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4

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1952

VOL. LX1V.

ISSUED 5th APRIL, 1954.

PRICE: TWENTY-FIVE SHILLINGS.

Printed for the Society
by

A. H. TUCKER, Government Printer, Brisbane.

The Royal Society* of Qyeensland.

Patron :

HIS EXCELLENCY LIEUT-GENEEAL SIE JOHN D. LAVAEACK, C.B.,

C.M.G., D.S.O., C. de G., K.B.E.

OFFICERS, 1952.

President :

I. M. MACKEEEAS, F.E.A.C.P.

Vice-President :

S. T. BLAKE, M.Sc.

Hon. Treasurer :

E. N. MAEKS, M.Sc., Pli.D.

Hon. Secretary :

DOEOTHEA F. SANDAES, M.Sc.

Hon. Librarian:
F. S. COLLIVEE

Hon. Editor:
GEOEGE MACK, B.Sc.

Members of Council:

. EOBINSON, M.Sc., Professor W. STEPHENSON, B.Sc., Pli.D., Professor
L. J. H. TEAKLE, B.Sc.Agr., M.S., Ph.D., J. H. SIMMONDS, M.B.E., M.Sc.,
Professor M. SHAW, M.E., M.I.Mec.E.

Hon. Auditor:

L. P. HEEDSMAN

Trustees :

F. BENNETT, B.Sc., Professor W. H. BEYAN, M.C., D.Sc.,
E. O. MAEKS, M.D., B.A., B.E.

CONTENTS.

6

Vol. LXIY.

Pages.

NIo. 1. — Some Biochemical Aspects of Reactions to Heat and Cold.

By H. J. G. Hines. (Issued separately, 16th November, 1953) 1-14

No. 2. — Volcanic Rocks of Aitape, New Guinea. By George Baker.

(Issued separately, 22nd March, 1953) . . . . . . . . 15-44

No. 3. — The Identity of Spadella moretonensis Johnston and Taylor.

By J. M. Thomson. (Issued separately, 22nd March, 1953) . . 45-49

No. 4. — Two New Species of Dipetalonema (Nematoda, Filarioidea) from
Australian Marsupials. By M. J. Mackerras. (Issued

separately, 22nd March, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . 51-56

No. 5. — Memorial Lecture. Professor T. Harvey Johnston: First Professor

of Biology in the University of Queensland. By Dorothea F.

Sandars. (Issued separately, 22nd March, 1953) . . . . 57-68

Report of Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v.

Abstract of Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . vii.

List of Members . . . . . . . • - ■ • • . • . . . . xiv.

«»

ft

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1952

VOL. LXIV.

PRICE: TWENTY-FIVE SHILLINGS.

Printed for the Society
by

A. H. TUCKER, Government Printer, Brisbane.

NOTICE TO AUTHORS

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Bagnold, It. A., 1937. The Transport of Sand by Wind. Geogr. J., 89,
409-438.

Kelley, T. L., 1923. Statistical Method. New York, Macmillan Company.
XI + 390 pp., 24 fig.

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Bagnold (1937), (Bagnold, 1937), Bagnold (1937, p. . . .), or (Bagnold
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Vol. LX IV., No. 1.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of

Queensland.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

SOME BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF
REACTIONS TO HEAT AND COLD.

By H. J. G. Hines, Department of Physiology and Biochemistry,

University of Queensland.

( Delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland, 31 st March, 1952.;

The department with which I am associated has, since its inception
in 1936, made the study of the reactions of man and animals to
environmental conditions its special business (Yeates, Lee and
Hines, 1941). It is the business of the physiologist to study the
working of animals and plants as a whole. To do this he must often
study the functions of parts whether in situ or detached from the
animals. It is the function of the biochemist to study the events of the
living process at the molecular level. There is often a considerable
gap between these two processes since the working out of biochemical
details usually lags behind the general overall picture of physiological
behaviour.

I shall therefore endeavour to show how this gap is being filled,
as yet, of course, incompletely, with respect to the effects of climatic
conditions on man and animals. I can assume that we are all familiar
with the distinction between warm-blooded and cold-blooded animals,
or to use more technical jargon, the homoiotherms and the poikilotherms.
The former group, which comprises the mammals and bird's, is able to
maintain a relatively constant internal temperature which is usually
above that of the environment, while the internal temperature of the
poikilotherms rises and falls with that of the surroundings. I want to
concern myself with homoiothermic animals, the maintenance of whose
internal temperature requires the generation of sufficient heat to balance
that which is lost to the environment, and also requires mechanisms to
regulate the production and loss of heat. The main features of this
process were clearly established during the nineteenth century, and
accounts given in text books written fifty years ago can still be read
with profit.

The production of animal heat was, of course, a mystery to the
ancients and its true nature had to await the investigations of Lavoisier
in Prance and of Crawford in Scotland in the latter part of the
eighteenth century. With the discovery of the true nature of combustion,
Lavoisier was quick to recognise the essential similarity between
combustion and respiration, the consumption of oxygen and the output
of carbon dioxide. He was able to measure the gaseous exchange quite
accurately and went on to measure the heat output of small animals with
his ice calorimeter. He realised the defects of this apparatus and in

2

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

particular noted that the heat output of the animal increased in the
cold. Crawford, and later Duboy and Despretz were able to make
improved measurements. Animal heat was clearly produced in the
process of oxidation of the food consumed. During the succeeding
century nearly every physiologist of note had something to say of this
problem, touching as it did on almost all aspects of physiology, and
the investigations of the great German physiologists, Yoit, Pettenkofer
and Rubner clearly established the energetic equivalence of food
consumed and heat and work produced. Throughout this time, the
nature of the oxidative process remained a mystery. Lavoisier thought
that combustion took place in the lungs, but later experiments showed
that oxygen was consumed and carbon dioxide was produced in all
parts of the body and that the amounts were greatly increased by
muscular exertion. A recent calculation gives the following estimate of
the heat produced by the tissues of a man under basal conditions.

TABLE I*.

Weight of
Organ and
(Proportion of
Body Weight).

Oxygen Consumption
of Organ. Litres
02/24 in’, and
Proportion of Total
Oxygen Consumption.

Heat Produced
Kg. Cal./24 hr. /Kg.
Tissue.

Whole Body . .

70 Kg.

356

23-5

(100%)

(100%)

Heart . .

0-33 Kg.

37

520

(0-47%)

(10%)

Kidneys

0-33 Kg.

31

440

(0-47%)

(9%)

Liver . .

1-6 Kg.

115

335

(2*3%)

(32%)

Brain . .

1-4 Kg.

68-5

225

(2%)

(19%)

3-66 Kg.

251-5

(5*24%)

(70%)

Rest of Body (by difference)

66-3 Kg.

105

7-4

(94-7%)

(30%)

Muscles

29-5 Kg.

58-5

9-2

(42%)

(16%)

* This table is taken from Mr. Hedley Marston’s Liversidge Lecture
(Marston 1951).

The term ' basal conditions’ used in this connection may require
a little explanation. When an animal fasts, the food in its alimentary
canal is quickly used up and it is forced to live on its own reserves, the
protein and fat of its tissues. Oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide
production, and with them heat production, fall to a minimum value
which forms an important base line, the 'basal metabolism,’ well
known in all nutritional studies. Under external conditions, generally
spoken of as thermoneutral, the basal metabolism is held to represent
the minimum energy expenditure necessary to sustain life.

The table shows that most of the energy exchange under these
conditions occurs in a central 'core’. Particularly noteworthy is
the high oxygen consumption of liver and brain. Organs which between
them constitute only five per cent, of the body weight, are responsible
for seventy per cent, of the heat production. The liver, of course, is
the great factory and warehouse, receiving most of the products of

SOME BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF REACTIONS TO HEAT AND COLD. 3

digestion and converting them into products suitable for use in other
tissues. The multiplicity of its chemical functions makes it a happy
hunting ground for the biochemical investigator.

The way in which oxidation is effected in the tissues remained
unknown in the nineteenth century. Quite obviously, the change from
such a substance as sugar to carbon dioxide and water was not sudden.
The patient unravelling of the mechanisms of oxidation in the tissues
has been a major occupation of biochemists during the past thirty
years. The operation proceeds stepwise through a series of inter-
mediates. Linked with these steps is another process, the transfer of
phosphoric acid. The energy released by the dismutation and oxidation
of sugars, fats, and other substances is transferred to compounds of
phosphoric acid, and in particular is used in forming the substance
adenosine triphosphate. The anhydride linkages in this substance serve
as a kind of energy currency. Simple hydrolysis of the linkage merely
dissipates chemical energy as heat, but the energy of fission can be
directly utilized for a variety of purposes ; the contraction of muscle,
the generation of electricity, the movement of substances along
concentration gradients, the synthesis of complex molecules, all derive
the necessary energy through transfer of phosphoric acid from these
(instable compounds of phosphoric acid. The process appears universal
in plants and animals, and its discovery is one of the major biochemical
achievements of the past twenty-five years. Animals therefore are not
beat engines. They do not convert heat energy into mechanical energy,
but achieve the transfer of chemical energy in a variety of ways. In all
such transfers a part of the energy is lost as heat energy, and if the
animal is not performing external work, eventually all the energy

QC

'b

O

>

N.

Cc

uj

Cl

Co

Ui

o

N?

u

Fig. 1. Comparison of the heat production of fasting albino rats with that of
animals receiving feed at different environmental temperatures.

4

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

resulting from oxidation appears as heat. Such heat energy is useful
to the animal only in so far as it serves to maintain body temperature
above that of the surroundings.

From the earliest investigations it was made clear that down to a
certain environmental temperature (the critical temperature), the body
temperature could be maintained without increasing the metabolism,
simply by increasing the insulation (so called physical heat, regulation).
Below the critical temperature, the body temperature could be main-
tained only by increasing the heat production (so-called metabolic or
‘chemical7 heat regulation). A great many experiments have been
conducted to determine this critical temperature for a variety of animals.
A typical experiment with that favourite laboratory animal, the albino
rat, is shown in Fig. 1 (Black and Swift, 1943).

In this rather pampered animal, the range of thermoneutrality is
limited to a degree or so, and the heat production rises linearly with
decrease in temperature. Note that above the critical temperature, or
critical thermal environment, heat production also rises.

Fig. 2. Influence of environmental temperature on heat production.

Figure 2 (Brody, 1945) serves to illustrate features common to
all homoiotherms. If the environmental conditions are such that heat
production can no longer keep pace with heat loss, and ‘body tempera-
ture’ falls and the animal may die. In man, a rectal temperature
of 25° C. seems to be the lowest consistent with survival, but other
animals can drop to still lower temperatures and survive. The

SOME BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF REACTIONS TO HEAT AND COLD. 5

hibernating animals during hibernation resemble cold-blooded animals
and the rectal temperature may fall to as low as 2°C. with metabolism
almost at a standstill.

Strictly speaking then, the term homoiotherm as applied to
mammals and birds is a misnomer. Life can continue over quite a range
of temperature, but the range is greater below the critical temperature
than above it.

At this stage I should like to draw your attention to the compre-
hensive studies on arctic and tropical birds and mammals recently
published by Scholander (1950) and his associates. They were able
to carry out experiments at Point Barrow, Alaska, latitude 71°N., and
in the Panama Canal zone at latitude 9°N. Metabolic rates for a
number of animals were determined at different environmental tempera-
tures, and striking differences were shown in the behaviour of the
arctic and tropical groups. The arctic animals were able to maintain
constant body temperatures without increase in metabolic rate. There
is no evidence of adaptive low body temperature in arctic mammals and
birds, or high body temperature in the tropical species. There are no
signs so far that body temperatures of mammals and birds are adaptive
to the different climates on earth. A logical corollary of this is that
they cannot have been adaptive to the overall climatic conditions on
earth. It seems then that the narrow band of body temperatures on
which both birds and mammals operate is a fundamental, non-adaptive
constant in their biochemical set-up. This shows that the striking
differences in critical temperatures, and increased rates of heat produc-
tion below critical temperatures, are largely a matter of insulation in the
broad sense, that is, in resistance to heat dissipation (Pig. 3).

Fig. 3. Heat regulation and temperature sensitivity in arctic and tropical mammals.

With the facilities available at the Arctic Research Laboratory at
Point Barrow, Scholander was unable to reach the critical temperature
for foxes or eskimo dogs. It is believed that their critical temperature
is somewhere between — 45° C. and — 50° C. In Panama it was observed
that the tropical mammals and birds responded with an increase in
metabolism starting at only a few degrees below the ambient air
temperature, producing strikingly steep curves compared with those
of the arctic animals.

6

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The critical temperature in naked man is known to be around 27° C.
to 29 °C., which places him among the more temperature sensitive
of the tropical mammals. The Australian aboriginal however, seems
to be exceptional in that he can apparently lie naked and at rest at
temperatures near to freezing point without increasing his metabolic
rate. There appears to be a fall in body temperature, however, and
the aborigine’s behaviour on waking bears some resemblance to that of
a hibernating animal. The point that emerges from these investigations
is that the basal metabolic rate of terrestrial mammals from tropics
to arctic is fundamentally determined by a size relation according to
the formula Cal. /day =70 Kg«, and is phylogenetically non-adaptive
to external temperature conditions. Equally non-adaptive is the body
temperature, and the phylogenetic adaptation to cold therefore rests
entirely upon the plasticity of the factors which determine the heat loss.

The basal heat production we have seen, arises largely from the
activity of the visceral organs and the brain. The muscles contribute
a relatively small amount. Below the critical temperature, however,
when conditions are no longer basal, the extra heat production is
brought about largely through muscular movement, both voluntary and
involuntary. The survival of an animal exposed to cold obviously
depends on whether this extra heat production can balance the heat
loss, and the duration of this extra heat production will determine
survival. This in turn will depend on the rate supply of nutrients to
the metabolising tissues and the rate of utilization. The rapidity with
which liver glycogen is used by pigeons subjected to cold is shown by
the following table (adapted from Streicher, Hackel and Fleischmann,
1950).

TABLE II.

Duration of
Experiment
in Hours.

At — 40°C.

At 23°-

-25°C.

Liver

Glycogen %.

Blood Sugar
mg.m/lOOml.

Liver

Glycogen %.

Blood Sugar
mg.m/lOOml.

1

1-48

147

1*31

152

3

0-84

143

1*54

147

8

005

158

0-76

154

24

0002

135

0043

154

48

0015

129

0108

141

72

0-0

159

0005

151

In eight hours the liver glycogen of the birds kept fasting at — 40°C.
was almost exhausted. After 24 hours that of the control group was
almost zero. The metabolic rate of the birds exposed to cold was
approximately three times that of the birds in the control group.
The blood sugar on the other hand stays constant, and this implies the
efficient conversion of non-sugars to sugar. The survival of the birds
will depend on the availability of body reserves of protein and fat and
the rate at which they can be oxidised.

That metabolic demand may outstrip exogeneous supply in fully
fed animals is also shown by the experiments of Black and Swift
(1943) on rats. With decreasing external temperatures, their experi-
ments showed that the respiratory quotient fell as the metabolic rate
rose. A curious point is that the respiratory quotient also fell with
the rise in metabolic rate above the critical temperature. The following
table is taken from their paper.

SOME BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF REACTIONS TO HEAT AND COLD. 7

TABLE III.

Temperature.

Respiratory Quotient.

Total Heat /hr.

•c.

12

0-837

3-00

18

0-859

2-40

24

0-902

1-79

28

0-948

1-59

30

0-946

1-50

31

0-951

1.38

32

0-942

1-38

33

0-915

1-45

34

0-918

1*61

DAYS

Fig. 4. Survival of clipped rats at 1*5 °C. after periods of previous exposure.

8

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

A respiratory quotient of unity in an experiment lasting 7-J hours
may be taken to indicate that carbohydrate is being consumed whilst
the R.Q. of fat is 0.7.

It has been shown, however, that rats can gradually undergo
adaptive changes to cold which increase their resistance to this form
of stress. The 1 acclimatisation, ’ if such it can be called, is related
to the ability of the animal to maintain a high level of metabolic
activity for prolonged periods. This relationship has been shown by
clipping the fur of normal and acclimatised rats and exposing them
to cold. Acclimatised animals survive and maintain greatly increased
metabolic rates for significantly longer periods than do animals which
are unaccustomed to lowered environmental temperatures. The effects
of varying exposure on survival time are shown in figure 4 (Sellers,
Reichman and Thomas, 1951).

The conclusions drawn from these figures are that the process of
acclimatisation to cold is gradual. No effect is noticed before two
weeks of exposure, but it is fully developed after four to five weeks
and does not increase further. The altered metabolic state is not
permanent and may be rapidly lost after a return to a warm
environment.

There is ample evidence that hormonal factors are implicated in
some of the changes which take place during exposure to cold. The
pituitary, the adrenal and the thyroid glands all undergo alterations
in size and in function during exposure. Indeed, there is evidence
that survival at temperatures near zero is dependent on the presence
of these glands. The relationship of the endocrine glands to acclimatisa-
tion is not a simple one, however, for it has been shown that acclimatised
animals subjected to adrenalectomy survive longer in the cold than
do non-acclimatised adrenalectomised controls. A similar relationship
has also been established with respect to the exposure of thyroidectomised
animals to cold. These observations, taken in conjunction with the
finding that acclimatisation develops gradually, suggest that metabolic
tissues themselves undergo some adaptive alteration, perhaps in response
to a general controlling influence. Note that these changes are temporary
and are not to be confused with phylogenetic adaption to temperature.
Sellers, Reichmann and Thomas (1951) attempted to prolong survival
‘artificially’ by pretreatment with cortisone and thyroxine and with
other substances. The use of a combination of cortisone and thyroxine
given before clipping and exposure to cold significantly increased
survival (Fig. 5).

The recognition of the part played by the hormones of the sup-
rarenal in the maintenance of homeostasis has been one of the most
striking features of the physiology of the past decade. Earlier emphasis
on the sympatho-adrenal system has been followed by the discover}'
of the even more ubiquitous part played by the pituitary and adrenal
cortex. “The sympatho-adrenal system actively drives organs and
organ systems to increased functional activity in emergencies, whereas
the pituitary-adrenocortical system plays a passive role, making cortical
hormone available in quantities appropriate for the varying needs of
the organism. In other words, the sympatho-adrenal system initiates,
whereas the pituitary-adrenocortical system supports cellular activities.”

SOME BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF REACTIONS TO HEAT AND COLD.

9

/on

c -*■

PRE- T RE A TM ENT

Wtfh:

controls

43 rais

y/ucose

/o

y/ucose insulin

to

cortisone <&. insulin

to “

DC A

9 -

ascorbic Odd

IO "

so/me controls 2-S6/0 4* -

fhyroxme, 200 mM-

! O "

ihyroxi ne ‘50m/u,.

23 »

A. C. T. H

3/

corfisone

36 "

cortisone £ thyroxine

79 '■

Fig. 5. Effect of various substances on the survival of clipped non-aeclimatised

rats exposed to cold.

Sayers (1950), whom I have quoted above, illustrates current
conceptions of cortical behaviour by means of the accompanying
diagrams (Figs. 6 and 7).

According to this concept then, the increased metabolism, in response
to exposure to cold may be initiated by impulses to the hypothalamus,
but the metabolic response is sustained by increased output from the
adrenal cortex. The stimulus to this is derived from the pituitary which
may simply respond to diminished levels of cortical hormone in the
venous blood.

I want to draw attention to one other consequence of the metabolic
adaptation to cold, and that is the increased demand for vitamin C,
ascorbic acid, under such conditions. Ascorbic acid is stored in the

10

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

A DEN OH Y POP H YS IS

PERIPHERAL Cor he a/ ADRENAL

T ISSUES hormone C ORT EX

Fig. C. Self-regularatory system (Peripheral — humoral concept).

Sfimu/ue

Afferent nervous
pathways

Ep/nephnt

)nne

Sympafh / n
Acelylcholn

ne

H YPO THALAMUS

ADENOHYPOPH YS/S

ACTH

Y

ADRENAL CORTEX

Corf ICO’
hormone

PERIPHERAL 7 ISSUES

Fig. 7. Centrally driven system (Central — neural concept).

suprarenal and disappears when the suprarenal is stimulated by stress
conditions. Dugal and Therien (1947) in an impressive series of
experiments were able to show that ascorbic acid was necessary for
resistance and adaption to cold by guinea pigs, animals which like man
are unable to synthesise vitamin C. The resemblance between scurvy
and certain features of adrenal insufficiency has been noted, but ii
seems certain that ascorbic acid is not concerned in the synthesis of
adrenocortical hormones. It appears more likely that both cortical
hormone and ascorbic acid are required to support cellular activity
and that the demand for both is roughly parallel. Either may prove

SOME BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF REACTIONS TO HEAT AND COLD. 11

a limiting factor in cellular activity if the demand is great and the
supply restricted. Classical scurvy, although probably a multiple
deficiency, occurred most frequently in men performing strenuous
muscular work in cold environments. Scurvy generally occurred among
crews of sailing vessels after a strenuous rounding of Cape Horn, and
it was the bugbear of polar explorers.

I have said that hormones, such as those of the adrenal cortex and
such substances as vitamin C, are necessary for the support of cellular
activities. In spite of the fact that adrenalin has been known for close
on fifty years, there is still no clear idea of its action and the same holds
true for other hormones. Their general effect on metabolic processes
has been explored extensively, but their connection with specific reactions
occurring in cells remains obscure. With the vitamins however, which
may be looked upon as exogenous hormones, there has been more success.
The members of the vitamin B group have all been shown to be connected
with specific stages of cellular metabolism and to be components of the
catalysts accelerating cellular reactions, the enzymes. It is almost an
article of faith with biochemists that both vitamins and hormones will
ultimately be linked with the promotion of enzyme activity. Some recent
publications support this view. Ascorbic acid, vitamin C, has been
shown to be required for the oxidation of tyrosine in liver, a process
which also requires the presence of a-keto-glutaric acid. Hormones have
rarely been found to affect appropriate cell-free enzymes directly.
Special importance therefore attaches to a recent paper by Knox (1951).
Enzyme adaptation, that is, increased activity in a particular enzyme
produced by treatment with the substrate of the enzyme and indepen-
dent of the growth of selection of the cells, is well established for
micro-organisms. Knox claims that the same phenomenon is demonstrable
in liver with the enzyme tryptophane peroxidase and that it can be
demonstrated both in slices and in cell-free preparations after treat-
ment with the substrate tryptophane. He goes on to show that treatment
of the animal with small doses of adrenalin or histamine will elicit a
similar response which can be attributed to increased cortical hormone
release. You and Sellers (1951) have also shown that after rats have
been exposed to a cold environment for more than sixteen days, the
oxygen consumption of liver slices, and the succinoxidase activity of
liver homogenates is significantly increased. They point out therefore
that increased activity of non-mnscular tissues must contribute to the
increased heat production brought on by exposure to cold.

I want now to turn to another factor which affects the production
of heat by the animal, the influence of food. It has long been known
that giving food to a fasting animal increases its heat production and
that this effect varies with the kind of food given. This action of
nutrients was called by Rubner the “specific dynamic action”, and the
additional heat produced by a given quantity of food became known as
the heat increment. Lusk (1930) defined this action in the following
way: — “If what we now call the basal metabolism of a typical animal
be 100 calories per day and if 100 calories be administered to the
animal in each of the several foodstuffs on different days, then the
heat production of the animal after receiving meat protein will rise
to about 130 calories, after glucose to about 106 calories, and after fat
to about 104 calories”. The large heat increment observed with protein
feeding could also be observed with amino acids, and according to Grafe
(1915), even with ammonium salts. Lusk goes on to say: — “Just as the

12

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

source of muscular energy may be derived from the oxidation of fat in
a fasting dog diabetic with phlorliizin, the source of energy for the
specific dynamic action of protein is obtained from the oxidation of
fat. It has been shown in numerous experiments that, after such a
phlorizinised dog has received meat, the non-protein R.Q. is 0.70, or
approximately that of fat’I * * * * * 7. Other experimenters found that the site
of the extra heat production was in the liver and attempted to relate
the extra heat production to the formation of urea.

However a case can be made out for the coupling of proteins with
fat oxidation. It is well established that the initial stages of fat
oxidation occur in the liver. By the process known as beta oxidation,
the fatty acid is split into two carbon fragments (acetate) which unite
to form acetoaeetate. The nature of the two carbon fragment remains
a mystery, but Weinhouse, Medes and Floyd (1946) have suggested that
the combination of an acetyl group in an amide linkage is a normal
step in acetate metabolism. This ‘ active acetate’ may either condense
with itself to form acetoaeetate as occurs in the liver, or with oxal-
acetate in the extra-hepatic tissues to form citric acid. The effect of
protein feeding would then be to provide available amino groups in
addition to the endogenous supply which would facilitate the formation
of acetoaeetate, the utilization of which in the extra-hepatic tissues,
would in turn be dependent on metabolites derived either from
carbohydrate or the glucogenic amino acids.

Be that as it may, Rubner quite clearly saw that the specific
dynamic effect of exogenous protein could be used to replace that of
endogenous protein in an animal exposed to cold. In other words the
heat tax on the utilization of endogenous and exogenous protein is
essentially the same. This idea has been very effectively Used recently
by Marston (1951).

The original concept of specific dynamic action was arrived at by
feeding small amounts of food to fasting animals. It was later assumed
that the same differential effects of protein, carbohydrate and fat
would be manifest at all levels of nutrition and it has taken many years
of patient experiment to show that this is not so. Under ordinary
conditions of nutrition, at above maintenance levels, it is the meta-
bolisable energy and not the protein content of the diet which dominates
the production of heat (Forbes and others, 1944). In other words
the relationship between intake of available energy and heat production
is linear (Marston 1951).

I have perhaps spent rather too long in considering the sequence

of events which follow the exposure of an animal to cold. Examination

of the graph showing relationship between oxygen consumption and

external temperature in the case of the rat shows an increase of heat

production above as well as below the critical temperature. This is

ascribed to the combined effects of muscular activity (panting, increased

respiratory rate) and rise in body temperature which would tend to
increase the rate of chemical reactions in the body. The animal may be
able to establish thermal equilibrium between itself and its environ-
ment at a raised body temperature, or it may fail to do so and the body
temperature will continue to increase until the upper limiting tempera-
ture is reached and the animal dies. Clearly the situation in these
thermal environments calls for decreased heat production or increased

SOME BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF REACTIONS TO HEAT AND COLD. 13

heat dissipation or both. Here the sweating animals have a pronounced
advantage and can tolerate environments which prove fatal to other
animals.

Acclimatisation occurs, and in the sweating animal, the primary
adaptive change is circulatory, blood is shunted to the outside and an
increase of blood volume occurs. The non-sweating animals have less
scope. Extra cooling is largely obtained by evaporation from the lungs,
a process which varies in efficiency in different animals. Increased food
consumption and increased activity both tend to move the animal farther
from its position of equilibrium. The proverbial stillness of the
Australian bush on a hot summer’s day, “where no birds sing”, is silent
testimony to the precariousness of the position in which our fauna finds
itself. Whilst our native animals can do as they please, our non-
indigenous population, man and the domestic animals is expected to
perform its allotted task, irrespective of the time of year. These
activities involve consumption of food much above mere maintenance,
and heat production is in general proportional to the intake of energy.
The effects of high and low plane feeding on animals exposed to heat
were clearly shown by Robinson and Lee (1947) in experiments con-
ducted a few years ago. High rates of feeding resulted in increases
of rectal temperature and respiratory rate in all the animals studied,
and a reversal to a lower plane of nutrition quickly lowered these
responses. A high protein diet had no significant effect on the reactions
of animals to heat.

We have seen that adaptation to cold involves definite increases
in endocrine activity essentially brought about by the increased meta-
bolic activity. One might expect therefore that endocrine activity
would diminish as environmental stimuli to metabolism decrease. There
is some evidence that this is so. Seasonal changes have been observed
in the weights of the adrenal and thyroid in animals, and in 17-keto-
steroid excretion in man, which support the suggestion of diminished
glandular activity in hot summer conditions and of an increase in
winter. There is as yet no satisfactory method for the assessment of the
level of adrenal activity in man. Urinary analyses involving the deter-
mination of 17-ketosteroids and of ‘reducing steroids’ obviously bear
no necessary direct relation to adrenocortical activity and the analytical
procedure for determining ‘reducing steroids’ is thoroughly unsatis-
factory. The determination of protein-bound iodine and of iodine
exchange in the thyroid offers hope of a more satisfactory measure of
the activity of the thyroid.

If then we can regard raised body temperature as likely to be
detrimental, we see that at the upper end of the critical zone, increased
metabolism becomes increasingly difficult to tolerate, and the factors
promoting increased metabolism, namely, increased food intake and
endocrine activity, should also prove detrimental.

Food intake is largely determined by appetite and it appears that
appetite is controlled by a nervous mechanism centred in the hypo-
thalamus. Here also are located the temperature regulating centre,
and the nervous mechanism for stimulating the pituitary. It is well
established in humans that appetite declines as environmental tempera-
tures rise. However, there is a limit to this form of control. Humans
are able to dissipate the extra heat formed through increased food
intake satisfactorily, but our domestic animals cannot do so effectively.

14

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

One would expect therefore that those functions which demand a rapid
metabolic rate, such as milk and egg production, would tend to decline
if the external conditions became increasingly less tolerable. This does
in effect prove to be true. The problem therefore of producing such
animals as high producing dairy cattle able to withstand severe tropical
conditions is likely to prove difficult, more difficult than producing beef
animals suited to the same conditions. In both cases it is likely that a
compromise between what is considered desirable and what is practicable
will have to be made. We have begun the study of some of these
problems in Queensland, but more rapid progress demands far greater
resources than we at present possess.

I want to conclude by putting in a plea for the greater recognition
of the part that physiology and biochemistry have to play in the
promotion of the welfare of our domestic animals. By historical chance,
these studies have largely become linked with medical schools and
applications to medicine form their primary reason for existence.
Comparative physiology and biochemistry have much to offer, not only
directly to the animal industries, but to our understanding of human
physiology, so much of which has been founded on experimental work,
not with vitamins, but with such humble animals as rats and guinea
pigs.

REFERENCES.

Black, A. and Swift, R. W., 1943. J. Nutrit., 25, 127.

Brody, S., 1945. Bioenergetics and Growth. Reinhold, New York, pp. 283.

Dugal, L. P. and Therien, M., 1947. Canad. J. Res., Sect. E., 25, 111.

Forbes, E. B., Swift, R. W., Marcy, L. F. and Davenport, M. T., 1944. J. Nutrit.,
28, 189

Grafe, E., 1915. Deutsch. Arch. Klin. Med., 118, 1.

Knox, W. E., 1951. Brit. J. Exp. Path., 32, 462.

Lusk, G., 1930. J. Nutrit,, 3, 519.

Marston, H. R,, 1951. J. and Proc. Roy. Soe, N.S.W., 84, 169.

Robinson, K. W. and Lee, D. H. K., 1947. J. Animal Sci., 6, 182.

Sayers, G., 1950. Physiol. Rev., 30, 241.

Scholander, P. F., Hock, R., Walters, V., Johnston, F. and Irving, L., 1950.
Biol. Bull., 99, 237.

Sellers. E. A., Reichman, S. and Thomas, N., 1951. Amer. J. Physiol., 167, 644.

Streicher, E., Hackel, D. B. and Fleischmann, W., 1950. Amer. J. Physiol.,
161, 300.

Weinhouse, S., Medes, G. and Floyd, N. F., 1946. J. Biol. Chem., 166, 621.

Yeates, N. T. M., Lee, D. H. K. and Hines, H. J. G., 1941. Proc, Roy. Soc.
Queensland, 53, 105.

You, R. W. and Sellers, E. A., 1951. Endocrinology, 49, 374.

15

You LXIV., No. 2.

VOLCANIC ROCKS OF AITAPE,

NEW GUINEA.

By George Baker, University of Melbourne, Australia.

(With 10 Text-figures.)

( Received 4 th July, 1952; issued separately 22nd March, 1954.)

ABSTRACT.

Volcanic rocks at Aitape, Eastern New Guinea are Lower Miocene
andesitic agglomerates with occasional andesitic lavas and limited
areas of basalt. The basalts verge on basic andesite ; they are partly
submarine flows and in places are soda-rich. The Aitape volcanic suite
belongs to the earliest period of formation of the Bismarck Archipelago
Inner Volcanic Arc of Neogenic to Quaternary age and is situated at
the north-western end of this arc. The volcanic rocks are members
of the extensive andesite-basalt group of lavas and ejectamenta that
encircles the Pacific Basin. The basaltic rocks reveal some similarities
and certain marked differences compared with Central Pacific
(Hawaiian) basalts, but the suite is characteristically allied to the
Circum-Pacific volcanic rocks. Both basaltic and andesitic rocks in
the Aitape volcanic suite have been subjected in parts to strong
deuteric alteration and solfataric action.

Figure 1. — Locality Map of South-eastern New Guinea. (Based on War Office
Map 1: 4,000,000 of East Indies, Sheet 2, 1928.)

C

16

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

INTRODUCTION.

The paper deals with the petrology of a collection of Aitape
volcanic rocks made in 1944 by A. Coulson, M.Sc., who also supplied
held notes and specimens of other New Guinea volcanic rocks.

Aitape is situated in the Bewani-Pual Depression north of the
Torricelli Mountains on the north-western coast of Eastern New Guinea
(figure 1).

The Lower Miocene volcanic rocks of Aitape occur near the north-
western extremity of the Neogenic-Quaternary Inner Volcanic Arc of
the Bismarck Archipelago (Van Bemmelen, i939). This xarc, in part
still active, though not in the Aitape district itself, extends from the
vicinity of the 143rd meridian, south-easterly through a string of
Recent volcanic islands — Kairiru to the Schouten Islands on to Manam
Island, Karkar, Bagabag, Long and Umboi Islands to New Britain,
where it follows the north coast to the 152nd meridian near Rabaul
(figure 2).

Figure 2. — Sketch Map showing the Inner Volcanic Arc of the Bismarck
Archipelago.

The arc was a zone of strong volcanic activity in Lower Miocene
times and again from ( ? ) Pleistocene to present times. The more
recently active part of the arc is composed of a series of lines of
eruption arranged more or less en echelon, the products of volcanicity
being built up on the summits of submarine ridges. The volcanic rocks
of the arc are intermediate to basic lavas and ejectamenta emitted from
active, dormant and extinct (Early Quaternary and Lower Miocene)
volcanoes. The Aitape volcanic series is exclusively Lower Miocene.

GEOLOGY OF THE DISTRICT.

The general geology of the Aitape district is indicated in figure 3.

In the vicinity of the coast, the area is covered largely by Coastal
Plain alluvium, up to 10 miles wide and recently uplifted a few feet.
Recent coral limestones cover three to four square miles of the country
west of the Raihu River mouth, near Aitape. Aerial photographs reveal
a series of low, longitudinal sand ridges east and west of the Raihu
River mouth and northwest of Tepier Plantation (figure 4).

17

VOLCANIC ROCKS OF AITAPE, NEW GUINEA.

Army Map of Aitape East, A54/15, N.E. New Guinea Provisional Map (1 inch
= 1 mile). Preliminary Sheet, 1943. Geology based on Anglo-Persian Oil Co. Ltd.
Geological Survey (see Nason Jones, 1920-1929.)

The oldest rocks exposed in the neighbourhood of Aitape, are
interbedded Lower Miocene sediments (figure 3) and volcanic rocks,
but in the eastern part of the Torricelli Mountains, behind the coastal
plain, remnant patches of Eocene limestones and shales were recorded
by Nason Jones (1920-1929). The Lower Miocene sediments outcrop
near Aitape in the following areas —

(i) in Tepier Plantation, south of Tepier,

(ii) §ast and west of Pultalul Hill,

(iii) between Lapar Point and Rohm Point north of the Aitape
River,

(iv) in the St. Anna Mission area west of the Raihu River,

(v) in the west centre of Tumleo Island.

Tumleo Island (figure 5) is principally Recent coral limestone and
sand on the low-lying regions, above which rise two prominent hills.
The lower, Mesor Hill (69') in the west centre, is composed of Lower
Miocene limestone containing Spiroclypeus and other Orbitoids. The
higher, Solyaliu Hill (262') in the northwest, is composed of volcanic
agglomerate.

The areal distribution of the Neogene volcanic rocks, which in
parts overlie and in parts are interbedded with the Lower Miocene
sediments, is indicated in figure 4.

Two outcrops in Tepier Plantation, 4 miles west of Aitape, form
the largest single outcrops of the Aitape volcanic suite. Smaller outcrops
occur near and at Rohm Point and Lapar Point (=Cape Roon of
Richarz, 1910), near Aitape, at Solyaliu Hill on Tumleo Island 34 miles
east-north-east of Aitape, at St. Anna Plantation 2 miles east-south-
east of Aitape, and the smallest outcrop forms a low hill, Pultalul Hill

18

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

(115') l-§ miles west-south-west of Aitape. These outcrops form lava
residuals and hills of agglomerate rising up to a maximum of 488'
above the Aitape Coastal Plain.

Figure 4. — Sketch Map showing outcrops of Neogene Volcanic Rocks and
heights from which some of the specimens were obtained in the Aitape District.

Figure 5. — Geological Map of Tumleo Island. Based on U.S. Army Map of
Aitape East, N.E. New Guinea, A54/15, Provisional Map (1 inch = 1 mile).
Preliminary Sheet, 1943. Geology based on Anglo-Persian Oil Co. Ltd. Geological
Survey (see Nason Jones, 1920-1929).

VOLCANIC ROCKS OF AIT APE, NEW GUINEA.

19

A string of small reefs — Ant Rock, Pultata Reef, Lamak Reef
and Stein Reef (figure 4) — extending between Tumleo Island and Rohm
Point, consists of volcanic rocks similar to those around Aitape on the
mainland.

The only distinct evidence of a centre of eruption occurs in the
northwest of Tumleo Island, where a volcanic neck of porphyritic
andesite cuts through the agglomerate (figure 6) comprising Solyaliu
Hill (figure 5).

S- M£SOR

30 0'j HILL

200-1

ioo' i

{/a o

SCALE OF MILES

RECENT

ITT

CORAL VOLCANIC

UMESTONES AGGLOMERATES

Figure 6. — Geological Sketch Section from south to north through the western
portion of Tumleo Island.

f/4

LOWER MIQC E NE

FORAMINIFERAt
LI MESTONES

SOLYALIU

DISTRIBUTION OP THE VOLCANIC ROCKS.

The various rock types comprising the Aitape volcanic suite occur
in the following localities:

Tepier Plantation. Andesitic agglomerates extend up to 200' above
sea level in the western outcrop of the Tepier area. The easterly outcrop
is composed essentially of two hills, the higher (488') in the south-west
and the lower (456') near the coast in the north-eastern portion of the
outcrop. In the north-eastern portion, hill 456' consists principally of
amygdaloidal porphyritic augite andesite, with occasional representa-
tives of hornblende-augite andesite and pyribole andesite (i.e. with
hypersthene, augite and hornblende). The rocks are largely heavy
agglomerates, in parts forming old sea cliffs up to 120' high (now 5
to 8 chains in inland) and are flanked on the north by old beach sand-
ridges. At Tepier Hill (488') in the south-western portion of the
eastern outcrop, the andesitic rocks (up to 400' thick), are the thickest
known volcanic exposures in the Aitape district.

Some of the Tepier andesites resemble andesite fragments in the
Tumleo Island agglomerate. Sub-columnar structures occur in andesite
lavas exposed on a cutting face along the road descending west to
Tepier Plantation. There is a notable absence of tuff and scoria from
the volcanic rocks throughout the Tepier-Lapar Point area.

ROHM PT. HILL

SCALE OF MILES

SKETCH SECTION NORTH-WEST OF AiTAPE

Figure 7. — Geological Sketch Section through Rohm Point, showing relation-
ship of the two lava flows and the tuff bed to Tertiary (Lower Miocene)
sediments. Section drawn along strike of beds dipping 20° to 25° to the south.

20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Lapar Point. Amygdaloidal basalt at Lapar Point, J of a mile
north-west of Aitape Settlement, forms a steep coastal cliff up to
200' high. Volcanic breccia has been described from this cliff by
Richarz (1910, p. 436).

Rohm Point. Two flows of basalt, separated by a bed of tuff, are
exposed on top of Tertiary limestone at Rohm Point (figure 7). The
rocks here form hills 223' above sea level at the coast and 274' high
a short distance to the west. The lower flow is approximately 30'
thick, the tuff 10', the upper flow varies from 40' to 50' thick and has
been considerably eroded.

The Rohm Point upper flow, sampled from above the tuff bed at
a height of 270' above sea level at Rohm Point Hill, and the lower
flow, sampled from below the tuff bed at 200' in the same locality,
consist of a similar amygdaloidal basalt. Lava from 223' at Rohm Point
proper, is a more crystalline phase of the lower flow. Portions of
the Rohm Point flow appear as pillow lavas and contain Tertiary
globigerina limestone included between the blocks as a cement (Nason
Jones, 1920-1929, vol. Ill, p. 55, fig. 8). In view of this, and the
presence of a chilled phase of the basalt here, it is evident that portions
of the volcanic rocks are submarine flows.

Pultalul Hill. Approximately 50' of basalt capping Tertiary
limestone, forms Pultalul Hill (115') near the native village of Pultalul.
Rising from the Aitape Coastal Plain, the hill is more or less
surrounded by swampy country.

St. Anna Plantation. An amygdaloidal, soda-rich, glassy basalt,
similar in many ways to the Lapar Point flow, is occasionally associated
with tuffs and limestone, half a mile south of the St. Anna Mission
Station, south-east of Aitape.

Solyaliu Hill, Tumleo Island. Andesitic agglomerates cut by a
volcanic neck of porphyritic augite-hypersthene andesite carrying
abundant phenocrysts of augite up to 10 mm. across, comprise Solyaliu
Hill (figures 5 and 6).

Richarz (1910, p. 419) described these rocks as volcanic andesitic
breccia. Little scoriaceous rock is present, and the exposure consists
largely of angular blocks of lava up to 5' across, set in a grey,
tuffaceous matrix. Constituents of the agglomerate are red, limonitized
porphyritic augite andesite and occasional blocks of hard, dense, grey
porphyritic hornblende-augite andesite, augite andesite and porphy-
ritic augite-hypersthene andesite. In addition are a few ejected
fragments of gabbroic rocks derived from the basement complex rocks
in the Torricelli Mountains region, and rare fragments of Tertiary
limestone. Richarz (1910, p. 434) also recorded hornfels and horn-
blende gabbro among the ejected blocks.

AGE RELATIONS OF THE VOLCANIC ROCKS.

The volcanic rocks on Tumleo Island and the mainland nearby,
are grouped (figure 5) with the Lower Miocene limestones and tuffaceous
limestones in age, according to the Anglo-Persian Oil Co. Ltd. geological
survey (see Nason Jones, 1920-1929). The presence of ejected blocks
of Miocene limestone in the agglomerate at Solyaliu Hill, suggests a
post-Miocene age for the volcanic rocks, but they are iundamentally the
same age as the mainland volcanic rocks that are m part interbedded
with Lower Miocene limestones and tuffaceous limestones and were
formed penecontemporaneously with them.

VOLCANIC ROCKS OF AITAPE, NEW GUINEA.

21

There is no evidence to indicate any real difference in age between
the basaltic and andesitic rocks in the Aitape volcanic suite. Nowhere
have they been observed in contact, but they are closely associated
in space. The basaltic rocks at Rohm Point and St. Anna Plantation
were evidently poured out before the andesites, because:

(i) they have been rather more strongly eroded,

(ii) they are associated with Tertiary limestones and appear
as dissected remnants of flows, while the andesites have not
been observed in contact with the limestones and are built
up to greater heights than the basalts,

(iii) the andesitic rocks are somewhat fresher in appearance and
little eroded.

The more basic flows are regarded as the earliest products of
Neogene volcanism in the Aitape district. They broke through a sea
door composed of Tertiary deposits including limestones, thus account-
ing for (a) the chilled character of parts of the flows, (b) the pillow
structures and (c) [Miocene globigerina limestone cementing the pillow
structures.

Richarz (1910, p. 449) suggested from microscope investigations
that hornblende andesite and hornblende gabbro, found as ejected
blocks in the agglomerate on Tumleo Island, represented the porphyr-
itic and granular facies respectively of the same magma. Chemical
analysis, however, (table II, columns 11 and 12) does not confirm this,
and according to the field evidence, they cannot be of the same age and
derived from the same magma. The andesitic rocks are Lower Miocene,
the complex basement rocks exposed in the Torricelli Mountains (figure
10), of which similar gabbroic rocks form a part, are pre-Eocene and
possibly of considerable antiquity.

TABULAR REPRESENTATION OP THE DISTRIBUTION
OF VOLCANIC ROCKS IN THE AITAPE DISTRICT.

The various petrological types, the localities at which they occur,
their frequency of occurrence and nature in the field are indicated
in table I. The volcanic rocks set out in this table have characteristic
merocrystalline textures and contain both fine-grained and porphyritic
examples. The normal type augite andesites, the porphyritic augite
andesites and the amygdaloidal porphyritic augite andesites are more
common than hornblende andesites and pyribole andesites wherever
andesites are represented in the Aitape district, i.e. on Tumleo Island
and in the Tepier Plantation area.

TABLE I.

Rock Type.

Locality.

Frequency at
Each Locality.

Nature in Field.

Basaltic Rocks —

Amygdaloidal Basalt . .

200' above s.l., Rohm

Principal type

Flow

Basalt

Pt. Hill (Lower Flow)
223' above s.l., Rohm

Principal type

Flow

Amygdaloidal Basalt . .

Pt. proper

270' above s.l., Rohm

Principal type

Flow

Amygdaloidal Basalt . .

Pt. Hill (Upper Flow)
St. Anna Plantation . .

Principal type

Flow

Amygdaloidal Basalt . .

200' cliff, Lapar Pt. Hill

Principal type

Flow

Basalt

Pultalul Hill (115') ..

Principal type

Flow

22

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

TABLE I. — continued.

Rock Type.

Locality.

Frequency at
Each Locality.

Nature in Field.

Andesitic Rocks —

Augite Andesite

Solyaliu Hill, Tumleo
Island

Occasional . .

Agglomerate

Porphyritic Augite

Andesite

Solyaliu Hill, Tumleo
Island

Occasional . .

Agglomerate

Amygdaloidal Porphyri-

Tepier East Hill (488')

Common

Agglomerate

tic Augite Andesite

Hornblende- Augite

Tepier East Hill (456')

Occasional . .

Agglomerate

Andesite

Porphyritic Homblende-
Augite Andesite

Solyaliu Hill, Tumleo
Island

Common

Agglomerate

Porphyritic Augite-

Hypersthene Andesite

Solyaliu Hill, Tumleo
Island

Occasional . .

Volcanic Neck

Pyribole Andesite

Tepier Plantation

Uncommon . .

Agglomerate

Ejected Blocks —

Gabbroic Rocks

Solyaliu Hill, Tumleo
Island

Occasional . .

F ragments up
to 6" across

Hornfels . .

Solyaliu Hill, Tumleo
Island

Occasional . .

Tertiary Limestone

Solyaliu Hill, Tumleo
Island

Occasional . .

PETROGRAPHY.

BASALTIC ROCKS.

The Aitape basalts are mafelsic and distinct from the andesites in
many respects, although in parts they tend to verge on basic andesites.
They contain altered olivine, more prominently developed amygdaloidal
structures, abundant iron ore minerals and are in parts soda-rich,
with hypersthene typically absent. They do not show the porphyritic
textures characteristic of the andesites. The few microphenocrysts of
plagioclase, more basic than those in the andesites, show little zoning,
thus contrasting sharply with the numerous zoned-twinned micropheno-
crysts and laths of plagioclase in the andesites. Both basaltic and
andesitic rocks contain members with glassy groundmasses. . The
basaltic rocks are limited in both lateral and vertical directions in the
neighbourhood of Aitape.

St. Anna Plantation Basalt. The St. Anna Plantation amygda-
loidal basalt has a glassy base with fine-grained groundmass constituents.
Minute, but abundant grains, skeletal crystals and cubes of magnetite
are prominent. Small, needle-like, unaltered plagioclase felspars show
marked fluidal alignment in parts (figure 8). The dominant felspar
is albite-oligoclase, with some microphenocrysts of albite. Occasional
microphenocrysts of unaltered augite have a pale yellow colour as in
all the basalts and most andesites of the Aitape volcanic suite. The
unaltered character of the augite is a marked feature of the Aitape
volcanic rocks, especially in parts of the flows where the felspars have
been albitized. Benson (1915) and Scott (1950) have also noted a
similar feature in basaltic rocks from New South "Wales and King
Island, Tasmania.

All the olivine crystals are typically altered to serpentinous
products, opal with chlorite, calcite and secondary iron hydroxide.
These secondary products also form irregular patches in the groundmass.

VOLCANIC ROCKS OF AITAPE, NEW GUINEA.

23

The augite has only been partially replaced in some parts of the rock
by pleochroic delessite, which forms occasional cores in a few of the
augite crystals.

A striking feature of the rock is the large number of infilled
vesicles, producing the well-developed amygdaloidal structure. The
largest amygdales seldom exceed 4 mm. in length but are often complex
in character (figure 8). Most of the amygdales are subspherical or
ovoid, but a few are irregularly elongated (figure 8).

Figure 8. — Sketch of microstructures in amygdaloidal basalt, St. Anna
Plantation, Aitape. (x20). Showing amygdales lined with opal-bearing chlorite
(unstippled) and infilled with concentric and radial growths of calcite and large
calcite crystals. Phenocrysts of olivine (at bottom of sketch) altered to calcite
and opal-bearing chlorite pseudomorphs. Augite phenocrysts (one at top of sketch)
fresh. Glassy groundmass with partial fluidal alignment of albite-oligoclase laths
and abundant grains and cubes of magnetite.

The larger amygdales are lined with narrow zones of pale greenish
opaline silica containing chlorite. Smaller amygdales are often com-
pletely infilled with similar material. In many amygdales, similar lining
material encloses spherulitic calcite. Amygdales infilled by greenish
opal with chlorite, sometimes contain patches of clear opal, sometimes
one crystal only of a zeolite having the properties of chabazite.

Rohm Point Hill Upper Flow. Amygdaloidal basalt sampled at
270' on Rohm Point Hill, occurs above the tuff band (see figure 7).
The amygdales, filled with brownish to colourless opaline silica and
ehloritic matter, are smaller than at St. Anna Plantation, but larger
than in the lower flow at Rohm Point Hill. The rock has a coarser-
grained texture than the flow sampled from 223' at Rohm Point proper
and from 200' at Rohm Point Hill. Labradorite laths and pale yellowish
augite crystals are larger and there are more and larger pseudomorphs
after olivine.

24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The groundmass of the rock consists of a pale brown to colourless,
interstitial glass, crowded with magnetite grains.

Rohm Point Hill Lower Flow. In the lower flow at Rohm Point
Hill, small plagioclase laths have been completely altered to micro-
and crypto-crystalline aggregates. Olivine is altered to serpentinous
products and opaline silica. Unaltered, pale yellow augite crystals are
numerous in a groundmass composed of brown to almost black glass.
Many small amygdales are lined with radial and concentric growths of
pale green, crypto-crystalline silica, sometimes containing one narrow
shell of quartz. Colourless opaline silica infills a few amygdales and
forms small veinlets in parts of the groundmass.

Rohm Point Lower Flow and Pultalul Flow. The Rohm Point
lower flow, sampled from approximately the same height (223') as the
lower flow with which it is presumably contiguous at Rohm Point
(sampled at 200'), shows marked differences from the Rohm Point
outcrop. In thin section it resembles the basalt at Pultalul Hill,
although it is slightly different in chemical composition (cf. columns
3 and 4 in table II).

The main differences from the Rohm Point Hill lower flow are
(a) the rock is more crystalline, containing more and larger crystals,
particularly of augite, and rather less glass which is darker brown,
interstitial and contains fewer minute magnetite grains, ( b ) the felspars
are fresher and (c) although vesicular, few of the vesicles are infilled
with secondary mineral matter.

The felspar laths are basic labradorite. Abundant pale yellow
augite crystals are identical with augite in other Aitape basalts. Olivine
pseudomorphs are few in number and consist largely of serpentinous
products. Pale brown and colourless opaline silica infills a few vesicles
and forms narrow fringes to others.

Lapar Point Flow. The amygdaloidal rock forming sea cliffs 200'
high at Lapar Point, is intermediate between basalt and andesite. It
is a finer-grained phase of the Aitape basaltic rocks, having smaller
plagioclase laths and augite crystals and rather more dark groundmass
glass. Groundmass plagioclase laths show pronounced streaming and
consist of albite-oligoelase, as in the St. Anna Plantation flow. Quartz
occurs in both calcite-infilled and chlorite-infilled vesicles. The presence
of albite in the groundmass was originallv noted by Richarz (1910, p.
436).

The abundance of secondary minerals replacing some of the ferro-
magnesian minerals, particularly olivine, and the replacement of parts
of the groundmass by similar materials and by albite, suggest a
spilitic character, although chemical analysis (table II. column 2) does
not reveal any marked excess of soda at Lapar Point compared with the
St. Anna Plantation rock.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OP THE BASALTIC BOCKS.

Analyses of the Aitape basalts are compared with analyses of
average basalts, average spilites, Central Pacific (Hawaiian) and
selected Circum-Pacific basalts in table II. Two previously recorded
analyses of gabbro (Richarz, 1910) from Tumleo Island are also
included for contrast with the basalts (and the andesites) of the Aitape
district.

25

VOLCANIC ROCKS OF AITAPE, NEW GUINEA.

TABLE II.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Si02 . .

50-12

50-86

50-45

49-68

51-22

46-05

46-01

49-6

A1203 . .

14-98

17-02

17-46

15-89

13-66

14-83

15-21

16-3

Fe203 . .

4-08

4-82

5-25

4-88

2-84

2-80

1-35

2-8

FeO

2-52

1-89

2-24

2-73

9-20

7-44

8-69

8-2

CaO . .

9-06

7-36

8-77

10-58

6-89

10-04

8-64

8-8

MgO . .

9-11

7-27

5-48

6-34

4-55

4-85

4-18

5-0

K,0 . .

1-61

1-65

1-74

0-71

0-75

0-38

0-34

0-8

Na20 . .

4-07

3-13

3-40

2-33

4-93

4-31

4-97

4-8

TiOa ..

0-90

0-47

0-77

0-90

3-32

2-50

2-21

0-6

MnO . .

0-24

0-24

0-24

0-26

0-25

0-31

0-33

0-2

p2o5 ..

0-27

0-54

0-24

0-20

0-29

0-38

0-61

0-1

H20 ( + )

1-82

2-90

2-04

3-50

L 1 , Q Q

/ 3-04

2-48

2-6

H20 (-)

1-19

1-89

1-90

2-02

/ 1 88

\ 0-30

. #

0-2

€1

0-01

0-01

nil.

nil.

, ,

, .

. .

. .

co2 ..

0-25

0-30

0-03

0-05

0-94

4-09

4-98

0-1

Total . .

100-23

100-44

100-01

100-07

Sp. Gr.

2-59

2-58

2-67

2-71

(The specific gravity values were determined in distilled water at 24-5 °C.)

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

SiO 2

49-06

50-44

47-97

46-09

49-25

52-63

51-98

A1203 . .

15-70

14-00

20-03

12-76

16-31

17-62

17-20

Fe203 . .

5-38

3-15

8-08

2-65

6-47

6-49

8-22

FeO

6-37

8-27

1-29

4-50

3-13

3-10

2-00

CaO

8-95

10-19

12-10

16-65

10-58

8-62

8-17

MgO

6-17

6-73

5-43

14-42

6-16

5-64

5-41

K20

1-52

0-48

0-17

, ,

0-05

1-73

0-90

Na20

3-11

2-58

1-54

0-60

2-22

3-38

3-84

Ti02

1-36

3-06

1-46

0-45

2-03

0-07

0-36

MnO

0-31

0-12

tr.

. .

tr.

tr.

. ,

f2o5

0-45

0-29

v.sl.tr.

# #

0-10

0-47

0-99

h2o (+)

H20 (-)

1-62

| 2-04

2-43

/ 3-14
\ -•

0-79

0-62

Cl

# ,

• •

, #

, .

, .

, ,

co2

Total

• •

100-11

100-55

99-48

100-54

99-69

Sp. Gr.

• •

2-72

Key to Table II.

G.

1. — Amygdaloidal
C. Carlos).

basalt,

hill 200', St. Anna Plantation, Aitape

(anal.

G.

2. — Amygdaloidal
C. Carlos).

basalt,

200' cliff, Lapar Point Hill, Aitape

(anal.

3. — Basalt, Pultalul Hill (115'), Aitape (anal. G. C. Carlos).

G.

4. — Basalt, Rohm

C. Carlos).

Point

proper, 223' above sea level, Aitape

(anal.

5. — Average spilite according to N. Sundius (“On the Spilitic Rocks”,
Geol. Mag., 67, (1930), pp. 1-17).

26

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Key to Table II. — continued.

6. — Average of seven spilites from various localities set out in Washington’s
Tables (H. S. Washington, (1917-1918), Professional Paper No. 99, U.S.A. Geol.
Survey).

7. — Average spilite according to A. K. Wells (“The Nomenclature of the
Spilitic Suite”, Part II, Geol. Mag., lx (1923), p. 62).

8. — Average of four King Island (Tasmania) spilites, analysed by Miss B, Scott
(1950).

9. — Average basalt according to A. K. Wells (loc. cit.).

10. — Average of twenty-nine Hawaiian basalts (G. A. Macdonald — “Hawaiian
Petrographic Province”, Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. 60 (1949), pp. 1541-1596).

11. — Hornblende gabbro (inclusion in hornblende andesite), Tumleo Island,
Aitape (anal. E. Ludwig — see Richarz, 1910).

12. — Olivine gabbro (waterworn, found on Tumleo Island and of the same
nature as the olivine gabbro so common in the Torricelli Mountains nearby), (anal.
E. Ludwig — see Richarz, 1910).

13. — Basalt, Retschnaia Bay, Copper Island, Commander Islands, Bering Sea
(anal. W. Staronka — see J. Morozewicz, Mem Comm. G. Buss., No. 72 (1912),
p. 72).

14. Basalt, Burney Butte, Shasta County, California (anal. R. B. Riggs — see
J. S. Diller, JJ.S. Geol. Surv. Bull., 148 (1887), p. 200).

15. Basalt, Cerro de Guadalupi, Puebla, Mexico (anal. A. Rohrig — see A. Hoope
in Felix and Lenk, Petr. G. Mex. II (1899), p. 211).

Compared with the analyses of the Aitape andesites (see table III,
columns 1 and 2), the analyses of the Aitape amygdaloidal basalts
(table II, columns 1 and 2) are distinctly lower in silica content. These
basalts contain a little more silica than average basalts and average
spilites (table II, columns 5, 6, 7, 8), evidently because of the secondary
silica and silicates in some of the amygdales. Generally, the silica
contents in Central Pacific basalts (table II, column 10) and the
Aitape basalts compare favourably, while those from Circum-Pacific
localities (table II, columns 13, 14, 15) are a little variable.

Lime and magnesia are comparable in amount in the several
amygdaloidal basalts of Aitape, but not in the basalts from the same
area. The rather high magnesia content is accounted for by the
abundance of chloritic and serpentinous material throughout the
amygdaloidal basalts. In the more normal basalts of Aitape, the excess
of lime over magnesia is of the same order as in Central Pacific basalts
and Circum-Pacific basalts.

The presence of approximately twice as much Fe203 as FeO in
all the analysed Aitape basalts, is a function of the large quantity of
grains and skeletal crystals of magnetite and accompanying hematite
in their groundmasses. These basalts show the same characteristics as
the Aitape andesites (table III, columns 1 and 2) in containing Fe2Q3
in excess of FeO, whereas the reverse holds in the average basalts and
average spilites. The Circum-Pacific basalts likewise contain Fe203
in excess of FeO, but not the Central Pacific (Hawaiian) basalts. The
Aitape basalts, however, are generally low in total iron, the amygda-
loidal more so than the normal varieties, whereas both the Circum-
Pacific and the Central Pacific basalts contain approximately twice as
much total iron as the Aitape basalts, evidently because the augite in
the Aitape basalts is a less iron-rich variety than in most other Pacific
basalts.

Total alkalies in the Aitape and Pacific basalts show certain anoma-
lies when individual values are considered, only one of the Aitape
basalts (i.e. from Rohm Point proper) being as low in alkalies as

VOLCANIC ROCKS OF AITAPE, NEW GUINEA.

27

Central Pacific basalts, the others being similar to the general run of
Circum-Pacific basalts. The average value for total alkalies in the
Aitape basalts (4-66%) is a little higher than for average basalts
(4-63%), but lower than for average andesites (5*5% and 64% —
table III, columns 4 and 5) and close to average spilites of some
authors (table II, column 6). The average value is more comparable
with the average for Circum-Pacific basalts than with the value for
Central Pacific basalts. A little of the soda (likewise some of the
potash and lime) in some of the Aitape basalts, such as the St. Anna
Plantation basalt, has to be apportioned to chabazite in the amygdales,
but as this mineral is relatively rare, the rock itself must be richer in
soda than any other member of the analysed Aitape volcanic rocks,
whether basalts or andesites, and so is closely related to the spilitic
rocks.

Total lime and magnesia in the Aitape basalts shows a range from
14-25% to 18-17%, but is closer to average basalt (15-12% — table II,
column 9) than to average andesites (9-70% and 8-0% — table III,
columns 4 and 5), and closer to Central than to Circum-Pacific basalts,
although little different, on the average, from either.

Aitape basalts are much poorer in titania than average basalts,
average spilites and Central Pacific basalts.

The ejected block of hornblende gabbro (table II, column 11) was
regarded by Richarz (1910) as chemically similar to gabbro from
Langenlois in Lower Austria.

ANDESITIC EOCKS.

In the Aitape district, andesitic rocks occur principally as agglom-
erates. The texture and the amounts and nature of pyroxene and
amphibole minerals in andesite fragments forming the Tepier and
Tumleo Island agglomerates, are markedly variable. Many of the
fragments are amygdaloidal porphyritic augite andesite, with occasional
representatives of augite andesite, hornblende-augite andesite, porphyr-
itic augite andesite, pyribole andesite, porphyritic hornblende-augite
andesite and porphyritic augite-hypersthene andesite.

The texture of the andesites is typically hyalopilitic, the ground-
mass in most varieties being microlitic, with abundant glass containing
numerous laths of plagioclase. A few of the andesites have pilotaxitic
texture, due to microlitic felspars developing almost to the exclusion
of glass. A number are porphyritic.

Augite Andesite. Uncommon, and only occurring in the agglom-
erate of Solyaliu Hill on Tumleo Island, this rock has a crypto-
crystalline to glassy groundmass with abundant minute grains and
•clots of magnetite (partly altered to hematite), larger twinned-zoned
andesine laths (some with cores of acid labradorite) , abundant fresh
augite, occasional altered hypersthene and rare hornblende. Infilled
vesicles are few and small.

The augite is the pale yellow to yellowish -green variety common
to the Aitape andesites generally, and is occasionally zoned. Pseudo-
morphs after hypersthene consist mainly of opaline silica with a little
chlorite and numerous apatite rods, while a few consist of serpentinous
products showing relic pyroxene cleavage. Hornblende is mostly replaced
by deuteric alteration products. In rare crystals, an inner core of fresh,
pleoehroic hornblende is surrounded by a reaction corona. The corona
is composed of an inner zone of unaltered magnetite crystals and a

28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

broad outer zone of indefinite, pale grey to greenish coloured fibres
and minute plates. Larger plates, that evidently consist of similar
material to these fibres and small plates, occur in a replaced micro-
phenocryst and consist of secondary, pale coloured amphibole.

Porphyritic Augite Andesite. An uncommon constituent of the
Solyaliu Hill agglomerate, this rock has a crypto- to micro-crystalline
and glassy base containing secondary iron oxides and hydroxides that
impart a light reddish-brown colour to the groundmass. Abundant
colourless laths of plagioclase and less frequent, pale yellow to almost
colourless prisms of pyroxene, form a striking contrast to the pinkish
coloured groundmass in which they are set with a marked fluidal
alignment.

Augite forms unaltered phenocrysts a little larger than the plagio-
clase laths and up to 1 mm- long. Altered hypersthene prisms are the
same size as the plagioclase laths and occasional microphenocrysts are
a little larger than the augite crystals.

Richarz (1910, p. 433) noted that the hypersthene crystals in some
of the Tumleo Island volcanic rocks, had been replaced by opal and
that chlorite had penetrated the opal. That the replaced mineral (see
figure 9B) was originally hypersthene, is proved by accumulated
evidence from several of the andesitic rocks, thus :

(а) unaltered hypersthene occurs in other Aitape andesites,

(б) 8-sided cross sections and prisms with characteristic
pyroxene form, are replaced by opal in the porphyritic
augite andesite,

(c) unaltered augite occurs in the same rocks as replaced
hypersthene, and

(d) hypersthene remnants occur in partially opalized pseudo-
morphs in porphyritic augite-hypersthene andesite from
Solyaliu Hill.

Original hypersthene groundmass prisms and microphenocrysts in
the porphyritic augite andesite, are now largely isotropic pseudomorphs,
with here and there a little secondary quartz left as relics of hypers-
thene alteration (figure 9B). Hypersthene pseudomorphs are more
common than fresh augite microphenocrysts and unlike them, have
been considerably corroded by groundmass constituents in places.

Unaltered plagioclase laths with sharply defined crystal outlines,
show multiple twinning, sometimes combined with normal continuous
zoning, sometimes normal discontinuous (varying from acid to basic
andesine) and rarely oscillatory or oscillatory reverse chemical zoning.
A few andesine crystals contain central cores of opal (figure 9A),
indicating replacement of the more lime-rich portion. In rare examples,
originally lime-rich outer zones have been replaced by opal. Areas
of opaline silica are sometimes wedged between partially welded-on
andesine crystals.

Amygdaloidal Porphyritic Augite Andesite. This rock, from
Tepier East Hill (488'), is a common constituent of the agglomerate
and one of the few Aitape andesites containing vesicles infilled with
secondary minerals. Primary minerals are esssentially the same and the
groundmass constituents similar to porphyritic augite andesite from
Solyaliu Hill.

VOLCANIC ROCKS OF AIT APE, NEW GUINEA.

29

Double pseudomorphs after hypersthene are characteristic of this
rock, several opaline silica replacements of hypersthene crystals them-
selves being subsequently replaced, completely or partially (figure 9E),
by calcite. Calcite veinlets that link up several replaced pseudomorphs,
pass around augite phenocrysts, cut through groundmass constituents,
through fresh andesine laths without displacing them, but swell out
into knots within the laths. Rather more common than calcite, olive
green, pleochroic delessite is often spherulitic, sometimes fibrous, and
occurs in many parts of the rock, including vesicles and altered minerals.

Andesine and augite crystals remain unaltered. Brown to purplish
coloured, pleochroic apatite prisms are occasionally associated with clots
of augite. One zoned plagioclase phenocryst in this rock, has a core
of basic labradorite surrounded by 30 narrow chemical zones ranging
from acid labradorite to basic andesine in normal discontinuous zoning.
Otherwise, the andesine crystals are similar to those in the porphyritic
augite andesite from Solyaliu Hill.

Hornblende- Augite Andesite. Occurring at Tepier East Hill
(456'), this rock has a dusty, grey, micro- to crypto-crystalline ground-
mass containing numerous grains and well-developed crystals of mag-
netite largely replaced by hematite, pseudomorphs of hematite after
hornblende, laths of andesine and prisms of yellowish-brown, zoned
augite.

The plagioclase is largely acid andesine, and as in the Mt. Bogana
andesites on Bougainville Island (Baker, 1949), the number of zoned-
twinned crystals is greater in hornblende-bearing than in augite
andesite. A few border crystals are welded-on to larger andesine
crystals. Zoning is commonly oscillatory normal, ranging from basic
to acid andesine. Continuous normal zoning is common, oscillatory
reverse zoning rare.

Small hornblende prisms are altered to hematite, but phenocrysts
occasionally have unaltered, pleochroic cores enveloped by broad
coronas of deuterically produced magnetite, more or less oxidized to
hematite.

Much of the augite differs from the general type encountered in
other Aitape andesites, in being yellowish-brown, non-pleochroic, with
dark brown rims surrounding occasionally zoned cores (figure 9C).
The zones extinguish at similar angles (34°) and in each crystal, are
marked by colour differences only. Lighter coloured, pale yellow, non-
zoned augite of a type characteristic of the Aitape volcanic rocks
generally, is uncommon in the hornblende-augite andesite.

Coloured, pleochroic rods of apatite up to 1 mm. in length, appear
fibrous due to regularly arranged inclusions. The pleochroism varies
from brown to pale purple in some crystals, pink to pale pink in
others.

The few vesicles in the rock are infilled with cryptocrystalline and
opaline silica.

Porphyritic Hornblende-Augite Andesite. A common type at
Solyaliu Hill, this rock has a microcrystalline groundmass with
numerous magnetite crystals, oligoclase-andesine laths in pronounced
fluidal alignment, abundant larger andesine laths, hornblende and
augite phenocrysts, pseudomorphs after hypersthene and a few infilled
vesicles. Fresh, strongly pleochroic cores of brown hornblende are
surrounded by broad, well-developed reaction coronas (figure 9D).
Smaller hornblende crystals are replaced by material like that in the

30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

coronas. Formed by deuteric alteration of peripheral regions of the
hornblende, the coronas consist of secondary, iron-stained fibres
arranged normal to the outer surfaces, with occasional unaltered and
partially altered magnetite grains. Some hornblende crystals with
coronas, show corrosion by groundmass constituents (figure 9D),
portions of which are in turn partially replaced by opaline silica and
chlorite. A few hornblende cores are entirely replaced, leaving only
punctured sheaths of alteration products around kernels composed partly
of groundmass constituents, partly of opaline silica with accompanying
delessite.

Figure 9. — Sketch Diagrams of Eeplaced and Zoned Minerals from the Aitape
andesites.

volcanic rocks of aitape, new guinea.

31

A. — Zoned andesine with lime-rich core replaced by opal. Outer and similarly

shaded zones extinguish at 11°, others at 32°. Zoning is discontinuous
oscillatory. Crystal 0-25 mm. long in porphyritic augite andesite from Solyaliu
Hill, Tumleo Island.

B. — Silica-replaced hypersthene crystal showing altered (?) olivine centre and

areas of crystalline and opaline silica. Globular and micro-botryoidal growths
of opal occur in the crystalline silica. Chlorite along cracks and cleavage directions
of the original hypersthene and small amount of calcite present (at bottom of
pseudomorph) . Dark patches are magnetite. Crystal 1-lmm. long from
porphyritic augite andesite at Solyaliu Hill, Tumleo Island.

C. — Dark brown rim of optically continuous augite, sharply delineated from

yellowish-brown core of augite having a slightly darker coloured central region.
Crystal 0-25 mm. across in hornblende-augite andesite from Tepier East Hill
(456').

D. — Reddish-brown hornblende with well-developed corona of fibrous secondary

mineral stained throughout with iron oxide. Corona broken through (see bottom
of sketch) by groundmass constituents and part of the interior of fresh horn-
blende replaced by opal and chlorite. Crystal 1-25 mm. long in porphyritic
hornblende-augite andesite from Solyaliu Hill, Tumleo Island.

E. — Hypersthene microphenocryst replaced by opal and fibrous delessite, and portion

subsequently replaced by calcite. Crystal 0*50mm. long in amygdaloidal
porphyritic augite andesite from Tepier Hill (488').

Key to

A. O. = altered (?) olivine.

CH. = chlorite.

DE. = delessite.

LI. = limonite.

OP. = opal, in part with chlorite.

Letters.

PI. = plagioclase (andesine).
CA. = calcite.

C.S. = crystalline silica.

HO. = hornblende.

M. — magnetite.

Phenocrysts of pale yellow augite have in parts reacted with the
groundmass to form narrow, but infrequent reaction coronas of pale
green hornblende.

Pseudomorphs of opaline silica after hypersthene are partially
invaded along cracks by chloritic matter. Some contain crystalline
and crypto-crystalline silica enclosing globular and micro-botryoidal
opal. A feature of the pseudomorphs is that practically all the apatite
content of the rock is located in them.

Andesine laths are fresh and typically the same as in other Aitape
andesites. Larger laths characteristically combine zoning and twinning
in the same crystal. They also contain more inclusions than usual of
chloritized and opalized earlier products of crystallization, often dis-
persed throughout the core regions which are surrounded by jackets
of clear andesine.

Opaline silica infills the majority of the few, small irregularly
shaped vesicles and is often fringed by delessite (cf. Richarz, 1910, pp.
422-423). Occasional vesicles contain crystalline silica with minutely
globular opal.

Porphyritic Augite-Hypersthene Andesite. This rock has only
been observed at Solyaliu Hill on Tumleo Island, where it forms a
volcanic neck (figure 6). Its groundmass is microcrystalline and a
little coarser than any other Aitape andesite, also being crowded with
grains and clots of magnetite. The weathered rock is pink to brown
from oxidation of practically all the magnetite in the groundmass.

Phenocrysts of augite up to 10 mm. across are more strongly
coloured greenish-yellow than in the majority of Aitape andesites.
They often contain numerous cubes of magnetite and occasional prisms
of hypersthene, indicating later crystallization than these minerals.

D

32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

I

Unenclosed hypersthene crystals smaller than the augite, are
relatively common as microphenocrysts. Few have been replaced by
delessite — opaline silica growths in areas where these secondary minerals
are locally well-developed. A few such pseudomorphs contain unreplaced
remnants of pleochroic hypersthene.

Vesicles are mainly infilled with delessite and a little opal. Andesine
phenocrysts, smaller than the augite phenocrysts, are numerous with
zoned-twinned crystals prominent. One such plagioclase phenocryst
with 56 narrow chemical zones, shows a range from acid to basic andesine
in discontinuous normal zoning.

Pyribole Andesite. Containing hypersthene, augite, hornblende
and xenocrystal biotite, this andesite is an uncommon component of the
Tepier Plantation agglomerates. A specimen from the lower levels of
Tepier East Hill (456') has a much clearer glassy groundmass than
most Aitape andesites, containing few microlites and few magnetite
grains. Magnetite forms prominent clots and cubes larger than nor-
mally, thus accounting for the distinct shortage of minute magnetite
grains in the glassy matrix. Perlitic cracks (normally due to rapid
cooling), are characteristically developed in the clear glass surrounding
the larger magnetite crystals, but not around any other minerals in this
rock.

Hypersthene, the more abundant pyroxene present, forms prisms
and occasional microphenocrysts. Augite is of similar size, but less
frequent. Unaltered hornblende prisms are common, while occasional
phenocrysts are twice the size of pyroxene microphenocrysts.

Numerous andesine crystals range from groundmass laths to crystals
of phenocrystal dimensions. Combined polysynthetic twinning and
chemical zoning is a common feature. Some zoned crystals range in
composition from acid labradorite to acid andesine. Several groups
of andesine crystals indicate growth by welding-on as in the Torokina
River andesites on Bougainville Island (Baker, 1949, p. 254). Small
plagioclase laths (originally attached border crystals), incorporated in
the structure of one larger, zoned crystal, are more or less optically
continuous with the larger crystal, and are made evident by small
refractive index differences along lines of attachment and by small
variations in extinction. One or two retain traces of zoning independ-
ently developed prior to welding-on.

All constituents of the pyribole andesite are unaltered. A few
minute rods of clear apatite and rare, small prisms of hornblende are
distributed at random in some of the andesine crystals. Vesicles are
scarce and infilled with delessite.

The pyribole andesite contains rare clots of hypersthene-hornblende-
magnetite and occasional clots of xenocrystal biotite. Accompanying the
biotite clots are apatite and iron ore minerals. One coarse-grained clot,
consisting of biotite attached to oligoclase, evidently represents a small
inclusion of the country rock through which the andesite was emitted.

In contact with oligoclase, the biotite was protected from attack by the
host lava, but in contact with andesite groundmass, reaction fringes
composed of small, colourless plates and prisms of indefinite character
were formed. One embayed xenocryst of biotite, surrounded by a dis-
continuous reaction zone, is embedded in a pale violet-grey, weakly
birefringent, fibrous matrix, alien to the enveloping groundmass con-
stituents of the andesite and with a crude radial arrangement. Along
directions of elongation of the fibres, are many slender threads of iron
ore minerals.

VOLCANIC ROCKS OF AITAPE, NEW GUINEA.

33

Elsewhere in the Tepier Plantation area, as in the 120' high cliff
of andesitic agglomerate 5 to 8 chains inland from the present shore-
line, in the north-eastern portion of the outcrop, pyribole andesite has
a rather more dusty, glassy base. The primary mineral content is of the
same order of abundance and the mineral species are generally similar,
even to the biotite xenocrysts with reaction borders as in the Tepier
East Hill (456') pyribole andesite.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE ANDESITIC EOCKS.

Analysed andesites from the Aitape district (Richarz, 1910, p. 445)
are listed in table III and compared with average andesites from
several localities and with biopyribole andesite of recent origin in the
Goropu Mountains of South-east Papua (Baker, 1946).

TABLE III.

l

2

3

4

6

SiOa

59-39

54-02

55-83

59-3

60-8

ai2o8

16-73

14-82

16-23

16-6

17-3

Fe203

5-03

7-12

nil.

3-1

2-9

FeO

1-60

2-67

4-13

3-5

2-5

CaO

6-98

9-07

7-87

6-3

5-5

MgO

3-48

5-64

7-91

3-4

2-5

k2o

1-32

0-71

3-80

1-9

2-4

Na20

3-18

2-63

2-30

3-6

4-0

TiOa

0-72

1-60

114

0-7

0-6

MnO

0-10

tr.

0-11

0-1

0-1

h3po4

tr.

tr.

n.d.

0-2

0-2

h2o

1-52

1-92

101

1-3

1-2

Total

100-05

100-20

100-33

100-0

100-0

Key to Table III.

1. — Hornblende andesite, Tumleo Island, Aitape (anal. E. Ludwig — see Eicharz,

1910, p. 445).

2. — Augite-hyperstliene andesite, Tumleo Island, Aitape (anal. E. Ludwig — see

Eicharz, 1910, p. 445).

3. Biopyribole andesite (lapilli), Goropu Mountains, South-east Papua (anal.

F. F. Field — see Baker, 1946, p. 23).

4. — Mean of twenty analyses of hypersthene and augite andesites (Osann —

Bosenbusch, “ Elemente der Gesteinlelire ” (1923), p. 409, Stuttgart:
E. Nagele).

5. — Mean of eighteen analyses of biotite and hornblende andesites (ibid.).

The Ti02 in column 1, table III, is ascribed by Richarz (1910) to
titan-rich hornblende and the Ti02 in column 2, table HI is regarded
as being mostly in magnetite. However, examination of a polished
surface of porphyritic augite-hypersthene andesite from Tumleo
Island under a 1/10 PI. oil immersion lens, does not confirm the
observations of Richarz. Among the opaque minerals are abundant
grains of hematite, and in occasional of these grains are narrow lamellae
of ilmenite. The hematite is pseudomorplious after magnetite and some
of the Ti02 of the analysis is ascribed to the exsolved ilmenite lamellae.
The remainder of the Ti02 is accounted for by the presence of minute
crystals of foxy-red to honey-yellow rutile, so small as to be only
detectable under the oil immersion lens and scattered throughout the
rock. In hornblende-augite andesite from this area, the Ti02 is not
due to titan-rich hornblende as concluded by Richarz, but arises from

34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

the presence of small rutile grains, numerous micrographic inter-
growths of rutile and hematite and occasional granular intergrowths
of ilmenite and hematite, the hematite in the intergrowths being
pseudomorphous after magnetite.

