219 (1768). Hippuris indica Lour. FL Cochinch. 16 (1790).
Scirpus plant aginoides Rottb. Desc. et Ic. 45, t. xv. fig. 2 (1773). F.
plantaginoidea (Rottb.) W. F. Wight, Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. ix. 267
(1905) not E. plant aginoides (Rottb.) Domin. S. plant agineus Retz.
Obs. 14 (1789). E. plantaginea (Retz.) R. & S, ^Syst. ii. 150 (1817);
C. B. Clarke 111. Cyp. t. xxxiii. figs. 1-5 (1908). S. tuberosus Roxb.
FL Ind. i. 213 and S. tumidus Roxb. loc. cit. 215 (1820). E. tuberosa
(Roxb.) R. & S. Mant. ii. 86 (1824) ; Domin Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85,
445 (1915). E. tumida (Roxb.) R. & S. loc. cit. E. esculenta Vieillard,
Ann. Sci. Nat. ser. 4 xvi. 37 (1862). E. sphacelata F. Muell. Fragm.
viii. 238 (1874) partly, xii. 25 (1882) ; Benth. FL Austr. vii. 292 (1878)
partly; F. M. Bail. Syn. Queensl. FL 593 (1883) partly, Catal. PL
Queensl. 52 (1890) partly, Queensl. FL vi. 1754 (1902) partly. Weeds
and Pois. PL Queensl. 214 (1906) partly, Compreh. Catal. 591 (1913)
partly, not of R. Br.

Stolons rather slender, sometimes bearing zonate tubers about 7 mm.
diam. or more. Culms tufted, erect, up to ca. 1 m. high, cylindrical in
the living state, usually quite flat when dry and in that state mostly
3-8 mm. wide, transversely septate, finally longitudinally striate; leaf-
sheaths very thin, oblique at orifice. Spikelet cylindrical, rather obtuse,

104 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

25-50 mm. long, usually somewhat wider than the culm, or occasionally
narrower if the latter be very wide, pallid; glumes numerous, rather
dense, oblong to oblong-obovate, finely closely striate on the broad back
with a more distinct midvein, sometimes spotted with brown, with a
narrow hyaline margin and a faint brown zone within it in the upper
part, mostly 6-6*5 mm. long and about i as wide; style 3-fid, glabrous
and smooth or nearly so in the upper part; stamens 3, anthers linear,
2*5-3 mm. long, the 0*2 mm. long apex acute. Nut tawny to greyish
brown, shining, obovate-orbicular, truncate at the apex, biconvex, the
margins not costate, 1*5-2 mm. long, 1*2-1*8 mm. wide, the sides smooth
or minutely reticulate, the anticous usually with a shallow longitudinal
furrow, the external cells very small, vertically irregularly hexagonal
or oblong-hexagonal though nearly quadrate at the base, in no regular
series; style-base sessile, flat, triangular, about f as wide and J as long
as nut, the remainder of style often persistent ; bristles 6-8, about twice
as long as nut, rather stout, retrorsely barbellate, flattened towards the
base and there strongly united, the external series a little lower down
than the others, the receptacle stout and prominent. — Plate VIII., figs.
6-9.

North Australia. — Darwin, in swamps, Faelsche in 1882 (M.).

Queensland. — Cook District : Cape York Peninsula, Thomson 20 ;
Embley, May, 1901, Both 397 ; Cairns, in swamp about sea-level, July,
1935, Blake 9663. Burke District: Burketown, edge of lagoons, June,
1935, Blake 9232. North Kennedy District; Cromarty, near Townsville,
dominant in wettest places in open swamps, alt. 7 ft., March, 1935, Blake
8296. Port Curtis District; 80 miles north of Rockhampton, April, 1917,
Berney ; Rockhampton, lagoon, TJiozet 6, 457, 811 (M.). Wide Bay
District : Near Bundaberg in brackish swamp, April, 1936, Blake 11315.
Moreton District; Petrie, near Brisbane, in small quiet stream. May,
1933, Blake 4781. Without precise locality; North Queensland, Both
213, Pollock.

Extends through Malaya and south-eastern Asia to Madagascar, to
Fiji, and is apparently in New Caledonia.

V ery variable in stature and width of culms ; occasionally specimens
are to be found with culms up to 10 mm. diam., wdiile several of the
plants from Petrie bear barren culms not exceeding 1 mm. in width.
The external cells of the nut also vary somewhat in shape and arrange-
ment. Most Australian authors have confused the species with E.
■spliacela^ta, to which it is certainly very closely allied, but it never pro-
duces the characteristic stout horizontal rhizome of that species, the
culms are usually more slender, the glumes and nuts are smaller, while
the upper part of the style is never so prominently fimbriate and is
nearly always quite smooth or entire at the margins. The tubers are
not always present, though it seems probable that all plants would
produce them under suitable conditions. As noted above these tubers are
'edible, and Roxburgh describes their cultivation by the Chinese. In
Queensland it is stated that pigs thrive on them. The species is also
an important member of the unusual but rich swampy pastures in the
neighbourhood of Rockhampton.

9. E. equisetina Presl. Rel. Haenk i. 195 (1828) ; Svenson in
Rhodora xxxi. 161 (1929) ; E. plantaginea F. Muell. Fragm. viii. 238
(1874) not of R. & S. ; E. sphacelata Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 292 (1878)
and F. M. Bail. Queensl. FI. vi. 1754 (1902) as to Bailey’s specimens

A MONOGRAPH OP THE GENUS ELEOCHARIS IN AUSTRALIA. 105

only; not to K. Br. E. plant aginoides (Rottb.) Domin Biblioth. Bot. xx.
Heft 85, 445 (1915), not Scirpus plant aginoides Rottb. {E. plant aginoidea
W. F. Wight).

Stolons slender, sometimes hardening into rhizomes. Culms tufted,
erect, rather rigid and somewhat shining, terete, usually not much
compressed when dry, transversely septate and longitudinally striate,
up to 10 dm. high, 1-3 mm. diam. ; sheaths brownish or purplish, the
uppermost firm and oblique at the orifice, rather lax. Spikelet cylin-
drical, rather acute, 2-4 cm. long, slightly wider than culm, pallid ;
glumes rather dense, appressed but somewhat incurved from the mid-
vein when dry, broadly elliptic or somewhat obovate, very obtuse, 4*2-5
mm. long and about | as wide, very rigid, pallid, very finely striate
with a green mid-vein, margin very narrowly hyaline with a very narrow
internal brown zone ; style 3-fid, glabrous ; stamens 3, anthers linear
with a 0-3-0-4 mm. long setaceous appendage, and including it ca. 2*5
mm. long. Nut golden brown to light chestnut, rather turgidly biconvex
with rather prominent acutely costate margins, 1-8-2-1 mm. long, 1-3-1-4
mm. wide, rounded or subtruncate at the apex, the annulus not promi-
nent, the sides vertically finely and closely striate and pitted between
the striations from the small hexagonal to squarish external cells
arranged in numerous vertical series, the anticous side sometimes fur-
rowed ; style-base triangular, flattened, brown, closely sessile, about
■J as long and |-f as wide as nut, remainder of style usually persistent ;
hypogynous bristles 6-7, quite free at the base, rather slender, closely but
shortly retrorsely barbellate, from about as long to twice as long as
the nut, receptacle not prominent. — Plate VIII., flgs. 10-13.

Queensland. — Cook District : Cairns, in water in wet forest country
about sea-level, June, 1935, Blake 9372 ; Yarrabah, near Cairns, in swamp
forest about sea-level, June, 1935, Blake 9647 ; Lake Barrine, near
Yungaburra, ca. 2,500 ft., June, 1935, Blake 9581. Moreton District:
Coolum, in swampy creek, April, 1938, Blake 13762; Palmwoods, in
Bhynchospora swamp in cleared Eucalyptus forest country, soil a red-
dish brown loam, ca. 150 ft.. May, 1930, Huhhard 2815 ; Brisbane River,
Bailey 15, 50 (M.) ; New Farm road (Brisbane), in swamp, Feb., 1875,
Bcdley ; Ekibin Creek (Brisbane), Feb., 1913, White; edge of Rocklea
Creek (Brisbane), on mud or in water, forming fairly large stands.
May, 1932, Blake and Greenham in Herh. Blake 1303 ; Indooroopilly,
Brisbane, in waterhole, March 1932, Blake and Everist in Herh. Blake
1167 ; Kalinga Park, Brisbane, in swamp, March, 1932, Blake 1101, and
at edge of waterhole, Dec., 1932, Blake 1440 ; between Nudgee and
Virginia (Brisbane), on muddy creek bank or more frequently in water,
Nov., 1932, Blake 1419 ; Gold Creek Reservoir, near Brisbane, in wet
boggy places, 300 ft., April, 1937, Blake 12930.

New South Wales. — North Coast: Byron Bay, April, 1896, Betche
(S.) ; Wyong River, in brackish water, Dec., 1893, Betche (S.) ; Wyong,
April, 1899, Hamilton (S.).

The species also occurs in New Caledonia, Malaya, Ceylon, and
Madagascar.

Bailey’s specimens were referred by Bentham and later by Bailey
to E. sphacelata, and by Mueller and Domin to E. plantaginea {E.
plantaginoides) . The specimens in Herb. Sydney have been referred by
Kukenthal to E. spliacelata.

106 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

Though closely allied to both E. sphacelata and E. dulcis, E. equise-
tina is readily enough distinguished from both by the harder, often
shining culms usually less flattened in herbarium specimens, the broader,
shorter, more or less shining glumes somewhat incurved when dry, the
long-apiculate anthers, the golden brown to light chestnut nut with
acutely costulate margins and the sides finely vertically striate and
seriate-pitted from the more evenly arranged, more regular external
cells, and by the weaker usually much shorter bristles which are quite
free from one another at the base. The only definite rhizomes I have
seen are in my 9647 ; these are about 3 mm. diam., descending or curved,
on which are borne tufts of culms, quite different from the closely linear
series characteristic of E. sphacelata. In my 9372 the external cells of
the nut show a tendency to become shortly vertically oblong, but they
are otherwise very regular.

Series Aciculares. — Nuts obscurely trigonous or terete, elongated,
longitudinally ribbed and transversely closely trabeculate ; style 3-fid ;
lowest glume fertile. Species 10-11.

10. E. pusilla B. Br. Prodr. 225 (1810) ; Benth. PL Austr. vii. 297
(1878) ; Tate Handb. FI. Extratr. S. Austr. 264 (1890) ; Domin Biblioth.
Bot. XX. Heft 85, 447 (1915) ; Maiden & Betehe Census PL N. S. Wales
29 (1916). Scirpm pusillus (K-. Br.) Poir. Encycl. SuppL v. 103 (1817).
8. pumilio Spreng. Syst. i. 204 (1825). E. acicularisE. Muell. Pragm.
viii. 240 (1874); First Census 125 (1882), Sec. Census 211 (1888);
Benth. PL Austr. vii. 297 (1878); Moore Handb. PL N. S. Wales 451
(1893) ; Cheeseman Man. PL N. Zeal. 768 (1906) ; Black PL S. Austr.
92 (1922) ; Ewart PL Viet. 223 (1930) ; not of R. & S. E. acicularis
var. elongata Benth. Pi. Austr. vii. 297 (1878). E. striatiila C. B.
Clarke ex Domin loc. cit. not of Desv.

Rhizome slender or capillary, more or less hardened ; culms tufted,
more or less erect or somewhat arcuate, up to 25 cm. but usually 2-15
cm. long, capillary or rarely up to 0-5 mm. wide, somewhat thickened
at base ; sheaths loose, scarious, and often rigidly so, more or less inflated
below the oblique orifice. Spikelet ovate to lanceolate, acute, 2-7 mm.
long, 1-5-1-7 mm. wide; glumes ovate to obovate, obtuse or subobtuse,
membranous, narrowly keeled, sides pallid or stained deep brown, 1-7-2-2
mm. long ; style 3-fid ; stamens 3, anthers linear obtuse, minutely apicu-
late, mostly 1-1-2 mm. long. Nut pale straw-coloured, rather glistening,
narrowly obovoid, 0-7-1-1 mm. long, 0-45-0-55 mm. wide, obscurely
trigonous, each face with 3-4 vertical ribs and finely trabeculate between
them, the external cells transversely narrow-linear ; style base very small,
depressed ovoid, constricted at base to sometimes as much as | its
breadth, as wide as nut, and mostly as long ; bristles few, very
slender, small or absent. — Plate VIII., figs. 14-19.

Queensland. — ^Warrego District: Charleville, on wet mud in Euca-
lyptus parkland at 950 ft., April, 1936, Blake 11041. Maranoa District -.
Roma, depressions in Eucalyptus forest on mud, ca. 1,000 ft., March,
1936, Blake 10892. Darling Downs District: Jondaryan, damp depres-
sions in grassland on dark grey clay, 1,250 ft., Feb., 1935, Blake 7756.
Moreton District: Gatton Agricultural College (Dawes, near Gatton),
dried-out depressions in grassland, deep black soil, forming small mats,
September, 1933, Blake 4943.

New South Wales. — Northern Tablelands : Glen Innes, Jan., 1914,
Rupp (S.). Rosehill, Guyra, Jan., 1932, McKie 223 (S.) ; Armidale,
October, 1875, Perrott (M.). Western Plains; Euabalong, May, 1906,

A MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS ELEOCHARIS IN AUSTRALIA. 107

Boorman (S.); Lachlan River, Sept., 1878, Mueller (M.) ; Edwards
River, October, 1875, Mueller (M.). Central Coast: Hawkesbury Agri-
cultural College, Nov., 1906, coll. ? (S.). Southern Tablelands: Near
Tharwa, Federal Capital Territory, in open swampy ground ca. 2,000 ft.,
Feb., 1935, Blake 7358.

Victoria. — Wimmera: Near Dimboola, in swamps, Dec., 1893,
Reader 9 (M.) ; Lowan, in swamps, Dec., 1892, Reader (M., B.) ; and
without definite locality. Reader in 1895, (M.). Western District:
Hawkesdale, Feb., 1904, Williamson (M.) ; Mount Emu Creek, Nov.,
1853, Mueller (M.). Central District: Bacchus Marsh, around ponds,
Jan., 1853, Mueller (M.).

South Australia. — Murray River, Jan., 1884, (T.) ; Griffith (BL).

Tasmania. — Perth, South Esk River, Stuart 234 (M.) ; and without
definite locality, Mueller (M.).

New Zealand. — North Island: Auckland Province: Lake Taupo,
water’s edge, April, 1924, Allison. Wellington Province: Himatangi,
near Foxton, damp hollow in sand-dunes, March, 1930, Zotov. South
Island: Canterbury Province: Lake Tekapo, water’s edge, Jan., 1936,
Allan.

Apparently confined to extra-tropical eastern Australia and New
Zealand.

The species is very variable in stature, and different collections are
often very unlike one another in general aspect. Perrott’s specimens
{E. acicularis var. elongata Benth., and identified with the South
American E. striatula Desv. i.e. E. bonariensis Nees, by Clarke), the
Richmond specimens, and Blake 7358, 7756, and 10892, possess tall soft
culms, but seem rather to be ecological states than distinct varieties.
The species was first identified by Svenson (Rhodora xxxi. 186) with
E. aciculans from the Northern Hemisphere, but he has latterly come
to the conclusion that it is quite distinct and is more closely related to
the South American species. The combined result of our observations
on the two species is that E. pusilla produces stouter rhizomes than does

E. acicularis, the culms are more or less distinctly thickened at the base,
often more rigid (though in this approaching E. acicularis var. occiden-
talis Svenson of the Western United States) , the glumes are more obtuse,
the nut is somewhat broader, and much more prominently ribbed.
Svenson considers the Australasian plant to be closest to E. costulata
Nees & Meyen from the South American Andes (Chile and Bolivia).
I have seen no specimens of this species, but from Svenson ^s description
and figure, the Australasian plant differs in that the anthers are much
larger and less prominently apiculate, the nut not at all greenish and
perhaps less distinctly trigonous, in the depressed style-base, and in the
glumes being of a rather different shape. The whole group is, however,
a very difficult one.

11. E. atricha R. Br. Prodr. 295 (1810) ; F. Muell. Fragm. ix. 100
(1875); First Census 125 (1882) and Sec. Census 211 (1889) partly;
Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 295 (1878) excl. descr. and as to the citation of
Brown’s specimens only; Moore Handb. FI. N. S. Wales 450 (1893) ;

F. M. Bail. Queens! FI. vi. 1756 (1902) as to the citation of the Wallan-
garra specimens only; Domin Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85, 447 (1915) ;
Maiden & Betche Census N. S. Wales PI. 29 (1916).

Stoloniferous ; stolons 0*7 mm. diam. bearing ovoid tunieated tubers
about 4 mm. long and 2-5 mm. diam. Culms tufted, oblique to erect or
recurved, angular-sulcate, 3-40 cm. long, 0-5-0-7 mm. wide; leaf-sheaths

108 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

membranous, oblique and somewhat scarious at apex. Spikelet lanceo-
late to linear, acute, chestnut brown, often proliferous, 10-20 mm. long,
2-3 mm. wide; glumes oblong or ovate-oblong, obtuse, membranous,
narrowly keeled, sides stained reddish-brown and streaked with numerous
linear red-brown glands, 3-5-5 mm. long; style 3-fid, very slender;
stamens 3, anthers linear, very shortly apiculate, 1- 7-2-1 mm. long. Nut
white to pallid straw-coloured, shining, narrowly obovate or oblong-
obovate, 1-3-1-5 mm. long, 0-65-0-7 mm. wide, constricted immediately
below apex to a short neck about as wide, trigonous, sides convex,
prominently vertically ribbed and transversely trabeculate, the external
cells transversely linear-oblong in 4-5 vertical rows on each face ; style-
base with a rather prominent annulus, pyramidal-deltoid or somewhat
depressed, the base as wide as f-f nut and as long as wide ; bristles
constantly absent. — Plate VIII., figs. 20-24.

Queensland. — Darling Downs District: Stanthorpe, Feb., 1913,
Sankey; March, 1935, Hale; Bald Mountain, near Wallangarra, near
water, Jan., 1933, Blake 4536. Moreton District : Brisbane Elver, Bailey
55 (M.) ; Kedron Brook, Nov., 1875, Bailey; Northgate, Brisbane, in
marshy ground, March, 1933, Blake 4714.

New South Wales. — ^Western Plains: Narrabri, October, 1914,
Boorman (S.). Northern Tablelands: Wallangarra, ‘^a fresh-water
plant growing . . . intermingled with other plants of a swampy

proclivity,’’ Jan., 1918, Boorman (S.). Southern Tablelands: Near
Tharwa, Federal Capital Territory, in open swampy ground ca. 2,000
ft, Feb., 1935, Blake 7537.

The type is E. Brown 5929 from Port Jackson (Herb. British
Museum), of which Dr. Svenson has sent me a sketch and notes. Like
most of the above-cited specimens it is immature. Indeed, Boorman’s
specimens from Wallangarra are the only ones in full fruit, though a
very few nuts are present on Blake 7537. The afQnities of the species
are doubtful and may not truly lie with the Aciculares, although the
nature and structure of the nut is very similar to that of typical members
of that series, except for the very prominent neck and annulus. These
recall certain members of the Mutatae. The lowermost glume is usually
barren, or at most bears a vegetative shoot in its axil. Sometimes the
entire spikelet is replaced by a vegetative shoot. These shoots along with
the characteristic tubers appear to be the normal means of reproduction,
and mature nuts are seldom formed.

Series Tenuissimae. Usually dwarf plants with tufted capillary
culms and often with distichous spikelets. Nuts small (0-4-1 mm.), more
or less distinctly 3-angled and in some species present at the culm-bases.
Style 3-fid. The Australian species (Nos. 12-13) belong to the sub-series
Leiocarpeae with the nuts smooth or very finely reticulate.

12. E. nigrescens (Nees) Steud. Syn. Cyp. 77 (1855). Scirpidiimi
nigrescent Nees in Mart. FI. Bras. ii^. 97 (1842).

Annual ; culms tufted, oblique to erect, angular-sulcate, up to 10 cm.
high and up to 0-7 mm. wide (mostly 0-3-0-5) ; sheaths thinly herbaceous,
appressed but slightly dilated at the oblique hyaline orifice, often marces-
cent. Spikelet ovoid or oblong-ovoid, obtuse or subobtuse, 2-2-5 mm.
long, 1-5-1-7 mm. wide, many-flowered; glumes closely spirally imbricate,
somewhat spreading in fruit, oblong-elliptic, obtuse or retuse, strongly
keeled, keel rather stout, green, curved in profile, disappearing below

A monograph op the genus ELEOCHARIS in AUSTRALIA.

109

apex, the sides hyaline or stained with brown, 0-9-1-1 mm. long; style
3-fid; stamen 1, anther linear obtuse, 0*4-0-5 mm. long. Nut tawny to
pale brown, shining, obovoid, truncate at the slightly narrowed apex,
triquetrous, prominently hut narrowly 3-ribbed, 045-0-55 mm. long
and 0-3 mm. wide, the sides convex, very finely reticulate or striate, the
external cells vertically oblong ; style base very short, depressed, |-f as
wide as nut and sometimes slightly wider than its apex, but only 0-04-
0-06 mm. high ; bristles 0. — Plate IX., figs. 1-4.

North Australia. — Without definite locality, Mueller (M.).

Queensland. — Cook District: Near Mareeba, in wet places in Euca-
lyptus forest on sandy soil, ca. 1,400 ft., March, 1938, Blake 13398.

South Australia. — Southern Districts: Cataracts on Mount Dofty,
Dec., 1850, Mueller (M.).

Chiefly found in Tropical Africa and Tropical America.

Dr. Svenson has identified this species for me and has sent me
specimens from Cuba (coll. Ekman) and from Madagascar {de la Bathie
17947) for comparison. There is no difference between the Australian
plants and those from these widely separated localities. The North
Australian specimens were found mixed with Fimbristylis sphaerocephala
Benth. under the latter genus, while the South Australian specimens
had been placed by Mueller under Scirpus (Isolepis). The only other
Australian species of Eleocharis which approaches it in appearance and
its minute nut is E. atropurpurea, which, however, is readily dis-
tinguished by the colour of the glumes and of the lenticular nut, the
2-fid style, &c.

13. E. caespitosissima Baker Journ. Linn. Soc. xxi. 450 (1855).
Scirpus isdellensis W. V. Fitzgerald Proc. Roy. Soc. W. Austr. iii. 123
(1918).

Culms tufted, flaccid, filiform, mostly 3-5 but up to 10 cm. long,
angular-striate, not exceeding 0*2 mm. wide ; sheaths membranous, pur-
plish at base, oblique and not dilated at orifice. Spikelet ovate, subacute
to obtuse, 1-5-2-5 mm. long, at length 1-3-1-5 mm. wide, 2-3-flrd. ;
glumes 4-5, lax, distichous or nearly so, 1-6-1-9 mm. long, ovate, apex
rounded or slightly emarginate, membranous, keeled, sides stained deep
brown particularly in the upper part ; style 3-fid ; stamens 2-3, anthers
linear obtuse, minutely apiculate, 1-8-1-9 mm. long. Nut pale straw-
coloured to brownish, narrowly obovoid-elliptic, apex rounded, 0-9 mm.
long, 0*5 mm. wide, trigonous and 3-ribbed with convex faintly striate
sides, the external cells minute, quadrate or shortly vertically oblong, in
regular vertical series; style-base pyramidal, brown, ca. 0-25 mm. high
and 0-3 mm. wide with a slightly prominent annulus; bristles 6, flat but
thin, retrorsely hispid, 3 about reaching the top of the style-I)ase, the
others somewhat shorter. — Plate IX., figs. 5-7.

Western Australia. — Kimberley Division: Isdell River, near Mount
Barnett Homestead, June, 1905, W. V. Fitzgerald 1043 (S., ex P).

And in Madagascar.

Dr. Svenson suggested the affinity of the Australian plant with this
Madagascar species, and judging from the specimen of de la Bat hie
17953 given me by him I can see nothing to separate the plants specifi-
cally. The nuts are paler in colour in the Australian plants, but they
may not be quite mature, and some of the nuts in the Madagascar plants

110 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

exactly match them. According to Chermezon {Bull. 8oc. Bot. France
Ixxv, 286 (1928)), E. caespitosissimu develops stolons and possesses 3
stamens. There are no stolons present in any of the plants I have seen,
and I am unable to determine the number of stamens in the
Madagascar plants. In Fitzgerald’s specimens (of which I have
examined 9 tufts) there appear to be never more than 2, and at times
perhaps 1 only. Fitzgerald describes his Scirpm isdellensis as possessing
a creeping rhizome, paired spikelets, and brown nuts, none of which
characters is shown by his type specimens.

The discovery of this species in North-Western Australia forms
another link between the flora of that region and of Eastern Africa, a
connection previously indicated by the mutual sharing of that peculiar
genus Adansonia.

Series;, SuLCATAE (sp. 14). Coarser plants than the Temuissimae with
3-fid styles and whitish or pale coloured trigonous nuts. South American
species, one of them apparently introduced into New South Wales.

14. E. pachycarpa Desv. in C. Gay, FI. Chile vi. 174 (1853).

A tufted perennial with a rather stout descending rhizome ; culms
rigid, slender, tetraquetrous, mostly up to 20 cm. high, about 0-3-04
mm. wide ; upper leaf -sheath herbaceous-membranous, closely appressed,
oblique and slightly dilated at orifice, sometimes minutely mucronate,
extreme margin somewhat scarious, dotted with brown. Spikelet lanceo-
late to ellipsoid or ovoid, acute to subobtuse, 4-7 mm. long, 2-3 mm.
wide, dark brown; glumes (lowermost more rigid, bracteiform, excepted)
rather lax, ovate, obtuse, thinly membranous, keeled, the keel strongly
curved in profile, the sides stained and streaked with red-brown, the
margins hyaline-scarious, 3-2-6 mm. long; style 3-fid; stamens 3. Nut
broadly obovate, slightly attenuate towards base, scarcely at all narrowed
towards the apex, trigonous, the angles rounded and not at all ribbed,
sides convex, tawny, minutely reticulate, the external cells minute,
shortly vertically oblong and not at all prominent, 1-1 mm. long, 0-95
mm. wide, the annulus prominent but narrow, slightly undulate; style-
base broadly pyramidal, closely sessile and slightly decurrent over the
shoulders of the nut, discoloured and somewhat spongy, 0-6-0-7 mm.
high ; bristles 4, filiform, becoming pale brown, very unequal, the longest
reaching to the top of the nut, slightly scabrous in the upper part only,
or the smallest quite smooth. — Plate IX., figs. 8-11.

New South Wales. — Central Coast: Port Jackson District, Nov.,
1900, Cornfield; Centennial Park, Sydney, October, 1900, Nov., 1900,
Cheel (S.), and in Dec., 1908, Hamilton (B., S.) ; and without definite
locality, Nov., 1908, Hamilton (S.).

Apparently introduced from South America, where it occurs in
Chile.

Among Hamilton’s specimens from Centennial Park some have
culms up to 30 cm. long with proliferous spikelets. Camfield’s collection
is not represented in Herb. Sydney, though accompanied by the label
of that institution. Dr. Svenson tells me it is represented also in the
Herbarium of the New York Botanic Garden and in the Gray Herbarium
of the Harvard University, and in sending me a drawing of the latter
specimen he suggested its identity with the Chilean species. It differs
from E. gracilis in the more rigid habit, in the glumes strongly curved
in profile, in the shape of the nut, in the style-base extending over the
shoulders of the latter, in the more prominently ridged annulus, and in
the fewer, weaker, not flattened bristles.

A MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS ELEOCHARIS IN AUSTRALIA.

Ill

Series Multicaules (spp. 15-17). Old-world species with usually
coarse culms, 3-fid styles, and trigonous, brown or olivaceous nuts.

15. E. tetraquetra Nees in Wight Contrib. 113 (1834) ; F. Muell.
Fragm. viii. 239 (1874), First Census 125 (1882), Sec. Census 211
(1889) ; Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 294 (1878) ; F. M. Bail. Syn. Queensl.
FI. 594 (1883), Catal. PI. Queensl. 52 (1890), Queensl. FI. vi. 1755
(1902), Compreh. Catal. 594 (1913) ; Sinunonds in Proc. Roy. Soc.
Queensl. vi. 225 (1889); Moore Handb. FI. N. S. Wales 450 (1893) 5
Domin Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85, 448 (1915) ; Maiden & Betche Census
N. S. Wales PI. 29 (1916). Scirpus tetraqueter (Nees) Thwaites Enum.
PL Zeyl. 454 (1864).

Rhizome short, descending; stolons long and slender, covered with
long narrow scales. Culms tufted, erect, 3 dm. to above 10 dm. long,
0-9-1-5 mm. wide, prominently and regularly tetraquetrous, angles
ribbed, sides finely striate or with a rather prominent rib ; sheaths mem-
branous or herbaceous, purplish below, the orifice of the uppermost
slightly thickened and brownish, truncate or somewhat oblique with a
short erect obtuse mucro. Spikelet ellipsoid to lanceolate, acute, brown,
10-20 mm. long, 3*5-5 mm. wide, many-flowered ; glumes ovate, acute to
obtuse, 3*7-4*2 mm. long, faintly keeled on the more or less greenish
back, sides membranous, stained with brown particularly in the upper
part, margins rather narrowly hyaline, sometimes brown-zonate ; style
3-fid ; stamens 3, anthers oblong-linear, acute or very minutely apiculate,
0-7-0-8 mm. long. Nut yellowish to brown, shining, obovate, trigonous
compressed, the lateral angles not or only faintly costate, the dorsal one
not prominent, 1-5-1-6 mm. long, 1-1*1 mm. wide, not constricted below
the 0*6-0*7 mm. wide apex, sides most finely and lightly reticulate, the
external cells vertically oblong; style-base triangular-ovate, somewhat
pyramidal below, compressed above, greenish to brown, coarsely cellular,
f-f as long as nut and slightly wider than its apex ; bristles 6-8, brown,
flat, longer than nut and some at least overtopping the style-base, very
closely retrorsely barbed with hyaline teeth much longer than the width
of the bristle. — Plate IX., figs. 12-15.

Queensland. — Moreton District: Coolum, in swampy creek, April,
1938, Blake 13761; Sunnybank, March, 1889, Bailey.

New South Wales. — North Coast: Richmond River, Hodgkinson
(M.).

There is also a sheet in Herb. S. without locality or collector’s
name.

The species extends through Malaya to Eastern Asia and India. I
have seen specimens from the Philippines and from Japan. It is readily
recognised by the regular prominently 4-angular culm (sometimes
3-angular according to C. B. Clarke), the very large style-base, and the
sub-plumose bristles. Its exact systematic position is uncertain. Its
truncate mucronate leaf-sheath and the nature of the surface of the nut
suggest an affinity with the Acuiae, but the shape of the latter, the
massive style-base, the very small anthers, and the characteristic stolons
are quite different. Svenson at first placed it in the Tuberculosac
(Rhodora xxxi. 129), but later (in letter) suggested its affinity with
E. gracilis and the ^ulcatae, with which it agrees in the angular culms,
the 3-angled nut, and to a lesser extent in the style-base. The unusually
long and closely set teeth of the hypogynous bristles seem quite unique,
though to some extent approached by some members of the Acutae.

