PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND FOR 1939 VOL. LI. PART |. ISSUED 19th FEB., 1940. PRICE : TEN SHILLINGS. Printed for the Society by Thomas Gilbert Hope, Acting Government Printer, Brisbane. NOTICE TO AUTHORS. 1. Each paper should be accompanied by the author ’s name, degrees and official address. 2. Papers must be complete and in a form suitable for publication when cora- 5. municated to the Society and should be as concise as possible. 3. Papers must be accompanied by an abstract of not more than one hundred words. 4. Papers should be in double-spaced typescript on one side of the paper with ample margins. The use of italics in the text should be restricted to generic and specific names, foreign words and titles of periodicals. I The cost of author’s corrections to proof above what the Council considers a reasonable amount, must be borne by the author. Unless otherwise specified- each author will be supplied with fifty separate copies of his paper. Any number exceeding this may be obtained tilt approximately cost price. 8. All references should be listed at the end of each paper and arranged alphabetically under authors’ names, e.g., Keilin, D. (1929) Proc. Roy. Soc. B, vol. 104, p. 207. Lesage, P. (1895) Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., vol. 1, p. 309. The corresponding references in the text should be: ‘ ‘ Keilin ( 1929 ) ’ ’, ‘ 4 Lesage ( 1895 ) ”. The size of the printed plate will not exceed- 8 in. x 4J in., and drawings may be to this size, or preferably to a convenient small multiple thereo f . The effect of the necessary reduction on lettering and fine detail should be borne in mind. Text figures should be drawn for reduction to a widt not exceeding 4 in. 10. Drawing in line should be executed in intensely black ink, such as go a India ink, on a smooth surface, preferably Bristol board. ExcessiveUy fine, scratchy or faint lines are to be avoided. Tints or washes cannjot be reproduced in line drawings, in which the maximum degree of contra st is necessary. 11. Drawings or photographs for reproduction in half-tone should, where possible, be grouped for reproduction on one plate. They should be done or mounted on a smooth surface, such as Bristol board, as the grain of me st drawing papers becomes visible on reproduction. Single photograp should be sent fiat and unmounted. All prints should be on glos bromide or gas-light paper. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND FOR 1939. VOL. LI. PART I. ISSUED 19th FEB., 1940. PRICE ; TEN SHILLINGS. Printed for the Society by Thomas Gilbert Hope, Acting Government Printer, Brisbane. The Royal Society of Queensland. Patron : HIS EXCELLENCY, COLONEL THE EIGHT HONOUEABLE SIE LESLIE OEME WILSON, G.C.S.I., G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., P.C., D.S.O. OFFICERS, 1939-1940. President : H. A. LONGMAN, E.L.S. Vice-Presidents : Professor H. C. EICHAEDS, D.Sc. Professor J. V. DUHIG, M.B. Eon. Treasurer: Hon. Secretary: E. W. BICK. DOEOTHY HILL, M.Sc., Ph.D. Hon. Librarian: F. A. PEEKINS, B.Sc.Agr. Hon. Editors: D. A. HEEBEET, D.Sc. J. H. SMITH, M.Sc. Members of Council: Professor H. E. SEDDON, D.V.Sc., E. O. MAEKS, M.D., B.A., B.E., A. E. EIDDLE, M.Sc., E. H. EOBEETS, D.Sc., M. WHITE, M.Sc., Ph.D. Trustees : F. BENNETT, B.Sc., J. B. HENDEESON, E.I.C., and A. J. TUENEE, M.D., F.E.S. Hon. Auditor: A. J. STONEY, B.E.E. Bankers : COMMONWEALTH BANK OF AUSTEALIA. CONTENTS. No. 1. N’o. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5 No. 6, Volume LI., Part 1. Pages. , — Presidential Address : Some Scientific? Investigations Affecting Queensland: By Professor II. C. Pick curds, D.Sc. . . . . 1-14 . — The Absorption of Acids by Wool: By Professor L. S. Bagster, D.Sc., and Madoline V. Connah, M.Sc. . . . . . . . . 15-18 / — Habits and Ciletotaxy of the Larva of Anopheles Atratipes Skuse : By Elizabeth N. Maries, B.So. . . . . . . 19-23- , — The Interrelationships of the Plant Communities of-Queens^ land: By S. T. Blake, M.Sc. .. .. .. .. .. 24-31 . — Notes on Australian Cyperaceae, III. : By S. T. Blake, M.Sc. . . 32-50 . — A Review of Australian Arctiidae (Lepidoptera) : By A. Jefferis Turner, M.D., F.B.E.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-131 Vol. LI., No. 1. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland. Presidential Address. SOME SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AFFECTING QUEENSLAND. By Professor H. C. Richards, D.Sc. Geology Department, University of Queensland. [Delivered before the Koyal Society of Queensland, 27th March, 1939.] Three years ago, on my return from over a year abroad, during which time many research institutions were visited and many scientific investigators were met, I addressed this Society on the part it had played and should continue to play in matters pertaining to research. Some of you will remember my reminding you that when this Royal. Society was founded — over fifty years ago — those responsible decided very wisely that the objects should be : — “The leading objects for which this Society is established are the encouragement of scientific research and the study of new applications and laws.” Since that reminder to you I have thought much about the matter, as it has been my good fortune to be associated very closely with many research activities, both within the State and beyond it. Events of world-wide importance move rapidly these days, and the necessity for this Society to do what it can in furtherance of its 1 1 leading objectives” was never more urgent than now. You do not need to be told of the changes which have come over the world’s methods of trading, and you are all well-informed as to the influence of these as far as the Empire is concerned, and Australia in particular. Things have changed very decidedly, and we need to use to the very best advantage all our resources — material, research, and human. The time has not long passed when those who knew the value — economic and otherwise — of research had to implore those whom it would most benefit as to the wisdom of supporting research investigation both financially and in kind. It is one of the most hopeful features of our outlook to-day that there is an ever-widening appreciation of the value of these research inquiries. When times are bad — as they were in Australia in 1929 onwards — everybody turns to the economist and to the research scientist, but there is still a very human tendency to forget about the scientist when times of prosperity return, and then in times of adversity to cast the blame on him for not doing something to prevent these unfortunate circumstances. Perhaps the best, but also the most unfair, tribute paid to the scientist is the blame cast upon him for the development to-day of OCT 31 2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. tremendous methods of destruction of structures and of mankind. Presumably there are those who think that the progress of science may be halted. It cannot he halted, nor should it be. Man himself should develop, and in his own way keep pace with this development. This matter is an extremely serious one, but, I fear, a fruitless one for me to pursue this evening. May I, however, take up with you the question of aiding and abetting the conduct of pure research investigations? The Commonwealth Government is an enlightened one as far as research investigations are concerned, especially those relating to the application of science to industry. Through the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, we now spend about a quarter of a million pounds yearly on research investigations. These are nearly all affecting the primary industries, and as time goes on, with our mandate to engage in the research investigations relating to secondary industries, this figure must, of course, increase. The State Governments — especially that of Queensland — also are very enlightened in this respect, and they are working in the closest co-operation with the Commonwealth. What this Society, along with its sisters and universities, needs to do is to safeguard the position of pure research, because applied research of an economic and industrial nature can yield only results in accordance with the development of pure research. “Research for its own sake” is a slogan that every one of us should paste in his hat. Governments now have learned the wisdom of finding money for the applied researches; while years ago they may have prospered without organised industrial research, to-day they know they will fail without it. But they seldom realise how fundamental to these applied researches is the encouragement and development of pure research investigations. On Royal Societies and universities there are very heavy responsibilities in this matter. It is well to remember that the teachers of advanced science must engage actively in research investi- gations if they hope to inspire their students. They must attempt to advance the frontiers of knowledge, or the frontiers will leave them rapidly behind. # Mention should be made of the important scientific investigations mainly in the nature of pure research which have been going on in regard to the Great Barrier Reef over a period of sixteen years. This work was initiated within Queensland, and is not only administered from here but has also been carried out mainly by Queensland investigators, with the exception of the work of an expedition of British Scientists in 1928-29, which was organised by the Great Barrier Reef Committee. The results of these investigations, both by the members of the expedition and by the local workers, are published from time to time and are known to those scientists throughout the world who are concerned in coral reef investigations. This work is continuing year in and year out, and is a good illustration of solid, quiet, pure research along a programme carefully worked out and pursued in an unostentatious fashion. Associated with the pure researches are certain applied researches of industrial importance, but it may be said definitely that the value of these latter investigations is based completely upon the pure research. The use in the cement making industry to-day in Brisbane of the coralline deposit at Mud Island in Moreton Bay instead of the limestone material * Soviet Science, J. G. Crowther, page 20. SOME SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AFFECTING QUEENSLAND. 3 from Gore is an excellent illustration of the economic results, often of great importance, which follow upon pure research entered upon simply in the spirit of ‘ ‘ research for its own sake. ’ 5 May I appeal to every member of this Society to help in the encouragement of pure research, and, as a reminder of its absolute necessity in the proper development of our country, may I furnish a few instances which, if necessary, you can use when you are “ passing on the torch 9 ’ 9 As pointed out by Sir Frank E. Smith, * it was Roger Bacon who first urged the experimental method in gaining knowledge, and 300 years later Gilbert became famous for his experimental work, especially that on magnetism. Galileo, a contemporary of Gilbert, also, as you know, favoured, in spite of tremendous opposition, the experimental method. The first great revolution in industry which resulted from the work of Black, James Watts, and others on the nature of steam followed upon the results of experiments. Who would have thought that the experimental work of twenty-five years ago which resulted in the then laboratory toy we now know as the photo-electric cell was producing something that to-day is a vital link in the ‘ ‘ talkies, ’ 9 is used as a burglar alarm, operates in large stores to switch lights on or off, with variation in daylight illumination, groups electric lamps according to their candle-power, arranges cigarettes in rows with the imprinted name uppermost, selects cigars by the colour of the outside leaf, controls the magnitude of electric currents, is used in television, and furnishes a completely unbiassed decision as to the order in which racehorses finish? Unquestionably, in the past there has been a considerable amount of capital (pure research discoveries) accumulated, and we have been living on that capital. It must be supplemented, however, and the need for constant replenishment must be appreciated far more widely than is the case to-day, and especially by Governments. One may say that nearly every fundamental discovery has originated in the laboratory devoted to pure science when no regard was being paid to its possible practical application. Faraday’s discoveries, in which lay the germ of all our dynamos and electrical power units, were believed originally to be of no practical importance. Pasteur’s researches, which led him to study fermentation problems and, later on, the control of disease, were originally conducted as pure scientific investigations. It took over twenty years from the time that Clerk Maxwell mathematically proved the existence of electro- magnetic waves for them to be actually produced and recognised, and on this we have based to-day the great system of wireless and radio as we know it. Mendel’s discoveries in heredity and cross-breeding, which have meant millions and millions of pounds to us in Australia in connection with the development of our modern varieties of wheat, originally had no industrial application. In spite of the above, one of the main difficulties to be overcome in Australia is the recognition of the importance of scientific research and the creation of an atmosphere which will encourage research in all departments of knowledge. * Norman Lockyer ’a Lecture, 1932, page 6. 4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Were it not for the capacity to float off separately the lead sulphide and the zinc sulphide from the Mount Isa ore, we should not have had the big industrial development at Mount Isa which has already seen the expenditure of so many millions of money. There has been a tremendous change during the last few years* and many who viewed the scientist with suspicion, and certainly would have none of him about their precincts, now come almost cap in hand to invoke his aid, and, as I could indicate to you from C.S.I.R. experience, they come now with hands full of money begging us to do the scientific work which they now realise is of such fundamental importance. Referring to the co-ordinated research efforts so often talked of, the following remarks by Dr. F. P. Keppel, the President of the Carnegie Corporation of New York, are interesting* : — “There are fashions in research, just as there are fashions in hats and gowns. To-day we have the endocrines, the cosmic rays, heavy hydrogen, the outer galaxies, pioneer belts. There are fashionable techniques — the bombardment of the atom, the partial correlation, the private life of the long-suffering banana fly, the photo-electric eye, linguistic atlases. For a while we are all excited about the possibility of deliberately planned co-operative research. “We are not so sure to-day. “It was, by the way, the degree of foundation support going to enterprises of this kind a few years ago which evoked the cry from my predecessor on this platform, Professor Zinsser, of Harvard : — “ ‘Research Councils and foundations organise co-operative researches, thinking that the shy truth can be snared by the noisy advance of a well-drilled company of technicians, forgetting that discovery was ever a solitary task, in which co-operation must be spontaneous, asked as the need arises by one lonely seeker from another.’ ” In support of the view that it is absolutely essential to have pure research fostered and encouraged, let us see what our very practical friends in U.S.A. think about it. Dr. Keppel estimated that in 1927 some £43,000,000 was spent in U.S.A. and about 90 per cent, of the funds came from industrial and commercial bodies. Much of it was necessarily routine and utilitarian research or investigation, but there are many shining examples to the contrary — e.g., Langmuir ’s work in the realm of pure physics is known the world over — he is on the pay-sheet of the General Electric Company. Other instances are contributions by scientists on the staff of the American Telephone and Telegraph Co. — one on endocrinology, another on the physics of light and the chemistry of pigments, and another on personal analysis. None of these has anything much to do with telephones or telegraphs. Of course, we need scientific workers of the very best calibre, and, speaking generally, the best men for these research posts are our own trained graduates who are “topped off,” if necessary, by carrying out post-graduate or research activities in carefully selected institutions abroad — in those places where they may receive the best inspirations and * F. P. Keppel: Philanthropy and Learning, page 15. SOME SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AFFECTING QUEENSLAND. 5 where they may become acquainted with the right technique. Naturally, we will be well-advised to recruit to a limited extent our research services from time to time by carefully selected people from abroad, but we will find it increasingly harder to induce the old country to send us good men — it wants them all herself — but, fortunately, the local product, adequately trained and experienced, has already demonstrated a fitness to undertake the tasks the country asks of it. The provision recently by the Commonwealth Government of £30,000 per annum to be used through C.S.I.R. in conjunction with the several universities in Australia in the stimulation of research and in the train- ing of young graduates as research investigators was most wise. It has provided facilities which were sadly needed — in our own University especially — and now the way is clear for anyone who has a “flair” for research investigation to engage in such an activity. The provision of these facilities should be known as widely as possible, and the Common- wealth Government and the University would welcome into this scheme those qualified and competent to serve their country in this all-important matter of research. While more details will be given of applied researches than of pure researches, it is hoped that the impression will not be left that pure researches, as such, have no sound establishment in Queensland and in Australia, for quite definitely they have. Applied researches have prominence in this address because most of those who read it will be more concerned in that direction, and the necessity of applying the results of scientifically conducted experiments to our industrial activity is of such paramount importance. As already indicated, applied researches can progress only on a sound basis of pure research. A long list of scientific research into physical, chemical, engineering, zoological, botanical, geological, and palaeontological matters could be drawn up, but anyone especially interested is advised to consult the proceedings of the various State Eoyal Societies and of the Australian Institution of Engineers, also the Memoirs of the various State museums. Let us now consider some of the research investigations which have taken place in the past, which are going on at the present day, and which will need to take place in the future. A purely cursory examination indicates that to-day a vast amount of research is taking place within Australia, and in Queensland, in particular, a very wide field indeed is being covered. This field has, generally speaking, been in the realm of primary industry, but we are on the eve of an enormous development on the secondary industrial side which will necessitate the application of a considerable amount of energy, time, and money. With confidence one may review the past record of achievement and think particularly of the spectacular success which attended the subjugation of the prickly-pear problem by biological control. Let us realise that going on at the present time is this extremely interesting work on chilled beef which brings in its train the necessity for research investigations into the fattening of cattle on improved pastures in our coastal regions. The realisation that the base-metal mining and milling industry at Mount Isa was determined by the capacity to apply selective flotation methods to the various sulphides in turn brings home to one the part which such investigations play in the building-up of a country by the provision of raw materials for industrial activity. 6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. It has been borne in upon ns in a rather brntal manner these last few years that we must learn to stand upon our own legs and that competition in the world’s markets to-day, as far as our primary products are concerned, is very keen indeed. Not only must we learn to produce the goods, but we have to transport them and market them, often under grave disadvantages as far as distance and time are con- cerned. In Great Britain a certain measure of preference to Empire- produced goods exists, but we have keen competition from our sister Dominions, especially Canada, South Africa, and New Zealand. While New Zealand and Australia together face the almost equal and great handicap of distance, South Africa, like the Argentine, our great competitor for so many products, has advantages over us. In matters relating to foodstuffs, these disadvantages hit us rather severely, but, as a result of long, patient, and careful research investiga- tions, the disabilities are becoming lessened day by day, but possibly will never be overcome completely in all circumstances. It is only by research investigations, however, that these disabilities can be reduced to what may be spoken of as a reasonable vanishing point. The experiment made at the Low Temperature Research Station in the University of Cambridge some years ago as to length of time a piece of beef could be kept without decomposition was the basis on which our chilled beef export trade is built. It was found that by chilling and providing an atmosphere containing a certain percentage of carbon dioxide the sound life of beef could be much extended. It is a far cry from that original experiment to the existing position, and it is pleasing to note that in Brisbane so much of the research on chilled beef has been done by C.S.I.R. officers provided with facilities by the Queensland Meat Board. In Queensland we do well to remember that at present our primary products are of chief importance, and it is useful to recollect that about 80 per cent, of the value of what we send away is produced directly and indirectly from the land. In connection with these primary products, we have some five considerations to bear in mind : — (1) The preparation for the crop, whatever it may be; (2) The production of the crop ; (3) The harvesting; (4) Preparation for marketing ; (5) Transport to markets. Speaking generally, our record is satisfactory in the first three. Unseasonable factors over which at present we have no control at times have to be met, but we can take a fair degree of satisfaction in the knowledge that, relatively to other countries, we hold our own in these matters. Regarding (4) — the preparation for marketing — we cannot deny, avoid it as we would wish, that we are very remiss in many directions, and in respect to (5) — transport to markets — we have very grave disabilities to overcome, mainly owing to distance and time. Research investigations are more applicable and fruitful of results in the matters relating to the preparation and the production of the crops than in the others, but transport difficulties are grave. SOME SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AFFECTING QUEENSLAND. 7 All the beneficial results from these research investigations will, however, be much depreciated if the preparation for marketing is not carried out properly, and I am afraid that we in Australia are very neglectful in this matter. People here refuse to believe this, I know, but the agents in Covent Garden markets have told me, and will tell you also ; moreover, they will show you the evidence, which cannot be denied — seeing is believing ! In many cases the results of research in other countries may be lifted readily and applied out here with beneficial results. Unfor- tunately, this cannot always be done, and in this respect, perhaps, Queensland is at a greater disadvantage than some of her sister States, because the country is either sub-tropical or tropical, and because of the White Australia policy. We can take much quiet satisfaction in the developments which have taken place, but we must accept the challenge in regard to the difficulties, and also appreciate the fact that these difficulties can be met in one way only, and that is by the application of the results of research investigations carried on relentlessly year in and year out. Now let us turn to the dairying industry. In Queensland there has been a perfectly wonderful expansion, and to-day, under normal seasonal conditions, we produce something like five times as much butter and cheese as we did twenty years ago. The industry is conducted right from the southern border of the State up to the Mossman area, about 1,000 miles further north (a range of latitude of some 12 degrees), and for some 400-500 miles within the tropics. This performance is unparalleled elsewhere, but it brings with it certain definite problems. The results of all the research on butter and cheese cultures, on improved pastures, &c., in Denmark may be lifted, holus-bolus as it were, and be applied with great success in New Zealand, or, say, Victoria, because of similar climatic conditions. But you cannot do it for this State because of the different climatic and pasture conditions. We have to tackle our own problems and wrork them out ourselves if we are going to continue the success which has already attended this wonderfully expanding industry. Such things as the proper selection of cows, the use of good bulls, the need for milk-testing, and the necessity of proper hygienic conditions, of course, when more extensively and better applied, will do much, but the climatic conditions of the industry here and the peculiarity of our pastures have to be carefully studied, evaluated, and the results applied. While one speaks eulogistically of this very great extension of an industry, one often wonders whether in the past the exploitation of certain resources, especially of the non-recurring mineral type, has been of as much benefit to the State as it might have been. The question of whether the State should allow non-recurring resources to be exploited until the fullest investigation as to their amount, quality, and character has been made is a very important one. While not bewailing the mining in the past of very important auriferous deposits in Charters Towers, Gympie, Croydon, and elsewhere, the fruits of which both directly and indirectly did so much to bring about the development of Queensland, I would like to draw your attention to the exploitation of the coal resources of the Ipswich area. Here we have closely adjacent to a big 8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. city which in the future will be very much more important as a manu- facturing centre than it is to-day material which, as marketed at present, must be rated as a relatively inferior coal product, especially for steam-producing purposes. The development of this field by a large number of small collieries has not lent itself suitably to the introduction of modern coal-washing plants, and so we find there is placed upon the market, at a relatively high cost, a dirty product with a high ash content not very acceptable to many who must use it. This same coal has many virtues as a source of by-products impor- tant in industry, and perhaps in the not-too-distant future will have a value as a raw material for conversion into oil infinitely above its present steam-raising value. Please don’t misunderstand me. I don’t suggest we should hold up the development of a country, or that we should advocate the non- use of this coal ; but it may well be that it would have been a far better thing for Queensland over a long term of years if there had been a less active operation upon the relatively limited coal resources of this field. The application of research investigations to such material is of far-reaching importance in answering such questions as I have raised. At Broken Hill many years ago there were evolved for the first time anywhere wet methods of concentrating the lead-sulphide content of unaltered ore-bodies. In the evolution of mechanical devices for harvesting crops and in the discovery of dry-farming methods — long before they were termed such in America — Australia has shown her inventiveness through her research investigations. The production of rice in the Leeton irrigation area of the Riverina by the application of wholesale methods of cultivation and harvesting, such as are used in wheat-farming, has been attended with great success, especially in regard to the cost of production. In the past there has been evolved that wonderful Australian animal which we call the Australian Merino sheep. We cannot retrace the steps of its evolution to see exactly how this wonderful end-point as far as a wool-producer has been achieved, but of the results there is no doubt, as the whole world acclaims. All of these achievements showT the capacity of the people in this country to face up to their own problems and to apply research investi- gations with beneficial results. With pride, Queensland may talk of the triumphal march of progress which has attended not only the production of sugar-cane tonnage per acre, but also the efficiency of the milling of that material by white men within the tropics. Some ten years ago three University science graduates were sent abroad for a protracted period to study various aspects of sugar production. Subsequently they were placed in executive positions. The Bureau of Sugar Experiment Stations, as a result, has a strong and sound scientific leavening, and developments of great importance to the industry have taken place in both field and mill. SOME SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AFFECTING QUEENSLAND. 9 The following table and subsequent observations which have been furnished by the Director of the Bureau illustrate this clearly: — Average for Queensland — 1918-1927 1928-1937. Tons cane per acre . . . . . . 16-51 18-53 Tons sugar per acre . . . . . . 2-17 2-66 Tons cane per ton sugar .. .. 7-62 6-97 The increased sugar yields per acre reflect both better farm work and improved milling performance. The yield figures for 1936 and 1937 are even more striking, as they show 21-1 and 20-6 tons of cane and 3-04 and 3-06 tons of sugar per acre, respectively, while the tons of cane required to make 1 ton of sugar were 6-94 and 6-73. The cane and sugar yields for 1938 are estimated to approximate closely to these values also. Costs of sugar manufacture have been substantially reduced by milling research work; they are reflected in both accelerated crushing rates and improved sugar recoveries. Records for the past ten years only are available, but a comparison of the 1928 with the 1937 data show : — 1928 1937 Average crushing rate, tons cane per hour . . 47 (1932) 59 Sugar extraction, per cent. . . . . . . 94-2 95-2 Boiling-house efficiency. . . . . . . . 95-7 96-7 Tons of added fuel, B.Th.U. ’s (millions) per ton cane . . . . . . . . . . 2-8 2-4 As far as forests products are concerned, we find in Queensland especially a very active programme of research in the extension into the field of the results of scientific investigations. Seasoning, utilisa- tion, chemistry, wood structure, timber physics, mechanical properties, preservation, plywood veneers and glueing, and the many uses of such products as gujns, essential oils, tan barks, plastics, artificial silk, &c., are all subjects of keen investigation, and, speaking generally, the fundamental research in these matters is done primarily in the Forests Products Laboratory of C.S.I.R., while a certain amount is done also in University laboratories. Silvicultural research in Queensland to-day is most vigorous and is certain to yield results of great practical importance. It is essential that we know the best means of perpetuating our forests, and, especially, how to do that while at the same time obtaining the maximum produc- tion of marketable timber. In this State the work has been concentrated on those forest types which produce the bulk of the State’s timber requirements. In the making of roads which will last and render the service required, the old order has changed. To-day much testing of soils for stability under varying conditions, of gravels for soundness and binding properties, must be done. In this way only is it possible to build from the bed upwards a stable road, and the application of such research work is now made in most of the States, and it is pleasing to note that it is being done on really sound lines in Queensland. Later on in this address the question of what dividends are paid by the capital invested in research investigations is considered on a broad basis, but at this stage let us consider whether or not wheat 10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. research in Queensland has paid. I am indebted to the Under Secretary of Agriculture and Stock for the following: — “In Queensland, prior to the year 1910, the area of wheat harvested did not exceed 100,000 acres, the average yield per acre received being comparatively low, owing to the lack of suitably prolific varieties capable of resisting rust, maturing sufficiently early, and withstanding the effect of moderate storm rains. “The position is now entirely altered, as a steady expansion has taken place during the last twenty years, culminating in the recent record harvest, estimated to exceed 7,000,000 bushels from an area of over 400,000 acres. “The wheat-improvement activities of the Department of Agricul- ture and Stock can claim responsibility for a large share of the expansion noted, especially in regard to average yields per acre, as over half the wheat acreage now consists of varieties evolved at the former Roma Experiment Farm under the direction of Mr. R. E. Soutter, wheat- breeder, and introduced into general cultivation through the medium of trial plots on the Darling Downs. “Pioneering work was commenced at the Roma farm in the year 1906, with a view to the expansion of agriculture in the Maranoa. “For the ten-year period 1916-1925, the average yield per acre in Queensland was 11-38 bushels — an average which advanced to 14-92 bushels per acre for the following decade (1926-35), being an increase of over 3 bushels per acre. “With an acreage of 400,000, and regarding wheat as selling at 3s. 6d. per bushel, the increase represents a gain of £210,000 per annum to the State — a sum which more than compensates for the moderate outlay for wheat research during recent years. “Naturally, due credit must be given to improved cultural methods, coupled with the introduction of tractors and improved farm machinery, particularly the combine-drill and header-harvester, but in this sphere the Department has also been assiduous in advocating early summer fallowing and the correct use of available machinery. “At the former Roma Experiment Farm the average yield per acre in both field and experimental blocks considerably exceeded the low average yield for the Maranoa district, thereby demonstrating the value of timely and thorough cultural operations.’ ’ Perhaps the most spectacular success of all our great scientific research investigations has been in the biological control of prickly - pear. This, plus (and a very important plus) the administration provided by the State Prickly-pear Land Commission, brought out the wonderful results which are now so well known and which are so justifiably acclaimed. Australia has during its 150 years of settlement exhibited a capacity to face up to and to solve most of the difficulties which it has met. The protective policy of the country, especially since Federation, no doubt has helped much, particularly in secondary industries and in the sugar- cane growing and milling industry. It is interesting, however, to compare the efficiency of industries such as the steel-manufacturing and sugar-cane growing and manufacturing industries, which have had such SOME SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AFFECTING QUEENSLAND. 11 solid protection, with corresponding ones in other parts of the world. If you make this comparison, you will be pleased to find the result is not by any means to the disadvantage of Australia — it is decidedly the other way. Problems relating to the production of our animal products are very great and are due, like most of our troubles, to the introduction, accidental or otherwise, of organisms not indigenous to this country. The introduction of animals and plants from elsewhere, with the disturb- ance of the balance arrived at by nature over a long period of time, brings in its train a long list of problems which exercise to the full the energies and ingenuity of our scientists. I have not the time to deal with the effect of cattle tick infestation, of buffalo fly attack, or of soil deficiencies as far as cattle are concerned, or of the troubles the sheepmen have in Western Queensland in keeping up their flocks by natural increase alone, or of the extremely serious results of the blowfly attack, &c. These matters, together with all the pest problems associated with the growth of crops such as tobacco, cotton, &c., are the subject of much experiment and research by Commonwealth and State. Brilliant success has attended some of the investigations, such as overcoming prickly-pear and blue mould in tobacco, or in connection with pleuro-pneumonia in cattle ; but the challenge offered by the tick, worm nodules, the blowfly, nut grass, and noogoora burr — just to name a very few — demands the best brains provided with all the facilities of training which modern civilisation can provide. The dividends to be won by the investment of money in researches of this type are great, but there must not be too much impatience exhibited by the investor. The money put out must be regarded as “patient” money which sooner or later is likely to yield enormous dividends. While most of the researches indicated in this address have been related to either the primary or secondary industries, we must not over- look those on diseases affecting man. The great work in Queensland by a past-president of this Society on filaria made him known throughout the world. I speak of the late Joseph Bancroft.* Several other medical members of this Society have carried out researches of far-reaching importance upon problems which affect man and his environment within this State. Within the State Department of Health and Home Affairs work on Weil’s disease and certain fevers is especially worthy of note. Medical research of a scientific character will, no doubt, be carried out in Queensland in the future on more extensive lines than in the past now that we have a medical school within the University. While one may take confidence out of our past performances, it is perfectly clear that our future existence and expansion are based more and more on the application of the results of scientific investigations. In the past we have shown we can produce the men. We certainly have the problems which are to be solved. Enough has been said to indicate the worthwhileness of research and the necessity for its continuance in this country, but there are those * Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., Yol. II, pages 73-76. 12 PROCEEDING'S OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. so-called hard-headed business people who ask for figures in support of the paying character of research. One hopes that already in a general way justification for this has been made, but if one must have figures, then let us see what has been the experience in the mother country of recent years. Amounts spent on research and the results. J. D. Bernal,* in a recent article on “A Policy for Scientific Research for Britain, ’ ’ discusses the question of what is the scale of benefits which science is capable of giving to industry, agriculture, and health, and he considers that they are not at all realised. He says that, compared with any other form of expenditure, science is capable of yielding a return incomparably greater. There is, of course, difficulty in getting precise figures on matters of this kind, but figures have been provided by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research of Great Britain, and they show that research conducted by the Department at a cost of a few thousand pounds “has in many cases saved the industries concerned hundreds of thousands of pounds per annum. ’ ’ Some economies effected as a* result of the researches carried out by D.S.I.R. in connection with six research associations — namely, Iron and Steel, Non-ferrous Metals, Electrical Industries, Refractories, Pood Investigations Board, and Cotton — show that on an expenditure of not more than £400,000 economies have been yielded of not less than £3,200,000 per annum. That is to say, a return on the money invested in research has returned a dividend to the industries concerned of 800 per cent, per annum. That is the kind of thing that appeals to your business man! One is prompted to inquire what amounts are spent on scientific research in different countries. Bernal has calculated that in Great Britain about £4,500,000 is found altogether by the Government, by universities, and by industry. This sum represents about one-tenth of 1 per cent, of the national income. If this amount be compared with what is spent on advertising, it is not very large, and is even grotesquely small. Great as this £4,500,000 spent in Great Britain seems to us, it does not show up too well in comparison with that found in some other countries. Bernal estimates that U.S.A. spends £40,000,000 per annum ; that is three-tenths of 1 per cent, of the national income, and relatively is three times as much as Great Britain finds. The Soviet Union, however, is the great spender in this respect, and it has been estimated to be just under 1 per cent, of its national income, while in Germany and Japan, Bernal considers “it probable that the proportional sum spent is between three and five times that of Great Britain. ’ ’ There is every reason for believing that these estimates are soundly based, and, as far as U.S.A. is concerned, a relatively recent estimate by Dr. F. P. Keppel of the money spent indicated about £45,000,000 per annum, which is rather greater than Bernal’s figures. * Nineteenth Century and After, Jan., 1938, page 99 et seq. SOME SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AFFECTING QUEENSLAND. 13 Regarding the Soviet Union, Major-General A. G. L. McNaughton* indicates that there are 840 institutes engaged in research, and in 1934 there were 47,900 persons engaged in research work. Their annual expenditure now exceeds £100,000,000 sterling for a population of 186. 000. 000 people. General McNaughton indicates that the figures continue to increase just as fast as they produce trained workers. As this Canadian authority puts it, consideration should be given to the ‘ 1 cost of not doing it ” by other countries. Now, what of Australia? Here we have a population of less than 7.000. 000 and a national income to-day of round about £800,000,000. We have funds for research coming from the Commonwealth and State Governments directly to Government departments and institutes, also indirectly to research organisations financed partly by endowments. Universities contribute materially in this matter; also there has been a marked increase of late from industry itself. As a result of calculations made by the Information Bureau of C.S.I.R., it would appear that the estimated amount spent in 1938 in Australia from all sources on research investigations was about £1,025,000, or approximately 0-128 per cent, of the national income of £800,000,000. The comparison with that of Great Britain is really very favourable. The sum of something over £1,000,000 is estimated as follows : — Estimated Sum for 1938. £ . . 272,500 . . 112,500 . . 35,700 . . 25,600 . . 82,500 . . 326,900 . . 42,500 . . 128,000 £1,026,000 = 0-128 per cent, of the national income of £800,000,000. We have to ask ourselves: Is that enough? It is about all we can spend with our present available trained workers, but I have no doubt about the wisdom of the amount being increased as and when the trained workers become available. Organisation. Commonwealth — C.S.I.R Miscellaneous Waite Institute Medical Institute Universities State Agriculture Departments Other State Departments Industries Conclusion. The purpose of this address has been to place before you the strong claim which the support of research — more particularly of pure research — has upon those of you who really wish to see our country progress. It has not been my purpose to make the list of researches at all complete, because there is no necessity to do so. * Address to Canadian Society of Cost Accountants and Industrial Engineers, Montreal, 29th September, 1937. 14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. An endeavour has been made to see what is the business aspect of research, and one hopes that even the hardest -headed critic on that score has been satisfied. Those who decided over fifty years ago what the objects of this Society should be were wise men, and I feel that to them we must pay a warm tribute. Let us see that the Royal Society of Queensland in the future continues to live up to the objects for which it was founded ! VOL. LI., No. 2. 15 THE ABSORPTION OF ACIDS BY WOOL. By L. S. Bagster, D.Sc., and Madoline V. Connah, M.Sc. {Bead before the Boyal Society of Queensland , 29 th Mazy, 1939.) The absorption of acids by wool has been studied by a number of workers — e.g., Speakman et at. (1933). Such work has been chiefly concerned with single acids, and, apart from early experiments of Mills and Takamine (1883), little attention has been given to the behaviour of mixed acids. The present work was undertaken to study the absorption from solution of pairs of mixed acids. The acids employed were hydrochloric, sulphuric, acetic, and monochloracetic. The wool used was merino from several fleeces of uniform grade from the Roma district. The sample contained body wool of wethers with no belly or skirting. It had a spinning count of 64 to 66 and yield condition about 58 per cent, scoured wool. It was rendered as uniform as possible by spreading and mixing several times before cleaning. During cleaning and sampling further spreading and mixing occurred. The raw wool was washed five times with solvent petrol, air- dried, and then washed with changes of rain water until free from dust. Between washings the material was drained in a centrifuge. It was finally sun-dried. The samples used in experiments were hand-picked to remove foreign matter. The cleaned stock wool was kept in a jar with an atmosphere of 50 per cent, relative humidity attained by placing in the vessel a container with an appropriate sulphuric acid solution. Sufficient material was taken for each experiment to contain 20 grams of dry wool. (The moisture content determined at 100° C. was very close to 12 per cent.) The work was carried out with room temperatures of 20° to 25°C. The samples of wool were soaked in the various combinations of acids contained in stoppered bottles, and allowed to stand for five days, by which time tests had shown that all the acid which could be absorbed had been taken up by the wool. The fact that no further acid was removed from solution after five days showed that no appreciable reaction took place between the acids and the containing vessels after preliminary treatment. The wool was stirred occasionally during the five days’ soaking. Two hundred c.c. — the quantity of solution used in the majority of the experiments — was absorbed by the wool to a loose sponge, thus giving thorough contact. Samples were withdrawn from the main body of the liquid by means of a pipette and residual acidity determined by titration against carbonate-free alkali in a quarter of the total volume of liquid, using phenol phthalein indicator. The hydrochloric acid content for mixed acids was determined by titration against silver chloride, while the sulphuric acid content was estimated gravimetrically as barium sulphate. The acetic and monochloracetic acids were determined by difference. 16 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. The results are shown in Tables I. and II. The stock acid solutions were all very close to normal. The quantities, of stock acid used in the various experiments are shown in the tables, in column 1. Table I. gives the absorption of individual acids at different concentrations, the amount of acid being expressed in equivalents per 20 grams of wool, while the results for mixed acids are shown in Table II., where each pair of acids is represented in a double column. A and B in each column give the equivalents of individual acids absorbed. TABLE I. Acid (c.c.). Water (c.c.). Hydrochloric. Sulphuric. Acetic. Monochlor- acetic. 400 1,000 •0139 •0184 •0070 •0236 •0132 •0184 •0070 •0234 200 1,000 •015 •019 •0057 •017 •016 •019 •0057 •018 100 1,100 •0157 •0146 •0029 •026 •0156 •0146 •0036 •026 400 0 •022 •028 •015 •040 •022 •028 •016 •039- 200 200 •017 •023 •010 •032^ •017 •023 •010 •032' 200 0 •019 •026 •015 •037 •020 •026 •014 •037 •018 •022 •015 •036; •018 •025 •015 •036; •025 150 50 •014 •021 •Oil •031 •015 •021 •Oil •030 •015 •024 •011 •021 •016 •023 •012 •031 •016 100 100 •016 •022 •0092 •025- •016 •022 •0088 •025 •016 •022 •0094 •025. •016 •022 •0092 •025- 50 150 •016 •017 •0060 •017 •016 •016 •0057 •018. •019 •0060 •018: •019 •0061 •018 20 180 •012 •015 •0034 •012 •012 •015 •0034 •012 •012 . # •0034 •Oil •012 •0034 •Oil 10 190 •0079 •0088 •0021 •0076 •0079 •0086 •0023 •0076 •0080 •0084 •0025 •0071 •0080 •0084 •0021 •0071 THE ABSORPTION OF ACIDS BY WOOL. 17 TABLE II. Total Pro- A B A B A B A B A B Acid c.c. portion. HC1. Acetic. HC1. h2so4. H2SO4. Acetic. HC1. Mono. H2S04. Mono.* 200 + 1,000 water . . 100 A •015 •0009 •0052 •012 •018 •0004 •013 •0040 •017 •0023 100 B •014 •0013 •0052 •012 •018 •0005 •014 •0031 •017 •0025 •014 •0023 •017 •0017 •014 •0026 •016 •0022 400 200 A •015 •0057 •010 •013 •023 •0050 •015 •0175 •0232 •0110 200 B •015 •0051 •010 •013 •023 •0045 •013 •0169 •0232 •0105 200 100 A •015 •0051 •010 •010 •019 •0039 •015 •Oil •024 •0079 100 B •015 •0047 •Oil •0097 •019 •0039 ■014 •Oil •023 •0089 •015 •0052 •Oil •Oil •022 •0045 •021 •Oil •016 •0052 •Oil •Oil •021 •0045 •021 •Oil •022 •0048 200 150 A •014 ■0028 •012 •0033 •021 •0009 •014 •Oil •023 •0061 50 B 1 •014 •0032 •013 •0037 •021 •0019 •015 •Oil •023 •0062 ! ! •021 •0015 I ! •022 •0007 200 50 A •013 •0032 •0057 •013 •015 •0063 •013 •017 •019 •015 150 B •°13 •0028 •0057 •013 •016 •0063 •013 •017 •019 •015 •015 •0064 •017 •016 •015 •0064 •016 •016 20 + 180 water . . 10 A •0073 •0011 ■0043 •0091 •0089 •0007 ■0075 •0051 •0094 •0037 10 B I •0073 •0013 •0044 •0092 •0089 •0007 •0074 •0051 •0097 •0039 •0075 •0012 •0043 •0088 •0073 ■0047 •0093 •0035 •0075 •0012 •0043 •0088 •0075 •0048 1 -0094 •0035 * Mono = monochloracetie acid. A. Individual Acids, — The results of varying the concentration show that about 200 c.c. of normal acid solution are sufficient to saturate the wool though only a small proportion of the acid is actually absorbed. The amount absorbed from solutions not sufficient for saturation decreases more with dilution with the weaker organic acids in corre- sponding solution. This is in accordance with the results of Meyer and Fikentscher (1926). The absorption of sulphuric acid at saturation is about 25 per cent, more than that of hydrochloric. Were the sulphuric behaving as a monobasic acid the absorption should have been double. The greater absorption has been found with more dilute solutions (pH greater than 24) by Elod (1933). In the present work, where the most dilute solutions were the pH of the strong acids would be less than 24. B. Mixed Acids, — As might be expected, mixtures of hydrochloric and sulphuric acids behave very like equivalent solution of either single acid, each being absorbed nearly in proportion to its relative concentration. The proportion of acetic acid absorbed from mixtures with strong acids is much less than corresponds with its relative concentration, but more than would be expected from its relative activity. 18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Monochloracetic acid shows the most striking variation. Alone it is absorbed to a much greater extent than hydrochloric or sulphuric acids ; mixed with these it is absorbed in much smaller proportion. This work was carried out through a grant from funds provided to the University of Queensland by the Commonwealth Government through the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. The authors are indebted to Miss N. McGinn who carried out some of the later experimental work. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Elod (1933). Trans. Farad. Soc., Yol. 29, p. 327. Meyer and Fikentscher (1926). Melliard Textilber, Yol. 7, p. 605. Mills and Takamine (1883). J.C.S., Yol. 43, p. 142. Speakman et al. (1933). Trans. Farad. Soc., Yol. 29, p. 148. VOL. LI., No. 3. 19 HABITS AND CH/ETOTAXY OF THE LARVA OF ANOPHELES ATRATIPES SKUSE. By Elizabeth N. Marks, B.Sc., Department of Biology, University of Queensland. Plate I. (Delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland, 21th March, 1939.) Although the adult of Anopheles atratipes was first described by Skuse (1889), Mackerras (1927) was the first to record the larvas, the only locality in which he found them being Dunwich, Stradbroke Island, where they were collected in September, 1926. During September and October, 1938, larvae of this species were collected from Nudgee, Redcliffe, and Bribie Island, Queensland. At Nudgee they were found in a sluggish, slightly muddy creek with not a great deal of vegetation — a habitat corresponding toi that from which Mackerras collected them. At Redcliffe they occurred in a freshwater tea-tree (Melaleuca spp.) swamp with considerably more vegetation. At Bribie Island they were collected from water lying in small depressions in damp, peaty soil under tea-trees. In all cases larvae of Anopheles annulipes Walker and of Culex annulirostris Skuse were found in the same habitat, and at Bribie Island these were accompanied by Corethra larvae. Mackerras gives a brief description of the distinguishing features of the larva of Anopheles atratipes, and states that there is no trace of eyes, and that the palmate hairs are greatly reduced or absent. Preparations of the larvae collected from the above localities showed an indication of eyes in the form of light areas on the darkly pigmented head, occurring at the normal site for eyes (Fig. 1, E.). Undeveloped palmate hairs also were found with slightly flattened branches. Gater (1934) says of hair No. 1 of the abdominal segments of anopheline larvae: “When its branches are flattened, forming ‘leaflets,’ it is usually called a palmate hair, float-hair or fan, and in descriptions of larvae the palmate hairs are sometimes said to be ‘presjent’ or ‘absent’ on particular segments. Since the hair is always present on each segment, but simply differs in form, it is considered better always to refer to hair No. 1 as the palmate hair and to describe its form. When this hair is stated to be undeveloped, it means that the branch.es are filamentous; but when it is said to be fully developed, the presence of complete, flattened leaflets is implied. The branches of the palmate hairs vary in form from filaments, through slightly flattened branches and lanceolate leaflets, to fully developed leaflets ” The palmate hairs of Anopheles atratipes were seen only with difficulty and were at first overlooked, owing to the fact that in the preparations they were practically transparent. In view of these important divergences from the original descrip- tion, in addition to slight variations in other features, it has been deemed advisable to give a full account of the chaetotaxy of the larva of 20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Anopheles atratipes Skuse. The following description, including the numbering of the hairs, follows the plan set out by Gater. This author uses in classification, in addition to the chsetotaxy of the head, the structure and arrangement of several groups of hairs on the thorax. Unfortunately, owing to the fact that insufficient specimens were col- lected of the larvae of Anopheles bancrofti Giles and Anopheles stigmaticus Skuse, it was not possible to make a comparison of these features in the related members of the genus Anopheles. Dorsal Hairs of the Head. (Fig. 1.) A. — On the fronto-clypeus. Hair No. 1 : pre-clypeal ; short, incurved, simple hair. Hair No. 2 : inner anterior clypeal ; placed close together ; simple. Hair No. 3 : outer anterior clypeal ; arise external to and in line with No. 2 ; length is two-thirds that of No. 2; simple. Hair No. 4: posterior clypeal; arise posterior to No. 3; short, not reaching to the base of No. 3; simple. Hairs Nos. 5, 6, and 7 : frontal ; arise in a row just posterior to the line of the insertion of the antennae; bases lie in a curved line; branches numerous. Hair No. 8 : sutural (inner occipital) ; four very fine branches. B. — On the epicranial plates. Hair No. 9: trans-sutural (outer occipital) ; arise well anterior to No. 8 ; stated by Mackerras to be trifid, but hairs with four branches and with two were also seen. Hair No. 10 : antennal ; situated slightly basal to the middle of the antenna, on the dorso-lateral surface; fully half the length of the antenna ; strongly branched. Hair No. 11 : terminal antennal; trifid. Hair No. 12: sub-antennal; just ventral to the inser- tions of the antennae ; strongly plumose. Hair No. 13 : ventral to No. 12 ; strongly plumose, and equal in size to sub-antennal. Hair No. 14 : near the larval eyes ; bifid. Hair No. 16 : on the maxillary palp, situated at its anterior third; strongly branched. According to Gater, hair No. 15 is on the side of the head below No. 14. It was not seen in the specimens examined. Hairs of the Thorax. (Fig. 2.) The three thoracic segments cannot, be distinguished, but are indi- cated in the diagram by dotted lines. A.— On the prothorax. (a) Dorsal — Hairs Nos. 1, 2, and 3 (Fig. 3) : the inner, central, and outer hairs respectively of the sub-median prothoracic group ; No. 1 is simple ; No. 2 is branched and arises from a prominent dark root; No. 3 is simple. Hairs Nos. 4 to 7 : in that order from within outwards; No. 4 is long and strongly plumose ; No. 5, long and shortly plumose ; No. 6, long and sparsely plumose ; No. 7, the longest of the group, is strongly plumose. (5) Ventral — Hair No. 8: long, plumose. Hairs Nos 9 to 12 (Fig. 4): the prothoracic pleural group, consisting of an anterior pair of hairs (Nos. 9 and 10) and a posterior pair (Nos. 11 and 12) which arise from the same large tubercle ; the anterior pair is separated from the posterior HABITS AND C HJE TOT AX Y OF THE LARVA OF ANOPHELES. 21 pair at the roots by a small, hardened plate arising from the tubercle and produced into a slight spine. Hair No. 9: anterior, dorsal, long, with few branches. Hair No. 10 : anterior, ventral, long, simple. Hair No. 11: posterior, dorsal, very short, simple. Hair No. 12: posterior, ventral, long (longer than No. 10), simple. Hair No. 13: short, with simple branches. Hair No. 14 : shorter than No. 13, with simple branches, Gater figures hair No. 0 — a minute hair, not easily visible, on the dorsal surface of the prothorax. It was not observed in the specimens examined. B. — On the mesothorax. (a) Dorsal — Hair No. 1 : short, with simple branches. Hairs Nos. 2, 3, and 4 : simple. Hair No. 5 : short, with simple branches. Hair No. 6 : bifid. Hair No. 7 : plumose. (b) Ventral — Hair No. 8: long, plumose. Hairs Nos. 9 to 12 (Fig. 5): the mesothoracic pleural group. Hair No. 9 : long, may be trifid. Hair No. 10 : long, simple. Hair No. 11 : short, simple. Hair No. 12 : long (shorter than No. 10), simple. Hair No. 13 : short, with simple branches. Hair No. 14: very short, trifid. C. — On the metathorax. (a) Dorsal — Hair No. 1 : metathoracic palmate, undeveloped, generally with four branches. Hair No. 2 : short, with few branches. Hairs Nos. 3 and 4 : simple. Hair No. 5 : long, strongly plumose. Hair No. 6 : short, bifid or trifid. Hair No. 7 : long, strongly plumose. (b) Ventral — Hair No. 8: long, strongly plumose. Hairs Nos. 9 to 12 (Fig. 6) : the metathoracic pleural group. Hair No. 9 : long, with few branches. Hair No. 10 : long, simple. Hair. No. 11 : short, simple. Hair No. 12 : long (shorter than No. 10), simple. Hair No. 13: short, usually with three branches. Hairs of the Abdomen. (Fig. 7, Fig. 10.) On abdominal segments II. to VIII., Gater figures hair No. 0 — a minute hair lying just laterally and posteriorly to the anterior tergal plate. This hair was not observed on the specimens examined. Segment I. — Hair No. 1 : the abdominal palmate hair ; stout base, few branches, undeveloped. Hairs Nos. 6 and 7 : the lateral hairs ; long, strongly plumose. Hair No. 8 is absent. Other hairs (Nos. 2 to 13) are as shown. Segment II. — Hair No. 1: abdominal palmate (Fig. 8). Hairs Nos. 6 and 7 : the lateral hairs ; long, strongly plumose. Hair No. 8 arises anteriorly to Nos. 6 and 7. Other hairs appear as shown in the figure. Segment III. — Hair No. 6 : first lateral hair ; long, strongly plumose. Hair No. 7 is small and has shifted to the ventral surface. Others as shown. 22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Segment IV. — Hair No. 1: abdominal palmate (Fig. 9). Hair No. 6 is shorter and has fewer branches than on the preceding segments. Others as shown. Segments V. to VII. — As shown in Fig. 7. Segments VIII., IX., and X. — As shown in Fig. 10. The hairs on segments VIII. and IX. have shifted in the rearrange- ment of parts connected with the formation of the spiracnlar apparatus. Segment X. (the anal segment) — The cuticle of this segment is armed with minute spines, densest posteriorly. The saddle hair is long and simple. Outer sub-median caudal hairs slightly hooked. Inner sub-median caudal hairs strongly branched. Anal gills long, of equal lengths. REFERENCES. Gater, B. A. R. (1934): “Aids to the Identification of Anopheline Larvae in Malaya,” Singapore. Mackerras, I. M. (1927) : Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., LII., p. 33. Skuse, F. A. (1889) : Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (2), III.,, p. 1755. EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. Fig. 1. — Diagram of the dorsal surface of the head capsule of Anopheles atratipes larva. Some of the hairs and other structures are marked in completely on one Side only. For the numbers of the hairs, refer to the text. A, antenna; C, collar; CF, cephalic fan; E, light patch indicating the presence of an eye; EP, epicranial plate; ES, epicranial suture ; FC, frontoclypeus. Ml, mandible ; M2, maxillary palp ; S, sabre-shaped piece on antenna. Fig. 2. — Diagram of the thorax, showing the chaetotaxy of the dorsal surface (right-hand portion of figure) and of the ventral surface (left-hand portion of figure). P, prothorax ; MS, mesothorax; MT, metathorax. Fig. 3. — Sub-median prothoracic hairs (enlarged). Fig. 4. — Prothoracic pleural hairs (enlarged). Fig. 5. — Mesothoracic pleural hairs (enlarged). Fig. 6. — Metathoracic pleural hairs (enlarged). Fig. 7. — Diagram of abdominal segments I. to VII. Right-hand portion shows dorsal hairs; left-hand portion shows ventral hairs. In the mounted specimens the abdominal palmate hairs appeared practic- ally transparent. AT, anterior tergal plate of segment I. Fig. 8. — Abdominal palmate hair from segment II., x200. Fig. 9. — Abdominal palmate hair from segment IV., x200. Fig. 10. — Diagram of the anal or Xth segment of the abdomen, segment IX., and the posterior portion of segment VIII., side view. AG, anal gills; F, fan-shaped plate overhanging spiracles; H, hooks on outer sub-median caudal hairs; I, inner sub-median caudal hair; L, lateral papilla of spiracular apparatus, marking the division between Peoc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. LIv No. 3. Plate I. Setal characters in the Larva of Anopheles atratipes Skuse. HABITS AND CH2ET0TAXY OF THE LARVA OF ANOPHELES. 23 segments VIII. and IX. ; O, outer sub-median caudal hair ; P, post- spiracular hair (No. 9 of segment IX.) ; S, saddle (anterior tergal plate of segment X.) ; SA, spiracular apparatus; SC, scoop of spiracular apparatus; SH, saddle hair; SP, spiracular pecten; V, ventral caudal hairs, approximately half the total number being shown; 5 to 10, 13, hairs of corresponding numbers on segment VIII. (anteriorly) and segment IX. (6, 8 posteriorly). 24 VOL. LI., No. 4. THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF THE PLANT COMMUNITIES OF QUEENSLAND. By S. T. Blake, M.Sc., ^Walter and Eliza Elall Fellow in Economic Biology, University of Queensland. INTRODUCTION. In North-Eastern Australia, approximately that area lying within the boundaries of the State of Queensland, is to be found a wide variety of plant-communities, from very heavy rain-forest to desert, and from mangrove forest to high mountain scrub and moorland. The relation- ships of many of these communities, both between themselves and to other factors, are particularly interesting, and in this paper it is pro- posed to offer interpretations to some of these relationships. The communities to be found in the inland areas have been described and discussed in a previous paper (Blake, 1938), the rain-forests have been discussed by Domin (1910) and Francis (1929), but many of the important communities in the region have not yet been satisfactorily described, and some are but poorly known. GENERAL FEATURES. The most important factors influencing vegetation in the region are the nature of the soil and available moisture. Soil type is chiefly dependent on rock-type, modified and sometimes controlled by climate in the coastal and subcoastal areas, but apparently almost or quite independent of it in the interior. Topography may also be a modifying factor, but where this does not enter into things the lines of demarca- tion of soil types and the vegetation types supported thereby are often amazingly sharp. The available moisture depends in some degree on the amount of rainfall, more so on its distribution (mean annual rainfall has comparatively little significance except in extremes, chiefly in the lower end of the scale), on the retentive capacity and the depth of the latter, and on drainage. Rate of evaporation is a powerful modifying factor. Temperature affects the development of communities to some extent, though chiefly as extremes, such as at high altitudes. One very interesting feature which controls the distribution of the communities of the interior is afforded by the peculiar topography of the country. The slope, and therefore the flow of the rivers is in a general south-west direction towards the centre of the continent. This is almost at right angles to the trend of the isohyets, so that the streams, flowing through progressively drier and flatter country, tend to lose themselves in extensive flood plains. Furthermore, across the direction of flow of these rivers in the middle part of their courses, but not at right angles with them, is a large system of sandstone hills, ranges, and table- lands through which the streams pass, usually by means of valleys of greater or less width, or very occasionally by means of steep gorges. The slopes of these hills are mostly very steep and erosion goes on at a relatively rapid rate, so that after storms and heavy showers a supply of silt is regularly delivered to the main streams to be deposited later over the flood plains of their lower courses. * Read before Section M, Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science, Canberra Meeting, Jan., 1939. THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF THE PLANT COMMUNITIES, ETC. 25 It is on these silt plains, watered by the periodical floods from the rains falling over the upper parts of the watersheds, that there is developed the diversified and economically valuable vegetation of the channel country, consisting of fringing forest, swamps, claypans, and luxuriant herb meadow. The existence of the formation depends, not on the amount of rain falling over the area, but on the water retained in the soil during and after the subsidence of flood waters. RAIN FOREST. The antithesis of this is shown by the rain forest or jungle of the eastern coastal belt, chiefly developed in areas where the yearly rainfall is 60 inches or over, more or less evenly distributed, and which are not unduly exposed to gales. Rain forest may be developed in places with a considerably lower rainfall provided that edaphic conditions com- pensate for this lack, as along stream banks, in sheltered valleys, and upon the deep red loams so characteristic of the basalt-capped tablelands and ranges of the coastal districts. The effect of exposure to sea breezes is well seen near Cape Moreton. Here, with a fairly evenly distributed yearly rainfall of 63 inches but on a shallow sandy soil exposed to every gale, a low shrubbery allied to wallum is developed, scarcely 2 feet high and sometimes lower. The chief woody plants are Casuarina suberosa and Banksia a&rnula, species which are normally trees, but are here overtopped by grasses (chiefly Themeda australis) though fruiting freely. In less exposed places the shrubs are higher and Tristania conferta , a prominent member of the rain-forest ecotone, comes in, firstly as a small shrub. All rain forest is characterised by a wealth of lianas and epiphytes and the nearly or complete absence of annuals. In the very wet regions the numbers and variety of these epiphytes and lianas are enormous, but in developments in relatively low rainfall they are few, while the characteristic Hymenophyllaceae disappear. The forest canopy usually consists of two or more stories, the net result of which is that the floor is densely shaded, though the individual trees in each story may be relatively widely spaced. MONSOON FOREST AND BRIGALOW SCRUB. In regions with a smaller and less equable water-supply, monsoon forest may be developed. Such forest is to be found in places through- out the coastal and sub-coastal areas from at least near the New South Wales border northwards, and in the country surrounding the Gulf of Carpentaria. In the northern parts a pronounced dry winter season and in the south the cold of the winter affects the continuity of the water supply. The communities usually occur on hillsides or hilltops, and in the limestone region in the Chillagoe-Mungana district, they occupy the karst hills as well as granite slopes. As in other community- types in the region, variations in composition occur, and though these are often considerable the general features remain fairly constant. These are essentially an upper story of broad-leaved deciduous or partly deciduous trees, an understory of dense, evergreen, sometimes prickly shrubs and small trees with rather small and hard leaves, one or two somewhat shrubby grasses, and a paucity of lianas and epiphytes. The latter are almost restricted to bryophytes and lichens. The relation- ships with the open forest in which the communities are often found 26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. are not understood. They often occupy sites apparently similar to others occupied by Eucalyptus forest, yet there is frequently and, perhaps, usually a remarkable absence of ecotone. Brigalow scrub has usually been regarded as a community of the semi-arid type, but its affinities appear to lie with monsoon forest of which it may be regarded as an extreme phase. The term “scrub” in Queensland is usually applied to a community in which the woody plants grow very close together, and is used irrespective of their size. Thus rain forest and monsoon forest are both popularly referred to as “scrub,” sometimes with the distinction of “vine scrub” for the former and “dry scrub” for the latter. In a well-developed brigalow scrub the trees attain 30 feet or more, and associated are species commonly found in monsoon forests, such as the deciduous trees Br achy chit cm rupestre and B. triaho siphon, the smaller hard-leaved evergreens Canthium vaccinifolium, Celastrus sp., Cappans nobilis, and the shrubby grasses Panicum uncinulatum and Eragrostis megalosperma. The dominant species of the “scrub” are the brigalow itself (Acacia i harpophylla) which is leafless (phyllodineous) except in the seedling stage, and the belah ( Casuarina lepidophloia) which has minute scale-leaves only. The richer scrubs differ little from monsoon forest except that the brigalow, with or without belah, replaces one or more of the trees of the upper story of the latter. Relatively pure stands of brigalow are to be found, and in most such cases the trees are low. In South Queensland, brigalow scrub is commonly found on a nearly black very heavy soil in which depressions known as “melon- holes” or “gilgais” are numerous and often are of considerable size. Jensen (1921-1922) has claimed that the heavy nature of the soil is due to a relatively high content of sodium carbonate, and has further postu- lated that brigalow requires a soda-rich soil. Many of Jensen’s claims can be refuted by evidence from the very area he traversed — Roma and northwards. My own observations would indicate that brigalow has no very particular soil requirements and it is not uncommon to find communities on stony ridges and even on sand. It is, however, quite certain that brigalow scrub is a distinctly aggressive community and will invade and suppress both open forest and grassland. Pure stands of brigalow usually indicate a young community. As the community ages, the nature of the soil changes to the characteristic blackish, heavy, melon-holey soil. When the community invaded was forest on sandy soil this change is very marked. Old stumps of box ( Eucalyptus populifolia) within tall scrub now indicates areas thus invaded, though various stages can be seen in many localities. Historial records afford further evidence. When grassland is invaded the changes are, as a rule, not so marked, owing to the nature of the grassland soil from which, however, melon-holes are absent. This invasion is proceeding westward into relatively dry areas (within the 15-inch isohyet) and this will be noticed again later. OPEN FOREST, SPINIFEX COUNTRY, AND WALLUM. Open forest in some form or other occupies large areas of North- Eastern Australia. The term forest is used here in rather a wide sense and includes the savannah forest, savannah woodland, and wood- land of various authors. Owing to the diverse use of the word THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF THE PLANT COMMUNITIES, ETC. 27 ‘ ‘ Savannah ’ ’ it has seemed preferable not to employ it in this connec- tion. Genuine forest certainly occurs in many places, particularly in areas within which rain forest is developed, and not infrequently the canopy is practically closed. Edaphic conditions, possibly assisted by fire, prevent the establishment of rain forest. In the other extreme the trees are scattered and often irregular. The term “parkland” is used to designate this phase, but it is suggested that some such term as “semi-forest” could be employed to designate the very common state of affairs in which the trees are somewhat distant but by no means scattered. As thus employed, the different terms forest, semi-forest, and parkland, have merely a physiognomic significance. In many places all gradations occur with no apparent difference other than tree-frequency. Open forests are developed chiefly on soils of light texture, though a clayey subsoil may be present. Parkland occasionally occurs on soils of heavier texture, though such are usually shallow and the community is often an ecotone between forest and grassland. Myrtaceae are usu- ally dominant in these forests, commonly species of Eucalyptus , Melaleuca, Trisiania, Angophora, and Syncarpia. Practically all species are evergreen. Towards the North Grevillea becomes prominent, like- wise a few deciduous trees such as species of Terminalia and Albizzia, and annual herbs become more numerous. Towards the drier parts in the South, open forest passes gradually into mulga scrub, and in the wetter parts generally it passes into, or is replaced by, rain forest. If there is a broad ecotone it frequently consists of a tall, almost closed forest of Eucalyptus grandis and Tris- tania conferta. Near the rain-forest edge is an undergrowth of shrubs and trees partly belonging to rain-forest species, partly to species almost restricted to the ecotone. If edaphic differences are not too extreme in such cases there is a tendency for the rain forest to advance. In the very wet parts of the north-east edaphic factors are not so important, and rain forest has been advancing rather rapidly within historical times, modifying the nature of the soil somewhat in its progress, chiefly by the addition of humus and the slowing down of leaching processes. The ecotone, however, is often very narrow, and this is especially seen in many parts of South-Eastern Queensland where a common occurrence is for sandstone or trachyte mountains and tablelands to be capped with basalt. The latter produces a deep red loam which supports rain forest. The sandstone and trachyte give rise to sandy often shallow soils and support open forest. Occasionally an ecotone is present when conditions are modified somewhat by slope or exposure. More closely allied to the open forests than to any other formation are the majority of the Triodia- dominant communities usually referred to as “spinifex country.” Much of this spinifex country is merely open forest, chiefly Eucalyptus forest, in which, owing to slight varia- tions in edaphic factors, Triodia dominates or partly replaces the usual grasses of the forest floor. Of such a nature is much of the spinifex country in the so-called “desert country” of Central Queensland.* The species of Triodia, many of which are undescribed, usually grow on a highly siliceous substrate, either sand or such rocks as sandstone and granite. Occasionally communities are developed on silt beds subject * This so-called desert is open forest to parkland supported by sandy soils, and much of it is little different in aspect from some coastal communities. 28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. to flooding, and near the Gulf of Carpentaria they extend into swampy areas, the species being associated with coolibah ( Eucalyptus microtheca)- or tea-tree ( Melaleuca spp.). Another group of communities, collectively known as "wallum country,” occurs along the east coast on sandy soil, consisting of swamps, Melaleuca forests, heath-like shrub-lands (wallum flats), and mixed forest. The communities are well known floristically, but their exact relationships are not quite clear. Drainage appears to be an important factor, the succession from wet to dry being open swamp, Melaleuca swamp, Melaleuca forest, wallum flats, open forest with undergrowth (wallum scrub), open forest with little undergrowth. Melaleuca forest is often present only as a narrow band, and one or other of the communities may not be developed. There is sometimes also a tendency to the development of rain forest, either direct from Melaleuca swamp or forest, or through wallum scrub. Related to wallum in floristic composition and physiognomy is a series of communities developed on and near the crest of certain parts of the Great Dividing Range and its offshoots where the underlying rock is granite or sandstone or other highly siliceous rock. What soil there is, is of course sandy, but it is often very shallow and the surface of the ground is often broken and occasionally rugged. iOne or other species of Triodia is often associated and it may well be that the wallum country is the east-coast equivalent of the inland spinifex country. GRASSLAND AND STEPPE. The extensive grasslands of the interior are to be found on heavy brown, grey, or black soils, chiefly in areas with a mean annual rainfall not greatly exceeding 30 inches. In the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Carpentaria, broad-leaved deciduous small trees are usually prominent and the communities answer very well to descriptions and photographs of the "orchard country” of Tropical Africa (Tansley, 1926). There is usually a broad ecotone between the communities and the more pre- valent open forest. The nature of the soil, dependent on the underlying rock, is the governing factor. Further south there is practically no ecotone between grassland and forest, and the amazingly sharp division between these formations to the west of the Great Dividing Range in Central Queensland is one of the most remarkable features in the region and what must be one of the most remarkable features of its kind anywhere. Forest trees occa- sionally stray into the blue-grass country which is found chiefly to the east of the Divide or in the south. In Mitchell grass country, however, if one excepts the ubiquitous gidgea ( Acacia Cawibagei) , the few scat- tered trees which are found in certain places are not trees usually found in forests. Over much of the grassland areas the rainfall varies considerably from year to year, and this variation sometimes affects the vegetation considerably. But variations occur which are at least partly inde- pendent of rainfall. Firstly the annual and ephemeral members of the associations vary in nature and relative frequency from year to year. One year a certain species may be physiognomically dominant, in the following year an entirely different species takes its place, while the former may be rare or virtually absent for some years, and then again suddenly assume dominance. Stocking certainly affects this "seasonal dominance” to a considerable extent but is not entirely responsible for THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF THE PLANT COMMUNITIES, ETC. 29 it, as records indicate that it occurred before settlement took place. Just what are the governing factors is not yet known, though an after- ripening period of the seed, incidence of rainfall, and the soil changes discussed below may be among the most important. These changes in the frequency of the annual members of the grass- lands have a counterpart in the more subtle but profound variations in the perennial composition of the communities. As the result of long-period cyclic changes, there occurs in some districts a fluctuation between blue grass-dominant and Mitchell grass-dominant communities, and in other districts a comparable fluctuation between Mitchell grass- dominant communities and herb-steppe. To these systems the term li fluctuating climax” has been applied, as it is believed that at any given time the community is essentially in equilibrium with its environment (Blake, 1938). The complete mechanism is not yet clear, but on the evidence avail- able it seems that the changes go on independently of rainfall and stocking, but are influenced by each. The most important factor seems to be bound up with cyclic changes in the nature of the soil, particularly in regard to its salt content. It is now a well-established fact that in soils of arid and semi-arid regions there is a tendency for salts to accumulate in the upper parts of the goil (Yageler, 1933). It is pre- sumed that each of the dominant species, Dichanthium sericeum, Asirebla spp., and the chenopodiaceous members of the herb steppe, has a definite upper limit of tolerance to salinity. When this concentration is approached in any locality, the dominant species (and the community) is replaced by the community with a higher tolerance. (In the extreme case, salt desert would be produced. This condition is not attained in Queensland, but an approach to it is to be seen in the claypans of the far south-west, and parts of the stony desert are probably comparable). Later, the salt content decreases and the communities of lower tolerance can then establish themselves. Alternes are not infrequent as inter- mediate stages, but often the changes appear to take place with remarkable suddenness. Removal of salt could take place either by the removal of the plants themselves, or by the action of water. Heavy showers of rain would wash surface and subsurface salt to lower ground (where claypans so often occur) or down the cracks in the soil itself. THE DESERT. In the truly desert parts of the region, there are two very diverse developments. The Stony Desert is little less than the most arid extreme of the gravelly downs with which it is more or less complementary through herb steppe. The sandhill region, commonly known as the Arunta Desert until it was renamed Simpson Desert by Madigan, has been described from various standpoints by different writers (Blake, 1938, Madigan, 1936, and Ratcliffe, 1936, 1937). Whatever may be its. origin — and I believe with Madigan that the Desert Sandstone has pro- duced the bulk of the sand — and whatever may be the factors controlling its extent, there seems little doubt that the north-eastern portion is essentially stable. There is no sharp boundary line. Beyond the desert proper, dunes occur to the east and north, either as isolated ridges or as groups of ridges. Those near the desert proper are included in what Ratcliffe has called the “ marginal country,” but there is a far wider occurrence of these scattered ridges than this, extending eastward as R.S. — B 30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. they do almost to the Great Dividing Range. As their distance east and north from the desert increases, the dunes become smaller and smaller and gradually more widely scattered, until finally they degene- rate to mere mounds of sand. There is likewise a progressive change in the vegetation supported by these dunes, passing from the character- istic vegetation of the desert with its Spinifex paradoxus , Triodia, Acacia ligulata, &c., and annuals, through hop-bush ( Dodonaea ) and mulga scrub to cypress pine ( CalDitris ) forest in the south, and Eucalyptus forest or mixed forest further north. When one considers the apparent stability of the whole, the evidences of considerable age of the dunes in the marginal country, such as their occurrence between river channels and the presence of small lakes within some groups of them, the nature and density of the trees and shrubs upon the isolated dunes, one is forced to the conclusion that these dunes are the -remnants of a desert which at one time occupied a much larger area than it does to-day. And there appears to be no evidence for a present expansion of the desert. The boundaries of this appear to be defined by the direction of the prevailing winds and by river channels. There is no evidence of particular instability at the desert margin either as to sand or vegeta- tion. The facts hitherto adduced as evidence of increasing aridity and desert advance are quite readily explained in other ways. Sandstorms are a natural phenomenon of such regions, and sand accumulates only where there is some obstruction, such as a fence or building. There is no record or other evidence that a new sandhill has been formed elsewhere. The great rivers of the interior — Cooper ’s Creek, the Diamantina, the Mulligan — used to pour their flood waters into Lake Eyre, but rarely reach the lake now. This seems to be due to the fact that the flood plains and channel beds are being gradually built up by the normal deposition of silt, so that it is becoming increasingly difficult for the stream, always very slow in this excessively flat area, to force its way along, and it usually loses itself over the plain. The dying-off of trees along the channels, which is so often stressed, may be due in part to old age and partly to this same raising of the river bed further upstream. Evidence of another nature is afforded by brigalow scrub. It has been shown above that this association is akin to relatively wet-country communities and is at present extending westward. This westward extension would scarcely occur if the interior were drying up. THE BIOTIC FACTOR. So far little has been said as to the relationships of the communities to man. In many places settlement has resulted in the complete destruc- tion of the indigenous vegetation, which has been replaced by orchards, farms, artificial pastures, &c. Open forest has often been thinned out to parkland or even grassland by removal of trees, and in hilly country the increased run-off thus induced has resulted in soil erosion becoming a real menace. Soil erosion is even more pronounced where steep hill- sides (sometimes originally clad with rain forest) have been given over to banana farms. In the cleared or partly cleared forest country, the herbaceous vegetation is usually more or less modified by the presence of exotic species, sometimes as the result of deliberate planting. Briga- low scrub is being removed in places to make way for argiculture or induced or artificial grassland. In pastoral districts, the white man’s introduced animals are affecting the vegetation to a greater or less THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF THE PLANT COMMUNITIES, ETC. 31 extent, and where overstocking has been common, definite communities have resulted. The primitive communities react to stocking in such diverse ways that it would require much more time to discuss them than is available. From an economic point of view, the changes wrought by heavy stocking are not always adverse. Definite improvement in pasture has been noticed to result from heavy stocking in some districts. Extremely adverse reactions are to be observed along stock routes, and it would seem that in many cases these are due to salt-poisoning as the result of the excessive manuring and urination the ground receives as much as to trampling and over-grazing. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Blake, S. T. (1936) : The Plant Communities of Western Queensland and their Relationships, with Special Reference to the Grazing Industry. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensl., xlix., pp. 156-204:, plates vii.-xxvi. Domin, K. (1910): Queensland’s Plant Associations. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensl., xxiii., pp. 57-74. Francis, W. D. (1929) ; Australian Rain Forest Trees, Brisbane. Jensen, H. I. (1921, 1922): Some Notes on the Soils and Forest Flora of the Dividing Range — North of Roma. Queensl. Agr. Journ., xvi., pp. 239-242. 297-299, 358-361; xvii., pp. 13-18. Madigan, C. T. (1936) : The Australian Sand-ridge Deserts. Geogr. Rev., xxvi., pp. 205-227. Ratcliffe, F. N. (1936) : Soil Drift in the Arid Pastoral Areas of South Australia. Coun. Sci. Ind. Res. Aust., Pamphlet 64. (1937) : Further Observations on Soil Erosion and Soil Drift, with Special Reference' to South-Western Queensland. Counc. Sci. Ind. Res. Aust., Pamphlet 70. Tansley, A. G., in Tansley & Chipp (1926) : Aims and Methods in the Study of Vegetation. London. Vageler, P. (1933) : An Introduction to Tropical Soils. English translation by H. Green. 32 VOL. LI., No. 5. NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III. By S. T. Blake, M.Sc., Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic Biology, University of Queensland. In this paper there is presented a continuation of the work com- menced some few years ago on the revision of the Australian Cyperaceae, and upon which three papers have already appeared.* During this period three important monographs, one on the genus Cy perns (sens, lat.) and one on Schoenus, both by Dr. G. Kiikenthal, and one on Eleo- charis by Dr. H. K. Svenson, have appeared. In the monograph on Cyperus Dr. Kiikenthal has done most excellent work on a very difficult group and has undoubtedly paved the way for a better understanding of the genus. Unfortunately, as in so many other monographs prepared in Europe, many of the Australian groups have been unsatisfactorily treated, even making allowance for the omission of many species recently observed. It has been my good fortune to examine at leisure all the major collections in Australia, as well as to study in the field and to collect specimens of the great majority of forms at present known to occur in the continent. For the past two years I have been in close correspondence with Dr. Kiikenthal and I wish to pay tribute to his unfailing courtesy and kindness. Much work still remains to be done on the Australian species of Cyperus before a really satisfactory account of the genus can be pre- pared, and in this paper only some of the new species are described, with notes on others. The same applies to the other genera mentioned. My sincere thanks are extended to the directors of the various Australian herbaria, through the courtesy of whom I have been able to study a very large number of specimens. All specimens cited have been examined, and the herbaria in which they are deposited are indicated by the abbreviations proposed for international usage by Lanjouw in Chronica Botanica, v., pp. 142-150 (1939). Where there is no special indication, the specimens are in the Queensland Herbarium, Brisbane, where the types of my new species are deposited. Duplicates have been, or are in the process of being, distributed to various herbaria. Cyperus rupicolus S. T. Blake sp. nov. nullae specie! alteri arete affinis, inter australienses culmis longe foliatis, foliis numerosis longis latisque, glumis deltoideis, stylo stigmatibusque fimbriolato, nuce anguste ovata acuta distinctissima. Perennis , caespites magnos densissimos virides formans. Culmi firmi, erecti vel suberecti vel habitationis causa saepissime subnutantes, acute triquetri, lateribus plani vel leviter concavi (in vivo plani nitidi) crebre striatuli, angulis sub apice saepe scabridis exceptis laevissimi, plerumque 00-100 cm. longi, apice 2-J-4£ mm. lati, per -J—J longitudinis foliati sed nodis omnibus basi incrassata sitis. Folia 5-12 ; vaginae herbaceae vel inferiores membranaceae brunnescentes, arctae, triquetrae, tenuiter pluristriatae, plerumque laminiferae, superiores ore postice breviter * Notes on Australian Cyperaceae I. These Proceedings, xlviii., 89-94 (1937) ; Notes on Australian Cyperaceae II. These Proceedings, xlix., 1.54-155 (1938) ; Mono- graph of the genus Eleocharis in Australia and New Zealand. These Proceedings, 1., 88-132 (1939). NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III. 33 ovatae inferiores truncate, vel infimae fissae; laminae lineares vel inferiores ± lanceolatae, prope apicem gradatim acutatae, subplanae vel marginibus ± arete revolutae, subrigide herbaceae, virides, creberrime plurinerves, carinatae, carina angusta sursum marginibusque scaberulae ceterae laeves, 6-9 mm. latae, summa culmum superans, inferiores gradatim breviores obtusioresque, infimae saepe brevissimae. Bract eae plures, inferiores 6-8, subaequales longissimae, foliis similes sed laxiores, superiores gradatim angustiores scabriores. Anthela decomposita, densior laxiorve, pluriradiata. Radii gracillimi, compressi, subconcavo- convexi, striati, laeves, e prophyllo usque ad 12 mm. longo ore d= oblique secto orti, 6-8 inferiores subaequales usque ad 18 cm. longi. Bracteolae setaceae usque ad 5 mm. longae vel brevissimae. Radioli primarii 1-plures, subaequales, approximati, filiformes, usque ad 26 mm. longi; radioli secundarii 0-2, breves vel brevissimi. Spiculae brunneae vel sanguineae, 1-3-nim digitatae, patentes, late lineares vel oblongae, obtusae, subcompressae, 7-10 mm. longae, 2-5-3-5 mm. latae, 7-12 florae. Rhachilla persistens, subvalida, recta, profunde excavata, marginibus tenuis, exalata. Glumae subdense imbricatae, deltoideo-ovatae, sub- obtusae, mucronatae, apice patulae, leviter 7-9-nerves, carinatae, carina laevi inf erne incurva sursum excurva vix vel brevissime excur rente, dorso tenuiter coriaceae margines glabras integras versus hyalinae, 3-34 mm. longae. Stamina 3 filamenta ligulata, antherae lineares 1-2-1-7 mm. longae, appendice rubra subulata setosa 045-0-2 mm. longa inclusa. Stylus complanatus tenuis, ca. 1 mm. longus, cum stigmatibus 3 longis- simis dense fimbriolatus. Nux brunnea lucida, anguste ovata, longe pyramido-acuta, triquetra, vix compressa, angulis acuta, lateribus subplanis punctulata cellulis extimis minutis, 1-5-1-7 mm. longa, 0-7-0-75 mm. lata. Queensland. — Moreton District : MacPherson Range : Moran ’s Falls, Feb., 1912, White ; Moran’s Falls, forming large green tussocks on the exposed top and face of the cliff, ca. 3,000 ft., May 24th, 1937, Blake 13000 (Type in Bri.) ; Lamington National Park, Feb., 1919, White ; Coomera Gorge, among rocks, 1,000-1,900 ft., October 10th, 1939, Blake 14119 ; Mt. Tenduragan near Numinbah, on exposed sheer rock faces, 1,800-2,000 ft., October 10th, 1938, Blake 13856. This handsome species is very distinct from all other Australian species, and indeed from any other species I have seen. Dr. Kukenthal has suggested an affinity with the African C. derreilema Steud. among the Diffusi, a species which I have not seen, but it differs from that section in that the leaves have only one and not three prominent nerves, in the shape of the glumes, and apparently also in the very long uppermost leaf-sheath and fibriolate style and stigmas. Cyperus semifertilis S. T. Blake sp. nov. inter sect. Incurvos Kiikenth. ponenda et O. filipedi Bentli. et C. disjuncto C. B. Clarke affinis, sed ab hac anthela normali haud disjuncta, radiis filiformibus elongatis, nuce glumam adaequante vel subsuperante ; ab ilia habitu, foliis caulinis pluribus bene evolutis, anthelae bracteis radiisque pauci- oribus; ab utraque spiculis viridibus pallescentibusve androgynis vel nonnunquam masculis differt. Rhizoma horizontaliter repens, ramosum, lignosum, in intervallis brevibus culmos florentes agens. Culmi 30-55 cm. alti, graciles, stricti, acute triquetri, marginibus acutis scaberulis exceptis glabri laevesque. 34 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Folia 4-7 culmi basi sita, graminea, herbacea, plana vel marginibus d= revoluta, linearia, apicem versus gradatim acutata, basi haud angustata, carinata et crebre plurinervia, carina marginibusque sursum scaberulis exceptis glabra laeviaque, 2-5-4 mm. lata, superiora culmum longe super- antia, inferiora gradatim breviora ; vaginae purpureae, inf eriores elaminatae. Anthela simplex, laxa, pauciradiata ; bracteae 2-3, foliis subsimiles sed angustiores, 1-2 anthelam longe superantes, ima basi suberecta; radii (ima a ceteris rarissime distans) 1-3 inaequales, usque ad 5 cm. longi, triquetro-filiformes, glabri laevesque, spica centrali haud raro prominule pedunculata, vel raro anthela ad spiculas 1-3 digitatim confertas in apice culmi redacta. Spiculae in apice radiorum 1-6 digi- tatim confertae, virides vel stramineae, lineari-lanceolatae zb aeuminatae vel lineares, vix compressae, plerumque 6-14 mm. vel raro usque ad 20 mm. longae, 1-2-2-5 mm. latae. Bhachilla persistens, rigida, recta, profunde excavata, exalata. Glumae spissae, ovatae, obtusae, brevissime cuspidatae vel submuticae, herbaceo-membranaceae, concavae, haud carinatae, apicem versus incurvae, 9-13-nerves, 1 -6-1-7 mm. longae, 1-2 imae vacuae, -4-9 succedentes florem hermaphroditem ceterae florem masculinum foventes, vel nonnunquam flores omnes masculi. Stamina 3; filamenta linearia ligulata, inferne paullo angustata; antherae oblongo-lineares, apice minute setosae, 0-8-1-1 mm. longae. Stylus brevis latusque, 3 mm. longus; stigmata 3 duplo longiora. Nux brunnea, vix nitida, elliptica, apice subpyramidata minute vel vix apiculata, trigona, a dorso admodum compressa, angulo dorsali haud distineto lateralibus zb acutis, lateribus convexula vel subplana, minute punctu- lata cellulis extimis hexagonis minutis admodum prominulis, glumam subsuperans, 1-6-1-7 mm. longa, 1 mm. lata. Queensland. — Moreton District : Mt. Tamborine, in Tristania conferta-Eucalyptus grandis forest, 1,300 ft., forming small green patches, June 1st, 1937, Blake 13078 (Type in Bri.). Readily distinguished from all other Australian species of the genus by the somewhat acuminate androgynous spikelets, the male part of which is pale brownish and the lower hermaphrodite part green. It somewhat resembles 0. trinervis R. Br. of the Gradies in general appear- ance but the latter is densely tufted, the glumes are 3-nerved and keeled, and the nut is much smaller. It shares with C. disjunctus R. Br. the pecularity of having the one or two lowermost (true) glumes quite empty. (Since this paper went to press this species has been collected in two further localities in the Moreton District, namely: Springbrook, in Tristania conferta forest on steep hillside, 1,100-1,900 feet., 8th October, 1939, Blake 14118; Mount Glorious, very common at edge of rain-forest in Tristania conferta — dominant forest, 1,500- 2,200 feet ; or among rocks on creek banks in fringing forest, extending down to 700 feet, at least on south-western slope, 31st December, 1939, and 1st January, 1940, Blake 14126. Except that a few specimens in the latter collection have leaves as narrow as 1.5 mm., the material matches that of the type.) Cyperus sculptus S. T. Blake sp. nov. inter sect. Graciles C. B. Clarke ponenda et C. gracili R. Br. affinis, sed habitu admodum graeiliore, spiculis angustioribus, nuce ellipsoidea laxe reticulata differt. Perennis, viridis, dense caespitosa, rhizomate brevissimo. Culmi setacei, trigoni sed angulis striati, glabri laevesque, usque ad 25 cm. longi (rarissime longiores), erecti vel patentes. Folia caulina pauca, basi culmi sita, eorum vaginae tenues, inferiores zb scariosae, brunneae, elaminiferae, superiores 1-2 laminiferae; laminae carinatae, plerumque convolutae, (applanatae) 0-6-0-8 mm. latae, facie superiore praeter NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III. 35 carinam prominule 2-4-nerves, facie superiore enerves marginibus incrassatae, prope apicem subacutam marginibus nervisque minute scabridulae, cnlmo fere semper multo breviores, raro usque ad 8 cm. longae, nonnunquam brevissimae vel ad mucronem redactae. Bracteae 2-3, inaequales, foliis similes, 2 inflorescentiam longe superantes, ima usque ad 9 cm. longa. Spiculae 1-10 in apice culmi digitatim confertae, lineari-oblongae vel lineares, obtusae, subcompressae, marginibus serru- latae, virides vel fulvo-tinctae, plerumque 7-10 mm. longae, 1-8-2-2 mm. latae, 14-20-florae. Rhachilla persistens, subvalida, recta, valde applanata, profunde excavata, marginibus tenuis sed haud alata. Gluma& subdense imbricatae, apice patulae, ovatae, obtusae, cuspidatae, carinatae, carina crassa in mucronem brevem excurvum excurrente, in utroque latere membranaceae, pallidae, valide 3-5-nerves, margines versus albo-hyalinae, 1-6-1-9 mm. longae. Stamina 3, antherae parvae, lineares, apiculatae, 04 mm. longae. Stylus brevis, 0-35 mm. longus, stigmatibus 3 longioribus. Nux late ellipsoidea, utrinque acutata ± acuminata, conspicue trigona, angulis obtusis baud costatis, lateribus leviter concava vel fere plana, omnino brunnea, nitidula, valde laxeque reticulata, cellulis extimis hexagonis majusculis marginibus prominule elevatis, 1 mm. longa, 0-65 mm. lata. Queensland. — Port Curtis District; Rockhampton, on alluvial flats in open Eucalyptus forest, March 5th, 1937, Blake 12704 (Type in Bri.) ; near Rockhampton on rocky rather steep slopes of Mt. Berserker in open forest, 300-700 ft., March 4th, 1935, Blake 7894. Wide Bay District : near Bundaberg, in and at edge of rain forest, April 25th, 1936, Blake 11284. Moreton District : Petrie, in damp shady places near North Pine River, April 10th, 1932, Blake 1191 ; Moggill, Bris- bane, by roadside in shade, March 10th, 1934, Blake 5279; Northgate, Brisbane, on sandy loam in rather sheltered or damp places, common, December 17th, 1934, Blake 7158; Kangaroo Point, Brisbane, January, 1907, White ; Brisbane, University grounds, a weed of damp places, April 28th, 1932, Blake 1208; in rather damp shady places, June 14th, 1932, Blake 1348, 1349 ; Brisbane Botanic Gardens, in rather damp shady places, June 14th 1932, Blake 1350; Rocklea Creek, Brisbane, in a damp somewhat shady place, May 30th, 1932, Blake and Greenham in Herl). Blake 1305a ; Sunnybank, near Brisbane, in damp shady places, December 7th, 1933, Blake 4996 ; Goodna, near Brisbane, on damp shady banks in the ecotone between Eucalyptus forest and rain forest, April 18th, 1932, Blake 1199 ; Ipswich, on Denmark Hill, on grassy slopes on sandy loam, January 24th, 1933, Cribb ; Mt. Ernest in grassy places at the foothills, October 8th, 1932, Blake 1402. In its very slender habit and narrow spikelets this species has the aspect of C. mirus C. B. Clarke but the nervature of the glumes is similar to that of C. gracilis R. Br., while the nut is markedly different from both. Cyperus cristulatus S. T. Blake sp. nov. C. flaccido R. Br. inter sect. Gradies C. B. Clarke afflnis, sed glumarum carina sursum alulata cristulataque differt. Annua, parva, pallide viridis. Culmi perpauci caespitosi vel singuli, strict!, 2-9 cm. long!, triquetri sed setacei (usque ad 0-5 mm. 36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. lati), glabri laevesque, saepe ± striatuli, solum basi foliati. Folia caulina 1-2, culmum dimidium superantia vel ejus apicem nonnunquam atting- entia, angustissime linearia, acuta, glaberrima laevissimaque, facie superiore plana vel fere plana, enervia, marginibus incrassata, facie inferiore carinata, et praeter carinam tenuiter 2-4-nervia, apicem versus triquetra, 0*5-1 mm. lata, vel interdum folia ad vaginam ore obliquam marginibus hyalinam reticulatam redacta. Anthela simplex vel sub- composita, vel ad capitulum paucispiculosum redacta; bract eae 2 foliis simillimae sed angustiores, inferior erecta anthelam fere adaequans superior spiculas brevior longiorve ; radii 0-3, e prophyllo brevi apice bidentata orti, tenuissimi sed triquetri, minutissime seabriduli vel laeves, valde inaequales usque ad 3*5 cm. longi; radioli brevissimi vel nulli. Spiculae plerumque 2-6-nim digitatae, undique patentes, oblongae, inciso-serratae, obtusae, 3-4*5 mm. longae, 2*1 mm. latae, 8-16-florae, valde compressae, pallide virescentes saepe brunneo-tinctae. Rhacliilla persistens, leviter flexuosa, applanata, internodis subexcavata, vix alulata. Glumae sublaxe imbricatae, patentes, a latere visae oblique ovatae, acutae vel obtusiusculae, applanatae suborbiculares acuminatae, 3-nerves, valde carinatae, carina sursum alulata inciso-cristulataque in mucronem saepe paullo recurvatum excurrente, lateribus inter carinam nervumque lierbaceae, ceterum byalinae, omnino celluloso-reticulatae, 1*15-1*25 mm. longae. Stamina 2, antherae non visae. Stylus 0*25-0*3 mm. longus, stigmata 3 sublongiora. Nux pallide brunnescens, haud nitida, elliptico- obovata, triquetra, apice obtusissima minute apiculata, basi' db obtusa, angulis angustis haud costata, lateribus leviter concava fere plana, minute crebreque rugulosa, 0*45-0*5 mm. longa, 0*3 mm. lata, toro brevissimo. Queensland. — Cook District: Near Chillagoe in damper places in open forest on grey sandy soil ca. 1,050 ft., April 2nd, 1938, Blake 13579. The species was found associated with other small annual Cyperaceae and grasses in a community of Melaleuca sp. In its erect bract, oblong spikelets, slightly imbricate glumes with somewhat recurved apices, and pale colour it approaches C. flaccidus R. Br. closely, but it is smaller in all its parts, and the winged, distinctly cristulate upper part of the keel of the glume is distinctive. In his monograph of Cyperus, Kiikenthal has placed C. flaccidus R. Br., C. aquatilis R. Br., C. superatus C. B. Clarke, O. breviculmis R. Br., and C. imbecillus R. Br. as varieties of C. t'rinervis R. Br. in the section Gradies C. B. Clarke. To my mind all are quite distinct from C. trinervis while C. imbecillus is a form of C. laevis R. Br., with unusu- ally elongated rays in the inflorescence. In recent correspondence Dr. Kiikenthal has accepted my rearrangement of the forms as given below. Strictly, the annual members placed by Kiikenthal as varieties of C. trinervis cannot be placed in the section at all unless the circumscription of the latter be widened, as in all cases the nut is less than half the glume, and there is a distinct approach to the Haspani through C. tenuispica Steud. There can be no doubt, however, that the species are all closely allied, the relationships being indicated in Fig. 1. specialisation in nut structure > stabilisation of 3 -nerved glumes NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III. 37 4 development of rays in inflorescence Phylogenetic table of the Graciles. 38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. The species may be distinguished as follows : — ^Perennial ; glumes 1-9-nerved, not cellulose-reticulate ; nut dark brown or blackish, not tuberculate, equalling ^-} glume in length : Glumes with one median nerve on each side or nearly nerveless; leaves f mm. or more wide, inflorescence often evolute, nut smooth : Nut triquetrous, the sides ± concave, bracts usually 2, inflorescence often not evolute : Glumes nearly nerveless on the sides, the apex nearly muticous; base of lowest bract setulose on the keel . . . . C. laevis Glumes strongly 1-nerved on the sides, the apex mucronate ; bracts quite smooth at the base . . C. stradbrohensis Nut obtusely trigonous convex on the sides, bracts 3-4, inflorescence always evolute Glumes with 2-4 nerves on each side or with 1 nerve close to the keel; leaves rarely \ mm. wide, most usually very narrow; inflorescence always contracted, rays absent; spikelets congested, usually few: Glumes with 1-2 nerves on each side close to the keel, the remainder broad, white and nerveless: Nut smooth or punctulate Nut striate and trabeculate Glumes striate throughout with 3-4 nerves on each side : Nut obovate smooth or punctulate, external cells minute Nut elliptical, coarsely reticulate, the hexa- gonal external cells large C. trinervis C. enervis C. mirus C. gracilis C . sculptus * Annual : glumes 3-nerved, cellulose-reticulate ; nut white or pale brown, tuberculate, as long as J-J glume: Keel of glumes winged and serrulate in upper part . . . . . . . . . . C. cristulatus Keel of glume neither winged or serrulate. Nut 0-7-0-8 mm. long. Glumes with a rather long recurved mucro, usu- ally pallid ; bract almost always 1, ± exceeding the inflores- cence . . . . . . C. flaccidus NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III. 39 Glumes acute, or with a very short erect point, mostly tinged with brown; bracts usually 2, shorter than the inflorescence C. aquatilis C. breviculmis Nut 0-5 mm. long . . ENUMERATION OF SPECIES. 1. C. laevis B. Br. Prodr. 213 (1810). C. imbecillus R. Br. l.c. 213. C. enervis R. Br. var. laxus Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 266 (1878). G. trinervis R. Br. var. laxus (Benth.) Kukenth. in Pflanzenreich Heft. 101, 293 (1936). South-east Queensland (Port Curtis, Wide Bay, Moreton, Eastern Darling Downs districts) and North-eastern New South Wales. In the prevailing form, the inflorescence is in the form of a com- pound head, a few rays being developed but very short. At times the rays may attain 2-3 cm. in length; this is C. imbecillus, C. enervis var. laxus, and C. trinervis var. laxus. In depauperate states there may be no trace of the rays. The two extremes may be found on the same plant. 2. C. stradbrokensis Domin in Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft. 85, 422 (1915). South-east Queensland (Moreton District, on rather loose sand near the sea) . As in the case of nearly all other species described by Domin, it has been necessary to examine carefully his type-localities for the elucida- tion of the species described by him. Requests for the loan of his types have been ignored by him. 3. 0. trinervis B. Br. Prodr. 213 (1810), and incl. var. compactus Domin in Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85, 633 (1915). C. Lessonianus Kunth, Enum. pi. ii'. 29 (1837). C. graeilis var. ? rigidella Benth. FI. Austr. viii. 266 (1878) in part. Queensland and New South Wales in coastal districts. More robust than the other species. 4. C. enervis B. Br. Prodr. 213 (1810). C. debilis R. Br. l.c. 213. C. enervis R. Br. var. fallax Domin in Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85, 421 (1915). C. gracilis R. Br. var. enervis (R. Br.) Kukenth. in Pflanzen- reich, Heft 101, 297 (1936). Eastern Queensland (coastal and sub-coastal) and North-eastern New South Wales; also, according to Kiikenthal, in New Caledonia. I have seen no authentic specimen of C. debilis R. Br. and no mature specimen agreeing with Kiikenthal ’s description of the species. Through the courtesy of Sir Arthur Hill, I have been informed that Brown’s specimen at Kew is undeveloped C. enervis and it is chiefly on this authority that I have united the two species. Kukenthal’s description agrees fairly with immature plants of C. enervis growing in less shady places than this species usually inhabits. Bentham’s description (FI. Austr. vii. 266) refers chiefly at least to the next species. 40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 5. C. minis C. B. Clarice in Kew Bull. Add. Ser. viii. 4 (1908). C. debilis sec. Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 266 (1878) not of R. Br., at least in part. Queensland (Cook District at altitudes of 2,200-2,500 feet., Wide Bay and Moreton Districts) and North-eastern New South Wales as far south as Sydney. Resembles the former in the broad white margins to the glumes which are nerved only close to the keel, hut the spikelets are narrower and the nut is unique with its transversely elongated very prominent external cells. 6. C. gracilis B. Br. Prodr. 213 (1810). Queensland (except the far interior and the north-west) and New South Wales as far south as Sydney, chiefly in coastal districts. 7. C. sculptus S. T. Blake in Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensl. li. 34 (1940). See above. 8. C. cristulatus S. T. Blake in Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensl. li. 35 (1940). See above. 10. G. flaccidus B. Br. Prodr. 213 (1810). C. trinervis R. Br. var. flaccidus (R. Br.) Kiikenth. in Pflanzenreich, Heft 101, 294 (1936). Northern Territory, Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, in wet places. Not known from the interior. Also in Japan and Korea accord- to Kukenthal, who refers to this species C. macellus Kunth. Enum. Pl. ii. 30 (1837) and C. hakonensis Franch. & Sav. Enum. PI. Japon. ii. 105 and 538 (1879). This species appears to be rare in Australia. In the field it can usually be distinguished by its characteristic pallid green colour. It and the two following species were included by Bentham in C. trinervis. 11. C. aquatilis B. Br. Prodr. 213 (1810). C. inundatus R. Br. l.c. 213. C. superatus C. B. Clarke in Kew Bull. Add. Ser. viii. 4 (1908). C. trinervis R. Br. var. aquatilis (R. Br.) Kiikenth. in Pflanzenreich, Heft 101, 294 (1936), and var. superatus (C. B. Clarke) Kiikenth. l.c. 294. Western Australia (Kimberley Division), North Australia, Queens- land, New South Wales, and Victoria, in wet places and chiefly in coastal districts. C. superatus C. B. Clarke, to judge from a specimen of the type collection in Herb. Melbourne (Darwin, Schultz 313) is merely a form of C. aquatilis with an unusually long bract but the inflorescence not yet fully developed. C. inundatus is a small state. What appear to be specimens of the type collection of C. aquatilis (New Holland, Banks and Solander) are in Herb. Melbourne and Herb. Sydney. 12. C. breviculmis B. Br. Prodr. 213 (1810). C. trinervis R. Br. var. breviculmis (R. Br.) Kiikenth. in Pflanzenreich, Heft 101, 294 (1936). North Queensland. Until recently only known from the type-collection (Carpentaria B. Brown 5912) which is represented in Herb. Brisbane (ex Herb. Kew) and Herb. Melbourne. In 1938 I was fortunate enough to secure two excellent series from the Cook District (near Mareeba in dried-out NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III. 41 depressions in Eucalyptus forest ca. 1,700 feet, March 28th, 1938, Blake 13481 ; and about 40 miles north-west of Mungana in Melaleuca forest on fine whitish sand, April 8th, 1938, Blake 13719). Specimens of the former collection match those of the type exactly, but the latter consists of much smaller but older plants mostly not exceeding 5 cm. in height, but with rather elongated spikelets. Cyperus teneriffae Poir. in Lam. Encycl. vii. 245 (1806). C. calci- colus Domin in Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85, 632 and plate xvii. figs. 10-13 (1915). Domin ’s species was omitted from Kiikenthal’s monograph, and no specimens agreeing with Domin ’s description and figures were extant in any Australian herbarium. However, in March, 1938, I was fortunate enough to rediscover the plant at the type locality (Cook District: Lion’s Head Bluff, Chillagoe, among boulders and in crevices on rugged limestone ridges, ca. 1,150 feet, Blake 13519) and specimens were sent to Dr. Kukenthal for an opinion. He has determined them as C. teneriffae Poir. forma petraeus (Hochst.) Kiikenth. and they agree closely with his figure and description of the species, which ranges through Eastern Africa to India, and has very likely been introduced to Queensland. The forma petraeus is most probably an epharmone. At Chillagoe the plants were observed on one only of the numerous karst hills (“bluffs”), and that is practically within the town itself. Cyperus nervulosus {Kiikenth. ) S. T. Blake stat. nov. C. pumilus L. var. nervulosus Kiikenth. in Pflanzenreich, Heft 101, 378 (1936). C. breviculmis sec. P. Mu, ell. Pragm. viii. 267 (1874) not of R. Br. C. pumilus sec. Benth. PI. Austr. vii. 258 (1878) not of L. Pycreus pumilus var. punctatus Domin in Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft. 85, 417 (1915), not C. punctatus Roxb. Northern Australia, North-east Queensland. Distinguished from all forms of C. pumilus by the distinctly nerved sides of the spathulate-oblong glumes. The type-collection {Dietrich 618, from Rockhampton) is represented in the Herb. Mel. Typical C. pumilus is known in Australia from two localities only ( Queensland : Kennedy North District : Townsville, in open damp sandy places, ca. 5 feet, June 7th, 1934, Blake 5978, and Cook District: Cairns, on wet sandy forest land, ca. sea-level, June 15th, 1935, Blake 9392). C. flavescens L. Spec. PI. ed. 1, 46 (1753). The typical form of this has been found in Queensland in the following localities, possibly as introductions: — Moreton District : Buderim, in swamp, Feb. 24th, 1934, Blake 5186 ; Darling Downs District: Ballandean, on wet sandy places near creek, Jan. 31st., 1938, Blake 13237; Wyberba, in swamps, 2,500-3,000 feet, Jan. 21st, 1933, Blake 4597 ; between Bald Mountain and Wyberba, on damp ground on creek bank, Jan. 16th, 1933, Blake 4513. Widely distributed throughout the warmer parts of the world. The specimens referred by Bentham to this species are pale-coloured speci- mens of C. sanguinolentus Yahl. C. sanguinolentus Vahl, Enum. PI. ii. 351 (1806). C.Eragrostis Yahl l.c. 322, Benth., &c., not of Lam. C. areolatus R. Br. Prodr. 216 (1810). C. flavescens sec. Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 259 (1878), not of L. C. sanguinolentus Yahl var. areolatus (R. Br.) Kiikenth. in Pflanzen- reich, Heft 101, 338 (1936). Pycreus sanguinolentus (Yahl) Nees in Linnaea ix. 283 (1835). 42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Widely spread over Eastern Africa, Southern Asia, East Indies, and the Australian mainland. Kukenthal has shown (l.c. 115) that the name C. eragrostis properly belongs to the plant widely known as C. vegetus Willd., a species intro- duced to New Zealand, Victoria, and New South Wales. He distinguishes the Australian specimens of C. sangumolentus as var. areolatus (R. Br.) Kiikenth. solely by the blackish margins to the glumes, a character which is very inconstant even in the same inflorescence. His forma setacea is merely a small slender state. 0. Luerssenii Boeck. in Flora, lviii. 86 (1875), Kiikenth. l.c. 426. I have seen specimens from the type collection of this species and of C. subulatus R. Br., and cannot distinguish between them. Neither the degree of leaf-development nor the slight difference in the nervature of the glumes emphasised by Kukenthal are constant, and all combina- tions may occur on the same plant. Hence I would regard C. Luerssenii Boeck. as a synonym of C. subulatus R. Br. In this species the spikelets may fall entire at maturity, or the glumes may fall singly from a persistent rhachilla, thus combining the features of Eu-cyperus and Mariscuis. In this case also, both states may be observed on one and the same plant either in the herbarium or in the field. I have seen no authentic specimen of C. subulatus var. confertus Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 281 (1878), but the description matches parts of many plants of typical C. subulatus where the inflorescence is reduced to a ± compound head. C. cyperinus (Betz.) Suringar var. scabriculmis Kiikenth. l.c. 520. An examination of the type-collection in Herb. Sydney (Queens- land: Cairns, August, 1901, Bet eke) has shown this to be a depauperate plant of C. scaber (R. Br.) Boeck. Normally this species has tall culms with a compound or somewhat decompound inflorescence, and is very different in aspect from C. cyperinus (Retz.) Suringar. Small speci- mens, such as are more usual in South Queensland, where C. cyperinus does not occur, have frequently a simple anthela. The two species may be constantly distinguished as follows: — C. cyperinus. C. scaber. Culms smooth Culms scabrous to very scabrous, at least in upper part Leaves and bracts rather flaccid, not septate-nodulose, mostly flat Leaves and bracts rather rigid, indistinctly septate-nodulose, margins ± distinctly re vo lute Nut oblong, 2-1 mm. long, 0*65 mm. wide Nut linear-oblong, 2- 3-2* 5 mm. long, 0-65 mm. wide Rhachilla not very rigid Rhachilla rather rigid Wings membranous Wings firm, thinly coriaceous Sect. Pinnatae Kiikenth. This section was erected by Kukenthal to include a most difficult series of endemic Australian forms. Though placed by the author in the subgenus Mariscus the first three species enumerated (C. angustatus NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III. 43 R. Br., C. dactylotes Benth., and C. Gilesii Benth.) are typical Eu-cyperus in structure, while most of the other species combine the characters of both subgenera as described above for C. suibulatus. Kiikenthal’s arrangement of the forms and his key to them is very unsatisfactory, and what follows can be regarded merely as some contribution towards a better understanding of this most difficult group. C. Clelandii J. M. Black in Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr. xlviii. 253 (1924). The type of this (South Australia: Cordillo Downs, Feb. 25th, 1924, Cleland ), kindly lent by Mr. Black, shows this species to be conspecific with C. dactylotes Benth., a widely spread plant in the drier parts of the Northern Territory, Queensland, New South Wales, and South Australia. Cyperus Betchei ( Kukenthal ) 8. T. Blake stat. nov. C. angustatus R. Br. var. Betchei Kiikenth. l.c. 452. Species distincta, a C. angustato R. Br. habitu robustiore, foliis latioribus carina marginibusque scaberrimis interdum septato-nodulosis, spiculis distincte spicatis semper caducis, nitidioribus clarioribusque, rhachilla prominule, alata, nuce minus abrupte acuminata valde rostrata distinguenda. Nux rostrata notabilis est. In the drier parts of Central and Southern Queensland and Northern New South Wales, the type is from Narrabri, collected by Betche in Jan., 1883 (N.S.W., Mel.). C. rigidellus {Benth.) J. M. Black, FI. S. Austr. 676 (1929). C. gracilis R. Br. var. ? rigidellus Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 266 (1878) chiefly. Mariscus rigidellus (Benth.) C. B. Clarke in Kew Bull. Add. Ser. viii. 18 (1908). C. subpinnatus Kiikenth. var. sub rigidellus Kiikenth. in Fedde, Repert. xxix. 199 (1931). While I have not seen Bentham’s type, I have seen several authentic specimens of Kiikenthal’s variety, as well as a large number of others from the interior of Queensland (Warrego District), New South Wales, South Australia, and North-west Victoria. They agree fairly with the descriptions of C. rigidellus and differ sharply from C. subpinnatus in the less rigid habit, the softer texture of the glumes and the wingless rhachilla. There is a considerable variation in the degree of development of the inflorescence, some culms bearing elongated rays, and in the colour of the glumes. C. ochroleucus Boeck. in Flora lviii. 