The chemical composition of the hornblende andesite (table III,
column 1) closely approximates the mean composition of twenty hypers-
thene and augite andesites (table III, column 4), but is slightly lower
in silica, alumina and total alkalies and a little richer in iron, lime
and magnesia than the average of eighteen biotite and hornblende
andesites (table III, column 5). Richarz (1910) regarded the horn-
blende andesite from Tumleo Island, Aitape, as chemically similar to
andesites from Rincon de la Vieja, Costarica and from Tuscan Buttes,
Lassen ’s Peak region, California. This is of some interest in view of the
comparable character, chemically, of basalts from California and basalt
from Pultalul Hill, Aitape, and indicates that both the andesitic and the
basaltic suites in these widely separated Circum-Paeific localities, thus
have much in common.

The Tumleo Island andesites typically have lime in excess of
magnesia and soda in excess of potash, the normal for1 andesites
generally (cf. averages in table III, columns 4 and 5). Total iron
is rather higher in augite-hypersthene andesite (table III, column 2)
than usual, alumina a little lower. The residual glass forming the
groundmass of the andesites, is evidently enriched in potash, since
soda would have been used up in development of the andesine laths.
The excess silica over and above the requirements of the silicates in
the andesites, lies occult in the groundmass glass, just as in the biopyri-
bole andesite lapilli (table III, column 3) from the Goropu Mountains,
South-east New Guinea.

EJECTED BLOCKS.

Richarz (1910, pp. 434 and 436) described inclusions in the Tumleo
Island volcanic rocks as (i) hornblende gabbro (see analysis, table II,
column 11), consisting of hornblende and plagioclase with some biotite,
magnetite and apatite, (ii) hornfels composed of biotite, magnetite,
bytownite, quartz and hypersthene, the rock being impregnated with
delessite with isotropic cores.

Other alien fragments ejected by the Lower Miocene volcano at
Solyaliu Hill on Tumleo Island are largely gabbroic rocks similar to
those of the basement complex as exposed in the Torricelli Mountains,
and some blocks from the Lower Miocene limestones exposed on the
northern flanks of these mountains. Gabbroic ejected fragments are
fairly common and up to 6" across. They consist of basic bytownite
to anorthite, diallage, hypersthene, dark green hornblende (as partial
rims to some of the pyroxenes), clots of magnetite and abundant opaline
silica with chlorite which in parts have developed around the ferro-
magnesian minerals. The formation of such secondary material in the
gabbroic rocks, evidently arose simply by virtue of these rocks being
ejected fragments in association with similarly altered andesite frag-
ments, the alteration having occurred in the late stages of Tertiary
voleanicity. Gabbroic rocks from the Torricelli exposure of the New
Guinea basement complex, remote from this Tertiary volcanism, were
sampled from Afua village (figure 10) on the Driniumor River, 20
miles south-east of Aitape. These show only the usual alteration such
as serpentinization, &c., and no development of opaline silica-delessite
associations as in the Neogene andesitic rocks.

VOLCANIC ROCKS OF AITAPE, NEW GUINEA.

35

Similar, typical gabbro alteration to that at Afua, is also shown
by gabbro and peridotite from near Babiang at the mouth of the
Dandrawad River (figure 10), but hornblende-liypersthene gabbro and
amphibolite from Matapau at the mouth of the Wakip River together
with diorite from Rocky Point and Niap, show no alteration.

ALTERATION OF THE AITAPE VOLCANIC ROCKS.

Most of the Aitape volcanic rocks have been partly altered, as
indicated in table IV. Alteration was partly late magmatic, partly due
to solfataric action and the effects of hydrothermal agencies such as
hot springs containing dissolved silica, and hot, circulating carbonated
waters. Some alteration (e.g. of magnetite) was due to atmospheric
agencies, some (e.g. of olivine and hornblende) to corrosive deuteric
action early in the magmatic history of the rocks.

Table XV shows that few Aitape volcanic rocks escaped alteration
of some sort. Those subjected to most alteration are (i) nearly all the
more basic types, particularly amygdaloidal basalts, and (ii) among the
intermediate types — characteristically the amygdaloidal andesite and
hornblende-augite andesite in Tepier Plantation and porphyritic horn-
blende-augite andesite on Tumleo Island.

Early deuteric changes in the Aitape lavas are represented by com-
plete alteration of olivine in basaltic types, development of reaction
coronas around hornblende in porphyritic hornblende-augite andesite
on Tumleo Island, complete alteration of hornblende in hornblende-
bearing augite andesite on Tumleo Island and in hornblende-augite
andesite from Tepier East Hill (456'), and production of occasional
narrow reaction rims around a few augite crystals in porphyritic horn-
blende-augite andesite on Tumleo Island.

Late magmatic, evidently solfataric and hydrothermal alteration
is represented by the infilling of vesicles with opaline silica, chloritic

36 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

products (including delessite) and later calcite. Concomitantly pseudo-
morphs were developed where opaline silica, crystalline silica and
chloritic material selectively replaced hypersthene. Of rather later
development, are the occasional double pseudomorphs formed where
calcite replaced some of the opaline silica pseudomorphs after hypers-
thene. Throughout these changes, the majority of the felspars and
virtually all the augite remained unaltered.

Table IV.

Showing- Mineral Alteration of the Aitape Volcanic Rocks.

Mineral alteration
or introduction.

I

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

Albite and albite-oligoclase
developed

+

+

Felspars completely altered

+

Olivine completely altered

+

+

+

+

+

+

Secondary minerals in
amygdales

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Augite partially altered . .

+

+

Augite with reaction
coronas

+

Hornblende with' reaction
coronas

+

+

Some hornblende com-
pletely altered

+

+

+

Hypersthene completely
altered

+

+

+

+

+

Groundmass partially

altered

+

+

+

+

Magnetite altered . .

+

+

+

+

+

+

Biotite (xenocrystal)

altered

+

+

Escaped alteration

+ *

+

( + * indicates a little mineral matter introduced into a few vesicles.)

Key to Table IV.

1. — Amygdaloidal basalt, Lower Flow, 200' Rohm Point Hill.

2. — Basalt, 223' Rohm Point proper.

3. — Amygdaloidal basalt, Upper Flow, 270' Rohm Point Hill.

4. — Amygdaloidal basalt, St. Anna Plantation.

5. — Amygdaloidal basalt, cliff 200', Lapar Point Hill.

6. — Basalt, Pultalul Hill.

7. — Augite andesite, Solyaliu Hill, Tumleo Island.

8. — Porphyritic augite andesite, Solyaliu Hill, Tumleo Island.

9. — Amygdaloidal porphyritic augite andesite, Tepier East Hill (488').

10. — Hornblende-augite andesite, Tepier East Hill (456').

11. — Porphyritic hornblende-augite andesite, Solyaliu Hill, Tumleo Island.

12. — Porphyritic augite-hypersthene andesite, Solyaliu Hill, Tumleo Island.

13. — Porphyritic augite-hypersthene andesite (unweathered portion of volcanic

neck) Solyaliu Hill, Tumleo Island.

14. — Pyribole andesite, old sea clilfs, 120' high, Tepier Plantation, north-eastern

end of eastern outcrop.

15. — Pyribole andesite, lower levels, Tepier East Hill (456').

VOLCANIC ROCKS OF AITAPE, NEW GUINEA.

37

It is uncertain whether the formation of the soda-rich amygdaloidal
types by soda replacement of lime in the transition of basic to albitic
felspar in the earlier-formed, more basic lavas at Aitape, occurred at
this or an earlier stage. Undoubtedly this phase of lava alteration
occurred after the development of the primary minerals, as the albite
and albite-oligoclase are not primary in the sense that the lime-
plagioclase is primary. Neither are they secondary in the sense that the
opaline silica-calcite-delessite infillings of amygdales and replacements
of other minerals are secondary. The fact that augite remains fresh
in the soda-rich types, suggests that the albitized felspars have not been
formed by the action of external solutions on already consolidated
basalt, but more likely by reaction with a sodic fraction developed in
the magma, during the end phases of crystallization.

Replacement of the minute groundmass plagioclase laths in the
amygdaloidal basalt from 200', Lower Flow, Rohm Point Hill (table IV,
column 1), by crypto-crystalline material, is also a late secondary
development.

Changes due to ordinary processes of atmospheric weathering, are
evidenced by the alteration of magnetite to hematite and limonite,
both in the groundmass of some of the andesitic rocks and in the
coronas of marginally altered hornblende in the hornblende-bearing
andesites. The alteration to hematite may have commenced during
phases of metasomatie alteration.

The magnesia, lime and silica requisite for the formation of the
abundant secondary minerals — chlorite, delessite, calcite, opal, crypto-
crystalline silica and quartz, that form pseudomorphs and small veinlets,
infill vesicles and replace parts of the groundmass in the various Aitape
volcanic rocks, were evidently derived from the altered olivine and
partially albitized lime-felspars in the basalts.

COMPARISONS OF THE AITAPE VOLCANIC SUITE WITH
OTHER NEW GUINEA VOLCANIC AREAS.

Andesitic and basaltic rocks from various parts of British New
Guinea, vary in age from Tertiary to Recent. Specimens from (i)
Sogeri, north-east of Port Moresby, (ii) Dobodura, north-east of Mt.
Lamington, (iii) Goodenough Island and Urasi Island in the D’Entre-
casteaux Group, (iv) Kesup, four miles south of Madang and (v) the
Goropu Mountains near Collingwood Bay*, reveal various types of
basalts and andesites of Tertiary, Pleistocene and Recent age, with at
least two, possibly three marked periods of volcanic activity during the
Tertiary period.

D’Entrecasteaux Group. The more basic members of the Aitape
volcanic series bear little resemblance to the relatively young basaltic
rocks at Malafua Creek and Bolu Bolu on Goodenough Island in the
D’Entrecasteaux Group, south-eastern New Guinea (Baker and Coulson,
1948). At these localities, the flows are fresh, porphyritic olivine
basalts, sometimes iddingsitized and lacking the amygdales so charac-
teristic of the Aitape basalts, although some are vesicular in parts.

Many features of some of the andesites at Aitape, however, are
repeated on Urasi Island and the neighbouring islands of the Amphlett
Group (Baker and Coulson, 1948, p. 661), where hornblende andesites
are hypersthene-bearing as in so many of the andesitic volcanic rocks
erupted around the fringe of the Pacific Basin. They are likewise

* These localities are marked on figure 1.

38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

crowded with similarly twinned-zoned andesine crystals, have a micro-
crystalline groundmass that is in parts glassy and typically show
similar reaction coronas around the larger hornblende phenocrysts as
in the hornblende-bearing representatives of the Aitape andesites.
These coronas are similarly altered to form broad bands of limonite and
hematite. Porphyritic hornblende-augite andesite from Solyaliu Hill ,
on Tumleo Island, near Aitape, has many characteristics in common
with porphyritic hornblende andesite from the west side of Urasi Island.

Sogeri. The Upper Tertiary volcanic agglomerates from Sogeri,
north-east of Port Moresby, consist largely of blocks of porphyritic
olivine basalt up to 2 or 3 feet in size, averaging 9 inches and with
smaller constituents 1 to 2 inches across. All the component fragments
of the agglomerate appear to be volcanic, no ejected fragments of alien
rock types being noted. The fragments are not particularly vesicular
and there is a notable absence of fine ash constituents. The most
common components are basaltic rocks that have little, if any, resem-
blance to the Aitape basalts, but among these components, occur
occasional fragments of pyribole andesite not unlike the Aitape pyribole
andesite.

Dobodura. Hypersthene andesite, augite-hypersthene andesite,
pyribole andesite, hornblende andesite and hornblende-augite andesite
represented among volcanic pebbles derived from the Mt. Lamington
Pleistocene volcanics and collected from the Dobodura airstrip area,
are unlike the similarly named varieties of andesite at Aitape in several
respects. They are coarser-grained, having larger phenocrysts of
pyroxene, amphibole and felspar in rather coarser groundmasses. There
are a few similarities, however, in that the Dobodura volcanic
rocks have incipiently developed hornblende reaction coronas in the
pyribole andesite, broad well-developed reaction coronas and completely
replaced hornblende microphenocrysts in the hornblende andesite and
occasional pseudomorphs of opal after hypersthene. The hornblende
reaction coronas and completely replaced hornblende microphenocrysts,
however, are little weathered and are largely magnetite rather than
hematite as at Aitape and in the islands of the Amphlett Group.

Kesup. The Kesup volcanic rocks are waterworn pebbles from the
ford over the Gum River, four miles south of Madang. They were
presumably derived ‘from the Lower Miocene volcanic rocks of the
Adelbert Mountains. Hornblende-augite andesite from Kesup has a
microcrystalline groundmass without any glass, and contains much
larger phenocrysts of hornblende and plagioclase than the Aitape
hornblende-augite andesite. No hornblende reaction coronas were
formed in the Kesup example and groundmass andesine laths are
lacking. Small differences occur between pyribole andesite from Kesup
and Aitape, the Kesup specimen containing in addition a considerable
amount of quartz (mainly in the groundmass). If present in the Aitape
pyribole andesite, excess silica lies occult in the glassy groundmass.
The Kesup rock contains more numerous pleochroic apatite crystals.
Kesup andesites are more crystalline than Aitape andesites, but are
generally mineralogically similar to them, although opaline silica-
chlorite pseudomorphs after hypersthene are conspicuously absent at
Kesup.

Goropu Mountains. Pyribole andesites at Aitape bear little
resemblance to vesicular lapilli of porphyritic biopyribole (biotite,
augite, hornblende, olivine) andesite recently ejected in the foothills of
the Goropu Mountains (Baker, 1946). Aitape andesites are not as

VOLCANIC ROCKS OF AITAPE, NEW GUINEA.

39

basic and do not contain fresh or altered olivine. Where biotite is
present as in pyribole andesite from Tepier Plantation near Aitape,
it is xenocrystal in origin; the biotite in the Goropn rock is a primary
constituent of biopyribole andesite. Hypersthene has not been observed
in the Goropu Mountains andesitic lapilli, but is commonly present in
several of the Aitape andesites. The Aitape rock is not nearly as
vesicular as biopyribole andesite from the Goropu Mountains.

GENEEAL EEMAEKS ON THE YAEIOUS VOLCANIC SUITES.

The Aitape, Adelbert Mountains and Sogeri volcanic rocks are all
shown as Upper Tertiary on the geological sketch map of Eastern New
Guinea (Montgomery, Osborne and Glaessner, 1945). The Aitape .
and Adelbert Mountains volcanic rocks are Lower Miocene, while the
Sogeri volcanic rocks are generally considered to be Pliocene.

The Dobodura-Mt. Lamington volcanic rocks are shown as Pleisto-
cene on the geological sketch map of Eastern New Guinea, and the
Goropu volcano is historically recent (Baker, 1946). The petrographic
comparisons and contrasts between these various outcrops add nothing
new to the above age relationships. Mt. Lamington, however, re-erupted
violently during the early part of 1951, having apparently remained
dormant for a period beyond the legendary knowledge of the local
inhabitants. Eruption took the form of explosive activity, with the
production of nuees ardentes and much ash and gas, causing scorifica-
tion of the vent*.

Among the Aitape volcanic rocks, the andesites are more like some
of the younger volcanic rocks of the Mt. Lamington area and like those
of Urasi Island, but the basaltic types have no near counterparts
among basalts from the areas examined, being localized types verging
on basic andesites and becoming sodic in parts.

FORMATIONAL AND CRYSTALLIZATION HISTORY OP THE

AITAPE VOLCANIC ROCKS.

Volcanicity in the Aitape district commenced with an essentially
effusive stage and little associated explosive activity. Submarine flows
were extruded on to a sea floor of Tertiary sediments including lime-
stones containing tuffaceous material in parts. The time of extrusion
was presumably during the initial phases of the development of the
Neogenic-Quaternary Inner Volcanic Arc of the Bismarck Archipelago.
The site was the southern fringe of this arc, i.e. on the edge of the
north-eastern down-warped (Miocene) areas off the north-westerly
trending coastline of North-east New Guinea. The volcanic rocks com-
menced to form here soon after the initiation of the downward move-
ments in the formation of the Bewani Geosyncline (Beltz 1944, p. 1453).
Geosynclinal conditions resulted in the accumulation of considerable
thicknesses (15,000') of the Miocene-Pliocene deposits now constituting
the Neogene foothills on the northern flanks of the Torricelli Mountains,
part of which is shown in figure 10. During periods of limestone
formation towards the bottom of the geosynclinal sediments, volcanic
ash was emitted from time to time, and incorporated in the accumulat-
ing limestones, thus forming tuffaceous limestones (see Nason Jones,
1920-1929) which contain the interbedded Aitape lavas.

* These statements on the type of eruption are deduced from press reports

only.

E

40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

No doubt, the same phase of volcanicity along this arc, formed
the Upper Tertiary volcanic rocks of the Serra Mountains, the Adelbert
Mountains anjd the .Finisterre Mountains*. The latest phases of
volcanicity constitute the en echelon arcs extending from Kairiru Island
to New Britain (figure 2).

The evidence already set out shows that the earliest lava flows of
the Aitape volcanic suite were partly submarine and in parts somewhat
enriched in soda, and though they may not be true spilites in the
strictest sense of the term, portions are closely allied to albitized basalts.
Some of these lavas were evidently derived from a magma fraction
more basic and locally as rich or richer in soda than the later formed
magma fractions that produced the Aitape andesites (cf. tables II and
111). Such a fraction, however, was as basic, although richer in soda,
than the magma producing the associated more normal basalt flows at
Aitape.

Changes involving alteration of the lime-rich felspars in the
formation of spilitic rocks, are usually regarded as occurring at a late
stage in magmatic cooling history, and not subsequently to consolidation
in the generally accepted sense (cf. Hatch and Wells, 1926, p. 297).
Significant albitization of basaltic rocks by resurgent water has been
suggested by Daly (1933, p. 420), but the fact is not overlooked that
spilitic pillow lavas often show evidence of having been erupted through
wet sediments and solidified in the presence of abundant steam. Con-
siderable thicknesses of wet sediments had already accumulated in the
Bewani Geosyncline prior to the effusive stages of Lower Miocene
volcanicity.

The autolytic development of the soda-rich plagioclases in spilitic
pillow lavas, requires abundant volatiles, but the source of these
volatiles is difficult to prove at Aitape, where the partial soda-enrichment
of the basic flows is so localized among the limited amounts of basalt
emitted. Surging of soda-rich volatiles could possibly have occurred in
the rising magma below the level of active sedimentation, but the con-
clusion regarding the more fundamental question of the nature of the
magma in which such concentration could take place, is in agreement
with that of Daly (1933) and Eskola (1925), who hold that typical
spilites are deuteric products of ordinary basalts. Gilluly (1935) con-
cludes that spilites are not derived from an independent magma, that
the albitization is caused by hydrothermal solutions and that hydro-
thermal alteration is autolytic, closely following in time the consolida-
tion of the rocks. Sundius (1930) pointed out that British authors also
believe that spilitic rocks were altered by an autometamorphic (i.e.
autolytic) change, Na20 and C02 being retained in solution during
solidification of the magma, after which they acted upon the minerals
of the rocks; but the high Na20 content is regarded as a necessary
component of the original magma.

The evidence from the Aitape soda-rich basalts provides no excep-
tions to these ideas concerning the formation of spilites, and adds little
that is new to the problem. Throughout geological history, albitic
rocks of the spilite suite have characteristically developed in the geosyn-
clines (Holmes, 1927, p. 263), and the soda-enriched portions of the
Lower Miocene basaltic rocks at Aitape are no exception, being asso-
ciated with an Upper Tertiary geosyncline — the Bewani Geosyncline.

* These localities are marked on figure 1.

volcanic rocks of aitape, new guinea.

41

The Aitape basalts followed a normal order of crystallization, and
eventually gave place to augite-, hypersthene- and hornblende-bearing
andesites in the later stages of eruptivity. This association is similar
to the relationships of spilites and andesites in the Arenig centre of
Ordovician lavas in North Wales, and as propounded for this area
(see Hatch and Wells, 1926, p. 438), likewise in the much younger
volcanic suite of the Aitape district in New Guinea — the change in
facies of the volcanic products from sodic (spilitic) to calc-alkaline
(andesitic) types, goes hand in hand with the fact that locally, the
volcanic materials built up above sea level. By this time, the nature of
the eruptivity at Aitape had become essentially explosive, forming the
thicker deposits of andesitic agglomerates. The constituents of the
mixed assemblage of eject amenta in the agglomerates, and the associated
andesitic lava flows, represent various phases of minor differentiation
in a magma that had passed from basic to one of intermediate composi-
tion. Products of andesite of several mineralogical types were built up
to greater thicknesses than was obtained by the essentially effusive
basaltic phase. Evidently submarine explosive activity had occurred
before and continued afterwards, but to lesser extents and under
deeper water conditions, thus accounting for the presence of tuffaceous
material incorporated within the marine limestones (tuffaceous lime-
stones) that are recorded by Nason Jones (1920-1929) as being inter-
bedded with Aitape volcanic rocks.

The order of formation of the several types of andesites is not
clear from the field evidence, and it is only certain that the last to
form was the volcanic neck of porphyritic augite-hypersthene andesite
at Solyaliu Hill on Tumleo Island. Petrological evidence indicates that
in the other andesites, hypersthene crystallized after the primary acces-
sory minerals magnetite and apatite, but prior to augite and plagioclase.
Some of the augite crystallized after the hypersthene, then followed
hornblende, then the rest of the augite and then much of the plagioclase
felspar. It would thus appear that most hypersthene-bearing andesites
were among the earlier-formed products of the andesite suite at Aitape,
although the volcanic neck rock at Solyaliu Hill which is hypersthene-
bearing, was evidently the last andesite emitted from Tumleo volcano.

The evidence accrued from this investigation, shows that at various
times and for various reasons, parts of the crystallized fractions of the
andesitic magma were out of equilibrium with the enclosing melt, and
the process of crystallization did not follow a normal sequence of events
as in the basaltic phase. There is evidence of the probability of at least
two periods of hypersthene formation — one in the early stages and one
in the final stages of andesitic volcanicity. Oscillation from wet to dry
conditions of crystallization seems to be indicated by the formation
of some of the augite after crystallization of the normal intermediate
variety of hornblende, and by the development of coronas containing
hornblende around occasional of the earlier-formed augite crystals.
Felspar formation occurred in marked phases due to changes in equilib-
rium at various stages, resulting in a final mixed assemblage of laths,
microphenocrysts and phenocrysts with considerably divergent types
of combined chemical zoning and twinning, and with variations in
the nature and amount of earlier crystallized mineral inclusions.

The distribution and frequency of occurrence of the zoned and
twinned plagioclase felspars (chiefly an desine) of phenocrystal and
microphenocrystal dimensions in the andesitic rocks of Aitape, are
indicated in Table V.

42

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Table V.

Zoned-Twinned Plagioclase Felspars in the Aitape Andesites.

No.

Andesitic Rock.

Twinned-

Zoned

Felspars.

Zoned,

Non-Twinned

Felspars.

Twinned,

Non-Zoned

Felspars.

Other

Zoned

Crystals.

1

Augite andesite

common

occasional

very few

augite

2

Porphyritic augite

andesite

common

common

few

3

Amygdaloidal por-
phyritic augite

andesite

common

few

occasional

4

Hornblend e-a u g it e
andesite

abundant

few

few

augite

5

Porphyritic hornblende-
augite andesite

occasional

very few

common

6

Porphyritic augite -

hypersthene andesite

common

occasional

common

7

Pyribole andesite

occasional

abundant

none

Hornblende remained unaltered in some of the andesite fragments
forming the agglomerates, but reaction coronas were developed around
it and some crystals entirely replaced in other andesite fragments from
the same locality. These unaltered, partially altered and completely
altered hornblende crystals point to derivation during varying condi-
tions in the magma, probably largely in the crater and conduit magma.
The alteration apparently arose during effusive phases, when different
levels of either the conduit or the cupola region were being tapped
and added to the crater magma, where variations in the steam and
water content were prevalent. Parts where the hornblende remained
in equilibrium with the enclosing melt, were evidently free of excess
active reacting materials, so that unaltered hornblende crystals could
persist. Other parts were in a state of non-equilibrium as between
hornblende and enclosing melt for a time, so that the fringes of the
crystals were altered to produce reaction coronas surrounding fresh
cores. Completely altered hornblende crystals in other andesitic frag-
ments from the agglomerate, indicate origin in parts where volatiles
were in greater concentrations for longer periods prior to ejection at
the surface. Hornblende alteration occured after some of the andesine
had crystallized, for where small hornblende crystals are included in
the andesine, they remain unaltered, whereas unprotected hornblende
crystals in the same rock were subjected to considerable deuteric
alteration.

The Mg, Ca, A1 and Si content of these deuterically altered horn-
blende crystals was in parts wholly, elsewhere partially abstracted
during the process of alteration. The iron content was precipitated
as abundant grains of magnetite, sometimes as fringes forming the
bulk of the reaction coronas, sometimes distributed throughout the
original hornblende crystals to form pseudomorphs of magnetite.

The greater stability of the augite throughout the phases of horn-
blende alteration enabled it to withstand attack by surging volatile com-
ponents during (and subsequently to) effusion. Only rarely does the
augite show evidence of narrow reaction borders developing.

Rapid crystallization of the residual molten portions of the various
fractions of the andesitic magma, in positions near the earth’s surface,
led to the formation of a glassy groundmass in many and a crypto-
crystalline to micro-crystalline groundmass in a few of the andesitic
rocks.

VOLCANIC ROCKS OF AITAPE, NEW GUINEA. 43

Especially in the basalts (which were more vesicular than andesites
at Aitape), but also to some extent in the andesites, subsequent altera-
tion of solidified portions of the lavas by hydrothermal (possibly
juvenile) solutions, led to selective mineral replacement and ultimate
precipitation of newly formed products such as opal, crypto-crystalline
silica, crystalline silica, calcite and delessite. The porphyritic augite-
hypersthene andesite on Tumleo Island and the pyribole andesite at
Tepier Plantation west of Aitape on the mainland, show no effects of this
phase of alteration of the andesitic lavas, (c.f. table IV), even horn-
blende remaining unaltered. This, and the fact that field evidence
indicates that porphyritic augite-hypersthene andesite was the last
volcanic rock emitted in this area, all point to a cessation of the
evolution of active hydrothermal waters in these parts, and conse-
quently, cessation of selective mineral replacement, some time prior
to the final emission of solid volcanic products in the Aitape district.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The author is indebted to Professor E. S. Hills for the use of
laboratory facilities in the Geology Department of the University of
Melbourne during examination of the Aitape rocks. Dr. A. B. Edwards
and Mr. J. N. Montgomery have rendered much helpful criticism and
advice during investigations of the rocks and preparation of the manu-
script. Analyses of the Aitape basalts were carried out in the chemical
laboratory of the Mineragraphic Investigations Section, Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organization.

REFERENCES.

Baker, G., 1946. Preliminary Note on Volcanic Eruptions in the Goropu Moun-
tains, Southeastern Papua, during the period December, 1943, to August,
1944. Journ. Geol., 54, 19-31.

Baker G., 1949. Note on Volcanic Rocks, with special reference to Plagioclase
Felspars from Mt. Bogana, Bougainville Island, Solomon Islands. Trans.
Amer. Geopliys. Union, 30, 250-262.

Baker, G. and Coulson, A., 1948. Metamorphic and Volcanic Rocks from the
D ’Entrecasteaux Islands. Trans. Amer. Geopliys. Union, 20, 656-663.

Beltz, E. W., 1944. Principal Sedimentary Basins in the East Indies. Bull.
Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, 28, (10), 1430-1454.

Benson, W. M., 1915. The Geology and Petrology of the Great Serpentine Belt
of New South Wales, Part IV., The Dolerites, Spilites and Keratophyres
of the Nundle District. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 40, 121-173.

Daly, R. A., 1933. Igneous Rocks and the Depths of the Earth. McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York.

Eskola, P., 1925. On the Petrology of Eastern Fennoscandia, I, The Mineral
Development of Basic Rocks in the Karelian Formations. Fennia, 45,
No. 19, 1-93.

Fisher, N. H., 1939. Report on the Volcanoes of, the Territory of New Guinea.
Territory of New Guinea Geol. Bull., No. 2.

Gilluly, J., 1935. Keratophyres of Eastern Oregon and the Spilitic Problem.
Am. Journ. Sci., 29, 225-252 and 336-352.

Hatch, F. R. and Wells, A. K., 1926. The Petrology of the Igneous Rocks.
Allen and Unwin, London.

Holmes, A., 1927. Some Problems of Physical Geology and the Earth’s Thermal
History. Geol. Mag., 64, 263.

Macdonald, G. A., 1949. Hawaiian Petrographic Province. Geol. Soc. Amer.,
Bull., 60, 1541-1596.

44

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Montgomery, J. N., Osborne, N. and Glaessner, M. F., 1945. Geological
Sketch Map of Eastern New Guinea, prepared by Directorate of Research,

L. H.Q. Melbourne, from information supplied by J. N. Montgomery,
N. Osborne, and M. F. Glaessner. Drawn and reproduced hy L.H.Q.
Cartographic Coy., Austr. Surv. Corps., 1945.

Nason Jones, J., 1920-1929. Anglo-Persian Oil Co. Geol. Surv. — “The Oil Explora-
tion Work in Papua and New Guinea,” 8-

Osann, A., and Rosenbusch, II., 1923. Elemente der Gesteinlehre. Erwin
Nagele, Stuttgart.

Raggatt, H. G., 1927. A Geological Reconnaissance of part of the Aitape District,

M. T.N.G. Proc. Boy. Soc. Queensland, 40.

Rioharz, S., 1910. Der Geologische Bau von Kaiser Wilhelms-Land noch dem
heutigen Stand unseres Wissens. Neues Jahrh., 29, 406-536.

Scott, B., 1950. The Petrology of the Volcanic Rocks of South East King
Island, Tasmania. Proc. Boy. Soc. Tasmania, 113-136.

Sundius, N., 1930. On the Spilitic Rocks. Geol. Mag., 07, 1-17.

Van Bemmelen, R. W., 1939. The Geotectonic Structure of New Guinea. Die
Ingenieur in Nederlandscli-Indie, Yaarg. 6, No. 2, 4, 17-28.

Washington, H. S., 1917-1918. Professional Paper No. 99, TJ.S.A. Geol. Survey.

Wells, A. K., 1923. The Nomenclature of the Spilitic Suite, Part II. Geol. Mag.,
60, 62-74.

Vol. LXIV., No. 3.

45

THE IDENTITY OF SPADELLA MORETONENSIS
JOHNSTON AND TAYLOR.

By J. M. Thomson, C.S.X.R.O., Division of Fisheries, Cronulla, N.S.W.
( Received 25th November, 1952; issued separately, 22nd March, 1954.)

The benthic genus Spadella is not so well known as the more
pelagic chaetognaths. The first record of the genus in Australia was the
description by Johnston and Taylor (1919) of Spadella moretonensis
from a single preserved specimen collected at low water mark at
Caloundra, Moreton Bay. Mawson (1944) recorded three species of
the genus, two of them new, from material dredged in water from 70
to 100 metres deep off the southern New South Wales coast. , Thomson
(1947) recorded Spadella cephaloptera (Busch) from one specimen
taken in a vertical plankton haul in 20 metres inshore off Port
Hacking.

Recently specimens of a species of Spadella were found to be
abundant amongst the eel-grass {Zoster a marina) in various parts of
Moreton Bay, including the type locality of Spadella moretonensis.
The species is very common on the mud-flats at Dunwich, Stradbroke
Island. Specimens were kept alive for some time in aquarium jars
enabling a more detailed inspection of the animals than was possible
for Johnston and Taylor. The species was determined to be Spadella
cephaloptera (Busch) 1851.

The measurements of 60 specimens are summarised in the
following table: —

Length

ram.

Tail

%

Hooks

no.

Ant.

teeth

no.

Post

teeth

no.

IV.

Maturit’

III.

y stages.

II.

I.

6-7

52-55

9-10

3-5

0-1

%

100

%

%

%

6-6

50-54

8-10

2-4

0-1

20

80

4-6

50-54

7-9

2-4

0-1

10

80

10

3-4

50-53

7-9

2-4

0-1

20

80

2-3

50-52

7-8

2-3

0-0

100

The maturity stages are distinguished as in Thomson (1947).

Specimens are short and robust. There is one pair of lateral fins
the membranes of which pass around the seminal vesicles to merge with
those of the tail fin. Anterior origin of lateral fins varies from a little
in front of the receptaculum seminis on trunk segment to immediately
behind lateral insertions of transverse septum. This level is anterior
to anus which is anterior to the median portion of transverse septum
and posterior to lateral insertions (figure 1). Both lateral and tail fins
are rayed except for membranes which pass around the seminal
vesicles. Tail fin spatulate rather than broadly rounded as in pelagic
chaetognaths.

Hooks 7 to 10., anterior teeth 2 to 5; posterior teeth usually
absent. Hooks or seizing jaws slender, with shaft bearing a spiral
pattern, cutting edge smooth, point of hook sharp. Point inserted rather
less than a quarter of its length into shaft. Anterior teeth rather long,
slender and twisted. Posterior teeth when present, short and squat.

F

46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Corona ciliata somewhat variably shaped but always situated in
neck region. Usually oval in shape with long axis transverse to long
axis of body. Posterior margin of corona generally hollowed inwards.

Collarette well defined, commencing at anterior end of head ;
widest and most prominent in neck region, but extending to the
receptula. Smaller specimens have a pair of prominent tentacles
laterally on head at about level of eyes. These tentacles are not
readily seen as they can be folded into slight grooves on the head.
A pad of minute papillae is present antero-laterally each side of
mouth.

Ovaries extend about two-thirds of length of trunk. In ripe
condition, 3 to 10 large eggs are apparent. Seminal vesicles and
receptula reniform in shape. Ventral transverse musculature present
throughout trunk, prominent anteriorly.

As Yosii and Tokioka (1939) reported for Japanese specimens,
the number of posterior teeth is fewer than that recorded for
European specimens. This seems to be a common feature of several
species which are present both in the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans
(see Johnston and Taylor (1919), Tokioka (1940) and Thomson (194/)).
This difference cannot be accounted as having specific value. The
complete absence of posterior teeth has not been recorded for European
specimens, except by Moltschanoff (1909) for his Spadella parvula .
John (1933) figured and mentioned in the text only one row (the
anterior) in his description of specimens from the Plymouth region.

The spiral pattern of the shaft of the hooks has been recorded by
Yosii and Tokioka (1939), but has not been mentioned by observers of
Atlantic Ocean specimens. The short denticles on the cutting edge of
the hooks reported by Ritter-Zahony (1911) are not apparent in the
Moreton Bay specimens. Both John (1933) and Yosii and Tokioka
(1939) record the cutting edge as smooth and sharp.

According to Ritter-Zahony (1911) the anterior teeth are long,
slender and twisted along their length as described here. Yosii and
Tokioka do not comment on this point, but their figure shows this
condition. On the other hand, John (1933) in his detailed study of
the species stated that the teeth are small, conical structures with
pointed tips. Possibly this is a matter of terminology or of experience
with the phylum, for John’s figures show the teeth as relatively large
for a chaetognath.

In life, the transverse septum between trunk and tail is directed
posteriorly in the median line so that the anus opens posterior to the
lateral insertions of the septum. However, in preserved specimens the
gut appears to contract and the septum apparently is carried forward
to the position figured by Johnston and Taylor (1919) and Yosii and
Tokioka (1939). This may account for the doubt as to whether the
lateral fins commence anterior to the tail segment, although in the many
specimens examined from Moreton Bay the origin is variable. The
collarette merges into the anterior end of the fin, making the rays
difficult to detect. However, of the 60 specimens examined, 21 had the
lateral fins commencing in front of the receptula seminis on the trunk
segment, whereas in 39, these fins commenced on the tail segment
immediately posterior to the septum. Where the insertion is anterior
to the septum, this small, anterior portion does not flare more widely
as in Spadella schizoptera.

THE IDENTITY OF SPADELLA MOEETONENSIS.

47

Figure 1. Spadella cephaloptera. Dorsal view.

a. anus; c. collarette; c.c. corona ciliata; e. eye; j. books; l.f. lateral fin;
o. ovary; p. sensory papilla; r.s. receptaculum seminis; s. trunk-tail septum;
s.v. seminal vesicle; t. tentacle; t.f. tail fin.

48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The distribution of the collarette is identical in Moreton Bay
specimens with European examples. Johnston and Taylor (1919) were
apparently misled by the remarks of Ritter-Zahony (1911a) “Collerette
schon vor dem Halse beginnend, am breitesten in der Gegend der
Corona, dann rasch sich verschmalernd, aber bis an die Mundung
der Receptacula, also fast fiber den ganzen Rumpf reichend. ? ’ However,
in Ritter-Zahony ’s terminology “Rumpf” means the trunk segment,
not the whole body.

The distinction made by Johnston and Taylor (1919) between the
corona shape of Spadella cephaloptera and S. moretonensis is not of
any significance because of the great variability in the outline of this
structure. This has been commented on previously by John (1933)
and Yosii and Tokioka (1939). Giard (1874) and Johnston and Taylor
(1919) were in error in suggesting that the lateral tentacles reported
by previous observers were foreign organisms. All specimens under
3-5 mm. bear them. John (1933) stated that they can be found in
larger specimens retracted alongside the head, but careful examination
has failed to reveal them. No specimen over 5 mm. in length was
found to bear them.

Johnston and Taylor (1919) are probably in error in stating that
transverse muscles occur in the tail in moretonensis. Their diagnosis
was based on a solitary specimen, and there is no evidence from their
text or figures that it was sectioned. It is most difficult to determine
the presence of transverse muscle from external appearances. The
longitudinal muscles are transversely striated and the contraction of
the longitudinal band in the tail segment may cause superficial
transverse striations which have the appearance of transverse muscle
in external view (Yosii and Tokioka). Sectioning of Moreton Bay
specimens failed to reveal transverse musculature in the tail.

The Moreton Bay specimens adhere to the surfaces upon which
they rest by means of the adhesive papillae described by John. There
are no glands associated with the papillae; the adhesion is entirely
mechanical by the muscular creation of partial vacuua in the pits
between the papillae. According to John (1933), the adhesive papillae
occur only on the anterior third of the tail segment of adult
cephaloptera , but in the newly hatched larvae they are said to occur
only on the trunk and the head. The Moreton Bay specimens had
adhesive papillae on at least the posterior third of the trunk segment
as well as on the tail. Ritter-Zahony (1911, 1911a) and Kuhl (1938)
both say merely that adhesive papillae occur on the ventral epitheleum
without designating the limits of the adhesive area. Yosii and Tokioka
(1939) were in error in considering the two club-shaped bodies found
by Johnston and Taylor on the ventral surface of the posterior part
of the tail as adhesive organs. Most probably they would be foreign
bodies as suggested by Johnston and Taylor.

The lack of any clear difference between the specimens from
Moreton Bay and the descriptions of S. cephaloptera from the north
Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans leads to the conclusion that Spadella
moretonensis Johnston and Taylor is a synonym of Spadella
cephaloptera ( Busch ) .

THE IDENTITY OF SPADELLA MORETONENSIS.

49

REFERENCES.

Busch, W., 1851. Beobachtung uber Anatomie und Entwicklung einiger wirbellosen
Seethiere. Berlin.

Giard, M., 1874. On the position of Sagitta and on the convergence of types by
pelagic life. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (4) 16, 85-90.

John, C. C., 1933. Habits, structure and development of Spadella cephaloptera,
Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., 75, 625-696.

Johnston, J. H., and Taylor, B. B., 1919. Notes on the Australian Chaetognaths.
Proc. Boy. Soc. Qld., 31, 28-41.

Kuhl, W., 1938. Chaetognatha, Bronn’s Klassen. Ord. Tiereich, 4 (2), 1-226.

Mawson, P. M., 1944. Some species of the chaetognath genus Spadella from New
South Wales. Trans. Roy. Soc. South Aust., 68 (2), 327-333.

Moltschanoff, L. A., 1909. Die Chaetognathen des Schwarzen Meeres. Bull. Acad.
St. Petersh., Ser. 6, 1887-902.

Ritter-Zahony, R. V., 1911. Revision der Chaetognathen. Deutsche Sudpolar
Exped., 13 (5), 1-71.

Ritter-Zahony, R. V., 19H. Die Chaetognathen der Plankton-Expedition.

Planlcton Expedition, 2, 1-33.

Thomson, j. m., 1947. The Chaetognatha of South-eastern Australia. Counc.
Sci. Indust. Res. Aust., Bull 222, 1-43.

Tokioka, T., 1940. A small collection of Chaetognaths from coast of New South
Wales. Rec. Aust. Mus., 20 (6), 367-379.

Yosii, N., & Tokioka, T., 1939. Notes on the Japanese Spadella. Annot. Zool.
Jap. 18, 267-273.

Vol. LXIV., No. 4. 51

TWO NEW SPECIES OF DIPETALONEMA
( N EMATODA, F I LAR I O I DEA ) F ROM

AUSTRALIAN MARSUPIALS.

By M. J. Mackerras, Queensland Institute of Medical Research,

Brisbane.

(With Plate I. and nine Text-figures.)

(Received 14th November, 1952 ; issued separately, 22nd March, 1954.)

INTRODUCTION.

Many filariid worms have already been described from Austral-
asian marsupials, by Leidy (1875), von Linstow (1897, 1898, 1905),
Breinl (1913), Solomon (1933), Baylis (1934) and Johnston and
Mawson (1938a, 1938b). It was therefore rather surprising to find a
previously undescribed species in the common bandicoot, Isoodon
obesulus Shaw and Nodder, and another in the red-legged wallaby,
Thylogale wilcoxi (McCoy).

The taxonomy of this group of parasites is in an unsettled state.
Yorke and Mapleston (1926) founded a genus Breinlia for the species
which occurs in the possum, Trichosurus vulpecula, and which was
originally described as Filaria trichosuri by Breinl (1913). Solomon
(1933) placed the species from the tree kangaroo in this genus, but
later workers, including Baylis, Johnston and Mawson, and Chabaud
(1952) have regarded Breinlia as a synonym of Dipetalonema Diesing,
and for some years all the species from Australasian marsupials have
been assigned to this latter genus. The species described here have
therefore also been placed in Dipetalonema, though with some reserva-
tion, because the writer feels that the genus Breinlia may well be
revived in the future. Nothing, however, is yet known of the life
histories of these parasites. When some of these are elucidated, it
may be possible to group the species into natural assemblages.

DIPETALONEMA JOHNSTONI n. sp.

The adult worms were found loosely coiled in the subcutaneous
tissue of the anterior abdominal wall of the short-nosed bandicoot,
Isoodon obesulus. An examination of 33 individuals from various
localities in South Queensland showed six to be infected. The infected
individuals came from Mount Nebo and Mount Tamborine. Some
female specimens collected by Mr. R. Riek from the long-nosed
bandicoot, Perameles nasuta, also belong to this species. Usually there
were from 2 to 10 adult worms present; one individual, however, had
a heavier infection, about 25 worms being removed.

Types. — Holotype male, allotype female and a skin section showing
microfilariae have been deposited in the Queensland Museum.

Distinctive Features. — Very short and slender; oesophagus
uniform in width, vulva immedidately post-oesophageal ; tail ending
in four digitations; long spicule complex, short one relatively simple;
no gubernaculum.

a

52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Male. — Capillary in form, 20-32 mm. long by 0-14 mm. in maxi-
mum breadth. The cuticle is relatively thick and smooth except in
the posterior part of the body, where fine transverse striations appear.
These striae are most clearly defined in the spiral portion of the tail.
Each stria is ornamented with a row of minute, close-set, regular
bosses. Striae and bosses fade out in the cloacal region. The head
measures 0-12 mm. in diameter and is followed by a distinct neck,
0*1 mm. in diameter. No cephalic papillae nor oral chitinous structures
could be detected. The nerve ring lies about 0-28 mm. from the
anterior end. The oesophagus measures 0-7 to 0-9 mm. in length by
0-025 to 0-03 mm. in diameter. It may widen slightly from before
backward, but there is no definite division into two parts. The
posterior end of the body is coiled into a tight spiral of three or four
turns. The tail measures 0-14 mm. from tip to cloaca, and ends in
four minute digitations (Text-fig. 2).

The left spicule is long and slender, measuring 0-35 mm. in length
by 0-012 mm. in maximum breadth, which is at the proximal end.
It consists of a stiff, tubular, proximal portion about 0-18 mm. long,
which appears irregularly chitinised or roughened. There is then a
more flexible-looking part supported by two slender struts, which
seem to merge together to form the curved, needle-like distal portion
(Plate 1, fig. 3; text-fig. 2). The smaller, right spicule is 0-080 mm.
long by 0-010 mm. wide ; it is boat-shaped with the keel directed
dorsally. The distal end is bluntly spatulate. The ventral surface
appears to be grooved to accommodate the long spicule. There is no
gubernaculum. The cloacal papillae consist of two pairs of small
pre-anals, two pairs of minute ad-anals and two pairs of post-anals.
(These papillae are only shown on one side in text-fig. 2.)

Female.— Considerably larger than the male, measuring 45 to
70 mm. in length by 0-2 to 0-3 mm. in maximum breadth. The cuticle
is similar to that of the male, except that bosses are inconspicuous or
absent. The shape of the head and form of oesophagus are similar
to those in the male. The oesophagus measures 0-7 to 1-1 mm. in
length by 0-03 to 0-04 mm. in width. In some specimens the anus is
ill-defined and may not be patent. The ovarian tubes begin in the
posterior part of the body. The uteri are packed with well-developed
embryos. The uteri pass forward to a point about 2 to 3 mm. from
the anterior end, where they unite to form the vagina. This is a
muscular tube about 1 mm. in length; it leads through a muscular
bulb to the vulva, which opens in the immediate post-oesophageal
region about 1-1 to 1-5 mm. from the anterior end. There is a
distinct bulge at this point; opisthodelphys (Text-fig. 1). The tail
ends in four digitations as in the male. A pair of minute subterminal
papillae was detected in some specimens. The length from anus to
tip of tail is 0-145 mm.

Microfilaria. — These were not detected in blood films, but in
sections of the skin they were regularly found lying immediately
below the Malpighian layer (Plate 1, figs. 1 and 2).

Specimens from the uterus of the female measure 0-110 mm. to
0-120 mm. by 0-004 mm. The head is blunt, with two retractile spots
in Leishman-stained smears. The tail is pointed. The nerve ring is
0-025 to 0-03 mm. and the excretory pore 0-04 to 0-045 mm. from
the anterior end. No sheath was detected (Text-fig. 3). Specimens
found in thick, tangential sections of the skin are considerably longer.

TWO NEW SPECIES OF DIPBTAEONEMA.

53

Two perfect specimens measure 0-19 and 0-2 mm. in length respec-
tively, by 0-004 to 0-005 mm. in width. The head is blunt ; no
refractile spots were detected. The nerve ring lies 0-045 to 0-05 mm.
and the excretory pore 0-075 mm. from the anterior end. The anal
pore was not defined (Text-fig. 4).

Microfilariae have only been found in skin sections of those animals
which harboured the adult worms, and it is assumed they originated
from them. The differences in measurement may be due partly to
shrinkage in a dried film, but it seems likely that some growth had
also occurred. The positions of the nerve ring and excretory pore
are the same proportionally as in those from the uterus.

Taxonomic Notes. — The tip of the tail seems quite characteristic,
no other species being recorded with four terminal digitations. It
differs in size (being much smaller) from all the described species
except D. rarurn Johnston and Mawson, which is known only from
the female, D. dasyuri Johnston and Mawson, and D. capilliforme

Text-figs. 1-4. Dipetalonema johnstoni n. sp. : fig. 1, anterior end of female;
fig. 2, posterior end of male in ventro-lateral view; fig. 3, microfilaria from
uterus; fig. 4, microfilaria from skin; a.p., anal pore; ex.p. excretory pore;
i. intestine; l.sp., long spicule; n.r., nerve ring; o., oesophagus; s.sp., short
spicule; v. vulva; vag. vagina.

54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Baylis. In rarum the head bears four papillae and the tail two
subterminal papillae; the vulva is further back (3-55 mm.) than in
johnstoni n. sp. (1-1 mm.). In dasyuri the vulva is very much further
back, being 6 mm. from the anterior end; moreover, the spicules in
dasyuri are short and nearly equal. In capilliforme the females are
usually larger, about 140 mm. by 0-3 mm., than in johnstoni n. sp.
(about 50 mm. by 0-2 mm.), but the oesophagus is shorter and the
vulva nearer the anterior end.

I have named this species in honour of the eminent Australian
parasitologist, the late Professor T. Harvey Johnston of Adelaide.

DIPETALONEMA THYLOGALI n.sp.

The adult worms were found in the peritoneal and pleural cavities
of a red-legged wallaby, Thylogale wilcoxi, from Tamborine, South
Queensland.

Types. — Holotype male and allotype female have been deposited in
the Queensland Museum.

Distinctive Features. — Relatively short, slender worms; cephalic
papillae well-developed; with a chitinous ring at the base of the buccal
cavity; cuticle transversely striated; oesophagus distinctly divided into
two parts, vulva post-oesophageal; tail bluntly rounded; long spicule
complex, short one relatively simple; gubernaculum present.

Male. — A single specimen found in the mesentery measured 37 mm.
long by 0-2 mm. in maximum breadth. The cuticle is smooth anteriorly,
but fine striations appear in the mid-oesophageal region. They are
more pronounced in the middle of the body, appearing as regular
lines 0-005 mm. apart. Some irregular, minute, elongate bosses are
associated with the striae, and are best defined in the spiral region
of the posterior end. Both striae and bosses fade out in the cloacal
region. There is no neck, the width of the head end increasing
gradually from before backward. There is an outer circle of four,
moderately large, cephalic papillae, and an inner circle of smaller
ones, difficult to count. A chitinous ring is present at the base of the
minute buccal cavity. The oesophagus consists of a narrow anterior
portion, 0-44 mm. long by 0-03 mm. wide, and a longer, broader
posterior section, which is 1-2 mm. long by 0-05 mm. wide. The nerve
ring is about 0-21 mm. from the anterior end. The posterior part of
the body is coiled in a loose spiral of three turns. The bluntly
rounded tail measures 0-45 mm. from tip to cloaca.

The left spicule is 0-45 mm. long. It consists of a stiff, tubular
proximal portion 0-2 mm. long by 0-02 mm. in maximum diameter,
a shorter, more flexible-looking portion supported by two strong,
marginal struts, and a curved, needle-like distal portion about
0-19 mm. long. The right spicule is 0-11 mm. long. The proximal end
is expanded into two lobes which are less heavily chitinised than the
remainder. The distal end is rounded, spatulate. There is a small,
rectangular gubernaculum, 0-03 mm. in length, which is grooved on
the ventral aspect to accommodate the small spicule, which in turn
appears to support the long spicule (Text-fig. 9; plate 1, fig. 4). The
cloacal papillae are large; there are two pairs of pre-anal, one pair
of ad-anal (not shown in diagram) and four pairs of post-anal papillae,
the last pair being asymmetrically placed.

TWO NEW SPECIES OF DIPETALONEMA.

55

Female. — One intact and one broken specimen were studied.
Length 98 and 94 mm. by 045 mm. in maximum diameter. The
cuticle resembles that of the male, except that bosses are ill-defined
or absent. The head and conformation of the oesophagus resemble
those of the male. The anterior part of the oesophagus is 045 mm.
by 0-03 mm., and the posterior part 14 mm. by 0-07 mm. in width.
The anus is clearly patent. The nerve ring lies between 0-2 and
0-3 mm. from the anterior end. The ovarian tubes begin in the
posterior part of the body. The uteri contain microfilariae, and pass
forward side by side to within 4 or 5 mm. of the anterior end, where
they unite to form the vagina. This is thrown into coils before
opening to the exterior through a muscular bulb. The vulva is in
the post-oesophageal region, 2-8 mm. from the anterior end; opistho-
delphys. The length of the tail from tip to anus is 0-55 mm.
(Text-figs. 5 and 6).

Microfilaria. — Scanty microfilariae were found in smears taken
from blood clot around the heart. It should be noted that the lungs,
diaphragm and liver had been removed from the wallaby in the search
for hydatid cysts before the carcase was examined for filariae. At
least one mature female worm had been damaged, so that the presence
of microfilariae in blood films may have been an artefact. They were
not, however, found in skin sections. Measurements in Leishman-
stained films were : — Length 0-210 to 0-245 mm. by 0-007 to 0-008 mm.
in width. The head is rounded and the tail pointed. The nerve ring
is 0-05 to 0-06 mm. and the excretory pore 0-075 mm. from the anterior
end. The anal pore was not defined.

56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Taxonomic Notes. — This species appears to be nearly related to
D. robertsi Johnston and Mawson, but may be distinguished by its
smaller size; by the position of the vulva, 2-8 mm. from the anterior
end in thylogali n. sp., 6-5 mm. in robertsi ; by the smooth tail,
subterminal papillae present in robertsi; by the greater length of the
long spicule and the greater disproportion of the two spicules, left four
times length of the right in thylogali n. sp., only twice length in
robertsi.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

I wish to thank Mr. T. Lawton of Mount Nebo for several infected
bandicoots, and Mr. R. Riek for the wallaby, two infected bandicoots
and for material from other marsupials. I am indebted to Mr. G. Mack,
Queensland Museum, for identifying the marsupials.

SUMMARY.

Two new filariid parasites are described from marsupials from
South Queensland. Dipetalonema johnstoni n. sp. is described from the
subcutaneous tissue of the bandicoots, Isoodon obesulus and Perameles
nasuta; and Dipetalonema thylogali n. sp. from the body cavity of the
red-legged wallaby, Thylogale wilcoxi.

REFERENCES.

Baylis, H. A., 1934. On two Filariid parasites of marsupials from Queensland.
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 10, IB, 549-554.

Breinl, A., 1913. Nematodes observed in North Queensland. Rpt. Aust. Inst.
Trop. Med. for 1911, 39-40.

Chabaud, A. G-., 1952. Le Genre Dipetalonema Diesing 1861. Essai de

classification. Ann. de Parasit., 27, 250-285.

Johnston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M., 1938a. An account of some filarial
parasites of Australian marsupials. Trans. B. Soc. S. Aust., 62, 107-121.

Johnston, T. H., and Mawson, P.M., 1938b. Some nematodes from Australian
marsupials. Bee. S. Aust. Mus., 6, 187-198.

Leidy, J., 1875. On some parasitic worms. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 27,
17-18.

von Linstow, O., 1897. Zur Systematik der Nematoden nebst Beschcreibung
neuer Arten. Arch f. Mikr. Anat., 49, 608-622.

von Linstow, O., 1898. Nemathelminthen von Herrn Richard Semon in Australien
gesammelt. Semon ’s Forschungsreisen in Australien (V). Denk. Med.
Nat. Ges. Jena, 8, 469-471.

von Linstow, O., 1905. Helminthologische Beobachtungen. Arch. f. Mikr. Anat.,
66, 355-366.

Solomon, S. G., 1933. A note on a new species of Breinlia (Filariidae) from a
tree kangaroo. J. Helminth., 11, 101-104.

Yorke, W., and Maplestone, P. A., 1926. The Nematode Parasites of Vertebrates.
London, Churchill, p. 400.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

Dipetalonema johnstoni n. sp. — Fig. 1, vertical section of skin of bandicoot
showing microfilariae, x 192 ; fig. 2, high power view of another field, x 650 ; fig. 3,
posterior end of male.

D. thylogali n. sp. — Fig. 4, posterior end of male, g., gubernaculum ; p. 1. sp.,
proximal part of long spicule; s. sp., short spicule; t. 1. sp., tip of long spicule.

(Figs. 3 and 4 are at the same magnification; the small divisions in the scale
equal 0-01 mm.)

Proc. Roy. Sot

Plate I

a Q ’land., Vol. LXIV.,

No. 4.

3

Vol. LXIV., No. 5.

57.

MEMORIAL LECTURE.

PROFESSOR T. HARVEY JOHNSTON: FIRST
PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY IN THE
UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND.

By Dorothea F. Sandars, Queensland Institute of Medical Research
and Department of Social and Tropical Medicine, University of
Queensland.

(With Plate II.)

(Delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland ,

1st December, 1952.)

On 30th August, 1951, many of us, listening to the 7 p.m. National
News were shocked by the following announcement : —

“The death occurred in Adelaide this morning of Professor
Thomas Harvey Johnston, Professor of Zoology at Adelaide
University.

“Professor Johnston was one of the best known biologists
in Australia. He had won many high scientific awards for his
research work, particularly on parasites.

“Professor Johnston was Chairman of the Queensland
Prickly Pear Commission from 1912 to 1914; Chief Biologist
on the British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research
Expeditions from 1929 to 1931 ; and the author of more than
250 publications about Australian zoology. He was 69.”

So it was that Australia learnt of the loss that day of her senior
Professor of Zoology, so the world was told that there had passed one
of its leading parasitologists, and to many of us there came a deep
hurt in the realization that we had lost, not only a sound adviser and
ready fount of knowledge, but a very sincere friend.

Thomas Harvey Johnston was born in Sydney on 9th December,
1881. Of his ancestry I have discovered little, but one thing has
stood out in the minds of several of us, and that is his pride in
claiming forebears who had come from the north of Ireland. Harvey
Johnston was apparently a hard-working small boy at school, and
grew to become a very studious young man, whose career was marked
by one distinction after another. Matriculating at 15 years of age,
he joined the New South Wales Education Department, and winning
the Jones Memorial Scholarship, proceeded to the University. In
1902, Thomas Harvey Johnston commenced his University career at
the University of Sydney — a career that was to claim him for the
rest of his life. First he completed a Bachelor of Arts degree, and
in the last year of this course, while studying English III., he did
the first year requirements of a Science Degree. In 1906 he completed
the requirements for his Bachelor of Science degree, gaining second
class honours in Biology. During the same year he successfully
presented a thesis in Modern History on “The Puritan Period” for
a Master of Arts degree. Thomas Harvey Johnston had the degree

H

58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

of Bachelor of Arts conferred on him on 6th May, 1905 ; and at the
same ceremony on 27th April, 1907, both the degrees of Bachelor of
Science and Master of Arts. This in itself seems no small task, but
add the fact that from 1903-6 he was teaching at the Fort Street High
School and we see that here must have been a young man with
determination, enthusiasm and tireless energy — and yet with enough
spare time to woo and win for himself Miss Alice Maude Pearce,
whom he married on 1st January, 1907.

Along with other students, many of whom became well known,
Harvey Johnston received a very thorough training in Zoology under
the famous Professor W. A. Haswell. Even as early in his career as
this, Johnston was renowned for being a stickler for details, and was
always regarded as being the one of the group who could invariably
“ produce the facts.” A slim, serious and keen young man, he was
not, however, without a certain amount of fun, and very often in the
Zoology laboratory, when some innocent practical joke was discovered,
the comment would be heard, ‘ ‘ another of Harvey ’s tricks ! ’ ’

In 1907-8 he was a Lecturer in Zoology and Physiology at the
Sydney Technical College, where he added to his academic achieve-
ments by becoming, in 1908, an Associate (in Biology and Agri-
culture), and in 1910 a Fellow. In 1908 he was also the Assistant
Director of the Bathurst Technical College, New South Wales. In
1909, on the establishment of the Bureau of Microbiology in Sydney,
Johnston was appointed an Assistant Microbiologist to Dr. J. B.
Cleland. These years at the Bureau were both productive and
stimulating, and were to have a marked effect on the young man,
which persisted throughout his subsequent career in Queensland, and
probably to a degree throughout his later lifetime. Papers on parasitic
Protozoa and Helminths flowed from his pen ; papers written both by
himself alone and jointly with Cleland. To workers to-day, this rate
of production is alarming, but it must be remembered that here was
a young and vigorous team working in an almost untouched field.
The Bureau was newly established, and the young man was being
pushed continually to produce paper after paper; publications were
demanded of him, and he gave — but very often he expressed the
opinion that he did not have enough time to complete papers in the
manner that he would have liked. That sense of thoroughness, so
characteristic of him throughout his life, rebelled against this rapid
churning out of work.

Of the association with Dr. J. B. Cleland at the Bureau I can
do no better than to quote directly what Cleland himself recently
wrote to me of the period: “Our association there and again later in
Adelaide was a very happy one. Harvey Johnston had already shown
considerable interest in Parasitology, especially in the Cestodes. As
I had a very catholic interest in natural history and the scope of
activities of the new Bureau was very wide, we began to follow up
the parasites of our Australian mammals, birds, batrachians and fishes.
The birds were collected under licence and every possible use made
of these victims of scientific curiosity. The colours of the soft parts
were noted, the temperatures sometimes taken, measurements made,
blood smears prepared, feathers searched for Mallophaga, intestines
examined for worms and even in some cases the carcase was not
thrown away. I remember my wife being given the remnants of a
wonga or other pigeon, which had gone through such an overhauling,

MEMORIAL LECTURE: T. HARVEY JOHNSTON.

59

for a meal. The blood smears were stained and searched for
Haematozoa and the results of onr researches published in the journals
of the Linnean Society of New South Wales or the Royal Society
of New South Wales. In examining these blood smears we noticed
that the size of avian red cells varied considerably, being larger in
the more archaic families than in the Insessores ; in blood smears
from fishes, the sharks, &c., had larger cells than the bony fishes, and
seemed to lead on to the red cells of reptiles and then to those of
birds. Ceratodus had far and away the largest red cells. We collected
material wherever we went. On one trip to Kurnell on Botany Bay,
we went as far as to try cooking and eating the flesh of a Varanus
after searching it for ticks, cestodes, &c.”

This habit of not wasting the flesh of an animal investigated for
parasites persisted throughout Johnston’s lifetime; one of his later
students remembers, even as recently as 1948, that “It was Christmas
eve and the ‘Prof.’ had been examining a duck for parasites, then
carefully he wrapped up the body and took it home.” Professor
Cleland also referred to the contact they had had with Queensland’s
Dr. T. L. Bancroft who, again to use Cleland ’s own words, “was very
helpful to us, generously placing at our disposal blood smears and
parasites from birds, mammals and reptiles that he had collected in
Eidsvold. ’ ’

Meanwhile, this energetic young zoologist, besides producing some
twenty-five publications and part of the reports of the Bureau, had,
during 1909-10, found time to write a thesis on the cestodes, the group
of helminths that was essentially his greatest love throughout his
life. This thesis, ‘ ‘ Studies in Australian Cestoda, ’ ’ and an examination
for which he sat, gained for him a Doctorate of Science of the
University of Sydney, to which degree he was admitted on 1st May,
1911. The thesis was subsequently published in Records of the
Australian Museum, 1912, under the title “On a re-examination of
the types of Krefft’s species of Cestoda in the Australian Museum,
Sydney.” Johnston’s papers for this period are mainly to be found in
the journals of the Royal Society of New South Wales of which he
became a member in 1909, making five contributions in that one year,
and the Linnean Society of New South Wales, of which he became a
member in 1907. Many of these were on the blood parasites of native
animals, particularly fishes, reptiles and birds. And still he found
time during these years to indulge in outside activities, acting as chief
examiner for an ambulance branch and for the Royal Life Saving
Club.

On the establishment of the University of Queensland, Dr. Harvey
Johnston was one of the early appointees on the staff, being made
Lecturer-in-Charge of the Department of Biology. He could not take
up his appointment until June, 1911, the teaching within the newly-
formed department being done by Dr. Hamlyn-Harris. Of the arrival
of Dr. Johnston and his family in Brisbane, Dr. C. D. Gillies, one of
Queensland’s first students in Biology, has recalled the following: —

“It was about the middle of 1911 when Raymond Dart
and I called at ‘Menzies,’ George Street, to meet the Johnston
family. Fortunately, we found them in. Dr. and Mrs. Johnston
were a very pleasant, friendly couple, with two very healthy
looking small children of the romper stage. Johnston was a
slender man of medium height, obviously a student of some

60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

academic subject, very earnest, serious and full of enthusiasm.
At that time he had just been appointed to the lectureship in
Biology; the Professorship came later.”

The Biology Department was initially housed in what is now the
administration building of the University, in the rooms on the left on
entering the Main Hall. Teaching facilities were those of an embryonic
department, the blackboard was easel-type, the laboratory bench space
was improvised by having tables with holes cut along the middle to
allow slop buckets to be inset, and no water was laid on. It is
perhaps of interest to note that for the year 1911 the maintenance of
the Biology Department was £18 16s. 2d. The rest of the staff for
Biology was nominated as “One Laboratory Attendant (Boy).”

Those early years some of you will recall — my story is one pieced
together from memories of others. Again Dr. Gillies has recalled the
following of Dr. Johnston: —

“It was soon obvious that (a) he wanted us to understand
and fully appreciate his remarks, as he spoke slowly and very
distinctly to enable us to take down what he was saying, (b)
he was an enthusiastic man and did his best to impart some of
his enthusiasm to us. Johnston lectured down to the level of
the average student and didn’t parade his knowledge per
medium of vague but sonorous oratory. He made us realise
that Biology was essentially a practical study, so we had to
handle as many specimens as we could both in the laboratory
and in the field. He lavishly illustrated his remarks with
simple diagrams, frequently with the various systems contrasted
in vivid colours.”

Excursions became an essential part of the Biology curriculum,
and it was soon an established custom that a week in May was spent
at Caloundra and a fortnight in August somewhere further north,
usually on the Great Barrier Beef on Masthead Island, North-West
Island, &c. The organisation of any of these excursions, especially
in the days before modern transport, was no small matter. However,
Dr. Johnston always had everything arranged right to the last detail.
To go to Caloundra was more or less an adventure, first by train
to Landsborough, and then by coach or a high-wheeled motor carriage
to the township ; on some occasions Caloundra was approached by
the Koopa to Bribie Island and the trip completed by hired launch
from which dredging could be done. Mrs. Johnston and their two
small children, a .girl and a boy, always accompanied these excursions.

Meanwhile this young zoologist was receiving outside recognition,
being made a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London on
7th December, 1911, and a Fellow of the Boyal Microscopical Society
on 17th January, 1912. Then there came the opportunity that was
to establish his name permanently in the biological world. In
September, 1912, he was appointed Chairman of the Commission of
Inquiry, with Mr. Henry Tryon, to investigate means of control of
the spread of the introduced pest, prickly-pear, which had become an
economic problem. In 1912-14 they went on a world trip to undertake
the necessary investigation, and I am sure that there is much we do not
know that could be told of these two travellers. It is certainly
recognised that they did not fit easily into each other’s ways, and
apparently even to-day in America, Johnston and Tryon are still

MEMORIAL LECTURE: T. HARVEY JOHNSTON.

61

remembered as the “prickly pair.” One result of this trip was the
successful introduction of one species of cochineal insect, Dactylopius
ceylonicus, for the control of one species of pear, Opuntia monacantha.
It was this success which paved the way for the whole project to
be regarded favourably. Meanwhile, a laboratory where chemical
investigations were being carried out under the direction of Dr. Jean
White, had been established at Yulacca, and all specimens from the
Commission were forwarded to her. In 1914, Johnston and Tryon
published an account of the investigations they had made on their
world trip : ‘ ‘ Report of the Queensland Prickly Pear Travelling
Commission. ’ ’

Johnston’s interest in the Prickly Pear problem was not to wane
until well after his establishment in Adelaide, and he produced
numerous publications on the subject. He was appointed Controller
of the Commonwealth Prickly Pear Laboratories, and went on a second
world trip in 1920. He was seconded for this purpose until the end
of 1922 first from the University of Queensland, and then from the
University of Adelaide. The laboratory at Sherwood was established,
and an intensive plan of investigation in biological control undertaken.
In planning and guiding these researches it may perhaps be well said
that Professor Johnston launched the ship for biological control of
Prickly Pear, but as he himself said, before that ship came successfully
home to port, he had retired from command. The eventual success
of Cactoblastis and the control of Prickly Pear is common knowledge.
Perhaps it is not as well known that Cactoblastis cactorum was actually
introduced into Queensland by the Travelling Commission in 1914,
found to feed readily on the pest pear, but unfortunately it died out.
Again it was introduced from the Argentine in 1921, but again
without success. . (Johnston, Presidential Address: “The Australian
Prickly Pear Problem,” A.N.Z.A.A.S., 1923, p. 378.) It was in 1925
that this insect was at last successfully introduced with such dramatic
results.

For the 1912-14 Prickly Pear world trip, Dr. Johnston had
obtained leave of absence from the University of Queensland, provided
he could find a replacement for himself, and preferably a man ! This
temporary appointment was accepted by a young Melbourne graduate,
Miss Freda Bage. If Dr. Johnston had been responsible for nothing
else, by being instrumental in bringing Miss Bage to Queensland he
did the University of Queensland, the University Women’s College and
the State a very great service indeed.

Before he left, he had set the wheels in motion for a new depart-
mental building, which was to have been between the tennis courts
and the then Men’s Common-room (to-day, the Department of Agri-
culture). He met Miss Bage in Sydney, sketched these plans for
her, and gave her the impression, which he himself obviously must
have had, that the buildings would be ready for occupation on her
arrival. But not so; in point of fact that building was never erected.
By some machination beyond the control of those who were to occupy
and work in the new quarters, the small building he had designed
“acquired wings,” and transported itself to the top floor, above the
Physics Department, in the new brick building which suddenly
started to make its appearance. The original compact plan was simply
stretched to fit the new, much larger, and differently proportioned
space. The result was grotesque and impractical. But Miss Bage, in

62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

a very capable manner, took charge of the situation, wheedled the
plans from the powers that were, and redesigned the available space,
keeping as closely as possible to the original plans. On his return,
Dr. Johnston appeared to be disappointed in the unexpected change,
and probably never fully reconciled himself to the new building.
To-day his touch can still be seen in the original part of the depart-
ment— at the top of the stairs on the electricity switchboard, one
switch still bears the label, “Dr. Harvey Johnston,” and when I was
in the department, those of his catalogues that were still in existence
were in many ways the most reliable sources of information. He
recorded everything, even the tools, and it is typical that the museum
had both a card catalogue and a book catalogue!

In 1919, he received his professorship, being appointed as the first
Professor of Biology in the University of Queensland. This position
he retained until appointed to the Chair of Zoology in the University
of Adelaide in August, 1921.

All this while, scientific research had been continuing, and papers
were being published rapidly. As head of the new Biology Depart-
ment, he was continually consulted on all manner of economic
problems, such as sheep blowfly, cattle tick, or fish epidemics. Papers
on all these were published, as well as continued work on his beloved
helminths. Marine biology, and even many odd marine groups, also
found their place in the list of work being done. From 1911 until
1923, in collaboration with many of his students, he published, in
the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland alone, some thirty
papers. These all demonstrated his extremely wide range of biological
knowledge. Early in his career he revealed a remarkable capacity for
keeping his finger directly on the heart of every one of numerous
diverse problems under investigation. This characteristic he retained
until his death and thereby could maintain his wide zoological interest.
He guided through to publication the work of many young students,
and it is no doubt because of this, that we have inherited such a large
legacy of papers by “T. H. J. and ... ” Altogether, he pub-

lished alone, or with others, 299 papers. He kept a complete list of
these, which has been published in the Transactions of the Royal
Society of South Australia , volume 75, 1952.

During the period that he was in Queensland, there passed through
the hands of Professor Johnston many students who were later to
make their own mark, both in the scientific world and in other
spheres. Mention may be made of a few only of the most outstanding
of these: Professor R. A. Dart, late of the Department of Anatomy
and Anthropology, University of Witwatersrand, South Africa;
Professor 0. W. Tiegs, F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in the University
of Melbourne; Dr. M. J. Mackerras (nee Bancroft), now of the
Queensland Institute of Medical Research ; Air Vice-Marshal Reginald
Cassidy, R.A.F. ; Dr. O. Hirschfeld, now Deputy-Chancellor of the
University of Queensland, who is one of the many leading Brisbane
medical men, too numerous to enumerate, who were taught by
Professor Johnston.

In 1913, Dr. Johnston was awarded by the University of Melbourne
the David Syme Memorial Prize and Medal for Research, and he was
the first Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic Biology in the
University of Queensland. Characteristically, he also developed
interests outside his department ; he was President of the Royal Society

MEMORIAL LECTURE: T. HARVEY JOHNSTON.

63

of Queensland in 1915-16, delivering an address: “A Census of the
Endoparasites recorded as occurring in Queensland, arranged under
their Hosts.” He served as a Council member every year that he was in
Brisbane, being Librarian for three years. As President of the Queens-
land Field Naturalists’ Club for 1916-17, he delivered an address:
“Ecological Notes on the Littoral Fauna and Flora of Caloundra,
Queensland.” This is a most important publication, and to-day it is
still probably the best Queensland paper on marine ecology yet
published.

In 1922, he was appointed to the Great Barrier Reef Committee,
which had just come into being. He was one of the foundation
members, being nominated as a representative of the University of
Adelaide. Although a member until his death, he only attended one
meeting, the third one of the Committee, on 3rd November, 1922.

In. 1922, Mr. 0. W. Tiegs, one of Johnston’s leading Queensland
students, went as his deputy to Adelaide until he himself could take
up this new post. Tiegs stayed on for a further two years before
proceeding to Melbourne, where he now occupies the Chair of Zoology.
Apparently it took Johnston some time to settle into his new position;
he was for a while seriously ill with pleurisy and had to take things
easily. This new post meant working up once more a new department,
but by now, perhaps, he knew what some of the pitfalls, some of the
heart-aches attached to such a task, would be. Again, the Zoology
Department was housed on the top floor of a three-storied building,
the Darling Building, the bottom two floors housing the Department
of Pathology, of which his old friend Professor J. B. Cleland was the
head.

From this time onwards, Johnston’s life seemed to acquire a
greater degree of directiveness and serenity of purpose. He had a
department within the University with a Medical School, and that had
seemed to him, as a parasitologist, an important factor influencing his
decision to apply for the Adelaide chair. Teaching and research grew
and flourished under his direction, and there soon began to appear
the steady stream of publications by which Professor T. Harvey
Johnston will long be remembered. Year after year increasing classes
of first and fourth year medical students, as well as science students
and others, were instructed in the fundamentals of Zoology, made more
interesting by a teacher who truly loved and lived his subject, and a
teacher with an ever-increasing wealth of experience.

For many years he did most of the lecturing himself, and he was
rarely known to escape immediately after a lecture, but was usually
showered with a deluge of questions from enthusiastic students. Still
he lectured in the same slow, deliberate way, making certain that
every point he made could be readily absorbed by the young mind.
Right to the end, he kept an open mind on all he taught, and recog-
nised and usually knew a great deal about any of the latest zoological
developments. However, he was not above having his attention drawn
by his students to anything new and then modifying his lecture notes
accordingly; lecture notes, incidentally, that may well be jotted down
on any scrap of paper, the back of a telegram, or on the insides of
opened-up, used envelopes. The abstract of his paper delivered at the
last A.N.Z.A.A.S. Congress which he attended, he sent me (as secretary
of Section D) on a sheet of paper, which he had folded and stuck
together with stamp edging, addressed on the outside, and forwarded
with no envelope !

64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The conception he had of the breadth of his subject is clearly-
shown in the 1936 Centenary Address he gave on “A Hundred Years
of Zoology in South Australia.” In this address, which was one of
the series of contributions by the Royal Society of South Australia
to the celebration of the Centenary of the State of South Australia, he
indicated briefly the work then still to be done in the systematic,
parasitological, ecological and embryological fields, as well as fisheries
problems, cytology and genetics.

Again Johnston had the same experience in Adelaide as he had
had in Brisbane, his department acquired new quarters. In 1939, it
was shifted to occupy half of the new Benham Laboratories, which
were made possible by a £46,000 bequest “to encourage the study of
natural history,” and built near the Torrens River. This was the
department I knew, when I joined him in 1943. It is a long, three-
storied building, one end being occupied by Botany and the other by
Zoology. Mounting the few stone steps into the department, one enters
a world characterised by its feeling of serenity, stability and neatness.
Wide halls have mounted photographs of Antarctic animals on their
walls, and the museum is truly indicative of the orderliness which
permeates the whole department. This museum, besides the usual range
of specimens, possesses the complete skeleton of a young elephant
(Nellie!), and has as well an interesting and useful series of hand-made
models, done in baked clay and painted by one of Johnston’s own
students under his direction.

The Professor had a big office, always very tidy, and from this
one went through to a smaller laboratory, where there were shelves
and shelves of bottled specimens, all meticulously labelled and sorted.
In a minute he could put his hand on any single thing. Throughout
the department, everything had its proper home, and, what is more,
was usually there. The one room in the whole building quite out of
its setting was mine, and whenever he paid me a visit, which was
often, Professor Johnston always had a very busy time squaring
things up on the bench or the table, a small characteristic of his which
frequently came to the fore.

In Adelaide, just as one would expect, his outside interests grew.
He was President of the Zoology Section of the Australian and New
Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science in 1923 at the
meeting held in Wellington, New Zealand, and delivered an address
on “The Australian Prickly Pear Problem.” He was Vice-President
of the Section for many of the subsequent meetings and one of the
original Fellows, being nominated in 1938-39. It is perhaps fitting
that the last A.N.Z.A.A.S. meeting he was to attend was that held
in Brisbane in May, 1951, only three months before his death. This
was the first time he had returned to Brisbane since he had left
about 30 years earlier. At this Congress he was particularly active,
and his fund of knowledge never seemed to be exhausted ; there was
always something from him, on Marine Biology, Antarctic studies,
Parasitology, and so on. It was almost as though he realized that the
sands of time were running out, and he wanted to give of all he knew.

He had joined the Royal Society of South Australia in 1921, so
beginning a long association with it. Besides publishing many papers
from his Adelaide department in the Transactions, he served on the
Council in several capacities. He was President in 1931-32; several
years later, from 1937-40, he was secretary, and in 1943-45, editor. As

MEMORIAL LECTURE: T. HARVEY JOHNSTON.

65

an editor he had vast experience, and it is but one of the many
activities that he performed with meticulous care; he had the patience
and tenacity of purpose desirable in a good editor.

From very early in his career Professor Johnston took a keen and
active interest in Museum work. He was appointed as Honorary
Zoologist to the Australian Museum in 1909, to the Queensland
Museum in 1911, and to the South Australian Museum in 1924. As
an honorary ^associate, he served the South Australian Museum over a
long period, and was elected by the Royal Society of South Australia
as a member of the Board of Governors of the Public Library, Museum
and Art Gallery of South Australia. He sat on the Board from
May, 1927, until September, 1929, and in 1928, on the death of
Mr. E. Waite, he became Honorary Director of the Museum for about
three years. Later, in 1931, he was again elected on the same Board
of Governors by the University of Adelaide, continuing in this capacity
until 1940, when the composite board was disbanded and each institu-
tion acquired its own Board. During this period on the composite
board, he had been Chairman of the Museum Committee from 1935
and had strongly advocated that each institution should have its own
Board. On the formation of an independent Board for the Museum,
the South Australian Government appointed him as Chairman, which
office he retained until his death.

He also served over a long period as secretary of the Handbooks
Committee of South Australia, and in this capacity he had the
unenviable task each year of budgeting for the costs of the Handbooks
produced. These publications are of great importance to Australian
biological sciences. Since 1919, Johnston was a member of the
Australian National Research Council.

He was also deeply conscious of the contributions that could be
made to the public health and welfare, both through his department
and his own knowledge. Not only did he become a member of the
Advisory Committee on Water Supplies in South Australia, but for
many years a record was kept by a member of his staff of the algae
and other organisms (excluding bacteria) present in the local reservoirs.
His advice on the biological aspects of sewage disposal at the Glenelg
Treatment Works was also sought.

