.^^ ••»».

THE

PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS

(Scotian Institute of <§£tence,

I
HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.

VOLUME X.

(BRING VOLUME III OF THE SECOND SERIES.

WITH FOUR PORTRAITS AND SEVEN PLATES.

HALIFAX :

PRINTED FOR THE INSTITUTE BY THE MCALPINE PUBLISHING Co., LTD.

1903.

•*/

CONTENTS.

PROCEEDINGS.

SESSION OF 1898-99:— PAGE

Presidential Address, by Alex. McKay i

Obituary Notices of John Somers, M. D., Jules Marcou, and

John Ambrose, D. C. L iii

Notes on the Early History of the Institute v

The Position of Science in our Educational System viii

Report of the Treasurer xv

Report of the Librarian xv

Dr. A. H. MacKay on the Diatomacece of Nova Scotia xix

Lee Russell, B. S. , on School-Room Air . xxi

Prof. J. G. MacGregor, and W. A Macdonald, on the Varia-
tion with tension, of the elastic properties of vulcanized india-
rubber xxviii

SESSION or 1899-1900:—

Presidential Address, by Alex. McKay xxxv

Obituary Notices of J. J. Fox, and Sir J. W. Dawson xxxvi

The utility of a Scientific Library and of a properly conducted

Museum xxxix

Report of the Treasurer xli

Report of the Librarian xlii

A. H. McKay, LL. D. , on the Sub-divisions of the Carboniferous

System of Canada xlvii

H. S. Poole, F. G. S., on the Periodical Appearance of Ants in a

Chimney, and on an unusual site for a Humble-bees' nest xlix

A. H. MacKay, Li,. D. , on Material taken from the bottom of the
Atlantic by the cable steamer Minia ;

SESSION OF 1900-01 :—

Presidential Address, by Dr. A. H. MacKay liii

On the Scope of Work of the Institute liii

Provincial Museum and Science Library Ivi

Deaths of Captain Trott, and Rev. A. C. Waghorne Ivii

Reports of Treasurer and Librarian Iviii

Officers of 1900-1901 Iviii

Resolution of Regret on Death of Dr. J. R. DeWolf Ixi

H. S. Poole, F. R. S. C., on the Davis Calyx Drill. (Title only) lix

IV CONTENTS.

PAGE

Prof. H. W. Smith, B. Sc. , on Rotation of Leguminous Crops, and
Preservation and Use of Tops of Turnips and other Root Crops.
(Title only) Ix

A. H. MacKay, LL. D., on Gravel taken from the bottom of the

Atlantic, forty miles west of Sable Island (Title only) Ixi

Prof. J. G. MacGregor, D. Sc., on the Use of the Wheatstone Bridge

with Alternating Currents. (Title only) Ixii

W. H. Magee, Ph. D . on the Rare Earths : their Scientific Import-
ance as regards the Periodic Law Ixii

W. L. Bishop, exhibition of collection of Nova Scotian Birds' Eggs. Ixxviii

Resolution relative to the formation of Branches of the Institute . . . Ixxviii

E. Gilpin, LL. I)., &c., on Further Exploration in the Torbrook Iron

District. (Title only) Ixxix

Sketch of the Life of John Matthew Jones. ByH. P. ( With portrait ) Ixxx

SESSION OF 1901-1902 :—

R. W. McLachlan, Talk on Roman Coins. (Title only) Ixxxiii

A. H. Cooper Prichard, Exhibition and Remarks on Roman Coins of

the Provincial Museum. (Title only) Ixxxiii

Presidential Address, by Dr. A. H. MacKay Ixxxiv

Obituaries of Dr. J. R DeWolfe, Capt. W. H. Smith, and

Rev. Moses Harvey Ixxxiv

Work of the Institute Ixxx vi

Provincial Museum and Science Library Ixxxvii, Ixxxviii

Provincial Progress Ixxxviii

Malaria, Yellow Fever and Sheep-fluke Object Lessons . xci, xcii, xcv

Marine Biological Station xcvi

Treasurer's and Librarian's Reports xcvii, xcviii

Report on Kings County Branch of the Institute xcviii

Officers for 1901-1902 xcviii

Dr. A. H. MacKay, on a condensed form of Botrychium ternalum

found at Blomidon, N. S xcix

Miss A. Louise Jaggar, Notes on the Flora of Digby County, N. S.

(Title only) c

R. S. Boehner, B. Sc., On the Standardization of Hydrochloric Acid

with Borax. (Title only) ci

Harry Piers. Sketch of the Life of Andrew Downs, founder of the

first zoological garden in America. ( With portrait} cii

Prof. E. Haycock. The Kings County Branch of the N. S. Insti-
tute of Science : Outline of purposes and aims of the Society. . . cix

CONTENTS.

TRANSACTIONS.

SESSION OF 1898 99 :— PAeE

1. Statistics of Expenditure and Consumption in Canada, — by Prof.
J Davidson, M. A., Phil. D., University of New Brunswick,

Fredericton 1

II. On a Test, by the Freezing-Point Method, of the lonization Co-effi-
cients determined by the conductivity method, for Solutions
containing Potassium and Sodium Sulphates, — by E. H.
Archibald, M. Sc., 1851 Exhibition Science Scholar, Dalhousie
College, Halifax, N. S 33

III. On the Conductivity, Specific Gravity, and Surface Tension of

Aqueous Solutions containing Potassium Chloride and Sulphate,

— by James Barnes, B. A., Dalhousie College, Halifax, N. S. . 49

IV. On Finding the lonization of Complex Solutions of given concen-

tration, and the converse problem,— by Prof. J. G. MacGregor,
Dalhousie College, Halifax, N. S 67

V. New Mineral Discoveries in Nova Scotia, — by E. Gilpin, Jr ,

A.M., LL.D., F.R.S.C., Inspector of Mines, Halifax, N. S. . . . 79
VI. Phonological Observations, Canada, 1898,— by A.H MacKay , LL. D. ,

Halifax 91

VII. On a Fish ( ' Chylomycterus schatpfi) new to Nova Scotia, — by

Harry Piers 110

SESSION OF 1899-1900: —

I. On the Relation of the Viscosity of Mixtures of Solutions of
certain Salts to their state of lonization, — by James Barnes,

B. A., Dalhousie College, Halifax, N S 113

II. On the Calculation of the Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions con-
taining Hydrochloric and Sulphuric Acids, — by the same 129

III. On the Depression of the Freezing-Point by mixtures of Electro-
lytes,— by the same . 139

IV. On the Sub-divisions of the Carboniferous System in Eastern
Canada, with special reference to the position of the Union and
Riversdale Formations of Nova Scotia, referred to the
Devonian System by some Canadian Geologists, — by H. M.
Ami, M.A , D.Sc., F.G.S., of the Geologcal Survey of Canada,
Ottawa 162

V. The Natural History of Money,— by Prof. J. Davidson, Phil. D.,

University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N. B 179

VI. On the presence of Acid Sulphate of Copper in mixtures of

Aqueous Solutions of Sulphuric Acid and Copper Sulphate, — by
Charles F. Lindsay, Dalhousie College, Halifax, N. S 205

VI CONTENTS.

PAGE

VII. On a Diagram of Freezing-Point Depressions for Electrolytes, — by
Prof. J. G. MacGregor, D. Sc , F. R. S., Dalhousie College,

Halifax, N. S 211

VIII Geological Nomenclature in Nova Scotia, by Hugh Fletcher, B A.,

of the Geological Survey of Canada 235

IX. Notes on a Cape Breton mineral containing Tungstein, and on the
effect of washing certain Cape Breton coals, — by Henry S.
Poole, F. G. S., F. R. S. C., Assoc. Roy. Sch. Mines, etc.,

Stellarton, N. S 245

X. Minerals for the Paris Exhibition, — by E Gilpin, Jr. , LL. D. ,

F. R. S. C., Inspector of Mines 248

XI. On the Variation of the Rigidity of Vulcanized India-Rubber with
Tension, — by Thomas C. Hebb, B. A., Dalhousie College,

Halifax, N. S 273

XII. Records of Post-Triassic" Changes in Kings County, N. S., — by

Prof. E. Haycock, Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S 287

XIII. Phonological Observations, Canada, 1899,— by A. H. MacKay,

LL. D. , Halifax, N. S 303

XIV. A Fresh- water Sponge [ffeteromeyenia macouni, n. sp.] from Sable

Island, — b}r the same 319

SESSION OF 1900-01:--

I. Geological Nomenclature of Nova Scotia : New Glasgow Conglom-
erate, by Hugh Fletcher, B. A. , Geological Survey of Canada,

Ottawa 323

II. Description of Tracks from the fine-grained Siliceouous Mudstones
of the Knoydart Formation (EoDevonian) of Antigouish
County, N. S.,— by H. M. Ami, D. Sc., F. G. S., Geological
Survey of Canada, Ottawa. ( With plate. ) 330

III. On Drift Ice as an Eroding and Transporting Agent, — by Walter

H. Prest, M. E., Bedford, N S 333

IV. On a Polished Section of Stigmaria, showing an axial cellular

structure,— by Henry S. Poole, F. R. S. C., Halifax. (With

two plates.) 345

V. The Star-nosed Mole (Condytnra, cristata), its breeding habits,

&c. , — by Watson L. Bishop 348

VI. Recent Developments with the Calyx Drill in the Nictaux Iron .
Field, — by D'Arcy Weatherbe, C. E,. Mines Department of

N. S., Halifax. (With two plates.) 350

VII. The Geological History of the Gaspereau Valley, N. S , — by Prof.

Ernest Haycock, Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S ( With plate. ) 361
VIII. Fossils, possibly Triassic, in Glaciated Fragments in the Boulder-
clay of Kings County, N. S., — by Prof . Ernest Haycock 375

CONTENTS. vil

PAGE

IX. ( 1 ) Phonological Observations of the Botanical Club of Canada, 1900.
(2) Abstract of Phonological Observations on Flowering of ten
Plants in Nova Scotia, 1900, with (3) Remarks on their Pheno-
chrons, — by A. H. Mac-Kay, LL. D., &c., Halifax 379

X. Rainfall Notes, Nova Scotia,— by F. VV.W. Doane, City Engineer,

Halifax 399

SESSION OF 1901-1902 :—

I. On a Determination of the Freezing-point Depression Constant for
Electrolytes,-- by T. ('. Hebb, M. A., Dalhousie College,

Halifax 409

II. On the Determination of Freezing-point Depressions of Dilute
Solutions of Electrolytes, — by T. C. Hebb, M. A., Dalhousie
College, Halifax . 422

III. The Progress of Geological Investigation in Nova Scotia, — by R.

VV. Ells, LL. D., F. R. S. C., of the Geological Survey of
Canada, Ottawa 433

IV. On the Upper Cambrian Age of the Dictyonema Slates of Angus _

Brook, New Canaan, and Kentville, N. S., — by H. M. Ami,
D. Sc., F. G. S., F. R, S. C., of the Geological Survey of

Canada, Ottawa 447

V. Notes on on Dr. Ami's paper on the Dictyonema Slates of Angus
Brook, New Canaan, and Kentville, N. S. , — by Henry S. Poole,
Assoc. Roy. Sch. Mines, F. G S., F. R. S. C , Halifax. ...... 4T>1

VI. Supplementary Notes on Drift Ice as a Eroding and Transporting

Agent,— by Walter H. Prest, M. E., Bedford 45,")

VII. Agricultural Credit, —by Prof. John Davidson, Phil. D., Univ. of

New Brunswick , Fredericton 4-18

VIII. Phenological Observations in Nova Scotia and Canada, 1901, — by
A. H. Mac Kay, LL. D., F. R. S. C., Supt. of Education,
Halifax 480

IX. Labrador Plants (collected by W. H Prest on the Labrador coast,
north of Hamilton Inlet, from 25th June to 12th Aug , 1901),
—by A. H. MacKay, LL. D. , etc. , Halifax 507

APPENDICES : —

I. List of Members, 1898-1899 I

II. List of Members, 1899-1900 . . v

III. List of Members, 1900-1901 via

IV. List of Members, 1901-1902 - xm

INDEX TO VOIXBIE X. . xva

WESLEY

vZ/1

PROCEEDINGS

OK THE

,Scotian Institute of Science.

SESSION OF 1898-99.

f -

ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 14th March, 1898.
The PRESIDENT, MB. A. McIvAY, in the chair.
The PRESIDENT addressed the Institute, as follows : —

GENTLEMEN, — It is an educational axiom of the first importance that
in presenting a new subject for study it should in some vital way be
correlated with ideas already in the mind of the student.

Guided by this principle, I should at the beginning of another year's
work of this Institute, review briefly the progress made during the past
year. This was in many respects most unsatisfactory, Never before
did we have so much difficulty in securing papers for our ordinary
meetings. We had in all thirteen communications, of which eleven were
papers, . three read by title. Six of these papers gave the results of
investigations, conducted chiefly by two Dalhousie students in a physico-
chemical field, regarding the behavior of ions under certain conditions.
There were two papers relating to Geology, one to Natural History,
one to Ethnology, one to Botany. In addition, Mr. Twining exhibited
a model of a Pivot-boat, and explained its working, and Dr. MacGregor
gave an address on Laboratory Methods.

It may, however, be found that the sum total of scientific knowledge

has been increased somewhat by those original researches which were

conducted in Dalhousie College, and that the printed results may be

utilized by other investigators. Dr. Bailey's very interesting papers on

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. PROC.— A.

(0

ii PROCEEDINGS.

the structure and geologic formation of Digby Basin throw much light
on some hitherto obscure problems of the geology of that region.

The teaching of science in our public schools would be greatly
improved if the methods recommended by Dr. MacGregor, in his able
address on Physical Laboratory Work, were generally adopted.

It is too soon yet to attempt any prediction regarding Mr. Twining's
novel experiments in boat-sailing. They seem calculated to lead to a
great improvement in the quality of speed by showing how friction and
water displacement may be reduced to a minimum.

Dr. MacKay's phenological observations, assisted as he is by a large
corps of observers all over the Dominion, may lead to some important,
generalizations regarding the relation of organized life to latitude and
other climatic conditions.

I have referred to the difficulty of securing papers on scientific sub-
jects for our ordinary meetings. This does not necessarily imply that
our members are becoming less interested in science than formerly. It
may and probably does mean that work in science like work in every
other department of human life is becoming more specialized. Our
earlier scientists worked in comparatively new fields. It was then an
easy matter to find plants or animals not previously known in our
country and with the aid of good text books to describe and identify
them. The first explorers in a rich gold mine find it easy to make
fortunes. Those who come later require much greater skill and patience.
It did not require much scientific knowledge forty years ago to enable a
man to acquire some reputation in the field of science. The possibilities
in this respect made it more attractive as an outlet for the expen-
diture of those surplus energies which are nowadays required for the
severer business competition of a more congested state of society.

Then, a little enthusiasm, a vasculum, an insect net and a pocket-
glass comprised all the outfit necessary to enable a man to write valuable
papers and to give, him a good standing in our Institute. Now he requires
a thorough scientific training, costly scientific apparatus, and years of
patient toil to be able to add a single new or valuable idea to our
scientific knowledge. It is not, therefore, difficult to understand that
scientific pursuits as a recreation are every year becoming less attractive
and are being left to those who make of them the business of life.

While, in some departments of natural science, such as natural
history, elementary electricity, and geology, the charm of novelty, ease

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS 111

of acquisition, and admiration for showy experiments no longer attract
our older members, they should not lose their potency with the students
of our high schools and academies.

The older members should, however, have some compensation in
those departments of science, a practical knowledge of which is every
day opening up mines of national wealth ; for our love of money is
supposed to grow with our advancing years and we should be willing
to make great sacrifices for what tends so greatly to enrich our country.

During the past year we admitted two new members ; but on the
other hand, we lost by death three of our most prominent men, concern-
ing whom you will permit me to say a few words.

JOHN SOMERS, M. D., died on the 13th of March. He was born
in Newfoundland, came to Halifax in early infancy and received a
fairly good education.

In conducting a drug store he acquired a taste for the study of
medicine. One year before the close of the American civil war he was
graduated from Bellevue in time to spend a year in active service as an.
army surgeon. He then returned to Halifax where he remained in the
practice of his profession until his death.

He took an active part in the establishment of the Halifax Medical
College in which he lectured for many years as Professor of Physiology
and Examiner in Medicine. He was an active and useful member of
society. In 1879 and 1880 he was a member of the Halifax School
Board. He also served for some time as Chairman of the Public
Charities Board.

In January, 1875, he was elected member of this Institute, and one
year after, he read his first paper on his favorite subject, Botany. Of
his 18 published papers, 14 related to Botany, 3 to Zoology, and 1 to
the use of the Microscope. He had three papers in course of prepara-
tion when he died. He was an authority on the Mosses and Fungi of
Nova Scotia and an accomplished microscopist. From a busy pro-
fessional life he managed to snatch enough time to become fairly
proficient in many departments of science. He was an omnivorous
reader, had a good memory and well-trained powers of observation, so
that whatever subject might be under discussion at our meetings he was
always able to add something of value and interest. He was always
ready to assist those engaged in scientific study. I first met him at one

iv PIIOCEED1NGS.

of our Field Meetings at Grand Lake 24 years ago. I shall never forget
the delightful day which I spent with him in botanizing.

JULES MARCOU, who had been one of our corresponding members
eince 1891, died at Cambridge on the 17th of April. He was born at
Salins, France, in 1824. He studied at the College of St. Loui?, Paris,
but failing health led him to make an excursion to Switzerland, where he
soon acquired an intense love for the study of Geology. At the age of
21 he assisted Jules Thurman in his work on the Geology of the Jura
Mountains. Here he met Louis Agassiz, with whom two years later he
explored the Eastern United States and Canada. In 1850 he embodied
these reserches in a geological map of the United States and the
British Provinces of North America. For five years he was Professor
of Geology at Zurich. In 1861 we find him associated with Louis
Agassiz founding the Museum of Zoology at Cambridge, U. S. A. In
1867 he was decorated with the Cr.oss of the Legion of Honor. He was
a member of many scientific societies and published many valuable
papers, maps and books. In common with our own Dr. Honeyman,
he took special interest in the study of the Huronian, Cambrian, and
Primordial Silurian rocks, and assisted the Doctor in the identification
of some of the more obscure Nova Scotian fossils of these systems. He
was a strong advocate of the Taconic system, since pronounced by Dana
to be identical with the Lower Silurian system. It was, upon the
proposal of Dr. Honeyman who labored in the same field, that he
became one of our corresponding members.

KEV. JOHN AMBROSE, D. C. L., who died at Sackville, on September
12th, may be regarded as one of the founders of this Institute. Before
it was organized he promised his hearty support — a promise which we
shall see was faithfully kept. He was indeed proposed as a member of
the first Council, but probably owing to the fact that he resided at that
time at Margaret's Bay he was unable to act.

He was born in St. John of Irish parents, received his common
school education at Truro, and was graduated from King's College,
Windsor — receiving the degree of B. A. in 1852, M. A. in 1856, and
D. C. L. in 1888.

For over 44 years he labored successfully and acceptably as a clergy-
man ; 2i years at Liverpool, 3 years at New Dublin, 13 years at
Margaret's Bay, 23 years at Digby and 3 years at Herring Cove, and
for 2£ years more he enjoyed at his country farm at Sackrille the
respite from labor which he needed and which he had so well earned.

PRESIDENT'S APDRESS. v

In addition to the performance of extensive parish duties as a
clergyman, he took a prominent part in other church work. He edited
a religious monthly called Church Work, and also the Halifax Church
Chronicle. He was a Governor of King's College — strongly opposing
its union with Dalhousie. In Digby he led a successful crusade
against the iniquitous system of " Farming out the Poor." He lectured
in Engl.-md for the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and the
Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge.

Amidst all these labors he found time to make science a recreation.
In January, 1864, he communicated his first paper to the Institute. It-
was followed by a series of papers, all relating to the birds and fishes
of St. Margaret's Bay — a spot which should be as well known to our
Zoologists as Arisaig is to our Geologists. His paper on the Stormy
Petrel was republished more than once.

In October, 1863, he was elected Associate Member, — retaining that
position until 1881. Again in 1890 he was elected Corresponding
Member.

Dr. Ambrose was a remarkably fine specimen of a man, — physically,
mentally and morally — a man to whom the leaders in any public move-
ment for the public good could appeal with the certainty of receiving
sympathy and support.

While glancing over the records I made a few notes concerning
matters which struck my attention in our early history and which may
interest some of you.

On the last day of the year 1862 the late J. Matthew Jones presided
at a meeting held in the hall of the Halifax Medical College There
were present, T. Belt, S. Gray, Dr. Gilpin, Wm. Gossip, K. G.
Haliburton, Capt. Lyttleton, H. Poole, Capt. Hardy, J. R. Willis
arid P. C. Hill. Of this company, so far as I know, all but one have
passed away.

The object of the meeting was to organize an Institute of Natural
Science for Nova Scotia. This Institute grew out of another organiza-
tion which had done pioneer work in science. It may be said to have
been a development from the Halifax Mechanics' Institute, which,
under the inspiration of men like the late Andrew MacKmlay, did very
much to awaken the general public to an interest in the discoveries of
of science, which at that time were coming on like a November, meteoric
shower.

Vi PROCEEDINGS.

At the first meeting the officers of the older organization resigned,
and the officers of the Institute of Natural Science were elected — Mr.
P. C. Hill being President. At this meeting a Constitution and
Bye-Laws were adopted. Among the resolutions which passed was
the following : Resolved, That at the next monthly meeting each mem-
ber be entitled to bring a friend.

Now every member is not only entitled to bring a friend to the
meetings but he is urged to do so, and to bring not one friend only but
as many friends as he pleases, provided he can sufficiently interest them
in the work of the Institute.

At the meeting in February, the Right Honorable the Earl of
Mulgrave, Patron of the Institute was present, and after listening to
the papers and discussions he expressed himself much pleased, and
promised to do what he could to advance the work.

In the early meetings of our Institute so great was the general
interest in scientific work that there seemed to be always a sufficient
supply of scientific papers ready to be read when required. Every
meeting was closed by an announcement of the titles of the papers to be
read at the next. This timely announcement of the subject gave mem-
bers an abundance of time to prepare to take an intelligent part in the
discussions which followed every paper.

But in these busy days in which our lot has fallen we are thankful
if we can announce the programme a few days in advance, and some-
times papers are read by title because they are not ready. Could not
the Secretaries and President by taking thought beforehand bring about
the happy state of things in this respect, that formerly existed 1 It is
worth the attempt.

In March, 1864, we find the first announcement of the receipt of
Reports of sister societies. The small beginning of our present large
and valuable library consisted of three volumes, namely, the second
Report of the Scientific Survey of the State of Maine, the Report of the
Natural History Society of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and the first number
of our own Transactions.

Now that our library has grown to such dimensions, we should pre-
pare a catalogue complete to date. Copies of it should be sent to our
, academies and to all other institutions of learning in the Maritime
Provinces and to all persons whom we might wish to persuade to
become members. To young students having time and inclination for

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. Vll

nature studies, such a catalogue would be suggestive and helpful in
selecting those fields of work which have been most neglected in Nova
Scotia. In the appendix to this catalogue there might be a list of the
scientific books belonging to the City Public Library and to Dalhousie
College, and also a yearly supplement of publications received by the
Institute.

The year 1864 is also marked by the decision to have a series
•of Field Meetings in the summer season. The first excursion was
to St. Margaret's Bay in June to investigate some Indian remains in
that vicinity. These meetings were continued in 1865. They were very
interesting and profitable. After visiting a locality and studying its
natural history the members would assemble at some point for dinner,
•discussion, and the reading of papers relating to the day's work.

At a conversazione in the Horticultural Gardens on the 6th of
July, there were about 200 persons present. The President delivered
an address on the advantages which the Institute, if properly supported
and encouraged, might be expected to confer upon the country. He
afterwards gave a very interesting description of the butterflies and
moths of Nova Scotia. Dr. Gilpin described the manner of taking and
smoking Digby Herring. Mr. Gossip read a paper on the geological
formation of Halifax. Dr. Lawson discoursed on Botany, while all the
company enjoyed a repast of cakes, strawberries and cream, lemonade
and ices. Thus, in the early days of this Society was the love of science
fostered. The resumption of some of these old practices, which have
Unfortunately fallen into abeyance, would not be a retrograde movement.
If we would study Nature honestly and effectively we must meet her
face to face. She does not woo by proxy, by text-books, illustrations
or recitations. With this principle in view then let me draw up an
imaginary programme for next summer's Field Meetings.

Accompanied by friends we meet in the Public Gardens at 8.30 a. m.
on the third Saturday in June, every one provided with substantial
lunches. After an hour spent with Superintendent Power and Drs.
MacKay and Lindsay investigating ferns and learning the scientific
names of the trees and shrubs we take the street car to Point Pleasant.
Here we examine the beautiful synclinal on the shore, and collect
specimens of littoral fauna and flora. We then cross the Ferry to
Purcell's Cove and have lunch, followed by shoH addresses relating to
the scientific peculiarities of our immediate environment. After some

viii PROCEEDINGS.

botanizing we return visiting the gas works which we inspect carefully
with a view to a better comprehension of a lecture by Prof. E. MacKay,
giving a scientific account of the manufacture of gas from coal, dealing
particularly with the by-products, showing their chemical relations
and uses.

On the third Saturday in July we would make a similar expedition
to Waverly Gold Mines — crossing to Dartmouth in the steamer
" Chebucto," and to our destination by train. At Waverly we would
examine the gold mine and the rich lacustrine flora.

In August, for one fare we purchase a return ticket to Campbellton,
N. B., to spend two days with some of the most enthusiastic scientists
of the Maritime Provinces — those Professors, Principals, and other
teachers who are willing to devote two weeks of their holiday season
to mutual instruction and enjoyment in the forest, field and laboratory.
I refer to the Summer School of Science, which will then hold its 13th
annual session. The President, Mr. Geo. U. Hay, has invited the
Natural History Society of New Brunswick and also this Institute to
co-operate with the Summer School in a grand gathering of the repre-
sentative scientific men of the Maritime Provinces. The place of
meeting would be a delight to the- lover of romantic scenery, while
affording to the botanist and geologist exceptional facilities for field
work. The occasion might be utilized ior the discussion of some of the
larger questions regarding scientific education that are pressing upon us.
Joint resolutions from our three scientific societies would have great
weight with our governments, and might lead to the extension of our
technical science schools, now so miserably inadequate, or to important
modification in the methods adopted to further education in general
science.

Before closing, it might be expected that as a member of a Scientific
Institute and teacher, I should say a few words as to the place which
science occupies in our educational system, as to the place it should
occupy, and also concerning the best means to be used to secure for it
that place.

As to the place which it does occupy. It is found in the prescribed
course of study in the form of lessons on Nature for the eight grades of
the common school course, with the addition of a few specialized lessons
on the simplest principles of Physics and Chemistry for Grades VII. and
VIII.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. IX

In this work the teacher and pupils are required to study things and
not books, to perform experiments in order to learn how substances act
under varying conditions and to draw their own conclusions. Is this
done ? It may be fairly well done in five per cent, of the schools, with
very varying degrees of success in 60 per cent., and scarcely attempted
in the remainder.

The majority of teachers would do better work if they could, but
they hare never seen it done ; they cannot learn how from books ; and
they have not the pecuniary or moral support that comes from a general
intellectual appreciation of the material, intellectual and moral benefits
resulting from scientific training.

In the curriculum for our Academies and High Schools it is taken
for granted that Botany and Physics are studied for about 90 minutes a
week throughout the year. Chemistry and Mineralogy about the same
time in the second year, and Physiology and more advanced Physics
each about two hours a week for the third year. There are very few
schools, however, in which so much time is devoted to Science. The
Provincial Examinations show that experimental work is almost wholly
neglected. The mental confusion and crudity of conception apparent in
a large proportion of the answers received would tend to show that
much of the science teaching is simply a mechanical memorizing of the
text-book.

In the fourth year of the High School, science is optional. In the
year 1897, 23 candidates received Grade "A Classical" and only three
took Grade " A Scientific." Candidates who are trained in schools
where the facilities for the teaching of science are poor and where the
teachers are themselves not interested in science, are not likely to select
the science subjects for their Grade " A " examination. Of the 37
Academic teachers reported as holding Grade " A " there are but two of
them who hold the " A Scientific " and this, notwithstanding the fact that
the enthusiasm of the Superintendent of Education for scientific subjects
might be supposed to influence the teachers and students in the ranks
below him.

The large proportion of " Classical A's " may also be partly accounted
for by the fact that a considerable number of candidates are college
students, and classics still dominates the Nova Scotia colleges. For
matriculation leading to the degree of B. A. the student is supposed to
have studied Latin for three years, but nothing is required in Natural
Science.

X PROCEEDINGS.

More or less successful attempts ar« being made in some of the
colleges to teach science. But divided and scattered as they are — five
degree conferring institutions in a small province of scarcely half a
million inhabitants, with no preparatory schools capable of giving a
proper preliminary science training, it is small wonder that they take
little interest in the teaching of new subjects which require expensive
apparatus and hard work.

I should have said that there is one preparatory school, Pictou
Academy, which still retains the preeminence in science-teaching which
it reached when Dr. McKay, as Principal, filled its halls with students
drawn from all parts of the province.

From what I have said it will be evident that taking the schools as a
whole there is but little of science-teaching, and that little is poorly done.

2. "What place should science occupy in the schools 1

Our Nova Scotia educationists say that it is entitled to twelve per
•cent, of the time devoted to the compulsory subjects, or on an average,
to ten per cent, of the whole time. In Germany the gymnasia (or
classical schools) through all the grades devote seven per cent, of their
time to science, and a considerable amount of time besides to physical
geography. In the real-gymnasium and real-schulen, science is the lead-
ing subject. We all have some idea of what the German colleges and
universities are doing for theoretical science.

As might be expected in these circumstances technical education has
received an enormous development. In the small kingdom of Saxony,
•considerably less than one-third the size of Nova Scotia, there are 111
technical institutes. Prussia has 200 such schools and 12,000 pupils.
Hesse with a population of 1,000,000 has 83 schools of design, 43 for
manufacturing industries and many others for artisans of various trades.
How many such schools has Nova Scotia?

It might here be asked : which was cause and which, effect, — the
-science-teaching of the gymnasia or the technical schools ? The fact
that so long ago as 1837 there was nearly as much science prescribed for
the gymnasia as at present, would suggest an answer.

England, slow in adopting reforms, has at last been awakened to a
sense of the danger in which she stands of losing her industrial supre-
macy unless she gives heed to the wise teachings of her great prophet,
Herbert Spencer, who years ago said : " Paraphrasing an eastern fable,

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. XI

"we may say that in the family of knowledges, science is the household
•drudge, who in obscurity hides unrecognized perfections. To her has
been committed all the work ; by her skill, intelligence and devotion,
have all conveniences and gratifications been obtained ; and while cease-
lessly ministering to the rest, she has been kept in the background, that
her haughty sisters may flaunt their fripperies in the eyes of the world.
The parallel holds yet further. For we are fast coming to the denoue-
ment, when the position will be changed, and while these haughty
sisters sink into merited neglect, science, proclaimed as highest alike in
worth and beouty will reign supreme."

The Duke of Devonshire has introduced a bill into the House of
Lords which is practically a bill for the establishment of science schools.
In Scotland, Sir Henry Oaik's latest educational circular aims at the
•encouragement of Science and Art in combination with a sound scheme
of general education. The course of instruction extends over three years
-as follows :

1. Experimental Science. — Not less than four hours a week, of
which two hours must be experimental. In the third year at least three
hours of practical work will be required.

2. Drawing. — At least two hours a week.

3. Mathematics, including Geometry, Mensuration, Arithmetic and
Algebra. — At least four hours a week.

4. History and English Literature. — About five hours a week.

5. Geography. —About two hours a week.

6. Manual Training — At least three hours a week.

7. One Modern Language.

8. Various other subjects of Practical Interest such as Bookkeeping,
Phonography, &c.

It will be seen at once that the course very much resembles our
imperative course, except in that it gives one-sixth of the time to science
while we give only one-eight.

Coming to America we find that the recommendations of the
Committee of Ten, of the Committee of Fifteen and of the Committee
on Science Teaching in Schools to the American Society of Naturalists,
all agree in recommending a course of study substantially like ours, —
like our ideal course, but not like the actual course.

A consideration of these facts leads us at once to conclude that our
prescribed course of study fairly well represents the best ideals of the

XH PROCEEDINGS.

most advanced educationists. That it is frequently criticised arises from
the fact that there are in any community very few persons possessed of
sufficient knowledge of the science and history of education and at the
same time of the requirements of modern civilization to enable them
to jndge intelligently, and further, from the fact that but few of our
teachers are possessed of the necessary professional qualifications to adapt
themselves and their work to the various conditions and circumstances.

To quote from Dr. Rice : " That the mass of our teachers are
incompetent for any very high quality of science-teaching is a truth as
unquestionable as melancholy." But it is not the fault of the teachers
that they are not prepared for their work. Out of 2,485 teachers we
have 1,750 who receive less than $200 a year, out of which they have to
pay for board and clothing, buy educational books and magazines, and
purchase the apparatus and materials for science experiments in their
schools. With such miserably inadequate salaries, insecure tenure of
office, and no pensions, it is no wonder that the brightest young men
and women look upon teaching as but a stepping stone to other
positions that offer more substantial rewards with the promise of greater
permanency.

All complaints against our course of study will cease when the
complainants are capable of appreciating Ihe worth of good teaching and
are willing to give the moral and pecuniary support that will call forth
the best talent and training. As the country advances in population.'
wealth and civilization the course of study will need to be modified, but
to foreshadow the coming changes at present would be unwise.

3. What means must be used to secure for science the place which
it should have in the actual work of the schools and colleges ?

^ (a.) Make it an imperative subject in the College Matriculation
Examination for B. A.

The colleges, more than any other agency, determine the character
of the. education given in the schools below them. They train those
who become teachers of teachers. Legislators look to them for direction
in educational matters. The High Schools and Academies work slavishly
to produce the kind of students upon whom they are most likely to set
their seal of highest approval. They have in every learned body
throughout the land an ever increasing constituency moulded by their
teaching and adopting their ideals. If there is a general lack of
interest in science, or if it is badly taught, the colleges are largely

PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. xiii

responsible. If they would abandon the fetich of " culture-worship "
and study the conditions of modern society they would add greatly to
the inestimable benefits which they now confer upon the community.

Until the colleges take this step in advance, science will not be well
taught in the schools, the colleges will not have students capable of
doing the best science work ; for if they neglect science until they reach
their college course and give " so many years of exclusive attention to
other subjects, their powers of observation and of imagination of physical
phenomena are well-nigh atrophied ; and the loving interest in nature,
innate in every normal child, instead of being systematically developed
is well-nigh extinguished."

The college can determine not only the subjects to which the
academies shall in reality devote their attention ; but, by the nature of
their examinations, they can determine the character of the teaching.
If the matriculation examination calls for experimental work it will be
supplied. If the colleges neglect to exercise their power in this respect
wisely they will lose it. Rival institutions unduly emphasizing the
neglected work will divide with them their present constituencies. This
is the experience of Germany, England, and the United States.

The Crowing wealth of the country and the keenness of competition
in the learned professions are indications that the time has come when
the colleges can safely require science for the entrance examination.
Harvard has made it optional and the London University has made
it imperative.

(b) The present Grade "A" work in the Academies should be
discontinued and its place should be taken by a more thorough practical
Science course for Grade "B". The "A" work cannot be properly
done in the academies. It is essentially college work and should be
kept where it belongs. Merely to state that Gage's Principles of Physics,
Storer and Lindsay's Elementary Chemistry, Bessey's Essentials of
Botany, Dawson's Hand-Book of Zoology, Colton's Practical Zoology,
Sir William Dawson's Canadian Geology, Young's Elements of Astron-
omy, James's Psychology, arid the Ontario Manual of Hygiene, together
with twelve other subjects are all to be mastered in our poorly equipped
academies in one or even in two years is to condemn absolutely the
present arrangement 'with regard to Grade " A ". It is but a survival
from a lower stage of our educational development, and the sooner it is
allowed to become atrophied by disuse the better.

xiv PROCEEDINGS.

If Academic and High School positions are worth on an average-
only ten years' tenure we will require but six new Grade A's each year,—
say ten to give them the benefits of healthy competition, and let them,
have a thorough college training or its equivalent.

(c) The professional training of academic teachers and of the-
Principals of the larger schools should be part of a college course.
Elsewhere at some length I gave my opinions on this subject. At
present I will do no more than quote from an American educationist a
few sentences which express the opinions of the most of our educationists
and of .our college graduates. "The environment of learning and culture
are essential to the best training for the practice of the learned pro-
fession. * * * Existing normal schools, which have more than
justified their establishment for the professional training of elementary
teachers should continue to do their appropriate work. However much,
modified, they will not be well adapted to meet the wants of higher
teachers."

Their professional training should be a post-graduate course at least
in part. If our larger colleges cannot provide pedagogical training for
the few Grade " A " teachers that we need we will have in the mean-
time no difficulty in obtaining it abroad ; but wherever it is obtained let
it be as thorough as the post-graduate training required in the other
professions.

(d) Examinations in science, whether by the colleges or by the
Educational Departments, should be so modified as to take into account,
the pupil's laboratory work throughout the term and his present ability
to perform and interpret experiments, and also to examine and classify
mineral, plant and animal specimens.

A certified copy of his Note-Book of experiments should be taken,
as evidence of his work. In order to have some reasonable certainty
that this work was honestly reported it would be necessary for some-
qualified person to inspect the laboratories and see tbe students at work
twice every year. A written examination does not adequately test a
student's science acquirements. If the Provincial Grade " A " scientific
examinations are to be continued they should be conducted at the
Normal School, and every candidate should have to do a certain amount
of laboratory work in the presence of the examiner.

Such are a few of the suggestions which I have to offer for the
advance of science in Nova Scotia. I feel confident that if adopted.

TREASURER'S REPORT. xv

they will hasten the time when our reputation for scierice will not be
confined to a few great names, but that all the people will reap the
benefit in the opening up of new centres of those industries and
manufactories for which the province is so well adapted.

The TREASURER presented the accounts for the year, 1897-8, which
had been audited and were certified as correct. The following is an
analytical statement of the expenditure : —

PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS : —

Printing- and binding- Vol. IX., Part 3. . $158 oo

Less received for authors' separate copies 2 50

$155 50

Distributing- Vol. IX., Part 3 29 32

— $184 82

Printing portion of Vol. IX., Part 4 $61 60

Portrait and Plate, do 14 22

— 75 82
LIBRARY :

Removal to Dalhousie College $17 65

Fittings 56 41

Purchase of U. S. Government Reports 13 15

Binding 75 oo

Miscellaneous expenses 8 20

— 170 41

Insurance (Library and Stock of Transactions) 16 75

Miscellaneous Printing, including Post Cards 25 oo

Postage 5 67

P. O. Box 4 oo

Advertising 4 oo

Repairing and removing Blackboards i 80

Typewriting 75

$489 02

The Treasurer's Report was approved.

The Report on the Library was presented by the LIBRARIAN and
CORRESPONDING SECRETARY. The Library had been increasing during
the past year at a greater rate than ever before. The Institute had sent
its Transactions for the first time to the following : —

Director-General de Correos y Telegraphos, Buenos Ayres.

Asociacion de Ingenicros Industrials, Barcelona.

State Library of Massachusetts, Boston.

St. Anne's College, Church Point, Digby Co., N. S.

Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio.

xvi PROCEEDINGS.

High School, Dartmouth, N. S.

Scottish Meteorological Society, Edinburgh.

Institut Meteorologique Central, Helsingfors.

Cornell University (Geological Department), Ithaca, N. Y.

Eoyal Meteorological Society, London.

Institution of Electrical Engineers, London.

Kansas University, Lawrence, Ka.

Australasian Institute of Mining Engineers, Melbourne.

Kew Observatory, Richmond, G. B.

Eoyal Asiatic Society (Straits Branch), Singapore.

Public Library, St. Louis, Mo.

Anthropological Society of Australia, Sydney, N. S. W.

Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C.
Publications had been received for the first time during the past year
from the following :

Societe Beige de Geologic, Paleontologie et Hydrologie, Bruxelles.

Volta Bureau, Washington, D. C., U. S. A.

Australian Institute of Mining Engineers, Melbourne.

Carnegie Institute, Pittsburg, U. S. A.

Asociation de Ingenieros Industrials, Barcelona.

McGill University, Montreal.

Observatorio Meteorologico y Vulcanologico, Colima, Mexico.

Nederlandsche Dierkundige Vereenigung, Holder.

Institution ol Civil Engineers of Ireland, Dublin.

Department of Mines, Wellington, New Zealand.

Engineers' Club of St. Louis, St. Louis, Mo., U. S. A.

Sydney Observatory, Sydney, N. S. W.

La Reale Academia de Ciencias y Artes, Barcelona.

Institution of Electrical Engineers, London.

Pasadena Academy of Sciences, Pasadena, Gal.

Wyoming Historical arid Geological Society, Wilkesbarre, Pa.

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

The Transactions were being sent out annually to 752 Societies,
Museums, Libraries and Government Scientific Departments. Exchanges
were being received from 440 Scientific Institutions. A considerable
proportion of the 312 recipients of the Transactions from which
exchanges had not yet been received were Libraries and Museums which
did not issue publications of their own. A smaller proportion consisted
of societies with which exchange relations had not yet been effected.

LIBRARIAN'S REPORT. xvii

The cost of distributing the above 752 copies of our Transactions to
institutions in all parts of the world had been $29.32, the possibility
of securing so widespread a distribution at so small a cost being due to
the courtesy of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
in extending to the Institute the privileges of the Institution's Bureau
of International Exchanges.

During the year, 113 volumes, for the most part English publications,
had been put into the binder's hands. Including these, the Library
now contained 1,326 volumes bound in cloth or leather, besides 67
volumes in boards with paper or cloth backs, in all 1,393 bound volumes.
It contained besides, 271 volumes of sufficiently large size for separate
binding, but at present simply stitched together in paper covers, as
received, and a large number of volumes, at least 1,000 in Parts. The
labour of looking into the completeness of these volumes in separate
Parts, getting them completed when necessary, preparing them for the
binder, and so on, is very great, and consequently in the case of many
publications had not yet been undertaken. The Institute, as soon as funds
will permit, should give the Librarian a paid assistant to do such work.

The Library had now been completely removed to the room at
Dalhousie College, courteously offered free of rent by the Governors of
that college. It had also been arranged in such a way that a visitor
would have no difficulty in finding any work which the Library con-
tained. The books are arranged under countries, labels and placards
indicating the cases in which the publications of the various countries
are to be found. In the division occupied by each country they are
arranged under the cities which are the seats of the societies, museums,
i^c., from which they come, the cities being in alphabetical order. In
the case of all publications in English, the shelves devoted to the various
cities are indicated by labels giving the name of the city and the name
of the society or other publishing body. The same system of labelling
is to be extended to the publications in foreign languages at an early
date. In any case in which the publications received from a society
are too bulky for the shelf on which they would otherwise be placed,
they are placed on the lowest shelf of the same division of shelving and
the fact is indicated by a label on the shelf on which they would
first be looked for, containing the name of the city and society and an
arrow-head pointed downwards. It is hoped that with this system of
arrangement members may find themselves able to get such books as
they may desire without difficulty even in the absence of the Librarian.
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. PROC — B.

Xviii PROCEEDINGS.

The work connected with the arranging of the Library in its present
quarters calls to mind the similar work which was done at the time
when the Institute first really began energetically to build up its.
Library. The Proceedings contain no reference to the services rendered
at that time by the late Mr. Denton, but though late, it is not too late-
to record the Institute's appreciation of them now.