85 (1875). An examination of the type of this from Herb. Berlin, kindly lent by Dr. J. Mattfeld, has shown it to be a robust specimen in young flower of C. fulvus R. Br. var. densespiculatus (Domin) Kiikenth. with the uppermost leaf-sheath longer than usual. The taxonomic value of this variety is questionable, as in most tufts seen with reflexed secondary rays in the inflorescence, some inflorescences occur without such rays. In other words, C. fulvus (typical) and var. densespiculosus may occur on the same plant. The species is an exceedingly variable one. Cypenis perangustus {Kiikenth.) S. T. Blake sp. nov. inter sect Pinnatos Kiikenth. ponenda et C. fulvo R. Br. affinis, a quo anthela majore decomposita laxiore, radiolis semper evolutis, spiculis multifloris angustissimis, rhachilla late alata, nuce elliptica apice haud abrupte acuminata, latere adaxiali distincte curvata differt. — C. fulvus R. Br. var. perangustus Kiikenth. in litt. 44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Dense caespitosa, viridis, ± viscida. Cnlmi plures, stricti, erecti, graciles, triquetri, striati, glabri laevesque vel sub apice scabridi, 20-40 cm. alti, tantum basi incrassata vaginis latis brunneis multinervis dz resinosis foliati. Folia pauca, inter se distantia, vagina summa usque ad 9 cm. longa; laminae lineares, sursum gradatim attenuatae, planae vel inferne complicatae, septato-nodulosae, carinatae et crebre pluri- nerves, carina marginibusque scabrae, 3-5-5-5 mm. latae, culmi apicem superantes. Anthela composita, laxa vel sublaxa, 7-10-radiata; bracteae plures, foliis similes superiores gradatim angustiores brevioresque, 3-4 inferiores anthelam superantes vel longe superantes. Radii rigidi, undique patentes, inaequales, usque ad 10 cm. longi, compressi, glabri laevesque, e prophyllo ore paullum oblique secto orti ; radioli ± deflexi, usque ad 3 cm. longi ; bracteolae ± setaceae, radiolis plerumque brevi- oribus. Spicae breves, e spiculis 4-10 approximate divaricatis constructae. Spiculae aureae vel aureo-brunneae anguste lineares, turgi- dulae, 7-18 mm. longae, 1-2-1-7 mm. latae, 7-22-florae. Rhachilla tenuis, flexuosa, rigida, late alata, decidua vel persistens. Glumae sublaxe dispositae, imbricatae, primoi appressae tandem aliquantulum patentes, deciduae vel cum rhachilla decidua ± persistentes, ovatae, obtusae vel leviter retusae, tenuiter membranaceae, carinatae, carina viridi recta (a latere visa) brevissime excurrente, latere utroque 3-4 nervis prominule notatae, 1-8-2-1 mm. longae. Stamina 3, antherae oblongae obtusae, 0-6-0-7 mm. longae. Stylm tenuis 0-8-0-9 mm. longus stigmatibus 3 paullo brevior. Nux brunnea ± vernicosa, anguste elliptica, apice rotundata breviter acuminata, obtuse trigona, latere adaxiali curvata concavaque ceteris convexa, cellulis extimis minutis paullo prominulis, 1-5-1-6 mm. longa, 0-5-0-6 mm. lata, gluma paullo vel usque ad J brevior. Queensland. — North Kennedy District: Rockingham Bay, Jan. 30th, 1862, Dallacky (Bri., Mel.) ; Townsville, on the mid-slopes of Castle Hill, chiefly in gullies, March 30th, 1935, Blake 8359 ; Magnetic Island, on rocky granite cliff face in light rain forest and in shady places near a creek, March 24th, 1935, Blake 8237 ; and on shady creek bank, Blake 8249. Port Curtis District : Gracemere, Feb. 10th, 1876, O’Shanesy 1642 (Mel.) ; Marmor, between Rockhampton and Gladstone, in monsoon forest, March 8th, 1937, Blake 12778. Wide Bay District: Near Bunda- berg, in mixed open forest on sandy soil, April 26th, 1936, Blake 11304 (Type in Bri.) . O’Shanesy’s and Dallachy’s specimens are immature and were referred by previous authors to C. angwstatus R. Br. C. perangustus differs from C. angustatus in its viscidity, in the much broader promin- ently septate-nodulose leaves, rather loosely spicate spikelets, the broadly winged rhachilla, and in the unsymmetrical nut the edges of which are not parallel. In a letter Dr. Kiikenthal suggested that the form was a variety of C. fulvus, giving merely the diagnosis as follows : — Anthela decomposita ampla. laxa; spiculae lineares vix 1 mm. latae. Cyperus clarus S: T. Blake sp. nov. inter sect. Pinnatos Kiikenth. ponenda, affinis C. fulvo R. Br. et praecipue var. confuso (C. B. Clarke) Kiikenth., sed a formis omnibus speciei spiculis latioribus, glumis majoribus in mucronem validum excurvum excurrentibus, nucis majoris fuscae angulis subacutis lateribusque subplanis vel concavis differt. Perennis, caespitosa, viridis, haud viscida. Culmi erecti, stricti, rigidi sed graciles, 15-50 cm. alti, apicem versus seabriduli, ceteri glabri NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III. 45 laevesque, basi incrassata vaginis latis brunneis multi-nervis obtecti. Folia pauca, basi culmi sita ; laminae lineares, longe acutatae, i coriaceae, rigidae, culmi apicem saepe attingentes vel sfaperantes, planae vel admodum revolutae vel (praecipne inf erne) complicatae, septato- nodulosae, tenniter plurinerves, carinatae, carina marginibusque irregnlariter spinnloso-scabrae, 2-5-6 mm. latae. Bracteae 3-5 foliis similes, 2-3 anthelam snperantes. Anthela simplex vel subcomposita, vel ad capitulnm compositum redacta, 0-6-radiata, subdensa ; radii subrobusti, stricti, ± patentes, trigoni ± compressi, glabri laevesqne, e propbyllo tubuloso ore ampliato oblique secto orti, usque ad 4 cm. longi; radioli nullr. Spiculae plures vel numerosae in capitulis hemisphericis vel subglobosis 20-25 mm. diam. brevissime spicatae, quasi digitatim confertae, leviter compressae, oblongae vel lineari-oblongae, 8-15 mm. longae, 2-7-3 mm. latae, 6-20-florae. Rhachilla persistens, haud caduca, leviter flexuosa vel fere recta, rigida, valde applanata, fere exalata. Glumae facile deciduae, sublaxae, primo imbricatae demum ± patentes et ob margines ± involventes inter se d= discretae, aureae vel castaneae vel clare brunneae, nitidulae, ovatae, obtusae, rigide membranaceae, margines versus admodum tenuiores subscariosae, carinatae et praeter carinam ± nervosam superne validam sub glumae apice in mucronem validum aeutum excurvum 0-4-0-7 mm. longum excurrentem, 6-8-nerves, et mucrone incluso 3-2-3-8 (plerumque 3-3-3-5) mm. longae. Stamina 3, antherae lineares, minute apiculatae, 0-6-0-8 mm longae. Stylus tenuis, 0-8-1-2 mm. longus, stigmata 3 tenuia paullo longiora. Nux fusca vel cinereo-velata, haud nitida, obovato-oblonga, acuminata, subaeque trigona angulis subacutis, latere adaxiali ± concava ceteris plana, 2-2-1 mm. longa, 0-85-0-95 mm. lata, cellulis extimis minutis vix obviis. Queensland. — Leichhardt District: Minerva, north of Springsure, in grassland on dark grey clay loam, 800-1,000 feet, March 7th, 1935, Blake 7934. Port Curtis District: Gracemere, dry gravelly places, common, Nov. 1st, 1873, O’Shanesy 1406 (Mel.). Warrego District: Morven, in depressions in railway enclosure on dull brown silt clay ca. 1,400 feet, April 2nd, 1936, Blake 11008. Maranoa District: Mitchell, on bed of Maranoa River on sand, ca. 1,350 feet, May 4th, 1934, Blake 5738. Darling Downs District: Palardo, west of Miles, in railway enclo- sure on black clay, ca. 1,100 feet, May 10th, 1934, Blake 5886; Oakey, Donges 6 in 1930 ; Drayton, on hillsides on heavy soil, either in the open or in Eucalyptus forest; also common at edge of cultivation, Feb. 12th, 1934, Blake 5174 (Type in Bri.). New South Wales. — Far Western Plains: Mootwingie, near Broken Hill, in rock pools, Oct. 9th, 1921, A. Morris 845 ( N.S.W.) ; Goyinga Mountains, near rocky waterholes, Nov. 6th, 1860, Victorian Expedn. (Mel.). ? South Australia. — Oodnadatta, June, 1914, Stair (Herb. Black) ; very young with no base, but apparently this species. So far as observed in Queensland this species is chiefly found on heavy soils. Well-developed specimens are readily known by the dense globose spikes of relatively broad, rather turgid, brightly coloured spikelets with rather prominent recurved mucros to the glumes. In habit it recalls C. Gilesii Benth. rather than C. fulvus R. Br., but the nut and glumes are much broader, and the plant is a perennial with more prom- inently thickened culm-bases. From all forms of the variable C. fulvus it differs in the dense globose spikes, the broader spikelets of a usually 46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. quite different colour, the prominently cuspidate glumes, the rather sharp angles to the nut, the faces of which are not brown, and the adaxial is distinctly concave and incurved towards the base. Cyperus oxycarpus S. T. Blake sp. nov. affinis C. carinato R. Br.. in sect. Pinnatis Kukenth., a quo vaginis basi culmi induratis nitidis, bracteis plus numerosis, glumis longioribus acutioribusque, nuce lanceolata vel fere lanceolata, apice acuta, differt. Perennis, dense caespitosa, glabra, haud viscida. Culmi stricti, erecti, rigidi, 35-50 cm. longi, 1J-3 mm. lati, obtuse trigoni, crebre striati, sub apice parce seabriduli ceterum laeves;, basi vaginis zh squamiformibus duris nitidis striatis purpureis vel purpureobrunneis subincrassati. Folia 4-5 culmi basi sita inflorescentiam ipsam longe superantia et eis innovationum saepe exceptis valde septato-nodulosa vaginae arctae haud carinatae ; laminae angustae, apicem setaceam versus longe attenuatae, plerumque complicatae raro d= planae, usque ad 4-5 mm. latae, plurinerves, basin versus exceptae carinatae, carina superne acuta marginibusque scabridae, ceterum laeves. Bracteae plures, 3-5 inferiores foliis similes anthelam longe superantes, superiores gradatim breviores angustioresque. Anthela composita vel simplex, sublaxa, plerumque 5-10-radiata ; radii ± robusti, rigidi, stricti, compressi, tenuiter striati, laeves, usque ad 9 cm. longi, suberecti vel admodum patentes, e prophyllo breviusculo apice obliquo orti; tract eolae sub- setacei, anthelulam plerumque superantes; radioli pauci plerumque breves, raro plus 2 cm. longi, saepe non evoluti. Spiculae in capitulis densis saepe compositis 10-15 mm. diam. digitatim dispositae, fulvae vel sanguineo-maeulatae, ovatae vel ovato-oblongae, compressae, 8-14-florae, 5-7-5 mm. longae, 4-4-5 mm. latae. Rhachilla persistens flexuosa, exalata, tenuis, nodis inter se 0-7 mm. distantibus incrassata. Glumae deciduae, oblique patentes, primo it imbricatae, tandem quoque ob margines involutas inter se discretae, ellipticae, acutae, vel leviter emarginatae et minute apiculatae, membranaceae, leviter carinatae (carina a latere visa leviter curvata), latere utroque nervis validis 3 notatae, 2-8-3 mm. longae, 1-5 mm. latae. Stamina 3, antherae lineares, 0-8-1-0 mm. longae, connectivi apice conica 0-1 mm. longa inclusa. Stylus tenuis 1 mm. longus, stigmata 3 filiformia subaequilonga. Nux straminea nitidula, lanceolata vel oblongo-lanceolata, acuta, trigona^ subsymmetrica, a lateribus subcompressa, faciebus convexula vel adaxiali subconcava, cellulis extimis minutis inconspicuis, 2-3 mm. longa, 0-6 mm. lata. Queensland. — Cook District: On Wrotham Park, ca. 50 miles north-west of Mungana, at edge of lagoon, April 8th, 1938, Blake 13712. Burke District: Wernadinga, between Normanton and Burketown, at edge of lagoon May 31st, 1935, Blake 9209 (Type in Bri.) ; O’Shanassy River, approx. 19° 10' S., 138° 45' E., on mud near water, April 19th, 1935, Blake 8637. The nearest ally to this new species is certainly C. carinatus R. Br. which, however, has loose leaf-sheaths much softer in texture, and the lower ones without laminae are septate-nodulose like the others, and not hard and shining, the glumes are definitely obtuse, the anthers are smaller, and the nut is oblong and obtuse or abruptly apiculate at the apex. Kukenthal describes the leaves of C. carinatus as ‘ ‘ haud carinata, convoluta.” I find the leaves of both species sharply keeled in the upper NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III. 47 part, the keel becoming more obtuse and less distinct towards the lower part, and finally disappearing completely a short distance above the union with the sheath. Rhynchospora heterochaeta S. T. Blake sp. nov. affinis R. longiseti R. Br. a qua spiculis nucibusque minoribus setis hypogynis non plumosis differt. Annua, viridis, Culmi solitarii vel caespitosi, obliqui vel erecti, stricti, usque ad 30 cm. longi, graciles, subacute triquetri, prominule striati, glabri laevesque, enodes. Folia plura (usque ad 9) basi culmi sita, inferiorum vaginae ± apertae; laminae lineares, gramineae, sub- molles, supra medium gradatim acutatae, planae vel raro it complicatae, anguste carinatae, plurinerves, carina marginibusque superne parce scabrae, eeterum glabrae laevesque, usque ad 3-5 mm. latae, usque ad 15 cm. longae, culmis plerumque breviores vel culmos minores adae- quantes vel paullum superantes. Inflorescentia terminalis capitata multispiculosa, plerumque 12-20 mm. lata. Bracteae foliaceae inaeqales, 4^8 capitulum adaequantes vel superantes usque ad 10 cm. longae, lineari-lanceolatae vel superiores lanceolatae, basi dilatata ecarinata marginibus dense ciliatae superne carina marginibusque scabrae. Spioulae aureo-brunneae, lanceolatae, acutae, dorso-ventraliter applanatae, 6-8-5 mm. longae, ca. 1-5 mm. latae, 1-nucigerae. Glumae 7, quinta fertilis elliptico-lanceolata, acute acuminata, tenuiter eoriacea margines versus hyalina, 1-nervis, 6-7-5 mm. longa; 4 inferiores gradatim breviores obtusiores, ima 1 mm. haud. vel vix attingens, penultima florem masculinum fovens et cum summa quam fertili multo angustior, brevior, it involuta. Stamina 2, antherae lineares, anguste apiculatae, ca. 1-5 mm. longae. Stylus longus filiformis indivisus. Nux brunnea vel fusco- brunnea, obovato-oblonga, dorsoventraliter applanata, lateribus sub- concava, marginibus obtussissima haud attenuata linea albida notata, punctulata, per J-f longitudinis superioris pilis spinulosis crassiusculis antrorsim appressis ornata, 3-0-3-7 mm. longa, 1-1-1-3 mm. lata. Stylo- kasis a nuce disereta, elongata, angusta, applanata, basi dilatata crassior, cellulosa,, marginibus antrorsim scabra, nucis f-f longa, basi haud constricta \ nuce lata. Setae hypogynae 6, una nuce brevior vel brevis- sima sublaevis, ceterae subaequales nucem cum stylobasi subaequantes (longiores brevioresve), antrorsim scabrae, basin versus sublaeves vel minute ciliatae, basi ipsa glaberrimae laevissimaeque. Phillipine Islands. — Luzon: Province of Bulaean, Sept., 1913, Ramos in Kerb. Phil. Bur. Sci. 2099 (Bri.). East Indian Archipelago. — Madoera Tusschen Sampang en Rapa, 50 m., March 11th, 1915, Backer 20052 (Bri. ex Bz.). Northern Territory. — Darwin, Tate in 1882 (Mel.), Hoitze in 1886 (Mel.), April, 1927, Bleeser 149 (Mel., N.S.W.), without collector’s name (Bri., N.S.W.) ; Point Charles, western side of Darwin Harbour, Mcuir 214. Queensland. — Burke District : Normanton, March, 1876, Gulliver. Cook District: Biboohra, near Mareeba, on sand in Eucalyptus forest, June 20th, 1935, Blake 9541 ; Cairns, on wet sandy forest land, ca. 0 feet, June 15th, 1935, Blake 9375. North Kennedy District: Rockingham Bay, Dallachy (Mel.) ; Cleveland Bay, Johnson in 1887 (Mel.). South Kennedy District: South of Mount Christian in grass-tree country, May, 1927, Francis. Wide Bay District : Near Bundaberg in Eucalyptus forest, chiefly on lower ground, April 27th, 1936, Blake 11322; near 48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Nikenbah, open sandy places near railway, June 5th, 1932, Blake 1323. Moreton District: Virginia, Brisbane, in Melaleuca forest, April 14th 1933, Blake 4749 (Type in Bri.) ; in Melaleuca forest in low flat country,, May 25th, 1932, Blake 1297 ; in railway enclosure, April 2nd, 1934, Blake 5303. Also probably Queensland, without definite locality, Banks and Solander in 1770 (Mel., N.S.W.). This species has been confused in Australia with B. longisetis R. Br., but it has smaller spikelets and nuts, relatively shorter style-base, and non-plumose bristles. The extra-Australian specimens were distributed as B. Wightiana Nees, which has a very different nut and style-base. There are several externally closely similar annual capitate species; of Bhynchospora in Australia, but an account of them must be deferred. Carpha nivicola F. Muell. in Trans. Phil. Soc. Viet. i. 195 (1855). This species was founded on very depauperate specimens and has been referred by all later authors to C. alpina R. Br. An examination of the1 material of the genus in Herb. Melbourne has shown it to be a distinct species, and that normal specimens are readily distinguishable from C. alpina by the broader leaves (up to 3 mm. wide), the rather larger spikelets and nuts, and the hypogynous bristles plumose to the tips and not simply scabrous in the uppermost part as in C. alpina. The following collections have been seen : — New South Wales. — Southern Tablelands: Mount Kosciusko, up up to 5,000 feet, Jan., 1895, Maiden ; Snowy Mountains, Bduerlen 70. Victoria. — Australian Alps, F. Mueller (Type in Mel.). Tasmania. — Mount Wellington and Har dinger Range, F . Mueller Schoenus foliatus {Hook. /.) 8. T. Blake comb. nov. Scirpus. foliatus Hook. f. in London Journ. Bot. iii. 414 (1844). Chaelospora axillaris R. Br. Prodr. 233 (1810). Schoenus axillaris (R. Br.) Poir. Encycl. Suppl. ii. 251 (1811) and of most authors, not of Lam. Helothrix pusilla Nees in Ann. Nat. Hist. Ser. i'., vi. 45 (1841). Helothrix axillaris (R. Br.) Palla in All. Bot. Zeitschr. viii. 68 (1902). Schoenus subaxillaris Kukenth. in Fedde, Repert. xliv. 89 (1938). Queensland (Darling Downs District), New South Wales, Victoria,. South Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand. Though I have not seen Hooker ’s type, his description could only refer to this species. The New Zealand specimens I have seen aro identical with the Australian ones. In recent correspondence, Dr„ Kiikenthal has accepted the above view. Schoenus Kennyi (F. M. Bail.) S. T. Blake comb. nov. Arthrostylis- Kennyi F. M. Bail, in Queensl. Agr. Journ. xxviii. 278 (1912). The species is certainly a Schoenus but the unusually white spikelets, of the type specimens arranged in dense heads, the obscurely distichous, nature of the lowermost glumes, the 6 stamens, and the poorly developed leaves appear to have misled Bailey into placing the species in Arthro- stylis. The stems sometimes bear two somewhat distinct heads of spikelets, and there is also frequently a node in the upper part. The leaves are reduced, but mostly obvious. The white colour of the glumes is less prominent in the more southern specimens and is sometimes, NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III. 49 replaced by brown. Its nearest ally is Sch. subaphyllus Kiikenth. [Sch. aphyllus Boeck. (1874) non Vahl. (1806)], a species widely spread in the drier parts of the continent, and the two may be distinguished as follows : — Culms nodeless, leaf-sheaths always deeply split or quite open and often separating from the culms, leaves reduced to points or quite absent ; nut elliptic or oblong-elliptic, strongly and rather abruptly con- stricted at the base, rounded at the apex, not at all ribbed except at the very base, smooth, rather tawny and spotted with red, 2-5 mm. long . . . . . . Sch. subaphyllus Culms usually 1-noded, the uppermost basal sheath closed almost to the top, or if more deeply split then tightly convolute, laminae always obvious, often rather well-developed; nut 1-8 mm. long, oval or somewhat obovate, narrowed at the base, the apex somewhat pyramidal, rather prominently 3-ribbed, the sides brown or brownish and wrinkled . . . . Sch. Kennyi Specimens examined of Sch. Kennyi : Queensland. — North Kennedy District: Herberton, Jan. 1912, Kenny (Type in Bri.), Dec., 1912, Kenny , Dec., 1911, Kenny ; Jan., 1918, Michael ; west of Pentland between Warrigal and Burra on slopes of Great Dividing Range on shallow sand overlying sandstone, 1,500-1,650 feet, October 10th, 1935, Blake 9946. Darling Downs District: 9 miles east of Condamine on ridge-top in Eucalyptus decoriicans — E. nubilis forest on shallow grey hard fine sandy soil, ca. 1,100 feet, Feb. 19th, 1938, Blake 13305. New South Wales. — Central Western Slopes: Dubbo, Jan., 1898, Boorman (N.S.W.). Uncinia flaccida, S. T. Blake sp. nov. affinis V . nervosae Boott et U. compactae R. Br., ab hae utriculi basi attenuata nec rotundata, foliis angustioribus, ab ilia utriculo latiore foliis flaecidis, ab utraque spica laxiore foliis multo longioribus differt. Ab TJ. rip aria R. Br. foliis paullo angustioribus, spica breviore, glumis 3-5-nervis utriculum subaequantibus et ab TJ. rupestri Raoul glumarum utriculorumque forma nervaturaque recedit. Dense caespitosa, laxiuscula, viridis. Culmi 20-40 cm. longi, gracillimi, molles, acute triquetri, angulis sursum d= scabridis exceptis laeves, striati. Folia 5-7, culmi basin versus sita, culmum superantes vel longe superantes; vaginae tenues, inferiores pallide brunneae; laminae angustissimae, molles, planae, 3-5-nerves, leviter carinatae, 0-6-1-5 mm. latae, supra medium longe attenuatae et carina margini- busque parce scabridae, ceterum glabrae laevesque. Spica oblongo- lineares vel lineares, 18-30 mm. longa, laxiuscula, pars dimidia mascula. Glumae inter se plerumque 2-2*5 mm. distantes, ovatae, tenuiter mem- branaceae, 3- vel sub-5-nerves, dorso virides tenuiter carinatae, lateribus late enerves, i hyalinae vel fusco-tinctae, 4*5-5 mm. longae, masculae apice obtusa, femineae sursum angustatae sed apice ipsa anguste rotund- atae, utriculum adaequantes vel fere adaequantes, ima in bracteam filiformem spica breviorem vel multo longiorem producta. Utriculus erectus vel oblique patens, ovato-lanceolatus vel ellipticus, basin versus gradatim angustatus (haud rotundatus;) , sursum longiuseule acuminatus, acutiuscule triqueter, faciebus paullum concavus, glaber laevisque, 50 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. tenuiter herbaceus, ore obliquo integro anguste hyalinus, prominule 2^1-nervis, nervis paucis inconspicuis evanescentibus saepe additis, 5-5-1 mm. longus, 1-6-1 -7 mm. latus. Stamina 3, filamenta baud dilatata. Stylus nuce brevior cum stigmatibus 3 papillosus, basi dilatata glaber. Nux brunnea, oblongo-elliptica, apice subtruncata umbonata, triquetra, lateribus concava, utriculo aequilata, -§ brevior. Bhachilla utriculo subduplo longior. Victoria. — Mount Buffalo, in rock crevices, ca. 5,000 feet, Jan. 26th, 1935, Blake 7398 (Type in Bri.). I am indebted to Mr. E. Nelmes, of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for verifying the distinctness of this species. YOL. LI., No. 6. 51 A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) * By A. Jefferis Turner, M.D., F.R.E.S. Our first real knowledge of the Australian Arctiidae we owe to a paper by Meyrick in Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W. 1886, p. 690. He then included some genera that are now referred to the Nolidaee and Noctu- idae. After substracting these, his very useful paper contains 80 species referred to 30 genera. Hampson’s most valuable revision of the Arctiidae of the World Fauna followed in Cat. Lep. Phal. ii. (1900 and 1901) with a Supplement (i. 1914 and ii. 1920). The family may be defined thus — Maxillary palpi obsolete. Labial palpi short. Antennae in male ciliated (often with longer bristles) or pectinate, very rarely simple. Forewings with lc absent, 5 from below middle of cell, an areole present in the more primitive genera, but usually absent through coalescence. Hindwings with lc absent, 5 usually from below middle of cell, 12 completely fused with upper margin of cell, usually to about middle. Frenulum present. Retinaculum in male almost always bar-shaped. The Arctiidae are part of the superfamily Noctuoidea together with the Syntomidae, Nolidae, Noctuidae, Lymantriidae, Hypsidae, and Anthelidae. The relationship of these families may be represented by the following diagram: — Syntomidae Nolidae Arctiidae Noctuidae The most important structural character in the family is the fusion of the costal and subcostal veins of the hindwings, usually as far as the middle of the cell, sometimes nearly to its end, or even including the base of vein 7, rarely for a short distance only. This character is shared by the Nolidae , which differ in the presence of tufts of scales on the forewings, longer palpi, and an expansion of the basal antennal joint by loose spreading hairs. In some genera of Noctuidae , including the subfamily Sarrothripinae , the costal vein of the hindwings anastomoses * Except where otherwise stated, the types of all new species described in this paper are incorporated in the author’s collection. 52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. with the subcostal from near its base to middle of cell, but is not fused with it basally. The Nolidae I regard with Hampson as derived from the Sarrothripinae , their resemblance in neuration to the Arctiidae being due to convergence, and their relationship collateral. As Meyrick has pointed out, the Arctiidae are derived from the Hypsidae, some genera of which approach them closely. In addition to the characters given in the definition, the following are noteworthy. In both wings vein 2 arises usually from near the middle of the cell, though in many genera it has moved distally. Veins 7 and 8 of the forewings are nearly always stalked. Vein 11 of fore- wing may either be free or may anastomose with 12. Frequently there is a reduction in the number of veins in either or both wings by coinci- dence, never by obsolescence ; though in Chionaema vein 5 of hindwings is weak. The family consists of two subfamilies — Lithosiinae and Arctiinae — the first with thorax and abdomen slender and usually smooth, and the hindwings comparatively broad; in the latter thorax and abdomen are stout and usually hairy, and the hindwings compara- tively short. These distinctions may not appear of much structural importance, but they indicate two very natural groups, which have followed different lines of development. From the Arctiinae were derived the Syntomidae in the Neotropical region, which is still their headquarters. The Lithosiinae show a strong tendency to asthenogenesis, both in reduction in size (frequently comparable to that of microlepi- doptera) and in number of veins, but these two developments are not always combined. Without being one of the largest, the Arctiidae are a group of considerable size. In Australia the Lithosiinae are well represented by over 200 species — i.e., 10 per cent, of the world fauna; but the Arctiinae are comparatively few, 23 species — i.e., 1 per cent, of the world fauna. Of the total 77 genera 39 are strictly endemic and 11 are Papuan. As Queensland and New Guinea formed a continuous land area in recent geological times, we may claim 50 genera, or 65 per cent., a very high degree of endemicity. The family is represented in Tasmania by 29 species and 20 genera, of which 3 are endemic to the island, but nearly related to continental genera. In West Australia there are 20 species and 13 genera, of which 2 are endemic. Cremnophora is the only genus which can be regarded as of western origin. No Australian Arctiidae appear to be of Antarctic origin. The Lithosiinae comprise a number of small genera, many of them monotypical, and a few of moderate size. Their classification depends mainly on neuration. The first 25 genera form a natural group, which may be arranged in series from the more primitive Utetheisa and Palae- osia to Lepista. Among the remainder several groups may be distinguished, but owing to parallelism and convergence they appear somewhat indefinite, and there is an appreciable number of apparently isolated genera. The construction of a key to the genera, which must necessarily be partly artificial, has been a difficult task. Our few Arctiinae on the contrary are easily dealt with. There are six genera, which have lost both tongue and areole, and are nearly allied, leaving the two more primitive and isolated genera Ehodogastria and Cre\ynnophora. A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) . 53 Subfam. LITHOSIINAE. Key to Genera. 1. Forewings with 5 absent 2 Forewings with 5 present . . 30 2. Hindwings with 5 absent : . 3 Hindwings with 5 present 26 3. Forewings without areole 4 Forewings with areole 29 4. Forewings with 4 absent 5 Forewings with 4 present 8 5. Forewings with 11 anastomosing with 12.. 6 Forewings with 11 free 7 6. Hindwings with 3 and 4 coincident Lepmta 1. Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked Chrysosoota 3 7. Forewings with 9 absent Meoewra 2 Forewings with 9 present Teratopora g 4 8. Hindwings with discocellulars and 6 absent Hestiarcba 5 Hindwings with discocellulars and 6 present 9 9. Hindwings with 2 and 3 stalked LambiMa 6 Hindwings with 2 and 3 separate io 10. Forewings with 6 long-stalked with 7 and 8, 6 separating after 8 Oreopola 7 Forewings with 6 separate or separating before 8 ii 11. Forewings with 9 stalked with 7 and 8, or absent 12 Forewings with 9 and 10 stalked Melastrota 54 12. Forewings with 7 separating from 8 beyond 9 . . 13 Forewings with 7 separating from 8 before 9, or 9 absent 18 13. Forewings with basal § of cell constricted Graphosia 8 Forewings with cell normal 14 14. Palpi very short (| or less) 15 Palpi moderately long (1) 16 15. Forewings with 6 connate or stalked, hindwings of male with costal expansion ScoUacma 10 Forewings with 6 separate from beneath angle, hindwings of male without costal expansion Threnosia 11 16. Forewings with 6 connate or stalked 17 Forewings with 6 separate from beneath angle . . Teratopora q 4 17. Forewings with 2 from angle . .Phae\ophlebosia 12 Forewings with 2 from about middle of cell Tigrioides 13 18. Forewings with 11 anastomosing with 12 19 Forewings with 11 free 23 19. Hindwings with 3 and 4 coincident 20 Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked 21 20. Palpi obsolete, tongue weak Ateucheta 14 Palpi developed, tongue normal Poliosia 15 21. Forewings with 11 from near end of cell, tongue weak . . Phenacomorpha 16 Forewings with 11 from f or f,’ tongue normal . . 22 22. Forewings with 9 absent Thermeola 9 Forewings with 9 present Eilema 18 23. Forewings with 6, 7, 8, 10 stalked Ctenosia 17 Forewings with 6 separate 24 24. Forewings with 9 absent 25 Forewings with 9 present Aedoea 19 25. Forewings with 3 and 4 stalked Heterotropa 65 Forewings with 3 and 4 separate Atelophlepn 29 26. Forewings with 7, 8, 9 stalked 27 Forewings with 9 separate Heterallactis 68 27. Forewings with 7 separating beyond 9 . . Stenoscaptia 26 Forewings with 7 separating before 9, or 9 absent 28 28. Hindwings with 6 and 7 coincident Arrhythmica 27 Hindwings with 6 and 7 stalked . . Goniosema 28 54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 29. Forewings with 11 anastomosing with 12 Forewings with 11 free 30. Forewings with 5 present, hindwings with 5 absent Both wings with 5 present 31. Forewings without areole' Forewings with areole . . 32. Forewings with 9 and 10 stalked Forewings with 9 separate 33. Forewings without areole Forewings with areole 34. Forewings with 8 and 9 absent Forewings with 8 present 35. Forewings with 7, 8, 9 stalked or 9 absent Forewings with 7, 8, 9, not stalked 36. Forewings with 7 from 8 beyond 9 Forewings with 7 from 8 before 9, or 9 absent . . 37. Forewings with 11 anastomosing with 12 Forewings with 11 free 38. Hindwings with 5 weakly developed Hindwings with 5 normal 39. Forewings with 2 and 3 stalked from angle Forewings with 2 and 3 separate ; . 40. Forewings with 10 connate or stalked with 7, 8, 9 Forewings with 10 separate 41. Palpi hairy, forewings with 2 from f to, f Palpi not hairy, forewings with 2 from middle • . 42. Forewings with 3 and 4 stalked Forewings with 3 and 4 not stalked 43. Hindwings with 12 anastomosing to § of cell . . Hindwings with- 2 anastomosing to middle 44. Forewings with 4 and 5 stalked Forewings with 4 and 5 not stalked 45. Hindwings with 4 absent, 3 and 5 stalked Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked, 5 separate 46. Hindwings with 2 from near angle Hindwings with 2 from middle 47. Hindwings with 12 anastomosing with cell to § or further Hindwings with 12 anastomosing to £ 48. Hindwings with- 3 and 4 coincident Hindwings with 3 and 4 separate or stalked 49. Forewings with 3 from well before angle Forewings with 3 from angle 50. Hindwings with 2 from angle Hindwings with 2 from well before angle 51. Forewings with costa abruptly angled Forewings with costa not angled 52. Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked Hindwings with 3 and 4 approximated or connate 53. Tongue absent Tongue present 54. Forewings with 6 stalked with 7 and 8 . . Forewings with 6 separate 55. Forewings with 11 from' near end of cell, free_ . . Forewings with 11 from middle, anastomosing with 12 . . 56. Forewings with 11 anastomosing with 12 Forewings with 11 free 57. Hindwings with- 4 and 5 approximated or stalked Hindwings with 4 and 5 separate 58. Antennae bipectinate in both sexes Antennae not bipectinate 59. Forewings with 3 and 4 coincident Forewings with 3 and 4 not coincident Manuloa 21 Calamidia 22 31 33 32 Hesychopa 23 Parelictis 58 Hemonia 69 34 69 Poliodule 31 35 36 65 37 53 Symmetrodes 32 38 Chionacma 33 39 Scaphidriotis $ 30 40 41 42 Eutane 34 Hectobrocha 35 43 44 Ameleta 37 Jleliosia 38 45 47 Aclytophane 39 46 Porphyrochrysa 64 Scaptesyle 40 47 Trissobrocha 36 49 51 Scaphidriotis o 30 50 Diduga 67 H alone 41 Psapharacis 42 52 Caprimima 43 Thallarcha 44 54 56 55 Ionthas 47 Xanthodule 45 57 59 58 60 Thumatha 46 PalTene 50 Asura 48 Kabrochrow^a 49 Stenaroha 51 A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTHDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) . 55 60. Hindwings with 3 and 4 coincident Hindwings with 3 and 4 not coincident . . 61. Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked Hindwings with 3 and 4 not stalked 62. Hindwings with 12 anastomosing with cell to I . . Hindwings with 12 anastomosing to middle 63. Fore wings with 9 absent Forewings with 9 present 64. Forewings with 10 from end of cell Forewings with 10 from well before end of cell . . 65. Forewings with 8 stalked with 9 and 10 . . Forewings with 8 not stalked with 9 and 10 65. Forewings with 3 or 4 veinlets from 12 towards costa Forewings without costal veinlets 66. Hindwings with 12 anastomosing with cell to near its end Hindwings with 12 anastomosing to £ or less 67. Antennae of male ciliated, both wings with 2 from § Antennae of male simple, both wings with 2 from' middle 68. Antennae of male bipectinate, hindwings with 4 and 5 closely approximated or connate Antennae of male not pectinate, hindwings with 4 and 5 separate 69. Hindwings with 4 and 5 stalked Hindwings with 4 and 5 separate 1. Gen. LEPISTA. Wlgrn. Wien. Ent. Mon. vii. p. 146. Hmps. ii. p. II Tongue well developed. Palpi short, ascending; second joint rough- scaled; terminal joint pointed. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of short spurs. Forewings with 2 from §, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 7 separating before 9, 10 from end of cell connate or approxi- mated to 11, 11 anastomosing or running into 12. Hindwings with 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Type L. pandula Bdv. from Africa. There is a second African species. 1. LepiMa pulverulent a. Tigrioides pulverulenta Luc. ; Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W. 1889, p. 1069. Lepista pulvera Hmps. ; Suppl. i. p. 462. Turn. ; Proc. Roy. Soc. Q. 1915, p. 16. The male is still unknown. Queensland : Brisbane ; Stradbroke Island ; Tweed Heads. New South Wales: Port Macquarie. 2. Gen. METEURA. Hmps. ii. p. 123. Tongue well developed. Palpi short ; second joint hairy ; terminal joint obtuse. Antennae of male with tufts of cilia (1) and bristles (2). Posterior tibiae with two pairs of short spurs. Forewings with cell long, 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6, 7, 8, 10 stalked, 9 absent, 11 from near middle, free. Hindwings with discocellulars obsolete, 2 from near end of cell, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6 and 7 coincident, 12 anastomosing to about middle of cell. Only one species is recorded. BaeomorpJia 66 61 62 ; 63 Chamaita 61 Nudaria 62 64 Oeonistis 20 . . Pseudophanes 52 . . Panachranta 53 N esotropha 55 65 . . Sohistophleps 63 66 67 68 Philenora 56 Notata 57 Castulo 59 Termessa 60 Palaeosin 24 Utetheisa 25 56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 2. Meteura cervina. Scoliacma cervina Luc. ; Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W. 1889, p. 1068. $ . 22-25 mm. Forewings fuscous-brown ; underside in male with a large area of blackish androconia in disc excepting basal and marginal areas. Hindwings pale grey, ochreous-tinged ; underside in male with a large area of grey androconia covering costal expansion and centre of disc, leaving terminal and basal areas free. The female is unknown. Queensland : Noosa Brisbane. 3. Gen. CLIRYSOSCOTA. Hnps. ii. p. 109. Tongue well developed. Palpi moderate, ascending; second joint rough-scaled; terminal joint obtuse. Antennae of male with short cilia and longer bristles. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of short spurs. Forewings with 2 from about middle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6, 7, 8, 9 stalked, or 6 connate, 9 separating before 7, 10 from before end of cell, 11 from § running into 12. Hindwings with 2 from middle of cell, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing with cell to middle. Type, C. auranticeps Hmps. from New Guinea. A small Papuan genus. 3. Chrysascota tanyphara n.sp. rawfapos, in long cloak. $ 9 . 25-31 mm. Head and thorax pale brownish-fuscous. Palpi 11; brownish; at base ochreous-whitish. Antennae grey; ciliations in male i, bristles 2. Abdomen dark grey; tuft whitish. Legs grey; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings narrow, elongate, slightly dilated, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; pale brownish-fuscous with white markings ; a very slender median line from base to middle, where it dilates into a longitudinally oblong spot with strongly sinuate posterior margin; a slight oblique mark from costa before apex preceded and followed by fuscous, as is also the median spot; cilia fuscous, Hindwings broad (1^), termen rounded; grey; cilia grey. North Queensland: Kuranda in September; Ravenshoe and Lake Barrine in December and May ; five specimens. 4. Gen. TERATOPORA. Meyr. ; Trans. Ent, Soc. 1889, p. 459. Hmps.; ii. p. 271 and Suppl. i., p. 454. Tongue present. Palpi moderately long (about 1) ascending. Antennae in male with cilia and bristles. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings in male with 2 from § or beyond, sometimes con- nected by a bar with 1, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6 from below upper angle, 7, 8, 9, 10 stalked, 9 separating before 7, 11 anastomosing with 12 ; in the female 2 from towards angle, not connected with 1, 3 and 4 stalked, 10 from near end of cell. Hindwings with 2 from middle or beyond, 3 and 4 stalked or coincident, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked or coincident, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (lEPIDOPTERA) . 57 Type T. haplodes Meyr. from New Guinea. A small Papuan genus. The neuration shows sexual and specific differences, and in the male an anomalous connection of 1 and 2 of the forewings in some species. Unfortunately I have not been able to examine the only Queensland species. 4. Teratopora irregularis. Teratopora irregularis Hmps. ; ii., p. 271. Unknown to me. Hampson gives Queensland and Victoria as localities, but I doubt the correctness of the latter. 5. Gen. HESTIARCLIA. Meyr.; Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W. 1886, p. 736. Hmps.;. Cat. Lep. Phal. ii., p. 95. Tongue rudimentary. Palpi minute. Antennae of male bipectinate. Forewings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6, 7, 8 stalked, 6 separating before 8, 9 absent, 10 from cell, 11 anastomosing with 12. Hindwings with 2 and 3 stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 coincident, discocellulars obsolete. Monotypical. 5. Hestiarcha pyrrhopa. Meyr. ; ibid. p. 736. Unknown to me. South Australia : Port Lincoln. 5. Gen. LAMBULA. Wlk. ; ibid., xxxv., p. 1890. Hmps. ; ibid., ii., p. 97. Tongue well developed. Palpi short, slightly or not reaching beyond frons, slender, porrect. Antennae of male shortly ciliated with longer bristles. Thorax and abdomen slender ; thorax smooth ; abdomen smooth or slightly hairy on dorsum. Legs smooth ; tibial spurs short, posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings without areole; 2 from angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 from well below upper angle, 7, 8, 9, stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from upper angle, 11 from f running into 12. Hindwings with 2 and 3 stalked, 4 and 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing with cell to beyond middle. The neuration here given is that of the female, in the male it may be distorted in connection with androconial developments, and these will be given separately with each species. Type L. melaleuca Wlk. from Sula Island, near Celebes. A small genus with several Papuan species and one from Borneo. Because of the sexual differences usually present in the species of this genus, we give a separate key for each sex. Males. 1. Forewings with a costal fold beneath . . . . 2 Forewings without a costal fold 2. Hindwings with a ridge of dark scales on costa beneath . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Hindwings without costal ridge 3. Forewings with veins 1 and 2 connected by a bar. . Forewings with 1 and 2 not connected transcripta pleuroptycha pristina phyllod&s 58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Females. 1. Fore wings with antemedian obliquely transverse line . . . . . . . . . . . . transcripta Forewings without antemedian line . . . . . . 2 2. Forewings with one or two postmedian lines . . 3 Forewings without postm’edian line . . . . . . pleuroptycha 3. Forewing lines outwardly curved . . . . . . phyllodes Forewing lines nearly straight . . . . . . pristina 6. Lambula phyllodes. 5 $ . Palaexera phyllodes Meyr. ; l.c. p. 699. $ . Lambula phyllodes Hmps. ; ii., p. 99. $ . Lambula obliquilinea Hmps.; ii., p. 558. PI. 35. f. 1. Forewings in male with a costal fold beneath. Hindwings with 6 and 7 coincident and with a costal expansion with a marginal ridge of dense dark hairs. Queensland: Nambour; Brisbane; Mount Tambourine; Macpherson Range (3,500 feet). New South Wales: Allyn River; Sydney; Bulli. 7. Lambula pristina. $ . Lithosia pristina Wlk. ; xxxv., p. 1885. $ . Scoliacma iridescens Luc. ; Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W. 1889, p. 1068. $ . Lambula thermopepla Hmps. ; Suppl. i., p. 445. $ . Lambmila castanea Roths. ; Nov. Zool. xix., p. 214. Hmps. ; Suppl. 1., p. 444. PL 25, p. 13. Forewings in male with a costal fold beneath. Hindwings with 6 and 7 coincident and with a costal expansion suffused with dark androconia and with a ridge of dark marginal scales. North Australia: Brock’s Creek; Melville Island. Queensland: Kuranda; Nambour; Brisbane; Macpherson Range (2,500-3,500 feet). Tweed Heads. Also from New Guinea. 8. Lambula pleuroptycha n.sp. TrXevpoTTTvxos , with costal fold. $ . 20-22 mm. Head and thorax ochreous-brown. Palpi less than 1; brown. Antennae fuscous; in male with short ciliations (-J) and longer bristles (1). Abdomen pale grey; tuft ochreous. Legs brownish. Forewings elongate, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded, ochreous-brown ; a costal fold beneath ; fuscous androconia above forming a costal streak; paler androconia in central part of disc beneath; cilia pale grey. Hindwings with a strong costal expansion, termen rounded; pale ochreous with a brownish-ochreous central streak from base to beyond middle. $ . 25 mm. Forewings uniform pale ochreous. Hindwings with 6 and 7 stalked ; pale grey. Queensland: Kuranda in April, May, and June. Tweed Heads in November; six specimens. 9. Lambula transcripta. Tigriodes transcripta Luc. ; Proc. Lin. Soc. 1890, p. 1069. Hindwings in male with 6 and 7 coincident. A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (lEPIDOPTERA) . 59 Queensland : Cairns ; Atherton ; Nambour ; Brisbane ; Toowoomba ; Macpherson Range (3,000 feet). Tweed Heads. 7. Gen. OREOPOLA nov. ‘SpeonoXog, living in mountains. Tongue present. Palpi minute, not reaching frons, slender, porrect. Thorax and abdomen slender; thorax smooth; abdomen slightly hairy on dorsum. Legs smooth ; spurs moderate ; posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from shortly before angle, 3 and 4 long- stalked, 5 absent, 6 long-stalked with 7 and 8, 8 separating before 6, 9 absent, 11 running into 12. Hind wings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 long- stalked, separating near termen, 5 absent, 6 and 7 coincident, 12 anastomosing with cell to f. Female unknown. 10. Oreopola, athola n.sp. aOoXos, unstained. $ . 26 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, and abdomen ochreous-grey. Antennae grey; ciliations in male f. Legs whitish-ochreous ; anterior pair grey. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen rounded, slightly oblique ; uniform ochreous-grey- whitish without markings; cilia concolorous. Hindwings broad, termen strongly rounded; colour as forewings. Tasmania: Mount "Wellington (2,500 feet) in February; one •specimen. 8. Gen. GRAPHOSIA. Hmps. ibid. ii. p. 97. Tongue well developed. Palpi short, not reaching beyond frons, slender, porrect. Antennae of male with fascicles of cilia and longer bristles. Thorax and abdomen slender, thorax smooth ; abdomen smooth (in stenopepla) . Legs smoots; tibia! spurs moderate; posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings without areole ; basal § of cell much constricted ; 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 long-stalked, 5 absent, 6, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from near upper angle, 11 anastomosing with 12. Hindwings with 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6 and 7 long-stalked, 12 anastomosing with cell to f. Type G. bilineata Hmps. from New Guinea. This is a Papuan genus, Hampson records nine species from that region. 11. Gr aphosia stenopepla. Hmps. ibid. Suppl. i. p. 444. PI. 25, f. 12. Turn. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q. 1915, p. 15. The male has the forewings more brownish ; a fuscous streak containing a tuft of raised scales on basal part of costa ; a strong costal fold on underside from base to f ; covering a subcostal streak of raised ochreous androconial scales. Hindwings with costa strongly arched; the expanded portion covered with ochreous-fuscous scales. Abdomen with strong lateral tufts on fifth and seventh segments. Queensland: Atherton Plateau (Ravenshoe and Millaa-Millaa, 3,000 feet) ; Montville (1,500 feet) near Nambour; Mount Tambourine; Macpherson Range (3,500 feet). * 60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 9. Gen. THEBMEOLA. Hmps. ii. p. 96. Tongue present. Palpi very short, not reaching frons; slender, porrect. Antennae of male shortly ciliated. Thorax and abdomen slender; thorax smooth; abdomen slightly hairy above. Legs smooth; tibial spurs short ; posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings without areole, 2 from shortly before angle, 3 and 4 long-stalked, 5 absent, 6 connate or short-stalked, 7 and 8 stalked, 9 absent, 10 from before upper angle, 11 from §> running into 12. Hindwings much broader than forewings (1J) ; cell short (-J), 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 long-stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 coincident, 12 anastomosing with cell to f. Female with very small aborted wings. Monotypical. 12. Thermeola tasmanica. Therm^eola tasmanica Hmps. ii. p. 96. Hestiarcha atala Turn. Proc. Boy. Soc. Vic. 1922, p. 29. $ . 28-30 mm. Head and thorax pale brown. Antennae pale brown ; dilations in male f . Abdomen ochreous-grey ; tuft ochreous- brown. Legs anteriorly fuscous; posteriorly pale ochreous; posterior tibiae and tarsi wholly pale ochreous. Forewings elongate-triangular costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen rounded, slightly oblique ; pale yellowish-brown with some pale fuscous irroration; an obscure dentate, interrupted, narrow, fuscous fascia from § costa to f dorsum; cilia concolorous. Hindwing much broader than forewings, strongly rounded : pale ochreous ; cilia pale ochreous. Tasmania: Mount Wellington (1,500-2,500 feet). 10. Gen. SCOLIACMA. Meyr. l.c. 1886, p. 695. Hmps. ii., p. 192. Tongue well developed. Palpi very short (-J) ; second joint hairy; terminal joint obtuse. Antennae in male with ciliations and bristles. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of short spurs. Forewings usually with costal fold in male ; 2 usually from well before but sometimes from near angle, 3 and 4 stalked, rarely separate in male, 5 absent, 6 from upper angle, connate or stalked with 7, 8, 9, which are stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from before angle, 11 from about f, anastomosing with 12. Hindwings with costal expansion in male, 2 from f or near angle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, rarely coincident in male, 12 anastomosing with cell to middle or beyond. Type. $. bicolor. Distinguished from Threnosia by the strong costal expansion of hindwings in male. Occurs also in New Guinea. Key to Species. Both wings partly crimson-red bicolor Wings not red . . 2 Forewungs narrow 3 Forewings moderately broad 5 Forewings with dorsum strongly sinuate lopliopyga Forewings with dorsum not sinuate 4 Hindwings pale ochreous nana Hindwings whitish-grey pasteophora Forewings with oblique fuscous transverse line . . xuthopis Forewings without transverse line 6 Forewings pale brownish ‘sprinkled with fuscous . . pactolias Forewings ochreous without fuscous sprinkling . . acosma A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) . 61 13 Scoliacma bicolor. Lithosia bicolora Bdv. Voy. Astrolabe Lep., p. 211, PL 3, f. 9. Hmps. ii., p. 103. Scoliacma bicolor Meyr. l.c., p. 695. Antennae in male with ciliations 4? bristles 14- Forewings in male with strong costal fold to J. Hindwings with strong costal expansion, a large raised oval patch of androconia in cell, 6 and 7 coincident. Examples from the Atherton Plateau are a local race with fuscous area of forewings extending nearly to base (herbertonensis) . Queensland: Herberton; Eungella; Killarney; Stanthorpe. New South Wales: Glen Innes; Murrurundi; Scone; Newcastle; Sydney; Uralla; Bombala. Victoria: Melbourne; Gisborne; Beaconsfield; Dunkeld; Gunbower; Moe. Tasmania: Launceston; Hobart; Tasman Peninsula. 14. Scoliacma lophopyga n.sp. \o(f)07Tvyos , with crested rump. $ . 24 mm. Head and thorax pale brownish-grey. Palpi fuscous- brown. Antennae grey ; in male bases of segments thickened and with tufts of cilia (14). Abdomen in male with basal segments whitish-grey ; terminal segments whitish-ochreous with four pairs of lateral tufts in addition to terminal tuft. Forewings narrow, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique, dorsum strongly sinuate ; beneath with a strong costal fold edged with rough scales to beyond middle and an oval subcostal glandular thickening at 4 cm upper surface ; pale brownish-grey sprinkled with fuscous ; a fuscous costal streak from base to 4 ; and oblique fuscous line fron f costa to f dorsum, its outer edge dentate ; cilia pale grey. Hindwings with termen rounded? in male with a strong rounded costal expansion with dark androconia beneath; ochreous-grey- whitish ; a suffused grey postmedian spot; cilia ochreous-whitish. Queensland : Ravenshoe in March ; one specimen received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type. 15. Scoliacma pactolias. Meyr. l.c., p. 696. Hmps. ii. p. 104. $ . 28 mm. $ . 29-34 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax fuscous- brown, paler in female. Antennae grey ; ciliations in male 1, bristles 24- Abdomen grey; tuft whitish-ochreous. Legs whitish-ochreous; anterior pair sometimes fuscous. Forewings narrow, costa straight to f, thence gently arched, apex rounded termen obliquely rounded ; in male with a costal fold beneath to f edged with rough scales ; pale brownish sprinkled with fuscous ; in male a faint suffused fuscous line from f to mid- dorsum ; cilia grey. Hindwings with termen gently rounded ; pale grey? in female ochreous-tinged ; cilia concolorous. Queensland: Bunya Mountains in February. New South Wales: Acacia Plateau (2,500 feet) (near Killarney, Q.) in March; Mount Tomah in March. Victoria : Melbourne in April. 16. Scoliacma xuthorpis. Hmps. Suppl. i., p. 461. Turn. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q., 1915, p. 16. Antennae in male with ciliations 1, bristles 14- Forewings with costal fold to middle, 2 from near end of cell, straight; hindwings with R-s. — c 62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. costal expansion suffused with fuscous androconia, a vesicular thickening on costal margin of cell. Forewings of female with 4 from f, curved at base; the longitu- dinal thickening of wing membrane running into this curve is not a vein; it is present only in the type, and has apparently no significance. West Australia: Albany; Denmark; Margaret R. ; Yanchep. 17. Scoliacma pasteophara n.sp. 7raGT€0(j)opos , in peppered cloak. $ $ . 25-26 mm. Head and thorax whitish-grey. Palpi very short ; whitish-grey. Antennae grey ; dilations in male 1, bristles 1^. Abdomen pale grey; tuft grey- whitish. Legs grey- whitish ; anterior pair pale grey. Forewings narrow, elongate, posteriorly dilated, costa straight to near apex, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; in male without costal fold; whitish sprinkled with grey; a narrow interrupted grey fascia from f costa to § dorsum, its outer edge sharply dentate ; cilia grey-whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded; costal expansion in male narrow with some androeonial irroration ; grey-whitish ; cilia grey-whitish. West Australia: Busselton; Rottnest I.; two specimens. 18. Scoliacma nan a. Lithosia nana Wlk. ii., p. 507 ( nec . Meyr. l.c., p. 698). Scoliacma orlhotdma Meyr. l.c., p. 696. Pusiola nana Hmps. ii., p. 119. Antennae in male with tufts of cilia (1) and bristles (1-J). Fore- wings in male pale brownish-ochreous ; sometimes with a suffused inter- rupted grey line from f costa to § dorsum ; in female pale grey with a whitish costal streak ; rarely indications of an oblique darker line ; in male' with costal fold to f ; a long patch of fuscous androconia on dorsal side of cell, and broader beyond cell, covered by a large costal expansion of hindwings. Hindwings in both sexes pale ochreous. Queensland : Herberton ; Gayndah ; Brisbane ; Rosewood ; Macpher- son Range, 3,500 feet; Toowoomba; Warwick; Killarney. New South Wales: Sydney. 19. Scoliacma acosma. Turn. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 10. Forewings pale brownish-ochreous, rather paler in female; in male a costal fold to f . Hindwings in male rhombiform, angled on vein 2 ; pale ochreous ; costal expansion in male suffused with pale fuscous androconia. Antennae in male with ciliations i, bristles 1. The type is a male, not female as stated in the description. Queensland : Cairns ; Innisfail ; Ayr ; Duaringa. 11. Gen. THRENOSIA. Hmps. ii., p. 96. Tongue well developed. Palpi very short (i or less), porrect or drooping. Antennae of male shortly ciliated with longer bristles. Thorax and abdomen slender ; thorax smooth, abdomen slightly rough on dorsum. Legs smooth; tibial spurs short; posterior tibiae with middle A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) . 63 spurs. Forewings without areole ; 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 from below upper angle, 7, 8, 9, stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from near end of ceil, 11 from f, running into or anastomosing with 12. Hindwings in male without costal expansion; 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 long-stalked or coincident, 5 absent, 6 and 7 coincident or separating near termen, 12 anastomosing with cell to middle or f. T. heminephes. Endemic. 20. Threnosia heminephes. Meyr. ibid., 1886, p. 697. New South Wales: Scone; Bathurst. 21. Threnosia adrasta n.sp. aSpaaroz, sluggish. $ . 34 mm. Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi f ; fuscous. Antennae grey ; ciliations in male \ ; bristles 2. Thorax reddish-brown. Abdomen pale ochreous-grey ; lateral hairs towards apex reddish-brown. Legs reddish-brown. Forewings elongate, posteriorly dilated, costa straight to near apex, apex rounded, termen rounded, slightly oblique ; reddish- brown, cilia reddish-brown. Hindwings with termen rounded; whitish-ochreous; cilia whitish-ochreous. Tasmania : King I. ; one specimen. Type in National Museum, Melbourne. 22. Threnosia myochroa n.sp. I uvoxpoos, mouse-coloured. $ . 29 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax brownish-grey. Antennae grey; ciliations in male -J, bristles 2. Abdomen grey, towards apex ochreous-tinged. Legs fuscous ; posterior pair pale grey. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa slightly arched, apex obtusely pointed, termen slightly rounded, oblique ; brownish-grey ; a faintly darker line from f costa to f dorsum ; cilia fuscous, apices paler. Hindwings with termen rounded; pale ochreous-grey; cilia concolorous. Victoria : Castlemaine in April (W. E. Drake) ; one specimen received from Mr. Geo. Lyell, who has the type. 23. Threnosia agraphes n.sp. aypa^ps , unmarked. $ . 20 mm. Head and thorax brown. Palpi fuscous. Antennae grey -brown ; ciliations in male 1, bristles 2. Abdomen fuscous. Legs ochreous-grey. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, oblique; pale ochreous-grey; cilia whitish-ochreous. Hindwings with termen rounded ; ochreous-grey ; cilia ochreous- whitish. Smaller than T. myochroa, the wings paler, the antennal ciliations in male longer. Victoria : Murtoa ; one specimen received from Mr. Geo. Lyell, who has the type. 24. Threnosia hypopolia n.sp. v7to7to\los t grey. 9 . 20 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax grey. Abdomen whitish grey. Legs pale grey. Forewings narrowly triangular, costa slightly arched, apex rectangular, termen obliquely rounded ; grey ; cilia. 64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. grey. Hindwings with termen gently rounded; pale grey; cilia pale grey. Fore wings narrower than in T. agraphes, their apices rectangular, grey without ochreous tinge. Victoria : Gisborne in April ; one specimen received from Mr. Geo. Lyell, who has the type. 12. Gen. PHAEOPHLEBOSIA. limps. 11., p. 109. Tongue present. Palpi about 1, smooth, slender, porrect. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings narrow ; 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from near end of cell, 11 from towards end, free. Hindwings broad; 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 coincident, 12 anastomosing with cell to f. Montypical. 25. Phaeophlebosia furcifera. Setina furcifera Wlk. ii., p. 520. Setina trifurcata Wlk. xxxi., p. 237. Tigrioides furcifera Meyr. l.c., p. 698. Phaeophlebosia furcifera Hmps. ii., p. 109. New South Wales: Ebor. Victoria: Melbourne: Healesville ; Gis- borne. Tasmania: Hobart; Both well; Waratah. 13. Gen. TIGRIOIDES. Butl. Trans. Ent. Soc. 1887, p. 359. Hmps., Suppl. i., p. 466. Tongue well developed. Palpi moderate (1), porrect; second joint rough-scaled; terminal joint obtusely pointed. Antennae in male with ciliations and bristles. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from about middle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 from upper angle connate with 7, 8, 9, which are stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from before end of cell, 11 from middle, anastomosing with 12. Hindwings with 2 from f , 3 and 4 staked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to beyond middle of cell. Type T. alterna. A small genus represented also in the Archipelago and India with one species in Africa. 26. Tigrioides alterna. Setina alterna Wlk. ii., p. 520. Tigrioides alterna Meyr. l.c., p. 697. Lithosia histrionica H-Sch. Ausser. Schmet. f. 440. Lithosia transversa Wlk. xxxi., p. 229. Lexis alterna Hmps. ii., p. 117. Queensland: Mount Tambourine; Macpherson Range, 2,000 feet; Toowoomba; Killarney. New South Wales: Lismore ; Murrurundi, Sydney ; Katoomba ; Bathurst. Victoria : Melbourne : Gisborne. South Australia: . A REVISION OP THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) . 65 27. Tigridides nitens. Lithosia nitens Wlk., xxxi., p. 231. Lithosia remota Wlk. Char. Undesc. Lep., p. 9. Tigrioides spilarcha Meyr. l.c., p. 699. Lithosia unicolor Luc. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1889, p. 1071. Lexis nitens Hmps. ii., p. 118. Queensland: Herberton; Kuranda; Townsville; Lindeman I.; Yeppoon; Eidsvold; Gayndah; Gympie ; Kingaroy; Noosa; Caloundra; Brisbane; Stradbroke I.; Tweed Heads; Maepherson Range, 3,500 feet; Helidon; Toowoomba; Bunya Mountains, 3,500 feet. New South Wales: Tabulam ; Ebor ; Sydney. Victoria : Melbourne ; Kewell ; Berwick. 14. Gen. ATEUCHETA nov. dreuy^TOS', unarmed. Tongue weak. Palpi extremely minute. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of spurs. Forewings with 2 from -§, 3 and 4 connate or stalked, 5 absent, 6 from below upper angle, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 7 separating before 9, or 9 absent, 10 from before end of cell, 11 from f running into 12. Hindwings with 2 from angle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing with cell to middle. Differs from Poliosia in the weak tongue and obsolete palpi. 28. Ateucheta zetesima. Poliosia zate&ima (misprint) Hmps. Suppl. i., p. 463.’ Poliosia zetesima Turn. Proc. Roy Soc. Q., 1915, p. 16. Antennae in male with cilia \. North Queensland : Cairns ; Atherton Plateau. 15. Gen. POLIOSIA. Hmps. ii., p. 106. Tongue well developed. Palpi short. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of spurs. Forewings with 2 from before angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 7, separating before 9, 10 free, 11 anastomosing with 12. TIindwings with 2 from before angle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing with cell to middle. Type, P. muricolor Wlk., from Borneo and India. There are several Indian and twTo African species. 29. Poliosia fragilis. Brunia fragilis Luc. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q., 1889, p. 1070. Poliosia fragilis Hmps. ii., p. 109, PI. 21, f. 1. I do not know this species. Queensland: Brisbane. 16. Gen. PHENACOMORPHA nov. c frevoLKOfjLopcfos , misleading. Tongue weakly developed. Palpi very short, hairy. Antennae in male bipectinate to apex. Abdomen slightly hairy on dorsum. Posterior 66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. tibiae with middle spurs; spurs short. Forewings with 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 long-stalked, 5 absent, 6, 7, 8 stalked, 9 absent, 10 from upper angle, 11 from near end of cell, anastomosing with 12. Hind- wings broader than forewings ; cell \ ; 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 long- stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 coincident, 12 anastomosing to beyond middle of cell. In spite of similarities in structure I do not consider that this genus is nearly related to Thermeola. 30. Phenacomorpha rhabdophora. Thallarcha rhabdophora Turn. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 19. Thermeola rhabdophora Hmps. ii. p. 558. Queensland : Toowoomba in August ; Stanthorpe in October and December; Talwood in April: New South Wales: . 17. Gen. CTENOSIA. Hmps. ii., p. 130. Tongue well developed. Palpi short. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6, 7, 8, 10 stalked, 8 separating after 6, 9 absent, 7 separating before 10, 11 free. Hindwings with 2 from end of cell, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Type C. trifascia B-Bak. from New Guinea. There is also one species from Batchian and one from Africa. 31. Ctenosia infuscata. Ctenosia infuscata Low. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1901, p. 640. Hmps., Suppl. i., p. 482. I do not know this species and have some doubt as to its generic position. New South Wales: Broken Hill. 18. Gen. EILEMA. Eilema Hb. Verz., p. 165. Ilema Hmps., p. 130. Tongue well developed. Palpi short, porrect ; second joint rough- scaled ; terminal joint obtuse. Antennae of male with ciliations and bristles. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of short spurs. Forewings without areole; 2 from middle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 from upper angle or below, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 7 from before 9, 10 from before end of cell, 11 from f, anastomosing with 12. Hindwings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to beyond middle of cell. Type, E. caniola Hb. from Europe. A large genus widely distributed in the eastern hemisphere. 32. Eilema chiloides. $ . Teulisna chiloides Wlk. Lin. Soc. Zool., vi., p. 19. Hmps. ii., p. 135. $ . Coreura torta Wlk. l.c., p. 111. Ityca humeralis Wlk. xxxv., p. 1890. Diastrophia dasypyga Feld. Reis. Nov. PI. 106, f. 13. A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) . 67 I do not know this species. It is widely spread in the Malay Archipelago and Hampson records it from Queensland. 33. Eilema bipunctata. Lithosia bipunctata Wlk. xxxv., p. 1884. Hmps. ii., p. 136. Corcura mysoiica Swin. Cat. Oxf. Mus., i., p. 119, PI. 3, f. 18. Antennae of male with ciliations J, bristles 1. Forewings elongeta- triangular,, costa sinuate, termen straight, slightly oblique ; in male with dense ridge of scales on costa above from base to ; ochreous-whitish, suffused with pale ochreous-'brown in dorsal area to f and on termen; in male an oblique subquadrate blackish mark on costa before middle ; cilia greyish-ochreous, in female pale grey. Hindwings with termen slightly rounded; pale ochreous; cilia pale ochreous. North Queensland: Kuranda in September, February, and April; Lake Barrine in June. 34. Eilema harpophora. £ . Brunia harpophora Meyr. l.c., p. 701. Ilema harpophora Hmps. ii., p. 167, PI. 22, f. 27. $ . Brunia repleta Luc. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1889, p. 1070. Ilema repleta Hmps, ii., p. 143, PI. 21, f. 28. $ . Tigrioides xanthopleura Turn. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 10. Ilema costistrigata B-Bak. Nov. Zool. xi., p. 419, PI. 5, f. 30. Queensland: Cooktown; Cairns; Brisbane; Toowoomba. New South Wales: Lismore ; Port Macquarie ; Mount Wilson. Also from New Guinea. 19. Gen. AEDOEA. Turn. Trans.' Roy. Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 10. Tongue present. Palpi very small, Antennae in male with cilia- tions and bristles. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 from upper angle, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 7 separating before 9, 10 from before end of cell, 11 from f, free. Hind- wings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 long-stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Type, A. deer eta Butl. Only two species known. 35. Aedoea decreta. Lithosia decreta Butl. Trans. Ent Soc., 1877, p. 351. Aedoea monochroa Turn. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 10. Ilema decreta Hmps. ii., p. 176, PI. 23, f. 7. Queensland: Brisbane. Also from Borneo. 36. Aedoea distigmata n.sp. hiartygaros , with two dots. $ . 18 mm. Head whitish. Palpi 1J, whitish. Antennae ochreous- whitish; in male shortly laminate, cilia bristles \. Thorax ochreous- whitish. Abdomen grey-whitish. Legs ochreous-whitish. Forewings 68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. suboval, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen gently rounded,, oblique ; ochreous-whitish ; fuscous discal dots at -J and f ; cilia ochreous- whitish. Hindwings with termen gently rounded ; ochreous-whitish • cilia ochreous-whitish. North Queensland : Tully in July ; one specimen. 20. Gen. OEONISTIS. Hb. Yerz., p. 165. Hmps. ii., p. 185. Tongue well developed. Palpi short, ascending ; second joint rough- scaled; terminal joint obtuse. Antennae in male bipectinate, apical third simple. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of short spurs. Fore- wings with 2 from f, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5 connate, 6 from near upper angle, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 7 separating before 9, 10 from well before end of cell, 11 from f, free. Hindwings with 2 from middle, 3 closely approximated to or connate with 4 and 5, which are stalked from angle, 6 and 7 connate or short-stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Type, 0. entella. There are also two species from New Guinea and one from Lifu. 37. Oeonistis entella. Tinea entella Cram. Pap Exot, iii., PL 208d. No'ctua convoluta Fab. Spec. Ins. ii., p. 215. Noctna delta Fab. Mant. Ins. ii., p. 140. Tigrioides splendens Luc. Proe. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1890, p. 1068. Specimens from Australia are sometimes referred to the sub- species delta, which shows slight differences from the typical form, which occurs in China, Ceylon, and India. North Australia: Amsterdam I. Queensland: Cairns; Innisfail; Atherton Plateau; Bowen; Mackay. Also from the Archipelago. 21. Gen. MANULCA. Wlgrn. Wien. Ent, Mon. vii., p. 145. Tongue well developed. Palpi short, porreet; second joint rough- scaled ; terminal joint obtuse. Antennae of male with ciliations and bristles. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of short spurs. Forewings with a wTell-developed areole, rhomboidal in shape with an acute apex; 2 from middle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 7 connate with 8, 9, which are stalked from apex of areole, 10 from middle of areole, 11 from f, anas- tomosing with 12. Hindwings with 2 from middle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to beyond middle. Type, M. gracilipennis Wlgrn. from Africa. Distinguished from Eilema by the well-developed areole and from Hesychopa by the absence of 5 in forewings. A small genus but like Eilema widely distributed. 38. Manuica dorsalis. Lithosia dorsalis Wlk. xxxv., p. 1883. llema dorsalis Hmps. ii., p. 159, PL 22, f. 10. $ . 30-38 mm. Head ochreous-yellow ; face dark fuscous. Palpi 1; ochreous-yellow; upper surface fuscous towards apex. Antennae A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) . 69 fuscous; ciliations in male bristles 1. Thorax fuscous; anterior margin and sometimes a posterior spot ochreous-yellow. Abdomen ochreous. Legs fuscous, anterior coxae ochreous. Forewings elongate, costa straight, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; pale grey; a large fuscous terminal blotch, its anterior margin straight, not reach- ing costa; costal edge sometimes dark fuscous; cilia whitish-ochreous. Hindwings with termen gently rounded; pale ochreous; cilia pale ochreous. $ . 30-42 mm. Forewings glossy leaden-fuscous ; a broad pale ochreous costal streak continued round apex to torbus. North Australia: Darwin; Brock’s Creek. Queensland: Thursday Island ; Cairns, Atherton Plateau ; Bundaberg ; Gympie ; Brisbane. Also from New Guinea and Sula Island. 39. Manulca replana. Phalaena replana Lew. Prodr Ent., p. 16, PL 15. Brunia replana Meyr. l.c., p. 701. Ilema replana Hmps. ii., p. 162. Lithosia dispar Leach. Zool. Misc. i., p. 109, Pl. 49, f. 1-3. The form with yellowish suffusion, more common but not invariably present in the male, occurs in both sexes. Queensland : Gayndah ; Nanango ; Nambour ; Brisbane ; Rosewood : Toowoomba. New South Wales: Macleay River; Sydney; Jervis Bay. 22. Gen. CALAMIDIA. Butl. Trans. Ent. Soc. 1877, p 358. Hmps. ii., p. 181. Tongue well developed. Palpi ascending, moderate in female ; very long in male. Antennae with minute ciliations and short bristles in both sexes. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with a pentagonal areole, its posterior edge short; 2 from § or before, 3 and 4 separate, 5 absent, 6 from upper angle, 7 from posterior inferior and 8, 9 stalked from posterior superior angle of areole, 10 from middle of areole, 11 from f, free. Hindwing broad; 2 from middle, 3 and 4 connate, 5 absent, 6 and 7 connate or closely approximated, 12 anasto- mosing to middle of cell. Type, C. hirta. A small Papuan genus. 40. Calamidia hirta. 9 . Lithosia hirta Wlk. ii., p. 510. Calamidia hirta Meyr. l.c. p. 694. $ . Calamidia salpinctis Meyr. l.c., p. 694. Palpi in male extremely long, smooth ; second joint exceeding vertex; terminal' joint longer than second, spathulate at apex; in female moderate, appressed to face, not reaching vertex; terminal joint short, acute. Queensland : Cairns ; Atherton Plateau ; Eungella ; Nambour ; Bris- bane ; Bunya Mountains; Killarney. New South Wales: Lismore; Ebor ; Sydney ; Jervis Bay. Victoria : Tasmania : Burnie. 70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 28. Gen. HESYCHOPA nov. TjcrvxoiTTos , soft, gentle. Tongue well developed. Palpi moderate (1) ; second joint shortly rough-scaled; terminal joint obtusely pointed. Antennae in male with ciliations and bristles. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Porewings with a large areole wide at base, narrower and rounded at apex ; 2 from near middle, 3, 4, 5 approximated from angle, 6 from upper angle or from areole, 7 and 10 from near end of areole, 8 and 9 stalked from its apex, 11 curved and approximated to 12, rarely anastomosing. Hind- wings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Type, H. chionora Meyr. Australian. 41. Hesychopa molybdica n.sp. /jLoXvpStKos, leaden. $ . 32-37 mm. Head grey. Palpi 1 ; fuscous, at base whitish- ochreous. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male bristles 1^. Thorax lustrous leaden-grey; posterior edge pale ochreous. Abdomen grey- whitish. Legs whitish-ochreous ; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings elongate, strongly dilated, costa straight to f, thence arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; glossy leaden-grey; a white costal streak from base to § ; costal edge ochreous, near base blackish ; cilia white. Hindwings with termen gently rounded; whitish; cilia whitish. Underside of forewings with basal half and a costal streak ochreous; of hindwings, ochreous on costal half of basal area. $ . 36-40 mm. Head fuscous. Thorax white ; patagia fuscous. Forewings uniformly white without markings. Hindwings as in male. Underside of both wings white ; costal edge of both and base of fore- wings ochreous-tinged. North Queensland: Atherton Plateau (Ravenshoe, Millaa Millaa, Lake Barrine, and Malanda) in June, September, November, December, and January; seven specimens. 42. Hesychopa chionora. Lithosia chionora Meyr. l.c., p. 702. Apistosia chionora Hmps. ii., p. 226. Queensland: Atherton Plateau; Nambour; Brisbane;. Mount Tamborine; Macpherson Range, 3,400 feet; Toowoomba; Bunya Moun- tains. New South Wales: Ebor; Sydney; Mount Wilson. Tasmania: Launceston. 24. Gen. PALAEOSIA. Hmps. ii., p. 227. Tongue well developed. Palpi short, porrect; second joint rough- scaled; terminal joint obtuse. Antennae in male with ciliations and bristles. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with a large areole, wide at base, apex rounded ; 2 from near angle, 3, 4, 5 approxi- mated, 6 from upper angle, 7 and 10 from near end of areole, 8 and 9 stalked from its apex, 11 from f, anastomosing with 12. Hindwings with 2 from middle, 3, 4, 5 stalked or 3 connate, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Nearly allied to Hesychopa, from which it differs in the presence of vein 5 in the hindwings. Monotypical. A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) . 71 43. Palaeosia bicosta. Lithosia bicosta Wlk. ii., p. 506. Meyr. l.c., p. 702. Palaeosia bicosta Hmps. ii., p. 227. Lithosia fraterna Butl. Trans. Ent. Soc. 1877, p. 349. Queensland: Macpherson Range, 3-4,000 feet. New South Wales: Glen Innes; Ebor; Sydney; Mount Wilson. Victoria: Melbourne, Gis- borne; Moe. Tasmania: Launceston; Deloraine; Waratah; Rosebery; Hobart; Bothwell; Coles Bay; Wilmot. South Australia: Mount. Lofty. 25. Gen. UTETHEISA. Ilb. Verz., p. 168. Hmps. iii., p. 480. Tongue well developed. Palpi moderately long, ascending, thickened with appressed scales, rough-scaled at base beneath, obtuse. Antennae in male usually simple with cilia and bristles but sometimes serrate or shortly bipectinate. Thorax and femora smooth. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from f, 3, 4, 5 separate, 6 from upper angle or beneath, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 10 from near end of cell anastomosing with 8 to form an areole, 11 from near end, free. Hind- wings much broader than forewings (over 2) ; 2 from f, 3, 4, 5 separate, 6 and 7 approximated, 12 anastomosing with cell to § or, middle. Type, U. bella Lin. from North America. A small genus characteristic of the tropics of both hemispheres. It is a somewhat isolated and primitive form, which by its slender build and very broad hindwings seems to me more nearly related to Palaeosia , though Hampson places it in the Arctiinae. Utetheisa Hb. has priority over Deiopeia Curt. A genus of moderate size characteristic of the Old and New World tropics. Key to Species. 1. Hindwing of male' with a subdorsal fold and tuft of hair on upper side . . . . . . . . 2 Hindwings of male without fold and tuft . . 2. Antennae of male shortly bipectinate Antennae of male serrate 44. Utetheisa pectinata. Utetheisa pectinata Hmps. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), xix., Suppl. ii., p. 509, PL 68, f. 17. North Australia: Port Essington. pulchella pectinata pulchelloides p. 240, and 45. Utetheisa pulchelloides. Utetheisa puchelloides Hmps. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), xix., p. 239, and Supl. ii., p. 510, PI. 68, f. 18. North Australia: Darwin; Baudin Island. North Queensland: Cape York; Cooktown. North-West Australia: Montebello Island. Also from New Guinea, Solomons, and Polynesian Islands. 46. Utetheisa pulchella. Tinea pulchella Lin. Syst. Nat., i., p. 534. Noctua pulchra Den. &, Schif. Wien. Verz., p. 68. 72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Geometra lotrix Cram. Pap. Exot., ii.? PL 109, f. E.F. Deiopeia thyter Butl. Tr. Ent. Soc. 1877, p. 361. Deiopeia pulchella Meyr. l.c., p. 758. Vtetheisa pulchella Hmps. iii., p. 483. North Australia: Darwin; Brock’s Creek; Newcastle Waters; Macdonnell Ranges, Queensland: Thursday Island; Cairns; Innisfail; Atherton Plateau ; Dunk Island ; Palm Island ; Townsville ; Charters Towers; Bowen; Mackay; Lindeman I.; Yeppoon; Eidsvold; Gayndah; Gympie; Brisbane; Toowoomba; Dalby; Roma; Charleville ; Adavale ; Winton. New South Wales : Glen Innes ; Ebor ; Murrurundi ; Newcastle ; Sydney; Jervis Bay; Broken Hill. Victoria: . Tasmania: Laun- ceston ; Strahan. South Australia : Mount Lofty. West Australia : Perth. North-West Australia: Wyndham. Also from China, India, Africa, and Europe. 26. Gen. STENOSCAPTIA. Hmps. ii., p. 280. Tongue well developed. Palpi short, ascending, smooth, slender, acute. Antennae in male ciliated. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 separate or stalked, 5 absent, 6 from below upper angle, 7, 8, 9' stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from before end of cell, 11 from f, free. Hindwings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 coinci- dent, 5 separate from above angle, 6 and 7 coincident, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Type, S. venusta. Endemic. In male with a tuft of long hairs beneath on vein 5 beyond middle. Forewings with 3 and 4 stalked. 47. Stenoscaptia phlogozona. Stenoscaptia phlogozona Turn. Trans. Roy Soc. S.A., 1904, p. 212. Hmps. Suppl. i., p. 589. North Queensland : Cairns ; Townsville. Also- from New Guinea. 48. Stenoscaptia venusta. Stenoscaptia venusta Luc. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1890, p. 1078. Hmps. Suppl. ii., p. 28. Forewings with 3 and 4 separate. Queensland: Brisbane; Milmerran. 27. Gen. ARRHYTLIMICA nov. a ppvdfUKos, disorderly. Tongue present. Palpi short, ascending, smooth, slender, acute. Antennae of male ciliated. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Fore- wings with 2 from towards angle, 3 and 4 long-stalked, 5 absent, 6 from upper angle, 7, 8, 10 stalked, 9 absent, 11 from near end of cell, free. Hindwings with cell \ ; 2 from f , 3 and 4 long-stalked, 5 nearly approxi- mated, 6 and 7 coincident, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Allied to Goniosema, with which it agrees in neuration of forewings. A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) . 73 49. Arrhythmica semifusca n.sp. semifuscus, half-dark. $ . 18-22 mm. Head whitish. Palpi fuscous or grey. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male 1J. Thorax fuscous; patagia, apices of tegulae, and a posterior spot whitish. Abdomen fuscous; tuft pale ochreous. Legs grey ; posterior pair whitish-ochreous. Forewings narrowly triangular, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, oblique; white with fuscous markings; an irregular broad costal streak from base usually to a very short narrow basal streak on dorsum; a median fascia, its anterior edge connected with costal streak above middle, with a small tooth below middle, ending on mid- dorsum, posterior edge irregular and concave below middle; a sub- terminal fascia from before apex to tornus, its anterior edge angled, posterior edge with apical and subapical white spots ; cilia fuscous, on spots whitish. Hindwings with termen slightly sinuate ; pale ochreous ; a broad terminal fuscous band narrowing to tornus ; cilia pale ochreous. West Australia: Denmark in March and April; five specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type. 28. Gen. GONIOSEMA. Turn. Trans, Boy Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 19. Tongue well developed. Palpi ascending, short, smooth, slender, acute. Antennae in male bipectinate to near apex. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from towards angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 from below upper angle, 7, 8, 10 stalked, 9 absent, 11 from towards end of cell, free. Hindwings in male with cell short (-J) and with a costal expansion; 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 stalked. 5 somewhat approximated, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to beyond middle of cell. Type, G. anguliscripta. Hampson unites this with the monotypical Papuan genus Licnoptem, but there are many differences in the secondary sexual characters. 50. Goniosema anguliscripta. Chiriphe anguliscripta -Luc. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1889, p. 1079. Goniosema anguDiscripta Turn. Trans. Boy. Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 19. Licnoptera anguliscripta Hmps. ii., p. 333. Queensland : Herberton ; Brisbane ; Toowoomba ; Bunya Mountains. New South Wales: Lismore; Allyn Biver. 51. Goniosema euraphota n.sp. evpacfroTos, embroidered. $ . 16-18 mm. Head ochreous-whitish. Palpi 1J ; fuscous. Antennae dark fuscous ; pectinations in male 6. Thorax fuscous ; patagia, apices of tegulae and a posterior spot ochreous-whitish. Abdo- men grey; tuft ochreous-whitish. Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior pair grey. Forewings suboval, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen straight, oblique; ochreous-whitish with fuscous markings; a basal costal spot ; a large elongate median costal spot ; from this a sinuate line to ^ dorsum ; a fine dentate line from beneath f costa to f dorsum ; 74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. space between lines fuscous on dorsum ; a large terminal blotch contain- ing a whitish apical dot ; cilia fuscous, on apex and above tornus whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded ; grey ; cilia grey. North Queensland: Ravenshoe in December and January; four specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 29. Gen. ATELOPHLEPS nov. areXocffXei/j, imperfectly veined. Tongue present. Palpi very short, slender, ascending. Antennae in male with cilia and bristles. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from J, 3 and 4 separate, 5 absent, 6 from upper angle, 7, 8, 10 stalked, 9 absent, 10 separating before 7, 11 from end of cell, free. Hindwings with 2 from angle, connate with 3 and 4, which are stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Characterised by the absence of vein 9 in the forewing and 5 in both wings. Though not closely allied, it is probably a derivative of H alone. 52. Atelophleps tridesma n.sp. Tpiheafxos, three-banded. $ . 18 mm. Head ochreous-whitish. Palpi fuscous. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male J, bristles 1. Thorax fuscous; patagia and a posterior spot ochreous-whitish. Abdomen fuscous; tuft grey- whitish. Legs ochreous-whitish ; anterior pair fuscous with whitish rings. Fore- wings suboval, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, oblique ; white with three dark fuscous transverse fasciae ; first sub-basal, broader on dorsum ; second median, near dorsum dividing into two lines enclosing a white spot ; third from f costa to tornus, S-shaped ; cilia fuscous. Hindwings with termen rounded; grey; cilia grey. North Queensland : Lake Barrine in May ; one specimen. 30. Gen. SCAPHIDRIOTIS. Turn. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 14. Hmps. ii., p. 496. Tongue present. Palpi moderately long, ascending; second joint with long spreading hairs in front ; terminal joint concealed. Antennae in male with cilia and bristles ; basal third with a ridge of scales on upper surface. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of long spurs. Thorax in male with very long tegulae. Forewings in female with 2 from f, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5 separate; in male with 2 and 3 stalked from angle, 4 and 5 absent, 6 from beneath upper angle ; 7, 8, 9 stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from end of cell, 11 from towards end, free. Hindwings with 2 from towards angle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 separate, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing with cell to middle or beyond. Type, S. xylogramma. Monotypical., 53. Scaphidriotis xylogramma. Scaphidriotis xylogramma Turn. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 14. Hmps. ii., p. 496. Antennae in male with basal joint very stout and long, beyond this a dense ridge of scales above hollowed anteriorly ; ciliations 1, bristles A REVISION OE THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) . 75 H. Forewings with antemedian line indented beneath costa and above dorsum; postmedian curved from midcosta to near tornus, with long acute dentations. Hindwings in male with a large patch of fuscous androconia in cell. Queensland: Kuranda; Atherton Tableland; Macpherson Range (3,000-2,500 feet) ; Brisbane. New South Wales: Allyn River. 31. Geu. POLIODULE. Hmps. ii., p. 339. Tongue absent. Palpi very short, porrect or drooping. Antennae of male bipectinate to apex. Posterior tibiae without middle spurs; terminal spurs short. Fore wings with 2 from near angle, 3 from angle, 4 and 5 connate or short-stalked, 6 and 7 connate or stalked, 8 and 9 absent, 10 and 11 from towards end of cell, free. Hindwings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 connate, 5 approximated, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anasto- mosing with cell to Type, P. xanthodelta. Only two species are known. The females are probably apterous. 54. Poliodule poliotricha n.sp. 7ToXiorpLxo9, grey-haired. $ . 18 mm. Head and palpi fuscous. Antennae dark fuscous ; pectinations in male 8. Thorax fuscous ; patagia pale ochreous, Abdo- men ochreous. Legs fuscous. Forewings narrow, strongly dilated,- costa straight, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; fuscous with the terminal area densely clothed with grey -whitish hairs; a broad pale ochreous streak from base to f , interrupted at two large longitudinally oval median pale ochreous spots connected with each other and with costal streak ; cilia grey- whitish, apices fuscous. Hindwings broad (nearly 2) ; termen gently rounded; yellow; a broad fuscous terminal band excavated above and below middle ; cilia grey-whitish, on dorsum yellow. Queensland : Mitchell and Cunnamulla in September ; two specimens. 55. Poliodide xanthodelta. Scoliacma xanthodelta Low. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1897, p. 10. Poliodule xanthodelta Hmps. ii., p. 340. New South Wales*. Broken Hill. 32. Gen. SYMMETRODES. Meyr. Proc, Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1886, p. 703. Hmps. ii., p. 258. Tongue present. Palpi short, porrect. Antennae of male with cilia and bristles. Forewings with 2 from middle, 3, 4, 5, 6 separate, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from near end of cell, 11 from towards end, anastomosing with 12. Hindwings with 2 from f, 3 from angle, connate with 4 and 5, which are stalked, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to beyond middle of cell. Type, S. sciocosma Meyr. Allied to Asura. Endemic. 56. Symmetrodes sciocosma. Symmetrodes nitens Meyr. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1886, p. 703, nec. Wlk. 76 • PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Symmetrodes stiocosma Meyr. ibid., 1888, p. 920. Hmps. ii., p. 258, PI. xxv., f. 15. I do not know this species. Queensland. 57. Symmetrodes platymelas n.sp. TrXarv/jLeXas, broadly black. $ . 24 mm. Head ochreous-yellow. Palpi 1 ; fuscous. Antennae grey; ciliations in male 1, bristles 1. Thorax yellow with large central blackish spot. Abdomen ochreous-yellow. Forelegs fuscous; (middle and posterior pairs missing). Forewings suboval, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen rounded, oblique; ochreous-yellow; mark- ings black; a basal dot; a moderate fascia, angled posteriorly, from £ costa to i dorsum; a broad subterminal band, anterior edge from f costa to f dorsum, with an acute subdorsal tooth; a yellow dot at £ costa and small yellow spots at apex, midtermen and tomus; cilia blackish. Hindwings with termen rounded; ochreous-yellow from base to middle ; a broad blackish terminal band ; cilia blackish. North Queensland : Ravenshoe in March ; one specimen received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type. 33. Gen. CHIONAEMA. H-Sch. Ausser Schmet., p. 20. Hmps. ii., p. 296. Tongue well developed. Palpi short, porreet or ascending; second joint thickened with appressed scales. Antennae in male with minute ciliations and longer bristles. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from middle or towards angle, 3 and 4 separate, con- nate, or stalked, 5 from above middle in male below middle in female, 6 separate or stalked, 7, 8, 9 stalked or 9 absent, 10 from near end of cell, 11 from f or towards angle, free. Hindwings with 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 stalked or coincident, 5 from middle or from below middle, weakly developed, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to ^ or to middle. Type, C. puella Drury. A genus largely developed in the Eastern Tropics. It presents considerable variation in neuration, which is sometimes, sexual. 58. Chionaema obscura. Chionaema obscura Hmps. ii., p. 301. Forewings with 2 from near middle ; in male 3 and 4 are remote at origin, but fuse together before reaching termen; in male, there is a large oval subcostal gland before and beyond end of cell beneath. Hindwings with 3 and 4 coincident. North Queensland: Cape York; Cairns. 59. Chionaema meyricki. Exotrocha liboria Meyr. l.c., p. 693, nec Cramer. Clerckia meyricki Roths. Nov. Zook, viii., p. 410. Chionaema' meyricci Hmps. Suppl. i., p. 616. Forewings with 3 and 4 connate or stalked; 6 stalked with 7 and 8; in male a triangular glandular subcostal flap beyond cell beneath. Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked. A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (lEPIDOPTERA) . 77 Queensland : Cairns ; Mackay ; Brisbane ; Mount Tamborine ; Tweed Heads. New South Wales: Lismore; Newcastle. 60. Chionaema asticta. Cliionaema asticta Hmps. Suppl. i., p. 636. I do not know this species. North Queensland: Cairns. 34. Gen. EUTANE. Wlk. ii., 531. Hmps. ii., p. 495. Tongue well developed. Palpi short, porrect or ascending; second joint hairy; terminal joint short, obtusely pointed. Antennae in male minutely ciliated. Posterior tibiae with spurs normal. Forewings with 2 from § or f, 3, 4, 5 separate, 6 from beneath upper angle, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 9 separating before' 7, 10 connate or stalked with them, 11 from towards end of cell, free. Hindwings with 2 from §, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 remote, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Type, E. terminalis. There is also one species from New Guinea and one from Borneo. Structurally this genus is allied to Hectobrocha', superficially it is very different. The type species has been attracted into the synapose- matic group, which includes A sura and Syntomis. 61. Eutane terminalis. Wlk. ii., p. 531. Meyr. l.c., p. 746. Hmps. ii., p. 495. Eutane maculata Bull. Trans. Ent. Soc., 1877, p. 335. Queensland : Gayndah ; Maryborough ; Brisbane ; Macpherson Range; Toowoomba; Warwick. New South Wales: Newcastle; Sydney. 62. Eutane trimochla n.sp. rpt/xoyAos“, three-barred. $ $ . 22-27 mm. Plead yellow, sometimes orange on crown. Palpi 1 ; dark fuscous. Antennae fuscous, towards apex yellowish ; ciliations in male §, bristles 1. Thorax dark fuscous ; patagia, bases of tegulae, and anterior and posterior spots yellow or orange. Abdomen dark fuscous ; tuft and usually apices of segments orange. Legs dark fuscous with yellow rings ; posterior pair ochreous. Forewings elongate triangular, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen oblique ; yellow with dark fuscous markings; a narrow basal fascia produced on costal edge to middle ; three broad transverse lines ; first at outwardly curved ; second median, slightly waved ; third from § costa to tornus ; a dot on costa beyond this; a strongly waved line from apex to tornus touching termen in middle ; sometimes interrupted ; cilia yellow, on apex and tornus dark fuscous. Hindwings with termen rounded; yellow; a broad dark fuscous terminal band ; cilia yellow, towards tornus fuscous. Queensland: Injune in March and April; six specimens. 35. Gen. HECTOBROCHA. Meyr. l.c., p. 706. Hmps. ii., p. 497. 78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Tongue well developed. Palpi moderately long, porrect obtuse. Antennae of male with ciliations and bristles. Posterior tibiae with spurs normal. Forewings with 2 from middle, 3 and 4 coincident and 5 remote in male ; 3 from well before angle, 4 separate, and 5 remote in female ; 6 from or from beneath upper angle, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 connate or stalked with them, 11 from f, free. Hindwings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 widely separate, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing with cell to -J. Type, H . pentacyma. Neobrocha Meyr. cannot be separated from this genus. Endemic. 63. Hectobrocha pentacyma. Hectobrocha pentacyma Meyr. l.c., p. 707. Hmps. ii., p. 497. Hectobrocha multilinea Luc. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1889, p. 1072. Hmps. ii., p. 498, PI. 33, f. 1. Northern specimens are usually larger, the forewings more tinged with yellow, and the markings coarser. Queensland : Blackbutt ; Brisbane ; Mount Tamborine ; Macpherson Range (2 500 feet) ; Toowoomba. New South Wales: Lismore ; Gosford; Sydney. 64. Hectobrocha phaeocyma. Neobrocha phaeocyma Meyr. l.c., p. 708. Hmps. ii., p. 498, PL 33, f. 2, This species is unknown to me. North Queensland : Thursday Island. 65. Hectobrocha adoxa. Neobrocha adoxa Meyr. l.c., p. 708. Hmps. ii., p. 499. Hectobrocha subnigra Luc. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1889, p. 1072. Eutane subnigra Hmps. Suppl. i., p. 786, PI. 41, f. 8. $ $ . 28-38 mm. Head whitish-brown. Palpi 1-J ; dark fuscous. Antennae pale grey; ciliations in male -J, bristles 2. Thorax whitish- brown ; bases of tegulae, two anterior dots, and a posterior spot fuscous. Abdomen brown-whitish, Legs fuscous with brown-whitish bands ; posterior tibiae brown-whitish. Forewings triangular, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique ; brown- whitish with fuscous markings; two blackish sub-basal dots connected with a sub-basal spot on costa ; a line from 1 costa outwardly curved to -J dorsum with long acute dentations, which interlace with those of a following line from § costa to mid-dorsum ; between these lines is a blackish dot ; two blackish dots placed obliquely in disc beyond middle ; two strongly dentate interlacing postmedian lines; a strongly dentate subterminal line; cilia brown-whitish bases partly fuscous. Queensland: Brisbane; Bunya Mountains. New South Wales: Sydney. 36. Gen. TRISSOBROCHA. Turn. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1914, p. 548. Tongue well developed. Palpi moderately long, ascending, smooth, slender, acute. Antennae in male with cilia and bristles. Posterior tibiae with spurs normal. Forewings with 2 from f, 3, 4, 5 separate, A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) . 79 6 from beneath upper angle, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from well before end of cell, 11 from J, free. Hindwings with 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 remote, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing with cell to Monotypical. The neuration shows that this is nearly allied to Hectobrocha, but is less specialised. The neutration described is that of the male. The female is unknown, but should show no difference. 66. Trissobrocha eugraphica. Trissobrocha eugraphica Turn. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1914, p. 548. Queensland: Macpherson Range (3,500 feet). New South Wales: Ebor; Barrington Tops. 37. Gen. AMELETA nov. dfJLe\r)Tos, uncared for. Tongue present. Palpi rather long, curved, ascending, slender, acute. Antennae in male with cilia and bristles. Forewings with 2 from middle, 3 and 4 stalked from angle, 5 approximated, 6 from below upper angle, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from f, 11 from middle, free. Hindwings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 curved at base and approximated to 3, 4, 6, and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing with cell to f. 67. Ameleta panochra n.sp. iravcoxpos ,• wholly pale. S . 16 mm. Head and thorax pale grey. Palpi 1^ ; grey-whitish. Antennae grey-whitish; ciliations in male bristles 1. Abdomen grey- whitish. Legs grey. Forewings narrow, suboblong, costa arched to J, thence straight, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, oblique ; whitish with slight patchy grey irroration ; fuscous diseal dots at J and beyond f ; some grey suffusion above J and § dorsum and forming two inter- rupted transverse lines in terminal area ; cilia whitish. Hindwings with termen slightly rounded ; whitish ; cilia whitish. Extremely similar to Aclytophanes aedumena ; distinguishable by the neuration and longer palpi. North Queensland : Kuranda in October ; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 38. Gen. HELIOSIA. Hmps. ii., p. 275. Tongue present. Palpi moderately long, ascending, smooth, slender, acute. Antennae in male ciliated. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs, forewings with 2 from middle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 separate, 6 from near upper angle, '7, 8, 9 stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from before end of cell, 11 from f, free. Hindwings with 2 from towards angle, 3 and 4 stalked or coincident, 5 from below middle of cell, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Type, H. jucunda. Mostly Papuan with stragglers in Borneo and China. The hindwings have 3 and 4 stalked in charopa, coincident in the other three species. 68. Heliosia- micra. Heliosia micra Hmps. Suppl. i., p. 585, PI. 31, f. 8. North Queensland : Cooktown ; Cairns ; Innisfail. 80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 69. Heliosia jucunda. Pallene jucunda Wlk. ii.? p. 543. Mosoda jucunda Meyr. l.c., p. 728. Heliosia jucunda Hmps. ii., p. 275. Tospitis transitana Wlk., xxviii., p. 430. Queensland: Herberton; Duaringa; Gayndah; Nambour; Brisbane; Stanthorpe; Milmerran. New South Wales: Glen Innes, Murrurundi; Sydney. 70. Heliosia charopa. Heliosia charopa Turn. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1904, p. 212. Hmps. Suppl. i., p. 586. North Queensland : Herberton ; Townsville. 39. Gen. ACLYTOPHANES nov. aK\vTOavr]? } deceitful. Tongue well developed. Palpi very short, porrect or ascending. Antennae in male with cilia and bristles. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of very short spurs. Forewings with 2 from f, 3 from before angle, 4, 5 separate, 6, 7, 8 stalked, 9 absent, 10 from end of cell, 1) from towards A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (lEPIDOPTERA) . 105 end, free. Hindwings with 2 from towards angle, 3 and 4 stalked 5 remote from below middle, 6 and 7 long-stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Monotypical. A development from Asura. The type species is an almost perfect mimic of a black Syntomis. 157. Pseudopkanes melanoptera n.sp. peXavonrepos, black-winged. S $ . 34-40 mm. Head orange, blackish between antennae. Palpi 1 ; blackish. Antennae blackish ; ciliations in male J, bristles J. Thorax blackish; patagia, bases of tegulae, and a large posterior spot orange. Abdomen blackish with orange rings; tuft in male blackish. Legs blackish. Forewings elongate, posteriorly dilated, costa straight to f, thence arched, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, extremely oblique ; blackish ; cilia blackish. Hindwings with termen sinuate ; blackish ; cilia blackish. North Queensland : Kuranda in September and October ; seven specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 53. Gen. PANACHRANTA. Turn. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic., 1922, p. 20. Tongue weakly developed. Palpi short, porrect; second joint rough beneath ; terminal joint very short , acute. Antennae in male with short ciliations and longer bristles. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of short spurs. Forewings with 2 from middle, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5 separate, 6, 7, 8 stalked, 9 absent, 10 from well before end of cell, 11 approximated at origin to 10, free. Hindwings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 remote and from middle of cell in male, approximated to or connate with 4 in female, 6 and 7 stalked, 11 anastomosing to middle of cell. Monotypical.' 158. Panachranta lirioleuca. Panachranta lirioleuca Turn. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic., 1922, p. 20. North Queensland: Kuranda. 54. Gen. MELASTROTA. limps. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), xv., p. 439. Suppl. i., p. 806. Tongue well developed. Palpi short, porrect, loose-haired, acute. Antennae in male minutely ciliated towards apex. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2, 3, 4 approximated from angle, 5 absent, 6 from below upper angle, 7 and 8 stalked from end of cell, 9 and 10 stalked from well before end of cell, 11 from middle anasto- mosing at a point with 12, two veinlets from 12 to costa. Hindwings with 2 from middle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked. 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Monotypical. 159. Melastrota nigrisquamata . Pseudoblades nigrisquamata Swin. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), vii., p. 467. $ . Melastrota nigrisquamata Hmps., Suppl. i., p., 807. Pseudoblades dona Swin. l.c., 467. 2 . 106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Melastrota dona Hmps. l.c., p. 807, PI. 41, f. 34. 2 . 18-20 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax pale yellow. Abdomen and legs pale ochreous. Forewings suboval, costa rather strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; pale ochreous-brown; a small pale yellow suffusion at apex; sometimes a brown dot on § dorsum; cilia yellow, on tornus pale ochreous-brown. Hind wings with a costal expansion ; termen rounded ; very pale ochreous, towards apex grey; cilia pale ochreous. Underside of fore- wings with a patch of blackish androconia from near base to § on costal side of cell. $ . 20-22 mm. Forewings fuscous-brown with yellow markings ; a narrow basal fascia ; a triangular spot on midcosta ; a marginal streak from f costa around apex, not reaching tornus; cilia yellow, on tornus fuscous-brown. Hindwings grey, basal area pale ochreous. North Queensland : Mossman ; Cairns ; 11 males, 3 females . 55. Gen. NESOTROPHA. Turn. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1925, p. 110. Tongue absent. Palpi short, porrect ; second joint rough-scaled beneath ; terminal joint slender, acute. Antennae of male pectinated to apex. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of long spurs. Forewings with 2 from near angle, 3, 4, 5 approximated, 6 from well below upper angle, 7 separate, 8, 9 10 stalked, 11 from J, free. Hindwings with 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 approximated, 5 from middle, 6 separate, approximated to 5, widely separate from 7, 12 anastomosing with cell to Monotypical. An isolated genus perhaps allied to Poliodule. 160. Nesotropha pymaeodes. Nesotropha* pymaeodes Turn. Proc. Roy Soc. Tas., 1925, p. 110. Tasmania: Cradle Mountain (3,000 feet). 56. Gen. PHILENORA. Philenora Rosen. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), xvi., p. 382. Hmps. ii., p. 506. Tongue present. Palpi short, ascending; second joint thickened with appressed scales; terminal joint acute. Antennae in male shortly ciliated. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from f, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5 widely separate, 6 from well below7 upper angle, 7 and 8 stalked, 9 and 10 stalked, 11 from towards end of cell, free. Hindwings with 2 from f, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5 vddely separated, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to near end of cell. Type, P. undulosa. Scaeodora Meyr. is a synonym. So far as known the genus is confined to Australia and Madagascar, a curious distribution, v7hich is not easy to explain. Key to Species. 1. Hindwings yellow . . . . . . . . . . 2 Hindwings not yellow . . . . . . . . 5 2. Hindwings with a dark fuscous terminal band Hindwings with fuscous apical blotch not reaching midtermen . . . . . . . . • • 3 placochrysa A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) . 107 3. Forewings with diseal dot 4 Forewings without discal dot aspectatella 4. Forewings with median fascia narrow and angled outwards in middle undulosa Forewings with median fascia broad and not angled elegans 5. Forewings white or whitish 6 Forewings not so 7 6. Forewings with a basal fuscous patch tlielxinod Forewdngs without basal patch nudaridia 7. Forewings brownish-fuscous omoplianes Forewings not brownish-fuscous 8 8. Forewings with transverse lines 9 Forewings without transverse lines .. oataplex 9. Forewings with oblique white terminal line chionastis Forewdngs without white terminal line pteridopola 161. Philenora placochrysa. ora placochrysa Turn. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 18. Hmps. ii., p. 511, Pl. 33, f. 27 North Queensland: Cairns. 162. Philenora aspect at ella . Oecopliora aspectatella Wlk., xxix., p. 679. Comar chis aspectatella Meyr. l.c., p. 745. Philenora aspectatella Hmps. ii., p. 509. Tinea oecophorella Wlk., xxxv., p. 1813. Comarchis irregularis Luc. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1889, p. 1082. Queensland: Mackay; Gayndah; Caloundra; Brisbane; Esk; Macpherson Range (3,500 feet); Toowoomba; Warwick; Stanthorpe. New South Wales: Ebor; Sydney; Jervis Bay; Mount Kosciusko (4,000 feet). Victoria: Melbourne; Moe. 163. Philenora elegans. Pallene elegans Butl. Trans. Ent. Soc., 1877, p. 334. Philenora elegans Hmps. ii., p. 510, PI. 33, f. 19. Comarchis lunata Luc. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1889, p. 1083. Queensland : Brisbane ; Stradbroke Island ; Macpherson Range (3,500 feet); Toowoomba. New South Wales: Murrurundi; Sydney. West Australia: Yanchep; Busselton. 164. Philenora undulosa. Acontia undulosa Wlk., xii., p. 797. Philenora undulosa Hmps. ii., p. 510, PI. 33, f. 25. Termessa lyelliana Low. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1893, p. 148. New South Wales: Guyra; Ebor. Victoria: Melbourne; Gisborne. Tasmania : . 108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 165. Philenora nudaridia. Philenora nudaridia Hmps, ii.? p. 511, PI. 33, f. 4. Unknown to me. North Queensland: Cairns. 166. Philenora thelxinoa n.sp. deXgivoos, charming. S . 18 mm. Head pale grey. Palpi grey. Antennae whitish- grey; ciliations in male J, bristles 1. Thorax grey-whitish; bases of tegulae and a subanterior transverse line fuscous. Abdomen whitish- grey. (Legs whitish. Forewings suboval, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; ochreous-whitish; markings and some irroration fuscous ; a triangular patch on base of costa, a basal dot, and three posterior marginal dots dark fuscous; a spot on mid- dorsum connected with basal patch ; a dot on midcosta and a spot on f , both suffusedly connected with dorsal spot ; a dark fuscous discal dot at | ; an irregular subapical costal spot connected by a line of dots, angled inwards above middle, with § dorsum ; dark fuscous streaks on veins in terminal area; cilia grey, apices grey- whitish. Hindwings with termen gently rounded ; whitish ; cilia whitish. Queensland : Herberton in April ; one specimen received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type. 167. Philenora chionastis. Scaeodora chionastis Meyr. l.c., p. 801. Philenora chionastis Hmps. ii., p. 510, PI. 33, f. 12. Comar chis ohliquata Luc. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1889, p. 1082. Queensland: Yeppoon; Bundaberg; Gympie ; Nambour; Brisbane; Stradbroke Island; Tweed Heads; Rosewood; Toowoomba; Killarney. New South Wales: Lismore; Sydney. Victoria: Melbourne. 168. Philenora pteridopola. Philenora pteridopola Turn. Proc. Roy Soc. Vic., 1922, p. 31. Queensland: Atherton Plateau; Mount Tamborine ; Maepherson Range (2,500-4,000 feet). New South Wales: Allyn River; Robertson; Mount Wilson. 169. Philenora cataplex n.sp. KaraTrXq^, timid. S . 16 mm. Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi 1 ; fuscous. Antennae fuscous ; ciliations in male J. Thorax grey with a whitish posterior spot. Abdomen ochreous-whitish. Legs grey; posterior pair ochreous-whitish. Forewings narrow, scarcely dilated, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen nearly straight, slightly oblique ; whitish-ochreous ; a narrow fuscous basal fascia produced on costa to J ; dark fuscous discal dots at § and § ; a terminal fascia, not touching margin beneath apex and above dorsum ; cilia whitish-ochreous with fuscous bars, on dorsum fuscous. Hindwings with termen slightly rounded ; ochreous-whitish with slight grey suffusion towards apex ; cilia ochreous-whitish. North Queensland : Ravenshoe in January and February ; two specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) . 109 170. Philenora omophanes. Scaeodora omophanes Meyr. l.c., p. 731. Philenora omophanes Hmps. ii., p. 512. $ . 16 mm. Head whitish ; face and palpi brownish-fuscous. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male Thorax whitish; tegulae brownish fuscous. Abdomen grey; tuft grey- whitish. Legs fuscous. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa slightly arched, apex round- pointed, termen straight, not oblique ; brownish-fuscous ; an outwardly slightly darker line edged anteriorly with whitish, from § costa to midtermen ; a transverse discal mark at f connected with costa ; a wavy line from f costa, to f dorsum, obtusely angled in middle, followed on dorsum by a whitish dot; cilia fuscous with some narrow pale bars opposite veins. Hindwings with termen rounded ; reddish-fuscous, thinly scaled; cilia concolorous. This is probably the same as Meyrick’s species. He recorded that the type, which I have not seen, was in poor condition. Victoria: Melbourne; Beaconsfield in November and December; two specimens received from Mr. Geo. Lyell, who has the type. 57. Gen. NOTATA. Hmps. 111. Lep. Het., viii., p. 47 (1891), and ii., p. 506. Tongue well developed. Palpi short, porrect, smooth, slender, acute. x\ntennae in male simple. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Fore- wings with 2 from middle, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5 well separate. 6 from below upper angle, 7 and 8 stalked, 9 and 10 stalked, 11 from J, free. Hindwings with 2 from middle, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5 well separate, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to end of cell in male, to near end in female. Type, N. pa\rva Hmps., from India. There are only two species. Though approaching Philenora in structure, it may not be closely allied. The simple male antennae are an unusual character. 171. Not at a modica. Diphtheraspis modicus Luc. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q., 1892, p. 74. Notata modica Hmps. ii., p. 506, PI. 33, f. 23. Queensland: Cooktown; Cairns; Atherton Plateau; Eungella ; Nambour ; Brisbane. 58. Gen. PARElLICTIS. Meyr. l.c., p. 709. Hmps. ii., p. 521. Tongue well developed. Palpi moderate, ascending; second joint thickened with appressed scales ; terminal joint short, obtuse. Antennae in male with cilia and bristles. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of long spurs. Forewings with 2 from near angle, 3, 4, 5 separate, 6 from below upper angle, 7 and 8 stalked, 9 and 10 stalked, 11 from f, free. Hindwings with 2 from towards angle, 3 and 4 separate, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Monotypical. 172. Par elictis saleuta. Parelictis saleuta Meyr. l.c., p. 709. Hmps. ii., p. 521. New South Wales: Ebor; Sydney. Victoria: Melbourne. 110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 59. Gen. CASTULO. Wlk. ii., p. 561. Hmps. ii., p. 522. Tongue well developed. Palpi moderate, porrect; second joint thickened with appressed scales ; terminal joint short, obtuse. Antennae of male bipectinate to apex, pectinations long. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of long spurs. Forewings with 2 from §, 3, 4, 5 separate, 6 from below upper angle, 7 and 8 stalked, 9 and 10 stalked, 11 from f, free. Hindwings with 2 from f , 3 and 4 approximated or connate at origin, 5 remote, 6 and 7 connate, 12 anastomosing with cell to J or less. Female unknown, probably apterous. Type, C. plagiata. Australian. 173. Castulo plagiata. Castilla plagiata Wlk., ii., p. 562. Hmps. ii., p. 522. New South Wales: . Victoria: Sale. Tasmania: Dunalley. 174. Castulo doubledayi. Castulo doubledayi Newm. Trans. Ent. Soc., 1956, p. 55. Hmps. ii., p. 522, PI. 34, f. 1. Cluaca rubricosta Wlk., xxxi., p. 268. Meyr. l.c., p. 716. Castulo binotata Wlk. Undesc. Lep Het., p. 65. New South Wales: Ebor. Victoria: Melbourne; Beaconsfield ; Fern- shaw ; Gisborne ; Gunbower. Tasmania : Launceston ; Wilmot ; Derby ; Coles Bay; Bussell Falls; Hobart. 60. Gen. TERMESSA. Newm. Trans. Ent. Soc., 1856, p. 285. Meyr. l.c., p. 709. Tongue well developed. Palpi moderate, porrect; second joint thickened with appressed scales ; terminal joint short, obtuse. Antennae of male with cilia and bristles (in T. terpnodes with tufts of cilia arising from extremely short pectinations). Tibial spurs of moderate length; posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from f, 3, 4, 5 separate, 6 from below upper angle, 7 and 8 stalked, 9 and 10 stalked, 11 from f, free. Hindwings with 2 from J, 3, 4, 5 somewhat approxi- mated, often equidistant, 6 and 7 approximated or connate, 12 anas- tomosing to J. Type, T. shepherdi. Like the two preceding genera this is purely Australian. It is best distinguished by the smaller approxi- mation of 3 and 4 of the hindwings and the structure of the male antennae. Key to Species. 1. Forewings with apex more or less falcate . . 2 Forewings with apex not falcate . . . . . • 3 2. Forewings with fasciae not reaching costa Forewings with fasciae reaching costa 3. Forewings fuscous . . . . . . . . . . 4 Forewings not fuscous . . . . . . • . 5 4. Forewings with yellow spots Forewings without yellow spots 5. Forewings with blackish fasciae . . . . • • 6 Forewings without fasciae . . . . • • • • 10 6. Forewings with postmedian fascia much broader on costa conographa discrepans terpnodes catocalina shepherdi A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) . Ill Forewings with postmedian fascia not broader on costa 7 7. Forewings with costal edge blackish zcnophanes Fore wings with costal edge not blackish 8 8. Thorax with anterior edge yellow congrua Thorax with anterior edge blackish 9 9. Forewings with antemedian fascia with pale or yellow centre' gratiosa Forewings with antemedian fascia not pale-centred lactcL 10. Forewings with blackish dots on termen 11 Forewings without terminal dots amorplia 11. Fore and hindwings white nivosa Fore and hindwings pale ochreous-brown orthocrossa 175. Termessa, conographa. Termessa conographa Meyr. l.c., p. 714. Castulo conographa Hmps. ii., p. 523, PI. 34, f. 27. Queensland: Atherton Plateau; Maryborough; Brisbane; Bunya Mountains; Mount Tambourine; Macpherson Range (2,000 feet) ; Tweed Heads. New South Wales: Lismore. 176. Termessa discrepans. Termessa discrepans' Wlk., xxxi., p. 265. Meyr. l.c., p. 714. Castulo discrepans Hmps. ii., p. 523. Termessa hamula Feld. Reis. Nov., PI. 160, f. 5. Queensland: Stanthorpe. New South Wales: . Victoria: Fernshaw. 177. Termessa terpnodes n.sp. repTTvajSrjs, pleasant. $ . 26-34 mm. Head orange-yellow. Palpi 1 ; orange-yellow, apices fuscous. Antennae fuscous; in male with very short pectinations (-J), ending in tufts of cilia. Thorax ochreous-yellow; patagia and tegulae dark fuscous. Abdomen ochreous-yellow. Legs fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex pointed, termen straight, slightly oblique ; dark fuscous with ochreous-yellow spots ; an elongate fascia- like spot from base of dorsum to \ costa ; a median series of three spots, costal, subcostal, and dorsal of variable size, often confluent ; a narrow dentate submarginal fascia not reaching tornus;; cilia dark fuscous. Hindwings with termen rounded ; ochreous-yellow ; large dark fuscous apical and tornal spots, sometimes confluent ; cilia dark fuscous on dorsum yellow. Queensland : Milmerran in September and October ; Xryune in September; four specimens. 178. Termessa shepherdi. Termessa shepherdi Newm. Trans. Ent. Soc., 1856, n. 285. Meyr. l.c., p. 711. Castulo shepherdi Hmps. ii., p. 525. Victoria : Beechworth ; Melbourne ; Gisbourne ; Healesville. 112 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 179. Termessa zonophanes. Termessa zonophanes Meyr. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1888, p. 921. Castulo zonophanes Hmps. ii., p. 526, PI. 34, f. 30. Queensland: Warwick. Victoria: Wimmera. 180. Termessa congrua. Termessa congrua Wlk., xxxi., p. 265. Meyr. l.c., p. 713. Castulo congrua Hmps. ii., p. 524, PI. 34, f. 8. Queensland: Eidsvold; Gayndah; Brisbane; Tweed Heads. New South Wales: Sydney. 181. Termessa gratiosa. Eutane gratiosa Wlk., xxxi., p. 239. Termessa gratiosa Meyr. l.c., p. 712. Castulo gratiosa Hmps. ii., p. 526, PI. 34, f. 4. Termessa diplographa Turn. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 11. Queensland : Eidsvold ; Brisbane ; Mount Tamborine ; Toowoomba ; Dalby; Bunya Mountains. New South Wales: Glen Innes ; Murrurundi ; Sydney. Victoria : Melbourne • Gisborne. 182. Termessa laeta. Termessa laeta, Wlk., vii., p. 1689. Meyr. l.c., p. 712. Castulo laeta Hmps. ii., p. 535, PI. 34, f. 34. Termessa xanthomelas Low. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1892, p. 6. Queensland: Atherton Plateau; Eungella.; Yeppoon; Eidsvold; Gayndah; Brisbane; Mount Tamborine; Macpherson Range (2,500 feet); Toowoomba; Dalby; Bunya Mountains; Killarney ; Stanthorpe. New South Wales: Lismore ; Ebor; Murrurundi; Sydney; Mount Kosciusko (4,000 feet). Victoria: Melbourne; Gisborne. South Australia: Mount Lofty. West Australia: Albany. 183. Termessa catocalina. Clisohara catocalina Wlk., xxxi., p. 269. Termessa catocalina Meyr. l.c., p. 711. Castulo catocalina Hmps. ii., p. 526. New South Wales: Sydney; Katoomba. 184. Termessa nivosa. Lerna nivosa Wlk., xxxiii., p. 805. Meyr. l.c., p. 710. Castulo nivosa Hmps. ii., p. 523. Queensland: Stanthorpe. New South Wales: Ebor; Murrurundi; Gosford; Sydney; Jervis Bay. Victoria: Melbourne; Gisborne. 185. Termessa orthocrossa. Termessa orthocrossa Turn. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic., 1922, p. 32. Queensland : Toowoomba. A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) . 113 186. Termessa amorpha n.sp. dpop(f)os, unpleasing. $ . 34 mm. Head pale brownish ; face fuscous. Palpi 1^ ; fuscous- brown. Antennae grey ; in male cilia J , bristles 1. Thorax whitish-grey with a posterior fuscous dot. Abdomen whitish-grey. Legs fuscous with whitish-grey rings ; posterior pair whitish-grey. Forewings broadly triangular, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen rounded, scarcely oblique; whitish-grey ; markings and some scattered scales fuscous; a fuscous mark on J costa, and another on -J dorsum; a transversely elon- gate dot in disc at §; cilia whitish-grey. Hindwings with termea rounded ; grey- whitish a a pale fuscous median discal dot ; cilia, grey-whitish. West Australia: Mundaring, near Perth; one specimen received from Mr. R. Illidge. 61. Gen. CHAMAITA. Wlk. J. Lin. Soc. Zool., 1862, p. 121. Hmps. ii., p. 530. Tongue well developed. Palpi very short, loose-haired, acute. Antennae with basal joint extremely long and covered with dense hairs; in male simple with very short bristles. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs; in male dorsum thickly covered with large scales. Forewings with 2 from near middle, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5 widely separate, 6 from upper angle, 7 and 8 stalked, 9 absent, 10 from near end of cell, 11 from towards end, free ; 10 absent in male ; costa with a fringe of long hairs. Hindwings with cell long (f ) ; 2 from middle, 3, 4, 5 widely separate, 6 and 7 coincident, 12 anastomosing to Type, C. trichopteroides Wlk. from India. Small Papuan genus with one species from India and one from Formosa. 1 87. Chamaita. barnardi. Nudaria barnardi Luc. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1893, p. 135. Hmps. Suppl. i., p. 804, PI. 41, f. 30. e North Queensland : Cairns ; Innisfail. 62. Gen. NUDARIA. Haw. Lep. Brit. 156. Hmps. ii., p. 533. Tongue present. Palpi very short, hairy. Antennae with basal joint large and covered with dense hairs; in male ciliated. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from §, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5 widely separate, 6, 7, 8 stalked, 9 absent, 10 from near end of cell, 11 from towards end, free. Hindwings with 2 from middle, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5 widely separate, 6 and 7 stalked or coincident, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Type, N. mundana Lin., from Europe. A small Indo-malayan genus with single species in Europe and Australia. 188. Nudaria mollis. Nudaria mollis Luc. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1893, p, 136. Hmps. ii., p. 536, PI. 34, f. 24. Fsilopepla mollis Turn. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 13. Hindwings with 6 and 7 coincident. 114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Queensland: Cairns; Atherton Plateau; Eungella ; Nambour; Brisbane; Mount Tamborine. New South Wales: Lismore. 63. Gen. SCHISTOPHLEPS. Hmps. 111. Het, viii., p. 53, and l.c. ii., p. 527. Tongue present. Palpi short, porrect, smooth, slender, acute. Antennae in male ciliated. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Fore- wings with 2 from -§, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5 widely separate, 6 from below upper angle, 7 and 8 stalked, 9 and 10 stalked, 11 from towards end of cell, approximated, connected, or astomosing with 12, 12 connected by three or four veinlets with costa. Hindwings with 2 from f, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5 widely separate, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing almost to end of cell. Type, S. bipuncta Hmps., from India. A small Papuan genus with one species from India. 189. Schistophleps albida. Nudaria albida Wlk., xxxi., p. 273. Phaneropseustis adbida Turn. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 12. Schistophleps albida Hmps. ii., p. 528, PI. 34, f. 9. Queensland : Cairns ; Innisfail ; Atherton Tableland ; Cardwell ; Ingham; Rockhampton; Yeppoon; Bundaberg; Marborough; Noosa; Nambour; Brisbane; Stradbroke Island. New South Wales: Lismore. 