Within the University, he performed many tasks outside that of
being the head of the Department of Zoology; he acted as Professor
of Botany from 1928-34; served as Dean of the Faculty of Science
several times, and on the last occasion, when it was his turn to assume
the task once more, he was big enough to refuse it because he felt that
he could not do it justice. Again we see a man with high ideals and
endeavouring to live by them.

In South Australia, just as in Queensland, the career of Professor
Harvey Johnston shows how keenly sensitive he was to the value of
field work in his subject. This was an enthusiasm that persisted
throughout his lifetime. In 1929 he, in Sir Douglas Mawson’s own
words, “was easily persuaded to join the staff of the British Australian
and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition as Chief Zoologist”.
He went on the two cruises of the Discovery I. between 1929-31, and
was described by Mawson as being “indefatigable in his collecting
work”. The biological programme was mainly of marine investigations
in the South Atlantic Ocean, but landings had been made at various
places, including both Heard and Macquarie Islands. Specimens were

i

66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

collected, recorded, preserved, labelled and stored away for further
work later, and he still found time to collect parasites. This endless
work was, presumably, made the more creditable because of the
proneness to sea-sickness which apparently persisted throughout his
lifetime. These Antarctic adventures were to provide him for the
rest of his life with a wealth of anecdotes, and it was always to the
delight of his students that he could easily be persuaded to talk of his
travels.

On returning to Australia, he was given the task of editing the
Expedition’s Zoological and Botanical Reports — several of which he
himself prepared. He had already contributed a great deal in the
editing of the final numbers of the same series of the earlier Antarctic
Expedition of 1911-14, after the death of Professor Haswell. The death
of Professor Johnston. has set back the publication of several more of
these reports. Only a week before he died, a Report by himself and
Muirhead on Cephalocliscus, had just been issued. At the time of
his death, he was supervising work on the B.A.N.Z.A.R.E. collections
of Nematodes, Cestodes and Trenlatodes, to which had been added
specimens collected recently at Heard and Macquarie Islands by the
Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition. For his Antarctic
Expedition, Harvey Johnston was awarded the Polar Medal in 1934.

In Adelaide, Johnston had linked up again with his earlier
colleague Professor J. B. Cleland, with whom he became associated in
still more scientific work. He accompanied Cleland and his party on
many of the yearly Anthropological expeditions to various parts of
Central Australia between 1929-37. The scientists travelled by train to
Alice Springs, and from there continued to their particular destination
by car and truck. Again I can do no better than to quote what
Professor Cleland has written to me :

“Harvey Johnston was my tent companion and working colleague
in a number of the Anthropological expeditions through the interior —
a very helpful and considerate companion. We did the blood grouping
together. Whilst I did the blood tests, he searched the heads of the
natives for head lice, made blood smears, took finger prints and hand
prints and solaced over willing victims with sweets or a plug of
tobacco — both very acceptable. He was always particularly neat and
tidy and our working tent was,, in consequence, a model in this respect
as well as his sleeping bag and gear. ’ ’

As well as these tasks, Johnston never missed an opportunity to
collect his beloved helminths. Natives would bring in animals and
carefully he would examine them, particularly the gut content for
worms. As a result, through the papers he subsequently published, our
knowledge of the helminths of the fauna of Central Australia has been
much enriched.

Characteristically, on these expeditions Johnston did not limit his
investigations to his own particular scientific fields, but also took a
keen interest in the Australian aborigines about whom he became very
knowledgeable. This was an interest that his wife shared with him. In
1927-8 he was President of the South Australian Anthropological
Society.

And still outside honours came to him. Among these, in 1934 he
was awarded by the Royal Society of South Australia the Sir Joseph
Yerco Medal for distinguished scientific work, and in 1939 from
A.N.Z.A.A.S. came the much coveted Mueller Medal. This award was

MEMORIAL LECTURE: T. HARVEY JOHNSTON.

67

made for his investigations in the biological control of prickly pear in
Australia, and in Australian and Antarctic parasitology. He had long
been a Corresponding Member of the Zoological Society of London, a
Corresponding Member of the Helminthological Society of Washington,
and a ^Foreign Member of the American Association of Economic
Entomologists. His interest in entomology had never waned, and in
1935-37 he was President of the South Australian Entomological
Society.

It is typical of this man that, despite all these activities, he
visualised and embarked upon a long term project which was still in
operation at the time of his death. This was an extensive investigation
into the parasites of both birds and mammals of the lower Murray.
Here he found the material for unravelling complicated life cycles of a
great number of flukes. It was a slow, tedious job; the mollusc fauna
had to be carefully studied for cercarial infection. Every excursion
meant that material would be collected, taken back to the laboratory,
sorted, and every snail or bivalve segregated into its own small tube,
so that their infection, if present, could be detected Sometimes, too,
larger animals, perhaps a snake, a bird or a lizard would be captured,
brought back to the laboratory, and searched meticulously for its
parasites. Usually the Professor himself would carry out these examina-
tions, and invariably he would find something of great interest, often
after a long, slow, painstaking hunt. Then with great joy he would
call his students into his private laboratory and proudly show them
the treasures he had found.

Tailem Bend was the place he frequented and loved most. Nearly
all of us who were with him in Adelaide have at one-time or another
accompanied him on one of these day trips to the Jaensch’s property,
right on the river. Many are the stories that may be told of odd
professorial accomplishments on these trips — as on the occasion when
the Professor slithered down the slippery muddy bank of the Murray
and disappeared, to leave only a floating hat. Then there were to be
seen only flubbles, and soon afterwards the Professor. He had come up
immediately under his hat, and emerged, wet, somewhat unusually
dishevelled and not particularly neat, but still wearing his hat!

Right up to the time of his death, Professor Johnston was actively
engaged in working on the life cycles of various flukes. He had an
almost uncanny ability to postulate what would be the necessary
intermediate hosts, and with each trematode life history discovered, he
would with the help of his staff almost invariably prove his theories to
be quite correct. Only a week after his death, there was completed in
his department another trematode life cycle that he had predicted*
Having traced the developmental stages of a fluke, which lives in the
bursa Fabricii of the seagull, through a gastropod, Bembicium , and
then a small lamellibranch, the adult fluke was found in the final host
just as he thought it would be.

During the last few years of his life, Professor Johnston’s health
had somewhat deteriorated. In 1945 he had a stroke, and for a long
time afterwards was unable to turn his head completely to the right.
In 1949 it was a very great sorrow to him when his only son died
suddenly. However, when in May, 1951, he came to Brisbane, he looked
amazingly well, and we had hoped that he would be able to retire and
complete much of the work that he still wanted to do. He was really
quite well until the last week of his life, and then he was only “not
feeling well” for several days. On Thursday, August 30th, while

68

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

dressing to attend the meeting at which his successor in the Zoology
Department was to be selected, he suddenly collapsed and died. He
was cremated on the following day.

Professor Harvey Johnston leaves behind him in the hearts of
many the picture of a gentle man, clear thinking, sensitive and with
a slow, quiet sense of humour. His particular type of humour is
perhaps well shown by this incident. From the Jabiru, which is one
of our largest birds, he recovered a new very small cestode. This he
described soon after Professor Cleland ’s first daughter was born, calling
it Clelandia parva.

He was a man proud of his students and their achievements,
unassuming in his manner, almost hesitant at times when making
requests for himself, but nevertheless, if the occasion demanded it,
having the capacity for fiery retort and argument. Being human, he
had human faults and failings; but his life may truly be said to have
been one in which sincerity, square conduct and kindliness were
keynotes. He had, again to quote Cleland : “an ethical code that
he lived up to and to which few of us can attain ”. It is small wonder
that there were so many so extremely fond of him. Many, like myself,
will not have realised fully and appreciated the breadth of the
knowledge and the greatness of this very approachable person. In some
degree, his greatness is reflected by the fact that he admitted openly
that, of his papers, he wished he had not published one half!

Professor T. Harvey Johnston has left Australia greatly enriched
in biological knowledge, particularly in the field of parasitology.
Perhaps, he may even be regarded one day, as the Father of Australian
Helminthology. Our heritage is a great one. While perhaps some of
his work will have to be revised as new horizons open up in genetics,
physiology, ecology and perhaps even radical new ideas appear, still
much will endure. Into the hands of workers today, Professor Johnston
has thrust a brightly burning torch ; ours will be the task to keep that
flame alight.

For me, the late Professor Harvey Johnston will always be a
fitting example of a complete man in the sense used by Greek
philosophers; for according to their standards: “The complete man is
not the man who has the most knowledge, but he is the one who is the
best equipped to acquire it”.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

I would like to express my thanks to every one of the many friends
from whom I obtained information and stories, which I have been able
to piece together into this whole. Outstanding amongst these are :
Mrs. Johnston, Dr. F. Bage, Dr. M. J. Mackerras, Professor H. J. L.
Wilkinson, Mr. J. B. Watkins, Dr. C. D. Gillies, Professor J. B. Cleland,
Professor Sir Douglas Mawson, Mr. H. M. Hale, Mr. Duncan Swan,
Professor O. W. Tiegs, and Mr. K. Salter. There are also many others,
too numerous to mention individually. I hope that each will take this
as a personal expression of my sincere appreciation. Also my thanks
are due to the librarians of the several institutions, who so kindly
helped in seeking out information and numerous references, particularly
Mrs. M. Macgregor of the Queensland Institute of Medical Research
and Miss N. Turnbull of the Queensland Museum. For the photographs
of Professor Johnston, I must thank Dr. M. J. Mackerras, Professor
Sir Douglas Mawson, and Mrs. M. Macgregor.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q ’land, Yol. LXIV., No. 5.

Plate II.

Thomas Harvey Johnston.

Top left: In Sydney, 1911. Top right: On bank of Burnett River, near
Eidsvold, Queensland, 1917. Bottom left: On the Antarctic Expedition, 1929-31.
Bottom right: At the A.N.Z.A.A.S. Meeting, Perth, August 1947.

V.

The Royai Society of Queensland.

Report of the Council for 1951.

To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland.

Your Council has pleasure in submitting the Annual Report of
the Society for the year 1951.

At the Ordinary Meetings throughout the year, four addresses
were given. Symposia were held at two meetings, and one evening
was devoted to exhibits.

Several original papers were accepted for publication in the
Proceedings. During the year, Volume LXI. (1949) of the Proceedings
was issued and Volume LXI I., which includes the C. T, White
Memorial Supplement, is nearing completion.

The Society’s Library is to be moved early in 1952 to a new
location in the University, George street. Additions to the Library
total approximately 1,500 volumes and parts, some of which are
back-numbers recently provided. Twelve new exchanges have been
established. A total of 67 volumes from the library are at present
being bound and the thanks of the Society are due to the Government
for a grant to meet half the cost. The cataloguing of the library
is proceeding gradually.

During the year the Society has approved of financial support to
the Marine Biological Station Fund of the Great Barrier Reef
Committee, and to the Australian National Research Committee of
Radio Science for the International Scientific Radio Union Assembly
to be held in Australia in 1952.

Professor Hines and Miss Scott were appointed delegates for the
Society to the Council of A.N.Z.A.A.S., which held a meeting in
Brisbane during May, 1951.

There are now 6 honorary life members, 8 life members, 3
corresponding members, 229 ordinary members and 9 associate
members in the Society. During the year the Society lost one member
by death, and 13 by resignation ; 10 ordinary members and 1
associate member were elected. Mr. F. Gipps, one of the Society’s
earliest members, was elected to honorary life membership.

Attendance at Council Meetings was as follows: — II. J. G. Hines,
9; M. F. Hickey, 4; I. M. Mackerras, 8; M. I. R. Scott, 8, D. F.
Sandars, 9 ; F. S. Colliver, 8 ; S. T. Blake, 8 ; G. Mack, 8 ; M. J.
Mackerras, 6 ; A. L. Reimann, 5 ; J. II. Simmonds, 8 ; W. Stephenson,
7; L. J. H. Teakle, 7.

H. J. G. HINES, President.

Margaret I. R. Scott, Hon. Secretary.
Dorothea F. Sandars, Acting Hon. Secretary.

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ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

VII.

Abstract of Proceedings, 31st March, 1952.

The Annual General Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland, on Monday,
31st March, with the President, Associate Professor H. J. G. Hines,
in the chair. About forty-eight members and friends were present.

The President expressed appreciation of the long service given
by Miss M. I. R. Scott as Secretary of the Society, who is leaving the
State and consequently has resigned. It was moved and seconded
that a special letter of thanks be written to Miss Scott.

The following members were elected as Office Bearers for 1952 : —

President: I. M. Mackerras.

Vice-President : S. T. Blake.

Hon. Secretary : Miss D. F. Sandars.

Hon. Treasurer: Miss E. N. Marks.

Librarian : F. S. Colliver.

Editor : George Mack.

Councillors : Miss K. Robinson, W. Stephenson, M. Shaw,
L. J. H. Teakle, J. H. Simmonds.

Hon. Auditor : L. P. Herdsman.

The Presidential Address, “Some Biochemical Aspects of
Reactions to Heat and Cold,” was delivered by Associate Professor
II. J. G. Hines.

Abstract of Proceedings, 28th April, 1952.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland, on Monday,
28th April. Owing to the absence of Dr. I. M. Mackerras, Associate
Professor Hines acted as chairman for the evening. About twenty-
one members and friends were present. The minutes of the previous
meeting were confirmed. The following were nominated for member-
ship : — Miss P. Lee, Captain F. Rose and Mr. B. R. Ayling for
Ordinary Membership, and Miss L. Emanuel and Miss M. McCaffrey
for Associate Membership.

Professor H. C. Webster gave an address entitled “Recent
Impressions of Physics in Great Britain.” Most interesting develop-
ments have occurred in the study of fundamental sub-atomic particles
and several new particles — various kinds of ‘ meson’ — have been
discovered in recent years, particularly at Bristol. The work at this
centre has the merit of simplicity; photographic plates are sent to
great heights in plastic balloons then, after recovery, developed and
examined. For further investigations of these particles several highly
costly machines are under construction, including a cyclotron at
Liverpool, a synchrotron at Glasgow and a cyclo-synchrotron at
Birmingham. At other centres, studies of the atomic nucleus are
being made with a view to revealing the nature of the nuclear forces.
In biophysics, investigations include the study of the 1 crystal structure 7
of biological entities such as protein molecules and the examination
of the action of X-rays on living organisms. British developments in
Astrophysics include those in the new science of radio-astronomy —
the location of stars by the radio waves they emit.

VIII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Abstract of Proceedings, 26th May, 1952.

The Ordinary Monthly meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland, on Monday,
26th May, with the President, Dr. I. M. Mackerras in the chair. About
twenty-seven members and friends were present. The minutes of the
previous meeting were confirmed. The following were elected to
membership : — Miss P. Lee, Captain F. Rhodes, Mr. B. R. Ayling to
Ordinary Membership ; and Miss L. M. Emanuel and Miss M.
McCaffrey to Associate Membership. Mr. R. Endean, Dr. I. Hiscock
and Professor J. Francis were nominated for membership. The
Librarian reported the addition of 173 volumes.

Mr. George Mack exhibited several snakes. He referred to the
great public interest in these reptiles, and expressed regret at the
tendency to condemn all species when only a few could be described
as potentially dangerous.

Mr. R. Endean exhibited littoral echinoderms from collections
made between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Queensland-New South
Wales border. The series indicated something of the range of
morphological variation to be found in these waters. Of interest was
the finding of successive juvenile stages of the 'pincushion’ star-fish,
Culcita novaeguineae and the frecpient occurrence of disc and brachial
schizogony in N epanthia belcheri and Linckia guildingii respectively.
The majority of holothuroids found belong to the Aspidochirotae.
The close resemblance of the fauna to that, of Lord Howe Island was
discussed.

Dr. M. J. Mackerras and Miss D. Sandars exhibited lung-worms
from marsupials. Plectostrongylus fragilis from the marsupial mouse,
Antechinus flavipes , and Marsupostrongylus bronchialus from the
bandicoot, Isoodon obesulus, were described. The relationship of the
hosts and the parasites was discussed and the diet of the hosts
considered. Reference was made to the South American opossum,
the only other marsupial in which lung-worms are known to occur.
It was postulated that the occurrence of the parasites may possibly
be correlated with the habits of their hosts, rather than with the
phytogeny of their hosts.

Mr. J. O’Hagan described the methods used for the characterisa-
tion of proteins and the estimation of individual proteins in a mixture
by electrophoresis on filter paper. Staining of the paper revealed
the proteins as coloured spots. Instances were given of the application
of the method in the diagnosis of disease states by the electrophoresis
of serum from the patient.

Mr. R. L. O’Neill noted that oddities in crystal formation in
minerals may be worthy of study in connection with the occurrence of
ores, in that they are indicative of temperature and volumetric
conditions of crystallisation.

Professor M. Shaw exhibited two instruments, one of which was
an Angle Bekkor for fine measurements of angles by rising collinated
light. After explaining the principle of the instrument, Professor Shaw
presented some ideas of how it could be used to measure angles and
surface flatness. The other was a Light Wave Micrometer, which
illustrated the use of light waves for percussion measurement. The
instrument was used to measure the deflection of a 3J-inch diameter
steel bar under finger pressure.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

IX.

Abstract of Proceedings, 30th June, 1952.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland on Monday,
30th June, with the President, Dr. I. M. Mackerras, in the chair.
About forty-three members and friends were present. The minutes
of the previous meeting were confirmed. The following were elected
to Ordinary Membership : — Mr. R. Endean, Dr. I. Hiscock and Professor
J. Francis. Dr. T. E. Woodward, Dr. Sprent and Mr. C. A. Appleby
were nominated for Ordinary Membership. The Librarian reported
that there had been 273 additions to the Library.

Dr. 0. A. Jones exhibited seismograph records of the recent
Maryborough earth-tremor from the University Seismological Station.

Mr. R. H. Greenwood gave an address entitled ‘ ‘ Our Lopsided
Earth.” It was pointed out that the disparity between the amount of
fertile, well-watered country in the middle-latitude regions of the
Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the separation of the closely-settled
European and Oriental realms by an extensive zone of mountainous
and desert land, and the marked concentration of coal and iron ore
deposits in Northern Hemisphere middle-latitude regions have resulted
in a very unequal distribution of man and his productive activities
throughout the world. About 85 per cent, of the world’s people live
in the Northern Hemisphere. The demand for European manufac-
tured goods has been restricted by industrialization of other lands
and it seems essential in the long run for the European economic
problem to be alleviated by increased emigration to the New World.
Further development of the tropics, involving technological improve-
ments in productivity, will be necessary in order to produce food and
raw materials that the New World will be less able to export with
a growing population. While emigration alone could not be on a scale
large enough to relieve the population problems of Japan, China, India
and Pakistan, further industrialization might help, provided that the
tropical parts of south-east Asia and Africa could be developed to
supply more raw materials and to absorb more Asiatic manufactured
goods.

Abstract of Proceedings, 28th July, 1952.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland, on Monday,
28th July, with the President, Dr. I. M. Mackerras, in the chair.
About twenty-eight members and friends were present. The minutes
of the previous meeting were confirmed. The following were elected
to Ordinary Membership: — Dr. T. E. Woodward, Dr. J. Sprent and
Mr. C. A. Appleby. The Librarian reported that there had been
150 additions to the Library.

Professor W. Bryan exhibited rocks from Mount Lamington, New
Guinea, which had been collected after the eruptions during January,
1951. In fiery cloud eruptions of this sort, more common than was
once realised, there are ejected great clouds of incandescent particles.

Professor F. T. M. White delivered an address entitled ‘ ‘ Some
Varied Aspects of a Recent Overseas Visit.” In dealing with the
mines at Witwatersrand, South Africa, he mentioned that the presence
of Thucholite, a pegmatitic mineral, believed to be pseudomorphous

X. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

after Uraninite in the auriferous conglomerate (Banket), may revive
controversies over the theoretical explanation of the origin of the gold.
He then contrasted the incidence of Silicosis in South Africa with
the fact that 4 classical silicosis ’ is unknown on the Kolar Gold
Field, Mysore, India, where a highly silicious ore is also mined under
conditions of 4 dry’ mining and extreme temperatures, and suggested
possible explanations for the differences. Mention was made of a
disease known as Sporotrichosis which is related to fungus growth
particularly on Eucalyptus salignia and Acacia mollissima, two
Australian timbers used extensively underground on the Rand. Physio-
logical effects of the temperature and humidity conditions in the
working environment of the Kolar mines at depths between 9,000-
10,000 feet were outlined and the necessity for acclimatisation of
workers was stressed.

The archaeological background to copper mining on Cyprus from
the days of the Phoenicians to the present time was discussed, and
the speaker concluded his remarks with a note dealing with the history
of the island from its former possession in 1191 until its re-integration
as part of the British Empire in 1925.

Abstract of Proceedings, 1st September, 1952.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland, on Monday,
1st September, with the President, Dr. I. M. Mackerras in the chair.
The minutes of the special meeting held on 28th July, and of the
ordinary meeting held on that date were confirmed. The following
were nominated for membership : — Dr. R. Tucker for Ordinary Mem-
bership ; and Mr. R. Dwyer, Miss Y. Battey and Miss C. Henry for
Associate Membership. The Librarian reported that there have been
86 additions to the Library.

Dr. O. A. Jones exhibited some geological specimens from the
Mount Isa district and a portable Geiger Counter.

Professor J. Francis gave an address entitled 4 4 Preventive
Medicine.” Major epizootics which had for long swept back and
forth over Europe, as they were carried by the movements of armies
and by trade, were particularly severe during the 18th and 19th
centuries. Cattle Plague or Rinderpest is believed to have destroyed
200,000,000 cattle in Europe during the 18th century and it was
largely due to the ravages of this disease that the Veterinary Colleges
were established. England was relatively free until about 1840 when
live animals were imported from Europe for food for the increasing
population. Foot and mouth disase, pleuropneumonia and, later,
cattle plague inevitably followed. Although, since 1863 all the major
epizootics had been classified as infectious, and quarantine periods had
been laid down, it was not until the Cattle Disease Prevention Act,
which provided for the slaughter of infected animals and those in
contact with them, was introduced in 1866, that cattle plague wTas
brought under control. Subsequent legislation has led to the eradica-
tion of pleuropneumonia, glanders and rabies from Great Britain and
tuberculosis is now being controlled energetically.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XI.

Where the incidence of a disease was high, it has not been possible
to take such drastic measures and immunization has been used. The
use of various vaccines was outlined. During recent years drugs had
been developed to control various bacterial infections. Deference was
made to the control of mastitis and the development of 4, 4-diamino-
diphenyl sulphone for the treatment of human leprosy. Attention
was drawn to the effect of preventive medicine and the growth of
human populations. It was contended that Mai thus’ dictum that
populations tended to increase by a geometric ratio but food production
by an arithmetic ratio was still true ; in the long run a reasonably
low world birth rate was the only alternative to the traditional checks
of disease, starvation and war.

Abstract of Proceedings, 29th September, 1952.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland, on Monday,
29th September, with the President, Dr. I. M. Mackerras, in the chair.
The minutes of the previous meeting were confirmed. The following
were elected to membership : — Dr. R. S. Tucker to Ordinary Mem-
bership, and Miss C. Plenry, Miss Y. Battey and Mr. R. Dwyer to
Associate Membership. The Librarian reported that there have been
134 additions to the Library.

Abstracts of the following papers were delivered : —

“The Identity of Spaclella moretonensis Johnston and Taylor,”
by J. Thomson.

“Faulty Rain-recording,” by Captain F. Rhodes.

“Volcanic Rocks of Aitape, New Guinea,” by G. Baker.

Mr. W. Dali exhibited prawns from Moreton Bay. Hitherto river
prawners have caught only small immature individuals of two species,
Metapenaeus monoceros and M. macleayi. Three additional commercial
species, Penaeus esculent its, P. plebejus and P. merguiensis, all large
prawns, are being caught in Moreton Bay. Five other species are
taken fairly commonly, while two new species have been found to
date.

Professor F. N. Lahey exhibited a number of new products iso-
lated from Queensland plants and forming the bases of some of the
organic chemical research being carried out at the University,
St. Lucia. They included the new yellow alkaloid, acronycine, from
Acronychia baueri, the tetracyclic triterpene, ebricoic acid from the
tree-rotting fungus, Polyporus anthracophilus, and two new coumarins,
halfordin and isohalf ordin, from Halfordia schleroxyla.

Mr. H. J. T. Bake demonstrated the inflammability of solid fuel
that had proved to be hexamine.

XII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Abstract of Proceedings,. 27th October, 1952.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland, on Monday,
27th October, with the President, Dr. I. M. Mackerras, in the chair.
About thirty-one members and friends were present. The minutes,
of the previous meeting were confirmed. The Librarian reported that
there had been 150 additions to the Library.

A discussion on “Observations in Torres Strait” was held, the
speakers being Dr. M. J. Mackerras, Dr. E. N. Marks and Dr. D. Hill.

Dr. M. J. Mackerras gave a brief account of an epidemic of
malignant tertian malaria, which occurred on Murray and Darnley Islands
earlier in the year. On Murray Island, with a population of about
461, there were 11 deaths and 60 proven cases of malaria. On Darnley
Island, with a population of 289, 45 per cent, were found to be infected,
but the disease was mild and there were no deaths. It is evident
that malaria has not been endemic on either island ; the spleen rate
was low, and the distribution of parasites in the different age groups
quite different from that wdiich occurs in a hyperendemic area such
as Wewak. It seems likely that the parasite was brought to Murray
Island in 1951, and that the infection built up to epidemic propor-
tions following the great increase in mosquito abundance after the
wet season.

Dr. E. N. Marks gave an account of the mosquitoes. Nine species
were found on Murray Island and twelve on Darnley Island, seven
being common to both. One species of Anopheline, Anopheles farauti ,
which is known to be an efficient vector of malaria, was taken. It
was suggested that in the period of north-west monsoons, from
December to April, many rain-filled puddles and brackish pools at
mouths of creeks would provide suitable breeding places for A. farauti
and the population should be at its maximum in the warm still period
following the monsoons. Aedes aegypti was found only on Murray
Island and A. scutellaris only on Darnley Island. They have similar
habits and it seems likely that the introduced A. aegypti has difficulty
in establishing itself in competition with the native A. scutellaris.
A. kochi was a pest species on Murray Island. Nearly all the species
taken occur both in Australia and New Guinea. Harpagomyia leei
is known only from New Guinea and Darnley Island and an
undescribed species of Aedes ( Macleaya ) only from the latter.

.

Dr. Dorothy Hill said that Murray and Darnley Islands which
lie between Cape York Peninsula and New Guinea are the only
volcanic islands on the Great Barrier Reef. The volcanoes are of
the central type and the islands are built up of flows of augite and
olivine basalts and ash. During explosive phases of the volcanic
activity, parts of the coral reef were incorporated as boulders in the
ash beds and these boulders have been dolomotised and silicified.
The only two recognisable species of coral in these boulders are still
living on the same reef.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XIII.

Abstract of Proceedings, 1st December, 1952.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland, on Monday,
1st December, with the President, Dr. I. M. Mackerras, in the chair.
About seventy members and friends were present. The minutes of
the previous meeting were confirmed. The Librarian reported that
there have been 184 additions to the Library.

The President, Dr. I. M. Mackerras, presented, on behalf of the
Council of A.N.Z.A.A.S., the 1952 Mueller Medal to Mr. Heber A.
Longman. The years of devoted service to, and interest in, natural
science that had been spent by Mr. Longman were outlined by
Dr. Mackerras and supported by Associated Professor Whitehouse.

Miss D. F. Sandars delivered the Memorial Lecture entitled
“Professor T. Harvey Johnston: First Professor of Biology in the
University of Queensland. ’ ’

XIV.

List of Members.

Honorary Life Members.

Ball, L. C., B.E.
Bennett, F., B.Sc. . .
Gipps, F. G.

Longman, H. A., F.L.S.
Simmonds, J. H., Senr.
Walkom, A. B., D.Sc.

38 Dorchester St., South Brisbane, Q.
Kin Kin, via Gympie, Q.

“ Corymbosa,” Eagle Heights, Mt. Tam-
borine, Q.

River Tee., Chelmer, Brisbane, Q.
Hillsdon Rd., Taringa, Brisbane, Q.
Australian Museum, College St.,
Sydney, N.S.W.

Life Members.

East, J. D., B.Sc.

Francis, Professor J., M.Sc., M.R.C.V.S.

Herdsman, L. P.

Higginson, H. L., B.Sc.

Jensen, H. I., D.Sc.

Perkins, F. A., B.Sc.Agr.

Riddell, R. M.

Sanders, Dorothea F., M.Sc.

Tilling, H. W., M.R.S.C., L.R.C.T.

District Geologist’s Office, Rockhamp-
ton, Q.

Veterinary School, University of

Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

Government Printing Office, George St.,
Brisbane, Q.

Patent Office, Canberra, A.C.T.

Post Office, Caboolture, Q.

Entomology Dept., University of

Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

Dept, of Public Instruction, Brisbane Q.
Q.I.M.R., Herston Rd., Brisbane, Q.
Nairobi, Kenya, Africa

Corresponding Member.

Gregory, Professor W. K. . . . . . . Columbia University, New York, U.S.A.

Ordinary Members.

Anderson, B. E.

Archibald, Lorna, M.Sc., M.B., B.S.
Atherton, D. O., M.Agr.Sc.

Bage, Anna F., M.Sc., LL.D.

Bake, H. J. T

Ball, C. W., M.Sc

Barker, F.

Barker, G. H.

Basire, A. H.

Beasley, A. W., M.Sc., Ph.D.
Beckman, T. J., B.Sc.

Belford, D. J., B.Sc.

Berglin, C. L. W., B.E

Berrill, F. W., B.Sc.

Blake, S. T., M.Sc

c 'o Cardno & Davies, N.Z. Chambers,
Queen St., Brisbane, Q.

Doughty Av., Holland Park, Brisbane Q.
. . Dept. of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane, Q.

. . 8 Grove Crescent, Toowong, Brisbane, Q.

Gowrie House, Wickham Tee., Brisbane,

Q.

Jersey Lead Zinc Mine, Salmo, B.C.,
Canada

347 Boundary St., West End, Brisbane,

Q.

Adelaide St., Brisbane, Q.

. . c/o Anglo -Egyptian Oilfields, P.O. Box
228, Cairo, Egypt

. . National Museum, Melbourne, Vic.

. . Dept. of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane, Q.

. . c/o Australian Petroleum Co., Port
Moresby, N.G.

Engineering Dept., University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

. . Dept. of Agriculture and Stock,

Nambour, Q.

. . Botanic Gardens, Brisbane, Q.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XV.

Bleakly, M. C., M.Sc., D.Phil

Bostock, J., M.D., B.S., D.P.M., M.R.C.S.
L.R.C.P.

Boys, R. S., L.D.S.

Braes, E. M.

Brameld, H. G., B.E.

Briggs, Mrs. C.

Brimblecombe, A. R., M.Sc.

Briton, N. W., B.Vet.Sc

Brockington, T. C. . .

Browne, H. V.

Bryan, Professor W. H., M.C., D.Sc.

Bryan, W. W., M.Agr.Sc.

Bums, W. G., B.Sc.

Buzacott, J. H., M.Sc.

Caldwell, N. E. H., M.Agr.Sc

Callaghan, J. P., M.Sc.

Campbell, K. S. W., B.Sc.

Carter, S., B.Sc.

Casey, J. A., B.Sc.

Cavaye, Mrs. G., B.Sc.

Chamberlain, W. J., D.Sc.

Chippendale, F., M.Agr.Sc.

Clark, C., M.A

Clarke, Harriet
Coleman, F. B.

Colli ver, F. S

Common, I. F. B., M.A., M.Sc.Agr.

Connah, T. H., M.Sc.

Cottrell-Dormer, W., M.Agr.Sc.

Crawfoot, A.

Cribb, A. B., M.Sc

Cribb, H. G., B.Sc

Cummings, Prof. R. P., M.A.

de Jersey, N. J., M.Sc., Ph.D.

Denmead, A. K., M.Sc.

Derrington, J. S., B.Sc.

Dodd, A. P., O.B.E.

Donaldson, R. J.

Dowd, W. R.

Zoology Dept., University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

Wickham Tee., Brisbane, Q.

P.O. Box 135, Toowoomba, Q.

care of Zinc Corporation, Cobar, N.S.W.

Highland Tee., St. Lucia, Brisbane, Q.

21 Roseby Avenue, Eagle Junction,
Brisbane, Q.

Dept. of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane, Q.

Agricultural College, Lawes, Q.

Bayview Rd., Sandgate, Brisbane, Q.

Otway St., Holland Park, Brisbane, Q.

Geology Dept., University of Queensland,
Brisbane, Q.

C.S.I.R.O., George St., Brisbane, Q.

Emperor Gold Mines, Vatukaula, Fiji

Sugar Experiment Station, Box 146,
Gordonvale, Q.

30 Norfolk Rd., Coorparoo, Brisbane, Q.

Moggill Rd., Kenmore, Brisbane, Q.

University College, Armidale, N.S.W.

Mt. Isa Mines Ltd., Mt. Isa, Q.

Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra,
A.C.T.

32 Bennison St., Ascot, Brisbane, Q.

503 Queen St., Brisbane, Q.

Dept. of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane, Q.

University of Oxford, Oxford, England

32 Kennedy Tee., Red Hill, Brisbane, Q.

25 Abbot St., New Farm, Brisbane, Q.

Geology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

C.S.I.R.O., Box 109, Canberra, A.C.T.

District Geologist’s Office, Charters
Towers, Q.

Regional Agriculture Office, Inauaia,
via Kairuku, Papua, N.G.

Geology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Botany Dept., University of Queensland,
Brisbane, Q.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane, Q.

Dept, of Architecture, University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

Durack St., Moorooka, Brisbane, Q.

“ Venard,” Milne St., Clayfield,
Brisbane, Q.

423 Milton Rd., Auchenflower

Prickly Pear Laboratory, Sherwood,
Brisbane, Q.

c/o Gibbs Bright & Co., Queen St.,
Brisbane, Q.

Coronation Drive, Auchenflower,
Brisbane, Q.

XVI.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Draydon, A. W.

Durie, P. H., M.Sc.

Elliott, T. M. B.

Endean, R., M.Sc. . .

Evans, C. K., M.Sc.

Evans, I. A., M.Sc.

Everist, S. L., B.Sc.

Excell, B. J., B.Sc.

Exley, Elizabeth, B.Sc.

Ewer, Professor T. K., Ph.D., B.V.Sc.

Fenwick, O. T., M.E.

Ferguson, G., B.Sc.

Fisher, N. H., D.Sc.

Fraser, K. N., B.Sc., B.Sc.App., B.E.

Gehrmann, A. S., B.E., A.M.I.E. (Aust.),
A.M.I.E.E.

Gibson, A. A.

Gillies, C. D., M.Sc., M.B., B.S

Gipps, R. de V., B.E.

Goldsmid, Creina
Gradwell, R., B.Sc., Ph.D.

Grant, G. R. M., B.E.

Green, J., B.Sc.

Greenwood, R. H., M.A.

Grey, Mrs. B. B., F.L.S

Gurney, E. H.

Gutteridge, N. M., M.B., B.S.

Haenke, W. L., M.Sc., B.Sc.App.

Hall, G., B.Sc.

Halliday, Mrs. J., B.Sc.

Flamon, W. P., B.Agr.Sc. . .

Hardy, G. H.

Hawthorne, W. L., B.Sc.

Hayliow, W.

Haysom, N., B.Sc.

Herbert, Professor D. A., D.Sc.

Herbert, Joan W., B.Sc.

Dept, of Anatomy, University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

C.S.I.R.O., Yeerongpilly, Brisbane, Q.

231 Wickham Ter., Brisbane, Q.

Zoology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Tennyson Rd., Tennyson, Brisbane, Q.

Tennyson Rd., Tennyson, Brisbane, Q.

Botanic Gardens, Brisbane, Q.

Physiology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

5 Chiswick Rd., Bardon, Brisbane, Q.

Dept, of Vet. Sc., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

c/o W. J. Reinhold, 371 Queen St.,.
Brisbane, Q.

Rode Rd., Nundah, Brisbane, Q.

Dept. of Supply and Shipping,.
Canberra, A.C.T.

Engineering Dept., University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

Dayboro Rd., Petrie, Q.

Mt. Isa Mines Ltd., Mt. Isa, Q.

10 Dornoch Tee., West End, Brisbane, Q.

Stanley River Works Board, Somerset
Dam, Q.

30 Eblin Drive, Hamilton, Brisbane, Q.

Geology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

97 Lambert Rd., Indooroopilly,
Brisbane, Q.

Botany Dept., University of Queensland,
Brisbane, Q.

Geography Dept., University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

Longdooly Ranch, Santa Paula, Cali-
fornia, U.S.A.

26 Augustus St., Toowong, Brisbane, Q.

Wickham Tee., Brisbane, Q.

“ Rockton,” Limestone Hill, Ipswich, Q„

Electrolytic Zinc Co., Roseberry,,
Tasmania

31 Lyons Rd., Moorooka, Brisbane, Q.

“ Dario,” River Rd., Fig Tree Pocket,.
Indooroopilly, Brisbane, Q.

“ The Gardens,” Letitia St., Katoomba,
N.S.W.

Geological Survey Office, George St.,
Brisbane, Q.

Anatomy Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Fleming Rd., Kenmore, Brisbane, Q.

Botany Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Botany Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XVII.

Hickey, Associate-Professor M. F., M.A.,
M.B., B.S.

JEIill, Dorothy, D.Sc., Ph.D.

Hines, Associate-Professor H. J. G., B.Sc.

Hirschfeld, O. S., M.Sc., M.B.

Hiscock, I. D., M.Sc., Ph.D.

Hitchcock, L. F., M.Sc.

Hossfeld, P. S., M.Sc.

Howard, Beth, B.Sc.

Hoyling, N., B.Sc.

Hunt, T. E. . .

Jones, Inigo, F.R.A.S., F.H.Met.Soc.,
F.Am.Geog.Soc., F.R.S.A.

Jones, O. A., D.Sc. . .

Jones, Professor T. G. H., D.Sc., A.A.I.C.

Julius, S., M.B.

Just, J. S.

Kemp, D. H.

Kemp, Sir John R.

Kenny, G. C., M.B., B.S.

Kindler, J. E.

Knight, C. L., M.Sc.

Lahey, G., M.Sc.

Lang, T. A. . .

Langdon, R. F. N., M.Agr.Sc., Ph.D.

Lavery, Professor J. H., M.E.

Le Breton, E. G., B.Sc., M.B.

Lee, Alan, M.B., B.S.

Lee, Patricia, B.Sc.

Legg, J. D. D., V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S.

Levingston, K. R. . .

Lloyd, A. R.

Ludford, C. G., B.Sc.

Macfarlane, Professor W. V., M.A., M.D.,
Ch.B.

Mack, G., B.Sc.

Mackerras, I. M., M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc.
Mackerras, M. Josephine, M.Sc., M.B.
Marks, Elizabeth N., M.Sc., Ph.D.

Dept, of Anatomy, University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

Geology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Biochemistry Dept., University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

131 Wickham Tee., Brisbane, Q.

Zoology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

C.S.I.R.O., Yeerongpilly, Brisbane, Q.

132 Fisher St., Fullarton, S. Aust.

Physiology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

c/o Bureau of Mineral Resources,
495 Bourke St., Melbourne, Vic.

15 Challinor St., Ipswich, Q.

Crohamhurst Observatory, Beerwah, Q.

Geology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Chemistry Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

General Hospital, Brisbane, Q.

Box 1067N., G.P.O., Brisbane, Q.

56 Heath St., East Brisbane, Q.

Co-ordinator General of Public Works
Dept., George St., Brisbane, Q.

Anatomy Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

30 Percival Tee., Holland Park, Bris-
bane, Q.

37 Dover St., London, W.I., England

Government Analyst’s Dept., Brisbane,

Q.

Snowy River Authority, Sydney, N.S.W.

Botany Dept., University of Queensland,
Brisbane, Q.

Engineering Dept., -University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

Red Cross Society, Adelaide St., Bris-
bane, Q.

Brisbane Clinic, Wickham Tee., Bris-
bane, Q.

Q.I.M.R., Herston Rd., Brisbane, Q.

Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly,
Brisbane, Q.

District Geologist’s Office, Charters
Towers, Q.

c /o Evans Service Station, Atherton,

Q.

Q.I.M.R., Herston Rd., Brisbane, Q.

Physiology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Q.

Q.I.M.R., Herston Rd., Brisbane, Q.

Q.I.M.R., Herston Rd., Brisbane, Q.

Entomology Dept., University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

XVIII.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Marks, E. O., M.D., B.A., B.E

Mather, W. B., M.Sc

Mathewson, T. H. R., M.B., Ch.B.

Maxwell, W. G., B.Sc

McDougall, W. A., D.Sc.

McDowell, V., M.B., Ch.M., F.R.A.C.P.,
F.F.R.

Millar, R.

Morton, C. C., A.C.T.S.M

Munro, I. S. R., M.Sc.

Murray, Colonel J. K., B.A., B.Sc.Agr. . .
Murphy, Ellis, M.D.

Naylor, G., M.A., M.Sc., Dip. Ed.

Newman, Ailsa W., B.Sc.

Nommensen, F. C., B.Sc.

Nye, J., M.B., Ch.M., F.R.A.C.P.

O’Connor, E. A., M.Sc

Ogilvie, C., B.E.

O'Hagan, J. E., M.Sc.

O’Sullivan, P. J., B.Agr.Sc.

Parnell, Mrs. E., B.Sc.

Patey, Moira, B.Sc.

Pennycuik, Pamela, M.Sc.

Powell, Mrs. R. E., B.Sc.

Preston, G. H.

Puregger, W. J.

Reimann, Professor A. L., D.Sc., Ph.D. . .

Reye, A. J., M.B., B.S.

Reye, Mrs. M., B.A.

Reye, E. J., M.B., Ch.M

Rhodes, Captain F.

Riek, E. F., M.Sc.

Roberts, F. H. S., D.Sc.

Robertson, D. F., M.Sc.

Robertson, W. T.

Robinson, E. V., B.A.

Robinson, Kathleen W., M.Sc.

101 Wickham Tee., Brisbane, Q.

Zoology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

576 Sandgate Rd., Clayfield, Brisbane,

Q.

Dept, of Geology, Imperial College,
London, England

14 Juster St., Annerley, Brisbane, Q.

131 Wickham Tee., Brisbane, Q.

Dept, of Vet. Sc., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Geological Survey Office, George St.,
Brisbane, Q.

C.S.I.R.O., P.O. Box 21, Cronulla,
N.S.W.

Dell St., St. Lucia, Brisbane, Q.

14 Sutherland Av., Ascot, Brisbane, Q.

Psychology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Bilsen Rd., Nundah, Brisbane, Q.

Campbell Bros. Pty. Ltd., Campbell St.,
Bowen Hills, Brisbane, Q.

Brisbane Clinic, Wickham Tee., Bris-
bane, Q.

Chemistry Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Cambridge Downs, Richmond, Q.

Red Cross Socioty, Adelaide St., Bris-
bane, Q.

Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly,
Brisbane, Q.

c/o Finney Rd., Indooroopilly,
Brisbane, Q.

Physiology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

“ Craigston,” Wickham Tee., Brisbane,

Q.

Q.I.M.R., Herston Rd., Brisbane, Q.

Gregory Tee., Brisbane, Q.

13 Wright St., Milton, Brisbane, Q.

Physics Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

97 Wickham Tee., Brisbane, Q.

416 Upper Cornwall St., Greenslopes,
Brisbane, Q.

Hyde Rd., Yeronga, Brisbane, Q.

203 Berserker St., Rockhampton, Q.

C.S.I.R.O., Box 109, Canberra, A.C.T.

C.S.I.R.O., Yeerongpilly, Brisbane, Q.

Physics Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

City Hall, Brisbane, Q.

Geology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Physiology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

XIX.

Roe, R., B.Sc.

Roulston, W., B.Sc.

Sapsford, L. P., M.B., B.S.

Schindler, C., M.A.

Shaw, Professor M., M.E., M.Mech.E.,
M.I.Mech.E., A.M.I.E.

Shaw, N. H., B.Agr.Sc.

Shepherd, E. M., M.E., A.M.I.C.E.,

A.M.I.E. Aust.

Siller, C. W., B.Sc

Simmonds, J. H., M.B.E., M.Sc.

Simmons, G. C., B.Sc.

Simonds, Professor E. F., M.A., M.Sc.,
Ph.D.

Sims, G. W

Singer, E., M.D., D.Ph., D.Sc.

Sinnamon, C. N., M.B., B.S.

Skerman, P. J., M.Agr.Sc.

Sloan, W. J. S., M.Agr

Smith, J. H., M.Sc., N.D.A

Smith, L. S., B.Sc.

Spratt, R. N.

Sprent, J. F. A., Ph.D., B.Sc., M.R.C.S.V.

Stephenson, J. P., B.Sc.

Stephenson, Professor W., B.Sc., Ph.D. . .

Stoney, A. J., B.E.E., A.M.I.E. (Aust.),
A.M.I.E.E.

Sutherland, A. K., B.V.Sc., M.S.

Sutherland, M. D., D.Sc.

Taylor, G. C., M.B., Ch.M.

Teakle, Professor L. J. H., B.Sc. (Agric.),
M.Sc,, Ph.D., A.A.C.I.

Thelander, C., M.B., Ch.B., F.R.A.C.S. . .
Thomas, J. A., B.Sc.

Thomas, L. A., M.Sc.

Thomson, J. M., M.Sc.

Tommerup, E. C., M.Sc.

Trist, A. R., M.F., B.Sc.

Tucker, R., B.V.Sc., D.V.M

Tuffley, A. M., B.Sc.

Tweedale, G., B.Sc.

Veitch, R., B.Sc.Agr., B.Sc. For., F.R.E.S.

147 Jessie St., Armidale, N.S.W.

C.S.I.R.O., Yeerongpilly, Brisbane, Q.

Glen Rd., Toowong, Brisbane, Q.

“ Aiyura,” via Lae, N.G.

Engineering Dept., University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

C.S.I.R.O., George St., Brisbane, Q.

“ Greenways,” Smeaton St., Coorparoo,
Brisbane, Q.

Boundary Rd., Rain worth, Brisbane, Q.

Dept. of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane, Q.

Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly,
Brisbane, Q.

Dept, of Mathematics, University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

Grove Crescent, Toowong, Brisbane, Q.

Q.I.M.R., Herston Rd., Brisbane, Q.

Ryan Rd., St. Lucia, Brisbane, Q.

Dept, of Agriculture, University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

Dept. of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane, Q.

Dept. of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane, Q.

Botanic Gardens, Brisbane, Q.

Mt. Isa Mines Ltd., Mt. Isa, Q.

Dept, of Vet. Sc., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Macquarie St., St Lucia, Brisbane, Q.

Zoology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Engineering Dept., University of

Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly,
Brisbane, Q.

Chemistry Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Wickham House, Wickham Tee., Bris-
bane, Q.

Agriculture Dept., University of

Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

131 Wickham Tee., Brisbane, Q.

Physics Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

C.S.I.R.O., Applethorpe, Q.

C.S.I.R.O., P.O. Box 21, Cronulla,
N.S.W.

Agricultural College, Lawes, Q.

Forestry Dept., Brisbane, Q.

Dept, of Vet. Sc., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Physiology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Geology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Dept. of Agriculture and Stock,
Brisbane, Q.

XX.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Wadley, J. B.

Watkins, S. B., M.Sc

Webb, J. P., B.Sc

Webster, Professor H. C., M.Sc., Ph.D.,
F.I.P., F.R.M.S.

Weddell, J. A.

Wells, W. G.

White, Professor F. T. M., B.Met.E.,
B.E. (Min.), M.I.M.M., M.I.Min.E.,

M.Aust J.M.M., F.G.S.

White, M., M.Sc., Ph.D., A.R.A.C.I.

Whitehouse, Associate-Professor F. W.,
D.Sc., Ph.D.

Wilkinson, Professor H. J., B.A., M.D.,
Ch.M.

Williams, W. W.

Wilson, G. L., B.Ag.Sc., D.Phil.

Womersley, J. S., B.Sc.

Woods, J. T., B.Sc.

Woodward, T., M.Sc., Ph.D.

Wyatt, G. A.

Yeates, N. T. M., B.Agr.Sc., Ph.D.

Associate

Battey, Yvonne
Dwyer, R.

Emanuel, Marie L. . .

Henry, Claudia

James, J. B.

Lewis, Margaret

McCaffrey, Mary

McLeod, I. R.

Smith, K. G.

Salt St., Albion, Brisbane, Q.

Mt. Cootha Rd., Brisbane, Q„

Dept, of Geology, St. Louis University,
Missouri, U.S.A.

Physics Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Dept. of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane, Q.

Dept. of Agriculture • and Stock,

Brisbane, Q.

Engineering Dept., University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

Dept. of Agriculture and Stock,

Brisbane, Q.

Geology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Anatomy Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Post Office, Kilcoy, Q.

Botany Dept., .University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Forestry Dept., Lae, N.G.

Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Q.

Entomology Dept., University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

A.P.M., No. 2 Staff House, 2 Henry St..
Traralgan, Vic.

Physiology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Members.

Dept, of Health, Brisbane, Q.

51 Baynes St., West End, Brisbane, Q.

Q.I.M.R., Herston Rd., Brisbane, Q.

Bacteriology Dept., University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Q.

Geology Dept., University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

Medical School, University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Q.

14 Inkerman St., Wooloongabba, Bris-
bane, Q.

Kerr St., Toowong, Brisbane, Q.

193 Wickham Tee., Brisbane, Q.

A. H. Tucker, Government Printer, Brisbane.

GUIDE FOR THE PREPARATION OF SYNOPSES

| 1. PURPOSE.

It is desirable that each paper be accompanied by a synopsis preferably
appearing at the beginning. This synopsis is not part of the paper; it is intended
to convey briefly the content of the paper, to draw attention to all new information
and to the main conclusions. It should be factual.

2. STYLE OF WRITING.

The synopsis should be written concisely and in normal rather than abbreviated
English. It is preferable to use the third person. Where possible use standard
rather than proprietary terms, and avoid unnecessary contracting.

It should be presumed that the reader has some knowledge of the subject
but has not read the paper. The synopsis should therefore be intelligible in itself
without reference to the paper, for example it should not cite sections or illustra-
tions by their numerical references in the text.

3. CONTENT.

The title of the paper is usually read as part of the synopsis. The opening
sentence should be framed accordingly and repetition of the title avoided. If the
title is insufficiently comprehensive the opening should indicate the subjects covered.
Usually the beginning of a synopsis should state the objective of the investigation.

It is sometimes valuable to indicate the treatment of the4 * 6 subject by such
words as: brief, exhaustive, theoretical, etc.

The synopsis should indicate newly observed facts, conclusions of an experiment
or argument and, if possible, the essential parts of any new theory, treatment,
apparatus, technique, etc.

It should contain the names of any new compound, mineral, species, etc., and
any new numerical data, such as physical constants; if this is not possible it should
draw attention to them. It is important to refer to new items and observations,
-even though some are incidental to the main purpose of the paper ; such information
may otherwise be hidden though it is often very useful.

When giving experimental results the synopsis should indicate the methods
used; for new methods the basic principle, range of operation and degree of
accuracy should be given.

4. DETAIL OF LAYOUT.

It is impossible to recommend a standard length for a synopsis. It should,
however, be concise and should not normally exceed 100 words.

If it is necessary to refer to earlier work in the summary, the reference should
always be given in the same manner as in the text. Otherwise references should
be left out.

When a synopsis is completed, the author is urged to revise it carefully,
removing redundant words, clarifying obscurities and rectifying errors in copying
from the paper. Particular attention should be paid by him to scientific and
proper names, numerical data and chemical and mathematical formulae.

CONTENTS

Vol. LXIV.

i!

No. 1. — Some Biochemical Aspects of Reactions to Heat and Cold.

By H. J. G. Hines. (Issued separately, 16th November, 1953)

No. 2. — Volcanic Rocks of Aitape, New Guinea. By George Baker.
(Issued separately, 22nd March, 1953)

No. 3. — The Identity of Spadella moretonensis Johnston and Taylor.
By J. M. Thomson. (Issued separately, 22nd March, 1953)

No. 5. — Memorial Lecture. Professor T. Harvey Johnston: First Professor
of Biology in the University of Queensland. By Dorothea F.
Sandars. (Issued separately, 22nd March, 1953)

Report of Council . .
Abstract of Proceedings
List of Members

Pages.

1-14

15-44

45-49

No. 4. — Two New Species of Dipetalonema (Nematoda, Filarioidea) from
Australian Marsupials. By M. J. Mackerras. (Issued
separately, 22nd March, 1953) . . . .

51-56

57-68

v.

Vll.

XIV.

«»

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1953

VOL. LXV.

ISSUED 20th SEPTEMBER, 1954.

PRICE: TWENTY-FIVE SHILLINGS.

Registered in Australia for transmission by post as a periodical.

Printed for the Society
by

A. H. TUCKER, Government Printer, Brisbane.

The Royal Society of Queensland,

Patron :

HIS EXCELLENCY LIEUT. -GENERAL SIR JOHN H. LAVARACK,
C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., C. de G., K.B.E.

OFFICERS, 1953.

President :

S. T. BLAKE, M.Sc.

Vice-Presidents :

I. M. MACKERRAS, F.R.A.C.P.

Professor MANSERGH SHAW, M.E., M.I.Mech.E.

Hon. Treasurer:

E. N. MARKS, B.Sc., Ph.D.

Hon. Secretary:

DOROTHEA E. SANDARS, M.Sc.

Asst. Hon. Secretary:
K. ROBINSON, M.Sc.

Hon. Librarian:
F. S. COLLIYER

Hon. Editor:
GEORGE MACK, B.Sc.

Members of Council:

A. R. BRIMBLECOMBE, M.Sc., B. HOWARD, B.Sc., Professor T. K. EWER,
B.V.Sc., Ph.D., Professor F. T. M. WHITE, B.Met.E., M.Inst.M.M.,

G. L. WILSON, B.Agr.Sc., Ph.D.

Hon. Auditor:

L. P. HERDSMAN

Trustees :

F. BENNETT, B.Sc., Professor W. H. BRYAN, M.C., D.Sc.,
E. O. MARKS, M.D., B.A., B.E.

CONTENTS,

Vol. LXY.

Pages,

No. 1. — Animal Beservoirs of Infection in Australia. By I. M. Mackerras

(Issued separately, 6th September, 1954) . . . . . . 1-24

No. 2. — Contributions to the Geology of Brisbane. No. 2. The Structure
of the Brisbane Metamorphics. By W. H. Bryan and Owen A.

Jones. (Issued separately, 6th September, 1954) . . . . 25-50

No. 3. — Spheruloids and Allied Structures, Part II. The Spheruloids of
Binna Burra. By W. H. Bryan. (Issued separately,

13th September, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-70

No. 4. — Pronounced Parameral Differentiation in the Wombat Lasiorhinus.

By Richard Tucker. (Issued separately, 13th September, 1954) 71-74

Report of Council . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . v.

Abstract of Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii.

«»

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1953

VOL. LXV.

ISSUED 20th SEPTEMBER, 1954.

I ■

1

AUG 8

o—

WtiCE: TWENTY-FIVE SHILLINGS.

Registered in Australia for transmission by post as a periodical.

Printed for the Society
by

A. H. TUCKER, Government Printer, Brisbane.

NOTICE TO AUTHORS

• rV ■ ’ ' ' •’ ■ y'V AjjjH

•. ' _ ■ • c

' *. 4v4

. 1. Papers should be double -spaced typescript on one side of the paper with ample
margins, and must be accompanied by an abstract of not more than one hundred
words prepared according to directions given on the inside back cover.

\ 1 . 4

2. Papers must be complete and in a form suitable for publication when communicated
to the Society and should be as concise as possible. • All calculations, figures,
tables, names, quotations and references to literature should be carefully checked.

.

3. The use of italics in the text should be restricted to the names of genera and
groups of lower rank, foreign words and titles of periodicals.

4. Except in taxonomic papers, all references should be listed at the end of each
paper and arranged alphabetically under authors’ names, e.g.

Bagnold, R. A., 1937. The Transport of Sand by Wind. Geogr. J., 89,
409-438.

Kelley, T. L., 1923. Statistical Method. New York, Macmillan Company.

XI + 390 pp., 24 fig.

The corresponding references in the text should take one of the following forms : — -

Bagnold (1937), (Bagnold, 1937), Bagnold (1937, p. . . .), or (Bagnold
1937, p. . . .).

, In taxonomic papers references may be inserted in the text in accordance with
established usage. Titles of periodicals should be abbreviated in accordance
with the World List of Scientific Periodicals.

o. The cost of author’s corrections to proof above what the Council considers a
reasonable amount, must be borne by the author.

M- \ . >

(3. Each author will be supplied with fifty separate copies of his paper. Additional
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if1- ■ - .

Vol. LXV., No 1.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of

Queensland.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

ANIMAL RESERVOIRS OF INFECTION

IN AUSTRALIA.

By I. M. Mackerras, Queensland Institute of Medical Research,

Brisbane.

( Delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland, 30 th March, 1953.)

Exactly eleven years ago, in his Presidential Address to this Society,
Dr. H. R. Seddon reviewed those diseases of domestic stock, which are
derived from direct or indirect association with other animals. My own
interest in the parallel problems of human medicine was first stimulated
by experience with a classic example, tick-borne relapsing fever, in the
Middle East during the last war. In this infection, the spirochaete is
happily exchanged between Argasid ticks and small desert rodents,
without apparent inconvenience to either. Nothing happened, until
enemy activity made the small caves, which were the favourite shelters
of the ticks, also attractive shelters for the troops. The ticks obtained a
vicarious feed of human blood, and a significant incidence of relapsing
fever appeared in the force. Later, we had an exactly similar experience
with scrub typhus in jungle training in North Queensland and in jungle
warfare against the Japanese.

Seddon was able to find few examples of animal reservoir infections
of domestic stock in Australia, although some have been added since.
In human medicine, there are many. In world surveys, Meyer (1948)
has listed 75 diseases of man which have animal reservoirs, and Wright
(1947) has recorded no less than 116 species of parasitic worms which
include man at least occasionally among their hosts. Quite a number of
these infections occurs in Australia. Some of them have been reviewed
individually by various workers, who are listed in Part I. below; the
literature about those which have an Arthropod vector has been collected
up to 1947 (Mackerras, 1948) ; and, in an earlier address (Mackerras,
1953), I have touched on some of the general problems involved.
Nevertheless, so far as I can discover, no one has attempted to bring the
available information about these infections together in one place, in
order to take stock of the situation as a whole.

Part I. of this address, then, is an annotated check list of the
infections of man in Australia, which are derived from other animals.
This has been made as complete as the available information permits,
and is arranged systematically according to the infective agents
concerned; Arthropod ectoparasites have been omitted, except as vectors
of infection. In order to keep an inevitably large bibliography within
manageable limits, the first paper listed under each item is, so far as

«I6«

2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

practicable, the most recent in which the previous literature is reviewed,
and, unless otherwise clearly stated, the references are only to occurrence
in Australia. In Part II., some general problems are discussed from
the biological rather than the medical point of view, in an attempt to
define weak links in the chain of infection, and to indicate lines on
which further research might be pursued.

I am greatly indebted to my colleagues in the Institute and to
Messrs. A. K. Sutherland, G. C. Simmons and G. S. Cottew, of the State
Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly, for help in the preparation of the
check list, and discussion of the general questions involved, and to
Mr. George Mack, Director of the Queensland Museum, for assistance in
problems of nomenclature.

PART I.— ANNOTATED CHECK LIST.

Helminthic Infections.

Nematoda.

1. Trichostrongylus colubriformis (Giles). — Norman hosts sheep
and goats. Intestinal infections in man have been recorded by Heydon
and Green (1931), Ross (1937), Heydon and Bearup (1939). Evidence
of identification is satisfactory.

2. ? Trichostrongylus extenuatus (Raill.). — Normal hosts sheep and
goats. Intestinal infections in man have been reported by Heydon and
Green (1931). The record is probably valid, but the authors could not
completely exclude the possibility of accidental infection of the kids
which were fed with larvae cultured from the human faeces.

3. ? Haemonclius contortus (Rud.). — Normal hosts sheep and goats.
Intestinal infections in man have been recorded by Sweet (1924) and
Heydon and Green (1931). Both authors regard their records as
doubtful, on account of the risk of contamination by goat faeces in the
first, and of accidental infection in the experimental kids in the second.

4. 5. Ancylostoma braziliense de Faria and A. caninum (Ere.) —
Both species are common hookworms of cats and dogs. Larvae in moist,
shaded soil attempt to infect man, but can penetrate no further than
the skin, in which they may wander for several weeks or even months.
The resulting irrigating condition, which is known as ‘'creeping
eruption or “sand worm”, is not uncommon in North Queensland, and
was elucidated by Heydon (1929, 1931).

y 6. ? Habronema spp. — Normal hosts horses, transmitted by
Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) and Musca spp. The conditions known as
bung eye in humans is popularly believed to be associated with attack
by a fly. Bull (1922), on the basis of histological similarity of the
lesions, suggested that it might be caused by attempts by Habronema
larvae to penetrate the human conjunctiva.

Cestoda.

7. Echinococcus granulosus (Batsch). — Dogs are the normal hosts
of the adults and sheep of the cysts in Australia, thought other hosts
have been recorded. Johnston and Cleland (1937) have summarised the
extensive literature on hydatid infection in man up to that date.
Recently, Durie and Riek (1952) have demonstrated the existence of a
natural cycle in native animals in Queensland, adults in the dingo,
Ganis dingo Meyer, and fertile cysts in the wallabies, Wallabia elegans

ANIMAL RESERVOIRS OF INFECTION IN AUSTRALIA.

3

(Lambert), W. dorsalis (Gray), W. rufogrisea (Desm.), W. bicolor
(Desm.) and Thylogale wilcoxi M’Coy, with an associated high incidence
of sterile cysts in cattle. Earlier workers, of whom Bancroft (1890)
appears to have been the first, had found cysts in the following
marsupials also: Macropus major Shaw, M. calabatus L. & G., Thylogale
eugenii (Desm.), T. thetis (Lesson) and Osphrantor robustus Gould.
Sandars (1952) could find no evidence that the dingo-wallaby cycle
was associated with infections in man.

8. Dipylidium caninum (L.) — Normal host dog, transmitted by
fleas, Ctenocephalides spp. Intestinal infections in man have been
reviewed by Bearup and Morgan (1939). M. J. Mackerras (unpub-
lished) has recently found two infections in young children in Brisbane.

9. Hymenolepis nana (Sieb.) — Normal host mouse, transmission
direct, by contamination. Intestinal infections in man are not
uncommon, and have been summarised by Sweet (1924).

10. Hymenolepis diminuta (Rud.). — Normal host rats, Rattus
rattus (L.) and R. norvegicus (Erxl.), transmitted by various
coprophagous insects. Intestinal infections in man have been reviewed by
Bearup and Morgan (1939).

11. Diphyllobothrium ferinacei (Bud.). — The spargana of this
species have the interesting property of passing from host to host by
ingestion, and remaining in the sparganal stage until they reach a
suitable Carnivore, in which they complete their development. Sandars
(1953) has therefore concluded that the spargana recorded in Australia
probably all belong to the one species, and she gives a list of the
Amphibian, Reptilian, Marsupial and Eutherian Mammalian hosts in
which they are known to survive. Undoubted spargana, which may be
strongly suspected to be D. erinacei, have been recorded from man by
MacCormick and Hill (1907) and Cleland (1915, 1918), * and two
doubtful ones by Spencer (1893). Miss Sandars (unpublished) has
shown that chilling for six days will kill spargana in meat, which seems
an effective way to protect those who like their pork underdone.

Trematoda.

12. Fasciola hepatica (L.). — Normal host sheep, developmental
cycle in Simlimnea subaquatilis (Tate). Infections of man are very
rare, but have been reported by Crawford in 1864 (quoted by Sweet,
1909) and by Jeremy and Jones (1935).

13. Cercaria parocellata Johnston. — Normal host probably the
black swan, Chenopis atrata (Lath.), with development in the water
snail, Limnaea lessoni (Desh.). Attempts by the fork-tailed cercariae to
invade the human skin lead to a condition known as bathers7 itch, first
described in Australia by Johnston (1941) in the swamps of the
Murray River in South Australia, and later by Macfarlane (1952)
also from lakes near Wagin in Western Australia, with a doubtful
record in Narrabeen Lake, New South Wales. Macfarlane confirmed
his earlier work in New Zealand, which had shown that the development
of persistently itchy papules was due to previous sensitization by the
proteins of the cercariae. Dimethyl phthalate was found to protect.

Protozoal and Fungal Infections.

This group is of doubtful validity in Australia. We have no
Haemoflagellates that infect man, and are not likely to acquire any,

* Since this was written, a spa.rganum has been obtained from the thigh of
a woman in Queensland (Sandars, unpublished).

4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

because the vectors are either absent ( Glossina , Triatoma) or rare
(Phlebotomies) . Thus, apart from some ringworms, of which the animal
reservoir is undoubted, we are left with Toxoplasma and Sarcocystis*
among the Protozoa, and several systemic mycoses among the Fungi, all
of which infect man and some other animals. There is a distinct
suspicion (Steele, 1952) that the animals may not be reservoirs, but
simply victims, like man, of infections derived from elsewhere in the
environment. Moreover, in at least one case, recent work indicates that
the organisms infecting man may be different from those that infect
the supposed reservoir.

14. Toxoplasma sp. — Animals found infected include the silver-
eye, Zosterops lateralis (Lath.) (record doubtful), sparrow, Passer
domesticus L., sheep, cat, dog, laboratory rabbit, and Dasyurus quoll
(Zimm.) ; infections in man are recorded from Queensland, New South
Wales, Victoria, Tasmania (unproven) and Western Australia;
references in Seddon (1952) and Mackerras (1953).

15. 8 arco cyst is spp. — Recorded from cattle, sheep, pigs, Rattus
norvegicus (Erxl.) and R. rattus (L.) by Johnston and Cleland (1909) ;
probably related forms from Bettongia grayi Gould by Bourne (1932)
and Isoodon obesulus (S. & N.)f by Mackerras et al. (1953), and from
Python spilotes (Lacep.) by Tiegs (1931). We have found no published
record of infection in man in Australia, but have seen typical Sarco-
cystis in a section of human cardiac muscle prepared in the Anatomy
Department of the University of Queensland. The material was from a
child, aged 6, who was accidentally killed; no further information is
available.

16. Histoplasma capsidatum Darling. — Three infections in man
have been described in Australia, by Johnson and Derrick (1948),
Inglis and Powell (1953) and Dowe et al. (1953). No infections in
animals have been recorded here, but dogs and other mammals have
been found infected in America. On present knowledge, soil, especially
if enriched by fowl or pigeon manure, appears to be the probable source
of infection.

17. Cryptococcus neof ormans (Sanf.) Vuil. — Cox and Tolhurst
(1946) record 33 cases of torulosis in man from Queensland, New South
Wales, Victoria and South Australia. No infections have been recorded
in animals (other than experimental animals) in Australia, but else-
where horses, cattle and mammals in zoos have been found infected.
Fruit has been suspected as a possible source of infection.

18. Candida albicans Bob. (Berk.). — Mondial infections in humans
are well known in Australia, fatal infections in Queensland being
reported by Duhig and Mead (1951). All have been caused by
C. albicans , and the same species has been found in turkeys and fowls
by Hart (1947). A survey undertaken in Brisbane by Mrs. R. E. Powell
(unpublished) has demonstrated Candida-like organisms (apparently
doing no harm) in liver, spleen or kidney from 48 of 113 randomly
selected human autopsies, and in 16 of 32 animals, including guinea-
pig, laboratory rabbit, Rattus rattus (L.), R. norvegicus (Erxl.) and
Isoodon obesulus (S. & N.). At least five species of Candida have been

* Spindler (1947) believes that Sarcocystis is a fungus.

t The names obesulus (Shaw and Nodder) and torosus (Ramsay) reported
in various places in this list almost certainly refer to the one form, which might
be regarded as not separable from obesulus or as a subspecies, torosus, according
to one’s views on their geographical differentiation (Mack, personal communication)..

ANIMAL RESERVOIRS OF INFECTION IN AUSTRALIA. 5

found, but C. albicans, which is the only one certainly known to be
pathogenic, has so far been isolated only from humans and the faeces
of a laboratory rabbit. It is not known whether there is any relation
between human and animal infections.

19. Sporotrichum schenckii Matr. — Infections in man have been
reported by Robinson and Orban (1951) and Barrack and Powell
(1952). Infections of animals, chiefly horses, have been described in
other parts of the world, and a case has been recorded of a veterinarian
who became infected when treating a horse which was suffering from
sporotrichosis. Normally, however, the fungus is associated with
vegetation, and the disease follows pricks or scratches from infected
thorns or wood splinters.

20. Nocardia asteroides (Epp.) Blanch. — Aerobic Actinomycetes
have been isolated twice from man, by Goldsworthy (1937) and O’Reilly
and Powell (1953), and from lesions in the mouth or lung of domestic
and native animals by Mr. G. C. Simmons. There is little doubt of the
identity of the human strains with N. asteroides, but further work is
needed on those from animals, more than one species probably being
concerned (Simmons, personal communication).

21. Actinomyces bovis Harz. — Infection with anaerobic Actinomy-
cetes occurs in Australia, but not as commonly as the extent of the
cattle industry might lead one to expect. Recent work abroad and in
Australia (Ludwig and Sullivan, 1952) indicates that at least some
strains isolated from human sources are not A. bovis, and the opinion
is growing that infection is usually, if not always, caused by organisms
which normally live as saprophytes in the human mouth.

22. Trichophyton mentagrophytes (Rob.) Blanch. — A ringworm.
Normal hosts horses and cattle, but infections recorded in many other
animals, including guinea-pigs in Brisbane. Transmission to man not
infrequent.

23. Microsporum OAidouini Gruby. — A ringworm. Normal hosts
dogs. Transmission to man not infrequent.

24. Microsporum lanosum Sab. — A ringworm. Normal hosts
kittens, puppies, rabbit kittens. Transmission to humans, especially
children, not uncommon.

Bacterial Infections.

It will be convenient, from this point onwards, to list the names of
the infections rather than of the causative organisms, because the
former are generally more familiar, some infections are caused by
several related organisms (for example, leptospirosis, salmonellosis),
and, when we come to the viruses, generic and specific names are still
somewhat imaginative.

25. bovine tuberculosis. — It is well known that tubercle bacilli of
bovine origin may infect human beings. These infections are usually,
though not always, milk-borne, and are now much less frequent than
formerly. Webster (1941) recorded no bovine infections in adults in
Victoria since 1924*, and a declining proportion, from one-fourth of
all tuberculous infections investigated in children under 14 prior to
1932, to one-tenth nine years later. He stated that the change was
“correlated with a striking reduction in tuberculin reactors in herds.”

* Derrick (1945) lias reported one in Queensland.

6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

26. erysipeloid. — Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae is fairly common in
pigs in Australia, and Speight (1951) believes that it is also not
uncommon in man, with a strong occupational incidence in those who
handle meat at any stage from slaughter to cooking and in the fell-
mongering and wool-scouring trades. Lawes et al. (1952) have recorded
a case of subacute bacterial endocarditis as having been caused by this
organism, but infections do not often come to bacteriological
examination, so precise information is difficult to obtain.

27. listeriosis. — Infection with Listeria monocytogenes is not
infrequent in sheep, but only one case of Listeria meningitis in man
appears to have been recorded in this country (Stanley, 1948).

28. leptospirosis. — This is a typical animal reservoir infection,
usually with an equally typical occupational bias. Infection may be
direct, or, more frequently as a result of leptospirae, passed in the
urine of infected animals, contaminating water, wet soil or wet
vegetation (e.g., sugar cane), and entering the body through abraded
skin or mucous membranes.

Johnson (1950) reviewed the leptospiroses of Australia, and listed
five species: Leptospira ictero-haemorrhagiae , from Queensland, New
South Wales and Victoria; L. australis A and L. australis B, from
North Queensland ; and L. pomona and L. mitis , from Queensland and
northern New South Wales. Since then, L. pomona has been recorded
from Victoria by Wellington et al. (1951), Graves et al. (1951), and
Forbes and Lawrence (1952a, 1952b), while Sinnamon and Pask (1952)
and Sinnamon et al. (1953), in collaboration with the State Laboratory
of Microbiology and Pathology, have added three species in North
Queensland, namely, L. canicola, L. medanensis, and an undescribed
species which passes under the temporary name “Celledoni. ” Still
more recently, L. australis B and L. medanensis have been split into
subgroups, so that altogether eleven types of leptospirae are now
known in this country.

The animal reservoirs, for which there is direct or indirect evidence
so far are : —

Cattle: L. pomona , L. mitis (serological).

Pigs: L. pomona, L. mitis.

Dogs: L. ictero-haemorrhagiae, L. pomona (serological),

L. australis A (serological).

Introduced rats (R. rattus, R. norvegicus) : L. ictero-

haemorrhagiae, L australis B (serological).

Rattus conatus Thomas : L. australis A, L. australis B.

Bandicoots (probably Isoodon obesulus S. & N.) : L. australis A
(serological).

Perameles nasuta Geoff: L. “ Celledoni (serological).

Trichosurus vulpecula Kerr: L. medanensis (serological).

The entries marked' as serological must be regarded as tentative,
because there is considerable serological overlapping between some of
the types. Clearly, a great deal remains to be done in this field.

29. rat bite fever ( Spirillum minus). — The occurrence of S. minus
in rats in Queensland was recorded by Derrick and Brown (1936), who
also reviewed suspected infections in man. Since then, additional cases
have been described by Shallard (1937) in New South Wales, Powell
(1939) in Victoria, and Lawrence (1942) in South Australia. The
organism is difficult to isolate from human material, and all the cases

ANIMAL RESERVOIRS OF INFECTION IN AUSTRALIA.

7

recorded rest on clinical evidence only. It would appear, too, that its
infectivity for man is usually low, because it is probably not uncommon
in our laboratory rats and mice and several people have been bitten,
including two by a mouse which had S. minus in its blood at the time.

30. rat bite fever ( Streptobacillus moniliformis) . — Rountree and
Rohan (1941) have recorded a fatal infection in a girl who was bitten
on the face by a rat in Victoria, Gray and Hoeben (1941) mention an
epizootic in laboratory rats and mice in Queensland, and Stephen
Williams (1941) has described an epizootic which occurred during a
plague of wild mice (Mus musculus L.) in New South Wales. His
experience was like ours, in that he was frequently bitten by infected
mice without ill effect.

31. plague. — Except in the comparatively rare pneumonic form,
infection in man is always an overflow from an epizootic in an animal
population. Epidemics occur, when the animals involved are urban
rats, and contact with man via the rat flea, Xenopsylla cheopis (Roths.),
is frequent. There have been two periods when plague has invaded
Australia, between 1900 and 1909 and in 1921-22 (Cumpston and
McCallum, 1926). In both, it remained strictly urban, and there was
no evidence of establishment of “sylvatic plague” in native animal
populations, as has occurred in some other countries.

32. melioidosis. — This infection appears usually to be a disease of
rodents in Malaya, where it was first, described; but infection in sheep
and goats has been found in North Queensland by Cottew (1950),
Cottew et al. (1952) and Lewis and Olds (1952), and recently in a pig
by Lewis and Olds (unpublished). I know of no published account of
the disease in man in this country, but, through the kindness of
Dr. R. A. Rimington, of the Commonwealth Health Laboratory,
Townsville, I have seen the history of a man who lived at Charters
Towers, and who died in the Townsville General Hospital. Malleomyces
pseudomallei was isolated from his blood no less than four times during
his illness, so the identity of the infection is beyond doubt.

33. brucellosis. — Two species of Brucella may infect man in
Australia, namely, Br. abortus in all States and Br. suis in Queensland
and New South Wales. Infections are common in cattle and pigs,
relatively rare in humans, and direct contact with infected tissues
would appear to be a much more important method of infection than
ingestion in milk; otherwise it would be difficult to account for the sex
and occupational incidence recorded by Derrick and Brown (1950).
As infection of milk is common (Lee, 1952), it is necessary to assume
also that infectivity for humans is low, and that the disease is seen
chiefly in veterinarians, farmers and meatworkers because they may be
exposed to massive doses of the organisms.

34. salmonellosis. — The epidemiology of Salmonella infections is
a complicated story. Infants are undoubtedly originally infected from
older people (perhaps occasionally from contamination of food by
vermin), but the infection may then be spread from infant to infant
by the hands of those who care for them in institutions (Mackerras and
Mackerras, 1949). Infections are also not infrequent in older humans
and in various animal populations. In at least S. typhi, the parasite
population is maintained in human hosts only, and we may suspect that
the same could apply to other species of Salmonella too. On the other
hand, there are innumerable records of humans being infected from
animal sources, which may thus be properly regarded as reservoirs.

8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Actually, the position seems to be, that most of the common species of
Salmonella have a wide range of hosts, that they can probably maintain
themselves in any one host species, but that they can transfer from
one to another whenever the opportunity arises. Their behaviour is
thus not typical of the animal reservoir infections as a whole.

The species of Salmonella recorded from animals in Australia by
Atkinson et al. (1944-52), Mackerras and Mackerras (1948, 1949),
Simmons (1951), Singer and McCaffrey (1950, 1951), Singer and
Ludford (1952), Rac and Wall (1952), Simmons (unpublished) and
Lee (unpublished) are set out in the following list, which is arranged
according to hosts. Most of them have been found also in man.

Domestic animals.

Cattle : 8. typhi-murium, S. derby, S. potsdam, S. muenchen,
S. bovis-morbificans, S. dublin, S. anatum, S. london,
S. meleagridis, S. newington, S. orientalis.

Sheep : S. typhi-murium, S. derby, S. potsdam, S. cholerae-suis
var. kunzendorf , S. newport, S. bovis-morbificans, S. melea-
gridis, S. anatum.

Horse : S. typhi-murium, S. bovis-morbificans, S. kottbus, S. new-
port, S. meleagridis, S. anatum, S. newington.

Pig: S. typhi-murium, S. derby, S. Chester, S. cholerae-suis and
var. kunzendorf, S. paratyphi C, S. bovis-morbificans,
S. muenchen, S. newport, S. enteritidis, S. anatum, S. give,
S. Chester, S. worthington.

Dog: S. typhi-murium, S. derby, S. Chester.

Cat : S. typhi-murium, S. bovis-morbificans , S. Cambridge.

Guinea-pig: S. typhi-murium, S. blegdam, S. enteritidis.

Laboratory rabbit : S. typhi-murium.

Laboratory mice : S. typhi-murium, S. enteritidis, S. blegdam.

Fowl : S. typhi-murium, S. derby, S. Chester, S. saint-paul,
S. bredeney, S. oslo, S. oranienburg, S. bovis-morbificans,
S. bonariensis, S. bareilly, S. muenchen, S. newport,
S. pullorum, S. Cambridge, S. anatum, S. london, S. melea-
gridis, S. give, S. lexington, S. newington, S. champaign.

Duck: S. typhi-murium, S. derby, S. bovis-morbificans,
S. anatum, S. give.

Turkey : S. typhi-murium.

Pigeon : S. typhi-murium.

Sparrow* : S. pullorum.

Vermin.

Rattus norvegicus (Erxl.) : S. typhi-murium, S. Chester, S. para-
typhi C., S. bovis-morbificans, 8. meleagridis, 8. adelaide.