The Library being in a room off the College Library will be founds
open by members daily, except on Saturdays and Sundays, from 10 — 1
and 3 — 5 o'clock. On Saturdays and in vacation, access to it may bu
obtained by members on application to the Janitor. Members resident
in the country can ascertain whether such works as they may desire to-
see are in the Library, and have these which are, forwarded to them, by
applying to the Corresponding Secretary. A printed catalogue would
facilitate the use of the Library by members and should be undertaken;
as soon as the requisite funds are in hand.

The thanks of the Institute were presented to MR. BOWMAN for his
services as Librarian, to the HON. EGBERT BOAK, President of the
Legislative Council, for granting the use of the Council Chamber, to
the CITY COUNCIL for the use of the City Council Chamber, and to the
SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION for his courtesy in con-
tinuing to admit the Institute to the privileges of the Bureau of
International Exchanges.

Eesolutions of regret were passed on the announcement of the deaths,
of PROFESSOR GEBELIN of the Society of Commercial Geography of
Bordeaux, and of DR. EDWARD ALBERT HIELZ of the Society of Natural
Science at Hermannstadt ; and on the announcement of the resignation of
PROFESSOR ALEXANDER AGASSIZ, Director of the Museum of Comparative
Zoology, Cambridge, U. S. A.

The following officers were elected for the ensuing year (1898-99): —
President — ALEXANDER McKAY, ESQ.
Vice- Presidents— A. H. MACKAY, ESQ., LL. D., F. R. S. C., and;

F. W. .W. DOANE, ESQ., C. E.
Treasurer — -W. C. SILVER, ESQ.

Corresponding Secretary — PROFESSOR J. G. MAcGREGOR, D. Sc.
Recording Secretary — HARRY PIERS, ESQ.
Librarian — MAYNARD BOWMAN, ESQ., B. A.
Councillors -without Office— EDWIN GlLPiN, JR., ESQ., LL.D., F. R.S. C.;

MARTIN MURPHY, ESQ., D.Sc., C.E.; WILLIAM MCKERRON, ESQ.;

RODERICK McCoLL, ESQ., C. E.; S. A. MORTON, ESQ., M. A.;

WATSON L. BISHOP, ESQ.; P. O'HEARN, ESQ.
Auditors— G. W. T. IRVING, ESQ.; H. W. JOHNSTON, ESQ., C. E.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. XIX

FIRST ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 14th November, 1898.

The PRESIDENT in the Chair.

A paper by PROFESSOR J. DAVIDSON, Phil. D., of the University
of New Brunswick, " On Statistics of Consumption and Expenditure in
Canada," was read by PROFESSOR W. C. MURRAY. (See Transac-
tions, p. 1).

The subject was discussed by Drs. MACKAY and MACGREGOR, and
Mr. DOANE.

SECOND ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 12th December, 1898.

The PRESIDENT in the Chair.

It was announced that PROFESSOR J. DAVIDSON, Phil. D., University
of New Brunswick, Fredericton, and REV. BROTHER J. PETER, St.
Joseph's Collegiate Institute, Buffalo, N. Y., had been elected Corre-
sponding Members of the Institute ; and that ANDREW HALLIDAY, Esq.,
M. D., Shubenacadie, N. S., and ARTHUR M. EDWARDS, Esq., M. D.,
F. L. S., Newark, N. J., had been elected Associate Members.

A paper by DR. A. M. EDWARDS, entitled: " Infusorial Earths of
the World, and the Iceberg Period," was read by DR. A. H. MACKAY.

DR. A. H. MACKAY gave an address on the subject of " The
Diatomaceae of Nova Scotia." His treatment of the subject was a
popular one, a number of microscopes with prepared slides being arranged
for the convenience of their examination by those present. He called
attention to the fact that these minute algae were characterized by
the power of secreting silica from the waters in which they lived and
building it up into the most beautifully formed and sculptured cell walls
of transparent rock crystal ; that they were so abundant in all of our
fresh water lakes, which are not seriously disturbed by the turbulent
earth laden waters of spring freshets, as to form layers many feet in
depth in their bottoms of the dead silicious cells, the mass being some-
times so pure as to look like the whitest flour when dried ; that this
material was of commercial value in the manufacture of dynamite, of
water-glass, tooth powders, scouring material of great fineness, firebrick.

XX PROCEEDINGS.

etc. He noted that these deposits in lakes on different sides of the
same watershed were characterized by the presence in more or less
abundance of some peculiar species. He was endeavoring to obtain
sections of some of these deposits so as to be able to compare the varia-
tion of or succession in th°, species since the first deposits were laid on the
barren beds of the lakes carved out in the glacial period. Over a
hundred different species had already been observed in our fresh water
deposits, many of them identical with those found in similar deposits
in the Eastern hemisphere. Among them were found the silicious
epicules of several species of freshwater sponges, which appear
to be also more or less abundant in all our freshwater deposits. The
following species of diatoms have been already identified in these
deposits :

Cocconeis pediculus, Ehr. C. placentula, Ehr. Gomphonema
acuminatnm, Ehr. G. a, var. coronatum, Ktz, G. a. var. laticeps, Ehr.
G. cristatum, Ralfs. G. gracile, var. naviculoides, Grun. G. abbrevia-
tum, Ag. G. capitatum, Ehr. G. intricatum, Ktz. G. cistula, Hemper.
Epithemia turgida, Ehr. E. gibba, Ehr. E. g. var. parallela, Grim.
E. argus, Ehr. Himantidium arcus, Ehr. H. a. var. majus, W. Sm.
H. a. var. tenellum, Grun. H, formica, Ehr. H. pectinale, Ktz. H.
p. var. ventricosum, Grun. H. p. var. minus, Ktz. H. p. var. undula-
tum, Ralfs. H. soleirolii, Ktz. H. bidens, W. Sm. H. b. var. diodon,
Ehr. H. praeruptum var. inflatum, Grun. H. polydon, Brun. H.
polydentulum, Brun. Amphora ovalis, Ktz. A. affinis, Ktz. Cymbella
gastroides, Ktz. C. cuspidata, Ktz. C. ehrenbergii, Ktz. C. lanceolata,
Ehr. C. delicta, A. Sch. C. cistula, Hemper. C. heterophylla, Ralfs.
C. tumida, Ktz. N. ambigua, Ehr. N. appendiculata, Ktz. N. affinis,
var. amphirhyncus, Ehr. N". rirma, Grun. N". Hitchcockii, Ehr. N.
legumen, Ehr. N. dicephala, Ktz. N. radiosa, Ktz. N. scutellum,
O'Meara. Pinnularia oblonga, Rab. P. viridis, Rob. P. v. var.
hemiptera, Rab. P. perigrina, Ehr. P. nobilis, Ehr. P. major, Rob.
P. dactylus, Ktz. P. gibba, Ehr. P. divergens, W. Sm. P. interrupta,
W. Sm. P. mesolepta, Ehr. P. nodosa, Ehr. Stauroneis phoeni-
centeron, Ehr. St. gracilis, W. Sm. St. anceps, Ehr. St. fulmen,
Breb. St. punctata, Ktz. St. stauropheria, Ehr. Surirella robusta,
Ehr. S. splendida, Ehr. S. biseriata, Breb. S. bifrons, Ktz. S.
turgida, W. Sm. S. linearis, var. constricta, W. Sm. S. slevicensis,
Grun. S. elegans, Ehr. S. tenera, Grey. S. cardinalis, Kitton.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. XXI

Nitschia araphioxys, Ehr. N. elongata, Grun. N. spectabilis, Rolfs.
N. sigraoidea, Nitzsch. Stenopterobia anceps, Breb. Fragillaria con-
struens. Grun. F. c. var. binodis, Grun. F. capucina, Desrn. F.
undata, W. Sin. Synedra ulna, Ehr. "Meridiem circulars, Ay. Tabel-
laria floculosa, Roth. T. fenestra, Lynyb. Cyclotella operculata, Ag.
C. comta var. affinis, Grun. Melosira distans, Ehr. M. arenaria, Moor
M. orichalcea. Meriens. M granulata, Ehr. M. crenulata var. valida
Grun.

A vote of thanks was tendered DR. MAcIvAY for his address.

THIRD ORDINARY MEETING.
Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 9th January, 1899.

The FIRST VICE-PRESIDENT, DR. MACKAY, in the chair.

LEE RUSSELL, ESQ., B. So , of the Normal School, Truro, read a
paper on " School-room Air," as follows :

One of the great problems of modern mechanics is to increase the
efficiency of machines, to get the greatest amount of work done with a
given expenditure of energy. Every possible device is used to lessen
friction, to minimize waste, and to apply more advantageously the force
employed. Rails in place of the uneven ground, rolling, instead of
sliding, friction, are familiar examples of the gains made in the single
direction of lessening friction, and many more might be instanced.
These are purely physical instances, but the illustration may be carried
further. Intellectual processes are as subject to waste and loss. Inter-
ruption, noise, disease, poisons, are the causes of loss in mental operations,
as are dust, friction, inertia, and radiation, in those of a physical nature.
Such considerations as these first led me to investigate some of the
causes of decrease of efficiency in school.

It appears to me plain, that as the school year advances, there is a
decrease in mental power in both teachers and pupils. By this is meant,
that for a given result, more energy must be expended toward the close
of the year than at the beginning.

This is not susceptible of exact proof, except by long and carefully
conducted experiments, but from observations made upon the students
at the Normal School at Truro I believe such to be the case.

Xxil PROCEEDINGS.

It is well known that the exhalations from the bodies of animals
have a poisonous effect if breathed, even tho much diluted with air.
The classic researches of Pettenkofer. Brown-Sequard, d'Arsonval,
Lehman, Merkel, Parkes, and others, have proved the presence of an
organic poison in air which has been breathed by man or other animals.
Its exact constitution is not known, but the effects of " Pettenkofer's
man-poison " are apparent in every school-room. They are, headache,
drowsiness, slight fever, and a general retardation of all reactions to
stimuli. Partial loss of the power of inhibition is also noticeable. Less
apparent, but more important, are the general weakening of vitality and
the greater susceptibility to disease which follow prolonged breathing of
impure air.

These effects are more easily seen in the weak and anaemic than in
vigorous persons. It was the observation of the less vigorous students
at Truro which first led me to suspect that the air in the Normal School
might be one cause, at least, of the decrease in power which I had
noticed. We have, as do all schools, pupils who, when at their best, are
just able to keep np with the class, who are, mentally or physically,
near the fatigue-point. A slight interference with their normal activity
throws them off their balance, and they must drop behind. Not infre-
quently pupils come to us enfeebled by excessive study in preparation
for examinations. Under favorable conditions they might do well, but
if subjected to further strain they may break down. With these two
classes of students, poisoning by impure air may make the difference
between success and failure. At all times, and with all classes, it causes
a determinate decrease in the amount of work, mental or physical,
which is done with a given expenditure of energy. Especially where
the system of public education is most highly developed and most
strenuously applied, the evil effects of this poison have been most
apparent.

In testing the air in the Normal School, the method and apparatus
of Prof. Hch. Wolpert of Nuremburg was adopted. The chemical basis
of this method is the fact that an alkaline solution of sodium carbonate
becomes neutral by the absorption of carbon dioxid. If the alkaline
solution be colored red by phenol phthalein, when the solution becomes
neutral the color disappears. Thus, with a given amount of sodium
carbonate, the decolorization of the liquid shows that a certain amount
of carbon dioxid has been absorbed. If this carbon dioxid come from a

ORDINARY MEETINGS. XX111

measured quantity of air, the proportion of carbon dioxid in the air is
easily calculated. Carbon dioxid is a constituent of all air, but it has
been shown that in re-breathed air it increases in direct proportion to
the other, more poisonous, but less easily detected, impurities. "We
shall therefore make no error if we use the amount of carbon dioxid as
an indicator of the amount of the organic poisons.

The apparatus is so arranged as to admit into a glass cylinder which
contains a measured amount of the standard solution, the air to be tested.
When enough has been admitted to neutralize the solution, the propor-
tion of carbon dioxid may be read off from a scale etched on the glass.

It should be stated that as checks upon the experiments, samples of
air were tested by other methods, the results agreeing very closely with
those obtained by the Wolpert method. This is not as exact as syste-
matic chemical analysis, but it is sufficiently so for the purpose.

The instrument is graduated for 0°C and 760mm. of mercury pressure.
As the air tested was always at a temperature of from 15°C to 20°C, and
as the average pressure at Truro is 761mm., there should be about 7%
added to ths actual observations to correct them for temperature and
pressure. I give below a table showing a set of observations which
were made in the Chemical Laboratory at the Provincial Normal School.
They are corrected for temperature and pressure, and the conditions in
the room at the time of the various tests are given as accurately as
possible.

XXIV

PROCEEDINGS.

TESTS OF THE AIR IN THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY, PROVINCIAL NORMAL
SCHOOL, TRURO, NOVA SCOTIA.

Date.

Mar.

7
H
15

21

22
24

17

22

8

15

22

8

9

i5

17

9

16

21

23

7

10
26

27

Time.

A. M.
9.00
g.oo
9.00
9.00
9.00
9.00
9-45
9-45

IO.OO
IO.OO
10.00

10.40
10.40
10.40
10.40
12 m.
12 m.
12 m.
12 m.

P. M.
5.OO
5.00
5.00
5-00

Condition of the Laboratory.

Empty 6.42

4.28
3-2i
4.28
16.05
6.42

34 students — 40 m. — high wind . , 9-63

32 windows open 16.05

i h 20.33

" windows open 9.63

" windows and doors open 16.05

i h., 40 m., windows and doors open. . . . 23.54

21.40

windows open . 10.70

i h 16.05

" windows open 20. 33

17.12

i h., 15 m., Blow-pipe lamps in use 48-15

windows open 17.12

Empty 16.05

20.33
42.80
Laboratory used for blow-pipe work in mineralogy for

i h., 45 m., by 20 students ' 65.00

C O2
(parts in
10,000.)

The observations made in the Laboratory were chosen for presentation
because they present,

1. A mean between the worst and best rooms in the building.

2. A greater variety of conditions than any other room.

3. A large air space per pupil— 9 cu.m., or 318 cubic feet.

4. Less interference from other rooms, and from interruption during-
the test.

The month of March was chosen because at that time the laboratory
work consists of lectures and blow-pipe analysis, where few chemical
re-agents aie used and those mostly in the " dry " state. With one
exception, March 21, no blow-pipe work was done till after 3 o'clock in
the afternoon. Moreover, March presents many warm days when it is
possible to have windows open, while in the winter the insufficiency of
our heating apparatus is such as to make this impossible. It has been.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. XXV

my endeavor to present a case considerably better than the worst
which obtains in our school.

As will be seen, a great variety of conditions is presented. The use
of the room is intermittent, arid when in use, its ventilation depends
wholly upon the temperature of the outside air. The heating apparatus
is so inadequate that upon a cold day with all windows closed the
temperature cannot be brought above 62° F. Hence it is only during
comparatively warm weather that the windows can be opened at all.

The laboratory gives an air space of nine cubic meters to each °*
thirty-four students, due allowance being made for the desks and cases.

All authorities admit that air containing more than six parts of
carbon dioxid in ten thousand is injurious, but for various reasons it is
generally agreed that Pettenkofer's standard of ten parts of carbon dioxid
may be used as the outside limit for ordinary school-room air. For
kindergartens it is thought that the air should never become more
impure than is indicated by the presence of four parts of carbon dioxid
in ten thousand. It will be seen that only at the beginning of school
does the air in the laboratory come within Pettenkofer's standard.

From all observations made in all the rooms in the Normal School,
and in the corridors, the times of making the tests being from 9 a. m.
to 5 p. m., and the conditions as various as exist in any school building,,
and the dates from March 6 to June 1st. I find the following averages
for the amount of carbon dioxid in ten thousand parts of air :

At 9.00 a. m 8.30

" 9.40 " 9.63

"10.00 " 20.33

" 11.00 " 16.05

" 1 2.00 m 23.54

" 3.15 p. m 18.19

" 5,00 " 29.96

The decrease in impurity from ten to eleven o'clock is due to the
recess taken by the model school at that time. The great increase after
3.15 is more difficult to account for, but it seems to me satisfactorily
explained by these considerations. 1st. During school hours the warm
air breathed out rises, so that even the heavy carbon dioxid is carried
upward. When the whole air cools the carbon dioxid is found near the
floor. 2nd. After school, much blow-pipe work was going on in the
laboratory, raising the impurity in that room, and the library was usually
crowded. The average of many five o'clock tests in the latter room gives
forty-five parts of carbon dioxid in ten thousand of air.

XXvi PROCEEDINGS.

A consideration of these figures will make it evident that we are
severely handicapped in our work at the Normal School, and that pupils
and teachers are, in a greater or less degree, poisoned by the air in the
school building.

This is in no way a peculiarity of the Normal School. With the
exception of some modern ventilated buildings in Halifax, and in a few
of the towns, all schools are just as bad. I have found most country
schools which 1 have visited with just as impure air as that at Truro.

The amount of air space per pupil in the various rooms in the
Normal School is much greater than that in most schools. Six cubic
meters per pupil is considered ample, and in no room at Truro, except
the library, have we less than seven.

The obvious remedy here is to provide some means of changing the
air. With the present heating it is impossible to do this by means of
windows, even if there were no danger from drafts by such a mode of
ventilation.

The really important problem to be solved is the ventilation of the
•country schools. Here are the greatest numbers, at ages when injury is
very dangerous, since it may effect the whole future life of the pupil.
That we may do the " greatest good to the largest number " by ventilat-
ing the country scnool houses is evident. The obstacle in our way here
is the complete ignorance of the people of the principles of ventilation.
This is perfectly excusable, since it is only within comparatively few
years that the subject has been studied at all. A " campaign of educa-
tion " is feasible, but is expensive. The Inspectors are the proper persons
to bring the matter before the teachers and the trustees. The Depart-
ment of Education can also do much by securing plans of suitable build-
ings and requiring all new school houses to be built upon one of these
plans. They may be of various sizes and prices so as to suit the needs
of poor or of wealthy sections. Thus, in time, every school-house in the
Province would be provided with pure air, and the cost be saved many
times over by the increased efficiency of both teachers and pupils.
Until something is done by the central authority in some such compul-
sory manner as I have indicated, I fear there will be no change.

As for the Normal School, the only remedy for the state of affairs
existing there is to provide the building with suitable heating and
ventilation.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. XXVli

The paper was discussed by the Chairman, MESSRS. O'HEARN,

McKERRON, DOANE, BLACKADAR, HoPSON, BAUSCH and PROFESSOR E.

MAC KAY.

A vote of thanks was presented to MR. RUSSELL.

FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING.

City Hall, Halifax, 13th March, 1899.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.

EDWIN GILPIN, JR., ESQ., LL. D., F. R. S. C.,'read a paper, entitled,
" New Mineral Discoveries in Nova Scotia." (See Transactions, p. 79.)

A. P. REID, ESQ., M. D., exhibited and explained a model of a
Sanatorium for Consumptives.

A vote of thanks was presented to DR. REID for his communication.

FIFTH ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 17th, April, 1899.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.

It was announced that at the last meeting of the Council, HERBERT
E. GATES, ESQ., Architect, Dartmouth, and WILLIAM A. MACDONALD,
ESQ., Halifax, had been elected ordinary members.

PROFESSOR J. G. MACGREGOR, D. Sc., read a paper entitled, " On
finding the ionization of complex solutions of given concentration, and
the converse problem. (See Transactions, p. 67).

A paper entitled, " Phonological Observations, Canada, 1898," was
read by A. H. MACKAY, ESQ., LL. D., F. R. S. C. (See Transactions,
p. 91.)

XXviii PROCEEDINGS.

SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 8th May, 1899.

The PRESIDENT in the chair.

A circular from the Eoyal Society of Canada, relative to the appoint-
ment of a delegate to the forthcoming meeting, was read and referred to
the Council for action.

PROP. J. G. MACGREGOR communicated a " Note on the variation
with tension, of the elastic properties of vulcanised india-rubber," being
an account of some experiments made in his Laboratory at Dalhousie
College, by MR. W. A. MACDONALD.

The experiments had been intended originally to deal with rigidity
only, but it had been -found possible to apply some of the observations
to the determination of Young's Modulus as well.

The composition of the specimen of india-rubber used was not
known. It was in the form of a cylindrical cord and was fairly soft in
texture and grey in color, a freshly cut surface having a mottled
appearance. It had been obtained from Messrs. Thornton & Co., Edin-
burgh, and was both very true and very uniform in its circular cross
section.

The method employed for determining the rigidity under tension
was the method of oscillation. It was necessary therefore to fix the
upper end firmly and to attach a weight-holder firmly to the lower end.
As the problem had been assigned to Mr. Macdonald as a class exercise
merely, and no appropriate gear for the attachment of the ends was
immediately available, he had to be contented with a makeshift method.
He drew the ends of the cord through pieces of glass tubing, previoxisly
coated internally with soft sealing wax, of considerably smaller diameter
than the cord, and then gently heated the tubes until the wax melted.
The tube at the upper end was fixed to a bracket, that at the lower end
carried a cork disc which served as a weight-holder. To reduce the
error due to lack of uniformity in the diameter of the cord near the
ends, produced by the pressure of the tubes, the cord selected for use
was a long one. Except in so far as the heating may have changed the
physical properties ot the cord near the lower end, the arrangement was
satisfactory enough for the comparatively small extensions for which it
was intended. But for the greater extensions, to which the earlier
results made it appear desirable to proceed, it was not suitable. For

ORDINARY MEETINGS. XXIX

under considerable stress the wax near the ends of the glass tubes gave
way, and the space thus left in the ends of the tubes had to be packed to
make it certain that the portion of the cord actually subjected to tension
and torsion was the portion outside the tubes. The observations under
the greater stresses are thus considerably less trustworthy than the
others.

The weights used were square plates of sheet lead with an edge of
four inches, having a small circular portion cut from the centre, and a
slit from the centre to the edge to admit of their being placed on the
holder. Their moment of inertia could therefore readily be calculated.
The length of the cord was measured by means of a beam compass,
reading to .01 inch, and its diameter by a micrometer gauge reading to
.001 inch. The time of oscillation was determined by means of a stop-
watch reading to 0.2 second. The observations given below were in all
cases means of several individual observations, — the length and radius of
five, and the times of oscillation, of ten. No special effort was made to
keep the cord at constant temperature ; but the temperature of the
laboratory varied but little.

The course of the observations was determined by Mr. Macdonald's
available time rather than by the fitness of things. He kept the cord
stretched slightly throughout the whole series by 482 grm., and from
time to time he would apply additional weights, make the requisite
observations, and then remove such additional weights, the observations
requiring perhaps a couple of hours. The dates of the observations are
given in the table below. Unfortunately the length of the cord under
its permanent stress was not in all cases, and its diameter was in no case,
determined immediately before the application of the additional weights,
such observations not being necessary for the purpose originally in hand.

The following table gives the results of the observations and the
calculated values of the rigidity. The observations have been reduced
to C. G. S. units, and the rigidities expressed in absolute units of that
system. The rigidities were calculated from the formula :

r* t* '

where n is the rigidity, I the length, and r the radius, of the cord, / the
moment of inertia of the lead plates, and t the time -of a complete
oscillation. In finding the moment of inertia the weight-holder of cork
and glass was neglected, as also the small circular apertures in the lead
plates. The volume of the cord is given in the table also.

XXX

PROCEEDINGS.

o

b

ippended
>

1

'•E

0

o

02°

O

0^1

4

Tempera
(°C.)

38

H"~
o

•2,o

il

Time of <
(sec.)

0 O

'&

10" x

FIRST SERIES.

Mar.
16

21

15.6
18.1

90.68
90.98

482

482

0.356

1080

36.03.

10.18

21
22
22
23
23
28
28

17.5
17.6
18.7
18.9
18.6
18.6

96.60
91.24
103.99
91.51
113.92
92.35
123.21

.343

735

482
981
482
1222
482
1467

16.00

35.69

8.68

.335

20.04

36.73

8.69

.323

25.32

37.25

8.67

.307

29.76

3657

9.89

Apr.
4

18.S

137.41

.293

1714

35.88

37.16

10.68

5

19.3

138.38

.293

1714

36.36

37.42

10.48

6

17.7

150.37

.279

1956

40.80

36.88

12.54

SECOND SERIES.

Apr.
13

17.0

95.65

.345

482

12.22

35.86

9.38

13

17.4

102.16

.337

735

18.44

36.36

7.44

13

17.5

110.31

.324

981

23.80

36.35

7.51

13

20
20
20

18.0

121.13
130.97
141.83
151.99

.312
.301
.290
.282

1222
1467
1714
1956

29.26
33.64
38.48
42.30

37.15
37.28
37.36
37.96

7.85
8.95
10.10
11.37

The first series of observations showed that the rigidity, as deter,
mined, at first diminished with tension, then reached a minimum value,
and finally increased, as the cord was more and more stretched, — an
interesting result if it should be substantiated. Hence a second series of

ORDINARY MEETINGS. XXXI

observations was made with the same cord and the same arrangements
as the first. This series had to be made somewhat hurriedly, as will be
seen by the dates of the individual experiments, but the experim'ents
were made with the same care as those of the first series. It will be
seen from the above table that (1) the treatment to which the cord had
been subjected in the first series had diminished its rigidity, the values
being smaller throughout than in the first series, and (2) that the initial
diminution of rigidity with increase of tension, its final increment with
tension, and the occurrence of a minimum point are as marked in the
second series as in the first.

To find out if the occurrence of the minimum point was due to the
defective character of the attachments at the ends of the cord, Mr.
Macdonald made a number of observations with new modes of attach-
ment. These consisted of brass tubes in one end of which three
longitudinal cuts had been made, the ends of the three strips thus
formed being bent inwards and provided with teeth. The ends of
the cord having been passed into these tubes, the strips were firmly bound
to the cord by means of wire. Unfortunately Mr. Macdonald had Hot
(sufficient time to make more than rough observations with the new
arrangement. Such observations as he was able to make seemed to show
that the minimum point had disappeared. Whether its disappearance
was due to the more satisfactory attachments, the passing away of the
heating effect or the fatigue of the cord, Mr. Macdonald hopes to deter-
mine by further experiments.

The above values of the rigidity agree fairly well with Mallock's1
determinations, Mallock having found that the rigidity of what he calls
'•soft grey" india-rubber, determined dynamically, ranged from 5.52 to
8.76, if expressed as in the above table, and that for "hard grey" rubber
it ranged from 10.77 to 13.94. Mr. Macdonald's rubber could not be
designated as either soft or hard ; and his values are intermediate
between Mallock's for the soft and the hard specimens.

The volume of the cord underwent very little change during either
the first or the second series. In both series, however, there is an
unmistakeable though small increase of volume with stretching ; but
whether it was due to the stretching or to the series of oscillations to
which the cord had been subjected does not of course appear.

1 Proc. R. S. Lond.. 46, 233, 1889.

XXXll

PROCEEDINGS.

Mr. Macdonald did not intend at the outset, to make any deter-
minations of Young's Modulus ; but his observations may be used for
two" purposes, viz., to determine (1) how the value of this modulus for
a cord under a constant original stress varies with the magnitude of the
increment of stress to which it is subjected, and (2) how the value of
the modulus for a cord under different original stresses, and elongated
by approximately equal increments of stress, varies with the magnitude
of the original stress. In the determinations given below, Young's
Modulus has been taken to be the increment of tensile stress divided
by the corresponding increment of length per unit of the length immedi-
ately before the stress was increased.

(1) The observations requisite for the first purpose were made only
in a few cases ; and even in those cases in calculating the increment of
tensile stress, it is necessary to assume (the requisite measurements not
having been made) that the radius of the cord would not appreciably
vary with the small variations of length under the permanent load —
an assumption which is doubtless permissible. The following table
gives the results : —

Original Stress
(grms. per sq.
cm.)

Additional
Stress
(grins, per sq.
cm.)

Elongation per
unit length.

Young's
Modulus,
(abs. C. G. S.
units).
10" x

1354

789

.0618

12.53

1354

1574

.1397

11.05

1354

2529

.2449

9.73

1354

3424

.3342

10.05

These determinations would thus seem to show that for the smaller
additional stresses to which the cord was subjected, the value of Young's
Modulus diminished as the additional stress increased, that for the larger
additional stresses, it increased with the additional stress, and that there
was a certain additional stress for which Young's Modulus had a
minimum value, — this additional stress being of such a magnitude as to
produce an elongation of about 0.25. This result is in agreement,
qualitatively, with Mallock's observations, which showed that Young's
Modulus, statically determined, " diminishes with the extension until
the stretched length is about 3/2 times the natural length." As Mallock's

ORDINARY MEETINGS.

XXX111

rubber no doubt differed in degree of vulcanisation from Mr. Macdonald's,
and as he used a different initial stress, it is not surprising that the elon-
gations giving a minimum value for Young's Modulus should be 0.25 in
the one case and 0.5 in the other

Mallock's mean value of Young's Modulus, when expressed in
absolute C. G. S. units, was 8.56 x 106for soft grey india-rubber, and
34.16 x 106 for hard grey rubber. As in the case of the rigidity, Mr.
Macdonald's values are intermediate, being nearer Mallock's values for
the soft than for the hard specimen.

(2) The following table contains the determinations made for the
second purpose mentioned above.

Original Stress
(grms. per sq.
cm.)

Additional

Stress
(grins, per sq.
cm.)

Elongation per
unit length.

Young's
Modulus,
(abs. C. G. S.
units).
10«x

FIRST SERIES.

1354

789

.0618

12.53

2143

785

.0765

10.06

2928

855

.0955

8.78

3783

995

.0816

11.97

4778

1072

.1152

9.13

5850

1161

.0943

12.08

SECOND SERIES.

1397

784

.0681

11.30

2181

847

.0798

10.42

3028

889

.0981

8.89

3917

957

.0812

11 55

4874

1036

.0829

12.26

5910

1026

.0716

14.05

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X.

PROC.— C.

XXXIV PROCEEDINGS.

It will be seen that in both series of observations the values of the
modulus are large at the outset, diminish in value as the original stress
is increased, reach a minimum value and thereafter increase with the
original stress. The irregularity of the fourth and fifth determinations
in the first series, is obviously due to the unusually long intervals of
time which, as the first table, p. xxx, shows, intervened between the two
pairs of observations on which they are based. The variation of Young's
Modulus with initial stress, th« additional stress being roughly constant,
would thus appear to be similar to that which was shown above to hold
with respect to additional stress when initial stress is constant.

It should be noted, with respect to all the above determinations of
Young's Modulus that the values found apply to the state of the cord
immediately after the application of the additional stress, and in addition
that the cord was subjected to torsion after each observation of length.

Mr. Macdonald hopes to be able to continue the above investigation
at a later date.

The paper was discussed by DR. MURPHY.

JAMES BARNES, ESQ., B A., Dalhousie College, read a paper " On
the Conductivity, Specific Gravity, and Surface Tension of Aqueous
Solutions containing Potassium Chloride and Sulphate." (See Transac-
tions, p. 49.)

HARRY PIERS, ESQ., read a paper entitled, " Observations on a Fish
new to the Fauna of Nova Scotia." (Sec Transactions, p. 110.)

CHARLES F. LINDSAY, ESQ , read a paper "On the presence of Acid
Sulphates in Solutions containing Copper Sulphate and Sulphuric Acid."

The paper was discussed by PROFESSORS E. MACKAY and MACGREGOR,
and DR. A. H. MAC KAY.

A vote of thanks was presented to MESSRS. MACDONALD, BARNES and
LINDSAY for their communications.

The following paper was read by title : " Notes on Nova Scotian
Zoology : No. 5," by HARRY PIERS, ESQ.

The Council was authorized to receive as read by title, any papers
that might be offered too late for this meeting.

HARRY PIERS,

Recording Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS

,Scotian Jnstitute of .Science,

SESSION OF 1899-1900.

ANNU&.L BUSINESS MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 20th November, 1899.
The PRESIDENT, ALEXANDER McKAY, ESQ., in the chair.
The PRESIDENT addressed the Institute, as follows : —

GENTLEMEN, — A review of the last year's work of this Institute
may well he very brief. Meetings were held at the usual times,
except in February, on account of a severe storm. Twelve papers
were read and discussed, and another was read by title. These cover a
wide range of subjects : Social science, geology, sanitary science,
mineralogy, medicine, chemistry and botany, zoology and physics.

Prof. Davidson, of the University of New Brunswick, opens up a
field new to the Institute by a valuable paper " On Statistics and
Expenditure in Canada." In this and related studies there are splendid
opportunities for unlimited research and the display of the highest
order of talents. A paper by Prof. Russell on " School Room Air "
will be of much interest and value to teachers. The tests recom-
mended are inexpensive, and such as can be generally used. Teachers
who have once made these tests will ever afterwards be more alive to
the almost criminal carelessness of those who allow children to occupy
badly-ventilated school rooms. Dr. A. P. Reid also deserves the
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. PROC.— D.

(xxxv)

XXXvi PROCEEDINGS.

thanks of the Institute for calling attention to the spread of consumption
by contagion and its prevention by means of properly constructed
sanitaria, of which he exhibited a model. In the phenological observa-
tions of the school children, collected by Dr. MacKay, and in the
experiments in physics and chemistry conducted by Messrs. Barnes. and
Lindsay — promising young students of Dalhousie College — we see
hopeful signs of a reviving interest for science in iSrova Scotia. Mr.
Piers has favored us with " No. 5 of Notes on Nova Scotia Zoology."
Dr. Mackay, who is our only authority on the Diatomaceae of Nova
Scotia, has awakened a fresh interest in one of his favorite studies by
another paper reporting progress, and by exhibiting excellent micro-
scopic slides of our principal diatoms.

Upon the whole, then, the work of the year has been of very
considerable interest and of some scientific importance.

We have added to our numbers two ordinary members, one corres-
ponding member and three associate members. We record with sorrow
the death in September of one. of our oldest and most faithful members,
Mr. J. J. Fox. He was born in Salisbury, England, in 1818. He
studied medicine, but preferred a seafaring life, and spent many years
full of adventure in Egypt, Greece, the West Indies and South
America. In 1852 he was appointed by the Imperial Government
comptroller of customs and navigation laws at Magdalen Islands.

A faithful performance of duties soon led to advancement, and for
many years he was familiarly known as " governor." He was charac-
terized by modesty, bravery and humanity. For valuable services to
shipwrecked mariners he was presented by the President of the United
States with a magnificent gold watch valued at $1,000. His intimate
knowledge of the fisheries made him a most valuable witness before the
Halifax fishery commission in 1877. After retiring from the civil
service he lived in Halifax, joined the Institute, and seldom missed a
meeting.

To-;lay brings us sad tidings of the death yesterday of Sir William
Dawson, the most distinguished member of our Institute and the most
eminent scientific man in Canada. He was born in Pictou in 1820.
At a very early age he began his studies in natural history, thereby
cultivating his powers of observation, and thus laying the foundation
for his remarkable achievements in geology subsequently. His success
in this respect is a good argument in favor of the early introduction into
our course of study of science teaching.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. XXXVll

Mr. Dawson graduated from Edinburgh University at the age of 26.
For four years he studied geology, travelling part of the time with Sir
Charles Lyell, the greatest geologist of the world. At tho age of
thirty he was superintendent of schools for JS'ova Scotia, and did much
to lay the foundation of our present educational system. In 1855 he
was appointed Principal of McGill University, a position which he held
until 1893, until he and the University had become famous the world
over.

He was capable of a prodigious amount of hard work. In his
favorite science he kept in the foremost rank, but he found it difficult
to avail himself of the light thrown upon natural phenomena by the
theory of evolution of which he was a most uncompromising oppo-
nent.

His extraordinary industry is shown by the large number of books
and scientific articles which he wrote. Some of them were of very
great value and are still used as text books.

His eminent services to science were acknowledged by his appoint-
ment as first President of the Royal Society of Canada in 1882, his
•election in the same year as President of the American Geological
Association, and of the British Association in 1886. He received
honorary degrees fram various universities, and was knighted in 1884.

At the close of my address last year I referred to the fact that
science was much neglected or very badly taught in our schools. As a
remedy I suggested (a) that the colleges prescribe science as a subject
for matriculation, (b) that for the academic license more scholarship,
especially in practical science, and a long course of the best professional
training be made imperative, (c) that higher qualifications in science be
required for B licenses, and (d) that a large part of the provincial
•examination in science for grade A consist of laboratory work.

The progress of science teaching in other countries during the last
year has all been in confirmation of the soundness of these principles.
No doubt the time is near when we also must adopt them. When that
•day comes, and not until then, science will make satisfactory progress
in all our educational institutions.

But it is perhaps more especially the province of this Institute to
awaken the public to an interest in general science and to stimulate and
assist individuals in particular fields of research.

xxxviii PROCEEDINGS.

In reference to this aim I may be allowed to make some additional
suggestions :

1. We should have a scientific library easily accessible to scientific-
workers in every part of the Province. At present we have nothing of
the kind. A collection of partially catalogued, somewhat inaccessible
reports of scientific societies cannot be said to be such a scientific library
as the majority of workers need, however useful it may be to those-
engaged in original research.

We requiie not less than 5,000 volumes of the latest books by the
ablest men of science ; 10,000 would be better. In addition to this
there should be complete sets of all the scientific periodicals in English,
French and German.

Such a collection of standard science textbooks, supplemented by
government reports on agriculture, forestry, fisheries, etc., and the
reports of scientific societies, and managed by a competent librarian,,
would be of incalculable benefit. I have no hesitation in saying that I
believe it is the duty of our government in its encouragement of
technical instruction to establish such a library. If there existed an
intelligent appreciation of its value the cost would not long be a
hindrance, for the number of books required would not be large, and
probably many of them would be received as donations.

But why should the government provide a science library any more
than a law library or a historical library 1 Because science in some form
or other lies at the foundation of success in all the industries of the-
country, so that the government would be justified and supported in
making an expenditure which would result in such general benefit.
Facilities for scientific research would lead to discoveries which would
pay the cost a thousand fold. Pasteur's discoveries were worth untold
millions to France.

Although Nova Scotia is not large, populous or rich, yet her natural
resources are so great and varied as to warrant the government in
following the examples of other countries in respect to technical
education; and the establishment of a good science library would be but
the first and most natural step in that direction.

Recently I wanted to consult twenty or thirty scientific works and
periodicals. In the three largest public or quasi-public libraries of
Halifax I was able to find but one of them. No wonder that our
ablest young men are lost to the Province when we deny them the-
opportunities for research which they readily obtain elsewhere.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. XXXIX

Here let me call your attention to the most valuable and self-
sacrificing labors of Dr. MacGregor and Mr. Maynard Bowman in
•connection with the library of this Institute. A few years ago, when
they began work upon it, it consisted of a small number of unclassified
reports from secieties in various parts of the world. It now includes a
large number of serial publications by scientific societies and other insti-
tutions, and numbers about 1,500 bound volumes with about as many
more unbound. These haee been placed in a room temporarily pro-
vided by Dalhousie College, and so arranged that any one desirous of
consulting any volume would be able to find it without the assistance of
the librarian.

The work of bringing order out of the confusion that existed at
first, the cataloguing and labelling of so many books, searching and
sending abroad for missing numbers, was an immense labor, which if
performed by a paid expert would have cost several hundred, not less,
perhaps, than two thousand dollars.

But in addition to all thi.°, the addresses of other societies had to
be searched and copies of our Transactions sent abroad to about 700
societies in all, by which means the number of valuable publications
received each year was more than doubled. Surely when these two
gentlemen have done so much, we may expect our provincial government
to supplement their efforts by the addition to this library each year of a
few hundred treatises. Thpn would it not be better that the library
thus enlarged should be taken over by the government, properly housed
and managed, and made free to the public 1

Nor must I forget to say that the thanks of this Institute are due
to the Governors of Dalhousie College for the use of a room at a time
when our library became so large that it could no longer be kept in the
place which it formerly occupied.

2. A properly conducted museum would do much to popularize
science in our midst. A collection of dusty, unlabelled, badly arranged
specimens does not amount to much and scarcely justifies the expense.
Such a museum is the deadest of all dead things.

To be practically useful a museum requires a large, well-lighted,
readily accessible room. It should primarily contain typical specimens
of the most important natural bodies, arranged according to their
chemical or organic affinities, so that the student may learn from them
at a glance something of their relationship and the laws of nature

xl PROCEEDINGS,

Especial attention should be given to the products of this Province.
They should be scientifically marshalled and their industrial applications
carefully and suggestively illustrated. Raw products in every stage of
their manufacturing processes should be exhibited.

The museum should be in charge of a man of the broadest scientific
culture, a man of business capacity, and <i thorough teacher.

A museum thus equipped would do more for science than any college
or any other agency. Every visitor from the country would return to
his home with his curiosity awakened, arid often with scientific problems
or difficulties solved, with a new inspiration for further advances.

Such an institution would have organic connection with every high
school and college in the province, exchanging specimens and thus
enriching the local school museums, diffusing scientific information, and
stimulating scientific activity.

How often throughout the last sixteen years have our teachers
lamented the want of opportunity in this respect? During their
holidays they would have made large collections of interesting objects
which they would study in classes formed at the museum. Long since
every school in the city, after the example of the German schools, would
have been supplied with a respectable collection of labelled specimens
for the instruction of their pupils, and the amount of scientific know-
ledge and interest would have been increased tenfold.

For the sake of economy and efficiency the museum and the science
library should be in the same building and in charge of the curator of
the museum.

Book arid specimen are complementary and should be drawn as close
together as possible. " First of all, their aims are identical, for they
have the one end in view, the culture of the people ; secondly, they
appeal to the same mental faculties with which all men are endowed in
a greater or less degree, and thirdly, to a very great extent one of them,
the museum, to carry out its proper functions to a great measure, is
dependent on the other. It leans upon it, as it were ; it looks to it to
minister to the museum visitors that information which the most
comprehensive catalogue and labels in the world would fail to supply."*

If all the specimens were labelled giving references to the books in
which they were best described, placed on a shelf near at hand, the

* C. W. Wallis, Curator Birmingham Art Galleries and Museum.

TREASURER'S REPORT. xli

student's ability to do better work and the extent to which both library
and museum could be utilized would be greatly increased. The tendency
in England, Ontario and the United States is towards combining
libraries and museums in the same building.

In conclusion, when the colleges come to see that good work in
science in the high school gives, to say the least, as valuable mental,
discipline as classics, aud vastly more of useful knowledge ; when the
education department provides adequate professional training for the
higher teachers, and subjects them to tests in the laboratory which will
demonstrate their fitness for teaching science, and when the government
will supply us with a well-equipped museum and science library in one
building, then but not before we will make satisfactory progress in
science.

The thanks of the Institute were presented to MR. McKAY for his
services as President.

The TREASURER'S report was presented, and having been audited and
found correct, was received and adopted. The following is an analytical
statement of the expenditure for 1898-99 : —
PUBLICATION OF TRANSACTIONS: —
Vol. IX, Part 4 (1897-98) :

Printing- and binding: $171 40

Less received for authors' separates and two

copies sold 8 oo

- $163 40

Vol. IX, Parts 1-4. Preparation of Index .... 2 oo

Vol. X, Part i :

Printing $ 8 oo

Photographs for Portrait i oo

Engraving's 14 13

Expressag-e 75

23 88
Vol. X, Part 2, 3 or 4 :

Photograph for Portrait 25

- $189 53

DISTRIBUTION OF TRANSACTIONS : —
Vol. IX, Part 4 :

Wrappers, receipts, wrapping", twine $14 50

Addressing- 15 oo

Postag-e, truckage, freight, expressag-e,

insurance 1 5 39

44 89

Carried fot ivard $234 42

xlii PROCEEDINGS.