112

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

16. E. gracilis B. Br. Prodr. 224 (1810) ; Domin Biblioth. Bot. xx.
Heft. 85, 448 (1915). E. gracilis var. gracillima and var. radicans Hook,
f. FI. Nov. Zel. i. 270 (1864), Handb. N. Zeal. FI. 301 (1867). E. gracil-
lima (Hook f.) Hook f. Handb. N. Zeal. FI. 745 (1867). E. Cunning-
hamii Boeck. in Flora xli. 412 (1858), in Linnaea xxxvi. 427 (1869-70) ;
Cheeseman Man. N. Zeal. FI. 769 (1906). E. Hookeri Boeck. in Linnaea
xxxvi. 430 (1869-70). E. pahistris F. Muell. Fragm. viii. 239 (1874)
partly, not of R. Br. E. multica'idis Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 295 (1878) ;
F. Muell. First Census 125 (1882), Sec. Census 211 (1889) ; Tate Handb.
FI. Extratrop. S. Austr. 183, 264 (1890) ; Moore Handb. FI. N. S. Wales
451 (1893) ; Tepper in Botan, Centralbl. Ixiii. 38 (1895) ; Maiden &
Betche Census N. S. Wales PI. 29 (1916) ; Black FI. S. Austr. 91 (1922) ;
Cleland & Black Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr. li. 29 (1927) ; Ewart FI.
Viet. 224 (1930) (though scarcely figs. 128, 129), not of Sm. Isolepis
acicularis A. Rich. FI. Nouv. Zel. 103 (1832) not of Schlecht.

Rhizome creeping, 2-3 mm. diam., at first densely clothed with pale
brown to purplish ovate striate scales. Culms tufted or approximate
along the rhizome, erect or curved, slender, deeply striate but mostly
flattened, at least when dry, up to ca. 20 cm. high, not exceeding 0-8
(usually 0-5-0-6 mm. wide) ; sheaths membranous or thinly herbaceous,
striate, the uppermost dilated, thickened, and brown at the oblique
orifice which is sometimes mucronate. Spikelet ovoid to oblong or
lanceolate, subacute, mostly 5-9 mm. long and 2-2*5 mm. wide, but up
to 12 mm. long and 4 mm. wide, brown ; glumes rather dense, appressed,
deciduous, ovate-oblong, rounded and not triangular at the apex, the
lower ones obtuse, the upper subacute, 3*3-3*6 mm. long, obtusely keeled
and somewhat concave, sides membranous, stained with reddish brown,
margins hyaline ; style 3-fid ; stamens 3, anthers linear, minutely apicu-
late, 1*8-2 mm. long. Nut tawny or brown, somewhat shining, obovoid,
rounded at apex, trigonous and 3-ribbed, 1*2-1*3 mm. long, 0*8-0*9 mm.
wide, the sides convex, minutely reticulate punetulate to somewhat
granular or transversely wavy-lined, external cells minute, shortly verti-
cally oblong or subhexagonal ; style-base usually rather stout, narrowly
pyramidal, as long as nut and ^-f as wide as it, closely sessile, the
annulus slightly prominent? bristles 5-6, flattened, pale brown, slender
but rigid, firmly and finely retrorsely hispid, usually much overtopping
style-base but sometimes scarcely so long as nut. — Plate IX., figs. 16-22.

Queensland. — Darling Downs District : Bald Mountain, near

Wallangarra, near water, ea. 2,700' ft., Jan., 1933, Blake 4537 ; Wallan-
garra, in damp place at bottom of railway embankment, ca. 2,900 ft.,
Jan., 1933, Blake 4466.

New South Wales. — Central Tablelands: Katoomba, March, 1910,
Hamilton (S.) ; Wattle Ridge, via Hilltop, Feb., 1912, Cheel (S.) ; Burra-
gorang to Wentworth Falls, Nov., 1893, Maiden (S., M.). Central
Coast: Parramatta Woolls in 1871 (M.) ; Narrabeen, near Sydney, in
marshy ground near sea-level, Jan., 1935, Blake 7429, 7431. Hunter’s
Hill (Sydney), A. G. Hamilton (S.) ; Kogarah, Nov., 1893, Camfield
(S.) ; Kogarah Bay, Dec., 1899, Cheel (S.) ; Port Jackson District, Nov.,
1897, Betche (S.) ; Lilipili Dully, Hurstville, Jan., 1900, Cheel (S.).

Victoria. — Western District: Hawkesdale, Nov., 1900, Williamson.

South Australia. — Southern Districts: Lofty Range, by stream,
Dec., 1847, Mueller (M., S.) ; Mount Lofty, August, 1924, Ising (BL),
in swamps, Nov., 1882, Tale (T.) ; Waterfall Gully, Dec., 1880, Tate

A MONOGRAPH OP THE GENUS ELEOCHARIS IN AUSTRALIA. 113

(T.) ; Clarendon, Blewitt’s Spring, April, 1882, Tepper 614 (M.) ;
Myponga, Jan., 1929, Cleland (Bl., Cl.) ; Encounter Bay: Hall’s Creek,
Cleland (CL), Back Valley, in swamp, Jan., 1926, Cleland (CL), and
in creek, Jan., 1925, Cleland (BL, CL) ; Upper Tunkalilla Creek, west of
Encounter Bay, June, 1930, Cleland (BL, CL); Kangaroo Island:
Squashy Creek, 27 miles E. of C. Borda, March, 1926, Cleland (CL) ;
Stun-sail Boom River, Jan., 1883, Tate (M., T.). South-east: Lake
George (T.). ♦

New Zealand. — North Island : Auckland Province : Tauroa, Jan.,
1913, Carse; Paeroa, 'Thames Valley, Dec., 1909, Petrie. New Zealand,
without definite locality. Hooker (M.).

Also in Norfolk Island {Maiden and Boonnan in 1902 in Herb.
Kew fide Svenson).

The species differs from the European E. nmlticaulis Sm. in the
development of a creeping rhizome, the more slender, harder culms, the
more rigid orifice to the leaf-sheath, the nut more abruptly rounded in
the upper part, not. olivaceous, not finely vertically striate but more or
less distinctly transversely wavy-lined, and in the better developed
bristles. The actual degree of slenderness of habit varies considerably,
both in Australian and New Zealand specimens. The style-base in the
latter is at least usually smaller than in the Australian specimens and
the bristles rather weaker than the average. The Queensland specimens
are the most outstanding by reason of their rigid, flattened culms up to
0-8 mm. wide, the finely granular rather than reticulate nut, and the
rather weak bristles. However, these features occur in various combina-
tions in other plants, and the extremes are no greater than which occur
in most other species of the genus.

Besides the specimens cited above, I have sketches communicated
by Dr. Svenson of the types of E. gracilis (Port Jackson, B. Brown 5932)
and E. Cunninghamii (Bay of Islands, Cunningham) . The above-cited
specimens of Hooker’s appear to be co-type material of E. Hookeri and
E. gracilis var. gracillima.

17. E. Dietrichiana Boeck. in Flora Iviii. 107 (1875) ; Domin
Bibliotli. Bot. XX. Heft 85, 447 (1915) in small part only.

Rhizome short, horizontal; culms densely tufted, more or less erect,
subterete (or flattened when dry) but prominently 6-9-ribbed, up to
3 dm. long, 0-7-1 mm. wide ; sheath purplish, membranous, orifice trun-
cate and thickened, dark-coloured, prominently mucronate. Spikelet
ovate or oblong, acute to subobtuse, 6-9 mm. long, 2-3 mm. wide, more
or less dark brown ; glumes not very numerous, appressed in flower,
rather spreading in fruit, oblong-ovate with a rather acute triangular
apex, thinly membranous, keeled, sides stained brown, margins hyaline,
3*3-3-6 long; style 3-fid; stamens 3, anthers linear, prominently apicu-
late, 1-8-2 mm. long, including the 0-2-0-25 long setaceous appendage.
Nut tawny to dark brown, obovate, somewhat attenuate below the middle,
gradually narrowed above and slightly expanded and thickened at apex,
subequally trigonous, 3-ribbed, 1-2-1-4 mm. long, 0-7-0-8 mm. wide, sides
convex, rather shining, minutely and finely reticulate or longitudinally
striate, external cells very small, shortly vertically oblong; style-base
short, pyramidal, about ^ as wide as nut and about as long as wide,
finely cellular, whitish or brownish ; bristles 6, brown, firm, closely and
shortly retrorsely scabrous, as long as |-f nut. — Plate IX., figs. 23-29.

114

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

Queensland. — Port Curtis District : Rockhampton, Thozet 112 (M.),
wet places in railway enclosure, ca. 25 ft., March, 1935, Blake 7821;
near Rockhampton, Dietrich 714 (type ex Berlin, M.), edge of fresh-
water swamps ca. 15 ft., March, 1937, Blake 1273k Moreton District:
Lawes, near Gatton, October, 1938, Boe; bottom of railway embankment,
Sept., 1933, Blake 4946.

An interesting plant of uncertain range. Bentham (FI. Austr. vii.
295) suggested that this species mo.y be the same as his E. acuta var.
pollens (E. pallens S. T. Blake); but did not state that it is. In the
original description Boeckeler describes the style as bifid, while of the
nut he states, inter alia, it is “biconvex, the dorsal side higher with a
prominent angle.” Clarke [Kew Bull. Add. Ser. viii. 105 (1908)]
arranged the species among those with bifid styles and determined also
as belonging to it some specimens of E. pallens (see discussion under
that species). There is an excellent series of specimens of Dietrich 714
(the type collection) in Herb. Melbourne and Dr. J. Mattfeld has very
kindly presented me with two spikelets (one in flower and one in fruit)
from the type-sheet in Herb. Berlin. In all the style is trifid, and Dr.
Svenson tells me that such is also the case in specimens of the same
collection in the United States National Herbarium at Washington. So
it appears certain that Boeckeler ’s description of the style is incorrect
and also that his description of the nut is somewhat misleading.

Actually the species is very close in its floral characteristics to E.
gracilis, differing chiefly in the somewhat narrower nut more gradually
rounded in its upper part with a small but distinct neck immediately
below the apex, the prominently apieulate anthers, and in the glumes
with a less rounded rather acute triangular apex. The prominently
ribbed culms with very thin tissue between the ribs, the mueronate
truncate apex of the leaf-sheath, and the lack of a creeping rhizome
further serve to distinguish it.

Series Acutae. Rather rigid tufted perennials with or without a
creeping rhizome, the orifice of the leaf-sheath rigid and truncate with
a prominent erect mucro; nuts lenticular, tawny to brown, the external
cells vertically oblong, smaU, and not very prominent; style 3-fid.
(Species 18-21.) Australasian species.

18. E. acuta B. Br. Prodr. 224 (1810) ; Benth. PL Austr. vii. 294
(1878) exel. var.; F. Muell. First Census 125 (1882) and Sec. Census
211 (1889) ; F. M. Bail. Syn. Queensl. PI. 594 (1883), Catal. Plants
Queensl. 52 (1890), Queensl. FI. vi. 1755 (1902) excl. var., Compreh.
Catal. 594 (1913), excl. var. ; Tate Handb. PL Extratr. S. Austr. 183, 264
(1890) ; Moore, Handb. FI. N. S. Wales 450 (1893) partly; Tepper in
Botan. Centralbl. Ixiii. 38 (1895) ; Turner in Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S.
Wales xxviii. 306 (not 439) (1903), xxx. 84 (1905) chiefly; Maiden
ibidem xxix. 724 (1904) ; Cheeseman Man. N. Zeal. FI. 768 (1906) ;
Maiden & Betche Census N. S. Wales PL 29 (1916) ; Black FI. S. Austr.
91 (1922) ; Cleland & Black Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr. li. 29 (1927) ;
Ewart PI. Yict. 283 (1930) ; Gardner, Enum. Plant. Austr. Occid. 12
(1930). E. mucronulata Nees in Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. i. vi. 46 (1841) ;
Steud. Syn. PL Glum. ii. 82 ,(1855) ; Boeck. in Linnaea xxxvi. 466 (1869-
70) ; Palla in Kneucker: Cyperaceae (exclus. Carices) Restionaceae,
Centrolepidaceae &. Juncaceae exsiccatae. Lief vii. nr. 192 (1909) partly;
E. gracilis var. jS Hook. f. PL Tasm. ii. 85 (1860). E. gracilis (excl.
var. jd and y) Hook. f. PL Nov. Zel.i. 270 (1864), Handb. N. Zeal. PL
301 (1867) not of R. Br. E. palustris Fragm.. viii. 240 (1874) partly.

A MONOGRAPH OP THE GENUS ELEOCHARIS IN AUSTRALIA.

115

not of R. Br. Scirpus acutus (R. Br.) Spreng, Syst. i. 203 (1825). 8.
tener Spreng. loc. cit. 204. E. ambigua Kirk ex Buch. in Trans. N. Zeal.
Inst. vi. 225 (1874).

Rhizome slender, woody, stoloniform; culms in distant tufts, more
or less erect, up to 90 cm. high and up to 3 (mostly 1-2) mm. wide,
terete or (when dry) more or less flattened, but always trigonous under
the spikelet, usually longitudinally striate, rarely also irregularly pitted ;
sheaths herbaceous or rigidly membranous, appressed, striate, more or
less purplish at base, the orifice of the uppermost dark brown, somewhat
thickened, truncate or nearly so, prominently mucronate. Spikelet
linear, more or less acute, usually dark brown or variegated with brown,
15-30 mm. long, 3-7 mm. wide ; glumes rather dense, the two lowermost
broad, rounded, shorter than the others, overlapping each other, herbace-
ous with hyaline margins and an internal brown zone : the remainder
ovate-lanceolate, subobtuse to very acute at the triangular apex, 3-5-4-3
mm. long, membranous, faintly keeled (1-nerved on the greenish back),
sides very thin, stained deep brown or reddish brown, margins and apex
hyaline ; style 3-fid ; stamens 3, anthers linear, prominently apiculate,
1-6-2-5 mm. long including the 0-2 mm. long subulate uncrested appen-
dage. Nut yellowish to brown, shining, broadly obovate, plano-convex
to biconvex, often turgid, sometimes when young, showing traces of a
third angle, sometimes with 1-2 faint longitudinal furrows, margins not
costate, 1*4— 1-8 (usually 1-5-1-7) mm. long, 1-0-14 (usually 1-1-1-2)
mm. wide, sides smooth or somewhat roughened, external cells minute,
shortly vertically oblong; style-base ovate to triangular, compressed,
often showing traces of a third angle, whitish or discoloured, cellular,
0-4-0-8 (usually 0-4-0-6) mm. high, 0-5-0-8 (usually 0-5-0-6) mm. wide,
the annulus prominent ; bristles mostly 7, rarely 6, more rarely 8-9,
rather slender, flattened below, strongly retrorsely toothed, rather
unequal, reaching or somewhat overtopping the style-base, occasionally
short and ill-developed. — Plate X., figs. 1-7.

Queensland. — Port Curtis District : Gracemere, common in wet
places, August, 1867, O'Shanesy 107 (M.). Darling Downs District:
Jimba, Plains of the Condamine, Hartimann (M.) ; Dalby, April, 1916,
White; between Bald Mountain and Wyberba, in mud on creek bank,
Jan., 1933, Blake 4510; between Bald Mountain and Wallangarra, in
marshy ground, Jan., 1933, Blake 4482.

New South Wales. — Western Plains: Bengalla, Leichhardt (M.).
North-west Slopes ; Liverpool Plains, coll. ? (M.). Northern Table-
lands: Tenterfield, Stuart 1028 (M.) ; Glen Innes, Dec., 1913, Boorman
(S.) ; Elderbury Creek, 6 miles S.W. of Guyra, Dec., 1931, McKie 224
(S.) ; Walcha, ‘‘common . . . in shallow water . . .,” Jan., 1913,
Boorman (S.) ; Walcha District, Dec., 1898, Betche (S.). Central
Tablelands: Orange, Jan., 1908, Boorman (S.). Central Coast: Duck
Creek, Clyde, March, 1909, Hamilton (S.) ; Oatley, Jan., 1908, Boorman
(S.) ; Centennial Park, Sydney, March, 1899, Cheel (S.), in damp peaty
soil, Jan., 1908, Boorman in Kneucker 192 (Herb. Blake). Southern
Tablelands: Queanbeyan, Dec., 1911, CawLage 3347 (S.) ; near Tharwa,
Federal Capital Territory, in open swampy ground, ca. 2,000 ft., Feb.,
1935, Blake 7539; Rock Flat, near Cooma, in stream, Dec., 1896, Maiden
(S., M.).

116

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

Victoria. — Malice: Lake Albacutya, near water’s edge, Nov., 1899^
Alton 2 (M.). Wimniera: Nhill, D’ Alt on 3 (M.) ; near Dimboola,
Reader 32 (M.) ; Shire of Dimboola, in swamps. Sept., 1892, Reader
(M.) ; Lake Hindmarsh, April, 1895, Reader 5 (M.) ; Wycheproof, Sept.,
1917, Watts 401, (S.) ; and without locality, Mueller (M.). Western
District: Mount William Creek, Sullivan 5 (M.) ; near entrance to
Hopkins River, Knight (M.) ; Grarvoc, Dee., 1911, Tovey (M.) ; Skipton,
on plains. Whan 125 (M.). North Central District: Harcourt, April,
1919, Semmens 53 (M.). Central District: Near Dandenong Ranges,
Dixon in 1891 (M.) ; Tooradin, in swamps, Jan., 1935, Blake 7283.

South Australia. — Southern District: St. Vincent Gulf, in coastal
swamps, Mueller (M.) ; Bethany, coll. ? (M.) ; Angas River, Mueller in
1848, (M.) ; Mt. Gawler (T.) ; Reedbeds near Adelaide, Dec., 1879, (T.) ;
Bridgewater, Black in 1904 (Bl.) ; Happy Valley, Nov., 1906, Black
(Bl.) ; National Park, Belair, Jan., 1924, Black (Bl.) ; Myponga, Dec.,
1910, Griffith (Bl.) ; Black Swamp, Jan., 1924, Cleland (Cl.) ; Port
Elliot, Hussey 510, (M.) ; Inman Valley, Cleland {Gl.) Hindmarsh
Valley, Encounter Bay, Jan., 1922, Cleland (Cl.) ; Kangaroo Island,
without definite locality, Tate in 1882 (M.), Cygnet River, Jan., 1883,
Tate (M., T.). Murray Lands: River Murray Lagoons, Jan., 1884, and
Mannum, March, 1883, Tate (T.) ; near Swan Reach, Nov., 1913, Cleland
(CL). South-east: Millicent Drain, Dec., 1917, Black (Bl.) ; Lake
Bonney, Dec., 1922, Cleland (CL). Eyre’s Peninsula : Port Lincoln
(T.).

Western Australia. — South-western Division: Greenough River,
Walcott (M.) ; Stirling Range, Jan., 1857, Mueller (M.) ; and without
locality, Drummond 364 (M.).

Tasmania. — Diana’s Basin, October, 1892, Rodway (S.) ; South Esk,
wet places, ex Herb. Archer (S.), in water, Stuart 254 (M.) ; Swanport,
edges of creeks. Story (M.) ; Claremont, Lucas (S.) : New Norfolk,
Dec., 1860, Gunn 573 (S.).

Norfolk Island. — October, 1905, Drummond 76 (S.).

New Zealand. — Without definite locality. Hooker (M.), and Colenso
(ex herb. Hooker in M.). North Island: Wellington Province: Bunny-
thorpe, near Palmerston North, in swamp, Dec., 1928, and in damp
places in pastures, Nov., 1928, Zotov. South Island: Westland Province :
Greymouth, Helms \ Pukekura, boggy places on forest margin, Jan., 1937,
Poole. Canterbury Province : Ashburton, margin of water-race in tussock
grassland, Dec., 1918, Allan; Wakanui Beach, in brackish water on
margin of creek, Jan., 1918, AUoM'. Otago Province: Dart River, head
of Lake Wakatipu, in boggy ground, Jan., 1936, Zotov.

Certainly the most variable of the Australasian species. The culms
vary a great deal in stoutness and hardness, the leaf-sheath at times
tends to become oblique, particularly in New Zealand specimens, the
spikelet varies greatly in width (partly dependent on the width of the
culm), the glumes in size and acuteness, the nut in turgidity, length,
breadth, and smoothness, the style-base in form and size, and the bristles
in degree of development. The variations occur in a multiplicity of
combinations and seem to depend largely on local ecological factors. In
view of this it is not at all surprising that a tremendous amount of
confusion has existed in connection with this and related species. The
following combination of characters serve to distinguish it: — Culms
more or less terete in distant tufts on a creeping rhizome, the mucroiiate

A MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS ELEOCHARIS IN AUSTRALIA. 117

orifice to the upper leaf -sheath, the usually acute spikelet with promi-
nently triangular hyaline apices to the glumes which are not readily
deciduous and frequently fall away in basipetal succession, the 3-fid
style but lenticular nut without costate margins, and the long subulate
uncrested appendage to the anthers. From E. palustris it is sufficiently
distinguished by the mucronate leaf-sheath and 3-fid style, and from
E. gracilis by the lenticular unribbed nut, besides other characters. To
judge from the specimens in Herb. Sydney, Gunn 573, the type of E.
mucroniUata Nees, does not differ from the general trend of E. acuta
except that the style-base is rather larger than usual, and is also a stout,
though not exceptionally stout plant. Palla in Kneucker 192 distin^
guishes the species by several characters, but the specimens I possess
distributed under that number do not at all agree with his characters
for E. mucronulata and are merely depauperate plants of E. acuta
similar to some of the Victorian ones, with culms about 10 cm. high on
very slender rhizomes and greatly reduced bristles. It appears that
Palla based his diagnoses on other plants, and seems to have confused
E. acuta with E, pallens.

E. acuta var. platylepis Hook. f. Handb. N. Zeal. FI. 745 (1867)
and E. acuta var. tenuis Carse Trans. N. Zeal. Inst. Ivii. 89 (1926) are
both typical E. acuta.

19. E. plana 8. T. Blake Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensl. xlix. 155 (1938).

Rhizome long-creeping, ca. 2 mm. diam. ; culms in distant tufts,
erect or oblique, up to 80 cm. high, flat or slightly piano- or concavo-
oonvex, 2-4 (usually 3) mm. wide, longitudinally striate, transversely
irregularly rugulose ; sheaths rigidly membranous or subherbaceous,
striate, the upper one discoloured, thickened, and truncate or nearly
truncate at the orifice with a rigid dorsal mucro 1*5-3 mm. long. Spike-
let pallid or brownish, linear-cylindrical, subacute, mostly 10-15 mm.
long, 2-2*5 mm. wide ; glumes, excepting the two lowermost bracteiform,
ovate, acute, faintly keeled, thinly membranous, straw-coloured, apex
triangular and with the margins broadly hyaline, 3*4-3*7 mm. long;
style 3-fid ; stamens 3, anthers linear, prominently apiculate, and includ-
ing the 0*2 mm. long linear appendage, 1*4 mm. long. Nut at length
shining brown, obovate, biconvex, turgid, the margins scarcely costate,
minutely punctulate or wrinkled, 1*2-1*8 (usually 1*4) mm. long, 1-1*1
mm. wide, the external cells shortly vertically oblong; style-base tri-
angular or ovate, compressed, pallid, cellular, often somewhat hispidulous
at the base, about as long and ^ as wide as nut ; bristles 6-8, slender,
retrorseiy scabrous, about as long as the nut together with style-base. —
Plate X., figs. 8-11.

Queensland. — Port Curtis District: Herbert Creek, Bowman in
1870 (M.) ; Gracemere, common in wet places, August, 1867, O’Slianesy
109 (M.). Darling Downs District: Palardo, west of Miles, in swamps,
1,100 ft., Feb., 1935, Blake 7615 (TYPE in B.) ; Chinchilla, in water,
Nov., 1933, Beasley 208 ; and in water or on wet mud in railway enclo-
sure, ca. 985 ft., Feb., 1935, Blake 7674; Macalister, April, 1916, Bick;
Jondaryan, damp depressions in grassland, 1,250 ft., Feb., 1935, Blake
7757 ; Milmerran, around pond in heavy black soil in paddock on cleared
Eucalyptus forest land, 1,382 ft., March, 1931, Huhhard 5873. Moreton
District: Tarampa Creek, Bailey (M.) ; Lawes, near Gatton, bottom of
railway embankment, 294 ft.. Sept., 1933, Blake 4944, 4945.

118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

New South Wales. — Western Plains: Cobar, August, 1911, Ahrahwn
145 (S.). North-west Slopes: Liverpool Plains, coll. ? (S.). Northern
Tablelands: Tia to Walcha, Nov., 1897, Maiden (M.). North Coast:
Without further indication of locality or collector (S.) . Central Western
Slopes: Narramine, Nov., 1892, Helms (S.).

A very critical species, often very difficult to distinguish from E.
acuta and requiring further study. Only six of the above-cited collec-
tions are mature and some of these differ among each other somewhat
in the size and colour of nut and style-base. In these and other spikelet
characters the species is exceedingly like E. acuta, but the spikelet is
sometimes more obtuse and the style-base often more distinctly hispidu-
lous than ever observed in that species. Well-developd specimens are
easily known by the strongly flattened culms as broad as or broader than
the spikelet, more or less distinctly ribbed on the margin, and reticulate-
wrinkled on the sides. The flattened culm is very prominent in the
living plant, and has been remarked upon by more than one collector.
In the herbarium they are distinguishable from artificially flattened
specimens of E. acuta hj the fact that they are flat even at the very
apex and that the very prominent mucro to the leaf-sheath always
occupies the middle of one side of the culm, whereas in E. acuta the
culm is subtrigonous or subterete under the spikelet and the mucro may
appear to occupy any position relative to the flattening of the culm.
Slender specimens, such as Blake 4944, 4945, both regrowths after fire,
are especially difficult to identify.

Bailey ’s specimens were referred by Bentham to E. spiralis, and his
description of the latter species is based to some extent on this collection.
The broad culm probably led Bentham into this mistake, for otherwise
the two species have nothing in common. Clarke and Domin referred
the same specimens to E. cylindrostachys, which differs sharply in the
absence of a creeping rhizome, the more slender terete culms, the very
deciduous obtuse glumes, the costate-margined nut, and the very shortly
apiculate anthers, and in other characters.

20. E. pallens 8. T. Blake Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensl. xlix. 154 (1938).
E. acuta var. pallens Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 295 (1878) ; F. M. Bail.
Queensl. FI. vi. 1755 (1902) and Compreh. Catal. 594 (1913). E. acuta
Moore Handb. FI. N. S. Wales 451 (1893) partly; Turner Proc. Linn.
Soc. N. S. Wales xxviii. 439 (1903) not p. 306, and xxix. 177 (1904) ;
Ewart & Davies FI. North Territ. 57 (1917) ; Black Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Austr. xli. 635 (1917) ; Cleland, Black, and Reese ibidem xlix. 110
(1925) not of R. Br. E. Dietrichiana Baker Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales
XXV. 671 (1900) at least in part; Diels & Pritzel in Engl. Bot. Jahrb.
XXXV. 79 (1904) ; Domin Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85, 447 (1915) excl.
Dietrich 714; Maiden & Betche Census N. S. Wales PI. 28 (1916);
Gardner, Enum. Plant. Austr. Occid. 12 (1930) ; not of Boeck, E.
mucronulata Palla in Kneucker: Cyperaceae (excl. Carices), Restiona-
ceae, Centrolepidaceae & Juncaceae exsiccatae, Lief vii. nr. 192 (1909)
partly, not of Nees.

Rhizome very short ; culms very densely tufted, erect or sub-erect,
up to 5 dm. high, slender, slightly thickened at base, subterete, smooth
but longitudinally prominently 9-10-sulcate, 0*6-l mm. wide; sheaths
firmly membranous, closely appressed, lightly striate, the orifice of the
uppermost truncate, thickened and discoloured, with an erect mucro up
to 2 mm. long. Spikelet linear-cylindrical, obtuse at the base, acute or
subacute at the apex, brown or tawny, usually pallid, dense-flowered,

A MONOGRAPH OP THE GENUS ELEOCHxVRIS IN AUSTRALIA. 119

mostly 1-2 cm. long, 2 mm. wide ; glumes numerous, closely appressed,
rarely somewhat spreading, readily deciduous, ovate or oblong-ovate,
acute with a triangular apex, scarious, faintly keeled and more or less
stained with brown on the back, otherwise hyaline, 2*9-3-5 mm. long;
style 3-fid, very rarely accidentally 2-fid; stamens 3, anthers linear,
apiculate, and including the 0-15 mm. long appendage 1-5-2 mm. long.
Nut broadly obovate or suborbicular, sometimes somewhat attenuate
towards the base, biconvex to subplanoeonvex, often turgid, 1-1-1 -4 mm.
long, 0-9-1-0 mm. wide, tawny, brown, or sometimes dark brown, the
margins costiform, the sides smooth or rugulose, usually lightly reticu-
late, the external cells small, shortly vertically oblong, sometimes rather
prominent; style-base very variable in the same spikelet, mostly more
or less deltoid or ovate-triangular, most often compressed, pallid or
tawny, in the lower part more or less spongy and fimbriolate, as long as
up to J nut and as wide as it, often, however, strongly depressed
and ovate or strongly constricted at base; bristles 7-10 flat, retrorsely
scabrous, usually stout, pallid or brownish, usually subequal, shorter or
longer than the nut, occasionally short or very long. — Plate X., figs.
12-19.

North Australia. — Upper Victoria River, Mueller (M.) ; Lake Woods,
August, 1911, ^ill 489 (B., S., M.) ; without definite locality, Reid in
1874 (M.).

Central Australia. — Deering Creek, Horn Expedn. (T., S.) ; Char-
lotte Waters, May, 1875, Giles 75 (M.).

Queensland. — Burke District; Hughenden, June, 1919, Hawthorn.
Mitchell District: Prairie, in depressions in Eucalyptus forest on sand,
1,400 ft.. May, 1936, Blake 11607 ; Muttaburra, April, 1919, White;
Bowen Downs, Birch (M.) ; Darr River, Birch; Geera, east of Barcaldine,
edge of lagoons on sand, 900 ft., Dec., 1935, Blake 10361. Gregory South
District ; Near Windorah, on alluvial plain, July, 1936, Blake 12046 ;
Earlstoun, between Quilpie and Windorah, edge of small stream on
mud, April, 1934, Blake 5456. Warrego District; Thargomindah, on
creek bank, ca. 400 ft., June, 1936, Blake 11773; Charleville, on wet
mud in Eucalyptus parkland, 950 ft., April, 1936, Blake 11042 ; Offham,
ca. 25 miles south of Wyandra, in depressions in grassland, 700 ft., April,
1936, Blake 11235 (TYPE in B.) ; Curragh Station, near Cunna-
mulla, alongside of bore-drain in brown loam, Jan., 1931, Hubkard &
Winders 6230. Cunnamulla, wet depressions in grassland plain, 600 ft.,
April, 1936, Blake 11205. Maranoa District: Roma, May, 1914, Soutter;
and in depressions in Eucalyptus forest, on mud, ca. 1,000 ft., March,
1936, Blake 10891 ; Miltonise Station, ca. 30 miles west of St. George,
in gilgai in brigalow {Acacia harpophylla) scrub, ca. 600 ft., March,
1936, Blake 10814; St. George, May, 1894, Wedd 619; Ballandool River,
Looker 143 (M.) ; Noondoo Station, near Dirranbandi, depressions in
Eucalyptus coolabah parkland, ca. 600 ft., Feb., 1936, Blake 10583.
Darling Downs District: Jondaryan, damp depressions in grassland,
1,250 ft., Feb., 1935, Blake 7758; without further indication of locality,
Ford (M.). Leichhardt District: Comet, O’Shanesy 4099 (M.) Port
Curtis District: Rosewood, wet places, Jan., 1876, O’Shanesy 1570 (M.).