190. Schistophleps obducta. Nudaria obducta Luc. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W,. 1893, p. 135. Phaneropseustis obducta Turn. Trans. Roy Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 13. Schistophleps obducta Hmps. ii., p. 528, PI. 34, f. 10. Queensland: Atherton Plateau; Townsville; Brisbane. $ 64. Gen. PORPHYROCHRY S A nov. 7 Topcffvpoxpvoos, purple and gold. Tongue well developed. Palpi very short, slender, acute, ascending. Antennae in male ciliate. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Fore- wings with cell very narrow towards base, 2 from f, 3 from angle connate with 4 and 5, which are stalked, 6 from well below upper angle, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from f, 11 from middle, free. Hindwings with 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 from middle of cell, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing with cell to middle. 191. Porphyrochrysa dochmoschema n.sp. 8 oxpouxypos, with oblique pattern. $ $ . 14-16 mm. Head yellow. Palpi yellowish. Antennae pale grey ; ciliations in male 2. Thorax anteriorly yellow, posteriorly lustrous purple. Abdomen whitish-ochreous. Legs whitish-ochreous; anterior pair ochreous. Forewings suboblong, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, terrnen rounded, not oblique ; yellow with purple markings ; an oblique line on base of dorsum ; a narrow oblique fascia from -J costa A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) . 115 to mid-dorsum, a submarginal fascia from shortly before apex to tornus, both margins convex; cilia yellow. Hindwings with termen gently rounded ; whitish-ochreous ; cilia whitish-ochreous. In one female example the dorsal line and antemedian fascia are confluent. North Queensland : Cape York in October, November, and May ; four specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type. 65. Gen. HETEROTROPA nov. ^ P J ereporpoTros , of a different sort. Tongue well developed. Palpi short, slender, smooth, acute, porrect or somewhat ascending. Antennae in male ciliated. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 stalked from angle, 5 absent, 6 from upper angle, 7 and 8 stalked, 9 absent, 10 from well end of cell, 11 from f, free. Hindwings with 2 from near end of cell, 3 and 4 approximated or stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing with cell to beyond middle. 192. Heterotropa fastosa n.sp. fastosus, proud. $ $ . 15-20 mm. Head snow-white. Palpi brownish. Antennae grey ; ciliations in male 1. Thorax with anterior half white, posterior grey-brown. Abdomen pale ochreous, towards base grey. Legs pale ochreous. Forewings suboblong, costa strongly arched, apex rounded- rectangular, termen straight, not oblique ; grey-brown ; a white longi- tudinally oval spot on base of costa; a triangular spot on costa before middle, ochreous in costal portion, white at apex, which does not reach middle of disc ; an erect white bar from mid-dorsum, not reaching apex of coastal triangle ; costal edge beyond triangle ochreous ; terminal edge white ; cilia ochreous. Hindwings gently rounded ; grey, towards base pale ochreous; cilia pale ochreous. North Australia : Darwin in December. North Queensland : Cape York in October, November, and March; Kuranda in September; eight specimens. 66. Gen. BAEOMORPHA nov. PcLLOpLOpcfxDS , small. Tongue well developed. Palpi short, smooth, slender, acute, por- rect. Antennae in male ciliated. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from f, 3 from angle connate with 4 and 5, which are stalked, 6 from below upper angle, 7 and 8 stalked, 9 absent, 10 from well before angle, 11 from f, free. Hindwings with 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 somewhat approximated, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. 193. BtteomorpJia cleta n.sp. KXrjTcrs , welcome. $ . 12-13 mm. Head white. Palpi grey. Antennae grey ; cilia- tions in male 1-J. Thorax fuscous ; patagia and tegulae white. Abdomen whitish-grey. Legs whitish; anterior pair grey. Forewings suboval, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; white 116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. with two narrow oblique purple-fuscous fasciae ; first from ^ costa to middorsum; second from § costa to tornus ; cilia pale grey, on tornus fuscous. Hindwings with termen rounded; grey-whitish ; cilia grey- whitish. North Queensland: Cape York in October and November; two specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type. 67. Gen. DIDUGA. Moore Lep. Ceyl., ii., p. 535. Hmps ii., p. 539. Tongue present. Palpi short, porrect, smooth, slender, acute. Antennae in male ciliated. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Fore- wings with 2 from middle, 3 and 4 approximated from angle, 5 separate. 6 from below upper angle, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from end of cell, 11 from f, free. Hindwings with 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 separate, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Type, D. flavicostata. A small Indo-malayan genus. 194. Diduga flavicostata. - Vitane flavicostata Snel. Tijd. v. Ent., xxiii., p. 92. Diduga costata Moore Lep. Ceyl., iii., p. 535, PI. 211, f. 8, 9. Diduga fulvicosta Hmps. 111. Het. viii. ; p. 52, PI. 140, f. 16. Diduga flavicostata Hmps. ii., p. 541. S . 10-11 mm. Head pale yellow. Thorax anteriorly pale yellow, posteriorly fuscous. Forewings suboblong, costa slightly arched, apex rounded-rectangular, termen straight scarcely oblique ; fuscous ; a broad pale yellow costal streak, indented at J and §, continued along termen to tornus, indented beneath apex and below middle; cilia pale yellow, on tornus fuscous. Hindwings with termen rounded; grey; cilia grey. North Australia : Darwin. Also from the Archipelago and India. 68. Gen. HETERALLACTIS. Meyr l.c., p. 703. Hmps. ii., p. 538. Tongue well developed. Palpi short, ascending, smooth, slender, acute. Antennae in male ciliated. Forewings with 2 from towards angle, 3 and 4 stalked from angle, 5 absent, 6 connate with 7 and 8, which are stalked, 9, 10, 11 separate and free, 11 from f . Hindwings with 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 somewhat approximated, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Type, H. euchrysa. A small genus peculiar to Queensland and New Guinea. Key to Species. 1. Forewings with antemedian yellc w fascia . . . . 2 Forewings with yellow costal triangle only . . trigonochrysa 2. Forewings with terminal yellow fascia . . . . 3 Forewings without terminal fascia . . . . . • 7 3. Forewings with basal dark fascia reaching J dorsum 4 Forewings with basal fascia not reaching J dorsum 5 4. Forewings with yellow fascia much narrowed on dorsum . . . . . . . . . . . . niphooepliald Forewings with yellow fascia of even width . . ohrysauges A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) . 117 5. Forewings with yellow fascia narrow on dorsum . . Forewings with yellow fascia broad throughout . . 6 6. Forewings with basal fascia of even width Forewings with basal fascia broader on dorsum . . 7. Forewings with basal fascia very narrow Forewings with basal fascia reaching 1 dorsum' . . stenociirysa microohrysa euchrysa loplioptera chrysopera 195. Heterallactis chrysopera. Heterallactis chrysopera Pimps., Suppl. i., p. 809. $ . 16-17 mm. Head yellow. Thorax purple-fuscous ; patagia and an anterior spot yellow. Abdomen grey. Legs grey-whitish. Fore- wings suboval, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; bright yellow ; markings ochreous-grey with purple reflec- tions ; a basal fascia, its posterior edge slightly curved from J costa to J dorsum; a broad terminal fascia, its anterior edge from midcosta strongly sinuate to dorsum near tornus ; a slight yellow suffusion at extreme apex; cilia grey. Hindwings with a strong costal expansion partly covered with androconia beneath and with distorted neuration; termen rounded ; grey ; cilia grey. $ . 14-17 mm. Differs from male in posterior dark fascia being restricted on costa, its anterior edge strongly curved from J costa, and in a defined yellow apical spot. North Queensland: Cape York; Cairns. Also from New Guinea. 196. Heterallactis lopkoptera n.sp. \ocf)07TT€pos , with crested wings, $ $ . 18-20 mm. Head yellow. Palpi very small, brownish. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male 1. Thorax purple-fuscous with an anterior yellow spot. Abdomen grey; tuft whitish-ochreous. Legs whitish-ochreous; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings suboblong, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, oblique ; in male with a strong ridge or flap of scales on costal edge to f , strongly angled and projecting near base, usually folded over on underside of wing, when expanded revealing a large area of androconia; bright yellow; a very small basal fuscous fascia; costal edge fuscous towards base; a broad terminal fascia edged by a blackish slightly waved and convex line from f costa to f dorsum, lustrous violet anteriorly, pos- teriorly mostly brownish, posterior margin pale ochreous; cilia whitish, bases and apices fuscous. Hindwings with termen rounded ; grey ; in male a pale costal area containing a tuft of long hairs ; cilia pale grey. North Queensland : Kuranda in September and October ; four specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 197. Heterallactis niphocephala n.sp. vuj)OK€(j)a\og , with snow-white head. $ . 15 mm. Head white. Palpi very small ; brownish. Antennae fuscous-brown. Thorax fuscous-brown with an anterior white spot. Abdomen grey-whitish. Legs ochreous-whitish ; anterior tibiae white. Forewings suboblong, costa strongly arched, apex round-pointed, termen straight, slightly oblique ; yellow ; a broad basal purple-fuscous fascia, posterior edge convex from \ costa to § dorsum; post-median fascia somewhat circular, narrow on costa at f, broad on dorsum from f to 118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. tornus, anterior and posterior margins convex ; cilia yellow. Hindwings with termen rounded; whitish-grey; cilia whitish-grey. North Queensland: Cape York in November and April; two specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type. 198. Heterallactis stenochrysa n.sp. vrevoxpvoos , narrowly golden. S . 15 mm. Head yellow. Palpi very small ; brownish. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male 1J. Thorax fuscous with an anterior yellow spot. Abdomen fuscous. Legs ochreous-whitish ; anterior pair brownish. Forewings suboblong, costa moderately arched, apex rectangular, termen straight, slightly oblique ; yelloAV with two purple-fuscous fasciae ; basal fascia moderate, straight-edged from J costa to J dorsum ; postmedian very broad on dorsum from § to tornus, narrowing near costa, which it touches at f, anterior margin strongly convex, posterior straight with a small median tooth ; cilia yellow, on tornus fuscous. Hindwings with termen rounded ; grey ; cilia grey. Hindwings of male with costa strongly expanded and with a median tuft of hairs covering a patch of andro- conial scales on underside of fore wings below cell. North Queensland : Kuranda in November ; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 199. Heterallactis microchrysa n.sp. yuKpoxpvoos , small golden. S $ . 13-14 mm. Head bright yellow. Palpi very small ; pale yellow. Antennae fuscous ; ciliations in male f. Thorax fuscous with a large yellow anterior spot. Abdomen grey. Legs brownish ; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings suboval, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen rounded, not oblique ; bright yellow with two lustrous purple- fuscous fasciae edged darker ; first basal, narrow, anterior edge straight, costal and dorsal margins of equal length ; second subterminal, anterior edge from § costa to § dorsum, posterior concave from near apex to tornus, both slightly waved ; cilia yellow. Hindwings with termen rounded ; grey ; cilia grey. Underside of forewing in male with a narrow patch of androconia covered by long hairs beneath posterior part of cell. North Queensland: Cape York in October and November; seven specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type. 200. Heterallactis chry gauges n.sp. Xpvcravyrjs , bright golden. $ $ . 14-18 mm. Head, bright yellow. Palpi very small ; brownish. Antennae fuscous ; in male minutely ciliated with longer paired bristles (1). Thorax purple-fuscous with an anterior yellow spot. Abdomen grey. Legs brownish ; posterior pair whitish-ochreous. Forewings suboblong, costa strongly arched, apex rectangular, termen straight, not oblique ; bright yellow with two lustrous purple-fuscous fasciae ; basal fascia oblique, straight edged from J costa to ^ dorsum; postmedian broad, anterior edge from midcosta or beyond, convex, posterior from costa before apex to tornus, convex, leaving a narrow terminal yellow fascia ; cilia yellow. Hindwings with termen rounded ; grey ; cilia grey. A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) . 119 North Australia: Darwin in November and December (F. P. Dodd). North Queensland: Cape York in November, April, and June (W. B. Barnard) . Six specimens. 201. Heterallactis euchrysa. Heterallactis euchrysa Meyr. l.c., p. 703. Hmps. ii., p. 539. Queensland: Cairns; Nambour; Brisbane. New South Wales: Lismore. 202. Heterallactis trigonochrysa n.sp. rpiycvoxpvcros . with golden triangle. $ . 16 mm. Head bright yellow. Palpi small ; brown, apices paler. Antennae pale fuscous; ciliations in male 1^. Thorax lustrous purple- fuscous with an anterior yellow spot. Abdomen, grey; tuft grey- whitish. Legs ochreous-brown ; posterior pair pale ochreous. Forewings suboblong, costa strongly arched, apex rectangular, termen straight, slightly oblique ; lustrous purple-fuscous ; markings bright yellow ; a large triangular spot on costa from near base to middle, its apex rounded, not reaching dorsum ; a narrow terminal fascia, its anterior margin from f costa to tornus, slightly indented in middle ; cilia yellow. Hind- wings with termen rounded ; in male with a. large rounded costal expansion covering a patch of androconia on undersurface of forewing; pale grey ; cilia pale grey. North Queensland: Cape York in November ; two specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type. 69. Gen. HEMONIA. Wlk., xxviii., p. 420. Hmps. ii., p. 556. Tongue present. Palpi short, porrect, smooth, slender, acute. Antennae of male bipectinate to f . Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with cell long (f ) ; 2 from middle, 3 from near angle, 4 and 5 stalked, 6 and 7 connate or stalked, 8, 9, 10 separate, 11 from middle, connected by a bar with 12. Hindwings with cell long (f), 2 from well before angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anasto- mosing with cell to f. A small Indo-Malayan genus. Type, H . orbiferana Wlk., from India. 203. Hemonia micrommata. Eurodes micrommata Turn. Trans. Boy Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 12. Hemonia micrommata Hmps. ii., p. 556, PI. 34, f. 21. North Australia : Darwin. Queensland : Cairns ; Townsville ; Lindeman I. ; Yeppoon. 204. Hemonia peristerodes n.sp. 7T€purT€pcx)Srj s, dove-coloured. S . 20 mm. Head and thorax grey. Palpi 1 ; ochreous-whitish. Antennae grey ; pectinations in male 2. Abdomen whitish. Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior pair grey. Forewings broadly triangular, costa very strongly arched, apex rectangular, termen straight, not oblique ; pale grey ; a fuscous costal line to f, thence strongly curved to tornus ; terminal area beyond this darker grey with a fine dentate 120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. interrupted fuscous submarginal line ; a wavy transverse line from \ dorsum reaching more than half across disc ; a minute fuscous discal dot at f ; cilia grey. Hindwings with termen rounded ; whitish ; cilia whitish. North Queensland: Cape York in October and November; three specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type. Subfam. AKCTIINAE. Key to Genera. 1. Tongue obsolete or rudimentary, forewings with- out areole 2 Tongue well developed, forewings with areole 7 2. Palpi obsolete Heliocaes 70 Palpi developed 3 3. Palpi clothed with long rough hair, terminal joint concealed Phaos 71 Palpi moderately hairy, terminal joint not con- cealed 4 4. Femora hairy 5 Femora not hairy Creatonotus 72 5. Posterior femora with spurs obsolete Maenas 73 Posterior femora with terminal spurs present 6 6. Abdomen hairy Spilosoma 74 Abdomen smooth Amsacta 75 7. Areole long and narrow, 7 from' areole connate with 8, 9 . . . . .... Ehodogastria 76 Areole not long and narrow, 7 separate from areole Cremnophora 77 70. -Gen. HELIOCAES nov. r)\LOKar)s , sun-scorched. Tongue and palpi rudimentary. Antennae of male bipectinate to apex. Posterior tibiae without middle spurs. Thorax hairy. Abdomen comparatively smooth. Forewings with 2 from towards angle, 3, 4, 5 approximated, 6 from upper angle, 7, 8, 9, 10 stalked, 11 from towards end of cell, free. Hindwings with 2 from f, 3, 4, 5 somewhat approxi- mated, 6 and 7 connate or stalked, 12 anastomosing to near middle of cell. Type, H. cosmeta. 205. Heliocaes xanthotypa n.sp. ^avOorvTTos , with yellow markings. S . 28-32 mm. Head blackish. Antennae blackish ; pectinations in male 8. Thorax blackish with a pair of orange spots on patagia. Abdo- men blackish with orange rings on apices of segments. Legs blackish ; dorsum of tibiae orange. Forewings triangular, costa straight, apex round-pointed, termen rounded, oblique ; blackish with orange spots ; a triangular subdorsal spot near base ; two triangular antemedian spots separated by median vein ; a postmedian series of two round spots with intermediate dots; a subterminal series of dots with a gap in middle followed by a round subtornal spot; cilia blackish. Hindwings with termen rounded ; colour as fore wings ; a large sub-basal and smaller postmedian spots, often more or less confluent ; a dot on midtermen ; cilia blackish, on midtermen orange. A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTER A ) . 121 Queensland: Stanthorpe in October,, November, and January; three specimens. 206. Heliocaes cosmeta. Spilosoma cosmeta Low. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1907, p. 170. Estigmene cosmeta Hmps., Suppl. ii., p. 430. $ . 32-34 mm. Head fuscous. Antennae fuscous ; pectinations in male 2. Thorax fuscous ; patagia and tegulae partly whitish-ochreous. Abdomen fuscous, towards apex mixed with ochreous. Legs fuscous ; femora and anterior coxae ochreous. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa straight, apex rounded, terrnen rounded, slightly oblique ; fuscous ; markings and some suffusion pale ochreous ; a short streak on base of dorsum; two transverse series of small suffused spots; first sinuate from f costa to f dorsum ; second subterminal, angled outwards in middle ; cilia fuscous. Hindwings with terrnen rounded ; ochreous-reddish ; a discal spot and broad basal band fuscous, cilia fuscous; on tornus and dorsum ochreous. New South Wales: Brewarrina; Bourke ; Broken Hill. South Australia : Morgan ; Mannurn. North-west Australia : Broome. 71. Gen. PHAOS. Wlk., iii., p. 627. Turn. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1925, p. 110. Tongue obsolete. Palpi very short, clothed with long rough hair; terminal joint concealed. Antennae of male bipectinate to apex. Thorax and abdomen hairy. Anterior tibiae sometimes with two terminal hooks. Posterior tibiae with or without middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from |, 3, 4, 5 approximated, 6 from upper angle, 7, 8, 9, 10 stalked, 11 from towards end of cell, free. Hindwings with 2 from § , 3 from near angle, 4 and 5 connate, 6 and 7 connate or stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Female unknown ; probably apterous. Type, P. interfixa. Probably allied to the New Zealand genus Metacrias, which has retained a small areole. Key to Species. Forewings with dorsum dark fuscous . . . . . . interfixa Forewings with dorsum barred alternately blackish and ochreous . . . . . . . . . . aglaophara Forewings with dorsum orange-ochreous . . . . acmena 207. Phaos interfixa. Phaos interfixa Wlk., iii., p. 627. Turn. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1925, p. 111., Estigmene interfixa Hmps. iii., p. 339. Tasmania : Mount Wellington (4,000 feet) ; Cradle Mountain (3,000 feet). 208. Pliaos aglaophara. Phaos aglaophara Turn. Trans. Roy Soc. S.A., 1926, p. 120. New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (5,000-6,000 feet). 209. Phaos acmena. Phaos acmena Turn. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1925, p. 112. Estigmene interfixa Hmps., PI. 47, f. 18. Tasmania: Bothwell; Launceston. 122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 72. Gen. CREATONOTUS. Hb. Verz., p. 169. Hmps. iii., p. 331. Tongue weak and imperfect. Palpi very short, hairy. Antennae of male shortly ciliated. Femora smooth. Posterior tibiae without middle spurs; terminal spurs very short. Thorax smooth. Forewings with 2 from §, 3, 4, 5 somewhat approximated, 6 from beneath upper angle, 7, 8, 9, 10 stalked, 11 from near end of cell, free. Hindwings with 2 from § , 3 and 4 connate or stalked, 5 approximated, 6 and 7 approximated or connate ; 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Type. C. gangis. A small African and Indo-Malayan genus. 210. Creatonotus gangis. Phalaena gangis Lin. Amoen. Acad., vi., p. 410. Noctua interrupta Lin. Syst. Nat., i. (2), 840. Bombyx francisca Fab. Mant Ins. ii., p. 131. Creatonotus continuatus Moore Ann Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xx., p. 344. Phragmatobia interrupta Meyr. l.c., p. 802. Creatonotus gangis Hmps., iii., p. 333. North Australia : Darwin ; Adelaide River. Queensland : Cairns ; Innisfail ; Atherton Plateau ; Ingham ; Townsville ; Mackay. Also from the Archipelago, China, and India. 73. Gen. MAENAS. Hb. Verz., p. 167. Hmps. iii., p. 247: Tongue obsolete. Palpi short, porrect, rough-haired ; terminal joint short, obtuse. Eyes sometimes thinly covered with fine hairs. Antennae of male bipectinate to apex. Femora hairy. Posterior tibiae without middle spurs; terminal spurs very short. Forewings with 2 from f, 3 from near angle, 4 and 5 connate, 6 from upper angle, 7, 8, 9, 10 stalked, 11 from towards end of cell, free. Hindwings with 2 from middle, 3, 4, 5 approximated, 6 and 7 connate, 12 anastomosing with cell to or further. Thorax and abdomen hairy. T'ype, M. vocula Stoll, from South Africa. A genus of moderate size extensively distributed in both hemispheres. 211. Maenas maculifascia. Spilosoma maculifascia Wlk., iii., p. 676. Spilosoma conspurcatum Wlk., vii., p. 1628. Pymantria parva Wlk., xxxii., p. 368. Maenas maculifascia Hmps. iii., p. 249. Maenas arescopa Turn. Trans. Roy Soc. S.A., 1906, p. 118. North Queensland : Cairns ; Atherton Plateau ; Bowen. Queensland : Yeppoon, Also from the Archipelago. 74. Gen. SPILOSOMA. Curtis Brit. Ent., ii., PI. 92. Hmps., Suppl. ii., p. 363. A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) . 123 Tongue weak and imperfect. Palpi short, porrect, hairy ; terminal joint short, obtuse. Eyes sometimes thinly covered with fine hairs. Thorax and abdomen hairy. Femora hairy. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from about middle, 3, 4, 5 approximated, 6 from upper angle, 7, 8, 9, 10 stalked, 11 from towards end of cell, free. Hindwings with 2 from f , 3, 4, 5 approximated or connate, 12 anastomo- sing with cell to i. Type, S. lubricipeda Lin., from Europe. A large genus with representatives in all continental areas. Spilosoma Curtis has priority over Diacrisia Hb. Key to Species. 1. Hindwings black and orange' Hindwings not black and orange . . . . . . 2 2. Hindwings red or reddish . . . . . . . . 3 Hindwings white . . . . . . . . . . 5 3. Hindwings with fuscous terminal or subterminal band Hindwings without terminal band . . . . • • 4 4. Forewings with terminal fuscous dots Forewings without terminal dots 5. Thorax with lateral fuscous streaks Thorax without lateral streaks 212. Spilosoma curvata. Bombyx curvata Don. Inst. N. Holl., PI. 34, f. 3. Chelonia fuscinula Dbld. Eyre’s Cent. Aust., i., p. 438, PL 5, f. 4. Arctia vitlata Moschl. Stett. Ent. Zeit., 1872, p. 351. Phaos vigens Butl. P.Z.S., 1878, p. 383. Phaos nigriceps Butl. ibid., p. 383. Phaos notatum Butl. ibid., p. 383. Phaos nexum Butl., p. 384. Phaos lacieatum Butl. ibid., p. 384. Spilosomii fuscinula Meyr. l.c., p. 752. Spilosoma brisbanensis Luc. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1890, p. 1084. Spilosoma quinqmfascia Luc. ibid., p. 1085. Ardices curvata Hmps. iii., p. 245. This is a most variable species. Apart from individual variations, it tends to form local races ; these are as follows : — athertonensis with dark costal, median, and dorsal streaks from base to termen. North Queensland : Atherton Plateau. fuscinula-lact eat a-h risk anensis with longitudinal streaks thinner and incomplete, followed by subterminal and terminal series of spots. Sydney examples are on the average darker than those from Queensland, but cannot be separated from them. Queensland: Bundaberg ; Gympie ; Nambour; Brisbane; Mount Tamborine; Tweed Heads; Bunya Mountains. New South Wales: Lismore ; Tyringham; Murrurundi ; Newcastle; Sydney; Jervis Bay. platycroca curvata erytJirastis nobilis glatignyi canescens 124 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. nexa-nigriceps-quinque fascia without longitudinal streaks but with four transverse fasciae more or less confluent, the basal fascia containing a whitish spot. New South Wales : Ebor (4,500 feet) ; Mount Kosciusko (5,000 feet). Victoria: Melbourne; Beaconsfield. vigens smaller than the preceding, darker, the fascia more com- pletely confluent, and without basal white spot. Tasmania : Georgetown ; Geeveston ; Bruni Island. 213. Spilosoma glatignyi. Chelonia glatignyi Le Guil. Rev. Zool. 1841, p. 257. Chelonia pallida Dbld. Eyre’s Cent. Aust., i., p. 438, PI. 5, f. 3. Ardices fuvokirta Wlk., iii., p. 710. Spilosoma snbocellatum Wlk., vii., p. 1697. Spilosoma conferta Wlk., xxxi., p. 295. Spilosoma fulvohirta Meyr. l.c., p. 754. Spilosoma queenslandi Luc. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q., 1898, p. 60. Ardices garida Swin. Cat. Oxf. Mus., i., p. 179, PI. 4, f. 7. Ardices glatignyi Hmps. iii., p. 246. Diacrisia garida Hmps. iii., p. 309. Diacrisia meridionalis Roths. Nov. Zool. 1910, p. 134. Ardices meridionalis Hmps., Suppl. ii., p. 352. Variable. I regard garida as a melanic aberration. Queensland: Macpherson Range. New South Wales: Sydney; Mount Wilson. Victoria: Melbourne; Gisborne. Tasmania: Waratah; Rosebery; Strahan ; Mount Wellington; Hobart. South Australia: Kangaroo Island. West Australia: Albany; Perth. 214. Spilosoma canescens: Ardices canescens Butl. Cist. Ent., ii., p. 29. Spilosoma obliqua Meyr. (nee. Wlk.) l.c., p. 755. Diacrisia canescens Hmps, iii., p. 287, PI. 45, f. 4. Queensland: Mount Tamborine; Macpherson Range (3,500 feet) ‘ Toowoomba; Bunya Mountains, New South Wales: Ebor; Sydney^ Victoria: Melbourne. Tasmania: Launceston; Latrobe. 215. Spilosoma erythrastis. Spilosoma erythrastis Meyr. l.c., p. 753. Spilosoma frenchi Luc. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q., 1898, p. 59. Diacrisia erythrastis Hmps. iii., p. 269, PI. 44, f. 8. North Queensland : Lizard Island ; Cairns. A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) . 125 216. Spilosoma nobilis, n.sp. nobilis, excellent. $ . 56 mm. Head brown- whitish ; lower half of face blackish. Palpi blackish; lower half red. Antennae blackish; ciliations in male 2. Thorax whitish-brown ; two anterior spots on patagia, lateral streaks on tegulae, and a median streak, blackish. Abdomen red, on terminal segments mixed with yellow ; with a median dorsal series of blackish spots. Legs dark fuscous ; basal three fourths of tibiae and anterior coxae red. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa straight to near apex, apex rounded, termen long, slightly rounded, oblique ; ochreous-whitish with blackish markings ; costal edge blackish as far as an oblique bar on -J costa representing antemedian line, which is continued by median and subdorsal dots; a second bar on f costa with an angled series of dots to dorsum beyond middle ; a subterminal series of dots from apex to tornus ; cilia ochreous-whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded ; yellowish, basal half suffused with red ; a discal spot and subterminal series of spots blackish ; cilia yellowish. North Queensland: Millaa Millaa (3,000 feet) in September; one specimen. 217. Spilosoma platycroca n.sp. irXarvKpoKos , broadly saffron-hued. $ . 36 mm. Head orange. Palpi ; fuscous. Antennae blackish ; pectinations in male 6. Thorax fuscous ; patagia orange with a median fuscous streak. Abdomen orange ; apices of segments dark fuscous. Legs smooth ; fuscous, bases of femora ochreous. Forewings triangular, costa straight almost to apex, apex rounded, termen straight, moderately oblique ; dark fuscous with orange markings ; a subdbrsal spot near base ; a moderate fascia from beneath ^ costa to J dorsum ; another from beneath § costa to § dorsum; a subterminal series of spots; cilia fuscous. Hindwings with termen slightly rounded; dark fuscous; a large basal patch extending to J and an incomplete postmedian fascia orange ; an orange dot on tornus ; cilia fuscous, on tornus and dorsum orange. This species ill accords with Spilosoma. The smooth femora would justify its removal from that genus, but this would entail a revision of the exotic genera, which I am not able to undertake. North Australia : King River in January; type in National Museum, Melbourne. 75. Gen. AMSACTA. Wlk., iv., p. 804. Hmps. iii., p. 322. Tongue obsolete. Palpi moderately long, porrect, obtuse, thickened with appressed scales, somewhat hairy beneath. Antennae of male serrate, dentate, or (in exotic species) bipectinate. Thorax somewhat hairy. Abdomen smooth. Femora hairy. Anterior tibiae with an apical and subapical claw. Posterior tibiae without middle spurs, terminal spurs short. Forewings with 2 from near end of cell, 3, 4, 5 approximated from angle, or 4 and 5 stalked, 6 from upper angle, 7, 8, 9, 10 stalked, 11 from near end of cell, free. Hindwings with 2 from § or beyond, 3, 4, 5 approximated, or 4 and 5 stalked, 6 and 7 connate or stalked, 12 anas- tomosing to middle of cell. Type, A. marginalis Wlk., from Africa. An Indo-Malayan and African genus of some size. R.S. — E 126 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 218. Amsacta gangara. Aloa gangara Swin. Cat. Oxf. Mus., i., p. 171, PI. 4, f. 2. Amsacta gangara Hmps. iii., p. 326. West Australia: Albany; Beverley; Perth; Merredin. 219. Amsacta eurymochla. Amsacta eurymochla Turn. Proe. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1926, p. 119. Victoria: Warragul. Tasmania: Beaconsfield. 220. Amsacta marginata. fcr. Phalaena marginata Don. Ins. N. Hoi., PI. 34, f. 2. Areas marginata Meyr. l.e,, p. 755. Areas roseicostis Butl. Cist. Ent., ii., p. 23. Areas punctipennis Butl. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xviii., p. 126. Amsacta marginata Hmps. iii., p. 330. North Australia: Darwin; Brock’s Creek. Queensland: Thursday Island ; Cooktown ; Atherton Plateau ; Mount Mulligan ; Dunk Island ; Charters Towers; Rockhampton; Eidsvold; Gayndah; Brisbane; Mount Tamborine ; Toowoomba ; Nanango ; Stanthorpe ; Milmerran ; Miles ; Charleville. New South Wales: Tabulam ; Murrurundi; Scone; New- castle; Sydney. South Australia: Port Lincoln. North-west Australia: Sherlock River ; Condon ; Monteballo Island. Also from New Guinea. 221. Amsacta costalis. Aloa costalis Wlk., xxxi., p. 301. Alda cordima Swin. Cat. Oxf. Mus., i., p. 171, PI. 4, f. 1. Amsacta costalis Hmps. iii., p. 326. North Australia: Darwin; Port Essington. North Queensland: Thursday Island; Mareeba ; Townsville. North-west Australia: Kimberley ; Wyndham. 76 Gen. RHODOGASTRIA. Hb. Verz., p. 172. Hmps., iii., p. 498. Tongue strongly developed. Palpi moderately long, ascending, smooth, rough-scaled towards base beneath; terminal joint long, obtuse. Antennae of male minutely ciliated with very short bristles. Thorax and femora smooth. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Porewings with 2 from §, 3, 4, 5 separate, 6 from well below upper angle, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 10 almost from end of cell, connected with 8 by an oblique bar to form a long narrow areole, 11 from j, free. Hindwings with 2 from f, 3, 4, 5 separate, 12 anastomosing nearly to end of cell. Type, R. astreas Drury. A large Indo-Malayan and African genus. Key to Species. 1. Forewings wholly white Forewings not wholly white 2. Abdomen rosy Abdomen yellowish-brown 3. Forewings uniformly grey or whitish Forewings not uniformly grey or whitish 4. Forewings with base white Fore wings with base not white 2 3 4 alberta rubripes serica crokeri timiolis A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) . 127 222. Rhodogastria rubripes. Amerila rubripes Wlk., xxxi., p. 304. Meyr. l.c., p. 766. Rhodogastria rubripes limps, iii., p. 500. North Australia: Darwin. Queensland : Thursday Island; Cape York; Cooktown; Cairns; Innisfail ; Atherton Plateau; Dunk Island; Ingham ; Townsville ; Bowen ; Rockhampton ; Gympie ; Brisbane. North-west Australia: Wyndham. 223. Rhodogastria alberti. Rhodogastria alberti Roths. Nov. Zool., 1910, p. 186. Hmps., Suppl. ii., p. 530. North Queensland: Cooktown; Cairns; Atherton Plateau. 224. Rhodogastria serica. Amerila serica Meyr. l.c., p. 765. Rhodogastria serica Hmps. iii., p. 505. Queensland : Rockhampton ; Gayndah ; Brisbane ; Toowoomba. 225. Rhodogastria timioUs. Rhodogastria timiolis Turn. Proc. Lin. Soc. Q., 1915, p. 20. Hmps., Suppl. ii., p. 518, PI. 68, f. 23. North Australia: Melville Island. North Queensland: Cape York; Cairns ; Dunk Island ; Townsville. It is possible that the female specimen described by Meyrick (l.c., p. 764) as Amerila astraeas Drury may be an example of this species. 226. Rhodogastria crokeri. Euprepia crokeri Macl. King’s Surv. Aust., ii., p. 465. Amerila brachyleuca Meyr. l.c., p. 765. Rhodogastria croceri Hmps. iii., p. 504, PI. 50, f. 14. North Australia : Darwin. Queensland : Cooktown ; Atherton Plateau ; Dunk Island ; Bowen ; Bundaberg ; Gayndah ; Brisbane. New South Wales: Lismore. North-west Australia: Wyndham. Also from New Guinea. 77. Gen. CREMNOPHORA. Hmps, iii., p. 453. Face with a conical prominence. Tongue well developed. Palpi rather long, porrect, smooth, but rough-haired at base beneath, obtuse. Antennae of male bipectinate to apex. Thorax smooth above with a rough posterior crest ; hairy beneath. Femora hairy. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of well-developed spurs. Forewings with areole present ; 2 from § , 3, 4, 5 separate, 6 from well below upper angle, 7, 8, 9 stalked from areole, 10 separate from areole, 11 from f, free. Hindwings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 approximated, 5 separate, 6 and 7 approximated, 12 anastomosing with cell to J. Monotypical. m PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND. 227. Crernnophora angasii. Apina angasii Wlk., iii., p. 757. Crernnophora angasi Hmps. iii., p. 453. Victoria : Brentwood. South Australia : Murray Bridge ; Moonta, West Australia : Coolgardie; Quairading. Species unrecognised. 228. Comarchis gradata Luc. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1889, p. 1081. Toowoomba. 229. Mosoda bancrofti Luc. ibid., p. 1077. Brisbane. 230. Mosoda lineata Luc. ibid., p. 1078. Brisbane. 231. Tiiallarcha aurantiaca Luc. ibid., p. 1080. Brisbane. 232. Choorechillum distitans Luc. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q., 1901, p. 73. This is a synonym of Abraxas flavimacula Warr. (Boarmiadae)1 233. Burma intersecta Luc. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1889, p. 1070. This is a synonym of XyJorycta porphyrinella Wlk. 234. Anesiia trissodesma Low. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1897., p. 12. Belongs to the genus Anouiocentris ( Larentiidae ) . 235. Chundana lugubris Wlk. J. Lin. Soc, Zook, 1862, p. 117. Belongs to the Epiplemidae. Aclytophanes n.g. Aedoea Turn. Amcleta n.g. Amsacta Wlk. Arrhytbmica n.g. Asura Wlk. . . Atelophleps n.g. Ateucheta n.g. Baeomorplia n.g. Calamidia Butl. Caprimima Hmps. Castulo Wlk. . . Chamaita Wlk. Chionaema H-Sch. Ckrysoscota Hmps. Creatonotus Hb. Crernnophora Hmps Ctenosia Hmps. Diduga Moore Eilema Hb. . . Eutane Wlk. . . Goniosema Turn. Graphosia Hmps. Habrochroma n.g. Halone Wlk. . . Hectobrocha Meyr. Heliochaes n.g. Heliosia Hmps. Hemonia Wlk. Hestiarcha. Meyr. Hesychopa n.g. Heterallactis Meyr. Heterotropa n.g. Ionthas Hmps. Lambula Wlk. Lepista Wlgm. Maenas Hb. . . Melastrota Hmps. Manulea Wlgrn. INDEX TO GENERA. 39 Meteura Hmps. 19 Nesotropha Turn. 37 Notata Hmps. 75 Nudaria Haw. 27 Oeonistis Hb. 48 Oreopola n.g. 29 Palaeosia Hmps. 14 Pallene Wlk. 66 Panachranta Turn. . . 22 Parelictis Meyr. 43 Phaeophlebosia Hmps. 59 Phaos Wlk. 61 Phenacomorpha n.g. 33 Philenora Rosen. 3 Poliodule Hmps. 72 Poliosia Hmps. 77 Porphyrochrysa n.g. 17 Psapharacis Turn. . . 67 Pseudophanes n.g. . . 18 Rhodogastria Hb. . . 34 Seaphidriotis Turn. . . 28 Scaptesyle Wlk. 8 Schistophleps Hmps. 49 Scoliacma Meyr. 41 Spilosoma Curtis 35 Stenarcha Hmps. 70 Stenoscaptia Hmps. 38 Symmetrodes Meyr. . . 69 Teratopora Meyr. 5 Termessa Newm. 23 Thallarcha Meyr. 68 Thermeola Hmps. . . 65 Threnosia Hmps. 47 Thumatha Wlk, 6 Tigrioides Butl. 1 Trissobrocha Turn. . . 73 Utetheisa Hb. 54 Xanthodule Butl. 21 2 55 57 62 20 7 24 50 53 58 12 71 16 56 31 15 64 42 52 76 30 40 63 10 74 51 26 32 4 60 44 9 11 46 13 36 25 45 129 A REVISION OP THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) . INDEX TO SPECIES. Synonyms and species unrecognised or wrongly referred in italics. acmena Turn, acosma Turn, adoxa Meyr. . . adrasta n.sp. aedumena Turn, aequidistans Luc. aglaophara Turn, agraphes n.sp. albicollis Feld, albida Wlk. . . albisparsa Hmps. alterna Wlk. amorpha n.sp. anartioides Wlk. angasi Wlk. . . anguliscripta Luc. aspectatella Wlk. asticta Hmps. atala Turn. . . ataracta Hmps. athola n.sp. . . atrifusa Hmps. aurantiaca Luc. banorofti Luc. bamardi Luc. bicolor Bdv. bicosta Wlk. . . bipars Wlk. . . bipunctata Wlk. brachyleuca Meyr. brisbanensis Luc. camptopleura Turn, canescens Butl. . castanea Roths, catameces n.sp. cataplex n.sp. catarrhoa Meyr. catasticta Low. catocalina Wlk. cervicalis Wlk. cervina Luc. . . charopa Turn, chiloides Wlk. chionastis Meyr. chionea Turn, chionora Meyr. chrysauges n.sp. ehysochares Meyr. chrysochoa Meyr. chrysopera Hmps. cleta n.sp. coccinocosma n.sp. compsodes n.sp. conferta Wlk. congrua Wlk. conographa Meyr. consolatrix Rosen. convoluta Fab. corsima Swin. coryhaea Turn, cosmeta Low. cosmia Turn, cosmodes n.sp. costalis Wlk. costata Moore costistrigata B-bak. 209 crocopepla n.sp. 19 crocoptera n.sp. 65 crokeri Macl. 21 curvata Don. 71 cyclota Meyr. 74 dasypyga Feld. 208 decreta Butl. 23 delia Fab. 102 dichotoma Meyr. 189 dictyota Meyr. 90 diplograpba Turn. 26 discrepans Wlk. 186 dispar Leach 77 distigmata n.sp. 227 distitans Luc. 50 dochmoschema n.sp. 162 dorsalis Wlk. 60 doubledayi Newm. 12 ebaea Hmps. 133 ectophaea Hmps. 10 eldola Swin. . . 147 elegans Butl. 231 entella Cram. 229 epicela Turn. 187 epigypsa Low. 13 epileuca Turn. 43 epiopsis n.sp. 143 erotis Turn. . . 33 erythrastis Meyr. 229 euchrysa Meyr. 212 eugraphica Turn. 92 euraphota n.sp. 214 eurymochla Turn. 7 fastosa n.sp. 137 flavia Hmps. 169 flavicostata Snell 95 fragilis Luc. 116 gangara Swin. 183 gangis Lin. . . 146 garida Swin. . . 2 glatignyi Le Guil. 70 gracilis Butl. 32 gradata Luc. 167 gratiosa Wlk. 102 gaudens Wlk. 42 habrotis Meyr. 200 hamula Feld. 101 harpophora Meyr. 127 hemichroa Turn. 199 heminephes Meyr. 193 hirta Wlk. .. 134 histrionica H-Sch. 145 homora n.sp. 213 homoschema Turn. 180 humeralis Wlk. 175 hypopolia n.sp. 79 infantula Saalm. 37 infuscata Low. 221 inquinata Luc. 78 interfixa Wlk. 206 intersecta Luc. 101 interspersa Luc. 104 iridesoens Luc. 221 irregularis Hmps. 194 irregularis Luc. 34 isophragma Meyr. 136 140 226 212 152 32 35 37 73 72 181 176 39 36 232 191 38 174 82 147 146 163 37 110 111 109 80 106 215 201 60 51 219 192 148 194 130 218 210 213 213 118 228 181 142 144 176 34 79 20 40 26 149 125 32 24 132 31 130 206 233 85 7 4 162 107 130 PROCEEDINGS OF THE j ocularis Rosen, jucunda Wlk. lacteatum Butl. laeta Wlk. .... lechrioleuca n.sp. leptographa Turn, leptosema n.sp. liboria Meyr. lineata Luc. limonis Luc. lirioleuca Turn, lochaga Meyr. lophoptera n.sp. lophopyga n.sp. lotrix Cram. lugubris Wlk. lydia Don. lyelliana Low. macilenta Luc. macuMfas'Cia Wlk. marginata Don. mediasftina Hb. melanoptera n.sp. meridionalis Roths, meyricki Roths, micra Hmps. microchrysa n.sp. micrommata Turn, mochlina Turn, modica Luc. mollis Luc. molydica n.sp. monochroa Turn, monogrammaria Wlk. monospila n.sp. multilinea Luc. myoehroa n.sp. ynysolica Swin. nana Wlk. nexum Butl. nigriceps Butl. nigrisquamata Swin. niphocephala n.sp. nitens Wlk. nivosa Wlk. nobilis n.sp. notatum Butl. nudaridia Hmps. obducta Luc. obliqua Meyr. obliquata Luc. obliquilinea Hmps. oblita Feld, obscure Hmps. oecophorella Wlk. ombrophanes Meyr. ophiodes Meyr. orthocrossa Turn, orthotoma Meyr. pactolias Meyr. pallicosta Roths. pallida Dbld. pallida Luc. panochra n.sp. partita Wlk. pasteophora n.sp. .... pectinata Hmps. pellax n.sp. pelochroa Hmps. SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. pentacyma Meyr. 63 peristerodes n.sp. 204 phaedropa Meyr. 100 phaeocyma Meyr. 165 phalarota Meyr. 100 phlogozona Turn. 47 phyllodes Meyr. 6 picroptila Turn. 92 placens Wlk. 152 placochrysa Turn. . . 101 plagiata Wlk. 173 platycroca n.sp. 217 platymelas n.sp. 57 pleurotycha n.sp. 8 poliotricha n.sp. 54 polyspila n.sp. 141 prionosticha n.sp. 150 pristina Wlk. 7 procrena Meyr. 94 prosenes n.sp. 86 pteridaula Turn. 83 pteridopola Turn. 168 pulchra Schiff. 46 pulverea Hmps. 1 puverulenta Luc. 1 pulchella Lin. 46 puchelloides Hmps. 45 puctipennis Butl. 220 pygmaeodes Turn. . . 160 pyraula Meyr. 151 pyrrhopa Meyr. 5 pyrrhopsamma Hmps. 154 quadrilineata Bag. . . 153 queenslandi Luc. 213 quinque fascia Luc. . . 212 rava Luc. 132 remota Wlk. 27 replana Lewin 39 repleta Luc. 34 reticulata Feld. 152 roseicosta Butl. 220 rubricosta Wlk. 174 rubripes Wlk. 222 rhabdophora Turn. . . 30 rhaptophora Low. 115 saginaea Turn. 148 salenta Meyr. 172 salpinctis Meyr. 40 sciocosma Meyr. 56 seripta Low. 97 sejuncta Feld. 84 sem'iochrea Butl. 130 semifusca n.sp. 49 semivitrea Roths. 135 serica Meyr. 223 serratilinea n.sp. 155 servilis Meyr. 87 shepherdi Newm. 178 sicciodes Hmps. 97 sinuata Wlgrn. 77 sobria Wlk. 79 sparsana Wlk. 118 spilarcha Meyr. 27 staurocola Meyr. 129 stenochrysa n.sp. 198 stenota Meyr. 156 stenopepla Hmps. 11 stramenticolor n.sp. 117 strongyla Turn. 91 ROYAL 128 69 212 182 114 120 99 59 230 148 158 124 196 14 46 235 142 104 119 211 220 142 157 213 59 68 199 203 126 171 188 4 35 76 139 63 22 33 18 21.2 212 159 197 27 184 216 212 165 190 214 167 6 123 58 162 131 81 184 18 15 89 213 107 67 122 17 44 103 95 A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) . 131 structa Wlk. subnig r a Luc. suboaellatum Wlk. tanyphara n.sp. tasmanica Hmps. terminalis Wlk. terpnodes n.sp. tetramita n.sp. thelxinoa n.sp. thyter Butl. . . . timiolis Turn. torta Wlk. toxophora Turn, transcripta Luc. transitana Wlk. transversa Wlk. tridesma n.sp. trifuroata Wlk. trigonoehrysa n.sp. 153 trimochla n.sp. 52 166 trissodesma Low. . . 234 213 trissomochla n.sp. . . 121 3 undulosa Wlk. . . 164 12 unioolor Luc. 27 61 venusta Luc. 48 177 vigens Butl. . . 212 75 vittata Moschl. . . 212 166 xantho delta Low. 58 46 xanthomelas Low. . . 182 225 xanthopleura Turn. 34 32 xanthotypa n.sp. . . 205 88 xuthopis Turn. 16 9 xylogramma Turn. . . 53 69 zebrina Hmps. . . 138 26 zetesim'a Turn. 28 52 zonopkanes Meyr. . . 179 25 zophophanes n.sp. . . 105 202 CONTENTS No. i. N'o. 2, No. 3, No. 4. No. 5, No. 6, Volume LI., Part 1. Pages. . — Presidential Address : Some Scientific- Investigations Affecting Queensland: By Professor E. C. Richards, D.Sc. . . . . 1-14 . — The Absorption of Agios by Wool: By Professor L. S. Bagster, D.Sc., and Madoline V. Connali, M.Sc. . . . . . . . . 15-18 . — Habits and Chjetotaxy jdf the Larva of Anopheles atratipes Skuse: By Elizabeth N. Maries, B.Sc. .. .. .. 19-23 — The Interrelationships of the Plant Communities of Queens- land: By S. T. Blake, M.Sc. . . 24-31 . — Notes on Australian Cyperaceae, III. : By S. T. Blafoe, M.Sc. . . 32-50 . — A Review of Australian Arctiidae (Lepidoptera) : By A. Jefferis Turner, M.D., F.R.E.S. . . . . . . .... . . 51-131 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND FOR 1939 VOL. LI. A NOV ; J| 1940 PART 2. *2P'VAV. MVjS ISSUED 22nd APRIL, 1940. PRICE : FIVE SHILLINGS. ;>V. Printed for tiie Society by Thomas Gilbert Hope, Acting Government Printer, Brisbane. NOTICE TO AUTHORS. 1. 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They should be . done or mounted on a smooth surface, such as Bristol board, as the grain of most drawing papers becomes visible on reproduction. Single photographs should be sent flat and unmounted. All prints should be on glossy bromide or gas-light paper. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY QUEENSLAND FOR 1939 VOL. LI. PART 2. ISSUED 22nd APRIL, 1940. PB.IOE ; FBVE SHILLINGS. Printed for the Society by Thomas Gilbert Hope, Acting Government Printer, Brisbane. The Royal Society of Queensland. Patron: HIS EXCELLENCY, COLONEL THE EIGHT HONOURABLE SIR LESLIE ORME WILSON, G.C.S.I., G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., P.C., D.S.O. OFFICERS, 1 939- 1940. President : H. A. LONGMAN, F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. V ice-Presidents : Professor H. C. RICHARDS, D.Sc. Professor J. V. DUHIG, M.B. Eon. Treasurer: Eon. Secretary: E. W. BICK. DOROTHY HILL, M.Sc., Ph.D. Eon. Librarian: E. A. PERKINS, B.Sc.Agr. Eon. Editors: D. A. HERBERT, D.Sc. J. H. SMITH, M.Sc. Members of Council: Professor H. R. SEDDON, D.V.Sc., E. O. MARKS, M.D., B.A., B.E., A. R. RIDDLE, M.Sc., E. H. ROBERTS, D.Sc., M. WHITE, M.Sc., Ph.D. Trustees: F. BENNETT, B.Sc., J. B. HENDERSON, E.I.C., and A. J. TURNER, M.D., F.E.S Eon. Auditor: A. J. STONEY, B.E.E. Bankers : COMMONWEALTH BANK OF AUSTRALIA. CONTENTS. Volume LI., Part1 2. Pages. No. 7. — Notes on Australian Muscoidea, V., Calliphoridae. By G. H. Hardy 133-146 No. 8. — A Survey of Ectoparasites of Dogs in Brisbane, Queensland, By F. H. S. Roberts, D.Sc. . . 147-149 No. 9. — The Middle Devonian Rugose Corals of Queensland, II. The Silverwood-Lucky Valley Area. By Dorothy Hill, M.Sc., Ph.D . . 150-168 No. 10. — Studies on Queensland Grasses, I. By S. T. Bloke, M.Sc. . . 169-176 No. 11. — Notes on Australian Cyperaceae, IV. By S. T. Blahe, M.Sc. . . 177-182 No. 12— The Heliolitidae of Australia, with a Discussion of the Morphology and Systematic Position of the Family. By 0. A. Jones, M.Sc., F.G-S., and Dorothy Hill, M.Sc., Ph.D. 183-215 Eeport of Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v., vi. Abstract of Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii.-xm. Obituary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv., xv. List of Library Exchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi.-xvni. List of Members xix.-xxiii. V ol. LI., No. 7. 133 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA, V. Calliphoridae. By Gr. H. Hardy. {Bead before the Boyal Society of Queensland, 21th November, 1939.) A key to subfamilies of the Calliphoridae was given in the first part of this series of papers (Hardy 1934), and the genera known to me under the Rhiniinae, Chrysomyiinae, and Calliphorinae are to be recognised by the characters given in the following key : — 1. Without forwardly directed fronto-orbital bristles on the female. Sternopleurals 1 : 1. Palpi conspicuously flattened. Only a few thoracic bristles present. The ridge of the squama bare With one pair of forwardly directed fronto-orbital bristles on female. Arista long plumose. Thoracic bristles well developed With a series of more or less forwardly directed fronto- orbital bristles on female, parallel with those bordering the interfrontalia. Sternopleurals 1:1. Palpi conspicuously flattened. Cheeks hairy, at least microscopical. Arista pubescent or bare. Thoracic bristles well developed. Squama and ridge bare 2. Squama bare above. Arista more or less sparsely plumose or pubescent Squama very hairy above. Arista densely pubescent 3. A metallic green species on which the wings, when at rest, bend downwards from the basal cells, thus, in life, lying along the depressed abdomen they give the superficial appearance of a beetle. The fifth radial and first median veins meet before the wing margin Otherwise coloured species with normal wings, and if the fifth radial and first median veins meet, then the abdomen is brown 4 Metallea 3 Clirysomyia Clilororhina Khinia 4. Fifth sternite of male not cleft or emarginated in any way . at the apex, and with a well developed subapical spine. Otherwise liable to be confused with Pollenia Fifth sternite of male cleft along the median line, the two sides contiguous, or else widely V-shaped 5. Squama usually hairy on the upper side, though often inconspicuously so or the hairs are absent; in these two latter cases the species is small and with a metallic blue-green abdomen. Other characters also very variable Squama always bare. If very small species, then the abdomen is not blue-green 6. Sternopleural bristles arranged 2:1 Sternopleural bristles arranged 1:1. Area of thorax below squama bare 7. Area of thorax immediately below squama with hairs Area of thorax immediately below squama entirely bare . . 8. Cheeks hairy and thoracic bristles long Cheeks bare and thoracic bristles unusually short Aphyssura n.gen. 5 Calliphora 6 7 8 Lucilia Euphumosia Pollenia Paratrichlea This key omits Acanthomyza, which is very poorly described, and I do not know if I have it correctly identified. Dexopollenia Bezzi 1927, p. 231, is not in any collection I have seen. oct #1 1910 134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Subfamily Rhiniinae. Key to genera of the Bhinimae. 1. Facial earina well developed, but with a rounded dorsal surface, showing its tendency towards reduction. Arista with conspicuous cilia above. Without marked bristles on the dorsum of thorax and abdomen. Fifth radial cell open or closed. Closely pitted above with hair-pits Facial earina very much reduced. Arista only pubescent. Hair -pits on body above reduced to hair-spots 2. Fifth radial and first median veins meeting before wing border, and the whole wing tends to fold at the apex of the basal cells. Without marked bristles, but with coarse hair-spots. Entirely metallic green, with a large blackish disc on the depressed abdomen Venation normal. Thorax with complete bristles and reduced hair-pots Bhinia 2 Chlororhina Metallea Genus Bhinia Desvoidy. Key to species of Bhinia. 1. Fifth radial and first median veins meeting before wing margin. Abdomen mainly brown, but slightly marked Fifth radial and first median veins not meeting. Abdomen conspicuously marked with bands 2. Species of small average size, more bluish in colour, eyes almost contiguous on the male, and the parafrons of the female with coarse hair-pits Species of larger average size, more coppery coloured, eyes separated on the male by the width of one ocellus, and the parafrons of the female with abundance of very small hair-pits x anthogaster Wied. 2 subapicalis Macq. cribellata Bezzi. T have not seen Rhinia pallida Malloch 1927, which is said to have scutellum and legs testaceous and is from North Queensland. The other three have an involved synonymy which I believe to be interpreted correctly here. Rhinia xantliogaster Wiedemann. Idia xantliogaster Wiedemann 1830, 349. — Senior-White 1924, 113 (Idielliopsis) . — Senior-White 1925, 93 ( S tomorhina) — Bezzi 1927, 234 {Stomorhina) . — Malloch 1927, 334 {Stomatorhina) . — Malloch 1928, 612 {Rhmia). Idia australis Walker 1849, 809. — Brauer and Bergenstamm 1893, 220. Although this synonymy was given by Senior-White, Malloch gives Walker’s name as a synonym of subapicalis Macq. The description agrees as here given, and Austen labelled a specimen with Walker’s name. An allied form from Palm Island has entirely yellow legs and no markings on the abdomen. The present species is known from Queensland and New South Wales. Rhinia subapicalis Macquart. Idia subapicalis Macquart 1847, 82. — nec Malloch 1927. Euidiella discolor Senior-White 1924, 112 (Australian specimens only) — Senior-White 1925, 93 {Stomorhina). — Bezzi 1927, 234 (Australian record only) — Malloch, 1927, 334 {Stomatorhina) . NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA, V. 135 Idia murina Schiner 1868, 309. — Brauer and Bergenstamm, 1891, 418. Stomorhina subapicalis Bergroth, 1894, 74. Stomatorhina quadrinotata Malloch, 1927, 332. Senior- White recorded some of this synonymy, and an attempt is made here to bring about a better understanding of the Australian element. Malloch brings in Bigot’s name quadrinotata from Java, but does not show if this be conspecific as claimed. Moreover, the species as now standing might be a complex of two species, both of which have two rows of very coarse hairpits on the parafrons of the female. The eye marks of both forms have a green band at antennal level, with three more green bands above and five below; thus of the red field there are eight red bands and two blotches left in one case, in the other the eye marks are the same, except that both the upper and lower blotches are isolated by green from the eye margin and hence are reduced each to an elongated somewhat band-like spot. Except for a slight difference in the spacing of the bands, the eye-markings are similar on both sexes, and in all cases the uppermost and lowermost bands of red tend towards black. The species is common in New South Wales and Queensland. Rhinia cribellata Bezzi. Stomorhina cribellata Bezzi, 1927, 233. — Malloch, 1927, 334. Stomatorhina subapicalis Malloch, 1927, 333. — nec Macquart. This synonymy is new. The female has many more hair-pits on the parafrons than has subapicalis Macquart, and these are arranged usually in three distinct rows, and invariably so towards the anterior part. My note on the eye marks gives only eight green bands all separated from the posterior margin, so that the red bands between them join the . two red blotches along that margin. As in the prior case the uppermost and lowermost bands of red tend towards blackish. The species occurs in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. Genus Chlororhina Townsend, 1917. Chlororhina viridis Townsend. Townsend 1917, 191.— Malloch, 1926, 498 ; 1927, 332 ; 1929, 283. An Australian specimen from the Johnston and Tiegs collection was identified by Aldrich as this species about 1921. It occurs in Queensland and New South Wales. The eye coloration shows black, but probably it is a blackish-red. Genus Metallea v.d. Wulp. v.d. Wulp, 1880, 174.— Malloch 1927, 329. Both this genus and Rhinia contain species that hover in groups in the air, a feature that has allowed me to collect series that are undoubtedly conspecific. The species are very variable in coloration and can be identified by noting the fifth tergite of the female, the accessory plate on the male, and the fairly consistent hairing on the parafacials. The species of North Queensland and Western Australia have yet to be examined this way ; the others are given below. In all cases the eyes in this genus are red. 136 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Key to species of Metallea. 1. Fifth tergite on female membraneous. Accessory plate on male enlarged and angulated. Face conspicuously with dark hairs and the hairs on the cheek may be dark also incisuralis Macquart. Fifth tergite of the female chitinous. Accessory plates on male normal, not angulated . . . . . . . . 2 2. Accessory plates very broad. Face with some dark hairs . . nigribarbis Aldrich. Accessory plates normal in width. Face without dark hairs cuprea Walker. Metallea incisuralis Macquart. Rhynchomyia incisuralis Macquart 1849, 241. Metallea insularis Malloch 1927, 330. The synonymy is new. The brush of the fifth sternite on the male is dense from the base to near the apex, and the eyes are separated by the width of two ocelli whenever the frons is not contracted. In average size the species is larger than the other two, reaching 12 mm., but not infrequently it is quite small, 6 mm. or less. It occurs in New South Wales and Queensland. Metallea cuprea Walker. Musca cuprea Walker 1856, 331. Rhynchomyia gracilipalpis Macquart, 1855, 109. — Brauer, 1899, 514. Rhynchomyia trigina Bigot, 1874, 242. — Brauer, 1899, 514. Metallea illingworthi Malloch, 1927, 330; 1929, 283. — nec. Aldrich. The synonymy is new. Information from Sir Guy Marshall, in a letter dated 15th September, 1920, places Walker’s species as being near Rhynchomyia , and the description leaves no doubt concerning the identity of the species. Both Walker and Macquart described it from South Australia, from which State specimens are before me. Malloch may have confused two or more species under the name illingworthi, but this is certainly one of them. The brush on the fifth sternite thins out on the apical half, leaving the basal half densely supplied with bristles, and the accessory plates are less stout than those of others seen by me. The eyes of the male are separated by the width of one ocellus only. A series captured hovering together at Goondiwindi (Queensland) shows very wide colour variations and no differences in terminalia. It also occurs in New South Wales, being very abundant wherever found. Metallea nigribarbis Aldrich. Aldrich 1926, 10.— Malloch 1927, 331. This apparently less-common species is not represented from Victoria in the material before me, but I have it from New South Wales and Queensland. A series hovering together shows wide colour variations and no differences in terminalia. Malloch records it from Bidsvold (Q-)> and females may be included under Aldrich’s illingworthi type series. The species is very like cuprea and may be readily mistaken for it. Victoria to Queensland. NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA, V. 137 Metallea illingworthi Aldrich. M. divisa (Walker). — Senior-White, 1924, 114; 1925, 90. — Bezzi, 1927, 234. — Limited to Australian specimens so named by both authors. M. illingworthi Aldrich, 1926, 7. — nec. Malloch 1927. Both Senior- White and Bezzi record M. divisa Walker from Australia, and judging from the illustration of the terminalia given by the former, I have seen no specimens to conform to it. Aldrich believed he had the same Queensland species as those two authors, and mentions the “thick” brush of spines, uniform in length on the fifth sternite, these spines thinning out into long bristles towards the apex. Malloch, on the other hand, draws terminalia, reputed by him to be from the same species, with the brush practically obsolete. Aldrich states that the eyes are separated by the width of two ocelli, a character I have not seen on the cuprea series, so it is possible that Aldrich ’s species is not before me, and Malloch ’s interpretation doubtless is mainly based on M. cuprea Walker. North Queensland. Subfamily Ghrysomyiinae. Australian species have been placed in several genera under this subfamily, but characters are not well established, standing as divisions no better than the similar divisions under Cailiphora, nor is it clear where natural clefts occur worthy of generic consideration ; therefore all forms in Australia are best relegated to the one genus. There are no satisfactory keys to species nor yet any comprehensive descriptions, and several species may yet prove to be complexes. The following notes give synonymy and biological data, the latter hitherto unpublished. Genus Chrysomyia Desvoidy. Chrysomyia Desvoidy 1830, 444. — Patton 1925, 405. — Bezzi 1927, 234.— Malloch 1927, 326. Pycnosoma Brauer and Bergenstamm, 1894, 623. Psilostoma Surcouf, 1914, 58. Micro cailiphora Townsend 1916, 618. — Aldrich 1925, 20. — Malloch 1927, 326. Achoetandrus Bezzi, 1927, 235. Eucompsomyia Malloch, 1927, 325. All the terminalia I have seen in this genus have slender forceps fused together along the median line, and the accessory plates are also slender. Chrysomyia incisuralis Macquart. Ochromyia incisuralis Macquart 1849, 246. — Bigot 1877, 260. ( Somomyia ). — :Surcouf 1914, 59. ( Psilostoma ). — Patton 1925, 409. {Chrysomyia) . — Bezzi 1927, 235. — Malloch 1927, 327. Before me there is only one pair definitely belonging to this species as it conforms to colour pattern on the type, illustrated by Surcouf. The specimens accessible to authors may not be conspecific, as they are darker and tend to differ in the distance between the eyes. This darker form occurs plentifully in rain-forest areas and a series from Mount Glorious (Q.) is before me. A specimen from Cairns is reported to have been 138 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. reared from cow-dung and was labelled “ St ernopterina gigas” by W. W. Froggatt, and thus recorded by Johnston and Bancroft (Mem. Qu. Mus. vii. 1920, 12). II ah. — New South Wales and Queensland. Chrysomyia rufifacies Macquart. Lucilia rufifacies Macquart 1843, 146. — Macquart 1849, 243. {Calliphora) . — Froggatt 1918, 663 (larva). {Pycnosoma) . — Bezzi 1927, 235. {Chrysomyia) . — Fuller 1932, 94 (larvae). Lucilia tasmanensis Macquart 1849, 249. — Aubertin 1933, 431. ISomomyia saffranea Bigot 1877, 257. — Brauer 1899, 522. ^Somomyia melanifera Bigot 1877, 258. — Brauer 1899, 522. Chrysomyia alhiceps vac. putoria Patton 1925, 409. Chrysomyia alhiceps Johnston and Hardy 1923, 33 (life cycle). — Malloch 1927, 327. — nec. Wiedemann. Chrysomyia alhiceps vac rufifacies Patton 1934, 223 (fig. 4c, posterior spiracle of larva). The power attributed to this species, of burrowing into the living flesh, proves to be erroneous ; larvie have been used in Brisbane surgically in the treatment of osteomy litis without inducing any trouble. The maggots are comparatively harmless and their predatory habits are greatly exaggerated. In experiments they breed together with maggots of Lucilia and Calliphora as long as the carrion is not advanced in decay, but a stage is reached when decay develops beyond that in which Lucilia and Calliphora are able to breed successfully and their maggots become weakened in consequence ; this is the time when Chrysomyia maggots are liable to show their predacious powers. In a still further advanced state of decay Ophyra maggots thrive and, in their turn, prey on larvae that become weakened by disease. This simple series of progressive phenomena gives a better understanding of the relationship between the state of decay of carrion and the type of maggot fauna than has yet been published. Although Chrysomyia has been repeatedly reared on quite fresh carrion, the adults never seem to be drawn to it for oviposition under natural conditions, but will deposit on highly putrid carrion, whether other maggots be there or not. This has been shown by experiments in Brisbane. Chrysomyia micropogon Bigot. Somomyia micropogon Bigot 1888, 601. — Johnston and Hardy 1923, 33. {Chrysomyia) . — Patton 1925, 406. — Bezzi 1927, 235. — Malloch 1927, 328. — Fuller 1932, 83 (larva). Chrysomyia megacephala Bezzi 1927, 235. — Evidently referring to a form with large eye facets found in more northern parts of Australia and not certainly conspecific with the present species. This fly does not seem to oviposit on sheep very often, but reports of its virulent nature suggest that the animal dies within two days of discovery. The reports need confirmation. NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA, V. 139 The sequence of attack on carrion is uncertain, but apparently the species oviposits earlier than C. ruflfacies, but not as early as Lucilia and Calliphora. The smooth skinned larvae, when in a mass, appear to shiver, and can be easily detected at sight ; they are not predacious. Glirysomyia varipes Macquart. Lucilia varipes Macquart 1849, 249. — Johnston and Hardy 1923, 33. ( Chrysomyia) .—Patton 1925, 410 ( 2 ).— Bezzi 1927, 236. ( Microcalli - phora) . — Malloch 1927, 326.— Fuller 1932, 86 (larvae). Chrysomyia annulipes Patton 1925, 410 ( $ ). A well-known small carrion fly in sheep country, with a tuberculated larva. The fly oviposits on carrion in a very advanced stage of decay. Chrysomyia flavifrons Aldrich. Micro calliphora flavifrons Aldrich 1925, 20 ( S ). — Bezzi 1927, 236. —Malloch 1927, 326. Chrysomyia fulvipes Patton 1925, 410 ( $,). Two females of the Illingworth material are before me. Chrysomyia latifrons Malloch. Eucompsomyia latifrons Malloch 1927, 326. Two specimens come from the dense rain-forest of a gully near Mount Nebo road, Brisbane (part of the waterworks catchment area), so the species appears to be a rain-forest species of New South Wales and southern Queensland. The description is not very satisfactory and was based on a single male specimen, but it proves to be a valid species of Chrysomyia. Subfamily Calliphorinae. Aphyssura new genus. From a Western Australian specimen Malloch described characters conforming with the present genus and placed it in Melinda * Also he gave it the name of a species which he previously described from New South Wales, M. minuta Mall. 1936. He omitted to give the characters in his first description that would indicate the genus. Evidently more than one species occurs, and my specimens are from Tasmania. I select for the genotype the Western Australian species, the only one adequately described for generic recognition. The leading feature of this genus is the uncleft fifth sternite of the male, but otherwise the genus seems to be allied to Pollenia. This sternite has a' spur-like process subapically placed and all the known specimens are small. Type. — Melinda minuta Malloch. Western Australia. * Melinda is part of the Onesia group of the genus Calliphora, differing by the absence of hairs on the squama, a character liable to occur on Australian Onesia species, and hence more applicable there than to Aphyssura, which is a genus more primitive than both Calliphora and Pollenia. 140 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Genus Pollenia Desv. Key to species of Pollenia. 1. Light ■‘coloured forms with tessellated abdomen; eyes of male separated by about the width of the ocellar tubercle. With very broad and elongated accessory plates and the aedeagus conspicuously elongate at apex . . . . . . . . . . . . Dark forms with shorter aedeagus on all species examined 2. Eyes on male separated by about the width of ocellar tubercle (N. S. Wales) Eyes on male separated by the width of two ocelli or less 3. Male with hairs on the face entirely light yellow. Eyes separated by the width of one ocellus. Terminalia not examined Hairs on face of the male dark at least on the upper half 4. Eyes separated by the width of two ocelli. Accessory plate of medium width (Brisbane) Eyes separated by the width of one ocellus 5. Accessory plate broad. Normally with one median bristle on the posterior side of the anterior tibiae Accessory plate of medium width. Normally with two median bristles on posterior side of anterior tibiae Accessory plate very narrow. Frons of male with abundant unusually long hairs flindersi Hardy 2 sp. 3 tasmanensis Macq. 4 sp. 5 calamisessa Hardy mortonensis Macq. hirticeps Malloeh Pollenia tasmanensis Macquart. P. tasmanensis Macq. 1849, 254. — Hardy 1926, 173. P. stolida Malloeh 1936, 21 (Sydney specimens only). This synonymy is new. Macquart ’s record from Tasmania is evidently an error ; it is only known to me from the Sydney district. Pollenia calamisessa Hardy. P. calamisessa Hardy 1932, 340. P. stolida Malloeh 1936, 21.— Typical form only. The synonymy is new. Malloeh ’s characters given for his typical form come well within variations of this widely dispersed species. It occurs from Victoria (F. Erasmus Wilson collection) to Queensland. Pollenia mortonensis Macquart. P. mortonensis Macquart 1854, 116. P. nigrita Malloeh 1936, 22. From Tasmania to Queensland comes a species common in the southern areas, less plentiful around Brisbane, rather small, being from 5 to 7 mm. long, and to which the above synonymy is applicable. Pollenia hirticeps Malloeh. P. hirticeps Mall. 1927, 318 ; and 1936, 21. This is the common species of the Blue Mountains, New South Wales ; from Adelaide comes an ally (unnamed) which has the normal short hairs on the frons. NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA, V. 141 Genus Calliphora Desvoidy. Key to subgenera. 1. Eyes hairy. Abdomen entirely ochraceous yellow Eyes bare 2. Abdomen tesselated, being densely covered with a golden- brown pulverulent overlay Abdomen otherwise coloured 3. Abdomen yellow, with a metallic blue-green median stripe Abdomen entirely blue-green or almost so 4. Aedeagus with the struts free. Squama black-brown with a white edge Aedeagus with the struts fused with membrane to central tube throughout their length. Squama white, yellow, or dark, but never white-edged Key to species of subgenus Onesia. 1. Large to average size, with forceps and accessory plates equally slender Accessory plates conspicuously broader than forceps, or if not then small species with a white pulverulent covering, and placed in couplet 9 below 2. Eyes of male separated by the width of the ocellar tubercle Eyes of the male much narrower 3. Eyes of the male separated by the width of two ocelli Eyes of the male separated by the width of one ocellus . . 4. With lateral flanges developed to lie one beside each accessory plate, on one species triangular in shape, on the other twice as long as broad. Eyes separated by the width of the ocellar tubercle Without such flanges 5. Accessory plates more than twice the width of the forceps, which are undulating in outline. Eyes separated by the width of two ocelli Accessory plates normal, about twice or less the width of the forceps, which are not undulating in outline 6. Struts of aedeagus fused together for practically their entire length, a character taken from figure, and not seen Struts of the aedeagus fused for half their length 7. Accessory plates ending abruptly, more or less expanding at apex. Eyes separated by the width of ocellar tubercle. Abdomen blue-green or blue Accessory plates tapering at apex, not expanding apically 8. Fourth tergite on both sexes with a dense pulverulent overlay hiding the ground colour. Eyes separated by the width of two ocelli Fourth tergite not so covered 9. Abdomen black-green, heavily covered with a whitish pulverulent overlay, through which the ground colour shows. Eyes separated by the width of two ocelli . . Abdomen blue-green, very lightly covered with a pulverulent overlay. Eyes separated by the width of one to two ocelli Calliphora dispar Macquart. C. dispar Macquart 1846, 195. — Brauer 1899, 524. nec. Patton and others. Adichosia 2 Neopoll&nia 3 Proekon 4 Calliphora Onesia 2 4 robust a Malloch 3 ruficornis Walker pubescens Macquart spp. 5 ? clarlci Malloch 6 xanthocera Malloch 7 clausa Macquart 8 dispar Macquart 9 ' minor Malloch assimilis Malloch ( Somomyia ) . — 142 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. C. apicalis Malloch 1927, 312. — The synonymy is new ; both authors mention the pulverulent cover- ing on the apical tergite, which marks the species. My specimens are from Tasmania, but is recorded from New South Wales. Calliphora pubescens Macquart. C. pubescens Macquart 1849, 242. — Johnston and Hardy 1922, 192 (in part). C. dispar Patton 1925, 399. — Hardy 1926, 173. — Bezzi 1927, 243. — nec. Macquart, nec. Malloch. %C. australica Malloch 1927, 314. ?C. cyanescens Loew. — Brauer and Bergenstamm 1891, 420. — Apparently a manuscript name only and may belong here, as the species seems to be represented in every collection. The synonymy is new ; in addition, this species is responsible for the record of C. erythrocephala from Brisbane, as the late B. W. Ferguson misnamed one in the Johnston and Tiegs collection. It is quite common in New South Wales and Queensland. Calliphora robusta Malloch. C. robusta Malloch 1927, 313. From New South Wales and Queensland, but rare in the latter State. Calliphora ruficornis Walker. Musca ruficornis Walker 1857, 215. Calliphora sp. Hardy 1926, 173. Calliphora metallica Malloch 1927, 317. The synonymy is new. I believe I am correct in placing here the name given by Malloch, although I have not seen the species from New South Wales. It is a common Tasmanian form which extends at least into Victoria. Calliphora assimilis Malloch. Cl pubescens Johnston and Hardy 1922, 192 (in part). C. assimilis Malloch 1927, 317. C. dispar Malloch 1927, 312 — nec. Macquart, nec. Patton. The synonymy is new. Large specimens and the typical smaller ones show a wide distribution over Queensland ; see note under C. minor. Calliphora minor Malloch. C. clausa Bezzi 1927, 245 — nec. Macquart. C. minor Malloch 1927, 314. The synonymy is new. In addition, the drawings of terminalia given for C. plebeia Malloch suggest the same species, but is said to have enlarged eye-facets and the frons very narrow. In Brisbane there are three small species commonly found frequent- ing the ground together. C. minor is heavily powdered on a black-green abdomen, and the aedeagus is relatively small. C. assimilis, larger in NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA, V. 143 average size, has the pulverulent covering less dense on a blue-green abdomen, and the aedeagus is relatively longer. 0- clausa has a bluish abdomen with hardly any covering, which marks its identity under field conditions. Queensland; widely distributed. Calliphora clausa Macquart. C. clausa Macquart 1848, 55. — Brauer 1899, 524. — Hardy 1926, 172 — nec. Bezzi. C. pusilla Macquart 1854, 130. — Brauer 1899, 524. C. sp. Malloeh 1927, 311. C. accepta Malloeh 1927, 316. — Fuller 1933, 325 (life history). The synonymy is new. The closed and nearly closed fifth radial cell is not an uncommon feature of this species, and I have one male and a series of females from various States with the character. Bezzi records clausa from North Queensland, but the record evidently refers to C. minor, which also sometimes has the cell almost closed. Specimens are from Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland. Calliphora clarki Malloeh. C. clarki Malloeh' 1927, 316. I may be wrong in the identification of this species, the description of which agrees with a Queensland species before me and upon which I have based the characters given in the key ; the type locality is Western Australia. Calliphora xanthocera Malloeh. C. xanthocera Malloeh 1927, 313. If the struts of this species be correctly drawn, they must be fused along the median line to a greater extent than normal. I have not seen this character which is used in the key, but specimens from Donna Buang, a mountain near Melbourne, may be identical; the male lacks the aedeagus and cannot be identified with certainty. The type locality is Kosciusko. Genus Lucilia Desvoidy. Key to species of Lucilia. 1. With upstanding hairs above metathoracic spiracle; dorso- eentral bristles arranged 2 :3 (HemipgrelUa) . . 2 Without upstanding hairs above metathoracic spiracle; dorsocentral bristles arrange 3:3.. . . . . 3 2. Face with a golden pulverulent covering. Thorax and abdomen partly yellow-orange. Lateral lobes (border- ing genital cavity anteriorly to accessory plates) well developed and hairy . . . . . . . . . . fe^gusoni Patton Face with a silvery pulverulent covering. " Thorax and abdomen without yellow-orange colouring. Lateral lobes restricted and very sparsely haired. Male with eyes conspicuously separated . . . . . . . . ligurriens Wiedemann 3. Subcostal sclerite with one or more upstanding bristles. Eyes on male closely approximate ( Lucilia ) .... 4 Subcostal sclerite with only decumbent pubescence ( Phenicia ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 144 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND. 4. Anterior pair of postsutural aerostichals more advanced than second pair of postsutural dorsocentrals. Antennae orange Anterior pair of postsutural aerostichals level with or slightly posterior to second pair of postsutural dorso- centrals. Female with two antero-dorsal bristles on middle tibiae 5. Abdominal sternites of male with outstanding long hairs. Anterior femora normally with its colour metallic green Abdominal sternites of male less tufted in appearance, so that the hairs appear uniformly short. Anterior femora normally steel-blue in colour flavicornis Malloeh papuensis Macquart cuprina Wiedemann sericata Meigen Distribution of Species of Lucilia. L. cuprina Wied. 1830' ( Musca ) was described from China, but is supposed to be originally African, and has spread throughout the tropics. L. sericata Meigen appears to be European and Asiatic and has spread throughout the more temperate areas. In Australia the distribu- tion overlaps so that, as in Brisbane, wherever difficulty in distinguishing females on the accepted characters is evident, there is reason to suppose that a certain amount of interbreeding takes place. This would account for many unsatisfactory identifications in collections. L. flavicornis Malloeh 1927, is at present only known from Queens- land and was reduced by Aubertin to a local variety of L. porphyrma Walker 1857, known from India, Japan, and Java. L. papuensis Macquart 1843, is, I think, L. tasmanensis in Frog- gatt’s Farmer’s Bull. No. 95, 1915, p. 26 nec. Macquart. It is known from Queensland and New South Wales. L. ligurriens Wiedemann 1830, is abundant in North Queensland, but also occurs in the South. Desvoidy’s description of L. germanica reads like the same species, the locality given being “Nouvelle Hollande et de ITsle de France.” The latter is part of France, and so the species might be a Phormda as was suggested by Aubertin 1933. Nevertheless, Walker’s identification from Adelaide can hardly be correct and possibly was based on Chrysomyia rufifacies Macq. L. fergusoni Patton 1925, is common in the dense shore scrub and spreads to the open forest in the spring. It was reared by me from a pupa collected under a dead bird in the bush at Sunnybank several years ago. South Queensland and New South Wales. Genus Sarcophaga Meigen. The species in this genus form three main groups already dealt with in prior papers. The following notes bring the available informa- tion to date. Evidently S. omikron J. and T. is mainly inhabiting the sheep country in all mainland States? 8. synia J. and T. has two allies, one found on the seashore, near Brisbane, the other reared from the Cossid moth pupa Xyleutes at the roots of Bassia quinquecuspis (the roly-poly) from Boggabilla, New South Wales, and on another occasion from Dirranbandi, Queensland. All three species belong to the $. ermafa-group, which is limited to the Oriental and Australian regions. NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MUSCOIDEA, V. 145 It is still uncertain if 8. omega J. and T. is conspecifie with S. knabi Parker. The latter is an island species of the northern hemisphere, the former mainly inhabits the more arid sheep country of Queensland and New South Wales, but extending to Western and South Australia. There is no evidence yet to show a continuity in distribution as it appears to be absent from the equatorial belt and is rare in the coastal regions of Queensland. On the other hand, I am unable to find anything like a valid structural difference between the two. 8. gamma J. and T. proves to be 8. orchidea Bott. as claimed by several authors, and its distribution includes the equatorial zone; some specimens are from the island of Manus. Sarcophaga bancrofti J. and T. 8. bancrofti J. and T. 1921. — S. fergusoni J. and T. 1922, nec. Hardy 1936. I have examined the Johnston and Tiegs types of both these, and have concluded they are conspecifie. My identification of the latter in 1936 was based on a unnamed species. That new species was in the Johnston and Tiegs collection but left unnamed by them, and all the named specimens are 8. bancrofti. Again, the subgeneric position may prove doubtful, and it may yet be moved from subgenus Sarcophaga and placed in Par osar cophaga as a decadent type. The female, now known, conforms with the predicted characters already given in key form by me (1936). The female allotype is from near Goondiwindi. 8. fergusonina n.sp. 8. fergusoni Hardy 1936, 95, nec. J. and T. 1922. As my provisional identification of 8. fergu\soni has proved incorrect and the name sinks to synonymy, it is necessary now to erect a new name for the species I had then before me, and had based on two males from Goondiwindi, Queensland. A third specimen is in the Johnston and Tiegs collection, but poor in condition. Helicobia australis J. and T. In accordance with the classification by Rhodendorf (1937), this species should be referable to genus Pierretia Desvoidy 1863. Tonnoir (1938) maintains Helicobia is a reasonable position for the species “in spite of discrepancies/’ but the relationships are bound up primarily with the Palaearctic fauna, not with that of North America to which Helicobia belongs; therefore several other names take prece- dence, reducing Helicobia to a synonym. Tonnoir regards the lateral processes of the sheath as being part of the filaments, and hence he makes erroneous drawings of the aedeagus. The allotype female in the Australian Museum, Sydney, was overlooked by him, for he erected a' second allotype. 146 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. REFERENCES. The often quoted standard works of Bigot, Brauer, Brauer and Bergenstamm, Desvoidy, Macquart, Sehiner, Walker and Wiedemann are well known and need not be listed here; references to the other papers are as follows: — Aldrich — 1925. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., lxvi., 16-21. 1926. Ibidem., lxix., 7-10. Aubertin — 1931. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 497-509. 1933. Journ. Zool. Soc. London, xxxviii., 389-436. Bezzi. — 1927. Bull. Ent. Res. London, xvii., 234. Bergroth — 1894. Stett. Ent. Zeit., 74. Froggatt — 1918. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, xliii., 658-667. FULLER; — 1932. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, lvii., 77-91. 1933. Parasitology, xxv., 352. Hardy — 1926. Proc.. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xxxvii., 173. 1932. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, lvii., 338-340. 1934. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xlv., 30-1. 1936. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, lix., 95. Johnston and Hardy — 1922. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xxxiv., 191-4. 1923. Ibidem., xxxv., 33. Johnston and Tiegs — 1921. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xxxiii., 50 and 85. 1922. Rec. Austr. Mus., xiii., 175-188. Malloch — 1926. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9), xviii., 496-510. 1927. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, lii., 297-335. 1928. Ibidem., liii., 612 and 328. 1929. Ibidem., liv., 283. 1936. Ibidem., lxi., 21-23. Patton — 1925. Philippine J. Sci., xxvii., 337-411. Rhodendorf — 1937. Inst. Zool. l’Acad. Sci. de l’Urss (n.s. 12), xix., 500 pp. Senior- W hite. — 1924. Spolia Zeylanica, xiii., 109-117. 1925. Rec. Indian Mus., xxvii., 81-95. Surcouf — 1914. Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris (5), 48, 58-60. Tonnoir — 1938. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales, lxiii., 129-132. Townsend — 1916. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xlix.; 1916, 618. 1917. Rec. Indian Mus., xiii., 185-202. v.D, Wulp. — 1880. Tijd. v. Ent., xxxiii., 174. Vol. LI., No. 8. 147 A SURVEY OF THE ECTOPARASITES OF DOGS IN BRISBANE, QUEENSLAND. By F. H. S. Roberts, D.Sc., Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly. (. Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 27 th November, 1939.) In 1935 a check-list of the arthropod parasites occurring on domestic animals in Queensland was published (Roberts, 1935). Sixteen species were noted as having been recorded from the dog. Since then, 101 dogs in the Brisbane area have been examined. The incidence and prevalence of the various ectoparasites encountered are given here. The animals examined comprised a wide range of breeds, and included house dogs, dogs used at the saleyards and abattoirs for drov- ing stock, and dogs maintained by the Brisbane City Council for catching rats. Each dog was dusted with derris powder and afterwards combed on to a sheet of paper. No claim is made that every ectoparasite was collected. The numbers secured, however, are considered to represent average samples of the populations present. Siphon aptera. Fleas were present on all dogs, a total of 3,358 specimens being collected. Five species were represented, namely, Ctenocepkalides felis Bouehe, C. earns Curtice, Pulex irritans L., Nosopsyllus (Ceratophyllus) fasciatus Bose., and Pygiopsylla congrua J. and R. Ctenocepkalides canis Curtice. — The dog flea was taken from 88 animals (87-12 per cent.). It comprised 33-75 per cent, of the total fleas collected. Most of the specimens came from the saleyard and abattoir dogs. Ctenocepkalides felis Bouehe. — Present on 95 dogs (94-06 per cent.), the number of cat fleas collected represented 64-9 per cent, of the total fleas examined. The greater prevalence of C. felis in the Brisbane area is also borne out by the fact that of eighteen outbreaks of fleas in houses, stables, &c., recorded in this area during the past three years, fourteen were associ- ated with this species. The remaining four outbreaks were divided evenly between C. canis and P. irritans. Apparently C. felis is more common in warm climates than C. canis. Rothschild (1910) draws attention to this feature as does also Bedford (1932). Pulex irritans L. — The human flea was found on only 12 dogs (11-9 per cent.). The total number of this species collected was 40, the highest number to be taken from any one animal being 12. In the writer ’s experience, P. irritans is not a very common flea in Southern Queensland, being most frequent along the coast. Here it has been seen in outbreaks among pigs and poultry and is the species usually concerned in the infestation of seaside dwellings. Pygiopsylla congrua J. and R. — Normally parasitic on the water rat, Hydromys chrysogaster, two specimens of this flea were taken from 148 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. a house dog. Subsequent enquiries showed that the dog was accustomed to visit river banks where this rodent abounds. N osopsyllus (C eratophyllus) fasciatus Bose. — A single specimen of this rat flea was found on a house dog. This species is regarded as being most prevalent in temperate climates and a search through the records of rat flea surveys in Queensland confirms this. Of 1,609 rat fleas examined by Burnett Ham (1907) in Brisbane only 0*37 per cent, were N. fasciatus. The species was not seen by Fielding (1927) among 536 rat fleas at Townsville and was also absent from 1,684 fleas examined by the Health Department of the Brisbane City Council in 1935. It is interesting to note that the plague flea, Xenopsylla cheopis , which is common among rats in Brisbane, was not found on any dog, even among those employed for rat catching. Another flea infesting dogs in Queensland, but not seen in this survey, is the red flea of the rabbit, Echidnophaga myrmecobii. It has been taken on dogs at Miles, Goondiwindi, and Charleville. Mallophaga and Siphunculata. Lice were found on eight animals (7-9 per cent.). The biting louse, Trichodectes cams , occurred as very light infestations on three dogs (2-97 per cent.). The sucking louse, Linognathus setosus, was found on four dogs (3*96 per cent.), and the kangaroo louse, Heterodoxus longi- tarsus, on one dog (0-99 per cent.). The presence of H. longitarsus in Brisbane is of interest as pre- viously it had been found only on dogs in Western Queensland. The infested animal was a Kelpie from the abattoirs. Ixodoidea. Of the four species of ticks recorded from dogs in Queensland, only one was seen in the survey. The common brown dog tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus, occurred on 15 dogs (14-85 per cent.). SUMMARY. The results of a survey of the ectoparasites of 101 dogs in the Brisbane area are summarised below in tabular form. Table 1. Species previously recorded. Present in this Survey. No. Dogs Infested. Per Cent. Dogs Infested. Ctenocephalides felis . + 95 94- 06 Ctenocephalides canis + 88 87-12 Pulex irritans + 12 11-88 N osopsyllus fasciatus + 1 0-99 Trichodectes canis + 3 2-97 Linognathus setosus + 4 3-96 Heterodoxus longitarus + 1 0-99 Rhipicephalus sanguineus + 15 14-85 Boophilus australis . . . . — — — Ixodes holocyclus — — — Amblyomma triguttatum /— — — Sarcoptes scabiei canis . . — — — . Otodectes cynotis — — — Demodex canis _ _ — Trombicula hirsti _ — — LeeuwenhoeJcia australiensis . . — — — Echidnophaga- myrmecobii and Pygiopsylla congrua are recorded from the dog in Queensland for the first time. A SURVEY OF THE ECTOPARASITES OF DOGS IN BRISBANE, Q. 149 EEFEEENCES. Bedford, G. A. H. (1932). — 8th Eep. Dir. Yet. Serv. Onderstepoort, p. 223. Fielding, J. W. (1927). — J. and Proe. Eoy. Soc. N.S.W., 41-115. Ham, Burnett B. (1907). — “Eeport on Plague in Queensland, 1900-07. See. II., Eat Fleas and Plague,” p. 137. Eoberts, F. H. S. (1935).— Austral. Yet. J., 11-2. Eothschild, Hon. N. C. (1910). — Bull. Ent. Ees., 1-89. 150 Vol. LI., No. 9. THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND, II. THE SILVERWOOD-LUCKY VALLEY AREA. {Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 21th November, 1939.) Summary. — The Rugose coral fauna of the Silverwood Series is described, and is considered to indicate a Lower Middle Devonian (Couvinian) age. The fauna is allied to that of the Nemingha limestone of New South Wales. The four limestones from which Rugose corals are described below occur with others more marmorised in the Silverwood Series of the Darling Downs (Richards and Bryan, 1924, p. 58). The limestones form disconnected lenses almost at the top of the andesitic tuffs and lavas forming the lower part of the Silverwood series. They are all thought to be on the same horizon ; immediately above them is a curious agglomeratic rock made up of fragments of these fossiliferous limestones in a groundmass of andesitic tuff, like the “agglomerate” associated with the Nemingha limestone of New South Wales. Six hundred feet above this agglomerate is a conglomerate, still in the andesitic tuff series. The upper part of the Silverwood series consists of banded cherts and shales. The Silverwood limestone fauna contains the following Rugosa : — Acanthophyllum sp. cf. mansfieldense (Dun). Barnes Qy. (?). Acanthophyllum sp. cf. dianthus (jGtoldfuss ; Le Maitre). Limestone Siding; portion 107, parish Wildash (Elbow Valley). Acanthophyllum sp. Silverwood. Family FAVISTELLIDAE. Fasciphyllum aff. conglomeratum (Sehliiter). Limestone Siding. By Dorothy Hill, M.Sc., Ph.D. Plates II. and III. Family ACANTHOPHYLLIDAE. Family DISPHYLLIDAE. Prismatophyllum latum sp. nov. Barnes Qy. Prismatophyllum densum sp. nov. Lomas North. P seudamplexus sp. Limestone Siding ; Lomas North. IChlamydophyllum sp. Limestone Siding. Family MUCOPHYLLIDAE. Family SPONGOPHYLLIDAE. Spongophyllum halysitoides var. minor var. nov. Limestone Siding ; Lomas North. Xystriphyllum dunstami (Etheridge). Lucky Valley. THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND, II. 151 Xystriphyllum insigne; sp. nov. Barnes Qy. ; Limestone Siding; Lomas North. Family STKEPTELASMIDAE. Streptelasma sp. Limestone Siding. Age of the Fauna, — Acantliophyllum sp. cf. mansfieldense is closest to Lower Devonian forms, but bears some resemblance to Couvinian species. A. dianthus (Le Maitre) occurs at the boundary between Coblenzian and Couvinian in France. Prismatophyllum latum is close to Couvinian forms from North America; P. densum is closest to the German Frasnian P- ananas Goldfuss, Freeh, but has resemblances to the American Middle Devonian P. sedgwichi Ma, and to the Victorian (Lower Devonian?) P. approximans (Chapman). Fasciphyllum conglomeratum is characteristic of the Givetian of Germany. The Mucophyllidae resemble those of the Lower Devonian of Europe. Spongophyltum halysitoides occurs in the Nemingha and Moore Creek limestones of New South Wales. Xystriphyllum dunstani is character- istic of the Couvinian Clermont limestones in Queensland, and X. insigne occurs at Attunga, New South Wales, on a horizon regarded by Etheridge as almost certainly equivalent to the Moore Creek limestone. Streptel- asmidae are known from the Ordovician to the Devonian. Thus the fauna would seem most reasonably placed as Couvinian, and is possibly Lower Couvinian. It shows no very close relation to any European or American fauna, however ; Spongophyllum halysitoides occurs with Pseudamplexus sp. at Beedle’s Freehold (por. 163, par. Nemingha), which is practically the type Nemingha limestone, and this is the closest comparison that can be made with other Australian faunas, as Richards and Bryan (1924, p. 99) have already pointed out. Family ACANTHOPHYLLIDAE. Acanthophyllidae Hill, 1939a, p. 220; 1939b, p. 56. Genus Acanthophyllum Dybowski. Acantliophyllum Dybowski, 1873, p. 339; 1874, p. 493. A.canthophyllum ; Hill, 1939a, p. 222; 1939b, p. 56. Genolectotype (chosen Schiiiter, 1889, p. 38) ; Cyathophyllum heterophyllum Edwards and Haime. Middle Devonian, Eifel. Diagnosis — Large, simple Rugosa with a wide dissepimentarium of small, highly-arched dissepiments, with shallowly concave, axially deepened tabulae, and with long but unequal major septa. The axial ends of the major septa are arranged in groups in the tabularium, and are straight, or curved vortically, the curvature differing in degree from group to group ; the cardinal septum is typically short, and one septum, not a proto-septum, extends to the axis. The septa show different types of modification ; they are frequently much dilated, either in the dissepi- mentarium, or more rarely in the tabularium, or in both; towards the periphery they may be thin and lined with lateral dissepiments; in the tabularium they are sometimes waved and carinate. Range. — Fairly common in the Lower Devonian of Europe, and very common in the Middle Devonian of Europe. Lower and Middle Devonian of Australia, 152 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Acanthophyllum sp. cf. mansfieldense (Dun). (Plate II., figs, la, b.) Material. — One specimen, F. 3412, University of Queensland Collection. Silverwood (probably from Barnes’ Qy., Morgan Park). Description. — A fragment 30 mm. in ‘diameter and 5 mm. in length of the calical end of a corallite shows 20 major septa, 17 mm, long, extending unequally almost to the axis, alternating with 20 minor septa 14 mm. long. The septa of both orders are much dilated, in contact in a zone about 4 mm. wide, beginning 2 mm. outside the inner ends of the minor septa, but with narrow interseptal alleys between them out- side this zone, in which lateral dissepiments are present, or inosculating dissepiments; in the peripheral regions the thick septa may be partly replaced by stacks of naic dissepiments. In the tabularium the septa are carinate. The tabular floors are concave, with a median notch, and the tabellae are not arched. The dissepimental floors representing old calical margins are flat peripherally and steeply inclined into the tabularium. The dissepiments are small, unequal, and rather elongate. Remarks. — The fragment resembles the Coblenzian Acanthophyllids in the great thickness of the septa and their naic degeneration, but in having lateral dissepiments it is similar to the Couvinian forms called Bhopalophyllum by Wedekind. It appears closer to A. mansfieldense (Dun; Hill, 1939a, p. 223, pi. xv., figs. 1-3) from the Lower Devonian of Loyola, Victoria, than to any other figured Acanthophyllum , but identity is not complete. A canth op hy Hum sp. (Plate II. , fig. 2.) Cyathophy Hum sp., Eichards and Bryan, 1924, p. 97, Elbow Valley. Material. — One fragment F 3413, University of Queensland Collec- tion, embedded in matrix, from Limestone Siding. One thin section, F 3414, from por. 107, parish Wildash (Elbow Valley), Silverwood. Diagnosis. — Acanthophyllum with a narrow peripheral stereozone, and with septa almost straight and equally dilated. Description (of a transverse section). — At a diameter of 15 mm., just below the calice, 27 major septa alternate with 27 minor septa; at the periphery those of both orders are dilated so as to be in contact in a peripheral stereozone about 1 mm. wide; thence to their inner ends all the septa are rather dilated and almost straight, the dilatation being approximately equal; many are wavy or perhaps carinate, or with a slight swelling at the axial end; except for the two on either side of the counter septum, which are very long, the axial ends of the minor septa project just beyong the dissepimentarium, which is about 4 mm. wide. The axial ends of the major septa are long and unequal, but straight, and arranged in groups in the manner characteristic of the genus. The tabularium is about 6 mm. wide. Remarks . — Only transverse sections are available. They have a very close resemblance to Cyathophyllum dianthus Goldfuss of Le Maitre, 1934, p. 153, pi. v.,, figs. 13-14 (not necessarily of Goldfuss or any other author) from the Chaudefonds Limestone of France, which is regarded by Le Maitre as the equivalent of the uppermost Coblenzian and lowest Couvinian of Germany and of the upper part of F2 and Gx in Bohemia. THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND, II. 153 Acanthophyllum sp. (Plate II., figs, 3a, -c.) Material. — F 3415, University of Queensland Collection. Silver- wood. Diagnosis. — Acanthophyllum in which the wavy septa are so dilated as to be in contact in the outer three-quarters of the dissepimentarium. Description. — The corallum is large, and cylindrical or ceratoid. At a, diameter of about 20 mm. there are 33 uncurved major septa inter - digitating at the axis, alternating with minor septa which extend two-thirds of the way to the axis. The septa are so dilated as to be in contact to form a peripheral stereozone in the outer three-quarters of the dissepimentarium, and inside this they remain considerably dilated. They are wavy in transverse section. The tabulae are close, concave with a median notch, and incomplete. The dissepiments of the inner part of the dissepimentarium are inclined at about 45°. Remarks. — This specimen might be the same species as the one described immediately above, but it shows very much greater septal dilatation. I know of no figure with which is could be closely compared ; the dilatation is different from all other Acanthophyllids, Family DISPHYLLIDAE. Displiyllidae Hill, 1939a, p. 224. Genus Prismatophyllum Simpson. Prismatophyllum Simpson, 1900, p. 218. Prismatophyllum ; Lang and Smith, 1935, p. 558, q.v. for synonymy. Prismatophyllum ; Hill, 1939a, p. 229, q.v. for review of range and species. Genotype. — Prismatophyllum prisma Lang and Smith, loc. cit. Lower Middle Devonian. Onondaga Limestone, Falls of Ohio, U.S.A. Diagnosis. — Cerioid Rugose corals with septa which may or may not reach the axis; tabulae typically differentiated into a horizontally dis- posed axial series and an axially inclined periaxial series; and typically with numerous, small, globose dissepiments. Range. — Lower, Middle, and Upper Devonian. For details, see Hill loc. cit. Prismatophyllum latum sp. nov. (Plate II., figs. 4a, b.) Phillipsastraea cf. grandis Dun, Bichards and Bryan, 1924, p. 99, pi. xv., fig. 5. Barnes Qy. (near Morgan Park), Silverwood. Lower Middle Devonian. Holatype. — F 3417, University of Queensland Collection, figured loc. cit. Diagnosis. — Prismatophyllum with numerous septa, the major septa being but little longer than the minor; with a wide dissepimentarium and globose tabellae arranged in concave tabular floors. Description. — The corallum is cerioid, one small fragment only of an apparently spreading corallum being known. The corallites are. unequal, the largest being 15 mm. in diameter ; the smaller corallites are found round the edges of the larger, as if by intermural increase. The walls dividing the corallites are thin, and difficult to see in the hand specimen. There are about 44 septa in the larger corallites, rather closely spaced and thinner near the periphery than near the tabularium, 154 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. and slightly carinate. The major septa are but little longer and thicker than the minor septa, extending just within the tabularium, which has about one third, the diameter of the larger corallites, but more than this in smaller corallites. The tabular floors are slightly concave, and the tabellae are rather large and arched, and distant. The dissepiments are globose, fine and numerous, horizontally based or slightly inclined towards the periphery in the outer series, but steeply inclined towards the axis near the tabularium. They do not always extend completely across an interseptal loculus ; many inosculate. Remarks. — Of all the described species of Prismatophyllum, this species is closest to P. chalkii (Chapman) from the Lower or Middle Devonian limestone of Lilydale, Victoria, from which it differs only in having nearly twice the number of septa for any given diameter of corallite. It resembles also the American Couvinian P. anna Whitfield, Stewart (1938, pi. 9, figs. 11, 12) and P. truncatum Stewart (1938, pi. 10, figs.l, 2), but has thinner walls. Prismatophyllum densum, sp. nov. (Plate II., figs. 5a, b.) Holotype (only specimen known). — F 3416, University of Queens- land Collection. “ Large Tryplasma Horizon,” Silverwood — i.e., from either Morgan Park, Limestone Siding, or Lomas North • the matrix and preservation suggest to W. PI. Bryan that it is from Lomas North. Couvinian, Lower Middle Devonian. Diagnosis. — Prismatophyllum with clisioid axial structure and numerous very long carinate septa, not dilated at the inner edge of the dissepimentarium. Description — The holotype is a fiat fragment 14 x 7 x 3 'em. Indi- vidual corallites are from 5 to 10 mm. in diameter, with an average of 8 mm. The corallites are polygonal with straight or gently curved walls, which may in places in the transverse sections, have a minor zig-zagging, the median dark line moving a little towards the axis of the corallite at the septal bases. Increase was not observed. The 19 or 20 very long major septa are waved, but their general course is straight from the wall to the axis, where they interdigitate, and sometimes twist slightly. The alternating minor septa are a little more than half as. long as the major septa, and are also waved. All the septa are fairly thin, without any zonal thickening. There are six or seven series of dissepiments, all save the innermost being rather broadly and horizon- tally based ; the inner series is more steeply inclined towards the axis. The tabularium is about one-third the width of the corallite, and has two series of tabellae, the outer series of horizontally disposed but concave plates, and the inner of convex, dissepiment-like plates arranged to form an axial dome. Remarks. — Only three other species of Prismatophyllum have a clisioid axial structure — the Victorian P. approximans (Chapman, 1914, pi. xlvii., figs. 5, 6) from the Thomson River, the American Middle Devonian P. sedgwicki (Edwards and Haime, Ma, 1937, pi. iii., fig. 3), and the German Prasnian P. ananas (Goldfuss, Freeh, 1885, pi. iii., fig. 14) . P. densum differs from approximans in not having the septa dilated to a spindle section, and in having the outer series of taballae horizontal instead of inclined. It differs from sedgwicki Ma similarly, and in the greater length of the septa; from ananas Freeh it differs only in the greater number and density of the septa and in the slightly greater size of the individual corallites. It is thus closest to the Prasnian ananas. THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND, II. 155 Family FAVISTELLIDAE (or COLUMNARIIDAE) . Typical Genus: — Favistella Hall, 1847. Cerioid or sub-phaceloid Rugosa with complete tabulae and short minor septa, sometimes with a single, impersistent series of elongate, and usually vertically inclined dissepiments between the septa. Range. — The family is known from the Upper Ordovician of Europe and America, the Silurian of Europe, and the Devonian (but not the Upper Devonian) of Europe and Australia. Remarks. — The group here considered has already been discussed in some detail (Hill, 1939a, p. 240) when it was thought doubtful that the genotype of Columnaria (C. sulcata Goldfuss) from the Middle Devonian of Germany belonged to the same genus as the species C. alveo-' lata Goldfuss from the Ordovician of America, on which most authors have interpreted Columnaria* Goldfuss, and which is synonymous with Favistella stellata Hall, 1847, the genotype of Favistella. Smith is still of the opinion (in lift.) that sulcata is of the same genus as alveolata ; but Weissermel (in lift.) considers, like myself, that sulcata* is a Disphyllid. The matter is still in abeyance, and while the family relation of sulcata is in doubt, it seems best to take Favistella , on the nature of whose type we all agree, as the type genus for the family around alveo- lata Goldfuss. For the genera considered to belong to this family, see Hill loc. cit. Genus Fasciphyllum Sehliiter. Fasciphyllum Sehliiter, 1885, p. 52 ; 1889, p. 305 (47). Fasciphyllum ; Lang and Smith, 1935, p. 548. Genotype (by designation). — “ F ascicularia? ” conglomerata Sehliiter, 1880, p. 147, Givetian, Eifel, Germany. Diagnosis. — Phaceloid Rugosa; the slender corallites have a narrow stereozone, a single series of elongate dissepiments between the long major and short minor septa, and distant, complete, sagging tabulae. Range. — Lower Devonian of Eastern Alps ; Middle Devonian of the Eifel and Queensland. Remarks. — The genus has been discussed by Hill (1939a, p. 241). The large dissepiments suggest relation to the Spongophyllidae, but in the Favistellidae dissepiments arise between the septa, and do not cause the septa to become discontinuous, as in the Spongophyllidae. Fasciphyllum aff. conglomeratum (Sehliiter). (Plate II., figs. 6a-c.) i(Fascicularia?” conglomerata Sehliiter, 1880, p. 147; 1881, p. 220, p. ix., figrs. 1-4. Givetian, Eifel, Germany. Fasciphyllum conglomeratum Sehliiter, 1885b, p. 52. Holotype.— Sehliiter ’s types are probably at Bonn. The diagnosis given below is based on his figures loc. cit. Diagnosis (for conglomeratum Sehliiter). — Fasciphyllum with corallites about 3 mm. in diameter. Description (of Silverwood specimen, from Limestone Siding, F 3418, University of Queensland Collection). — The specimen is a small 156 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. fragment 5-5 x 3-5 x 1-5 cm., in a re-crystallised, fine-grained, white limestone. The corallum is phaceloid, the corallites varying in diameter from 2 to 3-5 mm., and in distance apart from 0 to 3 mm. The twelve major septa extend from the wall to the axis, where in some corallites they appear to touch ; the minor septa are short. The septa never show discontinuity ; they are all stout, and their bases are expanded to form a narrow peripheral stereozone. There is a single series of dissepiments, the bases of the more elongate being more steeply inclined than the others. In one or two places there may have been a second but incomplete series of dissepiments. The tabulae are complete, sagging, and rather distant. Remarks. — The resemblance between the Silverwood specimen and the German species is very striking, but its preservation is so poor that a direct equation to the German form is too great an assumption. According to Lang and Smith (1935, p. 548), F. conglomeratum prob- ably reaches its maximum in the String ocephalus limestone, but appar- ently occurs also in the Crinoid Shales. Kayser (1923, p. 198) regards the latter as the base of the Givetian in Germany, and the former as its main development. The Lower Devonian species F. syringoporoides ( Charlesworth, 1914, p. 366, pi. xxxi., fig. 1) from the Alps has corallites only 1 mm. in diameter. Family MU C 0 PHYLLID AE . Typical Genus: Mucophyllum Etheridge. Simple Rugose corals with the approximately equal compact major and minor septa dilated and in contact so that dissepiments are entirely suppressed, and with complete and distant tabulae. Range. — Ludlovian of Gotland and New South Wales; Lower Devonian of Europe ; and Middle Devonian of Germany. Remarks. — The other genera placed in this family are Pseudam- plexus Weissermel and those listed below with references and genotypes, as possible synonyms of Pseudamplexus. They are the Ludlovian Pseudomphyma of Gotland and Mucophyllum of New South Wales; the Lower Devonian Pseudamplexus and its synonym Pselophyllum of Europe ; and the Middle Devonian Aspasmophyllum of Germany. All of these forms have major septa very little longer than the minor septa ; Mucophyllum and Aspasmophyllum are patellate forms, as is one species of Pseudomphyma, but most of the forms placed by Wedekind in Pseu- domphyma and all Pseudamplexus are turbinate to cylindrical. The family as thus understood is a small one ; in fact, examination of the type specimens may show that all the genera are synonymous. Its relations to the other Silurian and Devonian groups character- ised by a wide peripheral stereozone are not yet clear in all cases. The Silurian genera Gyalophyllum Wedekind (1927) and Zelophyllum AVedekind (1927) both have a stereozone of holacanthine septa set in lamellar sclerenchyme (Hill, 1936) and are, therefore, related to Rhahdocyclus Lang and Smith (1939, p. 152, nom. nov. for Acanthocyclus Dybowski) and Try plasma-, but it is. possible that by a closer packing of the trabeculae, the Mucophyllidae, with compact lamellar septa, have arisen from the Rhabdocyclidae with rhabdacanthine septa. The Wenlock “ Chonophyllum ” patellatum (Schlotheim) of Europe and the Wenlock and Ludlow Kodonophyllum Wedekind of Europe and THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND, II. 157 the Ludlow compound Circophyllum, Lang and Smith (1939, p. 153, nom. 7iov. for Rhysodes Smith and Tremberth, 1927) of Gotland all have long major septa, those of the first and third meeting at the axis to form an axial structure ; these three may be related to the Mucophyllidae, as their septal structure is very similar; but Lang and Smith have con- sidered Kodonophyllum to be derived from Xylodes, by dilatation of the septa. Other Silurian genera, with narrow peripheral stereozones and long minor septa, are not here considered in relation to the Mucophyllidae. Chonophyllum Edwards and Haime from the Ludlovian of Gotland (genotype Chonophyllum perfoliatum Goldfuss, with which Omphyma flabellata Wedekind, 1927, pi. 17, figs. 3, 4, also from the Ludlovian of Gotland, is probably synonymous) differs from the Mucophyllidae in the great length of the septa and in the very wide stereozone being cellular by reason of the incomplete dilatation of the septa. It has no axial structure. The French Lower Devonian Briantia Barrois has long minor septa and closely resembles the Silurian Kodonophyllum. Chlamydophyllum Pocta from the Lower Devonian of Bohemia has amplexoid major septa ; i.e., above the tabulae they are long and meet at the axis, but between the tabulae they shorten. It is possibly related to the Mucophyllidae. The ‘ * Chonophylla ’ 7 described from Bohemia by Pocta appear to include more than one genus, but in all, the dilated septa are broken down so that spaces occur in them, much as in Chonophyllum s,s. “ Chonophyllum perf oliatum” auct. non Goldfuss from the Frasnian of France and the Giveto-Frasnian of England has a small continuous axial structure, but septa like the Silurian Chonophyllum. In Amplexus (Coelophyllum) eury calyx Weissermel (1894, p. 634, Diluvial of Germany), Try plasma liliiforme Etheridge (1907, p. 95, Ludlovian of New South Wales), and Pseudomphyma expansa Wede- kind (Soshkina, 1937, p. 56, from the Middle Ludlow of the Urals) there is a group with an expanded calical rim, wide but not very thick, which may well be related to the Mucophyllidae. Mucophyllum differs from it only in the much greater thickness of the expanded calical rim. Etheridge, by placing the New South Wales species in Try plasma has suggested the relations of the group to be with that family; but in the septa the trabeculae are closely packed as in the Mucophyllidae. Weis- sermel, by placing his species in Amplexus ( C oelophyllum) , suggested a relation to the German Middle Devonian Amplexus- like group later called Cyathopaedium by Schluter (1889, p. 5) with which the American Guelph (Lower Ludlow) Pycnostylus Whiteaves (1884, p. 2) may be synonymous. I have seen no European specimens of this group, but think that some of the other Australian Ludlovian and Devonian species placed by Etheridge in Tryplasma may belong to it. Genus Pseudam plexus Weissermel. Pseudamplexus Weissermel, 1897, p. 878. ? Aspasmtophyllum F. Romer, 1880, p. 184. Monotype, ■ Aspasmophyllum crinophilum Romer, 1880, id. Middle Devonian, possibly Crinoid shales at the base of the Givetian, Gerolstein, the Eifel. ? Mucophyllum Etheridge, 1894, p. 11. Monotype, Mucophyllum crateroides, Etheridge, id., pis. iii., iv., Upper Silurian, Yass, N.S.W. 158 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Pselophyllum Pocta, 1902, p. 82. Genosyntypes (from Lower Devonian, F2, Kone- prus) : Pselophyllum obesum Barrande MS in Pocta id., Pselophyllum bohemicum Barrande in Pocta id., and Pselophyllum vestitum Barrande in Pocta id. Genoleetotype, here chosen, Pselophyllum bohemicum. ? Pseudomphyma Wedekind, 1927. p. 34, p. 37. Genotype by designation Pseudomphyma profunda Wedekind id., pi. 6, figs. 8-10, Upper Silurian (Lidlovian), Storungs, Gotland. Genotype (by monotypy). — Zaphrentis Ligeriensis Barrois, 1889, p. 52, pi. iii., fig. 1. Lower Devonian. Erbray, France. Diagnosis. — Large simple Rugosa with sub-equal short major and minor septa dilated and in contact to form a peripheral stereozone in lieu of a dissepimentarium, and with a wide tabular ium of distant, horizontal, complete tabulae. Remarks. — Weissermel’s genus Pseudamplexus was overlooked until he himself referred to it (1939) in discussing forms like Pselophyllum, when he proposed, in view of his original definition, that Pseudamplexus should be set aside until Amplexus was proved polyphyletic, one group coming from Golumnaria and another from Zaphrentis, both by the operation of the amplexoid trend; Pseudamplexus could then be used for the latter group. But he named a single species Zaphrentis ligeri- ensis, as belonging to the genus, giving its bibliographic reference; according to my reading of the Rules of Nomenclature, this makes Pseu- damplexus a valid genus — a designated actual species is the ultimate reference for a genus, not an author’s definition of a genus. Zaphrentis ligeriensis is congeneric if not conspecific with Pselophyllum bohemicum, the genoleetotype of Pselophyllum. It appears therefore that Pselophyllum must be retired to the synonymy of Pseudamplexus. The genera here listed as possible synonyms have been considered in the remarks on the family. The species here regarded as of the genus are, in addition to the genotype: — Pocta ’s three Lower Devonian syntypes of Pselophyllum ; Aspasmophyllum ligeriensis (Barrois), Charlesworth (1914, p. 352, pi. xxx., fig. 1) from the Lower Devonian of the Eastern Alps; Try plasma princeps Etheridge (1907, p. 97) from the Upper Silurian or Lower Devonian of Molong District, New South Wales ; and the ?Couvinian specimen from Silverwood described below. Septal Structure. — From a study of Pocta ’s figures, and thin sec- tions of the Silverwood form, I conclude that in this genus the septa consist of a single series of rhabdacanths (Hill, 1936) much expanded laterally and very closely placed, fine lamellar selerenchyme being interwoven with the “rods” of the rhabdacanths. Pseudamplexus thus shares rhabdacanths with the Rhabdocyclidae; but holacanths have not been observed, and the lamellar selerenchyme is not continuous from one septum to the next, as in the Rhabdocyclidae. The structure of the septa in e ‘ Ghonophyllum” patellatum and in Kodonophyllum is very similar; but there appears to be a slightly different grouping of the “rods’ in the rhabdacanths. Pseudamplexus sp. (Plate III., figs, la-c.) Tryplasma princeps; Richards and Bryan, 1924, p. 98, pi. xv., figs. 3, 4, Middle Devonian, Silverwood, Queensland. non Tryplasma princeps Etheridge, 1907, p. 97, Upper Silurian (or Lower Devonian) of Molong District, N.S.W. THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND, II. 159 Material. — F 3419-20, University of Queensland Collection. Lomas North, Silverwood, near Warwick, Queensland. Diagnosis. — Large trochoid Pseudamplexus with septa up to 10 mm. long. Description. — Only fragments of coralla are known, usually crossed by many small faults. The specimen (F 3419) figured by Richards and Bryan is a truncated and vertically broken fragment 30 mm. in diameter at its broken base, and 60 mm. at least at its obliquely cut upper surface, which is 50 mm. from the lower. It has a large rootlet 5 mm. wide, broken off at 20 mm. from its origin, with an axial cavity, and walls about 2 mm. thick. The calice is not known, nor the apex, nor the epitheca. The septa are 8 mm. long in the upper section of this fragment, and major septa cannot be distinguished from minor septa'; the septa are very thick, 4 in a space of 10 mm., and 28 in less than a half section of the corallum; about 2 mm. of their axial ends are free laterally and there is no indication that the inner margins are denticulate or acan- thine. Their nature in the early part of the corallite and in the calice is unknown. They consist of a single series of almost horizontal uncurved trabeculae, directed upwards at a very slight angle. The trabeculae are about 0-5 mm. from the lower inclined surface to the upper, and extend laterally to the sides of the septa. Each appears to consist of rather sparsely developed bundles of fibres, each bundle like a rod issuing obliquely upwards from the axis of the trabecula, but quickly curving outwards and proceeding to the side of the septum so that the longest portion is normal to the axis of the trabecula. Connecting these ''rods” in the body of the septum is finely lamellar sclerenchyme, curving among the rods at right angles to the course of the rods. In some weathered surfaces this lamellation is more distinct at regular and somewhat larger intervals, and gives the repeatedly scalloped appearance so clearly shown in Pocta’s (1902) figures of Pselophyllum. The lamellar sclerenchyme is not continuous from septum to septum ; the lamellation runs from the axial parts of the septa back towards the peripheral parts, almost to the epitheca, before turning sharply towards the corresponding lamellae of a neighbouring septum (as in Pocta, 1902, pi. 109, figs. 1, 2). The peripheral stereozone dilates slightly but gradu- ally toward the upper part of the corallum. The tabulae are complete, horizontal, and somewhat irregular in distance apart, varying from 2 to 4 in 5 mm. They are somewhat dilated. Remarks. — As nothing is known of the calical characters or the apical parts of this form, it is thought better not to give it a specific name. The lamellation seen in the septa is thought to be growth lamella- tion, and its structure and origin is believed to be that described by Hill (1936) in Rhabdocyclus. Though in the Rhabdocyclidae and the Mucophyllidae the septa are rhabdacanthine, in the Mucophyllidae as opposed to the Rhabdocyclidae, the rhabdocanths are extremely close together, and the lamellar sclerenchyme is not continuous from septum to septum. A fragment (F 3421) from Limestone Siding, figured by Richards and Bryan (1924, pi. xv., fig. 1) as an undescribed Rugose coral with features common to Tryplasma and Mucophyllum, may be a portion of the calice of our Pseudamplexus sp. It has the same septal structure, but the calical rim seems to be very expanded, and the tabularium is probably much narrower than in our Pesudamplexus sp., so that the fragment may represent a second species. 