Brought far-ward $234 42

LIBRARY EXPENSES : —

Insurance (including stock of Transactions) $16 88

Janitor, Dalhousie College, for services 5 oo

Asst. -Librarian, Dalhousie College, for services 10 oo

Librarian, clerical expenses 25 oo

Fittings 12 77

Arranging Library, preparing card catalogue,

etc 75 oo

Truckage 3 80

Binding 9565

Freight and postage on back numbers of

Transactions sent in exchange 4 oi

Petty expenses 2 55

• 250 66

Calling of meetings 28 oo

Advertising 6 oo

Postage (Secretaries and Librarian) 1 1 85

P. O. Box 4 oo

Miscellaneous printing (including stationery) 2 50

Type-writing 50

$537 93

The Report on the Library was presented by the Librarian and
Corresponding Secretary.

During the year the Transactions had been sent for the first time
to the following : —

*K6nigl. Landesarchiv, Agram, Austria-Hungary.

Elektrotechnisoher Verein, Berlin, Germany.

Real Academia de Ciencias Naturales y Artes, Barcelona, Spain.

Naturae Novitates, Berlin.

*Musee du Congo, Brussels.

Baltimore Astronomical Society, Baltimore, Md.

*Maryland Geological Survey, Baltimore, Md.

Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

New Hampshire State Library, Concord, N. H.

*Xatnral History Association of Miramichi, Chatham, N. B.

*K. Vetenskaps- och Vitterhet^samhallet, Goteborg, Sweden.

Real Academia de Ciencias Medicas, Fisicas y Xaturale?; Habana,

Cuba.
Periodico di Matematica, Leghorn, Italy.

LIBRARIAN'S REPORT. xliii

Lincolnshire Science Society, Lincoln, G. B.
Public Library, Museum and National Gallery, Melbourne.
*Canadian Mining Institute, Montreal.
•Club Alpin de Crimee, Odessa, Russia.
Rivista di Patologia Vegetale, Portici, Italy.
Pasadena Academy of Science, Pasadena. Cal.
*Philadelphia Commercial Museum, Philadelphia, Pa.
Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society, Rochdale, G. B.
"*Augustana College, Rock Island, 111.
"Minerva," Strassburg, Germany.

*Institut de Botanique, R. Universit^ des Etudes, Sienne, Italy.
State Laboratory of Natural History, Urbana, 111.
Concilium Bibliographicum, Zurich-Neumunster, Switzerland.
American Microscopical Journal, Washington, I). C.

Publications have been received for the first time from the institu-
tions indicated by an asterisk in the above list, and from the following :
Observatorio de Manila, Manila.
Education Department, Wellington, New Zealand.
Public Museum, Wanganui, New Zealand.
Birmingham and Midland Institute, Birmingham.
" La Science Sociale," Paris.
Treasury Department, Washington, D. C.
South Staffordshire Institute of Iron and Steel Works Managers,

Dudley, G. 15.

Rulcliffe Observatory, Oxford, G. B.
K. Ungarische Geographieehe Gesellschaft, Vienna.
Socicte AnvprsoisK pour la Protection des Animaux, Antwerp.
Society of Civil Engineers, Boston.
Halifax Scientific Society, Halifax, Eng.
Universite Imperiale de Moscou, Russia.
Carnegie Museum, Pittsburg, U. S A.
K. Botanische Gesells^haft, Regensbnrg.
Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Ka.
Public Library, New York.
Societe Linneenne de Lyon, Lyons, France.
Academic des Sciences, Belles Lettres et Arts, Lyons, France.
Royal Society of Victoria, Melbourne.
Academy of Science, Washington, D. C.

xliv PROCEEDINGS.

New England Zoological Club, Cambridge, Mass.

Public Library, Museum and Art Gallery, Adelaide, So. Australia.

Engineering Association of New South Wales, Sydney.

Associazione Mathesis, Leghorn, Italy.

Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, Madison, Wis.

Societo Nationale des Antiquaires de France, Paris.

Lloyd Mycological Museum, Cincinnati.

The Transactions were now being sent annually to 779 institutions-
of various kinds, and exchanges had been received from 447.

The distribution of the Transactions to Corresponding Societies and
other institutions in .all parts of the world had again, through the-
courtesy of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
been effected at small expense, through the Institution's Bureau of Inter-
national Exchanges. The total expense of distribution had been
$44.89, which included printing of wrappers and receipt forms, wrapping
and addressing as well as postage (on Canadian packages), and freight.

At the date of the last report 113 volumes were in the binder's
hands. Subsequently 89 volumes were added to these ; and these 202
volumes are now on the shelves. The total cost of binding them was
$170.65, but as $75.00 was provided for last year, only the balance of
$95.65 appears in this year's account. The books bound were mostly
English, but some foreign publications which were in demand by
members were included. The number of bound volumes in the Library
is now 1,482 ; and there must be a somewhat larger number of unbound
volumes, though we have never made a count of the unbound volumes.

The recommendation made la^t year that a paid assistant should be
provided to get the library into a condition in which it would be of
greater use to the members, was carried out during the past year, the
services of Miss N. K. MacKay, who had previously been Asst.-Librarian
of D.ilhousie College, having been secured for some weeks during the
summer.

The following work was accordingly carried out : —

(1) The arranging of books on the shelves and the labelling of
shelves referred to in last report, had been completed. It is thus possible
for members to find any books they may desire without difficulty, even
in the absence ot the Librarian.

(2) All unbound volumes, in parts, were examined and tied up, note
being made of their defects. This had previously been done in the case-

LIBRARIAN'S REPORT. xlv

of most of the English books. It has now been done for the whole
library.

(3) Memoranda were made out for transmission to corresponding
societies, of the paits lacking in our sets of their publications.

(4) A card catalogue of the whole library was prepared according to-
the method in use in the Library of the Academy of Arts and Science
of Philadelphia. The catalogue in the case of serial publications speci-
fies of course only the volumes of the various series which are on the
shelves, without giving any clue to their contents. In the case of
publications which, though issued by one institution, do not form a
numbered series, each volume or report is separately catalogued. The
catalogue consists of about 1200 cards.

While the whole of the work, carried out in an admirable manner by
Miss MacKay, forms a necessary preliminary to the issue of a printed
catalogue for the use of our members, we are not yet ready to issue such
a catalogue, at least to issue one which would be permanently useful.
For many of the unbound volumes in the library are defective, and it
would be well to get these defects supplied as far as may be possible
before printing. The Corresponding Secretary hopes during the present
year to transmit the memoranda of defects referred to above to the
various corresponding institutions, and to make some progress in getting
the defects supplied.

The report was adopted, and the thanks of the Institute tendered to-
Mr. Bowman and Dr. MacGregor for their work in connection with the
library.

On motion of DR. MACKAY, it was resolved that the Council be
directed to prepare a resolution appreciative of the scientific career of
the late Sir William Dawson and regretting his recent death.

It was resolved that the Council be instructed to approach the
Government for the purpose of ascertaining if it would be possible for
the latter to provide space, in the new Government building, for the
accommodation of the Institute's library.

The thanks of tlie Institute were presented to the HON. ROBERT
EOAK, President of the Legislative Council, for granting the use of the
Council Chamber, and to the SECRETARY OP THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITU-
TION for his courtesy in continuing to admit the Institute to the privi-
leges of the Bureau of International Exchanges.

i PROCEEDINGS.

The following were elected officers for the ensuing year (1899-1900):
President.— A. H. MAC KAY, ESQ., LL. D., F. R. S. C., ex officio F. R.,

M. S.
Vice-Presidents.—F. W. W. DOANE, ESQ., C. E., and HENRYS. POOLE,

ESQ., F. G. S.

Treasurer. — WILLIAM C. SILVER, ESQ.

Corresponding Secretary. — PROF. J. G. MAcGREGOR, D. Sc.
Recording Secretary.— HARRY PIERS, ESQ.
Librarian.— MAYNARD BOWMAN, ESQ., B. A.
Councillors -without Office.— ALEXANDER McKAY, ESQ. ; EDWIN GILPIN,

JR., ESQ., LL. D., F. R. S. C. ; MARTIN MURPHY, ESQ., D. Sc. ;

WILLIAM MCKERRON, ESQ. ; PROF. EBENEZER MACKAY, PH. D. ;

WATSON L. BISHOP, ESQ. ; RODERICK McCoLL, ESQ., C. E.
Auditors.— HERBERT E. GATES, ESQ., and G. W. T. IRVING, ESQ.

FIRST ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 20th November, 1899.

The PRESIDENT, DR. MACKAY, in the chair.

The meeting was held after the adjournment of the Annual Business
Meeting.

DR. H. M. AMI communicated a paper " On the Subdivisions of the
Carboniferous System in Eastern Canada," but owing to the lateness of
the hour the reading of the paper was deferred.

SECOND ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, llth December, 1899.

The PRESIDENT in the chair.

The council reported that ERNEST HAYCOCK, ESQ., Instructor in
Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology, Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S.,
had been elected an Associate member.

The following resolution was adopted : — "This Institute has learned
with the greatest regret of the death of its distinguished Corresponding
Member, SIR J. W. DAWSON, and desire to place on record its profound
sense of the eminence of the services rendered by him to the cause both
of Science and of Education, during a long life, which was happily as
fully characterized by successful results, as by unremitting efforts
towards the attainment of a noble ideal.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. xlvit

"The Institute desires to convey to LADY DAWSON and her family^
an expression of the deep sympathy with which its members have heard
of the sad bereavement she andJier family have experienced."

A paper by HENRY M. AMI, ESQ., D. Sc., of the Geological Survey
of Canada, " On the Sub-divisions of the Carboniferous System in
Eastern Canada," was read by DR. E. GILPIN who gave an introductory^
statement of a popular character. (See Transactions, p. 162).

The subject was discussed by DR. GILPIN, MR. J. FORBES and others.

The president, DR. A. H. MAcKAY, said he was glad to have DR.
AMI'S views presented to the Institute. He spent a fortnight with Mr.
Fletcher in running over the stream-exposed sections of the southern,
flanks of the Cobequids ; and became deeply interested in some of the
problems discussed in the paper. The extremely careful work done of
late years had thrown new light on the problems attempted to be solved
by the older geologists trom their original but more limited observations:
Mr. Flotcher has reason to feel gratified that Dr. Ami and Dr. Dawsoa
admit that his maps of the region in question " show clearly the true
and natural order of sequence of the formations ;" so that the reference
to " types that are everywhere held to te of caiboniferous age" must
indicate a revision of the older geological nomenclature of some regions.
Sir William Dawson, a most eminent paleontologist as well as geologist,
after studying the fossil plants and animals of Eiversdale, MacKay
Head, and Harrington River, placed them in the Millstone Grit forma-
tion as intimately related to those of the Coal Measures. Dr. Ami now
correlates them with the Lancaster fern ledges (hitherto known as
Devonian) of New Brunswick ; but he would place them all in his new
Eo-carboniferous. Of the twenty-one fossil species enumerated by Dr.
Ami, fifteen were Dawson's own species. Psilophyton glabrum belonged
to a genus hitherto generally considered to be characteristic of the
Devonian. Leaia Leidyi (perhaps identical with Leaia tricarinata)
was found in rocks called Devonian by many geologists. Belinurus
grandoevus and Estheria Daicsoni represented genera usually considered
common both to the Devonian and the Carboniferous, with specific
names given to specimens obtained from the rocks in dispute. Dr.
Ami's new species Sauropus Dawsoni was stated to be only " apparently
from rocks of this age." Mr. Fletcher would appear to oppose the
assumption that the rocks underlying the New Glasgow conglomerate-

xlviii PROCEEDINGS.

are equivalent to the coal measures of Stellarton, according to his views
•given in the Report of the Geological Survey for 1886, which he did
not appear to have since changed.

These differences of opinion demonstrated that new information was
being acquired, and was in the course of being assimilated by the
.geologists. But whether taking the upper slice from off our old
slenderly developed Devonian and attaching it with its unconformity to
the base of our corpulent Carboniferous is the true rectification of the
old nomenclature, remained, perhaps yet to be indubitably determined.
If the true order of superposition of rocks can be ascertained at any point
from the observation of their actual bedding, tho, paleontologist must
modify his hypotheses based on defective biological horizons observed
elsewhere, so as to harmonize with the facts of the stratigraphist. It
was the stratigraphist in the first place who determined the biological
'horizons for the palaeontologist. But the palaeontologist with his
biological horizon becomes the supreme arbitrator where the strati-
graphist is not sure of his base, or of the order of superposition.

PROF. J. G. M AcGREGOR, communicated a paper, "On Laws of
Dilution for Aqueous Solutions of Electrolytes."

THIRD ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax 15th January, 1900.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.

A communication was read from the EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL CON-
GRESS OP NAVIGATION, inviting the Institute to appoint a delegate to
attend the meeting of the Congress to be held at Paris in July next.
The matter was referred to the Council for action.

JAMES BARNES, ESQ , B. A., Dalhousie College, presented two

papers : —

1. " On the Relation of the Viscosity of Mixtures of Solutions of
Certain Salts to their State of Tonization." (See Transactions, p. 113).

2. " On the Calculation of the Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions
Containing Hydrochloric and Sulphuric Acids." (See Transactions, p.
129.)

A vote of thanks was presented to MR. BARNES for his communica-
tions.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. xlix

FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING.
City Council Chamber, Halifax, 12th February, 1900.

The PRESIDENT in the chair.

A paper entitled : " Nova Scotian Minerals collected for the Paris
Exhibition," was presented by EDWIN GILPIN, JR., ESQ., LL. D., F. E.
•S. C., Inspector of Mines. DR. GILPIN answered a number of inquiries
made by those present, relative to the minerals of the Province. (See
Transactions, p. 248.)

A communication by HENRY S. POOLS, ESQ., F. G. S., entitled
" Notes on the Periodical Appearance of Ants in a Chimney, and on
an Unusual Site for a Humble-Bee's Nest," was read by the RECORDING
SECRETARY in the absence of the author, as follows :

" For many years, possibly fifteen, a flight of ants has annually
tumbled down a chimney in the office of the Acadia Coal Co., at
-Stellarton, N. S., generally on August 24th, sometimes a day or two
later, and occasionally a few ants again appear as late as the niiddle of
September. Fires are used in the chimney each winter. A tinned roof
has been put on the office since the ants first were seen, and the top of
the chimney has been thoroughly repaired by masons without finding a
nest. The habitat selected seems unusual, and so far has not led to the
similar adoption by colonies of other chimneys in the same building.

" In a grove of young fir trees, about eight feet from the ground, I
noticed one autumn a la^ge robin's nest in unusually good repair. On
pulling down the tree-top the nest was found to be full, with a dome
shaped cone. It was occupied by humble-bees and a small comb with
larvae in it. Such a situation for a humble-bees' nest, I am told, has
been seen before, but apparently it is unusual."

FIFTH ORDINARY MEETING.

City Council Chamber, Halifax, 12th March, 1900.

The PRESIDENT in the chair.

It was announced that CHARLES PICKFORD, ESQ., had been elected a
Corresponding Member.

A paper by C. M. PASEA, ESQ., of Dalhousie College, " On a relation
between the lonization Coefficients of Electrolytes, and its application
as an Interpolation Formula," was presented by DR. J. G. MACGREGOR.

1 PROCEEDINGS.

JAMES BARNES, ESQ., B. A., Dalhousie College, read a paper " On.
the Depression of the Freezing-point by Mixtures of Electrolytes." (See
Transactions, p. 139 )

The paper was discussed by DRS. MACGREGOR and MACKAY, and a
vote of thanks was presented to the author.

DR. A. H. MACKAY, exhibited, with comments, material taken from
the bottom of the Atlantic at four different points, by the Cable S. S.
Minia in charge of Captain Be Carteret, by whom the specimens were
presented.

1. From lat. 40° 47 ' N., long. 38° 45' W., at a depth of 2544
fathoms, in June, 1899 : —

a. A fragment of a dark igneous rock about 13x8x5cm, not very
unlike some massive, dark green traps of Nova Scotia. The Cable was
hooked at the same time, but broke and slipped over the stone which
was abraded in two separate places. The exact determination of the
rock, as well as the other specimens, had to be postponed to a future
opportunity after which the results of their special examinations would
be communicated.

b. A fragment of gneiss or granite with dark, fine-grained mica,
about a centimeter cube, in

c. Mud, which on an average of three samples gave 72 per cent
insoluble in nitric acid, leaving 28 per cent for carbonate of lime in
foraminiferal shells, and any other soluble matter which might be
present. The species of forarninifera present were left for future
enumeration. The mud was, therefore, about three-quarters derived
from decomposed rock, and contained specks of mica flakes among the
minute sand grains also found in it.

2. From lat. 49° 30' K, Ion. 49° 36' W., at a depth of 2594
fathoms, were taken on the 3rd July, 1894: —

a. A fragment of rock about 8x4x3cm. It was a very compact,
fine-grained, dark (with a band of light grey) chocolate quartzose felsite
in appearance, breaking with a conchoidal fracture, a portion of one
side looking as even as if it were ground plane. The light grey band on
the opposite side suggested discoloration by weathering, and the con-
choidal fracture in this portion was much rougher in its surface texture.

b. A fragment of a water-worn, whitish, cryptocrystalline quartzite
pebble about 3cm in its three dimensions.

c. Mud with small pebbles, containing what suggested the remains
of a coelenterate animal with slender stem, cylindrical body a few

ORDINARY MEETINGS. H

centimeters long, with slender tentacular processes. This material was
originally bottled in alcohol which had nearly all evaporated before
examination, and the organism was not intact. The mud contained
siliceous grains with occasional sponge spicules, &c.

3. From a depth of 30 fathoms, about 15 miles E. N. E. (magnetic)
from Flat Point, Sydney, C. B.

a. Thin brachiopod shells, the largest about 28x22mm.

b. What suggested arborescent Polyzoan Zcecia, about ldin high,
the cylindrical spray of branches having a diameter of about 15mm.

c. A sheet of the eggs of a gastropod.

4. From between

lat. 43° 52' N., Ion. 58° 53' W. in 500 fathoms,
Int. 43° 53i' \., Ion. 58° 59i' W. in 858 fathoms,
and lat. 43' 56' N., Ion. 59° 3' W. in 170 fathoms.
A coral, of the form of caryophilia, vising from a thin encrustation
partly surrounding a pitch-covered cylinder (Cable) about 3cm in dia-
meter, with a stem about lcm at the base, gradually expanding until at
a height of 4cm it formed an elliptical cup-shaped corallite abou t 3.5cm
and 4.5cm in diameter, rilled with numerous septae of unequal height, in
one series.

SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 9th April, 1900.

The PRESIDENT in the chair.

The RECORDING SECRETARY read a communication from the Royal
Society of Canada, inviting the Institute to appoint a delegate to attend
the nineteenth general meeting of the Society to .be held at Ottawa on
the 29th of May next. The communication was referred to the Council
for action.

PROF. ERNEST HAYCOCK of Acadia College, Wolfville, X. S., read a
paper entitled : " Records of Post-Triassie Changes in Kings Counly,
N. S." (See Transactions, p. 287.)

The subject was discussed by DR. GILPIN and MR. McKAY, and a
vote of thanks was presented to the author.

The PRESIDENT, A. H. MACKAY, ESQ., LL. D., read a paper on " A
Fresh-Water Sponge from Sable Island." To this species Dr. MacKay
proposed to give the name Heteromeyenia Macouni. The subject was
illustrated by microscopic preparations. (See Transactions, p. 319).
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. PROC — K.

Hi PROCEEDINGS.

SEVENTH ORDINARY MEETI.VG.

Legislative Council Chamber. Halifax, 14th May. 1900.
The PRESIDENT in the chair.

It was announced that the PRESIDENT, DR. MACKAY, had been
appointed delegate to represent the Institute at the forthcoming meeting
of the Royal Society of Canada.

It was reported that progress had been made in fitting up a room
for the library of the Institute, etc., in the new government building,
Hollis Street.

In the absence of the author, DR. MACGREGOR read a paper by
PROF. JOHN DAVIDSON, of the University of New Brunswick, Fredeiicton,
on "The Natural History of Money." (See Transactions, p. 179.)

The paper was discussed by COLONEL McSHANE, DR. H. II. READ*
FRERERICK P. RONNAN, ESQ., and others, and a vote of thanks was
presented to PROP. DAVIDSON for his communication.

A. K. MACKAY, ESQ.. LL. D., F. R. S. C , read a paper entitled
" Phenological Observations, Canada, 1899. (See Transactions, p. 303.)

A paper by T. C. HEBB, ESQ., B. A., Dn.housie College, "On the
Variation of the Rigidity of Vulcanized India Rubber with Tension," was
presented by DR. MACGREGOR. (See Transactions, p. 273 )

The following papers were read by title : — " Notes on a Cape Breton
Mineral containing Tungsten, and on the effect of washing certain Cape
Breton Coals," — By HENRY S. POOLE, ESQ., F. G. S., Stellarton, N. S.
(See Transactions p. 248.)

" Geological Nomenclature in Nova Scotia," — By HUGH FLETCHER,
ESQ , Geological Survey of Canada. (See Transactions, p. 235.)

A collection of dried plants from the vicinity of Buffalo. U. S. A.,
made by REV. BROTHER JUNIAN PETER, St. Joseph's Commercial College,
Detroit, and presented by him to the Institute, was shewn, and a vote
of thanks was passed to BROTHER PETER for his gift.

The council was authorized to receive as having been read by title,
any papers that might be offered too late for this meeting. [Under this
resolution a paper subsequently submitted by PROF. J G. MACGREGOR,
" On a diagram of Freezing-point Depressions for Electrolytes," was
accepted by the Council. (See Transactions, p. 211).]

HARRY PIERS,

Recording Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE x

§cotian Jf nstttitte of <Srienc&-

SESSION OF 1900-1901.

ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.
Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, Wth November, 1900.
THE PRESIDENT, DR. A. H. MACKAY, in the chair.

THE PRESIDENT addressed the Institute as follows : —
GENTLEMEN, — It has been customary at our Annual Meetings for the
retiring President to make a summary review of the year's work — a sort
of annual inventory. In following this custom, were I speaking to the
general public, I would be required to give some kind of demonstration
of the object and value of such work as we are doing in line with similar
organizations in every civilized country. For those who see a fine
mushroom grow in one night are generally unaware of the one hundred
nights and the one hundred days during which its invisible whiter
silken, threadlike mycelial cells were tunnelling the surrounding earth-
in myriad lines with ceaseless activity, so that when the appropriate-
time should come tens of thousands of microscopic tubular lines of
transport should simultaneously carry from every quarter the duly
assimilated matter to build up and complete in a few hours the visible-
and generally appreciated fruit. Every great discovery or invention o£
modern times popularly considered great, is in like manner simply the-
fruit of the unostentatious, patient and continuous labor of a multitude
of seekers after knowledge of the truth, the whole truth, and nothing
but the truth, in one or more regions of the infinite domain in which we
exist. Without these humble and severely accurate observations of fact
and measurements of force going on from year to year there can be no
PRO\ & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. PROC.-F..

(liii)

liy PROCEEDINGS.

•longer expected at smaller or greater intervals in the future those brilliant
generalizations which dazzle the mnltitude and form an epoch in the
history of man.

We may perhaps have met with some indications that there are people
who think that an Institute of Science such as ours should devote itself
to the grand problems of human life in such a mannur as to electrify the
public, convince the sceptic, and reform human society on lines based on
indubitable principles. Such persons seem to expect that if scientific
anen are of any use they could by the application of their thinking
powers discover these grand principles and demonstrate them with the
potency of universal conviction. They are evidently unaware of the
most striking fact in the histoiy of man, jthat fiom the beginning of
society up to their own appearance in the role of thinkers, men have been
trying to solve these problems by thinking, striving to draw knowledge
out of brains into which the knowledge never entered. The deductive
•metaphysical philosophers of old are still being produced, more numerous
than ever if not more powerful, and the ancient problems are not yet
.solved.

We have never yet gained any advantage by thinking out what
nature should be. We have to find out what it is, and so far as we know
what it is we can utilize it according to our limitations. And the solutions
of the so-called grand problems are often dependent on what might be
called the humblest facts. The grandness of a truth discovered cannot
be known until the full train of its effects can be seen ; so that to the
truth seeker any truth may well be considered grand. It is a sound
principle for each to seek whatever truth is nearest him, so that he may
add it to the common stock which is now becoming the broad base of
the so-called grand truths which humanity has learned to applaud after
a period of suspicion.

This is the principle on which our Institute is working. The geologist
is near to the discovery of new geological facts by reason of his previously
obtained geological knowledge and his opportunities of studying for
years his own local ground. He exercises his special powers with the
result of obtaining further knowledge which through our publications are
made the property of the truth-seekers throughout the world. And so
with each of us. We have our own special opportunities for some kind
of exact observations on points not hitherto exactly observed, and in
making such observations we are as deserving as he who makes the final

PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. Iv

observation to complete a grand theory, providing we have brought the
same energy and ingenuity to bear on our problems.

The discovery of grand principles — of great truths — is now more
than ever before a composite work contributed to by many knowledge
makers. The South American Indian who first by accident discovered
the anti-malarial effect of the extract of Peruvian Bark, discovered a
great fact without any special preparation and possibly without the aid
of any previous more or less partial observer. But still, for over three
centuries the Hcemammba vivax and Hcemamteba malarice, living jelly
specks so infinite that a blood corpuscle is a meadow for them, got
through the human skin (more than a Chinese wall for them), and into
the blood stream, and from thence into the blood discs themselves, which
they finally destroyed.

It was not until twenty years ago that Laveran discovered their
presence in the life fluid, but how impossible would it have been for him
to have discovered such organisms until the microscope had been improved
to a high degree of excellence and microscopic methods had been
discovered by other workers. Yet no one could show how the minutely
microscopic animal more destructive to the human race than all the
historical beasts of prey, found its way into the blood. Multitudes of
observers finally seemed to relegate the home of the organism to the
malarial swamps, but it could not be found in the swamps. These
observers, however, made a very important contribution to the general
stock of knowledge, for as the mosquitoes pass their larval stage in water,
suspicion was finally extended to them. Yet people were taking great
care to protect themselves from the malarial air which poisoned no one,
while infected mosquitoes were allowed to inoculate them unsuspectingly
on the adjacent dry lands. Danilewsky, Golgi, Antolisei, Grassi,
Bignami, Bastianelli, Labbe, Mannaberg, Manson, Nuttall, Metchnikoff,
Daniels, McCallum, and others, and finally Ronald Ross, worked on the
humble mosquito until 1899 before the problem was solved.

Other specimens of Hcemamceba were found in the common mosquito
and in other animals who were inoculated by the mosquito, and who in
turn could infect sound mosquitos. Finally species of a genus of
niosquitos, Anopheles, were found infected with the malaria Hcemamceba
in a most unexpected form. Sound Anopheles were found to be infected
by feeding upon the malarial patient, and infected ones communicated
malarial fever to those whom they were allowed to bite. For about

Jvi PROCEEDINGS.

twenty years these men from every country of Europe were studying the-
life and particular habits of the mosquitos, each contributing something
to help the others. But should it be asked what species of the mosquito-
we have in Nova Scotia, all we could say is that thirty different species-
are generally recognized on the continent. But we could not say how-
many are to be found here. We only presume that Culex pipiens is the
common if not the only one.

If we had some observer studying the humble subject of our
mosquitos, even were in only demonstrating the different species to be-
found in this Province, we should have some share in this important,
discovery of the close of the century. In the meantime our high flown
deductive philosopher racking his brain in circling after grand truths, is
circling still, as near and yet as far as ever from the mental mirage he is-
following. The grand truths oftentimes come from the most unexpectedi
directions ; therefore it is wise for us to hold all truth in esteem and
worth the seeking.

The past year is also, to a marked extent, the beginning of a new
epoch in the history of our Institute. The Provincial Museum, although
not the property of the Institute, was built up by the members of. the
Institute, and was from the beginning its headquarters. But for the
last few years it had become so crowded by the accumulation of material
and the lack of a curator, such as it had during the lifetime of Dr..
Honeyman, that it served neither as an efficient museum nor as a.
desirable meeting place. Besides, our rapidly accumulating library,,
coming mainly as exchanges from the leading scientific institutions and
societies all over the world, could not at all be accommodated. For the
last few years the Council had to procure temporary accommodation for
it in the University building of Dalhousie, where there was proper
library room for but a portion of its volumes.

The Provincial Government having seen the great importance of
stimulating scientific study as the foundation of a safe and rapid industrial
development of the country, and having the good fortune to be able to
secure on good terms the fine building adjacent to the Province Building
as an annex, with spare room beyond the immediate demands for offices,,
determined to provide the ways and means for the public utilization of
all this hidden wealth. The Museum has been transferred to the new
building and re-arranged on scientific lines under the curatorship of Mr.
Harry Piers, who is rapidly making it a real Provincial Museum..

PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. Ivii

Students will already find it well classified, so as to show the products
of the country of scientific and economic interest to their best advantage.
The numerous blanks are being filled as rapidly as specimens caa be
secured, and each object is in tho process of being labelled so as to give
not only its name but a summary of such information respecting it as
is most likely to be of use.

On the adjacent flat the Government has provided ample library
accommodation for the Library of the Institute and the books from the
Legislative Library bearing on science and the arts, with a reading
room. There is also sufficient accommodation for the Library of the
Mining Society of the Province. In this manner all these scientific
collections increasing from day to day, all these libraries also increasing
from day to day, are made available freely to students, miners,
manufacturers, and the public generally.

Under the capable management of Mr. Piers, these institutions are
not only sure to give satisfaction to the Government, but to the public,
who are thus admitted to invaluable privileges which previously even
members of the Institute could not avail themselves of without much
loss of time and inconvenience to others. The Government, in
assuming the charge of this composite Library, are able to open to the
public the invaluable, modern, and rapidly growing library of the
Institute ; and the members of the Institute, on the other hand, have also
gained thereby easy access to their own literature. This co-operation of
interests is of mutual benefit, and the Science Library and the Museum
are likely to become an important centre for the scientific students of the
city and the Province. The Museum is already open, and in a short
time the Library will be in working condition.

There are also signs that the scientific side of educational work
throughout the Province is improving, notwithstanding the defects
common to our schools and colleges throughout the continent. May the
time be not far distant when our Institute may have more recruits to
undertake the infinite range of work before us — in discovering the yet
hidden truths of nature lying around us on every hand within our own
Province, without a knowledge of which we cannot expect to solve
indubitably what people call the great problems of the world.

The President referred with regret to the loss of two invaluable
associate members, Captain Trott, of the Cable S. S. " Minia," and Rev.
Arthur C. Waghorne, who had done so much in the botanical explora-
tion of Newfoundland.

Iviii PROCEEDINGS.

A vote of thanks was presented to tho PRESIDENT for his address,
and for his services during his term of office.

The TREASURER'S report was presented, and hiving been audited and
found correct, was received and adopted.

The thanks of the Society were presented to MR. SILVER for his
services as TREASURER.

In the absence of the LIBRARIAN, the report on the Library was read
by DR. MACGREGOR. The report was received and adopted.

In recognition of the services of MR. BOWMAN as librarian for several
years, it was resolved that he be elected a life-member.

The thanks of the Institute were presented t; the HON. ROBERT
BOAK, President of the Legislative Council, for granting the use of the
Council Chamber ; to His WORSHIP THE MAYOR, for the use of the City
Council Chamber ; to the BOARD OF GOVERNORS OF DALHOUSIE COLLEGE,
for the use of a room in the College building for the purpose of accom-
modating the society's Library ; and to the SECRETARY OF THE SMITH-
SONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, for continuing to admit the Institute
to the privileges of the Bureau of International Exchanges.

The following were elected officers for the ensuing year (1900-
1901):-

President.—A. H. MACKAY, ESQ., LL. D., F. R. S. C., ex officio F. R. M. S.
Vice- Presidents. — F. \V. VV. DOANE, ESQ., C. E. ; and HENRY S. POOLE, ESQ.,

F. G. S., F. R. S. C.
Treasurer. — WILLIAM C. SILVER, ESQ.

Corresponding Secretary.— PROF. J. G. MACGREGOR, D. Sc., F. R. S.
Recording Secretary. — HARRY PIERS, ESQ.-
Librarian. — MAYNARD BOWMAN, ESQ., B. A.
Councillors vnthout office.— ALEXANDER McKAY, ESQ. ; EDWIN GILPIN, JR.,

ESQ., LL. D., F. R-. S. C. ; MARTIN MDRPHY, ESQ., D. Sc ; PROF.

EBEN MACKAY, PH. D. ; WATSON L. BISHOP, ESQ. ; RODERICK McCoLL,

ESQ., C. E. ; H. W. JOHNSTON, ESQ., C. E.
A uditors. —WILLIAM MCKERRON, ESQ., and G. W. T. IRVING, ESQ.

FIRST ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 19th November, 1900.
The PRESIDENT, DR. MACKAY, in the chair.
The meeting was held after the adjournment of the Annual Business

Meeting.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. lix:

It was announced that J. R. DE\VOLFE, ESQ., M. D., Halifax, and
WALTER II. PREST, E-JQ , M. E , Bedford, N. S., had been elected corres-
ponding members.

Owing to the lateness of the hour, the reading of MR. FLETCHER'S
paper " On Geological Nomenclature of Nova Scotia : New Glasgow
Conglomerate," was deferred.

SECOND ORDINARY MEETING.
Legislative Ciuncil Chamber, Halifax, 10th December, 1900^.

The PRESIDENT in the chair.

It was announced that Miss A. LOUISE JAGSAR, Smith Cove, Digby
Co., N S., had beeu elected an associate, and CHARLES HENRY DAVIS,
ESQ., C. E., New York, U. S. A , an ordinary member.

The PRESIDENT read a paper by HUGH FLETCHER, ESQ., of the
Geological Survey of Canada, entitled, " Geological Nomenclature of
Nova Scotia : New Glasgow Conglomerate." (See Transactions, p. 323.)

The paper was illustrated by a large geological map, by MR. POOLE,
of the locality described.

THIRD ORDINARY MEETING.
City Council Chamber, Halifax, 14th January, 1901.

The PRESIDENT in the chair.

HENRY S. POOLE, ESQ., F. R. S. C., presented "A Description of the
Davis Calyx Drill"

The subject was discussed by MESSRS. BISHOP and ANDERSON, and
DRS. MURPHY and MACKAY.

DR. MACKAY read a paper by WALTER H. PREST, ESQ., M. E., " On
Drift Ice as an Eroding and Transporting Agent." (See Transactions,
p. 333.)

The paper was discussed by DRS, MAOKAY and MURPHY, PROP. H.
W. SMITH, and MESSRS. POOLE and PIERS.

Ix PROCEEDINGS.

-FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING.
City Council Chamber, Halifax, 18th February, 1901.

The PRESIDENT in the chair.

It was announced that PROP. EVERETT W. SAWYER, of Acadia College,
Wolfville, and PROF. F. C. SEARS, Director of the N. S. School of
Horticulture, Wolfville, had been elected associate-members.

A communication was read by the RECORDING SECRETARY, from the
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF BELGIUM, announcing the death of its
Honorary President, the BARON DE SELYS-LONGCHAMPS.

On motion it was resolved that the N. S. Institute of Science express
its deep sympathy with the Entomological Society of Belgium in con-
nection with the irreparable loss which the society has sustained through
the death of its Honorary President, the Baron de S ^lys-Longchamps.

A communication was also read from the ZOOLOGICAL-BOTANICAL
SOCIETY OF VIENNA announcing the celebration of its fiftieth anni-
versary.

On motion it was resolved that the N. S. Institute of Science offer
its cordial congratulations to the Zoological-Botanical Society of Vienna,
on the celebration of its fiftieth anniversary and the completion of fifty
years of fruitful work, and express the hope that the society's efforts for
the advancement of science may, in the future, as in the past, be crowned
with success.

PROF. H. W. SMITH, B. Sc., of the Provincial Agricultural School,
read two papers, entitled, (1) "Rotation of Leguminous Crops," and (2)
" The Preservation and Use of the Tops of Turnips and other Root
Crops."

The subjects were discussed by HON. T. R. BLACK, Da. MACKAT,
MR. G. MARSHALL, and others.

A vote of thanks was presented to PROF. SMITH for his communica-
tions.

Owing to the lateness of the houf, the reading of MR. POOLE'S paper
on " Stigmaria Structure," and of DR. MALAY'S " Note on Gravel taken
by the mushroom-anchor of the ' Mackay-Beunett,'" were postponed.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. Ixi

FIFTH ORDINARY MEETING.
City Council Chamber, Halifax, 18th March, 1901.

The PRESIDENT in the chair.

It was announced that GEORGE M. EDWARDS, ESQ., B. Sc., Halifax,
had been elected an ordinary member.

A communication was read from the ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA,
asking the Institute to appoint a delegate to attend the Society's meet-
ing to be held at Ottawa on May 21st. The matter was referred to the
Council.

On motion, the Council was directed to prepare a resolution expres-
sive of regret at the death of the late DR. J. R. DE~WOLFE, one of the
Institute's oldest members.

[The resolution, subsequently prepared, was as follows : —
" Resolved, That the Council place on record its deep sense of the
loss sustained by the Institute through the death of Dr. De Wolfe,
who was well known in his profession, was elected a member of the
Institute on 26th October, 1863, was for a number of years a member of
the Council and also second Yice-President, always took a deep interest
in and actively furthered the aims of the society, and was at the date of
his death the oldest living member.

Further resolved, That the Secretary be directed to send a copy of
the resolution to the family of the deceased, and to express to them the
sympathy of tho Institute in their bereavement."]

HENRY S. POOLE, ESQ., F. R. S. C., read a paper " On a Polished
'Section of Stigmaria showing an axial cellular structure." (See Trans-
actions, p. 345.)

A. H. MAC!\ AY, ESQ., LL. D., presented the results of a microscopic
examination of the specimen of Stigmaria. (See Transactions, p. 346.)

The subject was discussed by MESSRS. BISHOP and A. McKAY.

A. H. MAC £AY, Esq., LL. D., read a " Note on Gravel taken by the
mushroom-anchor of the ' Mackay-Bennett,' cable steamer, from the bot-
tom of the Atlantic, 40 miles west of Sable Island."

The paper w,as discussed by MR. POOLE.

lxii PROCEEDINGS.

WATSON L. BISHOP, ESQ., read a paper on " The Star-nosed Mole,""
and exhibited specimens of the young. (See Transactions, p. 348.)

PROF. J. G. MACGREGOR, D. So., communicated a paper " On thu-
use of the Wheatstone Bridge with Alternating Currents."

SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING.
City Council Chamber, Halifax, 5th April, 1901.

The PRESIDENT in the chair.

A communication was read from the ENGINEERS' SOCIETY OF WESTERN
YoaK, Buffalo, offering the use of the society's rooms to any mem-
ber of the Institute who may visit the Pan-American Exposition. The
SECRETARY was directed to make a suitable reply.

The following paper was communicated : —

THE RARE EARTHS: THEIR SCIENTIFIC IMPORTANCE AS REGARDS THB
PERIODIC LAW. — BY W. H. MAGEE, PH. D , High School, Parrs-
boro, N. S.

AT a meeting of scientists, it is, of course, unnecessary for me to-
apologize for the fact that the subject of my paper is one in which the
general public takes no interest. There are few, even among chemists,,
who take more th in a passing interest in the so-called Rare Earths. You,
however, who are seekers after truth, are aware that even in what might
seem the most despicable of materials there are startling discoveries await-
ing the patient investigator who will delve into the hidden mysteries
and bring to light truth, not only of rare interest to the scientific circle
whose sympathies he enjoys, but uf advantage to the general public which,
though impatient of the labor and details, is ever ready to avail itself of,,
and to liberally reward, results.

The term R ire E irths, is, if not a misnomer, at least misleading,
since there are earths or oxides not classed in the group which are as rare,,
if not rarer, than these themselves. The usually accepted definition of
a rare earth is " a substance precipitable by oxalic acid from a weakly
acid solution and having the formula R2 03 in which R stands for the
element of the oxide." This definition, however, if rigidly adhered to,
excludes Ce., Th. and Zr., which are usually ranked with the rare earths
and, being applied ever so generally, would place Tl., Gi., Ge., In., etc.,.
among the ordinary or at least not rare earths.

THE RARE EARTHS. — MAGEE. Ixiii

The full list of these earth elements includes Ce., Zr., Th., La., Sc.,
Yt. and Yb., which are looked upon by chemists as actually elemental,
and Pd., Nd., Sm., Ho., Er., Ter., Th., De., Dp., Ph., and even others
which appear to differ from each other as oxides and may, some of them
at least, be elemental, but are probably in most cases mixtures of two or
more elements. They are not, however, known in the elemental con-
dition but only in the form of oxides and salts. Some few have been
reduced to the metallic condition yielding then grayish-white metals, but
in such small quantities, and with such doubts regarding their purity,
that slight advantages have been derived from the reduction.

Before considering the properties of these substances and discussing
their importance in the periodic system, it will be well to look into their
history. They were first brought to the knowledge of the chemical
world during that period of remarkable activity at the close of the 18th
and beginning of the 19th centuries. Probably the first time that any
mineral containing these oxides in any considerable quantity was noticed
was in 1751, when Cronstedt obtained from an iron mine in Sweden a
sample of the mineral now known to mineralogists as Cerite, a silicate of
Ce., La. and Di., containing as impurities or accessories, however one
chooses to consider them, small quantities of other rare oxides, together
with iron, alumina, lime and traces of Mn., and even other minerals.
This mineral was first analysed by D'Elhuyar in the laboratory of the
noted chemist Bergmann, and stated to be a silicate of Fe. and Ca. It
may seem remarkable that, even in those early days of chemistry— thia
was in 1784 — such an error as the mistaking of the trivalent oxides for
the very common substance lime should occur, but if the experience of
such a noted analytic chemist as Plattner, so late as 1846, be considered,
all wonder ceases. This chemist analysed several times the mineral
Pollux froiu Elba and, despite all his care, and he \vas renowned as an
analyst, he could only get his results to foot up to 92.75 per cent., nor
could any one explain the matter until Bunsen recognized a new metal,
Caesium, in the water of the Durkheirn salt well-* and proved it to be
of the alkali group thus closely resembling Xa. and K Plattner had
been reckoning Cs. with an atomic weight of 132 as K. with an atomic
weight of 39, and neither he nor his contemporaries seemed capable of
proposing the very simple explanation that there must be present a new
element. This experience of Piattner's and its explanation probably
saved Winkler from a similar error in 1886 and gave him the credit of
the discovery of a new element. Repeatedly analysing Argryodite, as

PROCEEDINGS.

he was chemist of a silver mining company in the Freiburg district in
Germany, he met with a constant loss of 7 per cent, in his analyses, and
a close search with refined methods enabled him to announce to the
world the new metal Germanium.

But I have digressed. The matter rested after D'Elhuyar's time until
the fame of the two great analysts, Berzelius and Klaproth, induced some
one to send to each of them a sample of the mineral. These chemists
soon decided that lime was not the main constituent and that though iron
was present it was only in mere traces. Both set themselves to solving
the problem and almost simultaneously announced to the world the
existence of a hitherto unknown element. There was considerable dis-
cussion as to which could claim the precedence, but the scientific world
has yielded the palm to Berzelius by adopting his name, Cerium, instead
of ochroit-erde proposed by Klaproth. In tracing out the history of this
interesting mineral however, we have really passed the date when the
apple of discord was thrown among the chemical family. The date of the
discovery of an oxide containing the unknown element Ce. was 1804, the
date of the discovery of the first of the rare earths was 1789 when
Klaproth isolated Zirconia. If this be disputed, for Zr. does not fulfil
all the conditions of a rare earth, we must yet anticipate 1804, for in
1794 Gadolin, a Finnish chemist, gave to the world Yttria, the oxide of
Yttrium which fulfils in every respect the conditions of our definition.
This element was discovered in a mineral from Ytterby, in Sweden,
which mineral has since been named in honor of this chemist Gadolinite.