Mus muscidus (L.) : 8. derby, 8. bovis-morbificans, 8. orientalis.

Periplaneta americana (L.) : 8. bovis-morbificans.

N auphoeta cinerea (Oliv.) : 8. typhi-murium.

Marsupials.

Isoodon obesulus (S. & N.) : 8. bonariensis.

Wallabia dorsalis (Gray) : 8. meleagridis, 8. anatum.

* Placed here for convenience.

ANIMAL RESERVOIRS OF INFECTION IN AUSTRALIA.

9

Reptilia (Fam. Agamidae).

Amphibolurus barbatus (Cuv.) : 8. Chester, 8. birkenhead,

8. muenchen, 8. bonariensis, 8. adelaide, 8. rubislaw,
8. waycross.

Physignathus lesueurii (Gray) : 8. adelaide.

Chlamy do s aunts kingii (Gray) : 8. rubislaw.

35. anthrax. — Seddon (1948) gives the central districts and
County of Cumberland in New South Wales as the chief enzootic
centres of anthrax in Australia, with minor areas in Victoria. It is
commonest in sheep, with some cases in cattle and pigs. Few infections
in man have been notified in recent years, but a local practitioner has
informed me that he has recently seen two in central New South Wales.
Formerly, cases were also associated with the use of some imported
shaving brushes.

36. clostridal infections. — These are scarcely to be classed here,
for, although C. tetani and other species normally live in the intestine
of horses and some other animals, the role of the animal in the chain of
infection is to enrich the soil, in which the organisms may live for a
very long time, and from which they may enter wounds and abrasions.
Gas gangrene is now rare in man, but tetanus is not very infrequent,
particularly in Queensland. It may be noted that horses and sheep are
just as susceptible in infection of wounds with tetanus bacilli as are
human beings, and sheep have their own group of diseases caused by
other Clostridia.

Rickettsial Infections.

Apart from epidemic typhus, which was brought to Australia in the
early days of settlement, but did not become established, the four
rickettsial infections which are now known here are typical animal
reservoir infections, in that man is an accidental intruder into a cycle
with which he has normally nothing to do.

37. murine typhus. — This disease was discovered by Hone (1922)
in Adelaide. He suspected that it came from rats or mice, and it is
now well known, chiefly from work in the United States, that Rickettsia
typhi is a normal parasite of urban rats, which is transmitted from rat
to rat by fleas, lice and mites, and occasionally from rat to man by
Xenopsylla cheopis (Roths.), although the exact mechanism of trans-
mission is not yet understood. A few cases: occur almost every year
in Australia, chiefly among storemen, grocers and others whose
occupations expose them to special risk.

38. scrub typhus. — The ecology of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi is
similar to that of R. typhi, but the reservoirs are bush rodents, the
vectors Trombiculine mites, and the intruders are those people whose
occasions take them into the fringe of the jungle in Queensland from
Mackay northward. Heaslip (1941), chiefly on evidence from serology
and mouse inoculation, considered that the reservoirs were Ratitus
conatus Thomas, R. assimilis Gould, Melomys littoralis (Lonn.),
introduced rats, and the bandicoot, Isoodon torosus (Ramsey). On
epidemiological grounds, he believed the vector to be Trombicula
deliensis Walch. Southcott (1947) obtained serological evidence suggest-
ing that possibly the pied currawong, Strepera graculina (Shaw), might
also be a reservoir. Kohle et al. (1945), in New Guinea, provided definite
proof by isolating Rickettsias from Rattus concolor browni (Alston)
and Trombicula deliensis, but could not find evidence to support the

10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

suggestion that bandicoots were susceptible to infection. Clearly, a
good deal of precise work is needed to clarify the situation in Australia.

39. tick typhus. — Andrew, Bonnin and Williams (1946) described
a disease in North Queensland, which they had strong inferential
grounds for believing to be a form of tick typhus, and similar cases
have been reported in North Queensland by Brody (1946) and South
Queensland by Streeten et al. (1948). The Rickettsia isolated from the
North Queensland cases proved to be related to, but distinct from, those
causing tick typhus in other parts of the world, and has been named
Rickettsia australis. Fenner (1946) concluded on serological evidence
that probable reservoirs were Isoodon obesulus (S. & N.), Perameles
nasuta Geoffroy, Trichosurus vulpecula johnstonii Ramsey, Aepyprym-
nus rufescens (Gray) and TJromys sher r ini Thomas. The vector is
suspected to be the common Ixodes holocyclus Neum., but no direct
evidence has yet been obtained against this or any other tick.

40. q fever. — Rickettsia burneti behaves in many ways very
differently from other species of the group, so differently that several
authors place it in a different genus, Coxieila. From the present point
of view, the most striking difference is its extraordinary wide host
range, both in vertebrates and in ticks. In Australia, cattle are
frequently infected, and are the major source of infection in man.
Among native mammals, R. burneti has been isolated from Isoodon
torosus (Ramsey) ; antibodies have been found in captured Aepyprym-
nus rufescens (Gray), Hydromys ckrysogaster (Geoffroy) and Rattus
lutreolus (Gray) ; while Trichosurus vulpecula (Kerr), Rattus assimilis
(Gould), R. conatus Thomas, R. culmorum Thomas and Melomys
litt oralis (Lonn.) (and also II. ckrysogaster and R. lutreolus) have been
experimentally infected in the laboratory. Ticks, in which infection
has been found in nature or produced experimentally, are Haemaphy-
salis kumerosa W. & N., II. bispinosa Neum., Boopkilus annulatus
microplus (Canest.), Ixodes holocyclus Neum., Rkipicepkalus sanguineus
(Latr.) and Ornithodorus fgurneyi Warburton. Evidence of trans-
ovarial infection has been found in H. kumerosa, and also in ticks
in other parts of the world, so it seems possible that at least some species
may serve as a continuing reservoir, without intervention of infection
in a vertebrate.

Evidence of a native Isoodon-Haemapkysalis cycle has been found
on Moreton Island, South Queensland ; but it is not known whether the
infection was originally native to Australia, whether the native animals
acquired it from cattle or vice versa, nor how human beings become
infected. Neither Arthropod vectors nor infected milk appear to be
significant in Queensland, and close contact with infected cattle seems
usually to be essential. Derrick (1953) has reviewed the literature,
and discussed these problems in detail.

Viral Infections.

41. psittacosis. — This is an infection mainly of parrots and their
allies, which Burnet (1935, 1942) and Tremain (1938) demonstrated
to be quite widespread in Australia, the species found infected being
Trickoglossus cklorolepidotus (Kuhl), T. moluccanus (Gmelin),
Kakatoe roseicapilla (Vieillot), Loptolopkus kollandicus (Kerr),
Aprosmictus scapularis (Licht.), Polytelis antkopeplus (Lear), Platy-
cerus elegans (Gmelin), P. eximius (Shaw), P. adscitus (Latham),
Barnardius zonarius (ShaAv), B. semitorquatus (Quoy & Gaimard) ,
B. barnardi (Vigors & ILorsfield), Psepkotus haematonotus (G.),
Melopsittacus undulatus (Shaw), and the finches, Poepkila gouldiae
(G.) and P. acuticauda (G.).

ANIMAL RESERVOIRS OF INFECTION IN AUSTRALIA.

11

Humans are infected by breathing infected dust from captive birds
and their cages, Tremain gives! references to cases recorded to 1938, all
in Victoria, and Yeatman and McEwan (1945) have described a later
outbreak in South Australia.

42. Murray valley encephalitis. — This Infection is related to

Japanese B encephalitis. The natural reservoirs are birds, the vectors
presumably mosquitoes, and secondary hosts are horses and man, while
antibodies have also been found in clogs, foxes and Trichosurus vulpecula
(Kerr). No evidence of infection was found in sheep, cattle or pigs
(Anderson et al 1952). Among the sixteen species of water birds
and nine of land birds, in which neutralising antibodies have been
detected, the following showed the highest incidence : N otophoyx

novae-hollandiae (Latham), Nycticorax caledonicus (Gmelin), Micro-
carbo melanoleucus (Vieillot), Phalacrocorax carbo (L.), Lobibyx miles
(Boddaert), Kakatoe sanguined (G.), Grallina cyanoleuca (Latham)
and Gallus domesticus L.

The extremely interesting epidemiological problems presented by
M.V.E. have been reviewed by Burnet (1952), Miles and Howes (1953)
and Mackerras (1953).

43. contagious ecthyma. — It was long suspected by people in the
grazing industry that ‘ ‘ scabby mouth ’ ’ could be transmitted from sheep
to man. This was proved to be correct by Bask et al. (1951), but they
found also that human skin did not provide as good as environment
for the virus as the skin of the sheep.

44. cat scratch disease. — Xnglis and Tonge (1950) described a
curious granulomatous infection of lymph glands in Queensland. About
the same time,, workers in Europe described a similar condition, which,
in many instances, followed scratches by cats. The causal organism is
unknown, but is suspected to be a virus. Tonge et al. (1953) have now
obtained evidence that their infection is the same as “eat scratch
disease”, though the association with cats has not been as close as in
the European cases.

Infections Not Included.

The following have been excluded from the list, for the reasons
indicated : —

Parasites, such as Taenia saginata Goeze, which have an alterna-
tion of hosts, of which man is specifically one; these do not
comply with the essential condition that the parasite popula-
tion is independent of the human population.

Introduced infections, such as African trypanosomiasis, Japanese
schistosomiasis, Diphyllobotlirium latum (L.), Trichinella
spiralis (Owen) and others, which have not become estab-
lished here.

The Ascaris of the pig, because it has been shown to be specifically
distinct from the Ascaris of man.

Balantidium coli (Malm.), which has been found in pigs in
Queensland and Victoria (Seddon, 1952), but does not so
far appear to have been recorded from man in this country.

Benign lymphocytic choriomeningitis, which was recorded by
Parry (1951) ; the name was used in a general rather than
a specific sense, and there is no evidence that the L.C.M.
virus was concerned.

The condition known as “cow pox” in Australia, which is trans-
missible to man, but of which the etiology is still obscure
(Seddon, 1952).

12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

PART II. SOME PROBLEMS IN ECOLOGY.

General Considerations.

When we look at the data in Part I., the first fact that impresses
ns in that here is a formidable array of infections. That is true, but
the impression needs qualification. Except for the Salmonella
infections, which man may be said to share with the animals, and which
can spread in human populations; and for the leptospiroses in certain
limited geographical areas; and for plague, when there is a severe
epizootic in a large urban rat population; the majority of animal
reservoir infections are uncommon, and many of them are no more than
clinical and zoological curiosities. Sporadic, scattered, apparently
unrelated appearance in man is, in fact, a normal characteristic of
this group.

The second characteristic that impresses us is related to the first,
and is that, in the majority of these infections, man forms no part of
the ecological niche which the parasite normally occupies. Infection in
him is an overflow into marginal territory, and, just as with locusts,
birds or mammals in marginal territories, the overflowing populations
usually die — although they may sometimes kill their strange host in
the process*. This phenomenon is well known, and man is often
spoken of as an intruder. It is, however, necessary to emphasise it,
because it has one very important practical consequence, namely, that
controlling these infections in man in no way influences the effective
parasite population ; if we wish to do that, we must control them in
the animal hosts, which is often a much more difficult task.

The third phenomenon that impresses us is that the reaction
provoked by a parasite often differs markedly in its principal and
casual hosts. It is a question of adaptation. Over a long evolutionary
association, most parasites and hosts have arrived at a nicely adjusted
mutual balance, so that they now live together in moderate amity.
It is rarely beneficial to a parasite to kill its host, unless it needs to do
so to achieve dispersal (as, for example, in the Myxosporidia) . It- has
frequently followed that, as adaptation to particular hosts has become
more and more perfect, so the ability to infect other hosts has decreased,
and the parasites have become progressively more host specific. A well-
balanced, highly specific host-parasite association is the normal climax
situation. Some parasites, however, have remained sufficiently plastic
to multiply in a variety of hosts ; and in these we frequently find that
the relationship with the principal host is one of well balanced
tolerance, whereas there is decided discord with the occasional hosts.

There are two stages in this adaptive process. The first is a
progressively increasing ability of a parasite to invade a foreign host.
It may be illustrated by the worms. At one end of the scale, the
cercariae of avian Schistosomes can enter human skin, but they
go no further, and quickly die. The hookworms of the dog also cannot
usually penetrate beyond the skin of man, but they persist, producing
creeping eruption, although they rarely reach the intestine. The
Ascaris of the pig goes further; the larvae hatch in the intestine and

* As with other animals and plants in marginal territory, the occasional ones
that do not die may become adapted to the new environment, isolated from their
parent populations, and so become the founders of new species of parasite in a
new host. These casual infections are thus of fundamental biological importance
as well as practical interest, but this side of their story is not relevant to the present
discussion.

ANIMAL RESERVOIRS OF INFECTION IN AUSTRALIA.

13

pass from the gut to the lungs, where they may produce pneumonitis,
but they die when they reach the alimentary tract again. Finally, man.
is as good an intermediate host of Taenia echinococcus as the sheep or
the wallaby.

The second stage comes when the parasite can establish itself in its
normal tissue habitat. The new host reacts to the intrusion and disease
is the usual result. This is a somewhat dangerous situation, because
we have reservoirs, which are perfectly well and therefore unnoticed,
spreading disease to an unsuspecting human population. Relapsing
fever, the rickettsioses and leptospirosis are classical examples. In this
stage, severity of illness is a cardinal sign of incomplete adaptation.
Mildness, on the other hand, may indicate, either that the parasite has
only acquired a slender hold on its host, or that mutual adaptation is
well advanced. Duration of infection, not of illness, should differen-
tiate between the two, and we may therefore suspect that the milder
rickettsioses and leptospiroses may represent incomplete adaptation as
well as the severe ones.

When we look for examples to illustrate the steps in this process
of adaptation, we find them more readily in the malaria parasites of
vertebrates than in the infections recorded here. Plasmodium falci-
parum may kill fully susceptible Europeans and P. vivax give them a
very unpleasant experience ; but native races, who have lived with
them for many generations, show a considerable tolerance to both
species. The malaria of monkeys is usually mild ; but transfer
F. knowlesi to a strange simian host, and it becomes as severe as
P. falciparum in northern Europeans, a fact that has been made use
of in experimental malariology. Incidentally, when P. knowlesi is
inoculated into man, a still stranger host zoologically, it cannot
maintain its hold, and the result is a very mild and transitory infection.
In birds, which are also a recent, highly evolved group, infections vary
from severe to very mild, and there is the added phenomenon, not
recorded so far in the mammals, that the exoerythrocytic stages may
sometimes kill, as well as those in the blood cells. By contrast, the
reptiles, in which the host-parasite relationship must be presumed to
have developed over long geological periods, show the most perfect
tolerance. It is often possible to find abundant parasites of various
genera in the blood of reptiles which are lively and active and show
no signs of ill-health whatever. The parasite population is high, and
its chances to spread from host to host are at a maximum. This is the
climax situation, of which I spoke earlier.

The practical consequence of all this is that we look for disease
in our patients, but infection in the reservoirs. In the classical animal
reservoir infections, the carrier state is normal in the reservoir, but
does not occur, and need not be considered, in the casual human
victim, a conclusion which also follows from the second of the general
characteristics stated earlier.

We come now to a fourth consideration, which is by no means
limited to this nor to any one field of biology, and that is that there
are important exceptions to the classical picture which I have
endeavoured to present above.

The Salmonella infections are an exception, and I have already
endeavoured to indicate this by expressing the opinion that they are
shared by man and animals, there being little indication of a principal
host-casual host relationship. Indeed, they seem to be equally

14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

imperfectly adapted to all hosts, and one may see acute enteritis in
all, lizards as well as birds and mammals. Conversely, the carrier
state can be found in all, too, and we know nothing of the reasons why
the same species of Salmonella in the same species of host, whether it
be a human baby or an Amphil)olurus, may at times appear to be quite
harmless and at others be fatally pathogenic. Again, there are
exceptions : S. typhi is almost exclusively a parasite of man,

S. enteritidis (in this country) of rodents, and S. pullorum of birds,
and some hosts seem to harbour more species of Salmonella than others;
but the table of infections in Part I indicates clearly enough the broad
truth of the statement.

The second group of exceptions is a particularly interesting one.
An infection, which normally smoulders quietly in the principal hosts,
may, apparently quite suddenly, show increased infectivity (and
sometimes virulence), and produce a widespread epizootic, with a
consequent increased overflow into the human population. Plague is
the classical example, epidemics in human populations being always
preceded and accompanied by a fatal epizootic in urban rodents.
Burnet has described a natural epizootic of psittacosis in Australian
parrots, but the contacts of these birds with humans in the bush are
few, and there does not appear to have been any significant overflow.
On the other hand, there is considerable evidence that an appreciable
incidence of M.Y. encephalitis in humans is seen only when a rather
rare set of special circumstances has led to widespread subclinical
infection in the avian population. In the view of Miles and Howes,
the essential condition is exceptionally early rain in the northern
rookeries of water-birds, leading to production of two broods in the
year and early dispersal of young infected birds through the southern
parts of the country at a time when mosquitoes are active. Silent
epizootics in local birds follow, and then overflow into the human
population. As less than one per cent, of infected humans show
clinical signs, the mass of infection must be very considerable before
a clinical epidemic becomes apparent.

With this background of information, incomplete, but still
sufficient to give us a fair appreciation of the situation, we may
consider what may be done about it. I have always held, and time
has not altered my views, that the true approach to any problem in
economic or medical biology is through a full understanding of the
problem. In the present instance, the frequency of infection in man
depends primarily on the frequency of effective contacts, direct or
indirect, between the human and animal populations, and we must
examine this aspect before proceeding further.

Frequency of Infection in Man.

The frequency of infection in man depends on five sets of factors,
of which the last three interact with one another.

1. SPREAD WITHIN THE HUMAN POPULATION.

When man to man infection can occur, factors other than those
relating to contact with the animal population come into play, and the
disease ceases to show true animal reservoir characteristics. Salmonella
infections are the most important example in this country, yellow fever
in tropical America and Africa. Indeed, it was not realised that
yellow fever had an animal reservoir, until it was found that the virus
could not be exterminated by preventing its spread within human
populations. In Q fever, the sick may occasionally infect the healthy,
but that is not part of its usual epidemiology.

ANIMAL RESERVOIRS OF INFECTION IN AUSTRALIA.

15

2. THE DOSAGE OF INFECTION.

We know practically nothing about the number of organisms needed
to produce recognizable infection in man in any of the diseases listed in
Part I. Nevertheless, there is a certain amount of indirect evidence.
The infective dose of worms would appear to be small — probably a single
Ancylostome larva will produce a single line of creeping eruption — and
it seems likely that it is small, too, in leptospiral and most rickettsial
infections. By contrast, there is evidence, mentioned earlier, that the
infective dose in brucellosis is probably large. This factor influences
the availability of particular pathways of infection; but it does not
concern us otherwise, because transmission is measured automatically
by infective doses, in that it is assessed by palpable infection in man.
We should, however, when examining a possible source of infection,
remember always to ask ourselves : is it adequate ? And we often cannot
give an answer.

3. THE PATHWAY OF INFECTION.

These may be tabulated, with illustrative infections, in order of
increasing length of the path. Broadly speaking, infections with more
direct transmission usually come from domesticated animals,
contaminative ones from vermin, and those with an Arthropod vector
from native animals.

(a) By contact with the host or its products: ringworm, rat bite
fevers (2), erysipeloid, brucellosis, anthrax, ? Q fever,
contagious ecthyma, ? cat-scratch disease.

(b) By ingestion of the host or its products: spargana, bovine
tuberculosis (milk), salmonellosis, brucellosis (milk, rare),
Q fever (milk, rare).

(c) By inhalation of infected dust or droplets: ? moniliasis,

bovine tuberculosis (rare), Q fever, psittacosis.

(d) By contamination: Triehostrongyles, hydatid, Hymenolepis
nana, salmonellosis.

(e) From external environment, including long range con-
tamination: creeping eruption, liver flake, bathers’ itch,
leptospirosis, clostridial infections.

(/) By an Arthropod vector: Dipylidium caninum (by

ingestion), Hymenolepis diminuta (by ingestion), plague
murine typhus, scrub typhus, tick typhus, M.Y. encephalitis.

This tabulation is by no means complete, chiefly because the pathway is
unknown or but dimly perceived in several of the infections which are
listed in Part I. Nevertheless, the sort of knowledge which is set out
here is often of the greatest value in planning measures of control, and
the gaps in our knowledge are therefore a stimulus to further endeavour.

4. THE PORTAL OF ENTRY.

This is largely determined by the pathway of infection. Most
infections have only one portal of entry, but a few have two or more,
and infectivity may vary markedly by the different available routes.
Thus, Rickettsia burneti is much more infective by the respiratory portal
than by any other, and it seems possible that Brucella may infect more
readily through the skin than the digestive tract. This is a case in
which dosage and portal are difficult to disentangle in the present state
of our knowledge.

16

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

5. ASSOCIATION BETWEEN HOSTS.

It is a truism to say that, the higher the interacting populations, and
the closer the association between them, the greater the chances that
infection will spread from one to the other, but it is still profitable to
examine the position. So far as man is concerned, the domestic animals
(sheep, cattle, fowls, etc.) on which he depends, and the vermin (rats
and mice) which infest his settlements, are naturally the most important;
canefield rats spread more leptospirosis than bush rats spread scrub
typhus, even though closely related species may be involved ; cage birds
disseminate more psittacosis to man than wild birds ; and so on.
Infections which are transmitted by a wide-ranging vector (e.g. mosquito-
borne encephalitis) may be an exception to this rule, for their frequency
in man depends on frequency of attack by the vector, not on human
contacts with the reservoir. Even in encephalitis, however, there is
probably a chain of infection from water-birds to birds which live near
the habitations of man, and from them, probably by a different vector, to
humans. Mr. Sutherland has told me of another interesting chain.
Dairy farmers keep pigs to consume the surplus skim-milk, and so turn
it to profit. The pigs are reservoirs of leptospirae,- which spread from
them to the cattle, and thence to man. Thus, infection in both bovine
and human depends, to a degree, on sound farming practice !

In the tabulation below, all the infections listed earlier from animals
are included, though it does not necessarily follow that they are likely
to pass from a given host direct to man — he is not, for example, in much
danger from spargana in frogs or Salmonellas in lizards ! Moreover, it
cannot be taken that species in different hosts are necessarily identical;
in some instances, for example Sarcocystis, we simply do not know. A
question mark indicates that infection in the host group has not been
proven. In spite of these imperfections, it is clear that, at least in the
number of different kinds of infections, the sequence is very much as
one would expect from what has been said above.

Domestic animals.

Trichostrongyle worms, creeping eruption, Habronema, hydatid,
dog tapeworm, spargana; liver fluke.

Toxoplasma, Sarcocystis, nocardiasis, actinomycosis, ringworm
(3 species).

Bovine tuberculosis, erysipeloid, listeriosis, leptospirosis,
melioidosis, brucellosis, salmonellosis, anthrax, clostridial
infection.

Q fever.

Contagious ecthyma, encephalitis, ? cat-scratch disease.

Vermin.

Rat tapeworm, mouse tapeworm, spargana.

Sarcocystis, moniliasis.

Leptospirosis, rat-bite fever (2 species), plague, salmonellosis.

Murine typhus.

Native animals.

Dingo : Hydatid.

Rodents: Leptospirosis; scrub typhus, tick typhus, Q fever.

ANIMAL RESERVOIRS OF INFECTION IN AUSTRALIA. 17

Marsupials: Hydatid, spargana; Sarcocystis, moniliasis, nocar-
diasis ; leptospirosis, salmonellosis ; ? scrub typhus, tick

typhus, Q fever ; encephalitis.

Birds: Bathers’ itch; Toxoplasma; ? scrub typhus; psittacosis,,
encephalitis.

Reptiles: Spargana; Sarcocystis; salmonellosis.

Frogs : Spargana.

The part to be played in the control of these diseases by veterinary
workers, meat and food inspectors, and those whose duty it is to control
vermin, is obvious; but the native mammals and birds present a special
and very interesting problem. Shorn of rarities and infections of
doubtful validity, they are primary reservoirs of at least four types of
Leptospira, scrub typhus, psittacosis, M.V. encephalitis, almost certainly
tick typhus, and possibly Q fever. It remains to examine how our
knowledge of them can be enlarged.

Development of Future Research.

On the present level of knowledge, we can do a great deal to prevent
or ameliorate the animal reservoir infections. I have already mentioned
the part that can be played by veterinarians in controlling infection in
domestic animals, and meat and food inspectors in preventing it from
reaching the human consumer, to which should be added the valuable
progress that has been made in pasteurising urban milk supplies. Vermin
control still leaves much to be desired; nevertheless, no one who has
known Brisbane thirty years ago and to-day could deny that substantial
progress has been made in this field, too. The occupational bias of some
infections like leptospirosis in cane-workers and Q fever in meat-workers,
has been clearly recognized (indeed, it may have been over-emphasised
in some cases), and considerable sums are paid out every year in
compensation — although this is a form of amelioration we would all be
glad to see become less necessary. Methods of controlling contaminative
infections have been improved, though not always applied. We can
immunize against tetanus. We cannot yet control bush rodents or
Trombiculine mites, but McCulloch developed a simple way to use
dibutyl phthalate as a barrier between the mite and its casual human
host — and now chloramphenicol has robbed scrub typhus of most of its
terrors.

Progress has, indeed, been notable ; but, as in every field of research,
it has also led to the definition of problems which still need to be studied.
These involve different kinds and levels of research, and I think that
they can be arranged in a logical sequence, although some degree of
overlapping and integration will certainly be desirable in practice. In
all of this, I am thinking, as I said earlier, primarily of the infections
that reside in our native animals, for I believe that these now merit most
attention.

1. PRIMARY MICROBIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

The first step, which is essentially a task for the microbiologist, is to
discover whether there are any still unrecognized infections that attack
man. I have already mentioned the recent discovery of five leptospiral
infections that were previously unknown in Australia. There may be
more, and there may be new Rickettsias and viruses that have escaped
notice in the past. At the same time, we need to improve the methods
of identifying the known infections; there is, for example, a good deal

B

18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

of evidence that some cases of scrub typhus are not recognized, because
we lack a sufficiently precise and delicate method of identification. I
do not think that there is room in this for clinical investigation, for
there is so much variability and overlapping in the manifestations of
these infections in the human host, that clinical analysis can only point
a wavering and uncertain finger at their identity. Another important
task under this head is to discover whether the M.V.E. virus still persists
in Australia, and if so, where. Is Miles correct in suggesting that the
infection is still smouldering in the far north? Techniques recently
developed in the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute, Melbourne, may help
us to answer this question.

2. THE SEARCH FOR RESERVOIRS AND VECTORS.

In this phase of the work, the zoologist begins to appear as an
essential member of the team : first, to collect animals in the field —
Arthropods as well as vertebrates — for the microbiologist to examine ;
and second, to provide accurate identifications of the species studied.
The normal way to meet both needs would be to have a good field man,
satisfactory methods of preservation, and a sound liaison with
systematises in museums. I feel, however, that this is not enough, and
that a great deal would be gained if the field worker himself had a good
systematic knowledge of the groups with which he was working.

This team would accumulate still more facts of the kind that are
described in this paper, and they are needed. But it could go further ;
it could provide basic information about the incidence of infection in
different reservoir species, which at present is almost completely lacking,
and it could demonstrate chains of infection, like those mentioned on an
earlier page. Sideline investigations may also well be profitable, and
the behaviour of parasites in strange hosts may throw unexpected light
on more homely phenomena. That is why we are so interested in the
curious problems of how insectivorous and dandelion-eating Agamids
acquire their Salmonella infections, and whether they have them when
not in contact with man or his domestic stock.

3. HABITAT STUDIES.

The collaboration between the microbiologist and zoologist is
now left behind and the task becomes purely one for the field ecologist.
Too little work of this kind has been done in Australia, the most useful
so far, from our point of view, being McDougall’s (1944) study of
canefield rodents in North Queensland.

I have been very impressed with the effect that small changes in
the environment, produced even by sparse settlement, have had on many
native animals; they have vanished away from places where they were
once common. My own experience has been mainly with insects, but
the same has happened to mammals and birds. I feel, therefore, that
equally small changes, provided they were of precisely the right kind,
might drive away some of our reservoir rodents and bandicoots from
the places where we do not want them. These could only be revealed
by careful, detailed habitat studies. Equally, it might be demonstrated
that we cannot attack the reservoirs in this way ; but it is certainly
worth trying, for the methods of control at present available are not
highly efficient, and the general knowledge obtained would in any case
not be wasted.

ANIMAL RESERVOIRS OF INFECTION IN AUSTRALIA.

19

I have a strong aversion to the extermination of any of our native
fauna — too much of it is disappearing already — and it seems to me that
a safe balance between control and extermination can only be achieved
through such studies as I have indicated here.

4. POPULATION STUDIES.

These carry the ecological investigations to their logical conclusion.
Again, McDougall (1946) has made a beginning, and he has
demonstrated periodic restlesness and local movements of canefield
rodents, which seem to me to be particularly well adapted to
disseminating infection far and wide. We need to know more about
happenings of this kind. But the matter goes further than that, for,
in the words of Elton (1942) : ‘‘Animal population dynamics . . .
promises to become the fundamental science upon which pest control and
protection from animal diseases will be based.” We should therefore
not lag behind in developing this field.

Conclusion.

As in every branch of knowledge, we are advancing from the simple
to the complex, from the plain observations of the field naturalist to a
highly specialised science. We have made a beginning by defining our
problems ; we are in stage one of development, with excursions into stage
two. Whether we ourselves will go further and attempt to follow them
through to their logical conclusion, I do not know ; but someone,
somewhere, will certainly do so, and will complete a story that is still
only half written.

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20

PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP QUEENSLAND.

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Gray, D. F., and Hoeben, J. G. H., 1941. Infections of the mycetoma type in dogs.
Aust. Vet. J., 17; 93-101.

ANIMAL RESERVOIRS OF INFECTION IN AUSTRALIA.

21

Hart, L., 1947. Moniliasis in turkeys and fowls in New South Wales. Aust. Vet. J.,
23; 191-192.

Heaslip, W. G., 1941. Tsutsugamushi fever in North Queensland, Australia. Med.
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Heydon, G. A. M., 1929. Creeping eruption or larva migrans in North Queensland
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1; 694-695.

Heydon, G. M., and Green, A. K., 1931. Some worm infestations of man in
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Aust., 1922, 1; 1-13.

Inglis, J. A., and Powell, R. E., 1953. Histoplasmosis: a review, Avith report of
a fatal Australian case. Med. J. Aust., 1953, 1; 138-141.

Inglis, J. A., and Tonge, J. I., 1950. A disease with visceral granulomatous lesions
of unknoAvn aetiology. Med. J. Aust., 1950, 1; 433-436.

Jeremy, R., and Jones, E. B., 1935. Report of a patient with hepatic distomiasis.
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Johnson, D. W., 1950. The Australian leptospiroses. Med. J. Aust., 1950, 2;
724-731.

Johnson, D. W., and Derrick, E. H., 1948. Histoplasmosis: Report of an

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Johnston, T. H., 1941. Bather’s itch (Schistosome dermatitis) in the Murray
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Johnston, T. H., and Cleland, J. B., 1909. Notes on some parasitic Protozoa.
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Johnston, T. H., and Cleland, J. B., 1937. A survey of the literature relating
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Kohls, G. M., Armbrust, C. A., Irons, E. M., and Philip, C. B., 1945. Studies
on tsutsugamushi disease (scrub typhus, mite-borne typhus) in New Guinea
and adjacent islands: Further observations on epidemiology and etiology.

Amer. J. Hyg., 41; 374-396.

Lawes, F. A. E., Durie, E. B., Goldsworthy, N. E., and Spies, H. C., 1952.

Subacute bacterial endocarditis caused by Erysipelothrix rliusiopatJiiae.
Med. J. Aust., 1952, 1; 330-331 .

Lawrence, B., 1942. Meeting of South Australian Branch of the British Medical
Association. Rat-bite fever. Med. J. Aust., 1942, 1 ; 266.

Lee, P. E., 1952. Examination of raw milk for Caxiella burneti in the Greater
Brisbane Area of Queensland. Med. J. Aust., 1952, 2; 303-304.

Lewis, F. A., and Olds, R. J., 1952. Melioidosis in sheep and a goat in North
Queensland. Aust. Vet. J., 28; 145-150.

Ludwig, T. G., and Sullivan, H. R., 1952. Studies of the flora of the mouth. VIII.

An examination of selected human strains of anaerobic Actinomyces.
Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci., 30; 81-93.

MacCormick, A., and Hill, J. P., 1907. Note on a larval tapeAvorm from the human
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Macfarlane, W. V., 1952. Schistosome dermatitis in Australia. Med. J. Aust.,
1952, 1; 669-672.

Mackerras, I. M., 1948. The Jackson Lecture. Australia’s contribution to our
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22

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Mackerras, I. M., 1953. Zoology and medicine. Bpt. 29th Meeting Aust. N.Z.
Assn. Adv. Sci., Sydney, 1952; 109-130.

Mackerras, I. M., and Mackerras, M. J., 1949. An epidemic of infantile gastro-
enteritis in Queensland caused by Salmonella bovis-morbiftcans (Basenau).
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Mackerras, I. M., Mackerras, M. J., and Sandars, D. F., 1953. Parasites
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McDougall, W. A., 1946. An investigation of the rat pest problem in Queensland
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Meyer, K. F., 1948. The animal kingdom, a reservoir of human disease. Ann.
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Miles, J. A. B., and Howes, D. W., 1953. Observations on virus encephalitis in
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Pask; Y. M., Mackerras, I. M., Sutherland, A. K., and Simmons, G. C., 1951.

Transmission of contagious ecthyma from sheep to man. Med. J. Aust.,
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for 1951-52; 2.

ANIMAL RESERVOIRS OF INFECTION IN AUSTRALIA.

23

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Med. J. Aust., 1945, 2; 109-114.

Volume LXV., No. 2.

25

CONTRIBUTIONS TO’ THE GEOLOGY

OF BRISBANE.

No. 2. The Structural History of the Brisbane

Metamorphics.

By W. H. Bryan and Owen A. Jones, University of Queensland.

(Received 16th February , 1953; issued separately 6th September , 1954.)

CONTENTS.

I. INTRODUCTION.

II. THE COMPONENT FORMATIONS OF THE BRISBANE

METAMORPHICS.

A. General Statement.

B. The Rocksberg Greenstones.

C. The Bunya Phyllites.

(i.) the bunya phyllites (undeformed).

(ii.) THE ST. LUCIA POLYMETAMORPHICS.

(a) The Milton Type, (b) The Ironside Type, (c) The
Taringa Type.

D. The Neranleigh-Fernvale Group.

(i.) the neranleigh-fernvale (undeformed).

(ii.) THE HAMILTON CATACLASITES.

III. STRUCTURAL RELATIONSHIPS.

A. The Indooroopilly Anticline.

B. The Unconformity between the Bunya Phyllites and tub

Neranleigh-Fernvale Group.

C. The St. Lucia Thrust.

D. The Hamilton Thrust.

E. The Buranda Fault.

F. The Normal Faults.

IV. SIGNIFICANT IGNEOUS EVENTS.

A. The D ’Aguilar Batholith.

B. The Intrusive Rhyolites.

C. The Enoggera Pluton.

D. The Brisbane Tuffs.

V. INTEGRATION OF TECTONIC, IGNEOUS AND META-
MORPHIC EVENTS.

26

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

I.— INTRODUCTION.

In the past, the history of the Brisbane Metamorphics has been,
in our opinion, grossly over-simplified. It is our aim, in this contribu-
tion, to show that by the end of the Palaeozoic era, the Brisbane
Metamorphics had undergone a protracted and complicated history
of tectonic, met amorphic and igneous events. But although the story
as we now tell it is much more elaborate than earlier versions we feel

Geological Map
of part of

THE CITY OF BRISBANE

Scale irt eTiains

SO ' 4-0 O 80

x X X

x X X

s 'k ' / 1 "•

P'T*-J
- r'w A'

T£

11

Ltt

Brisbane Tuffs
(TriassicT
Znoggera Granitic
PluTorv

IndooroopiHy Rhyolitic
Intrusives

Hamilton Catac las ites 1 JJeranlei^b FernvaJe)

Undeformed J Group / Brisbane

5t.LuciaPo!ymeta.morphics } jSunya (Metamorphics

Undeformed J PhylliteS

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOLOGY OF BRISBANE.

27

that it may still be an over-simplification and that more detailed
studies by future workers will likely reveal a history fascinating in its
complexity.

A great deal has been written about the Brisbane Metamorphics
but the one all-important contribution that has been made (and one
which includes references to all earlier work) is the paper by Denmead
(1928), entitled “A Survey of the Brisbane Schists”.

Denmead interpreted the Metamorphics as a conformable succession
consisting of four series, namely — the Greenstone Series (basic volcanics,
&c.), the Bunya Series (phyllites, &c.), the Neranleigli Series (grey-
wackes, &c.) and the Pernvale Series (jaspers, &c.). He pointed out
that one group of rocks, the “Hamilton Schists,” did not fit neatly
into his succession and might have been introduced by overthrusting,
but he mapped it as part of his Bunya Series. He named the “Indoo-
roopilly anticline” as the dominant structural feature within the area.

Little of importance on the subject has been published since
Denmead ’s paper, although valuable, but as yet unpublished, work has
been done outside the city limits by R. T. Mathews on the Greenstones
to the north and D. J. Belford on the Neranleigh Series to the south.

In our Contribution No. 1 to the Geology of Brisbane (Bryan and
Jones, 1950) we made some adjustments to the serial nomenclature of
the Brisbane Metamorphics to bring it into harmony with the recently
introduced stratigraphical code. We have also published a geological
map of the area and accompanying Explanatory Notes in which we
briefly anticipated some of the main points of the present contribution
(Bryan and Jones, 1951).

II.— THE COMPONENT FORMATIONS OF THE BRISBANE

METAMORPHICS.

(A) General Statement.

The picture presented by the Brisbane Metamorphics is a very
variegated one. This is due to the large range of lithological types
involved and to the several different degrees to which these have been
metamorphosed. The diversity of the original material might be expected
to have resulted in differences of kind and in apparent differences of
intensity of the metamorphic products even if only one uniform meta-
morphism has been experienced, and further variety would have been
introduced as a result merely of the variation of intensity of this one
metamorphism from place to place. But the complexity of rock types'
is so pronounced that it would be unreasonable to expect such a
relatively simple explanation to fit all the facts, and we were early
forced to the conclusion that only by invoking the sequential and varied
effects of multiple metamorphism could an hypothesis adequate to explain
all the varied features of the Brisbane Metamorphics be developed.

28

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The following diagram by setting out concisely our views on this
matter will, it is hoped, assist the reader in following the argument
to be presented : —

THE BRISBANE METAMORPHICS

[ROCKSBERG GREENSTONES] conformity BUNYA PHYLLITES unconformity NERANLEIGH-FERNVALE GROUP

Undeformed by

Deformed by

Deformed by

Deformed by

Deformed by

Deformed by

Thrusts as

first Thrust

both Thrusts

second Thrust

second Thrust

Thrusts as at

at

only, as at

as at

only, as at

only, as at

Coorparoo

Indooroopilly

Ironside

Milton

Taringa

Hamilton

ST. LUCtA POLYMETAMORPHfCS HAMILTON CATACLASITES

The arrangement adopted above differs in some respects from
that set out in our earlier statement (1951). In particular the St.
Lucia Polymetamorphics are now treated as the deformed representa-
tives of the Bunya Phyllites, and the Hamilton rocks (here called the
Hamilton Cataclasites) are now regarded as definitely distinct from
the St. Lucia Polymetamorphics and as the deformed equivalent of the
Neranleigh-Fernvale Group.

(B) The Rocksberg Greenstones.

The lowest series in the structural sequence is that formed by the
Rocksberg Greenstones. These are in all essentials identical with

o

Denmead’s Greenstone Series. According to Mathews (1950) “The
Rocksberg Greenstones are a series of metamorphosed basic rocks,
possibly originally olivine basalts and related rocks forming the core
of an anticline . . . [they] have been subjected to at least two periods
of metamorphism . . . post-dating the orogeny. .... The greenstones
are shown to be a disequilibrium assemblage, with anomalous mineral
associations which make it difficult to determine the metamorphic grade,
but it is not thought that the rocks rise above the chlorite zone.”

The only analysis available is that of one of a group of rocks
which Mathews described as “Normal rocks with a mosaic of albitic
plagioclase grains together with actinolite, epidote, minor chlorite and

sphene or

leueoxene. ’ ’

The analysis
Per cent.

is as follows : —

Per cent

SiO,

. . 50-65

TiO,

0-86

ALOj

. . 11-47

CO,

0-10

Fe2Os

. .

4-11

p,o5

0-17

FeO

, ,

5-75

NiO

0-03

MgO

. .

. . 11-65

MnO

0-18

CaO

7-74

H,0-f- . .

3-21

Na,0

K, 0

3-07

0-68

H20~ . .

0-55

Total

. . 100*22

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOLOGY OF BRISBANE.

29

The Rocksberg Greenstones are, in their upper part, interbedded
with the lowest members of the Bunya Phyllites which comformably
succeed them. There is only one small and inconspicuous outcrop of
the Greenstones within the area of Greater Brisbane, namely, on the
road from Bald Hills to Brighton.

C. The Bunya Phyllites.

These succeed the Rocksberg Greenstones as a strictly conformable
sequence, for Mathews has shown that at Petrie and other places to
the north of Brisbane the lowest members are interbedded with the
uppermost Greenstones to form a transitional series. In Brisbane itself
the Phyllites show evidence of having suffered regional metamorphism
comparable with that of the Greenstones, It can be argued that they
must have shared too the later metamorphism which affected the Neran-
leigh-Fernvale Group, but the additional effects of this on the rocks
under consideration would presumably have been slight and certainly
are difficult to detect. Some members of the group have also been
deformed to varying degrees by one or both of two distinct episodes
of purely dynamic character.

(i.) the bunya phyllites (undeformed). These correspond to
the Bunya Phyllites as defined and mapped by us (1951) but not to
the Bunya Series of Denmead (1928) which was more extensive and
lithologically less uniform including rocks of various types which we
have assigned to the St. Lucia Polymetamorphics, the Hamilton Catac-
lasites and undeformed members of the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group
respectively.

The undeformed Phyllities are typically developed in the suburb
of Indooroopilly especially in the railway cutting and nearby where
they occupy the crest of a denuded anticline and dip gently beneath
the St, Lucia Polymetamorphics which overlie them both to the north-
east and to the south-west. They thus form a window in the Polymeta-
morphics extending from this, their southern-most point at Witton
Creek, in a gradually widening wedge to the north-west. They have
been subjected successively to a mild and later even milder regional
metamorphism and, locally, to a yet later moderate thermal meta-
morphism from the Enoggera pluton and its subjacent extensions.

As seen in the field the Bunya Phyllites are fine-grained pelitic
metamorphics which are so deeply weathered that it is difficult to
obtain fresh unoxidised specimens for study. Fortunately some of the
material from the lower levels of the University Training Mine at
Indooroopilly is quite unweathered and this has been used as a basis for
microscopical examination and for the rock analysis shown below.

The rock is finely phyllitic in character although in places it
presents certain more coarsely schistose features and the question arises
whether it is a phyllonite due to retrogressive metamorphism of a
schistose rock of somewhat higher grade, rather than simply a phyllite
due to the positive effect of mild regional metamorphism. Phyllonitiza-
tion, if it did occur, was so remarkably complete that no sure evidence
of it remains.

The Bunya Phyllite consists essentially of parallel alternating
wider bands of micaceous and narrower bands of quartzitic character
along and across which veins of white quartz have been intruded.

30

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The micaceous bands which make up the bulk of the rock, although
dark in colour owing to the presence of graphite, are composed essen-
tially of innumerable small platy crystals of sericite in parallel arrange-
ments. The quartzitic bands are relatively narrow and are made up of
an even-grained mosaic of very small quartz crystals between which are
dispersed numerous minute crystals of green chlorite, the majority of
which are elongated parallel to the length of the bands.

It is clear that these two assemblages represent the original pelitic
sediment from which the phyllite was derived and that the rock consists
essentially of a muscovite, chlorite, quartz assembly and as such falls
naturally into the muscovite-chlorite sub-facies of the green-schist facies.
This very moderate metamorphism is in keeping with Mathew’s findings
for the Kocksberg Greenstones and interbedded phyllites. The white
quartz veins, which show some signs of strain, were introduced after
the phyllite was produced. They are lighter in colour and coarser in
texture than the quartz-chlorite aggregates and contain rare crystals of
tourmaline and a plagioclase felspar.

The analysis of a typical example of the Bunya« Phyllites collected

from the University of Queensland Training Mine at Finney’s Hill

appended.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Si02

. . 63-0

TiO,

0-70

ALL) 3

. . 14-53

C02

0-14

FeoOs

3-81

C

0-12

FeO

#'8'0

P205

0-20

MgO

2-28

MnO

0-63

CaO

0-55

PbO

0-32

NaA)

0-92

S

0-06

k.,6

2-75

h2o+ . .

4-33

BaO

0-05

h2o — . .

0-59

Total

. . 99-78

(ii.) the st. lucia POLYMETAMORPHics. In the recently published
Geological Map of the City of Brisbane and in the Explanatory Notes
that accompany it (1951) we introduced the term Polymetamorphics to
distinguish those members of the Brisbane Metamorphics which showed
evidence of a more complicated metamorphic history than their fellows,
as indicated by their appearance in the field, in the hand specimen and
under the microscope. Within this group we recognised and mapped
two distinct facies which we named the St. Lucia and Hamilton Poly-
metamorphics respectively. In the same publication we expressed the
opinion that “Although lithologically different, the Hamilton rocks are
thought to be equivalent to those at St. Lucia.” A reconsideration of
the evidence then available together with the appraisal of the new
information since collected leads us now to reject that correlation. We
now regard the St. Lucia Polymetamorphics and the Plamilton rocks
as distinct stratigraphically as they are lithologically, their only
remaining bond being the evidence they both show of severe
deformation.

The St. Lucia Polymetamorphics occupy two belts which converge
to the south where, at Indooroopilly, they are only a mile apart. The
eastern limit of the main development is determined by the Normanby
Fault beyond which there occur only a few isolated narrow strips
such as those from Turbot Street to Vulture Street and from Ivory
Street to the foundations of the Story Bridge. The western limit is
similarly marked by the Kenmore fault. How far they extend to the
north is unknown, but Dr. Gradwell has collected typical material
from the Samford Range.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOLOGY OF BRISBANE.

31

The resemblances between the St. Lucia Polymetamorphics and the
Bunya Phyllites are such that there can be little doubt that both were
derived from similar pelitic material, but they go further than that
and strongly suggest, if they do not convincingly establish, that the
Polymetamorphics were derived by deformation directly from the
Phyllites themselves. Detailed examination shows that the minerals are
identical in kind and proportion and that the very striking differences
in general appearance of the two rocks are due only to the different
textural arrangement of these minerals.

Within the St, Lucia Polymetamorphics all the members show clear
evidence of mechanical deformation, but very considerable diversity
exists in the manner in which it is displayed and in the degree of its
development. But although striking contrasts in both qualitative and
quantitative effects can be found in the field and under the microscope,
gradations between what at first seem to be distinctive lithological types
can be found. This should be borne in mind when reading the descrip-
tions of the three types set out below.

( a ) The Milton Type. This shows the Polymetamorphics in their
most complex and intricate development which gives them a superficial
resemblance to migmatites and the appearance of great antiquity. Thus
Jensen (1910) expressed the opinion that “The Brisbane Schists . . . are
so crushed, folded, foliated and faulted that they must be assigned to
the Middle Zone, ...” The same reasons led Wearne (1912) to suggest
a Pre-Cambrian age for the “Brisbane Schists.” In the field the rocks
appear as an intricate, highly involved and dislocated aggregate of
alternating bands of micaceous minerals and dark flint-like material,
along and across which are very numerous veins of white quartz. It i§
clear that the original rock is represented by the micaceous bands
(which frequently show fine examples of strain-slip cleavage), and the
black quartzitic bands, many of which have been pinched to form
strings of lenses, interrupted as semi-isolated lunules, twisted into
intricate knots or broken into detached individual lenses. The whitQ
quartz veins, which have clearly invaded the rock subsequent to its
original deformation, have been involved in a further deformation
which has folded and strained them strongly as well as intensifying and
complicating the earlier structures of the micaceous and quartzitic
bands.

The dip, if such it can be called, of these highly contorted beds
is usually very steep, and small overfolds and overthrusts are common.
Most of the outcrops are so deeply weathered that it is difficult to
collect specimens suitable for microscopic examination, but fortunately
fresh material was made available by the excavations for the piers of
the Grey Street Bridge. In his original description of this material,
Richards (1931) wrote:— “When fresh [they] are a dark blue or
grey colour and exhibit a plication usually well-developed owing to

the fine-grained character Puckering on a minute but intense

scale is a frequent characteristic A tough knotted character

is induced in the rock by this fine puckering ...” Richards also
stated that “The quartz veins in these schists are of two different
kinds. One kind is a dark bluish grey in colour and appears to have
resulted from a metasomatic replacement of the schistose material.
Those veins are the most abundant and are veins of quartzite rather
than quartz. The quartz veins proper are generally larger, are white
and much less regular in their development [i.e. distribution].” Wilb

32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

regard to the development of the more interesting characteristics of this
very unusual rock Richards made the following comments : 1 ‘ The micro-
scopic characters of the rocks show clearly that much of the schistose
or phyllitic material has been replaced by silica. The original bedded
structure and the later induced schistose structure are both sometimes
preserved in the [dark] quartz veins formed by the metasoma tie
replacement of the schistose material. Throughout the quartz there
is a fine dust of the graphitic and other small mineral particles which
were not replaced. ’ ’

After re-examining the material on which the above statements
were based and preparing additional microslides we are in a position
to confirm Richards’ descriptions in most essentials, but find ourselves
in disagreement with some of the explanations provided for the
structures described.

Our principal point of disagreement concerns the origin of what
for the purpose of simplicity we shall refei to as the “black quartz”.
Under the microscope this appears at first glance to be, as Richards
suggested, a quartzitic aggregate darkened by opaque graphitic smudges,
but examination under high power shows that the smudges are produced
by myriads of minute greenish transparent crystals, the larger of which
are recognisably chloritic. This quartz-chlorite aggregate is not, in
our opinion, the result of metasomatic replacement, but of micro-
brecciation and recrystallization brought about by the play of severely
deformative mechanical forces.

The minute green crystals are not uniformly distributed in the
aggregate but are arranged in streaks or smears roughly parallel to
the margins of the veins and separated by relatively clear lanes. Such
an arrangement is probably due to the crushing and orientation of
quartz-chlorite aggregates such as those already described as forming
bands in the undeformed Bunya Phyllites.

We agree with Richards that the white, less finely crystalline
quartz veins, although they may represent more than one generation,
are all of them later than the black quartz aggregates which they often
intersect. But some of these show clearly that they too, although they
followed the deformative effects outlined above, have been subjected to
severe stresses. Evidence of this is seen in the shape of many actual
fractures (in some cases to produce a quartzitic breccia) and numerous
incipient fractures indicated by very pronounced strain lamellae and
undulose extinction. Many of these veins, which we will refer to as
the ‘ 1 white quartz ’ ’, are highly contorted. This may be due in part to
their having followed contortions in the host rock produced by the
earlier deformation, but as they invariably show signs of strain, part
of the contortion must be due to a later deformation. In addition the
larger white quartz veins may be seen in many places in the field
to be overturned with well developed patterns of tension cracks on the
overfold.

This later deformation which has affected the white quartz veins
has also produced recognisable secondary effects in the main body of
the rock. This is shown especially by the development within the
micaceous bands of well-developed strain-slip cleavage ( Umfaltungs
Klivag), and by the production of secondary streaks in the black-
quartz bands which are related to the primary streaks like the woof
to the web in a woven material. Further, the direction of both the

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOLOGY OF BRISBANE.

33

false cleavage and the secondary streaks appears to be related to the
overfolds in the white quartz veins. Although under the microscope,
the differential effects due to each of the two thrusts can be clearly
distinguished, macroscopically, it is very difficult to distinguish the
earlier effects from those superimposed by the later deformation.

In all, the evidence points to Polymetamorphics of the Milton type
as having suffered, in addition to regional metamorphism which
produced schistosity almost parallel to the bedding, two distinct episodes
of deformation. Also, where these rocks came within the thermal reach
of the Enoggera pluton, a contact metamorphism was superimposed
on the regional and kinetic effects to give a strongly contorted but
non-fissile hornfels.

( b ) The Ironside Type. This differs from the type described above
in its comparative simplicity and regularity of structure. Whereas at
Milton the structure is so confused as to be almost chaotic, at Ironside
the rocks appear to have a comparatively gentle dip and a pronounced
parallelism that gives the impression of a regularly bedded deposit,
although closer examination reveals that they are minutely and intri-
cately involved. The veins of white quartz in particular, strengthen
the illusion. It would seem that here we have all the features of the
early deformation as indicated by the irregular and distorted character
of the black quartz, only slightly complicated by the later deformation
as indicated by the regularity of the white quartz. That the differences
between the Ironside and Milton types are quantitative and spatial,
rather than qualitative and temporal, is seen in the field where the
gently dipping and compartively simple beds of Ironside type are found
to grade imperceptibly into the steep and highly complex masses of
the Milton Type (and by the strong evidence of strain within the
apparently undisturbed quartz veins).

(c) The Taringa Type. In the western part of the suburb of
Faringa there occur Phyllites of the Indooroopilly type which, while
they lack the features indicative of the earlier deformation, show
evidence. of strain-slip cleavage and possess the numerous closely folded
and strained veins of white quartz characteristic of the second defor-
mation. Evidently the rocks in this area occupied a position sheltered
from the earlier deformative forces but exposed to those of the later
more wide-spread deformation.

(D) The Neranleigh-Fernvale Group.

This Group we now regard as including not only the normal very
mildly metamorphosed sediments as hitherto, but also the Hamilton
Cataclasites previously mapped by Denmead as part of his Bunya
Series.

(i.) the neranleigh-fernvale group (Undeformed) . The lower
members of this group outcrop over wide areas of Greater Brisbane,
and although relatively “undeformed”, show in many places strain
phenomena mildly developed. As mapped by us, they occupy a much
greater area than that indicated in Denmead ’s (1928) map. In
particular, a large area to the east of the City and to the north of
the Brisbane River assigned by Denmead to his Bunya Series consists
we think, of the northerly prolongation of his Neranleigh Series which
his map shows as confined to the south of the river. In support of this
contention, we submit that much of the material to the north of the

34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

river, as at Wilston, Newmarket and Alderley, is on the same regional
strike as, and lithologically identical or very similar to, Denmead’s
Neranleigh Series. This applies particularly to the banded slates and
to the much-contorted, thin-bedded quartzites, although admittedly
the greywackes are less common to the north of the river.

The area thus extended now includes within the Neranleigh-
Fernvale territory the locality from which the specimen was obtained
for the chemical analysis of Denmead’s (1928) Bunya Series. It is
significant we think that this analysis is quite similar to that published
by Denmead of his typical Neranleigh greywacke, especially in its
high soda content which is more than twice that to be expected in a
phyllite. It is equally significant that Denmead’s analysis is dissimilar
from that of the Indooroopilly rock selected by us as typical of the
Bunya Phyllites particularly in the low soda content of the latter.

The rocks of the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group form a heterogeneous
assemblage that is in striking contrast to the uniformity of the Bunya
Phyllites. This is especially true of the Group as developed to the
west of Kenmore. Composed essentially of an irregular alternation
of politic types like banded shales and psammitic types like massive
greywackes, they also include highly siliceous rocks like cherts and
jaspers, while impure limestones and at least one phosphatic horizon
are also present.

They differ too in that the total regional metamorphism they
have experienced is notably milder than that to which the phyllites
were subjected. Similar pelitic sediments have been changed to slates
in one case and to phyllites in the other.

It is difficult to select a “type” in such a varied assemblage as
is found in the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group, but Denmead has pointed
out that greywackes are the most conspicuous rocks in the lower part
of the Group.

We append here three analyses. No. 1 is that given by Denmead
of a typical greywacke from his Neranleigh Series as developed at
Bethania Junction 18 miles S.E. of Brisbane. No. 2 is that of the
analysis from the city of Brisbane, attributed by Denmead (wrongly,
we think) to the Bunya Phyllites, and No. 3, kindly supplied by
Dr. R. Gradwell, is that from the northerly development of the

Neranleigh at

Mt. Nebo,

13 miles N.E.

of Brisbane.

l.

2.

3.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Si02

68-54

61-62

66-06

A1203

15-49

21-20

15-34

Fe203

0-88

1-51

1*01

FeO

3-17

1-93

4-58

MgO

1-23

1*77

2-85

CaO

2-24

1-59

2-38

Na,0

3-04

3-39

3-21

k2o

3-50

3-07

4-00

h2o+

0-75

3-29

0-36

h2o--

0-15

0-03

0-16

TiO,

0-59

0-82

0-62

p2o5

0-16

0-17

0-09

MnO

0-08

0-07

0-04

Total

99-82

100-56

100-70

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOLOGY OF BRISBANE.

35

The localities from which the specimens were collected on which
these analyses are based all fall within the area which we regard as
occupied by the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group. It is noteworthy that
not only are the analyses similar, but the high soda content of all is
unusual for rocks of sedimentary origin. Thus the evidence of the
analyses supports the field evidence that the rocks from which they were
made belong to one and the same series.

(ii. ) the Hamilton CATACLASiTES are closely associated
geographically with the Neranleigh-Fernvale distribution as interpreted
by us, and show evidence of having been produced by the deformation
of these or similar rocks, (Indeed the “ undeformed” Neranleigh shows
signs of strain over a very large area.) They are roughly equivalent
to DenmeacFs (1928) “Hamilton Schists. ’ ? Of the Neranleigh-Hamilton
relationship Denmead (p. 98) wrote: “The passage from the slates of
Wilston to these highly schistose rocks appears to be perfectly
conformable, and yet it is inconceivable that but slightly cleaved slates
could underlie conformably a thick series of schists, the foliation and
contortion of which must be seen before its intensity can be appreciated.
Furthermore, near Breakfast Creek and at Bulimba there are undis-
turbed greywackes and slates dipping in an easterly direction. Both
of these occurrences are surrounded by quartzose schists which (at
Bulimba particularly) are very highly contorted. They outcrop at
low levels, while the surrounding hills are occupied by the quartzose
schists. ’ ’ Denmead concludes that ‘ ‘ The only reasonable explanation
of these facts is an over-thrust fault.”

The Cataclasites of Hamilton differ rather markedly from the
Polymetamorphics of St. Lucia both qualitatively in their typically
psammitic character and quantitatively in the scale of the structures
exhibited, although of course these differences may well be related.
The grossness of structure is determined, at least in part, by the
coarseness of grain of the rocks involved. That the phenomena
observed at Hamilton have been brought about by forces similar in
kind to those which produced the St. Lucia rocks is demonstrated
where an occasional politic stratum is interbedded with the dominating
psammites. At such places, as for instance in Hamilton Hoad, minor
plications and minute convolutions are to be seen. But relatively large
scale overfolds and overthrusts are usually the most conspicuous
characteristics of the Hamilton rocks as seen in the field. They are so
numerous as to form in places an almost chaotic jumble. Nevertheless,
a fundamental uniformity of pattern does exist. Although, observed
from a distance, the rocks appear to have a regular strike and a dip
which can be readily measured by sighting on them with a clinometer,
on closer inspection the k ‘ dip ’ ’ proves to be the expression of an
imbricate structure, a kind of gigantic cleavage, consisting of parallel
shear planes, the bedding proper as seen between these planes being
very irregular and involved. One interesting feature is that the
cylindrical rolls in the axial portions of the overfolds resemble super-
ficially the trunks of large fossil trees.

In many places, not only the rocks themselves but the white quartz
veins which penetrate them show obvious signs of having been sheared
and shattered.

Associated with this strongly overfolded and overthrust material
there occur on many horizons, and particularly towards the base of
the disturbed material, sandy strata that have been crushed into

36

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

extraordinary fine-grained, weakly coherent cataclasites made up
entirely of rock flour. These are well shown immediately behind
Dalgety’s Wharf at New Farm and in Adelaide Street in the city.

The Hamilton Cataclasites resemble the St. Lucia Polymeta-
morphics in that they clearly show the effects of mechanical deformation,
but differ from them in several important respects. Briefly these are :
The Hamilton rocks have experienced only one regional metamorphism,
and that a very mild one ; the ‘ 1 black quartz 7 ’ is conspicuous by its
absence ; the only deformation exhibited involves the white quartz
veins ; the structures produced are on a larger scale ; and micro-
breeeiation is more pronounced.

Under the microscope the Hamilton rocks examined are typically
psammitic and made up essentially of detrital quartz and felspar.
Veins of white quartz are numerous. Evidence of microbrecciation of
rock proper is abundantly clear and is accompanied by equally severe
strain effects in the white quartz veins. No “black quartz” is present.

Where occasional more pelitic strata are found they show signs of
a very mild regional metamorphism imposed before the deformation
which brought about strain-slip cleavage in the sericitic bands and
granulation of the remainder of the rocks, including the white quartz
veins.

As a result of these differences, the Hamilton rocks cannot be
matched against any of the three types of St. Lucia Polymetamorphics.
The evidence of the microscope shows that Hamilton has shared only
the latter part of the varied tectonic history of St. Lucia.

III. STRUCTURAL RELATIONSHIPS.

(A) The Indooroopilly Anticline.

This feature which was first named and described by Denmead
(1928) is, as he rightly pointed out, the dominant structure of the
area. As’ far as research has as yet proceeded, it appears originally
to have been no more than a simple anticline. But it is most unusual
for such a very large structure to be of such a simple pattern and
future work may prove it to have been quite complex. David (1932)
seems to have had this possibility in mind when he introduced the
term “Brisbane Geanticline” for the same structure.

The anticline is notably asymmetrical, the dips on the north-eastern
limb are on the whole less steep than those on the south-western flank.
Except for a few unimportant local reversals, the north-easterly dips
are consistent in direction over a minimum distance of seven miles,
from the axis to the point where the Brisbane Metamorphics disappear
beneath a cover of younger rocks. On the other hand the amount of
dip is by no means consistent, alternating as it does between very steep
and moderate. But the steeper dips are not, in our opinion, original
but have been superimposed subsequently on the anticline by steep
reverse faults associated with thrusting movements. (See Section
IIID, The Hamilton Thrust).

The south-western flank of the anticline presents a very different
picture. Not only are the dips commonly very steep but they alter-
nate in direction. They show no signs of having been exaggerated
by the later thrusts. Such asymmetry suggests that the anticline was

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOLOGY OF BRISBANE.

37

elevated by pressure from the north-east. The axis has been traced
by Denmead (1928) from Indooroopilly in a north-westerly direction
to a point near Woodford, forty miles away. Taylor Range marks
the position of the axis near its south-eastern limit which is formed
by the Brisbane River near Indooroopilly, where the horizontal strata
forming the crest of the fold may be seen in cliffs on the riverbank.
The structure pitches gently to the south-east beneath a cover of
Mesozoic and later rocks. It has a breadth, as measured from Pullen
Creek to Hamilton, of approximately twelve miles.

Earlier interpretations of the history of the anticline suggested
that strata of a total thickness of 50,000 feet were involved, and that
the crest at its maximum may have reached a height of 30,000 feet.
Indeed David (1932) described the structure as “the core of a huge
geanticline, originally perhaps at least as high as the Himalayas.”

In our view the Indooroopilly Anticline, although an imposing
structure, never reached the heights that David suggested, for we hold
that it was elevated in at least two stages, once before and once after
the deposition of the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group, and that a consider-
able erosion interval occurred between the orogenies. Our cross-section
(Figure 2) suggests a height of the order of 10,000 feet.

(B) The Unconformity Between the Bunya Phyllites and the

Neranleigh-Fernvale Group.

As defined and mapped by us the Bunya Phyllites constitute a
homogeneous, almost purely pelitic facies which probably accumulated
slowly under deep water, whereas the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group is a
heterogeneous one, in which psammitic types are well represented,
deposited quickly under rapidly changing conditions, in which the
water was commonly shallow. In short, although both series are
geosynclinal, the Bunya Phyllites represent accumulation under static
conditions, whereas the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group represents accumu-
lation under dynamic conditions.

Another important difference is that the older series clearly shows
the effects of regional metamorphism, whereas the equally sensitive
pelitic strata in the younger group show only traces of a mild meta-
morphism and, further, they sometimes contain fragmentary fossil
plants.

If we assume that the St. Lucia Polymetamorphics are coeval with
the Bunya Phyllites and the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group with the
Hamilton Cataclasites, we have further indirect evidence of an important
time break, for the former show clear evidence of two epochs of
deformation (separated by the invasion of white quartz), while the
latter show only the effects of the second deformation.

Direct structural evidence of such an unconformity would however
be difficult to find, for we hold that the later orogeny, which affected all
the Brisbane Metamorphics, was strictly supplementary to the earlier
orogeny which had already folded the Bunya Phyllites, and that conse-
quently, the effect of the second orogeny was to emphasize the regional
strike and the principal structures produced by the first. One could
not expect therefore to find either unconformity of strike or reversal
of dip as between the two series. Theoretically, the dips of the Phyllites
might be expected to have higher values than those of the Neranleigh-
Fernvale Group, but such differences would be difficult to determine

38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

owing to (a) the absence of vertical sections showing the junction of
the two series, (b) the fact that the dips of both series frequently
change in value rather abruptly, and (c) the difficulty in some cases
of recognising the original bedding in the strongly foliated Phyllites.

Nevertheless, numerous observations indicate that, on the whole,
the strike of the Bunya Phyllites is more nearly meridional than that
of the later group, and the dip is somewhat steeper.

(C) The St. Lucia Thrust.

In the earlier work already referred to (1951), we advanced the
opinion that a single great thrust, ‘ ‘ The Brisbane Thrust, ’ ’ was respon-
sible for the deformation of both the St. Lucia Polymetamorphics and
the Hamilton Cataclasites, but we now hold that the former series
shows evidence in the hand specimen and under the microscope of
having undergone an earlier deformation before that which it shared
with the Hamilton Cataclasites. We hold further that this earlier
deformation was brought about by an earlier thrust, here called the
St. Lucia Thrust, which, as it anticipated many of the features of the
Hamilton Thrust, is less obvious in the field. The Hamilton Thrust
added to, but at the same time overshadowed and largely obscured,
the effects of the earlier thrust.

In the early part of our investigations the much-metamorphosed
rocks that we have since called the St. Lucia Polymetamorphics were
assumed from their ancient appearance to form the basement upon
which the less metamorphosed Bunya Phyllites rest. But, to our
surprise, field investigations have shown that where the Polymeta-
morphics and the Phyllites are in conjunction the former always
occupy the position expected of the younger series.

The consistency with which these apparently older rocks occupy
the higher position can be explained only in terms of overfolding or
overthrusting. The former possibility was examined first, but no scheme
of overfolding either simple or complex appeared adequate to explain
even the larger features of distribution. By contrast, the latter alter-
native proved helpful from the start, and in the end, the hypothesis of
overthrusting which was originally introduced to explain the distribu-
tion of the Polymetamorphics in the field proved adequate to explain
too the intense deformation of these rocks as expressed by their lithology
and texture.

Search for this thrust-plane did not disclose any obvious structure
of that nature, and it may well be that, under the particular set of
conditions prevailing, the thrust-plane (so-called) may not have been
either strictly planar or confined to one horizon. Added to this, we
believe that since its formation it has been successively folded into an
anticline, disturbed by a later thrust, further folded, partitioned and
displaced by normal faulting, covered in part by sediments and partially
removed by erosion. It is not surprising that the “ plane’ 7 as such
is not readily recognisable.

Only rarely, as at Hart’s Road, Indooroopilly and near the Toowong
Cemetery (where the effects peculiar to the earlier thrust are well
displayed) are the two series which are separated by the St. Lucia
overthrust seen in close juxtaposition. At other places, where the super-
position of the Polymetamorphics has been established by the field
evidence, the actual junctions are obscure. However, if the actual

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOLOGY OF BRISBANE.

39

“sole” is not in evidence the lowest parts of the St. Lucia Polymeta-
morphics are especially rich in minor overthrusts, while in the upper-
most part of the over-ridden Phyllities, numerous drag-folds occur and
these, with the added evidence of numerous intense slickensides, point
to the proximity of the main thrust.

While to the north-east of the Indooroopilly Anticline the minor
overfolds and overthrusts are directed up the dip, although at some-
what steeper angles, on the south-western limb the overfolds are diverted
down the dip, but at gentler angles. From this it is clear that the
thrust-plane and overlying sheet of Polymetamorphics were involved
in the movement that finally produced the Indooroopilly Anticline.

Although there are a few minor incidental exceptions, the evidence
of numerous and widely scattered overfolds points convincingly to the
overthrusting having been produced by pressure from a north-easterly
direction. How far the sheet has travelled and to what extent it is
allochthonous we have been unable to determine as its north-eastern
limit .is a faulted one, beyond which its possible extension is hidden
beneath younger rocks. But the close mineralogical resemblance of the
material of the sheet to that of the underlying Bunya Phyllites suggests
that it may well be autochthonous or that it has travelled only a short
distance. The discontinuous remnants of the sheet measure five miles
across the strike from the Grey Street Bridge to Chappel Hill, while
they extend ten miles along the strike from Fig Tree Pocket to the
northern boundary of the City of Brisbane. Beyond this, their northern
limit is as yet unknown, although Dr. R. Gradwell has collected typical
St. Lucia material from the top of the Samford Range. Equally little
is known of the original thickness of the sheet, but measurements
between Indooroopilly and Kenmore suggest a minimum thickness of
1,300 feet.

(D) The Hamilton Thrust.

While the proof of the existence of the St. Lucia Thrust rests
largely on the study of thin sections, the Hamilton Thrust is securely
based upon field observations.

The direction, intensity and general microscopic effects of the
Hamilton Thrust are broadly comparable with those assigned to the
St. Lucia Thrust. The interval between the two thrusts was a very
considerable one, during which the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group had been
laid down and the whole area invaded by innumerable veins of white
quartz. The structures produced varied in scale in accordance with
the character of the rocks affected. Thus at Hamilton, where psammitic
types are the rule, relatively large-scale structures are to be seen,
whereas in areas where pelitic types are dominant, as at Milton,
the structures are much smaller and are closely comparable to
those due to the earlier St. Lucia thrust.

However, some of the minor effects, such as the straining of the
white quartz and the development of incipient strain-slip cleavage in
the micaceous bands, are wide-spread and extend well beyond the
margins of the area which we have mapped as occupied by the Hamilton
Cataclasites.

The geographical distribution of the Cataclasites suggests that the
second thrust came from much the same direction as the first but at a

40

PROCEEDINGS OF TPIE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

more gentle angle* with the result that at Hamilton the second thrust
is well above the first, while at Taringa they are almost coincident.

In spite of the severity of the deformative effects shown by them,
the Hamilton Cataclasites are lithologically so closely similar to typical
members of the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group that they too must be
regarded as virtually autochthonous.

Associated with the main Hamilton Thrust there appears to have
been a series of reverse faults, some of them quite steep. To the east,
as at Hamilton, Booroodabin and New Farm, these affected only
Neranleigh-Fernvale sediments, but in the city, as near the Story
Bridge, at All Hallows Convent and at the Dental College, the upper-
most parts of the St. Lucia Polymetamorphics were also scooped up,
while still further west at Toowong, the St. Lucia rocks only were
involved in these steep upthrusts. The relative degrees to which various
areas were affected by these minor thrusts are shown almost diagr aro-
matically by varying degrees of irregularity of the white quartz veins.
Where the rocks, whatever they may be, are least affected and dip most
gently the white quartz veins present an undisturbed bedded appear-
ance, but as one proceeds down the dip towards the reverse faults and
as the dips steepen progressively, quartz veins become gradually less
regular until they become folded and twisted into a confused tangle.

(E) The Buranda Fault.

There is a marked lack of harmony both stratigraphical and
structural between those members of the Brisbane Metamorphics
developed in the north-western suburbs of the city and those found to
the south-east. This is especially noticeable owing to the fact that the
regional strike is directed approximately from one to the other of these
areas.

Clearly, some kind of discontinuity exists. Denmead (1928) was
the first to recognise this discordance. He placed the dividing line
roughly in the position of the Brisbane River and explained it as due
to a zone of dip-faults with downthrow to the south-east, which affected
not only the Brisbane Metamorphics but the Mesozoic rocks which in
places overlie them.

In contrast to Denmead ’s interpretation, we place the discontinuity
somewhat further to the south-east at what we have termed the Buranda
Fault, which we now hold to be a “tear, ” “wrench,” or “transcurrent”
fault with sinistra! displacement, which occurred in pre-Mesozoic times
as the final effort of the compressive movement that brought about the
Hamilton Thrust.

To the south-east of the fault the only representatives of the
Brisbane Metamorphics to be found are members of the Neranleigh-
Fernvale Group, whereas to the north-west there are developed in
addition to these the Bunya Phyllites, the St. Lucia Polymetamorphics
and the Hamilton Cataclasites. It is, we think, particularly significant
that the southerly extension of the last of these should be so abruptly
terminated by the Buranda Fault.

The fault itself cannot be traced continuously owing to its having
been covered in places by Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments and by
recent alluvium. Nevertheless it is well developed at several points

* Alternatively the St. Lucia Thrust may have been tilted somewhat before
the Hamilton Thrust was produced.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOLOGY OP BRISBANE.

41

which are virtually eolinear, and where its presence is indicated by
fault breccias, slickensided surfaces and disturbance of strike due to
horizontal drag1. In particular, in the neighbourhood of Corinda, intense
disturbance, brecciation and slickensiding can be seen in the abandoned
Council quarry, while nearby, at the Carrington Rocks, banded
quartzites of the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group have been dragged from
their normal N.50°W. strike to a N.100°W. direction. Again, at
the other extremity of the fault as mapped, there is a well-developed
zone of fault-breccia at Cannon Hill, where Muir Street intersects
Erica Street, and a strong swing from the regional strike towards
parallelism with the line of fault. On each side of the fault as here
developed the local change in strike suggests movement in the sinistral
sense.

In the earlier work (Bryan and Jones, 1951) we have depicted the
Bur an da Fault as one of a series of normal faults due to tensional
reaction following the completion of the thrusting movements, but we
now prefer to remove it from that series and to interpret it as a tear
fault with sinistral displacement for the following reasons : —

1. The local evidence of faulting wherever found along the

Buranda line is at least as compatible with a tear fault as
with a normal fault.

2. Such a fault would explain all that a normal fault explains,

and at least as convincingly.

3. Additionally, by assuming a horizontal displacement of appro-

priate dimensions, it would bring into geological and geo-
graphical harmony features that are now discordant. For
example, the several prominent quartzite hills of the Mt.
Gravatt area could lie matched against those of the Brook-
field area, while the folds of Coorparoo which do not continue
across the Buranda Fault would find their counterparts near
Moggill.

4. The assumption of such a forward movement across the strike

of the north-western portion would place the fault neatly
into the structural picture as one of the several related
results of the Hamilton Thrust.

5. It would remove from the list of normal faults the only excep-

tion to the generalization that these form a parallel series
in the general direction of strike.

F. The Normal Faults.

These tensional faults are very numerous especially in the approxi-
mate direction of the regional strike. They are readily recognised
where the throw is small and the amount of displacement can be
observed, as in deep cuttings. At the other end of the scale too, they
are readily deduced where the throw is sufficiently great to bring litho-
logically different series into juxtaposition. But there are in addition
very numerous faults of moderate throw where neither of the above
conditions apply and where the only visible evidence of faulting is that
of disturbance about a steeply dipping plane. In such cases the direc-
tion of throw must remain in doubt, and we cannot know whether
the effects of these faults are cumulative or whether they tend to cancel
out.

D

42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The normal faults are later than the thrusts, as may be seen in the
road cuttings on St. Lucia Road, where numerous small tensional faults
displace the minor thrust-planes.

The larger of the normal faults determine, in part at least, the
present limits of the deformed beds. Thus the Kenmore Fault, a near-
strike fault with a large downthrow to the west, forms the western
boundary of the St. Lucia Polymetaporphics. It lias been recognised
at intervals from the Mt. Nebo Road to Fig Tree Pocket.

The eastern boundary of the Hamilton Cataclasites may be provided
by a large fault for it is the nature of a steep scarp* against which
the much younger Ipswich Coal Measures lie. This may well be a
fault-line scarp, the fault itself having occurred in pre-Mesozoic times,
concurrent with that just considered.

The most conspicuous and probably the most important of the
other normal faults is the Normanby Fault which approximately folloivs
the regional north-westerly strike for at least twelve miles from a point
in Bracken street, Moorooka, where it is strongly developed and where
an arresting fault breccia may be seen, to the city boundary near
Bunyaville. It may be examined, too, at several intermediate points, as
for example, under the northern end of the Grey Street Bridge, near
the intersection of Windsor Road and Victoria Street, and at the City
Council Quarry on Samford Road near Alderley. The amount of the
throw which has brought the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group down against
the St. Lucia Polymetamorphics is unknown, but probably it is of the
order of hundreds of feet as shown in the accompanying section.

Evidence of other major faults of a tensional character may be
seen near Windsor railway station where a course fault breccia is
developed. This we have named the Windsor Fault. Although hidden
beneath a considerable width of Mesozoic strata, an extension in a
direction parallel to that of the other normal faults would carry it to
the well-developed fault-breccias in East Brisbane near Norman
Crescent. Another strongly developed fault of this series may be seen
in the abandoned Morningside Quarry near Richmond Road. Here,
relatively undisturbed members of the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group lie
against typical Hamilton Cataclasites, the faulted junction running in
a north-westerly direction. The fault plane with its slickensides and
breccias is clearly seen to form the south-western edge of the deepened
quarry.

Other similar and parallel faults may be deduced from the
distribution pattern of the Brisbane Metamorphics. In some cases, as
at the mouth of Breakfast Creek the faults so deduced are supported
by obvious signs of disturbance. Yet further members of this group
may have effected considerable total displacement although none has
had a sufficiently large throw to modify the distribution of the
Metamorphics as shown on a small scale map.

' The steepness of the scarp is demonstrated by the fact that in a bore on
the Ascot racecourse, only half a mile from the boundary, the Metamorphics were
not encountered until 1,680 feet,

S, A. Boys

Proc. Rot. Soc. Q’i

), Vol. LXV., No. 2.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOLOGY OF BRISBANE.

43

IV. SIGNIFICANT IGNEOUS EVENTS.

This section does not aim at giving a complete account of all the
igneous episodes that occurred during the prolonged history of the
Brisbane Metamorphics. Instead attention is directed to those events
which, in our opinion, are closely relevant to the structural history of
the Brisbane Metamorphics.

A. The D ’Aguilar Batholith.

This is the name, already in use by local geologists, for the
supposedly continuous batholithic mass which reinforces the D ’Aguilar
Block to the north of Brisbane and appears at the surface as a number
of separate outcrops. The larger of those which occur withim or
infringe upon the boundaries of the city of Brisbane are at Mt. Crosby,
Camp Mountain and Enoggera. The last of these is the most interest-
ing and important from the point of view of this discussion and will
be dealt with later in a separate section under the caption “The
Enoggera Pluton”.

The batholith is, we hold, composite in character, for the constituent
parts differ from each other, not only petrologically, but in age, in mode
of emplacement and in metamorphic effects.