New South Wales. — Far Western Plains : Mount Poole, Sept., 1887,
Bduerlen (S.) ; west of Paroo, A. W. Mueller 45 (S.) ; Mount Murchison,
Bonney 49 (M.), Dallachy cO Goodwin (M.) ; 45 miles east of Broken
Hill, May, 1917, Cleland (S.) ; Wonnaminta, Dec., 1887, Bduerlen (S.) ;
beyond the Darling River, Feb., 1867 Beckler (M.). Western Plains:

120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

Warrego River, Sept., 1885, Boorman 31 (M.) ; near Bourke, Sept., 1893,,
Campbell (S.) ; Brewarrina, Nov., 1903, Bom-man (S.) ; Namoi River,
March, 1887, Carson & Carson (M.) ; Narrabri, Nov., 1935, Anderson
(S.) ; Cobar, July, 1911, Abraham 151 (S.) ; Euabalong, May, 1906,
Boorman (S.) ; between the Darling and the Lachlan, Burkitt (M.) ;
Moama, Feb., 1894, Gidlfoyle (S.). North-west Slopes: Inverell, Jan.,
1913, Thomas (S.). Central Western Slopes: Narramine, Nov., 1892,,
Helms (S.). Northern Tablelands: Glen Innes, Jan., 1914, Rupp 3 (S.) ;
Armidale, 63, 97 (M.).

Victoria. — Wimmera: Avoca River, dried-out flooded places, Dec.,
1853, Mueller (M.).

South Australia. — Far North : Cordillo Downs, in watercourse, May,
1924, Cleland (Bl., Cl.) ; Strzelecki Creek, Sept., 1916, A. S. White
(Bl.) ; Cooper’s Creek, coll. ? (S.). Flinders Range: Mount Lyndhurst,
Feb., 1897, Agric. Bureau of South Australia 108 (S.). Lake Torrens:
Arcoona, round edge of small lake, but on dry land. Sept., 1927, Murray
(Bl.) ; by Termination Hill, June, 1883, (T.).

Western Australia. — I have seen no specimens from this State, but
from Svenson’s notes Diels 3726 from Shark Bay seems certainly to
belong to the present species.

The species is confined to the Australian mainland and is almost
restricted to the interior. It has been consistently confused with E.
acuta and was regarded as a variety of that species by Bentham, and
more recently with E. Dietrichiana. From the former it differs in general
habit, the lack of a creeping rhizome, the costate margins of the usually
smaller nut, the broader bristles, etc., and from the latter in the harder
culms, the longer spikelets, the lenticular nut not constricted into a neck,
the nature of the style-base and to a lesser extent of the bristles, and
from both in the glumes readily deciduous in acropetal succession and
usually pale in colour, and in the shorter cristulate appendage to the
anthers as well as in details of the style-base. As a matter of fact
E. pollens is very close to E. cylindrostachys, from which it differs chiefly
in the more acute spikelets and glumes and the better-developed appen-
dage to the anthers. The confusion surrounding the species has, how-
ever, been such that the unravelling of the bibliographical references
has proved a very intricate task. Although fairly homogeneous in aspect,
considerable variation in floral characters occur. For the most part this
variation is restricted to the degree of roughening of the surface of the
nut and to the shape and bulk of the style-base. The latter is usually
more or less triangular in outline, or else ovate, due to constriction near
the base, usually dorso-ventrally flattened, mostly rather less than ^ as
long and |-f as wide as nut. There is a tendency for the style-base to
become depressed, usually with a coincident tendency towards an increase
in breadth and rounding at the apex. Thus in the extreme state, the
style-base becomes quite short and extends over the shoulders of the nut,
attaining about f the width of the latter . Occasionally the larger style -
bases show a median line or even a somewhat prominent angle on the
abaxial face, and in one such case {Campbell’s specimens from Bourke
in Herb. S.) a faint dorsal angle occurs on some of the nuts. Perhaps
the most interesting sports — for one can call these aberrant cases nothing
more — is the very occasional occurrence of 2-fid styles, usually in spike-
lets with normal styles as well. This aberration is to *be found in some
of the specimens cited by Bentham, and appears to be the basis on which
Clarke and Domin united this species with E. Dietrichiana, which, as

A MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS ELEOC HARIS IN AUSTRALIA. 121

pointed out above, was erroneously described by Boeckeler as possessing
a 2-fid style. Another interesting aberration occurs in Mueller 45 and
in Clelamd’s specimens from east of Broken Hill, both in Herb S., in
which a short creeping rhizome is developed. The culms are, however,
approximate and not in distant tufts, and it appears that some of the
plants at least were growing on a steeply sloping bank. The collection
constituting the type was selected as such because the large number of
specimens in it would seem, from field considerations, to be descendants
of possibly a single individual, while at the same time exhibiting nearly
every variation yet observed. As no other species of the genus is known
to occur within 80 miles {E. pusilla occurs at Charleville) and no near
relative within 250 miles, there is good reason for believing that these
plants are genetically homogeneous.

21. E. cylindrostachys Boeck. in Flora Iviii. 108 (1875) ; Benth.
FI. Austr. vii. 294 (1878) ; F. M. Bail. Syn. Queensl. FI. 594 (1883) ;
Proc. {Roy. Soc. Queensl. 1. 75 (1884), Catal. PI. Queensl. 52 (1890),
Queensl. FI. vi. 1755 (1902), Compreh. Catal. 594 (1913); F. Muell.
First Census 125 (1882), Sec. Census 211 (1889) ; Moore Handb. FI.
N. S. Wales 450 (1893) ; Turner Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales xxviii. 306
(1903), XXX. 84 (1905) ; Hamilton ibidem xxxvi. 82 (1911) and Austr.
Natur. V. 2 (1913) ; Domin Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85, 448 (1915)
Maiden & Betche Census N. S. Wales PL 29 (1916) ; Dovey, Queensl.
Nat. ix. 91 (1935). E. ohtusa F. Muell. Fragm. viii. 240 (1874), not of
Schult.

Rhizome very short or descending; culms tufted, erect or nearly
so, mostly 30-50 cm. high, subterete or (when dry) compressed, finely
and lightly longitudinally striate, 1-1*7 mm. wide, somewhat thickened
at base ; sheaths membranous or thinly herbaceous, the uppermost closely
striate, appressed, the orifice truncate or slightly oblique, with a promi-
nent, rigid, erect dorsal mucro, brown and usually thickened at the
margin. Spikelet pallid or very pale brown (rarely dark brown), linear
cylindrical, obtuse, many-flowered, 10-15 mm. long or at length attaining
20 mm. after the fall of the lovrer glumes, 2*5-3 mm. wide ; glumes
numerous and very dense, the lowermost short bracteiform persistent,
the remainder very deciduous, ovate, obtuse, thinly membranous, keeled,
the keel disappearing some distance below the apex, margins broadly
hyaline, 2*2-2*5 mm. long ; style 3-fid ; stamens 3, anthers linear, subacute
or most minutely apiculate, 1-0-1-2 mm. long. Nut yellowish to golden
brown or brown, obovate, cuneate or slightly attenuate towards base,
equally and rather turgidly biconvex, margins prominently ribbed, even
over apex, 1*1-1*25 mm. long, 0*7-0*9 mm. wide, sides smooth and shining,
cells very minute, shortly vertically oblong but quite inconspicuous ;
style-base ovate or triangular-ovate, strongly flattened though usually
with a median line on the abaxial face, somewhat spongy and roughened,
to nearly -J as long and ^-f as wide as nut; bristles 8-9, subequal,
brown, rather stout, flattened and striate, closely and shortly retrorsely
toothed, about as long as the nut together with style-base. — Plate X.,,
figs. 20-23.

Queensland. — North Kennedy District: Ravenshoe, open swampy
ground ca. 3,000 ft., June, 1935, Blake 9549. Port Curtis District :
Rockhampton, damp places, Thozet 813 (M.) ; Boyne River, Hartman 89
(M.) ; Rosedale, clay-loam waterholes, not common, Nov., 1930, Dovey
S. ik Leichhardt District: Wandoan, abundant round lagoons and
creeks in heavy soil, 890 ft., with Juncus sp., Nov., 1930, Huhhard 4991.

122

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Burnett District : Mount Perry, Keys 367 ; Monto, open damp places
ca. 750 ft., March, 1937, Blake 12825. Darling Downs District: Near
Palardo, between Miles and Roma, on creek bank ca. 1,100 ft., May, 1934,
Blake 5887 ; Baking Board, 5 miles west of Chinchilla, edge of lagoon,
March, 1933, Quinlan] Brigalow, in melonhole in dead brigalow scrub
ca. 1,000 ft., Feb., 1938, Blake 13309 ; Milmerran, around pond in heavy
black soil in paddock from Eucalyptus forest land, 1,382 ft., March,
1931, Hubbard 5872; Bald Mountain, near Wallangarra, in railway
gutter, 2,750-3,000 ft., Jan., 1933, Blake 4462. Moreton District:
Buderim, May, 1933, Middleton; Durundur Lagoon and Archer ’s Lagoon,
November, 1843, Leichhardt (M.) ; Moreton Bay, Nov., 1858, Stuart 111
(M.) ; various places near Petrie, in or at edge of water, Blake 1016,
1046, 1115, 1145, 1219, 1222, 1233; Geebung (Brisbane), in small creek
in Melaleuca nodosa forest, Nov., 1932, Blake 1408; Rocklea (Brisbane),
Nov., 1909, White; Enoggera Creek, April, 1908, White; Brisbane, in
swamps, March, 1875, Bailey; Yatala, Sept., 1931, Michael 1848; Pim-
pama, Jan., 1933, Cribb; Marburg, October, 1930, Kunze in Herb. Hub-
bard 5480; Forest Hill, near Gatton, Brimblecombe; Mudgeeraba, in
swamp with J uncus sp., 15 ft., cleared rain-forest country. Sept., 1930,
Hubbard 4289 ; Tamborine Mountain, in stream with J uncus spp. and
Sparganium sp., 1,800 ft., open situation, red soil, very common. May,
1930, Hubbard 2521 ; Lanefield, 38 miles S.W. of Brisbane, in shallow
pool in grassland, 152 ft., April, 1930, Hubbard 2123.

New South Wales. — North-west Slopes: Nangara Cerek, Barraba,
April, 1913, Rupp (S.). Northern Tablelands: Wallangarra, April,
1914, Boorman; Deepwater, Jan., 1911, Boorman (S.) ; New England,
Stuart 6, 355 (M.). North Coast: Clarence River, Wilcox (M.) ; Ballina,
Dec., 1892, Bduerlen (S.) ; Coraki to Casino, June, 1906, Maiden (S.) ;
Port Macquarie, Feb., 1891, Boorman (S.) ; Awaba, Oct., 1899, Boorman
(S.). Central Coast: Parramatta, Woolls (M.) ; Richmond, Woolls (M.),
October, 1910, Greemvood (S.) ; Douglas Park, Dec., 1910, Hamilton
(S.) ; Duck Creek, Clyde, March, 1909, Hamilton (S.) ; Nepean River,
Dec., 1910, Hamilton (S.).

Differs from the American E. obtusa (Willd.) Schult, to which it
has been referred by Mueller, by the longer, narrower spikelets, the
narrower glumes, the constantly 3-fid style, the perennial habit, etc.
Among the Australian species it is fairly easily recognised by the long
obtuse spikelets and the very deciduous obtuse glumes, though in most
characters it is very close to E. pallens, as pointed out under that species.
In a few specimens from New South Wales the glumes are dark brown.

Series Palustriformes sub-series Palustres. Rather rigid, usually
stoloniferous perennials with the upper leaf-sheaths oblique at orifice ;
nuts biconvex, yellow or brown, smooth ; style 2-fid ; style-base spongy,
rarely depressed. (Species 22.)

22. E. neozelandica C. B. Clarke ex T. Kjirk in Trans. N. Zeal. Inst,
xxvi., 260 (1894) and 111. Cyp. t. xxxvi. figs 10-14 (1909) ; Cheeseman
Man. N. Zeal. FI. 768 (1906).

Rhizome creeping, branched, slender but rigid, 0*7-1 mm. diam.,
brown to purplish brown. Culms solitary or in distant small tufts,
rigid, somewhat spongy, often curved, striate-angular, 0*4-0*5 mm. wide,
up to 6 cm. long; sheaths deep purplish near base, firmly membranous,
striate, the upper one sometimes red-streaked, somewhat inflated at the
rigid oblique or very oblique orifice. Spikelet broadly ovoid, acute to

A MONOGRAPH OP THE GENUS ELEOCHARIS IN AUSTRALIA.

123

obtuse, 5-7 mm. long, 3-4 mm. wide, 4-10'-flowered ; glumes broadly
ovate, obtuse, 3-3-3-4 mm. long, concave, back 1-nerved, pallid to greenish,
sides membranous stained reddish- or purplish-brown, margins hyaline ;
style short, 2-fid, branches long ; stamens 3-2, anthers linear, prominently
apiculate, 1-6-1-8 mm. long, including the 0-3 mm. long appendage. Nut
shining golden brown, slightly asymmetrically obovate, subequally bicon-
vex with a faint furrow on the abaxial face, not turgid, margins obtuse
not costate, 1-7-1-8 mm. long, 1-2-1-3 mm. wide, not constricted below
the apex, which is only J as wide, smooth, external cells vertically oblong,
minute and inconspicuous; style-base deep brown, very small, sessile,
depressed but thin, only 0-2-0-25 mm. high, as wide as apex of nut, the
annulus prominent; bristles absent. — Plate X., figs. 24-28.

New Zealand. — North Island: Auckland Province: Tanau Tanau
Beach, near Reef Point, sandy margin of tidal creek, Jan., 1915, Carse.
Wellington Province: Himatangi, near Foxton, boggy places in sand-
dunes, March, 1931, Zotov. South Island: Nelson Province: Farewell
Spit, Kirk 1248 (TYPE in Herb. Kew; see below).

An interesting little New Zealand endemic; I have not seen the
type, but Dr. Svenson has sent me sketches and notes of its salient
characters. These agree with Clarke’s figures, so far as the latter go,
which were derived from Kirk 1005 from Cape Farewell, and indicate
a hyaline orifice to the leaf-sheath. In most of the cases I have seen
the orifice is more or less brownish, while the degree of obliquity varies
considerably. Sometimes it is nearly truncate, sometimes almost lanceo-
late. Other interesting points are the obliquely obovate nut, one edge
being concave inwards near the base, the other slightly convex outwards ;
the very small style-base; and the absence of bristles. The position of
the species in the genus is by no means clear, for while in the characters
of style, nut, and leaf-sheath it corresponds closely with the Palustres,
the very small style-base and complete absence of bristles do not. There
does, however, seem to be in New Zealand a distinct tendency for other
species to produce unusually small style-bases, so that this species may
not be so abnormal in this respect as might appear. It is of course
possible that it has been derived from the E. acuta type, in which, as
has been pointed out above, tendencies towards the reduction in style-
branches, reduction in size and development of style-base and bristles,
and increase in degree of obliquity of orifice of leaf-sheath have been
observed.

Series Maculosae. Nut biconvex, black to reddish-brown or olive,
the surface smooth or minutely wrinkled ; style 2-fid ; style base conical
or depressed, not strongly flattened. There are two sub-series, differen-
tiated as follows : —

Sub-series Rigidae. Non-stoloniferous annuals with sheaths
firm at the apex. Nuts black or purplish, the pericarp not
marcescent (Species 23-24).

Sub-series Ocreatae. Stoloniferous perennials, the sheaths
scarious at the apex. Nuts black to reddish-brown or olivaceous,
the pericarp marcescent, often slightly wrinkled. (Species 25.)

The species of this series are chiefly tropical, and especially numer-
ous in America.

124

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

23. E. geniculata (L.) B. & 8. Syst. Yeg. ii. 150 (1817) ; Svenson,
E/hodora xli. 50 (1939). Scirpus geniculatms L. Sp. PL i. 48 (1753)
partly. 8. caribaeus Rottb. Descrip. PL Rar. Progr. 24 (1772). E.
caribaea (Rottb.) S. F. Blake in Rhodora xx. 24 (1918) ; Svenson ibid,
xxxi. 225 (1929) . E. capitata R. Br. Prodr. 225 (1810) ; P. Muell. Pragm.
vi. 94 (1867), viii. 240 (1874), First Census 125 (1882), Sec. Census 211
(1889) ; Boeck. Linnaea xxxvi. 461 (1869-70) ; Benth. PL Austr. vii.
296 (1878) ; P. M. Bail. Syn. Queensl. PL 594 (1883), Catal. PL Queensl.
52 (1890), Queensl. PL vi. 1756 (1902), Compreh. Catal. 594 (1913) ;
Tate in Rep. Horn Exp. iii. 181 (1896) ; Domin Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft
85, 446 (1915) ; Ewart and Davies PL North. Territ. 57 (1917). E.
cetacea R. Br. Prodr. 225 (1810), not Prodr. 224. 8. Brownei Spreng.
Syst. i. 204 (1825) ; Eleogemts capitata Nees in Wight Contrib. Bot.
Ind. 112 (1834) ; Chlorocharis capitata Rikli in Pringsh. Jahrb. xxvii.
564 (1895).

Annual ; culms oblique to erect up to 4 dm. long and up to 0-7 mm.
wide, rather rigid, angular-striate ; sheaths rather rigid, appressed, pur-
plish at base, uppermost with a rigid, oblique and more or less lanceolate
orifice. Spikelets mostly rather reddish brown, globose to ovoid, 4-5
mm. long, 3-5-4 mm. wide ; glumes dense, deciduous, broadly ovate to
broadly obovate (suborbicular) , very obtuse, membranous, more or less
stained with brown, keeled, keel mostly greenish or pallid, 1-8-2 mm.
long ; style 2-fid ; stamens 2 or 3 ; anthers linear-oblong, minutely apicu-
late, 0-5 mm. long. Nut shining black, obovate with rounded apex,
biconvex with faintly ribbed margins, 0-9-1 mm. long, 0-7-0-8 mm. wide,
the sides smooth with the minute subquadrate external cells quite incon-
spicuous; style-base white and spongy, conical to ovate but usually
depressed, in height not exceeding ^ the length of the nut and scarcely
-J as wide as it ; bristles 6-8, rather coarse, somewhat scabrous, brown to
white, usually as long or somewhat longer than nut. — Plate X., figs.
29-31.

Western Australia. — South-west Division: Murchison River, wet
places by the Brook Oolinyarrah, Oldfield (M.).

North Australia. — Victoria River, Mueller in 1855 (M.) ; on creeks
flowing into the Victoria River, Nov., 1855, Mueller (M.) ; Sea Range,
Mueller in 1855, (M.).

Central Australia. — Palm Creek, Glen of Palms, July, 1894, Tate
(T., M.).

Queensland. — Burke District: Carpentaria, B. Brown (B., S., M.) ;
Riversleigh, on brink of Gregory River, 19° 0' S., 138° 45' E., April,
1935, Blake 8692 ; Normanton, on low sandpan. May, 1935, Blake 8985,
and on open slightly saline swampy ground, August, 1936, Blake 12489.
Cook District: Chillagoe, Dec., 1925, Campbell (S.), and in wet places
among limestone boulders near creek, 1,150 ft., March, 1938, Blake
13539 ; Mareeba, on bank of Granite Creek on wet sand, 1,300 ft., June,
1935, Blake 9523 ; Newcastle Range, between Forsayth and Einasleigh,
sandstone country, in gullies, Peb., 1928, Brass 1755; Einasleigh, in
swamps, Armit 461 (B.M.) ; Barron River Gorge, near Cairns, below
100 ft., on wet sand, June, 1935, Blake 9441. Moreton District : Coolum,
wet muddy places chiefly near the sea, April, 1938, Blake 13741;
Caloiindra, in a rock crevice facing the sea, August, 1932, Blake 1379;

A monograph of the genus ELEOCHARIS in AUSTRALIA. 125

Moreton Island, edge of Juncus maritimus swamp, May, 1937, Blake
13035 ; Stradbroke Island, at Point Lookout, in wet places near the sea,
July, 1938, Blake 13824.

In most warm countries, both in the Old and in the New World.
In Queensland its chief habitats appear to be of a calcareous or saline
nature. The hypogynous bristles are usually described as brown in
colour, but in Australian specimens they are usually white. Occasion-
ally they are absent, but appear to be always present in Australian
plants.

The nomenclature of this species has been the cause of extreme
confusion as it has also involved the status of commonly used names of
other species. It has now been shown that the name E. capitata R. Br.
was not based on Scirpus capitatus L., and that Brown’s species is
identical with 8. geniculatus L. Hence the correct name is E. geniculata
(L.) R. & S. although the American species which has usually been so
called is E. elegans (HBK) R. & S. A more thorough statement of the
position is given by Svenson in Rhodora xli. pp. 50-51 (1939), which
came to hand as this paper was in press.

24. E. atropurpurea {Betz.) Kunth Enum. ii. 151 (1837) ; Boeck.
Linnaea xxxvi. 458 (1869-70) excl. vars. ; P. Muell. Pragm. viii. 240
(1874), Pirst Census 125 (1882), and Sec. Census 211 (1889); Benth.
PI. Austr. vii. 296 (1878) partly; C. B. Clarke 111. Cyp. t. xxxvi. figs.
6-9 (1909) ; Domin Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85, 446 (1915) ; Etvart and
Davies PI. North. Territ. 57 (1917) ; W. V. Pitzgerald Proc. Roy. Soc.
W. Austr. iii. 118 (1918) ; Svenson Rhodora xxxi. 227 (1929) ; Gardner
Enum. Plant. Austr. Occid. 12 (1930) ; not of P. M. Bail., Moore, or
Maiden and Betche. E. atropurpurea var. setiformis Benth. PL Austr.
vii. 297 (1878) ; P. M. Bail. Syn. Queensl. PI. 595 (1883), Catal. PL
Queensl. 52 (1890), Queensl. PL vi. 1756 (1902), and Compreh. Catal.
594 (1913). Scirpus atropurpureus Retz. Ohs. v. 14 (1789).

Annual, usually dwarf ; culms tufted, up to 10 cm. long but mostly
much smaller, filiform but more or less triquetrous, rarely exceeding

0- 3 mm. wide ; sheaths thin, purplish or brownish at base, apex of upper-
most appressed, firm but thin, oblique or attenuate. Spikelet ovoid
oblong, obtuse, mostly blackish, 2-4 mm. long, 1*5-2 mm. wide ; glumes
numerous, dense, at length more or less spreading, elliptic, obtuse, mem-
branous, keeled, keel greenish, sides stained purplish brown, mostly

1- 1*3 mm. long; style 2-fid; stamen 1, anther linear or oblong-
linear, obtuse, most minutely apiculate, 0*3 mm. long. Nut 0*6-0*65 mm.
long, 0*4^0*45 mm. wide, glistening black and almost quite smooth,
obovate, rounded or rarely subtruncate at apex, biconvex, the margins
very narrowly ribbed, the sides sometimes minutely striate, the external
cells very minute and inconspicuous; style-base very small, strongly
depressed, white, as wide as nut, ca. 0*05 mm. high ; bristles mostly
4-6, slender, glistening white, translucent, minutely scabrous or nearly
smooth, shorter than nut, sometimes rudimentary or absent. — Plate X.,
figs. 32-33.

Western Australia. — Kimberley Division: Isdell River, 5 miles below
Mount Bartlett, July, 1905, Fitzgerald 1274 (ex P.).

North Australia. — Victoria River, Mueller (M.).

Queensland. — Cook District: Koolatah, 15° 15' S., 142° 25' E., on
edge of lagoon, ca. 200 ft., August, 1936, Blake 12596 ; North of Chilla-
goe, in channels of Walsh River on sand, ca. 1,000 ft., April, 1938, Blake
13622 ; Mount Molloy, banks of lagoons, April, 1932, Brass 2484 ; Cairns
in Melaleuca swamp at about sea-level, June, 1935, Blake 9359. Burke

R.S. — E.

126 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

District: Near Normanton, 17° 10' S., 141° 15' E., edge of fresli-water
lagoon, August, 1936, Blake 12627 ; Normanton, edge of lagoon, August,
1936, Blake 12521; Carron Creek, Gulliver 14 (M.). Mitchell District:
Edge of Warrigal swamp near Torrens Creek, March, 1933, White
8777. Leichhardt District: Gainsford, Bowman (M.). Port Curtis
District: Rockhampton, wet places, August, 1867, O’Skanesy 95 (M.),
Nov., 1867, O’Shanesy 65, ser. 8 (M.) ; Gracemere, annual rills on sides
of ranges, Nov., 1870, O^Shanesy 1272 (M.). Maranoa District: Mil-
tonise Station, about 30 miles west of St. George, in gilgai in brigalow
{Acacia harpophylla) scrub, ca. 600 ft., March, 1936, Blake 10819.

Scattered through the tropical regions of both the Old and the
New World.

The species can be readily identified by the tiny glistening black
nut and the translucent bristles. The preceding species is its closest
relative in Australia, but besides the smaller size of all its parts, the
glumes of E. atropurpurea are more prominently keeled, giving to the
spikelet a distinctly angular appearance, and usually blacker in colour.
In Blake 12521 the plants are unusually coarse (culms up to 0*6 mm.
wide) and lax, and the glumes are up to 1*4 mm. long.

Bentham confused this species with the following one {E. minuta).
The copious synonymy of the species is cited by Svenson loc. cit.

25. E. minuta Bovck. in Engler Bot. Jahrb. v. 503 (1884). E.
atropurpurea Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 296 (1878) partly and excl. var. ;
P. Muell. First Census 125 (1882) partly and Sec. Census 211 (1889)
partly; F. M. Bailey Syn. Queensl. FI. 595 (1883), Catal. PL Queensl.
52 (1890), Queensl. FI. vi. 1756 (1902), Compreh. Catal. 594 (1913)
all excl. var.; Moore, Handb. FI. N. S. Wales 451 (1893) ; Maiden and
Betche Census N. S. Wales PL 28 (1916). E. Maidenii Kiikenthal in
Fedde, Rep. Spec. Nov. xiii. 135 (1914) incl. var. suhaquatica. E.
ccreata Domin Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85, 446 (1915) not of Nees.

Perennial, but flowering the first year, sometimes producing short
stolons or rhizomes. Culms tufted, at times also some in rather loose
linear series when rhizomes are present, erect, spreading or recurved,
mostly 5-15 cm. long but frequently smaller, and sometimes up to 20
cm., angular-sulcate and usually rather soft and compressible, 0-4-0-6
mm. wide ; sheaths purplish at base, thinly membranous, dilated, oblique,
thinly scarious, and often torn at the orifice. Spikelet ovoid or oblong-
ovoid, obtuse or sub-acute, dark-coloured, 3-7 mm. long, 2 mm. wide,
dense-flowered ; glumes numerous, elliptic-ovate, obtuse, membranous,
keeled, keel green rather prominent, sides stained with purplish-brown
above, 1-7-1-8 mm. long; style 2-fid; stamens 2, anthers oblong-linear,
minutely apiculate, 0-35-0-4 mm. long. Nut obovate, sometimes slightly
attenuate near the base, rather turgidly biconvex, margins ribbed, 0-95-1
mm. long, 0-65-0-7 mm. wide, shining, minutely reticulate and roughened,
olivaceous to dark greenish brown but the pericarp tending to blacken
and wither at maturity, the external cells vertically oblong ; style-base
Avhitish, depressed, conical-acuminate, about J as long and ^ as wide as
nut, the annulus prominent, somewhat wider than the rounded apex of
the latter, upwardly curved from the middle ; bristles 7-5, firm, unequal,
shorter or somewhat longer than the nut, retrorsely scabrous, whitish,
strongly united at base, somewhat translucent when young. — Plate X.,
figs. 34-37.

Queensland. — Wide Bay District : Nikenbah, N.E. from Mary-
borough, June, 1927, Tryon. Moreton District : Coolum, in wet places,
April, 1938, Blake 13794; Buderim, May, 1933, Middleton; Caloundra,
in swamp near coast, August, 1932, Blake 1372; Petrie and neighbour-

A MONOGRi^^’H OP THE GENUS ELEOCHARIS IN AUSTRALIA. 127

hood, in swampy places, Blake 1143, 1254, 1255, 1262 ; various places in
the neighhourhood of Brisbane in wet places, Blake 1271, 1361, 1423,
1436, 4723, 4724, 5018, 12961, Bailey 56 (M.), 91 (B., M.), White;
Tamborine Mountain, ea. 45 miles S. of Brisbane, in stream through
pastures, red soil, 1,800 ft.. May, 1930, Huhhard 2524 ; Stradbroke Island,
edge of Melaleuca swamp, Dec., 1934, Blake 7100 ; and in wet places
inland near Point Lookout, July, 1938, Blake 13825.

New South Wales. — North Coast: Byron Bay, Forsyth 37 (S.).
Central Coast : Narrabeen, near Sydney, inundated in lagoon and in
dry claypan, April, 1909, Hamilton (S.), on marshy ground, Jan., 1935,
Blake 7430; Centennial Park, Sydney, Jan., 1909, Hamilton (S.),
growing under water,” Feb., 1909, Hamilton (S.), whole plant
(except the inflorescence) submerged in the ponds,” Jan., 1900, Cheel
(S.).

Victoria. — Central District: Port Melbourne, near mouth of Yarra
River, Dec., 1891, Feb., 1892, Dec., 1894, March, 1895, Reader (M.).

And in East Africa, Socotra, Madagascar, and Mauritius.

I am indebted to Dr. Svenson for the identification of this species.

There is a great deal of variation, particularly in habit, and this
may be indicated as follows: —

(1.) The most common state is that in which the plants form often
dense tufts with culms of medium height and rigidity; soft rhizomes
or stolons are sometimes developed. This is typical E. Maidenii, and,
according to Svenson, is indistinguishable from the type of E. minuta.

(2.) CheePs specimens and one collection of Hamilton’s from Cen-
tennial Park, both indicated as being taken from submerged plants,
have elongated very fiaccid culms up to 3 dm. long with greenish spike-
lets. They form the basis of E. Maidenii var. suhaquatica Kiikenthal,
but are certainly merely an accidental state due to the habitat.

(3.) The Victorian specimens have well-developed hardened
rhizomes, rigid culms with prominent scarious sheaths, nearly globular
spikelets, browner nuts, and rather larger style-bases. Hamilton’s
collection from a dry clay-pan at Narrabeen approaches them very
closely.

(4.) Blake 12967 comprises mostly tiny plants with few tufted
filiform culms, and are very similar in appearance to small plants of
E. atropurpurea. They are flowering in their first year, and are clearly
the result of the unusually rapid drying-up of the ground due to adverse
weather conditions. Similar dwarf and depauperate plants of other
species were associated, while normal plants occupied wet places nearby.

The Victorian plants are the least closely bound to the general
trend on account of the browner nut. Generally the nut is yellowish
when very young, later becomes greenish, and then greenish-brown. At
extreme maturity the pericarp becomes wrinkled and blackish on the
wrinkles.

EXCLUDED OR DOUBTFUL SPECIES.

Eleocharis geniculata R. Br. Prodr. 224 (1910). [i.e. E. elegans
(HBK) R. & S.] According to Domin in Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85,
449 (1915) this American species has been introduced to the neighbour-
hood of Sydney, where it was collected by Hooker. I have seen no
specimen from thence.