In 1818 Berzelius announced the discovery of a new oxide, Thoria,
in some rare minerals from the neighbourhood of Fahlun, Sweden. This
discovery he confirmed in 1828 when he found the same oxide in a
mineral from Brewig, in Norway. Before going into the history of the
very remarkable perio I which followed, let us see just what was known
up to 1835. Ceria, Zirconia, Thoria and Yttria were recognized as dis-
tinct oxides, each supposed to contain a distinct element. Only one of
these, however, Yttria, belongs to the rare earths, if we keep to the strict
letter of our definition. Such, then, was the knowledge of the rare
earths ; they were ordinary oxides of no more interest than lime or
baryta, nay, not so much, for they were of no practical use, they were
rare, and so of no interest except to seekers after curios.

In 1837-38 a young Swedish chemist, a pupil of Berzelius, took up
the neglected earths and under his magic touch, for he was a genius, new

THE RARE EARTHS. — MAGEE.

truths were rapidly unfolded and a new interest was given to this portion
of the chemical field, an interest which has constantly increased, and under
the influence of which research will goon until these most subtle elements
yield to the scientists truths even more deeply and cunningly concealed
than those which are being discovered in the realms of electiicity and
bacteriology. I think it is no exaggeration to say that nothing would
give more pleasure to the chemical world than to find a solution to the.
mystery which surrounds these rare earths, now rare no longer, if by the
word, we mean scarce, but truly rare if we consider it as meaning costly
or worthy as regards the chemical truth concealed among them. This
chemist was Mosander — a name probably unknown outside the chemical
world, and not to all chemists. To the advanced inorganic chemist, how-
ever, he is the pioneer in the field, since he was the first to show the
immense possibilities which lay concealed in the little then known of
these peculiar earths.

Beginning an examination of Ceria he soon announced that it was
not a simple oxide but a compound of at least two. This was in 1838.
In 1843 he announced that one of these two could be still further de-
composed and so from the earth Ceria, long considered a simple earth,
there resulted a pale yellow oxide, ceria proper, a brownish white oxide,
lanthanum, and a dark brown oxide, didymia, the first yielding yellow,
white, and red salts, the second white or colorless, and the third pink
salts. As a result of this discovery, an immediate attack was made on
the other rare earths. Mosander himself in the following year announced
Erbia and, later, Tcrbia, as earths separable from Yttria ; these yield,
Yitria colorless salts, Erbia yellow, and Terbia rose colored, a coincidence
with the compounds from the Ceria earths. In I860 Berlin, as a result
of long research, announced that Mosander had been mistaken as regards
Yttria, but later work has shown that the Swedish chemist had not
spoken heedlessly, for Bahr and Bunsen, by a very brilliant piece of
work, proved the presence of Erbia in so-called Yttria, and in 1873 Cleve
and Hoglund confirmed this. About this time Delafontaine again deter-
mined the existence of Terbia. Later, Delafontaine claimed the dis-
covery of an earth, which he called Phillipia, in the Yttria, but this is
not as yet acknowledged by chemists. Then came a classical research by
Marignac, a Swiss chemist, in which, after separating out several appar-
ently distinct earths, he finally isolated Ytterbium, which is undoultedly
a distinct element, though some chemists, keeping in view the many sur-
prises in this field, still withheld acknowledgment. In 1879, Nilson,

PROCEEDINGS.

another remarkable Swedish chemist, isolated Scandium, and since that
time Cleve claims to have found in Erbia a threefold group for one mem-
ber of which he retains the name Erbia, calling the others Thulia and
Holmia.

In the meantime, from a sample of Didymium obtained from the
mineral Samarskite, first found in North Carolina, a new oxide, Samaria,
was separated in 1878 by Boisbaudran and Delafontaine, acting
separately, the latter calling it Decipium. Finally, in 1883, Didymium,
which since 1842 had held its place as an element, and from which a
metal had been isolated 'and which had played a prominent part in
several quite bitter chemical discussions, 'all parties basing their argu-
ments on its being an element, was, by Welsbach, a chemist of Vienna,
best known as the inventor of the Auer or "Welsbach Light, disintregated
into what, for want of better name, are called, (or perhaps I should say
into tentative substances,) Praseodidymium and Neodidymium. Still
more recently, Bettendorf has obtained evidence of the presence of still
another oxide in Yttria, which he proposes to name in honor of the
original discover of Yttria, Gadolinum.

It has been twice thought that Zirconia was not elemental, once in
1845, when Svanberg thought he had isolated Noria, and again in 1866-7,
when Sorby thought he had found Jargonia. Both were subsequently
proven to be Zirconia, or it was shown, at least, that there was not enough
evidence to consider them elemental earths.

You will note then, that from the two original earths, the Yttria of
1789 and the Ceria of 1804, not less than eleven earths have been
isolated and probably two or three more, though the evidence is less
conclusive. When I mention that the knowledge of these, though very
accurate, is less than that known of our ordinary elements at, say 100
years ago, it will be seen that a wide field exists here for investigators.

Why is so little known concerning them 1 The answer might be
hazarded that it is because of their rarity. This is not so, however, as
several of them have been proved to exist in considerable quantities.
The trouble lies in their close resemblance to one another, chemical
reagents acting similarly toward them all, and thus the only means of
separating them is by taking advantage of the difference in basicity of
their compounds. This is a very slow process and uncertain, for, being
fractional, it is only made exact by numberless repetitions, and so it is
extremely difficult to get pure material on which to experiment. This

THE RARE EARTHS. — MAGEE. Ixvii

same trouble, too, is one of the chief reasons for the appearance on several
occasions of pseudo elements which, obtained with extreme difficulty,
seemed to have a fair claim to separate existence, and which required
considerable time and skill to prove their non-existence.

Let me illustrate. You are all aware that in the case of our ordin-
ary elements there are sharp points of separation. HC1. throws down
from a, silver salt solution all (or nearly all, for this reservation must be
made in the light of refined methods) the silver as AgCl. Ha S throws
-down from solution a large number of sulphides even in acid solution we
must grant, but for every one of these elements there is some known
reagent or some exact method of treatment, which affects one and obly
one cf these elements. There are, undoubtedly, difficulties in exact
separations, but a fair analytical chemist can always separate them.
With the rare eaiths, however, each reagent seems to act so similarly that
there is no sharp line of demarcation, and the only methods applicable to
their separation are slow and remarkably difficult of application. Abso-
lutely quantitative analytical processes are unknown, and no results
published in the various mineralogical books as giving the composition of
the minerals containing them are reliable. I put forward no claims to
superiority as an analytical chemist, but I was occupied from October 1st
to the Christmas vacation, with all the advantages of a well equipped
laboratory at my disposal, in obtaining 11 grams of pure Ceria, using a
method proclaimed as the best to date, but acknowledged to need, as my
experience also confirms, a seven times repetition to ensure so-called
purity, and- leaving behind the suspicion that, as it was purified according
to the standard of a vanishing test, it was even then not absolutely pure.
Yet this subject has received some of the best thought of the ablest
chemists of the world during the past 50 years. Bahr, Bunsen, Earnmels-
burg, Wolf, Wing, Gibbs, Wbhler, Popp, Crookes, Marignac, Delafon-
taine, Boisbaudran, Nilson, Cleve, Kruss, Bettendorf, Welsbach, in fact
all the advanced inorganic chemists of the past half century. There is
no discouragement, the fight goes on with that grim deteimination to
succeed which only the scientist knows. What have they accomplished
for the world 1 Not much in this line ! But if these were all the
scientist strove for, our discoveries and advance would be of a low order.
Indirectly, the close study and wide experience with reagents and
methods has led to many useful results, but we need not linger over this.
Throughout all the period during which Ni. an Co. have been known,
there was no ready and direct method of separating them \ but a few

PROCEEDINGS.

years since, on an unsuspected corner of the reagent shelf, an organic
compound a-nitroso /3-naphthol was found to instantly and completely
separate them from each other. Such being the case, we may some day
expect research to be rewarded and the mysterious doors to be opened.

I must now, however, in the development of my plan, state the
methods most in vogue for separating any rare earth from a mixture off
them. Suppose we have a mixture of all or nearly all of these earths,,
and this is the state in which we usually get them from the minerals,
containing them, and that we have, say 5 litres, in solution. We remove-
lOc.c. and precipitate all the earths by means of a standard solution of
ammonia, noting carefully the exact amount required. From this can
readily b6 calculated the amount neceasary to precipitate the 5 litres.
This being determined we take enough of a somewhat weak solution of
ammonia to precipitate one-tenth of the earths and add it as rapidly as
possible, with violent agitation, that it may be brought in contact with
as large a portion of the solution as possible at once. This precipitates
the most basic portion to a large extent. The mixture is allowed to
settle and the supernatant liquid is drawn off; after which the precipi-
tate is carefully washed and the washings are added to the liquid. This
is again treated with ammonia, another tenth being thrown down. This
process is repeated till the entire amount is precipitated. The first two-
or three precipitates are then united, then the next two or three and so
on, and each group is again treated in a similar manner, till after some
hundreds of repetitions there collects at one end of the series a consider-
ably basic, and at the other a considerably acid, hydroxide. The various
precipitations are checked by atomic weight determinations, and when an
hydroxide is obtained in which the entire ten precipitates yield identi-
cally the same atomic weights, it is considered as an elemental earth,,
the argument being that no two elements will be at all likely to possess
the same basic qualities. This will probably give you an idea of the-
time expended and the difficulty experienced in working in this field..*
Ammonia is by no means the only reagent so employed, but every one
likely to produce different qualities of precipitates is tried.

Here, then, we have a group of elements whose compounds act
differently toward chemical reagents from all other bodies. They
resemble the alkalies and alkaline earths, i. e., the Li. and Gl. families in
their action toward H2S, and the B. and Fe. families in their action
towards (NH4)2S. They resemble the last two and all the other families
except the Li. and Gl. families in their action toward NH4OH. They

THE RARE EARTHS. — MAGEE. Ixix

differ from all other elements in their action toward Oxalic acid. All
oxalites are more or less soluble in acids ; but outside the rare earths,
the solubility is perfect. Calcium oxalate is considered an insoluble
precipitate, but the reaction must be alkaline, the least trace of mineral
acid setting up solution, the presence of oxalic acid prevents the precipi-
tation of alumina, etc., but here we have a group which precipitates at
once to oxalic acid or to a soluble oxalate in an acid solution, and if only ,
faintly acid, say 1 or 2 per cent, the cxalates separate out completely, in
fact a mere trace is soluble in a 5 per cent acid. Thus we can separate
them easily as a group. If we render tne supernatant liquid more and
more acid, we can gradually get out portions of which the member first
removed will differ considerably from that last removed, but probably
not in a lifetime would one get one member absolutely free from every
other member. Therein lies the difficulty, and so it is with every reagent
to some degree. Some reagents shorten the work, and a number of
persons working together, by being able to do more work get more rapid
results, but the field is one of great difficulty.

There are other troubles, however, in the path of the investigator in
these fields. All who have worked practical chemistry are aware that
there are qualitative tests by means of which we can detect the presence
or prove the absence of any particular metal or acid. Ammonia acts
towards a solution of a copper salt as it acts towards nothing else. HC1.
gives a white precipitate to silver as well as to lead and mercurous salts,
but the chloride of lead is soluble in hot water and can be washed out,
that of silver dissolves in ammonia and can in turn be removed while at
the same time the mercurous chloride turns black but remains insoluble
owing to the formation of a compound with the ammonia so that it is
easily determined whether neither one, two or three, or which one is
present. This makes the work of Mosander the more remarkable, as in
his time there was nothing to enable him to suspect the different rare
earths except abstract reasoning from slight color changes.

In 1858, however, Gladstone, the London chemist, noted on examin-
ing the light, which had passed through a solution of Didymium salt, with
a spectroscope, that in certain parts of the spectrum there were dark color
bands although the solution might be perfectly colorless. These have
been proved to be due to the absorption of some of the light while
passing through the solution. This fact of absorption is not of itself
very remarkable. All colored solutions absorb more or less light, KMn04
PROG, & TRANS. N. 3. INST. Soi., VOL. X. PROC.-G.

Ixx PROCEEDINGS.

solution, purple in color, absorbs certain light, colored glasses absorb light,
etc., but all manganese salts, colored or uncolored, do not absorb light,
nor if the solutions are of different colors, though of the same element,
do they absorb the same portions of light. Gases absorb light, and on
looking towards the sun with a spectroscope, faint bands are to be seen
in the spectrum. Certain metals when heated, give certain varieties of
light as, ]STa yellow, potassium blue, copper green, etc., and these same
substances, converted into vapour, absorb the same light that in their
white hot condition they emitted, but here we have the phenomenon of
a colorless solution acting like a colored solution or like a gas. This of
course gave a test for Di. as soon as the absorption bands were mapped
and thoroughly defined. This to the rare earth chemist was a valuable
discovery, but in its application it calls forth the highest skill of the
chemist, for he must be able to fix upon the exact bands and say this is
given by Di., this by Er., etc. Here' is displayed a fresh peculiarity of
the rare earths, for while there are no elements outside these which
give bands, there are several within the group which do, viz., —
Di. gives 31 well defined bands, Sin. 12 not so well defined (and
some of them disputed, the subject is being thoroughly investigated by
Boisbaudran), Ho. 16, Er. 8 ; Yb. shows none in the visible part of the
spectrum, but many have been mapped in the ultra red portion.

The qualitative application of this knowledge is as follows : — A mix-
ture, say of Di. and Ce., is to be freed from Di., this being most familiar
to myself. The oxalate, first well-washed in dilute IIC1, is dried and
ignited to the condition of an oxide, and then dissolved in HN03 and a
preliminary examination is made with the spectroscope to make sure of
the presence of Di., and incidently to judge of its abundance. The
intensity of that band known as the a band is especially noted. It lies
near the Na. band (yellow.) The mixed solution is then subjected to one
of the separation processes, and as strong a solution in as deep a layer as
possible, is examined with the spectroscope and the intensity of the a
band is noted. This process is repeated until the most intense baud has
entirely disappeared. When I remind you, however, that the removal
of the Di. by what was undoubtedly the best method known until
lately, required a seven times repetition the Di. bands growing gradually
fainter and dying out one by one until what had been the most intense
finally faded entirely from view it will be seen that this fractional
method forces one to the conclusion that possibly all the Di. has not

THE RARE EARTHS. — MAGEE. Ixxi

been removed, but that a more powerful spectroscope in the hands of
very experienced men might rediscover, in what appeared free from Di,
traces of it yet present. This has actually happened more than once, and
was what caused Prof. Dennis and myself to lay so much stress upon our
new separation process, for the removal of Di. from Ce. We believe
that the new method removes the Di. at once and entirely ; for with the
best spectroscope at our disposal we could find no trace of Di. The pro-
cess in other words is not fractional but immediate. I can perhaps
illustrate this better by an example, familiar perhaps to all of us. Ferro-
and Ferri-Cyanides of K. long served as accurate tests of Fe., later Pot-
assium Sulphocyanate was found to detect ferric Fe, when the Cynanides
failed to do so. This reagent gives to a solution containing ferric Fe. in
solution, a blood red or, in weaker solution, a wine color. When, how-
ever, some chemist proposed to add ether to the solution after testing for
Fe. and failing to obtain a color, he found on closing the test-tube, and
shaking violently that from a solution that was colorless after adding
KCNS, a red color wns extracted by the ether. This of course gives a
vary dolicate test for Fe., a delicacy unsought for a few years since.
The Di. test is probably not so delicate at present.

But just here comes in one more of the evil features of the rare earth
work, for the test that serves to prove the absence of Di must serve also
as the test for La. which has no absorption bands, since La. being more
strongly basic than Di., when the latter is known to be removed the
former must have been previously gotten rid of. Of course the spark
spectra could be employed, and, unless some easier method is discovered,
must be employed in very accurate work, but it is tedious and requires
special apparatus and precludes all workers, but those who have the
advantages of the finest university laboratories, or are themselves
wealthy. It needs, moreover, a much longer training than is needed to
use the absorption band method. It is seldom employed as a test. The
other method, applicable also in every case, but slow and requiring the
very highest chemical skill to ensure results is to make equivalent weight
determinations. This has so far been done gravimetrically, but methods
are being sought by which it may be done volumetrically, which will be
a great shortening, and in skilled hands, if the methods are good, will
yield excellent results.

Having now given a fair idea of what the rare earths are, how they
act chemically, and the difficulty of experimental work with them, I will

Ixxil PROCEEDINGS.

proceed to speak of their occurrence, and then give some reasons for the
immense interest any work in this line creates in the advanced chemical
world. For a long time the earths were supposed to be what their name
implies, really rare. There were reasons for this opinion. The earliest
known specimens were among the last discovered in that period of intense
chemical activity, the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th
centuries, a time honored by such names as Lavoisier, Davy, Cavendish,
Priestly, Dalton, Scheele, Berzelius, Vaquelin, Klaproth, and the elder
Eose's. The lack of refined chemical methods, especially among those
who had most to do with new minerals, the lack of sharp qualitative
tests, and the fact that in ordinary analytical methods it was easy to
mistake these for iron or alumina, all tended to the strengthening of this
belief. Still during all this time the ablest chemical minds turned again
and again to the subject, and from pure love of the truth sought for the
solution of their mysteries. There is scarcely a great chemist who has
not at some time attacked the knotty question, and seldom, as we must
acknowledge, did they obtain other than negative results, and, as you
know, these are seldom published — a mistake, by the way, as we could
avoid many pitfalls and save valuable time did we know the experience
of others along the same lines. When the discoveries of Mosander were
published, new interest was created, and that indefatigable worker,
Eammelsberg, better known possibly to the mineralogical than to the
chemical world, examined many rocks for traces of these elements.
Thanks to his efforts, seconded by Hermann, Wohler a^id many other
chemists, as their time permitted, and to the improved general as well as
particular methods, the rare earths were found here and there and, we
can now add, almost everywhere. It would now seem that like Fe. they
are everywhere present, only in very small quantities. Zr. is lately, by
microscopic method, proved to be present in every rock. Ce. is a com-
mon companion of Zr., and with Ce. there are always present La. and Di.
and usually others. Norway and Sweden, the land in which they were
first discovered, produce but small amounts of them now. In Brazil
Monazite sand can be shovelled up on the seashore, it is a phosphate of
Ce., La., Di., and Th. In Llano Co., Texas, Sipylite is found in con-
siderable quantities, as also Gadolinite and other similar minerals.
Along the Atlantic seaboard from Virginia to Georgia, in New Jersey
and New York, in Massachusetts, in Renfrew Co., Ont., and elsewhere
in Canada, in Colorado, along the Andes, in India, and Australia, along
the Ural Mountains, in Germany, in England, and undoubtedly in many

THE RARE EARTHS. — MAGEE. Ixxiii

other places' when thorough investigation has been made. From Dana's
latest published textbook of mineralogy, the unabridged edition of 1892,
I, a few years ago, made out a list of 62 minerals which contain the Ce.
group, so-called, viz. : — Ce., Di., and La. Never did I find our own pro-
vince recorded as having produced a single specimen. This I do not
believe to be correct, when so many rare and peculiar minerals exist here,
where there are rocks of every geological age, and where every one of the
ordinary elements except the Pt. group has been found, I cannot but
believe that the presence of the rare earths has been overlooked. I am
not conversant with Prof. Hind's papers, but it would be interesting to
know whether, in his numerous analyses of the minerals of the Province,
he ever sought for the presence of the rare earths. It would not be sur-
prising if he had, and yet failed to find them, for the methods of testing
for them are not given in the ordinary text books of analytical chemistry
and in the larger qualitative works of Prescott and Johnson, Fresenius,
etc., very little attention is paid to them ; they are mentioned in foot-
notes or in fine print, and only the most advanced chemists are likely to
pay any attention to them. This is partly because they are of little
importance to the ordinary analyst, and partly because the field is so
difficult ; and advanced chemists will of course go to the original papers.
Still this all tends to the overlooking of these earths. A chemist might
even take the B. Sc. degree, with Chemistry as his main subject, in any
English or American university and know little beyond the fact of the
existence of and the probable rarity of these elements. He might even
obtain a Doctorate in Chemistry, and, unless his attention were especially
called to the subject, know little of them. They are out of the ordinary
line of travel. I am not saying this merely to fill in the time and make a
Jong paper, as some may be tempted to think, but to show that, even if
Prof. Hind did not look for these elements, and I am strongly inclined
to think he did riot, that it would not be casting any reflections on his
skill as a chemist, nor slurs on his reputation as an analyst. They are
considered out of the line of any one except the chemist who specializes
along these lines. I need scarcely say that this is a mistake, to some
extent at least. None but an advanced specialist in inorganic chemistry
is likely to work with the earths, at least until more is known concerning
them, but any ordinary chemist might easily look for their presence. I
trust, if any especially heavy minerals or peculiar ones are known to
members of this institute, the same being of provincial origin, they would
apply the simple test I have mentioned — precipitation by oxalic acid in

Ixxiv PROCEEDINGS.

weakly acid solution, or send a small sample to me when I would be
pleased to report the presence or absence of the earths. If the suspected
mineral contains Di. a direct vision spectroscope will detect it at once by
pimply looking through it at the mineral. Now, finally, to give a little
attention to what, according to my heading, ought to be the most
important part of my paper. Why are the rare earths of especial
importance to the chemical world ? Why did such a chemist as Kriiss
give up so much of his too-soon ended life to their study? Why do
Brauner, Wilson, Cleve, Boisbaudren, Debray, Crookes, and scores of
lesser lights give all the time they can spare to solve the mystery? Why
did Crookes, when a few pounds of Sipylite, so far a rare mineral, were
found not long since in Texas, cable to reserve it all for himself at any
price 1 Why did chemists like Marignac and Bunsen in the latter part
of their life, with all their vast accumulations of scientific knowledge and
their tried analytical skill, give their finest work to the unravelling of
this problem? For two reasons chiefly. The desire to discover the
truth, the aim of every true scientist, coupled with the knowledge that
here was a field to test the mettle of the bravest and ablest, but also,
and perhaps more important for proving the falsity of, or on the other
hand, rounding out the periodic system of the elements.

The scientist ever seeks to bring the subject which he studies under
the power of mathematics. lie recognizes that this is the most power-
ful of instruments with which to work. All branches of science have,
however, to pass the observational stage before laws can be deduced and
classifications brought about. Though several chemical facts can be
discussed mathematically, the subject as a whole is but emerging from the
observational stage. Botany is still in this stage as also Bacteriology, the
latter, of course, far behind the former ; and possibly it may be claimed
that the former is nearer mathematical control than chemistry. Its
classification is certainly superior, but its classification, at least the one
now in use, is a superficial one and readily arrived at. Not so Chemistry.
The atom and even the molecule, evades our grasp and laughs at our skill,
the balance alone conquers them and even here we grasp them but
lightly. Their existence, even, is being disputed so evasive are they,
and those who would claim their existence are confronted by metaphysi-
cal reasonings to prove them only hallucinations. It has been a long
and weary search since Dalton propounded his atomic theory but the
reward seems nearer. Thompson, or I should say Lord Kelvin, is fixing

THE RARE EARTHS. — MAGEE. Ixxv

limits for their size and weight, while Mcndelejeff and Meyer have
propounded a theory of classification. The subtle points will yet be
chained and their properties scrutinized.

For a long time, ever since chemistry became a science in fact, the
need of a proper method of classification has been felt. There was no
order, no opportunity therefore to apply mathematics, there was no compre-
hensive and easy means of grasping the subject, each element and almost
every compound must be studied by itself. So greatly was the need
felt that, whenever a new property common to a lew or several elements
was noticed, attempts were made to make it the basis of a classification.
Berzelius thought he had discovered a method but this was soon found
wanting, not being founded on sufficient data ; when Faraday discovered
the relations of the elements to the poles of the electric battery it was sup-
posed to be settled, but this soon showed itself as a common property for
all, extending from one end of the list of elements to the other and giving
no special point where it could be said one class ended and another
began, it soon resolved itself into the older metals and non-metals,
basigens and acidigens and so failed, — it was founded on the too narrow
basis of a single property. Inklings of the truth were, however,
obtained from time to time. Dobereiner seems to have made the first
suggestion which has led to the present system. He classified many of
the elements into triads,' taking as a basis a property certainly common
to all, viz, — weight. He first noted that in many cases the weight of one
element was the mean of that of two others usually resembling it, secondly,
in other cases three elements with very similar properties possess very
nearly equal atomic weights, viz, — Li., Na., K., and S., Se., Te., for
examples of the first and Fe., Co., Ni., and El, Rh., Pd., as examples of
the second. The comparisons were continued by Pettenkofer, Dumas
and others, clearer and still clearer signs of universal order appearing
as the atomic weights were more and more accurately calculated.
Newlands was able between 1860 and 1866 to arrange the elements in
octads, but the gaps were so many and the table so fragmentary, and
moreover so many elements were forced to stand aside that his friends
jocularly suggested that he try arranging the elements according to the
first letters of their names. Had Newlands possessed the full courage
of his convictions England would have received the credit of the greatest
advance in Chemistry since Liebig and Wohler founded Organic Chemis-
try. It was left, however, for bolder minds. Lothar Meyer, and

PROCEEDINGS.

Mendelejeff attacked the question more courageously. The former was
probably the first in the field, but the latter must be considered the true
parent of the system, for while the former made up a table and pointed
out many resemblances between the elements, some of which indeed
escaped Mendelejeff, the latter not only proposed a table of the elements,
but boldly altered the atomic weights of certain of the elements when
they did not conform to his table, and did not merely lay them one side
to await what the future might decide concerning them. He did more
than this, he said in effect " My classification is correct but there are
many spaces where elements are wanting; this does not effect the table
it simply means that some elements are as yet undiscovered. I shall
describe three of these," said he, "and without claiming to be a prophet,
will indicate wheie they are likely to be found." He named them pro-
visionally Ek a- "boron, Eka-silicon and Eka-cadmiurn. Within a few
years two of these were discovered and their properties agreed almost
identically with those which he had suggested. He altered the atomic
weight of Ce. from 92 to 140, U. from 120 to 240, and made other
changes. His prophecies were unnoticed or jeered at ; his suggested
changes were ridiculed. He fought his cause single-handed but his
triumph was complete, and came quickly. In less than ten years from
his announcement of the Law, the specific heat of Ce. was redeterrnined
by means admitting of very slight error, and 'the atomic weight was
proved to be 140 or nearly so, much nearer 140 than 92. Uranium was
by the same means soon proved to have the proposed weight, viz, — 240.
Chemists then began to examine his predictions more respectfully and
were soon surprised (if chemists are ever guilty of surprise) when in
1879-SO Nilson, followed by Cleve, proved the existence of Eka-boron
under the name of Scandium; and when in 1886 Winkler proved Eka-
silicon to exist as Germanium, Mendelejeff's triumph was complete. Few
now doubt the truth of the law, and it has become a powerlul weapon
in the hands of the investigator. The line of the classification is com-
plete, the actual basis is probably not known as yet, it may be the atomic
weights, as is most usually assumed; it may be a common element as is
being quietly proposed, though as yet unsupported by experimental
evidence; it may be some property as yet unsuspected but that the order
is nearly or quite correct no one doubts.

But where comes in the importance of the rare earths? A glance at
either form of table will show blanks. No one doubts that these will

THE RARE EARTHS. — MAGEE. Ixxvii

be filled in. Whence 1 Undoubtedly in most cases from the rare earths.
Ni. and Co. according to Kriiss' work seem to conceal an element which
may be found to have an atomic weight of about 100 and the earths
conceal many. Within a few years Di. has been split up, one component
showing absorption bands and the other failing to do so. As already
pointed out, two earths once considered simple have yielded at least
twelve and when the means of the separation, when the reagent or
method is. finally found, then the vacant spaces will be filled.

But it is not only that the rare earths will probably fill these vacant
spaces in the table that gives them importance, their similarity is such
in regard to action towards reagents that they seem to run contrary to
the law. If so many of them are of the formula R2. 08, they cannot be
distributed over the table but will mass in groups and destroy the table.
Of course if the table is incorrect the sooner it is proven the better so
that the mind of the inorganic chemist may be directed elsewhere for
comparisons, and it is just possible that in this very thing lies the
importance. Still the periodic law seems to rest on good foundation.

The great importance then seems to lie just here. These rare earths
exist, of this there can be no doubt. The best chemical skill that the
world has possessed have been working upon them for over a century,
and have so far been unable to confidently state their number and
actual properties. The more work that is put upon them the greater the
number of them seems to be. If the ones now claimed are all real there
is not room for them in the law, i.e. spaces are wanting for their apparent
weight. Until this question can be settled a mystery hangs over this
portion of the Periodic system. The unravelling of this may work an
entire change in our ideas of the elements. Their subtle resemblances
have suggested to me more than once, while pondering over them, that
in these lies the key to the simple elements which many chemists
believe to be the foundation of the so-called elements. As in the
Marsh-gas series the time comes when the Hydrogen-Carbon chain
becomes too heavy for the bonds or affinity to sustain the weight, so in
our inorganic field something of the same kind may result. The
hypothetical elements may in certain numbers of atoms or in certain
arrangement of atoms yield such similar properties that the one compound
is distinguishable with difficulty from another. Time and high chemical
skill alone can unravel the mystery, but so long as things remain as they
are there remains an element of uncertainty in the periodic law. We have
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. PROC.— H.

Ixxviii PROCEEDINGS.

fortunately the key to the organic compounds and can read causes for
resemblances and differences. The study of these has been of vast
importance to the commercial world, but here is a field unwrought,
not for want of workers, but by the very difficulty of the work challeng-
ing attack. I believe that here lies the key which once found will
unlock many of the mysteries of the chemical world. And one thing is
certain, the skill required to explain the mystery will give such power
and grasp to the discoverer that he will with ease unroll the panorama
of the elemental field and place it under man's open vision.

The unfolding of the mystery of the rare earths is not only necessary,
then, to complete the Periodic system but they evidently conceal
some chemical truth not known or imperfectly understood, and so
not properly applied by chemists. Moreover, judging from the
number of elements claimed as rare earths and their resemblance
to each other, it is possible that they will overcrowd the Periodic system
and compel its modification or rejection. In either case the examination
will lead to large additions to the world's scientific knowledge, to truth,
the aim of all true scientists.

The subject was discussed by several of those present, and a vote of
thanks was presented to DR. MAGEE.

WATSON L. BISHOP, ESQ., exhibited a collection of Nova Scotian
birds' eggs, and made remarks thereon.

SEVENTH ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 13th May, 1901.

The PRESIDENT in the chair.

On motion of PROF. E. HAYCOCK, seconded by PROF. E. MACKAY, it
was resolved that the the K S. Institute of Science recognize as subordi-
nate branches, local organizations of its members in particular sections of
the Province, formed for the purpose of encouraging scientific study and
investigation; providing that such orgonizations are active and report
yearly at the annual business meeting of the Institute. Members of
such recognized branch societies who pay a yearly fee of one dollar to
the parent society shall be entitled to all the rights and privileges of
ordinary members of the Institute.

ORDINARY MEETINGS.

The resolution was referred to the council with directions to carry
out the terms of the resolution, and to make any further recommenda-
tions thereon to the business meeting.

The following two papers were read by title : —

(1). Further Explorations in the Torbrook Iron District. — By
EDWIN GILPIN, JR , ESQ., LL. D., &c.

(2). Discription of Fish-like Tracks from the fine-grained Siliceous
Mudstones of the Knoydart formation (Eo-De-vonian) of Autigonish
County, Nova Scotia. — By HENRT M. AMI, ESQ., D. Sc., of the Geological
Survey of Canada. (See Transactions, p. 330.)

PROF. ERNEST HAYCOCK, M. A., of Acadia College, then read two
papers : —

(1). The Geological History of the Gaspereau Valley, N. S. (See
Transactions, p. 361.)

(2). Fossils, possibly Triassic, in Glaciated Fragments in the
Boulder Clay of King's County, N". S. (See Transactions, p. 376.)

These papers were discussed by the PRESIDENT and Messrs. A.
McKAY, POOLE, and DOANE.

A vote of thanks was presented to PROF. HAYCOCK for his interesting
communications.

The following papers were then presented : —

(1). Phenological Observations for 1900. — By A. H. MAcKAY}
ESQ., LL. D., <fec. (See Transactions, p. 379.)

(2). Rainfall Notes, Nova Scotia.— By F. W. W. DOANE, ESQ., C. E
(See Transactions, p. 399.)

The Council was authorized to receive as having been read by title,
such papers as may be presented too late for this meeting. [Under this
resolution a paper subsequently submitted by D'ARCY WEATHERBE, ESQ.,
C. E., on " Recent Developments with the Calyx Drill in the Nictaux
Iron Field," was accepted by the Council. (See Transactions, p. 3f)0.)]

HARRY PIERS,

Recording Secretary.

SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF J. M. JONES.

(See Frontispiece.)

John Matthew Jones was born at Frontfaith Hall, Montgomery,
Wales, on 7th October, 1828. He was a son of Admiral Sir Charles
Thomas Jones, K. C. B., his mother having been formerly Miss Jane
Helen Satton.

In 1840 he went to Osmestry in Shropshire, England, a grammar,
school under the superintendence of the Rev. Stephen Doane, and
subsequently he received instruction from a private tutor, the Rev. John
Whitly, rector of Wargrove near Warrington, Lancashire. He became a
barrister of the Middle Temple, London, but being possessed of independ-
ent means, did not practice his profession. For some time he was
a captain in the Royal Montgomery Rifles.

In June, 1850, while on his way with his brother to the latter's
shooting-box in Scotland, he was wrecked in the steamship "Orion" off
Portpatrick. Over one hundred persons were drowned, but Mr. Jones
and his brother were among those who were saved.

He came to America about 1854 with his eldest brother who
was flag-lieutenant to Admiral Milne, intending to shoot in the Rocky
Mountains. He landed at New York, but was only able to proceed as
far as London, Ontario, when an outbieak of cholera forced him to go to
Halifax. He finally decided to reside in the latter town where, about
the same time, his relative the Earl of Mulgrave, was stationed as
governor.

He spent some time in the Bermudas, where his researches into the
natural history of those islands resulted in the publication about 1859
of a volume entitled ''The Naturalist in Bermuda."

At Halifax he resided for some time at " Ashbourne," a charming
country place surrounded by fields and woods, at Dutch Village not far
from the city. Near him lived the late Andrew Downs, well-known as an
ornithologist, whose grounds were arranged as a zoological park ; while in
the city were several men who were beginning to take a keen interest in
the study of the natural history of Nova Scotia.

In this country home, Mr. Jones's opportunities were excellent for
observing nature' and making extensive collections of the fauna of the
province, to the investigation and gathering of which the greater part of
his time wns given. At "Ash bourne" he had a private museum

(Ixxx)

SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF J. M. JONES.

in a building erected for the purpose, and in 1866 the number of
specimens it contained was estimated at from seven to eight thousand.

He was an enthusiastic collector, and the cabinets of the British
Museum, the Smithsonian Institution, and the Provincial Museum
of Nova Scotia, were enriched by his generosity. He took great
interest in the international exhibition at London in 1862, the provincial
fisheries department being placed under his management.

During the winter months Mr. Jones usually resided in Bermuda, at
his place called " The Hermitage," Smith's Parish, and gave further
attention to the study of the natural history of that locality.

Mr. Jones married Mary, daughter of Colonel W. J. Myers of the
71st Highlanders, of Halifax, by whom he had seven sons and four
daughters.

He was a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, an original
Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, and one of the founders and
ablest supporters of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science, of
which he soon became president.

Mr. Jones died on his sixtieth birthday, 7th October, 1888, at 114
Tower Road, Halifax.

Among his publications may be mentioned the following : —

The Naturalist in Bermuda ; a sketch of the geology, zoology and
botany of that remarkable group of islands ; together with meteor-
logical observations. Illus. London, 1859 (?), pp. 192.

Extract from the Bermuda " Royal Gazette," relating to the recent
capture of a large species of Gymnetrus. — Proceedings of the Zoo-
logical Society, (Lond.), 1860, (part xxviii), pp. 185-187.

Contributions to the Icthyology of Nova Scotia. — Transactions N. S.
Institute of Natural Science, vol. i, pt. 1, pp.45-54; 1863.

Kjoekken-moedding in Nova Scotia — Smithsonian Report, 1863.

Contributions to the Natural History of the Bermudas: Part 1, Mollusea,
—Trans. N. S. Inst. N. 8c., vol. i, pt. 2, pp. 14-26; 1864.

Contributions to the Natural History of Nova Scotia: Reptilia. — 76.,
vol. i, pt. 3, pp. 114-128; 1865.

Notes on certain species of Nova Scotian Fishes. — Canadian Naturalist,
N. S., vol. ii, pp. 128-135 ; 1865.

On the Geological Features of the Bermudas. — Trans. N. S. Inst. N. Sc.
vol. i, pt. 4, pp. 18-26 ; 1866.
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. PROG.— I.

Ixxxii SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF J. M. JONES.

A Fortnight in the Backwoods of Shelburne and Wey mouth. Ib,, vol

ii, pt. 1, pp. 48-60; 1867.
Contributions to the Natural History of the Bermudas. [Goralliaria.] —

Ib., vol. ii, pt. 2, pp. 7-16; 1868.
On some of the Rarer Birds of Nova Scotia. — 76., vol. ii, pt. 2, pp. 70-73.

1868.
On Hyla Squirella, aBatrachian new to the Province. — Ib., vol. it, pt. 2.

pp. 101-102; 1868.
[Nova Scotian Lepidoptua. By Rev. Chas. J. S. Bethune.] With,

additional notes by J. Matthew Jones. — Ib., vol. ii, pt. 3, pp. 78-87;

1869.

Nova Scotian Coleoptera. Part I. — Ib., vol. ii, pt 3, pp. 141-155 ; 1869;
On the Laridse of the Nova Scotian Coast. — Ib., vol. ii, pt. 4, pp. 52 58;

1870.
Notes on the Marine Zoology of Nova Scotia. — Ib., vol. ii, pt. 4,

pp. 93-99; 1870.
Review of Nova Scotian Diurnal Lipidoptera. — Ib., vol. iii, pp. 18-27 &

100-103; 1871 & 1872.
Notes on a small and remarkable Lophioid recently taken off Halifax

Harbour.— Ib , vol. iii, pp. 103-105; 1872.

On the Vegetation of the Bermudas.— Ib., vol. iii, pp. 227-280; 1873.
The Visitor's Guide to Bermuda ; with a sketch of its Natural History-
London and Halifax, [1876 1] 12mo., pp. i-xii and 9-156.
Mollusca of Nova Scotia (corrected to date, 1877). — Trans. N. S. Inst.

N. Sc., vol. iv, pp. 321 (misprinted 421)-330; 1877.
List of the Fishes of Nova Scotia.— Ib., vol. v, pp. 87-89 ; 1879.
With Goode (George Brown), ed. — Contributions to the Natural History

of the Bermudas. Washington, 1884.

H. P.

(See page cii.)

PROCEEDINGS

Jloba <§cotian Jnstitute of ^cicnce.

SESSION OF 1901-1902.

FIRST ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 7th November, 1901.
The PRESIDENT, DR. A. H. MACKAY, in the chair.

It was announced that AVARD V. PINEO, ESQ., barrister, Wolf-
ville, and PROFESSOR FRANK R. HALEY, Acadia College, Wolfville,
had been elected associate-members.

R. W. McLACHLAN, ESQ., of the Numismatic and Antiquarian
Society of Montreal, read a paper entitled : " A Talk on Roman Coins,"
illustrated by a number of specimens belonging co the lecturer.

A. H. COOPER PRICHAHD, ESQ., numismatist, exhibited and
described a series of Roman coins belonging to the Provincial Museum
of Nova Scotia, and drew attention to the desirability of increasing
the coin collection of that institution.

The subject was further discussed by the PRESIDENT, and MESSRS.
R. R. McLsoD and W. L. PAYZANT.

On motion of MR. MCKERRON and REV. R. LAING, a vote of thanks
was presented to MR. MCLACHLAN.

PROC & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. PROC.— J.

(Ixxxiii)

1XXX1V PROCEEDINGS.

ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 9th December, 1901.
The PRESIDENT, DR. A. H. MACKAY, in the chair.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. — BY A. H. MACKAY, LL. D., «tr.

Gentlemen, — Since our last annual meeting we have lost some of
our members. It is a tribute to the constitution of things which every
human organization lias to pay.

OBITUARIES.

On the 5th of March, Dr. James Ratchforcl DeWolfe, who was a
member from the first session of the Institute in 1863, and who bore
his share in its administration as an officer, died in his 82nd year.
He was the son of the Hon. T. A. S. DeWolfe, at one time a member
of the Lord Falkland administration of the Province. He graduated
from the University of Edinburgh, and came to Halifax in the year
1845. In 1857 he left a very lucrative practice to take charge as its
first Superintendent of the Provincial Hospital for the Insane. Under
his directing genius the institution took rank as one of the best
administered of its class. While fulfilling all the duties of a leading
citizen for so many years, he was always a staunch friend of the Insti-
tute of Science, in which he took an interest from its institution to
his death. Not being able to be present at one of our meetings not
very long ago in which the subject of ventilation of public buildings
was being discussed, he supplemented the report of the discussion
reported in the morning papers by a full and ably presented discussion
of some points which he had demonstrated in his own experience,
which he sent me for consideration, with special reference to the ven-
tilation requirements of the Provincial Normal School. In him we
have lost the last member on our list who joined the Institute during
its first year.

Captain William Henry Smith, R. N. R., F. R. G. S., who was a
member from the year 1889, died on the fifth of May, in the sixty-
fourth year of his age. He was born in Kent, England, was educated
at Canterbury and Greenwich, entered the Allan steamship service
during the Crimean War, and was present at some of the engagements,

PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. Ixxxv

and afterwards successfully commanded the Allan steamers, St. Geo ye,
Hibernian, Circasian, Peruvian, Sardinian and Parisian, and suc-
ceeded Captain Wylie as Commodore of the Allan fleet. He was
appointed a lieutenant in the Royal Naval Reserve in 1867, and on
leaving the steamship service was made Ch airman of the Board of
Examiners of Masters and Mates, Commissioner for enquiring into
wrecks, and one of the nautical advisers to the Government of Canada.
He compiled some valuable nautical distance tables, and was a valu-
able contributer to the press on nautical matters of public import-
ance.

Rev. Moses Harvey, LL.D., F. R. G. S., F. R. S. C., who was a
corresponding member of this Institute since 1890, died on the third
of September, eighty-one years of age. He was born at Armagh,
Ireland, educated at the Royal College, Belfast, and came to New-
foundland in 1852, and was for 26 years pastor of St. Andrew's
Church in St. John's. In 1878 he retired from the ministry for the
greater leisure of literary and scientific work, in which he became the
most distinguished representative of that island. Apart from his
published works, he contributed since 1869 a large number of articles
and sketches on the resources of Newfoundland, to the leading news-
papers and magazines of Britain, Canada, and the United States —
sufficient to make many volumes. The best known of his published
works are, "The Characteristics of the Present Age," " Thoughts on
the Poetry and Literature of the Bible," "The Testimony of Nineveh
to the Veracity of the Bible," " Lectures on the Harmony of Science
and Revelation," " Lectures on Egypt and its Monuments," " Lectures
Literary and Biographical," "Cormack's Journey Across Newfound-
land," "Across Newfoundland with the Governor," "Newfoundland
the Oldest British Colony," " Text Book of Newfoundland History,"
"Where Are We and Whither Tending," " Newfoundland as it is in
1894," "A Handbook and Tourist's Guide," " Newfoundland in the
Jubilee Year." He also prepared the descriptive and statistical arti-
cles on Newfoundland in the " Encyclopedia Britannica " and in
"Johnson's Universal Cyclopedia." He was the discoverer and first
describer of that gigantic " devil-fish " which was called after him by
Professor Verrill Archilenthus Hnrveyi.

Ixxxvi PROCEEDINGS.

WORK.