160 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. A specimen in the Australian Museum from Beedle’s Freehold (por. 163, par. Nemingha), Moonbi, New South Wales — i.e., from the type locality for the Middle Devonian Nemingha Limestone — may well be our species, but it is a calical fragment only, and indicates that there was a sudden expansion in diameter of the corallite at the base of the calice, although the later increase in diameter of the calice was at approxi- mately the same rate as that of the corallum previously. This type of calice was figured for P. ligeriensis by Barrois (1889, pi. 3, fig. 1). A second specimen in the Australian Museum, F 741, also from the Nemingha Limestone, is Pseudampiexus sp., but it differs from the Silverwood form in being sub-cylindrical. The specimen from the Moore Creek limestone of Attunga, mentioned by Etheridge as Tryplasma princeps , has not been traced, but its affinities may be with Pseudampiexus. The Silverwood form differs from the Lower Devonian Bohemian P. bohemicus and P. vestitum and the Lower Devonian Alpine ‘ c Aspasmophyllum ligeriensis ” in the smaller width of its peripheral stereozone, and from the Lower Devonian Bohemian P. obesmm in the greater width of its stereozone. In shape of corallum it closely resembles P. obesum. It differs from the French Lower Devonian P. ligeriensis (Barrois) in its greater size and more expanding shape. Richards and Bryan identified the Silverwood form with Try plasma princeps Etheridge from the Upper Silurian or Lower Devonian of the Molong District, New South Wales; but while princeps is probably Pseudampiexus it has a much narrower stereozone than the Silverwood form, and a more cylindrical habit. Genus CHLAMYDOPHYLLUM Pocta. Chlamydophyllum Pocta, 1902, p. 134. Genotype (by monotypy). — Chlamydophyllum obscurum Pocta, id., pi. 114, fig. 2 ; pi. 115, figs. 2-5. Lower Devonian, F2, Koneprus, Bohemia. Diagnosis — Simple Rugosa, trochoid at first, later cylindrical with much rejuvenescence, and swollen distally; calice funnel-shaped; with a wide peripheral stereozone formed by lateral contact of the dilated major and minor septa; in the tabularium the axial ends of the major septa are unequal, usually long, straight or of irregular curvature, and many have clubbed ends ; they may unite at the axis in the proximal parts of the corallum, and on the surfaces of the tabulae in the distal parts, being then withdrawn between tabulae ; the tabulae are complete and horizontal ; the cardinal fossula is clearly visible by the pinnate arrangement of the septa in the tabularium. Remarks. — Pocta states (p. 136) that the septa of the genotype consist of vertical lamellae parallel to their surfaces. Possibly this is a similar growth lamination to that described above for Pseudampiexus. Mile. Le Maitre (1934, p. 160) has identified with Pocta ’s species a specimen from the Upper Co'blenzian or Lower Couvinian of Chaude- fonds, France, which has major septa with ends inrolled at the axis, incomplete, domed tabellae, and a septal structure quite similar to that of Pseudampiexus. Further illustrations of topotypes are necessary to a complete understanding of the genus. Zaphrentis cornuvaccinum Penecke (1894, p. 593, pi. vii., figs. 10-12) which is the commonest species of the barrandei- Limestone (Upper Coblenzian) of Graz, may THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND, II. 161 be generically related to Chlamydophyllum okscurum or to the specimen from Silverwood described below. The genus is here considered as a possible member of the Muco- phyllidae, as it has the shape, peripheral stereozone, and septal structure of that family; but it differs from the members of the family (s.s.) in that its septa are amplexoid (Hill, 1935, p. 502) and not confined to the peripheral stereozone. ? Chlamydophyllum sp. (Plate III., figs. 2a-d.) Material. — A single specimen from Silverwood, probably from Limestone Siding. F 3422, University of Queensland Collection. Description, — A specimen in a rock mass is assumed, from the frag- ments into which it was broken, to have been turbinate, with an everted calicular platform round a calicular pit. The diameter at the platform is about 50 mm., and there are about 70 septa. Outside the tabularium the septa are so dilated as to be in contact to form a peripheral stereo- zone, whose width increases with the height of the corallum, forming the platform 10 or 12 mm. wide. A section taken near the floor of the ealice shows alternating major and minor septa; the inner third or half of the minor septa is less dilated than the rest, and free laterally; the major septa are unequal, attaining almost to the axis, irregular in curvature, and frequently somewhat swollen at their axial ends. The septa are rhabdacanthine, with very close rhabdacanths, and a rich development of “rods,” so that lamellar sclerenchyme does not appear important ; in transverse section of the corallum the growth lamellae curve round the inner ends of the septa, and run back towards the epitheca almost parallel with the median plane of the septa. The “rods” curve outwards rapidly, and for a considerable part of their length are directed normally to the surfa'ces of the septa. A fossula is not dis- tinguishable in this incomplete section. A vertical section shows the distant, flat, somewhat dilated tabulae, whose upper surfaces carry sections of the dilated septa. They appear to have down-turned margins. j Remarks — The determination of this specimen is doubtful, both because of the poverty of material and the uncertainty regarding the characters of Chlamydophyllum. Our specimen is not known to form an axial structure by its conjoined septal ends, as in the genotype ; but it is incomplete, the apical portion being unknown. The length of the septa precludes our placing it in Pseudamplexus , although its shape, stereozone, and septal structure is similar. Family SPONGOPHYLLIDAE. See Hill, 1939b, p. 58. Genus Spongophyllum Edwards and Haime. Spongophyllum Edwards and Haime, 1851, p. 425. Spongophyllum; Jones, 1929, p. 88, q.v. for comparison with Endophyllum. Spongophyllum ; Hill, 1939b, p. 58, q.v. for review of genus. Genotype (by monotypy). — Spongophyllum sedgwicki Edwards and Haime, lac. cit . ; 1853, p. 242, pi. lvi., fig. 2, 2a-e. [Middle] Devonian [or Frasnian], Torquay. Diagnosis. — Cerioid Rugosa in which the tabularium is narrow and the tabulae close and slightly concave, the minor septa are degenerate, R.s. — B. 162 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. .and lonsdaleoid dissepiments may be developed in an irregular peri- pheral zone when the major septa are discontinuous. Remarks. — The genus as interpreted by Hill loc. cit. contains five Upper Silurian and six Middle Devonian species. SpongopJiylhim halysitoides Etheridge. Spongophyllum halysitoides Etheridge, 1918, p. 49, pi. vii. Spongophyllum halysitoides : Jones, 1932, p. 56. Holotype (by monotypy). — In the Australian Museum Collection. Nemingha' Limestone, road near Beedle’s Farm, Moonbi, co. Inglis, New South Wales. Upper Middle Devonian. Diagnosis. — Spongophyllum in which septa are frequently entirely absent, even from the tabularium. Remarks. — This species is known from Moore Creek, near Tamworth, New South Wales (F 6760, Australian Museum Collection), in addition to the type locality. Its corallites are 4-6 mm. in diameter, and in many the major septa are absent as well as the minor, so that the interrupted sections of dissepiments and tabulae give the corallites the appearance of a rose, in transverse section. The septal bases of neighbouring corallites are usually opposite, and are somewhat swollen, so that in sections of the walls a Halysites appearance is obtained. Spongophyllum halysitoides var. minor, var. nov. (Plate III., figs. 3a, b.) Spongophyllum cf. halysitoides Etheridge, Richards' and Bryan, 1924, p. 99, pi. xvii., figs. 1, 2; Limestone Siding and Lomas North, near Silverwood, Queensland. Spongophyllum halysitoides ; Jones, 1932, p. 56, partim ; i.e., Silverwood specimens, text-fig. 2. Holotype. — F 3423, University of Queensland Collection. Lime- stone Siding, near Silverwood. Couvinian, Lower Middle Devonian. Figured herein, and Richards and Bryan loc. cit. Diagnosis — Spongophyllum halysitoides with small corallites from 2 to 4 mm. in diameter. Description. — The external form of the cerioid corallum is unknown, only weathered sections of fragments having been collected. Individual corallites are from 2 to 4 mm. in diameter, usually 3 mm., and are 5 or 6 sided, the sides being straight or but slightly curved in transverse section. The septal bases are less frequently opposite than in halysi- toides itself, so that the walls are slightly wavy rather than halysitoid. There are 22-26 septal bases in each corallite ; in some corallites no other trace of septa can be seen; but frequently 12 or 13 more or less discon- tinuous major septa may be traced from the wall almost to the axis. Minor septa have been observed only as septal bases. Each septal base is swollen and in contact with its neighbour, the greatest dilatation being in its median part. The tabularium is narrow — only about 0-5 mm. in diameter — and contains complete, slightly concave tabulae, about 10 in a space of 5 mm. The dissepiments are very large, their angle of inclination increasing towards the axis; one or two series only are developed. Remarks. — The difference in size between the two Silverwood speci- mens described as' the variety minor and the two Tamworth specimens is THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND, II. 163 constant, the corallites of the Silverwood forms being just over half as large. Further, in the Silverwood specimens the septal bases of neigh- bouring corallites are more often alternate than opposite. The tabularium of the Tamworth type has nearly one-third the diameter of the corallites. It is here thought that the characters of the Silverwood specimens indicate that they are a variety of the Tamworth type. Spongopkyllum forms two groups in time — one Upper Silurian and the other Middle Devonian — hut neither possesses a distinctive feature. Halysitoides and its variety minor form a special group, being the only forms known to show complete disappearance of the septa so frequently that such absence is a diagnostic character. The Tamworth limestones bearing S. halysitoides are probably Givetian. The variety occurs in the Lomas North Limestone, Silverwood (F 3424; University of Queensland Collection) in addition to the type locality. Genus Xystriphyllum Hill. Xystriphyllum Hill, 1939b, p. 62. Genotype (by designation). — Cyathophyllum dunstani Etheridge, 1911, p. 3, pi. A, figs. 1, 2. Douglas Creek, Clermont, Queensland. Couvinian, Lower Middle Devonian. Diagnosis. — Cerioid Rugose corals with long major septa and well- developed minor septa, and with close, concave tabulae, and globose dissepiments. Remarks. — See Hill loc. cit. for the four species previously included in this Lower and Middle Devonian genus. The association of X. dunstani with Spongopkyllum cyathophylloides Etheridge, two species of similar dimensions, was there remarked; and the similar association at Silverwood of Spongopkyllum halysitoides var. minor with a new species of Xystriphyllum described below gives rise to the speculation that Spongopkyllum may be a genomorph of Xystriphyllum formed by the poor development of the septa in the dissepimentarium. Xystriphyllum dunstani (Etheridge). (Plate III., figs. 4a, b.) Cyathophyllum dunstani Etheridge, 1911, p. 3, pi. A, figs. 1, 2. Xystriphyllum dunstani ; Hill, 1939b, p. 62. Lectotype (chosen Hill, id). — Cl. 6, Geological Survey of Queens- land Collection. Couvinian. Douglas Creek, Clermont. Diagnosis. — Xystriphyllum with long, unequal major septa inter- digitating in the tabularium ; in some corallites the minor septa may be lost and lonsdaleoid dissepiments may arise. Remarks. — A specimen in the Collection of the Geological Survey of Queensland from Mullin’s Paddock, Lucky Valley, Silverwood, although much re-crystallised, is placed without hesitation in this species, which bas recently been fully described in these proceedings. The corallites. are from 6-8 mm. in average diameter, and 17 or 18 long major septa which interdigitate at the axis alternate with minor septa nearly three- quarters as long. The walls are thick, and the outermost series of dissepiments is larger and more globose than the rest. There are indica- tions of lonsdaleoid dissepiments, but the difference in thickness between major and minor septa is not so great as in topotypes. The Clermont locality is probably Upper Couvinian. 164 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Xystriphyllum insigner sp. nov. (Plate III., figs. 5a, b.) Holotype. — F 3425, University of Queensland Collection. Lime- stone Siding, Silverwood, Queensland. Couvinian, Lower Middle Devonian. Diagnosis. — Xystriphyllum with small corallites, 2 or 3 mm. in diameter. Description. — No complete corallum has been found; the largest fragment is 7 x 3 x 3 cm. The corallum is cerioid and the individual corallites are usually 3 mm. in diameter, though a few are 4 mm., and some may be 2 mm. The walls between corallites are rather thick (0-5 mm.), the septal bases of neighbouring corallites are alternate or sub- opposite. The 12 or 13 major septa extend from the wall, without curvature, almost to the axis, where' they may be slightly interdigitated ; in some corallites two opposite septa appear to be joined at the axis.. The minor septa are two-thirds to three-quarters as long as the major septa in the type ; no vertical discontinuity was observed in either order, but both are slightly waved. The tabularium is about one-third as wide as the corallite and the tabulae are complete and sagging, rather distant. There are three or four series of globose dissepiments, the inner series being more steeply inclined than the outer. Remarks. — All specimens are badly preserved. At Silverwood, in addition to the type locality, the species occurs at Lomas North, while much re-crystallised material doubtfully placed in it has been collected from Barnes’ Qy. and Oakey Creek. It also occurs in the Tamworth District, New South Wales, on the Manilla road, 15 miles from Tam- worth (i.e., near Attunga), where it is associated with Litophyllum konincki Etheridge and Foord. This outcrop was considered by Etheridge (1899, p. 182) as almost certainly on the same horizon as the Moore Creek and Woolomol Limestones. These are probably Givetian. Family STREPTELASMIDAE. Typical Genus: Streptelasma Hall. Simple Rugosa without dissepiments; the septa are at first dilated throughout, but later extreme dilatation is confined to a narrow peri- pheral stereozone; the axial edges of the major septa are denticulate, and may interweave to form an axial structure ; the tabulae are domed, and complete or incomplete. Range. — Ordovician and Silurian of Europe and America; Lower Devonian of France ; Middle Devonian of North America and Australia. Remarks. — I include in this family the European Ordovician Dykowskia Wedekind (1927, p. 18) which has short major septa and complete, distant tabulae, and which, according to Scheffen (1933, p. 16) occurs also in the Silurian and Devonian of North America; the European and American Streptelasma of the Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian; and the two possibly synonymous Ordovician Baltic genera ' Grewingkia and Kiaerophyllum listed below, in which the denticulate axial ends of the septa unite to form a wide axial structure. The value of these generic names is doubtful; all the morphologies seem to belong to a connected series, and all have a long and wide distribution. Dinophyllum Lindstrom from the European Middle Silurian is possibly a member of this family. It has, however, a much larger fossula than typical members, and the axial ends of the septa do not appear to be THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OP QUEENSLAND, II. 165 denticulate. Possibly three American Devonian genera founded by Simpson (1900) might be Streptelasmids — Enter olasma (Helder- berg = Lower Devonian) ; Kionelasma (Niagaran to Upper Helderberg = Wenlock to top of Lower Devonian) ; and Scenophyllvm (Onondaga = Couvinian). Genus Streptelasma Hall. Streptoplasma [sic] Hall, 1847, pp. 17, 49, 69-71. Streptelasma Hall, 1847, explanation to pi. iv., &c. t Grewinglcia Dybowski, 1873, p. 384 (genolectotype, chosen Wedekind, 1927, p. 18, GrewingTcia formosa Dybowski, 1873, p. 132), Ordovician, Baltic States. ? Vy'bowskia Wedekind, 1927, p. 18 (genotype by designation D. prima Wedekind id.), Ordovician, Gotland. ■? Kiaerophyllum Wedekind, 1927, p. 17 (genotype by designation K. Iciaeri Wede- kind id.), Ordovician, Gotland. Streptelasma ; Smith, 1930, p. 311. Streptelasma ; Cox, 1937, p. 2. Genolectotype. — Streptoplasma (sic) corniculum Hall, 1847, p. 69, pi. 25. tigs. la-d. Trenton Formation of Trenton Falls, &c., New York State. See Cox loc. cit. Diagnosis. — As for family. Remarks. — As noted under remarks on the family, I cannot see the wisdom of separating the genera listed above, since the morphological differences are only of degrees, and all are widespread and long ranged. Streptelasma sp. (Plate III., fig. 6.) Material. — One specimen, F 3426, University of Queensland Collec- tion. Silverwood. Probably from Limestone Siding. Description. — In an obliquely transverse section 9 mm. in diameter, 34 major septa extend about two-thirds of the way to the axis, and alternate with an equal number of minor septa a little over 1 mm. long; at their peripheral ends both orders are dilated and in contact to form a narrow stereozone about 1 mm. wide ; in the tabularium the dilatation of the septa is less; the axial edges of the major septa are denticulate, and the irregular denticulations form a loose spongy border to an axial space about 1 mm. in diameter, which is almost free of septal ends. From their cut plates, the tabulae appear to be domed and rather distant. There are no dissepiments. Remarks. — The denticulate axial edges of the septa and the narrow peripheral stereozone clearly indicate that this specimen is a Streptel- asma', it is too incomplete to be given a specific name; possibly an examination of specimens of the American Devonian genera Enter olasma, Kionelasma, and Scenophyllum would give some correlations. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. This work has been carried out during tenure of a Research Fellow- ship within the University of Queensland financed by Commonwealth funds through the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. The photographs were made by Mr. E. V. Robinson. 166 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. REFERENCES. Barrois, C. 1889. Eaune du Calcaire d’Erbray. Mem. Soc. geol. Nord III., 348 pp * 17 pis. Chapman, F. 1914. Newer Silurian Fossils of Eastern Victoria, Part III. Bee. geol. Surv. Viet., III., Pt. 3, pp. 301-316, pis. xlvi.-lxi. Charlesworth, J. K. 1914. Das Devon cler Ostalpen. V. Die Fauna des devoni- schen Riffkalkes. 4 Korallen und Stromatoporoiden. Z. dtsch. geol. Gesell.,, LXVL, pp. 347-407, pis. xxx.-xxxiv. Cox, I. 1937. Arctic and some other Species of Streptelasma. Geol. Mag. Lond LXXIV., pp. 1-19, pis. i., ii. Dybowski, W. N. 1873-74. Monographie der Zoantliaria sclerodermata rugosa aus der Silurformation Estlands, Nord-livlands und der Insel Gotland. Arch. Naturlc. Liv-, Esth-u. Kurl. (1), V., 1873, Lief. 3, pp. 257-414, pis. i., ii. : 1874, Lief. 4, pp. 415-531, pis. iii.-v. Edwards, H. M., and IIaime, J. 1850-54. A Monograph of British Fossil Corals. 1850: Introd. and Pt. 1, lxxxv., + 71 pp., 11 pis.; 1851a: Pt. 2, pp. 73-145,, pis. xii.-xxx. ; 1852: Pt. 3, pp. 147-210, pp. 245-299, pis. lvii.-lxxii. Palaeontogr. Soc. [Monogr.] Edwards, H. M., and Haime, J. 1851b. Monographie des Polypiers Fossiles. des Terrains Palaeozoiques. Arch. Mus. Hist. nat. Paris, V., 502 pp., 20 pis. Etheridge, R. 1894. Description of a proposed new Genus of Rugose Coral ( Muco - phyllum). Bee. geol. Surv. N.S.W., IV., pp. 11-18, pis. iii. iv. Etheridge, R. 1899. On the Corals of the Tamworth District, chiefly from tho Moore Creek and Woolomol Limestones. Ibid. VI., Pt. 3, pp. 151-182r pis. xvi.-xxxviii. Etheridge, R. 1907. A Monograph of the Silurian and Devonian Corals of New South Wales. Pt. II. The Genus Try plasma. Mem. geol. Surv. N.S.W.. Palaeont. No. 13. 102 pp., 28 pis. Etheridge, R. 1918. Two remarkable Corals from the Devonian of New South Wales. Bee. Austral. Mus., XII., No. 4, pp. 49-51, pis. vii.-ix. Frech, F. 1885. Die Korallenfauna des Oberdevons in Deutschland. Z. dtsch,, geol. Gesell., xxxvii., pp. 21-130, pis. vii.-ix. Hall, J. 1847. Natural History of New York. Part VI., Palaeontology. I. xxiii. + 338 pp., 33 pis. 4to. Albany. Hill, D. 1935. British Terminology for Rugose Corals. Geol. Mag. Lond., LXXII., pp. 481-519, 21 text-figs. Hill, D. 1936. The British Silurian Rugose Corals with Acanthine Septa. Phil. Trans. B. Soc. Lond. (B), CCXXVL, pp. 189-217, pis. 29, 30. Hill, D. 1939a. The Devonian Rugose Corals of Lilydale and Loyola, Victoria. Proc. B. Soc! Viet. (N.S.), LI., pp. 219-256, pis. xiii.-xvi. Hill, D. 1939b. The Middle Devonian Rugose Corals of Queensland. I. Douglas Creek and Drummond Creek, Clermont District. Proc. B. Soc. Qld. L.,, pp. 55-65, pis. iv., v. Jones, O. A. 1929. On the Coral Genera Endophyllum Edwards and Haime and Spongophyllum Edwards and Haime. Geol. Mag. Lond. LXVI., pp. 84-91,. pi. x. Jones, O. A. 1932. A Revision of the Australian Species of the Coral Genera Spongophyllum E. & H. and Endophyllum E. & H., with a Note on Aphrophyllum Smith. Proc. B. Soc. Qld. XLIV., pp. 50-63, pis. iii., iv. Kayser, E. 1923. Lehrbuch der Geologie. Vier Bande. III. Band. Geologische- Formationskunde I. 6 u. 7 Auflage. 532 pp. Stuttgart. Lang, W. D., and Smith, S. 1935. Cyathophyllum caespitosurh Goldfuss, and other Devonian Corals considered in a Revision of that Species. Quart. J. geol. Soc. Lond., XCI., pp. 538-590, pis. xxxv. -xxxvii. Lang, W. D., and Smith, S. 1939. Some new Generic Names for Palaeozoic Corals. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (11), III., pp. 152-156, pi. iv. Le Maitre, D. 1934. Etudes sur la Faune des Calcaires Devoniens du Bassin d’Ancenis. Calcaire de Chaudefonds et Calcaire de Chalonnes (Maine-et- Loire). Mem. Soc. geol. Nord, XII., 261 pp., 18 pis. THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN RUGOSE CORALS OF QUEENSLAND, II. 167 Ma, T. Y. H. 1937. On the Seasonal Growth in Palaeozoic Tetracorals and the Climate during the Devonian Period. Palaeont. Sinica (B) II., Fasc. III., 96 pp., 22 pis. Penecke, K. A. 1894. Das Grazer Devon. Jahrh. K. K. geol. Reichsanst., XLIII. pp. 566-616, pis. vii.-xii. Pocta, P. 1902. In Barrande, J., Systeme silurien du Centre de la Boheme. 1st Part: Becherches paleontologiques, continuation editee par le Musee Boheme, Yol. YIII., Tome II., Anthozoaires et Alcyonaires, viii. -f- 347 pp., pis. 20-118. Bichards, H. C., and Bryan, W. H. 1924. The Geology of the Silverwood-Lucky Valley Area. Proc. R. Soc. Qld., XXXVI., pp. 44-108, pis. vii-xx., 1 map. Boemer, C. F. 1880. Thatigkeit der Naturwissenschaftlichen der Schesischen Gesellschaft in Jahre 1879, Sitzung 29th October. Jahrb. sches. Gesell. fur vaterl. Cult, fur 1879,, pp. 183-4. Scheffen, W. 1933. Die Zoantharia Bugosa des Silurs auf Bingerike in Oslogebeit. STcr. utgitt Norsk. Vid. Akad. Oslo I Mat. Naturv. Klasse, 1932. No. 5. 64 pp., 11 pis. Schluter, C: 1880. Neue Korallen aus dem Mitteldevon der Eifel. Verh. Naturh. Ver. preuss. Rheinl. u. Westfalens, Jahrg., xxxvii., Correspondenzblatt, p. 147. Schluter. C. 1881. Ueber einige Anthozoen des Devon. Z. dtsch. geol. Gesell., XXXIII., p. 75. Also Verh. Naturh. Ver. preuss. Rheinl. u. Westfalens, Jahrg. xxxviii., pp. 189-232, pis. ii.-ix. Schluter, C. 1885. Dunnschliffe von Zoantharia rugosa, Zoantharia tabulate und Stromatoporiden. Aus dem palaontologischen Museum der Universitat Bonn. Congr. geol. internat., 3rd Session, Berlin. Catalogue de l’ Exposition geologique, p. 52. Schluter, C. 1889. Anthozoen des rheinischen Mittel-Devon. Abhandl. K. preuss. geol. Landest., VIII., Pt. 4, pp. 259-465 (1-207), pis. i.-xvi. Simpson, G. B. 1900. Preliminary Descriptions of new Genera of Palaeozoic Bugose Corals. Bull. N.Y. State Hus., No. 39, Vol. VIII., pp. 199-222. Smith, S. 1930. Valentian Corals from Shropshire and Montgomeryshire. Quart. J. geol. Soo. Bond „, LXXXVI., pp. 291-330, pis. xxvi.-xxix. Soshkina, E. 1937. Corals of the Upper Silurian and Lower Devonian of the Eastern and Western Slopes of the Urals. Acad. sci. IJ.R.S.S., Trav. Instit. Paleozool., VI., Livr. 4. 112 pp., 21 pis. Stewart, G. A. 1938. Middle Devonian Corals of Ohio. Special Pap. geol. Soc. Amer., No. 8. 120 pp., 20 pis. Wedekind, B. 1927. Die Zoantharia Bugosa von Gotland (bes. Nord-Gotland). Sver. geol Undersok. (Ca), No. 19, 94 pp., 30 pis. Weissermel, W. 1894. Die Korallen der Silurgeschiebe Ostpreussens und des ost- lichen Westpreussens. Z. dtsch. geol. Gesell., XLVI., pp. 580-674, pis. xlvii.-liii. Whiteaves, J. F. 1895. Geol. Surv. Canada. Palaeozoic Fossils, III., Pt. II. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate II. All specimens are from the Middle Devonian (Couvinian) of the Silverwood District, S.E. Queensland, and are now in the Collection of the Department of Geology of the University of Queensland. All figures (except fig. 7) approximately by If diameters. Fig. 1. Acanthophyllum sp., cf. mansfieldense (Dun), F3412, Barnes’ Qy. la. Transverse section, lb. Vertical section. Fig. 2. Acanthophyllum sp. F3413. Limestone Siding. Transverse section. Fig. 3. Acanthophyllum sp. F3415. Silverwood. 3a. Transverse section. 3b. Vertical section. 3c. Tangenitial section of septa. Fig. 4. Prismatophyllum latum sp. nov. F3417. Barnes’ Qy. Holotype. 168 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Fig. 5. Frismatophyllum densum sp. nov. F3416. te Large Tryplasma horizon. ,r 5a. Transverse section. 5b. Vertical section. Holotype. Fig. 6. Fasciphyllum a ft. conglomeratum (Scliliiter). F3418. Limestone Siding. 6a. Vertical section. 6b, c. Transverse section. Fig. 7. Fasciphyllum conglomeratum . (Scliliiter). Givetian, Eifel. Diagrammatic sections, after Lang and Smith, x 4 diameters. Plate III. All specimens are from the Middle Devonian (Couvinian) of the Silverwood District, S.E. Queensland, and are now in the Collection of the Department of Geology of the University of Queensland. All figures approximately by If diameters. Fig. 1. Pseudamplexus sp. F3420, Lomas North, la. Transverse section of septa. lb. Median vertical section of a septum, lc. Tangential section of septa. Fig. 2. ? Chlamydophyllum sp. F3422. ? Limestone Siding. 2a. Transverse section. 2b. Part of vertical section. 2c. Tangential vertical section of septa. 2d. Transverse section of septa. Fig. 3. Spongophyllum halysitoides var. minor var. nov. F3423. Holotype. Lime- stone Siding. Fig. 4. Xystripliyllum dunstani (Etheridge). Geol. Surv. Colin. Mullin’s Paddock,, Lucky Valley. Fig. 5. Xystripliyllum insigne sp. nov. F3425. Holotype. Limestone Siding. Fig. 6. Streptelasma sp. F3426. ? Limestone Siding. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LI., No. 9. Plate II. Middle Devonian Rugose Corals. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LI., No. 9. Plate III. Middle Devonian Rugose Corals. Vol. LI., No. 10. 169 STUDIES ON QUEENSLAND GRASSES, I. ' By S. T. Blake, M.Sc., Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic Biology, University of Queensland. (Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 21th November , 1939.) Plates IV. and V. This is the first of a series of papers in which are to he presented previously undescribed species, new records for Queensland, and notes of a taxonomic, ecological, or economic nature on various genera and species of the Gramineae, serving either as introductory notes to mor-c complete accounts of the groups concerned or as addenda' to previously published works. In this paper some preliminary notes on that most difficult genus Aristida are presented. Between the years 1926 and 1933 two monumental works on the genus by J. T. Henrard were published in Mededeelingen van ’s Rijks Herbarium, viz., “A Critical Revision of the Genus Aristida” and “A Monograph of the Genus Aristida.” In these 33 species and 6 varieties are described as occurring in Australia, nearly all of which are now known to occur in Queensland. Field work, supplemented by intensive collecting, carried out in very many localities in Queensland, has testified to the accuracy of Henrard ’s species-concept within the genus, although it has been found that to give an accurate idea of many species the circumscriptions of these will have to be widened. This is particularly so in the case of the lengths of the spikelet-parts, while the character of normal and inverse glumes is not so reliable as one might wish. Hybridism may very likely, as suggested by Henrard, play a very big part in producing some of the extra- ordinarily difficult forms encountered in such complex series of forms as those centring around A. calycina and A. glumaris, and A. pruinosa and A. inaequiglumis. In this paper only some of the more outstanding forms are dealt with. Except where stated to the contrary, all collections cited have been personally examined, and are represented in the Queensland Herbarium, Brisbane, where also the actual types of the new species here described are deposited. Aristida acuta S. T. Blake sp. nov. (sect. Chaetaria) affinis A- glumari Ilenr. et A. praealtae Domin, ab hac foliorum vaginis collo glabris, panicula pauciore haud rigida, ab ilia panicula laxiore ejus ramis longioribus filiformibusque, ab utraque paniculae ramulis spiculisque appressis, glumis ambabus acutissimis, differt. Gramen perenne, caespitosum, viride. Culmi numerosi zb patentes, 3-nodes, e nodis inferioribus ramosi, graciles, teretes vel subcompressi, tenuiter striati, ceterum glabri laevesque, panicula inclusa 40-65 cm. longi. Folia haud numerosa ; vaginae internodiis breviores vel multo breviores, prominule striatae, glabrae, minute scaberulae vel fere laeves ; ligula brevissima, dense ciliata; auriculae vix incrassatae, pubescentes, nec barbatae vel innovationum parce barbatae ; collum glabrum ; laminae angustae, apice setaceo-attenuatae, usque ad 14 cm. longae, subrigidae, involutae vel convolutae, applanatae usque ad 2 mm. latae, nervis pluribus validis crebre percursae quorum 3 aliis crassiores, pagina superiore hirtellae, inferiore minute scaberulae. Panicula exserta 170 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. plerumque 15-30 cm. longa, laxa, ± nutans saepe quasi-secunda rhachis gracilis, ± trigona', sursum ± compressa, marginibus scaberula Yel omnino fere laevis ; rami singuli, remoti, filiformes, internodiis, paullo longiores, primo suberecti tandem (saltern inferiores) patuli vel subnutantes (in siccitate d= flexuosi), a basi pubescenti divisi, imus usque ad 8-5 cm. longus; ramuli pedicellique pauciores appressi, hi spiculis breviores, scabridi, apice subclavati. Spiculae haud densae, ± violaceo-coloratae. Glumae certe inversae, lineari-lanceolatae, mem- branaceae, hyalinae vel dilute coloratae, 1-nerves, glabrae, fere omnino laeves, sursum gradatim acuminata acutissima ; inferior carina parcc scaberula, aristulata, aristula 1-1*2 mm. longa inclusa 8*5-10-7 mm. longa; superior 1-1*7 mm. brevior, vix aristulata, 7*5-9 mm. longa. Lemma lineare, utrinque angustatum, dense punctulato-scaberulum,. marginibus involutum hinc ventre sulcatum, callo fere recto dense barbato ca, 1 mm. longo incluso 8*5-9 mm. longum. Columna nulla.. Aristae subsimiles, scabrae, oblique patentes, basi haud applanatae, 13-19 mm. longae, medialis lateralibus 4-5 mm. longior paullo robustior.. — Plate IV., figs. 1-3. Queensland. — Moreton District: Near Villeneuve, on upper hill- slopes in cleared Eucalyptus forest on grey podzolised soil, 400 feet,. Feb. 22nd, 1939, Blake 13960 (TYPE) ; Petrie, on somewhat open ground on poor soil, Dec. 28th, 1930, Blake 94. This species is readily distinguished by its lax habit, prominently inverse very acute glumes, and furrowed lemma. The primary branches of the panicle are bipartite or tripartite shortly above the base, the longer or longest secondary branch is naked for at least half its length, while the other or others are much shorter and bear 1-3 spikelets. Aristida dissimilis S. T. Blake sp. nov. (sect. Chaetaria) affinis A. glumari Henr. a qua panicula minus rigida ejus ramis ramulisque appressis, gluma inferiore dense scaberula, aristis lateralibus brevius- culis capillaribus differt. Grarnen perenne, caespitosum, suberectum, viride. Culmi numerosq stricti vel leviter geniculati, teretes, leviter striati, fere laeves sed sub panicula scabri, 2-3-nodes, plerumque simplices raro parce ramosi, cum panicula 40-60 cm. longi. Folia pauca ; vaginae interno diis multo breviores, arctae, persistentes vel inferiores delapsae, prominule nervosae, subcarinatae, glabrae, minute scaberulae ; ligula brevissima dense ciliolata ; auriculae breviter pubescentes ; collum glabrum ; laminae anguste lineares apicem versus acutatae, firmae nec rigidae, vel planae vel involutae vel sursum convolutae, (applanatae) 1-1*5 mm. latae,, pagina superiore scaberulae, inferiore laeves, usque ad 20 cm. longae sed plerumque multo breviores. Panicula tandem longe exserta, plerumque 10-20 cm. longa, laxiuscula, interrupta, pauciramosa; rhachis angulata scabra ; rami bini, vel singuli et fere ad basin furcati,. suberecti, internodiis breviores, gracillimi, scabri, parte superiore pau- ciramulosi ; pedicelli spiculis breviores apicem versus subclavati. Spiculae erecti, purpurascentes vel violascentes. Glumae inversae, lineari-lanceolatae, aristulatae, firme membranaceae, 1-nerves ; inferior gradatim acuminata, carina scabra ceterum dense scaberula, cum aristula 9-10 mm. longa; superior plerumque 0*5-1 mm. brevior, apice- abrupte acuminata ± biauriculata, fere laevis, aristula inclusa 8-9 mm. longa. Lemma anguste lanceolatum, aliquantulum complana'tum, ventre sulcatum ob margines involutas, dense punctulatum, cum callo obliquo- STUDIES ON QUEENSLAND GRASSES, I. 171 obtuso 0*7-0* 9 mm. longo dense longeque barbato 8-8*5 mm. longum. Columna nulla. Aristae valde inaequales, hispidae, erectae vel sub- erectae, medialis inferne^ robusta, 10-14 mm. longa, laterales multo breviores gracilioresque 5-8 mm. longae. — Plate IV., figs 4-7. Queensland. — North Kennedy District : Townsville, on sandy soil on the exposed rocky slopes of Castle Hill, and in Eucalyptus forest, June 7th, 1934, Blake 5945 (TYPE) ; and on roadsides, Blake 5957. Distinguished by the rather plump spikelets with scaberulous lower glumes, and the dissimilarity between the dz erect awns, of which the central is rather robust while the lateral ones are very slender and only i~i as long. Aristida helicophylla S- T. Blake sp. nov. (sect. Chaetaria) affinis A • jerichoensi Domin et A. ingratae Domin, ab ilia tamen foliis omnibus persistentibus planis circinatis, ab hac gracilitate, foliis angustioribus, collo glabris, spiculis minoribus, ab utraque aristis leviter recurvatis flexuosisve differ!. Gramen perenne, caespitosum, glauco-pruinosum, usque ad 1 m. altum. Culmi stricti vel fere stricti, erecti, simplices vel pauciramosi, 2-3-nodes, graciles, leviter compressi, leviter striati, valde pruinosi, cete- rum glabri laevesque, nodis leviter incrassati. Folia pruinosa; vaginae arctae vel inferiores ± hiantes:, internodiis subduplo breviores, sulcatae, scaberulae, collo incluso glabrae ; ligula longe denseque ciliata ; auriculae pubescentes; laminae anguste lineares, planae vel praesertim superne ± complicatae, flexuosae, usque ad 20 cm. longae, 1*5-2 mm. latae, valide multinerves nec carinatae, pagina superiore longiuscule denseque hirtellae, inferiore scaberulae, veterae semper planae laxe tortae ± circinatae. Panicula exserta vel longe exserta, stricta, angusta, continua, densiuscula, 12-25 cm. longa'; rhachis hicinde visibilis, angulata, sursum scabrida ; rami graciles, plerumque bini, a basi divisi, rhacheos inter- nodiis plerumque longiores, inferiores usque ad 5 cm. longi, cum ramulis pedicellisque stricti, appressi, erecti. Spiculae longiuscule pedicellatae, pedicellis subclavatis spiculis brevionbus. Glurnae sub- aequales, plerumque inversae, membranaceae, 1-nerves ; inferior acute acuminata, aristulata, carina scaberula, ceterum brevissime scabro- ciliolata, 6*2-7*7 mm. longa; superior angustior, usque ad 0*7 mm. brevior, apice profunde biloba, inter lobos angustissimos aristulata, 6-7 mm. longa. Lemma glumis multo brevius, atrofuscum vel atromaculatum, lineari-ellipticum, admodum compressum, punctulatum, ventre sulcatum, marginibus involutis pills brevibus antrorsim conicis albidis interdum praeditum, cum callo acutissimo 0*8 mm. longo dense barbato 4*2-4*5 mm. longum, 0*55 mm. latum. Columna nulla. Aristae lemmate quasi- articulatae (i.e. inter lemma aristasque sulcus angustus adest), pallidae, subsimiles, capillares, leviter recurvae vel flexuosae, 17-21 mm. longae. —Plate IV., figs. 8-12. Queensland. — Mitchell District : Between Jericho and Lochnagar on sand in mixed open forest, ca. 1,100 feet, July 17th, 1934, Blake 6875 ; east of Jericho in mixed open forest on sand, ca, 1,250 feet, July 16th, 1934, Blake 6822 ; near Jericho on rocky crest of low range on shallow reddish sand among low shrubs and Triodia , ca. 1,500 feet, July 15th, 1934, Blake 6807. Warrego District : Between Charleville and Westgate on red sand associated with Eucalyptus melanophloia and Triodia, April 20th, 1934, Blake 5411 (TYPE). 172 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. The persistent flat old leaves curled somewhat in the manner of a watch-spring, and the very slender flexuose or curved awns give this, species quite a distinctive appearance. The leaves are very similar to those of A. ingrata Domin, but they are narrower, and lack the charac- teristic villous line across the collar. There is a distinct narrow but rather deep constriction between the lemma and the awns, and also a marked differentiation in colour between them, but there is no differentia- tion in tissue and therefore no articulation. The lower glume is usually the longer, but rarely it is shorter than the upper. Aristida exserta 8. T. Blake sp. nov. (sect. Ckaetaria) affinis A. queenslandicae Henr. a qua praecipue internodiis glabris, lemmate angustiore longius exserto, aristis minus inaequalibus differt. Gramen perenne, caespitosum, pallide viride, 30-60 cm. altum. Culmi erecti, stricti, graciles, -§-1 mm. crassi, teretes, tenuiter striati, ceterum laeves vel fere laeves, glabri, 2-3-nodes, e nodis omnibus ramosi. Folia pauca ; vaginae arctae vel inferiores tandem hiantes, striati, ceterum fere laeves, internodiis multo breviores; ligula brevissima longe denseque ciliata ; auriculae pubescentes ; collum glabrum ; laminae subsetaceae, rigidae, leviter curvatae vel flexuosae, involutae et quasi-teretes (applan- atae usque ad 1 mm. latae), nervis validis paucis percursae, marginibus scabrae, pagina superiore breviter hirtellae, inferiore glabrae laevesque. Fanicula longiuscule exserta, stricta, erecta, angusta, A: interrupta, 10-15 cm. longa, 1 cm. lata raro metiens (aristis exclusis) ; rhachis com- presse trigona, marginibus scaberula, bene visibilis; rami singuli, erecti, filiformes, a basi divisi, rhacheos internodiis breviores; ramuli pauci; pedicelli spiculis breviores, anguste clavati, scabridi. Spiculae pallidae vel violascentes. Glumae inversae, lineari-lanceolatae, glabrae laevesque - inferior acuminata longiuscule aristulata, 3-nervis, manifeste carinata, aristula 0-5-0-75 mm. longa inclusa 7-8-7 mm. longa; superior prominule brevior, 1-nervis, breviter biloba, aristulata (aristula ca. 0-5 mm. longa' inclusa), 6-5-7 mm. longa. Lemma glumis manifeste longius, angustis- sime lanceolatum fere subulatum, prope basin leviter angustatum, sursum longe angustatum, ventre sulcatum (marginibus involutis), prope apicem ciliatulo-scabrum ceterum glabrum laeveque, callo brevi admodum obliquo 04-0-5 mm. longo dense barbato incluso 8-10 (plerumque 9) mm. longum. Columna nulla. Aristae subsimiles subaequales, 8-12 mm. longae. — -Plate V., figs. 6-9. Queensland. — North Kennedy District: Near Pentland on Mount Remarkable and neighbouring peaks in open forest, June 11th, 1934, Blake 6130 (TYPE). A slender species fairly readily recognised by the setaceous leaves, very narrow scanty inflorescence, inverse glumes, and narrow attenuate furrowed lemma at least 1 mm. longer than the glumes and usually more. The shape of the lemma approaches that of A. ramosa R. Br., but it is furrowed, and the species abundantly differ in many other characters. Aristida intricata 8. T. Blake sp. nov. (sect. CJiaetaria) affinis 4- Warbnrgii Mez sed foliis hispidis, culmis distincte compressis scabris,. spiculis in omni parte brevioribus, gluma prima hirtella, lemmate sursum scabro-hispido differt, Gramen perenne caespitosum viride. Culmi graciles, basi zb erecti, sed sursum tandem patentes, compressi, antrorsim scabri, panicula STUDIES ON QUEENSLAND GRASSES, I. 173 inclusa usque ad 90 cm. longi, simplices, 1-2-nodes, internodio supremo (pedunculo) longe exserto usque ad 50 cm. longo sublaevi. Folia plura- vaginae internodiis breviores, arete appressae, striati, scabrae; ligula brevis dense breviterque ciliolatae; auriculae inconspicuae pilis longis paucis barbatae vel glabrae; laminae angustissime lineares, longe attenuatae, valde complicatae, applanatae usque ad 1-8 mm. latae, pagina superiore hirtellae, inferiore scabro-hirtellae. Panicula angusta, ± nutans, contracta sed hand densa, saepe quasi-secunda ; rhachis angulata scabra, bene visibilis; rami singuli vel sub-bini, internodiis rhacheos breviores (inferiores usque ad 80 mm. longi, basi vel prope basin 1-ramulosi, saepe autem apicem versus ramulos 1-2 gerentes) , tenuissime filiformes, sub flore saepe patentes, ± nutantes, sub fructu ± erecti et appressi, scaberuli, plerumque 3-1-spiculosi ; pedicelli angulati, sub- clavati, scabri, laterales 1*5-4 mm. longi, terminales usque ad 12 mm. longi. Spiculae purpureo-suffusae, maturitate ob aristas tortas inter se innexae. Glumae normales, marginibus involutae ; inferior lineari- lanceolata, acuta, valde 3-nervis, nervis percurrentibus, carina scabra, ceterum hirtella, vel margines versus glabra, plerumque 6-7, raro 5, mm. longa; superior -J-J longior, angustior, apice abrupte acuminata, 1-nervis, carina sursum scabridula excepta glabra laevisque, admodum patula sed a latere visa incurva, 8*5-11 mm. longa. Lemma angustissime lanceolatum, prominule carinatum, haud sulcatum, marginibus convolu- tion, parte superiore vel tota margine exteriore parce scabrum, ceterum glabrum laeveque, cum callo 7-8 mm. longum; callus leviter curvatus, pungens, 1-2-1-5 mm. longus, pilis albis usque ad 1 mm. longis dense barbatus. Columna lemmate vix tenuior, scabra, valde torta, 11-13 mm. (cum lemmate calloque 19-21 mm.) longa, sursum saepe dz flexubsa. Aristae scabrae, media robusta 17-19 mm. longa , basi recurvata, laterales multo tenuiores, ± filiformes, 12-14 mm. longae, divaricatae, vel omnes laxe spiraliter contortae vel media solum contorta. — Plate V., figs. 1-5. Queensland. — Wide Bay District: Near Bundaberg, on bill slopes in Eucalyptus forest, April 27th, 1936, Blake 11325A; Howard, Watson 13. Moreton District: Bribie Island, in flat sandy country, April 30th, 1916, White ; Caloundra, in open forest on sandy soil, August 24th, 1932, Blake 305; Caboolture, May 2nd, 1931, Mayze in Herb. Blake 180; Lawnton, near Brisbane, at edge of dried-up swamp, March 28th, 1932, Blake 252 ; Blackheath, April 23rd, 1918, White ; Virginia, Brisbane, fairly common in Melaleuca nodosa forest on ill-drained light grey sandv loam, 25 feet, June 3rd, 1939, Blake 14097 (TYPE) ; Sunnybank, near Brisbane, June 2nd, 1914, and March, 1918, White. Very similar in appearance to A. Warburgii Mez, and like it forms rather leafy tufts with long flexuose peduncles straggling over the ground. A. perniciosa Domin of North Queensland has a similar habit, although Domin describes the species as strictly erect. A. intricata is rather common in the coastal districts of South-east Queensland in flattish often ill-drained deep sandy soil in wallum communities and related forest communities, usually in damper places than A. Warburgii. At maturity, . the awns are usually more or less strongly spirally twisted and intertwined, so that the lemmas are shed in groups. This, in addition to the difficulty at first experienced in distinguishing immature specimens from immature specimens of A. Warburgii (almost all the earlier collections of these species are more or less immature) suggested the specific epithet. 174 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. For note on A. Warburgii Mez and A. heterochaeta Henr. see below. Aristida platychaeta S. T. Blake sp. nov. (sect. Chaetaria) affinis A. muricatae Henr. et A. anthoxanthoidi Henr., ab hac inflorescentia laxiore, lemmatis marginibus convolutis nec involutis, callo longiore, aristis basin versus dilatatis planisque, ab ilia partibus omnibus minoribus, lemmate a medio utrinque angustato, callo paullo angustiore, aristis basi applanatis distinguenda. Gramen perenne, caespitosum, viride vel ± atro-violaceum usque ad 50 cm. altum. Culmi erecti vel basi geniculati gracilesy teretes, striati, glabri laevesque, 1-2-nodes, internodium summum (pedunculus) longis- simum, cetera brevia. Foliorum vaginae arctae, internodiis breviores vel inferiores iis subaequales longioresve, prominule striatae, minutis- sime scabernlae; ligula dense ciliata; auriculae pubescentes, pilis longis paucis sparse barbatae; collum glabrum; laminae dh llexnosae usque ad 15 cm. longae, convolutae vel basin versus planae, vel fere totae planae, 1-2 mm. latae, pagina superiore dense hirtellae inferiore glabrae laevesque vel scaberulae, nervis pluribus utrinque percursae quorum 3 ceteris crassiores, marginibus incrassatae sursum scaberulae. Panicula longe exserta, 10-20 cm. longa, aristis inclusis ca. 2-3 cm. lata, spici- formis haud densa, inf erne saepe ± interrupts ; rhachis visibilis, angulata, striata, parce scaberula vel fere laevis ; rami internodiis multo breviores, bini, a basi divisi, cum ramulis pedicellisque erecti, filiformes, scaberuli, pedicelli spiculis breviores vel terminales longiores. Spiculac it violaceo-coloratae. Glumae membranaceae, subaequales, 5-7 mm. longae, lineari-lanceolatae, 1-nerves; inferior acuta, cuspidata, aristula usque ad 0-5 mm. longa, carina interdum quoque lateribus sursum scabrida; superior paullo longior vel raro brevior, paullo angustior, abrupte acuminata, apice ± minute ciliolata, carina laevis. Lemma tubulosum, angustum, fusiforme, marginibus convolutum, inferne punctulatum, sursum scabrum atque pilis hyalinis albis conicis antrorsis dense praeditum, cum callo obtuso oblongo longiuscule denseque barbato 1 mm. longo 5-6 mm. longum. Columna nulla. Aristae inter se similes, subaequales, 12-18 mm. longae, oblique patentes, basi plana latiuscula marginibus scabridae, ± tortae, sursum setaceae, scabrae. — Plate V., figs. 10-13. Queensland. — Warrego District: Chesterton, approx. 25° 20' S., 147° 20' E., on grassland slope on dark grey silt clay, ca. 1,800 feet, April 7th, 1936, Blake 11072; Morven, in grassland on dull brown silt clay, ca. 1,400 feet, April 2nd, 1936, Blake 11002. Maranoa District: Mitchell, on open downs on dark greenish brown, silty clay, 1,100 feet, May 3rd, 1934, Blake 5701 (TYPE) ; Roma, in cemetery reserve on sand, ca. 1,000 feet, May 6th, 1934, Blake 5786; Moondoo, near Dirranbandi, on grey silt clay plain with scattered Eucalyptus coolabah, 550 feet, Feb. 27th, 1936, Blake 10574. One of the very few species of the genus regularly found on heavy soils. Although an element in the grassland climax, it tends to dominate overgrazed areas in some places. The rather broad flat thin bases of the awns are very characteristic, though they also occur to a more or less extent in other forms. The glumes are almost always normal, but very occasional instances of the inverse position were observed. A. anthoxanthoides ( Domin ) Henr. l.c. No. 54, 29 (1926) ; A. peregrina Henr. l.c. 16 (1926). A. adscensionis L. var. anthoxanthoides Domin in Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85, 343 (1915), and var. subaeqmglumis Domin, l.c. STUDIES ON QUEENSLAND GRASSES, I. 175 Henrard based his A. peregrina on the description of A. adscensionis var. subaequiglumis Domin without having seen the type, but later, after having seen the specimens, he united it with A. anthoxanthoides (l.c. 438). Henrard has however erred in describing the lemma' as tubular with overlapping margins (see particularly the Monograph, p. 303, and the key on p. 294). I have seen specimens from the type- collections of both Domin ’s varieties, and in these as in all other specimens I have seen, the lemma is prominently ventrally furrowed with inrolled margins. It is thus impossible to determine specimens from the key. A. anthoxanthoides is fairly common in Western Queensland, chiefly in the far west, occurring often as a pioneer on bare ground such as clay-pans. A. obscura Henr. l.c. No. 54A, 385 (1927). Henrard ’s description of this species seems to have been based on poor material, to judge from the material of the type collection in Herb. Sydney received on loan through the courtesy of Mr. R. H. Anderson. Particularly during 1 936 I collected an excellent series of specimens, but owing to the inade- quate description had been at a loss to place them. Two notable characteristics appear to have been overlooked by Henrard. Firstly the uppermost internode (peduncle) is very thin and strongly flattened sometimes concavo-convex, a feature prominent both in the field and in the herbarium. Secondly, the lemma is strongly and densely antrorsely hispid all over. The awns are much longer than described by Henrard, up to 45 mm., but are apparently broken in the type, while the glumes are distinctly aristulate. The panicle in well-developed specimens has the branches bipartite or tripartite at the base and longer. There is no essential difference between the general structure and appearance of the panicle of this species and of A. Leiehhardtiana Domin and the two species are closely allied, although Henrard places them in different inflorescence-groups (cf. Monograph, 208). The internodes of the latter species are at times slightly hirtellous, but the uppermost internode is always terete, and the lemma is smooth. The spikelets are also slightly smaller, and the leaves are not flat. A. obscura var. luxurians Henr. l.c. 54c, 729 (1933), seems likely to be the hybrid A. Behriana X A. obscura. The peduncle is terete, and the other characters seem to be as much those of A. Behriana as of A. obscura. I have not seen the type collection of this form, but there are two collections in Herb. Sydney from the type locality (Nyngan) which match the description. Is it merely a coincidence that this “ variety’ ’ is known only from the only locality from which both A. Behriana and A. obscura have been collected?' A. Warburgii Mez in Fedde, Rep. Spec. Nov. xvii. 149 (1921) ; Henr. in Meded. Herb. Leid. No. 54b, 681 (1928). A. heterochaeta Henr. l.c. No. 54a, 227 (1927). Through the courtesy of Dr. Pilger I have received an excellent photograph and fragments of the type of A. Warburgii in the Berlin Herbarium, while through the courtesy of Mr. R. H. Anderson I have had the loan of specimens of the type collection of A. heterochaeta. In both cases the specimens are somewhat immature, but they are cer- tainly conspecific. It was unfortunate that Henrard was unable to see A. Warburgii, but it is strange that while discussing its possible identity he omitted his A. heterochaeta from the list of the species with 3-nerved 176 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. lower glumes and a twisted column. It is probable that he did not consider this species to be involved as Mez did not mention the diversity of the awns in his description. A. Warburgii varies rather considerably in the degree of hetero- geneity of the awns and in the degree of their curvature. Sometimes the central awn is nearly horizontal with the laterals suberect ; at other times all are more or less curved, the median strongly recurved and in addition twisted away from the lemma. In the preparation of herbarium specimens this torsion is usually sufficient to wrench mature lemmas from the glumes, so that really good mature specimens are almost unknown in herbaria. Some very young specimens in Herb. Sydney were compared by Henrard with A. hirta Domin (according to herbarium notes by Miss Vickery) and one very young specimen in Herb. Brisbane has been identified by Henrard with this species. A. hirta Domin and A. superpendens Domin are species with heterogeneous awns belonging to the sect. Arthratherum, but there is no trace of an articulation at the base of the column in A. Warburgii or A. intricat a. I am not exactly sure which is A. hirta Domin. I have collected and seen several series of specimens from Domin ’s type locality and neighbouring places belonging to two distinct allied species, but I have not seen a single specimen which matches exactly both the descriptions and figures of either Domin or Henrard. Certain rather stout forms of A. Warburgii from near Brisbane however, are very similar in outward appearance to what I take to be typical A. superpendens. In another form the column is unusually short (7-8 mm.) with the callus also slightly shorter than usual. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. In all cases spikelet (with lemma separated) X 4, lemma (with upper part of awns removed) and apices of glumes X 10. All figures drawn from type specimens. Plate IY. Figs. 1-3, Aristida acuta S. T. Blake: 1, spikelet; 2, apex of upper glume; 3, lemma. Figs. 4-7, Aristida dissimilis S. T. Blake: 4, spikelet; 5, apex of lower glume; 6, apex of upper glume; 7, lemma. Figs. 8-12, Aristida helicophylla S. T. Blake: 8, spikelet; 9, apex of lower glume; 10, apex of upper glume; 11, lemma; 12, old leaf, natural size. Plate Y. Figs. 1-5, Aristida intricata S. T. Blake: 1, spikelet; 2, apex of lower glume; 3, apex of upper glume; 4, portions of lemma; 5, another lemma, natural size, to show variation in twist of awns. Figs. 6-9, Aristida exserta S. T. Blake: 6, spike- let; 7, apex of lower glume; 8, apex of upper glume; 9, lemma. Figs. 10—13, Aristida platychaeta S. T. Blake: 10, spikelet; 11, apex of lower glume; 12, apex of upper glume; 13, lemma. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. LI., No. 10. Plate IV. Pigs. 1-3, Aristida acuta S. T. Blake. Figs. 4-7, Aristida dissimilis S. T. Blake. Figs. 8-12, Aristida lielicophylla S. T. Blake. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LI., JSTo. 10. Plate Y. Vol. LI., No. 11. 177 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE, IV. By S. T. Blake, M.Sc., Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic Biology, University of Queensland. ( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 21th November, 1939.) This paper deals with certain forms within the section Isolepis of the genus Scirpus. This intricate group includes a number of Australian species which, on account of the smallness of their parts and the general similarity in appearance are exceedingly difficult to distinguish, and are frequently found mixed in the same collection. In the citation of speci- mens, all of which have been personally examined, the herbaria in which they are laid are indicated by the abbreviations given below, and I here express my gratitude to the officials of these institutions for the loan of the collections in their charge. Tate Herbarium, University of Adelaide . . . . AD. Herbarium of J. M. Black, Adelaide . . . . BL. Queensland Herbarium, Botanic Gardens, Brisbane BRL Herbarium of J. B. Cleland, University of Adelaide CL. National Herbarium of Victoria, Melbourne . . MEL. National Herbarium of New South Wales, Sydney NSW. Where no special indication is given, the specimens are in BRI. Scirpus laevis S. T. Blake sp. nov. (sect. Isolepis) inter species australienses distigmatosas spiculis subteretibus haud angulatis, glumis densis concavis incurvis 3-nervibus, nuce applanata fere laevi distinguenda. A S. Brunoniano S. T. Blake quern habitu nuceque admodum approximate glumis spissis minus nervosis facillime deciduis differt. Planta annua caespitosa viridis, usque ad 30 cm. alta. Culmi stricti, plerumque erecti, vivo teretes sicco applanati sulcati, glabri laevesque, usque ad 15 cm. longi, ca. 1 mm. lati, enodes vel nodo unico prope culmi basin sito. Folia ad vaginas 1-2 tenues sed firmas pluri- nerves antice hyalinas ore obliquo secto hyalino rubro-punctato mucronatas redacta. Bractea ima vel unica erecta, teres, culmo sub- aequilonga vel longior eum quasi continuans, apice acuta, basi hyalino-marginata rubro-punctata ; secunda scariosa squamiformis, saepe florem abortivum fovens. Inflorescentiae dimorphae, altera exserta quasilateralis, altera basicaulis in vagina inclusa. Inflorescentia exserta : spiculae 1-4 digitatae sessiles vel ima brevissime pedunculata, ovoideae vel oblongo-ovoideae, subobtusae, teretes, multiflorae, 5-7 mm. longae, 2- 2-2-7 mm. latae. Rhachilla exalata. Glumae densissimae, appressae, ovatae, aeutae vel subacutae vel obtusae, apice subtriangulares muticae, concavae, sursurn incurvae, dorso virides, 3-nerves nervo medio sub apice leviter incrassato, lateribus enervibus albo-hyalinae vel fulvo- tinctae, omnino glabrae, 1-7-1-9 mm. longae. Stamina 2, antherae minimae oblongae apiculatae 0-13 mm. longae. Stylus tenuissimus 0-2 mm. longus stigmata 2 longiora. Setae hypogynae nullae. Nux late obovata vel suborbicularis, minute apiculata, inaeque biconvexa valde applanata saepe fere planoconvexa, marginibus vix incrassata, minute reticulata vel ± laevis, nitide brunnea, 0*85-0-9 mm. longa, 0*7-0*75 mm. 178 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. lata, toro brevissimo. Inflorescentia basicauiis in vagina basali ad florem unicum redacta ; stylus longissimus stigmatibus tribus longis exsertis ; nux non visa. Western Australia. — Kimberley Division: King River, October, 1906, Fitzgerald (NSW.). Central Australia. — Reedy Creek in 1894 Tate ( Horn Expedn ) (AD.). Queensland. — Cook District : Near Mareeba, in dried-out depres- sions in Eucalyptus forest, ca. 1,700 feet, March 28th, 1938, Blake 13483 (TYPE in BRI.). North Kennedy District: Between Townsville and Rollingstone in swamps, March 28th, 1933, White 8872. Fairly easily distinguished by the long erect bract appearing as though a continuation of the culm, the non-angular spikelets, bifid style, and the rather thin biconvex or ± planoconvex nut. In a few instances only flowers in the basal leaf-sheaths were observed, but no nuts were seen. The styles in these flowers have three stigmas. Scirpus setiformis S. T. Blake sp. nov. affinis S. Oldfieldiano S. T. Blake, sed habitu, glumis densis nucibusque minoribus praecipue differt. S. arenarius Benth. var. ? setiformis Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 326 (1887). Annua, densissime caespitosa, glabra laevisque. Culmi pernumerosL obliqui vel erecti, stricti, setacei, eompressi vel fL trigoni vel sulcato- angulati, usque ad 10 cm. alti, ± 0-25 mm. crassi. Folia, non evoluta' ; vagina caulina unica, purpurea vel purpurascens, scariosa, leviter striata, arcta, usque ad 1-5 cm. longa, ore paullo dilatata, oblique acuminata, laminam 1-5 mm. longam angustissimam obtusam rarissime gerens. Spicula unica vel rarissime geminata, erecta vel interdum obliqua, fuscobrunnea, ovoidea, acuta, pluriflora, 3 mm. longa, 2 mm. lata, ebracteata vel gluma ima vacua saepe bracteiformis spiculam raro subaequans. Glumae (ima excepta) appressae, suborbiculares, obtusis- simae, muticae, 9-13-nerves, obtuse carinatae, carina viridi 3-nervi haud vel vix excurrente, lateribus membranaceae, marginibus anguste scariosae, 1*6-2 mm. longae. Stamina 2, antherae oblongae apiculatae, apiculo usque ad 0*1 mm. longo incluso 0-3-0-4 mm. longae. Stylus 0*1-0*15 mm. longus, stigmata 2, ca. 0-8-0-9 mm. longa. Setae hypogynae nullae. Nux orbiculari-ob'ovata, vix stipitata, apice subtruncata prominule apiculata, valde inaeque biconvexa vel subplanoconvexa, angulis tenuibus acuta vix costulata, tandem brunnea, laxiuseule reticulata, nitidula, interdum albida, subopaca, cellulis extimis minutis liexagonis marcidis, 0*8-0*95 mm. longa, 0*7-0*85 mm. lata. Western Australia. — South-west Division : Near Perth, Nov. 1900, Fitzgerald (NSW., BRI.) ; Mount Barker, Oldfield (TYPE in BRI., MEL.). Bentham l.c. suggested this form as a variety of his S. arenarius with doubt, pointing out it may be a distinct species. Under the cir- cumstances it seems better to describe the form as a new species rather than a new combination. Whatever S. arenarius Benth. may be, the name cannot stand because of the pre-existing S. arenarius Boeck. Hence I make the following change: — Scirpus psammophilus S. T. Blake nom. nov. S. arenarius Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 325 (1878), non Boeck. (1869-70.) NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN C YPERACEAE } IV. 179 Bentham describes the species as having 2 style-branches, and it is so figured by Clarke (111. Cyp. tab. xlvii. figs. 1-2) from Drummond 360, which I have not seen. The Wilson’s Promontory specimens how- ever, have 3 stigmas, though otherwise they closely agree with Clarke’s figure. Matching these specimens, but immature, are specimens collected by Staer at Middleton Beach, Western Australia, in Feb., 1911 (NSW.). Whether two closely similar species are involved, or whether there has been a mistake in the style branches (in all cases the nut appears to be plano-convex with a trace of a dorsal angle) can only be decided when Drummond’s plants have been examined. It is unfortunate that this particular number should be missing from Herb. Melbourne, where most, at least, of Drummond’s Cyperaceae seem to be represented. Scirpus Oldfieldianus 8. T. Blake nom. nov. 8. krizoides Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 326 (1878), non Willd. ex Link (1820). Western Australia. — South-west Division: Pinjarrah, Oct., 1900, Fitzgerald (NSW., BRI.) ; Yasse River, Oldfield (MEL.) ; without definite locality, Drummond 919 (MEL., BRI., TYPE collection). Chiefly distinguished by the solitary suberect loose-flowered spikelet with broad many-nerved glumes and the orbicular, thin and nearly flat nut. Scirpus Brunonianus S. T. Blake nom. nov. S- cyperoides (R. Br.) Spreng. Syst. i. 208 (1825), non L. (1771), nec. Lam. (1778), nec. Hemsl. (1885). Isolepis cyperoides R. Br. Prodr. 222 (1810). Western Australia. — South-west Division. Scirpus australiensis {Maiden & Betche) 8. T. Blake stat. nov. S. cernuus Yahl var. australiensis Maiden & Betche, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales xxxiii. 316 (1908). S. muUicaulis F. Muell. ex C. B. Clarke, Kew Bull. Add. Ser. viii. 29 (1908) , nec Sm. (1800), nec Gmel. (1805), nec Schlecht (1847). Queensland (Gregory South District), New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia. Quite a distinct species. It differs sharply from 8. cernuus Yahl in the nearly equally triquetrous nut with narrow costulate margins and from this and most other species in that the glumes are very thin, stoutly and acutely keeled, but with at most 1 nerve on each side. 8. congruus (Nees) S. T. Blake has entirely nerveless sides to the glumes, but these are broader, and the nut is not costulate at the margins. Scirpus calocarpus 8. T. Blake sp. nov. (sect. Isolepis) affinis 8. setaceo L. sed culmis tenerioribus, foliis hand evolutis eorum vaginis ore truncatis, spiculis minoribus, glumis minoribus minus nervosis apice plus patulis, nuce duplo minore differt. 8. setaceus L. sec. Boeck, (partirn), Benth., etc. non L. Planta annua, caespitosa, viridis, glabra laevisque. Culmi pernu- merosi, stricti, vel curvati, vel flexuosi, obliqui vel erecti, filiformes, crebre sulcati, usque ad 12 cm. longi, plerumque 0-2 mm. crassi. Folia haud evoluta; vagina caulina unica, tenuiter membranacea, pluristriata, purpurea, laxiuscula, inferne subinflata, ore dz hyalina truncata vel fere truncata, mucronata, mucrone raro in laminam angustissimam subplanam obtusiusculam usque ad 3 mm. longam producto. Bractea unica, erecta vel suberecta, spicula brevior, subglumiformis. Spiculae 1-2 sessiles, obliquae, ovoideae vel oblongae, obtusae, angula'tae, 2-5-3-5 mm. longae, 180 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 1*5 mm. latae, pluriflorae. Glumae subdensae, facile deciduae, ovatae, obtusae, apice patulae, valde carinatae, praeter carinam robustam viridem valde curvatam yix excurrentem sed apice ipsa breviter excurvam tenuissime 4-6-nerves, nervibus saepe fere evanescentibus, lateribus tenuiter membranaceae hyalinae vel sanguineo- vel fuseo-suffusae, 1-25-1-5 mm. longae. Stamina 3, antherae oblongae breviter apiculataer 0-2 mm. longae. Stylus tenuissimus ca. 0-3 mm. longus, stigmata 3 fere duplo longiora. Setae hypogynae nullae. Nux brunnea vel fuseescens,. nitens, fere globosa, basin versus saepe leviter attenuata, late stipitata, apice apiculata, indistincte trigona, longitudinaliter 10-12-costulata et transversim trabeculata' ob cellulas extimas transversim oblongas distinctas, 0-6-0-7 mm. longa (toro incluso), 0-45 mm. lata. Queensland. — Darling Downs District: Wyberba, in mud on the banks of a small stream, Jan. 19th, 1933, Blake 4542; Wallangarra', on dry bank of gully at roadside, Jan. 14th, 1933, Blake 4472. New South Wales. —Without definite locality, A. Cunningham (MEL.). North-western Slopes: East of Barraba, on granite highlands, Nov. 20th, 1913, Rupp (NSW.) ; Warrumbungle Ranges, October, 1901, Forsyth (NSW.). Northern Tablelands: New England, Perrott 95 (MEL.), Jan., 1888, (MEL.). North Coast (or Northern Tablelands): Macleay River, Bauerlen (MEL.). Central Western Slopes: Temora, Nov., 1916, Dwyer 952 (NSW.). Central Coast: Richmond, October,, 1911, Musson (NSW.); Shell Harbour, October, 1899, Cheel (NSW.). Southern Tablelands: Bed of Lake George, 2,200 feet, Feb. 3rd, 1935, Blake 7557a ; near Tharwa, Australian Capital Territory, on open swampy land, ca. 2,000 feet, Feb. 2nd, 1935, Blake 7544a (TYPE in BRI.). Victoria. — Mallee: Swan Hill, in 1890, Luehmann (MEL.). Wim- mera: Tankard’s Waterhole, October 23rd, 1898, Reader (MEL.) ; Shire of Lowan, D’ Alton 3 (MEL.). Western District : Near Mount William, Sullivan 22 pp. (MEL.) ; Skipton, on plains, Whan (MEL.). Central Dis- trict: Near Ballarat, Bacchus 9 (MEL.) ; Yarra, in moist places, October, 1852, Mueller (MEL.). Gippsland: Waterloo, Luehmann (MEL.)' Snowy River, Mueller (MEL.). South Australia.— Southern Districts: Bethany, April, 1875, Mueller (MEL.) ; Melrose, in damp spot, October 16th, 1915, Black (BL.) ; Wilpena Pound, Nov. 17th, 1882, Tate (AD.) ; Hog Bay River, Nov. 17th, 1883, Tate (AD.). Eyre Peninsula: Minnipa (AD.); Port Lincoln, Oct., 1933, Dixon (AD.). Western Australia. — South-w^est Division: Bayswater, Nov., 1902,. Fitzgerald (NSW., BRI.) ; Stirling Range, Nov., 1867, Mueller (MEL.). Tasmania. — Georgetown, Nov. 22nd, 1842, Gunn 421 p.p. (NSW.) ; South Esk River, near Perth, Stuart 232 (MEL.) ; without definite locality, Mueller (MEL.), and Archer 1587 (NSW., BRI.). Much mixed in herbaria with S. cernuus Vahl, but readily enough distinguished in the mature state by the strongly carinate glumes and the structure of the nut. All the specimens seen are very similar to> one another, and differ constantly from European specimens of S. setaceus L. hitherto seen in the characters given above. Scirpus platy carpus S. T. Blake sp. nov. (sect. Isolepis ) affinis S. cernuo Vahl sed glumis acutius carinatis apice patulis, nuce dorso haud NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN 0 Y PER ACE AE, IV. 181 angulata, nitente, manifeste reticulata, cellulis extimis hexagonis majoribus differt. Planta annua ? glabra laevisque. Culmi dense caespitosi, raro basi ramosi, tenuissimi, tenuiter striati, it angulati, usque ad 8 cm. altir plerumque 0-2-0-3 mm. crassi. Folia basalia vaginis scariosis purpur- ascentibus striatis coriacea, involuta, tenuiter striata, apice obtusiuscula,. applanata ca. 0-5. mm. lata, usque ad 3 cm. longa, sed plerumque nulla,*; folia caulina plerumque ad vaginam unicam tenuem firmam striatam ore fere truncatam vel subtruncatam mucrone brevi erecto praeditam redacta, raro vagina in laminam setaceam applanatam coriaceam usque ad 4 cm. longam desinens. Bractea unica, subobliqua vel dz erecta, folio similis, usque ad 5 mm. longa, basi admodum dilatata glumiformis, caduca. Inflorescentia quasilateralis, Spiculae 1-2 ovato-ellipsoideae, obtusae, subteretes, pallidae vel castaneo-tinctae, 2-5-3-S mm. longae. 2 mm. latae, multi- et densi-florae. Glumae membranaceae, late ellipticae vel suborbiculares, apice patulae vix mucronatae, manifeste carinatae,, carina viridi 3-nervi curvata apice excurva, lateribus admodum opacae utroque nervis tenuibus ca. 4 notatae, marginibus anguste byalinae, 1-5 mm. longae. Stamina 3, anther ae breviter oblongae, prominule apicu- latae, 0-3 mm. longae. Stylus tenuis 0-15-0-2 mm. longus, stigmata 3 fere l^plo longiora. Setae hypogynae nullae. Nux suborbicularis vel orbiculari-obovata, minute apiculata, breviter lateque stipitata, subtrigona sed fere plano-convexa', angulis haud costatis dorsali evanescenti, brunnea nitensque vel opalescenti-albida, manifeste reticulata ob cellulas extimas hexagonas minusculas sed quarn specierum aliarum multo majores, 0-75-0-8 mm. longa, 0-62-0-7 mm. lata. New South Wales. — South-western Slopes : Albury, in 1890, Wilson (MEL.). Victoria. — Wimmera: Lowan, Nov. 16th, 1892, Reader (TYPE in BRI., MEL.) ; Shire of Dimboola, March 10th, 1897, Dec. 2nd, 1887,, Jan. 10th, 1892, Reader (MEL.) ; near Dimboola, Nov. 16th, 1892,, Reader 4 (MEL.) ; near Dimboola, in inundated places, Feb. 7th, 1895,. Reader 3 (MEL.). Western District: Near Mount William, Nov. 12th,, 1873, Sullivan 22 p.p. (MEL.). Central District: Little Bendigo, near Ballarat, in 1875, Day (MEL.) ; near Dandenong Range, in 1891, Dixon (MEL.). Gippsland: Snowy River, Feb., 1905, Grove 1190 (NSW., BRI.). South Australia. — Flinders Range : Wilpena Creek, Nov. 10th, 1928, Cleland (BL., BRI., CL.). Southern Districts: Bethany, Bekr ? (MEL.) ; Reed Beds, Nov. 23rd, 1879, Tate (AD., BL.) ; Myponga, Jan., 1929, Cleland (CL.) ; Encounter Bay, Jan., 1924, Cleland (CL.), and in Callistemon swamp, Nov. 15th, 1935, Cleland (CL., BRI.) ; Encounter Bay, pond near Hall’s Creek, Jan., 1933, Cleland (CL., BL.) ; Back Valley, Oct. 28th, 1936, and Jan., 1939, Cleland (CL.) • south of Second Valley Forest Reserve, Tate Soe. Expedn., Dec., 1938 (CL.) • near Fulham, Jan., 1929, Cleland (CL.); Kangaroo Island: Harriet River, April 24th, 1923, Davies (BL.) ; Rocky River, Nov. 18th, 1924, Cleland (CL.) ; Hog Bay River (AD.). South East: Beachport (AD.). York© Peninsula: Southern Yorke Peninsula, Nov., 1889, Tate (AD.). Western Australia. — South-west Division: Blackwood, in wet places, Oldfield 689b (MEL.). . Tasmania. — South Esk River, near Perth, in wet places, Stuart 232 (MEL.); Swanport, Story (MEL., NSW.); Hobart, Dec., 1893, and 182 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Jan., 1894, Bodway (NSW.), and in Nov., 1923, Lucas (NSW., BRI.) , without definite locality, Archer 1588 (NSW.), and Mueller (MEL.). New Zealand. — North Island, Wellington Province: Poxton, wet hollows in sand-dunes, Jan. 1st, 1932, Allan. In herbaria the specimens have been misidentified with 8. cernuus Yahl and S. calocarpus S. T. Blake and at times were found mixed with the latter species. The spikelets externally resemble those of S. calo- carpus rather closely by reason of the strongly carinate glumes spreading at the tips, the nut in its shape and size approaches that of S. cernuus, but the back is more rounded, the surface is glistening, while the external cells are larger and more prominent than in any other Australian species with cells of similar shape. Some specimens in Herb. Melbourne were labelled by Reader as 8. riparius var. platy carpus F. M. Reader, but I cannot find that this name was ever published or that any description was drawn up by him. Vol. LI., No. 12. 183 THE HELIOLITIDAE OF AUSTRALIA, WITH A DISCUSSION OF THE MORPHOLOGY AND SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE FAMILY. By 0. A. Jones, M.Sc., F.G.S., and Dorothy Hill, M.Sc., Ph.D. (Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland , 27 th November, 1939.) (Plates VL-XL) CONTENTS. I. Summary II. Introduction and Terminology III. The Genera within the Heliolitidae IY. The Micro-structure of the Vertical Skeletal Elements V. Increase YI . Systematic Position of the Family — A. Historical B. Comparison with other Groups — 1. Alcyonaria 2. Zoantharia — (a) Hexacoralla (&) Rugosa (c) Tabulata C. Conclusion VII. Systematic Descriptions VIII. Acknowledgments IX. Bibliography X. Explanation of Plates Page. 183 183 184 187 188 189 191 193 193 196 196 197 209 210 213 I. Summary. In this paper the Australian Heliolitidae are described. Only three genera occur in Australia — Heliolites, Plasmopora, and Propora. HeUolites parvistella, so important in Europe, is unknown in Australia, where the commonest species is H. daintreei, of which the European species H. barrandei is shown to be a synonym. The genera of the Heliolitidae are reviewed, and from their morphology and micro-structure it is decided that the family is best regarded as a section of the Zoantharia Madreporaria, distinct from the Rugosa, Hexacoralla and Tabulata, but of equal rank to these sections. This section we call the Heliolitida. II. Introduction and Terminology. The terminology used for the Heliolitidae has depended on the systematic position assigned to them by the various authors, and as this has varied considerably some confusion has arisen. We define below, terms which can be applied to them without any implications on systematic position, or misapplications of terms used in other Anthozoa. Tabularia — The large tubes divided transversely by tabulae; the autopores of Nicholson; the calicular tubes, sometimes calicles, of Lindstrom ; endothekalrohren of Kiar. 184 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Reticulum. — The common tissue, sometimes vesicular, sometimes of polyhedric tubuli, between the tabularia; the coenenchyma of Edwards and Haime and Lindstrom. Tubuli. — The small tubes of the reticulum; the siphonopores of Nicholson; the coenenchymal tubes of Lindstrom; exothekalrohren of Kiar. Aureola. — The ring of tubuli, always twelve in number, which sur- rounds the tabularium in Plasmopora ; aureola, corona, circlet of authors. Testae. — The overlapping domed plates of the reticulum; the dissepiments of Edwards and Haime ; vesicles of Nicholson ; the convex laminae or lamellae of Lindstrom; blasen of Kiar. Sola. — The transverse plates in the tubuli; the dissepiments of Edwards and Haime; the tabulae of Nicholson; the tabulae of the coenenchymal tubes of Lindstrom ; boden of Kiar. Commutation. — The coenenchymal gemmation of Lindstrom and others, whereby a number of tubuli give rise to a tabularium and vice versa. Carina— A flange on the side of a septum or wall. III. The Genera within the Heliolitidae. The earliest Heliolitids included both thickened and unthickened genera. The thickened forms all had their vertical skeletal elements very much dilated, the trabeculae being large and easily distinguished (“baculi” of Lindstrom) ; all loculi were practically filled by the thickening. Thus Coecoseris megastoma (McCoy, Lindstrom, 1899, p. 108, pi. xii., figs. 8-11) from the Caradocian Coniston limestone of Westmoreland is like a much thickened Heliolites with an infilled tubular reticulum; but in Protaraea vetusta (Hall,# Lindstrom, 1899, p. Ill, pi. xii., figs. 19-24) , another thickened form from the Trenton of America and Arctic America and the Wesenberg beds of Estland, the reticulum is almost absent. Kiar (1903, p. 12) regarded Coecoseris megastoma Lindstrom as belonging to Acantholithus Lindstrom, 1899 ; it seems to us that Coecoseris Eichwald (1860, genotype Lophoseris ungerni Eich- wald, Lindstrom, p. 107, pi. xii., figs. 3-7) is congeneric with Acantholithus (genotype Tleliolites asteriscus Koemer, Lindstrom. 1899, p. 113, pi. xi., figs. 31-35) the only difference being in the lesser dilata- tion of the vertical elements in Acantholithus. But we think it wiser to regard Protaraea as a separate genus since there is no good evidence that it has a tubular reticulum. Propora Edwards and Haime (a genus with a reticulum consisting of testae, with spinose septa, and a more or less great development of discrete trabeculae throughout the tissue) appears to be the earliest of * According to Troedsson (1928, p. 116) following Eoerste, the Richmond specimens and the Scandinavian and Baltic specimens referred to P. vetusta by Edwards and Haime and by Lindstrom are not conspecific with P. vetusta Hall. Eoerste proposed for them the new name P. richmondensis. Troedsson considered it probable that the true vetusta, thin sections of which have never been figured, was different generically from P. richmondensis and suggested that it might belong to Protrochiscolithus Troedsson. Bassler (1915, p. 1043), however, named Porites vetusta Hall non Edwards and Haime quite definitely as genotype of Protarea, by giving a bibliographic citation. Whether this selection should be maintained as valid, as against Troedsson ’s suggestion that the Richmond, Scandinavian and Baltic specimens (i.e., P. richmondensis) should be the type of P. vetusta, must be left until thin sections of the Trenton topotypes of P. vetusta Hall are figured. THE HELIOLITIDAE OF AUSTRALIA, ETC. 185 the unthickened genera. An undescribed species occurs in the Caradocian Robeston Wathen limestone of Wales. A form from the Trenton (?) of Arctic America (Iglulik Island) was described by Teichert (1937, p. 53, pi. iv., fig. 13; pi. v., figs. 1, 2) as Plasmopora lambei Schuchert, but judging by his figures and descrip- tion it should be placed in Propora, with affinities to Edwards and Haime’s species P- conferta. Troedsson ’s figures (1928, pi. 33, figs, la,, b) of P. Iambi Schuchert from the Cape Calhoun beds (Trenton or Richmond) of Greenland show a reticulum in which more than twelve radially elongate tubuli surround a tabularium, the walls of the tubuli frequently being discontinuous vertically. These Greenland specimens seem closer to Heliolites than to Propora , and it may be that they indicate a transition between the two genera. The specimens cannot be Plasmopora as there are more than twelve tubuli in the aureola. Another unthickened genus, Protrochiscolithus Troedsson (1928, p. 116, genotype P. kiaeri Troedsson id.), occurs in the Ordovician (Trenton or Rich- mond) Cape Calhoun beds of Greenland. It is like the central, unthickened portion of Trochischolithus Kiar, defined below, from the 5a and 5b beds of Norway. Propora nummulosa was described by Twen- hofel (1928) from the Ordovician of Anticosti. Another Ordovician record is Heliolites depauperata Salter and Blanford (1865) from the Central Himalayas, of which we have seen neither description nor figure. The greatest differentiation of the Heliolitids took place around the Baltic in the stages FI and F2 of Estland, the Leptaena limestone of Sweden, and 5a and 5b of Norway*, followed by a world-wide development throughout the Silurian. The unthickened genera Prohelioiites, Heliolites and Plasmoporella made their first appearance in the F beds, the Leptaena limestone and/or the 5a. beds, only the two latter and Propora continuing into later beds. Prohelioiites Lindstrom (1899) is an unthickened form with little reticulum and, according to Lindstrom ’s description and figures, with septal spines directed proximally. Heliolites hirsutus Lindstrom ( = Nicholsdnia megastoma Kiar, 1899 = Propora, hirsuta Kiar, 1903) is intermediate in some respects between Heliolites Dana and Propora Lindstrom, with a sparse reticulum like Prohelioiites but with septal spines directed distally. Heliolites is also represented by two other species, intemtinctus (Linnaeus) from the F of Estland and parvistella Roemer from the Leptaena limestone of Sweden, the F2 beds of Estland and the 5a and 5b beds of Norway. Plasmoporella Kiar (1899) (= Camptolithus Lindstrom, 1899) is like Propora but has highly domed tabulae and testae. Numerous species of Propora are abundant. Of the thickened genera, Coccoseris and Protaraea which first occurred in the Ordovician persist to the end of this group of bedsy when Protaraea, also known from the Richmond of North America, became extinct, while Coccoseris persists into the Yalentian. * The exact position of the boundary between the Ordovician and Silurian in the Baltic countries and North America is still under discussion, and the stage F of Estland, the Leptaena limestone of Sweden, the 5a and 5b beds of Norway and the Richmond of North America are placed by some in the Bala, by others in the Yalentian. The position of the Gl, G2, and H beds and the boundary between the Yalentian and the Wenlock are also in doubt in the Baltic States. (See Troedsson., 1928, p. 181; O. T. Jones, 1928, p. 513; Ruger, 1934, p. 12; Reed, 1935, p. 371; Lamont, 1935, p. 303; Troedsson, 1936, p. 497). 186 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Trochisoolithus (Kiar, 1903, genotype Coccoseris micraster Lind- strom, 1899 — Palaeopora inordinate i (Lonsdale), Kiar, 1899), a genus sometimes massive, sometimes ramose, shows little thicken- ing in the earlier portions of the colonies but much thickening elsewhere and has sparsely perforate walls and septa (see Kiar, 1903, pp. 13-29, figs. 1, 2 on p. 15 ; figs, 3, 4 on p. 17 ; figs. 5, 6 on p. 19; fig. 7 on p. 21). It is confined to this group of beds. The perforation of its walls was denied by Lindstrom, 1903, but is in our opinion definite and of the type seen in perforate Hexacorals, and not like the mural pores of Favosites. Diploepora Quenstedt which first occurred in these beds also is thin walled in the early stages, which closely resemble Propora, and thick in the later, but it is not perforate : it continued into the Ludlovian. Palaeoporites Kiar (1899, genotype P. estonicus Kiar, id., p. 18) which is confined to this group of beds is highly perforate and thickened throughout; judging by Kiar’s figures the trabeculae are rhabdacanthine and combine at the axis of the tabu- larium to1 form an axial structure, while the reticulum consists of tubuli with highly perforate walls. The un thickened genus Plasynopora Ed. and H. (genotype P. petali- fomis Ed. and H.) makes its first appearance with P. steila Lindstrom in G1 of Estland. It is like Heliolites, but the septa are continuations of the walls of the twelve tubuli around the tubularia, and the tubuli walls are usually discontinuous vertically. Propora conferta occurs in Gl, G2, and H of Estland. Stratum a (Arachnophyllum bed) which is at or near the top of the Valentian in Gotland, contains Coccoseris asteriscus (highest record of this genus), and several species of Propora , Plasmopora and Heliolites, while C osmiolithus Lindstrom (1899, which is like Heliolites but has tubuli of two sizes in the reticulum) makes its first appearance here. In Norway Heliolites intricatus Kiar and Propora intercedens Kiar occur in stage. 6. Plasmoporella is figured (Yoh, 1932, p. 69) from the Valentian of China. In Lindstrom ’s beds b-d of Gotland (=Wenlock of England) species of Heliolites, Plasmopora , Propora, and Diploepora are abundant, C osmiolithus makes its last appearance and PycnolitJms Lindstrom (1899, genotype P. bifidus Lindstrom) occurs. This genus, founded upon one detached specimen from the shore near Visby but probably from b or c, has radially elongated tubuli with much thickened walls and bifid septa. In the Niagaran of America the genera Heliolites, Plasmo- pora and Propora are common and Plasmoporella Kiar (= Camptolithus Lindstrom) makes its final appearance. In beds e-h of Gotland ( — Ludlow) species of Heliolites and Plasmopora occur, and Propora and Diploepora have their last occurrences. In Norway Propora intercedens occurs in stage 9. Plasmopora and Propora both occur in the Gotlandian of Korea (Shimizu, Ozaki, and Obata, 1934) and Helio- lites in the Silurian of China (Grabau, 1925), and Indo-China (Mansuy, 1920). In Spiti, India, Propora occurs (Reed, 1912). The variety of forms is greatly reduced in the Devonian though at certain localities particular species are very common. No Heliolitid is known later than the Givetian. Heliolites occurs throughout the Lower and Middle Devonian of Europe and is rare in the Devonian of America and Asia, while Plasmopora has been recorded from the Middle Devonian of the Carnic Alps, and Australia. Paeckel/mannopora Weis- sermel (1939, p. 94, pi. 11, figs. 3-5) from the Gedinnian near Istanbul resembles Plasmopora in having tabularia with tabulae, and tubuli THE HELIOLITIDAE OF AUSTRALIA, ETC. 18T with discontinuous walls and sola, but differs in that the tabularia have twelve longitudinal corrugations which Weissermel considers represent the septa, although no lamellae or spines are present ; further the tubuli around each tabular ium number more than twelve. IV. The Microstructure of the Vertical Skeletal Elements. (a) The Trabeculae. — The vertical skeletal elements are trabeculate throughout the family. Monacanths and rhabdacanths (Hill, 1936, p. 197) occur, though the latter are uncommon, being found only in Plasmoporella papillatus (Rominger), in Palaeoporites Kiar, and sporadically in individuals of several species of Propora, viz., tubulata, conferta, speciosa, and bacillifera. In the Heliolitida rhabdacanths are not associated with lamellar sclerenchyme as they are in the Rugosa. The walls and septa of Heliolites are of thin monacanths very closely packed except in the septa of daintreei and porosus where their axial parts are free spines. The inclination of the monacanths varies in the different species. In interstinctus they are inclined at an angle of 40° from the vertical ; in the septa of porosus they make an angle of about 45° ; in daintreei and its variety spongodes the septal spines are curved, and in the wall the monacanths are inclined at 30° from the vertical; in parvistella and its variety intricatus, and possibly in fasciatus the monacanths seem from Lindstrom ’s figures to be vertical in both septa and walls ; in' Uljevalli it would appear that the monacanths in the walls are vertical but those of the septa are inclined at 30° from the vertical; in repletus the inclination is 20°. In Cosmiolithus ornatus the monacanths in the septa are inclined at 30°. In Plasmopora also the septa and walls both consist of thin mona- canths, whose inclination from the vertical is greater in the septa than in the reticulum. In this genus any monacanth may be extended laterally to form a carina, usually on one side only of a septum, occa- sionally on both sides; but the carinae # may be localised on the septa, in the aureola, or in the reticulum, and are yardarm or xyloid. In some species of Plasmopora the walls are vertically continuous as in Heliolites , but in many they are discontinuous and the monacanthsi are short and, while still arranged in vertical series, become normal to the curvature of the testae rather than keep their original inclination in the walls. These monacanths, normal to the testae, are the “aeulae” of Lindstrom. The monacanths are of the order of 0-05 to 0-1 mm. In Propora and Plasmoporella there are no continuous walls in the reticulum and the vertical skeletal elements consist of free trabeculae which are usually monacanths and are normal to the testae, are usually profuse and seldom in vertical series, and have a wide range in diameter and length. Lindstrom referred to the trabeculae under three names — 1 “baculi,” with radiating fibrous structure, a diameter of about 0*15 to * Carina© may be parallel to the trabeculae or parallel to the growing edge of the septum. When parallel to the trabeculae they may be opposite — yardarm, e.g. Heliophyllum (see Hill, 1935, text figs. 15H, I.) or sub-opposite — xyloid, e.g. Xylodes (see Smith and Tremberth, 1929, pi. viii., figs. 3, 4) as seen in transverse section. When parallel to the distal edge of the septum they are cymatoid, e.g. Cymatelasma (see Hill and Butler, 1936, p. 522, text fig. 4). Yardarm and xyloid carinae are each formed by extensions of the fibres of one trabecula; cymatoiu. carinae on the other hand consist of a series of trabeculae. Xyloid and cymatoid carinae both mate the septa appear zig-zag in transverse section. 188 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 0-2 mm. and a length of from 0*16 to more than 3 mm; “bacilli,” in which he could observe no structure, with a similar diameter and length : and “aculae,” very short and with a diameter of about 0-05 to 0-1 mm. in which he described no structure. In the septa the trabeculae are usually monaeanths, and they are inclined as in Plasmopora and Heliolites. Throughout the family Heliolitidae, thickened tissue consists of dilated monaeanths, with the single, exception of Palaeoporites, in which rhabdacanths are dilated. Both Lindstrom (1899, p. 104) and Kiar (1903, p. 37) considered that thickened genera arose from thin ones. It is difficult for us to form an opinion as we have not had the oppor- tunity of examining specimens of some of the genera, but their view is contrary to our observations on other corals, in which in general, thickened forms give rise to unthickened. Lindstrom and Kiar both consider that in Proheliolites the septal trabeculae are directed downwards at an angle of about 45° from the horizontal — a condition without a known parallel in the whole of the Anthozoa. (5) Discontinuity of the Vertical Elements. — Whereas in Heliolites the walls in the reticulum are continuous both vertically and horizon- tally, in Plasmopora discontinuity occurs, such that segments of the walls stand on testae, each segment containing more than one monacanth. In transverse section these segments, combined with cut edges of testae, frequently give an appearance of complete tubuli. It is possible that a somewhat similar discontinuity seen in the tubuli walls in Heliolites kirsutus and in Proheliolites dubius may be connected in some way with the rapid change of the tubuli into tabularia and vice versa • As explained above the absence of walls in the reticulum of Propora is due to the complete and sometimes distant separation, one from another, of the individual trabeculae. Perforation exactly similar to the perforation of the vertical skeletal elements in the perforate Hexacoralla and Rugosa, occurs in the Heliolitida, profusely in Palaeoporites, and rather rarely in Trochiscolithus and Protrochiscolithus. V. Increase. As in all compound cor alia, the protoeorallites of Heliolitid colonies must have arisen from planulae, after sexual reproduction. Lindstrom (1899, pp. 19-23, 45-47) distinguished three methods of asexual reproduction. His ‘ ‘ coenenchymal ’ ’ gemmation is well illustrated by his figures (1899,' pi. i., figs, 21, 32, 33; pi. ii., fig. 37 ; pi. iii., fig. 27) and by those of Sardeson (1896, figs. 7-9), which show that tabularia may originate from a number of tubuli by the disappearance of the walls, and that also tabularia may be replaced by tubuli by the growth of dividing walls. This type of increase we propose to call commuta- tion* ; it possibly corresponds to differentiation and dedifferentiation in the soft parts, and may occur in Hexacorals such as Turbinaria (unpublished work by Edgar Riek, of the University of Queensland) ; a somewhat similar process takes place in the Alcyonarian Heliopora where a number of small “pores” give rise to a large “pore.” Lind- strom’s “intracalicinal” gemmation does not seem clear to us from his description and figures, and his “epithecal” gemmation may well be a special case of “coenenchymal gemmation.” Conrnmto — to interchange. THE HELIOLITIDAE OF AUSTRALIA, ETC. 189 Multiplication of the tubuli takes place by the growth of new divisional walls; a solitary carina may arise on any wall and by con- tinued growth bisect the tubulus. This multiplication is similar to “fission’ ’ in Chaetetes and is quite different from the mode of increase in the Favositidae, which is intermural and at the angles. The growth of young corallites in Favosites is well illustrated in Jones (1936, text-figs, i.-xii.). VI. Systematic Position of the Family. (a) Historical. — The Heliolitidae have been classed at various times as Hydrozoa, Alcyonaria, Tabulata, Rugosa, Hexacoralla, a separate section of the Madreporaria, Tubocoralla, and as part of a new sub-class of Anthozoa, the Schizocoralla. Linnaeus (fide Lindstrom, 1899, p. 38) made the first mention of a Heliolitid in literature, when (in 1745, p. 30) he referred a Gotlandian species to Millepora ; but later (1767, p. 1276) he separated this species from Millepora, which has since been accepted as a Hydrozoan, and placed it with the corals, under the name Madrepora interstincta: Gold- fuss (126, p. 64) likewise considered an Eifelian species to be a coral, Astraea porosa. Blainville (1830, p. 357) put this Devonian species in a new genus Heliopora, with H. coerulea of recent seas. Lonsdale (1839, p. 686) referred a number of Silurian species to Porites Lamarck. Dana (1848, p. 541) regarded the Palaeozoic and recent species of Blainville ’s Heliopora as distinct genera, and proposed Heliolites with type Astraea porosa Goldfuss for the Palaeozoic forms. About the same time McCoy recognised differences between the Palaeozoic and recent Porites , and proposed Palaeopora for the Palaeozoic species (1849, p. 129, no species mentioned; 1850, p. 276, only species mentioned, Palaeopora subtilis #). D’Orbigny also noted the differences between the Palaeozoic and recent forms and proposed for the former, first Lonsdalia (fide Lind- strom, 1899, p. 38) and later, probably because Lonsdaleia was pre-occupied, Geoporites (1850, p. 49). However, the priority of Dana’s genus was quickly recognised and Edwards and Haime, in their classi- fication of the Coelenterata (1850, p. Iviii.) included Dana’s genus in their new sub-order Zoantharia tabulata — corals in which the entire lumen is occupied by a tabularium, and in which the septa are rudimentary, and do not show a pinnate arrangement. In 1876 Moseley recognised the Alcyonarian affinities of Heliopora , with which Heliolites has usually been compared. Heliopora, like the other Alcyonaria, has eight tentacles and eight mesenteries, the muscles being on the sulcar side of the mesenteries. Nevertheless, the skeleton of Heliopora is fibrous and trabecular as in the Madreporaria, not spicular like the rest of the Alcyonaria. Moseley regarded Heliopora as a dimorphic Alcyonarian, suggesting that the small tubules were modified zooids, siphonozooids, and the larger, autozooids. Pie accepted the affinity of the Heliolitidae with Heliopora , and concluded that ail the Tabulata of Edwards and Haime were Alcyonaria; consequently, that the Heliolitidae were dimorphic. Nicholson (1875, p. 248) had previously expressed the view that Heliolites was dimorphic, and following Moseley’s work, he placed this genus in the Alcyonaria (1879, p. 25). * It is, howeyer, doubtful if this species, which must be taken as the genotype of Palaeopora, is a Heliolitid. 190 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. These observations caused a flood of speculation on the possible Alcyonarian affinities of Heliolites and even of other genera of Edwards and Haime’s Tabulata. Sardeson (1896) and Zittel (1900) followed Nicholson in placing Heliolites in the Alcyonaria. But Bourne (1895), after detailed studies on Heliopora concluded that neither was dimorphic, but that the coenenchymal tubules of Heliopora were part of a complex system of solenia. Nevertheless, he retained them in the Alcyonaria. Romer (1883, p. 500), Neumayr (1889, p. 326), Weissermel (1937, p. 93), and Wentzel (1895) considered the Heliolitidae to have no relation to the Helioporidae, leaving them as an isolated family of the Tabulata. Lindstrom (1876, 1899a, 1899b) and Kiar (1899, 1903) have made outstanding studies on Heliolites and its allies. Lindstrom in 1876 (p. 15) placed Heliopora in the Alcyonaria but argued against any affinity between Heliolites and Heliopora. He created a special family for the former together with Plasmopora (including Propora ), Lyellia, Gala- poecia , Thecostegites Halysites , and Thecia. In 1899 he removed Calapoecia, Thecostegites, Halysites, and Thecia from the Heliolitidae and made two sub-families of the latter — the Heliolitidae with the genera Heliolites, Gosmiolithus, Proheliolites, Plasmopora, Propora, Gampto- Uthus, Diploepora and Pycnolithus, and the Coccoseridae with the genera Goccoseris, Protaraea, and AcanthoUthus. He reiterated that he saw no affinity to Heliopora, and no affinity with any other Palaeozoic corals. He did not discuss the possible affinity to the Hexacoralla. Kiar (1899r p. 49) considered the similarity of Heliolites to Heliopora to be homeo- morphic only, and placed the Heliolitidae as a family of his Zoantha'ria Madreporaria (in which he appeared to include only Rugosa, Hexa- coralla, and Heliolitidae). He thought them distinct from the “isolated group of the Tabulata. ” He gave a different grouping of the genera into sub-families. Some authors- — e.g. Gerth (1908) — have pointed out the morpho- logical similarity between the Heliolitidae and many of the Hexacorals (especially Seriatopora, Stylophora and Pocillopora) , and have regarded the former as the ancestors of the latter. The genera which Gerth studied were those grouped as the Madreporaria Tubocoralla by Stein- man (1907). Zittel (1900) placed the Heliolitidae in the Alcyonaria. Woods (1926) considered that the systematic position of the “Tabulate Corals,” in which he placed the Heliolitidae, was not yet satisfactorily established. Okulitch (1936) recently united the Heliolitidae with the Tetradidae and Chaetetidae in a new subclass, the Schizocoralla, the diagnostic characteristics being given as (1) increase by fission and (2) absence of true septa'. But, in the Heliolitidae, only the tubuli of the reticulum increase by fission and true septa are present. Weissermel (1937, p. 93), in a review of Okulitch ’s work, criticised his grouping of families and summarised the evidence for regarding the Heliolitidae as Tabulata, which he considered a valid group. ( b ) Comparison with Other Groups. — The elucidation of the affini- ties of the Heliolitidae is rendered all the more difficult as their soft parts are quite unknown, whereas three of the groups to which they have been . referred are classified on soft parts almost entirely; further the relationship of the hard parts to the soft parts in groups where both are known is not always made clear by writers. Again, structural similarities in forms of such widely separated ages as Devonian and Present are very likely to be due to homeomorphy, not to generic affinity,, when no clear links are known. THE HELIOLITIDAE OF AUSTRALIA, ETC. 191 (1) Alcyonaria. — The Alcyonaria are Actinozoa with eight mesenteries and eight pinnate tentacles; the stomodaeum has a single siphonoglyph (ciliated groove) ; the skeleton is internal, consisting of spicules in the mesoglaea, occasionally supplemented by an external skeleton; the longitudinal muscles are on the ventral faces of the mesenteries (Potts, p. 180, in Borradaile and Potts, 1935). The Alcyonarian with which Heliolites has been frequently com- pared is Heliopora Blainville (Plate XI., fig. 6). Its soft parts leave no doubt that it is Alcyonarian; but, were the skeleton alone known, it would almost certainly be placed with the Madreporaria, being trabecu- late like that of the Madreporaria, not spicular as in other Alcyonaria. Each trabecula consists of fibres directed upwards and outwards. Both skeletons consist of two sizes of vertical tubules, both of which are divided by horizontal plates. A detailed comparison, however, immedi- ately brings out important differences. In Heliopora one to five vertical trabeculae occur massed together to form a pillar at the point where more than two tubules meet, and the walls between the tubules consist of continuations of fibres from the pillars at the corners. There is never a trabecula in the wTall between two tubules, they are always massed at the point of junction of three or more A The “ pseudosepta” of the tubes consist of several vertical trabeculae, so closely placed in series that their fibres cannot be differentiated. In Heliolites the wall between two tubuli does not differ in structure from the wall at the point of junction of more than two tubuli ; the walls consist everywhere of trabeculae, curved, inclined, or rarely vertical, the fibres of the trabe- culae radiating obliquely upwards and outwards. The septa have a similar structure to the walls, being built up of a number of curved or inclined trabeculae. Thus in Heliolites the septa and walls consist of regularly spaced trabeculae, usually inclined, while in Heliopora all the trabeculae are vertical, and in the “ coenenchyma ” are massed into pillars at the point of junction of three or more tubules. In Heliolites the trabeculae of the septa may be in contact, so that the septa are lamellar as in II . parvistella , or free axially — i.e. acanthine - — as in H. daintreei. Both monacanthine and rhabdacanthine types (Hill, 1936, figs. 14, 15) occur, but in Heliopora the trabeculae of the “ pseudo-septa” are always in contact so that the “pseudo-septa” are always lamellar and never spinose. Many writers have considered that the radial plates of Heliopora differ from the “true septa” of the Rugosa and Hexacoralla and hence have termed them “Pseudosepta.” It is difficult to discover in their writings any clear reasons for this differ- entiation, which appears to be based on the idea that the septa of the Rugosa and Hexacoralla arose later than, and independently of, the “theca” (i.e., the wall) , whereas the “pseudosepta” of Heliopora are continuations into the tabularium of the walls of the small tubes and thus are an integral part of the walls. This argument is based on a misunderstanding of the micro-structure of the skeleton and of the manner in which it was formed by the soft parts. It is clear from the description and figures above that the radial plates in both Heliopora and Heliolites have a trabecular structure as in the vertical skeletal elements of all Rugosa and Hexacoralla; but whereas in Heliopora the * This differs somewhat from the micro-structure described and figured by Bourne (1899, pp. 517-524, figure on p. 523). 192 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. septal trabeculae are vertical, in Heliolites, as in the Rugosa and Hexacoralla, they are inclined. We remain in doubt if this difference is sufficient to justify the use of the prefix “pseudo.” In the Anthozoa much classificatory importance has been attached to the mode of insertion of the septa, and the number, insertion, and arrangement of the mesenteries. Thus the Rugosa are distinguished by the pinnate insertion of the septa (in fours) and the Hexacoralla by the cyclical insertion of the septa and mesenteries, the cycles being six or multiples of six. Hickson (1924, pp. 31, 32) has suggested that the Hexacoralla may be divided into two groups — group B, one in which twelve mesenteries are developed — and the other, group A in which more than twelve appear. When small numbers of mesenteries are involved the number of septa usually corresponds to the number of mesenteries, but such a correspondence is not invariable when the num- bers are large. In the Actinians no such easy generalisation in number of mesenteries and septa can be made. The Alcyonaria are distinguished by eight mesenteries. In Helio- pom while there are always eight mesenteries, the number of septa (or pseudosepta) varies but is usually between ten and sixteen (according to Lindstrom, sometimes seventeen) although according to Moseley the most common number is twelve. Heliopora is apparently the only Alcyonarian with radial vertical plates which might be compared with septa. This lack of correspondence in the number of septa and mesen- teries has also been used as an argument for terming them “pseudo- septa, ” but it appears to us possible that they represent two incomplete cycles of eight. It should be kept in mind that little is known regarding the insertion of septa in hystero-corallites of compound Rugosa and Hexacoralla, but it seems possible that the basic plan of insertion might be masked in such types (e.g., see Smith and Ryder, 1927, pp. 339-342, text fig. 2) . In the Heliolitidae, when septa are present they are invariably twelve in number. There is a strong contrast here with the variability in Heliopora ; and the fixity of twelve in the Heliolitidae suggests com- parison with the Madreporaria rather than the Alcyonaria and in particular with Hickson’s Group B of the Hexacoralla (1924, p. 32). The question of dimorphism in Heliopora is one which has been much discussed since first postulated by Moseley (1876) but it still remains unsettled, some text-books following Moseley’s theory of dimorphism, others adhering to the views of Bourne (1895) that the “coenenchyme” viewed by Moseley as siphonozooids is in reality a complex system of solenia (i.e. a canal system with extensions down- wards into the small tubes but no openings to the free surface). Nicholson (1879, p. 25) and others, accepting dimorphism in Heliopora, argued by analogy that Heliolites was dimorphic, and therefore, an Alcyonarian. Professor Hickson, the British authority on Alcyonaria, says {in lift.): “As regards the dimorphism of Heliopora ; it is not dimorphic and there is no clear evidence that it ever was dimorphic.” Accepting this view of Bourne and Hickson, Nicholson ’s argument based on dimorphism is invalid. Thus we consider the Heliolitidae differ from the Alcyonarian Heliopora in the general arrangement of the trabeculae, and in having a fixed number (12) of septa; and that for the same reasons' they cannot be Alcyonaria. THE HELIOLITIDAE OF AUSTRALIA, ETC. 193 (2) Zoantharia. — The Zoantharia are Anthozoa with mesenteries varying greatly in number, typically arranged in pairs, the longitudinal muscles of which, face each other except in the case of two opposite pairs, the directives , in which the muscles are on opposite sides; the tentacles are usually simple, six or some multiple of six in number, and the mesenterial fila- ments are trefoil-shaped in section; the stomodaeum has two ciliated grooves; typically there is a calcareous exo-skeleton, but this may be entirely absent. The Zoantharia are divisible into the Actinaria (sea anemones) which are usually single individuals always without a skeleton, and the Madreporaria, usually colonial, always with an ectodermal exo-skeleton. To the present-day biologist, the Hexacoralla are Madreporarian, but the soft parts of Rugosa and Tabulata being unknown, these sections are given but little space in zoological classifications. To Edwards and Haime, the Rugosa and Tabulata were also Madreporarian. Not know- ing the soft parts of Rugosa and Tabulata, we cannot be sure that they are Madreporaria, but the possession of an exo-skeleton which is trabe- culate, septate and tabulate, as in the Hexacorals, indicates affinity with the Madreporaria. The Rugosa, Hexacoralla, and Tabulata will all be included herein as sections of the Madreporaria. (a) Hexacoralla. — Madreporaria in which the pairs of mesenteries and the septa are inserted in cycles which are six or multiples of six. In the Heliolitidae we have no information on the mesenteries; but in both Heliolitidae and Hexacoralla all the vertical skeletal elements consist of vertical series of curved, inclined, or rarely vertical trabeculae. The septa of Heliolitidae are constantly twelve, and there is a group of Hexacoralla recognised by Hickson (1924, p. 32) in which the septa number six or twelve; in this group, however, when twelve occur, they are divisible into a primary and secondary cycle, according to their length and period of insertion. In the Heliolitidae there is no good evidence that the twelve septa are divided into two cycles, although Lindstrom (1899, p. 55) has suggested that such is possible in H. porosm. In the Heliolitidae there is a reticulum which may consist of trabeculate polyhedric tubes crossed by sola’, or of testae supplemented by further free trabeculae. In the Hexacoralla a common tissue fre- quently occurs ; it may consist of dissepiments supplemented by trabeculae, as in Cyphastraea, or of dilated trabeculae as in Pocillopora and S 'tylophora, which both belong to Hickson’s group characterised by six or twelve septa; or it may be compact or spongy. Thus there is very close morphological similarity between the Heliolitidae and Hickson’s group B, but absolute identity is spoiled because the twelve septa of the Heliolitidae are not divisible into two cycles of six. (&) Rugosa — Madreporaria in which there are two series of septa inserted pinnately on a tetrameral plan. The soft parts are unknown. The vertical skeletal elements of the Rugosa consist, like those of the Hexacoralla and the Heliolitidae, of vertical series of curved or inclined trabeculae. The septa of all adult corallites alternate in size, their insertion being pinnate, on a tetrameral plan (Hill, 1935, p. 504), It may be that in hystero-corallites the pinnate manner of insertion is R.s. — c. 194 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. masked, but nevertheless, the alternation in size of the septa is always visible. In the Heliolitidae the manner of insertion has not been investigated, and any results obtained by such an investigation could not be used for comparative purposes until the insertion of septa in the hystero-corallites of Rugosa and Hexacoralla is also known. But in the Heliolitidae there is no good evidence that the septa alternate in size. In the Rugosa the arrangement of plates in plocoid coralla sug- gests corallites surrounded by common tissue, but the "corallites” are in this case the tabularia, and the ‘ ‘ common tissue ’ ’ the dissepimentaria ; whether the reticulum of HeUolites also represents dissepimentaria depends on the possibility that minor septa are present in the Helio- litidae ; for in the Rugosa the development of dissepiments is dependent on the presence of minor septa. But the evidence that minor septa occur in Heliolitidae is weak, and therefore, the evidence that the reticulum of the Heliolitidae is homologous with the “common tissue” of Rugosa is also weak. Nevertheless, Lindstrom considered this a strong possibility. His reasons were (1) that in one specimen of H. inter- stinctus (1899, pi. 1, figs, i.-iv.) he observed a single corallite with two "thecae,” one enclosing what we propose to call the tabularium and one enclosing this and some " coenenchyma. ” But at a later stage the outer "theca” encloses a great number of "calicles” and becomes in fact the wall of the whole colony, or holotheca. He drew an analogy between the inner wall and the wall* in the dissepimentarium of Acervularia. (2) In some of the Heliolitidae from Gotland he observed * Walls in the Rugosa. — Much confusion has arisen in the use of terms for walls in this group mainly because the method of formation of the skeleton was not understood by the earlier writers. A review of the terms used for the various walls in Madreporaria has already been made (Hill, 1935, pp. 497, 499, 508, 512) ; and the definitions given below are in amplification. Epitheca and Holotheca. — In simple corals the term epitheca is applied to the sheath enclosing the whole of the lumen and situated immediately outside the peri- pheral ends of the septa; in compound corals it is applied in a similar manner to the sheath surrounding each corallite when the corallites are separable; holotheca is applied to the sheath surrounding the whole colony. Immediately inside the epitheca in Eugosa is a narrow peripheral stereozone (see below) which is fibrous, though not certainly trabeculate in structure, while the epitheca and holotheca probably are granular. Usually the peripheral stereozone is very narrow and has then been vegarded as part of the epitheca, but in such a case it seems better to refer to the double structure as the outer wall. It is, however, not certain that the epitheca and holotheca are separate struc- tures. The holotheca may be but the sum of the epithecae over the outer parts of the peripheral corallites; further miscroscopic examination of conditions in massive coralla with inseparable and separable corallites is needed. Until this is done, we propose to continue using the two terms as defined above. Peripheral Stereozone. — A stereozone (trabeculate or merely fibrous) of any width, at the periphery of a corallite. Median Stereozone. — A new phrase to describe any stereozone which is within the dissepimentarium but does not extend to the periphery, e.g. the “inner wall” of Acervularia. It may be produced either by dilatation of the septa (“ pseudo- theca ” of Heider, see Ogilvie, 1897) or by the growth of additional trabeculae between the septa (“eutheca” of Heider, see Ogilvie, 1897). Wall of the Tabularium. — This is not a separate strucure but is the junction of the dissepimentarium and the tabularium. Wall of the Axial Structure. — This also is not a separate part, being the junction of the axial structure with the outer tabulae. Aulos. — A distinct wall within the tabularium; a tube enclosing almost flat tabulae, and surrounded by inclined tabulae; supposed to have been formed either by down turning of the axial parts of the tabulae or by the conjunction of the curved axial ends of the septa. In the first case the micro structure of the aulos is that of the horizontal skeletal elements and in the second that of the vertical skeletal elements. THE HELIOLITIDAE OF AUSTRALIA, ETC. 195 faint polyhedric markings in the coenenchyma suggestive of “outer walls” of the calicles. But Lindstrom’s “inner theca” in HeiioUtes is the wall of the tabularium and his “outer theca” is the holotheca, and thus his first analogy with the Rugosa is invalidated. As for his sfecond argument the faint polyhedric markings in the reticulum were observed on the weathered surface only of a few specimens and might equally well be explained as differential weathering. Thus there being no good evidence of two orders of septa, and no evidence that the reticulum is a dissepimentarium, and Lindstrom’s analogies on the walls being invalid, we conclude that there is no reason to place the Heliolitidae in the Rugosa. (c) Tabulata,. — The sub-order Tabulata was founded by Milne Edwards and Haime for a group of compound corals in which the septa are absent or rudimentary and the tabulae well developed. The soft parts of both the Tabulata and Heliolitidae are unknown. In the Tabulata septa may or may not be present, but when present they a're always rudimentary. This also applies to the Heliolitidae, but the constant number of twelve characteristic of the Heliolitidae is very rarely exhibited by the Tabulata, in fact, in the latter the number appears to be extremely variable. # The micro-structure of the skeleton is similar — i.e. trabeculate with the trabeculae curved or inclined. In neither are dissepiments developed, unless the reticulum of the Heliolitidae is a dissepimentarium (see argument under Rugosa). In both, tabulae are well developed. Mural pores, hollow connecting processes or solid platforms are present in most but not all genera of the Tabulata, but not in the Heliolitidae. .The question whether the Tabulata is a natural group remains an open one in spite of detailed discussions by more than one author. But even if it is, the Heliolitidae cannot in our opinion be included in it with the Favositidae, for the constant number of septa, as opposed to the great variability in the Tabulata, the absence of mural pores or con- necting processes, and the presence of a reticulum in the Heliolitidae are sufficiently important characters to separate them. C. Conclusion. To sum up, the Heliolitidae are not Alcyonaria, because the number of septa is fixed at twelve. Their skeletal morphology however indicates that they are Zoantharia Madreporaria. They are quite dissimilar to the Rugosa or the Tabulata in this septal fixity, but they might perhaps be placed in the Hexacoralla' with the Seriatoporidae and Madreporidae. There is however no good evidence that their twelve septa are inserted * The number may be fixed in some Tabulata but this is not yet proved and is difficult of proof, as. e.g. in Favosites, it is nearly impossible to get a transverse section which is exactly at right angles to the direction of growth of the corallites,, and, the septa being spinose, a complete cycle would rarely, if ever, appear in any one section. This difficulty increases when the septal spines are flat and widely spaced vertically. The only Tabulata known with lamellar septa — Fossopora, Etheridge (1903, p. 16) and Angopora Jones (1936, p. 18) — have six and 11 about twelve’ r respectively. Angopora is possibly related to Theeia Ed. & II., in which however, the septa are much thicker, and to Favosites liisingeri group 111, Tripp (1933, pp. 114-5, text fig. 33), non Ed. & H., in which about twelve short lamellar septa are- seen in the text figure. Favosites tripora Walkom has twelve vertical series of >septal spines in each corallite. Summarising and Comparing the Structure op Certain Corals. 196 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. PQ -g ft«3 C5 §-c‘g c oj o S SH-S'g 1‘s'Ss H S a 50 C3 O «D *c? -S .a o> S3 0 2^ « S V +3 S3 Slj 0 .a ^ a Ph gq THE HELIOLITIDAE OF AUSTRALIA, ETC. 197 in cycles of six, which is the chief diagnostic character of the Hexa- coralla. The insertion and arrangement of the septa is of primary importance in the sub-division of the Madreporaria, and it seems to us that the fixed number 12 and the equality of these 12 septa denotes a section of the Madreporaria equally as distinct as the Rugosa or the Hexacoralla. For this section we propose the name Heliolitida. The Anthozoa would then be sub-divided as follows: — Class. Order. Antliozoa Zoantharia b Alcyonaria Sub-order. Section. rEugosa Hexacoralla Heliolitida ^ ( Tahulata ) ^ Actinaria r Madreporaria < f Group A \ Group B This is essentially what Kiar (1903) proposed. Brackets are placed around the Tabulata as they may not be a natural group. VII. Systematic Descriptions. ZOANTHARIA MADREPORARIA HELIOLITIDA. Family HELIOLITIDAE. Typical Genus: Heliolites Dana. Diagnosis. — Compound corals with tabularia each defined by a wall usually ridged by septa which, when present, always number twelve : the tabularia are separated by a reticulum of tubuli or testae; the tabularia and tubuli are transversely divided ; dilatation of the walls of the tubuli and of the septa may suppress the walls of the tabularia and the transverse plates ; carinae may occur. Range. — The Heliolitidae first appear in the Upper Ordovician of Europe and North America ; they are common in the Silurian of Europe, North America, China, and Australia; and die out at the end of the Middle Devonian. R)emaoik&. — Lindstrom (1899) and Kiar (1903) have suggested different groupings into sub-families of the genera in the Heliolitidae. Both classifications were necessarily based chiefly on morphology, but partly also on assumed phylogenetic lines, Kiar’s arrangement giving a greater importance to his views on phylogeny. Thus he considered that the thickened genera arose from thin ones, and grouped those genera which are similar except for thickening into sub-families. The present writers consider it profitless to attempt a grouping of the genera of Heliolitidae into sub-families on the evidence at present available to them. Variability. — Individual species of Heliolitidae may vary within wide limits, in many characters. Thus the width of tabularium varies between 1 mm. and 3 mm. in Ileliolites inter stinctus. The distance apart 198 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. of the tabularia' is most variable in Propora tubulata and Propora con- ferta, being- sometimes six times as great as others. Septal spines in some corallites of P. tubulata may be two and a-half times as long as those in others. The extreme example of the shortening of the septal spines is found in H. interstinctus, where this, the decipiens trend, has- given rise to the variety decipiens in which the septa are absent and even the crenulations in the walls of the tabularia are lost, leaving the walls cylindrical. In some species, especially in the genus Propora „ rhabdacanths may be sporadically developed in the septa, instead of the usual monacanths. The dilatation of the vertical skeletal elements may be six times as great in some individuals as in others of the same species,, e.g. Propora conferta. Genus Heliolites Dana, Heliolites Dana, 1846, p. 541. Lonsdalia D ’Orbigny, 1849, p. 12 (vide supra, p. 189). Geoporites D ’Orbigny, 1850, p. 49 (vide supra, p. 189). Stelliporella Wentzel, 1895, p. 27 ; genotype (by designation) S. lamellata loc. cit.,. p. 34, pi. iv., figs. 10-12 ; E2, Kozel, Bohemia ( ? = Heliolites parvistella Roemer) . Pachycanalicula Wentzel, 1895, p. 27; genotype (by designation) H. harrandei Hoernes, MS., in Penecke, 1887, p. 27i, Taf. xx., figs. 1-3. Nicholsonia Kiar, 1899, p. 37 ; genotype Heliolites megastoma Kiar (loc. cit. and pi. vi., figs. 8, 9, pi. vii., figs. 1, 2) non McCoy (=H. hirsutus Lindstrom, 1899, p. 64). Non Nicholsonia Waagen and Wentzel, 1866, which is JEscharopora Hall, 1847. a Polyzoan. Helioplasma Kettnerova, 1933b, p. 180; genotype (by monotypy), H. Tcolihai Kettnerova, loc. cit. p. 182, text figs. 1, 2. Lower Devonian, Bohemia. Genotype. — Astraea porosa Goldfuss, 1826, p. 64, pi. xxi., fig. 7. Devonian. Eifel. Diagnosis. — Heliolitida with tabularia each defined by a wall usually ridged by septa which number twelve ; the tabularia are separated by a reticulum of tubuli; tabularia and tubuli are transversely divided by complete tabulae and sola respectively. Range. — F1 to Middle Devonian in Europe; Niagaran to Devonian in America; Silurian and Devonian in Asia; Silurian and Devonian in Australia'. H. depauperata is recorded from the Ordovician of the Central Himalayas by Salter and Blanford, 1865, but we have seen neither description nor figures. The species of Heliolites are long ranged. The interstinctus group (II. interstinctus, H. fasciatus, and H. repletus), which is characterised by tabularia with short lamellar septa with entire axial edges, by poly- gonal tubuli variable in number and by the frequent occurrence of a columella, first occurs in F1 of Estland, and continues to the Middle Devonian. The parvistella group (H. parvistella and H. liljevalli, characterised by tabularia with lamellar septa reaching to the centres where they form an irregular network) extends from F1 to the end of the Silurian. II. daintreei (characterised by septa which are long but axially are broken into numerous upwardly directed trabeculae, which may form a network) is first found in the Upper Valentian (Lindstrom’s a' of Gotland) and continues to the Middle Devonian: H. hirsutus (with a sparse discontinuous reticulum and upwardly directed septal spines) is confined to Stratum a of Gotland; H. porosus THE HELIOLITIDAE OF AUSTRALIA, ETC. 199 (with thick-walled tabularia and septa which are variable in length, spinose axially and sometimes alternating in size) is known only from the Lower and Middle Devonian. Remarks. — We agree with Lindstrom (1899, p. 62) and Kiar (1899, p. 40) that Stelliporella lamellata is closely related to Heliolites parvi- stella if not identical with it and as wTe retain parvistella in the genus Heliolites , Stelliporella is a synonym of the latter. Wentzel (1895, p. 27) made H. barrandei the type of a new genus Pachycanalicula. Wentzel based this on specimens from Bohemia with thick walled tubuli; Lindstrom examining both Swedish and Bohemian specimens found that the Bohemian individuals had thicker walls, but considered this to be due to compression of the specimens. Kiar (1899, p. 43) considered the degree of thickening of the walls not to be of generic significance. H. hirs\u\tus, the type of Nicholsonia (which is in any case pre- occupied) -we place in the genus Heliolites. Although it resembles ProkelioD'ltes in having a sparse reticulum, the septal spines are directed distally as in Heliolites. There is a resemblance to Propora in cross section, but this is due solely to the discontinuity of portions of the tubuli walls, whereas in Propora tubuli are completely absent, the only vertical structure being single trabeculae. This discontinuity, which is very rare in Heliolites, may be a reflection of the rapid replacement of tubuli by tabularia. The horizontal elements in the reticulum are sola, not testae. As there are more than twelve tubuli surrounding each tabularium, this species cannot be referred to Plasmopora. Helioplasma was founded for Bohemian specimens differing only slightly from normal Heliolites. The differences (the occurrence in parts of the reticulum of testae instead of sola, and a very slight discontinuity of the tubuli walls) is insufficient in our opinion to justify separation from Heliolites. Kettnerova considered the species inter- mediate between Heliolites and Plasmopora but it has not an aureola of twelve tubuli as is characteristic of Plasmopora. The only well-defined trend we have observed in Heliolites is the “decipiens” trend, by which the walls of the tabularia lose their septa and septal crenulations. This is common and was fully described and illustrated by Lindstrom (1899) in Heliolites interstinctus, but it also acts in other species. The trend is developed unequally in different parts of the same corallum (see Lindstrom). Heliolites daintreei Nicholson and Etheridge. (PI. VI., figs. 1-5 ; pi. VII., figs. 1-5 ; pi. VIII., figs. 1-8 ; pi. IX., fig. 1.) Heliolites Daintreei Nicholson and Etheridge, 1879, p. 224, pi. xiv., figs. 3, 3a. Broken River, North Queensland. Devonian. Heliolites plasmoporoides Nicholson and Etheridge, 1879, p. 225, pi. xiv., figs, 2, 2b. Broken River, North Queensland. Devonian. Lectotype (here chosen) 90246, British Museum (Natural History). Heliolites Barrandei R. Hoernes nom. nud., Penecke, 1887, p. 271, pi. xx., figs. 1-3 ; top of Lower Devonian of Graz, Austria. Type material: Kettnerova, 1 1932, p. 6, pointed out that Penecke ’s syntypes were lost at the University of Czernowitz in the War 1914-1918. She based her work on Penecke ;s material at the Geological Institute of Graz University. As we have not access to this, we are unable to choose a neotype and we accept Lindstrom 7s interpretation of the species. Heliolites Daintreei ; Jack and Etheridge, 1892, p. 61, pi. i., figs. 7, 8. Heliolites plasmoporoides ; Jack and Etheridge, 1892, p. 62, pi. i., figs. 9-11. 200 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. P achy canalicula Barrandei; Wentzel, 1895, p. 27. Heliolites Barrandei ; Lindstrom, 1899, p. 58, pi. iii., figs. 8-12, 17-27. ? Heliolites interstincta (Linnaeus); Chapman, 1913, p. 222 [Devonian], Lilydale Limestone, Victoria.