E. halmaturina J. M. Black Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr. li. 378
(1927). This species was based on very immature specimens collected
by Cleland on Kangaroo Island. It is certainly no Eleocharis, and the
specimens appear to be small plants of a Tetraria.

128 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

EELATIONSHIPS.

The geographical relationships of the Australasian species o
charts are summarised in the following table : —

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Eleo-

A MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS ELEOCHARIS IN AUSTRALIA. 129

The chief phylogenetic interest centres round those groups in which
endemic species occur. These are the Mutatae, the Multicaules and
Acutae> together with E. neozelandica, and the Aciculares. The Mutatae
comprise in all 18 or 19 species, none of which occur in Europe. In
Africa 5 or 6 species are known. One of these, E. fistiilosa, is wide-
spread, E. variegata is endemic to Madagascar and Mauritius but is closely
related to the Indo-Malayan E. laxiflora. E. spiralis, E. dulcis, and
E. equisetina are found in Madagascar. The remainder of the distribu-
tion is as follows: —

Asia (South-east and Malaya) : fistulosa, spiralis, dulcis, equise-
tina, philippinensis, laxiflora.^

Australia: fistulosa, spiralis, dulcis, equisetina, philippinensis^
sphacelata,^ nuda,* Brassii,* difformis.^

Central America, AVest Indies, Northern South America:
fistulosa, cellulosa, mutata;^ plicarhachis,'^ interstincta*

North America (Eastern) : cellulosa, equisetoides,* quadrangulata/^
Rohhinsii,^' elongata.'^'

There thus appears to be two major centres of concentration, one
in the Old World and one in the New World. One species, E. acutan-
gida, is common to both, though there is a tendency towards the develop-
ment of distinct trends, and E. spiralis of the Old World is closely allied
to E. cellulosa of the New World. The other American species need not
concern us here except for the fact that E. Eohhinsii and less frequently
E. elongata exhibit the primitive character of a trigonous nut. Of the
10 species occurring in Asia and Australia, 9 occur on the latter con-
tinent (all to be found in Queensland), and four are restricted thereto
(except that E. sphacelata also occurs in New Zealand) . This is interest-
ing, for it is scarcely in accordance with the generally accepted dictum
that much of the flora of northern Australia is of Indo-Malayan origin.
This theory has been greatly over-stressed, while far too little attention
has been given to the possibility that northern Australia may have been
a centre of distribution from which Malaya may have received part of
its flora. There is quite a lot of evidence in favour of the latter, and a
great deal against the former generally accepted view, though this is
scarcely the place to discuss the subject.

The group of species E. gracilis, E. pachycarpa, E. Dietrichiana,
E. tetraquetra, E. acuta, E. plana, E. pallens, E. cylindrostachys, and
E. neozelandica is a most interesting one, and though distributed
between four series, the species are undoubtedly closely allied. Whether
E. pachycarpa be truly indigenous or only introduced as seems more
likely, matters little. Chiefly by reason of its triquetrous nut and well-
developed rhizome E. gracilis appears to be the most primitive member
of the group, w^hile the affinities of the other species may be indicated
as f ollow^s : —

E. gracilis ^ cf. E. pachycarpa ^ E. tetraquetra

Y

E. Dietrichiana

E. pallens E. acuta Y E. neozelandica

E. cylindrostachys E. plana

* The species endemic in the respective areas are indicated by an asterisk.

Eecently admitted or described species brings the number up to 23. Of the
extra species 2 are endemic in Africa, and 2 in Central America, etc.

130

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

There seems little doubt that the group is of southern origin. E.
tetraqmtra, however, extends into south-eastern Asia, having a some-
what similar range to some of the Mutatae.

The Aciculares find their greatest development in America (south-
western United States, Mexico, and the Andes), where all the species of
the series are found, except for the two Australian species. One of
the latter, E. pusilla, is most closely allied to an Andean species, while
E. atricha appears to hold an isolated position in the series.

INDEX.

In the following index only names based on Australasian specimens
are mentioned : —

Eleocliaris —

aoicularis auctt.

var. elongata Benth.
var. pusilla
acuta auctt. . .
acuta E. Br. . .
acuta var. pallens Benth.
acuta var. tenuis Carse
amhigua Kirk
atricha K. Br.
atricha F. Muell.
atropurpiirea Kuntb.
atropurpurea Benth.

var. setiformis Benth.
Brassii S. T. Blake . .
caespitosissima Baker
capitata E. Br.
compacta E. Br.
compacta Domin
Cunninghamii Boeek.
cylindrostachys Boeck.
Dietrichiana Boeck. . .
Dietrichiana auctt. . .
difformis S. T. Blake
dulcis Trin. . .
equisetina Presl.
fistulosa (Poir) Link
fistulosa auctt.
geniculata (L.) E. &. S.
gracilis E. Br.
gracilis Hook, f .
var. Hook. f.
var. gracillima Hook, f
' var. radicans Hook. f.

gracillima Hook. f. . .
halmaturina J. M. Black
Hookeri Boeck.

Maidenii Kiik.

var. suhaquatica Kiik.
minuta Boeck.
mucronulata Nees
mucronulata Palla . .
multicauUs auctt.
neoselandica C. B. Clarke
nigresceiis Steud.
nuda C. B. Clarke . .
obtusa F. Muell.
ocreata Domin
pachycarpa Desv.
pallens S. T. Blake . .
palustris F. Muell. . .
philippinensis Svenson

E. pusilla
E. pusilla
E. pusilla

E. acuta E. pallens
18

E. pallens
E. acuta
E. acuta
11

E. nuda

24

E. minuta
E. atropurpurea

5

13

E. geniculata
E. spiralis

E. spiralis and E. Brassii
E. gracilis
21
17

E. pallens chiefly
4
8
9
1

E. philippinensis
23
16

E. acuta
E. acuta
E. gracilis
E. gracilis
E. gracilis
Tetraria sp. (?)

E. gracilis
E. minuta
E. minuta

25

E. acuta

E. acuta and E. pallens
E. gracilis
22
12

6

E. cylindrostachys
E. minuta

14
20

E. acuta and E. gracilis
3

A MONOGRAPH OP THE GENUS ELEOCHARIS IN AUSTRALIA.

131

plana S. T. Blake
plantaginea F. Muell.
plantaginoides Bomin
piisilla R. Br. . .
radicans Hook f.
setacea B. Br.
sphacelata R. Br.
sphacelata auctt.
spiralis Benth.
spiralis R. & S.
striatula C. B. Clarke
tetraquetra Nees
tuberosa R. & S.
variegata Benth.
variegata Fitzg.

Isolepis —

acicularis A. Rich. . .

Scirpus —

acutus Poir. . .
compactus Spreng.
isdellensis Fitzg.
pumilio Spreng.
pusillus Poir.
sphacelatus Poir.
tener Spreng.

19

E. equisetina
E. equisetina
10

E. gracilis '

E. carihaea
7

E. sphacelata + E. dulcis + F. equisetina
E. spiralis and E. plana
2

E. pusilla ;

15

E. dulcis

E. spiralis and E. Brassii
E. philippinensis

E. gracilis

E. acuta.

E. spiralis
E. caespitosissima
E. pusilla
E. pusilla
E. sphacelata
E. acuta

EXPLANATION OP PLATES.

In all plates the nut is shown from the dorsal (abaxial) view with the filaments
removed, the transverse section of the nut with the dorsal side or angle downwards,
the flower from the adaxial view, and the glume from the abaxial view.

Plate VII.: Semes MUTATAE.

FIGS. 1-3, Eleocharis fistulosa (Blalce 9371); 1, spikelet, natural size; 2,
glume, X 5; 3, nut, x 15. FIGS. 4-6, E. spiralis (Blahe 12790): 4, spikelet, natural
size; 5, glume, x 5; 6, nut, x 15. PIGS. 7-10, E. philippinensis {Blalce 12968):
7, spikelet, natural size ; 8, transverse secton of culm, x 2 ; 9, glume, x 5 ; 10, nut,
X 15. FIGS. 11-15, E. difformis (Blalce 13203); 11, terrestrial plant, natural size;
12, glume, X 5; 13, flower, x 5; 14, nut, x 15; 15, surface of nut, x 50. FIGS. 16-19,
E. Brassii (Brass 1864): 16, portion of plant, natural size; 17, glume, x 5; 18,
flower, X 5 ; 19, nut, x 10. FIGS. 20-22, E. nuda (Blalce 9360) : 20, spikelet, natural
size; 21, glume, x 5; 22, nut, x 15.

Plate VIII.: Series MUTATAE and ACICULAEES.

PIGS. 1-5, Eleocharis sphacelata (Blalce 4618): 1, base of plant, natural size;
2, upper part of culm with spikelet, natural size ; 3, glume, x 5 ; 4, nut, x 10 ; 5,
surface of nut, x 50. FIGS. 6-9, E. dulcis (Blalce 47'81) : 6, spikelet, natural size;
7, glume, X 5; 8, nut, x 10; 9, surface of nut, x 50. FIGS. 10-13, E. equisetina
(Blalce 1440): 10, spikelet, natural size; 11, glume, x 5; 12, nut, x 10; 13, surface
of nut, X 50. FIGS. 14—19, E. pusilla (Blalce 4943): 14, plant, natural size; 15,
glume, X 10; 16, flower, x 10; 17, nut, x 20; 18, transverse section of same; 19,
surface of nut, x 50. PIGS. 20-24, E. atricha (BleClce 7537) : 20, plant, natural size;
21, glume, X 5; 22, nut, x 20; 23, transverse section of same; 24, surface of nut,
X 50.

Plate IX.: Series TENUISSIMAE, SULCATAE, and MULTICAULES.

FIGS. 1—4, Eleocharis nigrescens (Blalce 13398): 1, plant, natural size; 2,
flower, X 15 ; 3, nut, x 25 ; 4, transverse section of same. FIGS. 5-7, E. caespitosis-
sima (Fitzgerald 1043): 5, plant, natural size; 6, nut, x 15; 7, surface of nut,
X 50. PIGS. 8-11, E. pachycarpa (C am field) : 8, spikelet, natural size; 9, upper
part of leaf-sheath, x 5; 10, nut, x 15; 11, transverse section of same. FIGS. 12—15,
E. tetraquetra (Blalce 13761) : 12, spikelet, natural size; 13, upper part of leaf-
sheath, X 5; 14, nut, x 15; 15, transverse section of same. PIGS. 16-22, E. gracilis
(Blalce 7431) : 16, plant, natural size; 17, upper part of leaf -sheath, x 5; 18, glume,
X 7 ; 19, flower, x 7 ; 20, nut, x 15 ; 21, transverse section of same ; 22, surface of
nut, X 50. PIGS. 23-29, E. Bietrichiana (Dietrich 714): 23, plant, natural size;
24, upper part of leaf -sheath, x 5; 25, glume, x 7; 26, flower, x 7; 27, nut, x 15;
28, transverse section of same; 29, surface of nut, x 50.

132

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

Plate X.: Series ACUTAE, PALUSTBIFOBMES, and MACULOSAE.

FIGS. 1-7, Eleocharis acuta {BlaTce 7539) : 1, plant, natural size; 2, upper part
of leaf -sheath, x 2 ; 3, glume, x 7 ; 4, flower, x 7 ; 5, nut, x 15; 6, transverse section
of same; 7, surface of nut, x 50. FIGS. 8-11, E. plana {Blake 1 Q15) \ 8, spikelet,
natural size; 9, upper part of leaf-sheath, natural size; 10, transverse section of
culm, X 2; 11, nut x 15. FIGS. 12—19, E. pallens (Blake 11235) 12, portion of
plant, natural size ; 13, upper part of leaf -sheath, x 5 ; 14, glume, x 7 ; 15, flower,
X 7(; 16, nut, x 15; 17, transverse section of same; 18, upper part of another nut,
X 15; 19, surface of nut, x 50. FIGS. 20-23, E. cylindrostachys (Blake 13309):
20, spikelet, natural size; 21, glume, x 7; 22, nut, x 15; 23, transverse section of
same. FIGS. 24-28, E. neozelandica (Carse) 24, portion of plant, natural size;
25, flower, x 7 ; 26, nut, x 15 ; 27, transverse section of same ; 28, surface of nut,
X 50. FIGS. 29-31, E. geniculata (Blake 13539): 29, plant, natural size; 30, nut,
X 15; 31, transverse section of same. PIGS. 32-33, E. atropurpurea (Blake 13622):
32, plant, natural size; 33, nut, x 15. PIGS. 34—37, E. minuta (Blake 4724):
34, portions of two plants, natural size ; 35, flower, x 10 ; 36, nut, x 15 ; 37, surface
of nut, X 50.

Proc. Koy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. L., No. 12.

Plate VII.

EleO'Charis, Series Mutatae.

Figs. 1-3, Eleocharis fisiulosa (Poir.) Link. Figs. 4-6, E. spiralis (Rottl).)
R. & S. Figs. 7-10, E. phUippinensis Svenson. Pigs. 11-15, E. di'ff ormis S. T. Blake.
Figs. 16-19, F. Brassii S. T. Blake. Figs. 20-22, E nuda C. B. Clarke.

Proc. Eoy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. X., No. 12.

Plate VIIT.

Eleocharis, Series Mutatae and Aciculares.

Figs. 1-5, Eleocharis sphacelata K,.Br. Figs. 6-9, E. didcis (Burm. £•) Trm
Figs. 10-13, E. equiseiina Presl. Figs. 14-19, E. pusilla R.Br. Figs. ^0-24, E
atricha E.Br. (Fig. 22 x 20.)

Plate IX.

pROC. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. L., No. 12.

Eleocpiaris, faeries Tenuissimae, Sulcatae, and Multicaules.

Figs. 1-4, E. nigrescens (Nees) Steud. Figs. 5-7, E. caespitosissima Baker.
Figs. 8-11, E. pachycarpa Desv. Figs. 12-15, E. ietraqueira Nees, Figs. 16-22,
E. gracilis R.Br. Figs. 23-29, E, Dietricliiana Boeck.

l^LATE X.

Proc. Koy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. L., No. 12.

Eleocharis, Series Acutae, Paliistriformes, and Maculosae.

Figs. 1-7, E. acuta E.Br. Figs. 8-11, E. plana S. T. Blake. Figs. 12-19, E.
palJens S. T. Blake. Figs 20-23, E. cylinelrostacliys Boeck. Figs. 24-28, E.
neoseJandica C. B. Clarke. Figs. 29-31, E. genicidafa (HBK) R. & S. Figs. 32-33,
E. a.tropurpurea (Retz.) Kiintli. Figs. 34-37, E. minuta Boeck,

VoL. L., No. 13.

133

New Australian Lepidoptera.

By A. Jefferis Turner, M.D., F.B.E.S.

I wish to express my thanks to Mr. Kershaw, of the National Museum,
Melbourne, and Mr. Glauert, of the West Australian Museum, for the loan
of specimens from these collections, and to other valued correspondents.

Fam. Larentiadae.

Gen. Eremodorea nov.
ipTjfjiohajpea, gift of the desert —

Tongue present. Face rough-scaled. Palpi short, ascending, not
reaching middle of face, to which they are appressed ; second joint shortly
rough-scaled ; terminal joint minute, acute. Thorax and abdomen without
crests ; the former slightly hairy beneath. Posterior tibiae with middle
spurs. Forewings with a large single areole ; 2 from f, 3 from before angle,
4 from angle, 5 from well above middle, 6 from upper angle, 7 from end of
areole connate with 8, 9, 10, which are stalked, 10 separating long before
8, 11 from end of areole. Hindwings with 2 from f, 4 from angle, 3 from
midway between them, 5 from above middle of discocellulars (f), which are
nearly straight, 6 and 7 short-stalked from upper angle, 11 anastomosing
with cell from J to f .

I know of no near ally to this genus. The neuration is similar to that
of Chcetolopha, but the palpi and wingshape are quite different. It is
interesting also as coming from the dry west of Queensland. My specimen
was taken at light during a period of intense drought.

Eremodorea haplopsara n. sp.
airXoijjapos, simple grey —

28 mm. Head whitish-grey ; face blackish. Palpi fuscous.
Antennae whitish-grey. Thorax whitish-grey, with a few fuscous scales.
Abdomen fuscous. Legs fuscous, with pale rings. Forewings elongate -oval,
costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen long, obhque, gently rounded,
becoming slightly sinuate towards tornus ; pale grey ; markings and slight
irroration towards margins fuscous ; a very fine irregular dentate line from
f costa to J dorsum ; a discal dot beyond middle, closely followed by a
slightly darker narrow median shade ; a slightly wavy subterminal line ;
a terminal line ; cilia whitish, with narrow fuscous bars opposite veins.
Hindwings very elongate, almost spathulate, termen rounded and shghtly
waved, but almost straight in tornal third ; colour as forewings ; a discal
dot about middle ; a strongly sinuate subterminal line ; terminal line and
ciha as forewings.

Queensland : Quilpie, in May ; one specimen.

Anomocentris cajpnoxuiha, n. sp.

KCLTTVo^ovdos y dark tawny —

16-17 mm. Head and thorax fuscous-brown. Palpi very small ;
whitish. Antennae whitish ; in male with short slender pectinations ending
in tufts of long ciha. Abdomen brownish-fuscous ; apices of segments
whitish. Legs fuscous, with whitish rings ; posterior pair whitish. Fore-
wings broadly triangular, costa very slightly arched, apex pointed, termen

134 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

slightly rounded, moderately oblique ; fuscous-brown ; a slender whitish
line from f costa to f dorsum, nearly straight ; a whitish slightly waved
submarginal line, indented above middle, beneath this almost touching
margin, ending on tornus ; cilia fuscous. Hindwings with termen strongly
rounded ; brownish -fuscous ; cilia fuscous.

This tiny species was taken flying in the late afternoon near sunset.

Queensland : Miles and Roma, in April and May ; two specimens.

Fam. Sterrhidae.

Sterrha pulcherrima n. sp.
pulcherrimus, most beautiful —

30 mm. Head and collar brown. Palpi IJ ; fuscous. Antennae
grey ; pectinations in male 3, extreme apex simple. Thorax crimson.
Abdomen whitish. Legs whitish ; anterior and middle pairs sprinkled with
fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa straight almost to apex, apex pointed,
termen straight, slightly oblique ; crimson ; a subdorsal spot near base and
three narrow transverse fasciae grey sprinkled with white ; some orange-brown
suffusion preceding flrst and between flrst and second and second and third
lines ; first fascia at J, straight, not reaching costa ; second in middle with a
median posterior tooth ; third at |, slightly waved ; a wavy white sub terminal
line with two small posterior teeth above middle ; cilia whitish. Hindwings
with termen rounded ; white ; transverse grey lines at J, middle, and J ;
cilia white.

West Australia : Tammin, in September ; one specimen.

Fam. Geometridae.

Chlorocoma pediobates n. sp.

TreStojSarr^?, roaming the plains.

20-23 mm. Face and front of crown ochreous -brown ; back of
crown green ; fillet white. Palpi ochreous -whitish. Antennse grey-whitish ;
pectinations in male 5, apical J simple. Thorax green. Abdomen green,
with whitish scales on apices of segments. Legs ochreous -whitish ; anterior
pair fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa straight except near base and
apex, apex obtusely pointed, termen almost straight, oblique ; green sparsely
sprinkled with minute whitish scales ; a whitish subterminal line scarcely
traceable ; costal edge ochreous ; cilia green, apices pale grey. Hindwings
with termen rounded ; as fore wings.

Differs from C. asemanta Meyr., which I have not seen, in the colour of
face and front of crown ; from C. dichloraria Gn. in the absence of a pale
longitudinal abdominal streak and in the green cilia.

Queensland : Miles, in May ; five specimens.

Gen. Lophothorax nov.

Xo(j)od(x)pa^, with crested thorax —

Face not projecting. Tongue present. Palpi moderate, thickened
with appressed scales, rough beneath. Antennae in female shortly
bipectinate. Thorax with a posterior crest. Posterior tibiae with middle
spurs. Forewings with 2 from f, 5 from well above middle, 6 from upper
angle, 7, 8, 9, 10 stalked, 11 from near end of cell anastomosing with 12.
Hindwings with discocellulars angled, 3 and 4 separate, 5 nearly approxi-
mated to 6, 6 and 7 separate, 12 approximated to cell to J, thence diverging.

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

135

Lophothorax alamphodes n. sp.

dXci[ji7Ta)Sr]9, dark —

$. 28 mm. Head and thorax fuscous sprinkled with dark fuscous and

whitish. Palpi IJ ; dark fuscous, base whitish beneath. Antennae dark
fuscous ; pectinations in female 1|. Abdomen grey. Legs grey ; anterior
pair fuscous ; tibiae and tarsi with whitish rings. Fore wings triangular,
costa moderately arched, apex subrect angular, termen rounded, oblique,
crenulate ; fuscous unevenly sprinkled with whitish ; markings dark fuscous ;
a small ill-defined basal patch followed by a whitish suffusion ; a strongly
dentate line from J costa to f dorsum ; a short linear oblique discal mark
followed by a large ill-defined whitish spot ; from beneath this an ill-defined
dentate line to mid-dorsum ; a finely denticulate line, white-edged posteriorly,
from J costa strongly incurved below middle to |- dorsum ; cilia fuscous,
bases barred with white. Hindwings with termen rounded, crenulate ;
grey ; on dorsum and towards termen strigulated with whitish ; cilia as
fore wings.

West Australia : Coorow, in October ; one specimen.

Protophyta henigna n. sp.

benignns, pleasing —

60 mm. Head whitish-brown ; face white. Palpi 1 J ; pale grey,
beneath white. Antennae brown, apical half of stalk pale grey ; pectinations
in male 3. Thorax whitish-brown. Abdomen white, dorsum tinged with
grey towards base. Legs white, with sparse fuscous irroration ; anterior
tibiae brown ; anterior and middle tarsi grey. Forewings triangular, costa
straight, apex pointed, termen strongly rounded, wavy, moderately oblique ;
grey- whitish ; a brownish basal suffusion traversed by a fine dark brown
streak ; a dark brown line from J costa obliquely outwards for a short
distance, thence acutely angled and angled again inwardly above middle,
thence inwardly oblique to J dorsum ; a moderately broad grey-brownish
fascia, its inner edge from f costa to mid-dorsum, gently waved above
middle, outer edge from | costa, irregularly waved to f dorsum ; followed
immediately by a broad whitish line, beyond which the terminal area is pale
grey ; a faint whitish subterminal line interrupted towards dorsum by
two or three very short dark fuscous streaks ; cilia grey- whitish, apices
white. Hindwings with termen rounded, crenulate, and toothed on vein
4 ; colour and markings as forewings, but with no basal markings. Underside
whitish ; a dark fuscous discal dot on each wing followed by a wavy transverse
line not reaching margins, edged posteriorly by whitish line ; terminal grea
suffused with brown containing a dentate dark fuscous line not reaching
margins, its upper end enlarged into a roundish blotch, its whole posterior
edge defined by a white line ; on the hindwings the postmedian line has a
postmedian tooth, and the subterminal is replaced by a broad fascia.

Nearly aUied to P. castanea. Turn., but much larger and more distinctly
marked, especially distinguished by the basal markings of forewings.

Queensland : Beaudesert, in October ; one specimen, which flew into
the railway carriage as it was approaching the town.

Fam. Oenochromidae.

Taxeotis thegalea n. sp.

drjyaXeos, pointed —

27-30 mm. Head grey; face blackish. Palpi ; blackish ; basal
I of underside white sharply defined. Antennae grey ; in male slightly
laminate, very shortly ciliated. Thorax, abdomen, and legs grey. Fore-
wings triangular, costa straight to near apex, apex acutely pointed, termen

136 PROCEEDINGS OB' TPIE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

slightly sinuate, oblique ; 12 anastomosing with areole (5(^) or connected
with it by a short bar (3(^ 1$) ; pale grey with very slight fuscous irroration ;
markings fuscous ; a slender line from J costa to J dorsum, often obsolete ;
a minute discal dot ; a slender hne perpendicular to | costa, soon angled
and sinuate to f dorsum ; often reduced to a series of dots, followed by a
second parallel dotted line, occasionally pale-edged posteriorly ; a terminal
series of dots ; cilia pale grey, apices fuscous. Hindwings with termen
rounded ; as forewings, but markings less distinct.

Best distinguished from T. intermixtaria Wlk., which it resembles, by
the shorter palpi and acute apices of forewings.

West Australia : Mount Barker, Collie, and Denmark, in November ;
Perth and Mogumber, in October ; nine specimens.

Taxeotis lechrioschema n. sp.

Xexp^ocrx'^fJ'Os, with oblique pattern —

22-26 mm. Head and thorax grey ; face blackish. Palpi IJ ;
blacldsh, lower surface white sharply defined. Antennae grey -whitish ; in
male shghtly laminate and shortly ciliated. Abdomen grey. Legs fuscous ;
posterior pair whitish-grey. Forewings rather narrow, triangular, costa
straight to near apex, apex pointed, termen slightly rounded, slightly
oblique; 11 anastomosing with areole (5 (^) ; grey faintly strigulated with
fuscous, sometimes brownish-tinged ; markings dark fuscous ; a slender
oblique line from J dorsum not reaching costa ; a minute discal dot ; a dot
on J costa ; a strong double line from f dorsum to apex, its outer component
finely dentate, followed by a series of dots ; terminal area beyond this darker
grey ; a terminal series of dots ; cilia grey, apices whitish. Hindwings with
termen rounded ; a double line from mid-dorsum seldom reaching middle ;
sometimes a subterminal line ; colour, terminal dots, and cilia as forewings.

A neat little species, which should be easily recognised.

West Austraha : Merredin, in September ; Tammin, in October ; five
specimens.

Taxeotis eutyctodes n. sp.
evTVKTos, well-wrought —

^ 25-26 mm. Head whitish -ochreous anteriorly, grey posteriorly ; face
ferruginous. Palpi 2^ ; ferruginous sometimes with some white or whitish
scales at base beneath. Antennse grey ; in male minutely ciliated. Thorax
and abdomen grey. Legs fuscous ; posterior pair sprinkled with whitish.
Forewings triangular, costa straight to near apex, apex pointed, termen
shghtly rounded, slightly oblique ; 12 connected by a bar with areole ; a
ferruginous line containing costal, median, and dorsal dots from J costa
to J dorsum ; a discal dot ; a fuscous mark on | costa from beneath which
runs a ferruginous black-dotted sinuate line to f dorsum, closely followed
by a parallel fuscous line ; a pale subterminal line preceded by some fuscous
dots ; a submarginal series of blackish dots ; cilia grey- whitish. Hindwings
with termen rounded ; grey ; a transverse fuscous line from f dorsum not
reaching costa ; sometimes a short fuscous mark at tornus ; submarginal
dots and cilia as forewings.

West Australia : Perth, in September ; four specimens.

Taxeotis xanthogramma Low.

In my revision (Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W. 1929, p. 489) the length of the
palpi is given incorrectly. The correct length is IJ to IJ.

Also from West Australia : Tammin, in September.

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

137

Taeotis maerens n. sp.

maerens, mournful —

25-28 mm. Head and thorax ochreous -whitish or whitish-grey ;
face blackish. Palpi wholly blackish. Abdomen pale grey. Legs fuscous ;
posterior pair pale grey. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex
pointed, tern^sn rounded, oblique ; 12 anastomosing with areole (7 1? ) or

connected by a bar (3(^ 1$) ; grey, with a few fuscous scales ; markings
fuscous ; sub-basal line obsolete or faintly indicated ; a minute discal dot ;
postmedian line reduced to a series of minute dots ; it arises at right angles
from I costa, but is soon angled and sinuate to f dorsum and followed by a
parallel series of dots ; a series of dots on termen ; ciha grey -whitish. Hind-
wings with termen rounded ; colour and markings as fore wings.

West Austraha : Perth, in September and October ; Margaret Piver,
in October ; Denmark, in November ; nineteen specimens.

Taxeotis helicta n. sp.

iXiKTOs, twisted. —

20 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen grey ; face blackish. Palpi
IJ ; blackish, base of lower surface white sharply defined. Antennae grey ;
in male minutely cihated. Legs grey- whitish sprinkled with fuscous ;
anterior pair fuscous. Forewings rather narrow, triangular, costa straight
to near apex, apex pointed, termen rounded, obhque ; 12 anastomising with
areole ; uniformly grey with two blackish lines ; first at J, straight ; second
from f costa, transverse to middle, there sharply bent inwards and strongly
concave to f dorsum ; cilia grey, apices whitish. Hindwings with termen
strongly rounded ; grey ; ciha grey.

West Australia : Merredin, in September ; one specimen.

Taxeotis pychnomochla n. sp.

TTuyvojaoyAos-, thickly barred —

18-20 mm. Head and thorax grey ; face blackish. Palpi 1 J ;
blackish, basal f of lower surface white sharply defined. Antennae grey ;
in male minutely ciliated. Abdomen whitish-grey, with a few fuscous
scales. Legs grey- whitish sprinkled with fuscous ; anterior pair fuscous.
Forewings triangular, costa straight to near apex, apex pointed, termen
rounded, oblique ; grey, with dark fuscous markings ; a straight thick line
from J costa to J dorsum ; a discal dot ; a line from f costa to f dorsum,
with a small posterior tooth beneath costa, thence thicker and slightly
incurved, partly edged posteriorly with white ; a suffused whitish sub terminal
line ; a terminal series of dark fuscous dots ; cilia grey, apices whitish.
Hindwings with termen rounded ; grey ; a short slender transverse fuscous
line from dorsum beyond middle ; terminal dots and ciha as fore wings.

West Australia : Merredin, in September ; Coorow in October ; two
specimens.

Taxeotis didymosticha n. sp.

SlSv[jlogtv)(0£ , twin-lined —

18 mm. Head and thorax grey ; face blackish. Palpi IJ; blackish,
basal f of lower surface white sharply defined. Antennae grey ; in male
minutely cihated. Abdomen missing. Legs whitish sprinkled with
fuscous ; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa straight, apex
pointed, termen slightly rounded, slightly obhque ; 12 connected by a bar

138 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

with areole ; grey, with numerous slender whitish transverse lines ; costa
strigulated with whitish ; markings dark fuscous ; an obscure double sub-
basal transverse fuscous line ; a discal dot ; a short mark on f costa, from
beneath which runs a twice sinuate double line to dorsum before tornus ;
a terminal series of dots ; cilia grey. Hindwings with termen rounded ;
grey ; some whitish and fuscous strigulse on dorsum ; terminal dots and ciha
as forewings.

West Australia : Tammin, in October ; one specimen.

Taxeotis celidora n. sp.

KTjXiSopos, blotched —

5. 20 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen pale grey ; face blackish.

Palpi 2 ; blackish, lower surface to f white sharply defined. Antennae grey.
Legs grey ; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings rather narrow, triangular,
costa straight almost to apex, apex acutely pointed, termen sinuate, oblique ;
12 anastomosing with areole ; grey ; a transverse blackish line at J ; another
dentate and sinuate at f ; included area suffused with dark fuscous ; second
line broadly edged with fuscous posteriorly ; a terminal series of dark fuscous
dots ; cilia grey, with fuscous points. Hindwings with termen rounded ;
grey ; terminal dots and cilia as forewings.

West Australia : Coorow, in October ; two female examples. With
these I took one male (15 mm., 12 connected with areole by a bar), which
differs in the absence of the broad central blotch on forewings, but is in too
poor condition for description.

Gen. Cycloprorodes nov.