We have also lost the presence of Professor James Gordon
MacGregor from our midst by his translation from the University of
Dalhousie College to the Professorship of Natural Philosophy in the
University of Edinburgh. He has been a member of this Institute
from the year 1877, since which time he has served in all of the most
important offices with a vigor which has transformed the institution
in many respects. Not only did he furnish many valuable papers for
our Transactions, but he prepared students who, during the last few
years, added most important records of original scientific research to
our list of valuable papers. And not only did he do these things, but
he spent yearly a great deal of time in developing our foreign
exchanges and laying the foundation of our present Provincial Scien-
tific Library. Although not likely to be with us at our meetings,
Professor MacGregor has put too mnch of himself into our Institute
not to continue to be interested in its progress, and disposed to work
with us still. The banquet tendered him on his departure for the
" motherland " by this Institute, combined with the University of
Dalhousie, was a public testimony to his services, and I am glad that
the Council has added another small testimony in unanimously electing
him to life membership, which we trust may be a very long member-
ship.

At our regular meetings during the year quite a variety of
subjects was discussed, the more valuable papers of which will soon
appear in the volume of the Proceedings and Transactions. Mr. Poole
described the new Calyx Drill; and exhibited specimens of the great
cores of rock cut out by it, and at a subsequent meeting presented for
examination a transverse section of Stigmaria, showing the cellular
structure of its central vascular bundles with extraordinary distinct-
ness. The excellence of the preservation of this structure makes its
description a valuable one for the palaeontologist. Mr. Prest utilized
his expedition to the Labrador coast by giving us a vivid picture of
his observations on Drift Ice as an Eroding and Transporting Geologi-
cal Agent. Mr. Weatherbe demonstrated the latest explorations in
the Torbrook Iron District. Mr. Fletcher discussed the nomenclature
of our geological formations, taking in the New Glasgow Conglomer-
ates this time — one of the most interesting of the series on the histor-

PRESIDENT'S ADDEESS. Ixxxvii

ical development of the geological exploration of the Province. Dr.
Ami, who would add still further terms to this changing nomenclature,
described the fossil tracks of an " Eo- Devonian " fish found in the
fine-grained silicious sandstones of the Knoydart formation in Anti-
gonish. Professor Haycock closed up the series of geological papers
by a picturesque description of the geological history of the Gaspereaux
Valley, and by the exhibition of fossils — probably Triassic — in glaci-
ated fragments of rock in the Boulder Clay of King's County

Dr. Magee represented the science of chemistry in a graphic sketch
of the rare earths and their importance in reference to the Periodic
Law, a feat which was made easy by his research work in this depart-
ment for some years. Professor Smith followed the science into its
industrial applications in the rotation of leguminous crops, and the
preservation and use of turnip tops. Mr. Bishop led into the field of
zoology, exhibiting and describing the habits of the star-nosed mole
and its young, and on another occasion showing his fine collection of
Nova Scotian birds' eggs. Mr. Doane led us into the region of meteor-
ology in his Notes on Rainfall, and I presented, as usual, my annual
compilation of phenological observations made in the schools of the
Province.

PROVINCIAL MUSEUM.

During the year, the Provincial Museum, which although always
the ward of the Government has always been considered to be the
child of the Institute of Science, has been very extensively improved
by the incessant and intelligent labor of its curator, Mr. Harry Piers.
While it is being rapidly made more representative of the natural and
industrial history of the Province by the introduction of new material,
a great deal has been accomplished by the arrangement, accurate
determination, and comprehensive but distinct labelling of the old
material ; so that now it is becoming not only of more value to those
wishing to gain an idea of the productions of the country, but to the
scientific student. The curator is not a man who merely attends
during the hours the Museum is open to the public. He is always
working, and when the doors are closed he works most. In no
other way could the vast amount of work done during the past year
have been accomplished.

The collections of coins in the Museum, many of which were
neither specifically determined or generally classified, came under the

Ixxxviii PROCEEDINGS.

notice, ]ast year, of Mr. A. H. Cooper Prichard, a numismatic expert
for some time engaged in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, and who
prepared, under the direction of the Treasury Department of Jamaica,
the coin collection exhibited at the Jamaica Exhibition of 1891. On
returning to the Province this summer, after a study ' extending over
some months, he at length completed his determinations of the various
coins which are now properly and minutely catalogued. Mr. Prichard
undertook this work as a labor of love, no doubt also interested in
many of the curious mementoes of antiquity turning up. And it is
fortunate for us, for I fear we could not well afford to pay the cost of
Mr. Prichard's very thorough work. I am glad, however, to be able
to intimate that the Council has just elected him to corresponding
membership in the Institute as a token of our appreciation of his
valuable services, and that he has graciously accepted the distinction.

SCIENTIFIC LIBRARY.

On the flat above the Museum we have our new Provincial Scien-
tific Library, also under the charge of Mr. Piers, who deals with it as
a part of the Museum. This composite collection of publications, the
great nucleus of which is the original library of this Institute, has
already been reduced to order. The Government has added to it
modern works of science, both elementary and advanced, such books
as are absolutely necessary in such a library, to the value of $500 ;
and we have reason to hope that this intelligent appreciation of the
necessity of stimulating the scientific development of the thought and
industries of the Province will continue to be shown by a Government
which has done so much to make a start in a line deemed now so
essential by every progressive country

PROVINCIAL PROGRESS.

While at headquarters the growth of our scientific equipment is
satisfactory, the development of the Scientific spirit appears also to be
accelerating throughout the Province. Under the stimulating influ-
ence of Professor Haycock a branch or affiliated organization has been
instituted at Wolfville, which is thus making a bid for the second place
as a scientific centre in the Province. While the access to the library
of the Institute and to publication in our Proceedings and Transactions
will be of some value to the local institucion, it will also tend to

PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. Ixxxix

develop scientific workers eventually for the central institution and
thus benefit both.

In Halifax the organization of the Halifax Botanical Club last
summer, under the presidency of Mr.- Waddell, is another and similar
sign of the times.

Throughout the province several of our county academies or high
schools have now better laboratories for proper science teaching than
had our best colleges not many years ago ; and some of the teachers
are more competent than many of the good old college professors.
But the Government has not allowed the country to lead in this line
of our education ; for laboratories have just been completed for the
Provincial Normal School which are not equalled by those of any insti-
tution in the Atlantic Provinces of Canada. We should soon begin
to see signs of useful results from these practical beginnings. With
laboratory extension in the high schools we are now commencing to
foster manual training in the common schools ; so that it is hoped our
future students may have not only their minds, but their hands
directed in the school room to the personal and public advantages of
intelligent industrial labor, as well as to the at present overcrowded,
less important, less honorable, once-called learned professions.

But while the great majority of people can understand the advan-
tage of the scientific study of the principles immediately underlying
the occupations which constitute the industrial force of the country,
they are not far-sighted enough to see why we should cultivate the
sciences generally — the sciences which at present appear to be unpro-
ductive. Pardon a concluding word on this point.

I think of science as the application of common sense to the dis-
covery of the facts or truth of things around us, and the arrangement
of this knowledge in some system which enables us to hold them in
mind in their true relations. Science, therefore, in so far as it ap-
proaches truth arid completeness in agriculture, enables us to do what
will give us the best crops at the least expense ; in mining to do what
will lead us most directly to the valuable ore and enable us to raise it
at the least expense ; metallurgy, to reduce the metal from the ore
most economically ; in medicine, to touch the hidden cause of disease
and remove it ; in manufacture, to improve the product or to reduce
the expense of production ; in transportation, to save another minute
of time or another cent per ton of freight ; and so on through the

XC PROCEEDINGS.

whole range of human industry. That is the kind of science in which
the whole intelligent world believes in without dissent. It is the
ancient Egyptian cult of utility as opposed to the ancient Grecian cult
of truth for truth's sake.

I would say a word, not against the Egyptian philosophy which
with the world I approve ; but in favor of the Grecian ideal, not sim-
ply on account of the higher order of character and of pleasure created
by it, but on account of its ultimate utility in making the develop-
ment of the industrial sciences possible.

The constitution of things is so very unlike our elementary con-
ceptions of the world even after we are some years in investigating it,
that the most pious theologian as well as the neglected street Arab,
without a single exception, becomes a sceptic with respect to his infan-
tile philosophy. The fairios have taken wing and disappeared for
ever, and Santa Glaus with his marvelous powers over space arid time
and the universal laws of physics which chain puny men and boys to
the ground and the dull prose of fact, drops out of the gorgeous cloud
of poetry and shrivels up at last to a benevolent old man also chained
to the ground.

Now, many people continue to learn more after the infantile stage
has been passed ; but much of what they learned had been discovered
and pointed out to the world by a few others. And when all that
has been discovered is known, we shall feel that the world is wider
and fuller than ever we thought it before. We cannot resist the con-
viction that there is a great deal more to be known than we thought
when we knew less. And the new things are so unlike what we were
expecting from what we had previously learned, that we were looking
for something else when we tripped upon the new.

Now the man who is roaming through the universe searching for
truth wherever it may appear, just because he enjoys such an exercise,
will some day fall upon some new thing, it may be gold, coal, or a
cocoa-nut, which those digging in the potato field for the hundredth
time can never get, no matter how they may long for it. Truths
picked up in the simple search for truth, arranged and recorded so
that they are always henceforward accessible when their complements
are found, may for years, even centuries be unproductive. The dis-
covery of just one point more may complete the solution of an old
industrial problem, or reveal a new power over nature.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. XC1

MALARIA OBJECT LESSON.

As an illustration, let me follow out my example of last year, the
history of the cause and prevention of malaria. No single man made
this discovery. Laveran in 1880 discovered the minute Haemamoeba
in the malarial human blood corpuscles. But five years more of work
by others merely proved the truth of Laveran's discovery. Nothing
was done for the business men, the soldiers, the missionaries, going
into malarial regions of the world, nothing was done for the millions
of natives having their life sapped by the mysterious affliction. They
were suffocating themselves at night by keeping out the cool healthful
night air, while they allowed the sneaking Anopheles to snipe them
without serious protest. In the meantime Danelewsky found that the
birds had their blood corpuscles affected in many cases by a somewhat
similar organism which he called a Proteosoma. The bloods of all
animals were now being searched, even the blood of lizards and snakes,
but the malaria still went on from 1885 up to 1895. A tremendous
amount of truth about a great number of animals was being discov-
ered, but nothing productive. Major Ross got at length to work, but
still there was nothing productive. Noticing Danelewsky's discovery
of the Proteosoma in the blood of birds, he caused mosquitoes hatched
safe and sound from eggs to feed upon birds, the Blue Jay bearing his
share of it, which had the Proteosoma in its blood. The mosquitoes
became infected. These mosquitoes infected sound birds. Now in
1898, the mosquito was falling under deeper suspicion. The mos-
quitoes would not be affected by sucking the malarial blcod from a
sick human patient, however. Nobody ever thought that one species
of mosquito was likely to be more dangerous than another. Why
should they ? But the experiments went on with all the different
species which could be found, for was it not already proven that Culex
could infect the Blue Jay with Proteosoma — a bird malaria. At last
species of the genius Anopheles were found to be capable of being
infected by sucking malarial human blood. Next in 1899 it was
rapidly proven by Ross and the leading scientists of other countries,
that persons might sleep in the most malarial district open to the
night air if the mosquito netting guarding the room remained intact ;
and if a person were in a mountain sanitarium and be but bitten by
an infected Anopheles he would be soon down with the malaria.

XCli PROCEEDINGS.

Now came the day of glory for the fly-catcher who with his net
used to frequent the town pump, a harmless man supposed to have a
bse in his bonnet as well as a mosquito in his net. But from over all
the world except Nova Scotia and some other provinces, these fly-
catchers reported the species native to the country, so that the malar-
ial regions of the world were soon proven to be coterminous with the
range of certain species. The unproductive knowledge which had been
growing for twenty years and more, now suddenly became productive
with a fruition of life and health and wealth to the world.

But the end of the work of these for-so-many-years unproductive
toilers with the microscope and the insignificant flies did not yet cease.
A species of Culex, harmless from a malarial point of view, has been
proven only this year to have been the unsuspected, but sneaking and
most gigantic murder of tropical America. As Danelewsky's discovery
could not ha.ve been made without Laveran's, and as Ross' discovery
could not have been made without Danelewsky's, so Sternberg and
Reed's could not have been made without Ross'.

YELLOW FEVER OBJECT LESSOX.

Before Laveran, in 1 880, demonstrated the presence of the jelly-
speck parasite in malarial blood, the blood of the victim of the terrible
Yellow Fever plague was being examined ; but the microscope was
able to show nothing which could be proved to be the cause of the
disease. From the range of the fever and its retreat before cold
weather, some species of musquito were suspected, and were experi-
mented with ; but the result for over twenty years was still negative.
Dr. Carlos Finlay, in Havana, from 1881 to 1893, had no less than
eighty-eight human subjects bitten by mosquitoes which had fed a few
days previously on Yellow Fever patients from the second to the sixth
day of the disease. But the results were so doubtf nl as to be negative,
for only one case developed into a slight attack, while thirteen were
attacks of acclimatization fever, generally at too long and irregular
intervals to be deemed due to the inoculation. We now know why
Finlay came within an ace of the discovery, but was still so far from
it. There was a peculiarity in the facts which he never suspected, for
it was not suggested by the cognate previous discoveries. Nature does
not work in accordance with our preconceptions. It has its own
habits, which we must discover, and we may guess a thousand times

I'KKSI DENTS ADDRESS. XC111

before we hit the truth. Dr. Daniel Ruiz, in the presence of Dr.
Sternberg, who is now Surgeon-General of the United States Army, in
the year 1887 injected blood from the vein of a Yellow Fever patient
into a healthy individual to prove whether the germ was in the blood ;
but even that experiment was negative — the germs in the eighth day
being destroyed in the course of the disease. Still, it did not appear
to be an infection carried in the air, for non-immune nurses and others
were very often not attacked. And the results of the malarial demon-
strations of 1899 stirred up the Havana Commission anew under the
general direction of Sternberg and the local management of Dr. Reed
and his staff.

Last year Dr. Jesse W. Lazear and Dr. James Carroll, two
members of the Commission, allowed themselves to be bitten by
mosquitoes fed on a case in its early stage. Dr. Carroll was promptly
taken down within the incubation period of five days, and Dr. Lazear,
who was at first bitten by the mosquito within ten days of its feeding,
was not affected. But on the 12th of September last year, about a
month after the first experiment, he allowed a mosquito to fill itself
from his hand — one which had been fed on a patient about a fortnight
before, presumably. Within five days, on the 18th of September, he
took ill, and on the 25th was dead. Nine other individuals voluntarily
allowed themselves to be experimented upon. In those cases when the
mosquito had bitten within eight days of their feeding there was no
result. The cases of infection occurred when the mosquitoes had bitten
more than twelve days after the feeding on the Yellow Fever patient.
Thus dawned the light of the facts on the Commission. Culex fasciatus
when fed on the blood of a Yellow Fever patient during the first few
days of the disease did not become capable of infecting a human subject
until after twelve days, or more if the weather was not very warm.

Now arose the question : Is this the only manner in which this
plague is spread ? When infected ships have to remain in quarantine,
and all clothes and fabrics have to be burned or steamed, when patrols
with shot guns surround quarantined towns to prevent people flying
to other places, when the tremendous expense of quarantine, delay and
destructive disinfection is being endured, is it of any use when the
mosquito is allowed to fiy past the shot gun of the sentry, and past
the cauldron of tho disinfector, while the insignificant gnat is not even

xciv PEOCEEDINGS.

challenged 1 To settle this question, the Commission formed an exten-
sive camp in Cuba, not very far from Havana, called after their first
martyr for the cause of science — which is the cause of humanity —
Camp Lazear. Special buildings were put up for various purposes, and
the strictest regulations were enforced, with every action tested and
recorded.

On the 30th of last November, three men who never had Yellow
Fever agreed to go into one of the little cottages, which was furnished
with doors and windows perfectly protected from mosquitoes by a fine
wire netting or gauze, every night to sleep, for twenty nights. During
the day they remained in their own quarantined tent near by. In
this cottage, which was kept up to tropical heat, were the clothes and
bedding taken, soiled, from beds of Yellow Fever patients. These
clothes they packed away in the morning and opened out at night, and
slept in. On the 1 9th of December they came out all right, and after
quarantine for five days were allowed to go at large, while another set,
consisisting of two volunteers, tried the experiment for the next
twenty days, and still another set for the next twenty days, from
January llth last to the 31st. These volunteers excelled in their
attempts to take Yellow Fever from soiled clothing within their net-
protected cottage. Boxes of filthy clothing, stained with blood and
vomit from the Yellow Fever hospitals, were opened up within the
room, sometimes causing such a stench that they had to retire tempo-
rarily when opening the boxes. Here they slept for twenty nights, in
the very clothing of those who had died from the fever. But no fever
was taken during these sixty days by these five noble volunteers. This
would appear to demonstrate that the mode of quarantining should be
adjusted to the specific nature of each kind of disease. What may be
necessary for small-pox may be altogether unnecessary for other
diseases. Millions of dollars have been spent on quararanting Yellow
Fever which had little more virtue than the incantations of the old
red Indian medicine-men ; while the real cause was practically allowed
to be limited by nature, as it was in the days of the medicine-men.

But in the camp at Lazear, in another cottage, other experiments
were being conducted by heroes as great as war or missionary zeal
ever produced. A cottage was divided in two by a mosquito-proof
netting — each half alike. Volunteers sleep in each. But in the one

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. XCV

apartment a few mosquitoes which, twenty days ago, fed on a new
case of fever, were set free. In the other apartment was put clothing
soiled by Yellow Fever patients. On the 21st of last December the
volunteers entered upon their strange preparation for Christmas. On
Christinas day, three days and twenty-three hours after being first
bitten, John J. Moren took ill with the fever, of which in due time he
recovered. Out of seven who attempted to be infected by mosquitoes,
only one escaped. Of the seven who were attempted to be infected by
the Yellow Fever filth in the other half, all escaped.

The result of all this was that the regulations for the treatment of
Yellow Fever epidemics had to undergo a complete revolution, with
the most satisfactory results. It is not found necessary to destroy all
the mosquitoes of the species Culax fasciatus, which is the species so
far found to be capable of infection. It serves the same purpose to
prevent any mosquito from infection by touching a fever patient — a
regulation which must be as agreeable to the patient as it is useful to
the public.

SHEEP-FLUKE OBJECT LESSON.

But the mosquito is not the only dangerous carrier of disease.
Any fly may carry the germs of disease by simple contact. Some of
them may carry special diseases within their bodies, as in the cases
discussed. It took a long time before the cause of the spread of the
Texas Cattle Fever was discovered to be by infected ticks. But as
soon as the discovery was made, the control of the disease was assured.

Some of the histories of disease carriers are most complicated.
And I hope you will pardon me for the reference to one as an illus-
tration of the value which may eventually come from our exploring
all the corners of our country for the insignificant animals and plants
found on the earth or in the water, — such work as some members of
such societies as ours are always doing, without any immediate indus-
trial or significant results.

In Britain the sheep in some localities began to die in hundreds,
and on post mortem examination their livers were found to be filled
with a parasitic animal about three quarters of an inch long, somewhat
flat and leaf-like. It is known as the Liver Fluke or the " Liver-rot."
I shall briefly sketch its life history, which illustrates my point. One
fluke produces about half a million of eggs which are expelled from the

XCvi PROCEEDINGS.

liver through the bile duct into the intestines, whence they ultimately
reach the ground. The eggs would all die if they did not fall upon
the earth during cold weather, when at the end of two or three weeks
they may be found as minute ciliated specks swimming in the water
of pools or rain puddles. These all die in ten hours if they do not
find a certain species of water snail, Limncea truncatula. Those which
find the snail stick to it, burrow into it, and soon become enc)rsted in
a small round cell. After some time it grows and changes into a
minute somewhat worm-like shape, bores through the cyst wall and
enters the liver of the snail. It is now called a Redia, and it produces
a number of offspring with a large head and slender tail called Cer-
carise which escape into the water of the pond. They finally swim to
land and climb up grass blades where they become encysted. They
die here in a short time unless a sheep comes along and swallows the
Cercaria with the grass. From the stomach of the sheep it enters the
liver by the bile duct, thus producing the disease from which the sheep
dies. The same animal appears in many different forms. First the
parasite embedded in the liver ; second, the ciliated microscopic pin-
head swimming in the water ; third, the cyst in the muscle of the
snail ; fourth, numerous Redire migrating to the liver of the snail ;
fifth, numerous Cercarise migrating from the liver of the snail into the
water ; sixth, the swimming Cercariie climbing the grass blades and
becoming encysted, covered with a tough skin making them look
like seed or scale stuck on the blade. Let the season be hot and dry
at the critical stage and the Liver-rot becomes extinct for the season.
In a few years if the climate is suitable they may become numerous
again. But if the water in the sheep's pasturage should be kept clear
of the said species of snail, no condition of climate could keep the
plague in existence. The extirpation of the snail is no easy matter,
and the Fluke is more destructive to sheep in Great Britain than the
Boer war is to the sheep in Africa — at least a million per annum
dying from this cause.

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION.

We have been favored this year with the Marine Biological Station
of Canada at Can so. There, several of the scientists of Central Can-
ada were studying the inhabitants of our neighboring sea water, etc.,
a knowledge of which will very soon be essential in order to preserve
some of our fisheries. The duties of my office have been so engross-

TREASURERS REPORT. XCV11

ing that although one of the directors, I was not able to visit the
station before its close. It is to be regretted that we had no Nova
Scotian student taking advantage of such a grand opportunity this
season. I hope that if the station is with us next summer there may
l)e some of us able to take advantage of the great opportunity to study
effectively at least some small portion of the unknown flora and fauna
of our land and water.

Whatever work we do can be recorded in our Transactions which
even last year contained information deemed valuable to scientific
men in other countries. Our exploration work although proceeding
at a very slow rate, and although of no immediate productive value,
is building up the root, the stem, the branches, and the leaves of a
tree which in due time will flower and fruit, and its fruit will be for
the healing of the nation. But we cannot produce the fruit directly.
The course of nature is to begin with the root and branches without
which there can never be any fruit.

From such considerations, I hope it can be understood, that the
cult of buying the truth and selling it not, is not only good in itself
as a source of the highest pleasure, but that it is also essential for the
development of that utilitarian science which results immediately in
bread and material power.

The TREASURER'S report was presented, and having been audited
and found correct, was received and adopted. The following is an
analytical statement of the expenditure for 1900-1901 :

PUBLICATION- OF TRANSACTIONS : —
Vol. X., Part 2, (1899-1900) :

Printing and binding $126 54

Engravings 38 00

$164 54

Vol. X , Part 3, (1900-1901) :

Photograph for portrait (Jones) $ 1 00

Engraving 3 38

$ 4 88

$108 92

DISTRIBUTION OF TRANSACTIONS :—
Vol. X., Part 2:

Wrappers, receipt forms, wrapping and twine. ... $ 11 75

Addressing and supervising distribution 15 00

Postage, truckage, porter, freight, boxes, insur-
ance, expressage 1819

A 44 94

Carried forward $213 86

XCV111 PROCEEDINGS.

Brought J or ward $213 86

LIBRARY EXPENSES :

Stamping all books and pamphlets in Library .... $ 12 00

Services, Janitor Dalhousie College 5 00

Expressage on books received 1 72

Truckage, removal of books from Librarian's office

to Provincial Science Library 1 00

Insurance on Library 23 10

$ 42 82

Calling of meetings 22 16

Advertising 8 00

Postage (Secretary's and Librarian's) 7 47

Post Office box . . " 4 00

Miscellaneous printing (including stationery) .... 4 25

$302 56

The Report on the Library was read by MR. PIERS, and was
received and adopted.

PROFESSOR E. HAYCOCK presented a report from the Wolfville
branch of the Institute, which had been organized on May 28th, 1901,
with the following officers ; President, ERNEST HAYCOCK ; Vice-
President, A. Y. PINEO, ESQ. ; Secretary-Treasurer, PROF. EVERETT
SAWYER. It was decided that all members of the parent society who
are also members of the branch, should form the council. Associate
members are admitted to the branch on approval, and for an annual
fee of twenty-five cents to help cover local running expenses.

It was resolved that the thanks of the Institute be conveyed to
the HON. ROBERT BOAK and His WORSHIP THE MAYOR for their
courtesy in granting the Society the use of the Legislative and City
Council Chambers as places of meeting, and to the SECRETARY OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION for continuing to admit the Institute to
the privileges of the Bureau of International Exchanges.

The following were elected officers for the ensuing year (1901-1902):

President.— A. H. MACKAY, ESQ., LL. D., F. R. S. C., ex-officio F. R.
M. S.

Vice- Presidents. — F. W. W. DOANE, ESQ., C. E., and HENRY S. PoOLE,
ESQ., F. R. S. C., Assoc. Roy. Sch. Mines.

Treasurer.— W. C. SILVER, ESQ.

Corresponding Secretary. —PROF, E. MAcKAY, PH. D.

Recording Secretary.— HARR\ PIERS, ESQ.

Librarian.— M. BOWMAN, ESQ., B. A.

Councillors -without Office.— ALEXANDER McKAY, ESQ., EDWIN GILPIN,
JR., ESQ., LL. D., F. R. S. C., MARTIN MURPHY, ESQ., D. Sc.,
H. H. READ, ESQ., M. D., WATSON L. BISHOP, ESQ., RODERICK
MCCOLL, ESQ., C. E., H. W. JOHNSTON, ESQ., C. E.

A uditors.— WILLIAM MCKERRON, ESQ., G. W. T. IRVING, ESQ.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. XC1X

SECOND ORDINARY MEETING.
Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 9th December, 1901.

The PRESIDENT, DR. MACKAY, in the chair.

The meeting was held after the adjournment of the Annual Business
Meeting.

It was announced that J. B. MCCARTHY, ESQ., B. Sc., teacher of
science in the Halifax County Academy, had been elected an ordinary
member.

It was also announced that the council had elected PROF. J. G.
MACGREGOR, D. Sc., F. B. S., of Edinburgh University, a life member,
and A. H. COOPER PRICHARD, ESQ., of Boston, Mass., a corresponding,
member.

The PRESIDENT, DR. A. H. MACKAY, exhibited a condensed form
of Boiryjhium temitum found by Mrs.B. B. McLgod at Blomidon, N. S.
There sterile fronds of different ages encircled the stipe of the fertile-
frond. The variety was provisionally named Aynetis, in honour of
the discoverer.

The PRESIDENT reported progress in consideration of the resolution
of 13th May, 1901, relative to the establishment of Branch Societies.

THIRD ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 13th January, 1902.

The PRESIDENT, DR. MACKAY, in the chair.

A paper by 11. W. ELLS, ESQ., Lu D., F. G. S. A., entitled, " The
Progress of Geological Investigation in Nova Scotia," was read by the
PRESIDENT. (See Transactions, p. 433.)

The subject was discussed by MESSRS. H. S. POOLE, B. H. BROWN,
and HON. S. HOLMES.

The PRESIDENT exhibited a set of mounted plants collected in
Labrador from June to August, 1901, by WALTER H. PREST, ESQ.,
M. E. (See Transactions, p. 507.)

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. PROG.— K,

t; PROCEEDINGS.

FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING.
Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 10th February, 1902.

The PRESIDENT in the chair.

It was announced that HECTOR H. MAC-KAY ESQ., M. D., of New
"Glasgow, N. S., had been elected an associate member.

H. S. POOLE, ESQ., read a paper by DR. H. M. AMI, entitled, "The
Upper Cambrian Age of the Dictyonema Slates of Angus Brook, New
Canaan, and Kentville, N. S." (See Transactions, p. 447.)

MR. POOLE presented a paper entitled, " Notes on Dr. Ami's Paper
on Dictyonema Slates." (See Transactions, p. 451.)

MR. POOLE then exhibited and made remarks upon supposed worm-
trails in slate from the syncline at Green Bank, Point Pleasant,
Halifax. (See Transactions, p. 453.)

The subject was discussed by DR. MURPHY, MR. BISHOP, and the
PRESIDENT.

MR. POOLE took the chair while the PRESIDENT read a paper by
Miss A. LOUISE JAGGAR, of Redlands, California, entitled : " Notes on
the Flora of Digby County, N. S." Appended was a list of the
phanerogamous flora of the county, observed by her, which was
recommended to be compiled into a general Provincial Flora.

The RECORDING SECRETARY read a paper by THOMAS C. HEBB, ESQ.,
M. A., of Dalhousie College, " On a Determination of the Freezing-
point Depression Constant for Electrolytes." (See Transactions, p.
409.)

The subject was discussed by PROF. DIXON.

FIFTH ORDINARY MEETING.
City Council Chamber, Halifax, 10th March, 1902.

The PRESIDENT in the chair.

The RECORDING SECRETARY read a communication from the Royal
"Society of Canada, inviting the Institute to appoint a delegate to
attend the May meeting of the Society. The communication was
referred to the council for action.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. Cl

A paper by WALTER H. PREST, ESQ., M. E., entitled, " Supplemen-
tary Notes on Drift Ice as an Eroding and Transporting Agent," was
read by MR. POOLE. (See Transactions, p. 455.)

Specimens of sand and gravel from drift ice on the coast of
Labrador near Cape Smoky, collected by Mr. Prest, were exhibited,
and described by DR. A. H. MACKAY.

The subject was discussed by Dr. Murphy.

A paper by PROF. JOHN DAVIDSON, PHIL. D., of the University of
New Brunswick, entitled, " Agricultural Credit," was read by MR^
McKAY. (See Transactions, p. 458.)

The paper was discussed by MESSRS. MCKERRON, POOLE, and
BISHOP.

The following papers were read by title :- —

(1). On the Standardization of Hydrochloric Acid with Borax. —
By R. S. BOEHNER, ESQ., B. So., Dalhousie College.

(2). On the Determination of the Freezing-point Depressions of
Dilute Solutions of Electrolytes. — By THOMAS C. HEBB, ESQ., M. A.,.
Dalhousie College. (See Transactions, p. 422.)

HARRY PIERS,

Recording Secretary.

SKETCH OP THE LIFE OF ANDREW DOWNS, FOUNDER OF THE FIRST
ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN IN AMERICA. — BY HARRY PIERS.

(See frontispiece. )

ANDREAV DOWNS was born in the town of New Brunswick, New
Jersey, U. S. A., on 27th September, 1811. His father, Robert, left
Scotland, of which he was a native, with the intention of taking a
position in Quebec, Canada. Some of his possessions having been
landed at Halifax, N. S., he came here, but afterwards left for New
Jersey, where he remained for some years. There he married Eliza-
beth, daughter of John and Catherine Plum, who was, I understand,
of German descent. With recollections in his mind of the city by the
sea, Robert returned to Halifax in 1825, bringing with him his
family, including his son Andrew, then a lad of about fourteen.

Andrew was for sometime engaged in the plumbing business with
his father, and later, on his own account. His tastes, however, were
entirely of another kind, and he gradually gave more and more of his
time to the study of nature, the preserving of birds and other animals
and the propagation of the same, and to this work he finally devoted
all his energies.

I would like to emphasize the fact that to him belongs the honour
of founding the first zoological garden in America. This he started
at Halifax in 1847, sixteen years before the Central Park collection at
New York was opened to the public. The Philadelphia garden did
not open till July, 1874, although the society was incorporated a num-
ber of years before ; while the "zoo " at Cincinnati opened in 1875,
that at St. Louis in 1877, and the Lincoln Park Garden, Chicago, in
1881.

Mr. Downs commenced with a piece of land of five acres, but by
1863 he had enlarged his premises to one hundred acres (" Walton
Cottage "), near Dutch Village, North-West Arm, Halifax County,
embracing wood and field, stream and pond, hill and valley. This

(cii)

SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF ANDREW DOWNS — PIERS. Clll

place soon became a most popular resort for the curious and for those
students and lovers of natnre and good fellowship who found keen
pleasure in the proprietor's company, and many anecdotes are con-
nected with the naturalist's life in this lovely spot. The Prince of
Wales, now King Edward, paid a visit to the place when in Halifax
in 1860, as did nearly every notable person who came this way,
including Prince Jerome Bonaparte, King Victor Emmanuel's daughter,
Lord and Lady Falkland, Capt. Sir Richard Grant, and many others.

In 1864 Downs visited Europe, being complimented by a free pa«-
sage across the Atlantic in one of Her Majesty's war vessels, the
" Mersey," Capt. Caldwell. On this occasion he carried with him
several living specimens, two cases of mounted birds and a stuffed
moose, which he presented to the London zoological garden. In
Europe he received courtesies from many scientific men.

On his return to Halifax his zoological garden was much improved,
and the following extract from an article by his friend Charles Hallock,
author of "The Fishing Tourist,'' and founder and proprietor of
" Forest and Stream,'' graphically describes the place in these, its best
days* : —

" I recall his premises as if it were but yesterday. From a rustic
gate in the enclosing hedge a gravelled road wound under interlacing
trees to a Gothic cottage over-hung with woodbines and honeysuckles,
and surmounted at all points with antlers of elk and moose. This
was at once the residence of the proprietor and the outpost of the
realm. Beside the porch were bird houses perched on poles, whose
chattering tenants hovered round, entering and departing at will.
Pigeons of all sorts tumbled and circled overhead, and strange noises
were emitted from a neighboring copse. Here and there were rude
boxes of cocoons of many varieties, kept for experiments. Not far
from the door a pair of whale's ribs and some huge vertebrate lay upon
the lawn.

" Entering the house by the main hall-door ajar, we find it alive with
the more delicate species of songsters. The parlors and reception

* " The First American Zoo," by Charles Hallock ; Nature, New York, Vol 1. No-
10 (Jan. 4, 189"), pp. 130-131. The reader is also referred to another article by Mr.
Hallock, "Andrew Downs, F. R. s. [error for c. M. z a.], Naturalist," in Forest and
Stream, New York, Vol. 53, No. 10 (S. pt. 2, 1899), p. 181, with portrait, p. 182. In both
of these papers ho strongly appeals for public recognition tf Downs as the founder of
the first zoological garden in America.

civ SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF ANDREW DOWNS — PIERS.

rooms constitute a museum of natural history and art, perfect in clas-
sification and detail of arrangement, — paintings, engravings, water
colors, herbaria, busts and miniature sculptures. And what a view
from the verandah and bay windows ! The ' North-west Arm '
stretching away toward the ocean, with its bays, inlets, wooded hills,
island and far-reaching points of land that are blue and only half-
distinct in the hazy atmosphere of a summer day. Yonder is the
devoted naturalist in his shirt sleeves feeding his poultry. He is
fairly surrounded by multitudes of the feathered and four-footed tribes.
Shaggy skye terriers of different colors, which have the freedom of
the yard, greet our approach by rubbing their dusty paws on our
boots ; tumbler pigeons throw summersets in the air and plump down
at our feet ; pouters and fantails strut and flutter among the throngs.
Chinese and Egyptian geese with huge, bulbous bills, squawk discord-
ant notes ; cranes stalk majestically ; monkeys grimace and marmosets
chatter in a cage close by, and a big Brazilian monkey gives a sly tug
at our coat tail through the wires of his cage. There are bantams and
game fowls, ducks, geese and pheasants, all of rare breeds, and for
each he has a peculiar call and a handful of seeds or grain, or bread or
biscuit, suited to its peculiar taste. All about the immediate vicinity
are cages, coops, perches and shelter-houses, some closed on their in-
mates and others open for free ingress and egress. A little beyond
this part of the premises, at the edge of a lawn, is a lake where China
swans, odd-looking geese and ducks with uncouth topknots are play-
ing under the douche of a fountain. Tall cranes stalk along the reedy
margin, herons on one leg stand motionless among the lilypads, wood
ducks skulk beneath the overhanging bushes, and wild wood birds dart
in and out of the trees which fringe the border. Farther on a cas-
cade tumbles into the lake, and the rocky basin at its foot provides
cooling refreshment for a large polar bear. The stream leads to a
pond above, where a seal sports and comes to the beach at call. Here
are beavers, mink and otters, all suitably secured in mesh-wire in-
closures. Anon we cross a rustic bridge which spans a ravine, and
thence traverse a shadowy path to a bower with a table inside made of
the ponderous bone of a whale's tail. Near at hand is a flower garden
laid out in artistic designs, and in a clump of trees just aside are nest-
ing birds which receive the naturalist's daily attention. Next come

SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF ANDREW DOWNS — PIERS. CV

enlosures for Spanish, Mexican and Virginian deer, a large yard for
moose, enclosing trees for browse, others for elk and caribou, and
another for black bears. And so the visitor passes on through this
hundred-acre domain, with its alternate woods and open intervals, to
gaze successively at the long-billed bitterns, whooping cranes, gold, silver,
English and Amherst pheasants, California and native quails, eagles,
hawks, foxes, lynxes, prairie wolves, owls, fancy rabbits, Guinea pigs,
China sheep, Angora goats, silver-bearded Polands, Hamburg fowls,
Indian and Egyptian doves, ring doves, and so on.

" In another part of the grounds is an Oriental kiosk filled with
every variety of stuffed birds, live snakes, lizards and turtles, and
containing an extensive aquarium.

" What particularly strikes the observant visitor is the nicety with
which the habits of the creatures are satisfied by the adaptation of
environment ; and it is easy to perceive, from such results accomplished,
what is possible for our public gardens in the United States, with
sufficient area and liberal money appropriations. Certainly no exist-
ing zoological collection is as thoroughly and suitably provided for as
this of Downs' was twenty-five years ago, as I have just described it."

In January, 1865, Downs read his first paper before the N. S.
Institute of Natural Science, on the land-birds of Nova Scotia, which
was the result of forty years' observation of bird life in this province.
This subject he continued in a paper read in May of the following
year.

In the latter part of 1867 he was proposed for superintendent of
the Central Park menagerie, New York, being recommended by Prof.
Spencer F. Baird, of the Smithsonian Institution. In the following
year he disposed of his animals and grounds and went to New York ;
but being, it it said, displeased by what he considered an over-abrupt
and apparently cool reception from one of the commissioners, he did not
accept the appointment and returned to Halifax at the end of about
three months.

Soon afterwards he purchased a new property (subsequently S. A.
White's and Capt. W. H. Smith's) adjoining his old place, built a
house and started a new zoological garden. This he continued to
improve for about three years, gathering around him birds and other
animals, and continuing his taxidermic work, in which he excelled.

Cvi SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF ANDREW DOWNS — PIERS.

Subsequently he lived for years on Agricola Street, surrounded by
living animals and specimens, where his house was well-known to
naturalists. A couple of years before his death, he, with the vigor
which characterized him, although venerate in years, built a museum
annex to his house arid placed therein his extremely fine collection of
mounted native birds. The writer remembers with pleasure many
pleasant hours spent there in conversation with the aged and kindly
naturalist, surrounded by hundreds of reminiscent specimens.

He died after a brief illness at Halifax, on 26th August, 1892,
wanting but one month of eighty-one years.

He was twice married, first to Mary Elizabetn Matthews of Hali-
fax, who died in 1858, having had four daughters, two of whom
survive ; and secondly to Matilda E. Muhlig of Halifax, by whom
he had one daughter who survives.

Ornithology was his chief study, and the store of knowledge he
possessed of our birds was very large arid always freely at the service
of enquirers. He took particular delight in encouraging the study of
nature in young people. He was distinctly a field naturalist rather
than a student of books.

His taxidermic work was very fine and was evidence of much loving,
faithful labour. The preliminary operations were accomplished with
skilful rapidity, but the final manipulations were done with great care.
I have seen him sit in conversation for hours, with a recently mounted
specimen beside him, from time to time adjusting feathers, often one
at a time, or slightly altering the pose here or there, until all satisfied
his critical eye. He had the rare ability of giving his specimens the
appearance of having actual flesh within them. For his taxidermic
work he received many awards at exhibitions in England and else-
where, including a bronze medal at London in 1851 and in 1862, a
bronze medal at Dublin, 1865, and a silver medal at Paris, 1867. Sir
Wyville Thomson, in a critical article on the natural history section
of the Paris exhibition, writes ("Illustrated London News," 24th
August, 1867) :— « In the Nova Scotia Court there is a very beautiful
collection of birds stuffed by . . Mr. Downs. These birds are nearly
perfect in their way ; perhaps there is a little too much sameness in
the attitudes, but the form and the proportions of the body are per.
fectly preserved, and there is scarcely a feather out of place."

SKETCH OF THK LIFE OF ANDREW DOWNS — PIERS. CV11

Mr. Downs claimed lie had stuffed about eight hundred moose-
heads and supplied King Victor Emmanuel with many thousand
dollars' worth of animals and specimens. At one time this sovereign
had in his acclimatization garden at Pisa a number of living moose and
caribou supplied by the Nova Scotian naturalist. Specimens of his
taxidermic work were supplied other European sovereigns, and large,
quantities went to the great museums and private collections on both
sides of the Atlantic, and a number are incorporatsd in the collection
of the Provincial Museum at Halifax. His own private collection of
some fourteen cases, which he had at the time of his death, is still the
property of his estate.

He was one of those connected with the foundation of the Nova
Scotian Institute of Natural Science, although he did not take up his
membership until December, 1863. He was also a corresponding
member of the Zoological Society of London, having been elected early
in 1862.

He published, unfortunately, but little. His papers, all in the
" Transactions of the N. S. Institute of Natural Science," were :

On the Land Birds of Nova Scotia. Vol. i, pt. 3 (1864-5), pp.
38-51 (read Jan. 9, 1865) ; vol. i, pt. 4 (1865-6), pp. 130-136 (read
May 3, 1866).

[An annotated list, giving a total of 91 nominal species, being the result of
" forty years' experiences in bird life."]

Pied, or Labrador, Duck. Vol. vi, (Trans, for 1885-6), pp. 326-327
(read May 10, 1886).

[Notes on two specimens in Dalhousie College Museum, Halifax, and other
notes regarding the occurrence of the species in Nova Scotia, &c.]

A Catalogue of the Birds of Nova Scotia. Vol. vii, (Trans, for
1887-8), pp. 142-178.

[An annotated list, giving 240 nominal species, the result of " sixty-six
years of practical field work." Prepared in summer of 1888. The note to the
title, " read May 14, 1888," should be struck out.]

At a meeting of the Royal Society of Canada in May, 1888, he
presented a paper "On the Birds and Mammals of Nova Scotia,"
which was not, however, published.

He was a man of very quiet and retiring disposition, disseminating
his stores of knowledge mostly verbally or through a large correspon-
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. PKOC.-L.

Cviii SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF ANDREW DOWNS — PIERS.

dence with the foremost naturalists of his day. He had a high sense
of honour and was of a genial, kindly disposition, and was much
respected by all who knew him. It has been truly said of him by his
friend, Charles Hallock, that " his modesty was always such that his
name is hardly known outside of scientific circles, while his credentials
he folded away in a napkin." He remembered once seeing Audubon,
with whom he also corresponded, and was a friend and great admirer
of Charles Waterton, the naturalist, at whose house, Walton Hall,
in England, he had been a guest, and whose " Wanderings in
South America " he greatly admired and frequently quoted. He also
corresponded with Frank Buckland and most of the foremost zoolo-
gists of his time.

Jan. 26, 1903.

THE KINGS COUNTY BRANCH OF THE NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF
SCIENCE : OUTLINE OF PURPOSES AND AIMS OF THE SOCIETY. —
BY PROFESSOR ERNEST HAYCOCK, Acadia College, Wolfville.

The Kings County Branch of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science
was organized on May 29th, 1901. The society was formed primarily
to meet the needs of such Kings County members of the Institute of
Science as were unable to attend the meetings of the parent society
at Halifax, ,and who believed that much personal encouragement and
stimulus was to be derived from the meetings of such a society.
Furthermore it was believed that there were many others, young and
old, who might be brought within the sphere of its influence, and that
the scientific spirit would be stimulated and knowledge disseminated
by such an organization.