The earliest evidence of the existence of the batholith appears to
be provided by the white quartz veins, although these have not in fact
been traced to their source. These veins are extremely numerous. In
size, they vary from microscopic to veins several inches in width. They
characteristically follow the bedding even when it is highly deformed.
They occur over a very large area, and are particularly plentiful in
the Buny a Phyllites and the St. Lucia Poly metamorphics. They are
common too in the Hamilton Cataclasites and the associated Neranleigh-
Fernvale of the eastern suburbs, but they are relatively rare in those
members of the Group developed west of the Kenmore fault. They are
not found in any post-Palaozoic rocks.

In keeping with their uniformly white colour they are remarkably
pure quartz veins, but triclinic felspars are not uncommon in pegmatitic
intergrowths, thus clearly indicating an igneous origin for these veins.

Of similar significance is the presence of brown tourmaline. The
crystals are very minute and are very rare, but they are all very similar
in colour and crystalline form and are scattered over a very large
area, reaching from St. Lucia to Galloway’s Hill in the east to the
Samford Range in the north. At one point near the top of the Samford
Range, small crystals of andalusite were found.

The white quartz veins are intrusive in character. They are later
than the St. Lucia Thrust, for they frequently intersect the micro-
structures produced by that thrust. In particular, they are definitely
later than the black quartz veins which were originally bedded and
which they often cross at right angles.

On the other hand, the white quartz veins are earlier than the
Hamilton Thrust which has caused them, in places, to be twisted into
ptygmatic forms, while the individual crystals have been strained and
even brecciated to give typical mortar structure. Many of the tour-
maline crystals and those of andalusite have also been fractured, and
the broken fragments displaced.

44

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Since the white quartz veins must have been derived from some
adjacent igneous intrusion, their relationship to the Enoggera pluton
was investigated with particular care, as it would seem to have been
the most obvious source. But the results of this examination were
somewhat surprising in that they not only failed to disclose any con-
nection, but clearly indicated that the quartz veins were earlier than
the pluton. The evidence for this conclusion is that : —

1. In the held where sharp contacts could be found, as in Ithaca
Creek and on the Cedar Creek road, large white quartz veins were
sharply truncated and turned up slightly by the upward movement of
the pluton.

2. Xenoliths of Bunya Phyllites were collected containing smaller
quartz veins and these also are truncated by the surrounding granite.

3. Under the microscope still smaller but essentially similar
examples maj^ be seen.

4. It may be significant too that the tourmaline found in the
marginal parts of the granite does not occur as isolated brown crystals
like those of the quartz veins, but as radiating aggregates of the black
variety, schorl.

Clearly these white quartz veins were emplaced before the intrusion
of the Enoggera pluton and we are led to suppose they came from a
subjacent igneous mass (perhaps the original "D ’Aguilar Batholith”)
from which the pluton itself may well have been derived at a later date.

(B) The Intrusive Rhyolites.

In a paper on 4 'The Enoggera Granite and the Allied Intrusives”
one of us (Bryan 1914-1922) pointed out that the field distribution of
the intrusive rhyolites of the Indooroopilly area suggested that they
were earlier than those other intrusions of porphyrite, which are
clearly related to the Enoggera mass. Nevertheless, as the title of the
paper indicated, he regarded the rhyolitic intrusions also as probably
allied to the "granite”.

Observations made during the present enquiry show that these acid
intrusions occur over a much wider area than had been suspected, for
typical representatives have been found at Upper Brookfield, four miles
south-west of the Enoggera mass and at Bulimba, six miles away to the
east. This wider distribution seems to admit of an independant origin
of the intrusive rhyolites, and this is supported to some extent b}^ their
lithological uniformity over such a large area, by the fact that
mineralogically they are generally dissimilar from, and in particular,
are less calcic in character than either the granodiorite or the
adamellite, and by their far more intense silicification. We suggest
therefore that these rocks were intruded before the Enoggera pluton.
Support, although of an indirect character, is given to this conclusion
by the following evidence: — (1) At Upper Brookfield, a typical
intrusive rhyolite appears to be genetically related to rhyolitic flows
of the Brookfield Yoleanics almost immediately above it; (2) other
rhyolites of this series have suffered contact metamorphism from the
intrusion of the Mt. Crosby granodiorite? ; (3) the Mt. Crosby

granodiorite is probably to be correlated with the grey phase of the
Enoggera pluton.

* This interesting relationship was brought to our notice by Dr. B. Gradwell
and Mr. J. T. Woods.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOLOGY OF BRISBANE.

45

A lower limit is given to the age of the rhyolitic intrusions by
the fact that at Chappel Hill they break across white quartz veins
which had been deformed by the Hamilton Thrust, prior to the
intrusion.

(C) The Enoggera Pluton.

This has been described in considerable detail by one of us (Bryan
1914, 1922) and reference will be made here only to its structural
aspects. With regard to the relationship of the Enoggera mass to the
“schists” which it intrudes, Bryan (1914) stated that “the evidence
in general supports the Laccolitic method of intrusion” since “The
schists near the contact strike parallel to and dip away from the granite.
Here, obviously, great mechanical energy must have been called into
play, either in the preparation by folding movements of a cavity or
plane of weakness in the schists into which the magma found its way
(forming the “phacolite” of Harker) or — and this seems more probable,
since the long axis of the intrusion is not sympathetic with the strike
of the schists — in the actual lifting up of the schist cover by the invading
magma itself to form a typical laccolite”.

Denmead (1928) came to a different conclusion, namely that
“granites have penetrated and now form cores in the great anticline

whose axis passed through Indooroopilly and Dayboro”.

$

After re-examining the margins of the Enoggera mass we are
satisfied that in places, as to the north-west of the pluton, the local
strike is almost at right angles to the regional strike and is parallel
to and obviously produced by the intrusion itself. We conclude that
the intrusion played a more active part than that of a phacolite. It
did more than conform to an already established structure. If it was
not solely responsible for the structure, as we see it today, it at least
profoundly modified the earlier structure.

In a number of places, knife-edge contacts of the granite and the
metamorphics can be seen, and although aplitic dykes are common,
there are virtually no pegmatitic apophyses to be seen. Indeed, the
intrusion shoAvs all the phenomena to be expected of subsequent or cross-
cutting granites, and none of those usually associated with granitic
intrusions of the synchronous type. This conclusion is reinforced by
the facts that although the adjacent country rocks are definitely horn-
felsed, the contact phenomena are not very intense and are restricted
to a fairly narrow band. The most conspicuous mineral within the
contact zone is epidote, although schorl is strongly developed at one
point. The quartz veins within and near the hornfels zone differ from
the “white quartz” which they intersect in showing little or no signs
of deformation and in the occurrence of epidote within them.

The Enoggera Pluton which may represent a late-formed cupola
arising out of the composite D ’Aguilar Batholith is composite, being
made up in the. main of a granitic rock, “the Pink Phase”, which
encloses a considerable mass of granodiorite, “the Grey Phase”.
Xenoliths of the latter are very common in the former and are evidently
cognate, and appear to have been carried bodily from some subjacent
source. Chemically, as the following analyses clearly indicate, the Grey
Phase, although very, different from the Pink Phase which followed it,
is almost identical with the main mass of the batholith as represented
by the quartz-diorite at Camp Mountain.

46

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

ROCK ANALYSES.

Enoggera Pluton.

D’Aguilar Batholitb
as developed at
Camp Mountain.

Main Mass
(“ Pink Phase ”).

Xenoliths
(“ Grey Phase ”).

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Si02

73*52

61*10

61*54

A1203 . .

11*05

19*24

19*03

Fe203 . .

Nil

4*66

Nil

FeO

3*15

# ,

5*04

MgO

1*03

2*56

2*97

CaO

1*70

5*25

4*90

Na20 . .

4*08

3*82

2*84

k2o

3*99

1*68

2*76

h20+

0*44

1*31

0*35

h20-

0*16

0*64

0*10

co2

, .

Ti02

0*20

, ,

0*72

p2o5

0*15

0*08

Total

99*48

100*34

100*33

(D) The Brisbane Tuffs.

These rhyolitic tuffs and ignimbrites appear to mark the end of
an igneous cycle. They succeed a few feet of lacustrine sediments of
the Ipswich Coal Measures which rest with a violent unconformity upon
the Brisbane Metamorphics. They contain no quartz veins and have
not been affected by either thermal or dynamic metamorphism of any
sort. They are later than the Hamilton overthrust and later too than
the numerous normal faults which followed that thrust.

TABLE OF IGNEOUS EVENTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE D’AGUILAR

BATHOLITH.

Mt. Crosby.

Upper Brookfield.

Indooroopilly.

Enoggera.

Camp Mt.

City.

Tuffs

Tuffs

Adamellite
(Pink Phase)

Quartz

Diorite

Porphyrite

Dykes

Porphyrite

Dykes

Granodiorite
(Grey Phase)

Quartz

Diorite

Rhyolitic
Volcanics
and Dykes

Rhyolitic

Dykes

White Quartz
Veins

White

Quartz

Veins

V. INTEGRATION OF STRATIGRAPHIC, TECTONIC, IGNEOUS

AND METAMORPHIC EVENTS.

In this contribution to the geology of Brisbane we have attempted
to determine the succession of events in a restricted area by the examina-
tion of purely internal evidence. As a result of the limitations of the
method as here applied, it has proved impossible to interpret the story
in strictly stratigraphical terms.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOLOGY OF BRISBANE.

47

We have found no evidence within the city of Brisbane for assign-
ing ages either to the Bunya Phyllites or the Neranleigh-Fernvale
Group. We do not know the age of either of the two epochs of regional
metamorphism, nor do we know when either the St. Lucia Thrust or
the Hamilton Thrust took place. Of the several igneous events we can
be sure of the age of only the last, namely, the Brisbane Tuffs.

If we seek indirect age determinations through external correla-
tions based on lithology or intensity of metamorphism we are in little
better case. On such evidence the Brisbane Metamorphics have, at one
time or another, been assigned to practically every period from the
Pre-Cambrian to the Permo-Carboniferous. Only with regard to the
upper limit of the Brisbane Metamorphics do we find a clue, for they
appear to be older than the lithologically distinct, unmetamorphosed,
richly fossiliferous Devonian strata that occur both to the north and to
the south, although at very considerable distances from Brisbane.

The history of the Brisbane Metamorphics, as far as it can be
deciphered within the bounds of Greater Brisbane, is summarised in
the table below.

THE HISTORY OF THE BRISBANE METAMORPHICS.
The Probable Sequence of Events.

Stratigraphic.

Geographic.

Tectonic.

Metamorphic.

Igneous.

Ipswich Coal

Measures

Local Lakes

•

Brisbane Tuffs

Part of

Normal Faults

continental

Thermal

(moderate)

Enoggera

Pluton

Brookfield

Volcanics

Second hiatus

land

r

Neranleigh - Fern-
vale Group

mass

Geosynclinal

Sea

l of Inclooroopilly
Anticline

Hamilton

Thrust

Orogeny

Kinetic

(intense)

Regional

(mild)

Initiation of

D’ Aguilar
Batholith
(white quartz
veins)

4^

£

o

Downwarp

First hiatus

Median Island

o

St. Lucia
Thrust

Kinetic
(? intense)

Bunya Phyllites

Geosynclinal

Sea

Orogeny

Regional

(moderate)

Rocksberg Green-
stones

Spilitic

Extrusions

48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

It is the history of a small part of the great Tasman Geosyncline,
and began with intense and sustained volcanic outbursts, largely sub-
marine, which yielded the basic lavas and tuffs which we now know
as the Rocksberg Greenstones. While outcropping in only one small
area within Brisbane itself, these are developed on a large scale not far
to the north of the city boundaries, and may well occur at depth under
a large part of Brisbane.

Immediately following the outpourings of lavas and tuffs, prolonged
deposition of muds and clays (now known as the Bunya Bhy llites)
took place. Originally mapped by Denmeacl as covering a large part
of Brisbane, they are restricted in our interpretation to a relatively
small triangular area with its southern apex at Indooroopilly.

There followed a pause in deposition during which mild regional
metamorphism converted the Rocksberg lavas and tuffs into greenstones
and the Bunya muds and clays into phy llites. At about the same time,
the first result of prolonged though possibly intermittent pressure from
the north-east, was the initiation of the Indooroopilly Anticline which
rapidly grew to form a median island in the geosyncline. This lateral
pressure reached a first culmination in a great' overthrust called by
us the St. Lucia Thrust which pushed a sheet of rocks (the St. Lucia
Polymetamorphics) over the top of the phy llites. These overthrust
rocks may well have been a lateral extension of the Bunya Phyllites,
for they are very similar in both texture and composition. The severe
deformation resulting from these movements is shown by the crumpling
of the micaceous layers into an involved and intricate system of small
scale contortions and the crushing of the quartzitic layers into a black
ultramy Ionite.

This first orogenic climax was followed by a quiescent interval
during which gentle downwarping took place which, however, may not
have completely submerged the median island. The sediments now
formed were very different in character from and accumulated far more
rapidly than those which had been deposited earlier. They consisted
largely of felspathic sands, though muds were well represented. The
compaction of these sediments of the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group was
followed by a second even milder regional metamorphism which had
little effect upon the grevwaekes beyond further consolidating them,
but which was sufficient to turn the shales into slates.

It was at about this time that the earliest of the numerous white
quartz veins were emplaced, from which Are have inferred the initiation
of the D ’Aguilar Batholith. Following the appearance of this first
generation of quartz veins, the continuing pressure from the north-east
reached a second culmination in a second overthrust. This time the
rocks of the overthrust sheet came mainly from the north-easterly
extension of the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group, though in places the
St. Lucia Polymetamorphics were involved to some extent. This appears
to have been more complex than the earlier thrust, many minor offshoots
from the main thrust plane producing an imbricate structure, and in
places where the thrust plane was close to the top of the Polymetamor-
phics, the latter were scooped up and carried to the surface. The rocks
which were affected by this second thrust alone we have called the
Hamilton Cataclasites. Being in the main coarser than the earlier
sediments, the structures produced in them are generally on a larger
scale. Some of the white quartz veins were involved in this second
thrust and violentlv disturbed, while others, such as the “ bedded”
veins, though not deformed were optically strained.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOLOGY OF BRISBANE.

49

The Indooroopilly Anticline had now reached such a height that
the whole of Brisbane was converted into a land area. On parts of the
surface the acid lavas and tuffs, now restricted by denudation to the
Brookfield area, accumulated.

The final stage of the D ’Aguilar Batholith followed, namely, the
forcible injection of the Enoggera Bluton, which in its crosscutting
character was in contrast to the earlier phases which may well have been
concordant.

SUMMARY.

This paper proposes the division of the Brisbane Metamorphics into
an earlier more-metamorphosed group, consisting of the Rocksberg
Greenstones and the Bunya Phyllites, followed unconformably by a
younger less-metamorphosed Neranleigh-Fernvale group.

This complete structural history involves five principal episodes
as follows: — 1. A first regional metamorphism which affected the whole
area occupied by the older group. 2. A first or St. Lucia thrust which
added some purely kinetic effects to that part of the Bunya Phyllites
involved. 3. An orogeny accompanied by a second very mild regional
metamorphism, subsequent to the deposition of the younger group,
which added little to the metamorphism of the older group but which
produced noticeable effects on some members of the Neranleigh-Fernvale
Group. 4. A second or Hamilton thrust that changed still farther those
parts of the older group which came under its influence, converting
them to the most intensely affected of the St. Lucia Polymetamorphics
and crushing parts of the younger group into the Hamilton Cataclasites.
Accompanying the Hamilton thrust was the important Buranda Tear
Fault which brought about a horizontal displacement of the Neranleigh-
Fernvale Group of approximately seven miles. 5. Finally, a series of
near-strike tensional faults sliced the Brisbane Metamorphics in pre-
Mesozoic times.

The paper also deals with the associated and related igneous events.

LITERATURE CITED.

Bryan, W. H., 1914. Geology and Petrology of the Enoggera Granite and the
Allied Intrusives. Part I. General Geology. Proc. Boy. Soc. Qld., 26,
141-162.

Bryan, W. H., 1922. Idem. Part II. Petrology. Proc. Boy. Soc. Qld., 34, 123-160.

Bryan, W. H., and Jones, O. A., 1950. Contributions to the Geology of Brisbane.

No. 1. Local Applications of the Standard Stratigraphical Nomenclature.
Proc. Boy. Soc. Qld., 61, 13-18.

Bryan, W. H., and Jones, O. A., 1951. Explanatory Notes to Accompany a
Geological Map of Brisbane. Pap. Pep. Geol. Univ. Qld., 3 (N.S.), No. 13.

David, T. W. E., 1932. Explanatory Notes to Accompany a New Geological Map
of the Commonwealth of Australia, 177 pp. Australian Medical Publishing
Company Ltd., Sydney.

Denmead, A. K., 1928. A Survey of the Brisbane Schists. Proc. Boy. Soc. Qld.,
39, 71-106.

Jensen, H. I., 1910. The Metamorphic Rocks of the East Moreton and Gympie
Districts. Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., 12, 258-265.

Richards, II. C., 1922. Study .of the Brisbane Schists from the Point of View of
the Engineer. Instn. Engrs. Aust., pp. 1-19. (Special publication,
Brisbane Branch.)

Richards, H. C., 1931. The Grey Street Bridge, Brisbane. The Rock Foundations
of the Piers. J. Instn. Engrs. Aust.', 3, 377-385.

We arne, R. A., 1912. Notes on the Brisbane Schists. Aust. Ass. Aclv. Sci., 13,
124-5.

Mathews, R. T., 1950. An Investigation of the Greenstones of the Dayboro,
Petrie, Caboolture and Mt. Delaney Area. Unpublished Honours Thesis.

E

50

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate I.

Contrasting types within the Brisbane Metamorphics.

1. Banded slates of Neranleigh-Fernvale Group. Upper Brookfield.

2. Contorted Bunya Phyllites with numerous quartz veins. Near Ivory Street,
City.

Plate II.

Bunya Phyllites.

1. On the crest of the Indooroopilly anticline as seen through a window in
the St. Lucia Polymetamorphics. Slide No. 1508, U. of Q. Colin. X 15.

2. River Road, Indooroopilly.

Plate III.

Macroscopic effects of the Hamilton Thrust.

1. Gouge occupying a minor thrust-plane (outlined in white). St. Lucia
Road, Toowong.

2. White quartz vein showing thrust and normal faults. St. Lucia Road,
Toowong.

Plate IV.

White quartz veins affected to different degrees by the Hamilton Thrust.

1. “Bedded” quartz. Optically strained but undeformed. Hawken Drive,
St. Lucia.

2. Overfolded quartz vein. St. Lucia Road, St. Lucia.

3. Violently deformed quartz veins. Milton Road, Milton.

Plate V.

‘ ‘ Black quartz ’ ’ and white quartz in the St. Lucia Polymetamorphics.

1. Vein of strongly sheared pure white quartz, cutting finely grained “black
quartz”. Upland Road, St. Lucia. Slide No. 2915, U. of Q. Colin. Crossed
nicols. X 20.

2. Vein of similar white quartz following earlier shear pattern in “black
quartzi” which has been partially replaced. Upland Road, St. Lucia. Slide
No. 2915, U. of Q. Colin, x 25.

3. Irregular veins of white quartz invading “black quartz”. Top of Samford
Range. Dr. R. GradAvell’s Colin. Crossed nicols. X 20.

Plate VI.

Characteristic patterns in St. Lucia Polymetamorphics.

1. Slip-strain cleavage induced by Hamilton Thrust superseding earlier
foliation. Grey Street Bridge. Slide No. 1505, U. of Q. Colin, x 45.

2. Alternations of micaceous bands (black) and “black quartz” (dark, finely
mottled) invaded by white quartz. Grey Street Bridge. Slide No. 2917, U. of
Q. Colin. Crossed nicols. X 40.

Plate VII.

Degrees of deformation in the Neranleigh-Fernvale Group.

1. Typical micro-breccia in psammitic bed of Hamilton Cataelasites. Sewerage
shaft, corner of Hamilton Road and Riverview Terrace, Hamilton. Slide No. 1512,
U. of Q. Colin. Crossed nicols. X 15.

2. Sheared and contorted mylonite from a nearby pelitic band. Slide No. 2918.
U. of Q. Colin. X 20.

3. Similar but undeformed pelitic bed from beneath Hamilton Thrust,
Adelaide Street, Brisbane. Slide No. 321, U. of Q. Colin. X 20.

Proc. Eoy. Soc. Q 'land, ArOL. L XV., No

9

Plate I,

U

-Proc. Poy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LXV., No

o

Plate II

Plate III

Proc. Roy. Hoc. Q ’land, Yol. LXVv No

9

Plate IV,

Proc. Boy. Soc. Q'land, Yol. LXV., No

O

Plate V,

51

Vol. LXV., No. 3.

SPHERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES,

PART II.

By W. H. Bryan, Department of Geology, University of Queensland.

(With Plates VIII.-XX. and three Text-figures.)

( Received 25 th February , 1953 ; issued separately 13 th September, 1954.)

V. THE SPHERULOIDS OP BINNA BURRA.

(A) Introduction.

From time to time there have been described spheroidal bodies,
similar in many respects to spherulites proper, but which depart from
the accepted definition of those bodies, in that the spherical form is
not the result of radial crystallization from a centre. The containing
rocks which are usually of a rhyolitic nature, have been referred to
by such terms as “nodular rhyolites”, “globular porphyry”, “ball
rock”, “concretionary felstone”, “pyromerides” and “roches
globulensis 7 7, all of which emphasize their outstanding characteristic of
sphericity.

The term “spheruloid” was proposed in an earlier paper (Bryan,
1940, p. 41), as an appropriate name for these structures that are at
once so like and unlike spherulites. The name connotes no special
mode of origin, but aims at emphasizing the resemblance of these
forms to spherulites, while recognising important differences.

The following short description by Teall (1888, p. 336) from his
classical work on British Petrography is typical of the earlier accounts
of these interesting spherical bodies. “Nodular and banded felsites
are seen on the south side of Skomer Island. The nodules in these
rocks vary in size from minute globules, no larger than small peas,
to spherical masses measuring several inches in diameter. They are
sometimes solid to the core, at other times they contain a hollow
cavity on the surface of which quartz crystals have been formed. A
radial structure may occasionally be observed but as a rule it is
absent. Bands in the felsite may often be followed through the nodules. 7 7

It is not considered necessary to cite further detailed descriptions
from the many available in petrographic literature* ; suffice it to say
that in most of these accounts attention is drawn on the one hand, to
the resemblance of spheruloids to the spherulites proper in shape and
in mode of occurrence, and on the other hand, to their difference In
lacking a dominant radial structure.

Those authors who emphasize the points of resemblance usually
claim that the differences are of degree, not of kind, and insist that
every gradation may be found from typical spherulites to structureless
spheruloids.

But within this school of thought are two divergent views, one of
which, represented by Harker (1889), explains these gradations as
due to different degrees of weathering and displacement of internal

* For a useful list of references see Greig, (1928, p. 375).

F

52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

structure, whereas the other view, championed by Greig (1928, p. 375),
regards them as different manifestations of spherulitic crystallization.

Those who emphasize the differences between spheruloids and
spherulites, consider the absence of radial structure of such great
significance that they feel constrained to assign to the spheruloids
a quite different mode of origin. But again there are advanced diverse
attempts at explanation. Thus von Richthofen ( vide Harker 1889, p. 32)
argued that they were formed by the infilling of vesicles, Tanton (1925,
p. 629) regarded them as immiscible globules of glass enclosed within
another glass, and Bain (1926, p. 83) suggested that they might be
cognate xenoliths (autoliths).

It is possible, of course, that these bodies, occurring as they do
in many parts of the world, and ranging in age from Precambrian to
Tertiary, have not all been formed in precisely the same way, and that
several of the above explanations may be adequate for their individual
purposes. On the other hand, spheruloids, the world over, possess so
many points in common that it seems reasonable to seek one mode of
origin common to them all. Moreover, it is likely that the several
different explanations advanced are due to differences of interpretation
rather than to differences in the nature of the material studied. In this
connection it is significant that, in some cases, as for example in the
occurrence at Agate Pt., Ontario (Greig, 1928), several different views
as to origin have been founded on examination of the same material.

(B) General Description.

The specimens on which the following description is based have
all been obtained from Binna Burra in South-eastern Queensland.
They occur in astounding profusion in a sequence of rhyolitic flows
totalling several hundred feet in thickness. These rhyolites, felsites,
perlites and acid lavas form part of a much greater and more extensive
series of volcanic rocks consisting for the most part of basalts and
andesites. The rhyolitic flows form a succession towards the base of the
series, which is generally regarded as Upper Tertiary in age, but which
may well be no later than Oligocene. The volcanic series forms a
number of plateaux dissected by gorges and canyons, the rhyolitic
representatives often appearing as precipitous cliffs which provide
excellent, if somewhat awkward, sections for study. Fortunately
differential erosion of the successive flows has, in places, resulted in the
formation of shelves which provide a means of access.

The spheruloids occur in countless thousands ranging in size from
small beads to giant spheres over three feet in diameter, and showing
a wide range of variation in shape, aggregation, and internal arrange-
ment. Nevertheless, the individuals in any one flow usually keep rather
closely to a pattern characteristic of that flow. Thus, each of the
four groups now to be described was restricted to one particular flow.
In descending order these are as follows :

Group 1. The spheruloids are for the most part small, up to
about one inch in diameter. Individuals, when they occur, are well
rounded with a smooth, glossy surface that readily marks them off from
the enclosing rock. Generally they tend to occur as clusters of round
individuals, in many cases concentrated along particular fluxion planes
so that they appear in vertical cliff-sections like the beads on an

SPHERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES.

53

abacus. In some cases the individuals forming such a string have
coalesced to form a caterpillar-like structure. A further stage in coalition
gives rise to platy structures with mammillated surfaces.

A notable feature is that the great majority of these small
spheruloids are found half above and half below well-marked flow
planes that clearly penetrate them. The upper and lower halves are
frequently not quite symmetrical, showing that although growth of both
parts started from the same point, the two halves developed
independently, but at approximately the same rate. In some examples
the two halves meet in a common outwardly projecting flange coincident
with the fluxion plane.

Wherever the small spheruloids of this group are found they
are extremely numerous ; nevertheless, owing to their restriction to
well-defined bands, they do not form a very large proportion of the
rock mass as a whole.

Group 2. Another cliff face, formed from a lower flow, shows
larger spheruloids, for the most part measuring several inches in
diameter and reaching a maximum of about one foot. These are
scattered sporadically through a groundmass composed of perlitic glass.
The members of this group exhibit several remarkable features. They
are almost perfectly spherical, and show no sign of mammillated or
botryoidal irregularities. Complete individuals are easily collected,
for they come away freely and cleanly from the groundmass.

These spheruloids are invariably hollow, each having a single
stellate cavity. Fluxion lines may be followed continuously through
these spheruloids, but they show definite evidence of disturbance.

Group 3. This consists of more numerous spheruloids, more closely
spaced within the flow. They exhibit a greater range in size than
those of the second group, but have a similar maximum diameter of
about one foot. Although in a few instances they approach a regularly
spherical form, in the majority of cases they are distinctly irregular.
Many examples are rough approximations to biaxial or triaxial ellipsoids,
the longest axis always being clearly related to a fluxion plane of the
enclosing rhyolite. Externally, the members of this group always
exhibit, very plainly, the fluxion phenomena of the lava from which
they were formed. These features appear as though superimposed on
the irregular, warty surfaces characteristic of the group.

Enclosing each spheruloid there is present a distinct crust that
differs conspicuously in its darker colour and finer texture from the
enclosed material. The thickness of these crusts is very variable, the
largest spheruloids usually, but not always, possessing the thickest
cover.

The relationship between the nature of the crust and the shape of
the enclosed spheruloid is of some interest. In simple spheruloids the
crust is regular and of uniform thickness, but in composite spheruloids
the thickness of the crust may be variable even in that one specimen,
according to the mode of origin of the several protuberant parts.

In one, where the bulbous excrescence is itself part of a small but
complete spheruloid of an earlier generation that has been partially
engulfed, the protuberance is seen, on breaking the specimen, to have
its own complete crust, which may have been thickened in the

54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

protuberant part by that of the enclosing spheruloid. (Figure 1, B.l)„
In a second, the excrescence appears to be part of a spheruloid of the
same generation that has coalesced with the larger spheruloid before
either has developed a crust. Consequently, whereas the protuberant
part is covered by an outgrowth of the crust of the large spheruloid, the
inner part shows no sign of an integument of any kind (Fig. 1, B.3).
A third kind of irregularity proves to be an excrescence in the strictest
sense. It represents growth of a later generation superimposed on
the large spheruloid. It is covered externally by its own relatively
thin crust, but rests upon the thicker crust of the large spheruloid
(Fig. 1, C.4).

All three types may occur in the one specimen resulting in a
somewhat irregular composite spheruloid with a warty or mammillary
appearance (Fig. 1). The relationship of the three kinds of protuber-
ances to the main spheruloid and more particularly to its crust are
shown in Fig. 1, in which the sequence of development is also indicated
by the numbers one to four.

t • * 0 .

/ \ ' . ■ • '

irT • . • \ ; . . ‘ . • \

& • . • ’TV; . ; • .• -w

|. • ; / .’ V. 4.". .

\\ *. . •; \|-

I * • [• • -i. , .. • \ :

•. * . ■$' .*. • .....

- ’ . . V.4 • \

*. • .’. .

■ : /. ; • •

• . 'jf

4t~

it

c.

Text-fig. 1. — Diagram showing growth and amalgamation of spheruloids. Note
that when a skin has been formed, no further expansion of the individual occurs
(except as the result of distension).

In one particularly interesting specimen a spheruloid completely
enclosed by a dark grey crust has been partially engulfed by another
spheruloid of similar size, which is itself contained within a thinner
red crust. In this example, as indeed in all cases of these irregular
spheruloids, the one set of fluxion planes pass continuously through
both spheruloids, together with their protuberances and crusts without
interruption or divergence.

In some cases the crusts are sufficiently thick to contain within
themselves ovoid patches of material indistinguishable from that of
the spheruloid proper.

Separating the conspicuous crusts from the spheruloid within, there
is often to be found an inner skin, usually less than 1 mm. in thickness,
comparable in colour and texture with the spheruloid itself. The
lenses of spheruloidal material enclosed within the thickness of the
outer crust also possess this inner envelope. The inner skin may be
marked off from both the crust and the spheruloid by thin films
of haematite. The inner of these is very regular but the outer is less
regular and encloses minor outgrowths of the inner skin.

In some instances the spheruloid appears to have split along the
junction of the inner skin with the spheruloid to form a crack which
has been partially filled by tridymite.

The spheruloids of this group are never cavernous. On the other
hand they are not very dense, a somewhat loose, spongy texture being
a characteristic feature.

SPHERU LTTES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES.

55

Group 4. This group is well exhibited in a spectacular section
consisting of a cliff face made up almost entirely of large spheruloids
measuring up to three feet in diameter. (Plate VIII., Figs. 1-3.) The
groundmass, which barely separates these huge spheruloids, forms less
than one-fourth of the section and cannot therefore occupy much more
than ten per cent, of the whole mass. It consists of a fresh, black
perlitic glass.

Some of the spheruloids are quite dense, others are cavernous, and
still others are loose textured. Apart from their larger size, these
three varieties are very similar to members of the groups A, B and C
respectively.

A special feature associated with one of the large hollow spheruloids
warrants more detailed consideration. This is the presence in a
cavernous spheruloid, measuring about two feet in diameter, of several
objects superficially resembling ‘ stalagmites ’ that project upwardly
from the floor of the miniature cavern (Plate XI., Fig. 1).

Closer inspection shows that the ‘stalagmites’ are in reality fluted
and striated masses of rhyolitic lava that have been injected through
irregular cracks in the base of the spheruloid. In the specimen illus-
trated, the lava has been of such a consistency that it has retained
the pattern impressed upon it as it was squeezed through the crack
which acted in much the same manner as the dies used in biscuit
factories to produce patterns on biscuits of the ribbon type.

The viscosity of the injected lava was not quite great enough to
hold the ‘ribbon’ in an upright position, and as it grew it sagged
laterally under its own weight. An examination (Plate XI., Fig. 2)
shows that while the cross section of the ribbon of lava progressively
increases from the tip towards the base, the details of the pattern
remain unchanged. This suggests that the crack which allowed the
injection became progressively wider during the process. The somewhat
serrated edges of the ribbon are due to a plucking effect brought about
by the high viscosity. This feature too is to be seen in many biscuits of
the ribbon type. It is not due (as might at first be thought) to
spasmodic movement through the die, but solely to the degree of
plasticity of the biscuit mixture.

The special significance of these injections into the cavernous
spheruloid will be considered later in this paper.

The preceeding descriptions must not be regarded as adequately
covering the almost innumerable varieties of spheruloids that may be
examined and collected at Binna Burra, but they do indicate the
outstanding characteristics. Several remarks of a general nature may
be added. In almost all cases the spheruloids are clearly distinct from
the enclosing groundmass. The distinction may be shown by differences
of colour or texture, and is still clearly to be seen even where the same
fluxion lines can be followed from the groundmass, through the
spheruloid, and out again into the groundmass. The difference is
particularly marked, where, as in many cases, the enclosing rock is a
glass, for although the spheruloids show some variety in constitution,
they are never glassy. Nor are they spherulitic, for despite the numerous
good exposures and the many hundreds of specimens that have been
examined, not one example of a spherulite proper has been found.

In spite of their great variety in shape and form the spheruloids
show a marked lithological uniformity. In all cases, if a fresh surface
be examined, it is seen to be light in colour (pink or cream or greyish)

56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

and of a felsitic texture. A considerable number of fresh phenocrysts
of quartz and of felspars, about one millimetre in diameter, and an
occasional smaller phenocryst of a black ferro-magnesian mineral are
set in the felsitic groundmass. Fluxion phenomena are to be seen in
all specimens, in some cases quite strongly developed. This usually
shows itself as a somewhat indistinct colour banding or streakiness
in a texturally uniform rock. The flow planes are clearly influenced
by the position and shape of the phenocrysts.

In the solid spheruloids, the flow planes cut right across the
specimen, being quite independent of its contours, but in hollow
spheruloids they show the influence of the external form and exhibit
curves that, while they are not quite concentric with the margin of
the spheruloid, are in harmony with it.

(C) Microscopic Features.

The regular nature of a spheruloid and its marked differences
from the immediate surroundings give it an appearance of completeness
and unity that leads one to expect a simple and homogeneous internal
structure, or at least, a systematic arrangement of the mineral
constituents. But this expectation is not realised. Mineralogically,
each spheruloid is a heterogeneous aggregate, and such struc-
tures as do exist are independent of each other and discordant
with the complete structure of the spheruloid. Moreover, the interior
does not represent either a simple simultaneous crystallization or an
orderly sequence of events, but appears to result from the integration
of different minerals and different structures developed at different
stages of a somewhat complex history.

From this point of view, the ingredients of a spheruloid fall for
the most part into three distinct groups. First, there are the relatively
large but sporadic crystals forming the phenocrysts. Secondly, there
are those minerals found associated with, and indeed contributing to,
the fluxion phenomena, while in the third group may be placed those
minerals the attitude and arrangement of which is strikingly inde-
pendent of the fluxion.

1. The Phenocrysts. — The phenocrysts quite clearly belong to an
early generation of their own and can have little to do with the
development of spheruloids as such, for they occur as freely in the
enclosing glass as in the spheruloids themselves. The most abundant
phenocrysts are those of sanidine. These vary in size from one-half
to two millimetres. They are invariably clear and colourless with no
sign of decomposition. They are rarely idiomorphic, but in many cases
show marked embayments. In some cases, the whole surface of the
crystal appears to have suffered resorption. Carlsbad twins are shown
by some crystals. The two characteristic cleavages, although perfectly
developed, are not conspicuous. A noticeable feature is the presence
of inclusions arranged in parallel planes coincident with one of these
cleavages. The phenocrysts of sanidine show a definite influence on the
course of the flow planes which sweep about them. In some cases the
crystals are orientated with their long axes parallel to the fluxion.
Occasionally, such crystals are seen to have been cracked and the
two broken fragments drawn asunder so that the cracks have become
rifts with parallel walls.

The phenocrysts next in abundance are those of quartz. These
are usually less than one millimetre in length and are for the most
part idiomorphic. They occur as bipyramidal crystals giving rhombic

SPHERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES.

57

sections parallel to the vertical axis. In a very few instances the
prism is also present but poorly developed. In contrast to the
phenocrysts of sanidine they show little or no sign of embayment.

Far less common than either the sanidine or the quartz are pheno-
crysts of acid oligoclase. These are usually idiomorphic, or nearly so.
They show both carlsbad and albite twinning. Ferro-magnesian
phenocrysts although present are far from plentiful. They consist
for the most part of occasional small crystals of biotite.

2. The Minerals Influenced by Fluxion. — The phenocrysts
described above are surrounded by minerals which by their distribution
and arrangement clearly reflect the fluxion phenomena, and obviously
represent a later crystallization than that of the phenocrysts. The
most important mineral of this group is a felspar (presumably ortho-
clase) which occurs as numerous small elongate crystals arranged in
sub-parallel fashion. In ordinary light it is difficult to distinguish
these from their surroundings owing to their clarity, freshness and the
lack of refractive contrast, but under crossed nicols they are exhibited
as clear-cut crystals with elongate rectangular sections in the direction
of flow.

In a few of the slides examined the fluxion phenomena are also
emphasized by very numerous minute crystals of a greenish ferro-
magnesian mineral. These are arranged in swirling groups of sub-
parallel crystals that sweep about the phenocrysts. Within the narrow
spaces between adjacent phenocrysts they are crowded together as
though constricted owing to their having been forced through a strait.

In addition to the above minerals, many slides clearly indicate the
fluxion by the arrangement of numerous crystallites. These are con-
tained within the thickness of the slide and consist chiefly of trichites,
margarites and longulites, the last two of which show in their orienta-
tion a definite parallelism with the flow planes.

3. The Minerals Independent of Fluxion. — In striking contrast
with the previous group are those minerals that are quite independent
of the flow phenomena in their attitude, arrangement and distribution,
and they appear to have crystallized after all other movement had
ceased. Nevertheless, their distribution is not sporadic nor is their
arrangement haphazard. These, too, appear to have developed in
accordance with a definite plan, but it is a new plan.

The most notable development of this group is seen in the ferro-
magnesian minerals. These may consist of individual microlites
arranged in roughly parallel fashion, or they may take the form of
connected groups, but always their orientation is discordant with
that of the flow planes. In some cases the arrangement consists of
a number of elongate delicate microlites or slender crystals springing
from a common point, and although diverging somewhat, all point in
the same general direction. In other cases, the group may diverge
by dichotomous branching from an initial individual, but the general
effect is much the same. All the bunches in any of the slides examined
are orientated along the same general line and diverge in the same
way. The whole slide thus appears to be pierced by a delicate tenuous
structure of slender ferro-magnesian crystals. The point of origin
of any of the divergent bundles may be situated within a particular
flow plane or in some other favourable position such as the embayment
of a phenocryst. The distal ends of the constituent crystals of the

58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

growing aggregate are seen, in some instances, to have ceased their
forward growth quite abruptly where each of the crystals of a group
reached a particular flow plane. This influence of flow planes in
initiating and terminating growth is in marked contrast to their lack
of influence in the matter of orientation. Where a group of these
crystals encounters a phenocryst it tends to splay out about the pheno-
cryst in further growth.

In a few isolated instances the femic mineral is arranged in roughly
radial clumps of somewhat stouter but shorter crystals. These larger
crystals show that the mineral is greyish-green in colour, strongly
pleochroic, with high interference colours and an extinction angle at
or very near the zero position. These optical properties are in keeping
with those of a ferro-magnesian mica, but if so they are difficult to
reconcile with the capillary habit of the smaller crystals.

4. Other Minerals. — Although, owing to their equidimensional
shapes, they show no sign of regular arrangement sympathetic to either
the parallel felspars of the flow planes or the divergent aggregates
of the ferro-magnesian mineral, there should be mentioned the
numerous minute crystals of quartz which make • up a large part of
the ground-mass.

In some of the slides the appearance of heterogeneity is emphasized
by the presence of occasional and obviously incidental microspherulites.
These are dusty from decomposition, ragged in outline and up to one
millimetre in diameter. They occur sporadically and are usually
associated with the phenocrysts. In one example a phenocryst has
been cracked transversely, the parts have been drawn asunder, and in
the rift thus formed an irregular spherulitic growth has been initiated
which has travelled to the outer limit of the rift and there spread out
fanwise to form a hemi-spherulite. This example shows that the
spherulites were produced after the lava had become quite viscous,
but before the felspars of the ground-mass had crystallised. The
micro-spherulites when present thus appear to be intermediate in
time between the first and second groups discussed above.

(D) Chemical Considerations.

In order to establish the chemical relationship of the many
varieties of spheruloids at Binna Burra to their respective parent rocks
a large number of analyses would be necessary. Only with such a
complete chemical record would it be possible to make, with confidence,
generalisations covering the whole range of phenomena observed.
But since such a comprehensive set of analyses was not available
and could not be specially prepared for this paper, recourse was had
to the selection and analysis of one spheruloid and of the rock in
which it was embedded. In selecting the material for analysis every
endeavour was made to assure that it was typical, as far as such a
thing is possible in a series with so many variants, and that it was
unaffected by weathering.

The material chosen consisted of a fresh, grey glass with pro-
nounced perlitic structure, containing well-developed hollow spheru-
loids ranging in size from about a half-inch to two inches in diameter,
all of which still retained traces of the initial central vesicle. Part of
the specimen from which the samples were obtained is shown as
Plate X., fig. 1. Microslides prepared for the purpose showed that,
compared with other specimens neither the containing glass nor the
spheruloid presented any unusual or abnormal features.

SPHERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES.

59

Table I.

Bock Analyses from Binna Burra, Queensland, and for Purposes of
Comparison, from Agate Point, Ontario.

Binna Burra.

Agate Point.

Perlitic Glass.

Spheruloid.

Red

Vitrophyre.

Black Orbs.

Si02

71-70

72-00

71-64

76-20

Al*Os

14-14

14-93

13-19

11-33

Fe203

0-56

1-41

2-39

1-90

FeO

0-46

0-32

0-18

0-28

MgO

0-09

0-10

0-25

0-20

CaO

0-40

0-40

117

0-92

Na20 . .

4-28

5-46

2-41

2-75

k2o

5-16

3-74

3-85

3-42

h20+

3-40

1-20

2-28

1-81

h20-

0-10

0-80

2-00

0-28

Ti02

—

—

0-31

0-34

MnO

0-05

0-05

—

—

Volatile

—

—

—

0-56

Totals

100-34

100-41

99-67

99-99

The perlitic glass from Binna Burra which envelops the spheruloid
is shown by an analysis to have no striking or abnormal features.
Calculation of the norm shows the rock to be a Liparose with the
symbols (I. 4.1.3). Rhyolitic rocks of such a type are quite common
in South-eastern Queensland as is shown by the fact that four of the
nine analyses of rhyolites, pitchstones, etc. selected by Richards (1915,
p. 142) as typical of South-eastern Queensland are included in the
Liparose sub-rang. In particular the perlite is chemically similar
to the rhyolitic glasses of Mount Lindesay and the MacPherson Range.
These are not very distant from the Binna Burra material and are
almost certainly coeval with it. In short, the glass seems quite normal.

The analysis of the spheruloid from Binna Burra (treated on its
own merits, and without reference to that of the enclosing glass), is
of a kind less common in South-eastern Queensland. Its norm brings
it within the sub-rang Kallerudose (I. 4.4.4.). Only one such rhyolite
is listed by Richards (1915, p. 142) from Glen Rock, Esk, and this
is abnormal in other respects, too.

A comparison of the analysis of the perlite with that of the
spheruloid presents some expected features and others that were not
anticipated. In the former category may be placed the close
resemblance in silica, alumina, magnesia and lime. Such similarities
support the conclusion that the spheruloids were formed in situ from
material similar to that which provided the enclosing glass. Certain
of the differences shown by the two analyses were also expected. Thus
the relatively smaller content of H20+ in the spheruloid was antici-
pated in view of the hypothesis (to be advanced later) that the
expansion exhibited by the hollow spheruloid was due to the effect
of steam set free by crystallization within the spheruloid. Assuming
that the water content of the two materials was initially equal, then
2-2% (that is about 65% of the original H20+ of the spheruloid)
has been converted into steam. But, if the suggestion that hollow
spheruloids tend to be formed in the wetter parts of the lava be

60

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

accepted (and the presence of central vesicles supports such a view),
then considerably greater quantities of water must have been lost in
the subsequent expansion.

The relatively higher ferric oxide in the spheruloid, while it was
not anticipated, may be explained as due to the oxidation of the
exposed segmental surfaces since consolidation and disruption. The
fact that the segments are coated by a yellow inorganic stain is in
keeping with such an explanation.

The most unexpected feature in the analyses is the discrepancy in
the relative proportions of soda and potash. Whereas the total alkalies
are closely comparable, the glass shows a definite excess of potash,
while the spheruloid shows just as definite an excess of soda. Such a
discordance indicates unexpected sudden variations in composition of
the parent lava, and the question naturally arises as to whether the
spheruloid was produced as a result of the locally high soda-potash
ratio. Since it would be unwise to base such an important conclusion
on one pair of analyses only, and in the absence of any further
chemical evidence from the local material, we may study the results
obtained elsewhere.

At the occurrence already mentioned at Agate Point on the shores
of Lake Superior, Bain (1926, p. 82) has collected and analysed black
“Orbs” (similar in many respects to our spheruloids) and the con-
taining red rhyolitic glass. Bain’s analyses are set out in Table I.
of this paper, for comparison with the Binna Burra material. A
glance at the analyses from Agate Point shows that not only are the
total alkalies of the orb similar to those of the glass, but the propor-
tions of soda to potash are not very dissimilar, although here, too,
the spheruloid is somewhat richer in soda than is the groundmass.
If, as seems probable, the Agate Point material is to be regarded
as comparable in general to that obtained at Binna Burra, these
facts would suggest that the development of spheruloids is not deter-
mined by a local excess of soda over potash, but nevertheless, a local
enrichment in soda, even a small amount, may possibly predispose a
portion of the lava towards spheruloidal growth.

(E) Hollow Spheruloids.

Many of the broken spheruloids that lie scattered upon the slopes
of Binna Burra, and a large proportion of those collected in situ for
examination, show the presence of a hollow interior closely resembling
those found in the nodular spherulites of Tamborine Mountain (Bryan,
1934, p. 168). These cavities vary in size from minute hollows to
cavernous openings nearly three feet in diameter (Plate VIII., fig. 3).
They vary, too, in size relative to the spheruloid that contains them.
In some spheruloids the cavities form only a small proportion of the
total, while in others the solid material is little more than an enclosing
skin. One noteworthy fact is that, the larger the cavity relative to
the spheruloid, the more nearly does the latter approach true sphericity
in its outer surface.

In shape, too, the hollow interiors show considerable variety ;
nevertheless, a large proportion of them present a markedly regular
appearance, and in a great many cases, even show a close approach
to certain well-defined geometrical patterns.

SPHERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES.

61

There appears too to be a definite relationship between the shape
of the cavity and its size relative to that of the complete sphernloid.
In general, relatively small cavities are acutely angular, whereas
relatively large cavities are less deeply indented. In a great number
of instances the cavities present more or less regular stellate cross
sections, the result of each spheruloid being divided into a number of
radially arranged sectors, each with its narrow end directed towards
the cavernous interior. The number of such sectors has a wide range
and may be as small as four, or as great as twenty-four. Adopting
the argument adduced in Part I of the paper (Bryan, 1940, p. 46),
it can be shown that the ideally symmetrical arrangement consists of
twelve sectors based on a pyritohedral pattern. Such a development is
not infrequently seen and is responsible for the numerous cross sections
showing five sectors in the one plane. Another common arrangement,
and one of special interest, is based on the cube and consists of a total
of six inwardly projecting sectors, each squarely pyramidal in shape
(Fig. 2).

Text-fig. 2. — Diagram showing distension and ultimate rupture of a mature
spheruloid.

In very many spheruloids a central vesicle is to be seen. In some
cases this is preserved entire, attached to the inner end of one of the
segments (See Plate X, Fig. 1). In other cases it has been broken and
is represented discontinuously by concave surfaces at the inner ends
of all or several sectors.

A notable feature that is to be seen in many hollow spheruloids
is a system of radial striae or flutings decorating the broken surfaces
of the sectors (Plate X, Figs. 2 and 3). These, on account of both their
nature and location, closely simulate the radially arranged felspar fibres
characteristic of true spherulitic structure. Closer examination soon
reveals, however, that the markings are quite superficial, being restricted
to the surfaces of the sectors. They are in no sense spherulitic, but are
fracture patterns such as are produced by the tearing apart of highly
viscous material.

A smaller number of specimens show, in addition to the radial
flutings and disposed at right angles to them, another pattern consisting
of a series of concentric interruptions producing small steps in the
otherwise even slope of the sectors. They are probably due to the
spasmodic nature of the tearing process (Plate X, Fig. 2).

Finally, reference should be made to the fact that in many of the
hollow spheruloids, the sectors are coated with a veneer consisting of
minutes plates of tridymite. It is of interest to note here that loose-
textured spheruloids in no instance possess a central vesicle, nor do they
develop hollow interiors.

82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

(F) Origin and Growth of Spheruloids.

There are many features exhibited by the spheruloids of Binna
Burra that call for explanation, but outstanding above a host of minor
problems, are three of major importance, namely. — (1) the manner of
origin, (2) the reason for the adoption of the spherical form, and (3)
the nature of hollow spheruloids. These three problems/ are intimately
related, but an attempt will be made in the first instance to deal with
them separately.

1. Mode of Origin. In order to clear the ground, a number of
explanations, that have been advanced from time to time for similar
bodies elsewhere but are inadequate so far as the Binna Burra material
is concerned, will be dealt with briefly and summarily dismissed.

Spheruloids are not due (a) to the weathering and replacement
of true spherulites, for in the great majority of cases they are quite
fresh and show no trace of radial structure. The fact that the same
fluxion planes are common to the spheruloids and the adjacent ground-
mass and can be traced continuously from one to the other indicates
that the spheruloids cannot be (b) infillings of vesicles, (c) xenoliths
introduced from some outside source (such as bombs from a nearby
vent), (d) autoliths consolidated at an earlier stage and carried bodily
in the lava stream. They are not (e) immiscible globules of glass
enclosed within another glass. They do not represent (/) patches of
the surrounding glass that have been devitrified, for the evidence of
viscous lava injected through cracks in hollow spheruloids shows that
the latter were solid units before the enclosing lava became a glass.
Nor does it seem probable that they represent (g) regions of the lava
that were first vitrified and then devitrified before the vitrification of
the surrounding lava.

The only remaining alternative appears to be (h) that the
spheruloids developed as crystalline aggregates, in the positions they
now occupy, before the vitrification of the enclosing lava took place.
Such an hypothesis not only avoids the several difficulties that confront
the other attempts at explanation but satisfies fully all the field and
laboratory evidence that has been assembled.*

2. Adoption of the Spherical Form. Numerous observations
indicate that, if undisturbed, a growing spheruloid spreads uniformly
outwards in all directions and thus develops and maintains a regularly
spherical form. The approach to sphericity is so close and the outer
surface so regular and clearly defined that it is natural to enquire as
to the nature of the mechanism which guides and regulates this outward
growth.

Spherical aggregations of crystalline material can, in general, be
brought about in several ways. One method, commonly seen in con-
cretions, is due to the deposition of successive, concentric layers about
the initial point. But the entire absence of any trace of concentric
structures in the vast majority of cases, either in the hand specimen
or under the microscope, shows that this method of growth is
inapplicable to the spheruloids.

Orbicular structures due to reactions between a magma and its
xenoliths are also essentially concentric in build, and as such these
too are ruled out.

* The arguments on which this conclusion is based should be compared
with those set out by Greig (1928, p. 383) most of which are directly applicable
to the Binna Burra material.

SPHERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES.

63

Spherical aggregations may also be due to regularly radial growth
about a point. Such is the case in spherulites proper. But the principal
reason for introducing the new term ‘spheruloid’ for the bodies now
under discussion was that the shape was not determined by such radial
growth. It is true that microscopical examination shows that within
some large spheruloids, some spherulites may occur. But these latter
are relatively so few, so small, and so widely spaced when they are
present, that in volume they form only a small fraction of one per
cent of the whole spheruloid. Moreover, the distribution of these, micro-
spherulites is so sporadic that they can have no significant relationship
to the complete structure. Indeed, in appearance and arrangement, they
are so obviously incidental, they serve to emphasize the point that the form
of the spheruloid as a whole is not due to any such spherulitic growth.

Another method by which a crystalline aggregate may take on a
spherical shape is really a modification of that which we have just
considered. This consists of radial crystalline growth building an open
skeletal network or scaffolding which is subsequently filled by further
crystallization which may or may not be spherulitic. This method has
been suggested by Iddings (vide Barker, 1889, p. 34) for the origin
of some spherulites. He described the process as follows: “In the still
viscous glass, from a centre of crystallization the first frail beginnings
of felspar spread innumerable rays, pre-empting as it were a sphere
of the magma. ’ 7

Although, in the spheruloids under discussion, felspar is never
found in this form, yet, in many of the slides examined, a ferro-
magnesian mineral occurs in divergent, fragile, but rigid groups of
acicular and capillary crystals, which increase in number dichotomously.
It would seem possible on the evidence of these slides that, at least
in some cases, small quantities of this1 ferro-magnesian mineral,
crystallizing as an open, many-branched spherulite, might pre-empt,
in Iddings’ sense, a region subsequently occupied for the most part
by a quartz-felspar aggregate. In some of the slides studied the
individual crystals were so very fine that the possibility suggested
itself that the tenuous framework might be present in other specimens
in sub-microscopic form.

For this open spherulitic structure to produce the spherical form
by radial growth, the arrangement would have to be developed about
one central point. But the evidence of the material examined shows
that the growths under consideration have developed not about one
but about many points within the spheruloid. In particular, several
divergent groups may be seen to radiate from embayments in the
sporadically scattered felspar phenocrysts. Again it can be shown
that the . radial growths are not all continuous to the margin of the
spheruloid, for certain groups are sharply limited by fluxion planes
within the spheruloid.

Hence, although the writer is of the opinion that these divergent
growths may prove to be significant structures in the spheruloids
(especially as contrasted with the incidental microspherulites of
felspar previously considered), it is difficult to see how they could
contribute towards either the unity or the external shape of
spheruloids.

The above considerations suggest that the spheruloid^ do not
possess in themselves any structure, concentric or radial, adequate
to explain their characteristic sphericity. Greig (1928, p. 398)

64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

appears to have been forced to a similar conclusion for the Agate
Point material for he writes: “Whether or not there has always been
some spherulitic growth radial with respect to the whole ‘globule’ I
have no means of knowing. It is possible that in some cases there
has never been any such growth ; but that the spherulite was composed
of a mass of small bundles of plumose crystals radiating from centres
throughout it ... . The reasons for such growths assuming a spherical
form are difficult to see but they are probably the same as for the
spherical forms of certain spherulites [sic] in artificial glasses which
show no radial arrangement. ’ ’

But if the spheroidal shape is not dependent on internal
structures, there remains the possibility that it may have been induced
by some process that preceded the development and determined the
limits of spheruloidal crystallization. In this connection one is
reminded of the position reached by Cross (1891, p. 439) from his
study of the spherulites of Colorado. “The idea” he wrote “that a
radiate crystallization is the direct and primary cause of the peculiar
forms assumed by spherulites cannot be accepted for all cases, because
there are instances, .... in which the crystalline growth is very
subordinate to an amorphous matter that in its development brings
out the same characteristics of form, as opposed to the surrounding
glass.

In certain spherulites one finds indications that the form was
outlined^ by the amorphous substance before crystallization began.
Further, there are many minor peculiarities .... best explained by
the assumption of some force tending to produce the spherical form
other than that of radiate crystallization.”

This preliminary and, as Cross would have it, “more important
act”, which provided the conditions necessary to spherulitic growth
and directed and limited it, was conceived to be “a local change in
the character of the magma, in that, within the area of each spherulite,
there first developed a oblloidal substance.” Although the Crossi
hypothesis of “spheres of influence”, as we may perhaps call it, appears
gratuitous with respect to many spherulites (for there is ample evidence
that these crystallize out immediately without any intervening process,
and their external shape consequently is due directly and solely to their
mode of growth), it has certain very attractive features where
spheruloids are concerned.

But the study of the Binna Burra material suggests that certain
elaborations of this simple scheme are necessary if all the phenomena
of growing spheruloids are to be covered. Thus, instead of regarding
each sphere of influence as fixed in size and position from the beginning,
it is more helpful to regard it as continuously spreading outward from
an initial point or vesicle, the consequent crystallization almost keeping
pace with the expansion of the space. While this progressive occupation
of the expanding sphere is in progress, there would appear to be no
effective skin or diaphragm surrounding the spheruloidal material, for
neighbouring growths readily coalesce. But when the sphere of
influence has reached the maximum size which the local conditions
allow, and the crystalline aggregate has completely occupied this, a
skin of amorphous material is formed about the completed spheruloid.
This effectively prevents any further growth of that individual except
by inflation and distension.

At this stage, each spheruloid might be regarded as forming a
closed system and any further development would be that of a unit
independent of the surrounding lava, except in so far as the lava

SPHERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES.

65

formed a confining medium with certain relevant physical characters
such as temperature and viscosity.

In terms of the modified hypothesis it would appear that after
initiation (as a spherical droplet?), spheruloids attained their shape
by the occupation of a continuously expanding sphere within which
conditions were favourable for crystallization.

3. Formation of Hollow Spheruloids. The whole arrangement
in a typical hollow spheruloid is just what might be expected in a
thick spherical shell that has failed under internal pressure. Mechanical
considerations show that in such a case there will be compression
directed radially outwards, combined with tangential tension greatest
at the inside and least at the outside. Such a combination of forces
would tend to produce the outward displacement of wedge-shaped
sectors, together with, as a complementary effect, the formation of
radial rifts, widest at the inside of the shell and tapering towards , the
outside. All the features considered earlier, in the description of
hollow spheruloids, are consistent with such an hypothesis of internal
compression.

The source of the compression which provided the motive power
that produced hollow spheruloids may now be considered. The most
likely agent appears to be a gas, and the most readily available gas
in a rhyolite lava is steam. That a cooling acid lava with locally high
water content could produce the necessary pressure, is shown by the
work of Morey (1922, 1924) who has made a special study of the
development of pressure in magmas as a result of crystallization (see
also Niggli, 1929, p. 2).

Morey (1924, p. 292) explains that in systems in which volatile
and non-volatile components are both present “we have the unusual
condition that the vapour pressure of the system does not decrease
with decreasing temperature, as is almost the universal rule, but on
the contrary increases as the temperature falls.” More particularly,
and bearing even more closely on our problem, Morey adds that “In
a laboratory study of mixtures of orthoclase, quartz and water we have
been able to obtain liquid solutions at 600° and a water vapour pressure
of approximately 700 atmospheres . . . .” It would seem from these
statements that in ‘wet’ rhyolitic lavas there exists in potential form
the agent necessary for the internal compression that produces hollow
spheruloids.

The fact that solid spheruloids are sometimes found in close
proximity to hollow spheruloids suggests that the distribution of water
in the parent lava was irregular and sporadic. Such a condition of
affairs is probable enough in view of the work carried out by Shepherd
(1938, p. 338) who, as a result of his experiences, states that “The
distribution of the volatiles in rocks and lavas is largely fortuitous.”
In particular, and after sampling and analysing many rhyolitic glasses,
he concluded that “water is not uniformly distributed through any
given field exposure.”

(G) Interpretation of Development.

A study of the spheruloids of Binna Burra in the field, combined
with microscopical examination in the laboratory, enables one to
determine with tolerable certainty, the succession of events in the
development of these objects, even if the processes controlling some of
those events are not clearly understood. No one specimen has been

66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

discovered that, in itself, provides material evidence on which to base
a complete history (although one particular hollow sphernloid is
remarkably illuminating), but many specimens show the sequence
clearly for two or more successive steps. In this way certain short
sequences can be established based on the mutually confirmatory
evidence of several different spheruloids. Further progress is possible
owing to the overlapping of the evidence derived from distinct
specimens. By the combination of such overlapping sequences many
of the numerous events indicated by solid or by hollow spheruloids
may be confidently arranged in simple sequence.

But even after full use has been made of this method there
are certain events which, while precisely placed in their own restricted
series, do not fall automatically into place in any general sequence.
These points are illustrated by the accompanying table in which the
sequence of events within any particular vertical column is well
established. It will be noted that the several different sequences are
based on spheruloids of different types and the question arises : To
what extent is it legitimate to draw up one general, composite sequence
by dovetailing the events shown in the separate sequences? On the
one hand, all the spheruloids are strikingly similar in such essential
features as lithology, and they are found almost side by side in a
common environment. These facts would lead one to expect their
individual histories to be closely similar. But, on the other hand,
considerable variation exists even in what may well be important
characters. For example, the containing crust is strikingly conspicuous
in some specimens, is indistinct in others, and may be altogether lacking
in still other specimens. The central vesicle, too, may or may not be
present. The spheruloid may be solid or it may be hollow. The
presence of such diversity suggests that the construction of a general
sequence based on spheruloids of different types should be of a tentative
nature only. In the table, such a provisional correlation has been
attempted by spacing the events of each established sequence to allow

nTrrrrrri
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
mi LUillJ

Flu idol Lava.
Injected Lava.

Fe/sitlc 5/bheru/o/d .
Perlitic Glass.

Text-fig. 3. — Diagram showing A, initial vesicle; B, mature spheruloid in its
confining integument ; C, distended spheruloid ; D, ruptured spheruloid ; E, lava
ribbon injected; F, final consolidation. (See Plate XI., fig. 1.)

SPHERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES.

67

the interlocking of those of the other. Although all the evidence
indicates that the development of spheruloids is a very rapid process
as compared with the rate of solidification of the enclosing lava,
nevertheless their history can be divided into several phases. (See
Table II.)

1. The Preliminary Phase. — The first or preliminary phase in
the evolution of the spheruloids includes all those events which these
bodies experience in common with the lava from which they are
presently to be differentiated. This phase appears to have been normal
in all respects. At its close there existed a somewhat viscous acid
lava with well developed fluxion phenomena and with phenocrysts of
quartz, sanidine, oligoclase and biotite. The water content of the lava
was notably high and appears to have been unevenly distributed and
to have been concentrated particularly along certain flow planes.

2. The Initial Stage. — This phase began with the crystallization
of the lava about certain points or about certain vesicles which in
some cases were more or less restricted to certain flow planes, while
in others they were sporadically distributed.

Table II.

Established Sequences.

From Microslides.

See Plate IX,
Fig. 1.

See Plate X,
Fig. 1.

See Plate XI
Fig. 1.

Generalized Sequence.

Phenocrysts formed

Parent
Lava of

Preliminary Phase

Phenocrysts embayed

Fluxion developed . .

Spheruloids Groundmass

Flow minerals formed

Spheruloid

initiated

Central

vesicle

formed

Initial

Phase

Independent minerals

formed . .

Spheruloid
enlarged by
coalescence

Spheruloid
developed
by growth
as unit

Developmental

Phase

HH

E3

O

*-s

a>

P

Enclosing
skin formed

Spheruloid

complete

Mature

Phase

w

5*

CfQ

<5

w

o

o

w

Spheruloid

distended

Spheruloid

distended

Distended

Phase

Spheruloid

ruptured

Supplementary

Phase

<rF

4-

Lava ribbon
injected

Lava ribbon
solidified

Tridymite
deposited
in cavity

Tridymite
deposited
on ribbon

Final Phase of
Spheruloids in Glass

3. The Developmental Phase. — About these points crystallization
began to develop. Probably the lava was still moving slowly, for
the first minerals to be devoloped are orientated parallel to the flow
planes. The area affected by crystallization spread out in the form
of a progressively enlarging sphere, but the sphere was not at this
stage contained by any integument nor as it grew did it interfere
with the fluxion planes, with the orientation of phenocrysts, or with
any other earlier structure. This spreading without interference, or

G

68

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

peaceful penetration, is a characteristic and essential feature in the
growth of spheriiloids. When two such growing spheres met they
coalesced by simply merging into one another without leaving any
trace of junction.

4. The Mature Phase. — There arrived a time when some, but
not all, spheruloids developed a crust which effectively prevented further
growth except by inflation. With the completion of the mature phase
the spheruloids were firmly established as independent units and in
their subsequent history acted as such.

5. The Distended Phase. — While some of the above individuals
showed no further development or modification and ended as solid
spheruloids, others which possessed a greater water content were
considerably distended and made more perfectly spherical with a
thinner integument as the falling temperature set free the steam and
inflated them. The expansion may in many cases have been continuous,
but in some it was clearly spasmodic.

6. The Supplementary Phase. — One large spheruloid shows that
after its solidification and distension the surrounding lava was still
fluid and that the external pressure of the lava was greater than the
internal compression at this stage. As a consequence, highly viscous
lava was forced into the hollow spheruloid through cracks which it
enlarged in the process.

7. The Pinal Phase. — Finally tridymite was deposited on the
surfaces of cavities and cracks within the spheruloids, as the spheruloids
themselves became sealed within the solidified glassy lava.

SUMMARY.

_ This paper considers the nature, origin and growth of certain
bodies found within rhyolites and rhyolitic glasses which, while similar
in many respects to spherulites, differ from them in the lack of any
suggestion of radial crystallization. For these the name “Spheruloids”
has been proposed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT.

The late Mr. Arthur Groom of Binna Burra gave generous
assistance and guidance in the field and provided the excellent
photographs in Plates VIII. and XI.

REFERENCES.

Bain, G. W., 1926. Amer J. Sci., 11.

Boydell, H. C., 1926. Econ. Geol., 21, 44.

Bryan, W. H., 1934. Geol. Mag., 71.

Bryan, W. H., 1940. Proc. B. Soc. Qd., 52.

Cross, W., 1892. Bull. Phil. Soc. Wash., 11.

Greig, J. W., 1928. Amer. J. Sci., 15.

Harker, A., 1889. The Bala Volcanic Series of Caernarvonshire. Cambridge
University Press.

Morey, G. W., 1922. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 12, 291-295.

Morey, G. W., 1924. J. Geol., 32.

Niggli, P., 1929. Ore Deposits of Magmatic Origin. London, Murby.

Richards, H. C., 1916. Proc. B. Soc. Qd., 27, 142.

Shepherd, E. S., 1938. Amer. J. Sci., 35A.

Tanton, T. L., 1925. J. Geol., 33.

Teall, J. J. H., 1888. British Petrography. London, Dulau.

SPIIERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES.

69

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate VIII.

Large spheruloids at Binna Burra showing secondary growths in Figure 1 and
distension due to internal compression in Figure 3.

Plate IX.

Smaller splieruloids, approximately natural size.

Figure 1.— Mature undistended spheruloid with thick integument.
Figure 2. — Hemi-spheruloids developed on one side of fluxion plane.
Figure 3. — Continuity of fluxion planes through spheruloids.

Plate X.

Distended spheruloids, approximately natural size.

Figure 1. — Central vesicle and broken segments of a thin-skinned spheruloid
embedded in perlitic glass. (The analyses on p. 59 were made from similar
material nearby.)

Figure 2. — A segment of a distended spheruloid showing radial fracture pattern
and concentric terraces due to spasmodic rupture.

Figure 3. — Radial fracture pattern in flattened segment of a distended
spheruloid. The fractured surface is covered with plates of tridymite.

Plate XI.

Figure 1. — Viscous lava injected from below into solid but distended spheruloid*
The lava has sagged under its own weight. One-fifth natural size.

Figure 2. — Pattern imposed on lava as it was forced through a gradually
expanding fracture. The lava ribbon was subsequently covered by crystals of
tridymite. Two-thirds natural size.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q ’land, Yol. LXV., No. 3.

Plate VIII.

*

Proc. Boy. Soc. Q ’land, Vol. LXV., No. 3

Plate IX,

Plate X.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LXV., No. 3.

71

Vol. LXV., No. 4.

PRONOUNCED PARAMERAL
DIFFERENTIATION
IN THE WOMBAT (LASIORHINUS) .

By Richard Tucker, The Veterinary School, University of Queensland.

(With Plate XII.)

( Received IZtli April, 1953; issued separately 13 th September, 1954.)

The theoretical and operational value of some morphological
concepts is generally recognised. Homology, analogy, correlation and
symmetry as well as other structural relations are often used as a
lead for investigations and as an instrument of description.

Among the most useful concepts is that of paramery. It originates
from the geometrical, now rather historical, trend in morphology, and
its context resembles the concepts of isotopes in chemistry. The
problem of morpho-functional differentiation in antimers may be of
interest to every morphologist and zoologist who is busy with the
problems of bilateral symmetry, paramery and teratology as well as
with the plasticity of animal structures and adaptative phenomena.

Great parameral differentiations are occasionally reported. Colyer
(1936) described the skulls of Panther a tigris, Cercopithecus aethiops
johnstoni, Papio hamandryas, Lagotrix infumatus and Equus caballus.
The same author (1951) reported the skull of Macaca sinica. The
conclusions reached by him are of a functional character, for he has
drawn attention to a “wonderful plasticity of the bones during their
growing period.” He has nevertheless been forced to stress that in
the majority of phenomena of asymmetry of the skull “the cause
is hidden in obscurity.”

The specimen to be described is the skull of a Wombat {Lasiorhinus
latifrons barnardi) from Epping Forest Station, north-west of
Clermont, Queensland, preserved in the Queensland Museum (No. 6283).
The whole skull, the asymmetry of which was briefly commented upon
by Longman (1939), is twisted in both sagittal and transversal planes
(fig. 1, fig. 2 and fig. 3). It differs from Colyer ’s skulls in that
the changes overlapped the splanchnocranium as well as the
neurocranium.

The main parameral differences are as follows: —

Left Paramer.

1. The small incisor (fig. 1).

2. The intermaxillo-maxillar suture
curved strongly (fig. 4).

3. The infraorbital foramen directed
laterally (fig. 4).

4. The maxillar crista situated caudally
from the infraorbital foramen
(fig- 4).

Right Paramer.

The large incisor (fig. 1).

The intermaxillo-maxillar suture curved
slightly (fig. 5).

The infraorbital foramen directed

anteriorly (fig. 5).

The maxillar crista situated laterally
from the infraorbital foramen

(fig. 5).

H

72

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

5. Short frontal process of the maxil-
lary bone (fig. 4).

6. The facial lamina of the lacrimal
bone broad (fig. 4).

7. Prelacrimal part of the zygomatic
bone narrow (fig. 4).

8. The orbita high and round (fig. 4).

9. The zygomatic bone short (fig. 4).

10. Developed synostosis between zygo-
matic and temporal bones (figs. 4
and 6).

11. The temporal fossa wide (figs. 1 and
3).

12. In the temporal fossa six foramina

(figs. 1 and 3).

13. The postero-temporal fossa
elongated ventro-dorsally (fig. 6).

14. The foramen of the hypoglossal
nerve large (fig. 8).

15. One accessory foramen of the
hypoglossal nerve (figs. 8 and 2).

16. The buccal fossa deep (figs. 8 and

2).

17. The palatine process of the maxillary
bone narrow (figs. 8 and 2).

18. High crown of the teeth (fig. 2).

19. The outline of the zygomatic arch
elongated transversally (figs. 8, 1,
2 and 3 ) .

20. On the ventral face of the zygomatic
arch no fissure between zygomatic
and temporal bones (fig. 8).

Long frontal process of the maxillary
bone (fig. 5).

The facial lamina of the lacrimal bone
narrower (fig. 5).

Prelacrimal part of the zygomatic bone
broad (fig. 5).

The orbita low and elongated (fig. 5).

The zygomatic bone long (fig. 5).

Loose connections between zygomatic
and temporal bones (figs. 5 and 2).

The temporal fossa narrow (figs. 1 and
3).

In the temporal fossa four foramina
(figs. 1 and 3).

The postero-temporal fossa elongated
postero-anteriorly (fig. 7).

The foramen of the hypoglossal nerve
small (figs. 8 and 2).

Two accessory foramina of the hypo-
glossal nerve (figs. 8 and 2).

The buccal fossa shallow (figs. 8 and 2).

The palatine process of the maxillary
bone wide (figs. 8 and 2).

Low crown of the teeth (fig. 2).

The outline of the zygomatic arch
elongated anteriorly (figs. 8, 1, 2
and 3).

On the ventral face of the zygomatic
arch a deep fissure between zygo-
matic and temporal bones (fig. 8).

On the level of the parieto-frontal suture there is present a deep
semicircular groove (figs. 1 and 3).

The peculiarities in the composition of the mandible are also
great. The whole structure is bent to the left (figs. 9 and 10).
The dental roots are exposed symmetrically, but on the left side

to a higher degree (fig. 9). The

Left Paramer of Mandible.

1. Short mandibular ramus (figs. 9 and

10).

2. The last teeth are lower than the
rest (figs. 10 and 11).

3. The incisor is well developed

(figs. 10 and 11).

4. The alveolar process is short

(figs. 10 and 11).

5. The teeth reach the caudal end of
the alveolar process (figs. 10 and

n).

6. The mandibular foramen undivided,
surrounded by a deep fossa (figs. 10
and 12).

7. Mandibular notch narrow and deep

(fig. 11).

8. Lateral mandibular foramen very
large, surrounded by a deep fossa
(fig. 11).

9. Two laterally situated mental fora-
mina (fig. 11).

main differences are : —

Right Paramer of Mandible.

Long mandibular ramus (figs. 9 and 10).

The crowns of the teeth are on the same
level (figs. 10 and 11).

The incisor is poorly developed (figs. 10
and 11).

The alveolar process is long (figs. 10 and

11).

The teeth do not reach the caudal end
of the alveolar process (figs. 10 and
H).

The mandibular foramen divided by the
median tubercle. The surrounding
fossa is shallow (figs. 10 and 12).

Mandibular notch wide and open
(fig. 13).

Lateral mandibular foramen small, sur-
rounded by a shallow fossa (fig. 13).

Four laterally situated mental foramina
(%. 13).

PRONOUNCED PARAMERAL DIFFERENTIATION IN THE WOMBAT. 73

DISCUSSION.

In the described skull there is no sign of a major dental
abnormality, and the asymmetries extend throughout the skull. In
these points the skull differs from the majority of Colyer ’s descriptions.
The pain or teratomorphic dental formation, which, he claims, forms
the primary cause of functional abnormality, does not appear in this
case. In addition, many details which result from the differential
analysis of paramers could not be explained by a simple functional
deviation. The differentiated structure of mental and hypoglossal
foramina, size and shape of mandibular foramina, the number of
foramina in the temporal fossa, formation of synostoses, morphology
of buccal fossa and many other features are examples of these. The
morphology of both paramers differs to such an extent that if seen
separately, there is little doubt that they would be considered as parts
of two different skulls. Neither could the embryonal parameral
asymmetry of gradients suggested by Child (1941) explain the
described phenomena.

The causative factors may be due to one or a combination of the
following characters: — functional, correlational, developmental, and
genetical.

Accordingly, the phenomenon may be investigated for —

(a) Distribution of genetical material in paramers (genetical
differences of paramers especially in heterozygotes, or
genetical compositions of paramers). It is, however,
difficult to find references for genetical parameral distri-
bution except the data on regulative and mosaic eggs and
the theory of gradients (Child 1941).

(&) Genotype-phenotype relations with the study of organismic
plasticity and environment. These useful general concepts
are still lacking in operational precision which is so
important in investigations.

(c) Intraorganismic relations. An attempt is made elsewhere
by the author to find the operational possibilities in this
line.

SUMMARY.

The pronounced parameral differentiations in the skull of a
wombat ( Lasiorhinus ) are described in detail. The literature and
problems of this phenomenon are shortly discussed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

I wish to express my thanks to Professor T. K. Ewer for his
interest and kindness in reading this manuscript, also to Mr. G. Mack,
Director of the Queensland Museum for useful suggestions and to him
and his staff for facilities made available to me during this investigation.

REFERENCES.

Child, C. M., 1941. Pattern and Problems of Development. Chicago University
Press.

Colyer, Fr., 1936. Variations and Diseases of the Teeth of Animals. J. Bale,
Sons and Daniellson, London.

Colyer, Fr., 1951. Asymmetry of the Dental Arch in a Toque Monkey ( Macaca
sinica). Proc. E. Soc. Med., 44, 30.

Longman, H. A., 1939. A Central Queensland Wombat. Mem. Qd. Mus., 11, 284.

74

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII.

Figure 1. — a. Incisors ; b. Temporal fossae ; c. Temporal foramina ; d. Zygomatic
arch; e. Semicircular groove.

Figure 2. — a. Junction between zygomatic and temporal bones; b. Hypoglossal
foramina; c. Palatine process; d. Zygomatic arch.

Figure 3. — a. Temporal fossae; b. Temporal foramina; c. Zygomatic arch;
d. Semicircular groove.

Figure 4. — The left paramer. a. Intermaxillo-maxillar suture; b. Infraorbital
foramen; c. Maxillar crista; d. Frontal process of maxillary bone; e. Prelacrimal
part of zygomatic bone; f. Orbit; g. Zygomatic bone; h. Temporal bone.

Figure 5. — The right paramer. a. Intermaxillo-maxillar suture; b. Infraorbital
foramen ; c. Maxillar crista ; d. Frontal process of maxillary bone ; e. Prelacrimal
part of zygomatic bone; f. Orbit; g. Zygomatic bone; h. Temporal bone.

Figure 6. — Left paramer. a. Zygomatic bone; b. Temporal bone; c. Postero-
temporal fossa.

Figure 7. — Eight paramer. a. Postero-temporal fossa; b. Temporal bone;

c. Temporal fossa.

Figure 8. — a. Hypoglossal foramina; b. Palatine process; c. Zygomatic arch;

d. Temporal bone.

Figure 9. — The mandibular ramus and exposure of dental roots.

Figure 10. — a. Alveolar processes; b. Incisors; c. Mandibular foramen.

Figure 11. — a. Alveolar processes; b. Incisors; c. Lateral mandibular fossa and
foramen; d. Mandibular foramen; e. Mandibular notch.

Figure 12. — Mandibular foramen.

Figure 13. — Eigh paramer. a. Lateral mandibular fossa and foramina;
b. Mandibular notch.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LXV., No. 4.

Plate XII.

V.

The Royal Society of Queensland.

Report of the Council for 1952.

To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland.

Your Council has pleasure in submitting the Annual Report of the
Society for 1952.

The meeting place was changed to the lecture theatre of the
Physiology Department of the University, William street, and the
thanks of the Society are due to Associate Professor H. J. G. Hines,
acting head of the Department during that period, and his staff for
their co-operation and hospitality.

Ten meetings were held during the year, including two special
meetings. Six addresses were given and two evenings were devoted to
papers and exhibits. On behalf of the Council of A.N.Z.A.A.S., the
1952 Mueller Medal for Natural Science was presented to Mr. Heber A.
Longman.

A special meeting was called to consider a revision of the Rules of
the Society which had been prepared by the Council. The Council
also revised the instructions to authors contributing to the Proceedings
of the Society.

Dr. I. M. Mackerras and Miss K. Robinson were appointed as
delegates for the Society to the Council of A.N.Z.A.A.S.

Several original papers were accepted for publication in the
Proceedings. During the year Volume LXII. (1950) was issued, and
at present Volume LXIII. (1951) is in the hands of the printer. In
an effort to speed up publication, manuscripts on acceptance are passed
to the printer for publication, being issued separately well ahead of
the complete volume.