KVKXoTTpcjopcoSrjs, with rounded prow —

Face with smooth rounded prominence. Tongue present. Palpi
moderate, porrect rather slender, smooth-scaled except at base beneath.
Antennae in female shortly bipectinate. Thorax and abdomen rather stout ;
the former hairy beneath. Femora smooth. Posterior tibiae with middle
spurs. Forewings with a simple areole ; 5 from middle of cell, 11 free, 10
from ceU giving off 9 to anastomose with 7, 8. Hindwings with 5 from
middle of cell, 6 from upper angle, 7 separate, 12 closely approximated to
cell as far as middle.

In neuration this agrees with Symphylistis Turn., but differs in the
prominent face and stouter build.

Cycloprorodes apalama n. sp.

aTToXapioSy sluggish —

$. 40 mm. Head and thorax brown ; face whitish ochreous, lateral

margins blackish. Palpi IJ ; blackish, terminal and apices of second joints
ochreous -whitish. Antennae whitish, pectinations fuscous. Abdomen
whitish-ochreous. Legs whitish-ochreous, with slight fuscous irroration.
Forewings elongate-triangular, costa gently arched, apex rectangular, termen
rounded, oblique ; brown sprinkled and strigulated with fuscous ; a small
fuscous discal spot beyond middle ; a thick dark fuscous line with dentate
posterior edge from apex to tornus ; terminal area beyond this pale brown ;
cilia pale brown. Hindwings with termen rounded ; whitish ; terminal area
suffused with fuscous ; cilia whitish.

South Australia : Adelaide, in May ; one specimen received from
Mr. J. 0. Wilson.

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

139

Dichromodes mesoporphyra n. sp.

fjL€G07TOp<f>vpos, puTple ill the middle —

20 mm. 28 mm. Head and thorax reddish-ochreous. Palpi 2 ;
blackish, basal half beneath white sharply defined. Antennae fuscous ;
pectinations in male 3. Abdomen pale grey. Legs fuscous, with whitish
rings. Forewings triangular, costa straight almost to apex, apex rounded,
termen rounded, slightly oblique ; reddish-ochreous ; a broad median reddish-
purple band containing a minute fuscous discal dot ; its anterior edge partly
whitish, from J costa to f dorsum, with subcostal, median, and subdorsal
^posterior teeth ; posterior edge curved, denticulate, bordered with whitish,
from f costa to | dorsum ; an interrupted reddish -purple subterminal shade ;
an interrupted fuscous terminal line ; cilia grey. Hindwings with termen
rounded ; grey ; an ill-defined darker shade from | dorsum to midcosta ;
terminal line and cilia as fore wings.

The sexes are similar. In my revision I was mistaken in ascribing the
female to D. rufula Prout. Actually it is a very distinct species.

West Australia : Northampton, in October ; Cunderdin, in November ;
two specimens.

Dichromodes rufilinea n. sp.
rufilineus, reddish-lined —

22- 26 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi 2J ; blackish basal
half beneath white sharply defined. Antennse fuscous. Abdomen and legs
grey. Forewings triangular, costa slightly arched, apex pointed, termen
nearly straight, oblique ; dark grey with fuscous markings ; a faint curved,
sub-basal line ; antemedian from J costa to mid-dorsum, straight, with two
posterior teeth, one above and one below middle ; a small oval pale centred
discal spot ; postmedian from f costa to f dorsum, edged posteriorly by a
pale line ; immediately beyond this a subterminal fascia with a median
rectangular projection and excavations above and below, inner edge of
fascia below middle suffused with reddish ; cilia grey, with whitish points
and apices. Hindwings with termen rounded ; grey ; cilia grey.

West Australia : Merredin, in September ; two specimens.

Dichromodes subrufa n. sp.
subrufus, somewhat reddish —

23- 24 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi H; grey with a
tew white scales at base beneath. Antennae fuscous ; pectinations in male 4.
Abdomen grey. Legs grey ; anterior pair fuscous, with whitish rings.
Forewings triangular, costa slightly arched, apex pointed, termen slightly
rounded, slightly oblique ; grey ; markings fuscous mixed with pale reddish ;
a moderate dark basal patch containing two pale transverse lines ; median
band fuscous, narrow ; anterior edge from f costa to mid-dorsum, nearly
straight ; posterior from f costa to f dorsum, slightly angled outwards in
middle, narrowly whitish-edged posteriorly; a median discal dot; a fine
irregularly denticulate subterminal line ; a submarginal shade with a rectan-
gular median projection posteriorly, excavated above and beneath, posteriorly
narrowly edged with whitish ; an obscure series of terminal dots ; cilia
whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded ; grey ; darker towards termen ;
» cilia grey.

West Australia : Coorow, in October ; two specimens.

140

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

Dichromodes jphceoxesta n. sp.

(j)aLO^€GTos, darkly polished —

28-30 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi ; blackish, basal
half beneath white sharply defined. Antennae fuscous ; pectinations in
male 6. Abdomen grey. Legs fuscous, with whitish rings ; posterior pair
grey. Forewings triangular, costa slightly arched, apex pointed, termen
shghtly rounded, slightly obhque, crenulate ; glossy fuscous ; an obscure
dentate dark line at J ; a dark fuscous discal dot ; postmedian line obscure,
denticulate, from f costa sinuate to f dorsum, edged whitish posteriorly,
towards dorsum double ; following this some slender dark streaks on veins ;
a very obscure whitish subterminal line ; an interrupted dark terminal fine ;
ciha fuscous, with whitish points. Hindwings with termen rounded ; grey ;
slight fuscous marks on and before tornus ; terminal edge fuscous ; cilia
grey, apices whitish.

West Australia : Merredin, in September ; five specimens.

Dichromodes typhistis n. sp.

TV(f)LGTLSy smoky —

$. 26-28 mm. Head grey. Palpi 2J ; grey, with some white scales

above and sharply white at base beneath. Antennse fuscous. Thorax
dark fuscous ; patagia and tegulse grey. Abdomen grey. Legs fuscous,
with whitish rings ; posterior pair grey. Forewings triangular, costa slightly
arched, apex pointed, termen rounded, slightly oblique ; grey, with sparse
fuscous irroration and obscure darker markings ; two slender transverse
fines near base ; antemedian at J, dentate, very obscure ; a short transverse
linear discal mark ; post median fuscous posteriorly edged with whitish,
very obscure ; subterminal faintly marked, sinuate, denticulate ; a fine
whitish subterminal fine ; a terminal series of triangular dots ; cilia grey,
apices whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded ; grey, darker towards
termen ; cilia grey.

South Australia : Mount Lofty Ranges, in November ; type received
from Mr. J. O. Wilson, West Australia ; Mogumber, in October ;
two specimens.

Dichromodes capnoporphyra n. sp.

KaTTVOTTop^vpos, dark piurple —

5. 24-26 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi ; wholly fuscous.

Antennae fuscous. Abdomen grey. Legs with whitish rings, fuscous ;
posterior pair grey. Forewings triangular ; costa straight to near apex,
apex obtusely pointed, termen rounded, slightly oblique ; fuscous, purple-
tinged, with darker markings ; two slender transverse sub-basal fines ; a
slender antemedian fine at J ; a linear transverse median discal mark ;
postmedian slender from f costa, obliquely outwards, bent inwards in middle
to J dorsum ; a terminal series of dots ; cilia ochreous -whitish, with a fuscous
median fine. Hindwings with termen rounded ; grey ; sometimes a small
fuscous discal mark ; cilia as forewings.

West Australia : Mogumber, in October ; two specimens.

Enchocrana lacista Tmn.

In one female and in a male from Coorow vein 12 of the hindwings
anastomoses with the cell. Antennal pectinations in male 6.

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

141

Enchocrana oxy stoma n. sp.
o^varofjLos, sharp-toothed —

28 mm. Head fuscous sprinkled with whitish ; frontal process long,
slender, acutely pointed. Palpi 2 ; fuscous sprinkled with whitish. Antennae
fuscous ; pectinations in female 3. Thorax and abdomen fuscous. Legs
fuscous, with whitish rings. Forewings elongate -triangular, costa very long,
straight, apex acute, termen long, strongly rounded, strongly oblique ;
fuscous, with very slender fuscous lines ; antemedian at J, outwardly obhque ;
postmedian from f costa to f dorsum, slightly sinuate ; a terminal line ;
ciha fuscous, with whitish bars between crenulations. Hindwings with
termen not rounded, toothed on veins 3 and 6 ; as fore wings, but hues
scarcely traceable.

In the hindwings 12 anastomoses with the cell.

West Australia : Coorow, in October ; one specimen.

Lissomma thrasyschema n. sp.
dpaGva)(y[xo9y boldly patterned —

$. 34 mm. Head blackish sprinkled with whitish ; face with a rounded

prominence, from which springs a down-curved beak-hke chitinous process.
Palpi IJ ; blackish sprinkled with whitish. Antennae fuscous ; in female
simple. Thorax with a posterior crest ; blackish sprinkled with whitish.
(Abdomen missing.) Legs blackish, with whitish rings ; posterior tibiae
with middle spurs. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa straight almost
to apex, apex acute, termen rounded, oblique, dentate ; white partly suffused
with blacldsh, appearing grey ; markings blackish ; costal and median basal
spots, the latter with acute posterior tooth ; a sinuate sub -basal transverse
hne ; antemedian at J, irregularly dentate ; several streaks on veins in
median area ; a large transversely oval pale-centred discal spot ; postmedian
from I costa to f dorsum, irregularly dentate, a sharp posterior tooth beneath
costa and an anterior tooth above dorsum ; edged posteriorly with white ;
a wavy subterminal line from costa before apex to tornus, edged posteriorly
with white ; a series of interneural streaks running into termen, on which
is a dark hne ; cilia grey. Hindwings with termen scarcely rounded, dentate ;
basal half white, with a small fuscous discal mark ; posterior half grey, with
,two irregular blackish postmedian lines, the second edged white ; an incom-
plete white-edged subterminal line, cilia barred with blackish on apices of
dentations.

I formerly separated Dinocephalus Prout from Lissomma Warr. by the
absence of middle spurs, but the affinities of this species are with the former
genus, which should, I think, be merged in the latter.

West Australia : Yanchep, in September ; one specimen.

Gen. Nycticleptes nov.
vvKTLKX€7TTrj£, prowluig by night —

Face with moderate rounded projection. Tongue strongly developed.
Palpi moderately long, porrect ; second joint thickened above and beneath
” with rough hairs ; terminal joint short and very stout, apex obtusely rounded ;
Thorax and abdomen stout ; thorax hairy above and beneath with a small
basal dorsal crest ; abdomen smooth-scaled. Coxae and femora hairy ;
tibiae with spurs short ; posterior with middle spurs. Fore wings with ceU J ;
2 from f , 3 from angle, 4 from shortly above, 5 from well above middle (f),
6 from upper angle, 7, 8, 9 stalked from shortly before angle, 10 from cell,

142 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

approximated to 8, 9 beyond 7 but not connected, 11 from f, free. Hind-
wings with cell not quite J ; 2 from f , 3 from near angle, 4 from angle, 5, 6, 7
closely approximated at origin, 12 closely approximated to cell from J to f ,
thence diverging.

It is likely that in other examples 10 may be connected with 8, 9 forming
a long narrow areole. The structure of the antennae is not known. The
genus is near Hy'pogra'pha, differing in 11 of forewings being free, and the
close approximation of 5 and 6 of the hindwings.

N ycticleptes lechriodesma n. sp.

XexptoSeGfjLo^y obhquely banded —

(^. 50 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, and abdomen fuscous. (Antennae

missing.) Legs fuscous, with whitish rings. Forewings triangular, costa
and termen long, dorsum comparatively short, costa straight, apex acute,
termen rounded, sinuate beneath apex, shortly dentate ; fuscous ; a broad
subterminal fuscous-whitish fascia from apex to tornus, anterior edge nearly
straight, posterior edge slightly curved, crenulate ; cilia fuscous. Hindwings
with termen strongly toothed on veins 4 and 6 ; colour as forewings, with
a similar but broader subterminal band.

South Australia : Purnong, near Murray Bridge ; type in National
Museum, Melbourne.

Oenochroma celidophora n. sp.

KrjXiSo(l)opa, blotched —

32-36 mm. Head and thorax pale grey. Palpi 1|^ ; pale grey.
Antennae grey ; pectinations in male 10. Abdomen whitish-grey. Legs
whitish sprinkled with grey ; tarsi grey ; anterior tibiae with a terminal
hook. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa straight to beyond middle,
thence slightly incurved, apex acute, termen sinuate, slightly oblique ; pale
grey, with a few fuscous scales ; an oblique suffused grey line from f costa
to I dorsum, a slightly sinuate line of minute fuscous dots from costa near
apex to f dorsum ; cilia grey, apices whitish. Hindwings with termen
slightly rounded ; as forewings, but subterminal dots not developed. Under-
side whitish, with a large oval dark fuscous blotch above tornus in forewings
only, and slender subterminal dotted lines on both wings.

Best differentiated from O. suhustaria Wlk. by the markings on
underside.

West Australia : Coorow, in October ; six specimens.

Fam. Noctuidae.

Graphiphora ctenota n. sp.

KT€vcoTos , pectinated —

d'. 34 mm. Head reddish-brown ; lower edge of face whitish -ochreous.

Palpi 2J ; whitish -ochreous, outer surface of second joint dark fuscous
edged beneath with brown. Antennae grey ; pectinations in male 3 (apices
broken off). Thorax reddish-brown ; tegulae except apices whitish-
ochreous. Abdomen grey ; beneath whitish, with lateral blackish spots.
Legs fuscous, partly tinged brownish, with whitish rings. Forewings
elongate-triangular, costa nearly straight, apex rectangular, termen straight,
rounded beneath, not oblique ; pale ochreous-brown, with blackish markings
and strigulae ; these strigulae are most developed on costal and dorsal margins,
with one larger in mid-disc at J ; orbicular obsolete ; reniform narrow,
subcrescentric ; an interrupted line from | costa, outwardly curved, bent

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

143

inwards to f dorsum ; slight indications of a subterminal line ; cilia pale
brownish. Hindwings with termen rounded ; fuscous, paler, towards
base ; cilia ochreous -grey- whitish, with a fuscous median line.

If it were not for the male antennse, this might be mistaken for an
aberration of G. comjpta Wlk.

New South Wales : Scone, in October ; one specimen received from
Mr. H. T. Nicholas.

Gen. Thoracolopha nov.
dwpaKoXocl)oSy with crested thorax.

Face not prominent. Palpi ascending, not reaching beyond middle of
face ; second joint thickened with appressed scales ; terminal joint very
short or minute, obtuse. Antennae of male very shortly ciliated. Thorax
clothed with scales ; with a posterior crest and large tegulae. Abdomen
without crest. Posterior tibiae hairy ; middle spurs present. Neuration
normal.

Though reluctant to make a new genus, I am unable, to place the three
following species in any previously described. Of Australian genera, they
appear nearest to Syntheta Turn., but differ in the much shorter palpi, the
larger tegulae, and the origin of the obsolescent vein 5 of the hindwings
from the middle of cell. Type T. pissonephra.

ThoracolopJia pissonephra n. sp.

TTLGGove^posy with black reniform.

27-30 mm. Head blackish or whitish-ochreous. Palpi blackish,
apices whitish. Antennae blackish ; ciliations in male J. Thorax blackish ;
patagia sometimes edged with grey, or sometimes patagia and centre
ochreous -whitish. Abdomen fuscous. Legs fuscous, with ochreous -whitish
rings. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa straight, apex rounded-
rectangular, termen shghtly rounded, not oblique ; fuscous-grey ; costa
strigulated with blackish and ochreous -whitish ; sometimes a white median
sub-basal dot ; orbicular small, circular, outlined with white ; reniform
large, black, triangular, the posterior inferior angle produced ; a transverse
dentate fuscous line between stigmata ; a blackish subterminal shade
beneath costa ; some dark fuscous streaks ending in pale terminal dots ;
cilia fuscous. Hindwings with termen rounded ; grey ; a fuscous discal
dot and terminal line ; cilia grey, apices fuscous.

West Austraha : Albany, in November ; Margaret River, in October ;
Perth ; Narrogin ; six specimens.

Thoracolopha plcesiospila n. sp.

7r\aL(jLOG7nXo£, square -spotted —

23 mm. Head brownish-fuscous. Palpi with minute terminal
joint ; ochreous -whitish, external surface of second joint except apex dark
fuscous. Antennae fuscous ; ciliations in male less than J. Thorax with a
strong posterior crest ; brownish-fuscous. (Abdomen missing.) Legs dark
fuscous, with whitish rings ; posterior pair mostly whitish. Forewings
elongate-triangular, costa nearly straight, apex subrectangular, termen
slightly rounded, scarcely oblique ; pale fuscous reddish-tinged ; markings
blackish ; a whitish costal dot near base, a second at J, a third in middle,
and five more between this and apex ; a fine transverse line from J costa to
I dorsum, sharply indented above dorsum ; a large somewhat quadrangular

144 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

reniform connected by a wavy line with mid-dorsum ; beyond this is a paler
area traversed by a fine line, which starts from a midcost al dot and is bent
twice quadrangularly well beyond reniform and again beneath it, whence
it proceeds direct to dorsum at j ; a terminal series of spots edged anteriorly
with reddish ; cilia fuscous, apices whitish. Hindwings with termen slightly
sinuate ; whitish, with grey discal dot and terminal suffusion ; cilia whitish,
bases grey.

Queensland : Cunnamulla, in April ; one specimen.

ThoracolopJia alychnodes n. sp.

dAuyvctjST]?, dark —

26 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen fuscous ; thorax with a strong
posterior crest. Palpi with terminal joint very short, obtuse ; dark fuscous,
terminal and apex of second joint ochreous -whitish. Antennae fuscous ;
ciHations in male about Legs dark fuscous, Avith whitish rings ; posterior
pair mostly whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa gently arched,
termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique ; fuscous-grey ; a whitish costal
dot near base, a second at J, a third at middle, and two more beyond this ;
an obscure double very strongly dentate dark fuscous fine at J ; reniform
scarcely indicated by a pale dot ; a very fine wavy dark line starting from
a dot on midcosta, quadrangularly bent well beyond and beneath reniform,
thence to f dorsum ; cilia fuscous, apices paler. Hindwings with termen
rounded ; whitish-grey ; cilia whitish, with a grey sub-basal line.

Queensland : Gayndah, in October ; one specimen.

Caradrina stigmatucha n. sp.
aTLyfiarov^oSy well branded —

$. 28 mm. Head and thorax grey sprinkled with whitish. Palpi grey

sprinkled with whitish ; base and inner surface white. Antennae black
finely annulated with whitish. Abdomen ochreous -whitish. Legs whitish
sprinkled with fuscous ; anterior pair dark fuscous, with whitish rings.
Forewings triangular, costa straight, termen gently rounded, not oblique ;
grey sprinkled with white and fuscous, appearing fight grey ; a short fuscous
mark from base of costa, edged posteriorly white ; a fine shortly dentate
fine from J costa to J dorsum, indented above dorsum ; interrupting this,
a round white orbicular spot with grey centre ; a fuscous shade from costa
before middle to mid-dorsum ; immediately beyond this an 8-shaped white
reniform with two grey centres ; postmedian double, partly filled in with
white and with some white dots beyond, from f costa to tornus, sinuate,
with a sharp tooth above tornus ; a grey subterminal shade, well defined
posteriorly, with quadrangular projections above and below middle ; a
terminal series of fuscous lunules edged with white ; cilia grey, with narrow
whitish bars. Hindwings with termen slightly rounded ; pale grey ; cilia
whitish, with a pale grey sub-basal fine.

Queensland : Roma, in April ; one specimen.

Gen. Thaumasiodes nov.
davjJiacncjoSrjs, marvellous —

Tongue present. Palpi moderate, upturned ; second joint moderately
thickened ; terminal joint very short, obtuse. Abdomen with prominent
crests on sixth and seventh segments. Posterior tibiae smooth ; all spurs

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

145

present and long. Forewings without areole ; 7, 8, 9, 10 stalked, 3 and 4
separate. Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked, 6 and 7 connate, 12 anastomosing
with cell near base.

Allied to Arceoptera Hmps., from which it differs in the strong
abdominal crests and separation of 3 and 4 of the hindwings.

TJiaumasiodes eurymitra n. sp.
evpvfjLLTpog, broadly girdled —

5- 12 mm. Head white. Palpi dark fuscous. Antennae fuscous ; basal

joint white. Thorax with anterior half white, posterior half fuscous. Abdo-
men fuscous ; base, crests, and underside whitish. Legs fuscous ; posterior
pair white. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa almost straight, apex
pointed, termen rounded, strongly oblique ; grey, greenish-tinged ; markings
blackish partly outlined with white ; a broad antemedian fascia, inner edge
from J costa to dorsum near base, outer edge from midcosta to mid-dorsum
with a small acute tooth beneath costa and another below middle ; a curved
dentate line edged white posteriorly from f costa to below middle of disc ;
a short white indented line from costa near apex ; rather large apical and
subapical fuscous spots ; cilia pale grey, bases barred with fuscous. Hind-
wings with termen rounded ; colour and antemedian band as forewings.

North Queensland : Lake Barrine, in September ; one specimen.

Gen Eremobates nov.
ipripLof^arr]? y roaming the desert —

Tongue present. Face with strong conical rounded protuberance.
Antennae in male shortly ciliated. Palpi rather long, porrect, thickened with
appressed scales ; terminal joint short, obtuse. Thorax with strong posterior
crest. Abdomen with small basal crest. Legs smooth ; posterior tibiae with
middle spurs. Fore wings with areole ; 2 from f, 3 and 4 approximated from
angle, 5 from slightly above, 6 from upper angle, 7 connate with 8, 9 from
areole, 10 separate, 11 from cell. Hindwings with cell less than J ; 2 from
1 , 3 and 4 connate from angle, 5 from below middle parallel to 4, 6 and 7
connate from upper angle, 12 anastomosing with cell near base, thence
diverging.

Not near any other genus, though structurally it approaches Tarache.

Eremobates dolera n. sp.

SoXepog, deceitful —

28 mm. Head and thorax brown. Palpi 1 J ; brown. Antennae
grey ; ciliations in male J. Abdomen ochreous-grey-whitish. Legs fuscous,
with whitish rings ; posterior pair whitish-ochreous. Fore wings triangular,
costa straight, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique ;
basal area dark brown ; a broad median band, anteriorly dark brown,
posteriorly suffused with pale grey, edged by whitish-ochreous lines, anterior
from J costa to mid-dorsum, posterior from f costa to dorsum near tornus,
with a strong obtuse median tooth ; terminal area suffused pale grey ; a
terminal series of dark fuscous dots ; cilia grey. Hindwings with termen
rounded ; a faint antemedian fuscous discal dot ; a terminal fuscous band,
broad at apex, narrowing suddenly above tornus ; cilia grey- whitish.

Superficially this species is very suggestive of the Larentiadce.

Central Australia : Tennant’s Creek ; type in National Museum,

Melbourne.

146 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

Selepa picilinea n. sp.
picilineus, with pitch-black lines —

28 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax grey. Abdomen ochreous-
whitish, crest on basal segment represented by a small grey disc. Legs
whitish ; anterior pair grey. Forewings rather broadly sub-oval, costa
strongly arched, apex rounded-rectangular, termen gently rounded, oblique ;
light grey, with blackish markings ; antemedian line double from J costa
to I dorsum slightly outwardly curved, indented above dorsum ; postmedian
from I costa to | dorsum, obtusely bent in middle, posteriorly edged with
white ; a broad oblique suffusion connects middle of first with origin of
second line ; in this is a white discal dot ; three or four costal dots beyond
this ; faint indication of a subterminal line ; a terminal series of triangular
dots ; ciha grey. Hindwings with termen rounded, slightly waved ;
whitish suffused with grey towards termen ; cilia whitish.

Queensland : Rockhampton in May ; one specimen.

Calathusa hemicapna n. sp.

ifUKarrvos , half dusky —

$. 27 mm. Head and palpi grey. Antennae fuscous. Thorax dark

fuscous, with a few whitish scales, patagia broadly grey. Abdomen pale
grey. Legs fuscous ; posterior pair whitish. Forewings narrowly triangular,
costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; basal area
and costal half broadly dark fuscous ; remainder of disc whitish, with dark
fuscous irroration and markings ; a fine dentate transverse line from | costa,
becoming outwardly oblique at its upper end ; an oblique series of four
dots between veins follows this ; a broad sinuous line from before tornus ;
a submarginal series of dots between veins ; cilia grey, bases barred with
fuscous.

Queensland : Roma, in April ; one specimen.

Calathusa phceoneura n. sp.

(j)aiov€vposy dark-veined —

9. 28 mm. Head and thorax fuscous sprinkled with whitish. Palpi

grey. Antennae fuscous. Abdomen whitish -ochreous, with a few reddish
scales. Legs whitish ; anterior pair grey, with whitish rings. Forewings
narrowly triangular, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen
obliquely rounded ; grey, with dark fuscous markings and some patchy
whitish suffusion ; an outwardly curved line from before ^ costa to J
dorsum; an outwardly oblique line from before f costa, rather sharply
angled in middle, again angled and thence transverse to f dorsum ;
terminal area partly suffused with white, traversed by fine interrupted
streaks on veins ; a submarginal series of dots between veins ; cilia whitish,
with grey bars. Hindwings with termen slightly sinuate ; grey- whitish
suffused with grey towards apex ; cilia whitish.

Queensland : Yelarbon, near Inglewood, in November ; one specimen.

Diatenes acrocausta n. sp.
aKpoKavGTos y scorched at the apex —

$. 32 mm. Head and thorax whitish-brown, with few scattered blackish

scales. Palpi 3, second joint long, expanded antero -posteriorly towards
apex, terminal joint short, obtuse ; pale brownish. Antennae fuscous.
Abdomen sprinkled with whitish and towards base with pale ochreous.

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

147

Legs fuscous, with brown- whitish rings. Fore wings triangular, costa nearly
straight, apex rectangular, termen straight, rounded beneath, scarcely
oblique ; whitish-brown ; a suffused interrupted brown costal streak to f ;
an incompletely developed double dentate sub-basal fuscous transverse
line ; reniform small, quadrangular, pale centred with brown outline ; a
triangular dark fuscous apical blotch bounded by a straight line from f costa
to midtermen ; in it three pale costal dots and a large oval apical brown
spot : a very fine parallel dark fuscous line precedes blotch, which is
traversed by a fine fuscous subterminal line prolonged by a series of dots to
I dorsum ; a submarginal series of pale dots ; cilia fuscous, on apex whitish-
brown, below middle grey. Hindwings with termen strongly rounded ;
grey, paler towards base ; cilia grey. Underside of hindwings with a fuscous
spot at J, and curved transverse postmedian and subterminal lines.

North Queensland : Kuranda, in June ; one specimen.

Gen. Alophosoma Turn.

The conical frons has an apical circular depression partly hidden by a
tuft of scales above it.

Alophosoma cana n. sp.

canus, whitish -grey —

35 mm. $. 40 mm. Head and palpi grey. Antennsegrey ; in male

bipectinate, pectinations 3. Thorax grey mixed with whitish. Abdomen
ochreous-grey- whitish. Legs whitish-grey. Forewings elongate-triangular,
costa straight, slightly arched before apex, apex rounded-rectangular ;
termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique ; grey largely suffused with whitish ;
a whitish basal patch edged by a fine fuscous line, very strongly toothed in
middle, indented above and beneath ; fine fuscous streaks on veins ; a fine
curved wavy fuscous line from f costa to before tornus, indented above
dorsum ; two spots above tornus and several interneural streaks between
these and costa fuscous ; cilia whitish, with grey bars. Hindwings with
termen rounded ; in male white narrowly suffused grey on apex and termen ;
in female grey except near base and dorsum ; cilia white.

North Queensland : Georgetown ; two specimens in rather poor

condition.

Prorocopis mitotypa n. sp.
jjuTOTVTTog, thread-marked —

28 mm. Head and thorax grey sprinkled with whitish. Palpi grey,
bases whitish. Antennse grey ; cilia in male f with slightly longer bristles.
Abdomen ochreous -whitish ; basal crest fuscous. Legs grey ; posterior
pair whitish. Forewings narrowly triangular, costa rather strongly arched,
apex obtusely pointed, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique ; grey ;
markings formed by extremely slender fuscous lines ; a sub -basal line acutely
toothed above middle ; a double wavy line from J costa to J dorsum ;
orbicular shortly before this, small, circular, and slenderly outlined : reniform
large ; postmedian obsolete at costa, outwardly curved to well below middle,
thence curved upwards and touching reniform, curved again downwards,
indented, ending on f dorsum ; sub terminal pale ; irregularly dentate,
partly fuscous-edged ; a crenulate submarginal line ; cilia grey. Hindwings
with termen slightly sinuate ; white, slightly suffused with grey on termen ;
cilia white.

Central Australia : Mount Liebig ; one specimen received from Mr.
J. O. Wilson.

148

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

Ophyx dochmotoma n. sp.

SoxfJiOTOfjiog, obliquely divided —

40 nun. Head, thorax, and abdomen grey. Palpi with second joint
reaching vertex, thickened with loosely appressed scales, terminal joint J,
stout, obtuse ; blackish, extreme base white, apex of terminal joint whitish.
Antennae grey ; in male shortly ciliated (J) with longer bristles. Legs grey,
with whitish rings ; knees of anterior pair blackish. Forewings elongate-
triangular, costa almost straight but slightly sinuate, apex pointed, termen
gently rounded, slightly crenulate, strongly oblique ; grey ; extreme costal
edge whitish in central portion ; indications of a slender fuscous dentate
antemedian hne ; reniform dotlike, pale, with fuscous outhne ; a fine,
almost straight ochreous -whitish line from | costa to f dorsum bounding a
narrow obscure fuscous fascia with dentate posterior edge ; a crenulate
fuscous terminal line ; cilia grey. Hindwings with termen rounded ; colour,
terminal band, and cilia as forewings ; in male the dorsal half of cell is
occupied by a finely corrugated scaleless area, which is prolonged for a
short distance between veins 5 and 6; 6 and 7 are separate at origin.

Queensland : Noosa, in May ; one specimen.

Gen. Chorizomena nov.

Xcopi'^ofievosy remote, isolated —

Tongue well developed. Palpi very slender, smooth, porrect, not
reaching beyond face. Face smooth. Thorax and abdomen slender, not
hairy. Legs smooth ; posterior tibise without middle spurs. Forewings
with 2 from middle of cell, 4 from angle, 3 from midway between, 5 from
shortly above angle, discocellular incurved, cell f, areole very large and
projecting beyond cell to f, 6 from near base of areole, 7 from near its apex,
8 and 9 stalked, 10 from areole very near them, 11 from middle of cell,
running close to areole but not connected. Hindwings with dorsum long ;
2 from 1 , 4 from angle, 3 from midway between, 5 approximated at origin
to 4, 6 from upper angle, 7 from before middle of cell, strongly curved and
closely approximated to 12, but not connected.

The species described below has the wing-shape of one of the Terpna
group of the Geometridce. Structurally, it is certainly one of the Noctuidce,
but with curious modifications of the neuration, especially of the hindwings.
I do not know any related genera.