The highest work in science is investigation of the unknown. By
such investigation new facts are brought to light and added to the
existing sum of knowledge, to be handed down as the heritage of
succeeding generations. The marvellous attainments of the nineteenth
century, and the civilization of the present, as compared with that of
the earlier centuries of the Christian era, are due to such an inherit-
ance, and it is the duty as well as the pleasure of the present genera-
tion to add its mite to this epitome of progress. The purpose of the
parent society is to foster this investigating spirit in its members?
and to add the results of their labors to the body of the world's
literature. This will be the chief object of the branch society also,
and we believe that the papers presented at its meetings will show a
definite and real accomplishment.

As a rule the investigator needs considerable preliminary training,
and a comprehensive knowledge of what is already known about his
subject, in order to work to advantage, and achieve results that will
be new to the world. The promoters of this society hope to provide
this preparation, as far as lies in their power, and since it consists of
two parts — 1st, training in power of observation, and 2nd, the
acquisition of facts already known — the work of the society will like-
wise consist of two parts, the presentation and discussion of the

(cix)

CX KINGS COUNTY BRANCH OF THE INSTITUTE. — HAYCOCK.

results of original investigation by its members, and the presentation
and discussion of papers on contemporary discoveries in science, or on
scientific subjects pertinent to our especial needs. The former will
suggest methods and point the way to exploration of the unknown ;
the latter will aid in furnishing the basis of knowledge necessary to
fruitful investigation.

Although an arduous preparation is absolutely necessary for work
of the above character in many branches of science, yet in many more
departments of scientific study anyone with a love for truth and an
honest interest in the world about him, whether he be young or old,
whether he has or has not had a scientific training, may make contri-
butions to the sum of human knowledge. These departments lie
mainly within the domain of what are known as the Natural Sciences,
and in them we hope to achieve our best results. The distinct aim of
the society should be, in my judgment, to explore the natural history
of Kings County, and in order to train workers for that purpose, to
disseminate knowledge of the natural sciences in the widest possible
way.

In designating this as the work of the society, we assign a field that
lies all about us, that lias scarcely been touched by the investigator,
and in which the maximum results can be secured with the minimum
amount of preparation. A few hours reading would put one in pos-
session of all the facts that have as yet been recorded in regard to the
geology of the county. A smaller number of hours would enable one
to read the mineralogical record. I know of but one paper on the
microscopic study of a Kings County rock, and this new science of
petrography offers to one who is willing to make the necessary pre-
paration, an outlook that is very fascinating. An admirable begin-
ning in the zoology of the county has been made by Mr. Harold Tufts,
who has published a list of 250 birds that occur within its borders.
This list is without doubt still incomplete,, and further, every bird
enumerated should be on exhibition either in a public county museum
or in a private collection, in order that the correctness of the identifi-
cations might be verified at any time. Similar work in the land
animals, the marine vertebrates and invertebrates, is waiting to be
done, and the collection of all the known insects of the county and the
study of their metamorphoses and habits, is a work not only of scien-
tific interest, but likely to prove of untold value to the fruit growers

KINGS COUNTY BRANCH OF THE INSTITUTE. — HAYCOCK. Cxi

and agriculturists of the county. The botanical exploration of the
county is still another equally attractive and important field for study.
Since many of the diseases that injure the cultivated plants are lower
forms of plant-life, investigation along this line is also likely to prove
valuable from an economic standpoint. The geography of the county,
its tidal phenomena, its meterology, are all subjects that will prove
fruitful in result to the investigator. Our need will never be a lack
of work but a lack of workers.

Advance along these lines can only be made by the slow and
patient accumulation of material and facts, extending over years, but
my hope is before long to see workers within the county in every
department enumerated. Already beginnings have been made in
several of them, and these beginnings are indicative of a real interest
at present, and significant of great results in the future.

Thinking men are convinced that our progress, as a people and as
a nation, is being and will be decided by the way in which we meet
and settle the scientific question. If we foster the teaching of science
in our schools, and the scientific spirit in our people, the adoption of
scientific methods in the manifold industries of our country will follow
as a natural consequence, and place us in the front ranks of the com-
peting nations ; but if we are content to go along in the systems of
education and methods of industry followed by our fathers we must
expect to take a rear place and see ourselves outstripped by peoples of
a more progressive spirit.

I regard this fact, among others, that Kings County is the first in
the province to form an affiliated society with the Nova Scotian
Institute of Science at Halifax, the centre of the scientific life of the
province, as an indication that this county is ready to accept the con-
ditions of twentieth century progress, and proposes to take no second
place among the county units in scientific and industrial achievement.
Let us not measure our influence by our numbers, but grapple boldly
with the difficulties that confront us, and strive to carry out the
purpose for which we have united.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., Vou. X.

PROC.— M.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

<£oba ;Scotmn Institute of

V^x >. <x

SESSION" OF 1898-99.

I. — STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND CONSUMPTION IN CANADA.
—By PROFESSOR JOHN DAVIDSON, M. A., PHIL. D.,

Fredericton, N. B.

(Read Nov. Uth, 189S.)

The ultimate test of a nation's prosperity is the quantity and
quality of the goods it contains. Other tests are relative and
indicate business activity rather than national welfare. All
wealth is produced to be consumed, and the whole process of
production is carried on for the benefit of the consumer. For
him there is seedtime and harvest ; for him the factories and
the stores are run ; for him railroad and steamship lines operate,
and banks conduct their business. It is conceivable that the
volume of business may be large within a nation which yet is
poor and relatively unprosperous. Increased activity does not
always mean increased welfare ; and that community alone is
rich and prosperous at whose command this activity places a
large stock of consumable goods ; and the most satisfactory evi-
dence of this command is provided by the statistics of the
consumption of the community. That is direct evidence ; all
other evidence is indirect and presumptive.

Unfortunately, direct evidence is not always available. We
depend for information almost entirely upon government bureaus
and departments ; and these are concerned chiefly with their own

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS.— A.

2 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND

affairs. They collect figures of exports and imports because of
the obvious bearing of such figures upon the collection of a
revenue ; and in some cases provide us with information regard-
ing the industry carried on within the country because certain
articles of manufacture are subject to internal revenue duties-
Where there is no question of collecting revenue, the information
afforded us is not usually carefully collected. We know more
accurately what is imported than what is exported ; we know
better how much beer is consumed than we do how much meat
or grain is consumed ; how much tobacco better than how
much clothing. The interest of the government is • mainly
in the collection of revenue. An enlightened government may
make provision for the collection of other statistics ; it may
establish labor bureaus and agricultural departments ; it may
publish banking returns and railroad earnings ; but since the
interest of these things is not so immediately practical, the infor-
mation afforded is apt to be meagre and to cease, short of the
point of completeness. For instance, the main industry in
Canada is agriculture ; but we know less of the output of our
farms than we do of the output of our brew.eries. Ontario and
Manitoba collect elaborate agricultural statistics ; but in the other
provinces the gathering of information is perfunctorily performed
or not performed at all ; and, consequently, we cannot even use
•what information we have, because statistics of interprovincial
trade are lacking. In the census years, elaborate returns are
made ; but even here there are gaps in our information, and too
much of what is set down depends on the memory of the private
citizen, which is not a scientific instrument. In Canada there is
an additional difficulty in the way of obtaining adequate con-
sumption statistics. Nearly half of our population is dependent
on agriculture. In time, and with organization, we may learn
the amount of eggs and potatoes, milk and meat and vegetables,
maple sugar and cordwood marketed ; but it will always be next
to impossible to ascertain how much of these commodities the
autonomous producer uses in his own consumption. Private
investigation may step in to make up for the deficiencies of

CONSUMPTION IN CANADA — DAVIDSON. 3

governmental machinery ; but until the community is so far
educated that there is a statistical or economic association in
every parish, we can hardly hope for the fullest information.
Consumption is in its nature a private concern, and man will
require to be much more methodical than he is at present before
we can present anything like a picture of the consumption of a
people. At the present time we are compelled to use what infor-
mation we have as an indication of the complete result ; and
generalizing from the experience of individuals, treat the con-
sumption of certain articles, for which the government provides
statistics which may be relied upon, as representing the whole.

It is necessary first to shew in what proportions the people
of Canada expend their incomes, because otherwise we should
not be able to estimate the importance of the results obtainable
for the consumption of specific articles. If the total expenditure
of a people on food amounts to no more than fifty per cent, of
its income, an increase in the consumption of coffee will mean a
less increase of prosperity then it does for a people which spends
seventy per cent, of its income on food. In the latter case it
means that the people are rising fiom the lowest class, where the
necessaries of life absorb the greatest part of the income, to a
condition where other considerations are becoming important ; in
the former case it may mean a change in the form of consump-
tion only. This aspect of the question has some immediate
practical, importance. In the discussion of the financial aspects
of prohibition, little attention has been paid to the fact that not
all the expenditure of the Canadian citizen is on taxable goods.
Prohibitionists claim that the fifty million dollars annually spent
upon intoxicants will necessarily be spent on other articles, and
that the government need not confuse the issue by dark sugges-
tions of direct taxation; for consumption will not be reduced, but
simply changed. But, though the same amount will still be spent,
it does not follow that it will be spent in such a way as will
provide a reveuue. In so far as it is spent on food, there would
be an increased consumption of food-stuffs on which, while the
consumer may be paying a tax in the shape of enhanced prices,

4 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AXD

due to protection, the government may realize little or no
reve\\ue ; while in so far as it is spent on education or on better
house accommodation, the government would gain nothing what-
ever to make up for the revenue from the taxes on beer and
spirits. No doubt, there would be increased expenditure on
clothing ; but the percentage of income spent in Canada is but
17 ; and the tax is already as heavy as it can be to be productive
of revenue. Probably seventy-five per cent, of the changed con-
sumption would yield no revenue whatever.

The investigation of expenditures has been carried so far that
certain empirical laws have been established. Jt may seem to
some that the forms of expenditure are so much a matter of indi-
vidual taste and caprice that no general conclusion can be
established ; but, after all, the differences among men are not
very great. The fundamental necessities of life are the same for
all, and caprice does not enter in till the dominant wants have
been satisfied ; and by taking a large number of instances, the
effects of individual caprice may be eliminated and an average
set down. The first fairly complete investigation in this sphere
was made by Engel, and subsequent investigation has served to
establish his conclusions more firmly.

These are: — That the greater the income, the smaller the
relative percentage of outlay for subsistence ;

That the percentage of outlay for clothing is approximately
tihe same, whatever the income ;

That the percentage of the outlay for rent and for fuel and
light is invariably the same, whatever the income;

That as the income increases in amount, the percentage of
outlay for sundries becomes greater.

We are fortunately able to present results for Canada, which
may be compared with the statistical data brought forward by
Engel and other investigators. The Ontario Bureau of Statistics
during several years presented statistics on the expenditure of
the working classes in certain cities of Ontario; and in countries

CONSUMPTION IN CANADA — DAVIDSON. 5

like Canada, where there are few extremes of wealth and poverty,*
the results thus established may be accepted as tolerably
accurate for the whole Dominion. Local variations there must,
of course, always be. Rent is higher and fuel dearer in the
towns than in the country; while in the country food probably,
and clothing certainly, on the whole, are dearer than in the
cities. The figures cover a period of four years, and their accur-
acy has been tested by the statistician and verified by comparisons.
The statistics of five of the more important towns in Ontario
have been selected by the writer for further analysis and
calculation, and the results are set forth in the tables on the next
page.

When these tables, which are extracted from the Bureau
Reports, are reduced to percentages and expressed in terms of
the number of day's labor necessary to command the various
goods enumerated, we get the results in a form which permits
comparison with other countries. The results in this form are
contained in the tables on p. 7.

"Compare the sections of this paper dealing with house accommodation later for
n enquiry into the existence of extremes of wealth in Canada.

STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND

Earnings.

Day's labour
in year.

Rent.

Fuel.

Clothing,
per head.

Food,
per head

CITY OF HAMILTON.

1886
1887
lc 88
1889
Average.

$449
415
417
418
424.7

216
234
230
244
231

$76
81
81
90

$41
41

38
37

$16.45
12.89
13.43
13.89

$53.65
45.76
47.74

38.65

CITY OF KINGSTON.

1886
1887
1888
1889
Average.

$469
453
482
379
446

293
2(56
2<80
244
271

$70
70
70
68

$36
42
41
31

$18.12
12.91
1892
22.28

$43.90

43.19
49.63

CITY OF LONDON.

1886
1887
1888
18b9
Average.

$425
421
436
431
428

270
265
268
244
261

$73
70

77
66

$40
40
40
37

$17.66
15.58
18.59
15.91

$45.63
50.39
47.31
46.54

CITY OF OTTAWA.

1886
1887
1888
1889
Average.

$523
385
505
440
463

305
223
228
255
253

$ 81
97
71
110

$34
32
37
•S3

$21.96
10.52
13.14
11.94

$35.46
36.55
45.70
35.15

CITY OF TORONTO.

1886
1887
1888
1889
Average.

487
480
526
474
492

272
246
270
262
263

$ 92
112
121
110

$40
41
45
39

$23.96
1(1.93
15.87
16.67

$54.32
47.92
45.62
56.89

CONSUMPTION IN CANADA — DAVIDSON.

DATS OF LABOR NECESSARY TO PROCDRB

PERCBNTAGKS OF INCOME EXPENDED ON

Rent.

Fuel.

Clothing
per

Food.

Rent.

Fuel.

Clothing
per

Food.

Family.

Family.

HAMILTON.

1886

H6

19

38

123

17

9

18

57

1887

45

23

35

124

19

9

15

50

1888

45

21

34

123

19

9

15

55

1889

52

22

37

103

21

9

15

42

Aver.

44.5

21.2

36

118.2

19

9

15.7

51

KINGSTON.

1886

44

22

52

124

15

7

18

43

1887

41

25

35

15

9

15

1888

40

23

46

105

14

8

16

38

1889

45

20

58

127

18

8

24

52

Aver.

42.5

22.5

47.7

118.6

15.5

8

18.2

44.3

OTTAWA.

1886

47

19

64

123

15

6

20

40

1887

53

18

32

106

23

8

14

49

T888

32

16

34

124

14

8

15

53

1889

64

19

39

109

25

8

14

49

Aver.

49

18

42.2

115.5

19.2

7.5

15.7

47.7

LONDON.

1886

46

25

54

141

17

9

20

43

1887

41

25

43

141

16

9

16

50

1888

47

24

58

107

17

9

19

40

1889

37

20

44

130

15

8

18

53

Aver.

42.7

22.5

49.7

129.7

16.2

8.7

18.2

46.5

TORONTO.

1886

51

22

53

143

19

8

20

50

1887

51

21

36

107

23

8

17

43

1888

62

16

34

124

23

8

14

57

1889

61

21

37

93

23

8

14

49

Aver.

58

20

40

117

22

8

16.2 49.7

i

8

STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND

For purposes of comparison, however, the corresponding
figures and percentages for the whole number of towns taken
together, and for the whole province, are more useful ; and suit
our purpose of international comparison better : —

PROVINCE OF ONTARIO.

Earnings.

Davs of
Labor.

Rent.

Fuel.

Clothing
per
Head.

Food per
Head.

1886

$451

270

$76

$40

$20.83

$42.30

1887

449

257

82

39

15.85

44.37

1888

479

269

77

37

17.41

42.76

1889

467

272

81

41

17.10

44.14

Aver.

462

267

DAYS LABOR NECESSARY TO PROCURE

PERCENTAGES OF INCOME EXPENDED ON

Rent.

Fuel.

Clothing
per
Family.

Food per
Family.

Rent.

Fuel.

Clothing
per
Family.

Food per
Family.

1886

45

24

57

91

17

8

21

33

1887

45

22

41

91

18

8

16

35

1888

41

20

46

115

16

7.7

18

43

1889

47

23

46

122

17

8.8

17

44

Aver.

44.5

22.2

47.5

105

17

8.1

18

39

The average of the averages of the five cities above may be
placed beside the provincial average (taken from returns made
by artisans in the smaller towns and villages) : —

Earnings.

Days La-
bor in
year.

PERCENTAGES EXPENDED ON

Rent
18.4

Fuel.

Clothing
per
Family.

Food
per
Family.

City average, 1886-89

$451

256

8.3

17

47.8

Prov. average, 1886-89

462

267

17

8.1

18

39.

The results thus obtained are in substantial agreement with
the results established under greatly varying conditions in

CONSUMPTION IN CANADA — DAVIDSON.

Europe and America, as the following tabular comparison shews.
The table is taken in part from Schonberg's Handbuch and in
part from U. S. Labor Reports : —

Percentages on

Great Britain.

Prussia.

Ontario.

Massachusetts.

Illinois.

Food

51.36

50.00

39.0

49.28

41.38

Clothing.. . .

18.12

18.00

18.0

15.94

21.00

Rent

13.48

12.00

17

19.74

17.42

Fuel ..

3.50

5.00

8.1

4.30

5.63

Sundries. ..

13.54

15.00

18.9

10.73

14.57

These percentages are all calculated from working-class
family budgets, except in the case of Prussia, where a family of
intermediate class was taken to give gross incomes of something
like the same amount. The real measure of well-being probably
consists, at least for men of the same race, in the amount which
may be expended on the vague class of sundries ; and in this
comparison, Canada comes out well. The shewing would not
have been so favorable had we taken the average of the five
cities, for then it would have been 8.5 per cent of the income only.

The question of the value of these returns is almost settled
by the large degree of correspondence between independent^
reached results; but the Provincial Statistician, Mr. Blue, was
at the trouble to meet the objection that, to say nothing of the
conclusions based on them, the figures themselves were untrust-
worthy, by carefully examining the food expenditures of various
public institutions. The force of the objection is that while most
householders can tell how much they spend on rent and fuel, and
perhaps also on clothing, they can make a rough estimate only
of the household expenditure on food. Mr. Blue went into the
matter exhaustively and examined the food accounts of colleges,
asylums, military barracks, etc., and embodied his conclusions in
a paper read before the American Public Health Association, and
reprinted in the Ontario Bureau of Statistics Report, 1886, in
which he says : —

10 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND

" Now let us see how the cost of food, as computed from the
working men's returns, compares with its cost in the schools and
colleges and public institutions. At the average of summer and
winter returns in these, it is $44.17 (,per cap.); at the prison's
rate it is $35.51 ; at the asylum rate it is $47.12 ; at the infantry
school rate it is $54.75 ; at the college winter rate it is $59. .
. . . The working man's average, $47.67 per cap., is therefore
something more than a probable one ; it is well verified by sta-
tistics gathered from other sources, and I am disposed to think
that the cost of living is better known and more accurately
gauged in the families of the working classes than in the families
of any other class in the community." ....

We are justified, therefore, in accepting the average budget
based on these returns as representative of the actual expendi-
ture of some hundreds of working men throughout Ontario. It
is true, no doubt, that men capable of intelligently making such
returns are likely to spend their incomes more rationally than
others of their class ; but the extravagances and waste of the less

* o

prudent and thrifty in part offset each other, and must for the
rest be neglected. We may assume, therefore, that in the Prov-
ince of Ontario 39.0 per cent, is expended on food, 18.0 per cent,
on clothing, 8.1 per cent, on fuel, and 17 per cent, on rent ; or if
we take the average of the 4 year averages of the five important
towns as our standard, 47.8 per cent, on food, 17 per cent, on
clothing, 18.4 per cent, on rent, and 8.3 per cent, on fuel.

These percentages are not without meaning even as an indi-
cation of absolute well-being. The smaller the percentage
expended on food and subsistence the larger the total provision
for the wants of our nature. Here and there an individual may
be found who stints himself of the imperious necessities of life
to obtain some coveted comfort or luxury ; but the great majority
satisfy the lower wants first and rise to the higher if sufficient

o

provision is made. Consequently, the smaller percentage in
Canada expended on food is an indication of a higher well-beino-

T~» ^

But it is necessary to investigate still further to find the degree
of well-being and to present quantities rather than percentages.

CONSUMPTION IN CANADA— DAVIDSON. 11

What value does the average Canadian receive in food, house
accommodation, fuel and clothing for the percentages of income
thus expended ? This is not a question of prices, but of weights
and measures. Prices are of importance only as they indicate
whether an increased or decreased consumption of any article is
due to a change in price or to an increased command over the
goods of life. The increased consumption of tea and sugar, for
instance, is due to the fall in price ; but the increased consump-
tion of coffee, in so far as it is not simply a transfer of taste from
one article to another, shows an extending margin of consumption.
An increase of consumption due to a fall in the price of an
article does not necessarily mean that the citizens are better off.
Their real wages and incomes have risen but their money wages
may be constant ; but an increased use of an article whose price
has not fallen indicates an increase of money wages and a more
extended command over the goods of life.

It is not possible, unfortunately, to enter into a detailed
examination of the absolute values received in each class of
expenditure. In the case of rent and food, we are able to present
some of the more important items ; but fuel and clothing
remain indefinite.

The item of fuel is the only one which takes a higher per-
centage in Canada than in any other country. The cause is not
an enhanced price, but the fact that a larger quantity must be
used. The amount of fuel consumed per head of the population
is una.scertainable. From the mining statistics and the tables of
trade and commerce, we can estimate how much coal, bituminous
and anthracite, is used ; but how many of the people of Canada
use coal? Probably the majority of the population do not use
it in any form ; even in industry coal is not always used ; and it
is in the larger cities only that coal is used exclusively. The
quantity of wood consumed as fuel is not ascertainable ; and since
the quantity varies according to the house and according to the
habits of the individual, no estimates, even approximately cor-
rect, can be made.

12 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND

Whether, under the head of fuel, lighting is also included, as
it usually is in the statistics of other countries, is not stated ; but
the omission is not of serious importance, because we are unable
to discover how much the individual spends and what value he
receives for his expenditure. The three chief illuminants, gas,
electricity, and oil, are being used in increasing quantities. The
Census Reports of 1891 give figures for the production of gas
and electric lighting works ; but there has been a very great
extension in the use of electric lighting since 1891, and possibly
some increase in the use of gas also ; and figures taken from the
Census Reports would give a wrong impression. It is interesting
to note that in spite of the increase in the use of these methods
of lighting, the consumption of petroleum is increasing steadily
year by year. The urban population of Canada (those residing
in towns and villages of more than 1,500 inhabitants) has
increased from 9.1 2 934- in 1881 to 1,390,910 in 1891 ; or from 21.1
per cent, to 23.77 per cent, of the population of the Dominion ;
and the number of towns of more than 3,000 inhabitants which
may be taken as the minimum for which gas or electric lighting
is provided, has increased from G8 to 94. Gas lighting held its
own during the decade 1881-1891, and electric lighting was prac-
tically introduced in the decade (in 1881 there were two men
employed in electric lighting works ; in 1891 there were 1,190;)
yet the consumption of petroleum increased per capita more than
fifty per cent., although there was no corresponding decrea=e in
the retail price. In 1882 the consumption was 2.0 galls, per
head, in 1891 it was 3.2 galls., and in 1896 3.1 galls, (a decrease
from 3.5 galls, in 1894 and 1895). The increased use of the more
primitive illuminant, alongside of the development of the more
modern methods, shews a real increase in well-being in the
community.

The expenditure on clothing must remain in the obscurity of
percentages. It might be possible, by help of the Census
Reports and the trade tables, to determine how much cloth and
clothing was manufactured or imported in the year 1891 ; but it
is not possible to shew how much was consumed. Trade tables

CONSUMPTION IN CANADA — DAVIDSON. 13

are trustworthy only when they extend over a number of years,
and speculative influences can be discounted. An alteration in
the tariff, for instance, may affect the imports for a given year,
as it did in the case of sugar, and strictly ao average of several
years ought to be taken. The census year is no more likety to-
escape such fluctuations than any other year ; and it might be
seiiously misleading to take the manufacture and importation of
textiles as typical. Moreover, there has not as yet been estab-
lished in the matter of clothing any standard of consumption as
has, in a measure, been done in the case of food. Caprice and
local climatic causes have here an undue influence. All we can
say is that in Canada the average family spends on the average
$83.79 on clothing, the family expenditure in the United States
being $112.23 ; in Great Britain, $80.59 ; in Germany, $57.21 ;
in France, $72 60 ; in Belgium, $84.61 ; in Switzerland, $65.38*.
The statistics available for the further analysis of the expen-
diture on rent are not sufficient for the purposes of comparison
either of classes or of different periods. With the exception of
some interesting sociological studies of a portion of the city of
Montreal by Aid. Ames of that city,f we have the Census Reports
alone to rely on ; and the Census Reports of 1881 offer but a
very meagre amount of information. The Ontario tables quoted
above shew that on the average in the province of Ontario the
respectable working classes spend 17% of their income in rent.
Since there is comparatively little class distinction in Canada, we
might, perhaps, assume that 17% represents the propprtion spent
by the average Canadian on house rent. In the city below the
hill in Montreal rental absorbs, according to Mr. Ames, 18% of
the earnings : — " For families of the real industrial class 16 per
cent, is a fair average. . . It is among the well-to-do and the
very poor that rental is permitted to absorb from 20 to 25 per
cent, of the earnings." (The City Below the Hill, p. 40). Mr.

*U. S. Commissioner of Labor, Report 1891, Vol. II., pp. 864-5.

t (1) The City Below the H 11 : privately printed. (2) Incomes, Wages and Rents in
Montreal (U. S. Department of Labor, Bulletin 14, Jan. 1848) ; and a lecture on House.
Accommodation which I have been privileged to see in manuscript.

14 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND

Ames, in a letter in answer to some queries made, has further
explained that the last sentence refers only to families with an
annual income of $1000 or less. " My experience, he adds, has
gone to prove that rental consumes from one-fifth to one-third of
the income of the very poor. Then the proportion grows gradu-
ally less as we reach the classes where the family income runs
from $8.00 to $12.00 per week. Those families receiving from
$12.00 to $15.00 seem to pay a smaller proportion of income as
rent, but classes receiving from $15.00 to $20.00 seem to grow
ambitious and desire to move into larger quarters. I am of the
opinion, although I have no facts to substantiate it, that if we
were to take classes receiving annually $1000 a year and over,
we would find the rental proportionately diminishing the higher
we go" Thus, Mr. Ames's results hardly bear out Engel's law,
that the percentage expended on rent is invarirbly the same
whatever the income ; and it appears necessary to modify the
law, at least, if we admit subdivisions of the working classes.
The proportion is highest for the very poor, varying from 25 to
30 per cent. ; for the ' real industrial ' classes it falls to 16 per
cent. ; and then rises to 25 per cent, for highly skilled mechanics,
and then gradually falls for families whose income exceeds one
thousand dollars.

Before we go on to enquire what sort of accommodation is
obtained for this expenditure of income, it is necessary to verify
the assumption made in last paragraph that there is compara-
tively little distinction of classes in Canada. In a sense this is
an obvious fact, a matter of ordinary remark by every observer.
While there are few in Canada who are very wealthy, there are
probably as few who are in actual distress. The Census Report,
1891, enables us to verify to a certain extent this common obser-
vation. For each census district we have given, in a series of
tables, the number of houses and the number of rooms in each
house. It would be obviously impossible, having regard to the
limits of time and space, to analyze the returns for the whole
Dominion ; and since in the country districts there is little differ-
ence of class, it is necessary only to examine the returns for the

CONSUMPTION ]N CANADA — DAVIDSON.

15

larger towns. In the large towns, if anywhere, we shall find
distinctions of class appearing. The first of the following tables
is taken directly from the Census Reports ; the second is based
on it and expresses the same facts in terms of percentages which
have been calculated : —

No. OF HOUSES WITH ROOMS—

CITY.

Popula-

Total
No of

tion . *

Houses.

1

2

3

4

5

6—10

11-15

Over
15.

Vancouver

13709

2231

140

148

194

331

223

1023

81

81

"Winnipeg.

256*9

4543

34

296

367

702

594

2309

162

79

St. John , /

40385

6630

1

135

467

723

740

2996

1012

339

Halifax... .

38495

5181

3

63

126

447

523

3361

529

1Q8

Toronto . .

144023

25810

30

184

752 2480

3094

17070

1749

451

London . .

22281

4317

6

54

128

434

775

2603

223

80

Kingston .

19263

4725

37

148

445

700 708

2397

240

50

Hamilton..

47245

9221

8

72

279

870

1779

5596

488

109

Montreal ..

182695

31931

153

1990

4672:7815

3325

10782

2542

651

Quebec

63090

8313

43

479

827

1508

791

3373

954

440

Ottawa . . .

37269

6557

17

150

246

911

1025

3485

583

140

The populations are taken from Table II, Vol. 1, Census Report, 1891.

CITY.

Persons

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL NUMBER OF HOUSES WITH ROOMS

House.

1

2

3

4

5

6—10

11—15

Over
15.

4 and

less.

10 and
more.

Vancouver

6.1

6.2

6.6

8.7

14.8

10.0

45.8

1.6

1.6

36.3

3.2

Winnipeg.

5.6

0.7

6.5

8.0

15.4

13.0

50.8

3.5

1.7

30.6

5.2

St. John. . .

6.0

0.0 2.0

7.0

10.9

11.1

45.1

15.2

5.1

19.9

20.3

Halifax . . .

7.4

0.1 1.2

2.4

8.6

10.0

64.6

10.2

2.1

12.2

12.3

Toronto . . .

5.5

0.10.6

2.9

9.6 11.9

66.1 6.7

1.7

13.2

8.4

London . .

5.1

0.1 1.2

2.9

10.0

17.9

60.2 5.1

1.8

14.2

6.9

Kingston .

4.0

0.7|1.1

3.1

16.4

16.4

50.7

5.0

1.2 22.3

6.2

Hamilton..

5.1

0.0

0.7

3.0

9.4

19.2

61.7

5.2

1.0

13.1

6.2

Montreal .

5.7

0.4

6.2

14.6

24.4

10.4

33.7

8.0

2.0

45.6

10.0

Quebec . .

7.5

0.5

5.7

9.9

18.1

9.5

40.5

11.4

5.2

34.2

16.6

Ottawa . . .

5.6

0.2'2.2

3.7

13.8

15.6

53.1

8.8 2.1

19.9

10.9

With the exception of four cities, Vancouver, Montreal, Que-
bec and St. John, more than half of the population live in houses
containing from 6 to 10 rooms ; in the case of Toronto the per-
centage rises to 66 per cent; while in three others, Halifax,
London and Hamilton, the percentage exceeds 60. Those cities

16

STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND

which shew a low percentage of houses containing 6 to 10 rooms
per house (which gives something more than the standard
accommodation of one room one person) shew generally a high
percentage of houses of four rooms or less, and also of houses of
more than 10 rooms. Thus, in Montreal, 45.6 of the houses are
of 4 rooms and less ; Quebec, St. John, Vancouver, Winnipeg and
Ottawa, also give high percentages of houses of rather less than
the standard accommodation ; and with the exception of Van-
couver and Winnipeg, where the poor accommodation is, as we
shall see, due to the newness of the cities, the same towns shew
a high percentage of large houses of more than ten rooms.
Montreal has a percentage of 10.0 ; Quebec, 16.6 ; Ottawa, 10.9 ;
and St. John, the astonishing percentage of 20.3. Halifax is the
only other city where the percentage of large houses reaches
double figures. If we combine the results of the last table and

~

recognize three classes of houses only, those of 4 rooms or less,
those of 5 to 10 rooms, and those with more than ten, we shall
see at a glance where the conditions are extreme and where the
arithmetical average expresses the truth of the situation : —

4 rooms or less.

5 to 10 rooms.

More than 10 rooms.

Vancouver

38.3

55.8

3.2

Winnipeg

30.6

63.8

5.2

St. John

19.9

56.2

20.3

Halifax

12.2

64.6

12.3

Toronto

13.2

78.0

8.4

London

14.2

78.1

6.9

Kingston

223

67.1

6.2

Hamilton

13.1

80.9

6.2

Montreal

45.6

44.1

10.0

Quebec

34.2

50.0

16.6

Ottawa

19.9

687

10.9

It appears, therefore, that class distinctions are marked in
three or four towns only: in St. John, Montreal, and Quebec,
and possibly in Ottawa ; that the three best housed towns where
there are few extremes of wealth and poverty, are Toronto,
London and Hamilton — which, with Kingston and Ottawa,

CONSUMPTION IN CANADA — DAVIDSON. 17

where also the conditions do not show violent extremes, are
the five towns selected from the Ontario Bureau of Statistics
Reports for detailed analysis. It is probable that the very large
percentage of large houses in St. John is an indication, not of a
large wealthy class, but of lack of prudence and foresight in the
inhabitants in the years which followed the great fire. We
might therefore conclude that in two towns only, Quebec and
Montreal, do the extremes of wealth and poverty show them-
selves ; and that the average condition is also the condition of
the great majority of the inhabitants of Canada. We might,
perhaps, also conclude that the average income obtained from the
returns made to the Ontario Bureau is not far below the average

O

income in Canada. Mr. Ames shows that in the district he has
investigated there is a weekly average income of $10.20 per
family, an average monthly rental of $8.73 per family, or 18 per
cent, of the family income, and an accommodation of 5.02 rooms
per family (U. S. Bulletin of Labor, p. 44 . The average weekly
income of the towns in Ontario is nearly $9.00, of which 17 per
cent, is expended on rent in places where rents must be much
lower than they are in industrial districts of Montreal, and where
accordingly better accommodation will be given for the money.
We may readily infer that the returns have been made by the
occupants of houses of 7 or 8 rooms ; and an overwhelming pro-
portion of the inhabitants of the towns, of which an analysis of
the house accommodation has been made above, occupy houses
containing from 5 to 10 rooms. Since, according to Engel, and
according also to the best canons of local taxation, the expendi-
ture on house rent is the best indication of income, we might be

o

safe in concluding that the average income set down above is the

o o

average for Canada ; but at the best the conclusion is problematic
and based on a series of assumptions and inferences from data
which are themselves only approximately correct.

The main question is the actual accommodation obtained for
PKOC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS.— B.

18 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND

the expenditure. The best test, perhaps, would be the cubic feet
of air space obtained for a given rent.*

But statistics are lacking in Canada to determine the actual
space received in return for the payment made. There may be
more actual air space in a log cabin or a dug out of one room in
the North-West and British Columbia than in a three or four
roomed house in a back tenement in Montreal ; and the general
sanitary conditions are without doubt superior. Mr. Ames has
taken the provision of water closets as his test, and shews how
a smaller house with sanitary conveniences may rent for as much
as a larger without them. But his investigation was confined to
a section of Montreal only. For the rest of the city, and for the
Dominion as a whole, we must rest content with a less satisfac-
tory test, viz., the number of rooms, the material of construc-
tion, the number of stories, the number of families in each
house, and the number of persons to a house and to a room.

The average house in Canada is constructed of wood, is of
one story, or a story and a half, contains probably from 5 to 10
rooms, more likely 5 than 10, and accommodates under its roof
1.08 families, or 5.6 persons, and thus gives the standard accom-
modation— one room one person. The standard of accommodation
is rising. In 1881 there were 1.10 families under each roof and
5.8 persons. The one story house seems to be going out of
fashion, for while 39 per cent, of all the inhabited houses are one
story buildings, more than 50 per cent. (23,227 out of 46,000
classified) of the uninhabited houses are of one story only, and
33 per cent, only (2,704 out of 8,077 enumerated) of the houses
under construction. (Census Bulletin, No. 6). It is, moreover,
a well recognized fact that the sanitary conveniences are being
improved. So that we may conclude that the people of Canada
are receiving better value for their money, or that through
increased prosperity they are able to spend a larger absolute
amount in house rent though, perhaps, the percentage of their
expenditure on house rent is decreasing.

*The poor probably pay more for rent, according to this standard, than the rich
It has been found by comparison in Vienna that in a house in one of the slum districts
each cubic metre of air space cost 3 fl. 24 kr., while in a house in the most fashionable
Ringstrasse, and on the first floor, the cubic metre cost 2 fl. 85 kr. only. (Schonberg's
Handbuch, I., p. 700.)

CONSUMPTION IN CANADA — DAVIDSON.

19

Wooden houses constitute 81.6 per cent, of the total number ;
brick houses 15.34, and stone houses 3.1. The brick and stone
houses are probably mainly in the larger cities and occupied by
the wealthier classes. Thirty-nine per cent, of the total houses
inhabited are of one story, while 43 per cent, of the wooden
houses are of that humble size, and 19 per cent, and 20 per cent,
only of the brick and stone houses fail to reach the dignity of a
second story or even of an additional half story. The story and
a half and two story buildings are 57 per cent, of the whole, but
60 per cent, of the stone and 67 per cent, of the brick houses
are of these dimensions. Of the houses which have three stories
or more 14,211, or 59 per cent, are brick, 4,658, or 19 per cent,
are stone, and 5,746 only, or 22 per cent., are of wood.

The Census Reports do not enable us to discover whether
there is a larger number of rooms or of stories in a stone or brick
house then in a wooden house. Probably, the advantage in size
is in favor of the stone and brick houses ; but there is no definite
information on the subject, and we must rest content with the
statement given in the Census Report, 1891 (Vol. IV., Table A.,
pp. 378, 379) of the percentage of houses of different sizes in the
several provinces of the Dominion : —

PERCENTAGES OF HOUSES WITH ROOMS—

OF HOUSES WITH

STORIES—

1

2

3

4

5

6-10

11-15

Over
15.

1

3

4

Canada

2.9

8.0

11.0

15.8

12.2

43.3

5.6

1.2

63.5

33.6

2.5

0.4

Br. Columbia .

21.1

13.6

10.2

13.5

11.4

25.9

2.6

1.6

72.4

26.3

1.2 0.1

Manitoba

12.0

20.2

17.3

17.0

10.1

21.4

1.3

0.6

56.9

42.1

0.8

0.2

N. Brunswick .

2.4

8.7

9.8 14.4

11.6

43.2

8.2

1.7179.9

16.7

3.0

0.4

NovaScotia.. .

1.0

5.4

8.4

15.4

12.9

50.2

5.8

0.9i85.7

127

1.5

0.1

Ontario

1.2

5.1

7.9

13.3

12.7

52.3

6.3

1.21 52.4

45.11 2.4

0.1

P. E. Island . .

0.9

7.3

9.7

16.4

12.8

45.7

6.5

1.7180.8

17.7

1.4: 0.1

Quebec

3.7

10.9

16.2

20.2

11.7

31.2

4.7

1.3

69.8

25.9

3.4

0.9

The Territories.

19.5

24.3

16.7

i:;.:;

8.1

14.1

1.3

0.7

66.9

30.5

0.5

0.1

The house accommodation afforded varies from province to
province. The largest percentage of brick houses occurs in
Ontario, the smallest in Nova Scotia, where 99.4 of the houses
are built of wood. The largest percentage, though not the

20

STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND

greatest absolute number of stone houses, are found in the prov-
ince of Quebec, the smallest, 0.1 per cent., in British Columbia,
New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. The proportion of
houses of one story only is greatest in the Maritime Provinces,
where Nova Scotia heads the list with 85.7 per cent., and Prince
Edward Island and New Brunswick follow with 80.8 per cent,
and 79.9 per cent. Manitoba and Ontario show the largest
percentages of two story houses, while Quebec and New Brun-
swick show the highest percentages of three storied dwellings.
Quebec contains 73 per cent, of all the 4-storied buildings in
Canada; and twice as high a percentage of the buildings in the
province are of that height or higher as in any other province.
Quebec and the North-West Territories have highest average
number of persons under one roof (6.0), the Maritime Provinces
coming next, and British Columbia giving the low number of 4.9-
But British Columbia is the province where the largest number
of one-roomed houses exist. Twenty-one per cent, of the houses
there have one room only, and 58.4 per cent, have four rooms or
less. In Manitoba, which stands next to British Columbia in the
number of persons to the house (5.2), 12.0 per cent, of the houses
are one roomed, and 66.5 per cent, have four or less. Prince
Edward Island, on the other hand, which crowds 5.9 people under
every roof, sees that they have some room under it, for less than
one per cent. (0.9) of her houses are of one room, and 65.3 of her
houses have more than four rooms.

These facts are collected in the following table : —
COMPARISON OF HOUSE ACCOMMODATION IN THE PROVINCES.

Stone
Houses.

Brick
Houses.

Wooden
Houses.

One
room.

4 rooms or

less.

Persons
under one
roof.

Canada

30

15 4

81 5

2 9

37 7

5 6

British Columbia..
Manitoba

0.1
09

2.3

3 7

97.6
95 2

21.1
12 0

58.4
66 5

4.9
^ 2

New Brunswick. , .
Nova Scotia
Ontario

0.1
0.2
33

lie

0.3
21 1

98.2
99.4

7T ^

2.4
1.0
1 2

35.3
32.2
27 5

5.8
5.7
5 2

Pr. Edward; Island
Quebec

0.1
5 0

0.4

no

99.5

77 1

0.9

q 7

34.7

Kf) 0

5.9
fi n

The Territories

1.0

1.0

96.0

19.5

73.8

6.0

CONSUMPTION IN CANADA — DAVIDSON. 21

From these figures it is possible to construct an index number
which shall express the relative house accommodation of the
various provinces more readily than the actual figures. There
are four possible tests within our reach : — The material of which
the dwelling is constructed, the number of rooms it contains, the
number of stories in it, and the number of people who inhabit
it. But these are obviously not all ot equal importance. The
number of rooms is of much greater importance than the number
of stories. A- house of five rooms with only one story is better
than a house of three or four rooms with a story and a half or
two stories ; and for many purposes it is indifferent whether the
house is built of wood or of stone, or brick. The material out of
which a house is built is determined sometimes by the relative
cheapness of materials on the spot and sometimes by municipal
regulations about a fire district. But from the figures quoted
above, it is evident that a stone or brick house is at least more
fashionable than a wooden house ; and in the slum districts of
our cities the worst houses are built of wood. We must allow
some importance to these two considerations; but not by any
means as much as to the others. If to the two taken together
we allow half as much importance as to each of the others, taken
separately, we will not, perhaps, exaggerate its importance ; but
in case of error, the index number will be stated, both including
and excluding these minor considerations. The figures quoted
above are taken negatively, i. e., instead of saying how many
houses have fou.r rooms or less, we calculate on the number of
houses which have more than four rooms ; but this is a matter
of arithmetical detail. The average for Canada is expressed as
100 in the cases of the number of houses containing more than
four rooms and of the number of persons in each house, and by
50 in the case of the two minor considerations : —

22

STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND

% of houses
with more
than four
rooms.

Index No.

n

83

<D o

&J3
&S

Index No.

% of houses
of more
than one

story.

% of houses
of material
other than
wood.

Index No.

Canada

62.3

100

5.6

100

36.5

18.5

50

Brit. Columbia
Manitoba
N. Brunswick.
Nova Scotia . .
Ontario

41.6
33.5
64.7

67.8
72.5

66.7
537
102.2
107.2
116.3

4.9
5.2
5.8
5.7
52

114.6
107.6
96.4
98.4
107.6

27.6
40.1
20.1
14.3
47.6'

2.4

4.8
1.8
0.6
24.5

19.6
33.7
16.1
10.6
65.7

P. E. Island . .
Quebec ....

65.3
50.0

104.8
80.2

5.9
6.0

94.9
93.3

19.2

30.2

0.5
22.9

13.8
51.2

Territories

26.2

42.0

6.0

93.3

33.1

4.0

28.1

The index of relative bouse accommodation of the provinces
would be therefore according as we did or did not include the
minor considerations expressed in the first or in the second
column below : —

Two Considerations.

Four Considerations.

Canada

200

250

British Columbia

181 3

1999

Manitoba .

161.3

1950

New Brunswick

198.6

214 7

Nova Scotin

2056

2162

Ontario

223.9

2896

Prince Edward Island. .
Quebec . .

199.7
173 5

213.5
2247

Territories

1353

163 4

The inclusion of the minor considerations reduces the rank
of all the Maritime Provinces, and raises Quebec from one of the
lowest to the second place, and still further increases the lead of
the Province of Ontario. In all probability the index number
depending on the two considerations alone gives the fairest
representation of relative housing in the various provinces.