During the year there were 1,398 additions to the Library and
five new exchanges were established. The cataloguing is proceeding.
It is anticipated that the new quarters of the Library in the Adminis-
tration block of the University, George street, should be occupied by
the end of March, 1953.

There are now 6 honorary life members, 9 life members, 1
corresponding member, 217 ordinary members and 10 associate members
of the Society. During the year the Society lost 1 member by death
and 7 by resignation ; the names of 12 members were removed for
arrears; 10 ordinary members and 5 associate members were elected.

Attendance at Council Meetings was as follows : — I. M. Mackerras,
8 ; H. J. G. Hines, 6 ; S. T. Blake, 8 ; D. P. Sandars, 8 ; K. Robinson,
7 ; E. N. Marks, 5 ; F. S. Colliver, 7 ; G. Mack, 7 ; W. Stephenson, 6 ;
J. II. Simmonds, 6; M. Shaw, 3; L. J. H. Tealde, 1.

I. M. MACKERRAS, President.

Dorothea F. Sandars, Hon. Secretary.

Kathleen Robinson, Asst. Hon. Secretary.

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ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

VH.

Abstract of Proceedings, 30th March, 1953.

The Annual General Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland on Monday,
30th March. The President, Dr. I. M. Mackerras, was in the chair.
The minutes of the last Annual Meeting were confirmed. The Annual
Report was adopted and the Balance-sheet received.

The following members were elected as Office Bearers for 1953 : —
President : S. T. Blake.

Vice-President : M. Shaw.

Hon. Secretary: D. P. Sandars.

Asst. Hon. Secretary: K. Robinson.

Hon. Treasurer: E. N. Marks.

Hon. Librarian : F. S. Colliver.

Hon. Editor : G. Mack.

Councillors : B. Howard, A. R. Brimblecombe, T. K. Ewer,
' F. T. M. White, G. L. Wilson.

Hon. Auditor : L. P. Herdsman.

The Presidential Address, entitled “Animal Reservoirs of Infection
in Australia,” was delivered by Dr. I. M. Mackerras.

Abstract of Proceedings, 27th April, 1953.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland on Monday,
27th April. The President, Mr. S. T. Blake, was in the chair. Thirty-
eight members and friends were present. The minutes of the previous
Ordinary Meeting were confirmed. Mr. I. R. McLeod was nominated
for Ordinary Membership.

Professor T. Kelley delivered an address entitled “Conservation.”
He spoke of the need for the co-ordination of research, education and
work on the land for the maintenance of renewable resources and
conservation of those which were unrenewable. Young countries tended
not to worry about resources until they had attained cultural maturity.
The type of soil together with the high rainfall and the prevailing
winds have led to soil erosion in parts of Australia, especially in the
wheat belt of the east coast. Wind erosion has occurred in Victoria,
South Australia, and Western Australia and in New South Wales alone,
1,000,000 acres are out of production.

In the United States of America, many attempts at conservation
have been made ; river basins are controlled ; land is classified according
to its capabilities and the system of rural zonation ensures most
efficient production for a particular area; forest commissioners super-
vise forest conservation; and with respect to taxation, land value is
assessed on the basis of land capability. It was suggested that similar
methods could be instituted in Queensland and research could be
undertaken into greater utilisation of food from the ocean.

VIII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Abstract of Proceedings, 25th May, 1953.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland on Monday,
25th May, 1953. The President, Mr. S. T. Blake, was in the chair.
Fifteen members and friends were present. Mr. I. R. McLeod was
elected to Ordinary Membership.

Mr. S. T. Blake exhibited several books showing methods used in
botanical illustrations. The copper plates in Dampier’s “A Voyage
to New Holland . . . ” (1703) were the first illustrations of
Australian plants. Printed figures coloured by hand were exemplified
in ‘ ‘ Rumphia, ” “ Flora Antarctica ’ ’ and the greater part of the
“Botanical Magazine.” Colour-printing has been used in recent
volumes of the last mentioned.

Mr. F. S. Colliver exhibited (a) an artifact, a well-formed chopper,
found in the same terrace as, but further up stream from, the site of
the Keilor skull; (5) Wire Copper, a tightly packed mass of crystalline
copper in wire form; (c) Fulgurites in sand from Moreton Island
apparently formed by lightning, and in basaltic soil from Burnett
Heads’ Road, Bundaberg, apparently formed by the breaking of a high
tension wire.

Mr. L. C. Ball exhibited (a) a rock specimen from a ridge near
the Waterford Bridge, consisting of fine-grained, chalcedonic silica,
and assumed to be a complete replacement of greywacke or phyllite.
The most arresting feature of the specimen was its lamellar pseudo-
organic structure, foreign to normal Brisbane schist. Shearing has
been suggested as the cause, but the explanation was not altogether
satisfactory; (b) daily weather charts of Australia in April, 1953,
which have been used as a basis for research, in an endeavour to
determine an analogy between the meteorologists’ mobile cold fronts and
the geologists’ fixed crustal fissures, respectively atmospheric and
lithospheric.

Mr. H. J. T. Bake tabled a copy of an Admiralty Notice to
Mariners and pointed out (that echo dei-)th soundings can be in error
owing to scale repetition. He pointed out that the Admiralty advises
that, where unexpected shoal soundings are observed, a cast should be
taken with a lead-line to verify the echo sounding readings.

Abstract of Proceedings, 29th June, 1953.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland on Monday,
29th June. The President, Mr. S. T. Blake, was in the chair. Thirty-
eight members and friends were present. The President asked members
to stand in remembrance of both the late Dr. R. Hamlyn-Harris, a
past President of the Society, and the late Mr. L. Hitchcock, a past
Editor and Librarian of the Society. The minutes of the previous
meeting were read, amended and confirmed. Mr. R. T. Mathews was
elected to Ordinary Membership. The Librarian reported that there
had been 416 additions to the library.

An address on “The Fitzroy River Model” was given by
Professor Shaw, Mr. Hinckley and Dr. McKay.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

IX.

Professor Shaw discussed the need for a new port for Rock-
hampton, to replace Port Alma, and how it was proposed to see if
a self-scouring channel could be produced by making tests on a large
model. He showed, by using simple models, how tidal movements
could be synthesised by the combination of simple harmonic motions.
The tide synthesiser designed and made in the Engineering School
was described and the simple constantly driven pump and its control
valve were explained.

Mr. Hinckley explained the electronic control used to produce
tides in the model by automatically setting the valve position to
regulate the pump discharge to give the desired rate of rise or fall
of the tide as determined by the output of the synthesiser. As a
random drift of mean sea level could still occur the difference between
the actual and the desired level of the water surface was measured
continuously and the valve opening adjusted to minimise any error
detected. Results showed that the tide wave produced at the control
point approximated very closely to that desired.

Dr. McKay, who dealt with civil engineering problems associated
with such investigations, pointed out that hydraulic scale models were
not exact miniatures. Unfortunately the forces present did not

change in the same proportion with diminishing size. Gravitational
forces predominated in a model of this type and formed the basis of
the design but modifications were necessary for experimental
expediency — the vertical scale was distorted to give greater tractive
force to move sand on the model, and to account for non-scalar
changes in other forces — viscous surface tension, &c. The parts played
by viscosity, &c., were not definitely known and it was necessary to
‘ ‘ prove ’ ’ the model by making it reproduce known natural
phenomena, before proceeding to predict changes which might occur or
could be induced. It has been found necessary to use a fluid more
viscous than water for the tide to be distributed with equal accuracy
throughout the estuary. The production of 3,000 gallons of a cheap
viscous fluid proved very difficult and was solved ultimately by using
clay solution. It remained to check the sand movement with the
known history of the estuary before starting improvement experiments.

Abstract of Proceedings, 27th July, 1953.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland on Monday,
27th July. The President, Mr. S. T. Blake was in the chair. Twenty-
nine members and friends were present. The minutes of the previous
meeting were confirmed. Mr. E. H. Gurney was elected as an Honorary
Life Member of the Society. The following were nominated for
Ordinary Membership • — Miss B. Hoyling, Miss G. Dement jew, Miss P.
L ’Estrange, Mr. D. Bevan, Professor F. J. Schonell, Mr. B. R. Champ,
Mr. R. L. Johnson. The Librarian reported that there had been 355
additions to the library.

Mr. S. T. Blake exhibited a small, rare orchid Cor'bas undulatus
found at Coolum.

X. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

An address entitled “ Overseas Medical and Biological Institutions ’ *
was delivered by Professor W. V. Macfarlane. He outlined briefly the
activities of these institutions he had recently seen in the United
States, and commented on departmental administration, outstanding
personalities, apparatus used and university and laboratory architecture.

He stressed the advantage both to the staff and students of
limiting the number of students handled by each staff member. This
often necessitated student selection which greatly improved the quality
of the work produced. The tremendous capacity for work of American
research workers was an outstanding feature, as well as the extra-
ordinary amount of money invested in the projects.

Abstract of Proceedings, 31st August, 1953.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland on Monday,
31st August. The President, Mr. S. T. Blake was in the chair. Thirty-
two members and friends were present. The minutes of the previous
meeting were confirmed. The following were elected to Ordinary
Membership : — Professor F. J. Schonell, Miss B. Hoyling, Mr. B. R.
Champ, Miss G. Dementjew, Miss P. L ’Estrange, Mr. D. Bevan,
Mr. R. W. Johnson. The librarian reported that there had been 302
additions to the library.

An address, entitled “The Scientist and World Politics” was
given by Professor N. Pfeffer. He said that, while the relation of
science to world politics has been dramatized by the use of atomic
weapons, there has always been a direct relation between the nature
of war and the state of technology. However, war is now not only a
conflict between nations in which both sides are really losers, but one
in which the continued existence of civilised societies is at issue. There
is a race between destructive potentialities of scientific discoveries
applied to weapons and mankind’s ability to make comparable progress
in the social sciences and the humanities towards finding a method of
regulating the relations of nations so that war can be prevented.

Immediately after the last war there arose a movement, not least
among scientists, for world government. Yet it was too simple a
solution. The call of national kind is still too strong; human attitudes
cannot be changed at will or command or on rational demonstration,
and for the present world government must remain a counsel of
perfection.

In order to prevent war, the conduct of states in their relation-
ships with each other must be subjected to the same kind of jurisdiction
as has always been imposed on the conduct of individuals. This means
an accepted code of conduct, an organism for adjudication and an
organism for enforcing judgment. This was already conceived at the
end of the first world war and given form in the League of Nations.
The League failed, but it is clear that there has been a change since
then, and behind the formation of the United Nations there was good
faith. Men’s attitude towards war has changed; even those of evil
intentions must at least pretend to want peace. In this alone there is

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

progress, even if the positive accomplishments of the United Nations
are not substantial and cannot be until the mutual hostilities of the
Western bloc and Russia are assuaged. Meanwhile the task of the
scientist is no different from that of other men. It is doubtful, too,
whether much of scientific method as it is understood by physical
scientists is transferable to the social sciences : much of the current
pseudo-scientific method now being applied in those fields is futile and
sometimes spurious. Advance in social studies must be at least
comparable to that in the physical sciences.

Abstract of Proceedings, 28th September, 1953.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland on Monday,
28th September. The President, Mr. S. T. Blake, was in the chair.
About thirty-six members and friends were present. The minutes of
the previous meeting were confirmed. Dr. S. Mariti was nominated
for Ordinary Membership. The Librarian reported that there had
been 354 additions to the Library.

An address, entitled “The Fiery Serpent,” was given by
Dr. J. F. A. Sprent. He said that one of the oldest known parasites
of animals was the guinea worm. This strange parasitic worm which
inflicted suffering and struck panic into the people of bygone ages,
was used as an introduction to the problem of the evolution of the
nematodes. Their evolutionary history was traced along three main
lines of development: (1) from soil inhabiting, free-living species;
(2) from nematodes parasitic in terrestrial arthropods; (3) from
nematodes parasitic in aquatic arthropods. Examples were given of
the life history of various nematodes, the object being to illustrate
possible stages which may have occurred throughout the evolutionary
history of this group.

Abstracts of Proceedings, 26th October, 1953.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland on Monday,
26th October. The President, Mr. S. T. Blake, was in the chair.
About thirty-three members and friends were present. The minutes
of the previous meeting were confirmed. Dr. S. Mariti was elected
to Ordinary Membership. The Librarian reported that there had been
180 additions to the Library.

The following papers were read: —

“Spherulites and Allied Structures — Part II. — The Spherulites
of Binna Burra,” by Professor W. II. Bryan.

1 1 The Structural History of the Brisbane Metamorphics — Part II.
— Geology of Brisbane,” by Professor W. H. Bryan and
Dr. 0. A. Jones.

“Pronounced Parameral Differentiation in the Wombat
Lasiorhinus,” by Dr. R. Tucker.

XII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Mr. K. J. Bullock demonstrated the strain gauge apparatus used
in the Mechanical Engineering Department of the University for
measuring the strains and hence the stresses and forces in the Depart-
ment ’s new experimental sugar mill. The method of calibration was
shown.

Professor M. Shaw explained and demonstrated the interferometer
which has been constructed in the Mechanical Engineering Department
by Mr. R. W. Axon. The interferometer will be used to measure slip
gauges in terms of the four major waves of cadmium light, red, green,
blue and violet, and will be installed in the new air-conditioned
meterology room which is approaching completion.

Mr. J. E. O’Hagan exhibited a Photo-electric Scanner for Electro-
phoretic Analysis. A drop of protein solution is placed on a filter
paper strip saturated with buffer solution and a current at several
hundred volts passed through the paper for some hours. The paper is
then dried and the separated proteins stained. The paper is rendered
translucent with an oil of the same refractive index as cellulose, and
placed between glass plates in front of a fine slit, which is illuminated
with a strong light source, and which has behind it a photo, cell
connected to a meter calibrated for optical density. As the protein
4 ‘picture” is traversed in front of the slit, the readings are plotted
and from the curves obtained the concentration of each component
of the protein mixture can be calculated. It is intended to use the
technique for the investigation of changes in the protein fractions
of human serum.

Mr. P. J. Skerman showed a series of Kodaehrome slides depicting
recent advances in pasture establishment and management in Queens-
land, and large-scale mechanical methods of clearing gidyea scrub.
Irrigated pastures established at the Bureau of Investigation Research
Station at Gatton have been successfully taken to Theodore in the
Dawson Valley, the Atherton Tableland and the Blackall districts.
Positive mixtures consisting of tropical grasses and legumes have been
developed at the Bureau of Tropical Agriculture at South Johnstone
and are now being developed at Atchee Creek for bullock fattening and
dairying.

Abstract of Proceedings, 30th November, 1953.

A Special Meeting of the Society was held in the Physiology
Department of the University of Queensland on Monday,
30th November. The President, Mr. S. T. Blake, was in the chair.
Twenty-three members and friends were present.

Three rules of the Society were altered to read as follows : —

Rule 4. — Life members are such ordinary members as have com-
muted the ordinary subscription on payment of twenty
guineas.

Rule 11. — Each ordinary member shall pay an annual subscrip-
tion of thirty shillings, of which five-sixths will be paid to
the journal account, and each associate shall pay an annual
subscription of fifteen shillings.

Rule 12. — Ordinary members may at any time commute the
annual subscription on payment of twenty guineas.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XIII.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland on Monday,
30th November. The President, Mr. S. T. Blake, was in the chair.
Twenty-five members and friends were present. The minutes of the
previous meeting were confirmed. Dr. Shirley Crawford and
Mr. K. MacDonald were proposed for Ordinary Membership. The
Librarian reported that there had been 517 additions to the Library.

An address entitled “Protection of Electrical Plant against
Lightning” was delivered by Professor S. A. Prentice. He dealt
briefly with lightning as a physical phenomenon and described the
action of direct strikes on the various elements of a transmission
system. Factors which determine the magnitude of the resulting

voltages and currents were also explained together with the protective
measures adopted in practical installations. The address concluded with
a description of research work on the protection of electrical plant
against lightning now being carried out in the University of
Queensland.

A. H. Tucker, Government Printer, Brisbane.

J

GUIDE FOR THE PREPARATION OF SYNOPSES

1. PURPOSE.

It is desirable that each paper be accompanied by a synopsis preferably
appearing at the beginning. This synopsis is not part of the x>aper; it is intended
to convey briefly the content of the paper, to draw attention to all new information
and to the main conclusions. It should be factual.

2. STYLE OF WRITING.

The synopsis should be written concisely and in normal rather than abbreviated
English. It is preferable to use the third person. Where possible use standard
rather than proprietary terms, and avoid unnecessary contracting.

It should be presumed that the reader has some knowledge of the subject
but, has not read the paper. The synopsis should therefore be intelligible in itself
without reference to the paper, for example it should not cite sections or illustra-
tions by their numerical references in the text.

3. CONTENT.

The title of the paper is usually read as part of the synopsis. The opening
sentence should be framed accordingly and repetition of the title avoided. If the
title is insufficiently comprehensive the opening should indicate the subjects covered.
Usually the beginning of a synopsis should state the objective of the investigation.

It is sometimes valuable to indicate the treatment of the subject by such
words as: brief, exhaustive, theoretical, etc.

The synopsis should indicate newly observed facts, conclusions of an experiment
or argument and, if possible, the essential parts of any new theory, treatment,
apparatus, technique, etc.

It should contain the names of any new compound, mineral, species, etc., and
any new numerical data, such as physical constants; if this is not possible it should
draw attention to them. It is important to refer to new items and observations,
•even though some are incidental to the main purpose of the paper ; suchi information
mav otherwise be hidden though it is often very useful.

When giving experimental results the synopsis should indicate the methods
used; for new methods the basic principle, range of operation and degree of
accuracy should be given.

4. DETAIL OF LAYOUT.

It is impossible to recommend a standard length for a synopsis. It should,
however, be concise and should not normally exceed 100 words.

If it is necessary to refer to earlier work in the summary, the reference should
always be given in the same manner as in the text. Otherwise references should
be left out.

When a synopsis is completed, the author is urged to revise it carefully,
removing redundant words, clarifying obscurities and rectifying errors in copr ing
from the paper. Particular attention should be paid by him to scientific and
proper names, numerical data and chemical and mathematical formulae

CONTENTS.

Vol. LXY.

No. 1. — Animal Reservoirs of Infection in Australia. By I. M. Mackerras
(Issued separately, 6 th September, 1954)

No. 2. — Contributions to the Geology of Brisbane. No. 2. The Structure
of the Brisbane Metamorphics. By W. H. Bryan and Owen A.
Jones. (Issued separately, 6tli September, 1954)

No. 3. — Spheruloids and Allied Structures, Part II. The Spheruloids of
Binna Burra. By W. H. Bryan. (Issued separately,
13tli September, 1954)

No. 4. — Pronounced Parameral Differentiation in the Wombat Lasiorhinvs.

By Richard Tucker. (Issued separately, 13th September, 1954)

Report of Council

I

Page*.

1-24

25-50

51-70

71-74

Abstract of Proceedings

VII.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1954

VOL. LXVI.

ISSUED 12th OCTOBER, 1955.

PRICE: TWENTY-FIVE SHILLINGS.

Registered in Australia for transmission by post as a periodical.

Printed for the Society
by

A. H. TUCKER, Government Printer, Brisbane.

The Royal Society of Queensland

Patron ;

His Excellency Lieut-General Sir JOHN D. LAYARACK, K.C.M.G., K.C.Y.O.,

K.B.E., C.B., D.S.O., C. de G.

OFFICERS, 1954.

President :

Professor MANSERGH SHAW, M.E., M.I.Mecli.E.

Vice-Presidents :

S. T. BLAKE, M.Sc.

Associate-Professor A. L. REIMANN, D.Sc., Ph.D.

Hon. Treasurer : Hon. Secretary :

E. N. MARKS, M.Sc., Ph.D. Professor T. K. EWER, B.V.Sc., Pli.D.

Asst. Hon. Secretary :
B. HOWARD, B.Sc.

Hon. Librarian: Hon. Editor:

P. S. COLLIYER. G. MACK, B.Sc.

Members of Council:

A. R. BRIMRLECOMBE, M.Sc., I. M. MACKERRAS, F.R.A.C.P., D. F. SANDARS,
M.Sc., Professor F. T. M. WHITE, B.Met.E., M.Inst.M.M., G. L. WILSON,

B.Agr.Sc., Ph.D.

Hon. Auditor:

L. P. HERDSMAN.

Trustees :

F. BENNETT, B.Sc., Professor W. H. BRYAN, M.C., D.Sc., E. O. MARKS,

M.D , B.A., B.E.

CONTENTS

Vol. LXVI.

Pages.

No. 1. — Some Pioneers in Plant Exploration and Classification. By S. T.

Blake. (Issued separately, 5th September, 1955) . . . . 1-19

No. 2. — Ixodes cordifer Neumann 1908 (Ixodides: Acarina) ; A Descrip-
tion of the Female and a Redescription of the Male. By
F. H. S. Roberts. (Issued separately, 5th September, 1955) . . 21-25

No. 3. — Spherulites and Allied Structures, Part III. By W. H. Bryan.

(Issued separately, 5th September, 1955) . . . . . . . . 27-31

No. 4. — A Preliminary Account of the Petrology of the Cloncurry Mineral
Field. By Germaine A. Joplin. (Issued separately, 5th September,

1955) . . . . 33-67

No. 5. — Uranium Mineralization in the Cloncurry-Mt. Isa Area. By L. J.

Lawrence. (Issued separately, 19th September, 1955) . . . . 69-76

No. 6. — A New Lung-worm from Australian Marsupials (Nematoda:
Metastrongylidae) . By M. Josephine Mackerras. (Issued
separately, 19th September, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . 77-81

No. 7. — Memorial Lecture. Heber Albert Longman. By D. A. Herbert.

(Issued separately, 19th September, 1955) . . . . . . 83-88

Report of Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v.

Abstract of Proceedings . .

VIII.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

QUEENSLAND

FOR 1954

VOL. LXVI.

JTX 111

y Yuli * ■

JUN 25

ISSUED 12th OCTOBER, 1955.

PRICE: TWENTY-FIVE SHILLINGS.

Registered in Australia for transmission by post as a periodical.

Printed for the Society

by

A. H. TUCKER, Government Printer, Brisbane-

NOTICE TO AUTHORS

1. Papers should be double-spaced typescript on one side of the paper with ample
margins, and must be accompanied by an abstract of not more than one hundred
words prepared according to directions given on the inside back cover.

2. Papers must be complete and in a form suitable for publication when communicated
to the Society and should be as concise as possible. All calculations, figures,
tables, names, quotations and references to literature should be carefully checked.

3. The use of italics in the text should be restricted to the names of genera and
groups of lower rank, foreign words and titles of periodicals.

4. Except in taxonomic papers, all references should be listed at the end of each
paper and arranged alphabetically under authors’ names, e.g.

Bagnold, R. A., 1937. The Transport of Sand by Wind. Geogr. J., 89,
409-438.

Kelley, T. L., 1923. Statistical Method. New York, Macmillan Company.
XI -(-390 pp., 24 fig.

The corresponding references in the text should take one of the following forms -

Bagnold (1937), (Bagnold, 1937), Bagnold (1937, p. . . .), or (Bagnold
1937, p. . . .).

In taxonomic papers references may be inserted in the text in accordance with
established usage. Titles of periodicals should be abbreviated in accordance
with the World List of Scientific Periodicals.

5. The cost of author’s corrections to proof above what the Council considers a
reasonable amount, must be borne by the author.

<6. Each author will be supp lied with fifty separate copies of his paper. Additional
copies may be obtained at approximately cost price and should be ordered when
the galley proof is returned.

7. The size of the printed plate will not exceed 8 in. x 4f in., and drawings should
be to this size, or preferably a convenient small multiple thereof. The effect of
the necessary reduction on lettering and fine detail should be borne in mind.
Text-figures should be drawn for reduction to a width not exceeding 4 in.

8. Drawing in line should be executed in intensely black ink such as good Indian
ink, on a smooth surface, preferably Bristol board. Excessively fine, scratchy,
or faint lines are to be avoided. Tints or washes cannot be reproduced in line
drawings, in which the maximum degree of contrast is necessary.

9. Drawings or photographs for reproduction in half-tone, should where possible,
be grouped for reproduction on one plate. They should be done or mounted on
a smooth surface, such as Bristol board, as the grain of most drawing papers
become visible on reproduction. Single photographs should be sent fiat and
unmounted. All prints should be on a glossy bromide or gas-light paper.

Vol. LXYI., No 1.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS

SOME PIONEERS IN PLANT EXPLORATION
AND CLASSIFICATION

(With four Text-figures.)

By S. T. Blake, Botanic Museum and Herbarium, Botanic Gardens,

Brisbane.

(Delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland, 29 th March, 1954.)

It has been well said that “as long as plants are cultivated and
it is necessary to speak of them and write of them, even so long will some
form of classification and nomenclature be necessary” (Masters, quoted
by Bailey, 1913).

My address to-night, which might equally well have been called
“Miscellaneous thoughts on the evolution of the knowledge of plants”,
has been inspired by the realization that the years 1953-4 mark the
50th, 90th, 150th, 200th and 250th anniversary of events of special signifi-
cance in the history of botany in general and the knowledge of Australian
plants in particular. In 1703 two important works were published;
one is the third volume of William Dampier’s A Voyage to New Holland,
etc., in the year 1699, in which appeared the first published descriptions
and figures of Australian plants and animals ; the other is the Methodus
Plant arum of John Ray in which was proposed a system of classification
of plants that greatly influenced succeeding workers in this field. May,
1753, the date of publication of Species Plantar um by Carolus Linnaeus,
is accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature.
In March, 1803, after his famous voyage of exploration with the
Investigator along the southern, eastern and part of the northern shores
of Australia, Matthew Flinders left the north-eastern coast of Arnhem
Land for his return to Sydney via Timor; on board the Investigator
was Robert Brown, the first man to describe Australian plants in
detail and the nature of the vegetation as a whole, later regarded as one
of the greatest botanists of all time. In 1863 the first volume of George
Bentham’s Flora Australiensis was published; and in 1903 appeared
the first part of J. H. Maiden’s A Critical Revision of the Genus
Eucalyptus.

I intend firstly to discuss some of the circumstances surrounding
the publication of Species Plantarum and its effects on botany, followed
by some reflections on classification and nomenclature. Then I propose
to give brief accounts of the work of Brown and Bentham and some
of the plant collectors in Queensland whose collections directly or
indirectly provided a considerable part of the material for Flora
Australiensis, chiefly those whose localities have often been wrongly
quoted or misunderstood. I have mapped their collecting places as com-
pletely as possible from their original labels and journals or such letters;
or references to letters as have been available to me.

JUN 2 1 1956

2

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

SPECIES PLANTARUM

The year 1753 was a momentous year for modem botany. In May
of that year was published the two volumes of Species Plantarum by
the Swedish botanist Carl Linne, perhaps better known by his latinized
name Carolus Linnaeus, in which an attempt was made to define all
known species of plants under a new system of nomenclature ; this
work is accepted as the starting point of modern nomenclature. The
general plan had been worked out by Linnaeus not later than 1733,
when he was 26 years old and living in Holland, along with other parts
of what he called Fundamenta Botanica (Svenson 1945, Uggla 1953),
but the first evidence that he was actively engaged on the work was
in a letter to his close friend Abraham Back (Baeck) in September
1746 in which he wrote “I am busy with Species Plantarum and
labouring from early to late so I almost turn grey” (Uggla 1953). It
was not easy going. In October, 1749, he wrote 4 ‘I begin to dismiss
Species Plantarum from my thoughts altogether. Since last year I
have not had time to look at them . . . But must I work myself to
death ? . . . What do I earn with this ? One does not become wise before
the end ...” Then in June 1751 : “I am now writing my Species . . .
If I am permitted to boast a little I believe that something like this
had not existed in 1,000 years. If I am allowed to finish it, it will be
good. If not, I should at least wish to have a few sheets printed in order
that the world should see what could have been made” (Uggla 1953),
and in June, 1752.... “I have finished my Species” (Bryk 1953).
The first of the two parts was published about eleven months later.

CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE

At this stage it is worth while to consider the way plants were
named in the 16th, 17th and early 18th centuries. Classification was
based chiefly on texture, form and uses. Names were in Latin — the
common language of science at that period — in the form of a more or
less lengthy descriptive phrase of which the first part referred to the
genus. According to Bartlett (quoted by Turrill 1942), 4 4 the concept
of the genus must be as old as folk science itself. Two processes must
have been operative in ancient times just as they are to-day. (1) With
enlarging experience, people make finer distinctions, and need different
names for newly distinguished entities which had originally been called
by the same original name. The original name becomes generic in its
application; variously qualified, it provides the basis for specific names.
Thus genera are set up by analysis. (2) As the language becomes
cumbersomely rich in separate names for closely similar things, there
is a tendency towards grouping or classification under the same names
on the basis of newly perceived similarities. Thus genera are set up
by synthesis ”... 44 The tendency to group plants into named genera,

so generally characteristic of human thought and language, reflects the
fact that there are not enough different words in the living current
vocabulary of any language to supply each closely similar plant with
a basically distinctive name”. The idea of the genus, as this category
in classification is understood to-day, and the generic name, go back
at least to the Pinax of Gaspard Bauhin (1623) and was well established
by Tournefort (1694 and 1700) and John Ray (1703). The genus was
symbolized by a single word (usually) and was treated as the funda-
mental unit of classification; species were subsidiary units and each
was named and at the same time distinguished from all other species

SOME PIONEERS IN PLANT EXPLORATION AND CLASSIFICATION. 3

of the genus by placing after the generic name a series of descriptive
words ( differentiae ). The differentiae constituted the specific name;
the discovery of further species in the genus usually meant that some,
at any rate, of the existing names had to be modified to exclude the
new species. Occasionally the specific name might consist of a single
word.

Two examples of such names taken from Dampier (1703) are:

(1) Equisetum Novae Hollandiae fmtescens foliis longissimis
( — Equisetum of New Holland shrubby with very long leaves — now
known as Casuarina equisetifolia, or coastal she-oak).

(2) Colutea Novae Hollandiae floribus amplis coccineis , umbellatim
dispositis macula purpurea notatis (—Colutea of New Holland with
large scarlet flowers umbellately arranged and marked with a purple
spot — now known as Clianthus speciosus or Sturt’s desert pea).

In principle this form of nomenclature is not very different from
that found in the popular names of plants or animals in many languages,
and it probably developed side by side with language. I have just
mentioned the popular names of Dampier ’s plants and we have others
like blue gum, white gum, drooping white gum, narrow-leafed ironbark
and silver-leaved ironbark. It was in Species Plantarum that the device
of using a combination of two words to denote every plant species was
consistently employed. This handy method of referring to any species
by using a generic name followed by a single qualifying word (the
“specific epithet” in modern terminology) soon became popular and
rather quickly replaced earlier systems of nomenclature. Linnaeus
himself treated this innovation as of less importance than his reformed
“specific names”. He wrote (1751) that “The specific name makes
the plant recognizable at first glance, since it contains the differentia
inscribed in the plant itself. The character naturalis of a species is the
Descriptio ; but the character essentialis is the Differentia. I was the
first to base specific names on essentials ; previously no differentiae of
value had been set up .... ” and in the introduction to Species
Plantarum (1753) he stated “To set up the essential characters for the
specific name is not an easy task; for it requires an accurate knowledge
of many species, a most attentive investigation of the parts, the selection
of differentiae and finally the proper application of the art of termin-
ology, in order that the briefest and most effective name may be arrived
at ” (Svenson 1945).

As mentioned previously, the use of a generic name followed by
a qualifier (the “trivial name” of Linnaeus or “specific epithet” of
modern terminology) to denote a species had actually appeared in
works of the 17th century but only incidentally. A few years before
Species Plantarum Linnaeus wrote “Nomina trivialia may be admitted
after a fashion; they consist of a single word freely selected from any
source” (Linnaeus 1751) and “I have arranged the plants of Flora
Suecica . . . . ; and so that I could study them in brevity, I found it
advantageous to add to the generic name a short and insufficient epithet,
which is made clear by the Flora itself” (Linnaeus 1749). “And so
that I could study them in brevity ” ! ! Linnaeus was not slow in recog-
nizing the practical advantage of the binary nomenclature and con-
sistently employed it after the appearance of Species Plantarum ; from
his preface to that work it is evident that he expected other botanists
to follow his example. This expectation was realized, partly because

4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

of the intrinsic merits of the method, partly because of the merits of
Species Plantarum as a whole. There was, of course, opposition. Many
people complained that Linnaeus “changed the names” of a large
number of plants. It took time for people, especially the older botanists,
to get accustomed to the new system. Haller (1768) wrote “I have not
wished to create trivial names which Linnaeus and Rivinus have given
us since I realize how meagre several words are and feel that it would
be most difficult to express any characteristic in a single word”.

Haller’s remark, however, is worth noting. The name of a plant
is primarily a means of referring to it and does not necessarily give any
idea of its character. Generic names and specific epithets are very
commonly derived from some outstanding features of the genera and
species concerned, but in many cases they are taken from the names of
persons or localities. A few examples of generic names coined and
explained by Linnaeus (1737, translated by Hort) are worth quoting:

“ Bauhinia has two-lobed leaves, or two as it were growing from the
same base, being called after the noble pair of brothers Bauhin.

Commelina has flowers with three petals, two of which are showy,
while the third is not conspicuous, from the two botanists called
Commelin, for the third died before accomplishing anything in botany.

Plumieria is a small American tree with brilliant flowers, even as
Plunder was brilliant among American botanists.

Hernandia is an American tree, with the handsomest leaves of any,
and less conspicuous flowers — from a botanist who had supreme good
fortune and who was highly paid to investigate the natural history of
America : would that the fruits of his labours had corresponded with the
expenditure !

Dillenia of all plants has the showiest flower and fruit, even as
Dillenius made a brilliant show among botanists.

Gronovia is a climbing plant that grasps all other plants, being-
called after a man who has had few rivals as a collector of plants.”

By the beginning of the eighteenth century, characters of the
reproductive organs were being recognised as important aids to classifi-
cation and plants that resembled one another in their reproductive
structures were usually treated as members of the same genus. In
Genera Plantarum, of which the first edition was published in 1737,
Linnaeus tried to do for genera what he tried to do in 1753 for species —
namely, to evaluate and classify all groups previously described as
genera. The genera were arranged in twenty-four classes, according
to his much quoted “sexual system”, based upon the number and
arrangement of the stamens, the classes being subdivided according to
the number of the carpels. This was an entirely artificial system that
was fairly easy to use and usually allowed an unknown plant to be
readily classified as to class and with little further trouble as to genus
and species, although it often separated groups that were obviously
closely similar. There is no doubt that Linnaeus recognized the short-
comings of the system and did a considerable amount of work towards
a natural classification in which plants (and animals) are classified
according to the sum of their resemblances — an ideal classification
aimed at by many botanists since but probably unattainable.

SOME PIONEERS IN PLANT EXPLORATION AND CLASSIFICATION.

5

Nowadays tlie species is regarded as the unit of classification. This
unit is a concept impossible of precise, exclusive definition in a few
words. Some approximations are: A species is a group (population)

of individuals resembling one another more closely than they do other
individuals; species are populations between any two of which there is
a tangible discontinuity in morphological characters ; a species is a
group of individuals having essentially similar appearances, qualities
and uses; a species is a kind of population.

It is now being realized that there are several different kinds of
species (Camp and Gilly 1943), a realization that explains but does not
overcome the difficulty of simple definition, but I do not propose to
enlarge on this now. The above form of definition can, however, be used
to explain a genus as a “ group of species resembling one another more
closely than they do other species”, and genera are grouped into
families in the same way. Between species and species, genus and genus,
family and family there is a more or less distinct discontinuity in the
sum of morphological characters. A good deal of research in classifi-
cation— taxonomy — is concerned with the search for these discontinuities.
Many years ago an analogy was drawn with geography. B. L. Robinson
(1906) likened a family to a large archipelago of islands, the islands
themselves being arranged in more or less definite groups within the
archipelago. The smaller groups represent genera. Some of these groups
may be separated by deep and well-defined channels, though these may
be quite narrow. Others again may be more or less connected by shoals
and sandbanks. The former kind represent sharply defined genera, the
latter ill-defined genera. But just as an explorer may have missed the
narrow though deep channels, or perhaps have run aground while
exploring the broad shallows, so the systematist working on a particular
family may fail to recognize a distinction between two closely similar
but distinct groups of species, or be unable to segregate distinct homo-
geneous groups from an obviously heterogeneous collection of species.
And just as more detailed exploration may lead to the discovery of
navigable channels between certain members of the archipelago, so more
intensive study of any family of plants often leads to the recognition
of characters previously overlooked that do separate a collection of
species into well-defined groups. Often, however, as shoals do exist
where at a cursory glance deep water appears to be present, so groups
of species often appear to be quite distinct, while on a more intensive
study, the supposed distinguishing characters are found to be inconstant.

The modern taxonomist makes use of many techniques in his search
for discontinuities. In the days of Linnaeus only those features
observable by relatively crude microscopes were available. It is
interesting to note that many of what are now considered “natural
groups” were recognized well before Linnaeus, and the work of the
latter was soon to be put to a severe test by the return of Banks and
Solander with plants from Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific, a
practically unknown region, collected on Cook’s first voyage. (Solander,
by the way, was a pupil of Linnaeus.) Owing to a number of circum-
stances, neither Banks nor Solander published any account of their
plants, of which nearly 1,000 species were collected along the Australian
coast. Some figures, prepared at the time, and Solander ’s descriptions
were published long afterwards by Britten (1900-1905), but the collec-
tions in Bank’s private herbarium were studied by several botanists
including Robert Brown. Joseph Gaertner, one of the first to study seed

6

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

structure in detail, received much of his material from Banks, whose help
he gratefully acknowledged in his preface to the first of the three volumes
of De fructibus et seminibus plant arum . . . (1787-1807). Gaertner
published a number of Solander’s names from notes to the specimens.
His work followed the Linnaean system.

R. BROWN

Robert Brown (1773-1858), born at Montrose, Scotland, was very
early attracted to botany, studied medicine, became an Assistant Surgeon
in the Army and in 1801, on the recommendation of Banks, was
appointed naturalist to the Investigator under Captain Matthew
Flinders who was to make a survey of the Australian coast. He had
as assistants Ferdinand Bauer, one of the most outstanding botanical
artists of all time and a skilful microseopist, and Peter Good, a gardener.
The ship reached King George Sound in December, 1801, and Sydney
on 9th May, 1802. Departing on 22nd July, Flinders sailed north and
reached Sandy Cape, the northernmost point of Fraser Island, on 30th
July, where Brown collected his first Queensland plants from what he
later called the Tropical Coast. His chief localities in Queensland were
Port Curtis and Facing Island, Curtis Island, Port Bowen (Port Clinton
of modern maps), Shoalwater Bay, Broad Sound, three of the Percy
Islands, Wigton Island (Cumberland Islands), Halfway Island and
Goode Island in Torres Strait, mouth of the Pennefather River
(quoted as Coen River) and five islands of the Wellesley Group, Gulf
of Carpentaria. He did not visit the Endeavour River although he has
been quoted as collector of some specimens from this locality.

After the Investigator returned to Sydney he remained in Australia
nearly two years longer collecting in the neighbourhood of Sydney, about
the Hunter River, in Tasmania (chiefly around Hobart and
Launceston), the islands of Bass Strait and Port Phillip. He arrived
back in England in October 1805, with a collection representing nearly
3,900 species of plants.

Brown kept a diary of his travels, which is now in the British
Museum of Natural History. Through the activities of the Systematic
Botany Committee of the Australian and New Zealand Association
for the Advancement of Science microfilm copies are now in the major
Australian herbaria and it is from this diary and Flinders’s journal
that Brown’s collecting places have been mapped (text-figs. 1 and 4).
All plants were described while still fresh, usually under some pro-
visional name for reference. Many such descriptions are in the diary.
Brown also entered descriptions of the country with notes on geology,
soils, some zoology and the aborigines. There are several references to
country being recently burnt.

After his return to England he remained on the books of the
Investigator until 1810 when he became librarian to Banks and curator
of his herbarium. On the death of Banks he joined the staff of the British
Museum.

He had already begun publishing the series of works for which
he became famous. One of the best known is the Prodromus Florae
Novae Hollandiae, an account of all plants then known from Australia
based chiefly on his own collections and those of Banks and Solander.
In this, the descriptions of many of the species discovered by Banks

SOME PIONEERS IN PLANT EXPLORATION AND CLASSIFICATION.

7

Text-fig. 1. — Map of Queensland showing the areas in which Brown, Leichhardt
(1843-4), Dallachy, and Bowman collected. Locality names are those not shown
on Text-figs. 2-4. The inset shows “ Carpentaria Islands a — e”; a, Sweers Island;
b, Bentinck Island ; c, Allen Island ; d, Bountiful Island ; and e, Pisonia Island.

and Solander were first published. The first of the two parts planned
was published in 1810, not later than the end of March, at Brown’s
own expense and in an edition of 250 copies. The work sold badly and
Brown was so disappointed that he would not go on with the second
part. There is a tradition that Brown’s action was prompted by an
adverse criticism of the Latin (in which the work is written) but there
seems to be no evidence for this story (Britten 1907). For the
Prodr omus “he found it necessary to choose whether to accept the con-
venient artificial system devised by Linnaeus and which held almost

8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

unquestionable sway in Britain, or to seek to discover the natural
affinities of plants and to base the classification upon these” (Asa Gray,
quoted by Maiden 1909). He chose the latter, basing his work on that
of Jussieu (1789) and “by his sense of the relative values of the different
parts of the plants for discriminating the genera and species, the exact-
ness of his descriptions, and his philosophic views of the affinities of
plants, he did more than anyone else to improve and establish the
natural system of plants. He was painfully careful for accuracy in all
his work” (Carruthers 1896). In an appendix to Flinders’s journal
(Flinders 1814) he gave the first published account of the relationships
of the Australian flora. I do not intend to enlarge on this or his well
known work on the Apocynaeeae and Asclepiadaceae, the Proteaceae
and other families, but I would like to recall that he discovered the
nucleus, the streaming of protoplasm, and the Brownian movement
known to physicists and chemists.

I would also like to recall the fact that Brown was the first to
attempt a natural classification of the grasses. Brown’s broad classifica-
tion set out in the Prodromus is essentially that which is most generally
accepted by modern agrostologists. The enormous increase in the sum
total of discovery, observation and experience in the past 140 years have
certainly resulted in many alterations and refinements in the classifica-
tion of the Gramineae, but it is remarkable how well Brown’s system
has stood the test. The descriptions in the Prodromus are brief, but
Brown had a genius for emphasizing the outstanding characters of a
family, genus, or species in a few carefully chosen words.

The collection of living plants made on the voyage round Australia,
together with the best set of his specimens from the south coast were lost
in the wreck of the Porpoise at Wreck Reef in August, 1803. But the
remainder of the dried specimens and at least some of the animals and
rocks and his later collections reached England safely. Little was done
with the zoological and geological material. A set of the plants was
placed in the Banksian Herbarium and some specimens were distributed.
Brown’s own herbarium and the Banksian Herbarium eventually
became part of the Herbarium of the British Museum of Natural
History. After Brown’s death many duplicates were distributed by
direction of J. J. Bennett from the British Museum of Natural History.
The specimens were apparently sorted according to species, not always
accurately, those of each supposed species being given the same serial
number no matter when and where they were collected, and distributed
in sets. I have also seen specimens distributed from the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Edinburgh, and in some Australian herbaria are specimens
with narroAV whitish labels written up by Daniel Oliver bearing only a
name determined from Bentham’s Flora Australiensis and usually
some locality name.

BENTHAM

George Bentham (1800-1884) went to Russia with his parents while
still a child and later lived in France. He began learning Latin before
he was five, and at seven could converse fluently in English, French,
German, and Russian ; shortly after he acquired a working knowledge of
Swedish in a few weeks, to which, in later life he added Hebrew and
Spanish. From his uncle Jeremy Bentham, the publicist, he early
acquired the love for methodical and logical analysis so conspicuous in
his writings. While on a caravan tour of France with his parents in

SOME PIONEERS IN PLANT EXPLORATION AND CLASSIFICATION.

9

1816, he became acquainted with de Candolle’s Flore FranQaise. He
became interested in the analytical table for identifying the plants,
tried it out and took up the study of the local flora as a diversion.

While on a visit to England in 1823 he made the acquaintance of
Banks, R. Brown, W. J. Hooker and other well known botanists of the
day, and from this period dates his permanent adherance to botany.
He commenced a life-long friendship with Brown and Hooker and later
with Hooker’s son, J. D. Hooker, who wrote an account of his work
(1898). In 1826 he returned to England for good, became secretary to
Jeremy Bentham, studied law, logic and jurisprudence and published
papers on these subjects. He became financially independent after the
death of his father in 1830 and from about 1832 onwards devoted him-
self entirely to botany. Many monographs and revisions as well as other
works were published in the next 22 years. In 1854, finding that the
cost of keeping up his herbarium and library was more than he could
afford, he presented them to the Royal Botanic Gardens at Ivew and
would have abandoned botany altogether but for the earnest persuasion
of his friends. W. J. Hooker, then in charge of Kew, persuaded him
to continue his work at that institution. From 1855 he spent five days
a week at Kew from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m., without a midday meal, and at
night wrote up the notes of his day’s work. ‘‘With such methodical
habits, with freedom from professional or administrative functions,
which consume the time of most botanists, with steady devotion to his
chosen work, and with nearly all authentic material land needful
appliances at hand or within reach, it is not surprising that he should
have undertaken and have so well accomplished such a vast amount
of work, and he has the crowning merit and happy fortune of having
completed all that he undertook” (A. Gray, quoted by Hooker, 1898).
During this period he wrote Flora Australiensis and, with J. D. Hooker,
Genera Plantarum, two classic works by which he is best known to
Australian botanists. Flora Australiensis is the first flora of any large
continental area to be finished. It consists of seven volumes containing
the descriptions of about 7,000 species. It was begun in 1861 and
finished in 1878. Bentham wrote this and his share of Genera Plantarum
(1862-83) with a single gold nib which broke shortly afterwards while
he was writing an autobiography; he died some months later. It is
not easy to exaggerate the importance of Flora Australiensis , and most
work since on the flora of Australia lias been based directly or indirectly
on it. Bentham worked out the classifications now used for Acacia,
Eucalyptus and several other especially difficult groups.

As he explained in his preface, he examined for the work the great
majority of specimens that had ever been collected in Australia. Here
and elsewhere (Bentham 1883) he made special mention of the specimens
and MS. notes of Banks and Solander and R. Brown and quoted a
large number of their collections, yet it has been stated more than once
(e.g. Britten 1906) that Bentham partly or entirely ignored these
collections ! He examined also the large collections in the National
Herbarium of Victoria, brought together by the activity and influence of
Ferdinand Mueller (later von Mueller). The great help he received
from this herbarium induced him to acknowledge Mueller’s assistance
on the title page. Because of this, Mueller has been treated as co-author
by some. But Bentham alone was reponsible for the descriptions and
opinions expressed (Bentham 1883), and he alone should be cited as
author. Mueller himself collected a large proportion of these specimens

10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

from many parts of Australia, and many were collected by others at his
suggestion, often at his expense. The labels of specimens collected by
local travellers or residents often carry locality names not always under-
stood by Mueller and often not to be found on the average map. In
many cases the collector’s rough label was preserved as well as a
herbarium label with Mueller’s name printed on it, and on this Mueller
wrote the name of the plant, the locality (often indicated by some
generalized term) and the collector’s name, the last often abbreviated
and sometimes omitted. Such labels were distributed with duplicate
specimens and it is not surprising that many localities have been
misquoted in works published overseas and the collector often quoted
as Mueller. For a number of years now I have been recording whatever
was written on the field labels to specimens collected by Leichhardt,
Dallachy and Bowman examined in the Melbourne Herbarium or
received on loan from that institution for my studies of various groups,
and I have searched Flora Australiensis and Mueller’s Fragmenta
(1858-82) for other localities. Some of these names are no longer in
use and the spelling of others has been modified, but references to early
maps and historical records and the known distribution of recorded
species have made it possible to map most localities that have been
mentioned (Text-figs. 2-4).

LEICHHARDT

Fredrich Wilhelm Ludwig Leichhardt (1813-1848) was born at
Trebalsch, Prussia, and arrived in Sydney in February 1842. He
travelled extensively in eastern Australia and became famous as an
explorer from his overland expedition from Sydney to Port Essington
in 1844-5, and his tragic attempt to cross Australia from east to west
in 1848. He collected plant specimens wherever he went and sent a large
number to Paris. His own herbarium was presented to the Sydney
Museum by his friend Robert Lynd and later sent to Melbourne to be
examined by Mueller at the latter’s request; only a few specimens
were returned to Sydney, and they are now in the National Herbarium
of New South Wales (Maiden 1908). Mueller first mentioned them in
the nineteenth fascicle of his Fragmenta published in July, 1862,
and it is reasonable to suppose that he received them shortly before this
date. Most specimens carry small field labels, often written in pencil,
giving the locality and date. Manj^ of those collected on the way to
Port Essington were lost before the journey was over, and whatever was
obtained on the last expedition perished with the party. The specimens
I have seen are chiefly from the neighbourhood of the Hunter River,
New South Wales, and south-eastern Queensland. The localities are
now difficult to interpret, especially those of the years 1842-4 which were
written in the style of “Mr. Archer’s Creek”, “Mr. Balfour’s
Sugarloaf”, etc. I have succeeded in placing most of these localities
by a comparison of dates, letters (Politzer 1944), published accounts
(Bracker 1927, Hall — , M ’Connell 1932, McConnell — , Meston

1895), early records of pastoral licenses from the New South
Wales Government Gazettes for 1841-4, and a posthumously
published geological work (Leichhardt 1855). He left “Mr.
Scott’s” (“Glendon”) on the Hunter River, N.S.W., in March,
1843, made his way north via New England and the Darling
Downs and was in Brisbane by June. The following localities named on
labels dated June or July are within the limits of the present city of
Brisbane : — Eagle Farm, Breakfast Creek, Norman Creek and Three
Mile Brush (now Bancroft Park). In July and early August he made

SOME PIONEERS IN PLANT EXPLORATION AND CLASSIFICATION

11

they are explained in the text.

12

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

his way to “Eale’s Station” (“Tiaro”) near Maryborough after crossing
the “Bunya Bunya” (Conondale Range, not the Bunya Mountains of
modern maps), possibly after he had established himself at “Archer’s
Station” (“Durundur” or sometimes written “Durandur”) which he
made his headquarters until the following February. He collected at
“McKenzie’s Station” (“Kilcoy”), “Balfour’s” (“ Colinton”),
“McConnell’s” (or M ’Connell’s) (“ Cressbrook”), “Bigge’s” (“Mt.
Brisbane”) and “Scott’s” (“Mt. Esk”) (to be distinguished from the
Scott of “Glendon”). He was on the Darling Downs in March having
collected at “Limestone” (Ipswich) on the 7th, “Mr. Wilson’s Lagoon”
(“Mt. Flinders” Station) on the 20th and “Mr. Bracker’s” (“Rosen-
thal”, near where the town of Warwick is now) on the 26th. (Text-
figs. 1 and 2).

He returned to Glendon in May 1844 by way of New England,
Apsley River, Gloucester and Stroud. It was found desirable to map
in the localities in New South Wales (see inset to Text-fig. 2), but for
these I have had to rely largely on Leichhardt ’s own account
(Leichhardt 1855) and have not always been able to identify them with
modern names.

Several spellings of some names have been found; some appear to
have been Leichhardt’s attempts to spell names he had only heard and
some are obvious typographic errors, but it is scarcely practicable to
list all these variations. A few are worthy of note. Nurrum Nurrum
(Narum, Mirum Mirum) is the modern Neurum (township, mountain
and creek). Tarampa Hill or Tarama Hill is Mount Tarampa. Biroa
(Beroa, Biron) is Beerwah, the highest of the Glasshouse Mountains.
Mt. Esk Station is not found on modern maps ; it was a little to the
north-west of the site of the present town of Esk. As already mentioned,
Bunya Bunya (or Bunya Bunya brush) is the Conondale Range;
Mueller wrote for this “Araucaria forests on the Dawson and Burnett
Rivers” or some similar phrase, and this was copied by Bentham.
Durval seems to be the modern Toorbul.

Where a township now exists close to a cattle or sheep station
visited by Leichhardt this is shown for preference on the map ; if the
name was not used by Leichhardt it is shown in parentheses. A few
localities visited in late 1844 on his journey to Port Essington are
marked ; those to the west and north can usually be found on a good
large scale map.

DALLACHY

John Dallachy ( 1820 (?) -1871) was born in the North of Scotland
and was a professional gardener before coming to Australia. In
1849, shortly after his arrival in this country, he was appointed
Superintendent of the Melbourne Botanic Gardens, but lost his position
to Ferdinand Mueller in 1857 (Maiden 1908A). Shortly after, he
became a collector of plants for Mueller, firstly in Victoria and south-
western New South Wales and then in Queensland, chiefly in the
neighbourhood of Cardwell. He died on 4th June, 1871, at “Vale of
Herbert” (“Herbert Vale”), about 18 miles south-west of Cardwell, on
the Herbert River.

Dallachy was a fruitful collector and his collections from north-
eastern Queensland did much to make known the rich flora of this
region (Text-figs. 1, 3 and 4). His collections are for the most part

SOME PIONEERS IN PLANT EXPLORATION AND CLASSIFICATION. 13

copious, and the specimens well selected, well preserved and carefully
annotated. Mueller described a large number of new species from his
collections and usually made use of Dallachy’s notes on the habit of
the plant. However, for the majority of plants sent from Cardwell,
the locality was cited merely as ‘ ‘ Rockingham Bay. ’ ’ This was the only
indications of locality ever entered on herbarium labels, and the
labels accompanying many of the duplicates distributed by Mueller to
European herbaria apparently did not even have the collector’s name,
if one may judge from the number of references to plants from
Rockingham Bay said to have been collected by Mueller that appear
in European publications. Mueller never collected anywhere near
Rockingham Bay. Some of the specimens cited from this locality came
from up to 220 miles away. From the examination of Dallachy ’s original
labels to specimens in the National Herbarium of Victoria, Melbourne,
I have been able to work out his movements after he left Victoria.

On his way from Melbourne to Cardwell, Dallachy collected about
Brisbane in December, 1862, in the neighbourhood of Rockhampton from
early January 1863 (at least from the 5th) to at least April 16th, in
the neighbourhood of Bowen from at least June 11th to at least
September 2nd. He visited Mt. Elliot in August and was at
Proserpine Creek and Mt. Mueller (Mt. Miller on modern maps) on
September 10th. He seems to have arrived in Cardwell towards the
end of the year, and this remained his headquarters until his death.

Text-fig. 3. — Map showing Dallachy’s collecting localities about Rockingham
Bay. The “ Sugar Plantation” was on the south bank of the Murray River, near
the letters “r” and “a”.

14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

In October, 1866, he went south to the Herbert and Stone Rivers and
to Stanley Plains near Townsville ( ? ) . He evidently met Thozet when
in Rockhampton, and some of his specimens are from Thozet Creek.
The locality for most specimens from this area is quoted in literature
as Rockhampton. His specimens from Bowen are labelled Queen’s Bay,
Edgecumbe Bay or Port Denison, most of them being written up by
Mueller as Port Denison, and commonly cited as such, but those from
Proserpine Creek and Mt. Mueller are quoted from “ Rockingham Bay”
(Text-fig. 4). Some of his collecting in this area was done in company
with Fitzalan, a pioneer resident of the recently formed settlement of
Bowen, who collected extensively in the area. While living at Cardwell,
Dallachy collected along the coastal belt from the northernmost point
of Rockingham Bay (Tam o’Shanter Point) south nearly to Townsville,
on the coastal ranges (Coast Range and Seaview Range, the former
apparently the Mount Elphinstone Range and Cardwell Range of
modern maps), Mt. Graham and Dalrymple Gap, and visited “Cash-
mere” and Lake Lucy on the western slope (Text-fig. 3) . Some specimens
were collected on the Mackay River and the Murray River, two small
streams flowing into Rockingham Bay north of Cardwell. There has
been confusion between this Murray River and the better known Murray
River forming the boundary between New South Wales and Victoria,
along which Dallachy had collected earlier in 1858. The Mackay
River is now known as the Tully River and has nothing to do with
the present town of Mackay, though I have been told that the Pioneer
River on which the latter stands was at one time known as the Mackay
River. Saltwater Creek is that part of Meunga Creek below its junction
with Kennedy Creek. There are at least three creeks in the district
called “Stony Creek” but the one where Dallachy collected is
almost certainly the tributary of the Herbert River, joining with the
latter near “Herbert Vale,” near the old track to the Valley of Lagoons
along which Dallachy collected. The Stone River, another collecting
area, is also a tributary of the Herbert. Glendalough (Rockingham
Bay), Mt. Buzzard (near Rockhampton) and Maria Island have not
been traced.

BOWMAN

Edward Macarthur Bowman (1826-1872) collected widely in
central-eastern Queensland, but I have found very little about the man
himself. His specimens are mostly small, with small slips of whitish
paper marked with a number and locality, very rarely with a date (from
1862 to 1871). The specimens were not numbered in simple sequence,
for the same number has been found given to sepcimens from different
localities or specimens of quite different genera. Many of them were
collected in the general neighbourhood of Rockhampton, but he collected
over a large part of the basins of the Fitzroy and Burdekin Rivers. His
localities (Text-figs. 1 and 4) are more difficult to place than Dallachy ’s
or Leichhardt’s because in several cases the same name has been applied
to two or three different features in the area and some names also apply
to much better known features in other parts of Queensland. His
Cooper’s Creek, for example, is a relatively small tributary of Nebo
Creek, one of the tributaries of the Isaacs River, not the well-known
stream of south-western Queensland and north-eastern South Australia.
Bowman’s Elliot River is certainly the one near Bowen, not the Elliott
(originally Elliot) River near Bundaberg. There is a place near the
mouth of the Burdekin River called “Gainsford” that is marked on some

SOME PIONEERS IN PLANT EXPLORATION AND CLASSIFICATION. 15

Text-fig. 4. — Map showing (1), Brown’s collecting localities in the neighbour-
hood of Keppel Bay, Shoalwater Bay and Broad Sound (marked with a cross) ;
(2), Dallachy’s collecting localities in the neighbourhood of Edgecumbe Bay and
of Rockhampton; and (3), Bowman’s collecting localities except for Moonie River
and Boondooma (see Text-fig. 2).

maps, but this name did not come into use until after Bowman’s death.
Near each “Gainsford” is a Herbert’s Creek and a King’s Creek,
frequently cited localities, and there is a third Herbert’s Creek flowing
into Broad Sound, another name that occurs on Bowman ’s labels. There
is a third Gainsford, also of later date, north-west of Charters Towers.
Neerkol Creek (near Rockhampton) is often cited as Nercool, Neercool
or Neerkool Creek. Midge Creek is now Midgee Creek and Wedge Creek
is possibly a misreading of the same name. Castlemount or Castle
Mount is now Castle Hill, at Townsville. Fort Cooper is now Nebo.
Moonie River is shown on the western edge of Text-fig. 2 and Boondooma
towards the north-western corner. Mulholland Creek has not been
traced. Herbert’s Creek is now Herbert Creek.

Text-fig. 4, especially the inset, also shows most of the localities
where P. O’Shanesy collected in the years 1867-76.

MAIDEN

Joseph Henry Maiden (1859-1925) was born in London and came
to Sydney in 1880. He helped to form the Technological Museum of
New South Wales in 1881 and was curator until 1896 when he became

16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Director of the Sydney Botanic Gardens and Government Botanist of
New South Wales. He founded the National Herbarium of New South
Wales.

He wrote on a wide variety of subjects and took considerable pains
with a series of papers on Australian botanists and botanical collectors,
some of which have been used in preparing part of this address. He
made a special study of the two great Australian genera Eucalyptus
and Acacia . The work on the latter genus appeared in various publica-
tions. In 1903 appeared the first of the seventy-five parts of A Critical
Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus. In this work, Maiden brought
together nearly everything that had been published on the genus, illus-
trating it with a vast number of excellent figures of types and other
specimens. The work is a mine of information for anybody interested
in these plants, but it offers little help, by itself, to anyone wishing to
classify a particular plant. Species or groups of species were dealt
with in no definite order, but rather as Maiden’s ideas on the groups
crystallized. No general classification, synopsis or key was provided.
Perhaps he died too soon (eleven parts were unpublished at the time of
his death), but so much in his writings suggests that such a task may
have been beyond his particular ability. His gathering together of
relevant literature, the number and excellence of the illustrations, his
activity in the field and the interest in the genus he inspired in others
have provided a broad foundation for the workers who came after him.
The title page of each volume of the Critical Revision carries a quotation
from Macaulay with which I would like to close :

“Ages are spent in collecting materials, ages more in separating
and combining them. Even when a system has been formed, there is
still something to add, to alter, or to reject. Every generation enjoys
the use of a vast hoard bequeathed to it by antiquity and transmits
that hoard, augmented by fresh acquisitions, to future ages. In these
pursuits, therefore, the first speculators lie under great disadvantages
and even when they fail, are entitled to praise.”

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Mr. J. L. Pring, Oxley Librarian, Brisbane, traced some of the
publications concerning Leichhardt. The Registrar-General’s Depart-
ment, Brisbane, provided the details concerning Dallachy that appear
on his death certificate. A great-grandson of Dallachy, Mr. P. G.
Skardon, Tully, provided some other details, and he and Mr. S. E.
Stephens, Cairns, helped in identifying some of the geographical names
in local use around Cardwell. Mr. D. F. Lilier and Mr. W. Gould helped
with some localities near Newcastle. Mr. W. L. Wegner, Survey Office,
Brisbane, allowed me to consult early maps and obtained information
concerning the dates of origin of some names. Associate Professor F. W.
Whitehouse lent me one of Leichhardt’s works.

SUMMARY

The first account of Australian plants was published by Dampier in
1703. May 1753 is the date of publication of Species Plantarum and
is the accepted starting point of modern nomenclature for most groups
of plants. The name of the species is formed of the name of the genus
followed by a specific epithet instead of the often long and cumbrous
descriptive phrase previously used ; the concept of the genus and generic

SOME PIONEERS IN PLANT EXPLORATION AND CLASSIFICATION.

17

name developed much earlier. The genus at first became the unit of
classification but nowadays the accent has shifted to the species.
Linnaeus devised an artificial system of classification of genera and
worked towards a natural system that was further elaborated by Jussieu
and stabilized by R. Brown. Brown visited a number of places along
the Australian coast in 1801-3 and explored extensively around Sydney,
the Hunter River and Tasmania. His localities in Queensland have been
mapped from his diary. Bentham is best known to Australian botanists
by his Flora Australiensis (1863-78) and (with J. D. Hooker) Genera
Plantarum. He was the first to propose comprehensive classifications
of many large families and genera. J. H. Maiden aroused great interest
in the genus Eucalyptus, on which he did a great deal of work. He
brought together most of what had been published in the excellently
illustrated A critical revision of the genus Eucalyptus, but did not offer
a key or comprehensive classification. Leichhardt, Bowman and Dallaehy
were important early collectors. Leichhardt collected in south-east
Queensland in 1843-4, Bowman in central eastern Queensland about
1862-71 and Dallaehy chiefly about Rockhampton, Bowen and
“Rockingham Bay'’ from 1863 to 1871. The collecting localities of
these three collectors are often difficult or impossible to find on modern
maps, but most of those found on labels or in published citations of
specimens have been located and mapped.

REFERENCES.

Bailey, F. M., 1913. A Comprehensive Catalogue of Queensland Plants. Brisbane.

Bauhin, C., 1623. Pina.x theatri botanici, etc. Basileae Helvet.

Bentham, G., 1863-1878. Flora Australiensis. 7 vols. London.

-, 1883. On the joint and separate work of the authors of Bentham

and Hooker’s Genera Plantarum. J. Linn. Soc., 20, 304-308.

Blake, S. T., 1949. The specimen, the species and the botanist. Aust. J. Sci., 11,.
119-123.

, 1953. Botanical contributions of the Northern Australia Regional

Survey. 1, Studies on Northern Australian species of Eucalyptus. Aust. J .
Bot., 1, 185-347.

Bracker, H., 1927. Harry Bracker’s reminiscences. Daily Mail (Brisbane), Jan.
1927.

Britten, J., 1900-5. Illustrations of Australian plants collected in 1770 during
Captain Cook’s Voyage. 3 vols. London.

— , 1906. Notices of books: George Bentham by B. D. Jackson. J. Bot.,

44, 397-401.

, 1907. Brown’s Prodromus. J. Bot., 45, 246-7.

Brown, R., 1810. Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae. London.

Bryk, F., 1953. Linne und die Species Plantarum. Taxon, 2, 63-73.

Cambage, R. H., 1929. Introduction to volume 7 of J. H. Maiden’s — A critical
revision of the genus Eucalyptus. Sydney.

Camp, W. H., and Gilly, C. G., 1943. The structure and origin of species.
Brittonia, 4, 323-385.

Carruthers, W., 1896. The Robert Brown Memorial. J. Bot., 34, 28-9.

B

18

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Dalrymple, G. E., 1874. Narrative and Reports of the Queensland North-East Coast
Expedition. Queensl. Parliamentary Paper in: Votes and Proceedings of
the Legislative Assembly during the session of 1874. Brisbane.

Dampier, W., 1703. A voyage to New Holland, etc. in the year 1699. Vol. 3.
London.

du Rietz, R. E., 1930. The fundamental units of biological taxonomy. Svensk Bot.
Tidskr. 24, 333-428.

Flinders, M., 1814. A voyage to Terra Australis .... in the years 1801, 1802 and
1803. 2 vols. London.

Gaertner, J., 1787. He fructibus et seminibus plantarum, etc. Vol. 1. St.utgardiae.

Hall, T., The early history of Warwick district and pioneers of the Darling

Downs. Privately published Toowoomba. No date, but between 1921 and
1927.

Haller, A. von, 1768. Stirpium indegenarum Helvetiae inchoata historia. Berniae.
Quoted from Svenson (1945).

Hooker, J. D., 1898. George Bentliam, F.R.S. Ann. Bot., 12, ix-xxx (pp. 1-22 in
reprint).

Jussieu, A. L. de, 1789. Genera plantarum secundum ordines naturales disposita,
etc. Parisiis.

Leichhardt, [F. W.] L., 1855. Beitrage zur Geologie von Australien von Ludwig
Leichhardt herausgegeben von Professor H. Girard. Halle.

Linnaeus, C., 1737. Critica Botanica; English translation by Hort, A. revised
by Green, M. L. (1938). Ray Society. London.

, 1737A. Genera Plantarum. Lugduni Batavorum.

, 1745. Flora Suecica, etc. Lugduni Batavorum. Quoted by Svenson

(1945).

, 1749. Amoenitates academicae, etc Holmiae.

- — , 1753. Species Plantarum. 2 vol. Holmiae.

, 1751. Philosophia Botanica, etc. Stoekholmiae. Quoted from

Svenson (1945).

Maiden, J. H., 1903-33. A Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus.

, 1908. Records of Australian Botanists (a) General, (b) New

South Wales. J. $ Proc. Boy. Soc. N.S.W., 42, 60-132.

, 1908A. Records of Victorian botanists. Viet. Nat., 25, 101-117.

— , 1909. Sir Joseph Banks, the father of Australia. Sydney.

, 1910. Records of Queensland Botanists. Bept. of 12 th Meeting,

A.A.A.S., Brisbane, 1909, 373-383.

M ’Connell, A. J., 1932. Cressbrook and Durundur. Brisbane Courier, 23rd January,
1932.

McConnell, Mrs. D., . Memories of days long gone by. Without date. Privately

printed between 1905 and 1909.

Meston, A., 1895. Geographic history of Queensland. Brisbane.

Mueller, F., (von), 1858-82. Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae. 12 vols.
Melbourne.

Politzer, L. L., 1944. Dr. Ludwig Leichhardt’s letters from Australia . . . .
translated by L. L. Politzer. Melbourne.

Ray, J., 1703. Metliodus Plantarum nova .... emendata et aucta. Londini.

Robinson, B. L., 1906. Science, n.s., 28, 81-92.

SOME PIONEERS IN PLANT EXPLORATION AND CLASSIFICATION. 19

Svenson, IT. K., 1945. On the descriptive method of Linnaeus. Khodova , 47t
273-302, 363-388. (Brooklyn Bot. Gdn. Contrib. No. 103).

Tournefort, J. P. de, 1694. Clemens de botanique, ou methode pour connoltre les
plantes. 3 vols. Paris.

, 1700. Institutiones rei herbariae. Paris.

Turrill, W. B., 1942. Taxonomy and pliylogeny. Bot. Rev., 8, 247-270, 473-532,
655-707.

Uggla, A. Hj., 1953. The preparation of the Species Plantarum. Taxon, 2, 60-62.

Vol. LXVI., No. 2.

IXODES CORDIFER NEUMANN 1908
(IXODIDES : ACARINA)

21

A DESCRIPTION OF THE FEMALE AND A
REDESCRIPTION OF THE MALE.

(With two Text-figures.)

By F. H. S. Roberts.*

( Received 8th June, 1954; issued separately, 5th September, 1955.)

Several ticks sent from Papua to Mr. P. J. O’Sullivan, Parasit-
ologist, Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly, for identification have
proved to be Ixodes cordifer Neumann. Neumann’s description of this
species was based on a single male taken from an unknown host at
Sekroe, Dutch New Guinea. The species is included by Nuttall et al.
(1911) in their revision of the genus Ixodes, by Krijgsman and Ponto
(1932) in their paper on ticks occurring in the East Indian Archipelago,
and by Fielding (1926) and Taylor (1946) in their respective papers
on Australasian ticks. None of these workers examined specimens,
and their descriptions were based on Neumann’s original work.

The material now available consists of three males and eleven
females, and as it would seem that the species has not been collected
since Neumann described the male in 1908, a description of the female
and a redescription of the male are provided.

Ixodes cordifer Neumann.

Ixodes cordifer Neumann, 1908, p. 73, fig. 1 ; Nuttall et al, 1911,
p. 233, fig. 229 ; Fielding, 1926, p. 48, fig. 16 ; Krijgsman and Ponto,
1932, p. 28, fig. 45; Taylor, p. 47, fig. 49.

Male, Figure 1, a-d.

Diagnosis. Oval, of medium size, with distinct marginal fold post-
eriorly only; scutum with fine, mainly marginal, punctations and with
linear and inconspicuous lateral carinae ; palps short and broad, hypo-
stome dentition 2/2; venter with median plate broadest posteriorly, the
anal plate cordate and pointed behind; coxae I-III each with two spurs,
the internal spur not conspicuous; coxa IV with a single, pointed spur;
trochanters each with a single spur, best developed on trochanter IV.

Description. Body 2. 6-2. 8 mm. by 1. 9-2.0 mm. ; yellowish, darker
along margins of scutum, oval, widest in region of spiracles and
approximtately three to four times as wide as the emargination.

Scutum yellowish and covering almost all dorsum, with scattered,
fine, minute hairs ; a broad, smooth depression on each side extending for
one half to two thirds of the scutal length, limited laterally by the

* Division of Animal Health and Production, O.S.I.P.O.? Veterinary Parasit-
ology Laboratory, Yeerongpilly.

C

22 PROCEEDINGS OF TP[E ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

lateral carinae which are short, linear and not very distinct; emargina-
tion moderate, scapulae bluntly pointed ; pnnctations fine, few
medianly, but numerous along margins of scutum, particularly between
the lateral carinae and lateral margins.; cervical grooves short, con-
vergent, superficial; marginal fold distinct posteriorly only.

Capitulum 0.6-0.64 mm. in length; width at posterior border of
basis capituli 0.36-0.43 mm. ; basis dorsally finely punctate, pentagonal,
the posterior border straight and without cornua ; auriculae absent ;
palpi 0.5 mm. long, article 1 transverse, articles 2 and 3 apparently
fused, constricted at base and broad dorsally attaining a width of
about half the length; hypostome 0.30 mm. long, dentition 2/2 with
four or five rows of broad, rounded teeth, the posterior rows very
shallow and ridge-like.

Text fig. 1. Ixodes cordifer (male), a, scutum, the dotted lines enclose the
depressed areas; h, venter; c, capitulum (dorsal view); d, spiracular
plate. The straight lines each represent 0.5 mm.

Venter concave, with scattered, pale, short hairs, most conspicuous
near spiracles ; genital oriface broad, between coxae II ; pregenital plate
broader than long; median plate 1.4 mm. long, broadest posteriorly
(1.07 mm.) where it is three times the width anteriorly; adanal plates
slightly concave anteriorly, curved posteriorly to fuse behind the point
of the anal plate, the posterior border wider than the anterior border;
anal plate somewhat cordiform, as board as long (0.53 by 0.53 mm.)
and pointed posteriorly, the anterior margin straight or slightly convex.

Spiracular plate oval, longer than broad, 0.5 mm. by 0.22 mm.

IXODES CORDIFER NEUMANN 1908 (iXODIDES: ACARINA). 23

Legs yellow and of moderate length ; coxae broad, flat and contigu-
ous or almost so with a few long hairs on the posterior borders ;
coxae I-III with a medium sized spur at the postero-external angle and
a shallow inconspicuous spur at the postero-internal angle, both spurs
most prominent on coxa I ; coxa IV with a single conspicuous, pointed
spur ; trochanters I-IV each with a single spur, difficult to detect on
trochanter I and increasing in size posteriorly ; tarsi 0.68-0.72 mm.
long, tapering somewhat abruptly; pulvillus not quite as long as claw.

Female, Figure 2, a-d.

Diagnosis. Of medium size, partially engorged specimens being
very broad anteriorly, narrowing suddenly in width in region of
spiracles ; marginal fold visible only laterally and disappearing on
engorgement; scutum longer than broad, with well developed lateral
carinae ; basis capituli pentagonal with three longitudinal ridges
dorsally and ventrally; porose areas oval, inconspicuous; palpi elongate;
an elongate, triangular depression anterior to the genital opening; anal
grooves broadly pyriform and meeting behind anus; coxae with longi-
tudinal ridges and a single moderate-sized spur at the postero-external
angle.

Description. Body of unfed specimens, yellowish, oval, 3.2 mm. by
2.3 mm., widest in region of spiracles; partly engorged specimens
greyish, very Avide anteriorly and narrowing suddenly immediately
anterior to spiracles ; engorged specimens reddish, 11.2 mm. by 8.6 mm.,
elongate, o\ral, about equally thick at both ends; body hairs sparse,
minute and pale; marginal groove deep and conspicuous in unfed
specimens, but not attaining the posterior margin of body and dis-
appearing on engorgement; lateral and median grooves well developed
in engorged specimens.

Scutum yellow, with darker lateral margins, 2. 3-2. 5 mm. by
1. 8-2.0 mm., longer than broad, broadest at about its middle, flat
medianly and convex laterally, antero-lateral margins slightly sinuous,
postero-lateral margins slightly convex ; scapulae rounded, the emargina-
tion shallow ; punctations fine, few medianly, distributed mainly around
margins, most numerous and slightly coarser external to the lateral
carinae ; lateral carinae prominent, not quite attaining the postero-
lateral margins ; cervical grooves, short, convergent and superficial.

Capitulum length 1.1-1. 3 mm.; Avidth at posterior border of basis
capituli 0.53 mm. ; basis capituli pentagonal, posterior border concave,
Avith a prominent lateral ridge dorsally on each side, extending from
the postero-lateral angle to base of hypostome and making the postero-
lateral angles prominent ; a less prominent median ridge extending for-
ward betAveen the porose area for about half the length of the basis
capituli ; similar ridges ventrally, lateral ridges highly developed
posteriorly, median ridge longer than its dorsal counterpart; porose

24

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

areas oval, of moderate size, shallow and inconspicuous, the interval
slightly less than their width; palpi 0. 9-1.1 mm. long, projecting slightly
beyond tip of hypostome, article 1 transverse, articles 2 and 3
apparently fused, elongate, widest medianly; hypostome somewhat
lanceolate, dentition 3/3 and 2/2, the inner file of 16 to 18 minute
teeth disappearing posteriorly; middle and outer files of eight or nine
teeth, the outer file most developed and composed of large, pointed
teeth.

Text fig. 2. Ixodes cordifer (female), a, scutum; b, venter of semi-engorged
specimen; c, capitulum (dorsal view) ; d, spiracular plate. The straight
lines each represent 0.5 mm.

Venter with genital opening posterior to coxa IV, preceded by an
elongate, triangular depression; genital groove conspicuous, very deep
for a short distance below genital oriface where it may form deep,
circular cavities on each side ; anal groove broadly pyriform and
meeting at a point behind the anus ; body hairs sparse, pale, minute,
most conspicuous in unfed specimens near the spiracles.

Spiracular plate broadly ovoid, and broader than long, 0.43 by
0.50 mm.

Legs yellow and of median length ; coxae contiguous in unfed
specimens but becoming slightly separated as engorgement proceeds;
coxa I with two prominent longitudinal ridges; coxae II to IV each
with one similar ridge less prominent on coxa IV ; a single, conspicuous,
medium sized spur at the postero-external angle decreasing in size
posteriorly; tarsi as in male.

IXODES CORDIFER NEUMANN 1908 (iXODIDES: ACARINA). 25

Material examined and described.

Papua : Sogeri, 10-XI-51, 1 $ 4 $ , J. Barrett ; Sogeri, 28-XI-51,
1 $ 4 $ , J. Barrett; Sogeri, 7-XII-51, 1 $ 3 2 , J. Barrett. All speci-
mens were collected from “ wallabies”.

Little is known of the ticks occurring in New Guinea. Twelve
species have been recorded (Nuttall et al 1908, 1911, 1915, 1916;
Robinson 1926; Krijgsman and Ponto 1932) including two species of
Ixodes , namely I. eichhorni Nuttall and I. cordifer Neumann. The
latter is distinctive, and among the Australasian species appears closest
to I. holocyclus Neumann. There is no danger of confusing the two
species, however; the males may be readily separated by differences in
the anal groove, coxal armature, marginal fold and lateral carinae,
and the females by differences in the marginal fold, the auriculae,
the longitudinal ridges on the basis capituli and the number and disposal
of the teeth on the hypostome.

REFERENCES.

Fielding, J. W., 1926. Australian ticks. Commonw. Aust. Dept. Hlth. Serv. Publ.
(Trop. Div.) No. 9, 114 pp.

Krijgsman, B. J. and Ponto, S. H. S., 1932. De teken van der Oost-Indischen
Archip. Veeartsenijkundige Mededeelingen, Batavia, No. 79, 62 pp.

Neumann, L. G., 1908. Notes sur les Ixodides. VII. Notes from the Leyden
Museum, 30, 73.

Nuttall, G. H. F., Warburton, C., Cooper, W. F., and Robinson, L. E., 1911.
Ticks. A Monograph of the Ixodoidea. Pt. II., pp. 105-348.

Taylor, F. H., 1946. Spiders, ticks and mites, including the species harmful to
man in Australia and New Guinea. Section I. Descriptive. Commonw.
Aust., Dept. Hlth. Serv. Publ. (School Publ. Hlth. Trop. Med.) No. 6,
pp. 1-234.

27

Vol. LX VI., No. 3.

SPHERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES,

PART III.*

By W. H. Bryan, Department of Geology, University of Queensland.

(With three Plates and one Text-figure.)

( Received 8th June , 1954; issued separately , 5 th September, 1955.)

VI. APPLE-SHAPED SPHERULITES FROM CAPE

HILLSBOROUGH.