- non Heliolites interstincta var. gippslandica Chapman, 1914, p. 311, pi. lx.; from the Silurian (possibly Devonian) of Cooper’s Creek, Thompson River, Victoria (specimens not examined. This is Blasmopora, see p. 206). ? Heliolites interstincta var. gippslandica Chapman, 1920, p. 185, pis. xxix., xxx. ; Silurian, Cowombat Creek, Victoria (specimens not examined). Heliolites yassensis Dun, 1927, p. 255, pi. xviii., fig. 1 ; Yass District, N.S.W. ; upper Silurian. Lectotype (here chosen) the specimen in the Australian Museum F5176 with two sections, A.M. 62, from Hattons Corner, Yass, figured by Dun loc. cit. Heliolites regularis Dun var. humewoodensis Dun, 1927, p. 257, pi. xviii., figs. 4, 5; upper Silurian. The syntypes including the specimen figured are lost. Heliolites jaclcii Dun, 1927, p. 257, pi. xviii., fig. 6 ; pi. xix., figs. 1, 2 ; upper Silurian. Of the syntypes listed by Dun the following are in the Aus- tralian Museum — Section A.M. 261 (19), no specimen; F 5174, with two sections A.M. 57 from Yass; F. 4081 (not 4801) with two sections A.M. 60 from Humewood; and F 4498, with two sections A.M. 55 from Yarralumla. The rest are lost. We select as lectotype the specimen F 5174 with two sections A.M. 57 from Yass, N.S.W. ? Heliolites wellingtonensis (nom. nud.) Dun, 1927, p. 256. Heliolites barrandei Penecke; Kettnerova, 1932, p. 2, figs. 1, 2; Devonian of Graz. ? Heliolites vesiculosus Penecke; Kettnerova, 1932, p. 7, figs. 3, 4; Osternig, north of Tarvis in the Carnic Alps, probably M. Devonian. Heliolites praeporosus Kettnerova, 1933a, p. 1, figs. 1, 2; Koneprus, L. Devonian. ? Helioplasma Tcolihai Kettnerova, 1933b, p. 182, figs. 1, 2; Koneprus, L. Devonian. Lectotype (here chosen). — The specimen 90248, British Museum (Natural History), figured Nicholson and Etheridge, 1879, pi. xiv., figs. 3, 3a. Devonian. Broken River, North Queenland. PI. VII., fig. 2. Diagnosis. — Heliolites with tabularia of variable size with twelve short lamellar septa having numerous long upcurved spines vertical near the axis and swollen at the apices in late forms ; with distant regularly horizontal tabulae ; with tubuli regularly polyhedric or vermiform,, sometimes rounded in late forms; and with the walls of the tabularia and tubuli rather thickened in late forms. Description. — Lindstrom (1899, pp. 58-60) has given an adequate description of the species based on European and American material. We supplement it with a description of the Australian specimens, which can be treated in four ill-defined groups. First group (Plate VI., figs. 1-4). — The external form is unknown hut the coralla probably are hemispherical or slightly domed. The tabularia have a diameter of 1 to 2 mm. and their distance apart is from 0*25 to 2-25 mm., with one to six rows of tubuli between. The walls of the tabularia are thin or slightly thickened and sometimes crenulate. The septa arise from the crenulations when these are present, and are short lamellae breaking up axially into long, sharply upcurved spines. The tabulae are thin, rather distant and usually horizontal- The reticulum consists of tubuli of variable transverse section; they may be polyhedric or have rounded angles and may be equal or unequal in size ; their walls are equal in thickness to those of the tabularia. The sola are thin and rather closer than the tabulae. THE HELIOLITIDAE OF AUSTRALIA, ETC. 201 Second group (Plate VI., fig. 5). — This is similar in all particu- lars to the first group except that the coralla are small and globular, and that one to three rows of tubuli separate the tabularia. Third group (Plate VII., fig. 1). — This is similar to the first group except that the tabularia are 1 to 1-5 mm. in diameter, with one to four rows of tubuli between; the septal spines are well developed and have swollen apices ; the walls of the tabularia are thickened and crenulate, the septa arising from the crenulations ; and the tubuli are small, regular, and rather rounded. Fourth group (Plate VII., figs. 2-5, plate VIII., plate IX., fig. 1). — The corallum is massive and hemispherical, and may be large (Dun records one corallum measuring 20 cm. in diameter and 12 to 15 cms. in height). The tabularia range in diameter from 0-5 mm. to 2 mm. and vary greatly in distance apart in different specimens. The distance between the tabularia’ varies between 0-25 mm. and 6 mm. and is in general least in those coralla with the largest tabularia. The walls of the tabularia are thin, but are usually a little thicker than those of the tubuli ; they are not quite circular, having slight angles where two tubuli meet; the f^epta usually arise from the walls between these angles, occasionally from the angles themselves; rarely crenulations between the angles form the bases of the septa. The septa are lamellar peri- pherally but axially they consist of long upcurved spines, which are frequently obscured by recrystallisation. The tabulae are as in the other groups. The tubuli are small, polyhedric, rounded or sometimes vermiform in transverse section. In longitudinal section their walls are usually straight but they may be slightly constricted at the sola. The sola are complete, more numerous than the tabulae, usually horizontal, but sometimes curved, inclined or geniculate. a Remarks. — Lindstrom places in this species forms from the Upper Llandovery, Wenlock, Ludlow and Lower Devonian of Europe, and the Niagaran of America. He considered that, in spite of variation in size and distance apart of the tabularia and of the thickness of the walls, the group forms a single species by reason of the constant and characteristic nature of the septa. These are lamellar in the peripheral part of the tabularia, but in the axial region they are spines, curving to the vertical. This gives a characteristic transverse section showing linear septa at the edge of the tabularia and dot-like sections of spines at the axis. Lindstrom considered that the later forms were distinguishable from the earlier by the swollen axial ends of the septal spines and that some, but not all, Devonian specimens showed thickened tubuli walls with rounded angles. This is in agreement with our observations on the Australian specimens. We agree with Lindstrom that all these forms are better regarded as a species rather than as a genus; we do not consider the character of the septa, which is the most characteristic feature of the group, to be of generic importance. As will be seen from the description above, it is possible to divide the Australian forms at least, into ill-defined groups on the characters of the septa; if, however, the reticulum which is the most variable element be considered as a character of classificatory value, a useless multiplicity of forms could be named. We have not given names to the Australian groups, as we have no evidence as yet that the differences are either specific or stratigraphical in value; they are small and gradations occur. 202 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Kettnerova has given descriptions of Bohemian Lower Devonian Heliolites ; we have not seen specimens, but from her descriptions and figures,, we consider H. praeporosus is H. daintreei and that H. vesi - culosus and Helioplasma kolahai may also be synonyms of H. daintreeL Of our Australian material we place in the first group single speci- mens from Clermont, Chillagoe, Mount Etna, and Jenolan. While the septal characters in this group are constant, the reticulum varies in different parts of the one specimen and from specimen to specimen. The tubuli are the most unequal and irregular in the Clermont specimen and are most nearly equal and regular in those from Mount Etna and Jenolan. This group appears to be the most similar to the Austrian forms described by Penecke and Kettnerova. The second group is confined to the Cave Limestone at Wellington, New South Wales. The third group is known only from Lilydale, Victoria, and the' specimens show little variation. In the fourth group we place specimens from Yass, Molong, and the Broken River. In the Yass specimens the variation in size of the tabularia and their distance apart is extreme and from our limited material it might be possible to distinguish two sub-groups, one in which the tabularia are 1-5 to 1-75 mm. in diameter and as little as 0-25 mm. apart; the other in which the tabularia are 0-5 to 1 mm. in diameter and as much as 6 mm. apart. There is, however, only a general and not a definite relationship between the size of the tabularia and their distance apart. Thus in two specimens with tabularia of approximately the same size (0*75 mm.) the distance between the tabularia is about 2-5, mm. and 1 mm. respectively. The most typical feature of the group is the shape in transverse section of the tabularia, which is somewhat similar to Lindstrom’s Silurian H. barrandei var. spongodes. This has. the least crenulation of the forms he examined, but it differs greatly in external form from the Yass specimens, and has slight cr emulations, where the septa join the walls. We place in this group H. yassensis Dun, H. regularis Dun var. humewoodensis , and H. jackii Dun. We have examined those of Dun’s thin sections that have not been lost, and consider that he did not allow for the wide variation occurring within the various species of Heliolites. We have observed characters, which he considered diagnostic of different species, in the one specimen. Further, he appears to have failed to realise to what a great extent the septa of the Yass specimens are obscured by the recrystallisation of the matrix. In spite of this recrystallisation we have observed, under suitable illumination, septa of the characteristic daintreei type in nearly all his sections. The Molong material is even more crystalline and septa are observable in sections of one specimen only. The septa in this are quite characteristic and other characters leave no doubt that all four specimens belong to the same species. We place the lectotype of H. daintreei in this fourth group, although the diameter of its tabularia,. 2 mm., is larger than in any specimen from other localities. H. plasmo- poroides is H. daintreei, but we place it in the fourth group rather doubtfully as we have seen only one specimen and its preservation is poor. It has tabularia of 2 mm. diameter and the reticulum is mostly vermiform though regular in places. Australian Localities. — 1st Group: Portion 73, parish Copperfield,. Clermont, Queensland, Lower Middle Devonian ; Foot of Mount Etna,. THE HELIOLITIDAE OF AUSTRALIA, ETC. 203 Rockhampton, Queensland, ?Lower Middle Devonian ; Chillagoe, Queens- land (Geol. Surv, No. F 1964), Silurian; Mount St. George, Jenolan, New South Wales (Australian Museum, F 4108, with two sections A.M. 61), Silurian. 2nd Group*. Wellington Caves, New South Wales (Aus- tralian Museum, sections A.M. 259), ? Siluro-Devonian. 3rd Group: Lily dale, Victoria, Lower or Middle Devonian. 4th Group: Hatton’s Corner, Yass, and Old Limekilns Ridge, Humewood, Yass, New South Wales, Upper Silurian; portion 3, parish Cudal, just west of Boree Creek on back road from Manildra to Cudal, near Molong, New South Wales, Lower Devonian (University of Queensland Collection, F 3408, with two sections) ; portion 170, parish Curra, near Wellington, New South Wales, Curra Creek, Crossing No. 2, east of road crossing, Lower Devonian (U.Q., F. 3409, with two sections) ; portion 174, parish Bell, county Ashburnham, Crystal Springs, near Molong, New South Wales, Lower Devonian (U.Q.,. F. 3410, with two sections) ; Mandagery’s Creek, parish Brymedura, north of Garra, near Molong, New South Wales (probably portion 77), Lower Devonian (U.Q., F. 3411, with two sections on one slide) ; Broken River, tributary of Clarke River, North Queensland, Devonian (British Museum, Natural History specimens 90246 and 90248, with two slides of each). Range. — Lindstrom described the species from Gotland in strata from a-f (Upper Llandovery to Ludlow), from the Lower Devonian ( barrandei beds) of Austria and from the Niagaran of America. Kett- nerova (1932, 1933) figured it from the Lower Devonian of Bohemia, and Le Maitre (1934, pi. vii., figs. 5-8) recorded it from. Ancenis in beds transitional from the Lower Devonian to the Middle Devonian. In Australia the first group is Lower Middle Devonian at Clermont, and possibly at Mount Etna also, Silurian at Chillagoe and at Jenolan. The second group is Siluro-Devonian. The third group is Devonian. The fourth group is Upper Silurian at Yass, Lower Devonian at Molong, and Devonian at Broken River. Helioiites nicholsoni Eth. fil. Heliolites sp. ind. Nicholson and Etheridge, 1879, p. 223. Helioiites nicholsoni Etheridge, in Jack and Etheridge, 1892, p. 63, pi. 1, fig. 12. We have been unable to trace this. Etheridge states it is in the British Museum, but Dr. H. D. Thomas in a letter says: “We have not got, nor is there any record that we ever had, the other specimen (i.e. H. nicholsoni). It is said to be in a large corallum of Favosites but I have examined all ours from Broken River, Queensland, and none contains a Heliolitid. ’ ’ Judging from the figure in Jack and Etheridge it is quite possible that this species is Plasmopora heliolitoides Lindstrom. Locality. — Broken River, tributary of the Clarke River, North Queensland. Devonian. Heliolites interstinctus (Linnaeus). (Plate IX., fig. 2.) Madrepora interstincta Linnaeus, 1767,, p. 1276. Heliolites interstinctus ; Lindstrom, 1899, p. 41, pi. i., figs. 1-36; pi. ii., figs. 1, 2; pi. iii., figs. 1, 2. Lectotype. — The specimen from Gotland described and figured by Linnaeus, 1745, p. 30, fig. xxiv. (chosen by Lindstrom, 1899, p. 42). 204 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Diagnosis. — Heliolites with thin walled tabularia of variable size; usually with non spinose septa which arise from the crenulations ; typic- ally with a discontinuous columella; the tubuli are polygonal. In some coralla some or all of the tubularia are without crenulations, septa, or columella ( decipims variation). Remarks. — A very crystalline specimen (University of Queensland,. F 3437, with two slides) from the ^Silurian of Limestone Bluff, Mungana. North Queensland, may possibly belong to this species. It is probably of the decipiens morphology but this appearance may be due to its. re-crystallisation. Range. — Lyckhohm beds of the Baltic, Gotlandian of Scandinavia, Wenlock and Ludlow of England and Bohemia, Silurian of Arctic Russia and Australia, and Niagaran of America; Lindstrom also records it as passing up into the Middle Devonian of the Carnic Alps. Heliolites porosus (Goldfuss). (Plate IX., fig. 3.) Astraea porosa Goldfuss, 1826, p. 64, pi. xxi., fig. 7 ; Devonian of the Eifel. Heliolites porosus ; Lindstrom, 1899, p. 53, pi. ii., figs. 29-37; pi. iii., fig. 3-7. Heliolites porosa ; Etheridge, 1899b, pp. 173-4, pi. xix., figs. 3, 4; pi. xxv., figs. 1, 2;. Middle Devonian of Tamworth, N.S.W. Heliolites porosus ; Lecompte, 1936, p. 93, pi. xiv., figs. 2-5. Type Material. — Goldfuss’ syntypes from the Devonian of the- Eifel and Heisterstein are in the University of Bonn. They were refigured and fully described by Lecompte loo. cit. Diagnosis. — Heliolites with tabularia thick walled and crenulate, with unequal septa arising from the crenulations; the septal lamella have the axial edges obtusely denticulated or fringed with curved spines ; the tubuli are small with thick walls. Remarks. — All the vertical wralls are thick but those of the tabularia are markedly more so than those of the tubuli. The septa are thick, straight lamellae, with short spines on the axial edge; the spines are not curved and are only slightly directed upwards so that in transverse section they form neither, a network as in parvistella nor numerous dots as in daintreei. The septa are always unequal and are sometimes alternate in length. Localities and Range. — In the Middle Devonian of New South Wales, at Moore Creek and Woolomol, near Tamworth, and on the Isis River, near Crawney; in the Givetian Burdekin Downs Limestone of North Queensland, at numerous localities on the Burdekin Downs and Fanning River Stations, and in the Reid Gap, near Townsville ; in the Lower Middle Devonian Limestone at Elbow Valley, Silverwood, Queens- land; and in the Middle Devonian Limestone in Kroombit Creek, 5 miles, above Kroombit Station, near Biloela, Queensland. Genus Plasmopora Edwards and Haime. Plasmopora Edwards and Haime, 1849, • p. 262. Plasmopora ; Lindstrom, 1899, p. 75. Genotype (by monotypy). — Porites petalliformis Lonsdale, 1839,, p. 687, pi. xvi., figs. 4, 4a'. From the Wenlock shale. Walsall. Diagnosis. — Heliolitida' with each tabularium surrounded by an aureola of twelve tubuli, whose dividing walls typically continue into the THE HELIOLITIDAE OF AUSTRALIA, ETC. 205 tabularia as septa ; additional tubuli whose walls may be discontinuous occur1 between the aureolae ; testae may occur when the walls are discon- tinuous, otherwise sola are developed. Carinae may occur. Range, — The range in Europe and America is Llandovery of Got- land, G1 of Estland; Wenlock of England, Gotland and Estland; Ludlow of Gotland; the Niagaran of America; and Middle Devonian of the Carnic Alps (Vinassa de Regny, 1918, p. 89). In Australia it occurs in the Upper Silurian of Yass, Lower Devonian of Molong, New South Wales, Silurian [ ?Lower Devonian] of Coopers Creek, Victoria, and Devonian of Johannsen’s Caves, Rockhampton, Queensland, and of the Nundle road, Tamworth, New South Wales. Table II. summarises the characters and range of the species recog- nised by Lindstrom. A full account of the micro-structure of the septa and walls has already been given, p. 187. ■ Plasmopora heliolitoides Lindstrom. (Plate IX., figs. 4, 5; pi. X., figs. 1-4.) Plasmopora heliolitoides Lindstrom, 1899, p. 86, pi. vii., figs. 32-33. Eeliolites distans Dun, 1927, p. 258, pi. xix., figs. 3-6. Syntypes in the Australian Museum are F. 5173 (misprinted 5178 in explanation to plate) with two sections A.M. 56, from Yass, and F. 4082 with two sections A.M. 140, from Old Limekilns Eidge; upper Silurian. Lectotype (here chosen) F. 5173, A.M. 56, figured Dun, loc. cit., figs. 5, 6. Eeliolites distans var. humewoodensis Dun, 1927, p. 261, pi. xx., figs. 3, 4. Syntypes in the Australian Museum are F. 4082, with two sections A.M. 43; F. 5547, with two sections A.M. 71; F. 5548, with two sections A.M. 72, all from the Old Limekilns Ridge, Humewood; upper Silurian. Lectotype (here chosen) F. 4082, A.M. 43, Dun, loc. cit., figs. 3, 4. Eeliolites distans var. intermedia Dun, 1927, p. 261, pi. xx., figs. 5, 6. Syntypes in the Australian Museum are F. 5555, with two sections A.M. 75; F. 5556, with two sections A.M. 76; and F. 2433, with two sections A.M. 52; all from Old Limekilns Eidge, Humewood. Upper Silurian. Lectotype (here chosen F. 5556, A.M. 76, figured Dun, loc. cit., figs. 5, 6. Eeliolites distans var. minuta Dun, 1927, p. 262, pi. xxi., figs. 1-4. Syntypes in the Australian Museum are A.M. 237 (specimen apparently lost) from the Yass District, F. 5553, with two sections A.M. 73, F. 5554, with two sections A.M. 74, both from Old Limekilns Eidge, Humewood, and F. 2461, with two- sections A.M. 53, from Bowning. Upper Silurian. Lectotype (here chosen) F. 5553, A.M. 73, figured Dun, loc. cit., figs. 1, 2, 4. Type Material. — In the Lindstrom collection in Stockholm; from Stratum d (Wenlock) of Ostergarn, Gotland. Diagnosis.- — Plasmopora with the tubuli of the aureola irregular and unequal in size frequently elongated parallel to the circumference of the tabularia, with septa absent or represented by blunt protuberances and with the walls in the reticulum continuous. Description. — The corallum is large and spreading and the tabu- laria vary greatly in size and distance apart. Their diameter varies from 1-75 mm. to 1 mm. and their distance apart from 1-5 to 5 mm. The walls of the tabularia are slightly thicker than those of the tubuli. The septa are rudimentary, represented by knob-like swellings which are continuations of the radial walls of the aureola. They are not lamellar but are blunt rounded spines. The tabulae are complete, usually horizontal, 12 to 16 in a space of 5 mm. The twelve tubuli forming the aureola are frequently smaller than, occasionally equal to, or a little larger than the other tubuli. They often have their long axes parallel to the circumference of the tabularia and are unequal. The remainder of the reticulum consists of tubuli almost equal in diameter but of variable shape. The tubuli are not always parallel to 206 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. the tabularia, frequently changing their direction of growth slightly. Some are polyhedric, others have rounded corners, and a few are alveo- litoid frequently with a carina projecting from one side. The sola are horizontal, oblique or inosculating, about 24 in a space of 5 mm. Remarks. — -In this species the tubuli of the aureola are frequently elongated parallel to the circumferences of the tabularia whereas in all other species they are elongated in a radial direction. This, combined with the form of the septa (knob-like spines), gives the species its characteristic appearance. Carinae when present occur only in the reticulum and each probably represents the beginning of a new tubuli wall. Range. — Stratum d (Wenlock) of Ostergarn, Gotland; Upper Silurian of Hatton’s Corner and Derrengullen Creek, Yass, and of Old Limekilns Ridge, ITumewood. Plasmopora gippslandica (Chapman). (Plate X., fig. 5, pi. XI., fig. 1.) Heliolites interstincta var. gippslandica Chapman, 1914, p. 311, pi. ix., figs. 35, 36. Silurian [? Devonian]. Cooper’s Creek, Thomson River, Victoria. non Heliolites interstincta var. gippslandica Chapman, 1920, see p. 200. Heliolites regularis Dun, 1927, p. 256, pi. xviii., figs. 2, 3. Upper Silurian. Hatton’s Corner, Yass, N.S.W. Holotype. — The specimen described and figured by Chapman, loc. cit., thought to be in the National Museum, Melbourne, M.D. 746, Slide 1336. Diagnosis. — Plasmopora with the tubuli of the aureola usually elongated radially, and neighbouring aureolae in contact or occasionally separated by one or two rows of tubuli; with tubuli walls continuous vertically, and -septa absent. Description — The external form is unknown. The tabularia show in cross sections as smooth and round with no sign of septa. Their diameter ranges from 1 to 1-5 mm. and they are from 0-5 to 1-5 mm. apart. The walls of the tabularia are but little if any thicker than the walls of the tubuli. The tabulae are mostly complete and horizontal but a few may be inosculating ; 10 occupy a space of 5 mm. The tubuli of the aureola are radially elongated when the tabularia are sufficiently distant, and are usually equal in size; they are polyhedric except in parts of some coralla where the walls are somewhat thickened when the angles are rounded. When tubuli occur between the aureolae they are smaller than those of the aureola ; not more than two such rows are developed. The sola are mostly complete, a few are inosculating or geniculate, and there are 10 to 14 in a space of 5 mm. The tubuli walls are frequently constricted at their junctions with the sola. Remarks. — The absence of septa, the continuity of the walls, and the shape of tubuli of the aureola (radially elongated) distinguish this species. Of the European Silurian species it is closest to P. heliolitoides (Wenlock of Gotland) and P. rudis (uppermost Ludlow of Gotland). It differs from both in the absence of septa, from heliolitoides in the shape of the tubuli of the aureola and from rudis in having the tubuli walls vertically continuous. It appears to be very similar to the Middle Devonian P. carnica Vinassa de Regny (1918, p. 89, pi. vii., figs. 4, 5) but the sections of the latter are oblique so that we cannot be sure of complete identity. Summary of Characters and Range of Species of Plasmopora recognised by Lindstrom. THE HELIOLITIDAE OF AUSTRALIA, o o O O 5 n o o W) p) PI c3 c3 3 3 | £ M =§>=« P m H3 © P «a s © ® ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. vir. Abstract of Proceedings, 27th March, 1939. The Annual General Meeting was held in the Geology Lecture Theatre of the University on Monday, 27th March, 1939, at 8 p.m. The President, Professor H. C. Richards, welcomed the Patron of the Society, His Excellency the Governor, Sir Leslie Orme Wilson, P.C., G.C.S.I., G.C.M.G., LL.D. The minutes of the previous annual meeting were read and confirmed. The Annual Report was adopted on the motion of Dr. W. H. Bryan, who suggested that a list of papers presented to the Society during the year should be included in the Report, and that those receiving the Government subsidy be indicated. The Balance-sheet was received. A. L. Reimann, Ph.D., D.Sc., G. P. D. Boissard, B.Sc., and Miss Patricia Marks, B.Sc., were nominated for Ordinary Membership, The following Officers and Council were elected for 1939 : — President, Mr. H. A. Longman ; Vice-Presidents, Professor H. C. Richards and Professor J. V. Duhig; Hon. Treasurer, Mr. E. W. Biek; Hon. Secretary, Miss D. Hill; Hon. Librarian, Mr. F. A. Perkins; Hon. Editors, Dr. D. A. Herbert and Mr. J. Harold Smith ; Members of the Council, Dr.. E. 0. Marks, Mr. A. R. Riddle, Dr. F. H. S. Roberts, Professor H. R. Seddon, and Dr. M. White. Mr. A. J. Stoney was elected Auditor. The retiring President, Professor H. C. Richards, then inducted the President- Elect, Mr. H. A. Longman, to the Chair. The new President then called on the retiring President to deliver the address “Scientific Researches Affecting Queensland.” Sir Leslie Wilson expressed to Professor Richards the thanks and appreciation of the meeting, and was supported by Professor J. K. Murray. Abstract of Proceedings, 24th A^ril, 1939. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the' Geology Theatre of the University on Monday, 24th April, at 8 p.m., with the President in the Chair. About sixty members and guests were present. The minutes of the previous Ordinary Meeting were read and confirmed. I. R. Bick, B.Sc., A. L. Reimann, Ph.D., D.Sc.,. G. P. D. Boissard, B.Sc., and Miss Patricia Marks, B.Sc., were unani- mously elected Ordinary Members of the Society. Professor S. F. Lumb, D.D.S., L.D.S., and F. W. Arden, M.D., B.S., F.R.C.P., were proposed for Ordinary Membership. The chief business of the evening was an address by Professor W. K. Gregory, of the American Museum of Natural History and Columbia University, entitled “The Origin of the Human Dentition.”' In his address, which was fully illustrated with a series of lantern slides, Professor Gregory concisely reviewed the long lineage of the vertebrates, culminating in the higher mammals. He briefly referred to the divergent views of the lines of human ancestry expressed by Professor F. Wood Jones and the late Professor H. F. Osborn. The distinctive value of recent discoveries by Professor Raymond Dart and Dr. R. Broom of “ Australopithecine Man-apes” in South Africa was; outlined. Professor Gregory also referred to the significance of the Sinanthropus remains found near Pekin. A masterly exposition of the chief dental characteristics of these fossils, in comparison with modern man, was a special feature of the lecture. Cumulative evidence vm. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. supported the view that man, like his less ambitious cousins, the modern anthropoid apes, is a descendant of the late Tertiary ape stock of Europe, Asia, and Africa. A vote of thanks was moved by Professor E. J. Goddard, seconded by Professor H. J. Wilkinson, and supported by Professors S. F. Lumb and J. Y. Duhig and Mr. R. L. Donnan (visitor). Abstract of Proceedings, 29th May, 1939. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology Theatre of the University on Monday, 29th May, at 8 p.m., with the President in the Chair. About forty members and friends were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Professor S. F. Lumb, D.D.S., L.D.S., and F. W. Arden, M.D., B.S., F.R.C.P., were elected Ordinary Members. Miss Margaret Cross, B.Sc., was proposed for Ordinary Membership. The following papers were read: — (а) “The Absorption of Acids by Wool,” by L. S. Bagster, D.Sc., and Madoline Y. Connah, M.Sc. The absorption by wool of hydrochloric, acetic, and chloracetic acids was studied, the acids acting singly and in pairs. Singly the first three are absorbed to about the same extent, but almost 50 per cent, more chloracetic is absorbed. However, when chloracetic acid is mixed with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, it is only slightly absorbed, like the weak acetic acid. In commenting on the paper Mr. IL. Tryon offered some remarks on the absorption of organic acids by wool. (б) “Habits and Chaetotaxy of the Larva of Anopheles (Anopheles) atratipes, Skuse, ” by Elizabeth N. Marks, B.Sc. Larvae of this species, previously known only from Dunwich, Stradbroke Island, are herein recorded from Nudgee, Redcliffe, and Bribie Island in varying habitats. A full account of the chaetotaxy of the larva is given, and certain variations from the original brief description by Mackerras are pointed out. Mr. F. A. Perkins and Mr. IL. Tryon commented on the paper. Dr. F. H. S. Roberts gave a lecture “Parasite Control Overseas.” Dr. Roberts discussed the position of parasite control in overseas countries, particularly in the United States, Great Britain, Holland, France and South Africa, which countries he had recently visited. After giving some idea of the status of parasitology in these countries, the speaker dealt with a number of parasite problems, giving most attention to those problems which are of interest to Australia. Blow- flies in sheep, ticks on cattle and other animals, lice on sheep and goats, worms in sheep, pigs and horses, were mentioned, and some idea given of the importance of these pests in other countries and of the steps taken to control them. A vote of thanks to the lecturer was moved by Mr. F. A. Perkins, seconded by Mr. J. H. Smith, supported by Prof. H. C. Richards, and carried by acclamation. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. IX. Dr. D. A. Herbert exhibited specimens of Galinsoga, parviflora showing the effects of a new virus disease (Galinsoga virus 1) trans- mitted by Myzus persicae. The symptoms are similar to those produced in other plants by Beta virus 1, a leaf roll accompanied by the production of protruberances on stems and the lower sides of leaves. A specimen of Lilium longiflorum suffering from lily mosaic (Cucumis virus 1) was also exhibited. Abstract of Proceedings, 26th June, 1939. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Department of Geology of the University on Monday, 26th June, at 8 p.m., with the President in the Chair. About fifty members and friends were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Miss M. Cross, B.Sc., was unanimously elected an Ordinary Member. Professor W. K. Gregory, of the United States National Museum and Columbia University, New York, was nominated as a corresponding member, and Mrs. IT. S. McKee, Mu A., as an Ordinary Member. The business of the evening was a series of exhibits. Professor L. S. Bagster showed Liesegang rings formed by precipitation reaction in a jelly where one reagent diffuses in to react with a second reagent already in the jelly. The formation of separate bands of precipitate with clear sections between is characteristic of many reactions. The explanation is in doubt but the process is possibly due to supersaturation with later diffusion to points of precipitation leaving free sections. These rings have been used to explain the concentric banding of agate. Dr. F. W. Whitehouse exhibited tabular cherts interbedded with Cambrian limestones in Western Queensland, the surface of the cherts being marked with raised, concentric structures suggesting some form of Liesegang rings. Other cherts from this region had the concentric markings in coloured bands and not in . raised rings. He referred also to the precious opal deposits of parts of Australia (the silica apparently replacing limestone) where the opal is horizontally banded in Liesegang fashion and only certain alternating bands had the optical characters that gave the play of colours. Dr. W. H. Bryan exhibited— (1) A spherulite from Tamborine Mountain with a regularly concentric structure suggesting rhythmic precipitation of the felspar film from a colloidal solution ; ( 2 ) orbicular granite from Nelson, New Zealand, collected by Dr. P. Marshall and in which the alternating concentric structures might be due to oscillatory crystallization; and (3) a specimen of regularly banded sandstone from the flank of Mount Barney in which the rhythmic pattern was suggestive of seasonal deposition. Mr. S. T. Blake exhibited specimens of a few species of grasses and one sedge, of varied interest, chiefly from the more arid districts, some representing new records for Queensland, others aiding in the better understanding of forms hitherto poorly understood. Specimens from the Sand Desert were included. Mr. Kenneth Jackson exhibited — (a) Five boomerangs, illustrating a type of decorative art consisting of criss-cross, diamond and triangular patterns scratched on a smoke-blackened background ; their range X. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. apparently extended from the Burnett River and Fraser Island in the north to the Clarence River in the south and west to the McIntyre River; (&) A wooden sword, hitherto unrecorded, from the Brisbane district, 35J inches in length by 3J inches in width of the blade. This was obviously used as a hand weapon, being too unwieldy for throwing. Mr. Callaghan exhibited an experimental photoelectric colorimeter built by himself, in an attempt to improve the accuracy of colorimetric technique. Despite reports from elsewhere that an accuracy of at least one half per cent, could be obtained by means of this method, it had not been found possible to achieve better than 2 or 3 per cent, so far. The principle used was to pass an adjustable beam of light through the solutions under test, which was contained in an optical cell of pyrex glass with fused joins; the light then fell on a Weston photronic photo- electric cell, the output of which was measured by means of a Cambridge Spot Galvanometer. Owing to the fact that cells of the “ barrier-layer 19 type employ a secondary effect, which was not properly understood, the readings obtained could not be reproduced accurately; that is, the instrument was somewhat unstable. A number of alternative arrange- ments were described, and their difficulties pointed out. Mr. Callaghan intimated his intention of trying out a vacuum type photocell, which should give better results. On behalf of Dr. M. White, Mr. I. Bick exhibited the fleece of a sheep which was used in a recent feeding experiment. In the course of some drought-feeding experiments it became necessary to determine how long grown-sheep could be kept on a diet almost free from fibre, but rich in protein. Sheep fed nothing but commercial meat-meal (65 per cent, protein) have been kept in good health for six months. The length and quality of the staple are remark- able. Over an inch was grown in three months. The wool is bright, attractive, “ handles” well, and shows not sign of “tenderness.” Mr. E. Y. Robinson exhibited Conularia sp. from probable Permo- Carboniferous beds in the lower Stanley River Yalley portion 89 Moreton Sheet 19N. This would represent the third block of Permo- Carboniferous sediments found in the Brisbane Yalley during the last fey years. Mr. F. A. Perkins exhibited five living specimens of Peripatoides leuckarti Sang. Three of these were collected at Albert River on the 10th April, 1939, and two at Binnaburra on the 25th May. One of the specimens collected at Albert River gave birth to two young, one of which is still alive. It has increased in length from 6 mm. to 20 mm. in two months. The President, Mr. H. A. Longman, exhibited a small fragment of abraded bone which had been discovered by Mr. John Wadley in the Walloon Sandstones near the Brisbane River, below Lowood. This was the first discovery of a vertebrate fossil in these extensive sand- stones. The bone was almost entirely embedded in a large mass of sandstone. Although the fragment did not afford fully satisfactory evidence, Mr. Longman tentatively identified it as portion of the upper jaw, with alveoli of small teeth, of a very large amphibian, probably one of the Stegocephalians. Mr. Longman also exhibited the skeleton of a long-tailed dormouse phalanger EudromAcia macrura from Jordan Creek, West Palmerston, via Innisfail; collected by Mr. J. Rawnsley and forwarded by Mr. C. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XI. Thomas. This was the first specimen to be received at the Queensland Museum. Four specimens were collected on the Atherton-Herberton tableland in 1913 by Dr. Eric Mjoberg, who described the species in 1915. Comments on the exhibits were made by Mr. Longman, Mr. Tryon, Dr. Marks, Mr. Callaghan, Mr. Gipps, Mr. Perkins, Professor Duhig, and Dr. Whitehouse. Abstract of Proceedings, 31st July, 1939. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Department of Geology of the University on Monday, 31st July, at 8 p.m., with the President in the chair. About thirty members and friends were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Professor W. K. Gregory was elected a corresponding member, and Mrs, H. S. McKee, M.A., was elected to ordinary membership. In the unavoidable absence of Dr. A. L. Reimann, a lecture was given by Dr. F. W. Whitehouse, who chose as his subject “The Morphology and Evolution of the Trilobites.” A vote of thanks, moved by Dr. E. 0. Marks, and supported by Messrs. Ogilvie, Perkins, and Tryon, was carried by acclamation. Abstract of Proceedings, 28th August, 1939. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Department of Geology of the University on Monday, 28th August, at 8 p.m., with the President in the chair. About twenty-five members were present. The business of the evening was a lecture by Dr. A. L. Reimann, “Thermionic Phenomena and their Applications.” The early history of the development of the thermionic valve was traced and the main phenomena exhibited by valves were surveyed, including space charge, saturation, the effects of residual gases, and the relation between thermionic activity and electro-positiveness of the emitter. An outline of the theory of thermionic emission was then given, use being made of the gravitational analogue of a potential hill in explaining the action of the electron-retarding field in the regioi) of the surface of a metal. Physical reasons were given for the existence of this field and it was shown how it is modified by the presence of an adsorbed electropositive or electronegative contamina- tion at the surface. An outline was given of the development of emitting cathodes in commercial valves and the main commercial and scientific applications, viz., valves, Coolidge X-ray tubes, vapour lamps, cathode-ray tubes, and the electron microscope were listed and briefly explained. The cooling of a filament associated with the latent heat of evapora- tion of electrons and the operation of a laboratory sodium-vapour lamp were demonstrated. Dr. W. H. Bryan, Mr. A. R. Riddle, Mr. J. H. Smith, and Mr. F. C. Bennett took part in the discussion which followed, and a vote of thanks to the lecturer, moved by Dr. T. G. H. Jones and seconded by Mr. Riddle, was carried by acclamation. XII. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Abstract of Proceedings, 25th September, 1939. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Department of Geology of the University on Monday, 25th September, at 8 p.m., with the President in the Chair. Twelve members were present. A. Stanley Poe, B.A., M.B., B.Ch. (Oxon.), F.R.A.C.S., was proposed for Ordinary Membership. Mr. S. T. Blake, M.Sc., read a paper entitled “The Interrelation- ships of the Plant Communities of Queensland, ’ ’ of which the following is a summary: — The various vegetation types in Queensland are deter- mined chiefly by soil type, which in its turn depends chiefly on rock type, more or less modified by topography. Except in extremes rainfall and other climatic factors appear to be of only secondary importance. In many cases the lines of demarcation between vegetation types are remarkably sharp, and different examples are given. Further, our vege- tation is a dynamic thing and many changes are at present in progress. Some of these appear to be due to cyclic variations in the salt content of the soil. There is no evidence for the belief that the desert areas are expanding. Mr. Blake also read a paper entitled “Notes on Cyperaceae III,” in which about 30 species of different genera of Cyperaceae are discussed, of which 9 are described as new. Messrs. F. C. Bennett, C. E. Ogilvie and F. Gipps took part in a discussion on these papers. In the absence of the author, a paper, “A Revision of the Australian Arctiidae (Lepidoptera) ” by A. Jefferis Turner, M.D., F.R.E.S., was tabled. Mr. Tryon, after paying a tribute to Dr. Turner’s eminence as a specialist, regretted that no mention was made of the work of the late Dr T. L. Lucas, especially that on Arctiidae in the Brisbane district, which had “especial value for local students.” He thought that the location of type specimens should be given. It was disappointing to find no references to life-histories, but only descriptions of adults. Subsequently Dr. Turner informed the Hon. Secretary that the types were actually the property of the C.S.I.R., and will eventually go to Canberra, He said that little was known of the larval stages, which would provide material for future workers. In his paper errors had been corrected and synonymy adjusted concisely without criticism or dis- cussion of previous workers, which would have added much to its length but “nothing to its scientific value or to the dignity of your proceedings.” Mr. J. H. Smith, M.Sc., showed a case prepared by the Department of Agriculture, to illustrate a method of control for the Bean Fly pest. Mr. Tryon commented on the exhibit. The President exhibited a basket of eggs which had been replaced by travertine. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XIII. Abstract of Proceedings, 30th October, 1939. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Department of Geology of the University on Monday, 30th October, at 8 p.m., with the President in the Chair. About thirty members were present. The President welcomed Mr. C. T. White on his return from Kew. A. Stanley Roe, B.A., M.B., B.Ch. (Oxon.), F.R.A.C.S.. was unanimously elected an Ordinary Member. Professor H. C. Richards, D.Sc., addressed the meeting on the Sixth Pacific Science Congress, held in San Francisco in 1939. He outlined the history of Pacific Science Congresses and their organisation, and the activities of the Sixth Congress, mentioning some of the outstanding personalities. He urged strongly that (1) Australia should send a worthy delegation to every important scientific congress held in and about the Pacific, because it was. of great importance to Australia to co-operate fully with scientific investigations in the area, and (2) as a matter of sound policy, those responsible for the selection of the delegation should take care to associate some of the young established research workers on whose shoulders at a later date would fall the duty of senior representation. A vote of thanks to the speaker was moved by Prof. Duhig, seconded by Prof. Seddon, supported by Mr. C. Ej. Ogilvie, and carried by acclamation. Abstract of Proceedings, 27tii November, 1939. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Lecture Theatre of the Department of Geology of the University on Monday, 27th November, at 8 p.m., with the President (Mr. H. A. Longman) in the Chair. About twenty members were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. J. W. Bleakley, Director of the Department of Native Affairs, and Mr. V. Grenning, Director of the Forestry Department, were proposed for Ordinary Membership. The following papers were read : — {a) “ Notes on Australian Muscoidea V. Calliphoridae, ” by G. H. Hardy. (b) “ A Survey of the Ectoparasites of Dogs in Brisbane, Queens- land/’ by F. H. S. Roberts, D.Sc. (c) “The Middle Devonian Rugose Corals of Queensland, II. The Silverwood-Lucky Valley Area,” by Dorothy Hill, M.Sc. Ph.D. ( d ) “Studies on Queensland Grasses, Part 1,” by S. T. Blake, M.Sc., Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic Biology. (e) “Notes on Cyperaceae IV.,” by S. T. Blake, M.Sc., Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic Biology. (/) “The Heliolitidse of Australia, with a discussion of the morphology and systematic position of the family,” by 0. A. Jones, M.Sc., and Dorothy Hill, M.Sc., Ph.D. R.S. — D XIV. Obituary. John Frederick Bailey, who died on 19th May, 1938, aged seventy- two years, was a son of Frederick Manson Bailey, C.M.G., whose name will forever he associated with Queensland Botany. He was a member of the Society for nearly fifty years and from 1894 until 1906 — a very difficult period in part — he was Honorary Secretary. In 1910 he occupied the Presidential Chair, but in 1917 upon appointment to the Directorship of the Botanic Gardens at Adelaide, resigned a corresponding position in Brisbane as well as the post of Government Botanist. In 1932, upon retirement from the Adelaide post, Mr. Bailey returned to Brisbane and resumed active associations again with the Society until his death. C. A. Lambert was a member for over a quarter of a century from 1912 until his death during 1938. His special interest wras microscopy in which he found relaxation after his duties as a banker. During his term of membership he was seldom able to attend meetings owing to residence in places other than Brisbane, but it is on the constant and loyal support of members such as Mr. Lambert that the Society is able to base its activities. Leonard Oanton Morris, B.E. (Syd.), A.M.I.E. (Austr.), A.M.I.E.E. (Bond.), died on 24th November, 1938, aged sixty years. After a distinguished course in electrical engineering in the University of Sydney he was appointed Deputy Lecturer in Physics at the Technical College, Sydney, but in 1909 was appointed Superintendent of the Technical College, Brisbane, and Superintendent of Technical Education in 1914, which post he held until his death. Travis Eimmer, M.Sc., who died on 7th July, 1938, aged fifty-seven years, was an Englishman who graduated in the University of Man- chester. After filling Government positions in Fiji, he was appointed Assistant Lecturer in Physics in the University of Queensland in 1921, subsequently being appointed to a full lectureship in Physics and Meteorology. For the last three years before his death Mr. Rimmer was engaged in important meteorological researches in connection with long-range forecasting. This was done in terms of the Commonwealth funds provided through the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research to the University. OBITUARY. XV. William Nathaniel Robertson, C.M.G., C.B.E., M.B., Ch.M., F.R.A.C.S., F.C.S.A., died on 12th June, 1938, at the age of seventy-two years. His medical services to invalided returned soldiers and as Vice- Chancellor of the University of Queensland for many years will always he remembered. Dr. Robertson was a most public spirited man and played a prominent part in building up the Australian Royal College of Surgeons, of which he wras a foundation fellow. Although he did not join the Society till six years before his death, his attendance was frequent, and at all times he gave of his best in furthering the objects for which the Society strove. Eustace Russell, M.D., M.R.C.P., died at the age of fifty-four years on 23rd December, 1938. He was a member of the University Senate and was a part-time lecturer in the Faculty of Dentistry. For seventeen years he had been an Hon. Physician at the Brisbane General Hospital. Dr. RusselFs membership of the Society dated from 1924. XVI. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. Publications are being received from the following Institutions, Societies, etc., and are hereby gratefully acknowledged: — Algeria— Societe de Geographie et d ’Archaeologie d’Oran. Argentine — Universidad Naeional de la Plata. Australia — Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics, Canberra. Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. Department of Mines, Melbourne. Royal Society of Victoria. Field Naturalists’ Club, Melbourne. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Melbourne. Australian Chemical Institute, Melbourne. Department of Mines, Adelaide. Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond. Royal Society of South Australia. Royal Geographical Society of Aus- tralasia, Adelaide. Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery, Adelaide. University of Adelaide. Standards Association of Australia, Sydney. Naturalists’ Society of New South Wales. Department of Agriculture, Sydney. Department of Mines, Sydney. Royal Society of New South Wales. Linnean Society of New South Wales. Australian Museum, Sydney. Public Library, Sydney. University of Sydney. Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Australian Veterinary Society, Sydney. Queensland Naturalists’ Club, Brisbane. Department of Mines, Brisbane. Queensland Museum, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture, Brisbane. Registrar-General’s Department, Bris- bane. Royal Geographical Society of Aus- tralasia (Queensland), Brisbane. Field Naturalists’ Club, Hobart. Royal Society of Tasmania. Mines Department, Hobart. Mines Department, Perth. Royal Society of Western Australia. North Queensland Naturalists’ Club. Belgium — Academie Royale de Belgique. Societe Royale de Botanique de Bel- gique. Societe Royale Zoologique de Bel- gique. Brazil — Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro. Ministerio de Agricultura Industria y Commercio, Rio de Janeiro. British Isles — Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. British Museum (Natural History), London. Cambridge Philosophical Society. Literary and Philosophical Society, Manchester. Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society. Royal Society, London. Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Manchester. Royal Empire Society, London. The Bristol Museum and Art Gallery. Imperial Bureau of Entomology, London. Imperial Agricultural Bureau, Aberyst- wyth. Royal Society of Edinburgh. Botanical Society of Edinburgh. Royal Dublin Society. Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. Canada — Department of Mines, Ottawa. Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. Royal Society of Canada. Royal Canadian Institute. Nova Scotian Institute of Science. Department of Agriculture, Ottawa. Ceylon — Colombo Museum. China — Sinensia, Nankin University, China. Cuba — • Sociedad Geografica de Cuba, Habana Denmark — The University, Copenhagen. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. XVII. Finland — Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica, Helsingfors. France — Station Zoologique de Cette. Societe des Sciences Naturelles de UOuest. Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. Societe Botanique de France. Societe Geologique et Mineralogique de Bretagne. Societe de Geographie de Rochefort. Germany — Zoologisches Museum, Berlin. Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde, Berlin. Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft, B'erlin. Naturhistorischer Verein der preus Rheinland und Westfalens, Bonn. Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu Bremen. Senckenbergische Bibliothek, Frank- furt a. Main. Kaiserlich Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher, Halle. Zoologisches Museum, Hamburg. IN) aturhistorisch-Medizinischer Vereins, Heidelberg. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Leipzig. Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaf- ten, Munich. Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie. Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna. Hawaii — Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu. Holland — Technische Hoogeschool, Delft. Italy — Instituto di Bologna. Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa. Societa Africana d ’Italia, Naples. Museo Civico, Genova. India — Geological Survey of India. Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa. Japan — Berichte der Ohara Institut, Kurashiki, Japan. Imperial University, Kyoto. Imperial University, Tokyo. National Research Council of Japan, Tokyo. Java — Koninklijk Naturkundige Vereeniging, Weltevreden. Departement van Landbouw, Buitenzorg. Mexico — Instituto Geologico de Mexico. Sociedad Cientifica “ Antonio Alzate, ’ 5 Mexico. Secretario de Agriculture y Fomento, Mexico. Observatorio Meterorologico Central, Tacaibaya. New Zealand — Dominion Museum, Wellington. New Zealand Institute, Wellington. Auckland Institute and Museum. Dominion Laboratory, Wellington. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington. Geological Survey of New Zealand. Peru — Sociedad Geologica del Peru, Lima Philippines — Bureau of Science, Manila. Poland — Polskie Towarzystwo PrzyrodnikoY ini Kopernika, Lwow. University of Poland. Societes Savantes Polonaises. Portugal — Academia Polytechnieada, Oporto. Soeiedade Broteriana, Coimbra. Institut Butanico, Coimbra. Russia — Academy of Sciences, Leningrad. Bureau of Applied Entomology, Lenin- grad. Laboratory of Palaeontology, Moscow University, Mokhovaja II., Moscow. Publications of the Institute of Plant Industry, Leningrad. Spain — Real Academia de Ciencias y Artes de Barcelona. Real Academia de Ciencias, Madrid. Museo de Historia Natural, Valencia. Academia de Ciencias de Zarogoza. Sweden — Geological Institute of Upsala. Goteborgs Kungl. Vetenskops. Switzerland — Societe de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle, Geneve. Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zurich. The League of Nations, Geneva. South Africa — Geological Society of South Africa, Johannesburg. South African Museum, Capetown. Durban Museum, Natal. Transvaal Museum, Pretoria. XVIII. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. United States of America — United States Geological Survey, W ashington. Natural History Survey, Illinois. Lloyd Library, Cincinnati. Wisconsin Academy of Arts, Science, and Letters, Madison. California Academy of Sciences. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. University of Minnesota. University of California. Library of Congress, Washington. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago. American Museum of Natural History, New York. Buffalo Society of Natural History. Boston Society of Natural History. American Philosophical Society, Phila- delphia. American Geographical Society, New York. Smithsonian Institute, Washington. Carnegie Institute, Washington. United States Department of Agricul- ture, Washington. Oberlin College, Ohio. National Academy of Science, Wash- ington. Rochester Academy of Sciences. Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- delphia. New York Academy of Science. Indiana Academy of Science. American Academy of Science and Arts, Boston Institute of Biological Research, Balti- more. John Crerar Library, Chicago. Ohio Academy of Science, Columbus. Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plains. Michigan Academy of Arts, Science, and Letters. University of Michigan. Minnesota Geological Survey. New York Zoological Society. Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Philadelphia. Portland Society of Natural History. San Diego Society of Natural History. Puget Sound Biological Station, Seattle. Missouri Botanic Gardens, St. Louis. University of Illinois, Urbana. State College of Washington, Pull- man. B-ureau of Standards, Washington. National Research Council, Washing- ton. United States National Museum, Wash- ington. Public Health Service, Washington. Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale. Lawde Observatory, Arizona. The University of California, Los Angeles, California. List of Members. XIX. Honorary * Henderson, J. B., F.I.C. Marks, Hon. Dr. C. F., M.D Simmonds, J. H., senr. *Tryon, H. Walkom, A.B., D.Sc. . . Life Members. i( Bangamba,” Palardo, via Miles. 101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Hillsdon Boad, Taringa, Brisbane. Gladstone Boad, Highgate Hill, Brisbane. Science House, 159 Gloucester Street, Sydney. Life Members. *Bagster, L. S., Prof., D.Sc. . . . . The University, Brisbane. Hulsen, B. . . . . . . . . Valley Corner, Brisbane. * Jensen, H. I., D.Sc. . . . . . . Geophysical Survey, Cloncurry. Biddell, B. M. . . . . . . . . Department of Public Instruction, Bris- bane. Tilling, H. W., M.B.S.C. (Eng.), Nairobi, Kenya, Africa. L.B.C.T. (Lond.) Corresponding Members. *Domin, Dr. K. . . . . . . . . Czech University, Prague. Gregory, Professor W. K. . . . . Columbia University, New York. *Skeats, Prof . E. W., D.Sc. . . . . The University, Melbourne, Victoria. Ordinary Members. Arden, F. W-, M.D., B.S., F.B.C.P., Atherton, D. O., M.Sc.Agr. Bage, Miss F., M.Se. . . Ball, C. W., M.Sc Ball, L. C., B.E Bambrick, B. Barker, F. Barker, G. H Beckman, G. H., B-.Sc. *Bennett, F., B.Sc. Bennett, F. C., B.Sc., B.App.Sc. . . Bick, E. W. Bick, I. B., M.Sc *Blake, S. T., M.Sc Boissard, G. P. D., B.Sc. Bongers, G. S. Booth, F. G., M.D Bostock, J., M.D., B.S., D.P.M., M.B.C.S., L.B.C.P. Bosworth, F. O., B.A. Bradfield, J. J. C., D.Sc. (Eng.), M.E. BTiggs, Mrs. C. Brimblecombe, A. B., M.Sc. Broe, J. J., M.Sc. Brown, Graham, M.B.C.S., L.B.C.P., F.B.A.C.S'. Brown, Jas., B.A., M.D., Ch.B. (Edin.), D.Ph. (Cambridge) Brisbane General Hospital, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Toowoomba. Women’s College, Kangaroo Point, Bris- bane. Broken Hill Pty. Ltd., Iron Baron, South Australia. Geological Survey Office, Brisbane Stock Inspector, Hughenden. Bailway Audit Office, Brisbane. Adelaide Street, Brisbane. Crook Street, Northgate, Brisbane. 113 Annie Street, Torwood. Sirius Street, Coorparoo, Brisbane. B’otanic Gardens, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Evans Deakin, Ltd., Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Agricultural College, Lawes. Bureau of Industry, Taxation Building, Brisbane. First Avenue, Eagle Junction, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Central Technical College, Brisbane. 371 Queen Street, Brisbane. ‘ 1 Widmoorene, ” Margaret Street, Too- woomba "'Members who have contributed papers to the Society. XX. LIST OF MEMBERS. *Bryan, W. H., M.C., D.Sc. . . *Bryan, W. W., M.Se.Agr. Buzacott, J. H., M.Sc. Caldwell, N. E. H., B.Sc.Agr. Callaghan, J. T., M.Sc. Carroll, R. J. . . Carson-Cooling, Geo., M.Sc. Carter, S. B.Sc. Chamberlain, W. J., M.Sc. Christian, C. S., M.Sc. Cilento, Sir R. W., M.D., B.S. Collins, Mrs. E., B.Sc. Coleman, E. B. Connah, T. H., M.Sc. Cottrell-Dormer, W., M.Sc.Agr. Cribb, H. G., B.Sc Croll, Gifford, M.B Cross, Miss M., M.Sc. Cummings, R. P. *Denmead, A. K., M.Sc. Dixon, G. P., C.B.E., M.B., Ch.M. . . *Dodd, Alan P., O.B.E Donaldson, R. J. *Duhig, J. Y., Professor, M.B., E.R.A.C.P. Edmiston, E. S., M.Sc. Ellis, C., B.E. Evans, C. K., M.Sc. Everist, S. L., B.Sc.. Fahey, Rev. Father Ferguson, Miss G., B.Sc. Fisher, N., M.Sc. Fison, D. G., M.Sc., M.B., Ch.M. . . Ford, F. Campbell Fortescue, L. Fraser, C. S. Fraser, K., B.Sc. Frew, A. E. Harding, B.E. Gaffney, T. Gibson, J. Lockhart, M.D. Gipps, F. *Goddard, Prof. E. J., B.A., D.Sc. . . Goldfinch, H. A., D.D.S. Graff, R., M.B., B.S Grant, D. J., B.Sc. The University, Brisbane. Agricultural High School and College, Lawes. Sugar Experiment Station, Meringa, via Gordonvale. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Nambour. Brisbane General Hospital, Brisbane. Q.C.E. Rooms, Workers Building, Eliza- beth Street, Brisbane. Boys’ Grammar School, Brisbane. Mount Isa Mines, Ltd., Mount Isa. Water Supply and Sewerage Department, Brisbane City Council. Queensland Agricultural College, Lawes. Department of Health, Brisbane. Mount Isa. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Geological Survey Office, Brisbane. Fairymead Sugar Plantations Ltd., Bundaberg. Geological Survey Office, Charters Towers. Sherwood, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. University of Queensland, Brisbane. Geological Survey, Edward Street, Bris- bane. Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Prickly-pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Bris- bane. care of Gibbs, Bright, and Co., Queen Street, Brisbane. Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Forestry Department, Brisbane. Ipswich Technical College, Ipswich. Department of Agriculture, Blackall. 1 1 Wynberg, ’ ’ Brunswick Street, Brisbane. Rohde Road, Nundah. Government Geologist, Wau, New Guinea. O ’Connell Street, Kangaroo Point. “Stanford,” Kennedy Terrace, Red Hill, Brisbane. New Zealand Chambers, 334 Queen Street, Brisbane. 229 Edward Street, Brisbane. St. John’s College, Kangaroo Point, Brisbane. T. and G. Buildings, Queen Street, Bris- bane. Engineer in Charge, Pumping Station, Pinkenba. Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. ‘ 1 Blaina, ’ ’ Simpson ’s Road, Bardon. The University, Brisbane. 414 Sandgate Road, Albion. 487 Sandgate Road, Brisbane. Church Street, Indooroopilly. Members who have contributed papers to the Society. LIST OF MEMBERS. XXL Greenham, R., B.Sc. •Grey, Mrs. B. B., F.L.S Griffiths, Miss J., B.Sc. •Gurney, E. H. . . Gutteridge, N. M., M.B., B.S. •Haenke, W. L., B.Sc., B.Sc.App. Hall, G., B.Sc •Hamlyn-Harris, R., D.Sc. Hamon, W. P., B.Sc.Agr. Hardie, Sir David, M.D., M.S. * Hardy, G. H Harris, V. E. G., B-.Sc •Hawken, Professor R. W., B.A., M.E., M.Inst.C.E. * Herbert, D. A., D.Sc. Herdsman, L. P. •Hill, Miss D., M.Sc., Ph.D •Hines, H. J., B.Sc. •Hitchcock, L. F., M.Sc Hirschfield, E., M.D. Hirschfield, O. S., M.B., M.Sc. Hossfeld, P. S., M.Sc. Jack, Thos. J ackson, K. James, F. W., M.Sc. Jones, B. Jones, Inigo, F.R.A.S., F.R.Met.Soc., F.Am.Geog.Soc., F.R.S.A. •Jones, Owen, M.Sc. •Jones, T. G. H., D.Sc., A.A.C.I. .. Jorgensen, G. H. •Just, J. S. . . . Kemp, J. R. Knight, C. L., M.Sc. Kyle, W. M., M.A •Lahey, F. N., M.Sc Lee, Professor D. H. K., M.Sc., M.B., Ch.M., D.T.M. *Legg, J., D.Y.Sc., M.R.C.V.S. Lewcock, H. K., M.Sc. •Longman, H. A., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. . . Lumb, Professor S. F., D.D.S., L.D.S. Lydon, R. J. . . Lynch, A. J., M.B., Ch.M •Lynch, L. J., B.Sc.Agr •Mackerras, Mrs. Ian, M.B MacMahon, P. G. Anglo-Iranian Oil Co., Abadan, Iraq, care of Chartered Bank of Australia, India, and China, Singapore, S.S. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Inchcolme, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Rockton Street, East Ipswich. Mount Isa Mines Ltd., Mount Isa, N.Q. The University, Brisbane. “ Clifton/’ Ubobo, via Gladstone. ‘ 1 Blytlisdale, ’ ’ Hamilton, Brisbane, Waldheim Street, Annerley. The Southport School, Southport. The University, Brisbane. Biology Department, University, Bris- bane. Government Printing Office, George Street, Brisbane. Geology Department, University, Bris- bane. The University, Brisbane. Box 509, Uvaldi, Texas, U.S.A. Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Department of Home Affairs, Canberra. Cunningham Street, Dalby. Queensland Museum, Brisbane. Department of Engineering, University of Queensland, Brisbane. New Zealand Petroleum Co., Ltd., Box 295, Gisborne, New Zealand. Crohamhurst Observatory, Beerwah, Q. 239 Queen street, Brisbane. Chemistry Department, The University, Brisbane. care of Australian Chemical Co., Grey Street, South Brisbane. Box 1067N., G.P.O., Brisbane. Main Roads Commission, Albert Street,. Brisbane. Geological Survey Office, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Department of Chemistry, University of Queensland, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly. Department of Agriculture, Brisbane. Queensland Museum, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Central Technical College, Brisbane. 413 Brunswick Street, Valley, Brisbane. Fruit Branch, Department of Agriculture, Sydney. B'ox 109, Canberra, F.C.T. Health Department, Brisbane. •Members who have contributed papers to the Society. R.S. — E. XXII. LIST OF MEMBERS. Marks, A. H., C.B.E., D.S.O., M.D. . . *Marks, E. O., M.D., B.A., B.E. Marks, Miss E. N., M.Sc Mathewson, J. H. R., M.B., Ch.B. . . McConnel, Miss U., M.A. McDonald, S. F., M.D., M.R.C.P. . . McDougall, W. A., M.Sc McDowall, Val., M.D. McKee, Mrs. H. S., M.A McKenzie, A. D., M.B., Ch.M. Macpherson, R. K., M.Sc. Meyers, E. S., M.B. Mitchell, R. S., M.Sc.Agr. Morris, L. C., A.M.I.C.E Morton, C. C., A.C.T.S.M Murphy, Ellis, M.D. . . ^Murray, Professor J. K., B.A., B.Sc.Agr. Newman, Miss A. W., B.Sc. O’Connor, E. A., M.Sc. Ogilvie, C., B.E. Paltridge, T. B., B.Sc. Parker, W. R., L.D.S. *Parnell, Professor T., M.A. Payne, W. L. . . *Pearce, Mrs. T. R., M.Sc. ^Perkins, F. A., B.Sc.Agr. Peters, R. Phillips, T. J. . . Preston, G. Price, T. A., M.B., B.S *Reid, J. II Reimann, A. L., D.Sc., Ph.D, *Reye, A. J., M.B. * Richards, Professor H. C., D.Sc. Riddle, A. R., M.Sc Ridgeway, J. E. Rimmer, T., M.Sc. Roberts, F. H. S., D.Sc. ^Robertson, W. T. Robertson, W. N., C.M.G., M.B. Robinson, E. Y. Roe, A. Stanley, B.A., M.B., B.Ch., F.R.A.C.S. Roe, R., B.Sc. Schindler, C., M.A. Scott, Miss F. E., B.Sc. Seddon, Professor H. R., D.Y.Se. . . Shaw, B. E., A.M.I.E. Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. 101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. 101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Cressbrook, via Toogoolawah. I ‘ Fancourt, ’ ’ Wickham Terrace, Bris- bane. Department of Agriculture, Mackay. Wickham Terrace, Brisbane, care of Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Russell Street, Toowoomba. The University, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Mines Department, Sydney. Department of Public Instruction, George Street, Brisbane. care of Mining Warden, Charters Towers. 97 Wickham Street, Brisbane. Agricultural High School and College, Lawes. care of Dr. Gutteridge, Gympie Road, Kedron. The University, Brisbane. Lands Department, Brisbane. Agricultural College, Lawes. A.M.P. Building, Edward Street, Bris- bane. 'The University, Brisbane. Lands Department, Brisbane. Box 332, P.O., Lismore, New South Wales. The University, B'risbane. Department of Agriculture, Brisbane, care of Courier-Mail, Queen Street, Bris- bane Gregory Terrace, Brisbane. Toowoomba. Geological Survey Office, Rockhampton. The University, Brisbane. 97 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. The Abattoir, Cannon Hill, Brisbane. Geological Survey Office, Rockhampton. The University, Brisbane. Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly. Assistant Bacteriologist, City Hall, Bris- bane. I I Craigston, ’ ’ 217 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Geology Department, University, Bris- bane. 47 Croydon Street, Toowong. Box 109, Canberra. The University, Brisbane. Northumberland Hotel, Gympie. The University, Brisbane. Irrigation Commission, College Road, Brisbane. Members Avho have contributed papers to the Society. LIST OF MEMBERS. XXIII, Shaw, J. G., B.Sc.Agr. Shell, G. W. . . ♦Shepherd, E. M., B.E. ♦Simmonds, J. H., M.Sc. Simonds, Prof. E. F., M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D. Sims, G. W Sinclair, W. M., M.B'. Sloan, W. J. S., B.Sc.Agr. Smith, D. J. W., B.Sc. ♦Smith, F. B., D.Sc., F.I.C. Smith, J. H., D.Sc. Sparks, H. J. . . Steel, W. H., M.B Stephenson, S., M.A. Stoney, A. J., B.E.E. Strong, T. H., M.Se.Agr. Summerville, W. A. T., M.Sc. Tarleton, A., M.B. Taylor, G. C., M.B., Ch.M Thelander, C., M.B., Ch.B., F.B.A.C.S. Thomas, L., M.Sc. Thorn, St. G. . . Tommerup, E. C., M.Sc. Trist, A., M.F., B.Sc. ♦Turner, A. J., M.D., F.E.S ♦Veitch, B., B.Sc. Waddle, I., M.Sc. Wadley, J. B. . . Watkins, S. B., M.Sc. Watson, Miss K., B.A. Webster, H. C., M.Sc., Ph.D., F.I.P., F.B.M.S. Weddell, J. A. . . Wells, W. G. ♦White, C. T., F.L.S White, E. L. D., B.E., B.Sc White, M., M.Sc., Ph.D. ♦Whitehouse, F. W., D.Sc., Ph.D. . . Whitehouse, Miss M., M.Sc. Wilkinson, Professor H. J., M.D. Children’s Hospital, Brisbane. care of Shell Oil Co., Breakfast Creek Road, Brisbane. Beaconsfield Street, Highgate Hill. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. 32 Gregory Street, Auchenflower. Toowoomba. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Bockhampton. Department of Health, Brisbane. Hutton’s Factory, Zillmere. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Nambour. 350 Queen Street, Brisbane. Bosemount Hospital, Windsor. Boys’ Grammar School, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Waite Institute, Adelaide, S.A. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. 69 Vulture Street, West End, Brisbane. Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Post Office, Stanthorpe. Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly. P.O. Box 97, Atherton, North Queensland. Forestry Department, Brisbane. Dauphin Street, Highgate Hill. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Brisbane State High School, Musgrave Park, Brisbane. Salt Street, Albion. Central Technical College, Brisbane. Queensland Museum, Brisbane. University of Queensland, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Government Botanist, Botanic Gardens, Brisbane. “Doonholm, ” Walmsley Street, Kan- garoo Point. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Geological Department, University, Bris- bane Glennie School, Toowoomba. The University, Brisbane. Associate Member. Archibald, Miss L., M.Sc. . . . . The University, Brisbane. ♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society. Thomas Gilbert Hope, Acting Government Printer, Brisbane. CONTENTS. Volume LI., Past 2. No. -7.— Notes, on Australian Muscoidea, V., Calliphoridae. By G. H. Hardy . . . . , . . . . . . ...... No. 8'.—A Survey op Botoparasites op Dogs in Brisbane, Queensland, By F. H. S . Roberts, D.Sc. .. No. 9. — The Middle Devonian Rugose Corals op Queensland, II. The Silverwood-Luoky Valley Area. By Dorothy Hill, M.Sc., Ph.D. .. No. 10. — Studies on Queensland Grasses, I. By S. T. Bloke, M.Sc . . . Pages. 133-146 147-149 150-168 169-176 No. 11. — Notes on Australian Cyperaceae, IV. By S. T. Blake, M.Sc. . . 177-182 No. 12. — The Heliolitidae of Australia, with a Discussion of the Morphology and Systematic Position of the Family. By 0. A. Pones, M.Sc., F.G-S., and Dorothy Hill, M.Sc., Ph.D. 183-215 Report of Council Abstract op Proceedings Obituary List op Library Exchanges List ( of 'Members ■ v., VI. . VII.-XIH. . XIV., XV. xvi.-xvni. XIX.-XXIII. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND FOR 1940 ISSUED 3rd MARCH, 1941 PRICE : SEVEN 8HILLINQS AND SIXPENCE. Printed for the Society by A. H. Tucker, Government Printer, Brisbane. NOTICE TO AUTHORS. & 1. Each paper should be accompanied by the author ’s name, degrees and official address. 2. Papers must be complete and in a form suitable for publication when com- municated to the Society and should be as concise as possible. 3. Papers must be accompanied by an abstract of not more than one hundred words. 4. Papers should be in double-spaced typescript on one side of the paper with ample margins. 5. The use of italics in the text should be restricted to generic and specific names, foreign words and titles of periodicals. 6. The cost of author’s corrections to proof above what the Council considers a reasonable amount, must be borne by the author. 7. Unless otherwise specified each author will be supplied with fifty separate copies of his paper. Any number exceeding this may be obtained at approximately cost price. 8. All references should be listed at the end of each paper and arranged alphabetically under authors’ names, e.g., Keilin, D. (1929) Proc. Roy. Soe. B, vol. 104, p. 207. Lesage, P. (1895) Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., vol. 1, p. 309. The corresponding references in the text should be: ‘ ‘ Keilin (1929)”, “ Lesage (1895)”. 9. The size of the printed plate will not exceed 8 in. x 4^ in., and drawings may be to this size, or preferably to a convenient small multiple thereof. The effect of the necessary reduction on lettering and fine detail should be borne in mind. Text figures should be drawn for reduction to a width not exceeding 4 in. 10. Drawing in line should be executed in intensely black ink, such as good India ink, on a smooth surface, preferably Bristol board. Excessively fine, scratchy or faint lines are to be avoided. Tints or1 washes cannot be reproduced in line drawings, in which the maximum degree of contrast is necessary. 11. Drawings or photographs for reproduction in half-tone should, where possible, be grouped for reproduction on one plate. They should be done or mounted on a smooth surface, such as Bristol board, as the grain of most drawing papers becomes visible on reproduction. Single photographs should be sent flat and unmounted. All prints should be on glossy bromide or gas-light paper. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND FOR 1940 VOL. LIE PART 1. ISSUED 3rd MARCH, 1941. PRICE : SEVEN SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. Printed for the Society by A. H. Tucker, Government Printer, Brisbane* The Royal Society of Queensland. Patron : HIS EXCELLENCY, COLONEL THE EIGHT HONOUEABLE SIE LESLIE OEME WILSON, G.C.S.I., G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., P.C., D.S.O., LL.D. OFFICERS, 1940' 1941. President : F. W. WHITEHOUSE, D.Sc., Ph.D. Vice-Presidents : H. A. LONGMAN, F.L.S. (ex officio). Professor H. E. SEDDON, D.V.Sc. Son. Treasurer : E. W. BICK. Son. Secretary: DOEOTHY HILL, M.Sc., Ph.D. Son. Librarian: KATHLEEN WATSON, B.A. Son. Editors: J. H. SMITH, M.Sc. D. A. HEEBEET, D.Sc. Members of Council: Hrofessor D. H. K. LEE, M.Sc., M.B., Ch.M., D.T.M., F. A. PEEKINS, B.Sc.Agr., Hrofessor H. C. EICHAEDS, D.Sc., F. H. S. EOBEETS, D.V.Sc., M. WHITE, M.Sc. Trustees : F. BENNETT, B.Sc., J. B. HENDEESON, F.I.C., and A. J. TUENEE, M.D., F.E.E.S. Son. Auditor: A. J. M. STONEY, B.E.E. BanTcers : COMMONWEALTH BANK OF AUSTEALIA. CONTENTS. Volume LII., Part 1. Pages.. No. 1. — Presidential Address: Homo sapiens: turbulentus. By E. A. Longman, F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. . . . . . . . . . . 1-9” No. 2. — Some Queensland Leap-hoppers (Jassoidea, Homoptera) that Attack Lucerne. By J. W. Evans, D.Sc. .. .. .. 10-13 No. 3. — The Petrology of the Somerset Dam Site. By C. W. Ball, B.Sc. 14-23 No. 4. — The Geology of Antarctica. By Arthur Wade, D.Sc., A.B.C.S. . . 24-35 No. 5. — Aphididae in Australia, Part II. By G. H. Hardy . . . . 36-40> No. 6. — Spherulites and Allied Structures, Part I. By W. E. Bryan, M.C., D.Sc. 41-53; Vol. LII., No. 1. Proceedings of the Royal Society ol Queensland. Presidential Address: HOMO SAPIENS: TURBULENTUS. By H. A. Longman, F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. [Delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland, 26th March, 1940.] INTRODUCTION. Twenty years ago I was privileged to present a Presidential Address to this Society, and I appreciate the honour of being selected a second time. Our policy that there should be an annual change of Presidents is a good one. There are many phases of scientific work, and the Royal Society represents in a special way practically all sections of profes- sional scientists in Queensland. It is appropriate that these sections should in turn be represented in the presidential chair, and this has been exemplified during the fifty-six years of our existence. HOMO SAPIENS : TURBULENTUS. From the standpoint of modern nomenclature, man was officially registered as Homo sapiens by Linnaeus in 1758. Linnaeus appropriated sentiments from the classics and referred to the dictum of Solon inscribed in letters of gold on the temple of Diana — “know thyself.” He also quoted Seneca’s eulogy of man .containing the adjectival maximum — ■ ‘ sapientissimus. ’ 9 Linnaeus regarded man as a fallen angel and knew little of his real ancestry. In his time men looked backwards a few thousand years to the Garden of Eden as their birthplace, and Moses was recognised as a primary authority on human history. Although Linnaeus decorated his scheme with sonorous texts he definitely included man in his scheme of Nature, and this was a progressive step. Man was obviously placed at the head of nature. Now we have definite evidence of man’s evolution and of races of primitive men and proto-men which link our lineage with that of the higher mammals. To give a single reference: the cumulative significance of the Sinanthropus pekinensis material, so fully described by a team of specialists, from Davidson Black to F. Weidenreich, is apparent to all who have studied this fascinating subject. Compared with the anthropoid apes man is muscularly weak. Compared with most mammals man is not very agile or swift. In vision he is far inferior to the eagle and many other birds. His sense of hearing is by no means acute. He has largely lost his sense of smell, although in some cases his nose may rival that of Rostand’s Cyrano de Bergerac. In comparison with dogs we are pathetic ignoramuses of the world of distinctive odours. According to hunters of game, wild animals will sometimes scent man at a distance of one-quarter of a mile. Mpf g m i HP f % ® 2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Man has developed his sense of taste, however, to a degree that makes- him supreme. He is Homo esuriens, the greatest feeder and drinker in the world. I am not merely referring to the gourmandising of a Falstaff, or of Rabelais’ Gargantna, or of some of the old Roman Emperors, such, as Yitellius, who spent millions in banqueting. To-day man has a range of food and a choice of drinks which even the gods on old Olympus would have envied. Words fail me when I think of the varied dietary of modern man, who ransacks the whole earth, marine and terrene, animal, vegetable, and mineral, to gratify his gustatory needs. By virtue of his big brain and his clever hands, man dominates, the world. He is the supreme creator and destroyer in nature. He largely creates his own environment, but he has not shown great wisdom in dealing with his world. For sport, or for food, or to develop what we call civilisation, he has brought most of the larger mammals to extinction. This is due to the old anthropocentric idea that all animal life was created for his benefit. A biologist from another planet (if this flight of fancy may be permitted), who reviewed the history of humanity for the last few thousand years, would state that the larger mammals are usually safe only in so far as they are of value or of interest to man. We may take- some credit for the many breeds of domestic cattle — for their bulk of beef or the capacities of their udders. The cheese factory and the model dairy are here in pleasant comparison with the abattoir. We have trans- formed the once-wild boar into an almost spherical mass of potential bacon and ham. We have breeds of sheep whose wool forms the most important source of our national income in Australia. True these sheep may die in drought time by the hundred thousand, and the pastoralist then forms a doubtful Providence if viewed from the purely ethical standpoint. We have experimented with dogs on so a vast a scale that to-day some breeds are scarcely recognisable as descendants of feral types. (Incidentally, breeders of sheep and cattle dogs in Australia have* apparently demonstrated the value of a dingo strain.) On the whole, man has been quite decent to the dogs, and Maeterlinck was obviously justified in his “Blue Bird” symbolism, where the dog proved a true friend and protector. We have partially tamed one of the smallest of the carnivores until it prefers domestic peace and the recurring saucer of milk to its natural diet of birds and mice. Only when the still watches of the night are disturbed by the raucous mating caterwauling do we realise that pussy still retains his and her primitive zest. We- also know, to our regret, that domestic cats when left to themselves- resume a wild life, and they and their descendants are now a menace- to birds in some districts. The horse, unless he degenerates into a brumby, is still sacrosanct in most countries, but with the ever-increasing use of mechanical trans- port it seems doubtful whether “Dobbin” will survive. The racehorse,, with his specialised powers of speeding, is probably secure at any rate in England, America, and Australia. Indeed we have special motor vehicles for his transport to save his elegant legs from the hard roads. The racehorse is as sacred in Australia as the cow in India. Man may also take some credit for the hybrid mule with its vigorous and hardy characters, which some breeders assert is a justification for the existence of the ass. HOMO SAPIENS: TURBULENTUS. 3 In our race for wealth we have taken a heavy toll of marine life. Many of the fishes are able to take care of themselves, but those leviathans of the sea, the large whales, are now in danger of extinction. In the 1937-1938 season no less than 44,000 whales were killed. Each whale is a large reservoir of oil, and so in the three months open season the fleets of the nations compete with each other for the spoils. In the old days there was something almost heroic in hunting the mighty whale, and, even apart from its symbolism, we read Moby Dick with a thrill. But with modern brutal mechanisms — a by-product of militarism — and a huge floating whale factory, we have made fearful havoc among these extraordinary marine mammals, the mightiest and in some respects the most interesting of all the air-breathing, milk-giving creatures left for man to slay. It will take a new League of Nations to control the annual slaughter of thousands of helpless whales. “Man marks the •earth with ruin — his control stops with the shore,” said Byron, but that was before the days of modern whaling. The end of the Age of Large Mammals is the pathetic title often given to a survey by naturalists of Africa, India, and America. We should not blame our remote ancestors for exterminating the woolly mammoth, for they surely deserved their feast when the mighty beast was brought low by their primitive weapons. To-day we should scorn a so-called sportsman who shot a giraffe or one of the rarer antelopes for what is called pure sport. Our far-off cousins the anthropoid apes are rarely shot for the mere joy of killing, and in some regions they are strictly protected. But in the last century there was little senti- ment, and the rarer the animal the more zest for its killing. Our conscience has been awakened too late to save many species. There are, I believe, a few white rhinoceroses left in Zululand. The bison has been just saved in America by guarding remnants in reserves. The larger carnivores are only safe in zoological gardens or special reserves. I must not weary you by extending the list. It is pleasant to remember that the rarer species of marsupials are now totally protected in Australia. We have kept birds in captivity for so many generations that some species are now unfitted for feral life. All the low-flying birds are afraid of man, and when man walks abroad there is a general signal — a jungle law — that it is best for wild animals to hide or fly. Probably most of us could come to the penitent form and make confessions of dire deeds in childhood with the shanghai or the pea rifle, which would illustrate the strain of cruelty in most small boys. In the extension of what we call civilisation man has rarely considered the rights of lower races. The original Americans had no cause to bless the coming of Columbus. Although the action was not premeditated, our lack of wisdom brought about the complete extermina- tion of the Tasmanians. In Australia this has been a difficult and complex problem, and although Governments have been, on the whole, sympathetic, it has been found almost impossible to conserve Stone Age Man in association with Europeans. At times we have done more in providing sanctuaries for our wild birds than for our wild people, and their survival as a race is doubtful. The work done by Mrs. Daisy Bates, as recorded in her recent book, forms a striking contrast to the general indifference shown on this matter. And it is also my duty to pay a tribute to our own Protector of Aborigines, Mr. W. J. Bleakley, "who is doing valuable work for the remnants of our primitive people. 4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. In Papua, however, under the wise administration of such remark- able men as the late Sir William MacGregor and the late Sir Hubert Murray, the welfare of the native population has been a guiding prin- ciple. The address given last year by the Government Anthropologist in Papua, Mr. F. E. Williams, to the A.N.Z.A.A.S. at its Canberra meeting is a stimulating record of the rational attitude towards primitive peoples. Man has shown little sapieney in transferring certain animals and plants to new areas. We have introduced the rabbit and the fox to become great pests in Australia. The American musk rat, because of the value of its pelt, was introduced to Europe where it has done incalculable damage in several places. The European sparrow is a great nuisance in America and Australia. Introduced goats have proved unmitigated agents of destruction on many onee-beautiful islands. We have deliberately destroyed countless areas of magnificent jungles or rain forests which, with their associated fauna, represent an intensive development during thousands of years. We have denuded mountains of their natural vegetation and turned fertile slopes into barren wastes. We have cleared innumerable acres of forests in order to make (as I have heard it quaintly put) two blades of grass grow where one tree grew before. The problem of soil erosion is now being studied intensively and in the future we shall doubtless avoid some of the mistakes made in the past. Under the title, “White Man versus the Prairie,” Prof. R. J. Pool, in an address to the American Association for the Advancement of Science last December, made a scathing indictment of misuse of both forest and prairie. He says: “An aftermath of worthless brambles, blackened ghosts, and gullied slopes mocks us from millions of acres, where once nature perfected the amazing forest.” The nation is just now learning “that white man has also continued to function as the blatant beast of the wasted prairie.” Let me remind you of the warning given by Prof. J. K. Murray,, three years ago in his Presidential Address to this Society, when he told us that in Queensland agriculture we were ‘ ‘ at present working on soil, more or less virgin, in which there is the accumulation of available phosphates and potash from geological periods of weathering Careless agriculture may lose in a decade what nature has accumulated in centuries.” Virile weeds have been accidentally introduced and are now world- wide pests in pasture and in gardens. The now old story of prickly- pear in Australia fortunately affords the most striking case on record of scientific control of what was an appalling instance of thoughtless transference of a virile alien. Obviously there are significant credits as well as debits. We have enriched the earth with vast numbers of domesticated animals. The relatively small numbers of marsupials that flourished in Australia before the coming of Europeans are in striking contrast to the many millions of sheep and our herds of cattle to-day. From its native home in the Amazons rubber has been developed into a big new industry in Malaya. Valuable timbers are now planted on a vaster scale than they occurred naturally. The fruits of the earth HOMO SAPIENS: TURBULENTUS. are now almost cosmopolitan in distribution. Tobacco is now cultivated in all the continents. By the introduction of cereals into Australia, by the efficient development of a huge sugar industry, with other important agricultural and horticultural pursuits, we have given a new significance to the old term “ Physiocrat. ? ’ By using artesian waters or by other means of irrigation we have made arid areas habitable. Where once a few thousand Australian aborigines eked out a parlous existence, we have built up a standard of living which is the envy of the old world. Professor James Ritchie in his address to the Zoology Section at the last meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science reviewed some of the changes brought about by man since the Neolithic Age, and said that the great transformations effected “are practically confined to the last three hundred years. ” When domestic animals and crops are considered, the additions made by man far outweigh his destruction, and Prof. Ritchie points out “how superficial is the view that regards man merely or mainly as a destroyer.” We are often told that the Balance of Nature has been upset. May I suggest that this much-talked-of Balance of Nature is only a half- truth. We find no real basis for a teleological conception in which parasites and hosts, carnivores and herbivores, are mutually adjusted. Nature is prodigal, but is indifferent to a balance. The scales are frequently weighted in favour of dominant species. The record of Palaeontology shows a series of dominating forms, many of which flourished for long periods. Even to-day, with the maximum complexity of biota, virility is more important than delicate and precise adaptation. Hence our constant struggle with weeds and such pests as dominant rodents. Incidentally we have provided wide areas of crops which may in some circumstances give unlimited food for pestiferous insects, raising new problems for scientists to solve. Anthropology is one of the younger sciences, but to-day its students are not content to deal with man merely as the subject for historical and biometric research. More and more attention is being given to the study of psychological factors. Man is now the most gregarious of all animals. He has a mania for big cities and we have even had a Millions Club in Australia to stimulate the growth of a Megalopolis. And modern city life is at times so strenuous that many people can only make it bearable by a judicious admixture of stimulants and sedatives. True there are many great advantages, such as Universities, Royal Societies, and other cultural stimuli, as well as a feast of entertainment. Obviously cities have mainly grown because of a complete reversal of conditions of a century ago. Modern agriculture has been so mechanised that only a small proportion of mankind is needed to provide basic foods for all. Man has exercised the greatest ingenuity in devising weapons of destruction. From the primitive stone axe and bludgeon to the latest type of bomb, we see a diabolical series of death-dealing weapons. Were time available it would be an easy matter to justify that desolating sentence of Gibbon that history is indeed little more than the register of the crimes, follies, and misfortunes of mankind. In only five years Caligula, Roman Emperor from 37 to 41 a.d., gained a reputation for 6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. cruelty that sent his name throughout the ages. A Genghis Khan won his wide empire by wholesale destruction of the cities and peoples that opposed him. The crimes of the Borgias may have been exaggerated, but, at the minimum, theirs is a record to be held in abhorrence. In twenty years Napoleon fought more wars and caused more disturbances in Europe than any other person known since the time of Genghis Khan or of Alexander. A. J. Toynbee summarises that of twenty-one civilisations, fourteen are wholly extinct. Man has been the destroyer of men and has left a trail of ruin and desolation in many places. On the site of many once great cities we now see the sands of the desert. In W. Maeneile Dixon’s Gifford Lectures, published as “The Human Situation,” there are significant summaries of man’s inhumanity to man. It would be too terrible a task to traverse the record of human cruelty. It is true that we could not have to-day such gladiatorial displays as those which took place in the Great Roman Colosseum to make a Roman holiday. But — Circumspice. The world to-day provides little basis for that optimism which was characteristic of the more spacious and tolerant times of the closing decades of the last century. To the sensitive mind of our own poet, Essex Evans, in his reverie on “The Sword of Pain,” written on a hospital bed, the roar of the wind in the night seemed “The Voice of the World’s Wounded.” That voice to-day is still more tragic and universal. It would be an easy matter to give instances of ludicrous or grotesque customs and beliefs among primitive and modern peoples to illustrate the foolishness of humanity. The literature of the subject is encyclopaedic, but Frazer’s “Golden Bough” is still the great classic. However absurd some of these beliefs and customs may seem to us to-day, we have to realise that many of them have had a survival value in their own environment. Comments on the religious beliefs of humanity are beyond the scope of this paper, but it must be stated that such beliefs, on the whole, have failed to exert a significant ameliorative effect on man’s social relations. As John Morley pointed out, religion and race have been two incendiary forces in history. Religious wars have proved most devastating. Gilbert Murray, one of the most judicial of historians, says: “Probably throughout history the worst things ever done in the world on a large scale by decent people have been done in the name of religion.” Some will suggest that the “best things” have been done in the spirit of ideal religion, but unfortunately there is no agreement as to what constitutes the ideal. Man is incurably credulous. Many give up old superstititions only to acquire new ones. Charlatanism and quackery flourish to-day in spite of all our scientific knowledge. In economics and social affairs we are largely at the mercy of propagandists. As Carlyle bluntly told us, we are ‘ 4 mostly fools. ’ ’ Who, then, shall prescribe for this so-called sapient son of Nature ? Should we learn from Rousseau to live a simpler life and gain more wisdom in the process? Samuel Butler in his two “Erewhons” whim- sically blames the machines and cynically comments on our manners and beliefs. Bernard Shaw satirically suggests that man will need to live to the age of a Methuselah before he acquires wisdom. H. G. Wells com- pares the 4 4 Mind of the Race” to a scared child crouching in the corner of a great cage filled with apes, and he is doubtful whether the child 30MO SAPIENS: TURBULENTUS. 7 ivill ever grow up. Prof. W. K. Gregory considers it a duty “to puncture the bubble of Homo sapiens” and he says that we deserve to "be called “ Homo inflatus.” When I was a boy I was told that two of the wisest men of all time were Socrates the Greek and King Solomon. Perhaps the great Greeks achieved the supreme intellectual concept when they welded Fact and Symbol into a system which, later, developed in a' Neo-platonism which pleases even Dean Inge. Solomon, or the author of Ecclesiastes, tells us that all is vanity, but preaches a restrained epicureanism regulated by wisdom. Perhaps we may find solace in the symbolism in the haunting verses of old Omar, enriched by the mellow English music of our FitzGerald’s translation. If our “blind understanding” be unable to remould this sorry scheme of things entire nearer to our heart’s desire, we must seek to make that understanding less blind. We must view things in long perspective, and gaining guidance from the mistakes of the past make wiser plans for the future. We must open our eyes to see a natural world around us with an amazing wealth of interesting and beautiful things — a stimulating environment for human progress. “We must cultivate our garden.” I am not attempting a psychological study of human sapiency, or the lack of it, with a view to promulgating a series of precise nostrums. My very inadequate summary of man’s partial misuse of nature, and of his own nature, is somewhat depressing, but if we view things in long perspective we may look in hope to the far future. Man’s brain is unique ; its post-natal growth is almost a pathological phenomenon in nature. It seems almost impossible for babies to be born with bigger heads, and it seems! that the human brain has reached its maximum size. We have plenty of brains, but we do not know how to use them wisely. Modern psychology has now made it clear that the striking analogy suggested between our hidden caudal appendage and the “tailed mind” is phylogenetically true. Whatever may be the ultimate assessment of the great work of Freud, it is also clear that the “unconscious mind” holds within its fastnesses vast potentialities for good and ill. It is gratifying to remember that the late Grafton Elliot Smith, the eminent Australian Anatomist, added greatly to our knowledge of the development of the human brain. His researches in elucidating the evolution of the neopallium give him a secure place in the literature of science. Elliot Smith’s great work stimulated others. Wood Jones quintessentially illustrates three serial types of brain among animals by outlining their mental possibilities. In the first-mentioned type the animal “knows what it is doing.” In the second type the animal “knows what it is doing, and it remembers what it has done.” In the third, with an elaborated neopallial area, the animal “knows what it is doing, it remembers what it has done, and it can estimate what it might do” (“Arboreal Man,” p. 193). I think that these studies of the “matrix of the mind” suggest an analogy. Just as the development of the neopallium in the individual gives a basis for social behaviour, is it too much to hope for an inter- racial “neopallial” development which may tend to make all humanity less turbulent and more judicial? As Leonardo told us long ago, in every man there is a beast and a god united. Man is fundamentally a fighting, hunting, sexual animal. Yet man is also thinker and dreamer. 8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. poet and philosopher, artist and music-maker, explorer and adventurer, scientist and investigator, altruist and saint. Perhaps the study of Eugenics will ultimately help Man to breed the best kind of men, but we are not yet wise enough to select infallible standards for breeding. We can, however, segregate the Calibans on whose nature nurture has no effect. One may borrow Hamlet’s words at times and say, “Man delights not me,” and yet repeat his associated classic lines: — “How noble in reason! how infinite in faculty! in form, in moving, how express and admirable ! in action how like an angel ! in apprehension how like a god ! the beauty of the world ! the paragon of animals ! ’ ’ Modern man with his Janus outlook still provides a' basis for some optimism. Civilisation has illustrated, in the main, man’s conflict with nature. As Huxley told us in his notable address, “ Evolution and Ethics,” the progress of society depends on man’s combat with the cosmic processes. Man has made gardens where nature had provided no food; he has made the crooked straight and the rough plain. “And much may be done to change the nature of Man himself. The intelligence which has converted the brother of the wolf into the faithful guardian of the flock ought to be able to do something towards curbing the instincts of savagery in civilised men. ’ ’ In the first British and American Association Lecture, prepared for a meeting at Dundee last September but not delivered. Dr. Isaiah Bowman, President of the Johns Hopkins University, gave a synopsis of opinions of one hundred prominent men who had been invited to express their views on the contributions of science to social welfare and to social pioneering. The majority emphasised the gains, some gave qualified approval, whilst others stressed the losses. This survey and Dr. Bowman’s comments, which were printed in “Science” (6th October, 1939), are of special interest to-day, and I should like to quote one of his concluding remarks : ‘ ‘ Science is the greatest inciter of hope that we know. ’ ’ Here I would stress the value of the scientific outlook and attitude. Science stimulates us to investigate the causes of things, and as the sage Francis Bacon said long ago true knowledge is to know by causes. The value of scientific education is surely obvious. In this connexion I quote from a leading article in “Nature” (24th October, 1936) entitled “The Social Mission of Science,” as that paper is the most representative organ of science in the English-speaking world: — “The true aim of science is the enrichment of life, and the specific value of an education based on science is that it will encourage, if not create, a habit of acting on reason rather than emotion. Moreover, such an education could destroy the dangerous delusions which loyalties of party, country and religion are apt to foster, and teach people from their earliest years that men and women, however diverse as individuals, are collectively very much alike, and for this purpose a scientific education is more effective than a purely literary education. Science taught, not as an aid to a vocation but as part of the training of a modern citizen, may develop a habit of mind as ethical as that usually only associated with the study of what are called the humanities.” We live in an age when astounding attempts are made in some countries to nationalise and control scientists, and we have witnessed the amazing spectacle of hundreds of exiles being forced to seek a new HOMO SAPIENS: TURBULENTUS. 9' home for their work. We also hear much of a division of mankind as though it consisted of arbitrary types — Homo proletariensis and Homo bourgeoisiensis. Anthropology does not recognise such distinctions. In these turbulent times a warning has been given that the very foundations of culture are in danger and that the best features of civilisation may be temporarily lost. It is surely the duty of scientific men to conserve the high ideals that have animated our leaders in the past. We are fortunate in Australia in the general recognition of the value of scientific work by Governments and by all intelligent people. We are also fortunate, I think, that in America there is a similar recognition by that great English-speaking people. It is appropriate here to quote from an American Professor of Economics, Dr. W. C. Mitchell, of Columbia University, in his address as President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1939. He says, “ Scientific men are wont to face facts, whether these facts conform to their wishes or not . . . The democratic way of life and the scientific way of thinking grew up together, each nourishing the other. If one now fails the other will falter. When democracy is suppressed to-day science is fettered, for autocracy cannot brook disinterested criticism of its dogmas or its practices . . . The gravest dangers to democracy come from within, not from without. They are ignorance and propaganda that turns ignorance to its uses. The best way of dispelling ignorance is by diffusing knowledge. The most effective defence against meretricious propaganda' is critical inquiry. John Dewey is warranted in saying that 'the future of democracy is allied with spread of the scientific attitude.’ ” Some of my listeners (or subsequent readers) may consider that I have made undue use of the latitude allowed to a' presidential address, but may I suggest that there are precedents in high places for addresses that are not limited to expositions of routine researches. Science is something more than mere metromania or the exercise of what may be called cacoethes nominmdi. Science has given us a wealth of conveniences undreamed of by our ancestors, and it has solved most of the major problems of production. By technological developments in entertainment it has added to "the gaiety of nations.” It has provided anodynes for much of our bodily pain and has prolonged the average life. The new world that science is gradually making holds stupendous possibilities for human welfare in the future. The world is not only a workshop, but is also a play- ground. Civilisation is not a terminus, but an avenue of progress. From the welter of the present we dare dream that a saner world will arise, and that a broader sense of fair play and ideals of toleration and freedom will again hold wide and undisturbed sway. 10 VOL. LIL, No. 2. SOME QUEENSLAND LEAF-HOPPERS (JASSO IDEA, HOMOPTERA) THAT ATTACK LUCERNE. By J. W. Evans, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.E.S. {Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 21th May, 1940.) A number of leaf-hoppers are important pests of lucerne, cotton, -and tomato crops grown in Queensland. The nature of the injury they cause to tomato plants has been discussed by Atherton (1933) and to cotton by Sloan (1938). During a survey recently made by the Queensland Department of Agriculture and Stock of the insect pests that occur on lucerne in the State, several plant-bugs were obtained. These comprised leaf-hoppers (Jassoidea) and plant-hoppers (Fulgoroidea : Delphacidae and Eurybrachidae ) . The present paper is an account of the leaf -hoppers only. It deals with eight species, some of which may be serious pests, and others merely of chance occurrence on lucerne. Three species have been described previously, whilst five are new. An attempt is made by means of a key and numerous figures to render the identification of these insects simple to any entomologist who may have occasion to name them. It is improbable that any are solely pests of lucerne, but rather that they are all general feeders associated more with a particular environ- ment than an especial food-plant. Hence it is to be expected that some .at least will occur as pests of several field crops. The key that follows is entirely artificial, the species dealt with. Key. and is concerned only with 1. Leaf -hoppers 4 mm. or less in length Leaf -hoppers more than 4 mm. in length :2. General coloration yellow or green General coloration not as above .3. Venation of tegmen as in Figure 17 . . Venation of tegmen not as above 4. Venation of tegmen as in Figure 3 Venation of tegmen as in Figure 6 5. Crown of head narrow, of even width throughout . . Crown of head wider medially than against the eyes 6. Leaf -hoppers less than 3 mm. in length Leaf -hoppers 3 mm. or more in length . . 7. Ventral surface of the head as in Figure 18 . . Ventral surface of the head as in Figure 19 . . 2 Eurino scopus punctatus 3 7 Cicadula bimaculata 4 Erythroneura sativae 5 Empoasca athertoni 6 Empoasca alfalfae Empoasca terra-reginae Nehela torrida ThamnotetUx argentata Eurino scopus punctatus sp. nov. (Text Figure 1, figs. 11, 12, 13.) (Note. — The colour-description has been made from a dried, possibly faded, specimen.) Length 4-8 mm. Head, ventral surface pale brown but for the maxillary plates and ante-clypeus, which are pale green; ocelli large, reddish-brown ; eyes dark reddish-brown. Hind margin, of fronto-clypeus perceptible. Crown pale yellowish-brown, slightly wider in the middle lhan against the eyes. Pronotum, anterior third smooth, pale green ; posterior two-thirds pale yellowish-brown flecked with green and with SOME QUEENSLAND LEAF-HOPPERS, ETC. It transverse striations. Scutellum, pale yellowish-brown. Tegmen, pale hyaline-brown, veins and entire margin of the tegmen, green ; principal veins and cross veins bordered on each side with small brown spots.. Thorax and abdomen, ventral surface pale yellowish-green. Type $ from Darling Downs, Queensland (collection D. 0. Atherton, on lucerne, 14-9-39), in the Queensland Museum collection (Ho. 5223). Nehela torrida Evans. (Pap. Roy. Soc. Tas. 1936-37, p. 70.) (Fig. 18.) This species can be readily identified from the figure of the ventral surface of the head, as no other leaf-hopper described from Australia has ventral ocelli that are so closely set together. The type specimen and others collected at the same time came to light in a house in Adelaide which faced a paddock of lucerne. This species, which was originally made the genotype of the genus Austroagallia Evans, is now transferred to Nehela F. W. B., 1878, Mr. P. W. Oman having drawn my attention to the identity of the two genera. The type of Nehela, of which Igerna Kirk., 1903, is also a synonym, is Bythoscopus ( Oncopsis ) bimaculaticolUs St&l, 1855. Thamnotettix argentata Evans. (Pap. Roy. Soc. Tas. 1938-39, p. 15.) (Fig. 19.) This small leaf-hopper has a pale yellow head with dark brown markings. The tegmina are hyaline, with an irregular network of dark- brown markings. It is common on a wide variety of weeds in all States of Eastern Australia, and has been recorded from tobacco in New South Wales. Cicadula bimaculata sp. nov. (Text Figure 1, figs. 14-17.) Length 3 mm. Head, yellow with two large black spots on the crown that extend on to the ventral surface of the vertex; eyes dark brown, Fronto-clypeus and anterior margin of the head rounded ; frontal sutures barely perceptible. Crown of head and pronotum pale brown ; scutellum yellow. Tegmen pale yellowish-hyaline, veins pale brown. Abdomen, dorsal surface visible through the folded tegmina and wings, very dark brown ; ventral surface pale yellow. Apex of ovipositor of female, black. Type $ from Lockyer, Queensland (collection D. 0. Atherton, on lucerne, 24-8-39), in the Queensland Museum collection (Ho. 5222). Empoasca terra-reginae Paoli. (Mem. Soc. Ent. Ital. 15, 1936.) (Figs. 7-8.) Length 3-2 mm. General coloration green. Head, ventral surface pale greenish-yellow; maxillary plates, lora, and ante-clypeus paler than the fronto-clypeus. Fronto-clypeus with a median white longitudinal stripe, constricted in the middle, and a pair of white markings directed anteriorly just behind each antenna. Crown green with white lateral markings, and a posterior continuation of the median fronto-clypeal band. Pronotum green, with a series of white 12 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. markings lying close to the anterior margin. Scutellum yellowish-green, with a median white area (usually forked) and lateral white markings. (The colour pattern described above is variable). Tegmen, proximal two-thirds pale greenish-hyaline; distal third transparent; veins pale green. Thorax and abdomen, ventral surface pale yellowish-green ; legs emerald green. Note. — This species is re-described, as the journal containing the original description is not readily available in Australia. It would appear that E. terra-reginae is of considerable economic importance, since in addition to being recorded from lucerne (Darling Downs) and tomatoes (Dimbulah), specimens have been received from Moree, New South Wales, accompanied by a report that they were abundant on vegetables and weeds. Empoasca athertoni sp. nov. (Text Figure 1, figs. 9, 10.) Length 2-8 mm. General coloration dark green. Head, ventral surface mottled with an irregular pattern of yellowish- and olive-green. Crown narrow, of even width throughout. Crown of head, pronotum and scutellum, dull green. Tegmen long and narrow, pale hyaline yellowish-green. Type $ from Lockyer, Queensland (collection D. 0. Atherton, on lucerne, 25-7-39), in the Queensland Museum collection (Ho. 5224). Empoasca alfalfae sp. nov. (Text Figure 1, figs. 4, 5, 6.) Length 2-5 mm. General coloration pale yellowish-green. Eyes dark brown. Tegmen hyaline yellowish-green, apically pale hyaline - brown. Type $ from Lockyer, Queensland (collection D. 0. Atherton, on lucerne, 24-8-39), in the Queensland Museum collection (Ho. 5225). Erythroneura sativae sp. nov. (Text Figure 1, figs. 1, 2, 3.) Length 2 mm. General coloration yellow, eyes black. Head with the crown produced medially ; ocelli obsolete. Type $ from Yeerongpilly, Queensland (collection W. A. Smith, on lucerne, 6-11-39), in the Queensland Museum collection (Ho. 5221). REFERENCES. Atherton, D. O. (1933): “The Tomato Green Fly Association, ’ ’ Qd. Agri. J., XLI., 291. Sloan, W. J. S. (1938) : “Cotton Jassids or Leaf -hoppers, ’ ’ Qd. Agri. J., L., 450.. EXPLANATION OF TEXT FIGURE I. Fig. 1. Erythroneura pativae, Head and pronotum, dorsal (aspect. Fig. 2. Erythroneura sativae, Male genitalia. Fig. 3. Erythroneura sativae, Tegmen. Fig. 4. Empoasca alfalfae, Head and pronotum, dorsal aspect. Fig. 5. Empoasca alfalfae, Male genitalia. Fig. 6. Empoasca alfalfae, Tegmen. Fig. 7. Empoasca terra-reginae, Head and pronotum, dorsal aspect. Fig. 8. Empoasca terra-reginae, Male genitalia. Fig. 9. Empoasca athertoni, Head and pronotum, dorsal aspect. Fig. 10. Empoasca athertoni, Aedeagus. SOME QUEENSLAND LEAF-HOPPERS, ETC. 13 Text Figure 1. Fig. 11. Eurinoscopus punctatus, Head and thorax, dorsal aspect. Fig. 12. Eurinoscopus punctatus, Head, ventral aspect. Fig. 13. Eurinoscopus punctatus, Male genitalia. Fig. 14. Cicadula bimaoulata, Head and pronotum, dorsal aspect. Fig. 15. Cicadula bimaculata, Head, ventral aspect. Fig. 16. Cicadula bimaculata, Male genitalia. Fig. 17. Cicadula bimaculata, Tegmen. Fig. 18. Nehela torrida, Head, ventral aspect. Fig. 19, Tliamnoiettix argentata, Head, ventral aspect. 14 Vol. LIL, No. 3. THE PETROLOGY OF THE SOMERSET DAM SITE. By Clive W. Ball, B.Sc. One Geological Plan and One Section. (Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 21th May, 1940.) CONTENTS. Page. I. Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 II. Previous Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 III. General Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 IV. Field Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 V. Magmatic Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 VI. Deuteric Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 VII. Metamorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 VIII. Petrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1. Augite andesite agglomerate . . . . . . . . . . 6 2. Trachyte agglomerate . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3. Trachyte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 4. Augite andesite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 5. Augite porphyrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 6. Augite diorite (first or major intrusion) . . . . . . 9 7. Augite diorite (second or minor intrusion) . . . . . . 9 8. Quartz felsite . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 9. Alaskite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 IX. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 X. Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Appendix — Suitability of Site for Dam Foundations . . . . . . 11 I. Location. The dam site and the township of Somerset Dam lie on the Stanley River, some forty-odd miles north-west of Brisbane, where the river has cut a gorge between Mount Brisbane and its subsidiary, Little Mount Brisbane. Excavations for foundations and materials were in progress during the investigations, and greatly facilitated a proper appreciation of the solid geology of the locality. II. Previous Literature. Reid and Morton (1923) report the results of reconnaissance surveys through Esk and along the Brisbane River Valley and recognise three stages within the Esk Series as follows : — f Esk Trachytes. Esk Series. ' Esk Shales and Bellevue Conglomerates. ( Andesitic Stage. The Esk Series itself is notable for the number and size of its con- glomerate beds and its prolific fossil flora. Reid and Morton pointed out that the closing stage of the Esk Series was marked by the extrusion of trachytes and rhyolites and that the andesites prevailed lower in the series. They adduced evidence in support of the contemporaneous THE PETROLOGY OF THE SOMERSET DAM SITE. 15 origin of the andesites and the sediments of the Esk Series, and, further, they correlated this series with the Ipswich Series of Triassic age. Structurally, the Esk Series strike north-west to south-east, the beds dipping south-west at angles seldom greater than 10 degrees. Hill (1930a) followed up the work of Reid and Morton, and while generally recognising their definition of the Esk Series mapped an acid tuff stage between the Esk Shales and the andesitic stage. She also gave a more detailed account of the rock types. The Esk Series is divided by Hill (1930b) into an upper and lower series as follows : — isting of Esk Shales, and The nature of the andesitic boulder beds is set out in some detail, showing that they were partly laid down under water. Mention is made of interbedded andesite and rhyolite flows, and fossiliferous andesitic and rhyolitic tuffs. In Miss Hill’s geological sketch map, Mount Bris- bane is shown (after Morton) as granodiorite and rhyolite surrounded by the Lower Esk Series. Ball (1933) deals with the foundation rocks of the dam site, and describes the rock exposures in the river bed and on both flanks of the gorge as consisting of andesite and porphyrite. Further he writes: ‘ ‘ The occasional large phenocrysts are suggestive of the Mount Brisbane being an ancient eruptive focus — the later injections pointing to the .same conclusion.” The rock foundations of the dam site were considered by Reid (1933) to be within a homogeneous dioritic intrusion with gradation in texture from fine grained diorite to finer grained porphyrite. The normal jointing systems were also noted and the suitability of the site discussed and approved. The author’s main object was to determine the nature and origin of the rock foundations of the dam site, and it has been concluded that the porphyrite is the result of contact metamorphic action on augite andesite agglomerate. To assist in the main investigation of the various rock types and of their relationships, a geological map was prepared, based on survey plan 2 A — 832 of the Stanley River Works Board. The volcanic rocks are placed in the Lower Esk Series of Triassic age which are widely distributed in the neighbouring Esk district. The predominant rock type of the main Mount Brisbane massif is augite diorite, and the intrusions of first and second generations of that rock were followed by radial injections of quartz-felsite with late magmatic quartz. The injection of the magmas induced metamorphic changes in the gently dipping andesite agglomerates and flow rocks, not only at the dam site but in other parts of the Upper Brisbane Valley, where a close resemblance in lithology and field characteristics is evident. Owing to their wide distribution, the andesite agglomerates must have arisen from several volcanic foci, but the Somerset dam site is Relieved to be the locus of the chief orifice. Esk Series. Lower Esk, Andesitic Boulder Beds. = Andesitic Stage of Reid and Morton. III. General Geology. 16 PROCEEDINGS OS1 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. IV. Field Relations. 1. The Major Diorite Intrusion. — The intrusion of the main mass of diorite into the andesite agglomerate of the dam site is proved at several points where tongues of the diorite run into the andesitic rocks. This is best seen in quarry site A and in Stanley Gully, where breccias of augite andesite agglomerate are enclosed in the diorite. 2. The Minor Diorite Intrusion. — Preferentially following master joints in the main diorite mass are veins and dykes of a second genera- tion of diorite. Further, the andesite agglomerate was intruded by many veins and dykes of this second phase of the diorite. 3. The Quartz-F elsite Dykes. — In their radial disposition these have been intruded into fissures in the diorite and andesitic rocks. Although generally intruded at angles approaching the vertical, in parts they are conformable with the andesitic beds and show a south-westerly dip. However, in quarry site A, the main dyke dips easterly at 80 degrees, and has intruded along the contact of the diorite and the andesite agglomerate. The dykes often splay at the margins, casting their frills into the diorite and andesitic rocks. In quarry site A, and in the Little Mount Brisbane river bed excavation the quartz-felsite develops into asymmetric laccoliths. These have been intruded under great pressure, and brecciation subsequently eventuated in the laccoliths. As a further development from the splaying of the dyke edges, there has resulted a rock closely resembling an injection gneiss; this borders on one of the asymmetric laccoliths. The characteristic torsion texture of Grubenmann is prominent, flexed, finely puckered fragments of quartz-felsite being found in the contiguous andesite agglomerate. 4. The Andesitic Bocks. — As field work progressed the agglomeratic nature of the bulk of the andesitic rocks became more and more evident, especially after rain, when the outlines of the contained fragments within the agglomerate show up. However, there also occurs an effusive andesite which is distinct from the agglomerate. ( a ) The augite andesite agglomerate is definitely bedded and shows a well marked regional dip to the west-south-west, generally at angles of 10 degrees to 15 degrees. On approaching the main mass of diorite the angle of dip increases considerably, and the direction of dip swings round more to the west. (5) Typical andesite with all the characteristics of flows is met in several places as shown on the map. The individual beds of andesite are lenticular and are interbedded with the andesite agglomerate. 5. The Trachyte Flow. — This is interbedded with andesitic rocks in the one place where it was identified, i.e., at N. 1150. 6. The Trachyte Agglomerate. — This overlies the andesite agglomerate at T. 950 (see plan). 7. The Alaskite Body. — The main intrusive mass of alaskite underlies the township proper. It was at first thought to be a direct differentiate of the main diorite mass. However, islands of diorite occur within the alaskite, and therefore indicate that the latter rock is intrusive into the diorite. At the alaskite contact, the diorite is spotted with mafic clusters. This is a sort of touchstone of differentiation, for when- ever it was met in the field one could be sure that the alaskite contact THE PETROLOGY OF THE SOMERSET DAM SITE. 17 was close at hand. In parts there is every gradation (with increase in the quartz content) from the diorite to the normal alaskite, through an uneven textured alaskite. It is as though the magma has been caught in the act of differentiating. Apart from the main mass of alaskite which extends north-west up the slope of Mount Brisbane, there are several outcrops in Stanley Gully (see plan). 8. The Augite Porphyrite Intrusion. — In the case of this intrusive rock the texture decreases passing south-eastwards, i.e., away from the source of the intrusion. V. Magmatic Sequence. From the field relations discussed above it has been possible to deduce the order of introduction of the igneous rocks of the dam site as follows : — (1) Augite andesite agglomerate. (2) Trachyte agglomerate. (3) Trachyte (flow). (4) Augite andesite (flow). (5) Augite porphyrite (dyke). (6) Augite andesite agglomerate (second phase). (7) Augite diorite (major intrusion). (8) Augite diorite (minor intrusion). (9) Quartz-felsite dykes and alaskite. (10) Quartz-felspar — tourmaline veins. VI. Deuteric Action, The products of deuteric action have been deposited along fissure zones. In one case quartz-zeolite-epidote veins replace the augite andesite agglomerate, and anhedral pyrites and chalcopyrites occur in calcite- quartz veins. The augite andesite agglomerate which contains the zeolite has been highly saussuritised and pinitised. The zeolite in one case appears to fill old vesicular cavities. The zeolite is heulandite (CaO. A1203. 6 Si02. 5 H20), and occurs as pink and creamy-white idiomorphic crystals, which show the undulate and depressed faces so characteristic of this penta-hydrate. The crystals consist of the (100), (010) and hemi-ortho-domes and are often flattened parallel to the (010). Cleavage is parallel to (010). Polysynthetic twinning occurs about the “a” axis. When heated strongly before the blow pipe the crystals fuse with intumescence to an opalescent head. Gelatinisation occurs with hot concentrated hydro- chloric acid. The zeolite and calcite point first to the passage through the fissure zone of carbonated waters. It appears that the heulandite has resulted from hydration of the anorthite radicle on the breakdown of plagioclase. VII. Metamorphjsm. General. — Basic rocks, especially when tuffaceous, are extremely susceptible to contact metamorphism. If, in addition, such basic rocks had suffered weathering prior to metamorphism the changes are even more pronounced. This is doubtless due to the fact that, in addition to the presence of capillary and sub-capillary enclosed water, there is also 18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. water of hydration present in such rocks. Water is the chief solution vehicle for mineral transformation under metamorphic conditions. The diorite must have expelled steam and brought its reserve heat and pressure to bear on the sub-basic volcanic rocks it intruded to accom- plish the mineral transformations. Finally, the quartz-felsite dykes and veins of late magmatic (high temperature) aplite and quartz put the finishing touches to the metamorphic work of the diorite. The net result on the augite andesite agglomerate was the production of the hard tough “ porphyrite. ’ ’ Contact Metamorphism of Augite Andesite Agglomerate. — In the ground mass of the augite andesite agglomerate the principal reconstruction and chemical metamorphism have been induced by the Intrusion of diorite. Changes in the matrix involved the production of quartz and biotite, magnetite, epidote, chlorite and actinolite. All of these minerals, except the quartz, were produced by the breakdown of augite. The abundance of quartz is inversely proportional to that of the felspar, and it is therefore concluded that the silica which crystallised as quartz came from the original felspar. The commonest metamorphic change in the alteration of the plagioclase phenocrysts is the formation of epidote granules and saussuritisation. The plagioclase, moreover, is often replaced by quartz and actinolite. The latter is a metamorphic mineral, and saussuritisation is a dynamo-metamorphic change instituted In this case by the intrusions of the diorite, when most of the other secondary minerals were formed (the only exceptions being the chlorite and vein quartz which followed the intrusion of the quartz-felsite ) . The late magmatic (high temperature) quartz-felspar-tourmaline veins were partly responsible for the quartz which is seen replacing the plagioclase in the andesite agglomerate. Contact Metamorphism of Augite Andesite. — The contact metamorphism produced on the augite andesite differs only in degree from that just described in the andesite agglomerate. The degree of metamorphism was much less pronounced in the augite andesites, but the changes observed are (a) the formation of biotite, magnetite, and epidote from augite; (h) the aggregation of secondary biotite into clusters; (c) the association of rare basaltic hornblende and epidote with ilmenite which is not merely fortuitous for it is probable that the basaltic hornblende and epidote have been formed by reaction between plagioclase and ilmenite. Contact Metamorphism of Trachyte Agglomerate. — The trachyte agglomerate was very resistant to contact metamorphism by the diorite and quartz-felsite. However, the secondary chlorite, pinite, and epidote were probably formed whilst the contact metamorphic conditions prevailed. VIII. Petrology. The sequence in the treatment that follows is evolutionary and is based on that deduced in section V., when the magmatic sequence was outlined. 