Though the item of food continues, whatever the income, ta
absorb the largest share of individual and national income, our
information on this point is far from being complete. Practically
we may say that so far as the foodstuffs consumed in Canada are
produced in Canada we have no adequate information. Esti-

CONSUMPTION IN CANADA — DAVIDSON. 23

mates have been made of the consumption of wheat and potatoes ;
but too much reliance should not be placed upon them. The
consumption of meat might be approximately estimated after an
elaborate calculation, taking into account exports and imports
and annual mortality among farm stock ; but to give the esti-
mate even a semblance of accuracy we require to have at least as
complete an enumeration of the stock in the country during
successive years as we have for the isolated census years. Of
the consumption of fish and game, of butter and eggs, and milk
and cheese and vegetables, we have no means whatever of form-
ing an estimate ; and it is doubtful whether such an estimate
can be formed so long as 45 per cent, of the population are
engaged in, or dependent on, agriculture. The only accurate
statistics we have of the consumption of food are those relating
to articles not produced in Canada at all, or produced under such
conditions that the whole industry is under the constant super-
vision of the government. We can tell how much tea and sugar
and coffee, how much beer and spirits and tobacco, how much wine
and dried fruit is consumed in Canada ; and it is fortunate that
these are the articles, the large consumption of which indicates
prosperity. We are not concerned with the ethical question
whether the consumption of spirits is right or wrong. As a
matter of fact, and many a Finance Minister has had to confess
it with chastened sorrow, an increased consumption of intoxi-
cants is a sign of increasing prosperity.

Bread stuffs and meats are for English speaking people
necessities, and a diminution in the quantity would indicate, or
at least might indicate, increasing prosperity. The poorer a
nation or a family is the larger the proportion of its income it
spends on bread and potatoes.* This is one of the established

'Prof. Lexis, in his article on Consumption, Schonberg's Handbuch I., 697 n. quotes
the following estimate of the distribution of expenditure on food by various classes : —

Expenditure on Food. Bread. Potatoes. Meat.

(6 persons) 2,175 marks 14.9 4.1 26.5

4 persons) 1.285 " 10.6 2.4 290

688 " 31.3 ' 4.8 17.0

403 " 38.7 10.3 11.6

395 " 39.4 15.9 3.5

24

STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND

conclusions of the theory of consumption ; and it stands to reason
that the more of the luxuries of the table a family consumes the
less need has it for the grosser necessaries. But this conclusion
must be taken to apply to percentages rather than to absolute
amounts ; for where the great majority of the population are in
the condition of working class people, prosperity may show itself
both in a decreasing percentage and in an increasing absolute
amount. With a better use of the consumption power at their
command, probably the working classes in America would come
to consume less of the grosser necessaries of bread and potatoes
and meat, and rise to a higher conception of well-being than
mere profusion. The large consumption of bread stuffs in the
exporting countries i-» due to profusion rather than to a low
standard of living. It exists alongside of a large consumption
of the comforts and commoner luxuries of the table.

Speaking in general terms, Europeans eat more bread and
potatoes than Americans. Australians consume more meat and
less bread and potatoes than either the Americans or the Euro-
peans. In Canada the consumption both of bread and potatoes
is, according to statistics, high, probably much too high, consider-
ing the standard of living common in the community. In the
Statistical Year Book for 1891 the average consumption, calcu-
lated by deducting the net exports and the estimated amount
retained for seed from the estimated crop during the 10 years,
1881-1891, is given as 6.75 bushels per head : —

CONSUMPTION PER HEAD, IN BUSHELS.

1881

6.48

1884

8.96

1888

6.02

1882

8.19

1885

7.41

1889

5.38

1883

6.16

1886

5.70

1890

6.60

1887

6.63

But the authors of this estimate do not themselves place
much reliance on it ; and if it were accurate, one would almost
be justified in inferring that in the lean years Canada was on

CONSUMPTION IN CANADA — DAVIDSON. 25

the verge of starvation ; for the consumption varies more than
three bushels and a half. The probability is, as the authors
suggest, that the crop estimates are by no means accurate. In
the following year, in 1892, this estimate is dropped, and a com-
parative estimate of the consumption of wheat per head in various
countries gives Canada an average consumption of 5.5 bushels per
head, which is continued down till 1895, the last year in which
this comparative estimate appears. The estimate continues to be
put forward as an approximation only ; but no reason is offered
for the reduction from 6.75 to 5.5 bushels.

The consumption of potatoes may be estimated in the same
way for the single year 3891, the census year. This gives an
average consumption of 10 bushels per head, or about 600 pounds
— undoubtedly, by comparison with other nations which have a
similar or a lower standard of living, an excessive estimate. If

c5 J

the estimates framed annually by the Statistical Bureaus of
Ontario and Manitoba are scarcely trustworthy, the casual esti-
mates of a census enumerator, or of the farmer he questions, are
still less likely to be trustworthy ; and all such estimates are
liable to err on the side of excess.

Mr. Mulhall gives the annual consumption of meat in Canada
at 90 Ibs. per head, as compared with 109 Ibs. in the United
Kingdom, 150 Ibs. in the United States, and 276 Ibs. in Australia ;
but imagination fails to suggest the source from which such an
estimate can be made for Canada.

The statistics at our disposal regarding the consumption of
certain typical comforts arid luxuries, is as full as occasion
requires, and as accurate as returns made at the customs or to the
internal revenue officers usually are. The list might be made
indefinitely long, but we confine ourselves to such as are typical
and in, fairly common use, — sugar and tea and coffee, wine and
beer, and spirits and tobacco. Dried fruit we shall also include,
selecting that rather than green fruit, the extension in the use of
which is one of the best si<*ns of a prosperous consumption,
because, in the case of green fruits, we have estimates of value
only which can be used, while the quantity of dried fruits can

26

be more readily estimated in a single one of the tables of weights
and measures. The tables from which the per capita consumption
of suerar, tea. coffee and dried fruit has been calculated, were

O '

compiled from the Annual Sessional Papers on Trade and Com-
merce ; the per capita consumption of beer, spirits, etc., is the
calculation of the inland revenue officials, and may be found in
Statistical Year Book for the current year.*

The consumption of these articles is recognized as one of the
best tests of the prosperity of a country. The middle classes
everywhere are well provided with the comforts and decencies of
life, in which class these articles are placed, although sugar is
rapidly becoming a necessary of life ; and an extension of the
consumption of these goods means that the working classes are
consuming more, the middle class, it being presumed already,
using as much as they desire. In a country like Canada, where as
we have seen there are few extremes of wealth, an increased
consumption means that the whole body of the people are con-
suming more.

An increased consumption of any article may mean one of
three things, — (1) it may result from a fall in price, which enables
the people to consume more without spending more ; (2) it may
mean a rise in the average income, which enables the people to
spend more on one article than they have been doing, without
curtailing their consumption of other articles; (3) it may mean
simply that the form of consumption has changed and that the
well-being of society is the same, or but slightly increased. In
all probability, the increased use of cccoa, from the value
of $44,249 in ISSOf to $158,849 in 1896 has been due to a
mere change in the form of consumption ; and the addition of
this amount to the consumption of the community probably does
not indicate a corresponding increase of spending power. Tha
increase in the use of sugar and tea is due, not to increased

*I take this opportunity of acknowledging my indebtedness to the Dominion
Statistician, Mr. George Johnson, whose work I have freely used in the preparation of
this paper.

tAverage of three years.

CONSUMPTION IN CANADA — DAVIDSON.

27

spending power, but almost entirely to a fall in price. The per
capita consumption of 1896, 47 Ibs. of sugar and 4.4 Ibs. of tea>
cost no more than the 26 Ibs. of sugar and the 2.7 Ibs. of tea in
the year 1880. The increased use of tobacco, of coffee, and the
but slightly decreased consumption of spirits, in spite of a large
rise in price, indicate a larger spending power. An attempt has
been made in the third of the following tables to indicate how
far the increased consumption is due to a fall in prices, the prices
being taken from a table of Montreal prices given in the Statisti-
cal Year Book of 1896.

CONSUMPTION PER CAPITA OF CERTAIN ARTICLES IN CANADA.

Tea

(Ibs.)

Coffee
(Ibs.)

Sugar
(Ibs.)

Dried

Fruits (Ibs).

Beer

(gals.)

Spirits
(gals )

Wine

(gals.)

Tobac-
co (Ibs)-

Cigars
(No)

1880
1881

2.7
3.8

0.40
0.47

26
31

1.9

3.0

225

2.29

071
0.92

0.08
0.10

1.94
2.03

1882

4.3

0.71

30

3.4

2 75

1.01

0.12

2 15

1883

4.0

0.60

34

5.0

2.88

1.09

0.13

2/28

1884

38

0.53

38

5.2

2.92

1.00

0 12

248

19

1885

4.0

094

43

4.1

2.64

1 13

0.11

262

17

1886

4.9

0.85

38

3.6

2.84

071

0 11

205

20

1887

38

0.41

43

4.2

3.08

0.75

009

2.0(5

18

1888

37

0.60

43

4.5

3.25

064

0.09

2.09

19

18S9

36

0.66

47

4.6

3.26

078

0.10

2 15

19

1890

3.8

0.66

35

4.7

3.36

0.88

0.10

2 14

20

1891

3.7

0.69

40

4.8

379

0.74

0.11

229

20

1892

4.4

0.73

'68

4.7

3.52

0.70

0.10

2.29

21

1893

36

0.77

51

4.4

3.48

074

0.09

2.31

23

1894

4.1

070

61

5.3

3.72

0.74

009

2.26

23

1895

4.0

0.72

70

5.2

347

0.67

0.09

2.16

21

1896

4.4

0.70

47

5.6

353

062

0.07

2.12

21

These tables are sufficiently clear to explain themselves ; but
it should be observed that for some reason the year 1880, which
has been chosen as starting point, is an exceptional year of low
consumption, as we shall see more clearly when we come to-
present an Index No. of consumption ; and it has the additional
disadvantage of being the year of high prices in sugar, which
was then 20 per cent, higher than in 1875, and higher than it has-
been since.

28

STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND

It would be interesting to compare the consumption of the
different provinces; but there are no statistics available for such
a comparison. Mr. Johnson, in his Graphic Statistics of Canada
(1886) has shewn the relative provincial consumption of wine and
beer, and spirits and tobacco, in a graphic form ; and from his
representation we learn that on the average of 19 years to 1886,
each inhabitant of Ontario drank 1.11 gals, of spirits, 0.4 gals, of
wine, and 3.2 gals, of beer, and smoked 1.8 Ibs. of tobacco ; and
so on for the other provinces as in the accompanying table: —

PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION' ACCORDING TO PROVINCES.

Prov.

Spirits (gal.)

Beer (gal.)

Wine (gal )

Tobacco (Ibs.)

Ontario

1.11

3 1

04

1.8

Quebec

1.6S

1 9

0.28

2.4

New Brunswick .
Nova Scotia ....
P. E. Island ....
Manitoba

089
0.5)3

o.r>2

0 68

0. 66
0.7
0.46

008
007
0.03
0 06

2 17
1 7
1.4
26

Brit Columbia .

1.45

377

0.62

3.0

In all probability this proportion holds in 1898 as in 1886;
and Mr. Johnson's conclusions are still true : —

" Ontario drinks nearly three times more beer than spirits ;
Quebec, nearly as much spirits as beer ; New Brunswick, more
spirits than beer; Nova Scotia, more beer than spirits ; Prince
Edward Island, more spirits than beer ; and Manitoba and British
Columbia, more beer than spirits," p. .36. To which we might
add that, according to this shewing, Prince Edward Island and
New Brunswick are the most temperate of the provinces.*

*The consumption of spirits in the Maritime Provinces and in Quebec i? probably
greatly underestimated. The figures above shew only the consumption on which duty
was paid ; but there has always been a large amount smuggled into these provinces
from St. Pierre which exists practically as an entrepot for smuggling. Probably 15/16ths
of the imports of the island are smuggled into Canada and Newfoundland. In 1885 the
amount intended to be smuggled exceeded that proportion. It is said that half the
spirits and tobacco consumed in Quebec pays no duty. Since 1890 the import trade of
St. Pierre has fallen 50 per cent, in consequence of the increased activity of the Cana-
dian revenue cruisers preventing the usual exports.

CONSUMPTION IN CANADA— DAVIDSON.

'29

It is, unfortunately, not possible to compare the quantities
consumed of the articles enumerated with their retail prices to
ascertain exactly the relation between prices and consumption.
Where prices have fallen, it is generally assumed that the whole-
sale prices have fallen further and more rapidly than retail prices,
though, in the case of sugar, all but the very poorest who may
buy in very small quantities have beneh'tted to the full extent of
the fall. Where prices have risen, retail prices may have risen
higher than wholesale, or not so far, according to circumstances.
Tobacco has probably risen higher in retail price than in whole-
sale ; but the dealers in cigarettes last year were not able to raise
prices to follow the wholesale price. The following comparison,
however, is with Montreal wholesale prices as stated in the
Statistical Year Book. 18U6 : —

CONSUMPTION AND PRICES.

COFFEE

SUGAR.

TEA.

TOBACCO.

SPIRITS.

Cx

C i

Ca5

— 03

§"3

cS

YEAR

'•£ *•

•—•

*S *•

i—i

!2 *•

_-(

'£? „

i^

^ »•

M

P/O

h

P/^

h

p.'C

t^

P/O

^,

P.'w

5g

V

ft

S 2

O

p.

Eg

o
Pi

E g

o
A

£ S

P-

E*^

CJ

C£ ,

0

?""^

o

£3«

V

3 ~

o

G *"•

0

s u

o

— —

o

o

P

E

Is

i

5s-

i

p

6s

£

1880

.4

27 cts.

26

104 cts

2.7

51

1.94

54 cts

0.71

$150

1881

.47

25

31

10

3.8

52

203

55|

0.92

1.60

1882

.71

23

30

94

4.3

51

2.15

574

1.01

1.60

1883

.6

22

34

9

40

51

2.28

47

1.09

1.60

1884

.53

21

38

7f

3.8

51

2.48

53^

1.00

1.60

1885

.94

20

43

7

4.0

51

2.62

51

1.13

1.67

lbS6

.85

19

38

6&

4.9

49

2.05

53

0.71

1 81

1887

.41

24

43

6i

3.8

43

2.06

51

075

1 81

188"

.6

25

43

7J

3.7

45

2.09

51

064

1 81

1889

.66 26

47

8

36

45

2.15

51

0.73

1.83

1890

.66 |26

35

6S

38

45

2.14

.51

0.88

1.84

18911 -69

27

40

6

3.7

42

229 |53i

0.74

2.48

1892

.73

29

68

44

4.4

39

2.29

56

C.70

288

1893

.77

29

PI

4 A

3.6

384

2.31

544

0.74

2.53

1894

.7

28

61

A

4.1

384

2.26

534

0.74

251

1895

.72

27

70

4

40

354

2.16

56

067

251

1896

.70

26

47

4.4

334

2.12

56

0.62

268

i

30 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND

From this table it appears that though the price of coffee has
not declined the consumption has increased 80 per cent., shewing
at once an increased desire for coffee and a larger spending power
in the community. This is probably a real increase in the con-
sumption of the nation and not a transfer of taste ; for cocoa and
tea, the substitutes for coffee, have also been consumed in
increased amounts, and there has been no such diminution of
consumption of alcoholie drinks, for which coffee may be regarded
as a substitute, as would set free such an amount of consuming
power as would purchase the additional quantity of coffee. On
the contrary, although the consumption of spirits has declined
somewhat (13 per cent, since 1880), more is being spent on spirits
to-day per head than in 1880. The price has increased 78 per
cent., and had the consumption moved downwards at the same
rate as the price moved upwards, the quantity used in 1896
should have been 44 per cent, less than in 1880. The decrease,
instead of shewing a diminution of consumption power, indicates
either an increase of money to spend or a growing desire on the
part of the people for spirits such as would lead them to transfer
their taste to alcohol from some other article. In face of the
temperance sentiment of the country, it is improbable that the
desire has increased, and we may safely conclude that the relation
between consumption and prices of spirits indicates increased
consumption power. The slight increase in the consumption of
tobacco (11 per cent.), in spite of a rise in price, points to the
same conclusion, viz , that the nation is growing more prosperous
and has a larger income to expend. On the other hand, the
increased consumption of tea and sugar justify no such con-
clusion. They, of course, indicate a higher level of general well-
being, but not an increased consumption power on the part of the
community. They afford no evidence against such an increase
of income ; the}' simply do not afford any evidence in its favor.
The consumption of sugar has increased almost in the same rates
as the price has declined. The consumption of 1895 has risen 168
per cent.; the price has declined (1^95 price) 62 per cent. The
consumption has risen just 5 per cent, more than the decline of

CONSUMPTION IN CANADA — DAVIDSON. 31

price warranted — if the community was to continue to spend the
same money per head in 1895 as in 1880. Tea, however has not
increased so much as the price has declined. The consumption
is 48 per cent, greater than in 1880, hut the 1895 price is 35 per
cent, lower than the 1880 price. To preserve the same expendi-
ture of income on this article the consumption should have risen
54 per cent,, or 6 per cent, more than it has risen.

From this comparison of consumption and prices it is evident
that there has been not only an increase of well-being due to the
larger quantity of these commodities used, but an increase of
consumption power as well, and judging from the instances
before us, an increase of consumption power of considerable
extent. We can carry the investigation a little further, to find
out, so far as figures can tell us, how far the well-beino- of the

™ O

community has increased. The most obvious method of esti-
mating this increase is by constructing an index number for
consumption. Into the problem whether a permanent index
number of consumption is possible, it is not necessary to enter;
the following attempt is intended only as a method of illustra-
tion, not as an indication of cause. It is the more important to
state this limitation, as the year 1880 was, as the table shews, a
year of very low consumption — a fact which was not apparent to
the writer till this calculation, the last made for this paper, was
made. So long as the result is not used by politicians for
partisan purposes, and is regarded merely as a summary of the
earlier table, it does not matter much which year is taken.

The method of construction was to take the seven articles —
tea, coffee, sugar, dried fruits, spirits, beer and tobacco — as typical
of the consumption power of the community, and to take the
quantity consumed per head in 1880 in each case as equal to 100
— the sum 700 being taken as the index number of the consump-
tion of that year. The articles are, of course, not all equally
important, and therefore it must be repeated that the index
number is intended for purposes of illustration only : —

32 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND CONSUMPTION — DAVIDSON.
INDEX NUMBER OF CONSUMPTION IN CANADA.

YEAR.

Tea.

Coffee.

Sugar.

Dried Fruits.

Spirits.

Tobacco.

Beer.

T'l Index
Number.

18SO

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

700

1881

140

117

119

159

129

106

101

871

1882

159

177

115

178

142

113

122

1006

1883

148

150

130

210

153

120

128

1039

1884

140

132

146

273

141

131

129

1092

1885

148

235

163

215

159

137

117

1174

1886

181

212

146

189

100

107

126

1071

1887

140

102

163

221

105

lu8

136

975

1888

137

150

J63

233

90

110

144

1030

1889

133

165

180

242

109

113

144

1086

1890

140

165

134

247

124

112

149

1071

1891

137> 172

153

252

104

120

168

1106

1892

1(52

182

261

247

98

120

156

1226

1893

133

192

192 231

104

124 154

1130

1894

151

175

234 • 278

.104

118 ; 162

1222

1895

148

180

268

273

94

113

154

1231

1896

167

175

180

294

87

111

155

1169

The year 1880 is evidently not an average year, and there
were probably trade influences at work inducing a small
importation. And it is to be remarked that the figures on which
these index numbers are originally based are figures of trade
and not of consumption. In order to attain something like strict
accuracy by eliminating the effects of anticipatory importations
to avoid a threatened tax, and such like influences visible in
all trade returns, it would be necessary to make the consumption
for each year the average of a period of three or four years —
thus the figures for 18»6 would be the average of 1884, 1885
and 1880 ; the figures for 1887 the average of 1885, 188G, 1887.
But such exactitude would be tedious, and the process might be
liable to the objection that it sought to attain a greater degree
of accuracy than the nature of the subject admits.

Within the limits set down this index number illustrates the
steady growth of the national prosperity and well-being — a
movement not uniform or without backward steps — but none the
less indicating that the command the nation has over the material
sources of satisfaction has increased.

II. — ON A TEST, BY THE FREEZING-POINT METHOD, OF THE
IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS DETERMINED BY THE CONDUC-
TIVITY METHOD, FOR SOLUTIONS CONTAINING POTASSIUM
AND SODIUM SULPHATES. — BY E. H. ARCHIBALD, M. Sc.,
1851 Exhibition Science Scholar, Dalhousie College,
Halifax, N. S.

(Communicated by Prof. J. G. MacGregor; Received September 15th, 1898.)

The experiments described below were undertaken, at e
suggestion of Prof. J. G. MacGregor, for the purpose of testing
the values of the ionization coefficients obtained by means of his
graphical method,* in the case of a mixture of solutions of two
electrolytes with a common ion, by employing them in the calcu-
lation of the depression of the freezing-point, and comparing the
calculated values with values obtained by experiment.

The time at my disposal was very limited, and in consequence
I was able to make the test only in the case of equimolecular
solutions of two electrolytes. Potassium and sodium sulphates
were selected as the electrolytes, not because of their being the
most suitable for the purpose, but because I had been observing
their conductivity and had already obtained some of the requisite
data.

As, in determining the depression of the freezing-point, the
solutions must be at a temperature of about 0° C., it was neces-
sary that the ionization coefficients should be determined for
approximate!}' the same temperature. Both the specific con-
ductivities of simple solutions of the two electrolytes throughout
the range of concentration of the simple solutions used in
preparing the mixtures, and their equivalent conductivities at
infinite dilution, had therefore to be determined for 0° C.,as well
as the depression or the freezing-point for the mixtures. In

*Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 9, 101, (1895-6).

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS.— C.

(33)

34 IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS OF CERTAIN

addition, in order to determine how closely the depression in the
case of simple solutions can be calculated by means of ionization
coefficients determined by conductivity measurements, I observed
the depression in the case of simple solutions also.

The work involved in making the desired test therefore
included the following: — (1) The purification or testing of
the materials ; (2) the preparation and analysis of series of
simple solutions and the preparation of the mixtures; (3) the
measurement of the conductivity of series of simple solutions
at 0° C. ; (4) the determination of the equivalent conductivity
at 0° C. of the two electrolytes at infinite dilution; (5) the
calculation of the ionization coefficients of the simple solutions ;
(6) the measurement of the depression of the freezing-point for
the simple solutions ; (7) the calculation of the depression for
the simple solutions by means of the ionization coefficients
obtained from the conductivity measurements ; (8) the measure-
ment of the depression of the freezing-point in the case of the
mixtures; (9) the determination of the ionization coefficients of
the electrolytes in the mixtures, and (10) the calculation of the
depression of the freezing-point of the mixtures by means of
these coefficients.

The Materials,

The salts were obtained as chemically pure from Eimer and
Amend of New York, and were re-crystallized carefully three
times, after which treatment no appreciable impurities could be
detected.

he water used was purified by Hulett's* method, except
that a block tin condenser was employed instead of a platinum
one. Portions of the distillate were treated in the same manner
as to exposure to air, etc., as a solution would be, and their
conductivity measured. It was found to vary from 0.88 X 10~10
to 0.96 X 10~10, expressed in terms of the conductivity of mer-
cury at 0° C. It was kept in bottles which had been used for
this purpose for several years.

*Journ. Phys. Chem. 1, 91, (1896).

COMPLEX SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD. 35

Preparation and Analyses of Solutions.

The potassium sulphate solutions were prepared by adding
to water a known weight of anhydrous salt which had been
dried to constant weight in an air bath, so as to form a known,
volume of solution at 18° C. In the case of the sodium sulphate,
a solution was prepared, and analysed by gravimetric determina-
tion of the sulphuric acid present in a known volume of solution.
Several solutions of both salts of different concentrations were
prepared in the above manner, and others were prepared from
these by addition of water, their concentrations being calculated.
Check analyses were made whenever any portion had gone
through two or three dilutions, and if found necessary the
calculated concentrations were corrected from these results.

The complex solutions were prepared by mixing equal
volumes of the constituent solutions at 18° C., the same pre-
cautions being observed for securing equality of volume of the
constituents as are described in a former paper communicated
to the Institute on the conductivity of these salts.*

The concentrations of the solutions at 18° C. would, of course,
be slightly less than their concentrations at 0° C., but with
solutions as dilute as those which I used, the difference could
hardly affect the third significant figure. f I have therefore
regarded the concentrations at the two temperatures as the same.

As the method of calculation required a knowledge of any
appreciable change of volume which might occur on mixing,
simple solutions of each of the salts were prepared, and density
determinations were made of such solutions before and after
mixing. These measurements were carried out at 18° C. with
Ostwald's form of Sprengel's Pycnometer. They might be in
error by about 5 in the fifth decimal place. No change of volume

*Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 9, 291, (1897-8).

tFrom Kerch's observations on the thermal expansion of solutions of potassium
sulphate (Wied. Ann., 55, 100(1895)), and Marignac's on sodium sulphate (Ann. Chim
Phys., (1), 22, 385, (1871)), I find that the difference of temperature referred to would
affect the third significant figure of the concentrations only in the case of the stronger
solutions examined, and in the case of these only to the extent of 1 or 2 units.—
J. G. M.

36 IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS OF CERTAIN

was found to occur on preparing the most concentrated mixture
examined, which would appreciably affect its concentration with
respect to the two electrolytes, when calculated on the assumption
that no such change of volume occurred.

Method of Measuring Conductivity.

The method used was Kohlrausch's Telephone method, and
the apparatus was the same as described in the paper just
referred to.

Two electrolytic cells were used, one for strong, the other for
more dilute solutions. The first was U-shaped of the form
shown by Ostwald in his Physico-Chemical Measurements, page
226, Fig. 178. The second was cylindrical, about 14 cm. long,
with an internal diameter of 3.3 cm. It was provided with
circular electrodes of stout platinum foil not easily bent. The
stout wire supports of these electrodes were fused into glass
tubes which passed through, and were sealed to, the ebonite
cover of the cell. The electrodes were kept firmly in position by
means of a rubber band passing over the cover and around the
bottom of the cell. This cell being long and of the same
diameter throughout, could, by variation of the distance between
the electrodes, be used for solutions extending through a wide
range of dilution.

The platinizing of the electrodes was carried out as described
in the paper cited above.

The water-bath described in the above paper was used for
these experiments also, modified, however, when working at 0° 0.
as follows : — A cylindrical screen made of wire gauze about 15
cm. in diameter was hung from a. support so as to reach from the
top, to within 6 or 8 cm. of the bottom, of the bath. Inside
this, the electrolytic cell containing the solution to be measured,
was placed, while outside was a mixture of snow and a very
little sodium chloride. The screen thus prevented the snow
from coming into contact with the cell, while the water around
it could be thoroughly stirred. By varying the amount of salt
the temperature could be kept within a twentieth of a degree of

COMPLEX SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD. 37

zero for half an hour at a time. An error of this amount in the
determination of the temperature of the solution would cause
an error of about 0.1 per cent, in the determination of the resist-
ance. The temperature of the room in which the observations
were made was from 2° to 5° C. That one might be sure that
the temperature of the solution to be measured had come to be
that of the bath, measurements of the resistance were made at
short intervals, and that reading taken which was found to be
constant for successive interval*. The thermometer used was
graduated to tenths of a degree centigrade, and could easily be
read to twentieths. Its errors had recently been determined at
the Physik/alisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, Berlin.

The factor for reducing the observed conductivities to mer-
cury units was found by plotting observed conductivities at 18°
C. against concentrations, reading off from these curves the
conductivity values for concentrations examined by Kohlrausch,
and comparing them with his results. The value thus obtained
was found to be the same for each salt and to be practically
constant throughout the concentration range of my experiments.
As the cell was of glass the reduction factor would not be
appreciably different at 0° C. from what it was found to be at
18° C. To make sure that no change occurred in the position of
the electrodes during the course of the experiments that would
appreciably affect the reduction factor, every second or third
solution was measured at 18° C. before reducing its temperature
to 0° C., and the value of the conductivity obtained was compared
with that previously obtained at the same temperature.

Determination of equivalent conductivity at infinite dilution

for 0° C.

For this purpose a series of simple solutions of each electro-
lyte, of concentrations ranging from O'OL to O'OOOl gramme-
equivalents per litre, were prepared, and their conductivities were
measured both at 18° C. and at 0° C. The conductivity of the
water used in their preparation was also measured at both tem-
eratures and subtracted in each case from the conductivity of

38

IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS OF CERTAIN

the solution. The following table gives the results of the obser-
vations together with the values of the temperature coefficients,
(/"is — i«o)/j"i8- Concentrations are expressed in gramme-equiva-
lents of anhydrous salt per litre and conductivities in terms of
10~8 times the conductivity of mercury at 0° C. The conduc-
tivities at 18° were tested by comparison with Kohlrausch's
values, these values when plotted on coordinate paper being
found to lie practically on the same curve as mine.

TABLE I.

POTASSIUM SULPHATE SOLUTIONS.

SODIUM SULPHATE SOLUTIONS.

Concen-
tration at
18°C.

Equivalent
Conductivity (/")•

"ig-^o

Concen-
tration at
18°C.

Equivalent
Conductivity (/")•

^18-^0

^18.

%

Atl8°C.

At 0°C.

At 18°C.

At 0°C.

.010

1099

687

.375

.010

907

555

.388

.008

1116

698

.375

.008

919

562

.389

.005
.004
.002

1142
1155
1180

716
723

740

.373
.374
.373

.005

946

577

.390

.002

981

596

.393

.001

1206

757

.372

.001

997

604

.394

.0008

1213

762

.372

.0008

1003

607

.395

.0006

1221

768

.371

.0006

1008

609

.396

.0005
.0004
.0002

1225
1230
1240

771
775

781

.371
.370
.370

.0005

1012

611

.396

.0002

1027

620

.396

.0001

1248

786

.370

.0001

1036

626

.396

It will be seen that the temperature coefficients for potas-
sium sulphate solutions diminish with increase of dilution
while those for sodium sulphate increase. This result* was so

* The results of this table are in close agreement with those obtained by Deguisne
(Dissertation, Strassburg, 1895), of which Mr. Archibald was not aware.— J. G. M.

COMPLEX SOLUTIONS — ARCHIBALD. 39

^unexpected that I thought it well to repeat the observations,
the result being substantiated by the repetition.

It will be seen also that in both cases the coefficients reach
constant values as concentration is diminished, in the case of
\ K2 SO4 from a concentration of '0004 on, in that of \ Na2S04
from "0006 on. Assuming then that theee values will hold for
infinite dilution, the equivalent conductivities at infinite dilution
for 0° C. may be determined from Kohlrausch's values* for 18°C,
Viz., 1270xlO-8 and 1070xlO-8 for |K2 S04 and \ Na2 S04
respectively. They were found thus to have the values 800 X
10~8 and 646 X 10— 8 respectively, expressed in terms of the
conductivity of mercury at 0°C.

Determination of the lonization coefficients of simple

solutions.

Both for the purpose of finding how closely the lowering of
the freezing point could be calculated for simple solutions and
for the purpose of determining the ionization coefficients of the
electrolytes in the mixtures, it was necessary to know the
ionization coefficients of a sufficiently extended series of simple
solutions of the two electrolytes. The following table contains
the observations of conductivity made for this purpose, together
with the values of the ionization coefficients calculated on the
assumption that for simple solutions they are equal to the ratios
of the equivalent conductivity to the equivalent conductivity at
at infinite dilution. The table gives also the ionization coeffi-
cients at 18°C. obtained from the conductivity observations
of former papers, f These quantities 'are not needed for
the present purpose. But the knowledge of the ionization
coefficients at 0° enables us to determine how in the case of
the electrolytes under consideration the state of ionization
in simple solutions varies with the temperature. Concen-
tions and conductivities are expressed in terms of the same units
as in Table I.

*Wied. Ann., 50, 406, (1893).

t Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 9, 291 and 307, (1897-8.)

40

IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS OF CERTAIN

TABLE II.

Concentration
at 18JC.

Equivalent Conductivity
at 0°C.

lonization Coefficients.

K2S04.

Na2SO4.

i K2SO4.

£Na2SC>4.

At 18°C.

At 0°C.

At 18'C.

At 0°C.

.050

604.2

486.0

.757

.755

.733

.752

.055

598.0

480.0

.750

.748

.728

.743

.060

594.1

475.5

.745

.743

.723

.736

.070

585.4

466.5

.736

.732

.715

.722

.080

577.5

460.0

.723

.722

.703

.712

.100
.125
.150
.200

' 564.0
547.5
535.0
516.0

448.5
434.0
422.5
403.1

.706

.705
.684
.669
.645

.686

694
.672
.654
.624

.650

.601

.250

503.0

387.4

.634

.629

.586

.600

.300

493.0

373.5

.620

.616

.570

.578

.350

485.0

362.4

.605

.606

.556

.561

.400

478.0

353.0

.595

.598

.545

.546

.450

473.0

345.5

.587

.591

.533

.535

.500

470.0

339.6

.580

.588

.522

.525

.600

466.0

330.0

.567

.583

.506

.511

.700

464.0

324.2

.551

.580

i

.498

.501

It appears from these results that in the case of solutions of
potassium sulphate the ionization coefficient increases very
slightly with rise of temperature between 0° and 18°C from a,
concentration of 0.05 to one of about 0.35, and that from this
ntration to one of at least 0.7 it decreases, the magnitude of
the decrement increasing rapidly with the concentration, and
amounting at a concentration of 0.7 to 5 per cent. In the case
of sodium sulphate, the coefficient diminishes with rise of

COMPLEX SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD. 41

temperature throughout the whole range of concentration
observed, the amount of the decrement diminishing with increase-
of concentration, until at a concentration of 0.7 it is only 0.6
per cent.

Method of measuring Depression of the Freezing-point.

Of the different methods described for the determination of.
the freezing point of salt solutions, that of Loomis* appeared to
me the best, and to give the most concordant results. His
method was accordingly followed in making the measurements
below.

As it is most essential that the temperature of the room
where the observations are made should be near zero and as
constant as possible, the measurements were carried out during
the winter months in a basement room of Dalhousie College
building, where it was found possible to keep the temperature
below 2°C and constant to within 0.5 of a degree for a couple of
hours at a time. No measurements were made while the tem-
perature of the room was above 2°C.

The thermometer was of the ordinary Beckman form,
graduated to 0.01 of a degree. No reading microscope being
available, I had to be satisfied with the use of an ordinary hand
lens for this purpose. Neveitheless, as the divisions of the
scale were about 0.6 mm. in length, I am quite satisfied that
I was able to read the temperatures to at least .001 degree.
The following readings of the thermometer made in an experi-
ment for determining the freezing point of water would seem to
imply that I succeeded in reading 'even more closely : — 2.3415,
2.3410,2.3420,2.3415, 2.3420. Mean reading, 2.341C. Greatest
divergence from mean, .0006.

The thermometer had never been calibrated, and as appara-
tus for this purpose was not available, I did not attempt to
calibrate it myself. The length of scale used for the following
measurements, however, was less than what corresponded to
1.4 degree, and for the more dilute solutions, say below 0.1

* Phys. Review, 1, 199 and 274 (1893) and 3. 270 (1896).

42 IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS OF CERTAIN

gramme-equivalent per litre, less than what corresponded to 0.2
of a degree.

The freezing and melting baths were each of earthenware,
about 32 cm. long and with an internal diameter of about 9
cm. In the former was a mixture of snow and water with
enough common salt added to keep -the temperature at about
— 12°C. The latter contained a mixture of snow and water, the
temperature of which was about 0.2°C.

The protection bath, which was of glass 35 cm. deep and 8
cm. in diameter, was provided with a covering of felt to
minimize the effect of the surrounding air. It contained a mix-
ture of snow and water with sufficient salt added to keep the
temperature from 0.3 to 0.28 degree below the freezing point of
the solutions to be measured. After some experience had been
gained, little trouble was found in keeping the temperature of
this bath constant within a twentieth of a degree during several
observations of any one solution.

The freezing tubes first tried were of the following dimen-

O * J

sions : — the inner one 22 cm. long with an external diameter
of 2.4 cm., the outer one 20 cm. long with an internal
diameter of 2.7 cm., the thickness of the glass of both tubes
being 1 mm. There was thus an air space of about 1.5 mm.
between the tubes. This was found to be too great as shewn
by its being difficult to prevent ice from forming around the
bulb of the thermometer despite the most vigorous stirring.
The next ones tried were as follows : — The inner tube was 28
cm. long, with an external diameter of 2.7 cm., the outer tube
26 cm. long with an internal diameter of 2.85 cm., the thick-
ness of the glass being the same as before. There was thus an
air space of about 0.7 mm. between the tubes. This was found
to be hardly enough as there was a tendency for the ice to form
on the walls of the tube and thus cause much delay. As I worked
with 75 c.c. of solution, the greater length of these tubes allowed
the solution to be immersed well into the bath, rendering it
almost free from the influence of the outside temperature. The

COMPLEX SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD. 43

inner tube was therefore retained and an outer tube provided of
about the same length and thickness of walls, but with an
internal diameter of 2.88 cm., thus leaving an air space of about
0.9 mm. between the tubes. This gave complete satisfaction.
With uniform stirring no tendency was observed for the ice to
form on the walls of the tube or on the bulb of the thermometer,
or to freeze in a mass. The inner tube had its lower end
re-entrant, as recommended by Lootnis.

I should like to draw attention to the importance of having
the air space between the two tubes of the proper size. If the
importance of this point has been noted by former observers it
has escaped me.

The hammer used for tapping the thermometer was part of a
small electric bell and was covered with a piece of thick rubber
tubing. It was found to be very essential to drive the hammer
so that the blows on the thermometer might be of uniform
strength. Some difficulty was met with in attaining that end ;
but by careful attention to the strength of the current what
appeared to be sufficient uniformity was attained.

The stirrer was of the ordinary ring form, the upright rod
passing through a glass tube, the upper end of which was con-
stricted, a?id the lower so far from the solution that the wetted
portion of the stirrer could not touch it. A stop on the upright
rod limited the extent of the stroke so that the ring would not
leave the solution, and ensured the equality of the strokes. It
was worked by hand as uniformly as possible.

The over-cooling was seldom over 0.1 degree, owing doubt-
less to the low temperature of the room in which the observa-
tions were made. There was consequently no need of correcting
for over-cooling.

The freezing point of water was determined each day before
determining that of the solutions, and in the event of any
appreciable change occurring in the atmospheric pressure during
the observations on the solutions, the observation on water was
repeated.

IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS OF CERTAIN

Observed and Calculated Values of the Depression of the
Freezing-point for Simple Solutions.

The following table contains the observations of the depres-
sion of the freezing-point of simple solutions, together with
observations on solutions of about the same concentration by
Loomis* and Jones-f- for comparison. The depressions are
expressed in centigrade degrees.

TABLE III.

Concentration
gr.-eq. / litre.

Depression of Freezing-point.

Observer.

K2SO4.

Na2SO4.

.03949
.04

.0975
.0952

Jones.
Loomis.

.0974

.050

.118?

.1191

Author.

.055
.0579
.060

.1296
.1397
.1407

.1304

ii

Jones.
Author.

.1416

.070
. 07556
.080
.10
.10

.1629
.1792
.1851
.2307
.2271

.1638

ii

Jones.
Author.
Jones.
Loomis.

.1856

.2297

.100
.116
. 19685
.20

.2285
.2655
.42525
.4317

.2286

Author.

Jones.
ii

Loomis.

.4340

.200

.4322

.4330

Author.

.250

.5295

.5300

<(

.300

.6240

.6252

(C

.350

.7196

.7157

II

.40

.8134

.8141

Loomis

.400

.8128

.8100

Author.

.450

.9063

.8968

it

.500

.9950

.9875

«

.60

1.1672

1.1604

Loomis.

.600

1.170

1.155

Author.

.700

1.341

1.323

«

* Phys Review, 3, 277, (1898).

t Ztschr. f. phys. Chem., 11, 536, (1893).

COMPLEX SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD.

45

It will be seen, especially if the above results be plotted, that
all three sets of observations agree very well with one another,
but that mine agree better with Loomis's than with those of
Jones. Their agreement with Loomis's is very close.

The following table contains the observed and calculated
values of the freezing-point depressions for simple solutions, with
the differences expresssd as percentages of the observed values.
In the calculations Van 't HofF's constant was taken to be 1.86,
and the expression used for the depression was

A = 1.86 (l+2«) N/2,

where N is the concentration of the solution in gr.-equivalents
per litre.

TABLE IV.— DEPRESSION or FREEZING-POINT.

Concentra.
(gr.-eq. / 1.)

Potassium Sulphate Solutions.

Sodium Sulphate Solutions.

Observed.

Calculated.

Diff.
percent.

Observed.

Calculated.

Diff.
per cent.

.050

.1185

.1168

—1.4

.1191

.1164

-2.3

.055

.1296

.1277

—1.5

.1304

.1272

— 2.5

.060

.1407

.1387

—1.4

.1416

.1379

-2.6

.070

.1629

.1604

—1.5

.1638

.1591

-2.9

.080

.1851

.1818

—1.8

.1856

.1803

— 2.9

.100

.2285

.2241

—1.9

.2286

.2221

-2.9

.200

.4322

.4259

—1 5

.4330

.4181

-3.4

.250

.5295

.5250

—0.8

.5300

.5115

— 3.5

.300

.6240

.6227

—0.2

.6252

.6015

- 3.8

.350

.7196

.7200

+ 0.1

.7157

.6907

-3.5

.400

.8128

.8169

+ 0.5

.8100

.7782

— 3.9

.450

.9063

.9131

+ 0.8

.8968

.8663

-3.4

.500

.9950

1.0118

+ 1.7

.9875

.9532

-3.5

.600

1.170

1.209

+ 3.3

1.155

1.128

-2.3

.700

1.341

1.406

+ 4.9

1.323

1.303

-1.5

46 IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS OF CERTAIN

The above table shews the degree of accuracy with which
the depression of the freezing-point can be calculated in the case
of simple solutions. If the ionization coefficients for the mix-
tures are determined by Prof. MacGregor's method as closely as
they are for the simple solutions by putting a=///u<», the differ-
ences between the calculated and observed values of the depres-
sions in the case of the mixtures may be expected to be no
greater than those of the above table.

Depression of the Freezing -point by the Mixtures.
The following Table contains the observed and calculated

CT

values of the depression of the freezing-point in the case of the
mixtures examined. The observations were made in the manner
described above. The calculations were made by the following
formula for which I am indebted to Professor MacGregor : —

A=1.86(l+a1+aa)N/2

where a^ and a2 are the ionization coefficients of the respective
electrolytes in the mixture and N the number of gramme-equiva-
valents per litre in the solutions mixed, which were in all cases
equimolecular. This expression may be readily obtained as.
follows : — In each litre of the mixture there will be N/4 gramme-
molecules of each electrolyte. There will therefore be (1 — o^) N/4
and (1 — «2) N/4 undissociated gramme-molecules of the respec-
tive electrolytes, and, if we assume the ionization in each case
to be complete, 3al N/4 and 3 a2 N/4 free gramme-ions. Hence
the total number of undissociated gramme-molecules and free
gramme-ions will be (l + al+a2) N/2, and the expression for
the depression will consequently be as above.

The first column of Table V gives the concentration of the
solutions mixed, in gramme-equivalents of anhydrous salt per
litre at 18°C. The fifth and sixth columns give the ionization
coefficients of the respective electrolytes in the mixture at 0°C
as determined by Prof. MacGregor's method. The second, third
and fourth give the quantities obtained directly by this method,
viz., the common concentration of ions, and the dilutions of the
respective electrolytes in the mixture. (By the concentration of

COMPLEX SOLUTIONS. — ARCHIBALD.