1. Description.

The spherulites now to be described consist of material collected
by Mr. J. H. Williams of Mackay. They were obtained some ten years
ago in somewhat rugged country near Cape Hillsborough, on the Queens-
land coast, 600 miles north-west of Brisbane and about 20 miles north-
north-west of the city of Mackay. Only two hand-specimens were
collected at the time, and subsequent visits to the area by Mr. Williams
and by my colleague Professor F. W. Whitehouse have failed to re-
discover the outcrop, so that the field occurrence unfortunately is not
known.

The specimen described (Plate I.) is a grey perlitic glass con-
taining very numerous closely set, and virtually identical white
spherulites, each about 2 mm. in diameter. The spherulites are sharply
delimited from the glass and the slightest touch is sufficient to free them,
leaving behind clearly defined concavities in the perlite. The peculiar
interest of these spherulites lies in the combination of three very unusual
features, namely the strange individual pattern, the constancy with
which all the spherulites adhere to that pattern, and the strongly
marked orientation common to all of them.

The individual pattern is as distinctive as it is rare. Indeed, in
my personal experience it is unique, yet this pattern is common to
every one of the hundreds of individuals present. To make the specimen
even more unusual, the spherulites are arranged in strictly parallel
formation. They are as uniform as a carefully packed box of apples.
Indeed, the fact that each spherulite has two dimples exactly opposite
each other strengthens the simile. But for purposes of reference in the
description that follows, it will be better to change the simile and
compare each spherulite with a terrestrial globe in which the
depressions occupy the polar positions, the different sections through
the spherulite being referred to as equatorial, meridional, etc.

Viewed along the polar axis, the profile of each spherulite is
almost circular, but viewed at right angles to the polar axis each
spherulite has the silhouette of a rectangle with rounded corners. In
thin section, they exhibit the following features. The equatorial sections

* For parts I. and II. of this series see Bryan (1940, 1954).

D

2b

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

a b. a

Meridional sections A, B, C and corresponding equatorial sections a, b, c
showing three stages in the development of an apple-shaped spherulite.

show a central circular mass of radial spherulitic tissue about 1.5 mm.
in diameter, around which is a concentric zone of later spherulitic
growth about 0.3 mm. in width. The discontinuity in structure between
the primary and secondary growth is clearly shown, especially as there
is a tendency for rupture to occur along the junction during the
preparation of microslides. In some cases it can be seen that the
secondary zone itself consists of an inner and an outer ring.

Meridional sections are very different, each having a somewhat
spool-like appearance. The central, primary development in such
sections is again well-defined, but instead of being circular in section
they are slightly elliptical with some polar flattening. In many slides,
traces of a thin integument are seen to be attached to the central mass,
only in the flattened polar areas, from which they extend outwards
to form two projecting, umbrella-like membranes.

The secondary growth, too, in meridional sections, is divisible into
two parts, an inner ring immediately around the primary spherulite
and within the projecting membranes, and an outer region which not
only completely covers the inner zone, but extends around the outer
edges of the membranes to cover parts of them externally. As a result,
only the polar areas of the central spherulite remain uncovered by
secondary growths and thus form the dimples which especially
characterise these spherulites.

SPHERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES.

29

Some individual spherulites show that small hemispherical growths
have established themselves within the dimples, partially tilling them.
These exceptional cases provide the only notable departure from an
otherwise striking uniformity.

2. Sequence of Events.

The observations outlined indicate the following sequence of events
in the production of each of these very unusual spherulites :

1. Development of normal spherulite by radial growth.

2. Formation of enclosing integument on completion of growth.

3. Conversion of each sphere into a slightly oblate spheroid with, as a

consequence, equatorial rupture of the integument and outward
displacement of its two torn halves.

4. Supplementary spherulitic growth of first phase about the distal

ends of the primary spherulitic fibres exposed by the rupture.

5. Supplementary spherulitic growth of second phase, beyond that of

the first phase and around the projecting edges of the integument.

6. Formation of interstitial perlitic glass.

As the first and second items in this sequence are normal, there is
every reason to believe that, if undisturbed, no further spherulitic
crystallization would have occurred.

It would seem that the third event, although of critical importance,
was accidental in character. The fact that all the spherulites were
changed in the same way suggests that they were all affected by the same
force at the same time. The fact too, that the spherulites, although all
distorted, have the same orientation, indicates that the force was external
in origin and unidirectional in character. This in turn indicates that
the containing medium must have been sufficiently viscous to transmit
a linear compression, possibly of short duration. The effect of this
episode on each individual spherulite was similar to that produced on
a spherical thin-shelled nut compressed by a pair of nutcrackers,
involving as it did compression of the polar axis and complementary
ring-tension about the equator. How the operating force was produced
is not clear, but it may have been brought about by the suddenly
imposed weight of a later flow on top of the stiff lava containing the
spherulites.

The fourth event, which probably followed the third very closely,
was the reintroduction of conditions favourable to spherulitic crystal-
lization. This would be caused, in part at least, by some change in the
interstitial material, the only possible source of supply for the new
crystals. It is reasonable to suppose that the necessary change may
have been brought about by a small rise in temperature. Such a rise may
have been produced by heat derived from the cover of a new lava flow.

But the change in the interstitial mass, whatever its nature, was
not sufficient to bring about a renewal of spherulitic growth, for no
new centres of crystallization were initiated. Indeed, the conditions for
renewed growth were most exclusive. Not only were they restricted to
the immediate neighbourhood of the spherulites, but they were confined
In the lower latitudes of these bodies.

30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The special environmental conditions which were peculiar to these
favoured areas of renewed crystallization are worthy of especial atten-
tion.

1. The free distal ends of the original sphernlitic fibres exposed by
the rupture of the enclosing integument were in direct and immediate
contact with the interstitial viscous lava.

2. These were the regions of least pressure when the spherulites
underwent linear compression.

3. These were regions confined within the displaced integument
as distinct from the polar regions.

The first of these conditions may well have been sufficient in itself
to explain the resumption of spherulitic crystallization in the equatorial
regions, but some added impetus may have been given by the second
factor in terms of Soret’s principle. That the third condition may
also have been of some importance is suggested by the fact that this
early phase of the supplementary growth did not- extend beyond the
margins of the partially detached integument, the two portions of
which appear to have acted as protective shields, within which crystal-
lization was able to proceed.

The fifth episode followed after a brief pause during which there
may have been a slight rise in temperature. The fibres of this later
supplementary spherulitic growth were, in turn, based upon the distal
ends of those produced during the earlier phase. This extension spread
outwards and polewards until it reached and turned the outer edges
of the protective shields. It is noteworthy and significant that even
after these had been turned there was no spherulitic growth based
directly upon the integument, the nearest fibres lying lengthwise upon
its surface and parallel to it.

This was the last event in which every spherulite took part,
although some individuals show a still later supplementary growth
within each polar depression.

The sixth event, with which the sequence concludes, was the final
consolidation of the interstitial perlitic glass.

3. Conclusions.

If the observations recorded are accurate and the reasoning sound,

certain conclusions of a more general character may be stated:

1. After spherulitic crystallization has ceased in a viscous lava, a
sudden change in conditions may bring about a renewal of such
growth.

2. The renewal of spherulitic crystallization may take place even if
the lava is then so stiff as to be able to transmit unidirectional
compression.

3. But under such extreme conditions the renewed growth is restricted
to the exposed spherulitic tissue of an earlier generation.

SPHERULITES AND ALLIED STRUCTURES.

31

REFERENCES.

Bryan, W. H., (1934). Some Spherulitic Growths from Queensland. Geol. Mag.,
71, 167-175.

— (1940.) Spherulites and Allied Structures, Part I. Proc. R. Hoc.

Qd., 52, 41-53.

(1954). Spherulites and Allied Structures, Part TT. Proc. R.

Soc. Qd., 65, 51-69.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate I.

Figure 1. — Photograph of group of spherulites, showing polar depressions. x3.
Figure 2. — Photograph of part of specimen on which paper is based, viewed at
right angles to the polar axes of the spherulites. xl.5.

Plate II.

Figure 1. — Photograph of a typical individual, as viewed along polar axis. x20.
Figure 2. — Microphotograph of a nearly equatorial section of a similar individual.
Crossed nicols. x20.

Figure 3. — Microphotograph of a meridional section of an individual spherulite.
Crossed nicols. x20.

Plate III.

Figure 1. — Microphotograph of meridional section of two closely appressed
individuals. Crossed nicols. x20.

Figure 2.- — Microphotograph of nearly equatorial section of two fused individuals.
Crossed nicols. x24.

Pkoc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LXVI, No. 3

Plate L

2

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q ’land, Yol. LXVL No. 3.

Plate II.

3

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q.’land, Yol. LXVI. No. 3

Plate III,

1

2

■,4 .

’*s

•V

.,;4

m

33

Vol. LXVI., No. 4.

A PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF THE
PETROLOGY OF THE CLONCURRY
MINERAL FIELD.

By Germaine A. Joplin, Department of Geophysics, Australian
National University, Canberra.

(With thirteen Text-figures.)

( Received 1st September, 1954; issued separately, 5 th September, 1955.)

CONTENTS.

I. Introduction.

II. Definitions.

III. The Age of the Granites.

IV. Types of Metamorphism.

V. The Older Metamorphic Complex.

VI. The Lower Proterozoic Succession.

1. The Country Rocks and Their Metamorphism.

( a ) Aluminous and Siliceous Rocks.

( b ) Calcareous and Calcsilicate Rocks.

(c) Acid Lavas.

( d ) Basic Lavas and Intrusives.

2. The Intrusive Rocks.

(< a ) The Albitites, Soda Granites and their Hybrids.

( b ) The Granites.

(i.) The Porphyritic Granites.

Their Xenoliths and Hybrids.

(ii.) The Microgranites.

Their Xenoliths and Hybrids.

(iii.) The Pegmatites.

VII. Types of Batholith.

VIII. Origin of the Granites.

IX. Tectonic, Magmatic, and Metamorphic History of the Area.

X. Summary and Conclusions.

XI. References,
e

34

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

I. INTRODUCTION.

The Cloncurry mineral field covers an area of approximately 35,000
square miles and occupies a region in north-west Queensland which
includes the mining towns of Mount Isa on the west and Cloncurry on
the east. A reconnaissance survey of the regional geology of this area is
being undertaken by the Commonwealth Bureau of Mineral Resources,
Geology and Geophysics, and in order not to anticipate work which will
appear shortly in their Bulletin, the present paper is confined to a
descriptive account of the main rock-types occurring within the area,
and to the different metamorphic agencies affecting them. A brief
summary of the tectonic and metamorphic history is included, and it
is hoped that certain sections of the work may be studied later in greater
detail.

The writer would like to thank Dr. N. H. Fisher, Chief Geologist
of the Bureau, for allowing her to do this work in conjunction with the
regional survey, and for making available camping and transport facil-
ities. She also gratefully acknowledges the help of a number of the
Bureau field officers, in particular that of Messrs. E. K. Carter and
K. A. Townley. Mount Isa Mines Ltd. generously supplied information
and a number of unpublished partial analyses, which are acknowledged
with thanks. Apart from making several complete analyses, which are
acknowledged elsewhere, Miss J. K. Burnett has determined several
minor constituents in a number of analyses made by the writer and by
B. E. Williams.

II. DEFINITIONS.

In an earlier paper (Joplin, 1952) it was pointed out that some
confusion exists with regard to the use of some petrological terms, and
that at times granitization appears to be used synonymously with con-
tamination or with hybridization. In the present paper the term gran-
itization is applied only when a small volume of magmatic fluid has
converted a large volume of solid rock into a granite. If, on the other
hand, a large quantity of liquid or semi-liquid magma appears to have
assimilated a smaller volume of solid rock, then either the term
hybridization or contamination is used. Following the original usages
of these terms (Harker, 1904; Read, 1923) hybridization is reserved
for the process when the incorporated material is of igneous origin, and
contamination when it is of sedimentary origin.

In recent publications (Misch, 1949, a, b, c; Goodspeed, 1953) the
terms synkinematic and static granitization are employed. Synkinematic
granitization refers to a type which accompanies folding, is associated
with regional metamorphism and takes place on a regional scale, whereas
static granitization is not associated with folding and is not accompanied
by regional metamorphism. Misch claims that this also takes place on
a regional scale, but to the present writer his descriptions and
Goodspeed’s figures of replacement breccias, suggest a type of alteration
which commonly occurs on the roof and walls of a batholith and passes
inwards to a zone crowded with de-orientated xenoliths. This zone,
according to the above definition, is a zone of either hybridization or
contamination. If this interpretation of Misch ’s meaning is correct,
then it would appear that static granitization is developed only locally
about an igneous body, though in places it may appear to be of regional

PETROLOGY OF CLONCURRY MINERAL FIELD.

35

extent where a large body is only partly unroofed and this zone is
exposed over a wide area. In the present paper the term static granit-
ization is used in this sense.

III. AGE OF THE GRANITES.

Below it is shown that small masses of granite are associated with
high grade rocks which are believed to be part of the basement upon
which the Lower Proterozoic succession was laid down. Most of the
granites, however, invade the Lower Proterozoic rocks, and among
them two types may be recognized — a coarse porphyritic granite and a
fairly even-grained microgranite. The porphyritic granite is the
predominating type west of the Dugald River, and the microgranite
to the east of the river. Small masses of the line granite invade the
coarse porphyritic type and it is obviously the younger, although
chemical and mineralogical work suggest that the granites are of one
age, the microgranite merely representing a later phase.

Locality map of Cloncurry mining field showing main areas of Proterozoic
granite referred to in this paper. Boundaries are only approximate.

36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

The areas occupied by these Proterozoic granites are roughly
delineated in Figure 1. The map is based on previously published work,
but some slight modifications have been made by the writer in certain
areas with which she is familiar. It will serve as a locality map for the
present paper, but it is hoped that soon it will be superseded by the
publication of the maps in the Bureau memoir.

IV. TYPES OF METAMORPHISM.

As the country under consideration covers a very wide area, detailed
mapping is impossible in a reconnaissance survey. Extensive collections
have been made, however, and specimens pin-pointed on aerial-photo-
graphs on a scale of 1-J" to a mile. In preparing this paper about 320
microslides have been examined in some detail.

Small areas of high-grade rocks believed to be parts of the base-
ment, are briefly described, but this study is concerned mainly with the
metamorphism of the Lower Proterozoic rocks, and with the granites
that invade them. The Lower Proterozoic rocks west and south-west of
Mount Isa attain a metamorphism no higher than the biotite-zone of
regional metamorphism, and many of them are in the chlorite-zone. In
these low-grades the rocks are mainly psammites, pelites and basalts.
On the eastern margin of the batholith west of Mount Isa, however,
these rocks are heavily greisenized and it is difficult to say what zone
they may have attained before pneumatolysis, though there is nothing
to indicate a high-grade. Near Soldiers Cap, garnet, cyanite and
staurolite schists occur in a pelitic sequence and on the Dugald River,
about 125 miles north-east of Mount Isa, pelites contain sillimanite
together with cyanite.

The area has been heavily faulted and Bureau officers have shown
that the major faults are pre-granite in age. Retrograde effects caused
by faulting are, therefore, superimposed upon regionally metamorphosed
but not upon contact altered rocks.

Many of the unstressed granites are surrounded by aureoles of
contact metamorphism and effects may be thermal, hydrothermal or
pneumatolytic. The last also occurs on the margin of the stressed granite
west of Mount Isa where the rocks are greisenized and where tourmaline,
fluorite and topaz have been introduced. In the exogenous contact-zones
where the original rocks were basalts and impure limestones, pyroxene
and calc-silicate hornfelses occur, and cordierite and quartz-mica
hornfelses where pelite and arkoses are affected. On the Leichhardt
River, a sequence of acid lavas have been recrj^stallized and some of
these, together with arkoses west of Mount Isa, have suffered a static
granitization.

As indicated by Edwards and Baker (1954) scapolitization has
occurred in rocks of appropriate composition, though they do not
attribute the origin of the scapolite-forming solutions to the granite.

In the Lower Proterozoic succession these five types of
metamorphism have affected four groups of rocks which are described
in some detail below. For convenience, the metamorphism of these is
summarized in Table I.

PETROLOGY OF CLONCURRY MINERAL FIELD.

37

TABLE I.

Type of
Metamorphism.

Aluminous and
Siliceous Rocks.

Calcareous Rocks.

Acid Lavas.

Basic Lavas and
Intrusives.

Regional

Metamorphism

Chlorite- and

Quartz-chlorite
Schists

Chloritic Marbles

Uralitized Gabbro,
Blastophitic
Dolerite

Biotite Schists . .

Dacites with horn-
blende pseudo-
morphed by

biotite

Amphibolites and
Hornblende-
biotite Schists

Garnet-, Cyanite-
and Staurolite-
Schists (with or
without Andalus-
ite)

Cyanite - Schists
with Sillimanite

Pyroxene-, Horn-
blende-pyroxene ,
and Biotite-

scapolite Granu-
lites

Pyroxene- and

Hornblende-
pyroxene Schists
and Gneisses

Retrograde (Dis-

location) Meta-
morphism

Silicifled Slates

with cataclastic
structures

Tremolite Rock

Lavas with cata-
clastic structures

Chlorite-amphibo-
lites and

Chlorite-Schists

Thermal (Contact)
Metamorphism

Cordierite quart z-
Hornfelses, and
Quartz - mus-
covite Rocks

(Arkose)

Diopside-plagio-
clase Hornfelses
(Class 7) Diop-
side - garnet-
plagioclase Hom-
felses (Class 8)

Recrystallized
Rhyolites and
Dacites

Pyroxene Horn-
felses and

Recrystallized
Dolerites

Metasomatism

Greisenization with
addition of

tourmaline,
fluorite and

topaz

Scapolitization*

Formation of

Biotitites

Magmatic Addition

Static granitiza-
tion of Arkoses

Static granitiza-
tion of Rhyolites
and Dacites

Acidification of

basic xenoliths

* The metasomatism of the aluminous and, calcareous rocks is not necessarily contemporaneous.

38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Y. THE OLDER METAMORPHIC COMPLEX.

A few yards west of the Mountlsa-Dajarra Road, at a distance
of 6J miles north-west of the Snlieman Bore, a knotted, greenish rock
is overlain by flat-dipping sandy schists, which show little alteration
except at their immediate contact with the porphyritic granite further
west. The knotted rocks are cordierite-andalusite-sillimanite gneisses
and their origin and stratigraphical position are matters for speculation.
In these rocks, xenoblasts of cordierite measure up to 1 cm., and contain
numerous inclusions of biotite, quartz, tourmaline, rutile and zircon.
The zircons are surrounded by a characteristic yellow halo and the
cordierite is altered to sericite and pinite along cracks and cleavage
planes. In places subidioblastic columnar crystals (0*6 mm. ) of andalusite
are intergrown with cordierite. Biotite is pale reddish brown and shows
alteration to sillimanite. Brown idioblasts of rutile are numerous and
relatively large, and small crystals of a black metallic mineral have not
yet been identified.

In the vicinity of Gap Bore another metamorphic unconformity
appears. The Lower Proterozoic rocks nearby are in a low grade of
regional metamorphism and are invaded by the porphyritic granite,
the foliation of which is approximately north-south. Near Yaringa
Creek, however, small areas of schist, granitized schist and granite are
exposed and these show a marked east-west directional structure. The
granite is very variable, some outcrops being even-grained and others
slightly porphyritic. Phenocrysts are scarce and very sporadic in their
distribution even within a single outcrop. The granite is intimately
associated with psammopelites, and lit-par-lit injection is present in
places. Xenoliths are not common, but in places almost completely
granitized shadowy fragments may contain porphvroblasts of felspar
up to 25 mm. in length. An aplitic type of granite also occurs, and it is
intersected by small dykes and veins of pegmatite. One such vein
appears to be folded with the granite. When much contaminated by
schist, the granite is dark in colour and in hand specimen resembles a
mica diorite.

Some of the related schists are very coarse and almost gneissic
with bands of biotite and muscovite alternating with bands rich in
cordierite and quartz; others contain augen up to 1.5 mm. which consist
of a mosaic of quartz and biotite, and these are set in a finer mosaic of
quartz, muscovite and biotite with a false cleavage. Some rocks show
seams of iron ores transgressing the schistosity and suggesting an
original banding.

Most of the granites contain subidiomorphic phenocrysts of plagio-
clase (about 4 mm.) with inclusions of microcline, and in some, small
phenocrysts of microcline also occur. The groundmass consists of a
mosaic of quartz, felspar and biotite and the biotite may be intergrown
with iron ore and contain inclusions of apatite. One granite contains a
little pinitized cordierite, and a yellow isotropic material which is
mantled by epidote, may be allanite.

Further to the north-east, at the head of Mica Creek, a coarse
cordierite schist has been greisenized at the margin of the later
porphyritic granite. It contains large (6 mm.) ellipsoids of cordierite,
crowded with inclusions in a granoblastic mosaic of quartz, biotite,
muscovite, and a little sillimanite is present. This area needs further
investigation, but it seems likely that this rock antedates the general
metamorphism of the Lower Proterozoic succession.

PETROLOGY OF CLONCURRY MINERAL FIELD.

39

At 13 miles south-east of the old May Downs homestead, a small
area of coarse knotted schist appears to occur with others of lower
grade, but this also needs further investigation in the field. The rock
contains large (12 mm.) porphyroblasts of cordierite thickly studded
with inclusions of biotite, sillimanite, muscovite and minute grains of
iron ore. These are surrounded by coarser flakes of biotite which are
intergrown with a granoblastic groundmass of quartz, biotite and
muscovite with bands of fibrous sillimanite.

About 1 miles south-west of Rifle Creek Dam, Mr. E. K. Carter
found a well-rounded granite-like boulder in a matrix of schistose
rhyolite. This rock contains large porphyroblasts of microcline and
olagioclase in a granoblastic base of quartz, biotite, muscovite, sphene
and iron ore. The felspars are heavily sericitized, and within some of
them large flakes of muscovite are developed. Carbonates are also
present. The rock is threaded with quartz veins which are probably
related to the rhyolite that engulfed the boulder.

This boulder indicates that granitized rocks were present in the
vicinity of Rifle Creek before the outpouring of the rhyolites, and since
the main granites of the region post-date the acid lavas, there is reason
for assuming an older granite basement. Furthermore, the presence
of arkoses west of Mount Isa points to the proximity of an earlier
granite, and the metamorphic unconformity and difference in the
direction of the foliation also suggest that these small exposures are
part of that basement.

Nevertheless, some of these granites are not unlike some of the
later porphyritic hybrids described below. Careful comparison,
however, will show that there are some differences. First, the younger
granite is characteristically porphyritic, whilst granite considered to
be older has very rare and sporadic phenocrysts. Second, the smaller
quantity of microcline is strikingly different in the older granite
compared with the non-porphyritic younger type. Third, the older
granite contains far more muscovite than either of the younger types,
and, whilst fluorite is ubiquitous in the younger granites, it has not
been noted in the older.

VI. THE LOWER PROTEROZOIC SUCCESSION.

1. The Country Rocks and their Metamorpitism.

(a) Aluminous and Siliceous Rocks.

Pelites, psammopelites, psammites and psammites with a tuffaceous
matrix, as well as arkoses are included in this section. Although
aluminous and siliceous sediments are not prominent in the Lower
Proterozoic succession in this region, they are found in thin seams on
many horizons interbedded with the calcareous types and with the acid
and basic lavas. As indicated above it has not been possible to draw
zones of regional metamorphism, but it can be broadly stated that on
the west most of the rocks are either in the chlorite-zone or come just on
to the edge of the biotite-zone where there is a development of green
mica. Near the Dugald Prospect, carbonaceous rocks are in the biotite-
zone. West of the Wee Macgregor Mine in the Ballara Area, and locally
in the Soldiers Cap Area, garnet-, staurolite-, and cyanite-bearing
schists are developed, but as some of these contain andalusite they are
not typical of the garnet, staurolite and cyanite-zones. In the Dugald
River Area, cyanite schists contain sillimanite.

40

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

About f mile east of Mount Isa a white slate consists of fine grains
of quartz and minute flakes of sericite and chlorite with larger patches
of leucoxene. A slight schistosity cuts across the sedimentary bands at
an angle of about 30°. About 6 miles south of Mount Isa on the Dajarra
Road a fine tuffaceous psammite, containing quartz, felspar, chlorite
and carbonaceous material, is associated with a basalt (Fig. 7) which
has suffered only slight alteration.

Near the Native Bee Copper Mine, 13^ miles south of Mount Isa,
fine slate or tuff shows small grains of quartz in a dense matrix of
green biotite, and west of the shear-zone on Sybella Creek fine grained
quartz-muscovite schists also contain a little green biotite. South of
Carters Bore a screen of sediments in a low grade of regional
metamorphism is adjacent to the porphyritic granite on the east, and
to a small mass of microgranite crowded with sedimentary xenoliths,
on the west. At the northern end of the screen a conglomerate contains
large stretched pebbles of quartz and quartzite in a schistose matrix
of chlorite and pale green mica, quartz and magnetite, the chlorite and
mica occurring as streaks and lenses in a mosaic of fine quartz. Adjacent
psammop elites contain small porphyroblasts of chlorite in a granoblastic
base of quartz and orientated fiakes of muscovite with a trace of biotite.
Coarse bands and lenses have the same composition with the addition
of a little iron ore. Tourmaline occurs sporadically in these rocks, and
in some of them original clastic structures are preserved. About H
miles south of Carters Bore quartz-sericite schists occur. They are
probably in the chlorite-zone, the development of chlorite possibly
being inhibited by their composition.

Near the Dugald Prospect, 11 miles north-west of Quamby, the
rocks are in the biotite-zonp. They are finely banded schists consisting
of quartz and brown biotite, with carbonaceous material marking the
sedimentary banding. Other types, showing coarser, less carbonaceous
bands, contain muscovite.

In parts of the Soldiers Cap area and in the Ballara area, west of
Wee Macgregor Mine, some rather anomalous high-grade schists occur.
They are described very briefly here as it is hoped that more detailed
work can be done after another field season. A number contain stauro-
lite porphyroblasts, up to 10 mm. in length (Fig. 2A). Idioblastic
garnets ranging in size from 0.25 mm. to 1.5 mm. also occur, and these
with the staurolite are present in a lepidoblastic and granoblastic base
of quartz, reddish brown biotite, muscovite and carbonaceous material.

Garnetiferous schists containing radiating bunches of bladed
crystals of cyanite also occur in some parts of the district. Both garnet
and cyanite are in a fine granoblastic base of quartz, white mica, chlorite
and a little iron ore (Fig. 2B).

Other rocks contain large poikiloblastic porphyroblasts of andalusite
up to 25 mm. in length. These contain small (0.2 mm.) idioblasts
of garnet and are surrounded by a fairly coarse (0.75 mm.) fringe of
muscovite which passes out into a finer lepidoblastic base of muscovite
and biotite with porphyroblasts (1 mm.) of garnet (Fig. 2C).

In the Dugald River area rare pelites and psammites are associated
with calcsilicates. The pelites consist of subidioblastic crystals of
cyanite in a coarse (1.5-2 mm.) intergrowth of biotite and muscovite.

PETROLOGY OF CLONCURRY MINERAL FIELD.

41

Sillimanite forms mats of small needles enclosed in muscovite, and a
little iron ore is also present. Associated psammites are coarse biotite-
museovite-quartz-schists. Fluorite and apatite are present in some of
these rocks.

With regard to dislocation metamorphism, very few of the aluminous
and siliceous rocks have been examined in the shear-zones. A psammite
from the Soldiers Cap area shows a relict clastic structure with granu-
lated, banded and undulose patches of quartz surrounded by a fine
mylonite-like aggregate of quartz and white mica, and a coarse schist
from south of Mount Isa shows the development of plumose mica in
a silicified quartz-muscovite-biotite-schist. The quartz shows strain.

Text-fig. 2.

A. Staurolite schist from west of Wee Macgregor Mine, showing part of a
twinned porphyroblast with peripheral embayments and patches of inclusions. The
base consists of quartz, biotite and muscovite and shows bending around the end
of the porphyroblast.

B. Cyanite-garnet schist from Soldiers Cap area showing porphyroblast of
garnet and bundle of cyanite crystals in a quartz-mica base. A transverse section
of a cyanite bundle is shown on the top left.

C. Andalusite-garnet schist showing irregular parches of optically continuous
andalusite, porphyroblasts of garnet and tabular flakes of biotite with inclusion
of zircon. Muscovite and quartz are also present.

Coming now to contact metamorphism, contact-altered pelites are
recorded, but psammites are abundant and mostly interbedded with
basalts. These are common about 5 to 7 miles east of the old May
Downs Homestead. A slightly calcareous psammite consists of a fine
granular mosaic of quartz, felspar, epidote, green biotite, iron ore, and
rare small, columnar porphyroblasts of colourless amphibole. Some of
the psammites are banded with seams of fine and very fine quartz,
felspar and biotite. Small porphyroblasts of chlorite occur within the
seams and are normal to the sedimentary banding. Other psammites
contain muscovite. Although these rocks are completely recrystallized,
they have not attained a very high grade of thermal metamorphism.

Granitized psammites are locally developed on the margin of the
western batholith, and on Waverley Creek, about 50 miles south-west of
Mount Isa a banded siliceous type contains microcline, which appears to

42

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

have been derived from the granite. A fragment of fractured garnet,
partly altered to muscovite, is present in this rock. In many places in
the Dugald Kiver area psammites also are granitized. These contain
irregular porphyroblasts of microcline (3 mm.) and of quartz (1 mm.)
in a fine lepidoblastic base of biotite, quartz, felspar and a trace of
sphene. Other rather similar rocks contain apatite, chlorite and
muscovite.

On the north-eastern margin of the batholith, west of Mt. Isa the
rocks have suffered pneumatolytic alteration and many of the pelites
are now represented by a micaceous lepidoblastic schist. The biotite
flakes measure about 2 mm., and the muscovite crystals which are
slightly larger may cross cut the biotite bands. Fluorite is present in
many of these rocks. It commonly occurs in very small grains and may
partly replace felspar. Tourmaline is fairly common in small crystals,
but schorls may develop in places, and on the back road through May
Downs a micaceous schist contains crystals of tourmaline up to 150 mm.
in length and 65 mm. in diameter. Near Sybella. Creek the greisenized
schists contain a little topaz.

The porphyritic granite has invaded arkoses on Mingera Creek,
about 28 miles west-north-west of Mount Isa, and exposures of contact-
altered arkose may be seen on the back road between the old and new
May Downs Homesteads, near Beetle Creek. Arkoses also occur as roof-
pendants or screens associated with granite 25 miles north-west of Mount
Isa. These masses are both contact-altered and granitized. The rock
least altered by addition appears to be an arkose with rounded grains

A. Contact altered arkose showing recrystallized grains of quartz in a matrix
of muscovite and quartz.

B. Granitized arkose showing large grains of quartz in a felspar-quartz matrix.
The quartz and felspar are graphically intergrown at the top of the figure.

PETROLOGY OF CLONCURRY MINERAL FIELD.

43

of milky quartz in a stony base, and a later stage shows the development
of large rectangular porphyroblasts of felspar in the arkose. This mass
is invaded by the granite and in most places the contact with arkose is
sharp.

Contact-altered arkoses show a relict clastic structure with rounded
areas of granulated quartz up to about 3 mm. in diameter in a base of
fine granular quartz and mats of extremely small flakes of muscovite
which may sweep round the larger masses of quartz (Fig. 3A). Some
types contain a little biotite and iron ore. Granitized arkoses contain
large porphyroblasts of microcline and a good deal of felspar in the
groundmass, much of which is graphically intergrown with quartz.
The rounded clastic grains of quartz may still be recognized, but other-
wise the rock resembles a granite (Fig. 3B).

(6) Calcareous and Calcsilicate Rocks.

The Mount Isa series of Shepherd (1953) occurs at Mount Isa
and forms a meridional outcrop which, according to Shepherd, extends
at least 200 miles north and 120 miles south of the town. On the west
it is invaded by granite and on the east underlain by basalts. The
sequence consists of shales, calcareous and dolomitic shales and some
thin beds of limestone and dolomite.

A calcareous sequence with interbedded normal shales in the
Duchess area has been described by Edwards and Baker (1954), who
also described scapolitized calcareous rocks in the Trekelano and Dugald
River areas. This sequence was formerly referred to as the Argylla
Series (Honman, 1937; Shepherd, 1953), and Edwards and Baker have
suggested the possibility of its being the more highly metamorphosed
equivalent of the Mount Isa shale. On petrological grounds, the present
writer concurs with this suggestion, and for convenience the calcareous
and dolomitic members of both sequences are described together.
Although most of the types mentioned below have been fully described
by Edwards and Baker (1954), the present summary is included in this
regional study for the sake of completeness.

The banded calcareous and dolomitic shales at Mount Isa are in a
low grade of metamorphism. An interbedded marble consists of calcite
and chlorite and interbedded pelites are in the chlorite-zone. Near the
Dugald Prospect, 11 miles north-west of Quamby, very similar types
occur and interbedded pelites reveal that they are in the biotite-zone.

In hand specimens the rocks near Mt. Isa appear to have suffered
very little alteration apart from local silicification, but under the
microscope the arrangement of minute flakes of sericite, chlorite and
carbonate minerals indicate a slight schistosity. Dense masses of carbon
make difficult the identification of minerals in some of these fine-grained
rocks. These low-grade rocks from both localities appear to have
escaped scapolitization.

From the Dugald River area, Edwards and Baker described
scapolite-pyroxene-granulites, scapolite-marbles, scapolite-biotite-schists
and scapolite-albite-hornblende schists. In hand specimens these rocks
are very similar to hornfelses from the Duchess area described below.
On Cleanskin Creek, a tributary of the Dugald, these granulitic rocks are
interbedded with pelites which contain cyanite and sillimanite, and in
this case their texture is the result of high-grade regional metamorphism
aud not contact metamorphism. This is substantiated by the
co-existence of calcite and quartz in the same rock.

44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Text-fig. 4.

A. Hornblende-plagioclase schist showing lineation of hornblende and incipient
seapolitization of felspar.

B. Banded granulite showing seams of pyroxene-scapolite-quartz and hornblende-
plagioclase.

C. Spotted granulite showing large poikiloblastic porphyroblasts of scapolite
in a base of quartz, biotite, calcite and iron ore.

Hornblende-plagioclase rocks show a marked foliation, and when
much hornblende is present, they are schists rather than granulites
(Fig. 4A). A number of these rocks have been examined from the
Mount Burstall area, and it is difficult to decide whether they are
impure dolomites or basic igneous intercalations. Plagioclase ranges
from andesine to albite and is commonly much sericitized. Incipient
seapolitization of the felspar is also present. Near Mount Burstall,
scapolite-pyroxene-quartz assemblages, with or without hornblende,
alternate with hornblende-plagioclase assemblages (Fig. 4B) and this
compositional banding parallels a slight lineation. Some of these rocks
contain a little bright orange mica suggestive of titaniferous phlogopite
(Prider, 1939).

Edwards and Baker also described scapolite-biotite schists in the
Dugald River area, and similar types are very widespread between
Native Companion Bore and the Dugald River, 14 miles west-south-west
of Quamby. In hand specimens, they are spotted grey granulites form-
ing narrow seams that alternate with non-spotted types. The spots are
porphyroblasts of scapolite that measure up to 5 mm. (Fig. 4C). They
have a marked sieve-structure. Edwards and Baker found that biotite
tended to be rejected by the scapolite, but at this locality inclusions of
biotitie are numerous, though they are lighter in colour than that of the
granoblastic base, and there may be some chemical difference. Quartz
and felspar also occur as inclusions in the scapolite and the base contains
quartz, biotite, calcite and iron ores; fluorite has been noted in some
specimens.

PETROLOGY OF CLONCURRY MINERAL FIELD.

4b

With regard to the dislocation metamorphism, sheared types have
not been recorded among the high-grade rocks, but in the lower grades
there has been much deposition of silica and dolomites have been
converted into tremolite-calcite rocks.

Contact metamorphism is evidenced in places. Near Duchess, the
calcareous sequence consists of dense banded granular rocks with light
and dark grey and green seams ranging in width from a few to over
a hundred millimetres. These rocks are adjacent to granite and appear
to be typical hornfelses. The most common type is a diopside-
plagioclase assemblage, but some rocks also contain a little brown lime-
iron garnet. According to Goldschmidt (1911) these would belong to
the hornfels classes 7 and 8. Diopside-hornblende-plagioclase and
hornblende-plagioclase assemblages also occur, and these possibly
represent either Class 6 hornfelses formed under conditions of wet
contact metamorphism (Joplin, 1935) or intercalations of a basic
igneous rock. From this area, Edwards and Baker have described
scapolite-bearing marbles and scapolite-pyroxene- and scapolite-
hornblende-pyroxene-granulites which appear to represent the scapoli-
tized representatives of the above mentioned hornfelses. Edwards and
Baker also have described the leached equivalents of these rocks in the
Duchess and Dugald River areas, and have shown that certain red rocks
have been formed by the removal of magnesia, lime and iron oxides with
the re-precipitation of some of the iron oxide as haemetite.

(c) Acid Lavas.

A sequence of rhyolites and dacites, with some toscanites, andesites,
basalts and tuffs has suffered several different types of metamorphism.
As there is a marked similarity in the mineralogical composition of
this suite of rocks, except for the basalts described below, they are dealt
with together in this section and only differences noted.

A. Dacite with corroded phenocrysts of quartz, tabular phenocrysts of
plagioclase and micaceous pseudomorphs of hornblende in a fine groundmass. A
slight schistosity is apparent.

B. Rhyolite showing quartz, albite and microcline phenocrysts with patches of
criss-cross biotite in a fine crystalline groundmass. The arrangement of mica
indicates a slight schistosity.

C. Recrystallized (?) spherulitic obsidian.

46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

All the rocks are highly porphyritic with quartz and felspar
phenocrysts and criss-cross patches of biotite, which, in the more basic
types, are probably pseudomorphing original hornblende phenocrysts.
It seems likely that the regionally altered rocks are mainly in the
biotite zone, though there are no interbedded pelites to identify the
zone. Quartz phenocrysts are idiomorphic and two sizes of crystals
(3 mm. to 0.6 mm.) are commonly present in the same specimen. In
the more basic types, quartz phenocrysts are less numerous and smaller
(1.5 mm.). In all types they are highly corroded and crowded with
pseudo-inclusions (Fig. 5A and Figs. 6 A and B). Undulose extinction
is common and minute inclusions of mica and chlorite follow curved
lines within the crystal suggesting recrystallization along lines of
conchoidal fracture.

Tabular phenocrysts (1-3 mm.) of plagioclase range from albite in
the rhyolites to andesine in the more basic rocks. The albite may show
a peculiar twinning similar to the chequer albite of the albitites. It
is commonly altered to sericite and the more basic types are heavily
saussuritized with granular epidote, clinozoisite, calcite and albite
among the flakes of sericite. In some dacites, calcite forms elongate
grains replacing felspar. In some more basic types there is a
glomeroporphyritie grouping of the plagioclase. One of the rhyolites
shows a vein of microcline cutting plagioclase phenocrysts.

Rhyolites contain tabular phenocrysts of microcline (3 mm.) and
smaller phenocrysts (about 0.75 mm.) occur in the toscanites. Simple
Carlsbad twinning may be present in addition to the typical gridiron
grating. Microcline may be albitized, and cut by veins of albite.

Dacites and more basic types contain biotite in small (0.1-0.01
mm.) criss-cross flakes which form clusters measuring up to about 3
mm. in length and appear to be pseudomorphs after hornblende. These
are commonly associated with granular sphene, epidote and calcite. Iron
ores are rare or absent in these aggregates. The pleochroism of the
biotite is from yellow to chocolate or from greenish-yellow to deep
brownish-green. One dacite contains xenoliths of a coarser, slightly
more basic, type, and there is an interesting reaction-ring of granular
magnetite about a xenocryst of pyrite.

The groundmass of these rocks consist of a fine mosaic of quartz,
felspar and mica. Staining with sodium cobaltinitrite has revealed a
little potash felspar in the more acid types. The mica is mostly sericite,
but some types contain a little greenish-brown biotite. Accessories are
apatite and iron ores, A vein of fluorite has been noted in one of the
rhyolites. Several of the rhyolites contain narrow bands of a fine
granular rock with a peculiar cellular structure. Small phenocrysts of
quartz occur amongst the cellular material, and it is suggested that
the bands may represent recrystallized spherulitic obsidians (Fig. 5C).

The effects of dislocation metamorphism are not readily apparent,
and sheared rocks differ from the regionally altered only in that the
sericite of the groundmass shows a marked lineation and phenocrysts
may be orientated in the direction of the schistosity. This may be
accentuated by the development of an augen structure and a coarser
crystallization of the groundmass at each end of the phenocrysts. Quartz
phenocrysts show undulose extinction, strain banding or complete
granulation; the more basic types of plagioclase may be broken down
into granular calcite and epidote ; and hornblende phenocrysts are
represented by trails of biotite in the direction of the schistosity.

PETROLOGY OF CLON CURRY MINERAL FIELD.

47

Text-fig. 6 — Thermally altered Acid Lavas.

A. Dacite showing completely recrystallized groundmass with nibbled margins
of phenocrysts.

B. Recrystallized rhyolite showing the same features.

Contact metamorphism is evidenced by a coarser granoblastic
groundmass against which the phenocrysts show a characteristically
nibbled margin (Figs. 6 A and B). Quartz phenocrysts are completely
granulated, and in one of the rhyolites, microcline phenocrysts show
a zone of quartz blebs with an outer rim of clear untwinned felspar.

On the Leichhardt River this volcanic sequence forms the roof of
a batholith which is only partly exposed. Most of the rocks are re-
crystallized as described above, but in places quartz and microcline
phenocrysts show very indefinite outlines and may in fact be porphyro-
blasts that have grown as the result of static granitization. A fine
grained, banded microcline granite appears to represent the complete
granitization of a banded rhyolite.

(d) Basic Lavas and Intrusives.

A thick succession of basic lavas interbedded with quartzite will
be described in the bulletin to be issued shortly by the Commonwealth
Bureau of Mineral Resources. In the present paper they are discussed,
with the basic intrusives, as a group of basic rocks that have suffered
different types of metamorphism. Most of +he lavas are the Spring
Creek basalts of Shepherd (1953).

Basic dyke swarms invade the acid lavas between Mount Isa and
Cloncurry in the region of the East and West Leichhardt Rivers and
small bodies of gabbro occur in the noses of a number of folds in the
Mount Isa and Cloncurry areas. In most instances original structures
have been obliterated, and except for their field occurrence, it would
be difficult to identify specimens as either intrusive or extrusive. Three

48

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

examples of the least altered rocks are shown in Fig. 7. The basalt
occurs on the Dajarra Road 6 miles south of Mount Isa. It consists
of a plexus of small laths of plagioclase surrounded by chloritic
material in which are embedded a dense mass of small grains of
magnetite. It seems likely that the base is a recrystallized glass since
iron is commonly concentrated in the residual liquid. This rock also
contains small irregular patches of carbonates, some with a centre of
epidote and these no doubt represent former amygdules which may
have originally contained either these minerals or lime zeolites.

ABC lmm

Text-fig. 7.

A. Partially altered hypohaline amygdaloidal basalt showing small laths of
plagioclase in a fine recrystallized base rich in magnetite. Amygdules are filled
with granular calcite and epidote. Dajarra Road, 6 miles south of Mount Isa.

B. Slightly altered dolerite with blastopliitic and blastointergranular structure.
Interstices are filled with chlorite and magnetite, and small patches of quartz may
be partly released quartz. Plagioclase is heavily sericitized and stained by haematite,
and most of the augite is altered to green hornblende. Partly altered augite shows a
sahlite parting (bottom of figure).

C. Altered gabbro showing saussuritized tabular plagioclase and aggregates of
uralitic hornblende. Cloncurry Road, 7 miles east of Mt. Isa.

The least altered of the dolerites occurs to the south of Mount
Isa. Its structure is blastophitic and blasto-intersertal. Plagioclase
laths measure up to 3 mm. in length and are much altered and stained
with haematite. Relict crystals of augite measure up to 2 mm. and are
partly enveloped by green hornblende, and small independent crystals
of hornblende occur with chlorite in the intersticies where needles of
apatite and grains of magnetite are common. Small grains of released
quartz are also interstitial, and in places a fine graphic intergrowth of
quartz and felspar is present in the mesostasis.

The gabbro (Fig. 7C) occurs on the Cloncurry Road 7 miles east of
Mount Isa. The structure is blastogabbroid. Original augite is com-
pletely replaced by uralitic hornblende which forms masses of several
grains about 6 mm. in diameter. Small flakes of phlogopite are associated
with the amphibole. Andesine is subidiomorphic tabular (about 4 mm.)
and is heavily saussuritized with some incipient scapolitization.

PETROLOGY OF CLONCURRY MINERAL FIELD.

49

The regionally metamorphosed basic rocks are very widespread
and show a great variation in grainsize. The main constituents are
hornblende and plagioclase (Fig. 8A). Hornblende crystals may range
in size from 0.2 mm. to 10 mm. ; it is a strongly coloured variety with
X = light olive green, Y = olive green and Z = dark bluish-green
and it shows a well marked parallelism in the. direction of the schistosity.
Plagioclase is andesine and is commonly sericitized and not well twinned.
It forms xenoblasts, sometimes interlocking with quartz, and occurs inter-
grown with hornblende. In some rocks the felspar occurs in augen or
narrow bands and the rock is a hornblende gneiss rather than a schist.
Iron ores, usually ilmenite, sphene and apatite are present in all these
rocks. Some banded quartz-rich varieties may have been tuffs, and
one such rock is exceptionally rich in epidote. Segregations of quartz
in some rocks suggest silicifieation.

A. Coarse hornblende schist or hornblende-plagioclase gneiss, near McKellar’s
Bore.

B. Sheared basic rock showing sheaf -like group of pale, columnar amphibole in
a base of chlorite, plagioclase, quartz, iron ore and sphene. Gap near Sybella Creek.

C. Strongly sheared basic rock segregation into chlorite-rich and plagioclase-rich
bands. Accessory minerals are iron ore and apatite. A well marked plication is
developed in the chloritic bands and is only just discernible in the chlorite-poor.
Gap near Sybella Creek.

Dislocation metamorphism is evidenced in the shear zones by a more
marked schistosity and the schists may be strongly plicated. The least
sheared types contain elongated columnar crystals or needles of pale
green amphibole, which in one rock appears to be anthophyllite. If
abundant, the slender crystals are arranged in sheaf-like or stellate
groups (Fig. 8B), and when little amphibole occurs single crystals pierce
chlorite or plagioclase. Chlorite is not abundant in types rich in amphi-
bole, and the two minerals are in a roughly inverse relationship. In the
most sheared types, chlorite has developed to the exclusion of amphibole.
Some rocks contain a little light golden yellow biotite and flakes of both
chlorite and mica follow a well marked plication (Fig. 8C.) In the less
sheared types these minerals occur in a fine mosaic of plagioclase with
accessory quartz, epidote, sphene and iron ore. In the more sheared

50

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

types felspar and quartz are segregated into lenses or bands and the
plication is only just discernible across them (Fig. 8C.) In a few rocks
small patches of plagioclase fringed and pierced by needles of amphibole
suggest an original phenocryst. Plagioclase commonly shows alteration
to clinozoisite and to carbonates.

Thermally altered basic rocks occur as remnants on partly unroofed
granites about 12 miles north-west of Mount Isa and on the Leichhardt
River to the east. West of Mount Isa they occur as flows interbedded
with quartzites, and on the Leichhardt they occur as dykes cutting the
acid lavas. The least altered of the dyke rocks have a blastophitic
structure and consist mainly of plagioclase and hornblende with acces-
sory sphene, epiclote and iron ore. Plagioclase laths are slightly

Text-fig. 9.

A. Dolerite showing early stage of contact metamorphism. A blastophitic
structure is still present, but crystalloblastic structures are indicated by the grano-
blastic intergrowth of plagioclase and hornblende (top right, and bottom) and by
early poikiloblastic hornblende. Dyke on Leichhardt.

B. Thermally altered basalt showing pyroxene and clear felspar and biotite
enveloping iron ores. A rouglit parallelism of these minerals indicates an earlier
schistosity. East of old homestead, May Downs.

“ nibbled’ and a faint greyish-brown clouding is indicative of the first
stages of contact metamorphism (Macgregor, 3931; Joplin, 1933). Green
hornblende forms small columnar crystals with numerous felspar and
quartz inclusions indicating an incipient poikiloblastic structure, and in
places small xenoblasts of amphibole are intergrown with felspar
(Fig. 9A).

In the railway triangle north of the open cut at Duchess. Edwards
and Baker (1954) reported basic rocks containing olivine, and though
the present writer has not encountered this mineral, specimens from this
locality reveal that the rocks are in a low-grade of contact metamorph-
ism comparable to the type figured and described above. Some rocks
contain a little scapolite.

PETROLOGY OF CLON CURRY MINERAL FIELD.

51

In a higher grade of thermal metamorphism, rocks east of Mount
Isa consist of a granoblastic mosaic of felspar and pyroxene with some
fox-red biotite, iron ore and quartz. Small remnants of amphibole,
heavily charged with magnetite dust appear to be passing over to
pyroxene. Augite forms stout columnar crystals, which show a rough
parallelism and possibly preserve the earlier alignment imposed by
regional metamorphism. Biotite tends to envelope and fringe grains of
iron ore (Fig. 9B). Plagioclase is extremely clear with a smoky grey
clouding in the centre of the crystal, its composition is oligoclase or
andesine and the somewhat acid nature suggests that it has contributed
lime to the pyroxene. Some of the dykes on the Leichhardt are also in
this higher grade. Table II. shows that there is some uniformity in the
composition of these rocks despite the different types of metamorphism
they have suffered.

TABLE II.

i.

ii.

hi.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

Si02

49-56

48-66

48-8

47-5

48-9

49-1

49-2

A1203

16-53

17-36

15-1

18-0

12-6

15-3

15-2

Fe203

FeO

1-25

10-69

1-96

8-88

1

/

16-2

\

/

15-4

1

/

17-7

\

/

19-3

\

/

14-0

MgO

7-21

6-88

6-9

5-6

8-4

5-1

7-3

CaO

10-67

9-13

10-1

10-5

8-9

8-4

11-4

Na20

3-35

3-28

. ,

, ,

, ,

k2o

0-89

1-29

, (

# ,

# #

h2o + . .

0-22

0-58

\

9.9

1

2-5

1

2-5

\

2-0

1

1-8

H20 - . .

0-05

0-06

J

/

/

/

/

TiOa

n.d.

1-46

. .

, .

. .

• .

p205

0-21

n.d.

m .

• •

. .

. .

MnO

0-06

0-11

. ,

. ,

, #

100-69

99-65

Sp. Gr.

3-065

3-001

I. Thermally altered Basalt 3^ miles east of Old Homestead, May Downs, west
of Mount Isa. Anal. B. E. Williams.

II. Xenolith in Microgranite. 5^ miles east of Old Homestead, May Downs.
Anal. G. A. Joplin.

III. Mean of Four Partial analyses of Greenstones. Spring Creek, Mount Isa
By courtesy of Mount Isa Mines Ltd.

IV. -VII. Partial analyses of Greenstones from Spring Creek.

By courtesy of Mount Isa Mines Ltd.

Biotitites occur sporadically on the margin of the porphyritic
granite west of Mount Isa, and as they are associated with greisenized
sediments they are believed to represent basic rocks that have been
altered by pneumatolysis. Certain basic rocks have suffered acidifica-
tion and static granitization, and though most of them are discussed
with the granites that they have hybridized, it is fitting that the least
altered types should be noted here. Some of the contact altered basic
dykes on the Leichhardt show acidification and closely resemble a rock
occurring on the eastern bank of the West Leichhardt which appears to
be a roof -pendant. This mass is a dense, black granulite threaded with
veins of epidote. Porphyroblasts (2 mm.) of plagioclase and ragged
grains of green hornblende, in decussate groups, are associated with iron
ores, epidote and apatite. Apatite occurs in relatively large crystals.

52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

These minerals are surrounded by a fine granoblastic mosaic of quartz,
plagioclase and hornblende. Similar rocks occur near the head of Mica
Creek, and on May Downs, 13 miles north-west of Mount Isa. A little
biotite is present in some and its origin may be due either to magmatic
addition or to an earlier metamorphism.

2. The Intrusive Rocks.

(a) Albitites and Soda Granites.

These rocks form small sporadic outcrops in the Soldiers Cap and
Dugald River areas as well as west of Mount Isa, and it is probable that
detailed mapping would reveal others. The field relations are obscure,
though in most places they are close to and are possibly intrusive into
the microgranites described below. On the other hand, some masses
appear to be related to the earlier basic rocks, and again several are
found along fault zones.

In the Soldiers Cap area they range from albitites with only a
trace of quartz to albite granites in which quartz is a prominent
mineral. The average grain size ranges from 0.75 mm. to 1.5 mm., but
much finer grains of quartz and felspar may be interstitial and suggest
a mortar structure. Two miles north-east and 5 miles east of the old
homestead on May Downs, the albitites are slightly coarser and grains
of albite may measure 3.5 mm. in diameter though finer material is
also present. Albite occurs in irregular grains or in subidiomorphic
tabular crystals, and drop-like inclusions of quartz may be present. It
normally shows a well marked albite twinning, but a peculiar lamination
reminiscent of the twinning of microcline is present in some grains.
It appears however to be confined to one direction and may be the
chequer albite referred to by Browne (1920). A little pale biotite or
chlorite occurs in most rocks, and iron ores and sphene are constant
accessories. Small grains of tourmaline and a few comparatively large
grains of a metallic mineral occur in the albitites from Mount Isa. The
metallic mineral was examined in polished section by Mr. W. Roberts of
the Bureau of Mineral Resources and identified as ilmenite.

Hybrids.

Near the Volga Mine a fine, white aplitic type containing a little
amphibole, cuts a basic rock. East of the old May Downs Homestead
the albitite appears to have been injected along a pre-granite fault-zone
in which basic rocks have been converted to chlorite schists and chlorite-
biotite schists. The shattered basic schists occur as very numerous small
xenoliths in the albitite which, on weathered surfaces, has a peculiar
nodular appearance. The igneous rock has been slightly hybridized and
now consists of a coarse mosaic of albite with scattered irregular flakes
of chlorite, pale green mica, and small granules of sphene and iron ore.
Some of the chlorite and mica is pyrogenic, but some appear to be
mechanically incorporated and to have retained the original plications
imposed on these minerals in the fault-zone. An analysis of this hybrid,
freed as far as possible from mechanically derived material, is shown
in Table III, column II.

A little further east, a dense dark medium-grained rock contains
large rounded crystals of hornblende. In hand specimen it resembles a
basic diorite, but under the microscope it is obviously a hybrid consist-
ing of a mixture of mechanically incorporated basic material in a coarse
base of chemically basified material. In places a slight blastophitic

PETROLOGY OF CLONCURRY MINERAL FIELD.

53

structure is noted and it seems likely that the incorporated rock was
not sheared before the incoming of the albitite. The portion which
remained solid shows a well marked crystalloblastic structure and con-
sists of poikloblasts of green hornblende, heavily charged with iron ores,
in a base of plagioclase, quartz and biotite (Fig. 10A). The plagioclase
is andesine and occurs in laths or tabular crystals ranging in size from
1 to 3 mm. as well as in small irregular grains. A slight mottling of
some of the larger crystals evidences reaction (Joplin, 1933).

The high soda content of these hybrids shows their parentage with
the albitite rather than with the microgranite. In most cases, this is
not obvious in the hand specimen, and in the field, the relationship is
not clear owing to the fact that the albitite and microgranite are closely
associated.

A. Albitite-basalt hybrid showing large poikilitic porphyroblasts of hornblende
in a base of plagioclase laths, quartz and biotite.

B. Basic xenolith in microgranite with adjacent hybrid. The xenolith consists
of a plexus of small hornblende crystals and a few large poikiloblasts of biotite with
a trace of felspar and quartz. The hybrid is composed of plagioclase, biotite,
hornblende, quartz and a trace of spliene.

C. Sedimentary xenolith consisting of porphyroblasts of turbid plagioclase in a
fine granoblastic groundmass of quartz, biotite and felspar. The hybridized granite
in the lower part of the figure consists of turbid plagioclase, microcline, biotite and
abundant quartz.

The basic lavas in this area are interbedded with quartzites, and in
places the basified albitite has shattered the sedimentary seams and
mechanically incorporated them. In the field, rounded xenoliths of
quartzite occur in the diorite-like rocks and under the microscope some
specimens show small (0.3 mm.) highly sutured grains of quartz and
larger (0.7 mm.) ragged flakes of biotite associated with iron ore in a
fine base of plagioclase laths, interstitial quartz and a little epidote and
hornblende. Some rocks appear to be albitites with strewn fragments of
undigested basic igneous and sedimentary material, others appear to be
basified albitites with mechanically incorporated quartzites. It thus
seems evident that the basic material is the more susceptible to chemical
assimilation.

54

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

TABLE III.

1.

11.

m.

IV.

Si02 . . . .

67-84

61-95

49-82

76-67

ai2o3

20-42

22-02

14-46

13-29

fg2o3 . .

0-01

0-82

4-78

0-42

EeO . . . .

0-32

0-51

6-75

0-56

MgO . . . .

0-14

3-98

5-42

0-01

CaO . . . .

0-67

3-02

9-86

0-17

Na20 . . . .

9-54

6-13

4-98

4-34

K20 . . . .

0-51

0-45

0-44

3-27

h2o +

0-07

0-80

0-81

0-26

h2o -

0-06

0-09

0-05

0-09

Ti02 . . . .

0-18

0-51

2-33

1-16

p205 . . . .

tr.

n.d.

1-02

tr.

MnO . . . .

tr.

0-01

0-14

0-01

99-76

100-29

100-86

99-95

Sp. Gr.

2-595

2-649

2-995

2-639

I. Albitite, 2 miles north-east of old May Downs homestead. Anal. G. A. Joplin.

II. Hybridized albitite, 54 miles east of old May Downs homestead. Anal. G. A.
Joplin.

III. Albitized basic rock from the same locality as II. Anal. B. E. Williams.

IV. Albitite, contaminated by quartzite from the same locality as II. Anal. J. K.
Burnett.

(b) The Granites.

i. The Coarse Porphyritic Granite.

This type occurs over a very extensive area and its most westerly
outcrop has been termed the Templeton Granite. In this region it forms
an almost continuous outcrop for at least 110 miles, and extends from
about 22 miles north-west of Mount Isa to south of Rufus Creek.
Another mass covers a wide area in the region of the East and West
Leichhardt Rivers, but here the batholith is only partly unroofed and
the outcrops are small and discontinuous. Another large mass occurs
on the Dugald River, 15 miles west of Quamby, and extends north of
Dobbyn.

The most westerly belt shows a marked foliation at its northern end,
and farther south, near McKellars Bore, an augen structure is developed
and felspar units measure up to 230 mm. in length. Still farther south,
to the west of the Sulieman Bore, the granite is mainly massive and
contains numerous de-orientated xenoliths. On the Leichhardt, the
granite is mostly massive and in the Dugald area it is a true banded
gneiss.

Although the porphyritic granites may be massive, gneissic or
schistose in different places and are sometimes much hybridized, it is
believed that they are all of the same age and that differences are due
mainly to their tectonic environment ; this is discussed later. In hand
specimen the rock is coarse and porphyritic, with large pink pheno-
crysts of microcline from about 15 to 65 mm. in length.

Under the microscope the groundmass shows a range in grainsize
from 0.5 to 3 mm., and consists of quartz, microcline, biotite and plagio-
clase, and it can be seen that accessory minerals are hornblende, iron
ores, sphene, epidote and fluorite. The microcline may show slight

PETROLOGY OF CLONCURRY MINERAL FIELD.

55

albitization or alteration into myrmekite and scattered grains in the
groundmass may show graphic intergrowth with quartz. The plagio-
clase ranges from oligoclase to andesine, and in the coarser grained rocks
forms subidiomorphic laths or tabular crystals with turbid, partly
sanssuritized cores. The outer margin is clear but there appears to be
no change in the composition of the felspar from core to margin, a
feature noted by Nockolds (1931). In some rocks twin lamellae show
slight bending, and other evidence of strain is shown by undulose
extinction, banding and granulation in quartz and by the development
of minute inclusions along curved lines which are possibly lines of
conchoidal fracture in the quartz. Near McKellars Bore, epidote occurs
along joint planes in the granite where slickensiding indicates post-
consolidation movement.

Biotite may occur as large independent flakes up to 1.5 mm., in
groups of large flakes or, more commonly, in clots of small criss-cross
flakes associated with hornblende, sphene and iron ore. The latter
occurrence suggests the presence of a xenolith that has reached a state
of chemical equilibrium with the granite, but whose mechanical disin-
tegration is not quite complete. The larger flakes may show bending and
alteration to chlorite in the stressed granites, and strongly lineated types
show a marked orientation of the biotites. Iron ores, sphene and apatite
are common inclusions. Analyses of three of these rocks from widely
spaced areas are shown in Table IV., where they are compared with two
hybrids.

Nenoliths and Hybrids.

At the southern end of the most westerly belt near Sulieman Bore
and in places on the Leichhardt River, numerous de-orientated xenoliths
occur in the massive granite. These are mostly basic and consist of fine
aggregates of biotite, hornblende and plagioclase. Some xenoliths are
surrounded by one or more hybrid rings which show sharp contacts
against the granite, against the xenolith and against one another. One
interesting xenolith consists of a felted mass of slender carbonate needles
and colourless amphibole, possibly representing an original fragment of
dolomite. The quartz of the granite is idomorphic against the xenolith.

When the xenolith is of basic material, the hybrid immediately
adjacent to it consists mainly of subidiomorphic tabular plagioclase,
large grains of quartz and potash felspar in a fine base consisting of the
minerals of the xenolith. In this base, biotite is more common than
hornblende, and in some hybrids, myrmekite fringes potash felspar
which is adjacent to plagioclase. Apatite and sphene are usually very
abundant.

In the Duchess area a large mass of coarse, dark granite with pheno-
crysts of plagioclase invades a calc-silicate sequence in which basic
igneous rocks are prominent. Although xenoliths are not common in
this mass, on the analogy of the hybrids surrounding xenoliths elsewhere,
it is assumed that the Duchess rock is a hybrid of the porphyritic
granite. This is supported by a comparison of analyses (Table IV.).
In many places along the Mount Isa-Duchess road, the granite has
invaded basic schists, and its development seems to be a clear case of
static granitization.

This rock is commonly foliated, and its composition and texture
change slightly from place to place. In the main, it consists of highly
saussuritized subidimorphic crystals of plagioclase, clots of chlorite,

56

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

epidote and sphene, or of biotite, epidote and sphene, with interstitial
quartz and microcline. In some types the potash felspar surrounds the
plagioclase to give a monzonitic fabric. Plagioclase is saussuritized
andesine which may contain large grains of epidote in the saussurite
aggregate. Sphene and apatite are common accessories. These rocks
contain more epidote than the hybrid rims around xenoliths in the
western granites, and perhaps this may be accounted for by the higher
lime content of the calc-silicate rocks which they invade. In the Dugald
area, gneisses also are contaminated by calcareous material and their
higher CaO content is expressed in a larger quantity of the normative
anorthite (fig. 13).

Cataclastic structures are common and are particularly well shown
in a rock which outcrops on a small hill west of Bushy Park.

TABLE IV.

i.

ii.

in.

IV.

V.

Si02

72-68

71-26

70-77

70-29

68-63

ai2o3

12-83

13-95

14-97

12-59

15-18

Fe203

0-97

1-08

0-36

0-69

0-78

FeO

2-25

2-58

2-78

2-49

4-04

MgO

004

0-10

0-18

0-96

0-07

CaO

1-55

1-84

1-86

2-31

2-71

NaoO

3-50

2-74

3-23

3-72

2-16

k26

5-03

5-65

5-04

4-72

3-71

h2o +

0-50

0-37

0-39

0-64

0-87

h2o -

0-02

0-07

0-12

0-08

0-04

Ti02

0-43

0-26

0-68

0-78

1-35

P205

0-03

0-41

n.d.

0-38

abs.

MnO

tr.

tr.

tr.

0-02

abs.

co2

99-83

100-20

100-38

99-57

0-13

99-67

Sp. Gr

2-615

2-653

2-702

2-686

2-772

I. Porphyritic Granite. 5£ miles north-west of McKellar’s Bore. Anal. G. A.
J oplin.

II. Porphyritic Granite. Near head of Mica Creek. Anal. G. A. Joplin.

III. Porphyritic Granite (gneissic). Mountain Paddock, Dugald River, 15£ miles
west -south -west of Quamby. Anal. G. A. Joplin.

IV. Porphyritic Granite Hybrid. 5^ miles west of Wills Creek on Duchess-Dajarra
road. Anal. B. E. Williams.

V. Contaminated Porphyritic Granite (gneissic). Dugald River, 14^ miles south-
west of Quamby. Anal. J. K. Burnett.

il. The Microgranites.

These rocks form a narrow discontinuous outcrop on the eastern
side of the porphyritic granite, west and south-west of Mount Isa, where
they appear to occur as sheets and dykes. They also invade the por-
phyritic granite on the Leichhardt and its most easterly outcrop west of
Quamby (Pig. 11). East of Quamby a belt of microgranite extends
from south of Cloncurry to the north beyond Dobbyn, and so far as is
known, this even finer-grained types is the predominating granite.
Apparently related, but slightly more acid types occur in the Soldiers
Cap area.

PETROLOGY OF CLONCURRY MINERAL FIELD.

57

In hand specimen the rocks appear even-grained though different
masses may differ in grain size. Under the microscope, however, a slight
heterogeneity of grainsize is apparent and certain specimens show a
range from 3 mm. to 0.2 mm. The constituent minerals are quartz,
microcline, plagioclase and biotite, with apatite and iron ores as
accessories. Muscovite, fluorite, sphene and chlorite are also present, and
incipient alteration of potash felspar to myrmekite is common. Micro-
graphic intergrowth of quartz and orthoclase is present in some
specimens.

Fig. 11. Fig. 12.

Text-fig. 11.

A. Microgranite with inclusion of porphyritic granite.

B. Microgranite showing transgressive relation to porphyritic granite.

Text-fig. 12.

A. Basalt xenoliths in microgranite. East of old May Downs homestead.

B. Basic xenolith with crenellated border and vein of intrusive granite.

The plagioclase ranges from oligoclase to andesine and forms sub-
idiomorphic tabular crystals with turbid cores. The alteration is chiefly
to sericite, but saussurite may occur. The turbid cores are commonly
rounded and surrounded by a clear rim which shows interlocking with
the other minerals forming the granular base. Although the plagioclase
crystals are larger than those of the granular mosaic, they can scarcely
be classified as phenocrysts.

Quartz occurs as irregular grains in the mosaic, or as interstitial
patches between crystals of plagioclase, and in some rocks it forms larger
grains resembling small phenocrysts. Undulose extinction is common.

Microcline is abundant and may form large, irregular grains,
though normally their size is comparable to others in the mosaic.
Myrmekite fringes or replaces microcline when it is adjacent to plagio-
clase and micrographic intergrowths with quartz have been noted.

58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Biotite is not abundant and commonly occurs in small equally
distributed flakes; in some rocks it is absent. Alteration to chlorite is
frequent and sphene is associated. Near the Dugald Fault, on the
Cloncurry Road, slight hybridization is evidenced by the presence of
clots of chlorite or of biotite and muscovite with associated granular
epidote, sphene and iron ores. On the Kajabbi Track, about 7 miles
north of Quamby, slight basification is indicated by the presence of a
little hornblende.

Sphene may be relatively abundant, and while it commonly occurs
in granular masses surrounding iron ore or in aggregates associated
with biotite, it may form independent wedge-shaped crystals up to
0.7 mm. which have crystallized late and wrap grains of quartz and
felspar.

These granites have been subjected to post-consolidation stresses
and a marked lineation is apparent in the field. This is especially
noticeable on Mica Creek and near Cloncurry. Under the microscope
quartz shows undulose extinction, granulation and banding, plagioclase
may show bending of the lamellae, biotite may be bent and chloritized and
epidote may occur in small lenses. In extreme cases, possibly near a
fault zone, a mortar structure is developed and clear grains of quartz
and microcline and turbid grains of plagioclase are set in a mylonite-like
matrix of chlorite and quartz.

Near Cloncurry, at the turnoff between the Mount Isa and Quamby
Roads, granites of three different textures are developed; one shows
chilled margins against the other, and biotite is developed at the contact.

Xenoliths and Hybrids.

East of the old May Downs homestead the fine pink granite invades
a sequence of basalts with interbedded quartzites, and as this intrusion
is only partly unroofed, xenoliths are very numerous (Fig. 12). The
majority of the xenoliths are basic and the granite in their vicinity is
basified, but some sedimentary fragments occur and the granite has
been slightly acidified by their assimilation. About a mile south of
Carters Bore the fine granite is also crowded with xenoliths, and these
are mostly of sedimentary origin. Near the head of Mica Creek the
granite also contains numerous xenoliths in every stage of disintegration.
These measure from about 20 to over 300 mm. in diameter. The
granite shows a slight directional structure, but as some of the xenoliths
show sedimentary bedding and are de-orientated, the parallel structures
in the granite cannot be interpreted as relict bedding. Xenoliths also
occur in the fine grained granite of the Cloncurry-Kajabbi mass, but
no systematic collecting has been done in this area.

East of May Downs homestead, the xenoliths range in size from a
few to many hundreds of millimetres, and they are usually angular.
In one place the granite has invaded a schistose basic rock, possibly in a
fault zone, and the magma has encroached along the planes of schistosity,
with occasional transgressions, and the detached xenoliths have a peculiar
crenellated border (Fig. 12B). The junction of the xenolith with the
hybrid is commonly quite sharp, and there may be several rings of hybrid
material surrounding each xenolith. One such xenolith and inner ring
have been analysed and the results are shown in Tables II. and V. This
xenolith consists of a fine (0.2 mm.) aggregate of green biotite, epidote,
plagioclase, hornblende, sphene and a little quartz. The felspar tends to

PETROLOGY OF CLONCURRY MINERAL FIELD.

59

a lath-shape and the other minerals occur as irregular grains. The
plagioclase is very turbid and biotite surrounds granular sphene. The
xenolith is surrounded by a clear rim varying in width from 1 to 1.5 mm.
consisting of quartz and myrmekite. This is surrounded by an acidified
basic rock consisting of large (3 mm.) interlocking grains of quartz,
subidiomorphic microcline and plagioclase in a finer base of the same
minerals together with much greenish-brown biotite. Further away from
the xenolith, a more normal granitic texture is developed and biotite
forms large flakes up to 1 mm. across. In this type, plagioclase forms
tabular crystals of about 1 mm., and these are surrounded by a mosaic
of quartz, plagioclase, biotite and hornblende. Sphene and iron ores are
accessory. Some of the plagioclase grains in the groundmass have a
sieve-structure, suggesting recrystallization, and it is likely that they
have been mechanically incorporated.

table y.

—

i.

ii.

hi.

Si02

73-49

74-76

63-98

Ai2o3 . .

14-06

14-01

16-75

• •

0-37

0-83

1-95

FeO

1-74

0-71

3-84

MgO

0-01

0-32

1-59

CaO

0-96

0-63

5-10

Na20

2-68

2-07

4-05

k2o

5-63

6-04

1-67

H20 +

0-33

0-35

0-30

H20 —

0-03

0-01

0-06

Ti02

0-78

0-37

1-09

p205

tr.

0-11

0-34

MnO

tr.

tr.

Oil

co2

abs.

abs.

0-69

-

100-08

100-21

100-52

Sp. Gr.

2-623

2-594

2-763

I. Microgranite. Junction of Mount Isa and Quamby roads, Cloncurry. Anal.
J. K. Burnett.

II. Microgranite. East of old homestead, May Downs. Anal. J. K. Burnett
and B. E. Williams.

III. Highly basified microgranite from ring around xenolith. (Anal. II., Table
III.). Same locality as II. Anal. G. A. Joplin.

Other xenoliths show slight variation of these features, but are
essentially similar. One, from the same locality, is a little richer in
magnesia, and hornblende predominates, occurring in a fine (less 0.1
mm. ) granular assemblage with plagioclase, epidote and biotite. The mica
may form poikiloblasts enveloping the other minerals (fig. 10B.). One
hybrid from this locality contains an abundance of scapolite. Most of
it is fresh, but one or two grains are altered and fibrous and may be
remnants from an earlier scapolitized basic rock. A little fluorite is
also present. The least basified hybrids contain large (3 mm.) irregular
grains of microcline and turbid plagioclase in a granular base of quartz,
biotite, felspar and myrmekite.

60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Sedimentary xenoliths are mainly psammites and psammopelites.
Near Carters Bore, a fine grained sedimentary xenolith shows porphyro-
blasts of turbid plagioclase surrounded by an extremely fine granoblastic
mass of quartz, biotite and felspar (fig. IOC.). The marginal granite
also contains turbid felspar, quartz, microcline and biotite, and the
additional quartz in these rocks indicates acidification by the sediment.

Very similar types occur on May Downs where the granite has
assimilated quartzites interbedded with basalts. As noted above, the
granites have been basified at this locality, but many xenoliths are
studded with rounded and highly sutured grains (about 0.4 mm.) of
quartz, suggesting the mechanical disruption of the sediment by a
basified magma. In some types, the iron ore occurs in small rods which
may show a rough parallelism indicative of a relict bedding.

iii. The Pegmatites.

Large dykes of coarse pegmatite occur sporadically on the eastern
margin of the western batholith and consist mainly of quartz, microcline
and white mica. The mica has been mined on Mica Creek, and monazite
also is recorded from this locality. About 6 miles west-south-west of
Mount Isa a pegmatite contains beryl and red garnet. Graphic structures
are common.

The pegmatite dykes invade both porphyritic granite and micro-
granite and some of them show evidence of post-consolidation stress.
As these rocks will be the subject of a more detailed study by a member
of the staff of Mount Isa Mines Ltd., it is not proposed to treat them in
any detail here.

VII. TYPES OF BATHOLITH.

It has long been recognized that large plutonic masses, predomi-
nantly of granitic and granodioritic composition, invade the geosynclines
at, or shortly after, their compression. Blackwelder and Baddley (1925)
studied the relation of batholiths to the schistosity of the country rocks,
and their statistical summary indicates that 67% show transgressive
relations with the former schistosity entirely obliterated by thermal
metamorphism; 10% show schistosity parallel to the periphery of the
batholith, indicating recrystallization under compression ; and 22% were
of lenticular form with all related structures parallel to the regional
cleavage. They attribute these differences to different erosion levels.

Closely comparable observations were made by Per Geijer (1916)
in Central Sweden where he noted a younger group of Archaean
granites, with transgressive relations, associated with folding and fault-
ing; whilst older granites invade the anticlines in closely folded areas
and show concordant relations. These he called anticlinal batholiths.

Billings (1928) recognized two types of batholith in the Conway
Quadrangle of New Hampshire. The concordant, he believed, were
associated with the folding movement and he termed them synchronous
batholiths; the transgressive, he considered, were injected after folding,
and he termed them subsequent. Following the terminology of Billings,
Brown (1931) drew up lists of the characteristics of each type and
illustrated them by reference to New South Wales examples. Like
Billings, he considered that the differences are due to their relation to
the main compressional force, but he pointed out also that in part it
may be a function of depth.

PETROLOGY OF CLONCURRY MINERAL FIELD.

61

Cloos and Chudoba (1931) figured a section of a hypothetical
intrusion which showed concordant and transgressive relations related
to depth. Goldschmidt (1911, 1920) recognized two types of meta-
morphism associated with batholiths; thermal metamorphism (Kristiania
Type), and injection metamorphism (Stavanger Type). Moreover, these
two types of metamorphism are apparent in the Younger and Older
Granites of the British Isles.

Hence it is evident that at least two types of batholiths exist, and
that the differences have been variously attributed to age, to depth and to
their relation to the compression. The present writer believes that there is
a third type of batholith which shows some characters intermediate
between the other two. Cloos and Chudoba (1931) and Blackwelder and
Baddley (1925) have also recognised an intermediate type, the former
authors showing them at an intermediate depth. Brown (1931), in
discussing examples of the synchronous batholith, has remarked that the
Murrumbidgee Batholith is “an intrusion which is of synchronous type,
but which lacks some of the characters listed.” These intermediate
batholiths are concordant, and the plutonic rock commonly shows direc-
tional structures parallel to the schistosity of the country rock, but
unlike the typical synchronous batholith, they are not associated with
high grade regional metamorphism nor with regional granitization.
Nevertheless, they are not transgressive nor are they associated with
thermal metamorphism. They are associated with low-grade schists upon
which has been superimposed a hydrothermal or pneumatolytic altera-
tion. The batholith west of Mount Isa is of this type and it is proposed
to call it a quasi-synchronous batholith, because of its close affinity to
the synchronous type.

Because the same type of granite is so widespread in the Mount
Isa-Cloncurry area, it affords a unique opportunity for the study of
batholiths. The porphyritic granite in the Dugald River area is concord-
ant and strongly gneissic, and the country rocks are in the sillimanite-
zone. There is only very slight evidence of granitization, but this may
be inhibited by the composition of the country rocks, which are mainly
calcsilicates. This batholith therefore may be regarded as a synchronous
example.

On the Leichhardt River and at Duchess, the porphyritic granite is
slightly transgressive, it is associated with thermal metamorphism and
static granitization, and at Duchess it is markedly hybridized. Thus it
would seem that these masses are of the subsequent type.

All consist of the porphyritic granite, and reference to Table V.
will show that their composition is fairly uniform and there is nothing
to suggest any difference in their age.

The synchronous batholith of the Dugald River invades calcsilicates
which are believed to be on the same horizon as the calcsilicate hornfelses
of the Duchess Area, and possibly these may be correlated with the
Mount Isa Shale which is invaded by the quasi-synchronous batholith.
When the Bureau Bulletin is published it will be shown that the acid
lavas, invaded by the subsequent batholith on the Leichhardt, underlie
the calcsilicates. Therefore, it would seem that depth of burial is not
responsible for the differences between these batholiths, and their relation
to compression will now be considered.

62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

It is noteworthy that the strongly compressed synchronous batholith
of the Dugald River area is near the centre of this Proterozoic geosyn-
cline, and not only was it subjected to lateral pressure, but no doubt it
was under a heavy load. The Leichhardt mass also is near the centre of
the mobile belt, and conditions might be expected to be the same, yet it
is of the subsequent type. The Dugald Batholith invades incompetent
and highly folded calcareous rocks, whilst the Leichhardt mass invades
resistant acid lava. Thus it would seem that the physical properties of
the country rocks were the controlling factors. In this event, the terms
synchronous and subsequent do not apply.

The origin of the so-called quasi-synehronous batholiths needs further
investigation. There is a suggestion that they have been subjected to an
intermittent compression, and this might be possible on the edge of the
geosyncline near a zone of thrusting. The batholith west of Mount
Isa occurs in such a position where the load would be less than
that of the centre and where some protection would be afforded by the
borderland of older rocks. In this case therefore the position of the
batholith within the geosyncline may be significant. There is no field
evidence of thrusting in the immediate vicinity of- the granite in the
Mount Isa region, but there is reason to believe that the intrusion was
emplaced in the old basement rocks under a comparatively shallow cover
of the Lower Proterozoic strata.

It is therefore concluded that the different types of batholiths are
related to their position within the geosyncline at the time of injection,
and that the degree of competence of the country rock plays an important
role.