1. Augite Andesite Agglomerate. — This is variable in colour, texture, and toughness, but typically it is markedly porphyritic, and the ground mass is finely crystalline. The colour is generally medium-grey, but the rock often takes on a mottled or spotted appearance, due to the presence of micro crystalline clusters of biotite. Commonly regarded as THE PETROLOGY OF THE SOMERSET DAM SITE. 19 porphyrite, it is for the most part agglomeratic, and is bedded. The fragments in the matrix are generally angular or sub-angular, and average about 3 inches across. The constituent minerals are plagioclase, augite, ilmenite, magnetite,, biotite, actinolite, quartz, green hornblende, and epidote. The essential minerals were originally plagioclase and augite. The ground-mass of the latter is usually metamorphosed, but the plagioclase has for the most part resisted the metamorphism. The plagioclase is generally of two generations. (а) First Generation: Determination by the Michel Levy statistical method prove the type to be andesine. The crystals are sub-hedral, strongly zoned, and corroded. Lamellar twinning on the Aibite law is general, and may be accompanied by the simple Carlsbad twin or the pericline. The first generation is traversed by cracks and shadow extinction is pronounced. (б) Second Generation: The crystals are lamellar twinned, and corrosion by the ground-mass is often strong. The plagioclase phenocrysts are often mildly saussuritised with the development of epidote granules and veinlets of yellow kaolinite. Replacement by the quartz of the ground-mass has also been observed, and in one case the plagioclase was mottled by deuteric action (cf. the augite diorite). Phenocrysts of augite occur. These are sub-hedral and often show alteration to actinolite and green hornblende. The ground-mass when relatively un-metamorphosed is microcrystalline and composed of allotriomorphic plagioclase and granular augite with lesser quartz and ilmenite. As a rule the ground-mass has become reconstructed, and under crossed-nicols often presents a finely microcrystalline mafelsic spangled aggregate, the original character of which has been obscured by secondary changes. As a result, there has been formed secondary quartz,, biotite, magnetite, actinolite (as veins), epidote, chlorite, and antigorite (rare pseud omorphs) . The secondary biotite and magnetite have been formed as a result of the breakdown of augite. This was especially noticeable in a section showing an intrusive vein of diorite in the andesite agglomerate. The biotite occurs as micro-crystalline clusters, and conse- quently the rock takes on a mottled appearance. The biotite is brown pleochroic, often with a greenish tinge. Skeats (1910) and Kynaston (1908) have both pointed out that the production of secondary biotite and its aggregation into clusters is characteristic of the contact metamorphism of volcanic rocks of intermediate composition. The same phenomena have been observed in the andesitic rocks of the Somerset Dam site. Kynaston, in describing the effects of the intrusion of the Ben Cruachan granite on an andesite, has noted the production of secondary biotite from augite and the reconstruction of the ground-mass into a granular mosaic of felspar and quartz with secondary biotite and green hornblende. An additional check on the interpretations was provided by section- ing an andesite tuff which overlies trachyte agglomerate at Dempster ?s Folly.* The former rock is an augite andesite tuff composed of sub- angular fragments enclosing phenocrysts of the two essential minerals * Dempster’s Folly is about 1 mile south of the dam, and the beds all dip- W.S.W. at approximately 10 degrees (compare the beds at the dam site). 20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. plagioclase and augite of two generations set in a glassy ground-mass, the ground-mass is isotropic and shows advanced devitrification. The plagioclase is lamellar twinned. The augite is also lamellar twinned and corroded. Magnetite grains are disseminated through the ground-mass and rare ilmenite grains are found. Although this rock is fine grained, yet it exemplifies on a small scale the type of the original augite andesite agglomerate of the dam site. 2. Trachyte Agglomerate. — A cream-coloured rock, showing angular and sub-angular agglomerate fragments. Its miscroscopic characters indicate a flow structure. The rock is porphyritic throughout, and it is much finer grained than the andesite agglomerate. Mafic constituents are entirely absent. The angular fragments show a regular flow-lined trachyte matrix with fresh felspars. Orthoclase with the simple Carlsbad twin and plagioclase (lamellar twinned) have both been recognised. In the matrix between the agglomerate fragments the felspar phenocrysts are larger and highly pinitised. The accessory minerals are magnetite and ilmenite present as grains disseminated through the ground-mass. The secondary minerals are chlorite (associated with magnetite), pinite, and epidote. 3. Trachyte. — This porphyritic rock contains phenocrysts of plagioclase of two generations. The plagioclase is lamellar twinned, and the first generation is an acid-andesine. The individuals are highly cracked and the larger crystals are fused to one another (consertal fragment). The plagioclase of the second generation consists of laths bent under stress. The ground-mass is finely microcrystalline and uneven textured. It is composed essentially of plagioclase laths showing trachytic texture and a definite flow structure parallel to the line of orientation of the phenocrysts. The secondary minerals consist of epidote and chlorite, which are associated with plagioclase and accessory ilmenite. 4. Augite Andesite. — The rock is dark-grey or medium-grey in colour. Flow structure is pronounced, and the rock is markedly porphyritic. The essential minerals are plagioclase and augite. The accessory minerals are magnetite, zircon, quartz, biotite, actinolite, epidote, and sericite. The ground-mass may be either microcrystalline or glassy, the plagioclase phenocrysts and microcrystalline laths are often flow-lined, the larger phenocrysts being in sub-parallel orientation. The phenocrysts are plagioclase and augite. The first generation of the former mineral is sub-hedral, showing zoning and lamellar twinning. The second generation is strongly corroded, while the third generation consists of microcrystalline laths. The plagioclase phenocrysts are often badly cracked, bent, and kaolinised. Shadow extinction is common ; the augite is green, and generally sub-hedral. The ground-mass is of two kinds: — the first is glassy (isotropic), with magnetite grains richly disseminated through it and the second is coarsely micro crystalline. In the latter type the ground-mass is made up of felspar and quartz (equal in abundance), with ilmenite and augite, viridite, biotite, magnetite, apatite, and zircon. The felspar is allotriomorphic and kaolinised, the quartz interstitial and anhedral (crossed by fine cracks). The augite of the ground-mass occurs as granular clusters. The ilmenite is abundant as disseminated grains. The biotite occurs as anhedra, pleochroic green to light-brown to green-brown. The biotite is often collected into THE PETROLOGY OF THE SOMERSET DAM SITE. 21 bunches, and hence the spotted character of the rock. Fibrous viridite is associated with quartz and magnetite. The felspar is often marginally corroded by quartz and biotite, and the latter mineral is also found along cracks in plagioclase phenocrysts. Shadow extinction is shown in quartz and biotite. Basaltic hornblende is found as euhedra. This mineral is associated with ilmenite grains. 5. Augite Porphyrite. — This rock contains phenocrysts of plagioclase and augite of two generations besides hornblende. The plagioclase phenocrysts are well-formed, the first generation showing a reaction rim and corroded edges. The second generation occurs as microcrystalline laths and tabular crystals. The augite shows lamellar twinning and faint pleochroism. The ground-mass is very finely microcrystalline, composed of anhedral felspar and greenish mafic aggregates with accessory quartz and magnetite. 6. Augite Biorite (earlier or major intrusion). — This rock con- stitutes the main mass of Mount Brisbane. It is characterised by a steel- grey colour, but is lighter where differentiation has taken place. It is even grained, porphyritic, and holocrystalline. The texture is hypidiomorphic-granular, often strongly schleiric and pseudo- porphyritic. The grain size becomes uneven at the alaskite contact, where poikiolitic structure is revealed with hosts of augite enclosing plagioclase. The constituent minerals are plagioclase, augite quartz, ilmenite, apatite, dialiage, magnetite, zircon, pyrites, pyrrhotite, basaltic hornblende, biotite, epidote, and actinolite. Of the essential minerals, plagioclase is always the main constituent and makes up about 75 per cent, of the rock. It is generally of two generations, and determinations by the Michel Levy statistical method prove the type to be acid andesine. The crystals are lamellar twinned on the albite law, but they are traversed by broad cracks and kaolinised. An unusual mottled appearance is common, and is attributed to deuterie action. Shadow extinction and green to black sehiller structure are often pronounced. Augite makes up about 20 per cent, of the rock and is sometimes of two generations, the first being sub-hedral and often diallagic, the second occurring as green anhedral sheets enclosing the first. Ophitic structure is common, and is due to the second generation of augite, crystallising around plagioclase. Accessory minerals are quartz (interstitial), ilmenite (large anhedra), apatite, dialiage, magnetite, zircon, pyrites. The following sequence of consolidation has been established — magnetite, zircon, apatite, pyrites, augite (first generation), ilmenite, basaltic hornblende, augite, plagioclase, and quartz. Strongly developed cracks and shadow extinction in plagioclase and the bending of the cleavage of augite all testify to the great stresses to which the rock has been subjected. 7. Augite Diorite (second or minor intrusion). — A light-coloured, grey rock, composed of plagioclase, augite, green hornblende, quartz, ilmenite. The texture is hypidiomorphic. The plagioclase is lamellar twinned, and the augite occurs as ragged prisms. The quartz is in pseudo-graphic intergrowth with the felspar. Notable in this phase of the diorite is the absence of the deuterie effects shown by the first intrusion. 22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 8. Quart z-Felsite. — Pink in colour, it is almost invariably porphyritic with a microcrystalline ground-mass. It varies greatly in texture, and even a single thin-section may reveal considerable variation in texture and quartz content. The pink colour is due to hydration products of magnetite. The rock shows a three-stage order of consolida- tion, with phenocrysts of plagioclase of two generations set in a micro- aplite ground-mass. At times phenocrysts of quartz also appear, and in places it could be called a silicified and saussuritised felspar-porphyry. The constituent minerals are plagioclase, quartz, ilmenite, magnetite, apatite, zircon, rutile, tourmaline, epidote, serieite, topaz, elbaite, chlorite, basaltic-hornblende, and diopside. Of the essential minerals, the plagioclase is often intensely kaolinised, sericitised, and mildly saussuritised. Twin lamellae are often developed and Michel Levy determinations prove the type to be andesine. Quartz as phenocrysts is rare, and then the crystals are highly corroded and of three generations. The quartz of the ground-mass is unusual, in that separate individuals often show “optical continuity.” Occasionally, the outer borders of the felspar in the ground-mass form with quartz a micrographic inter- growth. Shadow extinction is general. The accessory minerals are ilmenite, leucoxene, magnetite, zircon, and rutile. The secondary minerals : quartz felspar-tourmaline veins occur with associated magnetite. In these the felspar is plagioclase and it is sericitised. In addition to the normal tourmaline, the blue, alkali variety (elbaite) is also present E<0. Topaz was also recognised. Diopside is associated with quartz, basaltic hornblende, and ilmenite. Chlorite replaces plagioclase, and is associated with quartz and felspar in vein form. Microkelyphitic structure has been noted in the quartz-felsite. Diopside is in itself a metamorphic mineral, and the general develop- ment of shadow extinction even in the quartz of the ground-mass connotes the prevalence of considerable stress continuing after the actual consolidation of the quartz-felsite magma. This is proved again by brecciation on a microcrystalline scale along the contact selvages; and that certain index of directed pressure, snowball structure, is also visible in the quartz-felspar ground-mass. 9. Alaskit e. — This is a fine to medium-grained holocrystalline pink rock. It is even textured, and is composed principally of quartz and felspar in micrographic intergrowth. The felspar is kaolinised, the quartz being clear colourless with inclusions of zircon. Some hosts of felspar are of tabular aspect; and a certain amount of late magmatic quartz is present. Magnetite and ilmenite are present as accessories. Conclusions. The igneous complex at Somerset Dam has been described petro- logically. A more detailed study has been made of the contact metamorphism on augite andesite agglomerate and augite andesite by augite diorite and quartz-felsite. The andesite agglomerate as compared with the andesite has suffered far greater metamorphic change in general. While the augite andesite was in places metamorphosed, the trachyte agglomerate has proved itself very resistant to contact metamorphism. The net result of the contact metamorphism of the augite andesite agglomerate is hard tough “ porphyrite. 9 ’ The volcanic suite of igneous rocks is regarded as belonging to the Lower Esk Series of Triassic age. PjmTeov! Soc. Q’lahd, Vol. LII, No. 3. Plate I. GEOLOGICAL PLAN SOMERSET DAM SITE —Section alone me line AB — Scale : Horizontal , I inch * 731 feet Post Aon of Vertical , I inch *400 feet —/Legend — 153/fc tgrte Dtor/fe. ESS Augite /BrfiAyr/tc. E 'QAugitc Andesite. E3 7Aa.cAyfcAgg/om crate . ^MAog/te Anc/esite Agg/omerafe. ■ Quart} te/sitc . ES) A/astite , Contours in feet. THE PETROLOGY OF THE SOMERSET DAM SITE. 23 Acknowledgments. The petrology and field-work were carried out as part of the course prescribed for the honours degree in science at the University of Queensland. To Professor H. C. Richards and Dr. W. H. Bryan the writer is indebted for valuable suggestions and assistance throughout the investigations; Mr. W. H. R. Nimmo (Supervising Engineer) and Mr. G-. Sheil (Resident Engineer) kindly permitted me free access to all workings and quarries. In addition to the thin-sections prepared by myself, I have been privileged to view certain slides in the collection of the Geological Survey of Queensland through the courtesy of the Chief Government Geologist. Dr. Hill also kindly made available some thin- sections. REFERENCES. Ball, L. C. (1933.) Queensland Government Mining Journal, XXXIV., February, p. 32. Grubenmann, U. (1910.) Vie Kristallinen Schiefer, p. 44. Hill, D. (1930a.) Proceedings Eoyal Society of Queensland , XLII., No. 3, pp. 28-48. Hill, D. (1930b.) Proceedings Eoyal Society of Queensland, XLII., No. 14, pp. 162-190. Kynaston, H. (1908.) Memoir Geological Survey Scotland, p. 96. Reid, J. H., and Morton, C. C. (1923.) Queensland Government Mining Journal , XXIV., February, p. 7. Reid, J. H. (1933.) Queensland Government Mining Journal, XXXIV., July, p. 193. Skeats, E. W. (1910.) Quarterly Journal Geological Society London, LXVI. Appendix. Suitability of Site for Dam Foundations. — Reference to the contours on the works plan of the Somerset Dam site shows that the chosen site with the N line as dam axis has the narrowest defile and would therefore be the most economical. It might appear at first glance that a position along either the ‘ * G ’ ? or “OO” line would be better. But from 0,1250 to 0,1250 there is a slight fissure zone which is again met at P,1025. So the right line for the axis would have to be up-stream from the “O” line, but andesite which shows pronounced weathering comes in north-east of the N line. Therefore, the limits as regards the Little Mount Brisbane side are closely set between 0 and N, and N is the desired and actual line of choice. On the Mount Brisbane side a mild fissure line is found between 00 and 0 (RL 353-6). This strikes north-east. So, again, the N line is the logical choice for the dam axis. The differential hardness of the rocks in the Somerset Dam site is the only source of weakness in a site which is structurally ideal. The fact that from N,1050 to N,1150 weak weathered rock is met is readily explained. The rocks in that section are andesites and were not hardened by the intrusion of diorites and quartz-felsites. On the other hand, the rock in which the main centre base of the dam-wall will be founded was originally augite-andesite-agglomerate, and was more susceptible to contact metamorphism by the diorites and quartz-felsite intrusions. The result in this latter case was the production of the hard, tough “porphyrite” so resistant to weathering. A measure of confidence is felt in having porphyrite under the main dam-wall centre, and the entire absence of faulting in the vicinity of the dam site augurs well for the future stability of the foundations. 24 Vol. LII., No. 4. THE GEOLOGY OF THE ANTARCTIC CON- TINENT AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO NEIGHBOURING LAND AREAS. By Arthur Wade, D.Sc., A.R.C.S. (One plate and one text figure.) (Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 2 6th August , 1940.) I. Introduction. In a general way, all continents are formed of similar materials and built up in a similar manner. Their foundations are formed of ancient gneissic and granitic material, with which is always associated masses of highly metamorphosed rocks, schists, quartzites, crystalline limestones, and green amphibolites which are younger than the gneisses and represent in large part the first or early sediments in the primaeval oceans which age and earth forces have changed beyond recognition. These are the basement rocks and are Archaean or pre-Cambrian in age. Then follows a great break representing unknown ages, but above these come sequence after sequence, tens of thousands of feet in thickness, of more normal sedimentary rocks — sandstones, limestones, shales and slates, and other related types. In these we get the first definite and recognisable forms of life. Hence, in the words used to name ages and groupings of these strata appears the suffix “zoic,” from the Greek word “ £wov,” meaning life — Proterozoic, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and Cainozoic. These divisions are universal and form the basis of classification in all continents. II. Geological Description of Antarctica. The continent of Antarctica differs in no geological respect from other continental masses. The rocks forming it are similar and closely related to rocks present in neighbouring land masses. It constitutes, in fact, a connecting link, both in materials and structure, between some of these land masses. It must be said, however, that very little of the Antarctic continent has been examined by geologists, none of it in detail. Such work as has been done has consisted of hurried geological recon- naissances of fringing areas on the outer margin of the area. The geology of the Falkland Islands has been done in some detail, while something is known of the geology of Tierra del Fu:ego. Of the parts nearer to the South Polar area, most work has been done on the islands present in the loop which connects Tierra del Fuego with Graham Land, and in the margins of Victoria Land to the west of the Ross Ice Shelf. Some idea of the rocks which underlie the great polar ice cap can be gained from boulders embedded in or carried by the ice, especially in the glaciers and coastal ice cliffs, and from samples obtained by dredges from deposits which have accumulated in shallow seas where ice has melted and dropped its burden of rock fragments and boulders. The available information is, however, not extensive and the geological sketch map (Plate II.) which accompanies this paper is necessarily tentative and will no doubt be greatly altered and added to as further work is done. With all its imperfections, the map suggests a good deal more than is shown, and these suggestions have an important bearing on the geological structure of the earth. THE GEOLOGY OF THE ANTARCTIC CONTINENT, ETC. 25 The map shows that Antarctica is naturally divided into three distinct elements: — (1) The great loop, formed by submarine ridging and dotted with islands, which continues the Andean folding and forms a connection between Tierra del Fuego, at the extreme southern tip of the South American continent, with Graham Land on the Antarctic continent; (2) The section comprising Graham Land, James W. Ellsworth Land, M]arie Byrd Land, and King Edward VII. Land, which is separated from the rest of the continent by the Ross Sea on the one side and the Weddell Sea on the other; (3) The main part of the continent extending from Coats Land through the Australian Antarctic Territory to Victoria Land. The South Pole itself is near the junction between 2 and 3. <1) The Great Loop. In Tierra del Fuego no strata older than Mesozoic — Jurassic and Cretaceous — have been recognised. These beds rest on the old basement rocks — gneisses, schists, &c. Intrusive igneous rocks of the andesitic type are characteristic of this region and of the Andes generally, as the name itself indicates. To the eastward of Tierra del Fuego lie the Falkland Islands, Here are no rocks of Mesozoic age. They are older, ranging from the Silurian of the Older Palaeozoic to the Permian of the Newer Palaeozoic. This is an important fact, and will be referred to again later. From Tierra del Fuego the great loop runs out to the eastwards for upwards of 1,600 miles and doubles back to connect with Graham Land. Most of the islands which appear above the submarine ridging are of volcanic origin, but there are important exceptions. The first important island west of Tierra del Fuego is South Georgia, a mountainous land with snow covered peaks 6,000 to 8,000 feet above sea level. Sandstones, grits, greywackes, shales, and schists are present, but only a few badly preserved fossils have been found in these rocks. They are folded, crumpled, and locally metamorphosed, but are believed to be of the same age as the sedimentary rocks of Tierra del Fuego — Mesozoic. In the south-east part of the island, volcanic tuffs and ashes occur, as well as crystalline basic igneous rocks, diabase, and gabbro (Antarctic Pilot, 1930). Next come the South Sandwich Islands, which form the bend of the loop. Here Larsen found lavas and evidence that volcanic activity was not altogether quiescent (Antarctic Pilot, 1930). From the South Sandwich Islands the loop runs almost due west along the 60th parallel of latitude. On the northern or inside of this part of the loop are the South Orkney Islands. On these occur blue-grey, fine-grained greywackes and black shales. The latter contain fossils — graptolites — which show them to be of Lower Palaeozoic age — Ordovician. Rocks of such ages occur in no other island of the loop so far as is known. Their affinities are with the rocks of the Falkland Islands rather than with those of the remaining islands or Tierra del Fuego (Antarctic Pilot, 1930). Further west from Clarence Island, islands become more numerous. The South Shetland Islands occur and finally the long peninsula of Graham Land itself continues the ridging above ocean level. 26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Andesites, trachyandesites, rhyolites, and some olivine basalts are present on most of the islands examined. These rocks closely resemble the intrusive rocks of Tierra del Fuego and Patagonia, and are thought to be late Mesozoic to early Tertiary in age. Associated with these, sedimentary rocks have been noted in places, and these range from the Mesozoic — Jurassic — to Pleistocene near the top of the Tertiary sedimentation. Sandstones of Cretaceous age occur on Snow Hill and Seymour Islands. Ammonites have been found associated with these. On the north-east of Seymour Island, Tertiary sandstones with plant remains also occur. Most of the intrusive and extrusive rocks in this part of the loop are younger than the Mesozoic deposits of Snow Hill and Seymour Islands, which were disturbed and folded before the deposition of the plant bearing Tertiary strata. The basalts and tuffs of Ross Island, Cockburn Island, Seal Nunataks, Deception Island, and Bridgeman Island are thought to be of the same age as the similar rocks found in the South Sandwich Islands — Miocene to Recent. On Cockburn Island, basalt tuff is overlain by conglomerates containing fossil shells, chiefly pectens, which are as young as the Pliocene or perhaps even Pleistocene (Antarctic Pilot, 1930). (2) Graham Land, James W. Ellsworth Land, Marie Byrd Land, and King Edward VII. Land. At Hope Bay, on the Trinity Peninsula of Graham Land, gently folded dark slates of fresh water origin have been found. These contain the remains of fossil plants (ferns and conifers) of Mesozoic — Jurassic — types and showing a close relationship with the similar deposits of Tierra del Fuego (Antarctic Pilot, 1930). The igneous rocks of Graham Land are not extrusive in type as on most of the islands, but are intrusive and consist of grano-diorites, quartz diorites, and gabbros as in South Georgia. Nevertheless, these intrusive plutonic rocks are considered to be of the same age as the intrusives found on the islands and younger than the Snow Hill-Seymour Island Cretaceous sediments. Even in this part of the loop there is some indication that the older deposits tend to occur on the inner side of the loop and that the rocks of Alexander Land may be as old as those of the South Orkney Islands, i.e., Palaeozoic. Little is known of the geology of the remaining portions of this section, though it would appear from Ellsworth’s observations made in the course of his trans- Antarctic flight in 1935 and the later observations made by Byrd in 1939 that the submarine ridges of the great loop are continued as chains of high mountains in James W. Ellsworth Land. Some of these mountains seem to consist of sedimentary rocks. Plutonic rocks, chiefly granites and diorites, are reported to occur near Scott’s Nunataks in King Edward VII. Land (Du Toit, 1937). (3) The Main Part of the Continent. The junction between the section last dealt with and the main continental mass is probably a zone of very severe faulting. The eastern margin of Victoria Land is formed by a sheer, precipitous wall of cliffs and mountains which exceed 10,000 feet in height and overlook the Ross Sea. This wall runs, in a southerly direction towards the Pole. In his flights across the Polar area in 1939 Byrd found that the wall continued further towards the Weddell Sea than had been previously THE GEOLOGY OF THE ANTARCTIC CONTINENT, ETC. 27 known. He also noted that basaltic rocks were prevalent along the foot of the escarpment. Faults running parallel to this marginal escarpment have been seen on Ross Island off the coast of Victoria Land. Associated with them are the active volcanoes, Mountains Erebus and Terror (Du Toit, 1937). Wherever the coastal regions of the rest of this main continental area have been visited basement rocks have' been found — gneisses, cordierite granites, schists, crystalline limestones, quartzites, and green amphibolites. From 'Coats Land around to the coasts of Victoria Land rocks of this description have been noted by exploring geologists. These old rocks had been worn down and peneplaned before the younger sedimentaries were laid down upon them. Resting on these metamorphosed basement rocks, sediments of Older Palaeozoic age have been noted in the coastal regions of Victoria Land. Strata thought to belong to the Cambrian have been noted near Robertson Bay to the north. Archaeocyathinae Limestone, a Lower Cambrian deposit, which was formerly thought to be peculiar to South Australia, has been found on Mount Nansen, as boulders on the Beardmore glacier and in dredgings off the coast of Coats Land on the opposite side of the Pole (Du Toit, 1937 ; Antarctic Pilot, 1930). So far as we can surmise on present knowledge, strata of Newer Palaeozoic age form the rock surface of the greater part of the main continental area under the ice sheets of the great Antarctic plateau, which is from 8,000 to 11,000 feet above sea level. Wherever examined these deposits are still horizontal. There is none of the folding which has affected the Palaeozoic and even younger rocks observed on the islands of the great loop. Devonian rocks, partly consisting of soft shales and containing scales of Devonian fish, have been found at Granite Harbour. Devonian erratics occur also on the flanks of Mjount Suess at the head of the Mackay glacier (Du Toit, 1937 ; Antarctic Pilot, 1930, Supplement No. 6, 1937). The most important group of strata, which apparently covers most of the polar area, is of Permian age, possibly ranging into the Triassic. The group is several thousand feet thick. The chief member is the Beacon Sandstone, which is over 3,000 feet thick in places. The formation consists, according to Du Toit (1937), of “pale massive, cross bedded sandstones with felspathic grits and conglomerates, yellow or grey thin bedded sandstones and, in its upper parts, of dark shaley beds with carbonaceous shales and coals, ’ ’ It is thought that the sandstones were formed under arid conditions. These beds contain a Glossopteris flora, a flora which is characteristic of strata of this age wherever they occur in the southern hemisphere — Australia, India, Madagascar, South Africa, and South America. The sequence is remarkably similar to that found in parts of Australia and South Africa. The succession from Lo^Yer Cambrian upwards is closely paralleled in the Kimberley District of Western Australia (Wade, 1924 and 1938). Even the association of Dolerite sills with these rocks is a feature which is noted also in Tasmania and South Africa. Red sandstones, found as morainal blocks, occur off the coasts of Coats and Enderby Lands, and indicate the probable occurrence of the Beacon Sandstone inland. The Beacon Sandstone is Irom 2,000 to 3,000 feet thick at the head of the Ferrar Glacier. At the head of the Beardmore Glacier shale beds and coal seams with a Glossopteris flora have been observed. 28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. The only rocks representative of a later age than Triassie are extrusive, soda rich, igneous rocks — trachytes, phonolites, kenyites, and olivine rich basalts. The lavas and ashes of Mount Erebus are of these types, and are of late Tertiary to Recent in age. The leucite bearing lavas of Mount Gauss, a volcano in the coastal area of Kaiser Wilhelm II. Land, are of similar age. Leucite hearing lavas are of uncommon occurrence on the earth’s, surface. They occur associated with the extinct volcanoes of the West Kimberley District of Western Australia, which are certainly not older than Mesozoic and may be of Tertiary age (Wade and Prider, 1939). In almost every feature of rock occurrence, succession, and even to the ancient and complete peneplanation of the Precambrian (basement) rocks, Western Australia closely resembles Antarctica, To a very marked degree the same may be said of Madagascar, on the opposite side of the Indian Ocean (Wade, 1931). III. Structure of Antarctica. The complex folded structure of the Andes is very evidently continued in the submarine ridges and associated islands of the great loop. A high degree of folding has been noted on some of the islands. The Jurassic sediments of Graham Land are also folded, but here the folding is more gentle. Such folds are due to tangential stresses in the earth’s crust. In the main part of Antarctica, from Coats Land to Victoria Land, wherever sedimentary deposits have been observed, the strata are more or or less horizontal. Any movement which has occurred has been due to- forces acting vertically rather than tangentially. There is a marked absence of folding. Thus there is a distinct structural difference, as well as geological differences, between the two parts of Antarctica which lie on opposite sides of the Ross and Weddell Seas. So far the story has been a collation of observed facts only. The great loop has been noted and the differences which exist between the- two parts of the Antarctic continent. These differences have causes. Causes bring up larger questions of earth structure. During Mesozoic times great geosynclinal troughs existed which followed the direction of the western coasts of North and South America, being extended towards the South Polar area by the great loop described above. A geosynclinal depression swung off from these and passed eastwards through the Antilles, crossed the mid-Atlantic area, occupied the areas where now are the Alps, Caucasus, and Himalayas, and turned southwards through Burma and Malaya to the East Indian Islands,, where there was bifurcation, one arm swinging up through Japan to join the geosyncline on the eastern side of North America, the other passing through New Guinea and swinging south again through New Zealand towards the South Polar area. The folded Mesozoic sediments of Graham Land correspond closely with those of Tierra del Fuego at the southern extremity of the Andean Chain. There can be little doubt that the Andean geosyncline is continued by way of the great loop to Graham Land and crosses the Antarctic 'Continent through James W. Ellsworth and Marie Byrd Lands. Nor can there be any doubt that the geosyncline passing through New Zealand also connects on the opposite side of the- continent to Graham Land and is part of the same circum-Pacific geosyncline. Little is known of the strata or structure of James W. Ellsworth and Marie Byrd Lands, but the indications, as found in THE GEOLOGY OF THE ANTARCTIC CONTINENT, ETC. 29 Graham Land, suggest that future work will accentuate the differences already noted between this part of Antarctica and the main continental area. The depressions occupied by the Ross and Weddell seas are significant. These and the north-south line of Victoria Land indicate that these depressions and the unknown area between are areas of great tectonic disturbance marked by faulting. Suess (1909) seems to have been the first to suggest that the Andean geosyncline was continued through the great loop into the South Polar area and passed across it to connect with the geosyncline passing through New Zealand on the western side of the Pacific, though he did not have the data now provided by the map and accompanying handbook recently published by the Commonwealth Government. The suggestion was objected to in some quarters. Suess (1909) noted the similarity between this loop and that formed by the Antilles, and which forms a connecting link between North and South America. He therefore proposed to call the island groups of the great Antarctic loop the Southern Antilles. IV. Causes and Physical Hypotheses. The close of the Mesozoic era was marked by great orogenic activity. The great geosynclines had become heavily filled with sediments in Mesozoic times and had sagged. They were lines of crustal weaknesss. Tangential forces in the earth’s crust crumpled the sediments and under- lying rocks, lifted them from beneath to high above the ocean surface, and had formed almost all of the World’s mountain chains by early Tertiary times. Geophysicists consider that sedimentary and basement rocks together are no more than 15 km. thick. Both are comparatively light in density which is about 2-5. Material of similar density but of slightly different composition continues to a depth of about 40 km. Below this again is heavier material corresponding to crystalline basalt with a density of 3-0 or more. This layer is about 20 km. thick (Daly, 1939). The light crustal rocks are called “sial,” from the elements silicon and aluminium, which are the dominant constituents. The darker and heavier material below is called “sima, ” from silicon and magnesium, which predominate in this material- The continental areas consist of thick masses of sial. Sial also forms the beds of most ocean tracts, but there is evidence to indicate that it is much thinner there than in the continental masses. The floor of the Pacific Ocean between New Zealand and the coasts of North and South America behaves as though composed of “sima,” and not “sial,” as in most other superficial areas. The continental masses of sial can be pictured as floating in the sima below. In this connection the doctrine of isostasy arises. If the continental masses float there is local displacement of sima below and, in fact, the observed heights of mountains on the earth’s surface correspond exactly with the heights which can be worked out theoretically on the basis of isostatic principles (Daly, 1939). Ice is solid matter, and yet it has been demonstrated that ice flows outwards from the Antarctic Plateau, and photographs taken by explorers show how it becomes folded and contorted in the course of this movement. Folds and contortions of similar types are to be observed in all types of rock included in the sial. R.s. — B. 30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. V. Continental Movements. Now, if the solid ice resting on the sial surface of the Antarctic* continent flows outwards towards the coastal areas it is not absurd to suppose that the sial of the thick, floating continental masses tends to< flow outwards over the sima, though much more slowly than floating ice. If this be so, the effect of other forces at work upon and in the earth’s crust, such as the earth’s rotation, tides, stresses set up in the crust by shifting masses, and the response of the sima according to the laws of isostasy upon these masses, must be considered. The matter becomes one of great complications. Many papers have been written on the movement of continental masses, but Wegener (1915) was the first to marshal the evidence for such movements and to present it in convincing form. He postulated a single continental area, the ‘ ‘ pangaea, ’ ’ which started to break up in the Mesozoic period, with a general westerly drift of the parts. Serious geological objections are in the way of accepting Wegener ’s hypothesis (Chamberlin, 1928). Gutenberg (1927) developed the idea of flow more or less in accordance with the premises laid down above. He considers that the moon was formed by the separation of a mass of sial from the earth’s crust in the Pacific area — hence the absence of sial and the floor of sima. This, he thinks, left a single continental mass near the South Pole, which eventually spread with centrifugal movement to form the present continents. Neither Wegener nor Gutenberg explain in a satisfactory manner the independent lines of development which took place in northern and southern hemispheres in Permian times- Wade (1935) considered that two sial masses were formed, one at each polar area, and that these spread towards the equator. He considers that the great geosynclines form the margins of these masses, and that where the two masses have met, and where pressure exerted by the southward moving mass is opposed by the northward moving mass, mountain building results as in the Alps, Himalayas, New Guinea, &c. New Guinea, for example, is on the outer margin of the sial sheet spreading radially from the South Polar area. The northerly movement of Australia has met with opposition from the southerly moving Asiatic mass, hence the tendency of Australia to move eastwards in response to this pressure, and the structural features of New Guinea and the East Indian Islands represent the crumpling of the crust between the two opposing movements. The whole of the evidence for the movement of continental masses has been recently marshalled and reviewed again by du Toit (1937). VI. Relationship of Antarctica to Other Continental Masses. Having thus reviewed some present day ideas of continental move- ment, it is now possible to consider some of the structural features of Antarctica and its relations with its nearest continental neighbours (Plate II.). The great island studded loop which Suess (1909) so aptly called the Southern Antilles is, a,s we have seen, the continuation of the geosyncline of the Andes. East and outside of the loop where it parts with the South American continent are the Older and New Palaeozoic outcrops of the Falkland Islands. An inner rim of Mesozoic rocks is THE GEOLOGY OF THE ANTARCTIC CONTINENT, ETC. 31 The Great Mesozoic Geosynclines, — To illustrate a Theory of Continental Spreading. — Wade, 32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. represented in the folded formations of South Georgia, Volcanic extrusives of Tertiary age are the only rocks observed on the islands present in the bend of the loop. The outcrops noted on the islands of the convex side of the loop and in the peninsula-like mass of Graham Land present a somewhat similar distribution — Older Palaeozoic rocks in the South Orkney Islands and, more doubtfully, in Alexander I. Land on the northern and western margin ; Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks to the south and east of them. A great loop of this kind must have a geological interpretation. The structure is suggestive of a great zone of sheering in the basement rocks, accompanied by overfolding in which rocks up to Palaeozoic and perhaps to Mesozoic age have been involved. If it were possible to straighten out the loop by bringing South America back to the eastwards that continent would be nearly 2,000 miles nearer to the mass of Africa. North America would make a similar approach to Europe if it were possible to move it eastwards to straighten out the loop of the Antilles. Such ideas may or may not be valid. The islands of both loops are in large measure of volcanic origin, which is suggestive of the presence of much faulting and sheering of the crust below. So little is known of that part of Antarctica which constitutes James W. Ellsworth Land and Marie Byrd Land that it is not possible to say more than that it appears that the Andean geosyncline is continued across it and that it connects with the geosyncline which passes from New Guinea through New Zealand and continues towards the Antarctic region. This part of Antarctica has, therefore, both stratigraphic and structural affinities with South America. The main mass of Antarctica is very evidently clear of any effects of geosynclinal conditions. The sediments are horizontal. Folding is absent. At the base of the sedimentary series is the Lower Cambrian, containing Archaeocyathinids which are so characteristic of the Lower Cambrian of South Australia and almost completely absent from Lower Cambrian deposits elsewhere in the world- For example, only one or two specimens of this genus have been found in the Lower Cambrian of South Africa. Thus, in the very earliest f ossiliferous sediments there is a close connexion between Australia and Antarctica. Above these, Devonian sediments of marine origin have been found in the coastal areas of Victoria Land. Marine deposits of the same age are found in many parts of Australia from Victoria to the Kimberley District of Western Australia. Superimposed on these Devonian sediments lies the Beacon Sand- stone, which passes up into flags and shales with coal seams and plant remains. These plant remains are interesting, since they contain leaves of the fossil plant Glossopteris and a characteristic flora which is distinct in many ways from the flora found in beds of the same age in lands of the northern hemisphere and north of the east to west geosynclinal belt which commences with the Antilles and crosses Europe and southern Asia. This Glossopteris flora has been found in fresh water and estuarine deposits of Antarctica, Australia, Indian, Africa, and South America, In these land areas there is also great similarity between types and sequences of deposit as well as of the life forms represented by their fossil contents. They appear to form not only a distinctive geological province but a biological province also. So much THE GEOLOGY OF THE ANTARCTIC CONTINENT, ETC. 33 is this so that geologists, palaeontologists, and biologists have been forced to the conclusion that plant and animal life could not have been so distributed in the southern hemisphere in Permian times unless there existed land connexions between the continental areas mentioned. Thus the concept of a large southern continent which has been called Gondwanaland, and which extended from South America to Australia and included India and Africa, has been accepted by even conservative geologists who are opposed to the idea of continental movement. This continental area of Gondwanaland retained its identity until late Mesozoic times. It then began to break up, according to orthodox geologists, by the foundering of great blocks; according to another school, by flow and drifting apart which must, of necessity, have been accompanied by sheering and fracturing of the crust. If orthodox opinion is right and the present continental massses have not moved then. Gondwanaland must have been of huge dimensions. If the theory of movement is accepted this vast single continent is not necessary. The parts weld into a more compact block of far smaller dimensions and the similarities which have been noted in very widely separated regions are much more easy to explain. One common feature in the Permian deposits of all these lands is the association of glacial deposits — boulder clays, tills, rock pavements striated by the grinding of boulder filled ice sheets, and even large moraines — with the sediments laid down early in Permian times and, according to some authorities, towards the end of the Carboniferous- Period. Ice sheets invaded all these land areas which formed part of Gondwanaland and there is much evidence to indicate that these sheets, originated in a common South Polar area. The climate had improved by the middle of the Permian, for, in most of these countries, coal measures or beds containing plant remains overlie the glacial deposits. It is; remarkable that in Antarctica itself no definite evidence of this ancient ice age has yet been found. There is abundant evidence that the Beacon Sandstone was not laid down under glacial conditions, but rather in a temperate and arid climate. The shales, flags, and coal seams above indicate more humid but at least temperate climatic conditions. This creates a dilemma. If the Antarctic continent has not moved there was no ice cap at the Pole in Permian times, or the position of the South Pole itself was not in Antarctica. Any consideration of the shifting of the Pole involves the shifting of the axis of rotation of the earth, and this would have serious consequences. The whole structure of the globe, and especially of the crustal portions, would be affected- When the Permian, glaciation is studied in various countries, the problem becomes interesting. Ice coming from the south overran parts of Victoria, New South Wales, South Australia, Western Australia to beyond the Tropic of Capricorn in the West Kimberley District (Wade, 1939), and Queensland. In India, Permian glaciation reached far to the north of the Equator. To explain Australian conditions an Antarctic continent either connected with the southern margin of Australia or not far away from it must be postulated. The glaciation which took place in the comparatively recent ice age of Pleistocene times which affected North America and northern Europe and Asia did not advance very far, even, into lands of the Temperate Zone. Here, in the P ermian, ice apparently advanced well into and beyond the Tropics, and yet there is little evidence so far of glaciation around the South Pole itself. This seems to be absurd, and again leads; to the conclusion that either the South Pole or the land masses themselves* must have moved. 34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. VII. Conclusions. The weight of evidence is in favour of the movement of the continental masses. The conditions existing in the make-up of the earth’s crust are considered to be such that movement of the light sial masses is possible, and even probable. In land masses of the southern hemisphere similarities exist in types of sedimentation, sequence of deposits, structural features, distribution of plant and animal life as indicated by fossils, and glaciation originating in a common centre or ice-cap which must have been located around the South Pole. The reasonable explanation of such similarities is that all these land masses in the southern hemis- phere were in close connexion not far from the polar area in Uppe^ Carboniferous and Permian times. The group formed Gondwanaland, and the present Antarctic continent was part of it, though not, at that time, in its present position. This old continental area started to break up in the Mesozoic period, the various parts drifting off to form Antarctica, Australia, India, Africa, and South America. The great loop which Suess called the Southern Antilles is, apparently, an extraordinary -structural feature, the peculiarities of which had their origin in the sheering, dragging, and stretching movements accompanying the drifting to the westward of the South American mass. VIII. Bibliography. The following works are mostly additional to those listed in the bibliography contained in the “ Handbook and Index to accompany a Map of Antarctica,” by Messrs. Bayliss and Cumpston, and recently published by the Department of External Affairs. References in Roman numerals in the text correspond to the numbers attached the items below. Antarctic Pilot (1930). 1st Ed.; Hydrographic Dept. Admiralty, Lond., p. 30, et seq. Also Supplement No. 6, 1937. 'Chamberlain, R. T. (1928). “Some of the Objections to Wegener’s Theory of Continental Drift.” Amer. Ass. P.G. Symposium, Tulsa, U.S.A. Daly, R. A. (1939). “Architecture of the Earth.” New York and London, p. 62 et al. Du Toit, A. L. (1937). “Our Wandering Continents.” London. Gutenberg, B. (1927). “Die Veranderungen der Erdkruste dureh Fleissbewe- gungen. ” Gerlands Beitrage zur Geophysik, XVI., p. 239, and XVIII., p. 281; also Handbuck der Geophysik, Band III., Lief 1 (1930), p. 532. Suess, E. (1909). “Das Antlitz der Erde.” Wien. Translated as “The Face of the Earth.” Part IV., p. 489. Oxford. Wade, A. (1924). “Petroleum Prospects, Kimberley District of Western Australia and Northern Territory.” Pari. Pap. Melbourne, pp. 9-10. Wade, A. (1931). “The Geology of Part of Western Madagascar.” J.I.P.T. Wade, A. (1935). “New Theory of Continental Spreading.” Bull. Am. Ass. Pet. Geol.. vol. 19, No. 12, pp. 1806-1818. Wade, A. (1938). “The Geological Succession in the West Kimberley District of Western Australia.” A. & N.Z.A.A.S., vol. XXIII., pp. 93-96. Wade, A. (1939). “The Permian Sequence in Australia.” A. & N.Z.A.A.S., vol. XXIV., pp. 90-91. Wade, A., and Prider, R. T. (1939). “The Leucite Bearing Rocks of the West Kimberley Area, Western Australia.” A. & N.Z.A.A.S., vol. XXIV., p. 99, and Q.J.G.S. Lond., vol. XCVI., pp. 39-98. 1940. Wegener, A. (1915). “Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane. ” Four edns., 1915, 1920, 1922, 1928. Translated as “The Origins of Continents and Oceans.” J. G. A. Skerl, Lond. 1924. Xu A [ASWAN I (LKLAfifp ISLAND' Geological Sketch Map of Antarctica by Arthur Wade, d.s * Mesozoic to Tertiary. IV.V.I Granite. THE GEOLOGY OF THE ANTARCTIC CONTINENT, ETC. 35 Appendix. Economic Minerals of Antarctica. From an economic point of view, apart from the Permian coal seams which may be worked some time in the distant future, the rocks which give most promise of mineral wealth are those of the pre-Cambrian basement complex. Much of the gold in Australia and South Africa is obtained from the pre-Cambrian. Manganese, tin, sulphide, and iron ores, tungsten, wolfram, tantalite, and other rarer minerals, perhaps even precious stones, are all likely to be present in these rocks, judging from specimens which have been examined, as well as from develop- ments which have taken place in other parts of the Gondwanaland area. In the region where the Andean geosyncline passes across the Antarctic region it is quite possible that accumulations of petroleum have been retained in the folded strata and that, some day, oilfields will be found :and developed. Great difficulties obviously exist at present which must be overcome before there is any hope of conducting prospecting operations in anything like an adequate and efficient manner. Progress will eventually be made in this direction, but again, as with coal, such developments are still for the distant future — possibly when there is greater need for such minerals than exists at present. 36 Vol. LIL, No. 5. APHIDIDAE IN AUSTRALIA II. Subtribe Pentaloniina. By G. H. Hardy. ( Bead before the Boy at Society of Queensland , 2 6th August, 1940.) I. TAXONOMY. The status of the subtribe Pentaloniina. — Under this subtribe* proposed by Baker (1920), for which some authors find little justifica- tion, only three standing genera are now recognised, and it might even prove advantageous if all the species concerned were merged in one generic conception under the subtribe Macrosiphina Baker, as the characters are not clearly differentiated and most of those used are inconstant. Key to species of the Pentaloniina. 1. Wings with the radial vein anastomosing with the median; stigma normal. Antennae with many sensoria on segments 3, 4 and 5 of the alate form. Cornicles constricted at about their centre on all instars . . . . . . . . . . Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq. Wings normally with the radial and median veins separated, but if anastomosing, then the stigma is unusually short. Antennae with senoria absent on the fifth segment, or at most limited to two or three (except some forms not in Australia) . . . . 2: 2. Stigma normal. Antennae of the alate form with sensoria on segments 3 and 4. Cornicles slightly swollen over the apical half on all instars . . . . . . . . Idiopterus violae Pergande Stigma unusually short. Antennae of alate form with sensoria on the third segment and absent or very scanty on the fourth. On all instars the cornicles vary with growth from strongly conical to cylindrical on the adult . . Idiopterus nephrolepidis Davis- Genus Idiopterus Davis, Synonmy. — Under this genus come Fullawayella Del Guercio 1911,. N eotoxoptera Theobald 1915, and Micromyzus v.d. Goot 1917. Theobald based his genus on violae Pergande, the others using nephrolepidis Davis. Further species have been added under one generic name or another by Takihashi, Moreira, and Essig. Although Hottes and Frison 1931, unite Idiopterus and N eotoxoptera as a single genus, Essig 1935, would separate them. He considered that the name N eotoxoptera was invalid for his purpose and, moreover, did not recognise M. nigrum v.d. Goot as a synonym, thus placing Micromyzus as a name preferable to A eotoxoptera. Generic Status. — The banana aphis Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq. is the only species in its genus, and there is little to show that Idiopterus nephrolepidis Davis is sufficiently distinct to make another valid genus. The former has one oblique vein (the median) in the hind wing, but this sometimes is missing, and the latter has one or two such veins, but both may be missing, and the character is similarly variable on I. violae Perg. APHIDIDAE IN AUSTRALIA, II. 37 Pentalonia always seems to have the radial vein of the anterior wing fusing with the median beyond the first branch, and Idiopterus is variable in this respect, although according to published illustrations the radial may anastomose with the median before the first branch; I have found no Australian specimens with this character. On / nephrolopidis Davis, the radial and median veins often lie close together beyond the first branch of the median, but generally they stand well apart, and are always situated widely apart on I. viola c Perg. One specimen of the latter entirely misses the median vein in all four wings, whilst the hind-wing also misses the cubital, and there are many variations showing stages towards this extreme. Microparsus Patch 1909 is based on characters that are included in the variations of species under 1 diopter us, and the genotype being called variabilis Patch, further suggests that this rare monotypical North American genus is not valid. Hottes and Frison seem to be the only authors who have discovered it since Patch originally described the species, and they maintain it as distinct on characters that do not seem satisfactory in the light of the present discussion. Idiopterus is accepted in this paper, covering two species in Australia with synonmy recorded below. Idiopterus nephrolepidis Davis. Idiopterus nephrolepidis Davis 1900, North America. Macrosiphum kirkaldyi Fullaway 1910, Hawaii. Fullawayella kirkaldyi Del Guercio 1910. Microsiphum nigrum v.d. Goot 1917, Java. Host -plants. — Various ferns. Distribution. — The country of origin of this tropical insect is unknown, but it is now an uncommon to rare insect throughout most parts of the world, being transported with ferns, surviving in temperate regions in greenhouses. The First Record. — The earliest reference to this aphis, is that of Buckton (1876) who, without naming the insect, states that “Professor Kaltenback considers that no aphides attack the Felices or ferns, but the family is not wholly exempt, for I have found, in a greenhouse, a new species which clusters on a foreign Cystropteris .” One of these specimens is mentioned by Theobald (1926, p. 360), for, referring to the occurrence in England, he states that “it is evidently not a recent introduction for Laing finds a slide of it in Buckton ’s collection.” This record adds another genus of fern to those already in the host-plant lists. Idiopterus violae Pergande. Macrosiphum, violae Pergande 1900, North America. Neotoxoptera violae Theobald 1915, South Africa. Fullawayella violae Baker 1919. Idiopterus violae Hottes and Frison 1931. Micromyzus violae Essig 1915. Host-plant. — Viola. 38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. This aphis is recorded from many parts of the world and its country of origin is not known. So far it has been recorded only from culti- vated violets, and I failed to find it on the native violet which grows very densely in an area about fifteen miles from Brisbane. It seems to be generally scarce. Perhaps records of 7. nephrol&pidis Davis, breeding on violets, is a misidentification of this species. I have failed to inter- change the host-plant of these two. As stated in the prior paper (Hardy 1931), this species has only been found in Brisbane during the three winter months from June to August, but it seems probable that May is the month when the colonies are started. Parasitic and predaceous insects have not been found associated with them, presumably because the season of the year associated with the shady conditions under which the host-plant occurred are unfavourable for parasitism. II. BIOLOGY. Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq. — In Brisbane, within each colony, several generations of apterae are reared before the alate forms are produced. These alate migrants first appear in the spring month of September, or even late August, but are few in numbers, and each colony producing migrants dies out soon afterwards. Other colonies existing at the same time, but which do not produce alatae then, do so in November and in more noticeable numbers. These also peter out, leaving behind those started in the early spring by the September migrants. The latter produce their alatae in December and January before they, too, die out. It is the colonies initiated in November that are responsible for the alatae which appear with remarkable suddenness, in considerable numbers, in March-April. Chiefly at this time of the year, migrants swarm over the many plants, mainly monocotolydons, setting up new colonies, as already reported (Hardy 1931). New colonies are established by migrants reared after a long series of apterae are produced, and if migrants be produced before the normal time, either these fail to initiate new colonies, or do so to a very limited extent. There are consequently four periods of the year when migrants are produced on a sufficiently large scale to be apparent. Each colony seems to run through seven to ten generations before producing alatae forms, and each of the apterae give rise to about two young per day over a period that does not seem to differ from that of other Pentalonina. Breeding records of Idiopterus nephrolepidis Davis give a better idea of what actually happens in the life-cycle. This aphis has been observed only in the autumn and winter months, and the production of alatae is followed by the extinction of the colony just as with P. nigronervosa. This is not entirely due to the predaceous and parasitic insects which are plentiful at this period of the year. Colonies kept entirely free from attack by their natural enemies failed to survive production of more than a few successive generations of migrants, the species surviving only for about twelve weeks. In England, Theobald (1926) found alatae produced about five times in the year under green- house conditions, and this allows 5 or 6 apterae generations to occur between alatae. APHIDIDAE IN AUSTRALIA, II. 39 Idiopterus violae Pergande is found in winter; about June the alatae seem to be reared continuously for a short period and the colonies entirely disappear in August. Apparently not more than two apterae generations occur between alatae. For a time it seemed prob- able that violets were being infested from the adjacent I. nephrolepidis, very much as the banana aphis P. nigronverosa which attacks Caladiums produced thereby the form known as P. caladii v.d. Boot. However, several attempts to interchange the host-plants of /. nephrolepidis and I. violae, were unsuccessful. Breeding Experiments. On March 13th, 1929, a migrant I. nephrolepidis arrived on a fern Platy cerium, and this was transferred to a similar fern in the glass- house. Data was secured by counting the progeny and recording the dates, one of the specimens being transferred to a third fern, and each subsequent generation was similarly treated. 1st Generation. — March 15th, 2 ; 18th, 12 ; 19th, 13 ; 20th, 17 ; 21st 17; 22nd, 18; 25th, 22; 26th, 28; 27th, 30; 28th, 32; April 2nd, 40; 3rd, 40; 5th, 42, parent dead. Over a period of twenty-two days, 42 young were born, averaging about two young per day. On March 26th one aphis was transferred to another fern, the remainder being destroyed before reproducing. Fourteen days elapsed between birth and reproduction by this first generation. 2nd Generation. — The aphis transferred on March 26th to the third fern had the following issue : — March 28th, 2 ; April 2nd, 13 ; 3rd, 19 ; 5th, 21; 8th, 24; 9th, 24. The parent then disappeared, having yielded twenty-four young in thirteen days. Two aphides of the first generation, reared in the open, were then transferred to a fourth plant in the glasshouse on May 12th, these yielding — May 14th, 6 ; 15th, 10 ; 17th, 15 ; 20th, 21 ; 22nd, 27 ; 24th, 33. Thirty-three young in eleven days, gave for each of these two about average per day. This count in colony again was never completed, because the next observations were made on May 27th, when the progeny had started producing the third generation, showing about fourteen days passed between birth and reproduction. 3rd Generation. — June 7th, 1; 12th, 4; 14th, 4; 17th, 5; 20th, 9; 24th, 10; 26th, 11; July 1st, 13; 4th, 16; 6th, 16. Reproduction ceased after July 4th, giving 16 young produced in thirty-eight days during mid-winter, an average less than one in two days. Two of these young aphides were transferred to another fern, but failed to survive. The whole stock of these aphides died with- out apparent cause, and a fourth generation was not detected breeding anywhere in the several colonies under observation whilst these tests were in progress. A Mass Production Test. — The following year, an alate aphis was brought into the glasshouse and allowed to produce in quantity. The colony started on March 14th, 1930, with the following issue: — March 17th, 4; 19th, 8; 20th, 9; beyond which further counts were not kept. 40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. On April 22nd, three winged aphides were reared. Two generations of the apterae were bred in the five weeks before producing the alatae. Eventually this free-breeding stock petered out in the winter and the remaining alatae did not initiate any new colonies. It would seem that colonies do not normally survive the Brisbane winter and temperatures may have much to do with this. The species, is very heavily preyed upon by predaceous insects of several kinds, Syrphid and Neuropterous larvae being the most abundant. Colonies, are quickly wiped out by this means. Literature. Baker, A. C. (1920). U.S. Dept. Agrie. Bull. 826, 89 pp. Buckton, G. R. (1876). A Monograph of British Aphides, vol. 1, 190 pp. Essig, E. O. (1935). Pan-Pacific Entomologist, xi., pp. 156-162. Hardy, G. H. (1931). Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xliii., pp. 31-6. Hottes, F. C., and Frison, T. H. (1931). Bull. Nat. Hist. Survey, Hlinois, xix.,. pp. 123-447. Moreira, S. (1925). Inst. Biol. Defesa Agric. Bull. 2, p. 26. Takahashi, R. (1931). Dept. Agric., Formosa, Rep. 53, 127 pp. Theobald, F. Y. (1926). Plant Lice or Aphididae of Great Britain, vol. 1, 372 pp. Vol. LIL, No. 6, 41 SPHERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES. Part I. By W. H. Bryan, M.C., D.Sc. Department of Geology, University of Queensland. (Plates III., IV., V., and 8 Text Figures.) {Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 30 th September, 1940.) I. INTRODUCTION. This paper may be regarded as an extension and elaboration of a study entitled “Some Spherulitic Growths from Queensland” published a few years ago (Bryan, 1934). Since the earlier work was completed a much larger and more varied collection of specimens has been assembled and other occurrences have been investigated in the field. The material available for study now includes many hundreds of individual spherulites, ranging in size from miscroscopic examples to giants over 3 feet in diameter. The complete collection has been obtained from south-eastern Queensland. II. DEFINITIONS. The term “ spherulite ” is used in this paper in the original sense of Yogelsang in 1872 as interpreted by Holmes (1928) as follows: — “A radiating and often concentrically arranged aggregation of one or more minerals, in outward form approximating to a spheroid, and due to the radial growth of prismatic or acicular crystals in a viscous magma or rigid glass about a common centre or inclusion.” This definition is satisfactory in so far as it excludes many growths that are often loosely described as “spherulites,” but for which the more general term “radial aggregates” is perhaps more appropriate. These are commonly seen in such minerals as wavellite and tourmaline. The definition rightly excludes, too, concretionary and oolitic structures closely analogous to spherulitic growths, but having a very different origin. For these a special nomenclature has been suggested by Bucher (1918). On the other hand, a rigid application of the definition excludes a number of structures that in physical properties and in origin are quite obviously related to the spherulites proper. Thus insistence on radial structure would exclude similar growths in which the component crystals were merely divergent or quite parallel. Similarly, insistence on spheroidal form would rule out a host of allied forms of various shapes. These difficulties may be met by using the term “spherulitic” in a somewhat liberal sense, but a more serious difficulty remains. There are found closely associated with spherulites proper and formed under similar circumstances bodies in which the shape is not determined by the growth in the way the definition demands. Such bodies may take various shapes (including spheroidal) and exhibit various crystalline structures (including spherulitic). For these bodies the word “spheruloid” is suggested as a convenient and appropriate term. 42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. III. FORM AND STRUCTURE. (a) General Considerations. In a spherulite sensu stricto there is a simple and essential relation- ship between the internal radial structure and the external spherical shape. The one actually produces the other. Similarly, in all the admissible variations of the spherulite there is a definite causal relation- ship between the several internal structures and the respective external forms. In all cases, this relationship shows itself as a surface every- where at right angles to the growth of the component crystals. Thus, just as 'spheres are formed by radial growth about points, cylinders (axiolites) will he, produced by divergent growth along axes and tabular forms by parallel growth upon plane surfaces. Varying combinations of these regular structures may give rise to many irregular forms in no sense spherical, produced by structures in no sense radial, yet in all of which the form is controlled by the structure, and to all of which the term “ spherulitic ’ ’ may be applied. In many spherulites the outer surface consists merely of the distal ends of the radial fibres and is thus a ragged or even a prickly structure,, firmly embedded in the ground mass. Such indented spherulites may be found (both in natural and artificial glasses (figure la). But in many other cases and particularly in larger spherulites the outer surface consists not of radial fibres but of a concentric “skin” that effectively encloses the spherulitic material (figure 3b). Fig. 3a. Fig. 3b. Text Figure 3. Considerable variation in spherulitic structures is brought about by the arrangement of the fibres. These may be arranged either as simple growths giving unit forms showing uniformity of pattern within the spherulite (figure 4a) or as composite growths in which the spherulitic forms are made up of numerous mutually interfering repetitions of the unit pattern (figure 4b). Fig. 4b. Fig. 4a. Text Figure 4. SPHERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES. 43 Since it would be tedious to consider all the possible variants of spherulitic growth, attention will be focussed on the more regular forms, consideration being given first to their production as a result of simple spherulitic growth. (b) Simple Spherulitic Structures. The simplest type of radial growth is the simultaneous extension of numerous slender crystals to produce an open structure like the quills of a porcupine. Such growth is approached by some small spherulites of both natural and artificial glasses, but is not characteristic of the larger spherulites. In simple spherulitic growth, as usually developed, the radiating fibres multiply in number as they grow outwardly. This may be due to the progressive insertion of new individuals in the spaces between the older fibres, but more commonly it appears to be due to the branching of the outer ends of crystals already formed. The branching may be simply dichotomous, thus increasing the number of fibres by geometrical progression, or may be less regular, resulting in a somewhat complex radial tissue. The spherulites formed in these ways range from those in which the fibres are so closely arranged as to give a solid appearance, to loose spongy spherulites, while every intermediate type is to be found. True (spherical) spherulites show radial structure and branching of fibres in all planes corresponding to freedom of growth in all directions (figure 5a). Fig. 5b. Text Figure 5. Simple spherulitic growths about axes, although theoretically possible, are uncommon, as they require the simultaneous initiation of crystallisation at all points along the axis. When this does occur there results an internal structure differing from that of the simple sphere, in that the radial growth is confined to planes transverse to the axis, longitudinal planes showing parallel growth. For the same reason, branching of the crystal fibres can take place, too, only in transverse directions. Such a structure, combining radial and parallel growth, may be described as divergent (figure 5b). 44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Simple spherulitic growth upon a plane surface is even more rare. When it does occur there is no sign either of radial or divergent growth, the component crystals showing a strictly parallel arrangement. In this case there is no possibility of the branching of crystals in any plane. (c) Composite Spherulitic Structures. These consist essentially of simultaneous spherulitic growths from a number of points scattered along an axis or upon a surface. ( Obviously v growth of this type cannot take place about a point.) In the earliest stages the growth about each of the several centres will tend to be independent of that about neighbouring centres, and will follow the lines indicated for simple spherulitic growth. But a stage will soon be reached when mutual interference between adjacent growths will be set up, and the spherulite will grow thereafter as a composite structure. Composite growth about an axis is commoner by far than simple growth in the same circumstance. The result of such growth is to pro- duce the caterpillar-like structures that are so characteristic of the larger axiolites (Harker, 1909)* (figure 6a). Composite growth upon a plane is also far commoner than simple spherulitic growth in such a position, and results in the production of numerous closely appressed parallel columns, commonly hexagonal in cross section. These may be capped by cupola-like structures (figure 6b) or may merge into one general surface (figure 6c). Whether they be initiated along an axis or upon a surface the number of centres about which growth will begin and their arrangement may well be haphazard, in which case a somewhat irregular structure, composed of closely appressed columns of different sizes, would result. But it must be remembered that spherulitic structures are, in fact, often amazingly regular and possess an almost perfect geometrical symmetry. In this connection, it is of interest to consider the case of composite spherulitic growth upon a spherical surface, and to inquire into the nature of the pattern that would result from regular spherulitic growth about a number of points evenly and symmetrically distributed about the surface of the initial sphere. There would appear to be many possible schemes of distribution that would satisfy these conditions, but a further requirement would also need to be fulfilled — namely, that each component growth be as nearly circular as possible, for each component would, if unconfined, tend towards the form with circular cross section. In other words, the polygons bounding the component growths should each have the largest possible number of sides. * Harker doubted the existence of axiolitic growths and suggested that such as had been reported might really represent cross sections of spherulitic growths about plane surfaces. Composite axiolitic growths are, however, common in the collection under review. SPHERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES. 45 E.S.- Fig. 6a. 46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. In so far as distribution alone is concerned, considerations of symmetry suggest that the hex-octahedron or the tetra-hexahedron (pro- jected upon a sphere) would form a suitable basis of likely patterns, but these do not satisfy the second condition as, in both cases, each face has only three sides. The rhombic dodecahedron is better with four sides to each face, but (in the absence: of any available symmetrical figure with six-sided faces) we are left with the pentagonal dodecahedron (pyritohe- dron) as most nearly satisfying both conditions. Some of the specimens in this collection closely approach this ideal geometrical structure, being made up of twelve closely appressed pen- tagonal columns, while other specimens can readily be regarded as imperfect examples of the same phenomenon (figure 7). Composite spherulites when examined in section often show an intricate and apparently confused mass of spherulitic tissue. This intricacy is due to irregularities of growth of many kinds, some of which may be traced to the mutual; interference of adjacent components. Such interference manifests itself in a variety of ways, but for the most part these may be regarded as variations of two distinct types of growth. These may be termed tufted and plumose respectively. In growths of the first or tufted type, the centres from which the radial growths are directed remain fixed in their original position, so that as composite growth proceeds the lengthening radiating fibres of neighbouring components become more and more nearly parallel, and the whole growth moves toward a unity and homogeneity that resembles more and more closely the simple spherulitic growth. At the same time, the outer surface becomes more and more nearly spherical (figure 8a). SPHERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES. 47 Fig. 8a. Fig. 8b. (d) Relationship between Simple and Composite Spherulitic Structures. For the purpose of the fore- going analysis, simple spherulitic structures and composite spher- ulitic structures have been treated separately, as though distinct and mutually exclusive, but this is far from the fact. It is true that numerous observa- tions show that spherulitic growths about points are essen- tially simple in character, whereas spherulitic growths about axes, planes and curved surfaces are dominated by com- posite structures. Nevertheless, change from simple to composite structure during the growth of a radial spherulite is common enough, while the change from composite to apparently simple structures is by no means rare. Changes of both types are particularly marked immediately after pauses in the growth of the spherulite. Fig. 8c. Text Figure 8. In examples of the second, plumose, kind the apparent centres of radial growth move progressively outward from their original positions. As a result of this movement, neigh- bouring components remain as antagonistic as when they first interfere and the structure con- tinues to grow as an obviously composite one with a character- istic bulbous outer form (figure 8b). Many variants, both of the tufted and plumose types of composite growth, are to be found. One of the most inter- esting of these occurs when the centres of radial growth move outwardly in spasmodic fashion producing tufts, each embedded in an earlier tuft, the whole giving rise to external patterns of the rosette type (figure 8c). Another feature of this variant is the ease with which the outer- most tuft may be removed, leaving behind a conical cavity. 48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Although all strictly radial spherulites must be initiated as simple spherulitic growths, it sometimes happens that, in their later stages, new centres of growth are set up within the tissues of the ever expanding spherulite, and from these centres outwardly divergent growths con- sisting of sheaf -like clusters, or conical bundles of crystals, are insinuated (figure 9a). In the outermost parts of a large radial spherulite these- may be so numerous as almost to have obliterated the simple radial structure. Fig. 9c. Fig. 9d. Text Figure 9. An even more marked change is sometimes brought about after a pause in the growth of a simple spherulite. After such a pause, growth may be continued as a series of composite structures (figure 9b). In extreme cases, and probably after a longer or more serious interruption,, the later growths appear as a second generation having little in common with the original spherulite (figure 9c). On the other hand, adjacent spherulitic growths, as has been shown earlier in the paper, may sometimes become more and more nearly parallel and in the end give rise to what appears to be a uniformly homogeneous simple spherulitic structure (figure 9d). IV. CONDITIONS OF GROWTH. (a) Radial Growth. In as far as spherulites are essentially radial structures they are essentially growths of a single mineral. The presence of a second mineral in no case contributes towards the radial growth. At best, the second mineral may possibly accommodate itself to the structure of the growing spherulite and thus reinforce! it. Commonly, it may modify the radial outgrowth, by emphasizing concentric or annular structures. At worst,, it may actively interfere with, and ultimately inhibit, the radial growth,, replacing it with an inter-growth of the two minerals concerned. It is generally agreed, as a result of observations in many parts of the world, that the radial structures characteristic of spherulitic growth are due to rapid crystallization in a highly supersaturated and very viscous solution. Little advance on this position appears to be possible on the available geological evidence, but the work of Morse, Warren, and SPHERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES. 49 Donnay (1932) on 4 ‘Artificial Spherulites and Related Aggregates” is clearly relevant and their conclusions definitely significant to our problem. These authors point out that “spherulites can be formed of many substances if the reacting solutions are allowed to mix by diffusion avoiding all convection.” They state, further, that: “Little is known regarding the factors which cause a substance to crystallize as a spherulite as against a number of normal crystals or a single crystal. It is, however, suggestive that the presence of a gel appears to be highly favourable to the growth of artificial spherulites. Furthermore, it appears to be true that the radiating fibrous masses of a number of minerals have also developed from a gelatinous state. The fact that the spherulites of volcanic rocks as well as those found in slowly cooled artificial glasses must have grown in media of high viscosity at once suggests the possibility that viscosity has an effect somewhat similar to that of gels in producing the spherulitic habit. It is altogether possible that the effect of the gel or of viscosity is to impede or perhaps prevent convection during crystallization.” (b) Concentric Growths. Concentric structures, although not essential to spherulitic growth,, frequently accompany it. These show so many variations that they may presumably be caused in any one of several ways, but all are due to interruption of some kind to the otherwise continuous and uniform process of radial growth. Structurally, the various concentric growths appear to fall into three categories. In the first, we may place those in which there is a sudden change in the nature of the radial growth, but in which there is no structural hiatus. In the second group, there is definite but irregular discontinuity separating several apparently independent concentric shells. In the third category come those examples where successive shells of spherulitic material regularly alternate with some intervening mineral substance. The three types of concentric structure may be referred to shortly as (a) Interrupted, (6) Lithophysal and (c) Rhythmic. Text Figure 10. Fig. 10b. Fig. 10c. 50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. The origin of concentric growths in general, and in particular, the question as to whether the three different categories are due to three different processes, may now be considered. In the case of the first type (figure 10a), slight pauses in the process of crystallization would seem an adequate reason for changes in the nature of the radial growth striking enough to introduce a concentric element into an otherwise dominant radial pattern. Such pauses might be due to rapid crystallization having brought the immediate source of supply down to saturation point. In this case, crystallization would be resumed as soon as diffusion of supplies through the surrounding medium had brought about the necessary concentration. Interruptions such as these were observed by Morse, Warren, and Donnay (1932) who noted that pauses in the growth of artificial spherulites were often accompanied by a change in the size of the constituent fibres. Concentric structures of this first kind are to be expected in natural spherulites, too, in view of the rapid rate of spherulitic growth and the slow rate of diffusion in the viscous medium. But concentric growths of the second kind (figure 10b) cannot be explained as simply due to slight pauses in crystallization following transient changes in the immediate environment. They appear to differ from the growths found in the first category, not merely in degree but in kind. In particular, and as distinct from the preceding class, the concentric structure is far more conspicuous than the radial. The best known examples of this second group are to be found in the so-called ‘ ‘ lithophysae. ’ ’ In their simplest form, these consist of a hollow thin-shelled structure, such as are to be seen in the “hollow spherulites” of Cross (1891) and the spherulitic “bubbles” of the writer (Bryan, 1934). More commonly, they are composed of a series of such shells arranged concentrically, each shell exhibiting radial spherulitic growth and being separated from its fellows by a notable gap. Such abrupt discontinuity of structure must represent serious discontinuity of process. Indeed, where in the first type of concentric- growth the radial structure is almost continuous, in this second type the hiatus between successive shells is such as to suggest that each individual shell is to be regarded almost as an independent unit. The origin of lithophysae has been the subject of much debate and several different hypotheses have been advanced. These have been can- vassed elsewhere (Wright, 1914), and it is unnecessary to go over the ground again, but it would seem that a simple and adequate explanation of the single-shelled bubble-like lithophysae would be to regard them as films of spherulitic material deposited about gas bubbles escaping from the cooling lava. But here one should recognise the possiility that part, at least, of the gas contained in the central cavity may have been liberated from the spherulitic material during crystallization and that the bubble is to that extent self-inflated. The exact manner of growth of the more complex lithophysae cannot be so simply explained, but it would seem to have depended largly on the liberation (perhaps the rapid liberation) of gas from the lava. Indeed, some of the lithophysal masses in the collection on which this paper is based approach, in their thoroughly cavernous nature,, pumices and similar rock froths. SPHERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES. 51 In the third type of concentric growth (figure 8c) the most con- spicuous feature is due to the regular alternation of concentric shells of radially crystalline felspathic material with shells of a second material that shows no sign of radial growth. This type of structure has been described in detail by Mourant (1932), who regards it as due to rhythmic precipitation of the felspar. According to Mourant ’s argument, the necessary conditions for such precipitation would not usually be attained, so that rhythmically banded concentric structures should be uncommon. This is in keeping with the writer’s experience, for in a collection of 'Several hundred specimens very few good examples have been found. Of the three kinds of concentric structures dealt with above, all may be explained, more or less satisfactorily, in terms of interrupted growth of one mineral. But the possible effect of the simultaneous crystallization of a second mineral should not be neglected in view of analogous structures in other fields supposedly having been produced in this way. In this respect, the work of Schade (cited by Bucher, 1918) on gall- stones is of interest. After pointing out that both radial and concentric crystalline growths are found in gallstones, he states that the difference between spherites of radial and concentric structure depends on the amount of other substance thrown out simultaneously with, and mechanically enmeshed in, the growing structure. Schade found that natural cholestrin gallstones, when 80 to 90 per cent, pure, show a radial crystalline structure, while gallstones containing 25 per cent, or less cholestrin exhibit perfect concentric lamination. It would seem from these researches that the simultaneous crystal- lization of a second mineral might not only interfere with the radial growth of the first, but might actually bring about concentric growth, although the operating mechanism is far from clear. The science of metallography, too, furnishes: interesting structures that may possibly be analogous. Thus, Van der Veen (1925), in dealing with eutectic mixtures of metals, states that “The deposition of both components may follow simultaneously when for both the factors of crystallization as e.g., the nuclei numbers and the linear velocities of crystallization are the same. If these factors differ, one of the phases will separate first and deposition will proceed periodically alterna- tingly. ’ ’ Again, ‘ ‘ Oscillating between the two points of supersaturation alternate layers or thin reetiplanar lamellae will form.” Such an arrangement is exemplified by the eutectic ‘ ‘ pearlite ’ ’ in carbon steel. Rosenhaim and Haughton (1935) point out that “pearlite” in its characteristic alternate structure ‘ ‘ bears out its analogy with the normal eutectics which are also typically laminated.” (c) Graphic Growth. Although not represented in the material in the writer’s collection, the close relationship of spherulitic crystallization with the development of graphic and granophyric structures has long been known. Harker (1909) was of the opinion that “The spherulites of the acid igneous rocks fall into two chief classes, according as the radiate growth is constituted ( a ) by graphic intergrowths of felspar and quartz, or (&) by felspar fibres only.” t>2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Teall (1888) argued that the graphic intergrowths commonly seen in acid rocks indicated simultaneous crystallization of eutectic mixtures of quartz and felspar, and that since spherulitic structure was often associated with graphic structures it, too, indicated eutectic crystallization. The metallographers, using a similar argument, also interpret the combination of spherulitic and graphic structures as due to the simul- taneous crystallization of two metals present in eutectic proportions, the one showing spherulitic growth being regarded as the “dominant” partner. Thus, Rosenhaim and Haughton state that “In the case of the lead-tin alloys the tin is the predominant metal, and each of the crystals of the eutectic is in reality a radiating structure, known as a 1 spherulite, ’ of tin carrying the lead in its interstices. 9 ’ But, as Harker (1909) long ago pointed out, it is wrong to think of a spherulite as forming at a point of time, for it represents growth from a centre. It appears to the writer that the very existence of spherulites is disproof of simultaneous crystallization, whether in rocks or alloys. It would seem that both the ‘ ‘ graphic spherulites ’ 9 of Harker and the lead-tin and other alloys that show a combination of spherulitic and graphic structures may be explained simply in terms of one sub- stance (felspar in rocks, the “dominant” mineral in alloys) starting to crystallize alone, and after having established a spherulitic structure being accompanied by the second substance. Under these circumstances, the spherulite might continue to grow with crystals of the second substance in its interstices, but in some cases the simultaneous crystallization of the two substances would express itself as a graphic structure that, as it developed, gradually interfered with and ultimately took the place of spherulitic growth. REFERENCES. Bryan (1934). — Geol. Mag. Yol. lxxi., p. 167. Bucher (1918).— Jour, of Geol., Yol. 26, p. 593. Gross (1891). — Bull. Phil. Soc. Washington, Yol. xi., p. 422. Harker (1909). — Natural History of Igneous Rocks, p. 272. Holmes (1928). — The Nomenclature of Petrology, p. 214, 2nd Edition. Morse, Warren, and Donnay (1932). — Am. Jour. Sci., Yol. 23, p. 420. Mourant (1932). — Min. Mag., Yol. xxiii., p. 232. Rosenhaim and Haughton (1935). — An Introduction to the Study of Physical Metallurgy, p. 211.. Teall (1888). — British Petrography, 1888, p. 402. Yan der Yeen (1925). — Mineragraphy and Ore Deposition, p. 23. Wright (1914). — Bull. Geol. Soc. America, Yol. xxvi., pp. 255-7. DESCRIPTIONS OF PLATES. Plate III. All specimens were collected from the northern end of Tamborine Mountain, ■south-eastern Queensland. Photographs by E. Y. Robinson. Figure 1. — Individual spherulite, showing combination of radial and concentric structures. Natural size. Figure 2. — Secondary axiolitic growths upon a spherulite. Natural size. Figure 3. — Composite axiolites. Natural size. Pkoc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LIL, No. 6. Plate III. £~5Pfioc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LII., No. 6. Plate IV. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LIL, No. 6. Plate Y. SPHERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES. 53 Plate IV. Figure 1. — Portion of a composite spherulite, showing radial and concentric struc- tures. Natural size. Figure 2. — Segment of a disrupted spherulite surmounted by secondary spherulites. Natural size. Figure 3. — Spherulite, showing concentric structures ofl a rhythmic nature. Twice natural size. Figure 4. — Partial spherulite, showing combination of radial and concentric struc- tures. Somewhat enlarged. Plate V. Figure 1. — Part of a composite spherulite, showing radially arranged spherulitie tissue. About three times natural size. Figure 2. — Part of a spherulite, showing concentrically arranged spherulitie tissue. About three times natural size. A. H. Tucker, Government Printer, Brisbane. CONTENTS. Volume LIL, Part 1. No. 1. — Presidential Address: Homo sapiens: turbulentus. By H. A. Longman, F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. . . .... . . No. 2. — Some Queensland Leaf-hoppers (Jassoidea, Homoptera) that Attack Lucerne. By J. W. Bums, D.Sc. . . No. 3.— The Petrology of the Somerset Dam Site. By C. W. Ball, B.Sc. No. 4. — The Geology of Antarctica. By Arthur Wade, D.Sc., A.B.C.S. . . No. 5.— Aphididae in Australia, Part II. By G. E. Hardy No. 6. — Spherulites and Allied Structures, Part I. By W. H. Bryan, M.C., D.Sc.’ .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Pages. 1-9 . 10-13 14-23 21-35. 36-40 41-53 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY Ur QUEENSLAND PRICE SEVEN SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. ISSUED 3rd JUNE, 1941. Printed for the Society by A. H. Tucker, Government Printer, Brisbane. NOTICE TO AUTHORS. 1. Each paper should be accompanied by the author 's name, degrees and official address. 2. Papers must be complete and in a form suitable for publication when com- municated to the Society and should be as concise as possible. 3. Papers must be accompanied by an abstract of not more than one hundred words. 4. Papers should be in double-spaced typescript on one side of the paper with ample margins. 5. 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Patron : HIS EXCELLENCY, COLONEL THE RIGHT HONOURABLE SIR LESLIE ORME WILSON, G.C.S.I., G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., P.C., D.S.O., LL.D. OFFICERS, 1 940- 1 94 1 . President : F. W. WHITEHOUSE, D.Sc., Ph.D. Vice-Presidents : H. A. LONGMAN, F.L.S. {ex officio). Professor H. R. SEDDON, D.Y.Se. Eon. Treasurer: E. W. BICK. Eon. Secretary: DOROTHY HILL, M.Sc., Ph.D. Eon. Librarian: KATHLEEN WATSON, B.A. Eon. Editors: J. H. SMITH, M.Se. D. A. HERBERT, D.Sc. Members of Council: Professor D. H. K. LEE, M.Sc., M.B., Ch.M., D.T.M., F. A. PERKINS, B.Sc.Agr., Professor H. C. RICHARDS, D.Sc., F. H. S. ROBERTS, D.Y.Se., M. WHITE, M.Sc. Trustees : F. BENNETT, B.Sc., J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C., and A. J. TURNER, M.D., F.R.E.S. Eon. Auditor: A. J. M. STONEY, B.E.E. Bankers : COMMONWEALTH BANK OF AUSTRALIA. CONTENTS Volume LIL, Part 2. No. 7. — Notes on Australian Cyperaceae V. By S. T. Blake , M.Sc. . . No. 8. — The Vegetation op The Lower Stanley River Basin. By S. T. Blake, M.Sc. No. 9. — Spherulitic Crystallization as a Mechanism op Skeletal Growth in the Hexacorals. By W. H. Bryan , M.G., D.Sc., and Dorothy Hill , M.Sc., Ph.D. No. 10. — Latent Infection in Tropical Fruits Discussed in Relation TO THE PART PLAYED BY SPECIES OP GLOEOSPORIUM AND Colletotrichum. By J. H. Simmonds, M.Sc. No. 11. — Preliminary Note on Photosensitisation op Sheep grazed on Brachiaria brizantha. By N. W. Briton, B.V.Sc., and T. B. Paltridge, B.Sc. Report of Council Abstract of Proceedings List of Library Exchanges . . . . . . . . . . .... Pages. 55-61 62-77 78-91 92-120 121-122 V.-VI. VII.-XVI. XVII. List of Members xx. Vol. LIL, No. 7. NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE, V. By S. T. Blake, M.Sc., Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic Biology, University of Queensland. {Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25 th November, 1940.) In this paper are described seven new species from the genera Bulbostylis, Fuirena, and Schoenus. The types are deposited in the Queensland Herbarium, Brisbane, and except in the case of Schoenus elegams, duplicates (isotypes) are being distributed. The abbreviations used for different herbaria are as follows: — Herbarium of J. M. Black, Adelaide . . . . • • BL. Queensland Herbarium, Botanic Hardens, Brisbane . . BRI. Herbarium of J. B. Cleland, University of Adelaide . . CL. National Herbarium of Victoria, Melbourne . . . . MEL. National Herbarium of New South Wales, Sydney . . NSW. Where there is no special indication, the specimens are in the Queensland Herbarium. Bulbostylis pyriformis S. T. Blake ; species nova, a congeneris nuce pyriformi trisulcata differt. Herba annua, glaucescens, leviter odorata. Culmi fasciculati, patentes vel erecti, strict! vel curvuli, rigidi, subtrigoni vel compressi, pluristriati, ad costulas albidas pilis rigidis patulis albidis basi leviter tuberculatis praediti, apice ipso densiuscule hispidi, usque ad 18 cm. longi, 0.35-0-65 mm. crassi. Folia pauca, brevia, caulinum plerumque unieum; vaginae tenuiter membranaceae, albo-hyalinae, dorso herbaceae, omnino striatae, praecipue nervis breviter albo-pilosae, ore oblique secto pilis tenuissimis longis albis db crispis densiuscule praeditae; laminae angustissimae, fere planae, apice subulatae, subtus 1-3 nerves haud carinatae, marginibus incrassatis scabrae, usque ad 22 mm. longae, nonnunquam brevissimae. Anthela simplex, 1-5 spiculosa. Bracteae spicula breviores, glumiformes sed 1-2 laminam subulatam brevissimam praeditae et sub laminae basi longe ciliatae. Radii breves, rigidi, robusti, angulati, scabro-ciliolati, usque ad 5 mm. longi, saepe patuli vel leviter decurvati, e prophyllo brevi pilosulo ore oblique secto orti. Spiculae oblongo-ovatae vel lanceolatae, fusco-castaneae, manifeste angulatae, pluriflorae, 5-10 mm. longae, 2-3 mm. latae. Glumae laxe spiraliter imbricatae, ovatae, apice subtriangulares subobtusae, breviter apiculatae vel superiores fere muticae, incurvae, appressae, manifeste carinatae carina 3-nervi viridi vel pallescenti asperulae vel scaberulae, lateribus tenuiter membranaceae, enerves, castaneae vel fuscescentes, pubescentes, marginibus ciliolatae, 2-8-3-2 mm. longae. Stamina 3; antherae flavae, oblongae, prominule rubro-apiculatae, 0-5-0-6 mm. longae. Stylus tenuis, glaber, 1-1-1 -2 mm. longus ; stigmata 3, pilosula, stylo subaequilonga. Nux albida vel straminea, vix nitida, ambitu late pyriformis, apice truncata vel emarginata, apiculata, sub medio subito angustata, omnino aeque trigona, manifeste tricostata, lateribus angulos versus convexa sed medium versus concava, plerumque verrucosa, obscure transversim undulata, cellulis extimis breviter verticaliterque oblongis inconspicuis, toro brevissimo annuliformi, 1-4-1-3 mm. longa, 1 mm. lata; stylo-basis bulbiformis vel db pyramidalis, 0-2-0-3 mm. longa lataque, pallida vel brunnescens, mox caduca. SEP 6 56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Queensland. — North Kennedy District: Charters Towers, on sand- stone ridge in Eucalyptus- Acacia forest, 1,100-1,200 feet, June 11th, 1936, Blake 11701. Warrego District: Gilruth Plains, east of Cunna- mulla, at edge of timbered sandhill, ca. 600 feet, May 19th, 1939, Blake 14045 (Type). The style-base falls away from the nut very early, so that the chief generic character is sometimes liable to be overlooked. The nut is quite unlike that of other species of Bulbostylis in being strongly constricted below the middle and in the vertically furrowed faces, and resembles that of Fimbristylis trig astro cary a F. Muell. However, the style does not fall away in its entirety, but is deciduous above its base which is left as the characteristic ‘ ‘button” usual in Bulbostylis , while the characteristic needle-like hairs at the mouth of the leaf -sheaths and the few-ranked, pubescent, incurved glumes are quite those of this genus. The specimens from Charters Towers have smaller, darker coloured, less apiculate nuts, 1-25 mm. long and 0-9 mm. broad. Sometimes also, one of the bracts is longer than the inflorescence. The relatively few specimens are, however, not entirely satisfactory, as they bear for the most part either immature or overmature spikelets. Bulbostylis turbinata S. T. Blake ; species nova, afflnis B. capillari (L.) C. B. Clarke, sed culmis pilosulis, glumis glabris mucronatis, nuce alba symmetrica turbinata (basi cuneata) apice abrupte acuminata, differt. Herb a annua, gracilis, usque ad 15 cm. alta, admodum glaucescens. Culmi fasciculati, erecti vel obliqui, stricti vel curvuli, filiformes et 0*25-04 mm. crassi, 4-7-costati, costis sparse vel densiuscule hispiduli pilis albis saepe e tuberculis parvis ortis. Folia caulina 1-2; vaginae tenues, dorso herbaceae, antice hyalinae, valide nervosae nervis setulosis, ore oblique secto pilis tenuissimis longis barbatae vel nonnunquam fere glabrae ; laminae usque ad 5 cm. longae, 0-2-0-3 mm. latae, apice aeutae it incrassatae, suhplanae vel admodum involutae, subtus 1-nerves, nervi cum marginibus costiformibus hispidulae, ceterum glabrae, laeves. Anthela laxa, simplex, plerumque 2-4-spiculata. Bracteae 1-2, foliis subsimiles, spicula breviores vel inferior aliquantum longior raro anthelam superans. Radii usque ad 3, filiformes, subaequales, patuli vel subdeflexi, usque ad 10 mm. longi. Spiculae solitariae, castaneae vel castaneo-brunneae, lanceolatae vel lineares, aeutae, angulatae, 6-8 mm. longae, 1-5-1-7 mm. latae; rhachilla tenuis, flexuosa, alata. Glumae (infima bracteoliformi persistenti sterili excepta) cymbiformes, ovatae, aeutae, mucronatae, squarrulosae, valde carinatae carina straminea vel viridi 3-nervi ± scaberula breviter excurrente, lateribus hyalinae, brunneo-tinctae, glabrae, marginibus integerrimae vel sursum minutissime ciliolatae, 2 mm. longae. Stamina 3; antherae inclusae, fiavae, anguste oblongae, minute et obtuse apiculatae, 0*25 mm. longae. Stylus filiformis, glaber, 0*5 mm. longus; stigmata 3, stylo aequilonga. Nux Candida, turbinata, prope basin abrupte attenuata, apice abrupte rotundata et breviter acuminato-apiculata, admodum trigona, tricostulata, lateribus convexis reticulata et transversim crebre undulato-rugulosa, cellulis extimis verticaliter oblongis sed curvatis, cum stylo-basi 0*85 mm. longa, 0*55 mm. lata; stylo-basis brevissima, minute conica vel ovoidea, vix depressa. Queensland. — Gregory North District: Duchess, in rock crevices on low rugged hill, ca. 1,300 feet, May 18th, 1936, Blake 11533 (Type). NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE, V. 57 Central Australia. — Hugh River, Macdonnell Ranges, May 4th, 1911, Hill 135 (Mel., NSW) ; Finke River, in 1883, Kempe (Mel., Bri.)- ? South Australia. — Far North : Cordillo Downs, in watercourse, May, 1924, Cleland (Bl., Cl., Bri.). The shining white nut with its very abruptly and shortly acuminate- apiculate apex, and in its lower part with straight or inwardly concave edges, are the best distinguishing features of this species. The glabrous glumes and the occasional absence of the hairs from the mouth of the leaf-sheaths are also noteworthy. The South Australian specimens differ from the other specimens cited in the nearly glabrous slightly coarser culms (up to 0-5 mm. thick), and the distinctly larger glumes and nuts. The former vary from 2*5-3*2 mm. in length, including the very prominent more or less recurved mucro which may be up to 0-5 mm. long, while the nut varies from 0-95 mm. to 1-2 mm. in length, and from 0-6-0-7 mm. in breadth. The material unfortunately is somewhat fragmentary and over-mature, and it is not possible to state whether it represents another closely allied species, or whether it is merely an extreme form of the species here described. It was referred by Black (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr. xlviii., 254: 1924, and in FI. S. Austr., 677 : 1929) to Bulbostylis capillaris (L.) C. B. Clarke [Stenophyllus capillaris (L.) Britton]. This species has, however, glabrous culms, bearded mouths to the leaf -sheaths, pubescent glumes, brown asymmetrically obovate nuts which are somewhat emarginate and scarcely apiculate at the apex, and the edges near the base convex outwards. B. capillaris is known from a few widely-scattered localities in Queensland. C. B. Clarke, ex Domin in Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85, 464 (1915) refers the Australian form to the Indian var. trifida (Kunth) C. B. Clarke, but to my mind they are much closer and practically indistinguishable from (typical ?) American specimens. Fuirena nudiflora S. T. Blake ; species nova (sect. Hemiscirpus) affinis F. pygmaeae Ridley (speciei africanae) sed aristis glumarum longioribus, nuce albida obscure foveolata nec laevi, stylo-basi minima pyramidata, differt. Herba graminea, annua, viridis, usque ad 20 cm. alta. Culmi solitarii vel fasciculati, erecti, tenues, molles, compressibiles, pluristriati, inter costulas concavi, sub inflorescentia 1-2-nodes. Foliomm vaginae breves vel infima internodio longior, nervis pilis albis patulis basi leviter tuberculatis densiuscule praeditae; ligulae apice fimbriolatae, 0-8 mm. longae; laminae lineares, longe sensimque acutatae, planae, 3-7-nerves, leviter carinatae, nervis marginibusque densiuscule albo-pilosae, usque ad 11 cm. longae, usque ad 2-2 mm. latae. Bracteae foliis similes, infima inflorescentia brevior longiorve. Inflorescentia paniculata ; axis communis 2-4-nodis. Pedunculi 1-4-ni (plerumque 1-2-ni), usque ad 4 cm. longi, interdum prope apicem divisi. Spicidae 3-6-ni dispositae, digitatae vel brevissime spicatae, atrovirides, squarrosae, ovoideae vel oblongae, multiflorae, aristis exclusis 2-3*5 mm. longae et 1-4-1-5 mm. latae. Glumae spissae, oblongo-obovatae vel oblongo-ellipticae, obtusae, reeurvo-aristatae, tenuiter membranaceae, dorso 3-nerves late obtuseque carinatae, lateribus enerves, omnino pilosae, 0*85-0*95 mm. longae, arista robusta acuta, excurva, setosa, paullo longiore excepta. Perianthhtm nullum. Stamen 1 ; anthera oblonga, obtusa vel minutissime apiculata, 58 proceedings of the royal society of Queensland. 0*2 mm. longa. Stylus tenuissimus, 04 mm. longus; stigmata 3, stylo subaequilonga. Nux albida, obovata, apice fere rotundata, minute apiculata, trigona, anguste tricostulata, lateribus convexa obscure foveolata, 045 mm. longa, 0-3 mm. lata, cellulis extimis subquadris obscuris; stylo-basis minima, pyramidata. Queensland. — Cook District: Mareeba, April, 1929, Darnell- Smith (NSW) ; near Mareeba, in somewhat open swampy places in Melaleuca scrub, ca. 1,400 feet, March 26th, 1938, Blake 13433 (Type). Burke District: Normanton, Gulliver (Bri., Mel.). Leichhardt District: Gainsford, Bowman (Mel.). Moreton District: Enoggera Creek, Bailey. This species is readily distinguished from the other Australian species by the small spikelets with relatively long awns to the glumes, the complete absence of a perianth, and the form of the tiny nut. Fuirena incrassata S. T. Blake ; species nova (sect. Eu-fuirena) affinis F. ciliari (L.) Koxb. sed squamis hypogynis interioribus sursum valde incrassatis earum nervis lateralibus evanescentibus et nervo medio obscuro sub apice in aristam longiusculam excurrenti, nuce utrinque longius attenuata, differt. Herl)a annua, graminea, viridis, usque ad 45 cm. alta. Culmi fasciculati, vix rigidi, stricti vel curvuli, alte striati, glabri, laeves, sub inflorescentia 1-2-nodes. Foliorum vaginae internodiis breviores vel multo breviores, striati, sursum pilosae ; ligula pilosula, circiter 1 mm. longa ; laminae lineari-lanceolatae, acutae vel subobtusae, planae, 7- 9-nerves, utrinque nervis marginibusque pilosae, supra etiam inter nervos bre viter pubescentes, usque ad 10 (raro 15) cm. longae, usque ad 5-5 mm. latae, infima saepe brevis lataque. Inflorescentia paniculata ; axis communis 2-4-nodis, internodium infimum plerumque longum cetera saepe brevia. Bracteae foliis similes. Pedunculi singuli vel bini, compressi, pilosi, infima usque ad 6 cm. longi, superiores multo breviores. Spiculae 3-6-ni brevissime spicatae, atrovirides, lanceolatae, acutae, 8- 10 mm. longae, 3-3*5 mm. latae (aristis exclusis), multiflorae. Glumae oblongo-ellipticae, obtusae, aristatae, tenuiter membranaceae, dorso 3- nervi carinatae, carina sub apice in aristam robustam excurvam pilosam 1 *2-1*5 mm. longam excurrente, lateribus enerves, omnino pilosae, marginibus ciliolatae, 2-0-2-5 mm. longae arista exclusa. Perianthium biseriatum ; setae 3 exteriores filiformes, minute retrorsim scaberulae vel fere laeves, nuce breviores vel earn adaequantes; squamae interiores 3, nucem subadaequantes vel superantes, unguiculatae ; earum laminae pentagonae, basi leviter auriculatae fere truncatae, apice fere acutae, pars inferior tenuior manifeste 3-nervis et inter nervos membranacea, pars superior valde incrassata nervis lateralibus evanescentibus mediali sub apice in aristam longam setaceam incurvam excurrenti; unguis | laminae subaequilongus. Stamina 3 ; antherae linear es, minute apiculatae, 04- 0*5 mm. longae. Stylus tenuissimus. Nux nitide brunnea quasi- vernicosa, apice breviter acuminata, basi longe abrupteque acuminata, pars media late elliptiea, utrinque subpyramidata, acute triquetra, anguste tricostulata, lateribus plana laevisque, cellulis extimis minutis transversim oblongis inconspicuis, 0*75-0*8 mm. longa, 0*65 mm. lata, vel stylo-basi anguste cylindrica inclusa 1 -4-1*5 mm. longa. Queensland. — Burke District : Croydon, in low-lying, damp, sandy, grassy places, 360 feet, August 5th, 1936, Blake 12466 (Type) ; Delta Station, 17° 10' S., 141° 15' E., at edge of lagoon, August 14th, 1936, Blake 12525. Cook District: Near Staaten Kiver, approximately 16° 30' NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE, V. 59 S., 142° 5' E., on a damp, sandy stream bed, August 15th, 1936, Blake 12568. North Kennedy District: Townsville, in swamps, March 26th, 1933, White 8949; Pentland, on sandy creek bed, ca. 1,300 feet, June 10th, 1934, Blake 6032. Mitchell District : Geera, east of Barcaldine, in wet places at edge of bore-drain, 900 feet, December 6th, 1935, Blake 10364. Leichhardt District: Nogoa River, near Springsure, in 1890, Foot (Mel.). Darling Downs District: Chinchilla, in a watercourse, in wet ground, poor soil, January, 1934, Beasley 221 ; near Tara, on shady, wet, sandy creek bed, ca. 1,000 feet, February 12th, 1938, Blake 13270; between Inglewood and Milmerran, January 20th, 1934, White 9682; Severn River, Hartmann 63 (Mel.). Central Australia. — Lander’s Creek, June 10th, 1911, Hill 302 (Mel., NSW.). Very similar in outward appearance to F. ciliaris (L.) Roxb. (F. glomerata Lam.), but the strongly thickened, obscurely nerved, long-awned pentagonal laminae of the inner series of the perianth are very different. Fuirena repanda 8. T. Blake; species nova (sect. Eu-fuirena) affinis F. incrassatae S. T. Blake, sed inflorescentia pauciore, spiculis majoribus, petalis lateribus late alatis et apice bilobis minus incrassatis differt. Herba annua, graminea, viridis, usque ad 30 cm. alta. Culmi fasciculati, tenues, alte striati, compressibiles, infra inflorescentiam 0-1-nodes, glabri, laeves. Foliorum vaginae crebre striatae, nervis dense pilosae; ligula 0-5-1 mm. longa, ciliolata pilosaque; laminae breves, .anguste lanceolatae, acutae, planae, 3-5-nerves, utrinque pilosae, usque ad 25 mm. longae, usque ad 2-2 mm. latae, vel ad mucronem redactae, vel fere nullae. Inflorescentia paniculata; axis communis 1-3-nodis, intemodium infimum elongatum, usque ad 10 cm. longum, superiora brevia vel brevissima. Bract eae foliis majores, infima usque ad 8-5 cm. longa. Pedunculi singuli, 1-3-spiculati. Spiculae atrovirides, ovato- lanceolatae, 8-15 mm. longae, 4-5 mm. latae (aristis exceptis), multiflorae. Glumae ellipticae vel ovato-ellipticae, obtusae, aristatae, tenuiter membranaceae, dorso 3-nerves, nervis sursum coaleseentibus sub apice in aristam robustam, acutam, pilosam, leviter excurvam 1-3-2-2 mm. longam excurrentibus, omnino pilosae, lateribus enerves, aristis exclusis J-2-3-5 mm. longae. Perianthium evolutum, biseriatum ; series exterior e setis 3 retrorsim scabris nuce multo brevioribus, interior e squamis 3 constructa; squamae longiuscule unguiculatae, earum laminae inf erne oblatae, tenues, marginibus incrassatis repandae, 3-nerves, inter nerves membranaceae, pars superior angustior, incrassata, subtriangularis, apice bifida lobis subulatis, 1-nervis nervo sub apice in aristam longiusculam incurvam excurrente. Stamina 3 ; antherae oblongae, minutissime apiculatae, 0-25-0-3 mm. longae. Stylus 0-7-0-8 mm. longus ; stigmata 3 stylo subaequilonga. Nux apice abrupte breviterque acuminata, basin versus subito longeque attenuata, pars media late elliptica, acute triquetra, angulis anguste acutis, lateribus concavis, nitide brunnea, laevis, cellulis extimis minutis transversim oblongis obscurissimis, 0-9-1-0 mm. vel stylo-basi anguste cylindrica scaberula inclusa 2-2-2-5 mm. longa, 0-8-0-9 mm. lata. Queensland. — Burke District : Croydon, in low-lying, damp, sandy, grassy places, 360 feet, August 5th, 1936, Blake 12467 (Type) ; and in depressions and on stream banks on whitish sand, ca. 350 feet, May 22nd, 60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 1935, Blake 9081. Cook District: Near Mareeba, in somewhat open swampy places in Melaleuca scrub, ca. 1,400 feet, March 26th, 1938„ Blake 13434. This species is characterised by the short leaves, the relatively few but rather large spikelets, and the pentagonal, wavy-margined lamina of the inner hypogynous scales which are thickened, bifid, and awned near the apex. Schoenus calyptratus Kukenthal et Blake; species nova, affinis S. apogoni R. et S., S. foUato (Hook, f.) S. T. Blake, et S. philippmensi (Palla) Kukenthal, sed nuce oh angulos incrassatos late coalescentes apice quasi calyptrata, et plerumque etiam habitu, ab omnibus differt. Herba perennis, ramosa, repens, caespites humiles densas efformans. Culmi ramosi, e nodis radicantes, graciles, dense foliati; culmi florigeri usque ad 2-5 cm. longi. Folia setacea, rigida, stricta vel curvata, involuta, saepissime 4-4-5 cm. longa, plerumque in fasciculis sterilibus aggregata- vaginae purpureae, apertae, glabrae. Inflorescentia e fasciculis spicularum 2-3 approximate composita, 7-11 mm. longa; bracteae foliis similes, inflorescentia longiores vel inferior multo longior, earum vaginae breviter clausae. Spiculae in utroque fasciculo 1-2, sessiles vel fere sessiles, ovato-lanceolatae, turgidae, 4 mm. longae, 1-5 mm. latae, uniflorae. Glumae ovatae, subacutae, herbaceae, carina viridi leviter incurva scabrae, marginibus purpureo-tinctae, 2 imae vacuae. Setae hypogynae 7, filiformes, antrorsim minute scabrae, nuce subaequantes vel longiores. Stamina 3 ; antherae lineares, connectivo mediocriter producto. Stylus longus, tenuis; stigmata 3 breviora. Nux ovalis vel obovata, stipitata, trigona, marginibus manifeste costulata, apice ob angulos incrassatos late coalescentes quasi calyptrata, breviter apiculata, lateribus alba subnitida punctulata vel fere laevis, cellulis extimis minutis vix conspicuis, 1-8 mm. longa, 0-9 mm. lata. Victoria. — North East: Mt. Buffalo, in morasses ca. 4,500 feet, forming dense dark green mats, January 25th, 1935, Blake 7373. Schoenus elegans S. T. Blake ; species nova, affinis S. sculpto (Nees) Boeck., a quo spiculis tandem patentibus, glumis duabus imis vacuis, nuce breviter acuminata, basi plus minusve rotundata vel subcuneata haud constricta, minus profunde scrobiculata cellulis extimis angustioribus, differt. Herba annua, caespitosa, gracilis, glabra. Culmi fasciculati, stricti, erecti, usque ad 24 cm. alti, compress!, sulcati, molles, glabri laevesque, 0-5-1 mm. lati, infra inflorescentiam saepissime enodes, basi solum foliati. Folia cartilaginea, tertium partem culmi raro adaequantia saepe multo breviora, subplana vel ± involuta, enervia, apice subacuta callosa, usque ad 1-2 mm. lata ; vaginae purpureae, ore oblique secto imberbes. Jnflorescentia 4-10 cm. longa, angusta, laxa, e fasciculis ramorum 3-5 distantibus composita ; rami interdum divisi, plerumque breves, complanati, marginibus seabro-ciliati. Bracteae foliaceae, suberectae, inflorescentia breviores sed internodiis longiores ; vaginae breves, purpureo-tinctae, glabrae. Spiculae in fasciculo quoque paucae (usque ad 5), brevissime pedicellatae, mox patentes, lineari-lanceolatae, compressae, flavae vel purpureo-tinctae, 7-8 mm. longae, ca. 1-5-1 -7 mm. latae, 2-nucigerae. Glumae 5-6, membranaceae, lateribus flavescentes vel sanguineo-tinctae, superiores lanceolatae subacutae parce scabrae, inferiores ovatae acutae, 2 imae vacuae. Setae hypogynae nullae. Stamina 3; antherae lineares, fere muticae, 2-9-3 mm. longae. Stylus NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE, Y. 61 longus, tenuis; stigmata 3, multo breviora. Nux late elliptica vel admodum obovata, breviter acuminato-apiculata, breviter stipitata, tricostata angulis prominulis, lateribus albidis vel dt nigricantibus manifeste scrobiculata ob cellulas extimas grossas hexagono-oblongas in latere utroque verticaliter 5-6-seriatim dispositas, 1-2-1-3 mm. longa, 0- 8-0*9 mm. lata. Western Australia. — South West Division: Bayswater, November, 1902, Fitzgerald (Type; Bri., NSW). A somewhat taller plant than S. sculpt us (Nees) Boeck., and can be distinguished from it by the more or less stellately spreading spikelets and the less prominently acuminate, elliptical not ovate nut. Out of the 25 culms seen, only one bore a node below the inflorescence. 62 Vol. LIL, No. 8. THE VEGETATION OF THE LOWER STANLEY RIVER BASIN. By S. T. Blake, M.Sc., Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic Biology, University of Queensland. (Plates VI. to XI.) ( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 25 th November, 1940.) INTRODUCTION. This paper was prepared as the result of work done in connection with an expedition to Somerset Dam organised by the Science Students' Association of the University of Queensland in February-March, 1939. It gives an account of the vegetation in an area of about 150 square miles in the lower part of the basin of the Stanley River, one of the chief tributaries of the Brisbane River, between Reedy Creek in the south and Villeneuve and Kilcoy to the north. TOPOGRAPHY. The country consists of valleys, gently rolling to hilly country, and some mountainous often very rugged areas, the whole varying in altitude from 200 to a little over 2,000 feet above sea level. The valleys between the hills and ranges vary from small narrow gullies with steeply sloping sides and beds to the broad plain flanking the river and the lower courses of its major tributaries. CLIMATE. The average annual rainfall for Kilcoy, at the northern limit of the area, is just about 40 inches; that of Mount Brisbane Station, at the southernmost extremity, is about 32-5 inches (for 30 years prior to 1924; no later figures are available for this station). The wettest month at Kilcoy is February, with an average of 6-2 inches, while at Mount Brisbane it is January, with an average of 4-4 inches. At both places the driest month is August, with an average fall of 1-3 at Kilcoy and 1*25 at Mount Brisbane. Both these stations are in valleys, and it seems: quite certain from a study of the area that these figures do not give a satisfactory indication of the rainfall of the area as a whole. There seems little doubt that the rainfall is higher in some places, while it may be lower in others. Mists are known to be common on the higher hills and mountains. No data are available as to temperature, humidity, or winds. GEOLOGY AND SOILS. The geology of the area is complicated, and is not yet thoroughly understood. No attempt will be made to discuss it here, but reference is made to the work of Hill (1930) and C. W. Ball (1940), where also previous work is discussed. Geological work was carried out concur- rently with the botanical work in 1939, and I wish to thank Dr. D. Hill, Mr. E. V. Robinson, and Mr. F. Chippendale for the use of unpublished data in drawing up the few remarks that follow. There is a wide variety of rock-types, including acid and basic igneous rocks of varied nature, schists, shales, grits, conglomerates, sandstones, and sandy limestones. The igneous rocks are found usually THE VEGETATION OP THE LOWER STANLEY RIVER BASIN. 