Chorizomena nivosa n. sp.

nivosus, snow-white —

$. 30 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi pale fuscous. Antennae

grey, towards base white. Abdomen white ; terminal segments greyish ;
tuft white. Forewings triangular, termen nearly straight, shghtly obhque ;
white with fuscous dots ; a dot on J dorsum, and another in disc above it ;
a pair of subcostal dots at J arranged transversely, a postmedian fine of dots,
indented beneath costa and slightly angled outwards in middle, followed
closely by a fine interrupted line ; a subterminal series indented above
middle, ciha white. Hindwings with dorsum long, termen rounded ; colour
and markings as fore wings, but without antemedian dots ; postmedian and
subterminal lines converging towards dorsum. Underside white without
markings.

North Queensland : Cooktown (Endeavour River) ; type in National
Museum, Melbourne.

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

149

Artigisa microsticta n. sp.
fjuKpoaTiKTog. minutely speckled —

(^. 22-25 mm. Head and thorax brownish -fuscous. Palpi very long,

obliquely ascending, second joint exceeding vertex, terminal joint J, stout,
obtusely pointed ; brown, at base fuscous, terminal joint pale at base and
apex. Antennse fuscous ; with tufts of long cilia (3). Abdomen fuscous-
brown ; tuft fuscous. Legs fuscous, with whitish rings. Forewings
triangular, costa very slightly arched, apex subrectangular, termen rounded,
oblique, shghtly crenulate ; brownish -fuscous ; stigmata obscure, blackish ;
orbicular round or dotlike ; reniform obliquely elongate, constricted in
middle, sometimes partly obsolete ; a wedge-shaped whitish-ochreous
costal mark at about f , bisected by a fine minutely dentate fuscous line to
f dorsum, on its edges minute whitish-ochreous specks ; a submarginal
series of blackish dots, each preceded and followed by a whitish-ochreous dot ;
cilia fuscous, with some reddish -purple scales. Hindwings with termen
shghtly rounded, dentate ; as forewings.

North Queensland : Havenshoe and Millaa Millaa (3,000 feet), in

September, November, and December. Queensland : Montville (1,500 feet),
near Nambour, in September. Four specimens.

Gen. Philogethes nov.

(^iXoyrjdrjg, cheerful —

Head with frontal tuft. Tongue strong. Palpi very long, porrect ;
second joint extremely long, thickened with rough scales, with a ridge of
long rough scales on upper surface throughout ; terminal joint short, acute.
Antennse in male shortly ciliated. Fore wings with areole present ; 2 from
middle, 3, 4, 5 approximated from angle, 6 from upper angle, 7 connate
with 8, 9, 10 from areole, 11 from beyond middle, anastomosing shortly with
areole. Hindwings with 2 from f , 3 and 4 stalked, 5 from well above angle
(I), 6 and 7 connate, 12 anastomosing with cell near base.

Probably allied to Hypenodes Gn., which has lost the areole in the
forewing.

Philogethes metableta n. sp.
fxera^XrjTog, variable —

(^. 18-20 mm. Head whitish ; face sometimes fuscous. Palpi fuscous,

lower haK of external surface sometimes brown- whitish. Antennse brown-
whitish, towards base annulated with dark fuscous ; ciliations in male less
than 1. Thorax brown-whitish ; bases of tegulse dark fuscous. Abdomen
brown-whitish ; sometimes with a pair of dark fuscous dots on second
segment, or some dorsal suffusion on terminal segment. Legs brownish-
whitish, with some fuscous scales ; apices of tibiae fuscous. Fore wings
elongate-triangular, costa straight to near apex, apex round-pointed, termen
wavy, strongly angled on vein 4, incurved between this and apex ; brown-
whitish, with fuscous markings ; a short streak on costa from base ; a line
from costa near base to base of dorsum ; a straight, slightly dentate line
from J costa to J dorsum ; a similar line from before midcosta to J dorsum,
followed by a narrow fuscous suffusion more or less complete ; two dots
above middle transversely placed foUow this ; a fine, strongly sinuate,
slightly dentate line from beyond midcosta to beyond mid-dorsum ; a
sinuate subterminal line sometimes preceded by three ferruginous dots ; a
submarginal series of dots ; in one example a quadrangular blotch between
subterminal line and termen, from which a strong line cutting subterminal
nms to dorsum ; a fine terminal line ; cilia brown- whitish, on excavation

150

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

fuscous. Hindwings with termen slightly rounded, irregularly dentate
two approximated antemedian lines, between which is a discal dot ; a series
of dots from tornus, closely followed by a line, neither reaching costa ;
between them two discal dots ; submarginal dots and cilia as forewings.

North Queensland : Kuranda, in May ; Lake Barrine, in September ;
Bavenshoe, in January ; three specimens. I have seen another from
Eungella.

Fam. Lymantriad^.

Lcelia turneri Collenette.

CoUenette. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10) xiii., p. 216 —

This species probably came from New Guinea and should not be included
in our Australian list without verification.

Dr. G. A. Waterhouse has informed me that specimens in the British
Museum ex Coll. Oberthur and labelled “ Kuranda. F. P. Dodd” were
actually captured in New Guinea.

Fam. Anthelid^.

Anthela glauerti n. sp,

(^. 30-32 mm. Head, thorax, palpi, antennae, abdomen, and legs

brownish-fuscous ; palpi 1 ; antennal pectinations 6. Forewings triangular,
costa straight almost to apex, apex pointed, termen rounded, slightly
oblique ; brownish-fuscous ; whitish discal spots at J and f ; cilia con-
colorous. Hindwings with termen rounded ; colour as fore wings ; a median
whitish spot, which is more distinct on underside.

North-west Australia : Yalbalgo ; two specimens received from the
West Australian Museum.

Anthela decolor n. sp.

decolor, faintly coloured —

$. 46-48 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, thorax, abdomen, and legs

ochreous-grey- whitish ; palpi 1. Forewings triangular, costa straight, apex
pointed, slightly produced, termen sinuate, not oblique ; ochreous-grey-
whitish ; markings slightly darker grey ; a line from J costa to f dorsum ;
a sinuate subterminal fascia ; a narrow terminal fascia on costal half of
termen ; cilia whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded ; colour as fore-
wings ; fascia median.

North-west Australia : Yalbalgo ; two specimens received from the
West Australian Museum.

Anthela virescens n. sp.

virescens, partly green —

40-45 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen reddish-brown. Palpi 1 J ;
reddish-brown, towards apex pale ochreous. Antennae white ; pectinations
in male 8, fuscous. Legs fuscous ; tarsi and outer surface of tibiae whitish ;
a white dot on apices of middle and posterior tibiae. Forewings broadly
triangular, costa slightly arched, apex rectangular, termen rounded, not
oblique ; fuscous -purple ; a moderate basal patch suffused with green, its
posterior edge dentate ; a nearly straight green line from f costa to f
dorsum ; beyond this terminal area more or less suffused with green, with
a green subterminal line preceded by a series of fuscous dots and partly
edged posteriorly with fuscous ; a circular discal spot fuscous with whitish

NEW AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

151

centre ; cilia fuscous -purple, apices reddish. Hindwings with termen
rounded ; fuscous -reddish ; a sub-basal median fuscous dot ; a straight
fuscous transverse line at f ; beyond this as fore wings. Underside reddish,
with whitish -centred discal spot and transverse fuscous line on forewing
beyond and on hindwing before middle.

New South Wales : Tooloom, in March ; two specimens received from
Mr. E. J. Dumigan.

Earn. Lasiocampid^. ’

Porela arida Wlk.

I am now satisfied that P. delineata Wlk. is a synonym of this species,
which is variable.

Earn. Pyraustid^.

Diathrausta metallosticha n. sp.
fi€TaXXo(TTL)(og. with metallic lines —

$. 18 mm. Head white. Palpi grey ; base and extreme apex white.

Antennae grey. Thorax white ; apices of tegulae yellowish. Abdomen
whitish ; base of dorsum yellowish. Legs whitish ; anterior pair with
dark fuscous rings. Forewings narrowly triangular, costa almost straight,
apex round-pointed, termen slightly rounded, oblique ; white ; a broad
grey costal streak ceasing abruptly before apex ; an orange -yellow streak
edged with fuscous from J dorsum very obliquely outwards to middle of
disc ; a narrow orange-yellow terminal band edged with fuscous anteriorly
connected by an orange-yellow fuscous-edged line with costal streak beyond
middle ; in the terminal band is a silvery streak from apex ceasing abruptly
in a broad end above tornus ; cilia pale grey with three blackish bars above
tornus, on apex yellowish. Hindwings with apex rounded, termen nearly
straight ; basal area white, defined by a wavy fuscous median line ; terminal
area yellow ; a silvery submarginal line interrupted and not reaching tornus ;
five blackish dots on middle part of termen ; cilia silvery white.

North Queensland : Chillagoe, in September ; one specimen.

Margaronia eury tails.

Glyphodes eurytusalis Wlk. Cat. Brit. Mus. xvii., p. 503. Hmps. Moths Ind.
iv., p. 355.

Glyphodes opalalis Hmps. 111. Het. viii., p. 135. PL 155, f. 20.

This handsome species has not previously been recorded from Australia.

North Queensland; Cape York in October; Kuranda in September;
Lake Barrine, near Atherton, in September ; four specimens. Also from
Borneo, Ceylon, India, and Loyalty Islands.

Gen. Macrobela nov.
fiaKpopeXo?, with long palpi —

Tongue well developed. Face with a short acute anterior projection.
Labial palpi straight, porrect, very long (3J-4), with rough projecting scales
at base beneath ; otherwise smooth-scaled ; terminal joint J, stout, obtusely
pointed. Maxillary palpi short, stout, obtuse, not dilated. Antennse smooth ;
ciliations minute in both sexes. Posterior tibiae with outer spurs J. Fore-
wings with 4 and 5 connate, 8, 9, 10 stalked. Hindwings with 5 approxi-
mated to 4 at origin, 7 anastomosing with 12 for half its length.

I place this next Sceliodes, from which it differs in the longer labial
palpi, stouter maxillary palpi, and stalking of vein 10 of forewing.

152

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

Macrobela phceophasma n. sp.

<j>aio(j)a(Jixa, a dusky spectre —

5. 24-32 mm. Head and thorax grey. Palpi grey-brown. Antennae

grey. Abdomen grey-brown, with lateral fringes of whitish scales. Legs
white. Forewings triangular, costa straight to f , thence arched, apex acute,
termen slightly bowed on vein 4, slightly oblique ; grey ; costal edge
whitish ; a triangular, thinly scaled, translucent whitish area, from costa
beyond middle reaching more than half across disc, indented anteriorly ;
cilia whitish. Hindwings with termen nearly straight ; grey, with a faintly
darker post median line ; cilia grey.

North Queensland : Kuranda, in December ; Ravenshoe, in January
(F. P. Dodd) ; two specimens received from Mr. Geo. Lyell, who has the
type.

Myriostephes eucosmeta n. sp.
evKOGixrjTos, very neat —

14-16 mm. Head and thorax greyish -ochreous. ’Labial palpi 2|,
terminal joint minute ; ochreous-fuscous. Antennae with joints strongly
dilated and angular at apices ; ciliations in male J ; grey. (Abdomen
missing.) Legs ochreous-whitish ; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings elongate-
triangular, costa straight to near apex, apex pointed, termen nearly straight,
slightly oblique ; greyish -ochreous ; two slender fuscous transverse lines ;
first from J costa to J dorsum, angled beneath costa, thence straight ; second
from f costa to f dorsum, edged with whitish posteriorly, curved outwards
in upper half, thence straight ; a white median subcostal discal dot ; cilia
fuscous, with a darker basal line and three whitish bars, on tornus, above
vein 2, and above vein 6. Hindwings with termen rounded ; ochreous-
whitish ; a faint postmedian fuscous line ; cilia whitish.

Victoria : Beaconsfield (Wandin), in November ; two specimens

received from Mr. Geo. Lyell, who has the type.

Fam. CossiD^.

Culama crepera n. sp.

creper, dark —

52 mm. Head pale brown ; face dark fuscous. Palpi with second
joint long, reaching beyond face ; terminal joint J ; fuscous. Antennae
dark fuscous ; pectinations in male 3. Thorax dark fuscous, patagia and
central area pale brown. Abdomen dark fuscous, towards apex grey. Legs
fuscous. Forewings suboblong, costa moderately arched, apex rounded,
termen obliquely rounded ; dark fuscous, with fine blackish lines and
strigulse partly edged with brown ; an incomplete sub -basal line ; a curved
line from J costa to J dorsum, transverse wavy postmedian and subterminal
lines ; cilia fuscous. Hindwings with termen gently rounded ; whitish,
margins suffused with whitish ; cilia fuscous.

West Australia : Coorow, in October ; one specimen.

VoL. L., No. 14.

153

Artificial Ripening of Oranges.

By L. S. Bagster, D.Sc., A.A.C.I., and Madolin:e V. Connah, M.Sc.
{Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland, 28th November, 1938.)

Artificial ripening of fruits by means of treatment with ethylene
gas is a well-known commercial process, and in recent years has been
the subject of considerable investigation.

It has been shown that with fruit such as the banana, apple, pine-
apple, ethylene treatment causes actual ripening of the pulp as well as
hastening the colouring of the skin. It has been suggested by Lynch
(1935) that ethylene acts as a coenzyme to an oxidase system such as is
known to be present in both the skin and pulp of such fruits. This
suggestion is supported by the fact that the skin of citrus fruits, such
as the orange and lemon, which are known to contain an oxidase system
is affected by the process, whereas the pulp which contains no oxidase
system is not affected.

Egana and Acerati (1935) investigated very thoroughly this process
with regard to oranges of various types. They found that the orange
may acquire colour by this process, but it is necessary for it to have
begun its natural change of colour. It is impossible by this method to
colour a completely green orange, whereas the banana can be coloured
by ethylene at any stage of maturity. With regard to the actual pulp,
no change due to ethylene treatment was observed in the citric acid,
glucose, or invert sugar content.

It was therefore thought of interest to study the effect of ethylene
on the enzyme catalase which is present in the orange pulp, and also
its effect on the ascorbic acid content of oranges. The investigation
covered the fruit from one particular tree throughout the season. The
tree was a well-grown lO-year-old plant about 6 ft. high and of approxi-
mately 6 ft. spread. It was grown in an open position in brown loam
soil.

The ethylene treatment used was that of Egana, namely — tempera-
ture 18-20° C., humidity 75-80°, concentration of ethylene 2 in 1000.
The ripening cupboard was swept out every eight hours with fresh air
and then recharged with ethylene. The treatment requires about four
days.

The catalase was estimated as oxygen liberated in one hour by
1 c.c. of 30% hydrogen peroxide in 3 c.c. water added to 10 e.c. juice
mixed with approximately 3 grs. calcium carbonate in 40 c.c. of M/5
potassium hydrogen phosphate — M/5 sodium hydroxide buffer which
gave pH 7. A vessel containing a strong solution of sodium hydroxide
was used to absorb the carbon dioxide liberated, and it was ascertained
that all this had been absorbed before the peroxide was added.

For estimation of ascorbic acid 5 c.c. of a solution of 2-6 dichlorindo-
phenol and 0-5 c.c. glacial acetic acid were titrated against the orange
juice. The dye solution was standardised by means of freshly prepared
ascorbic acid solution which was itself standardised by titration against
0-01 N iodine.

The fruit was cut with a stainless knife, squeezed on glass, filtered
through a porcelain sieve, and used immediately.

Experiments showed that grinding the juice with fine silver sand
reduced the catalase but had no appreciable effect on the ascorbic acid
content.

The results are shown in the accompanying tables.

154 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

No. of Orange.

Colour.

Taste.

Catalase (as O2
at N.T.P. from
10 c.c. juice.)

Ascorbic Acid
(mgr. in 10 c.c.
juice.)

Batch 1 (29-3-38)—

I

1

1-5

5-65

As

I

2

8-1

5-71

A3

I

2

3'3

6-48

Bi

III

2

0-0

5*68

Bs

II

2

2-0

6-58

B3

II

2

0-9

5-81

Cl

III

I

101

6-25

Cs

IV

3

6-7

6*58

C3

IV

4

3-4

5-95

Batch 2 (4-4-38) —

Bi

II

4

4.4

5-22

Bs . .

II

3

4-6

5-63

B3

II

3

00

5-83

Cl

IV

4

8-4

6-50

0^ 2 ** ** ** **

IV

3

5-8

5*96

C3 . .

IV

3

0-2

5-83

Batch 3 (11-4-38)—

Bi

II

3

2-7

6-54

B2

II

3

1-5

7-52

Cl

IV

4

2-4

6-24

Cs .. .. ..

IV

4

0-5

5-55

Batch 4 (18-4-38)—

Bi

II

4

3-5

605

Bg . .

III

3

50

6-41

B3

III

3

51

605

Cl

III

4

20-6

5-42

Cs

V

3

6-4

5-78

C3

III

3

3-7

5'84

Batch 5 (26-4-38) —

Ai

I

3

1-6

5-18

Bi

II

2

8-4

4-87

Bs . .

II

2

60

5-40

Cl

IV

3

5-8

617

C3 ..

IV

3

4-8

6-45

Batch 6 (29-4-38)—

Bi

III

4

12-4

5-51

Ba

II

4

4-6

504

Cl

IV

4

7-2

5*31

Cs

IV

4

8-3

4-99

C3

IV

4

13-2

5-61

155

artificial ripening of oranges.

No. of Orange.

Colour.

Taste.

Catalase (as O2
at N.T.P. from
10 c.c. juice.)

Ascorbic Acid
(mgr. in 10 c.c.
juice.)

Batch 7 (5-5-38)—

Ax

I

1

1-9

5-56

Ag . •

I

I

0-0

5-56

Bi

III

4

6-7

5-32

II

3

15-7

4-63

IV

3

6-9

514

*Cg

IV

3

14-2

4-73

Batch 8 (12-5-38)—

Ax

I

1

0-0

5-09

Ag

II

1

0-4

5-09

B, ..

III

4

13-7

5-67

B^

III

4

10-9

4-84

Cx

IV

4

11-5

5-22

Cg ..

V

4

6-0

5-28

Batch 9 (16-5-38)—

Bi ..

III

4

7-8

5-57

B^

III

3

00

5*44

Cx

III

4

11-4

5-13

C2

IV

3

3-4

5-44

C3 . .

III

4

M

5-78

Batch 10 (19-5-38)—

A.-]^ •• •• •• ••

I

1

0-9

5-71

Ag

I

1

0-0

4-87

Bx

IV

7-6

5-34

B2

III

4

9-22

4-83

•• •• •• ••

V

4

14-2

5-20

C2

V

4

4-9

5-93

Batch 12 (30-5-38)—

Bj

III

4

7-4

5-31

Bg . .

III

3

00

6-08

*Cx

V

4

9-6

5-02

*Cg

V

3

11-4

5-63

Batch 13 (6-6-38)—

Bi

III

4

24- 1

5-23

B^

III

3

3-6

5-71

Cx . .

IV

3

6-05

4-94

C2

V

3

13-5

5-71

156

PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY Op QUEENSLAND.

No. of Orange.

Colour.

Taste.

Catalase (as O2
at N.T.P. from
10 c.c. juice.)

Ascorbic Acid
(mgr. in 10 c.c.
juice.)

Batch 14 (17-6-38)—

Bj

Ill

1-5

5-32

Cl

V

5

24-7

5-66

C2

V

5

4*7

4-77

Batch 15 (29-6-38)—

V

Judged not

completely ri

pe.

Batch 16 (6-7-38)—

Dl

V

5

10-5

4-57

Batch 17 (17-7-38)—

Dl

V

5

21

4-75

Batch 18 (25-7-38)—

Dl . .

V

6

6-8

5-90

2** ** ** **

V

6

1-7

6-81

Batch 19 (8-8-38)—

Dl

V

6

50

5-20

D

V

6

0-9

9-42

Batch 20 (17-8-38)—

Dl

V

6

5-4

7-70

D2

V

6

8*4

7-38

Batch 21 (20-8-38)—

Dl

V

6

3-7

8-02

D2

V

6

2-2

6-76

Batch 22 (5-9-38)—

Dl

V

6

3-2

6-52

Dg

V

6

1-7

7-64

Batch 23 (11-9-38)—

Dl

V

4

5-9

5-92

Dg . .

V

6

6-6

613

EXPLANATION OP SYMBOLS USED IN TABLE.

A, green oranges tested the same day as picked; B, partly ripened when picked,
untreated, but kept for test with group C; C, partly coloured when picked,
treated with ethylene; Dl, ripened on the tree, tested the same day as j)icked.
Colour-. I, green; II, yellowish-green; III, greenish yellow; IV, pale yellow;
V, orange. Taste : 1, very sour, extremely unpleasant to taste and completely
inedible; 2, sour, edible but definitely unpleasant; 3, fairly sour, juice palatable
with sugar; 4, slightly sour, quite edible but faint sourness underlying the sweetish
taste; 5, sweetish, no trace of sourness but not yet fully ripened, poor flavour;
6, sweet to definitely ripe and fully flavoured.

Samples C for treatment with ethylene in each experiment were selected to
correspond closely in size and colour with corresponding cheek samples B. The colour
given to these in the tables is that after ethylene treatment.

ARTIFICIAL RIPENING OP ORANGES.

157

Although, the results are rather irregular, certain conclusions seem
fairly definite —

1. The catalase content of completely green oranges was very

low and showed an increase as the fruit ripened until the
oranges became really ripe, when it was decreased again, but
did not become as low as in the completely green oranges.

2. The ethylene treatment had apparently no effect on the catalase

content.

3. The ascorbic acid content varied but little throughout the

season, but showed a slight tendency to increase as the
oranges became really ripe.

4. The ethylene treatment produced no definite change in ascorbic

acid content. Oranges marked thus ^ had a slight but definite
unpleasant ‘‘musty’’ flavour after treatment with ethylene.
Apart from this the treatment seemed to have no effect on
the taste.

This work was carried out by aid of a grant from funds provided
to the University of Queensland by the Commonwealth Government
through the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research.

The authors are indebted to Miss N. McGinn, who carried put some
of the later experimental work.

EEPERENCES.

Egana, M.K. and Acerati, A., Bol. del. Inst, de Invest. Agrov. 1935, Vol. I,

P 49

Lynch, L.J., Proe. Roy. Soc. Qland. 1935, Vol. XLVII, P. 18.

R.S. — P.

158

VoL. L,, No. 15.

The Metamorphic Complexes of the D’ Aguilar
Range and New Caledonia.

By H. I. Jensen, D.Sc.

{Bead before the Boyal Society of Queensland, 28th November, 1938.)

In every branch of natural history one of the most interesting studies
is parallelism in development. It has been the privilege of the author
to study two metamorphic complexes far removed from one another and
of very different ages, which, nevertheless, show numerous points of
similarity, namely, the Mount Panie complex of Northern New Caledonia
and the D ’Aguilar Eange of Southern Queensland.

In Southern Queensland we have a belt of metamorphic rocks, the
Brisbane schists, stretching more or less uninterruptedly from the New
South Wales border to Gladstone, where they run out to sea. The
occasional breaks in the continuity of outcrop are due to cappings of
Triassic sandstone, and volcanics, like the Brisbane tuffs at and near
Brisbane, and the andesitic and rhyolitic tuffs probably of early Triassic
(Esk series) age at Pahn woods and Yandina, to cappings of Tertiary
basalt at Bald Hills and the Blackall Range, and to Tertiary sandstone
about Strathpine.

Queensland geologists have divided the Brisbane schists into strata
referable to the Silurian and Devonian, the older lying in general east
of the younger. The western strip, containing serpentines, is regarded
as Devonian, largely on account of analogy with the New South Wales
serpentine belt. The serpentine belt stretches from Pine Mountain,
near Ipswich, north through Kilcoy and Kilkivan.

The most intensely metamorphic area in the whole of the Brisbane
schist belt is the portion of the D ’Aguilar Range lying between Terror’s
Creek and Mount Mee, on the eastern flank, and the summit of that
part of the D ’Aguilar Range and east of the serpentine belt. These
rocks are mineralogically comparable to the oldest Archaean of South
Australia. They comprise mica schists, micaceous phyllite, slate, granu-
lite, epidote schist, chlorite schist, with dykes and bosses, and perhaps
altered lava flows, turned into glaucophane schist, glaucophanite, glauco-
phane epidote rock, hornblende schist, epidote actinolite topaz schist, etc.
These altered igneous rocks are schistose through stress, and have also
been broken up into lenticular bodies by faulting and squeeze. Rocks
described by me (1906) include cyanite-rutile granulite, granulitic mica
schist, muscovite granulite, greenstone, ortho-gneiss, hornblende schist,
epidote-actinolite schist, epidote-cordierite-delessite schist, albite-chlorite
schist, glaucophane rock, epidiorite, and glaucophane-epidote rock. In
addition to the commoner rock-forming minerals like quartz, orthoclase,
albite, microcline, hornblende, uralite, muscovite, biotite, and to the
minor constituents, apatite, magnetite, ilmenite, the folio ving were deter-
mined in these rocks: — Labradorite, anorthite, actinolite, glaucophane,
epidote, zoisite, cordierite, sillimanite, talc, tremolite, chlorite, delessite,
topaz, anthophyllite, rutile, cyanite, sericite, etc., etc.

Most of these minerals have a smaller molecular volume than that
calculated from the molecular volumes of the oxides composing them,
and they belong to Grubenmann ’s ‘‘Middle Zone” schists — that is,,

THE METAMORTHIC COMPLEXES OP THE D^'^GUILAR RANGE. 159

schists formed in a portion of the earth’s crust which has been loaded
with sediments sufficient to lower it into a position where heat and
pressure have caused extensive chemical changes and recrystallisation,
but not complete fusion and recrystallisation. The greenstones,
epidiorites, hornblende schists, glaucophane rocks, and actinolite schists
are all derived from igneous rocks like flows, tuffs, dykes and bosses of
basic magma. The mica schists and slates are altered marls and shales.
The granulites may be altered sandstones and tuffs, while the gneisses
constitute altered granite.

Miss G. A. Joplin, B.Sc., Ph.D., examined a collection of schistose
rocks made by the writer in northern New Caledonia. They included
glaucophane-lawsonite rocks, glaucophane epidote schists, glaucophane
garnet schists, glaucophane-muscovite-quartz schist, chlorite-albite-
epidote-garnet schist, chlorite schist with sphene and epidote, garnet
schist, chloritoid schist, quartz schist, and actinolite schist. The minerals
of these schists again belong mostly to Grubemann’s ‘‘Middle Zone,”
and here, as in the Queensland area, we are dealing with a complex of
altered igneous (volcanic and hypabyssal) and sedimentary rocks.

Thus the Panie Massif of north-eastern New Caledonia and the
D ’Aguilar Range of Southern Queensland are petrologically similar,
and of similar rock genesis, but, as will be seen below, the New Caledonia
complex is probably much the younger.

The next very interesting point of similarity is the existence of a
helt of serpentine to the west of each of these complexes of metamorphic
rocks, but whereas in Queensland the serpentines are considered to be
Devonian, in New Caledonia they are of very late Cretaceous or of
early Tertiary age. They intrude all the Mesozoic rocks from Triassic
to Cretaceous. In New Caledonia we have rocks as late as Cretaceous,
altered to schist, tilted at very high angles, or even vertical. Such
recent schists abound in the Dombea district, and also west of Koumac,
between that village and the Diahot River. The schistose Mesozoic rocks
are in general east of the serpentine belt, but west of that belt the
Mesozoics range from very highly altered, steeply inclined rocks, by
every gradation to unaltered and but gently folded sedimentaries.

Taking the schists, we find that those west of the Diahot River
have been developed mainly through thrust and pressure. Sericitisation,
talc formation, and chlorite development are noticeable in those of
sedimentary formation, and the lavas are extensively chloritised. Occa-
sionally a patch is more intensely altered, showing development of mica
and glaucophane.

However, east of the Diahot River the schists are predominantly
recrystallised. They are completely crystalioblastic, and embrace both
homoblastic and heteroblastic structures, and helicitic structure often
shows. There are granoblastie quartzites and eclogites, lepidoblastic
mica schists and glaucophane schists, nematoblastic amphibolites, poikilo-
blastic greenstones, diablastic glaucophane rocks with kelyphitic struc-
ture, and metamorphosed trachytes with porphyroblastic structure.

There is good reason to believe that these rocks represent the same
series as those west of the Diahot, but more intensely metamorphosed.
This intense metamorphism is due to the rocks of the region being
depressed in a deep synclinal trough, and afterwards brought up on
the back of the peridotite intrusion that arose from the depths to the

160 PROCEEDINGS Op THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

east. Both the depression into the ‘‘Middle Zone’^ and the superposition
on a great hot igneous intrusion added intense heat to pressure as an
agent of metamorphism and recrystallisation.

There seems every reason to think that most of the serpentines of
Eastern Australia are Devonian. In the D ’Aguilar Range they lie west
of the intensely metamorphic region of Terror’s Creek and Mount Mee.
Perhaps in this case, too, the serpentines have been thrust up from a
deep to the east, now long since re-elevated or filled in, and in all
probability here, as in New Caledonia, the intensely metamorphosed
rocks are derived from rocks immediately preceding the Serpentine
(peridotite) extrusion, in this case earlier Devonian and Silurian.

By combined chemical and petrological investigation it could be
determined if the glaucophane schists and the associated rocks of Mount
Mee represent an extremely metamorphosed phase of rocks in the
Brisbane schist series.

The presence of chrome is common to the New Caledonia and
D ’Aguilar serpentines, and the absence of nickel in the Queensland
series is a matter of geological age. In all probability the Queensland
serpentines contained nickel for several periods after the peridotite
extrusion. In New Caledonia the serpentine masses are largely peridotite
undergoing decomposition into serpentine. As the olivine is serpentinised
the nickel in it rises in solution to the surface, where it is deposited in
a lateritic crust. Most of the New Caledonia nickel mines are just
such superficial crusts of nickeliferous laterite. After a mine is worked
out (that is, exhausted by surface scraping) it is left twenty or thirty
years for the nickel to rise again, and the “mining” is renewed. This
rise of nickel to the surface continues till all the peridotite is serpen-
tinised. In the Queensland area the nickel, once present, has all been
removed by erosion.

Chemical analysis shows traces of nickel in the Mount Mee glaueo-
phane schists, pointing to that metal having been originally present in
the region.

EEFEEENCE;

Jensen, H. I. 1906. Proe. Linn. Soc., N.S.W. Pt. 1, p. 73.

The Royal Society of Queensland.

Report of Coimcil for 1938.

To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland.

Your Council lias pleasure in submitting its report for the year
1937.

Fifteen original papers were accepted for publication in the
Proceedings, and most of them were actually read at ordinary meetings
of the Society.

During the year the following lectures ivere delivered: —
Scientist Abroad ’ ’ by Dr. J. V. Duhig ; ' ‘ Interaction of Radiation with
Living Matter” by Dr, H. C. Webster; ‘‘Modern Methods of Museum
Display” by Mr. Frank Tose; “New Laboratories of the Division of
Forest Products, C.S.I.R., Its Equipment and Activities” by Mr. S.
Clarke, B.E.; “Co-operative Pasture Plant Improvement Investigations
in Queensland” by Mr. C. S. Christian, B.Ag.Sc. ; “Plant Introduction
Investigations in Queenland” by Mr. T. B. Paltridge, B.Sc.

One meeting was devoted to a series of short addresses on Phos-
phorus, the speakers being Dr. W. H. Bryan, Dr. M. White, Dr. A. W.
Turner, and Dr. J. V. Duhig.

Exhibits were tabled by the following members: — Professor H. C.
Richards, Drs. Whitehouse, Vickery, Duhig, Herbert, and Marks, and
Messrs. Blake, Riddle, and Ogilvie.