VIII. ORIGIN OF THE GRANITES.

It has been held by many that the granites of the Mount
Isa-Cloncurry area have been formed as the result of granitization, but
with this view the present writer does not concur. It is true that an
examination of the aerial photographs reveals trend lines in the granite
which appear to be continuous with the surrounding sedimentary
structures; that many of the granite masses are concordant; that many
of the granites are porphyritic ; and that the contacts are indistinct in
many places. These facts, however, do not prove granitization, though
they are worthy of careful field and laboratory examination.

In the company of Mr. E. K. Carter, a trip was made into the rough
granite country on the May Downs property north-west of Mount Isa,
where strong structural lines showed on the aerial photographs. These
proved to be remnants of arkose, highly contact altered and partly granit-
ized. In most places the contact with the granite was sharp and the
masses appear to be either roof -pendants or screens. Detailed mapping
has been impossible, but it seems likely that the western batholith was
emplaced by a number of concordant injections, possibly separated by
screens of the country rock, or of earlier phases of the igneous rock.
Undoubtedly some static granitization has taken place, particularly in
such susceptible rocks as arkose or dacite, but these form a very small
part of the sequence invaded by the western batholith. Actually the
country rocks in this part of the area are mainly basalts and quartzites,
and it is difficult to assume that such rocks could be granitized to form
granites with the composition shown in Table IV. Undoubtedly some
of the granites have been strongly basified and more analyses would
probably show a wider range of composition, but the three analysed

PETROLOGY OF CLONCURRY MINERAL FIELD.

63

rocks were chosen from amongst the least basified types, and as they
are many miles apart, there seems some justification for assuming that
they represent one magma. They preserve marked uniformity, even
though the country rocks on the Dugald River are mainly calcsilicates.

Where it can be shown that reaction has taken place between basalts
and granite magma, it is significant that intermediate hybrids are
developed. In fig. 13, an attempt is made to show the relationship of
these granites and hybrids to one of the basalts. Obviously none of these
types can be represented by a single point, and when more analyses are
available, it is likely that the basalts, granites and their hybrids will
occupy overlapping fields. At point 11, although the Ab :Or is compar-
able to the other granites, it is displaced towards An indicating assimila-
tion of calcerous material. In the absence of further chemical work this
diagram is included as a possible pointer towards the origin of the
porphyritic granites and their hybrids. Furthermore, the diagram
clearly indicates that the albitite is the parent of some of the hybrids.

Near Duchess there is much evidence to show that the granite has
been hybridized by the basic country rock, and that xenoliths of the
country rock have been acidified to give a complex series of hybrids. Some
of these are undoubtedly the result of static granitization, where but
little acid magma has been added to the solid basic rock. Other hybrids

An

Triangular diagram showing plots of granites, basalt and hybrids based on
normative albite, orthoclase and anorthite. 1. Albitite; 2. Hybridized albitite;
3. Albitized basic rock; 4. Basalt; 5. Microgranite (May Downs); 6. Microgranite
(Cloneurry) ; 7. Porphyritic granite (Mica Creek) ; 8. Porphyritic granite (near
McKellar ’s Bore) ; 9. Porphyritic granite (Dugald River) ; 10. Hybridized porphyritic
granite (Wills Creek) ; 11. Contaminated porphyritic granite (Dugald Area) ;

12. Hybridized granite surrounding basic xenolith; 13. Basic xenolith.

64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

TABLE VI.

Tectonic.

Magmatic.

Metamorphic.

Sinking Trough

Outpouring of Acid Lavas

Partial stabilization

Outpouring of basic lavas.
Dykes and sills cutting
acid lavas

• •

Compression of varying
intensity in different

parts of geosyncline

Regional metamorphism.

Chlorite and biotite

zones on west. Staurolite
and garnet schists locally
near Soldiers Cap and
west of Wee MacGregor
Mine

Thrusting from east

Retrograde metamorphism
superimposed on regional
along shears

Relief of compression

Small bosses of gabbro
injected in noses of folds
and along faults

* *

Renewed compression and
yielding of incompetent
rocks in centre of trough.
Relief by thrusting on edge
of trough

Uprising of magma to form
porphyritic granite.

Hybridization of magma
under fairly static condi -
tions on edge of trough

Contact metamorphism and
static granitization of
competent acid lavas;
contact metamorphism
of calcsilicates on edge of
trough, and piezo-contact
metamorphism and some
synkinematic granitiza-
tion of incompetent cal-
careous rocks in deeper
part of trough

Strong local compression
from west near Mount Isa

Squeezing out of partial
magma on east. Align-
ment of minerals in
crystal mush

Greisenization of low-grade
regionally altered schists

Static period. Slight com-
pression in places

Emplacement of fine even-
grained granites (?)

possibly emplacement of
alhitites

(?) Mineralization along

fault zones, regional

scapolitization, contact
metamorphism and

static granitization

Tension

Pegmatite dykes

Continued mineralization

Slight local compression . .

Directional structure in
pegmatites and slight
shearing of some even-
grained granites

PETROLOGY OF CLONCURRY MINERAL FIELD.

65

have formed as the result of crystallization of a basified magma. An
examination of certain xenoliths indicates that static granitization has
been brought about mainly by the mechanical forcing apart of the
xenolith by porphyroblasts of microcline or plagioclase, and by the
intergranular deposition of quartz and myrmekite.

Reference to fig. 13 shows that all the analysed porphyritic granites
indicate some slight hybridization, but their uniformity suggests that
this may have taken place at greater depth, where in fact the magma
may have arisen as a result of granitization of pelitic sediments (Joplin,.
1952). It seems certain, however, that the granite was injected as a
magma at the present level of erosion in this region and this is further
supported by the presence of de-orientated xenoliths on the southern end
of the western batholith in the region of the Sulieman Bore. The fine
pink granite injects the porphyritic as veins and sheets, and in many
places it is crowded with de-orientated xenoliths; its magmatic origin,
therefore, seems beyond question.

IX. TECTONIC, MAGMATIC AND METAMORPHIC HISTORY.

Although much detailed work needs to be done before these histories
can be written, a bold attempt is made in Table VI. to correlate the
sequence of magmatic and metamorphic events with the possible phases
of the diastrophism. At present it is not possible to date either the
scapolitization or the mineralization with any certainty, and the placing
of all other events is only an interpretation of the data at present
available. Nevertheless, such a Table serves a useful purpose in assemb-
ling the data and possibly suggesting future lines of investigation which
may throw further light on dating these events.

X. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

The paper contains brief descriptions of a group of ortho- and para-
gneissis that are believed to be part of the basement upon which the
Lower Proterozoic succession was deposited. Four chemically distinct
types of country rock are described in the Lower Proterozoic, namely,
aluminous and siliceous rocks, calcareous and calcsilicate rocks, a sequence
of acid lavas and a sequence of basic lavas and intrusives. These are
invaded by albitites, coarse porphyritic granite, microgranites and
pegmatites. The types of batholith present in the areas are discussed
and it is concluded that the differences between them are due partly to
their position within the geosyncline and partly to the nature of the
country rocks which they invade. The origin of the granites is briefly
discussed and an attempt is made to relate the magmatic and meta-
morphic episodes to the tectonic history of the area.

In conclusion the writer would like to emphasize that this work is
only a preliminary account, and that certain ideas may require modifica-
tion or correction when more detailed studies are undertaken. It is
hoped that detailed work on the tectonic history, on the older complex,
on the albitites, on the basic rocks and on the pegmatites may be carried
out in the near future.

F

<66

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

REFERENCES.

Billings, M., 1928. The Petrology of the North Conway Quadrangle in the White
Mountains of New Hampshire. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., 63, 134.

Blackwelder, E. and Baddley, E. R., 1925. Relations between Batholiths and
Schistosity. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 36, 208-9.

Browne, W. R., 1920. The Igneous Rocks of Encounter Bay. Trans. Boy. Soc. S.A.,

44, 21.

1931. Notes on Batholiths and some of their Implications. J. Roy.

Soc. N.S.W., 65, 115-116.

Cloos, H., and Chudoba, K., 1931. Der Brandberg: Bau, Bildung und Gestalt der
jungen Plutone in Sudwestafrica. Neues. Jahr. fur Min., Abt. B, 66, 57.

Edwards, A. B. and Baker, G., 1954. Scapolitization in the Cloncurry District of
North-west Queensland. Geol. Soc. Aust., 1.

Geijer, P., 1916. On the Intrusion Mechanism of the Archean Granites of Central
Sweden. Geol. Inst. TJpsala Bull., 15, 47-60.

Goldschmidt, V. M., 1911. Die Kontaktmetamorphose im Kristiania gebeit.
Videnslcap. Slcrift I, Mat.-Nat. Klasse 1.

1920. Injektionmetamorphose im Stavanger-Gebiete. Ibid., 10, 15-19.

Goodspeed, G. E., 1953. Rheomorphic Breccias. Amer. J. Sci., 251, 453-469.

Harker, A., 1904. The Tertiary Igneous Rocks of Skye. Mem. U.K. Geol. Surv.

Honman, C. S., 1937. The Cloncurry Mining District. Aer. Geol. 7. Geophy. Surv.
N. Aust. Bept. for 1936, 64.

Joplin, G. A., 1933. The Petrology of the Hartley District II. The Metamorphosed
Gabbros and Associated Rocks. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 58, 125-158.

1935. Idem. III. The Contact Metamorphism of the Upper Devonian

(Lambian) Series. Ibid., 60, 16-50.

1952. The Granitization Process and its limitations as Exemplified

in Certain Parts of New South Wales, Geol. Mag., 89, 25-38.

MacGregor, A. G., 1931. Clouded felspar and thermal metamorpliism. Min. Mag., 22,
524.

Misch, P., 1949. (a) Metasomatic Granitization of Batholitliic Dimensions, Pt. I.

Synkinematic Granitization in Nanga Parbat Area, N.W. Himalayas. Amer.
J. Sci., 247, 209-245.

(b) Idem, Pt. II. Static Granitization in Sheku Area, N.W. Yunnan

(China). Ibid., 247, 372-406.

(c) Idem, Pt. III. Relationship of Synkinematic and Static Graniti-
zation. Ibid., 247, 673.

Nockolds, S. R., 1931. The Dhoon (Isle of Man) Granite: A study in Contamina-
tion. Min. Mag., 22, 495.

PETROLOGY OF CLONCURRY MINERAL FIELD.

67

Prider, R. T., 1939. Some minerals from the leueite-rich rocks of the West
Kimberley Area of W.A. Min. Mag., 25, 373-387.

Read, H. H., 1923. On the petrology of the Arnage District, Aberdeenshire. Geol.
Soc. Lond. Aust. Journ. 73, 446-486.

.Shepherd, S. R. L., 1953. Geology of the Cloncurry District. 5th Empire Min. Met.
Congress, 384-390.

69

Vol. LXVI., No. 5.

URANIUM MINERALIZATION IN THE
CLONCURRY-MT. ISA AREA.

By L. J. Lawrence, Department of Mining and Applied Geology,
N.S.W. University of Technology, Sydney.

Communicated by Professor W. H. Bryan.

(With two Plates and two Text-figures.)

( Received 10 th November , 1954; issued separately , 19 th September ,

1955.)

INTRODUCTION.

The discovery of metatorbernite from Mt. Cobalt early in 1954 by
the author and by geologists from Mt.Isa Mines Ltd. has been followed
by the discovery of other uranium occurrences over a wide area in the
Cloncurry-Mt.Isa area. Radio-active material has been found
sporadically from west and north-west of Mt.Isa to a point twelve
miles east of Cloncurry, and from Mt. Cobalt in the south to near
Kajabbi in the north.

The impressions formed by the author as to the nature and origin
of the various occurrences are based upon a brief field survey of a
number of mine leases. Some of the views expressed are somewhat
tentative, but are not lacking in field and laboratory evidence.

The stratigraphy and structure of the area have been interpreted
differently by different workers. Recently doubt has been expressed
as to whether or not a tectonic break exists between series conven-
tionally regarded as Lower Pre- Cambrian and those regarded as Middle
Pre-Cambrian. The country to the west (Mt.Isa and environs) has
been delineated in some detail by Carter (1953) and Knight (1953).
The country to the east and north has not been studied in such detail,
though an excellent working basis has been provided by Honman (1935-
36), Sheppard (1946) and Jones (1953).

For the purposes of identifying the stratigraphic position of the
various occurrences, the author has used the stratigraphic terminology
proposed by Browne (in David 1950). Reference is made herein to
the Argylla Series and the Kalkadoon Gneisses (Lower Pre- Cambrian),
the Mt.Isa Series (Middle Pre-Cambrian) and to the Templeton
intrusives of late Middle Pre-Cambrian age.

NATURE AND ORIGIN OF MINERALIZATION.

Specific occurrences are referred to according to lease names, the
positions of which are indicated on the accompanying locality map.

There is evidence of trace mineralization within small lenses of
sodic migmatite as replacement of felspar by small grains of an
unidentified radio-active mineral. These migmatites occur as concor-
dant veinlets and lenses, up to six inches in length, in Argylla schists
in a creek bed near the main road ten miles east of Mt.Isa. This
occurrence, of mineralogical interest only, seems to bear no relation to

G

70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

an adjacent intrusive mass of gneissic granite. The occurrence is
similar to the mineralized migmatites of the Archaean of South
Australia and the Northern Territory. No doubt other such mineralized
migmatites occur elsewhere in the Mt.Isa-Cloncurry area.

Mt. I SArCLONCURRY

L0CA.LITY MAP.

At the Comfort lease adjacent to the main road, midway between
Mt.Isa and Cloncurry, similar biotite schists occur trending north-
south. Outcrops are poor, the greater part of the lease being covered
by detritus. An extremely radio-active mineral occurs here as eluvial
pieces up to two inches in diameter. Chemical tests show the mineral
to contain calcium, iron, titanium, thorium and uranium; the uranium
content being 31*2% U308. The mineral is black and vitreous on a
fresh face, but is resin-coloured toward the exterior. It weathers to
a cream-coloured ochre containing much titania. The fracture is
conchoidal and the streak brownish-green. The hardness of the mineral
is a little over 4, and the specific gravity 4-8. This mineral is almost
certainly brannerite, an uranium, calcium, iron, rare earth titanate
originally recorded from Kelly Gulch, Idaho, where it occurs as detrital
grains in a gold placer (Palache et. al., 1944), and more recently from
Ontario, Canada (Nuffield, 1954).

URANIUM MINERALIZATION IN THE CLONCURRY-MT. ISA AREA.

71

The brannerite is not seen in situ, and it was not found during a
systematic search in a dyke of unstressed granite pegmatite of Temple-
ton age concordantly intrusive into the schists. It is believed that
this uranium mineral occurs in lenses of migmatite within the schists,
now covered by detritus. The occurrence does not appear to be
extensive.

An interesting feature of the geology of this lease is the presence
of a discontinuous bed of coarse calcite in the biotite schists. The
origin of the bed is obscure. It shows no evidence of shearing, even
though perfectly conformable with the direction of schistosity of the
enclosing biotite schists. By comparison with other occurrences on the

Text-fig. 2.

72

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

Spike lease and Six Kangaroos lease (q.v.), it would appear that the
calcite lenses represent surplus lime which has migrated from the
metamorphosed country rock to zones of tension possibly during
intrusions by Templeton granite and pegmatite.

One and a half miles north from the Comfort lease are a number
Spike lease and Six Kangaroos lease (q.v.), it would appear that the
leases is a zone of pyroxene-scapolite granulite of the type recently
described by Edwards and Baker (1953). These form sharp ridges
one hundred feet above the otherwise flat surface. The granulites are
in contact with felsitic rhyolite and agglomerates. The volcanics give
way to a fine-grained haematite rich rock which may be similar to the
“red rock” described by Edwards and Baker (op. cit.). The zone of
“red rock” is followed by biotite schists which, by hydrothermal
alteration, may have given rise to the former.

The interesting feature of this locality is the presence, within the
“red rock”, of an irregular mass of coarse calcite which has a pseudo-
intrusive relationship to the country rock. The calcite has suffered
thermal metamorphism at certain points with the production of bright-
green actinolite.

These met-amorphic patches are sporadic in occurrence within the
calcite mass. Also sporadic are pieces of davidite up to one pound
weight, but generally smaller. The calcite, however, does not appear
to be richly endowed with this mineral. The origin of this calcite mass
is likewise obscure, but the author finds it difficult to postulate an origin
not related, in some way, to the migration of lime and titania from
the adjacent metasediments. Edwards and Baker have noted the
presence of ilmenite in the metamorphosed sediments of other parts of

the Mt.Isa-Cloncurrv area.

«/

On the western border of the leases the strata are intruded by a
circular boss of alaskite from which issue graphic pegmatites. Both
are of a non-stressed character. At one place on the western fringe
of the granite, a small quantity of davidite occurs replacing felspar
(plate IV., fig. 1), but here again, the quantity seems to be limited. The
enclosing granite is stained by small patches of pale blue and bright
yellow uranium oxidized products. There is no doubt that this alaskite
granite and its pegmatites belong to the period of “newer granites” and
that the occurrence at Six Kangaroos represents a second generation of
this rare mineral in the Mt.Isa-Cloncurry region. However, the
possibility that the davidite may have been derived from the metasedi-
ments during intrusion should not be overlooked.

URANIUM MINERALIZATION IN THE CLONCURRY-MT. ISA AREA. 73

The occurrence of uraniferous material at the Mary Kathleen
(Walton’s) lease offers a fascinating study as regards paragenesis and
origin. This lease is located forty miles east of Mt. Isa. Paragneisses
and mica schists occur along the western border of the lease and may
be well observed in a creek on the fringe. These rocks are in close
juxtaposition with heavily sheared pyroxene granulites which, in a
less sheared condition, also outcrop as high ridges on the eastern border.
The strike of the metasediments is due north-south. The heavy shear-
ing of the granulites on the west is due to faulting along the strike.

The central portion of the lease, between the two belts of pyroxene
granulite, is occupied by an area of thermally metamorphosed calcareous
rock. Macroscopically, the rock is a uniform brown colour, aphanitic
in texture, and possesses a greasy lustre. Under the microscope it is
seen to consist of large patches of brown colour-zoned grossularite and
green hedenbergite. The rock is a typical scarn. The scarn grades
into another rock type of a brownish-black colour and minutely crystal-
line texture. Microscopically (plate IV., fig. 2) this rock consists of
allanite in subhedral to anhedral grains up to 2 mm. in length, but
generally smaller. The mineral is pleochroic from light brown to dark
brown and is sometimes twinned. Some grains are very dark in colour,
nearly opaque, and represent the same mineral in a quasi-metamict state.
The allanite accounts for some 80 to 90 per cent, of the rock. The
remainder consists of metamorphic apatite, epidote and a mineral
believed to be lawsonite. The texture of the rock is granoblastic with
the merest suggestion of lineation. Pending further investigation this
material has been termed uraniferous allanite (see table of uranium
content). Uranium oxidized products occur sparingly along joints in
the allanite rock. Among these is autunite which exhibits its character-
istic fluorescence under ultra-violet radiation.

Edwards and Baker have indicated the presence of orthite (allanite)
as cores surrounded by epidote in the scapolite marble at Duchess and
elsewhere in the Mt.Isa-Cloncurry area. The origin of the scapolite
rocks has been described by these workers as due to “regional pneuma-
tolytic metasomatism”. There is no doubt that the development of
the allanite rock was simultaneous with the regional scapolitization of
the calcareous sediments of this locality, and derives from a local
concentration of rare earth volatiles with some supervening contact
metamorphism. Templeton granite outcrops within half a mile of the
lease, and though unstressed, is elongated north-south, parallel to the
strike of the sediments in this locality.

North-west of Cloncurry, between Quamby and Kajabbi, in
monotonously flat terrain, schists and scapolite granulites are concealed
over considerable areas b}^ thin coverings of desert outwash silts.
Granites and tourmaline pegmatites of Templeton age occur in places.
At a number of localities in this district, irregular fragments and loose
crystals of iron ore occur and are mostly coated with desert varnish.

74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

A random collection of these pebbles varied as follows : —
(i.) High radio-activity and very strong magnetic susceptibility,
(ii.) High radio-activity and weak magnetism, (iii.) No radio-activity
and strong magnetic properties. (iv.) Neither radio-activity nor
magnetism. Tentatively these pebbles are regarded as uraniferous
ilmenite-magnetite intergrowths with varying uranium content and
showing various stages of oxidation to haematite.

Twelve miles east of Mt.Isa in country dominated by high ridges
of white quartzite of the Mt.Isa Series are a number of leases known
respectively as Counter, Bess, Spike, Point and Piper. The leases are
located in gently undulating terrain in an open valley bordered by
the quartzites.

The country rocks consist of dark grey coloured chloritic quart-
zites, reddish to purplish grey coloured shales and hornfels, calcareous
shales and some epidotized basic lavas. The latter appear to be the
basal beds, but are not continuous in outcrop. Some sheared
conglomerate occurs within the series. The sediments are broadly
folded with dips of about 45°. Except where strong shear zones occur,
none shows any sign of advanced metamorphism.

Each of these leases contains small areas of high radio-activity,
and uranium oxidized products have been noted.

At the Counter Lease, uranium has been found in the chloritic
quartzites. In each of the other leases mentioned, uranium occurs in
small quantities only in the purplish-grey hornfels member. Thin
section studies show the hornfels to contain flakes of biotite, nests of
plagioclase, calcite and some quartz. None of these minerals could
carry the uranium proven by chemical analysis. This element must,
therefore, occur in the host of minute metallic grains observed only in
thin section (plate V., figs. 1, 2) . These grains are readily extracted from
the crushed rock by means of a small magnet. The chloritic quartzite
from Counter Lease contains a substantial quantity of magnetite
crystals (plate V., fig. 2) and possibly some ilmenite.

Uranium search, up to the present, would indicate that the other
members of the Mt. Isa Series do not contain uranium. This proposi-
tion, however, should be treated with some reserve at this stage of
exploration. Thin section study, together with the fact that the
uranium bearing grains are confined to one or two sedimentary units,
suggests a geosynclinal origin. Lack of severe tectonism has allowed
the grains to remain much in the same state as they were deposited.

At the Bess Lease, there is evidence of small scale copper mineraliza-
tion. A small lens of chalcopyrite six inches in length occupies a
tensional gash in the hornfels. Minute particles of the same mineral
are seen to diminish in concentration away from the chalcopyrite filled
opening. There is no evidence of vein quartz or other gangue materials.
This isolated occurrence may also represent geosynclinal mineralization
with a degree of ionic migration toward a zone of pressure relief.

URANIUM MINERALIZATION IN THE CLONCURRY-MT. ISA AREA.

75

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

Low grade uranium mineralization occurs in the Cloncurry-Mt. Isa
area as follows : —

1. As a constituent of ilmenite-magnetite in schists of the Argylla
Series; also as brannerite in sodic migmatites in the schists. The
uraniferous iron ores are a product of regional metamorphism, and
there may be a correlation with the magnetite bearing chlorite schists
of the Broken Hill District.

2. As a “ pneumatoly tic ” constituent of alaskite granite of
Templeton age.

3. As a constituent of allanite rock of pyrometasomatic origin.

4. As a heavy mineral concentrate in certain unstressed sediments
of the Mt.Isa Series, derived from erosion of the uranium bearing
Lower Pre- Cambrian metasediments.

The author is of the opinion that the best chances of economic
production lie with the Mt.Isa sediments. A considerable amount of
very detailed stratigraphic study and mapping will be necessary in
order to establish the structure and sub-surface distribution of these
beds. Local tectonic disruption, folding and the natural streaky char-
acter of heavy mineral concentrates in sediments may prove hazardous.
The possibility that these uraniferous concentrations are too few in
number and their overall tenor too low for substantial production,
must also be considered. Walton’s should be a significant producer.

Results of chemical assays of samples from the various occurrences
referred to are contained in the accompanying table.

TABLE OF URANIUM CONTENT OF ROCKS AND MINERALS FROM

CLONCURRY-MT. ISA.

Stratigraphic Position.

Host Rock.

Uranium Mineral.

%u3o8

Argylla Series . .

“ Intrusive ” calcite. .

Davidite

3-5

Argylla Series . .

Lenses of sodic mig-
matite (?)

Brannerite

31-2

Argylla Series. .

Allanite rock amid
scapolite granulites

Allanite

Trace to
1-5

Templeton Intrusives

Alaskite

Davidite

3-8

Mount Isa Series

Hornfels

Uraniferous magne-
tite-ilmenite

Trace to
0-43

Mount Isa Series

Chloritic quartzite . .

Uraniferous magne-

tite-ilmenite

Trace to
0-73

76

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

REFERENCES.

Carter, S. R., 1953. Mt. Isa Mines, Geology of Australian Ore Deposits. Fifth
Empire Min., Met. Congr., Australia.

David, T. W. E. (Browne Ed.), 1950. Geology of Commonwealth of Australia, 1.
London.

Edwards, A. B. and Baker, G., 1953. Scapolitization in the Cloncurry District
of North-Western Queensland. Geol. Soc. Aus. Jour., 1.

Honman, C. S., 1937. Aer. Geol. Geophys. Surv. N. Aust., Eept. for 1936.

Jones, O. A., 1953. The Structural Geology of the Pre-Cambrian in Queensland
in Relation to Mineralization. Geology of Australian Ore Deposits, Fifth
Empire Min., Met. Congr., Australia.

Knight, C. L., 1953. Regional Geology of Mt. Isa, ibid.

Nuffield, E. W., 1954. Brannerite from Ontario, Canada. Amer. Min., 39.

Palache, C. Berman and Frondel, 1944. Dana’s System of Mineralogy, 1.

New York.

Sheppard, S. R. L., 1946. Geological Sketch Map, Cloncurry District. Qld. Gov.
Min. Jour., 47.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate IY.

Figure 1. — Davidite replacing orthoclase in alaskite. Six Kangaroos Lease,
Cloncurry. Ordinary light, x 25.

Figure 2. — Allanite rock showing granoblastic allanite (grey) and accessory
epidote and allanite (colourless). Mary Kathleen Lease, Cloncurry. Ordinary
light, x 25.

Plate Y.

Figure 1. — Indurated shale (hornfels) showing faulted layer of uraniferous
iron ore. Spike Lease, Mt. Isa. Ordinary light, x 25.

Figure 2. — Slightly metamorphosed chloritic quartzite showing disseminated
crystals of uraniferous iron ore. Counter Lease, Mt. Isa. Ordinary light, x 25.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Yol. LXYI.; No. 5

Plate IY

1

2

PiiOC. Roy. Soc. Q ’land, Yol. LXYIv No. 5

Plate V,

2

Vol. LXVI., No. 6.

77

A NEW LUNG-WORM FROM AUSTRALIAN
MARSUPIALS (Nematoda: Metastrongylidae)

By M. Josephine Mackerras, Queensland Institute of Medical Research,

Brisbane.

(With one Plate and six Text-figures.)

( Received 15 th December , 1954; issued separately , 19 th September,

1955.)

A new Metastrongylid lung-worm has been found in two species of
bandicoots. Five infected individuals of Isoodon obesulus (Shaw and
Nodder) and one of Perameles nasuta Geoffroy were studied. In addition,
specimens of the same parasite from P. nasuta were received from Mr.
A. J. Bearup, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Sydney.

In animals which were autopsied soon after capture, only small,
inconspicuous, white nodules were present near the pleural surface of the
lung. Within these nodules adult worms were found intricately
embedded in the lung substance (Plate VI., fig. 1.) They proved very
difficult to extract. However, one animal (P. nasuta ) was kept in
captivity for ten months, during which time it passed large numbers
of first-stage larvae in its faeces. At autopsy its lungs were extensively
mottled with greyish and white nodules. Many worms were embedded
in these nodules, but others were lying more or less free in the bronchioles
and extending for part of their length into the bronchi. They could
with care be extracted intact. These worms were considered full-grown,
being more than ten months old, and the measurements given below
were made on them.

Worms were washed in 0-4 per cent, saline, killed with hot 70 per
cent, alcohol, and stored in 70 per cent, alcohol containing 5 per cent,
glycerine. Measurements of total length were made in the latter fluid;
other measurements and photomicrographs were made from specimens
cleared in lacto-phenol.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES.

This parasite may be readily distinguished from Marsupostrongylus
bronchialus Mackerras and Sandars, from the same hosts. M. bronch-
ialus is a much stouter worm which lives in the bronchi. It has a
voluminous, strikingly ornamented teguminal sheath. The bursal
formula is different, the lateral rays arising from a common base and the
dorsals being reduced to papillae. The spicules are also distinct. The new
species resembles Pled o strong ylus fragilis Mackerras and Sandars, from
the marsupial mouse, in general body form and location in the lung.
However, P. fragilis is a smaller worm, distinguishable in the
male by the bursa which has the same formula as M. bronchialus, and
in the female by the sharply pointed tail and relatively muscular
ovijector. The spicules are also quite distinct.

It seems better to make a new genus for this parasite rather than
emend the definition of either of the above mentioned genera to include
it. When our knowledge of the marsupial lung-worms is less fragmen-
tary, it may be possible to reduce the number of genera. All "'three

H

78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

species from Australian marsupials appear more closely related to each
other than to the metastrongyles of the Eutheria, or to those of South
American marsupials. They all possess tiny, delicate, complex spicules,
which are equal in size and shape, and which split distally into long
flexible rods clothed with membrane.

The generic name Filostrongylus is proposed, the name being
referable to the extremely long, thread-like appearance of the worm.
The specific name peramelis indicates the hosts, which belong to the
family Peramelidae.

Filostrongylus n.g.

Relatively smooth, thread-like worms. Male bursa with short,
stumpy rays, ventrals arising separately, laterals also arising separately,
externo-dorsal single, dorsals paired. Spicules complex, equal, each
splitting distally into rods. Female without muscular ovijector, vulva
close to posterior end, ovoviviparous.

Filostrongylus Peramelis n.sp.

Hosts : Perameles nasuta Geof. from Mt. Nebo, S.Q., and Sydney,

N. S.W., and Isoodon obesulus (Shaw and Nodder) from Mt. Nebo and
Mt. Glorious, S.Q.

Habitat : Lung substance, bronchioles, bronchi.

Types : Holotype male and allotype female from Perameles nasuta,
S.Q., in the collections of the Queensland Museum.

Male: Long, delicate, filiform, tapering at each end, but other-
wise nearly uniform in width. Cuticle with fine longitudinal striations ;
a series of irregular transverse wrinkles present in the oesophageal region
(Text -fig. 1). Length, 35 to 49 mm., average of twelve specimens
44.5 mm. Diameter behind head 0.036 mm., at the oesophageal-intestinal
junction 0.1 mm., maximum 0.24 mm., tapering to 0.06 mm. at cloaca.
Nerve ring about 0.13 mm. from anterior end. The cuticle of the head is
raised into three slightly bilobed lips. Inhere are three rather squat
papillae en face ; two of them are shown in Text-fig. 1. Oesophagus

O. 26 to 0.28 mm. in length by 0.05 mm. in maximum breadth. It is
slightly constricted in the middle, and widest posteriorly. The intestine
begins as a wide tube, containing pus cells and epithelial cells mixed
with some red cells from the host; it gradually becomes narrower and
pushed to one side, first by the excretory sac and then by the gonad.
The excretory sac is about 3 mm. long ; its opening could not be
distinguished (Text-fig. 3).

Bursa small, rays short and stnmpy. The ventrals are sub-equal,
and lie closely approximated. The laterals arise separately; the antero-
lateral and especially the medio-lateral have relatively broad bases, that
of the former being medial and only slightly anterior to the latter. The
antero-lateral usually lies obliquely across the broad medio-lateral, and
projects as a finger-like process above and posterior to it. The postero-
lateral is much shorter than the other two. The externo-dorsal is single,
short and stumpy, sometimes ending in a papilliform projection. There
are paired dorsal rays, each short and bifurcated (Text-fig. 2).

The spicules are tiny, delicate, complex structures. Each consists
of a thin, curved, irregular plate, produced proximally into a roughened
knob, and splitting distally into two long, flexible rods, of which the
posterior is the longer. The ventral parts of the spicular plates are
closely approximated (possibly fused) in the midline, and the ventral

A NEW LUNG-WORM FROM AUSTRALIAN MARSUPIALS.

79

plate so formed is produced distally into a median pointed piece,
studded laterally with minute, short, blunt teeth. The tips of the long
rods are clothed with membrane, and may sometimes be seen projecting
through the cloaca. Posterior to the rods is a delicate gubernaeulum
shaped like a flattened gutter (Plate VI., figs. 2-4).

Female: Length 65 to 92 mm., average of nine specimens 81
mm. Diameter just behind the head 0.05 mm., at the oesophageal-intestinal
junction 0.14 to 0.19 mm., maximum 0.34 to 0.39 mm., tapering to 0.07
mm. at the vulva. In a specimen measuring 92 mm., the coils of the
first ovary began about 3 to 4 mm. from the anterior end and those
of the second ovary about 30 mm. from it. The greater part of the body
is filled with the two uteri lying parallel with each other, each packed
with ova containing well-developed embryos. The uteri unite 0.7 mm.
from the vulva to form a common uterus, also packed with ova. This

Text-figures 1-6. — Filostrongylus peramelis, n.g., n.sp. 1. Head of male, showing
lips, papillae, and transverse cuticular wrinkles; 2. Bursa of male; 3. Anterior
end of male; 4. Posterior end of female; 5. First-stage larva; 6. Third-stage larva,
a. anus, a.l. antero-lateral ray, d. dorsal rays, e.d. externo-dorsal ray, ex. excretory
organ, ex.p. excretory pore, g.r. genital rudiment, i. intestine, l.v. latero-ventral ray;
m.l. medio-lateral ray, n.r. nerve ring, o. oesophagus, p.l. postero-lateral ray, v. vulva,
v.v. ventro-ventral ray.

80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

is separated from the vagina by a slight constriction. The cuticle
lining the vagina is continuous with the teguminal sheath. Tail short,
bluntly rounded, anus 0.03 and vulva 0.06 to 0.09 mm. from the tip
(Text-fig. 4). Other features as in the male.

LIFE HISTORY.

First-stage Larva : Specimens from the uterus of the female
measured 0.225 to 0.245 mm. in length by 0.011 mm. in width. There is
a short oral cavity leading into a rhabitoid oesophagus measuring 0.1 mm.
by 0.008 mm. at the bulb. Nerve ring 0.055 to 0.06 mm. and genital
rudiment 0.144 mm. from the anterior end. Anus 0.03 mm. from pos-
terior end. The tail is slender, pointed, and notched dorsally and
ventrally (Text-fig. 5).

TABLE 1.

Attempts to Infect Bandicoots with F. peramelis.

Number of
Recipient.

Date of Attempted
Infection.

Dose of Larvae.

Results.

f (1)

1-2-54

10

—

360

\ (2)

19-2-54

32

—

l (3)

23-4-54

40

—

362

/ (1)

19-2-54

45

+ *

l (2)

30-4-54

48

+

364

17-5-54

54

+ *

365

25-5-54

30

—

f (1) 26-10-54

6

367

< (2)

1-11-54

2

y +

l (3)

5-11-54

12

j

* Infection died out in e few weeks.

First-stage larvae penetrated the foot of the small, dark, garden
slug, Agriolimax laevis Muller, and went through developmental stages
closely resembling those of other known lung-worms. The larvae became
curled in a circle, and absorption of food material resulted in the
intestinal cells becoming loaded with retractile granules. Full-growth
first-stage larvae were about 0.4 mm. in length by 0.026 mm. in width.
The first moult occurred in about two weeks, and the second about one
week later. The third-stage larva remained within the two cast skins.

Third-stage Larva • Length 0.45 mm. by 0.022 mm. in breadth.
There is a short oral cavity leading into a rhabitoid oesophagus. There
are two, rather delicate, chitinous rods with knobbed ends at the beginning
of the oesophagus. The oesophageal bulb is well-developed, and appears
dark by transmitted light. Oesophagus 0.135 mm. long by 0.015 mm.
in maximum diameter. The excretory pore lies about 0.086 mm. and the
genital rudiment 0.28 mm. from the anterior end. Tail 0.035 mm. long,
sharply pointed.

It is unlikely that Agriolimax laevis, which is probably an introduced
slug, is a natural host for this parasite. Mairsr larvae failed to penetrate
the slug, or, if they did, failed to reach third stage. Others succeeded
in developing fully, but were rapidly walled around by fibroblasts and
eventually absorbed. Many apparently normal third-stage larvae may
not have been viable, as it proved difficult to set up new infections.

A NEW LUNG-WORM FROM AUSTRALIAN MARSUPIALS.

81

The slug infections were so light that it was never possible to get large
numbers of larvae. Several attempts were made to transmit the infection
by feeding third-stage larvae to Isoodon obesulus , which had been held
in captivity for some months, and repeatedly examined for first-stage
larvae to exclude the possibility of a pre-existing infection. The results
of these experiments are set out in Table 1.

The prepatent period, that is, the interval between feeding infective
material and the appearance of first-stage larvae in the faeces, was
between six and seven weeks.

SUMMARY.

Filostrongylus peramelis n.g., n.sp., is described from the bronchioles
of the bandicoots, Isoodon obesulus and Perameles nasuta.

Development of this parasite occurred in the slug, Agriolimax
laevis, in about three weeks. Four clean bandicoots were infected, the
prepatent period in them being between six and seven weeks.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI.

Figure 1. — Section of lung of Isoodon obesulus, showing female worm coiled
up near pleural surface, x 32.

Figures 2-4. — Three successive views of tail of male worm in right ventro-
lateral, ventral and left lateral aspects respectively, showing spicules, x 384.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q ’land, Yol. LXYI., No. 6

Plate YI

Vol. LXVI, No. 7.

83

MEMORIAL LECTURE.

HEBER ALBERT LONGMAN.

By D. A. Herbert, Department of Botany, University of Queensland.

(With one Plate.)

( Delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland
29 th November , 1954.)

Two years before his death in February 1954, the Australian and
New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science conferred
the Mueller Medal on Heber Albert Longman for his distinguished
services to natural science in Australia. By a curious coincidence the
two scientists, one whose memory was honoured by the establishment
of the medal and the other on whom it was conferred, had each come
to Australia at the age of twenty-two for health reasons. Both, after
an initial period at other employment, turned to botanical science as
their main interest. Baron von Mueller achieved world renown as a
botanist, but Mr. Longman was to achieve his greatest distinction in the
field of palaeontology.

Heber Longman had little science training beyond the basic intro-
duction of his schooldays, but the history of Australian science is
liberally sprinkled with the names of men who, keen amateurs in their
youth, have developed their talents without the help of the short-cuts of
a formal University education in the field of their specialization. The
village of Pleytesbury, where he was born on June 24th, 1880, lies on the
edge of the Downs in Wiltshire, a few miles from the market town of
Warminster. In the library of his father, the Rev. F. Longman, a
Congregational minister of liberal views and wide interests, his browsing
laid the foundations for his life-long literary interests. Wiltshire is
famous for its antiquarian relics, and he developed an early interest
in the archaeology of the surrounding country. Stonehenge, the camp
of Vespasian near Amesbury, and the castle ruins at Old Sarum were
not far away. The science masters at his school, Emwell House in
Warminster, encouraged his natural leanings towards botany, geology
and archaeology. His early environment was full of opportunity for a
young naturalist, but another important consideration decreed that his
talents should be developed far from these congenial surroundings.

Though to all appearances a strong boy with some reputation as
a soccer player, he was constitutionally delicate, and was advised to
come to Australia on account of chest weakness. His family doctor
suggested Toowoomba. He knew no one there, but his sisters in England
had insisted that he should make himself known to the Congregational
minister. He arrived in Toowoomba in 1902, and duly called on the
Rev. J. M. Bayley, whose daughter Irene became Mrs. Longman in 1904.

Toowoomba, with the mists of the Range, did not have the climate
best suited for his chest weakness. In fact, the trouble became more
distressing. It was not until years later when he came to Brisbane
that he got the relief he sought. In the meantime, however, he spent
nine active years in the garden city. There he married, and there he
continued to pursue his interests in literature and natural history. Nor
did he forget his soccer; he introduced the game to Toowoomba.

I

84 PROCEEDINGS ' OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

When he arrived, a small weekly newspaper had just closed down,
and its plant was for sale. He bought it and engaged a printer. Though
he knew no one in the Toowoomba business world, he canvassed for
advertisements and in a few weeks the first copy of the Downs Post
appeared. It was a small local weekly paper similar in function to
the suburban newspapers of the present day. It must have required
some versatility and1 energy on the part of one whose only acquaintance
with journalism had been the writing of an occasional article. But
hard work never worried him ; he soon was able to set up the old-
fashioned hand type and even take the ancient printing press to pieces
and put it together again when it refused to work. Often the editor
would hand-set the type of his report on an' evening meeting or concert
before he went to bed, and leave it ready for the printer to run off
next morning.

A freshness about the presentation of reports, news items and
literary and social comments attracted the attention of Toowoomba
people, and before long a small company of business men was formed.
The little news sheet evolved into a weekly paper called The Pag by
George Essex Evans, the Queensland poet who became Editor with
Heber Longman as sub-editor and manager. This lively publication
created much interest beyond local circles and was much quoted at the
time. When Essex Evans later retired to his farm below the Range
Longman carried on as Editor, but with his English respect for pro-
priety, he changed the name to The Citizen. Bound copies of these
papers are now in the possession of the Toowoomba Historical Society.

In 1908 he started sending botanical specimens to F. M. Bailey,
the Colonial Botanist in Brisbane. A letter signed by Bailey, but written
by his grandson, young Cyril White, named a couple of specimens and
told him that, though he often received specimens from Toowoomba
he did not know of any regular collectors in the district. It seemed
that there were no local botanists, so Longman set about building his
own collection and getting it named by the Colonial Botanist or by
J. H. Maiden, the Government Botanist in Sydney. One of his finds,
Sarcochilus longmanii , was named in his honour. His herbarium, with
additions from Brisbane and the north coast, was later presented to
the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

Heber Longman initiated the Field Naturalists Club in Toowoomba,
his own special interest in those days still being in plants. Another
member was Dr. Ronald Hamlyn Harris, a zoologist trained in Germany,
who had worked for some time in the West Indies, and wTas then teaching
at the Toowoomba Grammar School. Hamlyn Harris later succeeded
De Vis as Director of the Queensland Museum, and he persuaded
Longman to come to Brisbane to join his staff in 1911.

In 1917, when Hamlyn Harris resigned, Longman was appointed
Director. He was still an ardent botanical collector, going out on
excursions in his holidays and week-ends with his vasculum and a milk
can. The vasculum was a mystery to country folk, but it was the milk
can that really aroused their curiosity.

ILis interests were now gradually directed away from botany,
though he published some papers of special interest, including a list of
plants of Masthead Island compiled by him on the first University of
Queensland biology excursion, under the leadership of Professor T.
Harvey Johnston. He published over seventy papers, mostly in the
Memoirs of the Queensland Museum, and his really notable contributions

MEMORIAL LECTURE — HEBER ALBERT LONGMAN.

85

were in the field of vertebrate palaeontology. He described, among
others, two dinosaurs ( Rhoetosaurus brownei and Austrosaurus
mckillopi), cretaceous marine reptiles ( Cratochelone and Kronosaurus)
a cretaceous fish ( F Under sichthys) and a marsupial, Eury zygoma.
These were new genera. Kronosaurus queenslandicus was reconstructed
with remarkable accuracy from a mandible with incomplete dentition.
It is a matter of great regret that when a skeleton was finally discovered
by an American collector it went to the United States.

The work on these fossil bones was very onerous. Not much time
was available from the multitudinous routine tasks that devolve on a
museum director. His annual three week vacations were given to
collecting fossil bones, where formerly they were spent in plant
collecting. Long evenings and week-ends were spent in chipping away
the matrix and in studying the revealed structures. Almost the whole
of one Christmas Day was spent with Mrs. Longman in working on the
Euryzygoma material. But the results of this work were of great
value to Queensland palaeontology, and it was this that won him wide
recognition.

Sir John Goodwin, when he was Governor of Queensland, spent a
great deal of time at the Museum. He was keenly interested in natural
history but had a special professional interest in osteology. On one
occasion when he was receiving guests officially at a levee he slipped
his hand in his pocket and when, he shook hands with Longman pressed
a bone into his palm. “You’ll be interested in this, Longman”, he
said and then resumed his gubernatorial duty of greeting the next
guest. Sir Matthew Nathan, who was Sir John’s predecessor, had also
been a regular visitor to the Museum, though perhaps more in connection
with the Great Barrier Reef committee, and very closely associated with
the organization of the Yonge Expedition, as well as making his own
contributions to the study of reef fauna.

Longman’s exhibits at meetings of the Queensland Naturalists’
Club and the Royal Society were a regular feature of their meetings,
and natural history observations were as likely to be expounded as were
the more abstruse points of the anatomy of an aboriginal skull or a fossil
bone. Members were never certain whether they were going to be
charmed by the beauty of a rare sea-shell or startled by a live snake.
He had the happy power of investing the most unlikely looking specimen
with an absorbing interest. The secret lay in his own obvious enjoyment
in communicating and sharing his own enthusiasm for the subject he
was discussing.

Naturally his services were in great demand for broadcasts and
public lectures, the latter not only at the museum, but at meetings of
societies and organizations often with no specific interest in natural
science. Whether it did any permanent good in many cases is debatable,
but his lectures to school children, particularly during the bird month
of October, resulted in the signing of tremendous numbers of Nature
Lover’s certificates, and no doubt had a good effect in helping to build

86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

up a public attitude towards the protection of the native fauna. At the
other end of his range of lecturing duties was the course in Vertebrate
Palaeontology that he gave to geology students in the University of
Queensland.

Original research in natural history included papers on that
beautiful spider, Dicrostichus magnificas. I spent an evening in his
garden when he lived in Wooloowin watching this remarkable creature
catching night-flying moths. It was an amazingly skilful performance
repeated, I suppose nightly in thousands of gardens, but a habit likely
to be discovered only by someone with the keenest powers of observation.

Mrs. Longman’s part in many of these researches was important
though unostentatious. She was a trained teacher, and had an indepen-
dent career of great distinction in the public life of Queensland. She
was president of the National Council of Women from 1921 to 1925,
and took a leading part in child welfare and educational activities.
She was the first woman member of the Legislative Assembly in Queens-
land, holding the Bulimba seat from 1929 to 1932. In the early days
in Toowoomba she had worked on the weekly newspaper with her
husband. She went on the collecting trips that wTere their form of
relaxation, and spent long hours in the evenings and week-ends at the
Museum helping with the tedious task of preparing the vertebrate
fossil material. The paper on the spider Dicrostichus was the result
of husband and wife collaboration. Their home was the meeting place
of the wide circle of friends and visiting scientists with whom their
common and diverse interests were intertwined.

For many years a group of kindred spirits, the Philosophy Circle,
met regularly at the rooms of Dr. C. A. Thelander on Wickham Terrace.
There, in an atmosphere of friendliness, violent argument and tobacco
smoke, they were prepared to discuss anything — the origin of life, war
and peace, water divining, education, religion, literature, psychology,
philosophy or politics. The circle included in its membership clerics
and rationalists, medical and business men, scientists and journalists
of such diverse outlooks that there was rarely any doubt that the
discussion, even if it might be inconclusive, would be lively and uninhib-
ited. Longman had an ardent admiration for T. H. Huxley, and that
great biologist had a tremendous influence on his whole biological and
philosophical outlook. There is no doubt that members sometimes
deliberately chose subjects on which the debate could be diverted to
the classical nineteenth century battle ground of science and religion,
and on such occasions Father Little and Longman, two firm friends,
would go happily into the combat. We were soon back in the stormy
controversial days of another period in the history of biology. The other
members if they were not in the fight waited with academic detachment
while St. Thomas Aquinas on the one hand and Thomas Henry Huxley
(beatified as St. Thomas Huxley by those who had heard this type

MEMORIAL LECTURE HEBER ALBERT LONGMAN.

87

of controversy on many occasions) on the other, were quoted at length.
The implacable opponents were quite likely to share one another’s
matches and tobacco when the unsettled argument moved to the supper
table.

Years later, in 1953, Thomas Henry Huxley’s grandson, Dr. Julian
Huxley, paid a brief visit to Brisbane and called on Longman, then in
retirement at his home at Chelmer. It was not a courtesy visit to a
stalwart admirer of his grandfather, but an eminent biologist paying
his respects to a colleague who had made distinguished contributions to
biology in another land.

e

There was another group in which he took a special interest, the
Thirty Club. It met under more formal conditions than the Philosophy
Circle, with its deliberations centred round a paper prepared by one of
the thirty members on any chosen subject, preferably controversial.
Discussion was on a different plane from that of the Philosophy Circle.
It opened with two carefully prepared criticisms after which the debate
continued well into the night. Longman’s contributions, whether pre-
pared or extempore, were sprinkled with quotations from his wide range
of reading, and reflected his long-established habit of making written
notes of passages that had impressed him by reason of their literary
style or the ideas they presented. This in fact was his general practice
at meetings of the Royal Society and elsewhere, and was a habit that
if more widely adopted would add considerably to the interest of
scientific meetings.

For many years he was an active member of the Rationalist Press
Association of Great Britain, and about eleven years ago was elected
to the limited and distinguished list of its honorary associates. Here
he was in the company of such eminent savants as Edouard ITeriot,
Albert Einstein, J. B. S. Haldane, Julian Huxley, Sir Macfarlane
Burnet, Bertrand Russell and W. K. Gregory. Though he took a keen
interest in the local Rationalist Society in its earlier and more philo-
sophical phase, his connection ceased when it became political and
extreme.

He was essentially a humanist. Brought up with a strong tradi-
tionally religious background and at the same time deeply imbued
with the biological attitude of the post-Darwinian period, he evolved
his own religious philosophy as expounded in his book The Religion
of a Naturalist, published in 1914. He did not try with missionary
zeal to force his opinions on others, and indeed some of his best friends
held very diverse views. Naturally, of course, he corrected their mis-
conceptions frequently and vigorously, but probably would have lost
much of the enjoyment of life if they had come round to his views. His
faith crystallized from his study of biology. It was greatly influenced by
the writings of T. H. Huxley and was canalized by such later writings as
those of the mechanistic biologist Jacques Loeb. It did not involve the

88

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.

summary discarding of the teachings of his earlier days. These remained
with him as part of his life, as our early teachings must, however much
they are modified in external form by time and circumstance. His
faith took a different, and to him perfectly satisfactory form, freed from
the supernatural and without expectation of reward or fear of punish-
ment beyond this life.

Longman was a leading supporter of the Royal Society of Queens-
land. He was twice President, in 1919 and 1939, and for twelve years
was editor of the Journal and Proceedings. He has been President of
the Queensland Naturalists’ Club, Vice-president of the Great Barrier
Reef Committee, a Fellow of the Linnaean Society of London and of the
Royal Anthropological Institute, and a Corresponding Member of the
Zoological Society of London. In 1946 he was awarded the Australian
Natural History Medallion, and in 1952 the President of the Royal
Society of Queensland at a meeting of this Society presented him with
the coverted Mueller Memorial Medal, awarded by the Australian and
New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science for his out-
standing contributions to palaeontology in Australia.

In 1945 he relinquished the Queensland Museum directorship,
having reached the retiring age of 65. The last year or so had been very
difficult and trying on his health. The Museum had always been short
of scientific workers and the position became much worse during the
war. Many of the staff were seconded for war-time work and the extra
work and worry took great toll of his strength. He was a very sick
man when at last he was able to retire and was for some months in the
constant care of his medical adviser. Rest and freedom from worry,

7

however, restored him to better health.

His reading was as omnivorous as ever. In his riverside home,
“Cotley”, at Chelmer, he was surrounded by the books of the library
he had accumulated down the years. They reflected his wide interests
in science, history, philosophy, biography, great literature, drama and,
not least amongst them, poetry. In the spacious garden were the birds,
the trees and shrubs with their seasonal changes and all the minor
tenants that had always interested him.

Though he gradually withdrew from the various organizations that
had been so much part of the life of his physically vigorous days, he
now reached a wider audience through his writings. He contributed
a regular column to the Courier Mail on Nature’s Ways, which had a
great following throughout Queensland. It is a matter of regret that
these excellent articles, based on over forty years of experience, were
of such an ephemeral nature.

He passed away on 16th February, 1954.

I I

Proc. Roy. Soc. Q ’land, Yol. LNVL, No.

Plate VII.

Heber Albert Longman

V.

The Royal Society of Queensland

Report of the Council for 1953

To the Members of the Eoyal Society of Queensland.

Your Council has pleasure in submitting the Annual Report of
the Society for 1953.

General meetings have been held in the lecture theatre of the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland,, William
Street, and the thanks of the Society are due to Professor W. V.
Macfarlane and his staff for their co-operation and hospitality. Council
meetings have been held in the University, George Street, for which
appreciation is expressed to the Registrar.

Ten meetings were held during the year, including one special
meeting. Six addresses were given and two meetings were devoted to
papers and exhibits.

A special meeting was called to consider the financial position of
the Society relative to the increased costs of publication. Rules 11 and
12 were revised to allow an increase in subscriptions effective from
January, 1954.

Following an application to the Postmaster-General’s Department,
the Proceedings have been registered as a periodical, thus effecting a
considerable saving in postage.

Mr. S. T. Blake and Miss D. F. Sandars were appointed delegates
for the Society to the Council of A.N.Z.A.A.S., and Dr. P. S. Hossfeld
was nominated as the representative of the Society at the Special
Centennial Meeting of the Royal Society of South Australia.

Four papers were accepted for publication in Volume LXV. (1953)
of the Proceedings and are in the hands of the printer. Volume LXIII.
(1951) has been issued and it is expected that Volume LXIV. (1952)
will be issued in the near future.

During the year there were 2,124 additions to the Library and
22 new exchanges were established. The Library has been moved to
the Administration Block of the University, George Street.

j

VI.

The Council records with regret, the following deaths : L. F.
Hitchcock, M.Sc., a member, who died in May, 1953 ; R. Hamlyn-Harris,

D. Sc., F.R.M.S., F.L.S., F.R.E.S., a past member, who died in June,
1953 ; F. G. Gipps, an honorary life member, who died in September,
1953 ; A. H. Marks, C.B.E., D.S.O., M.D., a past member, who died in
January, 1954; and H. A. Longman, F.L.S. an honorary life member,
who died in February, 1954.

There are now 6 honorary life members, 1 corresponding member,
9 life members, 218 ordinary members and 3 associate members of the
Society. During the year the Society lost 3 members by death and 10
by resignation; the names of 7 members were removed for arrears;
one honorary life member (E. H. Gurney) and 7 ordinary members
were elected.

Attendance at Council Meetings was as follows : — S. T. Blake, 8 ;
I. M. Mackerras, 6 ; M. Shaw, 7 ; D. F. Sandars, 6 ; K. Robinson, 6 ;

E. N. Marks, 8 ; G. Mack, 7 ; F. S. Colliver, 9 ; A. R. Brimblecombe, 5 ;
T. K. Ewer, 8 ; B. Howard, 6 ; F. T. M. White, 3 ; G. L. Wilson, 4.

Mr. L. P. Herdsman has again acted as Honorary Auditor. To
him the sincere appreciation of the Society is expressed.

S. T. BLAKE, President.

Dorothea F. Sandars, Hon. Secretary.
Kathleen Robinson, Asst. Hon Secretary.

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VIII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Abstract of Proceedings, 29th March, 1954.

The Annual General Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland on Monday,
29th March. Forty-two members and friends were present. The
minutes of the last Annual Meeting were confirmed. The Annual
Report was adopted and the Balance-sheet received. A recommendation
of Council was adopted that the following, having been members for
over thirty-five years or having given meritorious service to the
Society or to science within this State, should be made Honorary Life
Members: Dr. F. Bage, Dr. M. J. Mackerras, Professor W. H. Bryan,
Mr. A. P. Dodd, Dr. E. 0. Marks, Mr. S. N. Watkins. Mr. K. McDonald
and Dr. S. Crawford were elected to Ordinary Membership ; Mr. D.
Kronfeld and Mr. E. Broadhurst were nominated for Ordinary Member-
ship ; Miss I. Keleher, Miss D. Holt, Miss Y. K. Hedges were nominated
for Associate Membership.

The following members were elected as Office-Bearers for 1954: — -
President, M. Shaw; Vice-President, A. L. Reiman; Hon. Secretary,
T. K. Ewer ; Assistant Hon. Secretary, B. Howard ; Hon. Treasurer,

E. N. Marks; Hon. Editor, G. Mack; Hon. Librarian, F. S. Colliver;
Councillors, A. R. Brimblecombe, I. M. Mackerras, D. F. Sandars,

F. T. M. White, G. L. Wilson ; Hon. Auditor, L. P. Herdsman.

The Presidential Address, entitled ‘ ‘ Some Pioneers in Plant
Exploration and Classification,” was delivered by Mr. S. T. Blake.

Abstract of Proceedings, 4th May, 1954.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland on Tuesday,
4th May. About twenty-three members and friends were present. The
Minutes of the previous Ordinary Meeting were confirmed. Mr. D.
Kronfeld and Mr. E. Broadhurst were elected to Ordinary Membership;
Miss I. Keleher, Miss D. Holt and Miss V. K. Hedges were elected to
Associate Membership.

Assistant-Professor G. Smith delivered an address entitled “The
Part Played by Industry and Allied Sciences in the Rise of Agri-
cultural Production in U.S.A. ” He said that in the U.S.A. agricultural
production had been greatly boosted by the service of science and
industry. In particular he dealt with the New England region, where
there is about 50 inches of rain equivalent, quite well distributed
throughout the year, and a podzol type of soil. The growing season
ranges from about 90 days at the Canadian border up to 150 days
in southern New England. The six New England States (Maine,
Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode
Island) have a land area of about one-tenth that of Queensland, but a
population of 9.3 million.

Plant scientists have made outstanding contributions in the
development of new varieties, such as landino clover, and research in
soils and fertilizers has resulted in farmers applying about three times
as much fertilizer in 1953 as in 1940. Greater mechanization has
made it possible to produce a better-quality product with a smaller
labour force. Increased animal production was much indebted to the
recent contributions of pharmacologists. The application of antibiotics,
both in the treatment of clinical disease and as a feed supplement, was

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

IX.

resulting in increased life-time production in dairy cows, faster growth
in pigs and poultry, with decreased morbidity and mortality in all
farm livestock. In 1937, the average production was 7,665 lb. milk and
297 lb. butterfat, while in 1952 it increased to an average of 8,472 lb.
milk and 349 lb. butterfat.

Abstract of Proceedings, 31st May, 1954.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland on Monday,
31st May. Forty-five members and friends were present. The Minutes
of the previous Ordinary Meeting were confirmed.

An address on “The Investigation of the Problem of Frozen
Storage of Meat” was given by Mr. A. Howard, Dr. II. L. Webster
and Dr. R. Lawrie.

Mr. A. Howard made a comparison between frozen and chilled
beef. He pointed out that tests had shown that both chilled and frozen
beef had similar palatability, that chilled beef was more tender, but
frozen beef had better appearance. The problem of “drip” had to be
overcome in the marketing of frozen beef and it has been shown
experimentally that very rapid freezing, leading to the formation of
very small ice crystals in the fibres, resulted in much less “drip” on
thaAving. However, in practice, at Cannon Hill, while use of a blast
freezer had reduced freezing time from seven days to twenty-four
hours, it had been found that this was too slow to reduce “drip”
significantly. When the pH of beef is kept above 6*0 there is a great
reduction in ‘ 4 drip ' ’ and the speaker outlined the co-operative
researches developed between the Low Temperature Station at
Cambridge and the Cannon Hill Laboratory in Brisbane on this aspect
of the problem.

Dr. H. L. Webster reviewed the chemical changes which occur in
muscles after death. Rigor mortis occurs more quickly with high
temperatures and is more intense and the pH very low when glycogen
reserves are either abnormally high or low. The work of Marsh in
New Zealand with homogenized muscle, to which adenosine triphosphate
was added, leading to an increase in the gel volume, was mentioned,
and the development of this work by Bendall at Cambridge was
discussed. Bendall used thin muscle bundles in a bath and made
careful records of what happened when various components of muscle
were added. The importance of magnesium ions, adenosine triphos-
phatase, and myokinase was demonstrated.

Dr. R. Lawrie described a more physiological approach to the
problem, mentioning in turn — attempts to influence pH; controlling
the breakdown of adenosine triphosphate; and ways of producing
pre-rigor freezing. He said that, while starvation in rabbits for
twenty-four hours resulted in a pH of 6*2 after slaughter, instead of
a normal pH 5 • 9 ; when bullocks were starved for periods up to
twenty-eight days there Avas no increase in pH in the longissimus
dorsi (representing some of the best cuts of beef). Similarly, while
pre-slaughter exercise of rats brought a rise of pH from 6-4 to 7-24
post mortem, exercising bullocks for one and a half hours before
slaughter had no effect at all. The glycogen reserve in muscle appeared
to be much higher in ruminants than in experimental animals. It had

X.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

been possible to raise the pH of beef muscle by depleting" the glycogen
reserves by injecting insulin, but the cost of this was prohibitive.
These experiments and others in which the control of the rate of
breakdown of the Marshall-Bendall enzyme system was attempted by
giving magnesium sulphate, together with the failure of blast freezing
for beef carcases, emphasised that results obtained with laboratory
animals could not be translated into practical measures in an abattoir.

Abstract of Proceedings, 28th June, 1954.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland, on Monday,
28th June. Thirty-one members and friends were present. The
Minutes of the previous meeting were confirmed. The following
members were elected: — Miss M. B. Wilson, Miss N. L. Lavis, Miss
E. J. Teys, Mr. L. Pedley, Professor G. II. Bussell, Mr. W. F. Bidley
to Ordinary Membership; and Mr. P. B. Wallis to Associate Member-
ship. Miss M. Gilmartin was nominated for Ordinary Membership.
The Librarian reported that there had been 87 additions to the library.

Professor J. F. A. Sprent exhibited three trematode (fluke)
parasites of cats, not previously recorded from Australia. Their
specific determination awaits comparison with Japanese species.

Mr. P. J. Slkerman exhibited a ; series of colour slides which
demonstrated the recent successful conservation of many thousands of
tons of sorghum silage in pits in the western sheep country of Queens-
land. The important points were (i) these methods are only likely to
be successful in the high-clay-content black soils of the State; (ii) bare
fallow must be maintained to obtain maximum moisture storage; and
(iii) all operations must be fully mechanized to reduce unit cost of
the final product.

Dr. M. J. Mackerras and Miss D. F. Sandars exhibited a series of
coloured slides and microscope preparations showing certain stages in
the life-cycle of a recently discovered rat lung-worm, Angiostrongylus
cantonensis (Chen.) Larvae are found in the faeces of infected rats
and the slug Agriolimax laevis (Muller) serves as intermediate host.
Migration of third-stage infective larvae to the brain of the rat follows
with two moults occurring there. No damage appears to be done to
the brain. Between the twenty-eighth and thirty-first day the worms
return to the heart in the venous circulation and so reach their final
location in the pulmonary arteries.

Dr. E. N. Marks exhibited a bird-fly Ornitheza metallica (Schiner)
from an aviary budgerigar. The fly is a widespread old-world species
found on many different birds and may be a normal parasite of the
budgerigar. There is only one previous record of it from Australia,
from a fly-catcher taken near Bavenshoe, N.Q. The fly, when captured,
had attached, near the top of its abdomen, a female mite surrounded
by a cluster of eggs. Slides of the mite ( Myialges caulotoon Schiner)
and eggs were exhibited. This is the first record of a hyperparasitic
mite taken on parasitic hippoboscid flies in Australia. Males of these
mites are unknown and it has been suggested they will be found on
birds. These is some question whether the mites are true parasites of
the flies or use them as a means of transport from one bird to another.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEEtfNGS.

XI.

Mr. J. T. Woods exhibited a series of vertebrate fossils prepared
with the aid of dilute acetic acid. The discovery that a, fifteen per
cent, solution of acetic acid removes the calcareous matrix of many
fossil bones, without attacking the phosphates of the bone, has been
of great assistance to palaeontologists.

Dr. G. C. Kenny exhibited a cast of the restoration of the Piltdown
skull and outlined the history of the discovery of the various remains.
He related that he was working in Professor Le Gros Clark ’s laboratory
at Oxford at the time of the discovery, last year, that the mandible
and parts of the skull were faked. He showed how micro-chemical
analyses of various parts of the skull, particularly for their fluorine
content, revealed marked differences, some parts having a similar
composition to other mammalian bone fragments of Pleistocene times,
while others were of very recent origin. Chrome salts had been used
to give the appearance of age.

Abstract of Proceedings, 26th July, 1954.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland on Monday,
26th July. Twenty-four members and friends were present. The
minutes of the previous meeting were confirmed. Miss M. Gilmartin
was elected to Ordinary Membership and Miss E. Marks, Dr. H. Winter
and Mr. H. N. Paine were nominated for Ordinary Membership.
Professor Wilkinson was appointed the Society’s representative on the
Arthur Groom Memorial Fund Committee. The meeting resolved ‘Ghat
A.M.Z.A.A.S. shall continue to similar relationship with the Academy
of Science as it has hitherto with the National Research Council.”

An address entitled “Problems of Sugar-cane Production:
Progress Overseas and in Queensland” was given by Mr. N. L.
King. In attempting to place Queensland’s production in a world
perspective, he said that in size Queensland’s sugar industry was
fourth behind those of Cuba, India and Brazil. Because of variation
in the length of the growing season efficiency could best be assessed in
terms of production in “pounds of sugar per acre per month of growing
season.” On this basis, the production of some leading countries was
as follows : Hawaii, 803 ; Queensland, 586 ; Puerto Rico, 438 ; The
Philippines, 422 ; and Cuba, 328. In Hawaii most of the sugar-cane
was grown under irrigation or received 250-300 inches of rain per year.
Queensland’s production figure was attained, except for a very small
area in the lower Burdekin delta, under non-irrigated conditions and
with a lower rainfall. Where sugar-cane was irrigated in Queensland
production rose to an average (in the 1953 season) of 978 lb. of sugar
per acre per month. This indicated the potentialities of sugar produc-
tion in Queensland under irrigation.

In presenting his impressions of a recent world tour he said that
in Hawaii, with yields of 100 tons of cane per acre, field efficiency was
high. On the other hand, costs were high, and Hawaii could not
compete on a free world market. Over one and a-half million dollars
were invested per year in research. Recent developments included the
use of maleic hydrazide to prevent flowering, and foliar analysis for
revealing fertilizer requirements. In Louisiana, U.S.A., it had once
been impossible to undertake breeding studies because of the cold
winters, but by putting cane into glasshouses for a period, it was now

XII.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

possible to obtain flowers for breeding1 work. In Florida, the sugar
industry was concentrated on peat soils often ten feet deep. Here,
drainage was necessary and there were deficiencies of manganese,
boron, zinc and copper. In Columbia, South America, sugar-growing
was concentrated in the valley of the Cauca River, at an altitude of
about 3,000 feet above sea level. The soil is so rich that, although
sugar-cane has been grown for about 80 years, it is still producing
50-60 tons per acre in fourteen months without fertilizer. Over a
million acres in the valley are not cultivated and if this were put
under sugar-cane, production could compete with that of Cuba. The
rainfall is only 45 inches per year but there is abundant subartesian
water at shallow depth.

While there had been general insistence the need to return sugar-
cane trash to the soil, trash conservation trials at Bundaberg since
1933 have shown no difference in the yield of sugar. Any increase
in production obtained overseas is due apparently to the potassium
contained in the trash, while in Natal and Jamaica there is probably
a slight conservation of moisture as well.

With the increasing efficiency of boilers, the industry is presented
with the problem of disposing of surplus bagasse, once all used as fuel.
In Jamaica, bagasse is applied to the surface of the soil and then by
means of a deep ripper is incorporated into the cracks between the
large clods. In Queensland, similar use might be made in the heavy
clay soils of the Mackay district, helping to improve their physical
structure.

Abstract of Proceedings, 30th August, 1954.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland on Monday,
30th August. Thirty members and friends were present. The minutes
of the previous meeting were confirmed. Miss E. Marks, Mr. H. N.
Paine and Dr. H. Winter were elected to Ordinary Membership, and
Miss J. A. McDonald was nominated for Ordinary Membership.

An address entitled “The Use of Models in Structural Engineer-
ing” was given by Professor J. H. Lavery. The use of models for the
solution of structural problems has been developed mainly in the last
thirty years. The advantages of models are: — (1) the rapidity with
which problems can be solved; (2) the possibility of obtaining
solutions where mathematical analysis is impossible; (3) the checking
of basic assumptions of design. The dimensions and the material of
the model are related in accordance with the principles of similitude.
These are deduced from established laws of mechanics or by the
methods of dimensional analysis. The choice of the material for the
model is important and it is necessary to know the physical properties
of model and prototype material. For elastic structures, either a direct
or an indirect method is used. The former subjects the structure to
loads corresponding in model and prototype in accordance with the
principles of similitude.

Models which have been used successfully in the investigation of
major structures include those of the suspension bridge proposed for
the crossing of the Severn River, tested in a large wind tunnel by the
National Physical Laboratory in Great Britain, and the Rainbow Arch

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XIII.

Bridge, tested to examine the effect of the change in shape due to
dead loads. Examples of full scale structures, tested with the object
of obtaining bases for design methods, are the large scale frame build-
ing units of the Steel Structures Research Committee, the prestressed
foot bridge at the Festival of Britain, slab and beam highway bridges
at the University of Illinois and the steel portal structures tested at
Cambridge to investigate collapse methods of design.

The indirect method of model testing makes use of the principles
of Maxwell and Muller-Breslau. By this means, influence lines for
some action in the structure are obtained from the deflected form of
the structure subjected to certain displacements by such apparatus as
the Begg’s Deformeter and the Moment Deformeter. Measurements of
the deflected form are made by microscopes reading to .002 mm.

Much of the apparatus used in the Engineering School of the
University of Queensland has been constructed in the department’s
workshops. The models assist in providing students with a picture of
the way in which a structure will deform. Without this, any analysis
is worthless.

Abstract of Proceedings, 9th September, 1954.

A Special Meeting of the Society was held on Thursday,
9th September, in the Geology Department of the University of
Queensland. This was a conjoint meeting with the Queensland Branch
of the Geological Society of Australia.

Professor R. A. Stirton spoke on “The Giant Marsupials of
Australia.” He described some of the results of expeditions which
he and his party had recently made to places in New South Wales,
South Australia and Queensland in their search for the fossil remains
of marsupials. Although they had not been successful in discovering
very early representatives of the marsupials and monotremes, he
believed they would still be found in deposits of Lower Tertiary age.

Fossil marsupials had been found by the party at various localities
and at different stratigraphic horizons. At Lake Menindee in western
New South Wales, extinct marsupials, of possible Early Recent age,
were found in sands showing evidence of contemporaneous human
occupation. Aboriginal burials were found in overlying units.
Skeletons of the giant extinct marsupial, Diprotodon australis, were
found in deposits of possible Late Pleistocene age at Lake Callabonna,
South Australia. It was estimated that there were perhaps one thousand
of these skeletons in an area of twenty acres. On the Darling Downs,
in south-eastern Queensland, fossils were obtained in Pleistocene
deposits at King’s Creek and further west at Chinchilla, where the
remains are older, possibly Middle Pliocene. The most important finds
were made at Lake Palankarinna, north-eastern South Australia, where
a fauna of probable Lower Pliocene age included remains of two
nototheres, a small kangaroo and a bandicoot, all representing new
genera.

Possible phyletic lines in Australian marsupials were discussed,
and comparisons were made with those known for some of the placental
mammals of North America.

XIV.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Abstract of Proceedings, 27th September, 1954.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland on Monday,
27th September. Sixty-eight members and friends were present. The
minutes of the previous Ordinary Meeting and of the Special Meeting
were confirmed. Miss J. A. McDonald was elected to Ordinary Member-
ship. The Librarian reported that there had been 164 additions to the
library.

Following a motion proposed by Professor H. C. Webster, and
discussed by several members, it was finally agreed — (i) that the
Society rescind its resolution, namely, that A.N.Z.A.A.S. shall continue
to have a similar relationship with the Academy of Science as it has
hitherto with the National Research Council; (ii) that the Society
support the retention of the Australian National Research Council as
a more truly representative national scientific body than the Academy ;
(iii) that these decisions be conveyed to A.N.Z.A.A.S. and A.N.R.C.

An address entitled “ Coral Reefs of the Marshall Islands: a com-
parison with the Great Barrier Reef” was delivered by Professor J. W.
Wells. Coral reefs are of unique significance to biologists and geologists
in that they are the only earth features of any magnitude determined
by the integrated operation of both organic and inorganic agencies.
The atolls of the Marshall Islands are ring-shaped reefs enclosing a
lagoon which may be as deep as 200 feet and many miles across. A
traverse across an atoll from the windward side shows first the reef
margin, with an algal ridge several feet above the rest of the reef and
low tide level, fissured by surge channels extending down the seaward
slope into a zone of rich coral growth reaching from about wave base
down to at least 40 feet. Very few corals grow on the algal ridge, but
red calcareous algae of the Lithothamnion type thrive in this turbulent
environment. Such algal ridges are not developed on the Great Barrier
Reef, apparently because of the inconsistency of the south-east trades,
and the margin of the reefs slopes more evenly downward into the sea.

Behind the algal ridge lies the reef flat, carpeted with growing
coral. The inner part of many reef flats is the site for the development
of islands by the accumulation of debris derived from the growing reef
by organic and inorganic processes of degradation, and piled up by
storm waves. Beyond the islands is a r&ef bordering the lagoon,
sheltered from the wind, where corals grow luxuriantly. Similar reefs
occur on the lee of the Great Barrier platform reefs. On the leeward
side of atolls the seaward reefs are protected from the constant winds
but not from the steady swells. Here there is no algal ridge, and the
environment is very similar to that found on the seaward sides of reefs
to windward on Great Barrier reefs, and on the fringing reefs common
around the high islands and rocky mainland shores behind the Outer
Barrier. The different environments of atoll reefs are paralleled by
those of the Queensland coast.

Coral reefs are the result of a near balance of constructive and
destructive forces. The constructive forces are mainly organic — the
accumulation of the skeletons of corals, calcareous algae, foraminifera
and molluscs. Destructive forces are both organic and physical.
Organic degradation results from the activity of perforating, boring,
and dissolving animals and plants; physical degradation involves the

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

XV.

destructive and distributive action of waves especially during typhoons.
These opposing forces are constantly at work, but, in general, wherever
lime-secreting organisms are growing on reefs, the balance is in favour
of construction.

Abstracts of Proceedings, 25th October, 1954.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the University of Queensland on Monday,
25th October. Twenty-three members and friends were present. The
Minutes of the previous meeting were confirmed. The Librarian
reported that there had been 111 additions to the library.

An address entitled “ Impressions of Technical Education in the
United States of America” was given by Mr. P. C. Brooks. After
discussing the variation in tuition costs and standards of achievement
in various colleges and universities he described some of the special
characteristics of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Here there
was a common course in the first undergraduate year, and in the second
year it was necessary for all students to select a humanities course in
addition to their technical subjects. The pattern of class study was
different from that seen in an Australian University. There was very
little formal lecturing, there were semester examinations and sometimes
“open book examinations” were held, since it was believed that this
more closely approximated the situation in industry. At M.I.T. there
was compulsory health insurance for all students and an infirmary was
maintained within the campus. Every student had the right to consult
a psychiatrist twice a term. The development of a Graduate School in
Chemical Engineering and Technology became necessary because of the
impossibility of finishing study in this subject in the four years taken
for the primary degree. As many as twenty per cent, of chemical
engineers went on to the graduate school, including many who came
back from industry.

The power of the alumni of American colleges in determining the
pattern of development was very high, and the various alumni
associations took a keen interest in all matters, including the organisa-
tion of college sport. The relationship between universities and industry
was close and vast sums of money were obtained from industrial under-
takings as well as governmental sources to maintain research projects
in widely differing fields, many of a fundamental character.

Abstract of Proceedings, 29th November, 1954.

The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Society was held in the
Physiology Department of the Lhiiversity of Queensland on Monday,
29th November. Fifty-five members and friends were present. The
minutes of the previous meeting were confirmed. The Librarian
reported that there had been 217 additions to the Library. Professor
D. A. Herbert delivered a Memorial Address entitled “Heber Albert
Longman. ’ ’

A. H. Tucker, Government Printer, Brisbane.

GUIDE FOR THE PREPARATION OF SYNOPSES

1. PURPOSE.

It is desirable that each paj>er be accompanied by a synopsis preferably
appearing at the beginning. This synopsis is not part of the paper; it is intended
to convey briefly the content of the paper, to draw attention to all new information
and to the main conclusions. It should be factual.

2. STYLE OF WBITING.

The synopsis should be written concisely and in normal rather than abbreviated
English. It is preferable to use the third person. Where possible use standard
rather than proprietary terms, and avoid unnecessary contracting.

It should be presumed that the reader has some knowledge of the subject
but, has not read the paper. The synopsis should therefore be intelligible in itself
without reference to the paper, for example it should not cite sections or illustra-
tions by their numerical references in the text.

3. CONTENT.

The title of the paper is usually read as part of the synopsis. The opening
sentence should be framed accordingly and repetition of the title avoided. If the
title is insufficiently comprehensive the opening should indicate the subjects covered.
Usually the beginning of a synopsis should state the objective of the investigation.

It is sometimes valuable to indicate the treatment of the subject by such
words as: brief, exhaustive, theoretical, etc.

The synopsis should indicate newly observed facts, conclusions of an experiment
or argument and, if possible, the essential parts of any new theory, treatment,
apparatus, technique, etc.

It should contain the names of any new compound, mineral, species, etc., and
any new numerical data, such as physical constants; if this is not possible it should
-draw attention to them. It is important to refer to new items and observations,
<even though some are incidental to the main purpose of the paper; such) information
may otherwise be hidden though it is often very useful.

When giving experimental results the synopsis should indicate the methods
used; for new methods the basic principle, range of operation and degree of
accuracy should be given.

4. DETAIL OF LAYOUT.

It is impossible to recommend a standard length for a synopsis. It should,
however, be concise and should not normally exceed 100 words.

If it is necessary to refer to earlier work in the summary, the reference should
always be given in the same manner as in the text. Otherwise references should
be left out.

When a synopsis is completed, the author is urged to revise it carefully,
removing redundant words, clarifying obscurities and rectifying errors in copying
from the paper. Particular attention should be paid by him to scientific and
proper names, numerical data and chemical and mathematical formulae.

CONTENTS

Vol. LXVI.

No. 1. — Some Pioneers in Plant Exploration and Classification. By S. T.
Blake. (Issued separately, 5th September, 1955)

No. 2. — Ixodes cordifer Neumann 1908 (Ixodides: Acarina) ; A Descrip-
tion of the Female and a Bedescription of the Male. By
F. H. S. Boberts. (Issued separately, 5th September, 1955) . .

No. 3. — Spherulites and Allied Structures, Part III. By W. H. Bryan.
(Issued separately, 5th September, 1955)

No. 4. — A Preliminary Account of the Petrology of the Cloneurry Mineral
Field. By Germaine A. Joplin. (Issued separately, 5th September,
1955)

No. 5. — Uranium Mineralization in the Cloncurry-Mt. Isa Area. By L. J.
Lawrence. (Issued separately, 19th September, 1955)

No. 6. — A New Lung-worm from Australian Marsupials (Nematoda:
Metastrongylidae) . By M. Josephine Mackerras. (Issued
separately, 19th September, 1955)

No. 7. — Memorial Lecture. Heber Albert Longman. By D. A. Herbert.
(Issued separately, 19th September, 1955)

Beport of Council . .

Pages.

1-19

21-25

27-31

33-67

69-76

77-81

83-88

v.

Abstract of Proceedings . .

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