63 on the higher ground and the other rocks at the lower levels, though these are frequently seen intruded by the former. The soils, too, are rather varied, with a tendency for red-brown earths to be formed over the less acid igneous rocks and sometimes over andesite, and podsols over the more acid rocks. Several kinds of podsol occur. Brown forest soils are found in places, sometimes showing an approach to chernozems in depressions and shallow gullies. The plains flanking the river and its major tributaries carry alluvial soils up to 20 feet in depth. They are usually sandy and more or less podsolised, though river gravels occur in places. VEGETATION. There has been no previous attempt to describe the vegetation of this area. The following account is based upon a number of traverses and a closer study of particular areas, but no attempt was made to estimate species-frequency. Owing to the unusually dry seasonal conditions, it is probable that the lists of herbaceous species in the Open Forest communities are incomplete, as some species may not have been recognisable. Also, owing to the intrinsic difficulties in studying such communities, the list of species given for some communities of the Closed Forest must be incomplete. Apart from weeds of cultivation, &c., which were not specially studied, the vegetation may be grouped into four main types: — I. — Open Forest. II. — Closed Forest. III. — Fringing Forest and other fringing communities. IV. — Aquatic Vegetation. I. OPEN FOREST. Open Forest occupied or used to occupy by far the greatest area, occurring in almost all kinds of habitats except stream banks and the sheltered gullies and slopes of the higher mountains. The chief trees forming the forest are species of Eucalyptus , Angophora , and Tristania , with Casuarina torulosa and Xanthorrhoea arborea. There is relatively little undergrowth in most communities, but as the result of human interference patches or masses of Lantana comar a (lantana) are common in places. The trees are often straight and well-formed, attain a considerable height (70 feet or so), and in some communities a practically closed canopy is produced. Since settlement many trees have been destroyed. Some have been removed for timber purposes, others have been merely killed by ringbarking for the purpose of improving the natural pasture, and left standing. As a result of this the original forest has in many places been thinned to parkland or even induced grassland. A few introduced herbaceous plants, chiefly the grasses Paspalum dilatatum (paspalum), Chloris gay ana (Rhodes grass), and Digit aria didactyla (blue couch), have become common enough to modify the natural herbaceous communities, and these have been further modified by cattle-grazing, and possibly also by the periodic fires. It has not been possible to trace all the changes which have occurred since the beginning of settlement by white man, but it seems fairly certain that Themeda australis (kangaroo grass) was much more abundant than it is to-day. 64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. The chief major communities are : — 1. Mixed Eucalyptus Forest (Fig. 1.). — The trees are E. racemosa (narrow-leaved ironbark), E. decepta (grey ironbark), E. melanophloia (silver-leaved ironbark), E. tessellaris (Moreton Bay ash), E. gummifera (bloodwood), and occasionally the small trees Alphitonia excelsa (red ash) and Exocarpus cupressiformis (native cherry — a root parasite). This is the most widely spread forest type and occurs chiefly on podsolised soils on slopes of medium steepness and covering the lower ridges, but it is also one of the types that have suffered most from settlement. Minor variations in habitat seem to be the cause of the observed fact that sometimes one or more of the tree species may be absent and one or other may assume local dominance. The bloodwood seems to have been largely removed (for timber) and very few trees are to be seen now. It may never have been very common. The herbaceous cover is possibly denser than in the virgin forest and Themeda has almost disappeared. The chief plants are Bothriochloa decipiens (pitted blue grass), Aristida ramosa (a spear grass), Eragrostis leptostachya (meadow love grass), Digit aria didactyla (blue couch), Fimbristylis sp., Cyperus gracilis , Desmodium varians, Glycine tabacina, Zornia diphylla, Glossogyne tenuifolia, Helichrysum apiculatum, Verbena venosa, and the annuals Erigeron crispus and Erythraea australis. Lantana is occasional. The remaining plants, all herbaceous, are — firstly, the grasses: Aristida acuta, A. gracilipes, A. glumaris, Bothriochloa intermedia, Capillipedium parviflorum , Cenchrus australis, Chloris divaricata, Ch. truncata, Cymbopogon refractus, Dichanthium sericeum, D. affine, Digitaria orbataf, Eragrostis Brownii, E. elongata, E. parviflora, Eremochloa bimaculata, Eriochloa procera, Enneapogon , pallidus, Hetero- pogon contortus, Hyparrhenia jilipendida, Leptochloa sp., Panicum - effusum , Paspalidium gracile, Poa australis, Sehima nervosum, Sorghum leiocladum, Sporobolus elongatus, Themeda australis; and in addition Alternanthera nana, Arthropodium paniculatum, Brunella vulgaris, Cassia mimosoides, Cheilamthes Sieberi, Crotolaria linifolia, Cyperus fulvus, Erechthites arguta, Erigeron canadensis, Gnaphalium japonicum, Justicia sp. aff. J. procumbens, Laxmannia gracilis, Malvastrum coromandelinum, M. spicatum, Notholaena distans, Portulaca oleracea , Bhynchosia minima, Rumex Brownii , Sida rhombifolia, and Wahlenbergia multicaidis. 2. Eucalyptus umbellata-Angophora subvelutina (blue gum-apple) Forest. — This type of community occupies the alluvial flats and ascends the lower courses of some of the gullies, mingling to some extent with the previous type. Modifications approaching the mixed Eucalyptus Forest are to be seen on patches of heavy soil approaching the brown forest soils. The gum is usually taller and stouter than the members of the mixed forest, and is frequently parasitised by Loranthus pendulus, a mistletoe with long slender drooping branches which also parasitises other species. The apple is usually more or less irregular in form and not so tall as the gum. Tristania suaveolens (swamp mahogany) is at times common as a tall straight tree near depressions or small gullies. This forest has also been extensively cleared, and the herbaceous cover tends to be dominated by Paspalum dilatatum. As a result of grazing this grass usually forms a short, dense sward through which other members of the community push their way. These are chiefly Bothriochloa decipiens (often as co-dominant), Aristida ramosa, Cyperus gracilis, Desmodium varians, Glycine \ tabacina, and Glossogyne tenuifolia. In damp depressions tufts of J uncus polyanthemus are to be found, and THE VEGETATION OF THE LOWER STANLEY RIVER BASIN. 65 in still damper places there is a tendency for Pennisetum aiopecur aides to co-dominate with Pmpalum to the exclusion of everything else. The other species of the blue gum-apple forest are Cyperus fulvus, Dichanthium affine, Eragrostis leptostachya, E. sororia, Erigeron canadensis, E. crispus, Fimbristylis sp. aft. F. dichotoma, KylUnga triceps, Lagenophora bellioides, Phyllanthus minutiflorus, Psoralea tenax, Richardsonia brasiliensis, Rumex Brownii, Sporobolus elongatus , Verbena venosa , and Wahlenbergia multicaulis. 3. Eucalyptus hemiphloia (gum-topped box) Forest (Fig. 2). — This occupies fairly large areas of flat or gently sloping country, the soil being a podsol. Often the only tree present is Eucalyptus hemiphloia, the individuals of which are straight and often tall and closely spaced. An ironbark ( E . decepta ?) and a grey gum ( E . propinqua ?) are occasional. Shrubs are restricted to a few low almost bushy plants of Eustrephus latifolius var. angustif olius and Jasminum suavissimum (both usually slender lianas), an occasional Solatium sp., and the prostrate Myoporum debile, while the herbaceous layer is sparse and consists chiefly of rather scattered plants of Aristida vagans , A. ramosa, Eremochloa bimaculata, Eragrostis leptostachya, Panicum fulgidum, Microlaena stipoides, Cyperus gracilis, Desmodium rhytidophyllum, and Sida subspicata. There also occur occasional plants of Bothriochloa decipiens, Glossogyne tenui folia, and Helichrysum apiculatum. 4. Angophora lanceolata (rusty gum or sugar gum) Forest (Fig. 3). — The communities of this are rather small in area and occupy flat expanses, usually the crests of low undulations, with a more or less strongly gravelly soil. The trees are fairly dense and usually straight and rather well formed with a relatively long and narrow dense crown. This is unusual, as the species is so often an irregular tree. Occasionally Eucalyptus decepta and E. gummifera are to be seen. Shrubs are absent, and the herbaceous layer is rather sparse and consists chiefly of Aristida vagans, A. glumaris, Eragrostis sororia, E. leptostachya, Cyperus gracilis , Zornia diphylla, and H ardent) ergia bimaculata, though in one or other of the communities there also occur Brachiaria miliiformis, Chloris ventricosa, Crotolaria linifolia, Digitaria didactifla, Glycine clandestina, and Paspalidium distans. These communities are usually surrounded by and merge into Eucalyptus hemiphloia forest with a more or less pronounced ecotone. 5. Eucalyptus maculata-E . racemosa (spotted gum-ironbark ) Forest (cf. Fig. 4). — This occupies the upper slopes and crests of ridges or low hills on podsolised soils with free quartz pebbles on the surface. There is practically no underwood, and the chief herbaceous plants are somewhat scattered. These are Themeda australis, Capillipedium parviflorum (scented golden-beard), Heteropogon contortus (bunch spear grass or black spear grass), Aristida ramosa, Eragrostis Brownvi, E. elongata, E. leptostachya, E. sororia, Cyperus gracilis, C. fulvus, Glycine clandestina, and Crotolaria linifolia (a rattle-pod), but there are also present Bothriochloa decipiens (rare), Chloris divaricata, Digitaria divaricatissima (rare), Desmodium rhytidophyllum ,, Erigeron canadensis, E. crispus, Erythraea australis, Helichrysum apiculatum , Panicum effusum, Phyllanthus sp., Sida corrugata, S. rhombifolia, and Verbena venosa. Where the ironbark tends to drop out of the community, Aristida tends to dominate the ground flora, and where the spotted gum drops out, the community merges into the mixed Eucalyptus forest. 66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. 6. Eucalyptus racemosa-Casuarina torulosa-Xanthorrhoea arbor ea (ironbark-oak-grass-tree) Forest (Fig. 5). — This forest is developed on the upper part of the higher hills on generally steeply sloping ground, and is poor in species. The eucalypt averages 50-70 feet in height, the Casuarina 20-25 feet, and the Xanthorrhoea 10-15 feet. The only other woody plant normally present is an occasional low shrub of Grewia latifolia. Completely covering the ground is a dense growth of Themeda australis and Poa australis with some Sorghum leiocladum, Cymbopogon refractus and Erechthites arguta, and occasionally FimbristyUs monostachya, Glycine clandestina , and Lespedeza sericea. At its lower edge this forest passes into mixed Eucalyptus forest, Casuarina being the first to drop out. In some places however, as for instance on Little Mount Brisbane, it impinges directly on Closed Forest, often without any eeotone. 7. Eucalyptus carnea-E. punctata (stringy-bark-grey gum) Forest (Fig. 6). — This forest was only seen on the range to the west of the township of Somerset Dam at an altitude of 1,400-2,000 feet on a light coloured, light-textured, rather shallow, almost skeletal soil developed on alaskite, boulders of which are scattered here and there over the surface. The dominant trees are well-formed, rather massive, and the tallest eucalypts seen in the area. They form a relatively dense canopy. Casuarina torulosa is scattered through the community as a discontinuous under-storey, while the grey gum drops out in places. There is a well- developed underwood, though nowhere really dense, of the spiny-leaved shrubs Acrotriche aggregata and Oxylobium trilobatum , together with Monotoca scoparia, Persoonia Mitchelli, Indig of. era australis , Tephrosia purpurea , Hovea acuti folia, Macrozamia spiralis (in places,) and young Tristania conferta and Acacia Maidenii f The ground flora is dense and rich, composed of many individuals belonging to many families, of which the commonest and tallest (2-3 feet) are the grasses Themeda australis, Poa australis, Cymbopogon refractus, Digitaria sp. aff. D. recta, and the smaller Aristida vagans (rare), besides the sedge Lepidosperma laterale. Other common herbs are Didiscus incisus, Goodenia rotundifolia, Desmodium rhytidophyllum, D. brachypodum, Erechthites arguta, Helichrysum bracteatum, Lomandra longifoUa, L. multiflora, Dianella caerulea, Plectranthus australis, Spermacoce sp., and Poranthera microphylla. Herbaceous twiners are the legumes Glycine clandestina, TLardenbergia bimaculata, and Kennedy a rubicunda, and the woody twiners Cissus opaca and Eustrephus latifolius var. angustifolius are also present. Less common herbaceous plants are Danthonia semiannularis? Desmodium varians, Echinopogon ovatus , Entolasia stricta , Glossogyne tenuifolia, Hybanthus enneaspermus, Imperata cylindrica var. Koenigii (blady grass), Lagenophora stipitata, Oxalis sp. and Vernonia cinerea. At its lowermost edge this forest frequently borders upon closed forest with a definite eeotone between. 8. Eucalyptus punctata-E. paniculat a? -Tristania conferta Forest. This is often found on the fringe of Closed Forest, and is rather in the nature of an eeotone community. Sometimes the Tristania (scrub box) occurs alone, sometimes it is absent, but when present the canopy is usually closed or nearly so. All variations in composition may occur in sheltered places on hillside gullies, whether Closed Forest be present or not. Shrubs characteristic of the Eeotone (see below) may be present. The chief herbaceous plants are Themeda australis, Poa australis, Microlaena stipoides, Gymnostachys anceps, Carex declinata, &c. THE VEGETATION OF THE LOWER STANLEY RIVER BASIN. 67 9. On very rocky places on hillsides are to be found communities of chiefly herbaceous plants which are more or less independent of the general forest type. The ferns Drynaria rigidula and Notkolaena distans and the labiate Plectrantkus australis are specially characteristic, and if there are definite rock faces or ledges the orchid Dendrobium Kingianum is usually to be found. Other ferns and orchids and a few grasses are also fairly common. These are Adiantum aetkiopicum, A. kispidulum, Davallia pyxidata, Doodia keteropkylla, Pteris tremula, Pyrrkosia confluens and P. rupestris, the last two long- creeping; Bulbopkyllum sp., Dcndrobium, linguif orme (creeping), Liparis reflexa, and Sarcockilus falcatus; Entolasia stricta, Imperata cylindrica var. Koenigii, Leptockloa sp., Paspalidium gracile, and Tripogon loliiformis. Other noteworthy plants are Gymnostackys anceps, Lomandra multiflora, the wiry twiners Eustrepkus latifolius var. angustifolius , Hardenbergia bimaculata , Smilax australis; and the shrubs Brachyckiton Bidwillii , Indigofera australis, Lantana camara, Pkyllantkus similis, and Trochooarpa laurina (this last sometimes a small tree). Some of these species have been mentioned as occurring in communities already dealt with, others are mentioned below in dealing with the origin of Closed Forests. II. CLOSED FORESTS. The Closed Forests vary considerably in extent, and are popularly known as “ scrubs.” Broadly speaking, two main types may be distinguished : — 1. — Pine “ Scrubs/’ 2. — Isolated “ Scrubs/ ’ 1. The Pine Scrubs occupy the larger continuous areas and are invariably found on mountain sides, often in gullies or on low saddles or other more or less sheltered habitats. The ground is almost invariably steep, often very steep, and usually rocky. The woody plants are numerous in species with dense or fairly dense canopies, and are so closely spaced that relatively little direct sunlight ever reaches the ground. Lianas are common, epiphytes are not very common, and there are very few herbs on the forest floor. The forests approach true Rain Forest in many characters — and indeed there are a few small areas on the banks of some of the creeks which might with justice be called Rain Forest — but on the whole they differ in the paucity of epiphytes, in the absence of Calamus (lawyer-vine) among the lianas, in the poor development of buttresses, and in the relative frequency of deciduous or partially deciduous trees. In some communities the hoop pine ( Araucaria Cunninghamii) is by far the tallest tree and completely dominates the forest, and it is these communities that are least like Rain Forest (Fig. 7). The other trees are relatively small and often shrubby. There are four distinct storeys. The tallest is a discontinuous one, composed of the Araucaria alone, the next is about 30 feet high, composed of several species, including Laportea pkotinipkylla, Bridelia faginea , Ficus eugenioides, &c., the third is composed of shrubs 8-15 feet high, of which Alchornea aquifolium is very characteristic, while the lower- most consists of a sparse layer of herbaceous or slightly woody plants, of which Nyssanthes diffusa is probably the commonest. Owing to the difficulty of thoroughly studying these forests, due partly to the frequent extreme ruggedness of the habitat and the difficulty of penetration 68 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. further increased in places by dense masses of Lantana, and partly to the difficulty of identifying the numerous species, it is only possible to sketch the salient features of the areas visited. A complete list of species certainly identified is given below. The trees most frequently associated with the pine (second storey) are Acacia aulacocarpa, Alectryon connatus, A. tomentosus, Atalaya hemiglauca, Bridelia fagimea, Microcitrus australis, Erythrina vespertilio, Ficus eugenioides, Flindersia australis, Laportea photiniphylla, Maba fasciculoisa, Mallotus philip- pinensis, and Rhodosphaera rhodanthema. The more frequent shrubs of the third storey are Acalypha ncmorum, Alchornea aquifolium, Canthium lucidum, Capparis nobilis, Citriobatus pauciflorus, and Wilkiea macrophylla. The commoner herbs are Aneilema biflorum, OpUsmenus imbecillis, Pellaea paradoxa, Pyrrhosia rupestris (creeping on rocks or trees), Rivina laevis (introduced), and the somewhat shrubby Nyssanthes diffusa. The chief epiphytes are Dendrobium speciosum, D. teretifolium, and Platycerium grande. Among the frequent lianas may be mentioned Cissus antarctica, J asminum didymum, Lonchocarpus Blackii, Pandorea pandorana , Rhipogonum sp., and Tetrastigma nitens, the last-mentioned with long, very fine aerial roots. In many communities the introduced Lantana camara has gained entry along tracks and clearings following the removal of pine for milling purposes, and in places forms almost impenetrable masses. The shrubby grass Ancistrachne uncinulata is to be seen in places, while some areas are characterised by the predominance of tall straight trees of Syncarpia subargentea, very prominent on account of its smooth pink bark and prominent buttresses. In such communities and in others where the pine tends to be or is almost entirely replaced by tall trees belonging to such species as Euroschinus falcatus, Harpullia pendula, Flindersia australis, Hernandia bivalvis, &c., a very close approach to true Rain Forest is attained (cf. Fig. 8). The shrubby layer is less dense and more varied than in typical Pine Scrubs, and such communities should probably be given a distinctive name, but they have not yet been sufficiently studied. There is usually a well-marked ecotone between these Closed Forests and the surrounding Open Forest, frequently Eucalyptus punctata-E. pamculataf-Tristania conferta forest. Some trees, such as Mallotus pJiilippinensis, simply pass out from the Closed Forest, but there are a number of species which are restricted or nearly restricted to these ecotones. These include Acacia decurrens, Duboisia myoporoides, and Hibiscus heteropliyllus (small trees or tall single-stemmed shrubs), Cassia retusa, Abutilon acutatum, Brachychiton Bidwillii, Myrtus rhytisperma, and Plumbago zeylanicum < (smaller shrubs), 8 tip a ramosissima (a shrubby grass up to 8 feet high), Macrozamia spiralis (stemless), Smilax australis (a liana), and the herbs Aristida gracilipes , Carex declinata, Cy perns enervis, C. laevis, Chloris unispicea, Doodia aspera, Gymnostachys aneeps, and Leptochloa sp. Occasionally the Closed Forest shows an advance into the Open Forest, old trees of the latter occurring within the fringe of the former. The advance is initiated by the ecotone species, under whose canopy Closed Forest species can and do multiply, but prevent the growth of the Eucalypts. But at times a complete equilibrium is attained, some- times over a considerable area, in which seedling and adult trees of both formations are associated. This is the Hoop Pine-Ironbark Forest of Swayne (1928), which is common in the Brisbane Valley, but is very rare in the area discussed in this paper. In other cases there is no perceptible ecotone, so that there is a sharp line of demarcation except THE VEGETATION OE THE LOWER STANLEY RIVER BASIN. 69 for the fact that Abutilon acutatum, Aristida gracilipes, Chloris unispicea, &c., grow round the edge under the Eucalypts. 2. Of great ecological interest are the numerous small isolated “scrubs” scattered about the hillsides, usually on particularly rocky places (Figs. 9, 10, 11). These vary from a few yards up to 100 yards in diameter, and there is usually a complete absence of ecotone, so that from a distance these scrubs are visible as dark-green dots and patches set amongst the grey-green of the Open Forest of the hillsides. Hoop pine is usually absent from the smaller of these communities and certain grasses are characteristic. Ancistrachne uncinulata is by far the commonest and it occurs also in the Pine Forests, Stipa ramosissima is not uncommon, and Leptochloa sp. is universal. The trees and shrubs are all those of the Pine Forest, but as one might expect from the size of the communities, they are not so varied in nature. Lianas are relatively numerous, but epiphytes (other than mosses and lichens) are absent. Br-achychiton Bidwillii is a common plant at the edges. The following is a complete list of the twenty-two species found in the community shown in Figs. 9-10: Alectryon tomentosus, Flindersia australis , Laportea photiniphylla, Mallotus philippinensis, and Melia dubia (trees) ; Acalypha capillipes, Alchornea aquifolium, Capparis nobilis, Eilat ost achy s xylocarpa, Myrsine variabilis, Turraea pubescens (shrubs) and Ancistrachne uncinulata (somewhat shrubby) ; Cissus opaca, Hoya australis , Jasminum didymum, and Malaisia tortuosa (lianas) ; and Adiantum aethiopicum, Brachiaria foliosa, Gy perus gracilis, Eranthemum variabile, Leptochloa sp., and Scleria Brownii (herbs). These communities appear to be of some age, but in one case a young community was found on the bank of a small gully (Fig. 11) which consisted of one young plant of Euroschinus falcatus about 20 feet high, six young trees of Mallotus philippinensis 12-15 feet high and a few smaller ones, a shrub of Breynia obi ongi folia at the edge, and under the canopy occurred Adiantum aethiopicum, Eustrephus latifolius var. angustifolius, and a young plant of the liana Pandorea pandorana. There is evidence to indicate that at least some of the isolated scrubs may have originated from the communities of Drynaria rigidula on rocky slopes. This fern forms dense patches, accumulates humus at the base of the barren leaves, and throws considerable shade on the substratum. Certain ecotone species appear then to develop among the fern, of which Gymnostachys anceps, Smilax australis, and Lantana camara are common. Trochocarpa laurina sometimes occurs, with or without the fern, and other tree species have been found associated with these patches. In one instance, the appearance of a fig ( Ficus eugenioides) , probably from seed dropped by a bird, has initiated a Closed Forest succession under its canopy. Further, it seems likely that following man’s interfer- ence, Lantana has helped considerably in the advancement of Closed Forest by the amount of shade formed at the margins of the latter. It is possible also that the rocky areas offer protection from fire to any Closed Forest seedlings that may chance to germinate there, a protection which is not required by the seedlings of Open Forest trees. When Closed Forest is destroyed the area is soon occupied by a dense growth of Lantana, through which such pioneer species as Codonocarpus australis, Pipturus argenteus, Capparis nobilis, Alyxia ruscifolia, &c., push their way. 70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. III. FRINGING COMMUNITIES. These communities are developed along the banks of streams, rarely extending any distance beyond the margins. The sandspits and shingle banks of the river are themselves colonised by certain species, often annuals, which may be removed by each flood and do not form a stable vegetation. The species chiefly concerned are Cyperus poly st achy os , Fimbristylis bisumbellata, Polygonum decipiens, P. lapathifoUum , and P. orientals. Less frequent are C. exalt at us, C. difformis, C. trinervis, and F. aestivalis. Distinctive herbaceous communities of a more permanent nature are to be found fringing the banks of small sluggish streams, and similar communities also occur occasionally along the banks of the river. The characteristic plants are the grasses Pennisetum, alopecuroides and Paspalum distichum, and the sedges Cyperus exaltatus, C. globosus, and in some places C. eleusinoides and C. vaginatus. Extending into the water itself are Typha angustifoUa (bullrush) and Scirpus lacustris. A Fringing Forest of some kind is usually to be found along the watercourses. In its most primitive form this Fringing Forest consists of a few scattered trees of Tristania suaveolens on the banks of some of the gullies which contain water only at infrequent intervals. Larger watercourses have usually (in this area) a sandy to rocky bed and retain moisture much longer. Along such are developed a more or less closed community of rather tall trees of Casuarina Cunninghamiana (river oak) and Melaleuca bracteata (Fig. 12), with a more or less closed ground cover of such shade-loving plants as Agrostis avenacea, Cyperus enervis, Miorolaena stipoides, and Paspalidium distans, with Cyperus trinervis at the edge of the shingle. Where there is permanent water, there is a tendency for the Melaleuca to be replaced by Callistemon viminalis (red tea-tree, red bottle-brush) though the latter may extend further upstream from permanent water. Along the larger streams, such as the Stanley River and Kilcoy Creek, the characteristic tree is the river myrtle, Eugenia Ventenatii, often with Castanospermum australe (Moreton Bay chestnut, Black bean) associated. Both Casuarina and Callistemon may be present. The ground flora consists of clumps of Lomandra longifolia with Cyperus gracilis, C. enervis, C. mines, C. trinervis, Microlaena stipoides, Paspalidium distans, and more or less Digitaria didactyla. Along many of the tributary creeks a Closed Forest approaching Rain Forest in character is to be found in the narrow valleys near the sources, and Melia dubia sometimes with Laportea spp. may extend downstream into the Casuarina-M^elaleuca forest. i IV. AQUATIC VEGETATION. This was not studied in detail. Apart from numerous Algae the following submerged plants are common in the river: — Ceratophyllum demersum, Hydrilla verticillata, Potamogeton crispus, and Vallisneria spiralis ; chiefly submerged are P. javanicus and Myriophyllum verrucosum (flowering parts emerged) ; Ottelia ovalifolia and Triglochin procera are partly floating, while Limnanthemum indicum has all its leaves floating. In the small streams Triglochin and Ottelia are the more common Angiosperms, while Characeae also occur. Typha angustifoUa and Scirpus lacustris, which are submerged at base only, are also common. THE VEGETATION OF THE LOWER STANLEY RIVER BASIN. 71 LIFE-FORMS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SPECIES. Except for a few weeds of cultivation or roadsides and a few road- side waifs all the species recognised in the area are listed in the following tables. For reference the life-forms are given according to the system of Raunkiaer as given by Wood (1937) and discussed by du Rietz (1931). But a caution must be given against the use of the data in statistical analyses*. As pointed out at the beginning of the paper, the lists almost certainly are incomplete. The area described is fairly representative of a considerable part of South-East Queensland, yet a few species which are abundant in neighbouring districts were not recorded from this area. ( Siegesbeckia orientalis, a common species of the Closed Forest ecotone, is one of these). It is sometimes difficult to assign plants to a definite life-form, and such compound symbols as H-Ch have been employed in an effort to overcome this. In the case of the species of the Closed Forest, the broad divisions are elaborated by the addition of brief notes, as so many of the species have not been mentioned in the descriptions of the communities. In Table II. are listed the species found in the other communities discussed. Almost all these have been mentioned in the earlier part of the paper, and are brought together here to show the distribution of the different species. But some of these are abundant in some communities and very rare in others. The families of Angiosperms are arranged according to the system of Hutchinson (1926, 1934). The nomenclature of the Eucalypts follows that of Blakely (1934), the trees of the Closed Forests that of Francis (1929), that of the Cyperaceae and Gramineae follows recent revisional work by various workers, including the present author, while the remainder is very much that of Bailey (1913), except for a few emenda- tions by Domin (1915, 1921-29), where such could be checked. The nomenclature of the ferns follows that of Miss D. A. Goy in the Queensland Herbarium, and is substantially that of Christensen (1906, 1913-1916). For convenience, an abbreviated table of Raunkiaer Js Life Forms adapted from Wood (1937) is given herewith. a. Mega- and Mesophanaerophytes (MM) ; woody plants more than 8 metres high (Megaphanaerophytes are more than 30 metres high and are not specially indicated). b. Microphanaerophytes (M.) ; woody plants from & to 8 metres high. c. Nanophanaerophytes (N.) ; woody plants from 25 centimetres to 2 metres high. d. Chamaephytes (Ch.) ; chiefly undershrubs up to 25 centimetres high. e. Hemioryptophytes (H.) ; plants with perennating buds buried in the surface layers of the soil, as for example, most grasses. f. Geophytes (G) ; plants with perennating buds buried deep in the soil, such as bulbous and rhizomatous plants. g. Kelophytes (HH.) ; plants growing in water. h. Therophytes (Th.) ; annual plants. i. Epiphytes (E.) ; plants growing on other plants, or on rocks. j. Succulents (S.). * This warning is given in an effort to prevent such misleading statements as that given by Wood in the work quoted above, where on p. 22 he gives Life Spectra of ‘ 1 Typical Australian Plant Communities. ’ 1 For 1 1 Tropical Forest, Queensland, ; ’ he gives 4 per cent. Therophytes and no Epiphytes. Bain forest is evidently meant, particularly as he states there are 18 lianas present, but epiphytes are a sine qua non of such communities, and further no living Queensland botanist has ever noticed a therophyte in a rain forest, unless perhaps in clearings or on roadsides or very broad tracks. This, of course, does not mean that such a thing is an impossibility, but it is scarcely characteristic of such communities. Wood, however, cites no authority for his figures. 72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. TABLE I. THE SPECIES OF THE CLOSED FOREST COMMUNITIES AND ECOTONES Species. Life- form. Remarks. Species. Life- form. Remarks. PTERIDOPHYTA. Sterculiaceae. Adiantum aethiopicum L. H. Loosely tufted Brachychiton acerifolius (A. M-MM. Leaves deciduous A. hispidulum Sw. H. Loosely tufted Cunn.) F. Muell. Asplenium adiuntoides (L.) E. On Platycerium B. Bidwillii Hook. N. Leaves deciduous C. Christens. Malvaceae. Doodia aspera R.Br. H-Ch. Tufted Abutilon acutatum C. T. N. Soft-wooded Dryopteris queenslandica H-Ch. Tufted White MSS. Domin Hibiscus heterophyllus Vent. M. Soft-wooded Pellcea nana (R.Br.) H-Ch. Forming masses Euphorbiaceae. on rocks Acalypha capillipes F. N. P. paradoxa (R.Br.) Hook. H. Not tufted Muell. ex Muell. Arg. Platycerium grande J. Sm. . . E. A. nemorum F. Muell. ex N. P. bifurcatum (Cav.) C. E. Muell. Arg. Christens. Alchornea aquifolia (J. Sm.) N. Very common Pyrrhosia confluens (R.Br.) E. Creeping liana Domin Ching Breynia oblongifolia Muell. N. P. rupestris (R.Br.) Ching. . E. Creeping liana Arg. Bridelia faginea (Baill.) F. M. Muell. ex Benth. GYMNOSPERMAE. Claoxylon sp. M. PlNAOEAE. Cleistanthus Cunninghamii M. Araucaria Cunninghamii MM. Often very tall (Muell. Arg.) Muell. Arg. Ait. Croton insularis Baill. M. C YC ADAGE AE. Hemicyclia australasica M. Macrozamia spiralis (R.Br.) Ch. Large Rosette ; Muell. Arg. Miq. E cotone Mallotus claoxyloides (F. N. Muell.) Muell. Arg. M. philippinensis (Lam.) M. ANGIOSPERMAE. Muell. Arg. Anon ace ae. Tragia novae-hollandice M. Very slender Melodorum Leichhardtii (F. M-MM. Liana Muell. Arg. liana, with Muell.) Benth. stinging hairs MONIMIACEAE . Caesalpiniaceae. Wilkiea macrophylla (A. N-M Cassia retusa Soland. ex Yog. N. In ecotone Cunn.) A.DC. Mimosaceae. HERNANDIACEAE. Acacia aulacocarpa A. Cunn. M. Hernandia bivalvis Benth. MM. ex Benth. Menispermaceae. A. decurrens (Wendl.) Willd. M. In ecotone Legnephora Moorei (F. MM. Liana (sens, lat.) Muell.) Benth. A. Maidenii F. Muell. M. In ecotone Capparidaceae. Papilionaceae. Capparis nobilis (Endl.) F. M. More or less Erythrina vespertilio Benth. M. Leaves decidu- Muell. prickly ous ; trunk C. sarmentosa A. Cunn. ex M. Creeping prickly slightly prickly Benth. liana Castanospermum australe MM. Chiefly on stream Phytolaccaceae. A. Cunn. & Fraser banks Codonocarpus australis A. M. Lonchocarpus Blackii (F. MM. Liana Cunn. ex Moq. Muell.) Benth. Rivina laevis L. Ch. Introduced, but Ulmaceae. common Aphananthe philippinensis M. Chenopodiaceae. Planch. Chenopodium triangulare Ch. Rare Moraceae. R.Br. Cudrania javanensis Trecul M. Prickly liana Rhagodia hastata R.Br. . . Ch. Rare Ficus eugenioides (Miq.) Miq. M-MM. Partly Amarantaceae. deciduous Nyssanthes diffusa R.Br. . . Ch-N. Divaricating half- F. stenocarpa F. Muell. ex M. Partly shrub Benth. deciduous Thymeleaceae. F. Watkinsiana F. M. Bail. MM. Pimelea altior F. Muell. . . N. In ecotone Malaisia tortuosa Blanco . . MM. Liana Proteaceae. Pseudomorus Brunoniana M. Orevillea robusta A. Cunn. . . MM. Bur. Pittosporaceae. Urticaceae. Citriobatus pauciflorus A. N-M. Prickly, with Laportea gig as Wedd. M. With stinging Cunn. ex Benth. small leaves hairs Hymenosporum flavum M. Deciduous L. photiniphylla (Kunth) M. With stinging (Hook.) F. Muell. Wedd. hairs FLACOURTIACEAE. Pipturus argenteus (Forst.) M. Scolopia Brownii F. Muell. M. Wedd. Passifloraceae. Celastraceae. Passiflora alba Link & Otto Ch. Rather tall liana ; Celastrus bilocularis F. Muell N. introduced, Denhamia pittosporoides F. M. rare Muell. Myrtaceae. Siphonodon australe Benth. MM. Backhousiamyrtifolia Hook. M. Loranthaceae. & Harv. Loranthus dictyophlebus F. N., E. Parasitic Myrtus acmenioides F. M. Stems crooked, Muell. Muell. bark thin, de- Santalaoeae. ciduous Exocarpus latifolius R.Br. M. Root parasite M. rhytisperma F. Muell. . . N. Rhamnaceae. Syncarpia subargentea C. T. MM. Buttressed ; bark Alphitonia excelsa Reissek M. White deciduous ex Endl. THE VEGETATION OF THE LOWER STANLEY RIVER BASIN. 73 TABLE 1 — continued. THE SPECIES OF THE CLOSED FOREST COMMUNITIES AND ECOTONES— continued. Species. Life- form. Remarks. Ampelidaceae (Vitaceae). Cay ratio, acris (F. Muell.) M-MM. Liana Domin Cayratia clemaXidea (F. M. Liana Muell.) Domin Cissus antarctica Vent. MM. Liana Cissus opaca F. Muell. M. Liana Tetrastigma nitens (F. Muell.) MM. Liana, with aerial Planch. roots Rutaceae. Melicope neurococca F. M. Muell. Microcitrus australis (A. M. Thorny Cunn.) Swingle Xanthoxylum brachyacan- M. Thorny thum F. Muell. SIMARUBACEAE. AUanthus malabarica DC. . . M. Rosette tree, with pinnate leaves Meliaceae. Dysoxylon sp. Flindersia australis R.Br. MM. M-MM. When MM. slightly but- tressed ; at least partly deciduous F. collina F. M. Bail M. Deciduous or partly de- ciduous F. Schottiana F. Muell. . . M. Melia dubia Cav. . . M. Deciduous Turraea pubescens Hellen. . . N. Deciduous Sapindaceae. Alectryon connatus (F. M. Muell.) Radik. A. tomentosus (F. Muell.) M. Radik. Atalaya hemiglauca (F. M. Seen chiefly as Muell.) F. Muell. ex Benth. seedlings Cupaniopsis parvifolia (F. M. M. Bail.) Dodonaea cuneata Rudge . . N. Ecotone sp. j Ellatostachys xylocarpa (A. N. Cunn.) Radik. Earpullia pendula (Planch.) M-MM. F. Muell. Jagera pseudorhus (A. Rich.) M. Deciduous Radik. Mischocarpus pyriformis ( F. M. Muell.) Radik. Anacardiaceae. Euroschinus falcatus Hook. Rhodosphcera rhodanthema MM. M. (F. Muell. ex Benth.) Endl. Araliaceae. Polyscias elegans (Moore & M. Rosette tree, with F. Muell.) Harms pinnate or bi- pinnate leaves Ep ACRID ACE AE. Trochocarpa laurina (Rudge) M. R.Br. Ebenaceae. Diospyros pentamera (F. M. Frequently MM. Muell.) F. Muell. & Woolls Maba fasciculosa F. Muell. M. Maba humilis R.Br. M. Sapotaceae. Amorphospermum antilogum MM. F. Muell. Chrysophyllum pruiniferum M. F. Muell. Lucuma sericea F. Muell. . . M. Myrsinaceae. Myrsine variabilis R.Br. . . N-M. Symplocaceae. Symplocos sp. M? One specimen seen Species. Life- form. Remarks. Ole ace ae. Jasminum didymum Forst. M. Liana J. suavissimum Lindl. M. Liana Notelaea longifolia Vent. . . M. Olea paniculata R.Br. M-MM. Apocynaceae. Alstonia constrida F. Muell. M. Carissa ovata R.Br. N. Divaricate Alyxia ruscifolia R.Br. . . N. prickly shrub Leaves very rigid Parsonsia lanceolata R.Br. M. and pungent Liana P. velutina R.Br. M. Liana Asclepiadaceae. Hoya australis R.Br. ex S. Liana Treull. Marsdenia sp. M. Liana Sarcostemma australe R.Br. S. Liana ; leafless Rubiaceae. Canthium coprosmoides F. M. Muell. C. lucidum Hook. & Arn. . . M. Hodgkinsonia ovati flora F. M. Muell. Ixora Beckleri Benth. M. Pavdta indica L. . . M. Psychotria daphnoides A. N-M. Cunn. Ps. loniceroides Sieb. N-M. Plumbagunaceae. Plumbago zeylanicum L. . . N. Goodeniaceae. Ooodenia grandiflora Sims . . Ch. Ecotone sp. SOLANACEAE. Duboisia myoporoides R.Br. M. Solanum stelligerum Sm. . . N. Solanum spp. N. Bignoniaceae. Pandoreapandorana (Andr.) MM. Liana Van Steenis Acanthaceae. Justicia sp. aff. J. procum - Ch. bens L. Verbenaceae. Lantana camara L. N-M. Liana, or forming Spartothamnus junceus A. N. dense masses ; introduced Small, divari- Cunn. cating, almost Labiatae. Plectranthus australis R.Br. Ch. leafless Somewhat succu- COMMELINACEAE. Commelina biflorum R.Br. Ch. lent A creeping herb Flagellariaceae. Flagellaria indica L. M-MM. Liana, with leaf- ZlNGIBERACEAE. Alpinia caerulea (R.Br.) H. tendrils Benth. Liliaceae. Dianella caerulea Sims Ch. Grass-like ; in Smilacaceae. Rhipogonum sp. Smilax australis R.Br. M. ecotone Liana M. Liana ; prickly Philesiaceae. Eustrephus latifolius R. Br. M. Liana var. angustifolius (R.Br.) Benth. Araceae. Pothos longipes Schott E. Root climber Oymnostachys anceps R.Br. H. Grasslike ; in Dioscoreaceae. Dioscorea transversa R.Br. M. ecotone Liana Xanthorrhoeaceae. Lomandra longifolia Labill. H. Grass-like ; in sens. lat. ecotone 74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. TABLE I — continued. THE SPECIES OF THE CLOSED FOREST COMMUNITIES AND ECOTONES— continued. Species. Agavaceae. Cordyline terminalis (Jacq.) Kunth Palmae. Calamus Muelleri Wendl. & Drude Orchidaceae. Dendrobium gracilicaule F. Muell. D. speciosum Sm. D. teretifolium R.Br. SarcochUus falcatus R.Br. . . Cyperaceae. Carex declinata Boott Carex inversa R.Br. Carex longifolia R.B r. Cyperus enervis R.Br. C. gracilis R.Br C. laevis R.Br. C. tetraphyllus R.Br. Life- form. Remarks. Species. Life. form. Gramineae. N-M. Rosette small Ancistrachne uncinulata H-N. tree (R.Br.) S. T. Blake Aristida gracilipes (Domin) H. MM. Very prickly liana Henr. Brachiaria foliosa (R.Br.) H. Hughes E. Chloris unispicea F. Muell. H-Ch. Leptochloa sp H. E. Oplismenus imbecillis Ch. E. (R.Br.) Kunth E. Panicum pygmceum R.Br. Ch. H. Grasslike; tufted; in ecotone H. Grasslike ; Paspalidium sp. aff. P. H. loosely tufted distans (Trin.) Hughes H. Grasslike ; Stipa ramosissima (Trin.) H-N. densely tufted Trin. H. Grasslike ; tufted H. Grasslike : tufted H. Grasslike; tufted; in ecotone H. Grasslike ; loosely tufted Remarks. Somewhat shrubby Densely tufted ; chiefly ecotone Tufted Densely tufted Tufted Creeping and ascending Creeping and ascending ; particularly on tracks Densely tufted Almost bamboo- like TABLE II . PLANTS OF COMMUNITIES OTHER THAN CLOSED FORESTS . The numbers in the third column (occurrence) refer to the corresponding communities of the Open Forest as treated in the text. A refers to Aquatic Vegetation, and F to the Fringing Communities; C indicates that the species also occurs in the Closed Forest; and E that it also occurs in the Closed Forest-Open Forest Ecotone. Species. Life- form. Occurrenc PTERIDOPHYTA. POLYPODIACEAE. Adiantum cethiopicum L. . . H. 9, C A. hispidulum Sw. H. 9, C Cheilanthes Sieberi Kunze. . H. 1 Notholcena distans R.Br. . . H. 1, 9 Boodia heterophylla (F. M. H. 9 Bail.) Domin Bavallia pyxidata Cav. E. 9 Brynaria rigidula (Sw.) Ch-E. 9, Bedd. Pteris tremula Thunb. H. 9 Pyrrhosia confluens (R.Br.) Ching P. rupestris (R.Br.) Ching. . Ch-E. 9, C Ch-E. 9, C GYMNOSPERMAE. Cycadaceae. Macrozamia spiralis (R.Br.) Ch. 7, E Miq. ANGIOSPERMAE. CERATOPHYLLACEAE. Ceratophyllum demersum L. HH. A YIOLACEAE. Eybanthus enneaspermus Ch. 7 (L.) F. Muell. PORTULACACEAE. Portulaca oleracea L. Th. 1 POLYGONACEAE. Polygonum decipiens R.Br. Ch. F P. lapathifolium L. Th F P. orientate L. Th. F Rumex Brownii Campd. . . Ch. 1, 2 Amarantaceae. Alternanthera nana R.Br. . . Ch. 1 Species. Life- form. Occurrence. OXALIDACEAE. Oxalis sp. aff. 0. stricta L. . . G. 7 Onagraceae. Jussiaea repens L. HH. F H ALORRHAGACE AE . Myriophyllum verrucosum HH. A Labill. Proteaceae. Persoonia Mitchellii Meissn. N. 7 Myrtaceae. Angophora lanceolata Cav. . . MM. 4 A. subvelutina F. Muell. . . MM. 2 Callistemon viminalis Banks M. F & Sol. ex Cheel Eucalyptus carnea R. T. MM. 7 Baker E. decepta Blakely MM. 1, 3 ?, 4 E. gummifera (Gaertn.) MM. 1, 4 Hochr. E. hemiphloia F. Muell. . . MM. 3 E. maculata Hook. MM. 5 E. melanophloia F. Muell. . . MM. 1 E. paniculata Sm. ? MM. 8 E. propinqua Deane & MM. 3 ? Maiden E. punctata DC. MM. 7, 8 E. racemosa Cav. MM. 1, 5, 6 E. tessellaris F. Muell. MM. 1, E. umbellata (Gaertn.) Do- MM. 2 min Eugenia Ventenatii Benth. M-MM. F Melaleuca bracteata F. Muell. MM. F Tristania conferta R.Br. . . MM. 7,8 T. suaveolens (Gaertn.) Sm. MM. 2, F Tiliaceae. Grewia latifolia F. Muell. ex N. 6 Benth. Sterculiaceae. Brachychiton Bidwillii Hook. N. 9, C, E THE VEGETATION OF THE LOWER STANLEY RIVER BASIN. 75 TABLE II — continued. PLANTS OF COMMUNITIES OTHER THAN CLOSED FORESTS — continued. Species. Life- form. Occurrence. Malvaceae. Malvastrum spicatum (L.) Gray Malvastrum, coromandelinum A. Ch. 1 Ch. 1 (L.) Garcke Sida corrugata Lindl. Ch. 5 Sida rhombifolia L. Ch. 1, 5 S. subspicata F. Muell. ex Ch. 3 Benth. Euphorbiaceae. Poranthera microphylla Th. 7 Brogn. Phyllanthus minutiflorus Ch. 2 Mueil. Arg. Ph. similis Muell. Arg. Ch. 9 Caesalpiniaceae. Cassia mimosoides L. Ch. 1 Mimosaceae. Acacia Maidenii F. Muell. ? M. 7, E A. juniper ina Willd. N. 7 Papilionaceae. Castanospermum australe MM. F, C A. Cunn. & Fraser Crotolaria linifolia L. f. . . Ch. 1, 4, 5 Desmodium brachypodum A. Gray D. rhytidophyllum F. Muell. Ch-N. 7 Ch-N. 3, 5, 7 ex Benth. D. varians (Labill.) G. Don Ch-N. 1, 2, 7 Glycine clandestina (Spreng.) Ch-N. 4, 6, 7 Wendl. G. tabacina (Labill.) Benth. Ch-N. 1, 2 Eardenbergia bimaculata Ch-N. 4, 7, 9 (Curt.) Domin [H. monophylla (Vent.) Benth.] Eovea acutifolia A. Cunn. . . N. 7 Indigofera australis Willd. N. 7, 9 Eennedya rubicunda (Curt.) Ch-N. 7 Vent. Lespedeza sericea (Thunb.) Ch. 6 Miq. Oxylobium trilobatum (R.Br.) N. 7 Benth. Psoralea tenax Lindl. Ch. 2 Rhynchosia minima DC. . . Ch. 1 Tephrosia purpurea Pers. . . N. 7 Zornia diphylla (L.) Pers. . . Ch. 1,4 Casuarinaceae. Casuarina Cunninghamiana MM. F Miq. C. torulosa Miq M-MM. 6,7 Loranthaoeae. Loranthus pendulus Sieb. . . E. 1, 2 Santalaceae. Exocarpus cupressiformis M. 1 Labill. Rhamnaceae. Alphitonia excelsa Reissek M. 1, C ex Endl. Ampelidaceae (Vitaceae). Cis8us opaca F. Muell. N. 7, C, E Umbelliferae. Bidiscus incisus (Rudge) G. 7 Hook. Epacridaceae. Acrotriche aggregata R.Br. N. 7 Monotoca scoparia R.Br. . . N. 7 Trochocarpa laurina (Rudge) N-M 9, C R.Br. Oleaceae. Jasminum suavissimum N. 3, C Lindl. Rubiaoeae. Richardsonia brasiliensis G. 2 (Gomez) Hayne Spermacoce sp 1 Ch. 7 Species. Life- form. Occurrence. COMPOSITAE. Erechthites arguta DC. Th. 1, 0, 7 Erigeron canadensis L. Th. 1, 2, 5 S E. crispus Pourret (E. lini- Th. 1, 2, 5 folius Willd.) Glossogyne tenuifolia G. 1, 2, 3, 7 (Labill.) Cass. Gnaphalium japonicum Ch. 1 Thunb. Eelichrysum apiculatum Ch. 1, 3, 6 (Labill.) DC. E. bracteatum (Vent.) Andr. Ch. 7 Lagenophora bellioides H-Ch. 2 (Cass.) Domin L. stipitata (Labill.) Domin H-Ch. 7 Vernonia cinerea Less. Ch. 7 C AMPANTJL ACE AE . Wahlenbergia multicaulis Ch. 1, 2 Benth. Goodeniaceae. Goodenia rotundifolia R.Br. Ch. 7 SOLANACEAE. Solanum sp. N. 3 Gesneriaceae. Erythrcea australis R.Br. . . Th. 1, 5, 7 Limnanthemum indicum HH. A (L.) Thw. Acanthaceae. Justicia sp. aff. J. pro- Ch. 1 cumbens L. Myoporaceae. Myoporum debile (Andr.) N. 3 R.Br. VERBENACEAE. Lantana camara L. N. 1, 9, C, E Verbena venosa Gill. & Hook. Ch. 1, 2, 5 Labiatae. Brunella vulgaris L. Ch. 1 Plectranthus australis R.Br. Ch. 7, 9, C Hydrocharitaceae. Eydrilla verticiilata (L.) Casp. Ottelia ovalifolia (R.Br.) HH. A HH. A L. C. Rich. Vallisneria spiralis L. HH. A JU N C AGIN ACE AE. Triglochin procera R.Br. . . HH. A POTAMOGETONACEAE. Potamogeton crispus L. HH. A P. javanicus Hassk. HH. A Liliaceae. Arthropodium paniculatum G. 1 (Andr.) R.Br. Dianella ccerulea Sims Ch. 7, E Laxmannia gracilis R.Br. . . Ch. 1 Ccesia sp. . . G. 9 Smilacaceae. Smilax australis R.Br. N. 9, C, E Philesiaceae. Eustrephus latifolius R.Br. N. 3, 7, 9, C, E var. augustifolius (R.Br.) Benth. Araceae. Gymnostachys anceps R.Br. H. 8, 9, E Typhaceae. Typha angustifolia L. sens. HH. A lat. Xanthorrhoeaceae. Lomandra longifolia Labill. H. 7, F, E sens. lat. L. multiflora (R.Br.) J. H. 7, 9 Britten X author rhoza arbor ea R.Br. M. 6 Orchipaoeae. BuUbophyllum sp. . . E. 9 Cymbidium canaliculatum E. 1 R.Br. Dendrobium Kingianum E. 9 Bidw. D. linguiforme Sw. E. 9 Liparis reflexa (R.Br.) E. 9 Lindl. Sarcochilus falcatus R.Br. E. 9, C 76 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. TABLE II — continued. PLANTS OF COMMUNITIES OTHER THAN CLOSED FORESTS — continued. Species. Life- form. Occurrence. Species. Life- form. Occurrence. JtJNCAOEAE. D. sericeum (R.Br.) A. H. 1 Juncus polyanthemus H. 2 Camus Buchen. Digitaria didactyla Willd. . . Ch-H. 1, 4, F Cyperaceae. B. divaricatissima (R.Br.) H. 5 Carex declinata Boott H. 8, E Hughes Cyperus cyperoides (L.) O.K. H. 2 B. orbata Hughes ? H. 1 C. difformis L. Th. F B. sp. aff. B. recta Hughes . . H. 7 C. eleusinoides Kunth H. F Echinopogon ovatus (G. H. 7 C. enervis R.Br. . . H. F, C Forst.) Beauv. C. exaUatus Retz. . . H. F Enneapogonpallidus (R.Br.) H. 1 C. ferax L. C. Rich. H. F Beauv. C. fulvus R.Br. H. 1, 2, 5 Entolasia stricta (R.Br.) Ch-H. 7,9 C. gracilis R.Br. . . H. 1,2, 3, 4, 5, F, C Hughes C. globosus All. H. F Er agrostis Broumii (Kunth) H. 1,5 C. mirus C. B. Clarke H. F Nees C. polystachyos Rottb. H. F E. elongata (Willd.) Jacq. . . H. 1, 5 C. trinervis R.Br H. F E. leptostachya (R.Br.) H. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 C. vaginatus R.Br. H. F Steud. Fimbristylis aestivalis (Retz.) Th. F E. parviflora (R.Br.) Trin. . . Th-H. 1 Vahl. E. sororia Domin H. 2, 4, 5 F. bisumbeUata (Forsk.) H. F Eremochloa bimaculata H-G. 1,3 Bubani Hack. F. gracilis R.Br. ? H. 2 Heteropogon contortus (L.) H. 1, 5 F. monostachya (L.) Hassk. H. 6 Beauv. ex R. & S. KyUinga triceps Rottb. . . H. 2 Eyparrhenia filipendula H. 1 Lepidosperma laterals H. 7 (Hochst.) Stapf R.Br. ? Imperata cylindrica (L.) G. 7,9 Scirpus lacustris L. HH. A Beauv. var. Eoenigii Gramineae. Dur. & Schinz Agrostis avenacea Gmel. . . Th. F Leptochloa sp. . . H. 1, 9, C Aristida acuta S. T. Blake H. 1 Microlaena stipoides H. 3, 8, F A. glumaris Henr. H. 1, 4 (Labill.) R.Br. A. gracilipes (Domin) Henr. H. 1, E Panicum effusum R.Br. . . H. 1,5 A. ramosa R.Br. H. 1, 2, 3, 5 P. fulgidum Hughes H. 3 A. vagans Cav H. 3, 4, 7 P. Mitchellii Benth. ? H. F Bothriochloa decipiens H. 1, 2, 3, 5 P. queenslandicum Domin . . H. 1 (Hack.) C. E. Hubb. Paspalidium distans (Trin.) H. 4, F B. intermedia (R.Br.) A. H. 1 Hughes Camus P. gracile (R.Br.) Hughes . . H. 1, F Brachiaria miliiformis Th. 4 Paspalum dilatatum Poir. . . H. 2, F (Presl) Chase P. distichum L Ch-H. F CapiUipedium parviflorum H. 1, 5 P. orbiculare Forst. H. F (R.Br.) Stapf Pennisetum alopecuroides H. 2, F Cenchrus australis R.Br. . . H. 1 (L.) Spreng. CUoris divaricata R.Br. . . Ch-H. 1, 5 Poa australis R.Br. H. 1, 6, 7, 8 Chloris gayana Kunth Ch-H. 1 Sehima nervosum (Rottl.) H. 1 Ch. truncata R.Br. Ch-H. 1 Stapf Ch. ventricosa R.Br. Ch-H. 4 Sorghum leiocladum (Hack.) H. 1, 6 Ch. sclerantha Lindl. Ch-H. 1 C. E. Hubb. Cymbopogon refractus H. 1, 6, 7 Sporobolus elongatus R.Br. H. 1, 2 (R.Br.) A. Camus Themeda australis (R.Br.) H. 1, 5, 6, 7, 8 Banthonia semiannularis H. 7 Stapf (Labill.) R.Br. ? Tripogon loliiformis (F. Ch-H. 9 Dichanthium affine (R.Br.) H. 1, 2 Muell.) C. E. Hubb. A. Camus SUMMARY. The vegetation of the lower part of the basin of the Stanley River is described as the result of a fortnight ’s reconnaisance work. The area exhibits great variety in topography, petrology, soils and vegetation. In many cases time did not allow a sufficiently detailed study of all these factors to permit conclusions to be drawn as to all their interrelation- ships. Vascular plants only were studied, and four main units of vegetation are recognised — viz., Open Forest, Closed Forest, Fringing Forest, and Aquatic Vegetation. Nine major community-types are recognised in the Open Forest, distinguished primarily upon the dominant trees, the dominant perennial herbs, and the presence or otherwise of a shrubby undergrowth. There is also usually some correlation with the habitat. Lists of all species seen are given, giving firstly the most common species, and then those less generally distributed. 'The Closed Forests are divided into two main types. The characteristic features of these are described, and the more prominent species listed. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LII., No. 8, Plate YI. M &jo13 ^B © Pp CD +3 O S o Pf$ : o s ^ Ph ~ © § 13 © rS §P -S 55 4, £ § ® t rsS ^ ” ©^ g Spq | ns . a> 63 (D n'H^ 3 © o Qjrt © rO •'.«} Irt u o' P ^ a ^ $ 9 *© o.§ Sjd § ^ © .©> 5^P) Fig. 2.— Eucalyptus hemiphloia forest, near Oakey Creek. Note the flat ground, the close spacing of the trees, and the sparse herbaceous vegetation, consisting chiefly of Eragrostis leptostachya and Aristida vagans. {Photos. :; S.T.B. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LII., No. 8. Plate VII, Fig. 3 .—Angophora lanceolata forest, north of Fig. i4!MEucalypt^imaQulata forest, near Reedy Creek. Somerset Dam. A tree of Eucalyptus decepta to the Some E. melanophloia in centre distance. Note the right. The ground cover consists of chiefly Aristida stony surface. vagans, Eragrostis leptostachya, Cyperus gracilis, Glycine [ Photos . : s T.B. tabacina, tf-c. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q ’land, Yol. LIL, No. 8, Plate VIII. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LIL, No. 8. Plate IX. Peoc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LII., No. 8, Plate X, Fig. 10. — Within the closed forest community shown in Fig. 9. Note the rocky surface. The larger trees are chiefly Laportea photiniphylla , and the liana in extreme left foreground is Hoya australis. [ Photos . : S.T.B. Pkoc. Eoy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LII., No. 8. Plate XI. Pig. 11.- — Near Somerset Dam, a very young closed forest community. [Photos. : S.T.B. THE VEGETATION OF THE LOWER STANLEY RIVER BASIN. 77 The relationships of the Closed Forest communities to one another and to Open Forest are discussed. Several Fringing Communities are briefly described, all of which depend for their existence upon their proximity to water-courses. Aquatic vegetation was not studied in detail. Finally, two lists of species are given, the first containing all species recognised in the Closed Forests and their ecotones with notes on their habits, the second comprising those species found in the other communities, giving life-form and distribution. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. I wish to thank the President and Secretary of the Science Students' Association for the opportunity of studying the area, to Dr. D. Hill, Mr. E. V. Robinson (both of the Department of Geology), and Mr. F. Chippendale (late of the Department of Geology) for assistance in drawing up the notes about the geology and soils of the area, to Mr. W. D. Francis, Assistant Government Botanist, for assistance in the determination of some of the trees in the Closed Forest from barren specimens, to Mr. C. T. White, Government Botanist, for assistance in some questions of nomenclature, to officers of the Meteorological Bureau, for climatic data, and to Dr. D. A. Herbert, of the Department of Biology, for helpful criticism. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Bailey, P. M. (1913) : Comprehensive Catalogue of the plants of Queensland, Brisbane. Ball, C. W. (1941.) : The Petrology of the Somerset Dam Site. Proe. Roy. Soe. Queensl. lii., 14-23. Blakely, W. F. (1934) : A Key to the Eucalypts. Sydney. Christensen,, C. (1906) : Index Filicum. Copenhagen. (1916): Supplementum. Domin, K. (1915) : Beitrage zum Flora und Pflanzengeographie Australiens. Biblioth. Bot. Heft. 85. (1921-1929) : As above, Heft 89. Du Rietz, G. E. (1931) : Life Forms of Terrestrial Flowering Plants, I. Acta Phytogeographica Suecica iii. No. 1. Francis, W. D. (1929) : Australian Rain-Forest Trees. Brisbane. Hill, D. (1930) : The Stratigraphical Relationships of the Shales about Esk to the Sediments of the Ipswich Basin. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensl. xli., 162-91. Hutchinson, J. (1926, 1934) : Families of Flowering Plants. London. Swayne, E. H. F. (1928) : The Forest Conditions of Queensland. Brisbane. Wood, J. G. (1937) : The Vegetation of South Australia. Adelaide. 78 Vol. LII., No. 9. SPHERULITIC CRYSTALLIZATION AS A MECHANISM OF SKELETAL GROWTH IN THE HEXACORALS. By W. H. Bryan, M.C., D.Sc., and Dorothy Hilh, M.Sc., Ph.D., Department of Geology, University of Queensland. (■ Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 25 th November, 1940.) I. Introduction. II. The Skeleton of the Hexaeoralla. III. Spherulitic and Allied Structures. IV. Spherulitic Crystallization as a Factor of Skeletal Growth. V. Possible Occurrences of the Process in Other Groups. VI. Conclusions. I. Introduction. For some years the authors of this paper had been working independently on the structure of spherulites and of corals respectively. Certain similarities in structure were noted between these organic and inorganic materials which, even at first glance, appeared to be more than superficial. It was therefore decided to collaborate in making more detailed comparisons of coralline and spherulitic structures in order to determine the degree of similarity and its possible significance. A search of the literature revealed that although the similarity between certain aspects of coral structure and spherulitic form has already been pointed out by von Koch (1882) Bourne (1899) and Cayeux (1916, p. 416) these authors do not appear to have appreciated the significant and indeed essential part played by spherulitic crystallization in coral growth. Comparisons of the skeletal elements of organisms with mineral substances may be based on chemical, physical, or structural features, or on some combination of these. The fact that a chemical identity exists between certain skeletal elements and various inorganic substances is, of course, well known and only to be expected. Even when the organic materials possess in addition crystalline forms identical with those of certain specific minerals, the fact need not be regarded as especially significant. But if, in addition to identity in chemical composition and crystalline form, there is found identity in the aggregation of the constituent crystals, it would appear that a study of that particular mode of mineral growth should throw some light on the organic processes producing the identical skeletal structure. After a close examination of the microscopic characters of the skeleton of the Hexaeoralla we have concluded that these organisms have adopted spherulitic crystallization as an essential mechanism of skeletal development. II. The Skeleton of the Hexaeoralla. (a) Descriptive. The skeleton of the Hexacorals is a framework whose constituent elements are aggregates of crystalline fibres of calcium carbonate. This is generally recognised and was established chiefly by the work of von SPHERULITIC CRYSTALLIZATION, ETC. 79 Heider (1882), von Koch (1882), Pratz (1882), Ogilvie (1897, 1907), Bourne (1899), and Duerden (1902, 1904). The framework is constructed of vertical skeletal elements and of horizontal skeletal elements. It is bounded on its upper surface by the soft parts from which it was formed, but elsewhere it is typically sheathed in a thin calcareous film, the epitheca. The various parts of the skeleton of a Hexacoral are closely com- parable with those of the Rugosa, recently defined and illustrated (Hill, 1935). The vertical skeletal elements are the radially arranged septa, and, in many genera, the more or less complex axial columella; the horizontal skeletal elements of the Rugosa (tabulae, tabellae and dissepi- ments) may, however, sometimes in the Hexaeorals have their functions performed in part by modifications or outgrowths of the vertical skeletal elements — e.g., synapticulae. Chemical analyses of Hexacoral skeletons show that on the average they are 98 per cent. CaC03, with less than 1.5 per cent. MgCOs, and only a trace of Ca3P208 (Clarke and Wheeler, 1924 p. 8). Sorby’s researches (1879) showed that the specific gravity of both perforate and non-perf orate Hexacoral skeletons was about 2.75, and he therefore con- cluded that they must be almost wholly aragonite, although he was not quite certain that calcite is always entirely absent. Meigen’s tests (1903) on twenty zoantharian corals showed them to be aragonitic and non- magnesian, and Cullis’ (1904) work on the Funafuti bore cores confirmed this. It has been suggested that Hexaeorals in the chalk and Danian of Denmark had skeletons of calcite, because they still retain the original fibrous structure (B^ggild, 1930, p. 241, and Kendall (1896, p. 790) has suggested that chemical conditions at the bottom of deep, cold seas are such that only calcite could occur in skeletons formed there. Microscopic investigation shows that the crystalline fibres are elon- gate needles about 2jizin diameter. They are not arranged haphazardly in the skeletal elements, but are grouped in systems. In true horizontal skeletal elements the fibres are arranged at right angles to the top and bottom surfaces, so that in a flat plate they are parallel, but in a curved plate they are slightly divergent — e.g., Stylophora. A vertical section of such a plate studied by transmitted light frequently shows a dark band at the base, which, however, is by reflected light more uniformly white than the rest. In some cases septal or columellar vestiges occur in the horizontal skeletal elements, and such vestiges' have a less simple arrangement of fibres. In the vertical skeletal elements the fibres are grouped into trabeculae, which are themselves grouped to form the septa, &c. But whereas the arrangement of fibres within the trabeculae is always approximately the same, the dimensions and arrangement of the trabeculae themselves vary from genus to genus, or from species to species. Each trabecula is a cylinder tapering convexly at the top, and consists of fibres, usually curved, directed upwards and outwards from a common axis. The fibres usually reach the surface of the cylinder somewhat obliquely, but they are at right angles in the tapering top. The trabeculae may all be in the vertical plane of the septum, in which case they may either all be parallel, or they may diverge, those of the axial part of the septum being directed upwards and inwards, and those of the peripheral part being directed upwards and outwards. 80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. In some eases the trabeculae may diverge laterally from the median plane of the septum to project on either side of the septum as granu- lations. This second type of divergence may be opposite or alternate. Combinations of these several arrangements may occur, giving in some cases very complex septa. In a very large number of Hexacorals, the so-called Aporosa, each vertical skeletal element is formed so that the fibres of any one of its trabeculae are everywhere in contact with those of neighbouring trabeculae. In the others, the “ perforate” Hexacorals, gaps are seen between the fibres of neighbouring trabeculae and sometimes the vertical continuity of a trabecula may be broken. A lamellaton, chiefly shown by slight colour differences and degrees of opacity, is sometimes observed in vertical sections of the horizontal skeletal elements. It is at right angles to the fibres and shows no great regularity of width from one lamella to the next. The general impression obtained with the low power objective is that the fibres are continuous through the lamellations, but with the use of higher power evidence of discontinuity is to be seen at the base. Lamellation of a similar nature is frequently visible also in the trabeculae of the vertical skeletal elements. It is everywhere at right angles to the fibres; the width of the lamellae is variable; there may be a darkening (in transmitted light) at the base of a lamella; there is an impression of continuity of the fibres of successive lamellae, but closer study shows interruptions. The axis of each trabecula is visible in transmitted light as a darker line, but by reflected light it is more densely white. The “ darkening” at the axes of trabeculae and at the bases of tabulae, dissepiments, and lamellae appears to be due to excessively finely divided matter interstitial to the fibres at these places. A very fine, even lamellation, 3ju, to 6/z wide, is to be observed in the less opaque parts of most Hexacorals. The intimate structure of the epitheca, whether fibrous or not, is unknown.* The bleached skeletons of Hexacorals are creamy-white in colour as seen in the hand specimen, but as viewed through the microscope they appear as yellow or light brown by transmitted light. The preceding remarks applied to the skeleton proper, as developed in each of the many sections that we have examined. Some specimens, however, show in addition to the regularly arranged aggregates of yellow crystalline fibres a discontinuous and irregular aggregation of colourless granular crystals external to the skeleton proper. These crystals are of aragonite (?) and may form scaly, vermicular, or roughly prismatic groups. (b) Relation of the Madreporarian Skeleton to the Soft Parts. It is now generally accepted that the skeleton of the Madreporaria. is an exoskeleton formed by the basal ectoderm; that the ectoderm is a unilaminar sheet, in which, in general, cell boundaries are not distinguishable ; and that the crystalline fibres of the skeleton arise in a colloidal matrix secreted by, but external to, the ectoderm. The soft parts are attached to the skeleton by this gel and by the sucker-like * The work of von Koch (1882) suggests to us, however, that the epitheca may bo a single sheet of minute spheres, each consisting of aragonite fibres radially arranged. SPHERULITIC CRYSTALLIZATION, ETC. 81 desmoidal processes which extend through the ectoderm from the mesoglaea. These conclusions have not been reached without argument, which, however, has already been sufficiently reviewed (Bourne 1899: Duerden, 1902; Matthai, 1918; Hill, 1935, p.484). All vertical skeletal elements are formed in invaginations in the basal ectoderm, and all true horizontal skeletal elements are formed below the unfolded basal ectoderm between these invaginations. # The apices of the trabeculae project into smaller hollows in the septal invaginations, and the apical parts of the trabeculae are built up therein ; the trabeculae are thickened from the sides of the septal invaginations. The direction of the crystalline fibres of the skeleton is always perpendicular to the surface of the ectoderm at the place and time of their addition. The direction of curvature of the vertical skeletal elements is always perpendicular to the direction of curvature of any horizontal skeletal element which abuts on to it. The calcareous fibres forming the horizontal skeletal elements are not sharply separated from those laid down at the same time on the sides of a neighbouring septum by the sides of an invagination (Hill, 1936, p. 192). It can be established from the growth lamination of the various elements that the vertical growth of a trabecula is more rapid than the vertical growth of a horizontal skeletal element, and it is deduced that upward pressure is exerted on the polyp at the tops of the invaginations. The muscular stresses developed in the base of the polyp due to the greater vertical growth of the trabeculae are thought to be relieved at the critical point to prevent rupture by the periodic release of the attachment of the skeleton to the uninvaginated base ( loc . tit. p. 191). The base rises to a new position, in equilibrium with the stress, and a new horizontal element is begun. Thus while the upward movement of the vertical skeletal elements is continuous, that of horizontal elements is intermittent. III. Spherulitic and Allied Structures. (a) Descriptive. A spherulite, as originally defined, consists of “a radiating and often concentrically arranged aggregation of one or more minerals, in outward form approximating to a spheroid, and due to the radial growth of prismatic or acicular crystals in a viscous magma or rigid glass about a common centre or inclusion” (Vogelsang, 1872 ).f In accordance with the general practice of geologists the scope of this definition may be extended to include, in addition to radial growth about a point, divergent growth about an axis and parallel growth upon a surface and any combination of these. Further, and in addition to such simply radial, divergent or parallel growths, other, composite, but obviously related structures are found. Such composite spherulites show the result of mutual interference between adjacent components in two types of growth that have been described as “ tufted” and “ plumose” respectively (Bryan, 1940, p. 46). In the first of these types the centres from which the radial growths are directed remain fixed in their initial position and composite growth proceeds in the form of tufts, the fibres of adjacent components after initial antagonism become progressively longer and more nearly parallel, * In some perforate Hexacorals, however, the function of the horizontal elements is wholly or in part taken over by modifications of the vertical skeletal elements, t Cited from Holmes, 1928, p. 214. 2. EXPLANATION TO TEXT-FIGURES. Each figure represents an almost vertical section through a septum of a Hexacoral, in the plane of the septum. In this species the trabeculae diverge towards the peripheral and axial edge of the septum, at a.d., and they also diverge from the median plane of the septum to each septal face — i.e., they diverge into and away from the plane of the paper. Each trabecula consists of crystalline fibres of Aragonite directed upwards and outwards from its axis ax. Trabeculae cut trans- versely by the section are shown below tr. in each figure as radiating groups of fibres ; others cut in an approximately median vertical plane are shown at m. in each figure as pinnate aggregates; and others again, cut obliquely, are shown opposite o. in each figure as fan-shaped groups of fibres. Discontinuity due to interruption in growth is shown at g.l.,< which represents the position of the upper edge of the septum at that growth period. After Ogilvie. These figures should be compared with those illustrating various types of spherulitic growth given by Bryan in an earlier paper in this volume (Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., LII., pp. 41-53). SPHERULITIC CRYSTALLIZATION, ETC. 83 and the whole structure moves toward a unity and homogeneity that resembles more and more closely simple spherulitic growth. Corres- pondingly the outer surface becomes more and more nearly that of a simple sphere. In the second type the centres of radial growth move progressively outwards from their original positions, the adjacent components remain as antagonistic as when they first interfere, and the structure remains an obviously composite one with a complex outer form. Concentric structures frequently accompany spherulitic growth. These are however by no' means essential. They in no way contribute towards the radial growth, but, on the contrary, may be regarded as interruptions of it. Such interruptions may be brought about in several ways and may be periodic or haphazard, giving rise to concentric patterns of varying degrees of regularity. The foregoing statements apply to spherulites proper as they occur in natural rock glasses, but similar crystal aggregates dominated by radial fibrous growth are found under quite other conditions in the mineral world. It may be that in some of these the resemblance is little more than mere superficial similarity, while others may represent true homologues of the spherulites proper. Much work remains to be done to elucidate the position. Here it will be sufficient to refer briefly to a few examples typical of these analogous structures. Of the non-metallic minerals Wavellite is perhaps the best example,, while all the essential features of spherulitic structure appear to be present in some varieties of the iron ores Siderite and Haematite. Hailstones are sometimes in the form of radial aggregates, ' ‘ Spherulites ’ J have been formed, too, by the deposition of Aragonite in sea water. Structures analogous to natural spherulites have also been produced artificially. They have been accidentally formed from time to time in commercial glasses. Morse, Warren, and Donnay (1932) have deliberately developed them in gels, in which medium they have succeeded in producing perfect specimens from a host of different chemical substances of every crystal system. Spencer (1925, p. 689) has grown ‘ "spherulites” in test tubes from supersaturated solutions of salicin containing (1) flocculated clay, (2) bentonite, (3) a gelatine-gel. (5) Conditions of Spherulitic Growth. It is difficult to state any one set of conditions that will cover the development of spherulites proper and the many inorganic structures more or less closely analogous to them. But, although one cannot define the essential conditions of spherulitic growth one may at least indicate those conditions that appear particularly favourable for its development. Thus for the spherulites proper it is generally agreed that develop- ment is dependent upon crystallisation of highly supersaturated material in a very viscous solution. The same conditions would appear to be true for the accidental development of spherulites in artificial glasses. Spencer (1925, p. 705) concludes with regard to spherulitic siderite in sediments that 4 'The radiating spherulitic form of the carbonate appears to be due to crystallisation from supersaturated solutions held within partly colloidal sediment,” R.S. B. 84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. With regard to the production of artificial spherulites Morse, Warren, and Donnay have shown that they can be formed of many substances if the reacting solutions are allowed to mix by diffusion avoiding all convection. They state further that the presence of a gel appears to be highly favourable to the growth of artificial spherulites. Schade ( fide Bucher, 1918) has demonstrated experimentally that concretionary bodies form when a substance passes from the state of an emulsion colloid (or “emulsoid”) to that of a solid, and that if the change leads to the crystalline state the resulting structure is radial if the substance is pure. Weimarn ( fide Hedges, 1931) has advanced evidence for the conclusion that many gels contain numerous spherical aggregates of crystal fibres as essential constituents. Bradford ( fide Spencer, 1925), too, believes that gels themselves consist of microscopic spherulites. While not denying the possibility that closely analogous structures may be formed from ordinary solutions, it would appear from the evidence cited above that glasses, colloids, and gels present especially favourable environments for the production of spherulites. The common factor may well be as suggested by Morse, Warren, and Donnay that under ;such conditions convection currents are at a minimum and diffusion consequently very regular. IV. Spherulitic Crystallization as a Factor of Skeletal Growth. (a) Analogies between Skeletal Components and Spherulitic Structures. The simplest structural unit in the skeleton of the Hexaeorals is the fibre. Each fibre is composed of calcium carbonate and is crystalline in nature. More particularly, it has been established that each fibre is a single orthorhombic crystal of Aragonite. So much is generally accepted. As has been shown above, spherulitic crystallization is a phenomenon common to many chemical substances (including calcium carbonate), and to all crystalline systems (including orthorhombic). It would appear then that there is no serious reason to exclude the possibility that the fibres of the madreporarian skeleton are essentially homologous with the crystals of a spherulite. Indeed, it is our opinion that each coralline fibre is identical in all important respects with a crystal in a spherulite. These skeletal fibres have been interpreted by Ogilvie as bunched into aggregates that she terms fascicles, and which she regards as definite structural units. If, indeed, such fascicles exist they have no counterpart in spherulitic crystallization, but a careful study of Ogilvie ’s descriptions and figures and a detailed examination of our own material has failed to- establish the existence of these as recognisable entities A In our view, the natural category next in complexity to the fibre is the trabecula. Each trabecula is an aggregate of fibres arranged about an axis. Sections transverse to the axis show a simply radial arrangement of the constituent fibres, whereas sections parallel to the axis show divergent structure. We would suggest that each trabecula is to be compared with a spherulitic growth of axiolitic type. The aggregation of trabeculae gives rise to such skeletal elements as the septum and the columella in the manner detailed earlier in the * One of us (Hill, 1935) found no place for fascicles in her structural analysis ■of the coral skeleton. SPHERULITIC CRYSTALLIZATION, ETC. 85 paper. It is our view that these trabecular aggregates are in all essentials closely analogous with composite spherulitic growth and more particularly with that manifestation of it that one of us has described as ‘ ‘ plumose growth. 9 ’ It would thus appear that for septal growths each structural category — namely, fibre, trabecula, and septum — has its respective counterpart in spherulitic crystallization. The columella in its complex fibrous trabeculae is closely comparable with a development of intertwined axiolitic growths. The position with regard to the horizontal structures is somewhat different. Here the individual fibres are not aggregated into trabeculae, but appear as numerous closely parallel individuals arranged at right angles to the surfaces of the particular skeletal element of which they are units. Such pilose aggregations of fibres bear a striking resemblance to simple spherulitic growth upon a plane. The lamellar markings and discontinuities, too, are analogous, both in appearance and relationship to the general plan, with those concentric arrangements that so frequently are found accompanying spherulitic structures. The above conclusions are based on an examination of material especially prepared for the purpose, but it should be pointed out here that many published figures of hexacorallan skeletons, and in particular those of Ogilvie (1897), clearly and adequately demonstrate the many features in which they closely resemble spherulitic structures. COMPLETE SKELETON. (A Complex Spherulitic Structure.) VERTICAL ELEMENTS HORIZONTAL ELEMENTS (Composite plumose growths) (Simple parallel growths) SEPTA COLUMELLA DISSEPIMENTS TABULAE SKELETAL FIBRES ( Individual crystals) 86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. ( b ) The Growth of the Skeleton* (i.) General. — Our interpretation of the development of the madreporarian skeleton in terms of spherulitic crystallization is as follows : — In general, the whole ectodermal surface is capable of the slow exudation of a gel from which crystalline fibres of calcium carbonate are deposited in spherulitic aggregates of simply parallel character, placed at right angles to the adjacent ectoderm, thus giving rise to a pilose (carpet-like) effect. In particular, at certain points in the ectoderm, a more concentrated production of the calcareous gel takes place.* Corresponding with each such centre, an individual spherulitic growth is initiated and maintained. In both types of spherulitic growth development will proceed automatically and along predictable lines once the process is initiated and as long as the supply of calcium carbonate is available, but the particular spherulitic pattern on which the skeletal growth is based is determined by the number and distribution of the active centres. This pattern is not uniform for all hexacorals, but neither is it haphazard. Indeed, it is very significant and reflects the fundamental organic plan of the animal. The centres of calcification are in general arranged in linear groups which are themselves radially disposed, but the particular arrangement of the centres in each group, as to number and position, and of the radial groups themselves, varies and is an important specific character. From the beginning, and as skeletal growth proceeds, the more recently secreted fibrous spherulitic aggregates will be in intimate and continuous contact •with the living polyp by means of the gel from which the fibres were deposited. This not only covers the exterior of the growing exoskeleton but penetrates deeply within the interstices between the crystalline fibres. Such an intimate relationship between ‘ ‘ mother liquor ” and crystalline deposit is peculiar to the spherulitic type of crystallization and is characteristic of the artificial spherulites’ developed hy Morse, Warren, and Donnay. In the case of the hexacorals it might serve the important purpose of preserving organic continuity between the organism proper and the exoskeleton it secretes. Thus, the special features associated with spherulitic crystallization — namely, the automatic growth of crystal aggregates in organised groups and the intimate relationship retained with the mother liquor — enable the intraprotoplasmic direction of what is essentially an extra- protoplasmic activity. In this way we may reconcile the apparently paradoxical facts of a purely external skeleton with an elaborate specific pattern. At and near its outer edge the skeleton, as shown in our material, is colourless and there is no visible sign of the parent gel. But except for this clear outer margin the skeleton is normally yellow or brown in colour as seen by transmitted light. This colouration we think to be due to an organic stain derived from the parent gel and possibly due to its decomposition. If this be so the coloured portion of the madreporarian skeleton may be considered as no longer possessing any vital link with the polyp. * There is no histological evidence known to us that we can cite in support of this conclusion. SPHERULITIC CRYSTALLIZATION. ETC. 87 Superimposed on the skeleton proper there is sometimes found a discontinuous granular or scaly deposit of clear crystalline calcareous material. Such superficial deposits are non-fibrous in character and show no trace of that spherulitic organisation characteristic of the skeleton proper. Some authors have regarded these deposits as an intermediate or incipent stage in the formation of the skeleton. Our view, on the contrary, is that they are so radically different in everything except chemical content, that they could not possibly give rise directly to the skeleton proper. Indeed, the scales could only contribute to it by first disappearing in solution and afterwards being redeposited in spherulitic form. _ Nevertheless, the calcareous nature of the scales and their position upon the skeleton suggest that they were derived from the same source as were the crystalline fibres of the skeleton. It appears to us that these apparently contradictory features may be reconciled if the scales are regarded as a post-mortem deposit. After the death of the polyp we would expect the calcium carbonate already in the extruded gel, to be thrown out of solution and deposited upon the skeleton, but not necessarily in spherulitic continuity with it. (ii.) a Septal Growth. — Septal growth is initiated immediately the flat disc-like planula attaches itself to its selected foundation and begins to exude calcareous gel from the original active centres. Below each such centre a fibrous spherulitic aggregate is deposited and a trabecula begun. As each trabecula develops there appears at each active centre a corresponding cupola-like recess to accommodate the upwardly projecting structure. Spherulitic growths of adjacent trabecular centres will soon make contact and, as a result of mutual interference, composite growth will be introduced. In this manner there will be brought about the coalition of the several upwardly projecting trabeculae to form a continuous structure — the septum. Since the active centres are arranged in radial lines the septum is wall-like in shape and radial in disposition. As the trabeculae are united to form the septum, so the corresponding cup-like recesses in the ectoderm will be united in a continuous invagination. In the past it has usually been assumed that it is the formation of this invagination that has led to the corresponding growth of the septum, the invagination forming, as it were, a mould to which the growing septum adapts itself. The converse view is, at least, worthy of consideration — namely, that the actively and positively growing septum forces its way upward into the base of the polyp, which has perforce to adapt itself. Such a view may claim on its behalf that once spherulitic crystallization is initiated, the supply of material is all that is necessary to bring about further automatic growth in continuity of the original pattern. (The suggestion by one of us (Hill, 1936, p. 191) that the growing septa impose a muscular strain on the ectoderm that is only relieved by the abandonment of the tabula follows as a natural corollary to this interpretation). It may be that the truth lies between these two extreme views, but at least we may claim that spherulitic growth as such is a direct contributory factor in the development of the septum. As septal growth proceeds new active centres of calcification are introduced from time to time and in accordance with the several stages of development of the maturing organism. With the introduction of 88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. each new centre a new trabecula is begun, and in this manner the septum grows in size and complexity. Although, as has been pointed out, the chief sources of supply of the calcium carbonate are derived through the centres of calcification, exudation from the general ectodermal surface may contribute towards the, enlargement of the septum. (iii.) Growth of Horizontal Elements. — While the vertical elements are being developed as aggregates of trabeculae secreted from the active centres, the horizontal elements are being built up as simple parallel growths of crystalline fibres secreted by and perpendicular to the general ectodermal surface. But instead of rising continuously upon a solid foundation, as do the vertical elements, the horizontal elements have to build their own independent foundations suspended from other skeletal features. Even after such self-made foundations have been erected and spherulitic growth established this is not continuous, for, as soon as the vertical elements have reached a critical height above the horizontal structures, the polyp will be forced to abandon the latter, and the ectoderm will be lifted to a higher position and the formation of the horizontal elements will start anew. (iv.) The Origin of Lamellar and Concentric Features. — The parellel or concentric bands at right angles to the general directions of spherulitic growth have numerous counterparts in spherulites proper and in similar radial aggregates. Several attempts have been made to explain such bands in inorganic structures. The more important of these explanations are, (1) that they are directly due to the presence of impurities, (Schade fide Bucher, 1918), (2) that they are due to radial growth temporarily outstripping the rate of supply of material (Spencer, 1925), and (3) that they represent a Liesegang effect (Mourant, 1932). It appears to us that there remains, at least for spherulitic growths found associated with these corals, a fourth possible explanation for the lamellations- — namely, that they are the direct result of variations in those organic activities responsible for the supply of substance for radial growth. The general use of the term “ growth lamellae” by Ogilvie (1897, p. 113) and others for the bands under discussion carries with it the implication that they are directly related to the variable rate or intermittent character in the growth of the living animal. It may well be that the larger, more conspicuous and less regular bands reflect somewhat irregular growth of the organism, due possibly to seasonal and meteorological changes, as, for example, stormy weather followed by calm. But the smaller, more delicate and remarkably regular alternations observed by us appear to call for a more precise and’ rhythmical control. After considering various other rhythms of small period we have arrived at’ the conclusion that a diurnal pulsation in the supply of CaC03 is the most feasible explanation. Rhythmic deposition of skeletal material of such a period is not improbable. Indeed, it is to be expected in view of the fact that the majority of corals are closed and quiescent during the day, and are expanded and actively feeding during the hours of darkness when, alone, zooplankton for their sustenance is abundant (Yonge, 1930, p. 55). SPHERULITIC CRYSTALLIZATION, ETC. 89 ¥. Possible Examples of the Process in other Groups. The skeletons of the Rugosa, the Tabulata, and the Heliolitida are fibrous, and their septa are trabeculate like those of the Hexacoralla, but the arrangement of the trabeculae in the septa is simpler. Although none of these three sections is living to-day, it may be assumed by analogy with the Hexacorals that their fibrous skeletons are exoskeletons secreted by the ectoderm, and that they have been formed by spherulitic crystallization. The crystalline fibres of these corals differ from those of the Hexacorals in one respect — namely, that they are composed of calcite ; and since the fibres have persisted as such from the Palaeozoic it is assumed that they were originally deposited as calcite. Spherulitic crystallization is not general in other orders of the Anthozoa; but in the Alcyonarian HeUopora (Bourne, 1899) and in the Hydrozoan Millepora the skeleton is an exoskeleton of aragonite fibres built up by spherulitic crystallization. "When calcareous skeletons occur in other Alcyonaria they are endoskeletons consisting of spicules of felted calcite needles deposited intracellularly, with strands of organic matter in the felt. Of the foraminifera the tests of the Perforata appear to be built by planar spherulitic crystallization, for they consist in many genera of minute prisms of calcite perpendicular to the surfaces; but in the Imperforata the tests are of felted calcite needles like the Alcyonarian spicules (Sollas, 1921). In both groups the skeleton is to be regarded as an exoskeleton, and in both there is a gel-like network through the test. In higher groups spherulitic crystallization may occasionally occur. Thus the middle or prismatic layer of the shell of some lamellibranchs may sometimes consist of prisms of calcite or of aragonite, each prism being a plumose growth of crystalline fibres, like the trabecula of a coral, but with prismatic boundaries. Bggild, 1930, pi. vi., fig. 6, pi. vii., fig. 1). The guard of the extinct Belemnites and the tissue of the Ostracod shell are both fibro-radiate and suggestive of spherulitic crystallization.* VI. Conclusions. In summary, we may say that a review of the published descriptions and the careful examination of our own material alike lead us to the conclusions that : — (1) The skeleton of the Hexaeoral is essentially a mineral aggregate. (2) More particularly it is a fibrous aggregate in which each fibre is an individual crystal of the mineral aragonite. (3) All the known features of the skeleton may consistently be described in terms of that type of mineral aggregation known as spherulitic crystallization. (4) More particularly the trabeculae of hexacorals are identified with plumose aggregates in sphepulites and the tabulae with pilose growths. (5) The relation of the fibres of the Hexaeoral skeleton to the colloidal matrix secreted externally by the ectoderm has its parallel in the relation of the fibres of a spherulite to its mother liquor. * Since this paper went to press, F. W. Whitehouse has found spherulitic crystallisation in the plates of Cambrian echinoderms from north-western Queensland. DO PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. (6) The skeletal pattern is decided by the location and intensity of the ectodermal secretion. (7) More particularly the number and position of the trabeculae are decided by the distribution of the active centres of calcification. (8) The Hexacoral skeleton is thus due to the organic guidance of an inorganic process. REFERENCES. Bggild, O. B. 1930. The Shell Structure of the Mollusks. Mem. Acad. roy. Sci. Lettr. Danemarb, Sect. Sci., (9), II, No. 2, pp. 233-326, pis. i-xv. Bourne, G. C. 1899. Studies on the Structure and Formation of the Calcareous Skeleton of the Anthozoa. Quart. J. Microsc. Sci., XLI, pp. 499-547, pis. 40-43. Bryan, W. H. 1940. Spherulites and allied Structures, Part I. Proo. roy. Soc. Queensl. LII, pp. 41-53, pis. iii.-v. Bucher, W. H. 1918. On Oolites and Spherulites. J. Geol. Chicago XXXVI, pp. 593-609. Cayeux, L. 1916. Introduction a 1 ’Etude petrographique des Roches sedimentaires. 2 vols., texte, 524 pp.; pis., 56. Clarke, F. W., and Wheeler, W. C. 1922. The inorganic Constituents of marine Invertebrates. U.S. geol. Surv., Prof. Pap. 124, 62 pp. Cullis, C. G. 1904. The Mineralogical Changes observed in the Cores of the Funafuti Borings, pp. 392-420, and pi. F, in “The Atoll of Funafuti.” London (Royal Society). 2 vols, text and maps. Duerden, J. E. 1902. West Indian Madreporarian Polyps. Mem. nat. Acad. Sci., Washington, VIII, pp. 399-648, pis. i-xxv. 1904. The Coral Siderastraea radians and its postlarval Development. Carnegie Instn. Washington >, Pub. 20, v., 130 pp., 11 pis. Hedges, E. S. 1931. Colloids, 272 pp., Edwin Arnold, London. Heider, A. von. 1882. Die Gattung Cladocora Ehrenberg. Sitz. b. Abad. Wiss., Wien, LXXXIV, 1 Abth., pp. 634-667. Hill, D. 1935. British Terminology for Rugose Corals. Geol. Mag., London, LXXII, pp. 481-519, 21 text-figs. 1936. The British Silurian Rugose Corals with Acanthine Septa. Phil. Trans, roy. Soc. London, (B), CCXXVI, pp. 189-217, pis. 29, 30. Holmes, A. 1928. The Nomenclature of Petrology. 2nd Edit. London 284 pp. Kendall, P. F., 1886. On the Cause of the bathymetric Limit of Pteropod Ooze. Pep. Brit. Assoc. Ad'v. Sci., pp. 789-791. Koch, G. von. 1882. Tiber die Entwicklung des Kalkskeletes von Asteroides calyoularis und dessen morphologischer Bedeutung. Mitth. zool. Stat. Neupel III, pp. 284-290, pis. xx-xxi. Matthai, G. 1918. Is the Madreporarian Skeleton an Extraprotoplasmic Secretion of the Polyps? Proc. Camb. phil. Soc. XIX, pp. 160-163. 1923. Histology of the Soft Parts of Astraeid Corals. Quart J. Microsc. Sci. LXVII, pp. 101-122, pis. 7, 8. Morse, H. W., Warren, C. H., and Donnay, J. D. H. 1932. Artificial Spherulites and related Aggregates. Amer. J. Sci. (5), XXIII, pp. 421-439. Meigen, W. 1903. Beitrage zur Kenntnis des kohlensauren Kalkes. Naturf. Gesells. Freiburg Ber. XIII. Quoted from Clarke and Wheeler, 1922, p. 58. Mourant, A. E. 1932. The Spherulitic Rhyolites of Jersey. Min. Mag. London, XXIII, pp. 227-238, pi. xi. Ogilvie, M. M. 1897. Microscopic and Systematic Study of Madreporarian Types of Corals. Phil. Trans, roy. Soc. London, (B), CLXXXVII, pp. 83-345, 75 text-figs. Pratz, E. 1882. Tiber die verwandtschaftlichen Beziehungen einiger Korallengattungen mit hauptsachlicher Beriicksichtigung ihrer Septalstructur. Palaeontographica, XXIX, pp. 82-124, pi. xiv. SPHERULITIC CRYSTALLIZATION, ETC. yi Prenant, M. 1927. Les formes Mineralogiques du Calcaire chez les etres Vivants, et le Probleme de leur Determinisme. Biol. Reviews , Cambridge, II pp. 365-393. Sollas, W. J. 1921. On Saccamina carteri Brady, and the Minute Structure of the Foraminiferal Shell. Quart. J. geol. Soc. London, LXXVII, pp. 193-212, pi. vii. Sorby, H. C. 1879. Anniversary Address of the President. Quart. J. geol. Soc. London, XXXV, pp. 56-95. Spencer, E. 1925. On Some Occurrences of Spherulitic Siderite and other Carbonates in Sediments. Quart. J. geo. Soc. London, LXXXI, pp. 667-705, pis. xlii, xliii. Yonge, C. M. 1930. Studies on the Physiology of Corals I. Feeding Mechanisms and Food. Great Banner Beef Expedition 1928-29 Scientific Reports, I, No. 2, pp. 13-57, pis. i-ii. 92 You LIL, No. 10. LATENT INFECTION IN TROPICAL FRUITS DISCUSSED IN RELATION TO THE PART PLAYED BY SPECIES OF GLOEOSPORIUM AND COLLETOTRICHUM. By J. H. Simmqnds, M.Sc., Senior Research Officer (Plant Pathology ), Department of Agriculture and Stock. (Plates XII to XVII.) ( Read before the Royal Society of Queensland , 25 th November , 1940.) CONTENTS. I. Introduction II. Evidence for Latent Infection in Tropical Fruits III. The Duration of the Period of Latency IV. Histological Structures Involved in Latent Infection — 1. Methods Employed 2. Infection in the Banana 3. Infection in the Mango and Papaw 4. The Time Involved in the Production of Subcuticular Hyph V . The Physiological Basis for the Latent and the Active Condition VI. Some Further Aspects of the Latent Infection Theory VII. Practical Implications of the Latent Infection Theory VIII. The Appressorium — ■ 1. The Formation of the Appressorium 2. The Functions of the Appressorium 3. Conclusions Regarding the Nature of the Appressorium IX. Summary X. Literature Cited XI. Explanation of Plates Page. I. INTRODUCTION. It is a common experience to find that fruits of tropical or sub- tropical origin may be surface-sterilized with what is considered to he an effective fungicide after harvesting, and yet, on ripening, may develop more or less extensive fungal spotting on areas previously bearing no evidence of infection. It is also known that, in the case of a number of such diseases, a protective cover of fungicide is of no avail unless main- tained throughout the whole period of growth. The inference is that in these instances spore germination and initial penetration of the skin occur before the fruit reaches maturity. The fungus then remains in a dormant or latent condition until the changes associated with the ripening of the fruit permit further extension of its activity. It is to this method of survival by initial penetration, as distinct from survival in the free state as a spore, that the term “latent infection ” is applied. Latent infection has received considerable mention during recent years in connection with the discussion of the ripe rots of various fruits, but, although there is strong circumstantial evidence to support the theory, little exact proof has been put forward, and the manner in which the parasite effects its survival has apparently received little attention. It is with these points that the present paper seeks to deal. LATENT INFECTION IN TROPICAL FRUITS, ETC. 93 The fungi most commonly implicated in this form of infection belong to one or other of the genera Gloeosporium and Colletotrichum * It is typical of the members of these genera to form appressoria at the time of spore germination, and these organs apparently play an important part in the act of infection leading to the latent condition. Hence the characteristics of the appressorium and its function will also be discussed in some detail. These questions are of more than academic interest, since a more thorough knowledge of the mechanism of latent infection will contribute very largely towards the practical solution of the ripe rot problem, which is at present a major consideration in the storage and transport of tropical fruits. II. EVIDENCE FOR LATENT INFECTION IN TROPICAL FRUITS. Shear and Wood (1913) were among the first to call attention to the occurrence of dormant infections of the type referred to here. They noted the development of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides on leaves and shoots of orange, pomelo, lemon, and mandarin after these had been immersed for from 5 to 15 minutes in a 0-2 per cent, or 0-1 per cent, solution of corrosive sublimate. Treatment for three minutes with a 0-1 per cent, solution had previously been shown to kill both spore forms of this fungus and the appressoria. To explain this, the authors suggest that the appressorium produces a germ tube which penetrates the epidermis for only a short distance and there remains in a dormant or latent condition until the host becomes weakened or injured or conditions favour further fungal development. The presence of the infection hyphse could not be definitely demonstrated. More recently Bates (1936) has put forward several arguments in favour of the theory that C. gloeosporioides forms dormant infections in orange fruit, and later (1937) confirmed this view by isolating this organism from small pieces of skin taken from surface-sterilized fruit. He also showed that Alternaria citri could form latent infections in the button and outer rind tissue, though in the latter position to a much less extent than C. gloeosporioides. Baker and Wardlaw (1937) have also used the isolation technique to determine the presence of fungi within the rind tissue of mature and immature grape fruit. According to Baker (1938), the organisms which are definitely responsible for latent infections in this fruit are C. gloeosporioides , Guignardia sp. and Phomopsis citri. Of these, the infections due to C. gloeosporioides are said to outnumber by far those of any other organism. In Queensland there is strong circumstantial evidence that Phoma citricarpa, the fungus responsible for the common black spot affecting all citrus varieties, is also capable of setting up latent infections. Experi- ments have shown that to control this disease satisfactorily a fungicidal * It is recognised that the genera Gloeosporium and Colletotrichum should probably be united. In his paper, however, the dictates of common usage have been followed for the sake of convenience. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides ( Glomerella cinguolata ) is the name given to a collection of physiologic species which are identified here by reference to the host plant with which the particular strain was associated. The organism responsible for ripe rot of the papaw is referred to as Gloeosporium sp., since in Queensland more than one species is involved and the identity of these is as yet uncertain. 94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. cover must be maintained from the time the petals fall, although macroscopic systoms only appear with the approach of maturity and usually after colouring has commenced. Latent infection in the banana was demonstrated by Dastur (1916), who showed that the development of anthracnose ( Gloeosporivm musarum) on the plantain could not be prevented by surface-sterilizing the fruit in copper sulphate, formalin, or corrosive sublimate solutions. He also proved that anthracnose could only be prevented by field spraying if the fungicide was present on the fruit from the time the bunch was first thrown. This was later confirmed for the Cavendish banana by Simmonds and Mitchell (1940). After discussing various possible factors which might be contributing to this result, these authors came to the conclusion that the theory of latent infection advanced by Dastur was most consistent with the evidence. Wardlaw and McGuire (1931), in the light of their own experience, also subscribed to Dastur ’s theory. They considered latent infections to constitute important potential sources of wastage in both Gros Michel and Cavendish varieties. Wardlaw and his colleagues have since extended the theory to a number of other tropical fruits. Anthracnose of the mango {Collet otrichum gloeosporioides) is a disease which is notoriously difficult to control. Frequent applications of spray, especially during the early stages of growth, are necessary to ensure satisfactory results. Wager (1937) in South Africa found that surface disinfection of unblemished fruit did not prevent the subsequent development of ripe rot and suggested that infection took place in the green stage. By the isolation technique, Baker and Wardlaw (1937) showed that latent infections evidently exist in this fruit from an early age. Subsequently Baker (1938) supported this view by showing that mango anthracnose could be controlled by maintaining a complete cover of fungicide throughout the whole life of the fruit. In a later paper, Baker (1938) listed C. gloeosporioides, Guignardia sp., and Phomopsis citri — the same organisms as obtained from the grape fruit — as being responsible for these infections. C. gloeosporioides was again the most important. The pap aw is also subject to the same type of infection. Wardlaw, Leonard, and Baker (1934) noted the failure of potasssium perman- ganate 1 in 1,000 and 3 per cent, formalin steeps to eliminate storage pathogens of which Gloeosporium sp. was the commonest one present. The result of spraying the fruit in the field with copper and sulphur fungicides was also indefinite. Baker and Wardlaw (1937) and Baker (1938) by means of the isolation technique described previously obtained evidence for latent infection by the same three organisms as was obtained in the case of the grape fruit and mango. Baker (1938) also applied the isolation technique to the avocado, tomato, and cacao. On each of these hosts evidence was obtained for latent infection by C. gloeosporioides and Guignardia sp. In addition, Phomopsis citri and Botryosphaeria ribis were present on the avocado, Phoma destructive occurred on the tomato, and Phomopsis citri on cacao. The method of infection of the avocado by Botryosphaeria ribis ( Dothiorella ribis ) has been investigated fully by Horne and Palmer (1935), and is evidently of a distinct type, which will be referred to later. LATENT INFECTION IN TROPICAL FRUITS, ETC. 95 From the foregoing brief review it will be seen that the number of fungi known to be involved in the latent infection of tropical fruits is not large. The striking fact is the frequency with which species of Gloeosporium or Collet oirichum are implicated. Moreover, it is doubtful whether the members of the other genera listed should all be regarded as responsible for true latent infection. To apply the term 4 ‘ latent ” is to infer that at some period the state of latency may be changed to an active condition. It is not clear that such is the case with some of the species obtained from fruit skin by the isolation technique. The species of Guignardia, for example, which occurs frequently in Baker’s lists is apparently non-pathogenic and, in fact, is definitely stated not to cause a rot in grape fruit and avocados. In regard to the skin infections of Phomopsis citri on grape fruit, there is also the same doubt as to whether a state of active parasitism would ever eventuate. It is known that this organism may be isolated from melanose lesions nine months after the initial penetration (Bach and Wolf, 1928), yet one would hesitate to describe this disease as a case of latent infection. The fact that mere isolation of a fungus from surface-sterilized fruit does not constitute proof of latent infection is one which needs to receive greater consideration. It should, perhaps, be pointed out here that even in the case of pathogenic fungi the proportion of latent infections which eventually develop further and cause a ripe rot is probably small. In the course of microscopical examination of skin sections from mature fruit it has been observed that initial penetration has often occurred although further development has not taken place. Similarly, areas of artificially inoculated banana skin have yielded isolations of G. musarum after surface-sterilization from areas free from any lesion although the time for the normal appearance of such had definitely passed. The reason for this suppression of activity is a matter of considerable practical importance, but is a subject on which more information is required before a satisfactory explanation can be given. It must also be remembered that the development of lesions subse- quent to surface-sterilization constitutes proof of latent infection only if it be shown that the sterilizing agent is capable of killing all spore forms of the fungus concerned, as was done in the case of the experiments reported by Shear and Wood. It will be shown later that the appressoria of Gloeosporium are definitely more resistant to chemical action than the conidia, and this has to be taken into consideration when choosing a disinfectant. From this discussion it will be seen that there are two weak points in the evidence so far brought forward in regard to the latent infection hypothesis. Firstly, there is little definite information regarding the length of the period during which the fungus may be expected to survive in the latent condition. Isolation by the skin technique is no evidence that such infections would subsequently develop into ripe rot spots, and the development of such spots after surface-sterilization gives no indication of when the initial infection occurred. Carefully conducted spraying trials yield some information on this point, as was shown in the experiments described by Simmonds and Mitchell (1940), when it appeared that all essential infection of banana fruit by G. musarum could occur within one month of the emergence of the bunch. Further definite information regarding the period of dormancy possible is essential if the theory of latent infection is to be fully 96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. utilized when designing control measures. The second weak point referred to is the almost complete lack of information in the literature regarding the form or manner in which the fungus persists in the host tissue. Further information regarding these two aspects of the problem will be presented here. III. THE DURATION OF THE PERIOD OF LATENCY. To prove that extended periods of latency definitely occur, use was made of the circle inoculation method which has been satisfactorily employed for some years in this type of work. Suitable areas on the fruit to be inoculated are marked in Indian ink with circles 5 to 7 mm. in diameter. A drop of a suitable spore suspension is then spread evenly over the circle and the fruit incubated under moist conditions for from 24 to 48 hours, or other pre-arranged time. The inoculated areas can then be examined or treated in any desired manner or the subsequent development of lesions noted. Apart from other advantages, the localised point of inoculation is more or less essential when extraneous ripe fruit spots are likely to arise in spite of any attempt at surface disinfection. After a little experience lesions arising from natural and artificial infec- tion may be distinguished under these conditions with a very small risk of confusion. Preliminary work carried out in 1936 had indicated that inocula- tion of banana fruit in the field on wounded and unwounded surface could result in the development of anthracnose after the bunch was harvested several weeks later. In order to confirm this further, an experiment which yielded quite satisfactory results was undertaken with Cavendish bananas growing in the experimental garden at Brisbane. Briefly, banana fruits were inoculated with a faintly cloudy suspension of G. musarum spores at intervals during the life of the bunch. Young cultures of similar origin were used in each case. Some of the inoculated areas were subsequently sterilised, and the number of anthracnose lesions developing after maturation and ripening of the bunch was recorded. An oiled silk sleeve was used to aid the retention of the infection drop without evaporation for a period of either 24 or 48 hours. Two bunches were included. Bunch A, at the time of the first inoculation, had emerged only about three weeks, and the fruits were practically as on emergence — that is to say, small, light green, with distinctly flattened sides. As this bunch developed poorly throughout, this condition was not fully lost until after the second inoculation. The fruits on bunch B when first inoculated were somewhat older and had lost their side to side flattening, but were still very angular and immature. This bunch was moderately well grown, and the fruit fully mature at the time of the last inoculation. The time taken for the bunches to mature was extended owing to the influence of winter conditions. When harvested, they were ripened moderately slowly under controlled conditions in the Committee of Direction of Fruit Marketing’s ripening rooms. The development of anthracnose was quite normal for this type of inoculation. No sign of lesions could be seen until the fruit commenced to colour, when they first appeared as scattered reddish-brown specks over the inoculated circles. If numerous, there was a gradual merging to form a reddish-brown diffusion. Later, a mud-coloured, slightly sunken spot appeared which developed into the typical anthracnose lesion bearing pink spore masses. As is normal in these cases, extraneous anthracnose lesions developed on LATENT INFECTION IN TROPICAL FRUITS, ETC. 97 some of the fruit in the later stages of ripening. These could be distin- guished by their position and time of appearance, and there was, fortunately, no confusion possible. The results are set out in Table 1, and illustrated in Plate XII. The method of disinfecting the fruit needs some comment. In order to be sure that the fungus persists only within the tissue, complete surface-sterilization must be effected shortly after inoculation. It had been shown (Table 8) that 0*1 per cent, mercuric chloride for thirty seconds could be relied on to kill both spores and appressoria, and that 50 per cent, alcohol evaporated after fifteen seconds was effective for all practical purposes, but might permit a small percentage of appressoria to remain viable. Accordingly, mercuric chloride of the above strength was allowed to remain on the inoculated area for a full minute and then removed by washing with water. Alcohol of 50 per cent, strength was applied for two minutes and then allowed to evaporate without washing. Table 1. Development of anthracnose on banana fruit inoculated in the field at different ages with Gloeosporium musarum. Bunch and hand inoculated. Date inoculated. Period in days from inoculation to harvesting. Development of anthracnose lesions in inoculated circles. Total percentage infection. Sterilized mercuric chloride. Sterilized alcohol. Unsterilized. Anthracnose. No anthracnose. Anthracnose. No anthracnose. Anthracnose No anthracnose. A 1* 9-4-40 147 7 2 13 2 9 4 78 B 1 11-4-40 134 1 15 2 17 2 9 11 At 7-5-40 119 14 2 11 0 12 0 95 B 3 7-5-40 108 8 0 5 5 6 1 76 A 3, 5 13-6-40 82 1 4 5 2 5 7 45 B 4 13-6-40 71 0 7 0 4 0 6 0 B 5, 6, 7 . . 19-8-40 3 14 6 9 6 18 12 63 * The figures 1 to 7 designate the respective hands on the bunch commencing at the stalk end. In the majority of cases, sterilization was carried out six days after inoculation. In assessing results, the circle was taken as a unit of infection. In any one circle there might arise numerous initial speckles. For example, one fruit from the mercuric chloride treated series, bearing six inoculated circles, averaged 63 red speckles per circle. Although each of these speckles probably represents an initial penetration point, further develop- ment does not necessarily follow, as observations in this and other experiments have frequently shown. Moreover, initial penetration is not necessarily accompanied by the appearance of speckles or a lesion on ripening. For example, in the present experiment, isolations made from areas in which speckles had failed to appear, in both the mercuric chloride treated and untreated series of circles, yielded cultures of G. musarum. The surface was wiped with 95 per cent, alcohol and flamed immediately prior to removing the tissue pieces for isolation. P8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYxYL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. It will be noted that sterilization produced no significant reduction in the number of lesions appearing • hence, it may be assumed that none of the infection was the result of the survival of surface spores or appressoria. A comparison of the percentage infection obtained at the different ages at which inoculation was carried out cannot be made with any degree of accuracy owing to the difficulty in obtaining equitable conditions for infection in each case. Age of the fruit would appear to have little influence on the rate of infection. The effect of cold is seen in the reduced figure for the June inoculation. Apart from this, the results provide a definite answer to the question os to whether extended periods of latency are possible, and demonstrate convincingly that G. musarum can infect banana fruit shortly after the emergence of the bunch, remain in a dormant condition unrecognisable macroscopically for some five months, and then, as the fruit ripens, develop into the typical anthracnose spot. This conclusion fits in well with the results of the spraying experiments described by Dastur, and by Simmonds and Mitchell, and may well be the explanation of the failure to obtain control of other tropical Gloeosporiums except by lengthy schedules. IV. HISTOLOGICAL STRUCTURES INVOLVED IN LATENT INFECTION. Two well-defined forms of latent infection in fruit have been reported. One of these is described by Horne and Palmer (1935) for Botryosphaeria ribis on the avocado and by Kidd and Beaumont (1925) for various species of fungi on the apple. In these cases the germ tube of the fungus concerned enters a stoma and the mycelium remains in the stomatal cavity, free from the effects of any external application of fungicide, until such time as ripening of the fruit or other factor provides conditions suitable for further invasion. In the second form of latent infection the fungus penetrates the cuticle directly, and maintains a dormant existence in the superficial tissues until such time as further activity is permitted. Stomatal penetration, if it occurs at all, is of secondary importance. This latter form is apparently the normal one in the case of Gloeosporium, and is the one which will be discussed here. Information regarding the histological aspects of infection by species of Gloeosporium and Collet otrichum is limited, but all writers are agreed that the appressorium plays an important part in this operation. The typical appressorium as it occurs in these genera is a dark spore-like body, globular, pear-shaped or irregularly lobed, possessing a characteristic thickened wall enclosing deeply staining protoplasmic contents. Under natural conditions the appressoria are formed singly at the end of a short germ tube, and are closely appressed to the surface of the host, where, according to some authors, they are attached by a gelatinous substance (Plate XIII.). In a section of inoculatel host tissue the appressorium is often seen to possess a short, peg-like projection on the base in contact with the cuticle, and this appears to have a central open channel. This peg may be quite definite or, in other cases, scarcely differentiated. It is usually very closely appressed to, or even partly sunken into, the cuticle, and appears to serve as an aid in attachment to the host, as well as an outlet for the infection tube (Plate XIV., fig. 2, and Plate XV., figs 3 and 4). It is nrobably the channel through this peg which shows as the characteristic clear germ pore when the appressorium is viewed from above. LATENT INFECTION IN TROPICAL FRUITS, ETC. 99 Infection per medium of the appressorium has been investigated by Hasselbring (1906) with Gloeosporium fructigenum on Berberis Thunbergii and the apple, by Leach (1923) with Collet otrichum lindemuthianum on the bean, by Gardner (1918) with Collet otrichum lagenarium on cucurbits, by Dey (1919, 1933) with C. lindemuthianum on the bean and C. gloeosporioides on citrus, and by Chadhuri (1935) also with C. gloeosporioides on citrus. Observations on the initial manner of penetration have been found difficult to make, but when this process has been observed with certainty the infection hypha is seen to take the form of an extremely fine thread which, according to Dey (1919), is not differentiated into wall and cavity. Chadhuri differs in regarding the infection hypha as being a normal germ-tube-like structure. How- ever, his figures are not altogether convincing in this respect. The infection thread issues from the germ pore situated on the base of the appressorium in contact with the cuticle and penetrates the latter by what is considered to be the exertion of mechanical pressure. Up to the point when the sub-cuticular layers are reached infection by all members of the Collet otrichum^-Gloeosporium group investigated is essentially the same. From then onwards, there appears to be a divergence according to the species of fungus or host plant involved. In one type the infection thread is apparently able to penetrate without delay directly through the outer epidermal wall and reach the lumen of the epidermal cell. Here a somewhat modified hyphal development takes place from which the infection spreads to adjoining cells in the usual manner. This type of infection has been recorded in the case of G. fructigenum on B. Thunbergii (Hasselbring 1906), C. linde- muthianum on the bean (Dey 1919, Leach 1925), and C. lagenarium on cucumber (Gardner 1918). It occurs even when the tissues inoculated are young and immature. In the second type, which is more common in tropical fruits, the infection thread appears to be unable at first to traverse the whole of the cellulose portion of the epidermal wall (especially if the fruit is immature), and is thus forced to remain as a knot or thread of mycelium lying between the cuticle and the cellulose layers or partly within the latter. This condition has been seen in the case of G. musarum on the banana, Gloeosporium sp. on the papaw, and C. gloeosporioides on the mango. It is perhaps significant that, in the case of the first type of infection, the diseases concerned affect the host at all stages of growth, while, in the case of the second, the symptoms appear only at maturity and a latent period of infection is the general rule. As there is little published information regarding the manner of infection in the three tropical fruits mentioned, a review of the results so far obtained will not be out of place. Brief reference to this has already been made (Simmonds and Mitchell 1940). 1. Methods Employed. Suitable fruiting cultures of the organism under observation were prepared on artificial media or sterilized host tissue, and a spore suspen- sion was then made up in sterile water to a concentration determined by visual examination (usually a faint cloudiness) or microscopic counts. Drops of the suspension were pipetted on to marked circular areas on the fruit surface and smoothed out with a platinum loop. When required, the surface of the fruit was first disinfected by washing with 50 per cent, alcohol. For the first few days after inoculation the fruit was incubated in a moist chamber. 100 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. For observation of the progress of spore germination and appressoria formation, the inoculated circles were surface-stained with aniline blue in lacto-phenol. Thin slices were then removed by scalpel or razor and mounted in a glycerine-alcohol-water mounting medium. To allow observation of the infection thread, the paraffin-imbedding process was employed. Tissue pieces cut from the inoculated circles were fixed in one of the alcohol-formalin-acetic fixatives and imbedded in paraffin in the usual manner, using the rapid method over a water bath. Sections were cut approximately 8 /r thick and stained with aniline blue in lacto-phenol followed by Soudan III. made up according to the formula used by Dey (1919). By this method the cuticle was stained a light yellow or pink, cellulose walls and cell contents blue, and the fungal elements a somewhat darker blue. A view of the development of the fungus as seen through the surface of the skin was obtained by a staining procedure based on one described by McBryde (1936). Thin surface slices were cleared for 1 to 7 days in a saturated solution of chloral hydrate. They were then stained for 12 hours in a solution consisting of — Aniline blue — saturated solution in 70 per cent, alcohol 1 c.c. Chloral hydrate — saturated solution . . . . 18 c.c. Alcohol 95 per cent. . . . . . . . . 12 c.c. The stained sections were washed for 5 minutes in a saturated solution of chloral hydrate, dehydrated in 85 per cent., 95 per cent., and 100 per cent, alcohol, counter stained for from 3 to 5 minues in a saturated solution of picric acid in methyl salicylate, cleared for from 5 to 30 minutes in methyl salicylate, and mounted in balsam. Fungal hyphae appeared blue against a yellowish green background. In order to check methods of technique, an examination was made of infection of the French bean by C. lindemuthianum. The process was shown to be essentially the same as has been described and figured by Leach, although more definite observations were made regarding the initial infection hypha. This was seen in sections fixed 43 hours after inoculation and incubation at 19 deg. C. It is extremely fine and appears as little more than a thread even at magnifications of approxi- mately xl,000. In all the cases examined it passed from the base of the appressorium straight through the cuticle and cellulose wall and entered the cell itself. There was no sign of the development of mycelial structures in the epidermal wall as occurs in the fruit of banana, papaw, and mango, but in the cells themselves there is developed a broad deeply staining primary mycelium with a characteristic method of passing from cell to cell as depicted by Leach (1923) (Plate XV., figs. 1 and 2). 