Your Council takes this opportunity of thanking those who assisted
in the above phases of the Society’s work; those who provided the
numerous exhibits which were displayed for the interest of members ;
the University of Queensland for housing the library, and providing
accommodation for meetings ; and the Assistant Librarian of the
University, Miss Mclver, for superintending the lending of periodicals
from the library.

During the year the library was shifted to the new Library
Building. Unfortunately, however, it has not yet been possible to
arrange the periodicals on the shelves.

The membership roll consists of 5 honorary life members, 6 life
members, 3 corresponding members, 193 ordinary members, and 3
associate members. During the year there were 3 resignations and
16 new members were elected.

There were ten meetings of the Council during the year, the
attendance being as follows : — L. S. Bagster, 8 ; E. W. Bick, 9 ; J. V.
Duhig, 7 ; D. A. Herbert, 10 ; J. S. Just, 6 ; H. A, Longman, 0 ; J. K.
Murray, 3; F. A. Perkins, 9; H. C. Richards, 5; A. R. Riddle, 8;
H. R. Seddon, 4 ; J. H. Smith, 7 ; F. W. Whitehouse, 8.

In terms of Rule 19, Mr. J. S. Just, Senior Member of the Council,
automatically retires, but will be eligible for re-election in 1939.

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ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

VII.

Abstract of Proceedings, 28th ]\1arch, 1938.

The Annual Meeting of the Society was held on Monday,
28th March, at 8 p.m., in the Geology Lecture Theatre of the University,
with the President, Professor L. S. Bagster, in the chair. About sixty
members and friends were present. Apologies were received from
Messrs. J. J. C. Bradfield, C. S. Fraser, and C. T. White.

The minutes of the previous annual meeting were read and con-
firmed. Miss J. Griffiths, B.Sc., and Mr. D. J. W. Smith, B.Sc., were
proposed for Ordinary Membership by Mr. P. A. Perkins and Dr. R.
Hamlyn Harris. The Annual Report and Balance-sheet were adopted.
In moving the adoption of the Report Dr. W. H. Bryan suggested that
a list of the papers read during the year should, in future, be inserted
in the report after the list of lectures given. Mr. H. Tryon asked that
some account be given of the library activities.

The following officers were elected for 1938 : — President, Professor
H. C. Richards ; Vice-Presidents, Professor L. S. Bagster and Mr. H. A.
Longman ; Honorary Secretary, Miss D. Hill ; Honorary Treasurer,
Mr. E. W. Bick; Honorary Librarian, Mr. F. A. Perkins; Editor,
Dr. D. A. Herbert ; Associate Editor, Mr. J. H. Smith ; Members of
Council, Professor J. V. Duhig, Mr. A. R. Riddle, Dr. M White,
Dr. F. W. Whitehouse. The President then delivered his retiring
address on Alchemy — Ancient and Modern.”

Starting with old Greek philosophy chemical history first began at
Alexandria. The Greek idea of a common constitution of matter was
there adopted and attempts first made to transform matter, chiefly
base metals, to gold. From Alexandria in the early years of the Christian
era such knowledge as had been gained was transferred to workers
supported by the then flourishing’ rulers of Arabia. These early
workers, though failing in their primary object, in the course of their
attempts developed methods of procedure and discovered many new
materials and compounds. At the revival of learning in Europe, Arab
knowledge was acquired, and, for a long period, until the civil war
in England, the alchemist flourished; though still believing in trans-
mutation, he gradually turned his attention to the application of his
discoveries to medicinal use and carried on his experiments in a spirit
of inquiry.

It was Robert Boyle, an Irishman, at Oxford in the reign of
Charles II., who finally demonstrated that what we call the chemical
elements were to be regarded as unchangeable, a theory accepted without
question till the end of last century, when Thomson, at Cambridge,
showed that all atoms contained a common constituent, the electron,
which could be removed by a suitable electric discharge. The discovery
of radioactivity a little later was the beginning of a new scientific era.

Rutherford, Thomson’s successor at Cambridge, was able to show
that during the radioactive process large atoms were actually breaking
up, forming smaller ones. It had been shown that one of the radium-
radiations, the alpha particle, was actually the essential portion of the
gas helium without the electrons that ordinary atoms carry. Rutherford
was able by studying the passage of alpha particles through matter
to show that atoms possessed a nucleus compound of particles much
heavier than the electrons ; that hydrogen, the simplest element, had one
such particle or proton, and that the alpha particle had four. The

vm.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

proton from hydrogen can be set free in the electric discharge. It has
been shown in the last few years that by bombarding atoms with fast-
moving protons or by alpha particles changes can he produced in the
atomic nucleus. The products are actually synthetic elements with new
properties. Some of them are actually radioactive and their existence
can be easily shown by electrical methods. One, radio-sodium has
already been produced in quantity and shown to be as active as the
small quantity of radium used for many cancer treatments. Another^
radio-phosphorus, has the chemical properties of ordinary phosphorus
except that of radioactivity. This has been fed to rats which later
were killed. The radio-phosphorus could readily be estimated by its
radioactivity, and the history of the ordinary phosphorus from its
chemical properties will be the same. In this way it has been found
that the phosphorus, even in the bones, changes every few weeks, new
phosphorus atoms replacing old ones.

A vote of thanks to the retiring President, moved by Mr. H. Tryon
and Professor J. V. Duhig, was carried by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 26th April, 1938.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the University on Tuesday, 26th April, at
8 p.m., with the President, Professor Kichards, in the chair. About
forty members and visitors were present, and apologies were received
from Professor Bagster and Mr. J. R. Kemp. The minutes of the
previous meeting were read and confirmed. Miss J. Griffiths, B.Sc.,
and Mr. D. J. W. Smith, B.Sc., were unanimously elected members of
the Society.

Dr. P. Berry Smith exhibited cultures on saturated saline media
of typical chromogenic bacteria isolated from solar salts, and photo-
micrographs of spore masses or fruiting bodies of a Myxocoeeus
constituting the principal chromogene of one sample of Australian crude
salt of marine origin.

The main business of the evening was an account of the work of
the Science Students Association’s Expedition to Moreton Bay,
illustrated by lantern slides, a cine film, maps, and specimens. The
typed reports of the work of all sections were tabled. Dr. Dorothy Hill,
leader of the expedition, said that it was made possible by the activities
of Mr. J. P. Callaghan, president of the Association. The Expedition
was away a fortnight. The ‘‘Cambria,” lent by Mr. T. L, Jones, formed
a movable sea station, and all the apparatus was lent by the Great
Barrier Reef Committee, the Queensland Museum, and the various
University Departments. The University Union gave financial help.
The two aims of this Student expedition were to awaken realisation of
the numerous research problems of the Bay in as many sciences as
possible, and to set a high standard of accuracy in research. The party
completed a topographical, geological, physiographical, biological, and
botanical survey of the Bird and Goat Islands bank.

Dr. Plill summarised the results of the parties engaged in physical
investigations. The topographical surveyors made a map contoured at
2-foot intervals of the bank, which was found to be a fringing coral reef,
built up about the coarse Triassic sandstone which outcrops at the south
end of Goat I. The reef above Mean Low Water Level is dead. At its

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

IX.

highest point it is 5 feet above M.L.W., indicating a recent slight change
in sea level. Living corals are fairly common on the bank below M.L.W.,
except to the north. The raised reef contains 21 species, a different
assemblage from the living corals, of which 13 species were collected.
All are species of wide geographic distribution. Like many of the reefs
of the Great Barrier, the Bird-Goat reef carries a sand cay (Bird I.)
at its leeward end. The shape and position of the cay and the distribu-
tion of boulder, sand, and mud veneers result from the interaction on
the bank of the north and south tidal currents and the waves caused by
the prevailing S.E. winds and the storms. Analyses made by Mr.
Hines on the sediments suggest that much of Bird I. sand is dune sand,
carried by the flood tides, the remainder, and the sand and mud veneers,
being fragments of animal skeletons and detritus from the Goat I.
sandstone. The only soil found is in the mangrove swamps. An
interesting meteorological curve was that recorded by the barograph,
showing the approach and departure of a cyclone.

Mr. Callaghan gave the results of the hydrographic work, in the
absence of Mr. N. Hancox, chemist to the expedition. Temperature,
salinity, Hydrogen-ion concentration, and oxygen saturation were
determined, and attempts were made to measure the dissolved organic
matter, silicates, phosphates, and nitrates, of a series of water samples
taken from the surface and at depth at different stages of the tide and
times of day. The maximum temperature was 29 °C. and the minimum
26-6 °C. The average salinity was 34-6 per cent.; it decreased remark-
ably after the cyclonic rains. The oxygen saturation varied between
90 and 100 per cent. A larger series of results is necessary for analyses
of the dawn and sunset variations, and of those due to the state of the
tides.

Dr. Joyce Laing reported on the zoological work. Zoological collec-
tions were made zonally. The littoral zone of Bird and Goat Islands
was found to harbour a rich and interesting fauna, which varied
eonsiderably in its composition in different localities. At high-water
level around the island there was very little life, just below this level,
in the sandy flats of Bird Island was an interesting community consist-
ing chiefly of burrowing Crustacea and worms, while in the rocky zone
round Goat Island, molluscs were dominant. Near low water the
population was much more dense and more uniform around the two
islands, most animal phyla being represented. Gastropods and crabs
were the commonest animals ; Echinoids, Hydroids, Polyzoa, and
Nemertines were apparently absent.

The one visit made to the extensive sand flats round the Myora
oyster bank showed that the sand community there was remarkably
different from that of Bird Island.

Six plankton hauls were made during the expedition, one horizontal
and three vertical hauls from the ‘‘Cambria,” and two surface tows
from the tender. Crustacean larvse dominated five of the catches. The
sixth and best catch was that obtained in the surface tow made at night.
This was enriched by very numerous Mysids and a few other Crustacea,
creatures which are benthic during the day but which rise to the surface
at night.

Mr. S. T. Blake said that botanical work in some form or other was
carried out on Stradbroke Island, Goat and Bird Islands, and the
surrounding waters, and in the waters off Peel Island. Some difficulty

X.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

was experienced in drying specimens, due partly to the salty atmos-
phere, partly to weather conditions. Ecological work was carried out
in conjunction with collecting specimens. Forty-two collections were
made, embracing 24 algae and 19 vascular plants. Of the latter, one
represents an interesting new genus of the Restiaceae, while two represent
new species of the Cyperacese. The Algae will have to be sent abroad
for determination. A list of the plants on Goat Island was drawn up,
an account of the vegetation both terrestrial and marine has been
written, and a map showing the distribution of the several vegetation
types and also the area occupied by the chief trees, &c., has been
prepared.

Mr. T. B. Stephens reported on the photography. He demonstrated
the value of an aquarium and car head lights for lateral under water
photography, and advocated a glass-bottomed boat with adjustable shade
for vertical under-water work. He considered that colour photography
is now sufficiently advanced to be freely used on such expeditions, for
both stills and cine films, and for cine work advised prearrangement
and rehearsal of sequences. Future expeditions might well examine the
possibilities of micro-photography in stills and with the cine camera.

In moving a vote of thanks to the speakers, Mr. H. A. Longman
and Mr. C. T. White welcomed this successful student enthusiasm for
the scientific study of the Bay, and hoped the expedition would be the
fore-runner of much work. Professor Richards congratulated the
expedition on having surmounted all its difficulties, on prosecuting its
work with the right attitude towards scientific research, and on
completing its work by its written reports. The vote was carried by
acclamation.

Mr. J. F. Bailey drew the attention of the meeting to the Press
announcement that the Clarke Medal of the Royal Society of New South
Wales had been awarded to Professor H. C. Richards, and the meeting
congratulated its President on his new honour.

Abstract of Proceedings, 6th June, 1938.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held on Monday,
6th June, at 8 p.m., in the Department of Geology of the University.
In the alDsence of Professor Richards, Mr. H. A. Longman occupied
the chair. About thirty members and friends were present. Apolo-
gies were received from Drs. Bryan, Marks, and Whitehouse. The
minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. In tribute
to the memory of the late Mr. J. F. Bailey, sometime President of the
Society, the meeting stood in silence for one minute. Mr. K. Jackson
was proposed for ordinary membership of the Society by Miss D. Hill
and Mr. Watkins.

The main business of the evening was a series of exhibits.
Professor L. S. Bagster demonstrated two Polaroids and their reaction
on light passed through sugar solutions.

Mr. J. S. Just exhibited a piece of the first paper insulated 11,000
volt electric power cable manufactured. The cable was laid in London
during 1890 and made possible electric power stations of to-day It
was taken out of service during 1933 after forty years of continuous use.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XI.

Mr. S. T. Blake exhibited a series of plants collected in Cape York
Peninsula, some being new records for Queensland and others redis-
coveries of species collected either by Banks and Solander in 1770 or
by Robert Brown in 1802.

Mr. S. B. Watkins exhibited (1) Basalt from Coulson’s Creek,
Spicer’s Cap Area, collected at the site of the coal seam, carrying
chabazite, a little natrolite and purple tinged fluorite. Fluorite in
basalt is very rare. (2) Silver selenide sent in by a student of the
correspondence course in geology and mineralogy from the vicinity of
Cloncurry. (3) Enoggera granite from Kerr’s granite quarry, Water-
works road, Ashgrove, on the right-hand side in the major granite
mass. The specimen was composed for the greater part of decomposed
felspars with radiating patches of needle-shaped crystals of tourmaline.
Embedded between the needles of tourmaline was pyrites which in
some cases climbed right up between the crystals indicating that this
pyritical phase followed the tourmaline phase. A small patch of pink
mineral suggested thulite. (4) Fossil wood showing perfect cellular
structure. (5) A pine model of a laccolite Avherein white ants were
operating. These white ants were distinct in character from the normal
white ants. They tunnelled in the wood and on reaching its surface
worked sideways leaving a thin layer of wood forming a ceiling, thus
obscuring the activities from the outside. They produced a flne saw-
dust and ate the wood away cleanly. As a result of a visit from Mr.
A. Berry of the Termite Exterminators Pty. Ltd., the species w^as
identified as Ciyptotermes.

Dr. T. G. H. Jones showed a specimen of azulene and commented'
on its properties.

Dr. D. A. Herbert exhibited an albino mango.

Mr. H. A. Longman exhibited two Ring-tailed opossums from.
Mount Spurgeon, via Mount Carbide, Cape York Peninsula. One of
these had been presented to the Queensland Museum in July, 1937, by
Mr. J. McNamara, and the other had been recently collected by Dr. G.
Neuhaiiser. He considered that these represented the type of Ring-tail
collected by Banks on the Endeavour River in 1770, and described in
1785, as peregrinus by Boddaert. Although this name had been loosely
applied at one time to southern common Ring-tails, these Avere more
correctly designated as Pseudochirm laniginosus Gould. The new^
specimens from Mount Spurgeon were not closely allied to the
laniginosus group, but their cranial characters showed them to be
related to Ps. lierheriensis. This wms anticipated by Oldfield Thomas
w^hen writing of these marsupials in 1923, and describing a sub-species
of the Common Ring-tail from North Queensland.

A cast of the Cohiina Skull was also exhibited and its principal
characters were outlined.

The exhibits were commented on by Messrs. H. Tryon, J. H. Smith,
F. G. de V. Gipps, and a vote of thanks to the exhibitors was moved
by Mr J. H. Smith, seconded by M. F. Koumans, a visiting Dutch
scientist, and carried by ^‘cclamation.

XII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Abstract op Proceedings, 27th June, 1938.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Theatre of the University on Monday, 27th June, at 8 p.m.,
with the President in the Chair. About fifty members and friends were
present. Apologies were received from Professor J. K. Murray and Mr.
K. Koe. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
The President referred with regret to the death of Dr. W. N. Kobertson,
Vice-Chancellor of the University, and the loss the Society had sustained
thereby. Mr. K. Jackson was unanimously elected a member of the
Society. The Secretary read a letter from the Royal Society of New
South Wales asking for nominations for the Walter Burfitt Prize for
1938, and an invitation to members from the Chancellor and Senate of
the University to attend the John Thomson Lecture for 1938.

On behalf of the Royal Society of New South Wales, the Senior
Vice-President, Professor L. S. Bagster, presented to Professor H. C.
Richards the Clarke Memorial Medal for outstanding services to Austra-
lian geology. Professor Bagster referred to the distinguished services
W. B. Clarke had himself rendered to Australian geology, and said that
Professor Richards’ work for science in general and geology in particu-
lar was indeed outstanding. Mr. L. C. Ball, Chief Government Geologist,
spoke of Professor Richards’ important contributions to geology, especi-
ally his petrological work and the number of very able graduates in
petrology who had come from his department. Dr. W. H. Bryan spoke
of his great work as Chairman of the Great Barrier Reef Committee.
Professor Richards responded, and the meeting congratulated its
President on his award.

Mr. P. N. Lahey read a paper ‘ ‘ Essential Oils from the Queensland
Flora, Part XIV., Eucalyptus conglomerata” by P. N. Lahey and T. G.
H. Jones. The paper recorded the isolation of a previously unknown
chemical substance. A paper ^‘1 — a Phellandrene and its Monohydro-
chloride Part 1” by N. C. Haneox and T. G. H. Jones was tabled.

Professor H. J. Wilkinson gave a lantern lecture on the “Aborigines
of Central Australia.” He outlined the work done by scientific expedi-
tions of which he was a member, in particular the work of the physical
anthropologists and the physiologists. One of the most interesting
discoveries was the physiological mechanism which enables the natives
to withstand the extreme cold of the desert night. The different types
of natives were shown on the screen and many interesting slides were
shown of the gathering of food and its preparation for cooking and
eating. Native pictorial art and the crafts of implement-making were
described and records of native songs were played. The lecturer also
showed slides of corrobborees and the preparations for corrobborees,
and discussed the future of the aborigine.

A vote of thanks to the lecturer was moved by Mr. Longman and
carried by acclamation.

Abstract of Proceedings, 25th July, 1938.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Theatre of the University on Monday, 25th July, at 8 p.m.,
with the President in the Chair. About fifty members and friends,
including representatives of the National Parks Association, were
present. Apologies were received from Professor Duhig and Dr. Bryan.
The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. The

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

xm.

President referred with regret to the deaths of Mr. C. A. Lambert and
Mr. T. Rimmer, M.Sc. Mr. G. W. Sims was nominated for ordinary
membership by Mr. S. B. Watkins and Mr. A. R. Riddle.

Mr. A. R. Riddle exhibited a recently devised apparatus for
fluorescent work with ultra violet rays, and showed its application in
the detection of oranges susceptible to mould. This apparatus, now
being used by C.S.I.R. for such work, has the advantage of being
portable (weight 36 lb.).

The main business of the evening was a symposium on ‘‘The
Conservation of the Natural Flora and Fauna of Queensland.” In
opening the discussion Dr. F. W. Whitehouse spoke about aspects of
soil erosion, generally, and their local effects. Soil is formed in any
locality at a definite but very slow rate. Protective surfaces are devel-
oped on the soil — leached upper horizons and vegetative cover. But
there is locally a definite rate of weathering in virgin country. Thus an
equilibrium is established and a definite thickness of soil maintained. If
this equilibrium is disturbed, by removal of the protective covering or
by the acceleration of natural weathering, the soil is depleted. A change
of climate may cause this; so will the removal of vegetation by human
agency. Ringbarking is listed officially in this State as an “improve-
ment” to property; but indiscriminate and thoughtless ringbarking
can and does seriously denude the soil cover. Pasture depletion by over-
stocking is another obvious means of accelerating soil erosion. The
effect is cumulative; for depletion of soil by plant removal will make
the surface less useful to grow plants.

Other effects that follow are rapid run-off after rain, making both
floods and droughts more prevalent, and the silting of waterholes.

There is evidence in Queensland that some of these effects, from
which we very obviously suffer, are due to natural agencies (possibly
climatic fluctuations) ; but much of it is man-made. It is a duty that we
owe to future generations to check this erosion, whether caused by
natural or human agencies; to check thoughtless removal of protective
soil cover; to increase the surface vegetation by a policy of plant-
improvement; to adopt farming and pastoral methods that lead to a
minimum of soil depletion ; and to remedy where possible the erosive
[damage that already has been done. Some methods that have been
employed for attaining these objectives were outlined.

Dr. D. A. Herbert in dealing with the Conservation of the Native
Flora pointed out that though in Australia the aboriginal population was
never agricultural, it had left its mark on the vegetation. Periodical
firing in many areas destroyed forests and replaced them with a pseudo-
climax grassland. The balds of the Bunya Mountains, now grass covered
and abutting on dense rain forests, formerly bore trees, the roots of
which may still be discovered in the soil. No forests have grown there
within living memory. It is evident that the blacks had profoundly
modified parts of Australia by firing, but they did not do so to the same
extent as more civilized peoples elsewhere. In Gippsland what were
grasslands when the white settlers arrived have, with the control of
fires, become tree-clothed. In regions of similar climate in Africa,
America, and Asia the development of forests is much more sparse.
Many people are amazed at the comparative luxuriance and wealth of
species in the forests of the Kalgoorlie area, which is a natural forest
development that must have been paralleled elsewhere before man

XIV.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

destroyed it. Already the cutting of the trees for mine props round
Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie is A^ery largely eliminating the difference
between the goldfields country and similar areas overseas.

The primaeval forests are singularly deficient in food plants, and
grass for introduced animals cannot thrive in forests. Forest must give
way in part to grassland and to agriculture. Agricultural plants are
almost entirely importations. Native grasses are v^aluable, but many
introductions are even more desirable in selected regions. We must
avoid the idea that because a plant is native it is thoroughly desirable
and should have undue precedence over an importation. Our domestic
animals are importations, and their requirments are different from those
of marsupials. We, by our coming, have created an utterly new set of
conditions for the native plants. The control of grazing areas depends
partly on establishing a reasonable balance between the grazing stock
and the pasture plants, so that neither get out of hand, and partly on
a search for plants which are more suitable for grazing. This search
is being carried out in two directions by Commonwealth and State
scientists and by private workers.

First, work such as that of Mr. Christian is aimed at the improve-
ment of native pasture plants and introduced fodder plants that are
already here. Secondly, plants are being introduced from other countries
and tested for Australian conditions.

The forester, like the pastoralist, is mainly concerned with the
commercial aspect of his plants. In Queensland hoop and kauri, maple,
white beech, silky oak, cypress, and other native trees are receiving very
special attention, but exotics are also being exploited, notably at Beerwah.
The exploitation of the native species ensures their perpetuation and
affords an example of the truth that the best qualification for survival
of an animal or a plant is to be useful to man. Therein lies the future
of many of our native species, not only in Australia but overseas.

There are, however, thousands of plants of no commercial value.
They are useless for food or timber, of no decorative value, and not
even dignified by a common name. But they have their allotted place
in nature. Some of them are of great scientific interest because of
anatomical or chemical peculiarities, or because of the light they shed
on the past history of the fiora. Without them the delicate balance of
the plant community would be upset. We might almost regard the
Queensland flora as a great organism sprawled across the State, and any
part, of it, be it the humblest species, is an essential member. So many
of the native species are restricted to this State, and this State only,
that it is our duty to see that they are preserved. That is the object
of our national parks. They are areas where the plants and their
dependent animals can live in their natural undisturbed balance.

After referring to the interest of seeing the fearless and abundant
wild life in unspoiled natural habitat in the Yellowstone Park, U.S.A.,
Dr. E. 0. Marks pointed out that it is the duty of the present genera-
tion as life tenants to hand on to future generations areas of country
in its natural state and thus to preserve from extinction the peculiar
Australian fauna and flora. National Parks should be called Nature
Sanctuaries. Though their most important objects are sentimental and
scientific, they have as recreation and tourist resorts a commercial
value Avhich will far exceed that of any contained natural products.
While appreciating what has been done already by the Queensland

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XV.

Government in reserving national parks, the present area constitutes
only 0*1 per cent, of the State and is not sufficient. There should be
reserved areas of every type of country to preserve examples of each
characteristic assemblage of animals and plants.

Mr. IT. A. Longman remarked that our obligations to protect our
unique Australian fauna are not only national but international, for the
intelligentsia of the world are interested in distinctive marsupials and
birds. Queensland with its variety of environments has the richest
fauna of any Australian State. Because of the inevitable changes
resulting from white settlement, the natural environment of many
species is being destroyed and their persistence threatened. The intro-
duction of such mammals as the fox, the rabbit and the domestic cat
(the last now being often seen in a wild state) was an additional
menace. The bringing in of such birds as the sparrow, the Indian dove
and the starling was also a mistake.

The Government had wisely proclaimed no less than 313 sanctuaries
in Queensland, and the latest Fauna Protection Act was an excellent
measure. Most of our native birds and many of the rarer marsupials
were now adequately protected. The worlffifamous Koala was now
protected for all time. The Government’s legislation should be more
thoroughly supported by the people. Some so-called sportsmen seemed
to think it fair to evade the law in out-of-the-way places. The pernicious
pea-rifle should be entirely prohibited. The work of the Nature Lovers’
League and the issue this year of thousands of certificates to children
was a pleasant feature.

Although certain dominant species of marsupials, such as the ^ ^ scrub
wallaby” were very numerous in places, several other species were in
danger of extinction. The so-called ‘Mat-kangaroo” and the beautiful
“hare-wallaby” were rarely seen to-day. Fortunately the platypus,
which has been strictly protected for years, was now common in some
ooastal streams.

Certain species of birds such as the “paradise parrot” and the
western “flock pigeon” were evidently in danger of extinction.

Over 120 years ago Byron declaimed that “Man marks the earth
with ruin” and the words were still more true to-day. But the intelli-
gentsia of the world were now recognising how great are our obliga-
tions to preserve and protect harmless creatures of the wild in inviolable
sanctuaries.

Mr. Romeo Lahejq President of the National Parks Association, gave
an outline of its work, and its immediate programme for the conserva-
ton of the fauna and flora of Queensland.

A vote of thanks to the speakers was moved by Mr. C, T. White
and Mr. F. A. Perkins.

Abstract op Proceedings, 29th August, 1938.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Lecture Theatre of the LTniversity on Monday, 29th August,
1938, at 8 p.m., with the President in the Chair. About twenty-five
members and friends were present, and apologies were received from
Dr. W. H. Bryan, Mr. C. T. White and Dr. F. W. Whitehouse. The
minutes of the previous meeting were confirmed. Mr. G. W. Sims was
elected an ordinary member, and Mr. C. W. Ball, B.Sc., was nominated
for ordinary membership by Dr. F. W. Whitehouse and Dr. W. H.
Bryan.

XVI.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Professor H. E. Seddon, D.V.Sc., delivered a lecture on ‘ ‘ The Spread
of Three-Day Sickness in Cattle in Australia in 1936-37.” The disease
first appeared in Northern Australia, in the autumn of 1936, and spread
west and south-east until early in 1937. It was confined to cattle, and
those affected had fever one day, stiffness and lameness on the second
d.ay, recovering on the third day; the mortality rate is low, and an
attack gives immunity for at least a year. The causative agent is a
filterable virus, carried possibly by an insect, which may he in part wind-
horn. Likelihood of another epidemic is small until the present immune
cattle-population is replaced by a new generation. The danger of
introduction of other stock diseases from the near east was stressed.

Mr. P. A. Perkins, in moving a vote of thanks, said that if the vector
were a wind-born insect it could be deduced, by an analysis of the insect
fauna, to be any or all of the sandflies and mosquitoes. Mr. J. H. Smith,
in seconding the vote of thanks, which was carried by acclamation,
added to the entomological analysis.

Abstract of Proceedings, 26th September, 1938.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Geology Theatre of the University on Monday, 26th September, at 8
p.m., with the President in the Chair. About thirty members and
friends were present and apologies were received from Mr. H. A.
Longman and Mr. E. Eoe. Mr. C. W. Ball, B.Sc., was declared an
Ordinary Member, and Mr. F. B. Coleman, of the Department of
Agriculture and Stock, was proposed for Ordinary Membership by
Dr. M. White and Miss Hill. The President congratulated Mr. C. T.
White on his appointment as Commonwealth liaison officer at Kew,
and welcomed Mr. W. W. Bryan on his return from the United States.

Mr. C. T. White exhibited a series of specimens of Acacia linifoUa
and Acacia fimhriata. The latter is very common in South Eastern
Queensland and is usually known as Brisbane Golden Wattle. The
exhibitor stated that he had separated two varieties from the type and
had under review an allied and undescribed species. These will be
described in the next ‘ ‘ Contributions to the Queensland Flora. ’ ’

Dr. F. W. Whitehouse showed (a) two very large spiral concretions,
each about 5 ft. long, from the Lower Cretaceous of the Blackall district,
and comparable to that described Whitehouse 1934, 3Iem. Qld. Mus. X,
p. 203; (6) a collection of Lower Cretaceous fossils, mainly molluscs,
converted into precious opal, from Lightning Eidge and Whitecliffs,
New South Wales, and Stuart’s Eange, South Australia.

Dr. D. A. Herbert exhibited fruits of a hybrid raspberry, the parents
of which were the native Ruhus rosaefotiiis and the introduced A.
ellipticus.

Dr. W. H. Bryan read a paper, ‘‘The Eed Earth Eesiduals and their
Significance in South-Eastern Queensland,” of which the following is
the author’s summary: — “Evidence is brought forward to show that
there exists in South-Eastern Queensland a series of soils, namely the
Eed Earths, that cannot be explained in terms of the existing soil-
forming processes, but appear to have been inherited from an earlier
wetter climate. It is shown too that the Eed Earths have a restricted
distribution and are associated with the dissected plateau remnants of
an old erosion surface. The suggestion is made that these Eed Earti'

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XVII,

Eesiduals represent a definite epoch in the late Tertiary (probably
Pliocene) history of South-Eastern Queensland, and that they may con-
veniently be used as a datum to which earlier and later events may be
referred. Moreover the combination of Eed Earth soils with dissected
plateau topography is so striking that it should be possible to use it
as a basis of correlation. Although no attempt has been made as yet
at precise correlation, a number of occurrences are cited from Australia
and elsewhere, that resemble more or less closely the Red Earth Residuals,
and some of which may ultimately prove to be equivalent forma-
tions.” The paper was followed by a discussion in which Dr. Marks,
Professor Bagster, Dr. Whitehouse, Mr. Bennett, and Mr. Blake took
part.

Special Meeting.

A Special Meeting of the Society was held in the Lecture Theatre
of the Department of Geology of the University at 8 p.m., on Monday,
10th October, with the President in the Chair. About fifty members and
guests were present. Mr. T. J. Marshall, M.Agr.Sc., of the Soils Division
of C.S.I.R., returning from the University of California, spoke on
^‘Recent Trends in the Investigation of Soils.” He reviewed the
advances he had noted during his absence abroad, in the determination
of the crystalline components of the clay fraction, in the chemistry,
physics, moisture content, microbiology, texture, structure and consist-
ence of soils, and spoke of methods of soil survey and soil conservation
in the United States. A discussion followed in which Messrs. Wells,
Ball, Vallance, Christian, and Gurney took part, and a vote of thanks
to the lecturer was moved by Professor Murray, seconded by Dr. Bryan,
and carried by acclamation.

Abstract op Proceedings, 31st October, 1938.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Lecture Theatre of the Department of Geology of the University on
Monday, 31st October, at 8 p.m., with the President in the Chair. About
thirty-five members were present, and apologies were received from
Dr. J. J. C. Bradfield, Dr. W. H. Bryan, Prof. E. J. Goddard, and
Prof. H. R. Seddon. The minutes of the previous meeting were read
and confirmed. Mr. P. B. Coleman was unanimously elected a member.