2. Infection in the banana. The Cavendish banana was the first fruit in Queensland to be subjected to an enquiry regarding the nature of latent infection. In 1936, while investigating black end and anthracnose, paraffin sections were made of banana skin from circles artificially inoculated with G. musarum. These disclosed the presence of deeply staining knots or pieces of mycelium lying between the cuticle and cellulose wall of the epidermis or enclosed within the cellulose portion ( Simmonds and Mitchell 1940). Further work showed that this sub-cuticular hyphal development commonly occurred below appressoria formed on hard LATENT INFECTION IN TROPICAL FRUITS, ETC. 101 green fruit after surface inoculation. A connection between the appres- sorium and sub-cuticular hypha appeared likely but was difficult to demonstrate satisfactorily in the case of the banana. In the few instances where observations have been possible it appears to be similar to that in the papaw and mango, where a connecting thread has been clearly seen on many occasions. A fine thread issues from the base of the appressorium and penetrates directly through the cuticle. Instead of entering the lumen of the epidermal cell, as in the case of G. linde- muthianum, this thread broadens out in the vicinity of the cellulose wall to form the fairly well defined hyphal mass which is. here designated the sub-cuticular hypha. The nature of the sub-cuticular hypha is best understood by reference to Plate XIV., figs. 3 and 4, and Plate XVII. In section it is seen as a rounded or oval deeply staining portion of myceliuyn, or it may be broadly linear, in which case a longitudinal section is probably represented. It is usually situated between the cuticle and cellulose wall, although it may sometimes lie within the layers of the latter. A splitting apart of cuticle and cellulose elements and a distending inwards of the latter may result from its presence. When viewed from above, the sub-cuticular hypha is sometimes seen as a swollen irregularly club-shaped organ with its narrow end formed by the primary infection thread, or, in other cases, as a more linear growth lying immediately below the cuticle. Under certain conditions of artificial inoculation the hyphae may extend for some distance in this position, especially when activity is recommencing as the fruit ripens. Prom a consideration of all relevant data, the conclusion is reached that it is in the form of the sub-cuticular hypha that the fungus main- tains its dormant condition throughout the period of latent infection. Subsequent development has not been followed in detail. This only takes place as the fruit ripens and then the mycelium appears to be at first intercellular, later becoming both inter- and intra-cellular. Plate XIV., figs. 5 and 6.) Growth at this stage becomes very rapid. A feature often associated with the sub-cuticular hypha is the brown- ing of the adjacent cell walls, sometimes accompanied by a disorganisation of the contents of the cell immediately below, and often by the attraction of the nucleus of neighbouring cells to the walls adjoin- ing the point of infection. This discolouration commences as a slight browning of the cellulose elements, which is later accentuated and may then be accompanied by a darkening of the tissues adjacent. (Plate XIV., fig. 1.) Another characteristic sometimes associated with the presence of either an appressorium or sub-cuticular hypha is a mould-like thicken- ing of the cellulose component of the epidermal wall immediately below the point of attachment of the appressorium. (Plate XIV., fig. 2.) Gardner (1918) has noted similar discolouration and swelling of the cell wall in the case of cucurbits infected by C. lagenarium. Both of these reactions have been observed in association with appressoria apparently unaccompanied by infection hyphae. However, it would scarcely be correct to assume that this represents a reaction in advance of penetra- tion, since it is difficult to be sure of demonstrating the latter in all cases. The features just described may represent a reaction on the part of the plant, enabling it to resist invasion and may help to explain why only a proportion of the infections established subsequently develops 102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. into a macroscopic lesion. Leach (1923) has described a similar brown- ing of cells of resistant bean pods subject to an attempted infection by C. lindemuthianum. He considers the discolouration is due to the effect of products of autolysis derived from the breakdown of fungal hyphae unable to obtain satisfactory nourishment from invaded cells. In the case of the banana it has not been possible to demonstrate, except in one instance, the entrance of the infection hyphae into the epidermal cell, nor is there necessarily any indication of a breakdown of the sub-cuticular hypha associated with the browning. Hence any cell reaction must be in relation to a definite secretion by the fungus itself. In the experiment described on page 107 wherein mango fruit were inoculated with C. gloeosporioides from mango and G. musarum from banana, penetration of the cuticle by the infection thread occurred in both cases, and was followed by the formation of club-shaped hyphae in the lower portion of the cuticle. (Plate XV., figs. 5 and 6.) Although browning of the epidermal cell walls was associated with some of these hyphae in the case of both fungi, the discolouration was noticeably a more universal accompaniment and more intense when G. musarum, which is not parasitic on the mango, was the organism present. This is further evidence that the discolouration is a reaction to the presence of the fungus in the cuticle leading to a restriction of its development rather than a breakdown acting as a forerunner to further advance. Parasitism in this case, as in many others, may be dependent on less rather than more antagonism between host and parasite. 3. Infection in the mango and pap aw. The histology of latent infection in the mango and papaw has not been investigated to the same extent as in the case of the banana. How- ever, satisfactory microscopic preparations were more readily obtained when dealing with the first-mentioned hosts. Artificial inoculation was obtained with C. gloeosporioides on the mango and Gloeosporium sp. on the papaw by using the circle inoculation method described previously. The inoculated area on green and ripe fruit after different intervals of time was examined by the paraffin inbedding or surface staining technique. Spore germination and appressorium formation is the same as on the banana. Particularly clear examples were obtained on both fruit of the primary infection thread issuing through the germ pore on the base of the appressorium and passing in a direct line through the cuticle. When within the vicinity of the cellulose wall enlargement to form a small knot was sometimes observed. (Plate XV., fig 3, and Plate XVI., fig. 1.) The mango fruit with its very thick cuticle is specially suitable for making observation on the early stages of infection. For instance, a distinct clearing was noticeable along the path of the infection thread in some instances. (Plate XV., fig. 4.) This will be referred to again later. Sub-cuticular hyphae are formed as in the case of G. musarum, and these are of essentially the same character as in the banana. Their appearance is best seen by reference to the appropriate illustrations in Plates XV., XVI., and XVII. The early stage in the formation of the sub-cuticular hypha is well illustrated in the case of the mango, where it arises as a club-shaped enlargement of the end of the infection hypha as this approaches the cellulose wall. A browning of the cells adjoining the appressoria and infection hyphae may occur as in the case of the banana, and has been discussed in connection with the latter. LATENT INFECTION IN TROPICAL FRUITS, ETC. 103 4. The time involved in the production of sub-cuticular hyphae. If the sub-cuticular hyphae have any relation to the period of dormancy enjoyed by the fungus, it should be possible to correlate the time of appearance of these structures with the time at which latent infection can be demonstrated. It is not possible to give accurate figures for the proportion of sub-cuticular hyphae appearing at different periods after inoculation, since equal attention has not been given to each particular period. However, as a result of seven separate experiments with the banana, the following generalization can be made. The shortest interval from inoculation to the observation of sub-cuticular hyphae was 18 hours. A few hyphae were found at this time in one experiment. The number observed shows a moderate increase up to 48 hours, and then becomes relatively abundant at 64 hours. The hyphae are probably present in a less well developed and less readily observed stage some little time prior to that noted. Somewhat similar periods have been recorded in the case of the mango and papaw. These remarks refer to the inocu- lation of hard green fruit. When sprung or ripening fm;it are used, a more rapid development may occur. It should be noted that the time taken in the production of sub-cuticular hyphae is not necessarily the same for each individual, as is approximately the case with spore germination, but appears to vary considerably. In order to determine the time at which dormant infections become established, banana fruit either hard green or in various stages of ripen- Tablb 2. The percentage infection obtained by1 inoculating green banana fruit with a spore suspension of G. musarum followed by disinfection with 50 per cent, alcohol after different interals. Time in hours from inoculation to disinfection 12 18 21 24 31 42 64-66 Series. A. 8-9-36 6 11 44 69 100 B. 21-9-36 9 92 100 100 C. 9-8-38* 0 0 22 22f * Spores germinated in a dew in this series, f Infection in unsterilized fruit 100 per cent. Table 3. The development of appressoria of G. musarum on uninjured green banana shin after different intervals expressed as the number per 100 spores germinating. Time in hours from inoculation to fixation 12 18 21 24 31 42 64-66 Series. A. 8-9-36 116 125 165 179 B. 21-9-36 86 89 183 163 C. 9-8-38* 30f 54 68 88 * Spores germinated in a dew in this series, t Appressoria immature at this stage. ing were inoculated by the circle method, and after gradually lengthening periods were surface sterilized by immersion in 50 per cent, alcohol — a 104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. procedure which is effective in destroying the spores and all but a very small percentage of the appressoria (Table 8). The fruit were subse- quently ripened, and the number of circles developing anthracnose lesions noted. Usually no attempt was made to record the number of individual infection points in a circle. Counts of the number of appressoria present after different periods were also made on several occasions by the surface staining technique. Tables 2 and 3 give some of the data obtained from three experiments along these lines. The temperature at which the experiments were conducted ranged from 23 degrees C. to 24 degrees C. approximately. Total germination was good in all three series, averaging 80 per cent., 77 per cent., and 73 per cent., respectively. Spore density was similar in the first two series and lower in the third. The average number of inoculated circles included in each pre-disinfection period was 17, 22, and 53, respectively, for the three series. It will be noted from the tables that there is a progressive develop- ment of appressoria on the surface of the green fruit which might conceivably be directly correlated with the increase in infection with time. As the appressoria are known to be largely destroyed by the disinfectant used, any effect they might have in this way would need to be by an increase in the number of sub-cuticular hyphae developed. However, other conditions being equal, the number of appressoria present after twenty-four hours should be ample to account for a one hundred per cent, infection without calling in the aid of additional numbers. It is considered that a more correct explanation of the increase with time in the number of infections immune to the action of disinfecting agents is that a varying period is taken by individual appressoria for the production of the infection thread and establishment of the sub- cuticular hypha. The number of successful infections and their rate of development appears to vary considerably in different samples according to the influence of such factors as type and maturity of the fruit, conditions of incubation and ripening, and others less obvious. In the first series the degree of infection became independent of steriliza- tion after the second day. This could well be related to the greater development of sub-cuticular hyphae known to occur about this time. In series B development has been considerably accelerated, while series C appears to be following the same lines as series A. There is probably a lag between the time at which penetration with its associated immunity from a fungicide occurs and the development of the conspicuous sub- cuticular hypha which is more readily seen by microscopic examination. Y. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR THE LATENT AND THE ACTIVE CONDITION. Apart from such influences as temperature and humidity which directly stimulate the physiological growth reaction of the fungus itself, there are two important factors which determine when or with what rapidity the dormant condition may pass into the more active phase. These are the ripening of the fruit and the presence of wounds. Both of these factors have been investigated to some extent by inoculating wounded and unwounded surfaces and fruit in different stages of ripening and then recording the rate of development and number of the lesions produced. In fruit such as the mango and papaw, where the ability to ripen normally is linked with maturity, the development of the typical ripe LATENT INFECTION IN TROPICAL FRUITS, ETC. 105 rot spot is delayed until such time as the ripening process has com- menced. If the fruiti is picked so green that normal ripening is impossible the typical spotting may also be inhibited. Figures in Plate XVI. are of interest in this respect. They each represent sections of material taken after 72 hours' incubation from papaw fruits inoculated under identical conditions except that the one was hard green and the other ripening. In the first case the fungus is still represented only by a sub-cuticular hypha while, in the other, a more rapid development has been possible and the outer cells are packed with mycelium. In the Cavendish banana where, given the correct temperature, ripening will proceed in fruit harvested at almost any age, lesions will develop approximately two days earlier when fruit is inoculated after it has sprung and the ripening process commenced than when it is inoculated in the hard green stage. At ordinary temperatures two to three days are occupied in passing from the hard green to the sprung stage. During this period the fungus apparently remains in a dormant condition in the form of the sub-cuticular hyphae described previously and renews activity only as the chemical changes incidental to ripening take place. Wounding green fruit at the time of inoculation will accelerate the development of anthracnose and may even permit the formation of lesions on fruit otherwise too green for normal development. In this respect, a deep cut is of more effect than surface scratching. Wounding green banana fruit will lessen the time taken for anthracnose to appear by two days. The obvious explanation of the dependence of fungal activity on the ripening of the fruit, and the one that is commonly put forward, is that it is not until saccharification commences that the fungus obtains sufficient nourishment to sustain its further development. The presence of an adequate supply of soluble carbohydrate is no doubt one of the main necessities for rapid spread once the fungus is well established. However, as nutrition is the only factor involved, it is difficult to under- stand why there is no evidence of the infection hypha at once entering the lumen of the epidermal cell and at least sampling its contents. The absence of the necessary chemo-tactic stimulus is a rather negative force to counteract the normal growth urge expected in a germ tube. It might be possible to assume the presence of a toxic or antagonistic substance in the cells of the green fruit. Dufrenoy (1936) has described the part played by the presence of phenolic compounds in cell immunity. The tissue of green banana and mango fruit obviously has the power to secrete tannin compounds and those normally produced become absorbed and disappear as the fruit ripens. It might be mentioned in passing that no marked differences have been observed in spore germina- tion and appressoria formation in water extracts of green and ripe banana fruit. Moreover, the browning of the cells in association with infection hyphae suggests that if a toxic substance is present it is produced by the fungus rather than by the plant. Another explanation is suggested by the work of Vasudeva (1930) and Chona (1932). These authors have shown that the pectinase enzyme derived from different species of fungi responds differently as regards activity in the presence of various salts and hydrogen ion concentrations. Wardlaw, Leonard, and Barnell (1939) have shown that there is a marked increase in titratable acid during the ripening 106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. processes of the banana, and this in turn might influence fungal develop- ment through the enzyme complex. If this be the case the barrier in the green fruit can be said to be provided by the cell wall aided by the chemical composition of the cell sap. The manner in which the infection hyphae often travel for considerable distances immediately below the cuticle lends support to this hypothesis. It may be that the fungus is normally unable to attack protopectin as such under any condition and has to await the ripening changes which convert this substance into soluble pectin. It is then able to undergo a rapid intercellular development which enables it to build up reserves for a mass action attack on the cells themselves. If the situation were as simple as this it is not easy to explain why allied species such as C. lindemuthicmum have no difficulty in penetrating the immature tissues of their host. A satisfactory explanation of these questions is most likely to be obtained by a comparison of the conditions occurring in those hosts such as the bean, where fungal advance is possible at all stages of maturity, and those such as the banana and mango, where such advance occurs only after ripening has commenced. In the case of the latter the situation may be summarised tentatively as follows. The infection tube penetrates the cuticle of the green fruit, possibly largely by the exertion of mechanical force developed as a result of contact stimulus, and comes to lie against the cellulose layer of the epidermal wall. This presents a mechanical obstruction which the parasite is unable to overcome owing to the chemical nature of the wall or the cell sap at the time. The fungus is therefore forced to enter upon a period of dormancy in the form of the sub-cn;ticular hypha. The changes occurring in the protopectin of the primary cell wall and middle lamella during the early stages of ripening allow the fungus to extend gradually along this path. Then, later, owing to the withdrawal of toxic substances, or to an increase in enzyme action resulting from better nutrition and growth or alterations in the constitution of the cell sap, an intra- cellular existence becomes established. Growth then becomes rapid and is accompanied by the destruction of the host tissue and the development of the typical lesion. The function of wounds in accelerating lesion development is probably not so much a case of facilitating entrance as the provision of a certain amount of wound tissue on which the fungus can establish itself more rapidly to the point when the breakdown of adjacent living tissue is readily achieved. The inoculation of wounds in green fruit on the tree will not usually lead to the development of typical anthracnose lesion before the normal degree of ripeness has been attained. A cross inoculation experiment carried out with the organisms responsible for ripe rot in the banana and mango is of interest in connection with the parasitism of this group of fungi. A spore suspen- sion of the species isolated from each of these fruits was inoculated by circle and wound technique both to the correct and incorrect host. The results are given in Table 4. It was found that G. musarum would infect the banana but not the mango and Collet otrichum gloeosporioides from the mango would infect only this host. This held true whether inoculation was to unwounded or wounded skin. The wounds in this case were made with a cork borer and penetrated completely through the skin. LATENT INFECTION IN TROPICAL FRUITS, ETC. 107 The interesting point arising from the examination of inoculated mango fruit by both surface slice and paraffin section methods was that infection hyphae had penetrated the cuticle and formed sub-cuticular hyphal knots irrespective of the species of fungus involved. (Plate XV., figs. 5 and 6.) In the case of inoculated banana only two sub-cuticular hyphae were located and both of them belonged to the mango organism. It is apparent that the power of cuticle penetration is a common attribute, while, on the other hand, the consummation of the act of parasitism is dependent on a complex interaction between host and parasite which will need further elucidation before adequate explanations can be given. The significance of the browning of the epidermal cells which sometimes accompanies the infection hyphae as in the G. musarum to mango inoculation has been discussed previously. Table 4. The development of anthracyiose lesions and sub-cuticular hyphae on banana and mango fruit inoculated with both G. musarum and C. gloeosporioides, together with details of spore germination and appressoria formation. Fruit inoculated. % Spore germination. Appressoria as % of total spores germinated. Percentage definite anthracnose. Wounded. Un wounded. Sub-cuticular hyphae. (as % of appressoria examined). M.* Mango (green) Mango (ripe) . Banana (green) Banana (ripe) 83 98 83 * M = inoculated with C. gloeosporioides from mango. B = inoculated with G. musarum from banana. t In a small proportion of these fruit in which 0 infection is recorded, there appeared a faint speckling of the inoculated circle which probably represented an abortive infection. The cross-inoculation experiment, wherein the cuticle was penetrated by both the pathogenic and the non-pathogenic organism and the clearly defined zonation often seen in sections surrounding the infection hypha, raise the much discussed question of the method of cuticular penetration. The microscopic appearance, as often seen in the mango, is that of a dissolution of the cutin by chemical means so that a zoned area of greater translucency is formed round the hypha. However, as a result of the work of Brown and Harvey ( 1927 ) and others, a chemical aid to cuticular penetration is considered unlikely. The clearing is more pronounced in the region where the hypha has broadened, and it may be that the alteration is due to the pressure exerted by this expansion. In fact, in some preparations (Plate XV., fig. 6) the appearance is not unlike that due to a release of pressure on cutting. As has already been suggested by Dey (1919) it is doubtful whether the primary infection thread is at first provided with a cell wall. It is so fine in relation to the epidermal wall that the mechanics of penetra- tion illustrated by Brown and Harvey is scarcely applicable. (Plate XV., fig. 3, and Plate XVI., fig. 1) The hydrostatic pressure of the underlying cell wall will be inoperative, and it is very doubtful whether any degree of rigidity may be attributed to the infection thread itself. If, then, it is to be assumed that a chemical theory of penetration is untenable, the necessary power must be derived from the growth forces 108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. arising from the laying down of new protoplasmic tissue at the tip of the thread. The backing of the appressorium is required for the initia- tion of this process, which would continue unaided once a lateral binding of the thread had been established. It is easily understood that such a type of growth would be impossible except in the soft cuticular layer. VI. SOME FURTHER ASPECTS OF THE LATENT INFECTION THEORY. In a recent review of the existing information regarding latent infection caused by species of Gloeosporium and Collet otrichum, Baker, Crowdy and McKee (1940) conclude by suggesting certain lines along which the knowledge on the subject might well be expanded. These will be considered briefly in the light of the work discussed here. Firstly, the question is raised as to whether stomatal penetration is a normal occurrence. It can only be said that during the process of examining many sections and surface slices from bean, banana, papaw, and mango fruit in various stages of infection and ripeness, no sign of stomatal penetration was observed. On the other hand, definite evidence for cuticular penetration has been obtained. According to Dey (1919, 1933) cuticular penetration is the rule with C. lindemuthianum on bean and C. gloeosporioides on citrus leaves, and Gardner (1918) reports the same for C. lagenarium on cucurbits. Baker, Crowdy and McKee base their assumption of stomatal infection on the fact that a small number of infections were established in young papaw plants after twelve hours and a heavy infection after forty-two hours. Infection was less rapid in young than in old fruit. If, as is suggested in the present paper, infec- tion is dependent on the establishment of subcuticular hyphse, and these are not all formed simultaneously, their progressive establishment would account for a rise in infection with time. The different level of infection recorded in fruit of different ages is likely to be due to a host reaction, making the satisfactory development of the subcuticular hyphae a more lengthy or difficult process at one stage. A brown staining of a group of cells surrounding a stoma is of common occurrence, but apparently may arise as a result of physiological causes alone. The second suggestion made by the authors cited is that the rate of exosmosis of nutrients from fruit of different ages appears to be of importance. It is a well-known fact that with Gloeosporium an increase of nutrient in the germinating media will increase the rapidity of germination, and at the same time reduce the number of appressoria formed. It is probably in relation to this that there is sometimes found a slight reduction in numbers of appressoria produced on ripe as com- pared with green fruit. In the same way there is a tendency for fewer appressoria to be produced in the vicinity of a scraped or wounded surface. In Table 5 are given the average length of the germ tube and number of appressoria produced by G. musarum in sterile untreated extracts of the skin of green and ripe fruit of two varieties of banana. The extract was prepared on the basis of 10 gm. of sliced skin to 100 cc. distilled water, and allowed to diffuse for 3 hours. Germination was approximately 100 per cent, throughout. The measurements were taken after 22 hours. LATENT INFECTION IN TROPICAL FRUITS, ETC. 109 Table 5. Appressoria and germ tube development by spores of G. musarum m extracts of green and ripe banana skin. — Average length of germ tube in p. Average number of appressoria per 10 spores. Cavendish, green 156 8-4 Sugar, green 175 8-3 Cavendish, ripe 177 6-6 Sugar, ripe 187 51 There has been no evidence to suggest that either germination or appressoria production varies according to age in immature fruit. In fact, reference to Table 4 will show that good germination and appressoria formation may occur on a host entirely foreign to the fungus concerned. On the other hand, when the act of infection itself is con- sidered, it is quite possible that thickness of cuticle or exosmosis from the epidermal cells (as taken in the broad sense) may play some part in facilitating or hindering the process. This brings us to the third point raised by the abovementioned authors — namely, the nature of the resistance of some types of fruit, such as young papaws and old mangoes. In this connection, it is felt that more proof is required that such resistance as is referred to is main- tained under entirely equitable conditions of experimentation. From both the practical and theoretical points of view, a more exact knowledge of the amount of latent infection which may be permanently established at different stages in the growth of the fruit is urgently required. Such information should be gained by working with the living fruit on the tree as the variations in ripe rot development introduced by the abnormal ripening of fruit picked when immature is too great to be disregarded. The method described here in connection with the banana should be capable of adaptation to other fruits, as in fact is already proving the case. Finally, in regard to the stated lack of information regarding the nature of latent infection, it has been an endeavour in the present paper to supply a possible explanation on histological grounds, and following this to make a few suggestions regarding the reason for the restriction of the full activity of the ripe rot fungi to the ripening stages of the fruit. Whether these explanations will stand in all respects or require modification will depend on the results of future investigations. VII. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF TPIE LATENT INFECTION THEORY. The importance of the ripe rots produced by various species of Gloeosporium or Collet otrichum needs no emphasis to anyone who has had experience with the handling of tropical fruits. This importance may not be directly apparent to the grower, but to the wholesaler or retailer the presence of such troubles may prove a serious problem. Apart from the actual loss sustained, the element of uncertainty intro- duced by the occurrence of these diseases reacts to the detriment of consumer and producer alike. How, then, does the latent infection hypothesis affect the practical solution of the ripe rot problem? In the first place, it confirms the 110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. opinion already formed as the result of certain spraying trials that infec- tion may take place in the early stages of growth, and a fungicidal treatment, to be effective, may need to embrace the whole life of the fruit. In fact, from the evidence in hand this could well be a basic assumption in the investigation of this type of fruit rot. A. series of inoculation experiments supplemented by a carefully planned spraying trial will then give more definite information regarding the stages of maturity at which the fruit is capable of being infected. The period over which fungicidal protection is necessary may also be influenced by climatic barriers affecting the amount of inoculum or its dispersal. For example, in the control of bitter rot of the apple, a disease somewhat similar to those under consideration, spraying need not be commenced until late in the season owing to the high optimum temperature required by the fungus (G. fructigenum) . Under the more equitable tempera- ture conditions of the tropics, seasonal rainfall is likely to be of greater consequence in this respect. Once information on these points has been acquired the economics of the position have to be considered. If, in order to achieve satisfactory control of the disease, lengthy or costly spray schedules are required, other avenues may have to be exploited. An obvious one is to reduce the source of inoculum, and so reduce the final density of the latent infection points. In Queensland the chief source of G. musarum inoculum for banana fruit is the dead leaf stalks hanging round the pseudostem. An accumulation of these was found to be correlated with a marked increase in anthracnose infection, and the removal of the old leaves is now considered one of the chief practical means of reducing loss from this disease (Simmonds and Mitchell, 1940). In South Africa, Hopkins (1939) recommends the destruction of the dead leaf stalks from the pa,paw for the same reason, and it appears that a similar course of action will be of benefit in Queensland. Another line of investigation is suggested by the manner in which already established dormant infections may be aborted by various obscure physiological reactions of the host. Under certain conditions, a much higher proportion of the original infections will develop into the active rot-producing stage than under others. Such factors as type of fruit, picking maturity, rapidity and method of ripening all influence the severity of ripe-rot development in such fruit as the banana and papaw, and, in some instances, commercial practice may be exploited in effecting a reduction in loss from the disease. Selection and breeding for resistance to the ripe rots is a promising line of work with some fruit trees — for example, the mango and papaw. The circle inoculation technique described in this paper provides a rela- tively simple but efficient method of assessing the resistant qualities of any variety. Preliminary tests with banana and mango indicate that this will form a practical means of aiding the plant-breeder in making his selections. It appears that tests will need to be conducted with fruit of various ages, and comparisons made with strictly comparable stages of maturity and incubation conditions. A microscopical examination of the inoculated tissue should disclose whether a mechanical or physiological basis for resistance is likely to be involved (Leach 1923). Another method of attacking the ripe-rot problem is by an investi- gation of further possibilities in respect to the satisfactory sterilization of affected fruit. During work on anthracnose of the banana, Simmonds and Mitchell found that surface disinfection with certain fungicides LATENT INFECTION IN TROPICAL FRUITS, ETC. Ill would greatly reduce anthracnose development, although usually not without risk of producing a more or less superficial injury to the skin, which precluded their use in commercial practice. Evidently in these instances the fungicide penetrated sufficiently to exert some controlling influence on the sub-cuticular hyphae in spite of the protection afforded by the cutinized layer covering them. It is quite conceivable that further work along these lines will disclose a fungicide either in the form of a liquid or a gas, to which the fruit themselves will be tolerant, but which, when applied to the harvested fruit, will completely prevent the further development of all latent infections present. VIII. THE APPRESSORIUM. A number of fungi of different genera have been found to possess the capacity of forming adhesion organs or appressoria. They may be produced in connection with the vegetative mycelium, or more typically by the germ tube when their presence is usually an aid to the initial penetration of the host tissue. Appressoria formation is specially characteristic of the genera Gloeosporium and Collet otrichum. Species belonging to these genera from twenty-four different hosts were observed by Halstead (1893) to produce these organs, and the list has been added to considerably by other workers. The almost universal associa- tion of the appressorium with the two genera so largely responsible for the production of latent infections suggests that it is the possession of this organ which makes possible the employment of this particular type of infection by this group of fungi. A full understanding of the functions of the appressorium is therefore of importance in connection with the subject of latent infection. 1. The FORMATION OF THE APPRESSORIUM. The appressorium of G. musarum is typical of the genus. Its appearance has already been described in connection with the histology of latent infection. The appressorium commences as a terminal swelling on the germ tube. This is at first club-shaped but soon broadens and develops a thick brown wall. The contents at first stain in the same manner as the mycelium, but as the wall thickens staining becomes more difficult. When strength and time of immersion are sufficient to allow penetration of the stain the contents of the mature appressorium stain deeply but irregularly. When Gloeosporium spores germinate on the skin of the fruit or in a weak nutrient the germ tubes are short, unbranched, and are terminated by the appressoriqm (Plate XIII.). As two germ tubes may be produced by the spore, it is quite common for the number of appressoria to exceed the number of germinating spores. In a rich medium there is a tendency for the germ tubes to branch and extend freely, to develop secondary spores from the tips of short lateral branches, and to form comparatively few appressoria. In certain media where a moderate extension and branching of the germ tube occurs the appressoria may come to take up an intercalary position. In this case the appressorium produces from somewhere on its surface, usually in the vicinity of the germ pore, another hypha which has every appear- ance of being an extension' of the original germ tube (Plate XIII., fig. 2). This process, which may be repeated, is probably homologous with the intercalary formation of a resting organ rather than the germination of a spore. In the true germination of the appressorium as seen in slide 112 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. preparations after a period of rest the mycelium is of a somewhat different type and is of indeterminate growth. It is again quite distinct from the extremely fine infection thread produced on the host plant. Although briefly referred to by earlier workers, the significant facts of appressoria formation were first elaborated by Hasselbring (1906). He concluded from observations made on hanging drop cultures that the formation of appressoria is induced by contact stimulus, although in the presence of abundant nutrient material the germ tube loses its power to react to such stimulus and the formation of appressoria is inhibited. The spores of G. musarum readily illustrate this point. When germinated in a hanging drop those which remain attached to the slide so that the germ tube extends along its surface from appressoria readily, whereas those which fall to the lower side away from the glass form few or none. The reaction to contact stimuli is further illustrated by the manner in which the appressoria tend to form in the depressions and crevices between the epidermal cells and conform to the space available, thus increasing their power of attachment and resistance. (Plate XIII, fig. 3.) 2. The functions of the appressorium. Opinions are somewhat divided regarding the function of the appressorium. Hasselbring (1906), who discusses this question at some length, points out that Frank as early as 1883 recognised the significance of these organs as regards promoting adhesion and gave to them the name of appressoria. Other early workers, such as Southwork, Halstead, and Clinton, considered them rather in the nature of resting spores. Halstead (1893) states that the thickness of the wall suggests a protective function, and instances the fact that at times the appressorium may develop into an aggregation of thick walled cells to all intents and purposes representing a sclerotium. Clinton (1902) regards them as chlamydospores. Hasselbring himself, although recognising that the appressoria are more resistant than ordinary conidia, places the emphasis on the fact that they are adhesive organs attaching the fungus to the host during the early stages of infection. More recently Biraghi (1934) has discussed the position and emphasises the part played by the appressoria in enabling the organism to resist adverse conditions. The capacity for adherence exhibited by the appressorium is a matter of common observation. The resistance to the action of flowing water is easily demonstrated by germinating spores, either on the surface of the fruit or on a glass slide, and then subjecting them to washing. Some germination figures obtained during the course of an experiment carried out for other purposes illustrates the extent to which the appressoria may resist mechanical removal from the banana skin. Drops of a spore suspension of G. musarum were applied to circles on banana fruit in the usual way and germination allowed to take place for 18 hours. Some of the fruit were then dipped ten times in 50 per cent, alcohol, others lightly wiped ten times with a wet cotton wool pad and then dipped ten times in 50 per cent, alcohol, and others were left untreated. Counts made from two circles on each of 2 fruit gave the results set out in Table 6. LATENT INFECTION IN TROPICAL FRUITS, ETC. 113 Table 6. Treatment. Total number of spores. Spores germin- ated. Spores ungermin- ated. Appressoria No treatment 918 661 257 361 Dipped in alcohol 947 763 184 463 Wiped and dipped in alcohol 9 8 1 225 It is obvious that the appressoria possess the power to resist mechanical removal, and, to explain this, suggestions have been made from time to time regarding the means by which the attachment is made. Some writers (Dey 1919, Leach 1923) have stated that the appressorium is held in contact with the surface of attachment by a gelatinous or mucilaginous secretion which may be seen enveloping it. In the case of 6r. musarum, stained preparations sometimes show the presence of an amorphous substance associated with the outside of the appressorium, but the nature of this and whether it is normally present are matters of uncertainty. If present, the substance is evidently resistant to the action of water and alcohol. Apart from the presence of a cementing substance, the shape of the appressorium would enable it to act as a sucking disc, while the peg-like projection from its base would form an additional means of attachment when embedded in the cuticle of the host plant. In those cases such as in the banana and mango, where the epidermis presents an uneven surface, the appressoria make their position still more secure by fitting themselves to the crevices formed by adjoining epidermal cells (Plate XIII., fig. 3). The essential value of this firm attachment is not so much the mechanical retention of the appressorium on the surface, since this is not usually required for any long period, but is rather to form a support to the infection hyphae, which, if cuticular penetration is not a chemical process, must be provided with a firm backing during the early stages of infection. That the appressoria are fitted for conservation and are able to resist adverse conditions has largely been a matter of assumption based on their appearance. Little experimental proof has been brought forward in support of this view. Birachi (1934) makes a special point of this function, stating that the organs are in consequence analogous to chlamydospores rather than appressoria. His reasons for taking this stand, apart from the morphological one, are based on his contention that they are developed in a medium weak in nutrients or poor in oxygen supply and as a defensive response to drying. These conditions are, however, not essential for appressoria production, and, moreover, it must be remembered that organs of conservation in the fungi, whether they be in the form of resting spores or sclerotia, are usually produced in anticipation of adverse conditions rather than in response to them. If, as has been suggested, the appressoria are organs of conservation it is important from the practical point of view to know their reaction to drying and the action of chemicals. Hasselbring (1906) describes an experiment whereby he showed that the appressoria of the bitter rot fungus were more resistant to drying than the spores which did not survive a period of 24 hours. Dey (1933), on the other hand, states that the appressoria of C. gloeosporioides are unable to withstand drying. 114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Since the spores of G. musarum will give a fair germination after being dried for several weeks a comparison is not so easily made. Experiments carried out with this fungus and with Gloeosporium. sp. from the papaw have proved conflicting, in some cases the appressoria possessing the longer life and in other the spores. The usual procedure adopted in this work was to prepare petri dishes by applying to marked areas 25 small drops of an appropriate spore suspension in sterile water or weak nutrient. Some of these were dried immediately while others were dried after appressoria had been established. Both series were then retained at laboratory temperature under similar conditions. After an interval of several days or weeks a suitable agar medium or germinating fluid was applied to the individual drop sites or to the plate as a whole and the germination of spores and appressoria subsequently determined by microscopic examination through the glass. The numbers of spores were kept low to facilitate observation. One of these experiments in which the appressoria proved most resistant was described by Simmonds and Mitchell (1940). The results from this and two other series are included in Table 7. It is obvious that more knowledge is required regarding the conditions influencing the germination of the appressorium before such experiments can be relied on. Longevity should be greater on the fruit than on the surface of a dry slide. In nature it is doubtful whether any considerable longevity is called for, since germination of the appressorium and formation of a latent infection probably takes place within a few days or even hours of spore germination. Table 7. The effect of drying ow spores and appressoria of Gloeosporium. Series. Fungus. Period of drying (days). Number of spores germinating. Number of appressoria germinating. 1 G. musarum 21 0 40 2 G. musarum 6 13 1 Gloeosporium sp. (ex papaw) 6 2 17 3 G. musarum 13 439 379 A knowledge of the resistance of the appressorium to fungicides is important, since, if such resistance were considerable, most of the arguments in favour of the occurence of latent infections would be negatived. Preliminary experiments which were described by Simmonds and Mitchell indicated that the appressoria are definitely more resistant to 50 per cent, alcohol than are the spores. Subsequent work has shown that they are resistant also to the action of other chemicals. Plates were prepared as described above each with twenty-five circles containing dried films of either ungerminated spores or appressoria. These were subjected to flooding for a specified time with the fungicide under consideration, which was then allowed to evaporate or was removed by washing. A suitable germinating medium was then applied to the films and the subsequent growth determined by microscopic examination. The result of one such experiment is contained in Table 8. Each film contained on the average 60 spores, or, when they had been allowed to form, 85 appressoria. One plate was used for each treatment which was thus applied to a total of 1,500 spores or 2,000 appressoria. LATENT INFECTION IN TROPICAL FRUITS, ETC. 115 Table 8. The comparative effect of sterilising agents on ispores and appressoria of G. Musarum. Treatment. Total germination per plate. Spores only. Appressoria. Sterile water, 15 seconds, then drained and dried 99 64 Formalin, 0*75 per cent., 15 seconds, then drained and dried 0 39 Alcohol 50 per cent., 15 seconds, then drained and dried . . HgCl2, 0-1 per cent., 30 seconds, then washed, drained, and 0 8 dried 0 0 None of the fungicides used had a residual effect, and it might be argued that one such as Bordeaux mixture might prevent effective germination although not actually killing the appressorium. It has to be remembered, however, that on the host plant the appressorium is in intimate contact with the epidermis, and the germ tube by emerging from the lower surface has little opportunity of coming into contact with the fungicide before leaving its sphere of influence. The conclusion arrived at from this work is that the appressorium is definitely more resistant to chemical action than the spores. Accordingly this needs to be taken into consideration when designing any experiment involving surface sterilization of the fruit. However, the number of appressoria surviving treatment is relatively small, and although their resistance either to fungicidal action or to drying may be a factor in the survival of the fungus in a few isolated instances the resistance of the appressorium can in no way be used as a theory to supplant that of latent infection. Another function of the appressorium which may be included under the heading of conservation is to provide a reserve food supply. After the formation of the appressorium the contents of the spore and germ tube evidently come to be included within its walls, as is indicated by the reduced staining properties of the latter and the densely staining contents of the former. At the time of infection this material is available for the production of the infection thread and for the development and support of the infection hypha within the cuticle of the host plant. The time occupied in transferring this reserve supply through the narrow infection thread may partly account for the time taken to establish the sub-cuticular hypae satisfactorily. 3. Conclusions regarding the nature of the appressorium. In addition to its function, the nature of the appressorium from the mycological point of view has been the subject of considerable discussion. Biraghi (1934) points out that three different names, each possessing rather a distinct significance, have been used amongst some eighteen different authors — namely, chlamydospore, secondary spore, and appressorium. Of these, the first and the last are in more general use. Since these organs can by no means be regarded as of use in distribution the term spore is scarcely applicable. The term chlamydospore is usually applied to a vegetative form of reproduction consisting essentially in the modification of one of the terminal or more commonly intercalary cells of the vegetative mycelium, which may enlarge and develop a thick and often coloured wall distinguishing it from the cells of the normal mycelium. The chlamydospore usually R.S. — C. 116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. functions as a resting spore, and may germinate by a germ tube when conditions are suitable. The typical appressorium may be similar in origin and appearance but is more often produced in a terminal position and by the germ tube. It functions as a holdfast formed as a response to contact stimulus and may serve as an important adjunct to the act of infection. Since in the genera Gloeosporium and Collet otrichum the body in question may be of use both as a resistant organ and as a holdfast ; there are arguments from the point of view of function for the u;se of both names. However, in the economy of the fungus the advantages derived from the power of adherence and aid to infection outweigh the others. That is to say, the organ functions as an appressorium rather than a chlamydospore. From a consideration of homology the point of view is clearer. The production of several appressoria in series by one germ tube suggests the intercalary formation of a resting spore. Hasselbring (1906) states that in old exhausted cultures of G. fructiginum the hyphae may form a series of thick-walled irregularly-shaped cells of the nature of appressoria. These may be so crowded as to resemble sclerotia-like masses. Biraghi (1934) also calls attention to the formation in culture media by G. olivarwm of brown organs, either singly or in small chains, which closely resemble the appressoria produced by the germ tube. The organs formed by the vegetative mycelium he regards as chlamydospores, and points out that there is little essential difference between the formation of these and the so called appressoria with which he considers them to be homologous. Mitra (1937) records that in the case of C. curvatum chlamydospores are formed abundantly in culture by the thickening of mycelial cells, and these closely resemble appressoria. There is, therefore, considerable evidence to suggest that the appressoria of Gloeosporium and Collet otrichum are homologous with chlamydospores and have been adapted from the more typical structure during the evolution of the type of infection process employed by members of these genera. Since their characteristic function is to act as holdfasts and aid infection they merit the distinctive name of appressoria, IX. SUMMARY. A review of the literature dealing with latent infection in tropical fruits reveals a lack of information regarding the possible duration of the period of latency and the manner in which the fungus maintains its dormant state. By artificially inoculating immature banana fruit in the field it was proved that G. musarum could remain in a latent condition for five and a quarter months and then resume activity to produce typical anthracnose lesions as the fruit ripened. Only a proportion of the original infections may finally develop into ripe fruit spots. Histological structures involved in latent infection are discussed and illustrated in relation to species of Gloeosporium and Collet otrichum on banana, papaw, and mango. A fine infection thread penetrates the cuticle direct from the appressorium and forms a hyphal structure adjacent to the cellulose wall of the epidermal cell. This sub-cuticular hypha is considered to be the form in which the fungus survives its period of latency. LATENT INFECTION IN TROPICAL FRUITS, ETC. 117 Suggestions are put forward to explain the inability of the fungus to achieve active parasitism in the green fruit. The outer cellulose wall appears to form a barrier in the operation of which the constitution of the cell sap may play a part. An understanding of the nature of latent infection enables a clearer approach to be made to the solution of ripe rot problems. Several practical applications of the theory are discussed in this regard. The appressorium is considered to be important in that its main function is to aid infection by providing a firmly attached reservoir from which the infection thread may be produced. It is more resistant than the spore to certain chemicals, and for that reason may he unaffected by some sprays. The appressorium is probably homologous with a chlamydospore, but in consideration of its function the use of the first mentioned name is permissible. X. LITERATURE CITED. Bach, W. J., and F. A. Wolf, 1928. This isolation of the fungus that causes melanose and the pathological anatomy of the host. Jour. Agr. Res. XXXVII, 4, 243-252. Baker, R. E. D., 1938. Notes on the control of mango anthroenose (Collet otrichum gloeosporioides) . Trop. Agriculture XV, 1, 12-14. Baker, R. E. D., 1938. Studies in the pathogenicity of tropical fungi II. Annals of Botany, N.S. II, 8, 919-931. Baker, R, E. D., S. H. Crowdy, and R. K. McKee, 1940. A review of latent infection caused by Colletotrichvmi gloeosporioides and allied fungi. Trop. Agriculture, XVII, 7, 128-132. Baker, R. E. D., and C. W. Wardlaw, 1937. Studies in the pathogenicity of tropical fungi I. Annals of Botany, N.S. I, 1, 59-65. Bates, G. R., 1936. Storage tests with Rhodesian oranges during 1934. Mazoe Citrus Expt. Stn. Publ. No. 4b. Bates, G. R., 1937. Diseases of citrus fruits in Southern Rhodesia. Mazoe Citrus Expt. Stn. Publ. No. 6c. Biraghi, A., 1934. On the biological significance of alleged 11 Appressoria ” of the genus Gloeosporium. Boll. R, Staz. di Pat. Veg. XIV, 2, 202-210. Brown, W., and C. C. Harvey, 1927. Studies in the Physiology of Parasitism, X. On the entrance of parasitic fungi into the host plant. Ann Bot. XLI, pp. 643-662. Chadhuri, H., 1935. Infection by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Penz. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci., India, I, 2, 71-75. Chona, B. L., 1932. Studies in the physiology of parasitism XIII, Ann. Bot. XLV1, pp. 1033-1050. Clinton, G. P., 1902. Apple rots in Illinois. IJniv. Illinois Ag. Exp. Sta. Bull 69. Dastur, J. F., 1916. Spraying for ripe rot of the plantain fruit. Agric. Jour. India XI, 11, 142-149. Dey, P. K., 1919. Studies in the physiology of parasitism V. Infections by C. lindemuthianum. Ann. Bot. XXXIII, pp. 305-312. Dey, P. K., 1933. Studies in the physiology of the appressorium of Collet otriclmm gloeosporioides. Ann. Bot. XL VII, pp. 305-312. Dufrenoy, J., 1936. Cellular immunity. American Jour. Bot. XXIII, 1, 70-79. Gardner, M. W., 1918. Anthracnose of Cucurbits. U.S.D.A. Bur. PL Ind. Bull. 727 Halstead, B. D., 1893. The secondary spores in anthracnoses. New Jersey Ag. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1893, pp. 303-306. Hasselbring, H., 1906. The appressoria of the anthracnoses. Bot. Gaz. XLII, pp. 135-160. Hopkins, J. C. F., 1939. A descriptive list of plant diseases in Southern Rhodesia (and their control). 118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Horne, W. T., and D. F. Palmer, 1935. The control of Dothiorella rot on avocado fruit. Univ. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 594. Kidd, M. N., and A. Beaumont, 1925. An experimental study of the fungal invasion of apples in storage with particular reference to invasion through the lenticels. Ann. Appl. Biol. XII, 1, 14-33. Leach, J. G., 1923. The Parasitism of Collet otriohum lindemuthianum. Univ. Minnesota Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 14. McBryde, Mary C., 1936. A method of demonstrating rust hyphae and haustoria in unsectioned leaf tissue. American Jour. Bot. XXIII, 10, 686-689. Mitra, M., 1937. An anthracnose disease of sann hemp. Indian Jour. Ag. Sci. VII, 3, 443-449. Shear, C. L. and Anna K. Wood, 1913. Studies of fungous parasites belonging to the genus Glomerella. U.S.D.A. Bur. Pit. Ind. Bull. 252. Simmonds, J. H., and R. S. Mitchell, 1940. Black end and anthracnose of the banana with special reference to Gloeosporium musarum Cke. and Mass. Coun. Sci. Ind. Res., Australia, Bull. 131. Vasudeva, R. S., 1930. Studies on the physiology of parasitism. XI. Ann Bot. XLIV, pp. 469-493. Wager, V. A., 1937. Mango diseases in South Africa. Farming in South Africa, XII, 137, 321-324. Wardlaw, C. W., E. R. Leonard, and R. E. D. Baker, 1934. Observations on the storage of various fruits and vegetables. Trop. Agriculture XI, 9, 230-231. Wardlaw, C. W., E. R. Leonard, and H. R. Barnell, 1939. Metabolic and storage investigations on the banana. Imp. Coll. Trop. Agr., Low Temp. Res. Sta. Memoir No. 11. Wardlaw, C. W., and L. P. McGuire, 1931. Transport and storage of bananas with special reference to chilling. Empire Marketing Board Publ. 45. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate XII. Cavendish Banana Fruit Artificially Inoculated with G. musarum to Demonstrate Latent Infection. Upper three fruit: Bunch A, hand 1, inoculated 9.IV.40, harvested 3.IX.40. Lower three fruit: Bunch A, hand 4, inoculated 7.V.40, harvested 3.IX.40 (see text). In each series the upper fruit received no sterilization, the middle and lower were sterilized with 50 per cent, alcohol and 0.1 per cent, mercuric chloride, respec- tively, 6 days after inoculation. Photographed 12.IX.40 when sunken lesions were commencing in a few circles. Eventually typical anthracnose developed in all. Plate XIII. The Development of Appressoria by G. musarum. Fig1. 1. Spores germinating in an artificial dew on the surface of a banana. Note the formation of appressoria along the line of cell union (cf. Fig. 3). x 600. Fig. 2. Spore germination in banana infusion on a slide. The original appressorium producing secondary ones by an extension of the germ tube, x 600. Fig. 3. Vertical section through the epidermis of an artificially inoculated banana. Appressoria fitted into the angles between the cells. Fig. 4. General view of spore germination and appressoria formation on the surface of a banana fruit. Plate XIV. Latent Infection Studies in Connection with the Inoculation of Green Unsprung Banana Fruit with a Spore Suspension of G. musarum. (All figures approximately x 1,000.) Fig. 2. Vertical section through the epidermis after 66 hours at 23 degrees C. Cell and cell wall discolouration associated with the presence of appressoria. Note the proximity of the nuclei of adjacent cells. LATENT INFECTION IN TROPICAL FRUITS, ETC. 119 Fig. 21 Vertical section through the epidermis after 66 hours at 23 degrees C. Appressorium in intimate contact with the cuticle, peg-like projection from the base, and a small mound-like thickening of the inner surface of the cellulose wall below the peg. Fig. 3. Vertical section through the epidermis after 42 hours at 23 degrees C. Oval sub-cuticular hypha lying between cuticle and cellulose wall. Fig. 4. Vertical section through the epidermis after 65 hours at 28 degrees. C. Sub-cuticular hypha in the angle between epidermal cells and associated with an appressorium lying on the cuticle. Fig. 5. Oblique view of epidermal cell seen in a surface slice taken after 65 hours at 28 degrees C. when the fruit was well sprung. Probably represents the commencement of fungal activity with ripening. Infection thread leading to primary hypha lying entirely between cuticle and cellulose wall. Fig. 6. View from above of surface slice of material similar to Fig. 5. Appressorium (out of focus in lower right corner) leading by infection thread to sub-cuticular knot and intercellular primary hypha which at its distal end (upper left hand) has penetrated deeper and is surrounded by a thickened cellulose wall. Plate XV. Infection Studies with C. lindemuthiamum on French Bean and C. gloeosporioides and G. musarum on Mango Fruit. Fig. 1. An appressorium of C. lindemuthianum (lower angular structure just out of focus) emitting a fine infection thread (scarcely discernible in photograph) which penetrates the epidermal wall direct and forms a conspicuous primary hypha within the epidermal cell. View from above of surface slice 72 hours at 20 degrees C. after inoculation, x 1,000. Fig1. 2. Similar material to Fig. 1. A primary hypha effecting the penetration of a lateral wall by a narrow projection, x 1,000. Fig. 3. Four appressoria of C. gloeosporioides each emitting an infection thread penetrating the cuticle. Vertical section 45 hours at 29 degrees C. after inoculating ripening mango fruit, x 1,200 approximately. Fig. 4. Infection thread from an appressorium of C. gloeosporioides about to form a sub-cuticular hypha. Note the zonation of surrounding cuticle. Vertical section 46 hours after inoculating green mango fruit, x 1,000. Fig. 5. Infection threads from two appressoria of G. musarum penetrating the cuticle and commencing to form sub-cuticular hyphae. Note the clearing of the cuticle round the infection thread and the darkening of the adjacent cell walls in response to invasion. Vertical section 45 hours at 29 degrees C after inoculation of ripening mango fruit, x 1,000. Fig. 6. Appressorium of C. gloeosporioides producing an infection thread and sub-cuticular hypha. Note the appearance of the surrounding cuticle and the browning of the cell wall to the right, probably in response to invasion from the two appressoria above. Vertical section 45 hours at 29 degrees C. after inoculating ripening mango fruit, x 1,000. Plate XVI. Infection Studies with Gloeosporium sp. on Papaw Fruit. Fig. 1. Appressorium with a fine infection thread penetrating the cuticle and forming a sub-cuticular hypha within the thickened cellulose wall. Vertical section 25 hours after inoculating ripening fruit, x 1,800 approximately. Fig. 2. Well developed sub-cuticular hypha. Vertical section 48 hours after inoculating hard green fruit, x 1,000. Fig. 3. Seventy-two hours after inoculating hard green fruit. The fungus still in the sub-cuticular hypha stage, x 1,000. Fig. 4. Seventy-two hours after inoculating ripening fruit for comparison with Fig. 3. Mycelium packing the superficial cells and an acervulus in course of formation. Note the sub-cuticular ( development of hyphae to the left, x 860 approximately. 120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. Plate XYII. Sub-cuttcular Hyphae Developed by G. musarum on Banana Fruit (Figs. 1 to 6) and by Gloeosporium sp. on Papaw (Figs. 7 and 8). Drawings of vertical sections through the epidermis of inoculated areas. Reduced by half from an original magnification of approximately x 1,000. Fig. 1. Material fixed 42 hours at 23 degrees C. after inoculating green unsprung banana fruit. Figs. 2, 3, and 4. Fixed 48 hours at 24 degrees C. after inoculating ripening fruit. Fig. 5. Fixed 66 hours at 23 degrees C. after inoculating green unsprung fruit. Fig. 6. Fixed 48 hours at 24 degrees C. after inoculating ripening fruit. Fig. 7. Fixed 41 hours after inoculating ripening papaw fruit. Fig. 8. Fixed 48 hours after inoculating green fruit. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LIL, No. 10. Plate XII. Proc. Boy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. LII.; No. 10. Plate XIII, Proc. Roy. Soc. Q*land; Yol. LII., No. 10. Plate XIV. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol, LIL, No. 10. Plate XV. Peoc. Roy. Sog. Q’land, Yol. HI., No. 10. Plate XVI. Pkoc. Eoy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LIL, No. 10. Plate XVII. Vol. LII., No 11. 121 PRELIMINARY NOTE ON PHOTOSENSITISA- TION OF SHEEP GRAZED ON BRACHIARIA RR1ZANTHA. N. W. Briton,* B.Y.Sc., and T. B. Paltridge, B.Sc.f {Bead before the Royal Society of Queensland , 25 th November , 1940.) Pliotosensitisation of sheep has been previously reported in Australia. This note is intended only to record observation of this condition, in sheep, grazed on pure stands of Brachiaria brizantha. Brachiaria brizantha is a large, well-foliated, dark-green tussock grass, native to South Africa. It was introduced from Rhodesia by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, and has been selected as one of a number of species agronomically suited for use as a component of improved pastures for Southern Queensland. Its selection was based on preliminary studies extending over five years, during the last four of which it has been heavily grazed in mixed pasture by both sheep and cattle without noticeable detriment to the health of any animal. The plots on which photosensitisation has been observed were established from seed in November, 1939. In common with other grasses, Brachiaria brizantha was planted in rows and has been maintained as a pure stand with the object of determining the comparative pasture value of selected species. On these plots the grass was allowed to reach maturity without grazing or other interference, beyond inter-row cultivation and removal of weeds. The mature growth was held through- out the winter months and ove1* the heavy frosts experienced in July. The plots were cut on 12th August, 1940. After cutting in August, plots remained untreated, while subdivision fences, &c., were being erected, until 22nd October. During this interval plants in more favoured areas made fairly vigorous growth to a height of 9 to 12 inches. In other areas (presumably drier) no new growth appeared. No other plants, beyond occasional nutgrass specimens (Cy perns rotundas), have been allowed to grow on these plots at all this year. On 22nd October six crossbred wethers were driven on to a half- acre plot of Brachiaria brizantha , and on 23rd October another six cross- bred wethers on to a second half-acre plot of this grass. By 30th October some sheep on both plots were noticeably sick, and on examination marked symptoms of photosensitisation were recorded. All sheep were then removed from Brachiaria plots and all were found to show definite symptoms of photosensitisation and icterus, marked by dropped ears, swelling of the subcutis of the face and eyelids, and congested, yellowish mucous membran'es. The condition of these animals progressively degenerated until 11th November, at which time six had died. All sheep were in good condition when driven on to the experi- mental plots, but with the onset of symptoms of photosensitisation, anorexia developed, and the sheep rapidly lost condition. In those that died the skin over the muzzle, ears, and eyelids was necrotic and * Lecturer in Animal Husbandry, Q.A.H.S. and College, Lawes. t Assistant Research Officer, C.S.I.R. Plant Introduction, Lawes. 122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. the conjunctival sac filled with purulent exudate with consequent blind- ness. Post-mortem examination revealed marked icterus, involving all tissues, whilst the gall bladder was congested and filled with mucoid bile. In the case of four of these animals this condition resulted from eight days’ grazing on Brachiaria brizantha : the other two animals were so affected after only seven days’ grazing. Similar groups of wethers grazing on adjacent plots of other grasses under exactly the same condition of shade, &c., remained in perfect health. In view of the fact that no suspicion of photosensitisation has been observed in sheep previously grazed on Brachiaria brizantha when used as portion of a mixed pasture, the observations herein recorded are of considerable interest. It seems probable that, as with certain other species which are capable of giving rise to this condition in animals, Brachiaria brizantha will prove to be dangerous only under certain conditions of growth stage or aridity, &c. An investigation of the problem is being undertaken by us. The Royal Society of Queensland Report of Council for 1939. To the Members of the Boy al Society of Queensland. Your Council has pleasure in submitting its report for the year 1939. Eleven original papers were read or tabled at Ordinary Meetings, and accepted for publication in the Proceedings; five lectures were given, and one meeting was devoted to exhibits. The average attendance was thirty-six, and suppers were served at a small charge to members. In terms of the Government decision that the Chief Secretary’s Department would pay a subsidy for printing on the basis of £1 for £1 up to a maximum of £150 per annum on papers of value from a Government point of view, the Society has> this year received a subsidy of £72 from the Government on the volume for 1937. Also, the University made available £30 from the Walter and Eliza Hall Fund, towards the cost of publication of a paper by the Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow, Mr. S. T, Blake. These subsidies the Council acknowledges with gratitude. There are at present 5 honorary life members, 5 life members, 4 corresponding members, 194 ordinary members, and 1 associate member. This year we have lost by death 2 members, and by resignation 3 ; 1 new corresponding member and 9 new ordinary members were elected. There has been little progress with the arrangement of periodicals on the shelves. Two hundred and twenty periodicals were obtained by exchange. The Society was represented at the Sixth Pacific Science Congress at San Francisco by Professor H. C. Richards, D.Sc., Vice-President. Attendance at Council meetings was as follows:— E. W. Bick, 9; J. V. Duhig, 6; D. A. Herbert, 7; D. Hill, 8; H. A. Longman, 10; E. 0. Marks, 8 ; F. A. Perkins, 8 ; H. C. Richards, 7 ; A. R. Riddle, 8 ; F. H. S. Roberts, 6 ; H. R. Seddon, 3 ; J. H. Smith, 7 ; M. White, 7. D. HILL, Hon. Secretary. H. A. LONGMAN, President. THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND. STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE FOR YEAR ENDED 31st DECEMBER, 1939. VI. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. u* y lT3 Hi o CD 00 cq CD CD O CD 05 Cq cq t- 05 cq Co I— 1 I— 1 i— 1 i — 1 i — i <43 co Hi O io co O cq O i — i rH CO rH t>- Hi t-H rH CO ert O O o © Pi 05 o t-t 0 01 © Ph Pm © © a a d O o i> * rO .a 3^ £ £ | Pi I « §* s ft ® 03 > 03 O © P P Pi 2 o © fl d . o . © © 03 © be d 3 * .3 ® ^ a pp Fh d Fh 3 pq £ *8 Pi d FH .P2 © •rt (y P pi . d rd fH SI tA o © © Out! w © © © © 84 ?>■> O ?H ^ Ph § § . _ H H M ^ i? Ph hh K CC PQ O 3 o © © rd 3 PI d a w © .a d PP EH Fh OS Fh O Pi O w M o hH PQ £ PQ ^ 10 © d M QQ PQ PQ QQ O GO A ^ © g © p>> d © Pi © K H PQ PQ f* H £ o E-i QQ ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. VII. Abstract of Proceedings, 26th March, 1940. The Annual General Meeting was held in the Department of Geology of the University on Tuesday, 26th March, 1940, at 8 p.m. with the President (Mr. H. A. Longman) in the Chair. Thirty members and friends were present. The minutes of the previous annual meeting were read and confirmed. The Annual Report was adopted on the motion of Mr. C. T. White. The Balance-sheet was received. Mr. Colin Clark, M.A., and Mr. L. S. Smith, B.Sc., were proposed for Ordinary Membership, and Mr. I. S. R. Munro and Mr. E. F. Riek for Associate Membership. The following officers and Council were elected for 1940 : — President, Dr. P. W. Whitehouse ; Vice-Presidents, Mr. H. A. Longman and Professor H. R. Seddon; Hon. Treasurer, Mr. E. W. Bick; Hon. Secretary, Miss D. Hill; Hon. Librarian, Miss K. Watson; Hon. Editors, Dr. D. A. Herbert and Mr. J. H. Smith; members of the Council, Professor D. H. K. Lee, Mr. P. A. Perkins, Professor H. C. Richards, Dr. F. H. S. Roberts, and Dr. M. White. Mr. A. J. Stoney was elected Hon. Auditor. The retiring President, Mr. H. A. Longman, inducted to the Chair the President-Elect, Dr. F. W. Whitehouse. The new President then called on the retiring President to deliver the address “ Homo sapiens: turbulentus. ” Professor H. C. Richards and Dr. D. A. Herbert expressed to Mr. Longman the thanks and appreciation of the meeting for the address. Abstract of Proceedings, 29th April, 1940. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Department of Geology of the University on Monday, 29th April, at 8 p.m., with the President, Dr. P. W. Whitehouse, in the Chair. About forty members and friends were present. Mr. J. W. Bleakley, Mr. V. Grenning, Mr. Colin Clark, M.A., and Mr. L. S. Smith, B.Sc., were elected Ordinary Members, and Mr. E. P. Riek and Mr. I. S. R. Munro Associate Members. Mr. K. V. L. Kesteven, B.V.Sc., and Mr. D. F. Gray, B.V.Sc., were proposed for Ordinary Membership by Prof. Seddon. The main business was a Symposium, “Factors in the Settlement of the Brisbane River.7’ Dr. W. H. Bryan pointed out that the chief reason for the settlement of the Brisbane River was the river itself, which provided a good harbour and a convenient waterway for the small craft of those days. Although it would appear from the early records that geological factors were not even considered when deter- mining the site of Brisbane town, there existed nevertheless a number of geological facts all of which were favourable to such a choice. The earliest settlers found at hand several different types of building stones — e.g., the vari-coloured “Porphyry,” the sandstone from Petrie’s Quarry, and the Enoggera granite. Road metals were convenient and abundant, as were clays suitable for bricks and pottery. But more important than these were the extensive coal seams which were found some miles up the river. Perhaps the only serious geological deficiency was that of limestone which was needed for the production of lime and cement. After some search this was found at a place called Limestone Station, where the city of Ipswich now stands, but the limestone was poor and was not abundant. The soils in the area first settled were not uniformly good; nevertheless areas of excellent heavy black soils and lighter red soils enabled a relatively wide range of agricultural activities to be undertaken. VIII. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Dr. D. A. Herbert, in discussing the effects of European settlement on the native vegetation, pointed out that plant communities are by no means static, and that apart from geological evidence of past differences in distribution it was well established that the aboriginals had consider- ably altered the plant cover in many areas. The balds on the Bunya Mountains are regarded as grasslands induced by pre-European burning, and maintained by burning and grazing. Fire protection has in many instances resulted in a return of forest. The poverty of the native flora in plants of agricultural value and of the native fauna in domestic and potentially domestic animals was responsible for a sudden influx of enormous numbers of exotic plants, including weeds, and of animals with different grazing habits from those of the marsupials. The richness in species of trees in the rain-forests and the density of the stands was at first an obstacle to the utilisation of these lands because of difficulty of clearing and of the great variation of the timber. Commercial forestry operations have been directed more recently to the replacement of rain-forest with plantations of native (hoop pine, bunya pine, silky oak, &c.) and exotic trees in such areas. The work done on the mycorrhizal relations of some of these species has made possible the extensions of areas suitable for such planting. In particular, the investigations into the importance of mycorrhiza in connection with needle fusion of exotic pines have made possible a more efficient utilisa- tion of sandy coastal soils for such species as Pinus tceda and Pinus caribaza. Work of a related nature on the nodule bacteria of legumes is giving valuable results in the establishment of such plants as lucerne and Poona pea in agricultural areas where the bacterial flora was previously unsuitable. Mr. W. H. R. Nimmo said that engineering problems did not confront the early settlers, and those arising later are for the most part confined to the metropolitan area. Completion of Somerset Dam will provide an ample quantity of water for many years to come, but will only slightly reduce the average hardness; softening of the water is a problem for the future and, by elimination of the household tank, will contribute to the abolition of the mosquito. Those portions of the city which are outside the area drained by the present sewerage scheme must ultimately be served by independent schemes, the effluent from which must be purified and disposed of in the river, and the more regular flow of oxygenated water coming from Somerset Dam will have a value in this connection. The originally shallow and tortuous river has been converted into a port by cutting through the rock bar at Lytton, cutting off sharp bends and widening and deepening the channel. Since much of the cargo comes from or goes to the country, the tendency to-day is to build ocean terminals outside the city areas, where ample space is available for storage, thereby facilitating the handling of materials and reducing traffic congestion in the city. If shipping were the only consideration, such a development below Hamilton might have eliminated the cost of improving and maintaining the upper portion of the river and have made possible the construction of a number of low-level bridges. But maintenance of an adequate channel from the city to the river mouth is an essential factor in the reduction of flood heights, and therefore shipping will continue to use the upper reaches of the river. Wharfage, however, is gradually extending downstream and ultimately at least one other river crossing will become necessary, and possibly this will take the form of a tunnel somewhere between New Farm and Hamilton. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. IX. Professor J. K. Murray said that one of the important and early influences to come into play would be the agricultural background of the first group of settlers — a north-western European one with emphasis on the domestic stock and cool temperate crops of the British Isles and, to some extent and later, Germany. We have not yet completely adjusted agriculture to its sub-tropical environment in the Brisbane Valley. This climatic feature embraces fairly high annual rainfall, of unsatisfactory dependability and somewhat low efficiency, with much of it falling during a hot and long summer. Thus summer-growing crops rather than the winter cereals system, to which the early settlers were accustomed, gradually received the emphasis the conditions warranted. Pastures have been one of the least satisfactory features in the settle- ment of the valley. The native pastures are not good. Paspalum, Rhodes, Kikuyu, and white clover have played species parts ; but systematic efforts to develop suitable pastures and systems of pasture management for sub-tropical conditions have only recently been initiated. Stock have been mainly confined to British breeds. Beef cattle have been largely replaced by dairy cattle, the cattle stations having been subdivided, closer settlement following. Better cattle and pigs and factories have improved returns. The valley is unsuited to Merinos, but British breeds and crossbreds do reasonably well. The increasing use of machinery, including refrigeration, has facilitated development of some areas and added to the diversity of production on others. Settlement conditions arranged by the Crown, although often deprecated, have been most favourable to settlement. Irrigation favours increased production. The Brisbane Valley system is of small pumping plants located on rivers, creeks, and wells. Electric direct-coupled units are common as a consequence of rural electrification schemes. Markets. — The metropolitan, State, Australian, and overseas markets have, of course, been a major factor, but the Brisbane market has, is, and will increasingly determine the agricultural activities of the valley. Mr. C. T. White and Professor H. C. Richards contributed to the discussion which followed, and a vote of thanks to the speakers was moved by Mr. S. B. Watkins and Professor D. H. K. Lee and carried hy acclamation. Abstract of Proceedings, 27th May, 1940. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Department of Geology of the University on Monday, 27th May, with the Vice-President, Prof. H. R. Seddon, in the Chair. About forty members and friends were present. Messrs. K. V. L. Kesteven, B.V.Sc., and Mr. D. P. Gray, B.V.Sc., were unanimously elected into Ordinary Membership. ‘‘The Petrology of the Somerset Dam Site,” by C. W. Ball, M.Se., was communicated by Mr. A. K. Denmead, M.Sc. The volcanic and intrusive rocks of the dam site, their mineralogy and inter-relations were described in detail, and the petrological reasons for the suitability of the site for a dam were given. Dr. E. 0. Marks, Messrs. L. C. Ball, W. H. R. Nimmo, A. K. Denmead, and F. Gipps discussed the paper and indicated its value. “Some Queensland Leaf -hoppers (Jassoidea, Iiomoptera) that Attack Lucerne,” by J. W. Evans, D.Sc., was communicated by J. Harold Smith, M.Sc. X. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Members of the Science Students’ Association of the University reported on the work of their expedition to Green Island. Dr. Hill, in introducing the reports, said that this year two new investigations were made, a half-flood tide survey and bottom dredging, in addition to the activities continuing the work of the earlier Moreton Bay expedition. The students’ researches had been enthusiastically continued since the return. Mr. D. Page Hanify discussed the half- flood tide map of Waterloo Bay and the Boat Passage, and in the unavoidable absence of Mr. E. F. Riek, Dr. Hill described the results of the bottom sampling, and said that Mr. Riek had determined fifty species of foraminifera from the deposits. Mr. S. T. Blake, M.Sc., described the plant ecology, and Mr. I. S. R. Munro the shore line and channel ecology and the plankton. Miss K. Watson, B.A., discussed the crabs collected. Mr. L. C. Ball and Mr. R. K. McPherson congratulated the students on the amount and quality of their work, and the Chairman expressed to all speakers the thanks of the meeting for the evening’s presentations. Abstract of Proceedings, 24th June, 1940. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Department of Geology of the University on Monday, 24th June, with the Acting President, Mr. H. A. Longman, in the chair. About thirty members were present. Mr. Longman announced that leave of absence for the remainder of the year had been granted to the President, Dr. F. W. Whitehouse, who had enlisted in the A.I.F. Mr. R. Newton Langdon, B.Agr.Sc., and Miss Dawn Tabrett, B.Sc., were proposed as Ordinary Members. Dr. F. H. S. Roberts gave a brief account of the buffalo fly in Queensland. Its life history, economic importance, and distribution were dealt with. Particular attention was given to the fluctuation in the extent of the area infested by the fly year by year since it first crossed the State border from the Northern Territory in 1928. This fluctuation was shown to be associated with rainfall. Until 1939 the spread of the fly in an easterly direction had apparently been held up by a belt of dry country between Burketown and Normanton. This area was crossed during a favourable season in 1939, and in 1940 the fly occupied a very extensive area to a little beyond Normanton. Mr. S. B. Watkins exhibited calcium carbonate minerals collected from the road cutting through basalt immediately below Cunningham’s Gap. A large mass of aragonite showed the typical acicular nature of the crystals. A flat piece of calcite exhibited clusters of acute rhombohedra, whilst a rosette of calcite was of especial interest owing to its rare occurrence. Dr. E. 0. Marks exhibited lignite from the bank of Cedar Creek, below Curtis Falls, at the north end of Tambourine Mountain, probably from between the basalts ; and charred wood, includ- ing dicotyledonous stems or roots from the cliff face, half a mile east of St. Bernards, Tambourine Mountain, in contact with the under surface of the basalt. Miss Hill demonstrated the map of Antarctica prepared by the Commonwealth Government. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XL Mr. C. T. White exhibited specimens of Lotus australis Andr. and Lotus coccineus Schlecht. from the Darling Downs and Maranoa districts, Queensland. Both species were cyanogenetic ; the latter had by some botanists been included as a variety of Lotus australis , the commonest species in Australia, but in Mr. White’s opinion was worthy of rank as a distinct species. Mr. S. T. Blake showed specimens of five grasses new to Queensland — namely, Eleusine tristachya Lam., Eriackne tuberculata Domin., E. pulchella Domin., E. Isingiana J. M. Black, and Aristida biglandulosa J. M. Black. Mr. L. S. Smith exhibited two specimens collected by Dr. H. I. Jensen at Lawn Hill, approximately half-way between Burketown and Camooweal. One, Triumfetta plumigera F. Muell., was a new record for Queensland, having previously only been found in Northern Territory and North-Western Australia. The other, Trachymene glandulosa Benth., was not previously repre- sented in the Queensland Herbarium, although the type specimen was collected by F. Mueller from the Nicholson River, near Burketown. Mr. H. A. Longman exhibited an unusually large mottled stargazer, IdUkyscopus Lebeck (over 18 inches), and made remarks on the anatomy of the Uranoscopidae. Dr. D. A. Herbert moved a vote of thanks to the exhibitors, which was carried by acclamation. Abstract of Proceedings, 29th July, 1940. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Department of Geology of the University on Monday, 29th July, with the President (Dr. P. W. Whitehouse) in the chair. About forty members were present. The President welcomed Mr. Gregory Mathews, the visiting ornithologist. Mr. R. N. Langdon, B.Sc.Agr., and Miss Dawn Tabrett, B.Sc., were unanimously elected Ordinary Members of the Society, and Mr. P. Chippendale, M.Sc.Agr., Miss M. I. R. Scott, M.Sc., and Mr. R. S. Boys, L.D.S., were proposed for Ordinary Membership. A symposium on poisonous plants was then held. In opening the subject Professor Seddon pointed out that poisoning of stock w^as due to the Australian flora including most of the families that contain poisonous plants; the relatively greater number of toxic plants in the tropical regions; the transfer of stock to unfamiliar vegetation; and hungry travelling stock eating vegetation which ordin- arily they would not touch. Many poison plants have been introduced accidentally, and some are actually fodder crops. These latter may be harmful only at a certain period of growth. The effects are variable. Some are toxic after only a single feed, whilst others are cumulative. The poisons of some plants affect the brain and higher centres, others the digestive organs, others locomotion, and others again the skin. There is a Poison Plants Committee of the Department of Agriculture and Stock and the University of Queensland doing good work in investi- gating what plants are harmful and what antidotal treatment can be recommended. Mr. C. T. White stated that the poisonous plants are distributed through practically all the large families, but certain families contain a preponderance of poisonous plants, all members of which must be looked on with suspicion until proved harmless. Such are the Asclepiadaceae (cotton bushes or milky cotton), Euphorbiaceae XII. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. (spurges), and Solanaceae (potato bushes). Some families have marked physiological effects, which have not been investigated chemically —e.g., various members of the Labiateae and Malvaceae, which cause shivers or staggers in travelling or working stock. In some families, there is a preponderance of cyanogenetic glucosides, particularly the Passifloraceae (passion flowers), certain Chenopodiaceae (or goosefoots), Proteaceae, and certain tribes of grasses (particularly the Chlorideae and Andropogoneae) ; in others there is a preponderance of plants with poisonous alkaloids, especially the Leguminosae and Solanaceae. There are marked local differences in properties of the same plants. Caltrops or “Bull Head’7 ( Tribulus ) in South Africa is regarded as a most serious poisonous plant. In Australia, it is not definitely known to cause trouble. Two Labiates ( S tacky s and Lamium) cause shivers or staggers in working stock in Australia; though in Europe and America, they are looked upon as perfectly harmless. The same species frequently vary in properties in the one country. For example, the widespread White Wood ( Atalaya ), had been proved by Ewart and Murnane to be the cause of “Walkabout Disease77 of horses in tropical Australia. In the more temperate parts of Australia, the same plant seems harmless. Lantana Camara is comparatively atoxic in southern Queensland and New South Wales; and the variety crocea is known to be the cause of “pink-nose77 in cattle. This has been borne out by feeding tests at Glenfield, New South Wales, and at Yeerongpilly, Southern Queensland. At the Animal Health Station, Oonoonba, North Queensland, the opposite was found to be the case. A brief survey of poisonous plants of Queens- land was made according to families. Dr. J. V. Legg discussed the effects of plant poisoning. A plant such as the common Lantana , which grows along the whole of the coast, causes poisoning among bullocks brought to the coast for killing. These animals are often placed in paddocks with little grass but much lantana. Carcases of animals otherwise good are unsightly because of the intense jaundice caused by eating this plant, Hoya poisoning is common in cattle and sheep which are driven along stock routes where it occurs. Salvia or wild mint poisoning also is common in travelling bullocks. It causes death through its high nitrate content, a factor likely to vary with the season. Soda bush ( Threlkeldia ) so common in the western sheep country was not suspected until recently. It is now known to have caused heavy mortality in sheep in the Longreach and Ilfracombe districts. Sheep rarely eat the plant ordinarily, but when starved they will devour it. A peculiar effect is the sitting-up attitude of the dead sheep. Poison peach ( Trema ) common on the coast is very poison- ous for cattle and sheep. It is not due to prussic acid as first thought, but to something yet unknown. Verkesina and Wedelia (two sunflowers) are toxic when eaten in large quantities by hungry stock. They produce pneumonia. Brackyachne (one of the couch grasses) has caused heavy losses in the St. George district recently. Death is rapid, due to the prussic acid content. In both Swansonia (indigo) and Atalaya (white- wood) the poison is cumulative and the animal is not affected for several weeks. With the indigo plants the animals develop a craving and will eat nothing else. Mr. H. J. G. Hines pointed out that the desirable procedure with poison plants was to discover the nature, the poisonous principle, the amount present, the lethal dose, and the mode of action on animals likely to graze upon it. As a matter of routine the plant is examined for cyanogenetic glucosides and for alkaloids. These, if present, may ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xm. or may not be recognisable. Further investigation is usually done by fractionating the plant constituents by using various solvents and by testing soluble and insoluble fractions for their toxicity. The chemical examination is assisted by pharmacological observation. The effect on the animal should be noted system by system. In this way clues to the toxic principle can be obtained before pure substances can be isolated by chemical methods. For example, drugs affecting the cardio-vascular system may act directly upon the heart, upon the vessels, or on the blood itself. Asclepim curass, for instance, has an action on the heart closely resembling that of strophanthin. The toxic principle has not yet been isolated in a pure state. Several plants, such as Salvia reflexa, contain sufficient nitrate to convert a large proportion of the haemoglobin to methaemoglobin. There is evidence that grazing animals can develop a tolerance towards some poisons, enabling them to consume more than the toxic amount without lethal effect. This aspect is receiving further study. Mr. E. H. Gurney mentioned that some plants contain the very toxic hydrocyanic acid (prussic acid) as cyanogenetic glucosides. These include some common fodders and also plants consumed only in times of scarcity. It is thus important to know the quantities and distribution of the poisonous glucosides in plants. Sorghums require to be fed to stock with care, for indiscriminate grazing on immature sorghum has caused frequent mortalities. It may be generally accepted that the young plant contains more hydrocyanic acid than when mature. Investigations in America have demonstrated that the sorghum leaves may contain three to twenty-five times as much hydrocyanic acid as that contained in the stalk. Hydrocyanic acid in the form of a glucoside when acted upon by a suitable enzyme is decomposed and the poisonous substance set free. Suitable enzymes are usually present in the plants containing cyano- genetic glucosides, but even if these enzymes are not present or only in insufficient amount it is quite possible that other foods eaten by the stock will supply enzymes. Sorghum verticilliflorum, which grows wild on headlands and roadsides, has been analysed in the laboratory of the Department of Agriculture and Stock and found at times to have at different stages of growth toxic amounts of hydrocyanic acid present. Plants such as Eromophila maculata, Ximenia americana, and others have been found to contain exceedingly high amounts of hydrocyanic acid, and the extent of effect of these when consumed by stock depends upon a number of factors. Messrs. Gipps, Blake, Hirschfeld, Schindler, Ball, and White took part in the discussion which followed, and a vote of thanks, proposed by Messrs. Barker and Ogilvie, was carried by acclamation. Abstract of Proceedings, 26th August, 1940. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Department of Geology of the University on Monday, 26th August, with the President (Dr. F. W. Whitehouse) in the chair. About fifty members and visitors were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Mr- F. Chippendale, B.Sc.Agr., Miss M. I. Scott, M.Sc., and Mr. It. S. Boys, L.D.S., were unanimously elected Ordinary Members of the Society. Arthur Wade, D.Sc., A.I.C.S,. was proposed for Ordinary Membership. Dr. D. A. Herbert exhibited specimens of Calendula officinalis (English marigold), Beilis perennis (English daisy) and Senecio R.S.— D. XIV. ABSTRACT OP PROCEEDINGS. cruentis (cineraria) bearing ae'cidia nine days after inoculation with ascidiospores of the rust fungus Puccinia distincta. These and other inoculation experiments, together with the fact that Puccinia calendulce, P. distincta, and P. cinerarice described by McAlpine from the hosts mentioned are identical, show that the three rusts must be included under Puccinia distincta Me Alp. The following papers were read: — (1) “Aphididae in Australia, Part II.,” by G. H. Hardy. (2) “The Geology of the Antarctic Continent and its Relationship to Neighbouring Land Areas,” by A. Wade, D.Sc., A.I.C.S. The geological results of the various Antarctic expeditions were summarised, and com- parisions were made with the geological sequence and structure of the adjacent continents. These matters were reviewed in the light of various theories of continental drift. Mr. C. T. White, Mr. L. C. Ball, Prof. H. C. Richards, and Dr. W. H. Bryan took part in the discussion which followed. Abstract op Proceedings, 30th September, 1940. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Department of Geology of the University on Monday, 30th September, with Professor H. C. Richards in the chair. About thirty members were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed. Arthur Wade, D.Sc., A.I.C.S., was elected into Ordinary Membership, and Mr. J. Hanson Lowe, B.Sc., was proposed for Ordinary Member- ship. The chairman announced that the rearrangement of the Library was now complete. Mr. L. C. Ball (Chief Government Geologist) exhibited, with the permission of the Minister for Mines (the Hon. D. A. Gledson), speci- mens and photographs illustrating his recent discovery of bauxite on Tambourine Mountain. Mr. S. T. Blake exhibited specimens of Cyperus cuspidatus H.B.K. from near Ipswich, a relatively rare species; Schoenus scabripes Benth. from Stradbroke I., previously known only from the type collection from Moreton I. ; Plectrachne Schinzii Henr. and Triodia Basedowii Pritz., two grasses not previously formally recorded from Queensland. Mr. L. Herdsman exhibited chalcedony simulating prismatic quartz crystals up to half an inch wide, and four inches long, from the basalt of the Darlington Range. Dr. Marks, Dr. Bryan, Mr. Ball, and Mr. Gipps commented on the exhibits. Dr. W. H. Bryan read his paper ‘ ‘ Spherulites and Allied Structures, Part I.” The many and varied spherulitic forms were described and classified, as were the corresponding internal structures. The conditions under which spherulites are produced was considered, especial considera- tion being given to radial and concentric growths, in reference to which other natural and artificial structures closely resembling spherulites proper were examined. The speaker’s researches were illustrated by a large and representative collection of spherulites from south-eastern Queensland. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XV. Dr. Wade, Mr. Ball, Mr. Gipps, Dr. Hill, Dr. Herbert, and Professor Richards joined in the discussion on the paper, and the meeting showed its appreciation by acclamation. Abstract of Proceedings, 28th October, 1940. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Department of Geology of the University on Monday, 28th October, with the Vice-President (Prof. H. R. Seddon) in the chair. Twenty- five members and friends were present. Mr. J. Hanson-Lowe, B.Sc., wras elected into Ordinary Membership. The main business was an address on “Diet in Relation to Drought.” Mr. J. M. Plarvey, in the absence of Dr. White, outlined the main problems of drought feeding, and showed how research workers were approaching these problems. He stressed the necessity of supplementing the dry grass with protein-rich foods. This additional protein in the diet of the ruminant enabled the animal to make better use of the dry grass by increasing its digestibility. When the standing hay had so deteriorated that its energy value to the sheep was less than the energy expended in mastica- tion and digestion, some carbohydrate concentrate should be fed. In practice better results are obtained by feeding the concentrates in meal form, for intimate mixing makes selective feeding impossible. Meal feeding means trough feeding, but the advantages of trough feeding over “broadcast” or “scatter” feeding far outweigh the additional cost of troughing. It is important to note that when insufficient roughage to ensure rumination is available, whole grain should not be fed as it is largely undigested and deaths, particularly with lambs, may be heavy. In the complete absence of roughage sheep can be kept alive satisfactorily on concentrates only. Rumination is completely suppressed so that care should be exercised at the end of the feeding period to re-educate the sheep in rumination. This system of feeding is not to be employed with lambs because of the danger arising from an under-developed rumen. Mr. C. T. White spoke on edible trees and shrubs and their value in droughts. His remarks were illustrated by a large series of mounted specimens of natural and imported trees. Mr. K. Kesteven explained that the biological value of the protein in individual foods may be markedly increased by mixing with other sources of protein. Assuming that in mixtures the total protein was of the same biological value, he showed by charts and calculations how to arrive at the most economical buying per unit of food. Mr. Gray, Dr. Herbert, and Mr. Gipps also took part in the discussion, and a vote of thanks to the speakers was moved by Mr. Gurney, seconded by Mr. Perkins, and carried by acclamation. Abstract of Proceedings, 25th November, 1940. The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the Geology Lecture Theatre of the University on Monday, 25th November, XVI. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. at 8 p.m., with Professor H. R. Seddon in the chair. Apologies for absence were received from Drs. F. W. Whitehouse, D. Hill, and A. J. Turner. Mr. R. F. Langdon, B.Agr.Sc., exhibited specimens and photomicro- graphs of Claviceps pasilla, the fungus responsible for ergot of Queens- land Blue Grass ( Dioanthium sericeum) . This fungus has not previously been recorded from Australia. Dr. D. A. Herbert exhibited specimens of dahlia affected by the yellow ringspot virus at present classified as Dahlia Virus 2A. This disease appeared on seedling dahlias in 1939. The following papers were read : — (1) “ Notes on Australian Cyperaceae V.,” by S. T. Blake, M.Sc. (2) “The Vegetation of the Lower Stanley River Basin, ” by S. T. Blake, M.Sc. (3) “Spherulitic Crystallization as a Mechanism of Skeletal Growth in the Hexacorals, 7 ’ by W. H. Bryan, M.C., D.Sc., and Dorothy Hill, M.Sc., Ph.D. (4) “Latent Infection in Tropical Fruits and the Part Played by the Genus Gloeosporium, ” by J. H. Simmonds, M.Sc. (5) “Preliminary Note on Photosensitization of Sheep Grazed on Brachiaria brizantha,” by N. W. Briton, B.V.Sc., and T. B. Paltridge, B.Sc. A paper by A. J. Turner, M.D., F.R.E.S., entitled “Fragmenta Lepidopterologiea, ” was laid on the table. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. XVII. The following Institutions, Societies, etc., are on our exchange list, and publications are hereby gratefully acknowledged. Owing to war conditions, many of our ex- changes have temporarily lapsed. Argentine — Universidad Nacional de la Plata. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Australia — Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics, Canberra. Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. Department of Mines, Melbourne. Royal Society of Victoria. Field Naturalists7 Club, Melbourne. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Melbourne. Australian Chemical Institute, Melbourne. Department of Mines, Adelaide. Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond. Royal Society of South Australia. Royal Geographical Society of Aus- tralasia, Adelaide. Public Library, Museum and Art Gallery, Adelaide. University of Adelaide. Standards Association of Australia, Sydney. Naturalists7 Society of New South Wales. Department of Agriculture, Sydney. Department of Mines, Sydney. Royal Society of New South Wales. Linnean Society of New South Wales. Australian Museum, Sydney. Public Library, Sydney. University of Sydney. Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Australian Veterinary Society, Sydney. Queensland Naturalists7 Club, Brisbane. Department of Mines, Brisbane. Queensland Museum, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture, Brisbane. Royal Geographical Society of Aus- tralasia (Queensland), Brisbane. Royal Society of Tasmania. Mines Department, Hobart. Mines Department, Perth Royal Society of Western Australia. North Queensland Naturalists7 Club, Cairns. Department of Fisheries, Sydney. Technological Museum, Sydney. McCoy Society, Melbourne. National Museum, Melbourne. Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Sydney. State Statistician, Queensland. Belgium — Aeademie Royale de Belgique. Societe Royale de Botanique de Bel- gique. Societe Royale Zoologique de Bel- gique. Brazil — Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janiere. Ministerio de Agricultura Industria y Commercio, Rio de Janiero. Instituto de Biologia Vegetal, Rio de Janeiro. Universidade de Sao Paulo. British Isles — Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. British Museum (Natural History), London. Cambridge Philosophical Society. Literary and Philosophical Society, Manchester. Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society. Royal Society, London. Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Manchester. Royal Empire Society, London. The Bristol Museum and Art Gallery. Imperial Bureau of Entomology, London. Imperial Agricultural Bureau, Aberyst- wyth. Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bo tan cal Society of Edinburgh. Royal Dublin Society. Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. Rothamsted Experimental Station. Canada — Department of Mines, Ottawa. Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. Royal Society of Canada. Royal Canadian Institute. Nova Scotian Institute of Science. Department of Agriculture, Ottawa. Ceylon — Colombo Museum. Cuba — Sociedad Geografica de Cuba, Habana. Universidad de Habana. Denmark — The University, Copenhagen. Finland — Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica, Helsinki. xvm. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. France — Station Zoologique de Cette. Societe des Sciences naturelles de 1 7Ouest. Museum d’Histoire naturelle, Paris. Societe botanique de France. Societe geologique et mineralogique de Bretagne. Faculte des Sciences, Marseille. Societe entomologique de France. Germany — Zoologisches Museum, Berlin. Gesellsehaft fur Erdkunde, Berlin. Deutsche Geologisehe Gesellsehaft, Berlin. Naturhistorischer Verein der preus. Rheinland und Westfalens, Bonn. Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna. Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu Bremen. Senckenbergisehe Bibliothek, Frank- furt a. Main. Kaiserlich Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher, Halle. Zoologisches Museum, Hamburg. N aturhistorisch-Medizinischer V ereins , Heidelberg. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Leipzig. Bayerische Akademie der Wissen- chaften, Munich. Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie. Hawaii — Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu. Holland — Technische Hoogeschool, Delft. University of Amsterdam. Royal Netherlands Academy. Italy — Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa. Lab. di Entomologia Agraria, Portici. India — Geological Survey of India. Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa. Japan — Berichte der Ohara Institut, Kurashiki, Japan. Imperial University, Kyoto. Imperial University, Tokyo. National Research Council of Japan, Tokyo. Taihoku Imperial University. Tokyo Bunrika Daigaku. Agricultural Chemical Society of Japan. Java — Koninkligk Naturkundige Vereeniging, Weltevreden. Mexico — Instituto Geologico de Mexico. Sociedad Cientifica 11 Antonio Alzate,7-’ Mexico. Secretario de Agriculture y Fomento, Mexico. Observatorio Meterorologico Central, Tacaibaya. New Zealand — Dominion Museum, Wellington. Royal Society of New Zealand. Auckland Institute and Museum. Dominion Laboratory, Wellington. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington. Geological Survey of New Zealand. Peru — Sociedad Geologica del Peru, Lima. Philippine Islands — Bureau of Science, Manila. Poland — Polskie Towarzystwo Przyrodnikow im Kopernika, Lwow. Societes Savantes Polonaises. University of Lwow. Museum Zool., Warsaw. Geological Institute, Warsaw. Portugal — Academia Polytechnicada, Oporto. Sociedade Broterniana, Coimbra. Instituto Botanico, Coimbra. U.S.S.R. — Academy of Sciences, Leningrad. Bureau of Applied Entomology, Lenin- grad. Laboratory of Palaeontology, Moscow. Lenin Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Leningrad. Spain — Real Academia de Ciencias y Artes de Barcelona. Real Academia de Ciencias, Madrid. Museo de Historia Natural, Valencia. Academia de Ciencias de Zarogoza. Sweden — Geological Institute of Upsala. Goteborgs Kungl, Vetenskaps. Kungl. Fysiografiska Sallskapets, Lund. Switzerland — Societe de Physique et d’Histoire naturelle, Geneve. Naturforschende Gesellsehaft, Zurich The League of Nations, Geneva. South Africa — Geological Society of South Africa, Johannesburg. South African Museum, Capetown. Durban Museum, Natal. Transvaal Museum, Pretoria. Natal Museum, Pietermaritzburg. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. XIX. Gold Coast — Geological Survey. United States of America — United States Geological Survey, Washington. Natural History Survey, Illinois. Lloyd Library, Cincinnati. Wisconsin Academy of Arts, Science, and Letters, Madison. California Academy of Sciences. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. University of Minnesota. University of California. Library of Congress, Washington. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago. American Museum of Natural History, New York. Buffalo Society of Natural History. Boston Society of Natural History. American Philosophical Society, Phila- delphia. American Geographical Society, New York. Smithsonian Institute, Washington. Carnegie Institute, Washington. United States Department of Agricul- ture, Washington. Oberlin College, Ohio. National Academy of Science, Wash- ington. Rochester Academy of Sciences. Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- delphia. New York Academy of Science. Indiana Academy of Science. American Academy of Science and Arts, Boston. Institute of Biological Research, Baltimore. John Crerar Library, Chicago. Ohio Academy of Science, Columbus. Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plains. Michigan Academy of Arts, Science and Letters. University of Michigan. Minnesota Geological Survey. New York Zoological Society. Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Philadelphia. Portland Society of Natural History. San Diego Society of Natural History. Puget Sound Biological Station, Seattle. Missouri Botanic Gardens, St. Louis. University of Illinois, Urbana. State College of Washington, Pull- man. Bureau of Standards, Washington. National Research Council, Wash- ington. United States National Museum, Washington. Public Health Service, Washington. Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale. University of California, Los Angeles, California. Bingham Oceanographie Collection. Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard. Western Society of Engineers, Chicago. Academy of Science of St. Louis. University of Kansas, Lawrence. Kansas Academy of Science, Law- rence. University of Iowa. Vanderbilt Marine Museum, Hunting- ton. XX. LIST OF MEMBERS. List of Members. Honorary "Henderson, J. B., F.I.C. Marks, Hon. Dr. C. F., M.D. Simmonds, J. H., senr. "Tryon, H. Walkom, A.B., D.Sc. Life Hulsen, R "Jensen, H. I., D.Sc. . . Riddell, R. M. . . Tilling, H. W., M.R.S.C. (Eng.), L.R.C.T. (Lond.) ife Members. “ Bangamba,” Palardo, via Miles. 101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Hillsdon Road, Taringa, Brisbane. Winifreds, Archer Street, Toowong. Science House, 159 Gloucester Street, Sydney. Members. Penneys Buildings, Queen Street, Bris- bane. Geophysical Survey, Cloncurry. Department of Public Instruction, Bris- bane. Nairobi, Kenya, Africa. Corresponding Members. "Domin, Dr. K. . . . . . . . . Czech University, Prague. Gregory, Professor W. K. . . . . Columbia University, New York. Maitland, A. Gibb, F.G.S. . . . . Melville Place, South Perth. "Skeats, Prof . E. W., D.Sc. . . . . The University, Melbourne, Victoria. Ordinary Members. Arden, F. W-, M.D., B.S., F.R.C.P., Atherton, D. O., M.Sc.Agr. Bage, Miss F., M.Sc. . . Ball, C. W., M.Sc Ball, L. C., B.E Bambrick, R. Barker, F. Barker, G. H . . Beckman, G. H., B.Sc. "Bennett, F., B.Sc. Bick, E. W. Bick, I. R., M.Sc "Blake, S. T., M.Sc Bleakley, J. W. Boissard, G. P. D., B.Sc. Bongers, G. S. Booth, F. G., M.D. Bostock, J., M.D., B.S., D.P.M., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. Bosworth, F. O., B.A. Boys, R. S., L.D.S Bradfield, J. J. C., D.Sc. (Eng.), M.E. Briggs, Mrs. C. Brimblecombe, A. R., M.Sc. Broe, J. J., M.Sc. Brown, Graham, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., F.R.A.C.S. Brown, Jas., B.A., M.D., Ch.B. (Edin.), D.Ph. (Cambridge) Brisbane General Hospital, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Toowoomba. Women’s College, Kangaroo Point, Bris- bane. Department of Irrigation, Brisbane. Geological Survey Office, Brisbane Stock Inspector, Hughenden. Railway Audit Office, Brisbane. Adelaide Street, Brisbane. Crook Street, Northgate, Brisbane. 113 Annie Street, Torwood. Coronation Avenue, St. Lucia. The University, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Director, Department of Native Affairs, William Street. The University, Brisbane. Evans Deakin, Ltd., Brisbane. 113 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Agricultural College, Lawes. P.O. Box 135, Toowoomba. Bureau of Industry, George Street, Brisbane. First Avenue, Eagle Junction, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Central Technical College, Brisbane. 371 Queen Street, Brisbane. “ Widmoorene, ” Margaret Street, Too- woomba "Members who have contributed papers to the Society. LIST OF MEMBERS. XXI. *Bryan, W. H., M.C., D.Sc ♦Bryan, W. W., M.Sc.Agr. Buzacott, J. H., M.Sc. Caldwell, N. E. H., M.Sc.Agr. Callaghan, J. P., M.Sc. Carson- Cooling, Geo., M.Sc. Carter, S. B.Sc. Chippendale, E., M. Agr.Sc. Christian, C. S., M.Sc. Cilento, Sir B. W., M.D., B.S. Clark, Colin, M.A. Collins, Mrs. E., B.Sc. Coleman, E. B. Connah, T. H., M.Sc. Cottrell-Dormer, W., M.Sc.Agr. Cribb, H. G., B.Sc Croll, Gifford, M.B Cross, Miss M., M.Sc. Cummings, B. P. ♦Denmead, A. K., M.Sc. Dixon, G. P., C.B.E., M.B., Ch.M. . . ♦Dodd, Alan P., O.B.E Donaldson, B. J. ♦Duhig, J. Y., Professor, M.B., F.B.A.C.P. Edmiston, E. S., M.Sc. Ellis, C, B.E. Evans, C. K., M.Sc. . . Everist, S. L., B.Sc., Fahey, Bev. Father Ferguson, Miss G., B.Sc. Fisher, N., M.Sc. Fison, D. G., M.Sc., M.B., Ch.M. .. Ford, F. Campbell Fortescue, L. Fraser, C. S. Fraser, K., B.Sc. Frew, A. E. Harding, B.E. Gaffney, T. Gibson, J. Lockhart, M.D. Gipps, F. ♦Goddard, Prof. E. J., B.A., D.Sc. . . Graff, B., M.B., B.S Grant, D. J., B.Sc. Gray, D. F., B.Y.Sc Greenham, B., B.Sc Grenning, Y. The University, Brisbane. Agricultural High School and College, Lawes. Sugar Experiment Station, Meringa, via Gordonvale. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Nambour. Brisbane General Hospital, Brisbane. Boys ’ Grammar School, Brisbane. 187 Waterworks Boad, Ashgrove, W.3. Agricultural Experiment Station, Biloela. Queensland Agricultural College, Lawes, Department of Health, Brisbane. Bureau of Industry, George street, Brisbane. Mount Isa. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Geological Survey Office, Brisbane. Nukualofa, Tonga. Geological Survey Office, Charters Towers. Sherwood, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. University of Queensland, Brisbane. Geological Survey, Edward Street, Bris- bane. Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Prickly-pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Bris- bane. care of Gibbs, Bright, and Co., Queen Street, Brisbane. Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Forestry Department, Brisbane. Ipswich Technical College, Ipswich. Department of Agriculture, Blackall. ‘ 1 Wynberg, ’ ’ Brunswick Street, Brisbane, Bohde Boad, Nundah. Government Geologist, Wau, New Guinea. O ’Connell Street, Kangaroo Point. ‘ ‘Stanford,” Kennedy Terrace, Bed Hill, Brisbane. New Zealand Chambers, 334 Queen Street, Brisbane. 229 Edward Street, Brisbane. Technical College, Brisbane. T. and G. Buildings, Queen Street, Bris- bane. Engineer in Charge, Pumping Station, Pinkenba. Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. “ Blaina,” Simpson’s Boad, Bardon. The University, Brisbane. 487 Sandgate Boad, Brisbane. Church Street, Indooroopilly. Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly. Australian Petroleum Co., Port Moresby. Director of Forests, Lands Department, George Street, Brisbane. ♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society. R.S. — E. XXII. LIST OF MEMBERS. ♦Grey, Mrs. B. B., F.L.S * Gurney, E. H. . . Gutteridge, N. M., M.B., B.S. ♦Haenke, W. L., B.Sc., B.Sc.App. . . Hall, G., B.Sc ♦Hamlyn-Harris, B., D.Sc. Hamon, W. P., B.Se.Agr. Hanson-Lowe, J., B.Sc. Hardie, Sir David, M.D., M.S. * Hardy, G. H Harris, Y. E. G., B.Sc. ♦Hawken, Professor B. W., B.A., M.E., M.Inst.C.E. ♦Herbert, D. A., D.Sc. Herdsman, L. P. ♦Hill, Miss D., M.Sc., Ph.D ♦Hines, H. J., B.Sc ♦Hitchcock, L. F., M.Sc. Hirschfield, E., M.D. Hirschfield, O. S., M.B., M.Sc. Hossfeld, P. S., M.Sc. Jack, Thos. Jackson, K. James, F. W., M.Sc. Jones, B. Jones, Inigo, F.B.A.S., F.B.Met.Soc., F.Am.Geog.Soc., F.B.S.A. ♦Jones, Owen, M.Sc. ♦Jones, T. G. H., D.Sc., A.A.C.I. care of Chartered Bank of Australia, India, and China, Singapore, S.S. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Inchcolme, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Cairns Street, Kangaroo Point. Mount Isa Mines Ltd., Mount Isa, N.Q. The University, Brisbane. “Clifton,” Ubobo, via Gladstone. Shell Oil Co., Ann Street, Brisbane. “ Blythsdale, ” Hamilton, Brisbane. Waldheim Street, Annerley. The Southport School, Southport. The University, Brisbane. Biology Department, University, Bris- bane. Government Printing Office, George Street, Brisbane. Geology Department, University, Bris- bane. The University, Brisbane. Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly. Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Alice Springs. Cunningham Street, Dalby. QX 372, Private C. K., D. Company Head- quarters, 2/9 Battalion, 2nd A.I.F. Abroad. Department of Engineering, University of Queensland, Brisbane. Superior Oil Co., New Zealand, Suite 4, National Bank Chambers, Palmer- ston North, New Zealand. Crohamhurst Observatory, Beerwah, Q. 239 Queen street, Brisbane. Chemistry Department, The University, Brisbane. Jorgensen, G. H. ♦Just, J. S Kemp, J. B. Kesteven, K. V. L., B.Y.Sc Knight, C. L., M.Sc. Kyle, W. M., M.A. ♦Lakey, F. N., M.Sc Langdon, B. F., B.Agr.Se. Lee, Professor D. H. K., M.Sc., M.B., Ch.M., D.T.M. ♦Legg, J., D.V.Sc., M.B.C.V.S. Lewcock, H. K., M.Sc. ♦Longman, H. A., F.L.S. Lumb, Professor S. F., D.D.S., L.D.S. Lynch, A. J., M.B., Ch.M. ♦Lynch, L. J., B.Se.Agr. ♦Mackerras, Mrs. Ian, M.B. MacMahon, P. G. care of Australian Chemical Co., Grey Street, South Brisbane. Box 1067N., G.P.O., Brisbane. Main Boads Commission, Albert Street, Brisbane. Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly. Geological Survey Office, Babaul. The University, Brisbane. Department of Chemistry, University of Queensland, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly. Department of Agriculture, Brisbane. Queensland Museum, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. 413 Brunswick Street, Yalley, Brisbane. Fruit Branch, Department of Agriculture, Sydney. Box 109, Canberra, F.C.T, Health Department, Brisbane. ♦Members who have contributed papers to the Society. LIST OF MEMBERS. XXIII. Marks, A. H., C.B.E., D.S.O., M.D. . . *Marks, E. O., M.D., B.A., B.E. Marks, Miss E. N., M.Sc. Mathewson, J. H. R., M.B., Ch.B. . . McConnel, Miss U., M.A. McDonald, S. F., M.D., M.R.C.P. . . MeDougali, W. A., M.Sc. McDowall, Yal., M.D. McKee, Mrs. H. S., M.A McKenzie, A. D., M.B., Ch.M. Macpherson, R. K., M.So. Meyers, E. S., M.B. Mitchell, R. S., M.Sc.Agr. Morton, C. C., A.C.T.S.M. Munro, I. S. R., B.Sc. Murphy, Ellis, M.D. . . “"Murray, Professor J. K., B.A., B.Sc.Agr. Newman, Miss A. W., B.Sc. O 'Connor, E. A., M.Sc. Ogilvie, C., B.E. Paltridge, T. B., B.Sc. Parker, W. R., L.D.S. “"Parnell, Professor T., M.A. Payne, W. L. . . “"Pearce, Mrs. T. R., M.Sc. “"Perkins, F. A., B.Sc.Agr. Peters, R. Phillips, T. J. . . Preston, G. Price, T. A., M.B., B.S "Reid, J. II Reimann, A. L., D.Se., Ph.D. “"Reye, A. J., M.B "Richards, Professor H. C., D.Sc. Riddle, A. R., M.Sc Riek, E. F. Roberts, F. H. S., D.Sc. “"Robertson, W. T. Robinson, E. Y. Roe, A. Stanley, B.A., M.B., B.Ch., F.R.A.C.S. Roe, R., B.Sc. Schindler, C., M.A. Scott, Miss M. I. R., M.Sc. Scott, Miss F. E., B.Sc. Seddon, Professor H. R., D.V.Sc. . . Shaw, B. E., A.M.I.E. 109 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. 101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. 101 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Cressbrook, via Toogoolawah. ‘ ‘ Fancourt, ' ' Wickham Terrace, Bris- bane. Department of Agriculture, Maekay. 131 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane, care of Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Russell Street, Toowoomba. A.I.F., Abroad. Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Mines Department, Sydney, care of Mining Warden, Charters Towers. Biology Department, The University, Brisbane. 97 Wickham Street, Brisbane. Agricultural High School and College, Lawes. care of Dr. Gutteridge, Gympie Road, Kedron. The University, Brisbane. Lands Department, Brisbane. Agricultural College, Lawes. A.M.P. Building, Edward Street, Bris- bane. The University, Brisbane. Lands Department, Brisbane. Box 332, P.O., Lismore, New South Wales. The University, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture, Brisbane, care of Courier-Mail, Queen Street, Bris- bane Gregory Terrace, Brisbane. Toowoomba. Geological Survey Office, Rockhampton. The University, Brisbane. 97 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. The Abattoir, Cannon Hill, Brisbane. Geology Department, The University, Brisbane. Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly. Assistant Bacteriologist, City Hall, Bris- bane. Geology Department, University, Bris- bane. 47 Croydon Street, Toowong. Box 109, Canberra. The University, Brisbane. Alexandra Road, Clayfield. Northumberland Hotel, Gympie. The University, Brisbane. Somerset Dam. "Members who have contributed papers to the Society. XXIV. LIST OF MEMBERS. Shaw, J. G., B.Sc.AgT. Shell, G. W •Shepherd, E. M., B.E. •Simmonds, J. H., M.Sc. Simonds, Prof. E. F., M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D. Sims, G. W Sloan, W. J. S., B.Sc.Agr. Smith, D. J. W., B.Sc •Smith, F. B., D.Sc., F.T.C Smith, J. H., D.Se. Smith, L. S., B.Sc. Sparks, H. J. . . Steel, W. H., M.B. Stephenson, S., M.A. Stoney, A. J., B.E.E. Strong, T. H., M.Sc.Agr. Summerville, W. A. T., M.Sc. Tabrett, Miss Dawn, B.Sc. Tarleton, A., M.B. Taylor, G. C., M.B., Ch.M Thelander, C.; M.B., Ch.B., F.R.A.C.S. Thomas, L., M.Sc. Thorn, St. G. . . Tommerup, E. C., M.Sc. Trist, A., M.F., B.Sc, •Turner, A. J., M.D., F.E.S •Veitch, R., B.Sc Waddle, I., M.Sc. Wade, A., D.Sc., A.I.C.S Wadley, J. B. . . Watkins, S. B., M.Sc. Watson, Miss K., B.A. Webster, H. C., M.Sc., Ph.D., F.I.P., F.R.M.S. Weddell, J. A Wells, W. G. •White, C. T., F.L.S White, E. L. D., B.E., B.Sc White, M., M.Sc., Ph.D •Whitehouse, F. W., D.Sc., Pli.D. Whitehouse, Miss M., M.Sc. Wilkinson, Professor H. J., M.D. Children’s Hospital, Brisbane, care of Shell Oil Co., Breakfast Creek Road, Brisbane. 131 Gladstone Road, Highgate Hill. Department of Agriculture and Stock. Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. 32 Gregory Street, Auchenflower. Department of Agriculture and Stock,. Rockhampton. Department of Health, Brisbane. Hutton’s Factory, Zillmere. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Queensland Herbarium, Botanic Gardens,. Brisbane. 350 Queen Street, Brisbane. Rosemount Hospital, Windsor. Boys’ Grammar School, Brisbane. The University, Brisbane. Waite Institute, Adelaide, S.A. Department of Agriculture and Stock,, Nambour. Queensland Museum. 69 Vulture Street, West End, Brisbane. Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace, Brisbane. Ballow Chambers, Wickham Terrace,, Brisbane. Post Office, Stanthorpe. Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly. P.O. Box 97, Atherton, North Queensland. Forestry Department, Brisbane. Dauphin Street, Highgate Hill. Department of Agriculture and Stocky Brisbane. Brisbane State High School, Musgrave Park, Brisbane. Shell Oil Co., Asm Street, Brisbane. Salt Street, Albion. Central Technical College, Brisbane. Queensland Museum, Brisbane. University of Queensland, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane. Government Botanist, Botanic Gardens, Brisbane. Brooklands, Woodhill, Queensland. Department of Agriculture and Stock,. Brisbane. Geological Department, University, Bris bane Glennie School, Toowoomba. The University, Brisbane. Associate Member. Archibald, Miss L., M.Sc. . . . . The University, Brisbane. •Members who have contributed papers to the Society. A. H. Tucker, Government Printer, Brisbane. CONTENTS. Volume LIL, Part 2. No. 7.-— Notes on Australian Cyperaceae V. By S. T. Blake , M.Sc. . . No. 8.— The Vegetation of The Lower Stanley River Basin. By ' S. T. Blake , M.Sc. . . No. 9. — Spherulitic Crystallization as a Mechanism of Skeletal Growth in the Hexacorals. By W. H. Bryan , M.C., D.Sc., and Dorothy Hill , M.Sc., Ph.D. No. 10.— Latent Infection in Tropical Fruits Discussed in Relation to the part played by Species of Gloeosporium 4ND Colletotrichum. By J. H. Simmonds, M.Sc No. 11.— Preliminary Note on Photosensitisation of Sheep grazed on Brachiaria brizantha. By N. W. Briton , B. V.Sc., and T. B. Paltridge, B.Sc. . . .... Report of Council Abstract of Proceedings . . . . . . . . .... * List of Library Exchanges .. List of Members Pages. 55-61 62-77 78-91 92-120 121-122 v.-vi. VII.-XVI. XVII. XX.