The main business of the evening was a discussion, ‘‘Homotaxy
and the Australian Flora and Fauna.”

Opening the discussion. Dr. F. W. Whitehouse said that the chief
purpose of the evening was to examine certain oft-repeated statements
about the Australian fauna and flora — chiefly that it is ‘‘primitive.”'
Reviewing palasontological evidence, he pointed out that often in earlier
periods (the Jurassic, for instance) faunas and floras world-wide were
very similar. Sometimes (for example, in the Cretaceous) there were
more marked differences, and rarely (notably in the Permian) there
were world-wide contrasts more pronounced than at present. The
biological differences of the continents to-day seem to be more marked
than what the palaeontologist would regard as usual. The Australian
fauna and flora particularly is distinct. He reviewed a number of
possible theories to account for this (differences of climate, differences
of facies, isolation, &c.), including an extension of Huxley’s suggestion
(1862) that, due to the time taken in migration, similar faunas in
different parts of the world might be of different ages ( “ homotaxial ”

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

witlx one anotlier and not contemporaneous). He asked the biologists
contributing to the discussion whether the present-day Australian life
forms are a primitive group or whether this so-called primitive aspect
has been overstressed.

Dr. D. A. Herbert pointed out that the statement that the Australian
flora is primitive and represents a survival of floras elsewhere extinct was
without foundation. An analysis of the plant population shows that the
families dominant in Australia are for the most part the families domi-
nant in other large land masses. There is no greater concentration of
what are usually considered to be earlier types of flowering plants. Dying
out of ancient types has left relics in Australia, but the same is true for
Asia, Africa, Europe, and America. The main differences between the
floras of Australia and adjacent countries lie in the adaptations to
climate. Certain peculiar Australian types — Eucalyptus, phyilodineous
Acacias and Casuarinas, for example — have developed under climatic
conditions not duplicated in Asia and New Zealand. Any comparison
of floras must be made on similar climatic zones, as it is not possible to
compare vegetation of a dry zone in one country with that of a wet zone
in another and draw valid conclusions. A comparison of the temperate
rain forests of Australia, New Zealand, and South America shov/s a
remarkable resemblance, as does also a comparison of alpine floras of
Australia, New Zealand, and Malaysia. Using such climatic units, it is
apparent that the vegetation of Australia is not as peculiarly Australian
as would be deduced from a brief examination of the flora as a whole.
Most of the peculiar Australian types are plants of the open forest
which are specialised and not primitive.

Mr. P. A. Perkins said that a study of the insecta has little value
in any attempt to prove or disprove that the flora and fauna is the same
in all parts of the earth at the same time. The fossil record is incomplete
and even misleading for the following reasons : — (a) Only about 11,000
fossil insects have been recorded in spite of the fact that well over half
a million species of living insects have been described, (b) Usually,
except in the comparatively recent amber fossils of Miocene age, only
the wings have been preserved, and consequently insect palaeontology
is mainly a study of venation, (c) Most of the fossil wings are those
of aquatic insects. Naturally, such insects are more liable to be pre-
served, as most fossil insects are found in shales and similar rocks.
Forest insects were probably as numerous in the past as they are to-day,
and yet very few have been preserved as fossils. Using the Order
Mecoptera as an example, the present-day American fauna was compared
with the Lower Permian of Kansas, and the living Australian fauna
with the Permian and Triassic of Eastern Australia. In both countries
the present-day fauna is comparatively more closely related to the fossil
fauna than to one another. In any attempt to compare the insecta
fauna of the two countries at any one time the Mecoptera would be of
little value.

Mr. H. A. Longman said that Huxley invented the word homotaxis
to ‘ ‘ get rid of a number of pitfalls, ’ ’ and there was definite need to-day
for the severely-critical attitude shown in his addresses given in 1862
and 1870. The associated problems were too complex to be concisely
stated. There were still difficulties over lineal relationships of mammals
and over the significance of supposed primitive characters. He thought
that the marsupials of Australia, both living and extinct, should not
be regarded as merely a survival of primitive Mesozoic mammals. Our

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XIX,

marsupials had exhibited surprising radial development, and there were
many specialised forms. As outlined in, a paper, ‘‘The Uniqueness of
Australian Fossil Marsupials” (A.A.A.S. Rep., 1924), he thought that
these were radically autochthonous and that their evolution had mainly
tahen place here. Among the Dasyuridae and Phascolomyidse there
were interesting illustrations of species surviving in certain localities,
whilst closely-allied forms were only found elsewhere in Australia as
fossils. Reference was made to W. D. Matthew’s important paper on
“Climate and Evolution” (1915).

Mr. Longman also suggested that the Australian Aborigines were
the changed descendants of a Neanderthal type of man (as first noted
by Huxley), although not strictly homotaxial and obviously not con-
temporaneous.

Mr. P. Bennett, Miss Hill, Mr. C.' T. White, and Mr. S. T. Blake
contributed to the discussion which followed, and a vote of thanks moved
by Mr. C. T. White and seconded by Mr. S. B. Watkins was carried by
acclamation.

JLX.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

Pablications are being received from tbe following Institutions* Societies* etc.,
and are hereby gratefully acknowledged:^

Algeria —

Societe de Geographieet d ^Arehaeologie
d ’Oran.

Argentine —

Universidad Nacional de la Plata.
Australia —

Commonwealth Bureau of Census and
Statistics, Canberra.

Department of Agriculture, Melbourne.
Department of Mines, Melbourne.
Eoyal Society of Victoria.

Field Naturalists’ Club, Melbourne.^
Council for Scientific and Industrial
Eesearch, Melbourne.

Australian Chemical Institute,
Melbourne.

Department of Mines, Adelaide.
Waite Agricultural Research Institute,
Glen Osmond.

Royal Society of South Australia.
Eoyal Geographical Society of Aus-
tralasia, Adelaide.

Public Library, Museum, and Art
Gallery, Adelaide.

University of Adelaide.

Standards Association of Australia,
Sydney.

Naturalists’ Society of New South
Wales.

Department of Agriculture, Sydney,
Department of Mines, Sydney.

Royal Society of New South Wales.
Linnean Society of New South Wales.
Australian Museum, Sydney.

Public Library, Sydney.

University of Sydney.

Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Australian Veterinary Society, Sydney.
Queensland Naturalists’ Club, Brisbane.
Department of Mines, Brisbane.
Queensland Museum, Brisbane.
Department of Agriculture, Brisbane.
Registrar-General’s Department, Bris-
bane.

Royal Geographical Society of Aus-
tralasia (Queensland), Brisbane.
Field Naturalists’ Club, Hobart.

Royal Society of Tasmania.

Mines Department, Hobart.

Mines Department, Perth.

Royal Society of Western Australia.
North Queensland Naturalists’ Club.

Austria —

Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna.
B'ELGIUM —

Academie Royale de Belgique.

Societe Royale de Botanique de Bel-
gique.

Societe Royale Zoologique de Bel-
gique.

Brazil —

Institute Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro.
Ministerio de Agricultura Industria y
Commercio, Rio de Janeiro.

British Isles —

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

British Museum (Natural History),
London.

Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Literary and Philosophical Society,
Manchester.

Leeds Philosophical and Literary
Society.

Royal Society, London.

Conehological Society of Great Britain
and Ireland, Manchester.

Royal Empire Society, London.

The Bristol Museum and Art Gallery.
Imperial Bureau of Entomology,
London,

Imperial Agricultural Bureau, Aberyst-
wyth.

Royal Society of Edinburgh.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

Royal Dublin Society.

Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.

Canada —

Department of Mines, Ottawa.

Royal Astronomical Society of Canada.
Royal Society of Canada.

Royal Canadian Institute.

Nova Scotian Institute of Science.
Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.

Ceylon —

Colombo Museum.

China —

Sinensia, Nankin University, China.
Cuba —

Sociedad Geografiea de Cuba, Habana
Denmark —

The University, Copenhagen.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

XXI.

PiNLAND

Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica,
Helsingfors.

France —

Station Zoologique de Cette.

Societe des Sciences Naturelles de
FOuest.

Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris.

Societe Botanique de France.

Societe Geologique et Mineralogique da
Bretagne.

Societe de GeograpMe de Eochefort.

Germany —

Zoologisches Museum, Berlin.

Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde, Berlin.

Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft,
Berlin.

Naturhistorischer Verein der preus
Rheinland und Westfalens, Bonn.

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu
Bremen.

Senckenbergische Bibliothek, Frank-
furt a. Main.

Kaiserlich Deutsche Akademie der
Naturforscher, Halle.

Zoologisches Museum, Hamburg.

H aturhistorisch-Medizinischer Vereins,
Heidelberg.

Akademie der Wissenschaften, Leipzig.

Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaf-
ten, Munich.

Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie.

Hawaii —

Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum,
Honolulu.

Holland —

Technische Hoogeschool, Delft.

Italy —

Institute di Bologna.

Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali,
Pisa.

Societa Africana d ’Italia, Naples.
Museo Civico, Genova.

India —

Geological Survey of India.
Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa,

Japan —

Berichte der Ohara Institut, Kurashiki,
Japan.

Imperial University, Kyoto.

Imperial University, Tokyo.

National Research Council of Japan,
Tokyo.

Java—

Koninklijk Naturkundige Vereeniging,
Weltevreden.

Departement van Landbouw,
Buitenzorg.

Mexico—

Institute Geologico de Mexico.

Sociedad Cientifica “Antonio Alzate,’^
Mexico.

Secretario de Agriculture y Fomento,
Mexico.

Observatorio Meterorologico Central,
Tacaibaya.

New Zealand —

Dominion Museum, Wellington.

New Zealand Institute, Wellington.
Auckland Institute and Museum.
Dominion Laboratory, Wellington.
Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Wellington.

Geological Survey of New Zealand.

Peru —

Sociedad Geologica del Peru, Lima,

Philippines —

Bureau of Science, Manila.

Poland —

Polskie Towarzystwo Przyrodnikou im
Kopernika, Lwow.

University of Poland.

Societes Savantes Polonaises.

Portugal —

Academia Polytechnicada, Oporto.
Sociedade Broteriana, Coimbra.

Institut B'otanico, Coimbra.

Russia —

Academy of Sciences, Leningrad.
Bureau of Applied Entomology, Lenin-
grad.

Laboratory of Palaeontology, Moscow
University, Mokhovaja II.,
Moscow.

Publications of the Institute of Plant
Industry, Leningrad.

Spain —

Real Academia de Ciencias y Artes de
Barcelona.

Real Academia de Ciencias, Madrid.
Museo de Historia Natural, Valencia.
Academia de Ciencias de Zarogoza.

Sweden —

Geological Institute of Upsala.
Goteborgs Kungl. Vetenskops.

Switzerland —

Societe de Physique et d’Histoire
Naturelle, Geneve.

Naturforsehende Gesellschaft, Zurich.
The League of Nations, Geneva.

South Africa —

Geological Society of South Africa,
Johannesburg.

South African Museum, Capetown.
Durban Museum, Natal.

Transvaal Museum, Pretoria.

XXII.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

United States op America—

United States Geological Survey,
Washington.

Natural History Survey, Illinois.

Lloyd Library, Cincinnati.

Wisconsin Academy of Arts, Science,
and Letters, Madison.

California Academy of Sciences.

Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

University of Minnesota.

University of Calif orna.

Library of Congress, Washington.

Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago.

American Museum of Natural History,
New York.

Buffalo Society of Natural History.

Boston Society of Natural History.

American Philosophical Society, Phila-
delphia.

American Geographical Society, New
York.

Smithsonian Institute, Washington.

Carnegie Institute, Washington.

United States Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington.

Oberlin College, Ohio.

National Academy of Science, Wash-
ington.

Bochester Academy of Sciences.

Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila-
delphia.

New York Academy of Science.

Indiana Academy of Science.

American Academy of Science and
Arts, Boston

Institute of Biological Eesearch, Balti-
more.

John Crerar Library, Chicago.

Ohio Academy of Science, Columbus.

Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plains.

Michigan Academy of Arts, Science,,
and Letters.

University of Michigan.

Minnesota Geological Survey.

New York Zoological Society.

Wistar Institute of Anatomy and
Biology, Philadelphia.

Portland Society of Natural History.

San Diego Society of Natural History*

Puget Sound Biological Station, Seattle*

Missouri Botanic Gardens, St. Louis.

University of Illinois, Urbana.

State College of Washington, Pull-
man.

Bureau of Standards, Washington.

National Research Council, Washing-
ton.

United States National Museum, Wash-
ington.

Public Health Service, Washington.

Peabody Museum of Natural History,.
Yale.

Lawde Observatory, Arizona.

The University of California, I»oa
Angeles, California.

XXIII.

List of Members.

Honoraet

■^Hendersoii, J. B., P.I.C.

Marks, Hon. Dr. C. F., M.D.
Simmonds, J. H., senr.

*Tryon, H.

Waikom, A.B., D.Sc.

Life

■*Bagster, L. S., Prof., D.Sc. . .

Hulsen, E.

^Jensen, H. I., D.Sc

Eiddeil, E. M. . .

Tilling, H. W., M.E.S.C. (Eng.),
L.E.C.T. (Bond.)

Life Members.

‘ ‘ Bangamba, ’ ’ Palardo, via Miles.

101 V/ickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Hillsdon Eoad, Taringa, Brisbane.
Gladstone Eoad, Highgate Hill, Brisbane.
Science House, 159 Gloucester Street,
Sydney.

Members.

The University, Brisbane.

Valley Corner, Brisbane.

Geophysical Survey, Cloncurry.
Department of Public Instruction, Bris-
bane.

Nairobi, Kenya, Africa.

Corresponding Members.

*Domin, Dr. K. . . . . . . . . Czech University, Prague.

*Maitland, A. Gibb, F.G.S. . . . . Melville Place, South Perth.

*Skeats, ProL E. W., D.Sc. . . . . The University, Melbourne, Victoria

Ordinary Members.

Atherton, D. 0., M.Sc.Agr. . .

Bage, Miss F., M.Sc, . .

Ball, C. W., M.Sc

Ball, L. C., B.E.

Bambrick, E.

Barker, F.

Barker, G. H . .

Beckman, G. H., B.Sc.

“*Bennett, F., B.Sc.

Bennett, F. C., B.Sc., B.App.Sc. . .
Bick, E. W.

Bick, I. E., M.8c

-’'Blake, S. T., M.Sc

Boissard, G. P. D., B.Sc.

Bongers, G. S.

Booth, F. G., M.D.

Bostoek, J., M.D., B.S., D.P.M.,

M.E.C.S., L.E.C.P.

Bosworth, F. O., B.A.

Bradfield, J. J. C., D.Sc. (Eng.), M.E.

Briggs, Mrs. C.

Brimblecombe, A. E. . .

Broe, J. J., M.Sc.

Brown, Graham, M.E.C.S., L.E.C.P.,
F.E.A.C.S.

Brown, Jas., B.A., M.D., Ch.B.

(Edin.), D.Ph. (Cambridge)

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Atherton.

Women ^s College, Kangaroo Point, Bris-
bane.

Broken Hill Pty. Ltd., Iron Baron, South
Australia.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane

Stock Inspector, Hughenden.

Eailway Audit Office, Brisbane.

Adelaide Street, Brisbane.

Crook Street, Northgate, Brisbane.

113 Annie Street, Torwood.

Sirius Street, Coorparoo, Brisbane.

Botanic Gardens, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Evans Deakin, Ltd., Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Agricultural College, Lawes.

Bureau of Industry, Taxation Building,
Brisbane.

First Avenue, Eagle Junction, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

Central Technical College, Brisbane.

371 Queen Street, Brisbane.

“ Widmoorene, Margaret Street, Too-
woomba

^Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

XXIV.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

*Bryan, W. H., M.C., D.Sc. . .
*Bryan, W. W., M.Sc.Agr.

Bazacott, J. H., M.Sc.

Caldwell, N. E. H., B.Sc.Agr.

Callaghan, J. P., B.Sc.

Carroll, B. J. . .

Carson-Cooling, Geo., M.Sc. . .
Carter, S. B.Sc.

Chamberlain, W. J., M.Se.

Christian, 0. S., M.Sc.

Cilento, Sir B. W., M.D., B.S.
Collins, Mrs. E., B.Sc.

Coleman, F. B.

Connah, T. H., M.Se. . .
Cottrell-Dormer, W., M.Se.Agr.

Cribb, H. G., B.Sc

Croll, Gifford, M.B.

Cummings, B. P.

*Denmead, A. K., M.Sc.

Dixon, G. P., C.B.E., M.B., Ch.M. . .
*Dodd, Alan P. . .

Donaldson, B. J.

*Duhig, J. V., Professor, M.B.
F.B.A.C.P.

Edmiston, E. S., M.Sc.

E-llis, C., B.E.

Evans, C. K., M.Sc. . .

Everist, S. L., B.Sc., . .

Fahey, Bev. Father
Ferguson, Miss G., B.Se,

Fisher, N., M.Sc. . . .

Fison, D. G., M.Se., M.B., Ch.M. ..
Ford, F. Campbell

Fortescue, L. . .

Fraser, C. S.

Fraser, K., B.Se.

Frew, A. E. Harding, B.E. . .

Gaffney, T. . . . . <. .

Gibson, J. Lockhart, M.D.

Gipps, F. . .

*Goddard, Prof. E. J., B.A., D.Sc. . .
Goldfinch, H. A., D.D.S.

Graff, B., M.B., B.S. . .

Grant, D. J., B.Sc.

The University, Brisbane.

Agricultural High School and College^
Lawes.

Sugar Experiment Station, Meringa, vm
Gordonvale.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Nambour.

Brisbane General Hospital, Brisbane.

Q.C.E. Booms, Workers Building, Eliza-
beth Street, Brisbane.

Boys^ Grammar School, Brisbane.

Mount Isa Mines, Ltd,, Mount Isa.

Water Supply and Sewerage Department,
Brisbane City Council.

Queensland Agricultural College, Lawes.

Department of Health, Brisbane.

Mount Isa.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

Fairymead Sugar Plantations Ltd.,
Bundaberg.

. Geological Survey Office, Charters Towers.

Sherwood, Brisbane.

University of Queensland, Brisbane.

Geological Survey, Edward Street, Bris-
bane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Prickly-pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Bris-
bane.

care of Gibbs, Bright, and Co., Queen
Street, Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Forestry Department, Brisbane.

Ipswich Technical College, Ipswich.

Department of Agriculture, Blackall,

‘ ^ Wynberg, ^ ’ Brunswick Street, Brisbane.

Bohde Boad, Nundah.

Government Geologist, Wau, New
Guinea.

O ’Connell Street, Kangaroo Point.

Stanford,” Kennedy Terrace, Bed Hill,
Brisbane.

New Zealand Chambers, 334 Queen Street,
Brisbane.

229 Edward Street, Brisbane.

St. John’s College, Kangaroo Point,
Brisbane.

T. and G. Buildings, Queen Street, Bris-
bane.

Engineer in Charge, Pumping Station,
Pinkenba.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

” Blaina, ” Simpson’s Boad, Bardon,

The University, Brisbane.

414 Sandgate Bead, Albion.

487 Sandgate Boad, Brisbane.

Church Street, Indooroopilly.

^Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXV.

Greenham, R., B.Sc. . .

*Giej, Mrs. B. B., F.L.S.

Griffiths, Miss J., B.Sc.

•Gurney, E. H. . .

Gutteridge, N. M., M.B., B.S.
•Haenke, W. L., B.Sc., B.Sc.App.
Hall, G., B.Sc. . . . . . . . .

•Hamlyn-Harris, R., D.Sc.

Hamon, W. P., B.Sc.Agr.

Hardie, Sir David, M.D., M.S.

•Hardy, G. H

Harris, V. E. G., D.Sc.

•Hawken, Professor R. W., B.A., M.E.,
M.Inst.C.E.

•Herbert, D. A., D.Sc.

Herdsman, L. P.

•Hill, Miss D., M.Sc.j Ph.D. . .

•Hines, H. J., B.Sc.

•Hitchcock, L. P., M.Sc.

Hirschfield, E., M.D.

Hirschfield, O. S., M.B., M.Sc.
Hossfeld, P. S., M.Sc.

Jack, Thos.

Jackson, K.

James, F. W., M.Sc.

Jones, B.

Jones, Inigo, F.R.A.S., F.R.Met.Soc.,
F.Am.Geog.Soc., F.R.S.A.

•Jones, Owen, M.Sc.

♦Jones, T. G. H., D.Sc., A.A.C.I. ..

Jorgensen, G. H.

•Just, J. S

Kemp, J. R.

Knight, C. L., M.Sc. . .

Kyle, W. M., M.A.

•Lahey, P. N., M.Sc

Lee, Professor D. H. K., M.Sc., M.B.,
Ch.M., D.T.M.

•Legg, J., D.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S.
Lewcock, H. K., M.Sc.

•Longman, H. A., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. . .

•Lowson, Professor J. P., M.A., M.D.

Lydon, R. J

Lynch, A. J., M.B., Ch.M

•Lynch, L. J., B.Sc.Agr.

Anglo-Iranian Oil Co., Abadan, Iraq.

care of Chartered Bank of Australia,
India, and China, Singapore, S.S.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane.

Inchcolme, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Eockton Street, East Ipswich.

Mount Isa Mines Ltd., Mount Isa, N.Q.

The University, Brisbane.

Clifton, Ubobo, via Gladstone.

“ Blythsdale, ' ^ Hamilton, Brisbane.

Station Road, Sunnybank.

The Southport School, Southport.

The University, Brisbane.

Biology Department, University, Bris-
bane.

Government Printing Office, George
Street, Brisbane.

Geology Department, University, Bris-
bane.

The University, Brisbane.

Box 509, Uvaldi, Texas, U.S.A.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Department of Home Affairs, Canberra.

Cunningham Street, Dalby.

Queensland Museum, Brisbane.

Department of Engineering, University
of Queensland, Brisbane.

New Zealand Petroleum Co., Ltd., Box
295, Gisborne, New Zealand.

Crohamhurst Observatory, Beerwah, Q.

239 Queen street, Brisbane.

Chemistry Department, The University,
Brisbane.

care of Australian Chemical Co., Grey
Street, South Brisbane.

Box 1067N., G.P.O., Brisbane.

Main Roads Commission, Albert Street,
Brisbane.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Department of Chemistry, University of
Queensland, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly.

Department of Agriculture, Brisbane.

Queensland Museum, Brisbane.

“Inchcolm, '' Wickham Terrace, Bris-
bane.

Central Technical College, Brisbane,

413 Brunswick Street, Valley, Brisbane.

Fruit Branch, Department of Agriculture,
Sydney.

* Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

XXVI.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

*Mackerras, Mrs. Ian, M.B. . .
MacMahon, P. G.

Marks, A. H., C.B.E., D.S.O., M.D. . .
♦Marks, E. O., M.D., B.A., B.E.

Marks, Miss E. N., M.Se.

Mathewson, J. H. E., M.B., Ch.B. . .

McConnel, Miss U., M.A. . .
McDonald, S. F.', M.D., M.E.C.P. . .

McDougall, W. A., M.Sc.

McDowall, Val., M.D.

McKenzie, A. D., M.B., Ch.M,
Macpherson, E. K., M.Sc.

Meyers, E. S., M.B. . .

Mitchell, E. S., M.Sc.Agr. . .

Morris, L. C., A.M.I.C.E.

Morton, C. C., A.C.T.S.M.

Murphy, EUis, M.D. . .

♦Murray, Professor J. K., B.A.,

B.Sc.Agr.

Newman, Miss A. W., B.Sc.

O ^Connor, E. A., M.Se.

Ogilvie, C., B.E.

Paltridge, T. B., B.Sc.

Parker, W. E., L.D.S.

♦Parnell, Professor T., M.A. . .

Payne, W. L. . .

♦Pearce, Mrs. T. E., M.Sc.

♦Perkins, P. A., B.Sc.Agr.

Peters, E.

Phillips, T. J

Preston, G.

Price, T. A., M.B,, B.S.

♦Eeid, J. II. ..

Eeimann, A. L., D.Sc., Ph.D,

♦Eeye, A. J., M.D

♦Eichards, Professor H. C., D.Sc.
Eiddle, A. E., M.Sc. . .

Eidgeway, J. E.

Eimmer, T., M.Se.

Eoberts, P. H. S., D.Sc.

♦Eobertson, W. T.

Eobertson, W. N., C.M.G., M.B.

Eobinson, E. V.

Eoe, E., B.Sc.

Schindler, C., M.A.

Scott, Miss P. E., B.Sc.

Seddon, Professor H. E,, D.V.Se. . .
Shaw, B. E., A.M.I.E.

Bux 109, Canberra, F.C.T.

Health Department, Brisbane.

Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace^
Brisbane.

Cressbrook, via Toogoolawah.

* ‘ Faneourt, ’ ’ Wickham Terrace, Bris--
bane.

Department of Agriculture, Mackay.
Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

Eussell Street, Toowoomba.

The University, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Department of Public Instruction, George
Street, Brisbane.

care of Mining Warden, Charters Towers.
97 Wickham Street, Brisbane.
Agricultural High School and College,,
Lawes.

care of Dr. Gutteridge, Gympie Eoad,
Kedron.

The University, Brisbane.

District Engineer, St. George.
Agricultural College, Lawes.

A.M.P. Building, Edward Street, Bris-
bane.

The University, Brisbane.

Lands Department, Brisbane.

Box 332, P.O., Lismore, New South
Wales.

The University, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture, Brisbane,
care of Courier-Mail, Queen Street, Bris-
bane

Gregory Terrace, Brisbane.

Toowoomba.

Geological Survey Office, Eockhampton,
The University, Brisbane.

97 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

The Abattoir, Cannon Hill, Brisbane.
Geological Survey Office, Eockhampton.
The University, Brisbane.

Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly.
Assistant Bacteriologist, City Hall, Bris-
bane.

‘ ^ Craigston, ’ ’ 217 Wickham Terrace,

Brisbane.

Geology Department, University, Bris-
bane.

Queensland Agricultural College, Lawes.
The University, Brisbane.
Northumberland Hotel, Gympie.

The University, Brisbane.

Irrigation Commission, College IJoad,
Brisbane.

♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XXVII.

Shaw, J. G., B.Sc.Agr.

SheU, G. W

^Shepherd, E. M., B.E.

*Simmonds, J. H., M.Sc.

Simonds, Prof. E. F., M.A., B.Sc.,
Ph.D.

Sims, G. W.

Sinclair, W. M., M.B».

Sloan, W. J. S., B.Sc.Agr. . .

Smith, D. J. W,, B.Sc.

*Smith, F. B., B.Sc., F.I.C. . .

Smith, J. H., D.Sc. . .

Sparks, II. I. . .

Steel, W. H., M.B.

Stephenson, S., M.A. . .

Stoney, A. J., B.E.E. . .

Strong, T. H., M.Sc.Agr.

Summerville, W. A. T., M.Sc.

Tarleton, A., M.B.

Taylor, G. C., M.B., Ch.M

Thelander, C., M.B., Ch.B., F.R.A.C.S.

Thomas, L., M.Sc.

Thorn, St. G. . .

Tommerup, E. C., M.Sc.

Trist, A., M.Sc.

*Turner, A. J., M.D., P.E.S. . .
^Veitch, R., B.Sc

Waddle, I., M.Sc

Wadley, J. B. . .

Watkins, S. B., M.Sc.

Watson, Miss K., B.A.

Webster, H. C., M.Sc., Ph.D., F.I.P.,

F.R.M.S.

Weddell, J. A. . .

Wells, W. G. . .

♦White, C. T., F.L.S

White, E. L. D., B.E., B'.Sc. . .

White, M., M.Sc., Ph.D.

^Whitehouse, E. W., D'.Sc., Pli.D.

Whitehouse, Miss M., M.Sc.
Wilkinson, Professor H. J., M.D. . .

Children's Hospital, Brisbane.

care of SheU Oil Co., Breakfast Creek
Road, Brisbane.

Beaconsfield Street, Highgate Hill.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

32 Gregory Street, Auehenflower.

Toowoomba.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Rockhampton.

Department of Health, Brisbane.

Hutton's Factory, Zillmere.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Nambour.

350 Queen Street, Brisbane.

Rosemount Hospital, Windsor.

Boys' Grammar School, Brisbane.

The University, Brisbane.

Waite Institute, Adelaide, S'.A.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

69 Vulture Street, West End, Brisbane.

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane.

Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,
Brisbane.

Post Office, Stanthorpe.

Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly.

P.O. Box 97, Atherton, North Queensland.

Forestry Department, Brisbane.

Dauphin Street, Highgate Hill.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

Brisbane State High School, Musgrave
Park, B'risbane.

Salt Street, Albion.

Central Technical College, Brisbane.

Queensland Museum, Brisbane.

University of Queensland, Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

Government Botanist, Botanic Gardens,
Brisbane.

‘ ‘ Doonholm, ' ' Walmsley Street, Kan-

garoo Point.

Department of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane.

Geological Department, University, Bris-
bane

Glennie School, Toowoomba.

The University, Brisbane.

Associate Member.

Archibald, Miss L., M.Sc. . . . . The University, Brisbane.

♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society,

David Whyte, Government Printer, Brisbane.

■I

>

*

\

^1

' \

CONTENTS.

Volume L.

No. 1. — Presidential Address: Alchemy, Ancient and Modern; By
Professor L. S. Bagster, D,Sc.

No. 2. — Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora, Part XIV.,
Eucalyptus conglomerata : By F. N. Lahey, MBc., and

T. G. E. Jones,. B.So., A.A.C.I

No. 3. — ^1-a-PHELLANDRENE AND ItS MoNOHYDROCHLORIDE, PART I. By
N. C. Ecmeox, B.Sc., and T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.

No. 4. — The Bed Earth Eesiduals and Their Significance in South-
Eastern Queensland: By W. E. Bryan, D.Sc.

No. 5. — Notes on Australian Muscoidia IV. : By G. H. Eardy . .

No. 6. — A New Derivative of Terpinen — 4 — ol. : By N. C. Eancox, B.Sc.,
and T. G. H. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I. . .

No. 7. — Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora, Part XV.,
Backhousia Bancroftii and Daphnandra rapandula: By
F. N. Lahey, M.Sc., and T. G. E. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.

No. 8. — Essential Oils from the Queensland Flora, Part XVI.,
Eucalyptus microcorys: By T. G. E. Jones, D.Sc., A.A.C.I.
cmd F. N. Lahey, M.Sc. . .

No. 9. — The Gastro-Intestinal Helminths of Cattle in Queensland:
Their Distribution and Pathogenic Importance; By F.

E. S. Boherts, D.Sc. . . . . . . . . ....

No. 10. — The Middle Devonian Eugose Corals of Queensland, !. Douglas
Creek and Drummond Creek, Clermont District: By
Dorothy Eill, M.Sc. (QJd^), Fh.D. (Canta'b.') . . i . .

No. 11. — Contributions to the Queensland Flora, No. 0; By C. T. White

No, 12. — A T^onograph of the Genus Eteocharis in Australia and New
Zealand: By S. T. Blaike, M.Sc

No. 13. — ^New Australian Lepidoptera: By A. Jefferis Turner, M.D.,

F. B.E.S

No. 14. — ^Artificial Eipening of Oranges: By L. S. Bagster,' D.Sc.,

A.A.C.I., a/nd MadoUne V. Connah, M.Sc.

Pages.

1-9

10-13

14-20

21-32

33-39

40

41-42

43-45

46-54

55-65

66-87

88-132

133-152

153-160

!

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V

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1 1 ' 7