47

ions in the mixture is meant the number of dissociated gramme-
equivalents of either electrolyte in any volume of the mixture
divided by the volume of that portion of the mixture which may
be regarded as occupied by it. The dilutions of the electrolytes
in the mixture are the volumes of such portions divided by the
number of gramme-equivalents of the electrolytes they contain.
The product of these two quantities for each electrolyte gives
the ionization coefficient of such electrolyte in the mixture.)
The data of the other columns are sufficiently specified by the
headings.

TABLE V.

Concentration of
constituent so-
lutions at 18°C.
(gr.-eq. perl.)

Concentration of
ions in mix-
ture at 0°C.

Dilution in Mixture
at 0°C.

loniza. Coeffts.
in Mixture at
0°C.

Depression of Fr.-point.

iK2S04.

4Na2S04.

K2SO4

Na2SO4.

Observed

Calcu-
lated.

Diff.
per cent.

.050

.0377

20.04

19.96

.7555

.7525

.1187

.1166

- 1.8

.055

.0410

18.22

18.14

.7470

.7437

.1299

.1274

- 1.9

.060

.0443

16.72

16.60

.7407

.7354

.1411

.1382

- 2.1

.070

.0509

14.40

14.18

.7330

.7218

.1634

.1598

— 2.2

.080

.0574

12.60

12.40

.7232

.7118

.1854

.1812

- 2.3

.100

.0698

10.18

9.92

.7106

.6924

.2284

.2235

- 2.1

.150

.0998

6.73

6.60

.6717

.6587

.3327

.3250

— 2.3

.200

.1266

5.10

4.90

.6457

.6203

.4324

.4215

— 2.5

.250

.1528

4.10

3.90

.6265

.5959

.5295

.5166

- 2.4

.300

.1784

3.46

3.21

.6173

.5727

.6246

.6110

— 2.2

.400

.228

2.63

2.37

.5996

.5404

.8096

.7961

- 1.7

.500

.227

2.12

1.88

.5872

.5208

.9885

.9802

— 0.8

.600

.327

1 79

1.54

.5853

'.5036

1.1604

1.1657

+ 0.5

.700

.376

1.54

1.31

.5790

.4926

1.3300

1.3489

+ 1.4

48 IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS. — ARCHIBALD.

If we compare the percentage differences of the above table
with the corresponding differences in the case of the constituent
simple solutions (Table IV, p. 45), it will be seen that the former
are in general equal to the arithmetic means of the latter. Hence
the depressions of the freezing-point of the mixtures have been
calculated with the same degree of accuracy as those of the
simple solutions.

The test which has thus been applied to Prof. MacGregor's
method of determining the ionization coefficients in a solution
containing two electrolytes with a common ion, and which the
method has completely satisfied, .is, however, not a severe one.
It was intended, after the experiments on equimolecular solu-
tions, to take up mixtures of solutions of different concentra-
tion with respect to the two electrolytes. Unfortunately I was
prevented from doing so by lack of time.

In conclusion, I wish to express my thanks to Prof.
MacGregor for valuable suggestions kindly given.

III. — ON THE CONDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND SURFACE
TENSION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS CONTAINING POTASSIUM
CHLORIDE AND SULPHATE. — BY JAMES BARNES, B. A.,

Dalhousie College, Halifax, N. S.

f Communicated on May 10th, 1899, by Prof. J. G. MacGregorJ

In papers read before this Society it has been shown that it
is possible, by the aid of the dissociation theory of electrolytic
conduction, to predict the conductivity and other physical pro-
perties of a' solution containing two1 chlorides or two2 sulphates,
with data as to the conductivity and the other physical properties
obtained by observations on simple solutions of these salts.

At Prof. MacGregor's suggestion,! have carried out the experi-
ments described in this paper, with the object of testing this
possibility for a solution containing a chloride and a sulphate
with a common cation.

The electrolytes selected were potassium chloride and sul-
phate. The observations on conductivity and specific gravity
were made by the writer, while "Rother's observations on surface
tension were used. The observations were made in the Physical
and Chemical Laboratories of Dalhousie College, Halifax, during
the session of J 898-99.

Apparatus and Methods. — Chemical Analysis.

The salts were obtained from Eirner & Amend of New York,
as chemically pure. They were re-crystallized twice. No traces
of iron or sodium were found in the salts. For the detection of
iron, the ammonium sulphocyanide test was applied ; for
sodium, the flame test.

The water used in making the solutions was puri-
fied , by boiling ordinary distilled water with a few

1 Mclntosh, Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 9, 120, 1805-6.
McKay, Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci.. 9, 321, 1897-8.

2 Archibald, Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 9, pp. 291, 307, 335.

3 Wied. Ann., 21, 576, 1884.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS.— D.

(49)

50 ON THE CONDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND

grammes of barium hydroxide in a copper boiler lined
with tin, and condensing in a block tin worm. The iirst
portion of about 200 cc. that came off, was always thrown
away. The water thus purified had at 18° C. a conductivity
ranging from .95 x 10~6 to 1.03 X 10~6 expressed in aKohlrausch's
new unit (Ohm"1 cm."1)

The amount of potassium chloride in a solution was deter-
mined volumetrically by Mohr's method. Two solutions of
KC1, about deci normal, were made by direct weighing of the
pure fused salt. These were employed in obtaining a standard
solution of Ag NO3. Weaker solutions of Ag N03 were
obtained by known dilution from this standard one. Neutral
potassium chromate was used as the indicator. The following
results will show with what accuracy this method of titration
could be performed :

(1) 1 cc. solution contained , 0.02444

(2) 1 cc. 0.02445

(3) 1 cc. " " 0.02448

Mean 0.024457

Thus it seems that results which differed from the mean
value by about 0.1 per cent could be obtained.

The amount of potassium sulphate in a solution was deter-
mined gravimetrically by precipitation writh barium chloride.
Results in this case were found to differ about 0.1 per cent from
the mean value, as shown in the following example : ,

(1) 1 cc. solution contained 0.05229

(2) 1 cc. 0.05238

(3) I cc. 0.05235

Mean 0.05234

The burettes and pipettes used in the above analyses were
calibrated by the weight of distilled water they delivered. The
burettes had a capacity of 50 cubic centimetres, and were gradu-
ated to a tenth of a cubic centimetre. By means of an Erdmann

3 Kohlrausch u. Holborn: Leitvermogen der Elektrolyte, 1898, p. 1.

SURFACE TENSION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 51

float one could read to 0.1 cc. Corrections for the volume of the
water contained between every two cubic centimetre marks
were found and plotted on co-ordinate paper against the reading.
The pipettes were all employed as much as possible in the same
way, and none required less than 40 seconds to flow out. Two
flasks holding a litre and a half litre respectively, were the only
ones used. These were calibrated by the weight of water they
held at 18° C.

Measurement of Specific Gravity.

The specific gravity observations were made with a pycno-
meter of the Ostwald-Sprengel form, holding about 22 cc. All
observations were made at 18° 0. To obtain this temperature it
was necessary, after filling the pycnometer with the solution at
about this temperature, to place it in the bath described below, in
which the temperature remained at 18° C. for a considerable time.
After remaining in the bath fifteen minutes or more the meniscus
was adjusted to the mark. If the meniscus now remained
stationary for a few minutes, the pycnometer was removed,
carefully cleaned and dried, and then weighed. The barometer
and thermometer readings in the balance case, where the air
was kept as dry as possible by means of calcium chloride, were
taken, and corrections applied for the buoyancy of air. The
specific gravity of a certain solution of potassium chloride was
found by this method to have the following values :

(1) 1.04455

(2) 1.04458

(3) 1.04449

(4) 1.04450

Mean 1.04453

Thus results which differed by about 5 in the fifth place of
decimals from the mean value could be obtained.

Measurement of Conductivity.

The method employed by Kohlrausch with the alternating
current and telephone was used.

52 ON THE CONDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND

TheWheatstone's bridge consisted of four resistance coils, which
were certified by Queen & Co., of Philadelphia, to be correct to
one-fiftieth of one per cent, and a platinoid bridge wire wound
on a marble drum. This wire had a resistance of about 0.9 ohm,
and was divided into ]000 parts, each part being capable of sub-
division by the eye into tenths. It was calibrated before and
after the observations, by ^trouhal and Barus's method, ten
german-silver wires of equal length, with ends firmly soldered
into stout copper wire being used. Corrections were plotted
against the length, and a smooth curve drawn through the
points, and thus intermediate readings could be corrected. The
greatest correction found was 1.2 divisions. The small induction
coil used had a very rapid vibrator, and was kept in an adjoining
room, that its noise might not interfere with the clearness of the
sound minimum in the telephone. The telephone recommended
by Ostwald, and made by Ericsson of Stockholm, was used.

With these appliances the minimum point could be deter-
mined to 0.3 of a division, corresponding to an error of 0.12 per
cent in the determination of the resistance at the centre of the
bridge, and 0.16 per cent at the point farthest from the centre
used in the experiments.

Electrolytic Cell.

The cell in which the solutions were placed for the determina-
tion of the resistance was of the Arrhenius form, a deep cylindri-
cal vessel, of diameter 3 cm., and depth 14 cm. The electrodes
were of stout platinum foil, firmly joined by heavy platinum
wire to the glass tubes. These electrodes after being well-cleaned
with alcohol and a strong solution of sodium hydroxide, were
platinized in a solution of platinum chloride and lead acetate.
This solution was prepared from 2Lumrner and Kurlbaum's
recipe. When the electrodes had received a good coating of
platinum black, they were removed and well washed in hot water.

Stout copper wires, well insulated, connected this cell with
the Wheatstone bridge. They had a resistance of .023 ohm.

1 Wied Ann., 10, 326, 1880.

2 Wied. Ann., 60, 315, 1897.

SURFACE TENSION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 53

These wires, and also those between the induction coil and .
the Wheatstone bridge, were run parallel and close together to
diminish any effects from self-induction.

Reduction Factor.

The capacity of the electrolytic cell was obtained by plotting
the conductivities obtained against the concentrations. l Kohl-,
rausch's values of the conductivity for various concentrations of
the same salt were plotted to the same scale on the same co-
ordinate paper. The ratio of the two conductivities for the same
concentration gives the factor by which the observed values are
reduced to the standard employed by Kohlrausch. This ratio
was found to be practically the same for both electrolytes,
and in the case of both, constant throughout my range of

dilution.

Bath.

As the conductivity of a solution varies with the temperature,
it was necessary to have a bath whose temperature could be kept
constant for a sufficient time in which to make the measurement.
Tap water, kept continually stirred by a mechanical stirrer
driven by a small hydraulic motor, made an excellent bath. A
thermostat was not found necessary ; for, as the temperature of
the room was generally near 18° C., the temperature of the bath
would not change one-fiftieth of a degree in thirty minutes.
The thermometer used was graduated to a fiftieth, and could
easily be read to a hundredth, of a degree. This thermometer
had had its errors determined at the Physikalisch-Technische
Reichsanstalt, Berlin.

All solutions were allowed to remain in the bath ten minutes
at least before observations were taken. After a few minutes
another observation of the resistance was taken. This was done
to insure that the solution had taken the temperature of the
bath.

• Preparation of Sim/ile Solutions.

The method adopted was to make up a few solutions of
different concentrations of each salt. These solutions were care-

1 Kohl. u. Hoi., loc. tit., p. 159, tab. 2.

54 ON THE CONDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND

fully analysed. Seventy-five cc. of a solution was introduced
into the electrolytic cell, and successive dilutions prepared therein
by the withdrawal of a certain volume and the addition of an
equal volume of water at the temperature 18° C. This process
was continued till the dilution reached that of the next formerly
prepared solution, when the new one was introduced and the
same process repeated. After each solution had gone through
two dilutions the volume removed was analysed, the result
serving as a check upon the calculated strength of the solution

in the cell.

Preparation of Mixtures of Solutions.

Simple solutions of each electrolyte were prepared and
analysed. These were kept in the bath till they had taken the
temperature 18° C , when 50 cc. of each solution was removed,
and the two mixed. The 50 cc. pipette used was thoroughly
washed with a portion of the solution before the removal.

Results of Conductivity Observations on Simple Solutions.

For the purpose of calculating the ionization coefficients of
the salts in the mixture, it is necessary to draw curves for
-simple solutions of each salt, showing the relation of the dilution
to the ionic concentration. The following tables give the data
for the drawing of these curves, obtained from observations on
the concentrations and conductivities of a number of solutions
of each salt.

The dilutions are expressed in terms of litres per gramme
equivalent at 18° C. The atomic weights used were relative to
oxj^gen (16.00) and the same as employed by 1 Kohlrausch. The
specific conductivities are those at 18° C, expressed in terms of
10~* times Kohlrausch's new unit (Ohm-^m."1)

The concentrations of ions are the quotients obtained by
dividing the specific conductivities by the specific molecular
conductivities at infinite dilution. 2 Kohlrausch's values for the
specific molecular conductivities at infinite dilution were used,
namely, for potassium chloride 1312 X lO"*. and potassium sul-
phate, 1350 x 10-*.

1 Kolil. u. Hoi., lot: cit., p. 205, tab. 14.

2 Ibid., p. 200, tab. 8.

SURFACE TENSION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 55

TABLE T.— POTASSIUM CHLORIDE (KC1).

DILUTION.

SPECIFIC
CONDUCTIVITY.

CONCENTRATION
OF IONS.

497.4

2.540

.00194

331.6

3.789

.00298

221.1

5.646

.00430

147.4

8.362

.00637

98.26

12.44

.00948

93.46

13.06

.00995

62.25

19.35

.0147

41.50

28.61

.0218

27.72

42.44

.0323

22.50

51.78

.0395

18.48

62.39

.0475

15.44

74.05

.0564

15.00

76.10

.0580

10.30

108.7

.0829

10.00

111.8

.0852

6.866

159.5

.122

4.577

234.2

.178

3.051

243.8

.262

2.024

506.1

.386

1.383

724.9

.553

1.046

939.8

.716

.922

1056

.805

TABLE H.-POTASSIUM SULPHATE (iK2SO4).

DILUTION.

SPECIFIC
CONDUCTIVITY.

CONCENTRATION
OF IONS.

9.661

99.22

.0735

3.336

253.4

.187

2.596

313.2

.232

1.068

458.3

.339

1.298

570.3

.422

56

ON THE CONDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND

These were the only observations made upon potassium sul-
phate, because E. H. Archibald1 had made a sufficient number of
observations on solutions of this salt, and his results were found
to agree with mine. Archibald's results were expressed differ-
ently. The atomic weights used for determining his dilutions
were relative to Hydrogen. These dilutions can be changed
to the above by multiplication by the factor 1.0026. His
specific conductivities were expressed in terms of 10~8
times the specific conductivity of mercury at 0° C. These values
of the conductivity can be expressed in Kohlrausch's new unit
by multiplication by 1.069xl()4. The new values for the
concentration of ions can thus be calculated as in the former case.
The following table gives the reduced results :

TABLE III.— POTASSIUM SULPHATE.

DILUTION.

SPECIFIC
CONDUCTIVITY.

CONCENTRATION
OF IONS.

100.26

11.72

.00868

66.85

16.87

.0125

40.11

27.27

.0202

as. 42

32.26

.0239

20.06

51.18

.0379

15.67

63.72

.0472

12.54

78.30

.0580

10.03

95.58

.0708

8.628

110.7

.0820

7.193

130.7

.0968

5.990

152.6

.118

4.991

179.5

.133

3.466

244.4

.181

2.888

286.2

.212

2.407

334.8

.248

2.079

380.7

.282

2.005

392.8

.291

1.444

523.8

.388

1.203

610.2

.452

1.003

716.8

.531

1 Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. (2), 3, Sec. 3, 69, 1897-8.

SURFACE TENSION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 57

Method of Calculating the Conductivity of Mixtures.

According to the dissociation theory the specific conductivity
of a mixture of two solutions of electrolytes is given by the
equation

where v^, v^ are the volumes, and njt ??2 the concentrations of
the solutions mixed, n0il, 1*^2 the specific molecular conductivi-
ties of simple solutions of the electrolytes at infinite dilution,
«! and «2 the ionization co-efficients of the respective electro-
lytes in the mixture, and p is the ratio of the volume of the
mixture to the sum of the volumes of the constituent solutions.
This ratio was found, for the solutions used, to be practically
equal to the unity ; and as the volumes of the solutions mixed
were in all cases equal, the equation applicable to my experi-
ments becomes :

fe=i(«I»1Mooi4-«ansM0,9)-

Of the data requisite for calculating k, the n's were obtained by
chemical analysis, the «'s by Prof. MacGregor's method, while
the jw^'s, in the case of sufficient dilution, might be taken to be
the same in value as in the case of simple solutions of the respec-
tive electrolytes.

Determination of p.

As equal volumes of the simple solutions were mixed, the
ratio expressed by p is equal to the ratio of the mean specific
gravity of the constituent solutions to the specific gravity of the
mixture. By referring to the following Table IV, it is at once
seen that this ratio is practically equal to unity for the most
concentrated solutions examined.

58

ON THE CONDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND

TABLE IV.

SIMPLE SOLUTIONS.

SP. GR.

OK

MIXTURE.

CONCENTRATION.

SPECIFIC GKAVITY AT 18°.

MEAN
SP. GR.

i K2S04.

KC1.

i K2S04

KC1

.5998

.9558

1.0410

1.0445

1.0428

1.0427

.5998

.09454

1.0410

1 0045

1.0228

1.0229

.1035

.05412

1.0073

1.0026

1.0049

1.0050

Determination, of lonization Coefficients in the Mixtures.

The method of determining the coefficients of ionization of
the two electrolytes in a mixture has been fully described by
lProf. MacGregor. Curves are drawn showing the relation of
the dilution to the concentration of ions for simple solutions of
each salt. From these curves the concentration of ions and the
dilution in the regions of the mixture occupied by the respective
electrolytes are found by a graphical process, and the products
of these quantities give the ionization coefficients.

Results of Observation* and Calculations of Conductivity of

Mixtures.

Table V gives the necessary data for the calculation of the
conductivity of the mixtures examined, and the results obtained.
The concentrations of the constituent solutions are expressed in
terms of gramme-equivalent-i per litre at 18° 0. The regional
dilutions are in litres per gramme-equivalent at 18° C. The
specih'c conductivities are expressed as in Table I. The differ-
ences between the calculated and observed values of the
conductivity are given as percentages of the observed value.

1 Trans. X. S. lust. Sci., 9, 101, 1895-6.

SURFACE TENSION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 59
TABLE V.

Concentration of
Constituent Solutions.

Conccntrat'n
of Ions in
Mixture.

Regional Dilution.

Specific Conductivity of
Mixture.

i K2S04

KC1.

iK2so4

KC1.

Observed

Calcu-
lated.

IMff.
per cent-

.7707

.4941

.405

1.86

1.91

536.2

537.2

+ 0.18

•«

.09454

.264

2.22

3.03

354.1

354.5

+ 0.11

»

.05412

.251

2.37

3.18

337.9

337.8

-0.03

it

.01018

.235

2.55

3.43

317.9

317.2

-0.22

.5998

.9558

.528

1.01

1.45

684.0

695.9

+ 0.27

«

.09454

.220

2. 70

3.69

295.5

296.1

+ 0.20

i«

.05412

.206

2.98

3.S9

275.5

276.4

+ 0.32

»

.01018

.190

3.25

4.28

255.3

255.3

±0.00

.3853

.2470

.218

2.79

3.73

288.7

289.9

+ 0.41

M

.02706

.138

4.75

5.97

184.0

184.6

+ 0.32

.2999

.2470

.183

3.21

4.23

258.6

257.7

-0.35

.1035

.9558

.400

1.38

1.94

524.3

525.2

+ 0.17

••

.4941

.233

2.58

3.47

303.4

303.8

+ 0.16

>«

.05412

.0611

11.8

14.3

81.51

8137

+ 0.18

ii

.01018

.0431

17.4

20.4

58.42

58.27

-0.26

.05175

.02706

.0324

24.2

27.6

43.48

43.50

+ 0.05

i<

.00509

.0231

24.7

39.4

31.11

31.04

-0.23

From this table it appears that the difference between the
calculated and observed values of the conductivity for all the
mixtures examined, is within, or but little beyond, the limit of the
error of observation, which is estimated at about 0.25 per cent.

GO ON THE CONDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND

It might be well to note that in each series having a constant
concentration of potassium sulphate, the differences seem to
change from a negative to a positive per cent.1

Considering the many sources of error in the calculations of
the conductivity, the agreement between the observed and
calculated values is very satisfactory, and leads one to draw the
conclusion that the conductivity of mixtures of solutions of these

1 Note by the communicator of the paper.— Mr. Barnes points out that in series of
mixtures whose constituent solutions have in the case of one electrolyte the same con-
centration (n i say) in all. and in that of the other a variable concentration (n% say), the
excess (e) of the calculated over the observed value of the conductivity increases with
n-2, being usually negative for small values of n% and positive for larger values. At
first sight it might appear that he had over-estimated his limit of error, and that the
conductivity was thus shown to be calculable only for a particular value of n% in each
case. There are, however, two sources of error which will account for this regular
progression in the relative magnitude and sign of the e's, viz.. (1) The employment,
of the quotients of the specific equivalent conductivity by the specific equivalent con-
ductivity at infinite dilution (///,«») as the values of the ionization coefficients (a)
for simple solutions, and (2) the impossibility of drawing with perfect accuracy the
dilution-ionic-concentration curves. The more concentrated the solutions the greater
will/>/«ao differ from « ; and the greater tho liability to error in the drawing of the
curves the greater the possible error in the determination of the ionization coefficients
of the electrolytes in the mixture. The dilution-ionic-concentration curves are nearly
rectilinear for very weak and for strong solutions but curve rapidly in the region of
moderate dilution, and it is in this region that it is most difficult to draw them
accurately. Hence in the case of strong solutions, the magnitude and sign of the e's will
be determined largely by the error due to using values of fi//iiao as the ionization coeffi-
cient* of the simple soi ut ions. In the case of moderately dilute solutions they will be
determined by both sources of error. In the case of dilute solutions neither source of
error will have so large an effect on the result. Hence a regular progression of the e's
the same in kind, may be expected in different series of mixtures of strong solutions of
two given electrolytes ; a regular progression may be expected also in series of moder-
ate dilution, but since the error due to inaccurate drawing of curves will depend on the
portion of the curve which is used, it may be different in kind for different series ; and
in sufficiently dilute solutions no regular progression is likely to occur. The most of
Mr Barnes' series are of moderate dilution, and in all of them the e's show a regular
progression of the same kind, as they would if the errors involved did not conflict in
sign, or if the error due to the one source were large relatively to that due to the other.
His series of dilute solutions exhibit the same progression in the e's, but they consist of
only two mixtures each. In my calculations of the conductivity of mixtures of
NaCl and KC1 solutions (Trans N. S. I. S., 9, 116), the three more concentrated series
showed a progression of the e's of the same kind, the two weakest series showed no
progression. In Mr. Macintosh's calculations (Ibid., 9, 132), for HC1 and XaCl,
the two stronger series gave a progression of the same kind, the weakest no progression.
And in Mr. Archibald's calculations (/6»W.,9, 299), for K2So4 and NaaS04 solutions, the
four stronger series gave progressions of the e's, differing in kind, and the three series
of weaker solutions gave either a very doubtful progression or no progression at all.
All these results are thus consistent with the assumption that this regular progression in
the e's is due ma nly at least to the two sources of error mentioned above. J. G. M.

SUKFACE TEIS7SION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 61

salts up to an average concentration of 0.8 gramme-equivalent
per litre at least, can be predicted within the limit of error of
tny observations.

Specific Gravity and Surface Tension.

Prof. MacGregor1 has proposed, in the case of simple solutions
of electrolytes, so dilute that the ions and the undissociated
molecules may be regarded as without mutual action, to express
any of their physical properties, such as specific gravity, surface
tension, &c , by the following formula :

P=PW +k (l-«) n + l>i n,

where P is the numerical value of the property for the solution,
Pw that of the same property for water under the same physical
conditions, n the concentration expressed in gramme-equivalents
per unit volume, « the ionization coefficient of the electrolyte
in the solution, and k and I constants, called ionization constants.

He has also shown how to predict the value of any such
property for a mixture of simple solutions, by the aid of the
ionization constants determined for the simple solutions.2

1 Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci , 9, 219, 1896.

2 Note by the communicator of the paper.— The fact that values of k and I in the
above formula can be found which make the formula represent the observed values of
a property for simple solutions of an electrolyte has of course little theoretical interest.
The ionization coefficient, a, is a complex function of the concentration, n. If expressed
in terms of powers of n the expression would involve several powers. (See Trans. N. S.
I. S., 9, 112). The above expression for P is thus equivalent to an expression in terms
of three or more powers of n with coefficients which are functions of constants deter-
mined by the electrical character of the electrolyte and of two additional arbitrary
constants. As the concentration curves of specific gravity and surface tension for
solutions are but slightly curved, it is thus to be expected that the above expression
would represent them. It is of theoretical interest, however, to find whether, when the
ionization constants for any property have been determined for simple solutions of
two electrolytes, it is possible to predict the value of the property for mixtures by the
method referred to. For (1) there are no arbitrary constants in the expression by
which the prediction is made, (2) the expression itself is derived from the dissociation
theory, and (3) the ionization coefficients of the electrolytes in the mixture, involved in
the expression, are determined by a direct application of that theory. I think it well to
make this remark because several reviewers of former papers have written under the
apprehension that the k's and I's of the expression for the value of a property for a
mixture (see p. 65 of this paper) were arbitrary constants determined by the observa-
tions on the mixtures. They are, however, the ionization constants .already determined
by observations on simple solutions. J. G. M.

G2 ONf THE CONDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND

In what follows I endeavor to ascertain whether or not the
above formula is applicable to the specific gravity and surfaec
tension of simple solutions of KC1 and K2S04 and whether or
not it is possible to predict the values of these properties for
mixtures of such solutions.

The observations of specific gravity requisite for this purpose
were made by the writer in the way described above.

On surface tension Rother's observations were used. They
were made at 15°C and his values are therefore not strict!}'
comparable with calculated values based on ionization coefficients
for 18°C. I have, however, reduced a few of the ionization co-
efficients of the salts to 1 5°C, by using temperature coefficients,
and found that the difference between the values for the two
different temperatures is not sufficient to cause any appreciable
error in my calculated results. Rother's paper has sufficient
data for determining the concentration in gramme-equivalents
per litre, with atomic weights as used in Table I. Rother
regards his observations as possibly in error by +5 to +8 in
the third place of decimals. The surface tension of the water
he used was 7.357.

The following table, VI, contains the ionization coefficients
for simple solutions, used in the calculations. They were
obtained either from direct observations on the conductivity of
the solution or by interpolation of the results of Tables I — III.
The concentrations are expressed in gramme-equivalents per litre
at 18°C.

JKohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., pp. 195-19y, Table 7.

SUUFACE TENSION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 63

TABLE VI.

KC1.

4K2 SO4.

Concentration.

lonization Co-
efficient.

Concentration.

lonization Co-
efficient.

,01018

.932

.0517

.756

.05412

.880

.1035

.710

09454

.854

.2098

.666

.2185

/

.817

.2999

.626

.3400

.794

.3209

.617

.4941

.780

.3853

.603

.6851

.769

.4277

.594

.9558

.749

.5817

.569

1.046

.743

.5998

.566

1.085

.742

.7047

.558

1.428

.723

.7707

.549

2.138

.705

.8000

.545

1.2125

.526

Determination of the lonization Constants.

The values of the ionization constants (k and 1} for either
property of either salt were found by the method of least
squares from the data of Tables VII and VIII for the four
weakest solutions, for the specific gravity and surface tension
respectively. The values thus found were employed in calcu-
lating the values of the properties of the various mixtures.

Results of the Calculations on' Simple Solutions.

Tables VII and VIII contain the results of the calculations
from the above formula for the two properties.

The concentrations are expressed as in the tables above.

ON THE CONDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND

TABLE VII.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 18° C. REFERRED TO WATER AT 18° C.

K Cl.

k=. 045775, l = . 048251.

*K2S04.
A =.062911. 1= 073959.

Concen-
tration.

Observed
Value.

Calculated
Value.

Difference.

s 5
•23

l|

O—1
O

.0517

Observed
Value.

C alculated
Value.

Difference.

.01018

1.00045

1.00049

+ 0.044

1.00374

1.00369

-0.045

.05412

1.00259

1.00259

±0.040

.1035

1.00731

1.00732

+ 0.041

.09454

1.00452

1.00454

+ 0.042

.2999

1.02088

1.02093

+ 0.045

.2185

1.01045

1.01044

-0.041

.3853

1.02683

1.02680

-0.043

.4941

1.02351

1.02357

+ 0.046

.5998

1.04097

1.04149

+ 0.035

.9558

1.04453

1.04554

+ 0.021

.7707

1.05266

1.05457

+ 0.022

1.085

1.05066

1.05166

+ 0.021

TABLE VIII,
SURFACE TENSION AT 15° C.

KCl.
k=. 25067. l = . 12272.

i K2S04.
A; =.12302. l = . 15919.

Concen-
tration.

Observed
Value.

Calculated
Value

Difference.

Concen-
tration.

Observed
Value.

Calculated
Value.

6
B

E

b

I

Q
—0.001

.3400

7.411

7.408

-0.003

.2098

7.389

7.388

.6851

7.460

7.461

+ 0.001

.3209

7.402

7.404

+ 0.002

1.0459

7.518

7.520

-f-0.002

.4277

7.419

7.419

±0.000

1.4280

7.584

7.583

—0.001

.5817

7.441

7.440

-0.001

2.1829

7.705

7.707

+ 0.002

.7047

7.458

7.458

±0.000

.8000

7.459

7.471

+ 0.012

1.2125

7.529

7.529

±0.000

SURFACE TENSION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 65

From Table VII it seems that the specific gravity of solutions
of these salts between the concentration of about 0.01 and 0.5
can be calculated by aid of the formula and with the values of
k and I given, while for surface tension (Table VIII) the calcula-
tion seems possible from a concentration of 0.2 to 1.0.

Mixtures of Solutions.

For a solution containing two salts, the equation for the
value of a property, if there is no change of volume on mixing,
is of the form

vi ' V2

where the ris are the concentrations of the constituent solutions,
the as the ionization coefficients of the respective electrolytes
in the mixture, and the -y's the volumes of the constituent solu-
tions, the electrolytes being indicated by 1 and 2.

The ionization coefficients of the salts in the mixture are
obtained by the before-mentioned graphical method from the
same curves as were used in the conductivity determinations for
mixtures of solutions of these salts. The k's and I's are the
ionization constants obtained for the simple solutions, and given
in Tables VII and VIII.

For the specific gravity measurements, equal volumes of the
constituent solutions were mixed ; while Rother mixed equal
weights of the simple solutions. He, however, gives sufficient
data for the calculation of the concentration and volume of the
constituent solutions.

The following table contains the requisite data for deter-
mining the values of the two properties from the above equa-
tion, and also, for the comparison of the results thus calculated
with the observed values. The volumes of the constituent
solutions in Table X, are expressed in litres at 18°C. The
concentrations are expressed as in the former tables.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS.— E.

66 CONDUCTIVITY, ETC,, OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.

TABLE IX.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 18° C. REFERRED TO WATER AT 18° C.

Concentration of
Constituent Solutions.

lonization Coefficients
in Mixture.

C3

•9S

?^s

-d <o

Ifi

cs ce

i

P

r

2

tS

|

a

G

iK2SO4.

KCl.

iK2SO4.

KCl.

O

O

0

.1035

.01018

.750

.879

1.00389

1.00393

+ 0.04 4

,.

.05412

.721

.874

1.00497

1.00496

-0.04 1

.7707

.09454

.586

.800

1.02899

1.02899

i0.04 0

.5998

.9558

.533

.766

1.04271

1.04341

+ 0.08 7

TABLE X.
SURFACE TENSION AT 15° C.

Constituent Solutions.

Tonization
Coefficients
in Mixture.

Observed
Value.

~3

Jji. Calculated
w Value.

Difference.

Conceatration.

Volume.

iK2SO4.

KCl.

J K2SO4.

KCl.

JK2SO4.

KCl.

.7243

.2718

.49124

.50902

.581

.769

7.438

-0.003

.2423

.7483

.50535

.49466

.569

.788

7.447

7.430

-0.017

.8917

.6869

.49330

.50693

.535

.763

7.471

7.475

+ 0.004

.4921

1.7115

.51100

.48989

.470

.742

7.527

7.529

+ 0.002

1.1936

1.4158

.49646

.50354

.445

.740

7.554

7.550

-0.004

According to Table IX it appears that the specific gravity of
a solution of these salts from an average concentration of about
0.05 to 0.5 can be calculated by the above formula, and with the
above values of the ionization constants.

From Table X this formula applies for surface tension of
solutions of these salts from a concentration of 0.5 to 1.3.

Summary of Results.

According to the above results it is possible, by the aid of
the dissociation theory and with data obtained from the simple
solutions, to predict the conductivity, specific gravity and surface
tension, of fairly dilute solutions of potassium chloride and
potassium sulphate, within the limit of experimental error.

IV. — ON FINDING THE lONIZATION OF COMPLEX SOLUTIONS OF

GIVEN CONCENTRATION, AND THE CONVERSE PROBLEM : By
PROF. J. G. MACGREGOR, Dalhousie College, Halifax, N. S.

(Received September 30th, 1S99.)

In a paper communicated to this Institute in 1895,1 I
described a method of determining the ionization coefficients of
two electrolytes, with one ion in common, in the same dilute
aqueous solution. The method described was developed in the
study of complex solutions which had been formed by the
mixture of simple solutions of known concentration, and involves
a knowledge of their concentrations. Even if the complex solu-
tions have not been formed in this way, but have been prepared,
say, by the addition of known quantities of the electrolytes to a
known quantity of water, they may always be imagined to have
been formed by mixture of simple solutions ; and in the usual
case in which the solutions are so dilute that no change of
volume would have occurred in forming them by mixture, the
concentrations of the simple solutions by the mixing of which
the given complex solution might be formed, can readily be
determined. But a simple modification of the method renders
it applicable in such cases directly ; and when so modified, its
application is found both to require fewer data with respect to
the conductivity of simple solutions of the electrolytes involved,
and to be subject to fewer sources of error, than in its old form.
As modified also, it is found to be readily applicable conversely
to the determination of the concentration which such complex
solutions must have in order that they may have any given
possible state of ionization.

In the present paper, I wish to describe this modified form
of the method, and to point out how it may be used in deter-

iTrans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 9, 101, 1895-96: See also Phil. Mag. (5), 41, 276, 1896, and Trans.
Roy. Soc. Can., (2), 2, sec. 3, 65, 1896-7.

(67)

68 IONIZA.TTON OF COMPLEX

mining concentration when state of ionization is given. And I
take this opportunity also, of comparing it with two other
methods which have recently been employed, of determining the
ionization coefficients for solutions of the same degree of com-
plexity.

Determination of the ionization, concentrations being given.

It was shown in the papers cited above, that if the two
electrolytes in a complex solution may be supposed to occupy
distinct portions or regions of the solution, if the law of kinetic
equilibrium may be supposed to be applicable both to these
regions singly and to the whole volume of the solution, and if
the concentration of ions of each electrolyte in its own region
may be supposed to depend at a given temperature on the dilu-
tion of the electrolyte in its region, merely, and to depend on
dilution in the same way as in the case of a simple solution of
the same electrolyte, the relations between the ionization coeffi-
cients, the amounts of the electrolytes present, and the dilutions
which they must be supposed to have in their fictitious regions,
may be expressed by four equations. If we denote the electro-
lytes by 1 and 2, the concentrations (in gramme-equivalents
per litre) of the solution with respect to them by Nx and N2
respectively, their ionization coefficients by al and a2 and their
regional dilutions (in litres per gramme-equivalent) by V l and
V2 respectively, these equations take the form :

(1)

N1V1 + N2V2 = 1 , ... (2)

' • • (3)

V5), - - - (4)

the functions f^ and/2 being determinable by means of suffi-
ciently extended observations of the conductivity of simple
solutions of 1 and 2 respectively.

SOLUTIONS. — MACGREGOR. 69

The first equation is given by the law of kinetic equili-
brium. It may be expressed as follows : The regional ionic
concentrations of the two electrolytes, i. e , the numbers of their
free gramme-ions per unit volume of their respective regions, are
equal. The second states that the volume of the solution is
equal to the sum of the volumes of the regions of the respective
electrolytes. The third and fourth assert that the regional
ionic concentrations are functions of the respective regional
dilutions.

As f and f are very complex functions, these equations
could not be solved algebraically even if the functions were
known. They can be solved graphically, however, without
actually determining what the functions are.

For this purpose we first find, from conductivity obser-
vations made on simple solutions of 1 and 2 respectively,
corresponding values of dilution and ionic concentration for a
sufficient number of solutions of each, and plot dilution-ionic-
concentration curves, i. e., curves with dilutions as ordinates
and ionic-concentrations as abscissse. To get precise values of
the ionization coefficients for the complex solutions, these curves
must be accurately drawn. They have, very roughly speaking,
the shape of rectangular hyperbolas, and thus, both at great
dilution and at great concentration, have but slight curvature,
while at moderate dilution they have very rapid curvature. In
working with solutions at moderate dilution therefore, it is
necessary to have a considerable number of corresponding
values of dilution and ionic concentration, in order to plot the
curves accurately. When but few are available, it is helpful to
plot first a concentration-ionic-concentration curve, i. e., one
having concentrations of solutions as ordinates and ionic-con-
centrations as abscissae. As the dilution- ionic-concentration
curves are something like rectangular hyperbolas, the concen-
tration-ionic-concentration curves have comparatively slight
curvature, and thus lend themselves readily to interpolation.
Corresponding values of concentration and ionic concentration
obtained from these curves, when the concentrations are trans-
formed into dilutions, may be used to eke out the values

70

IONIZATION OF COMPLEX

obtained from the few available observations. In some cases
also Kohl rausch's a observation may be utilised, viz., that the
curves obtained by plotting equivalent conductivity against
linear concentration (i.e., the cube root of the concentration),
are for univalent salts, through considerable ranges, practically
rectilinear.

The dilution-ionic-concentration curves, having been drawn
for the simple solutions (curve A for electrolyte ], and B for 2,
in the figures below), the problem resolve itself into finding two
points, one on each curve, having, according to equation (1), the
same abscissa, and having ordinates which satisfy the condition
of equation (2). This may be done of course by inspection,
but more accurately, and usually more quickly, by one or other
of several graphical processes.

(1.) Plot a new curve
C (Fig. 1) with the
same abscissae as A
and B, but with ordi-
nates equal to the sum
of Nj times the ordi-
nates of A and N2
times the ordinates of
B. Then draw the
straight line F G par-
allel to the axis of

— , . ionic concentrations

3"' and at a distance

unity from it (I assume for simplicity that the dilutions and
ionic concentrations have been plotted to the scale unity). Let
F G cut C in G ; and through G draw the straight line G J par-
allel to the axis of dilutions and cutting A and B in I and H
respectively. I and H are the two points required. For they
have the same abscissa O J, and their ordinates, I J and H J,
are such that

Nx. 1 J + N2. HJ = GJ = 1.

Then ar =OJ . IJ, and4a2 = OJ.HJ.

'Wied. Ann., 26, 201, 1885.

SOLUTIONS. — MACGREGOR.

71

(2.) As equation (2; may be written :

+

we may proceed as follows : —

Plot a new curve D
(Fig. 2) with the same
abscissae as A and B,
but with ordinates
equal to the sum of
the ordinates of A and
N2/NL times the or-
dinates of B. Draw
K L parallel to the
ionic-concentration
axis and at a distance
1/N1 from it, and let
it cut D in L. Draw

L Q parallel to the dilution axis and cutting A and B in

P and M respectively. P and M are the two points required.

For they have the same abscissa 0 Q, and their ordinates, P Q

and M Q, are such that

Then

NX N/

a, = OQ.PQ,anda2 = OQ.MQ.

(3) Plot a new curve
E (Fig 3), having the
same abscissae as A and
B, but with ordinates
equal to Na/Nj times the
ordinates of B. Draw
R S parallel to the axis
of ionic concentrations
and at a distance from
it of l/(2 N t). Find, by
inspection, the line T Y
parallel to the axis of

72 IONIZATION OF COMPLEX

dilutions, of which the intercept T X, between the curves A and
E, is bisected by R S, W being the point of bi-section. Let T Y
cut B in U. X and U are the points required. For they have
the same abscissa 0 Y, and their ordinates, X Y and U Y, are
such that

XY +-^2 UY= 2WY =

N! ]N1

Then ot = OY. XY, and a2 = OY. U Y.

The second and third of these methods involve less arith-
metical work, and are less liable to error, than the first, and the
second does not require the procedure by inspection which is
required by the third. The second is therefore the most satis-
factory. But the limited area of co-ordinate paper frequently
gives the third a practical advantage.

Only such portions of the curves A, B, C,D, E, need be drawn
of course as may be seen by inspection to be required for the
purpose in hand.

Determination of Ihe concentration, when the required
ionization is given.

The determination of the concentration which must be given
a complex solution in order that it may have any required state
of ionization, is of importance as facilitating the conducting
of research based on the dissociation theory of electrolysis.

It is not sufficient for the determination of the concentra-
tion which the solution must have with respect to the two
electrolytes, that the required ionization coefficients al and aa
should be given, because they are not independent. For a given
value of al the regional ionic concentration of electrolyte 1 has
a determinate value, which may be found by plotting a curve
for simple solutions of 1, with ionization coefficients as ordinates
and ionic concentrations as abscissae. The regional ionic con-
centration of electrolyte 2, must by equation vl) be the same as
that of electrolyte 1 ; and since it is thus determined, the ioniza-
tion coefficient, a2, can have but one value which may be found
by the aid of an ionization-coefficient-ionic-concentration curve

SOLUTIONS. — MACGREGOR. 73

for electrolyte 2. Thus any one of the quantities alt a2, and
the common regional ionic concentration, which is of course
equal to the total ionic concentration of the whole solution,
being given, the others may be found, if we have sufficient data
as to the conductivity of the simple solutions.

Even if the ratio only of the ionization coefficients is given,
the state of ionization is in many cases completely determined.
For as

fi ^_
V ~ V '

» 1 > 2

we have —*— = — l-t

a2 V2

and the dilution-ionic-concentration curves are frequently of
such forms that a given value of Vj/V^ corresponds to a definite
value of \T! and V2, which may be found by inspection of the
curves.

Some datum in addition to the state of ionization is there-
fore requisite, if the concentration of the solution is to be fully
determined. It may be the concentration with respect to one
of the electrolytes, or the ratio of the concentrations with
respect to the two, or the total concentration, or any such func-
tion (the conductivity for example) of the concentrations with
respect to the two. If the state of ionization is not fully given,
an additional datum is obviously required.

(1.) Given the required state of ionization and the concen-
tration with respect to one electrolyte : to find the concentration
with respect to the other. — A and B (Fig. 3) being the dilution-
ionic-concentration curves, OY is given; and Nt being also
given, we have only to find N2/Nt in order to determine N2.
From Y draw YT parallel to the dilution-axis, cutting A and
B in X and U respectively. Draw the line R S parallel to the
axis of ionic concentrations and distant from it by l/(2 Nt). Let
R S cut Y T in W. Cut off W T equal to X \V. Then T Y/UY
will be the value of N^N^ (The curve E in Fig. 3 is of course
not required.)

(2.) Given the required state of ionization and the ratio of

74 IONIZATION OF COMPLEX

the concentrations with respect to the two electrolytes : to find
the concentrations. — As before, OY (,Fig. 3) is given. From Y
draw Y T parallel to the dilution axis, making it of such length
that T Y/U Y is equal to the given ratio of the concentrations
NN. Bisect X T in W. Then

N2 also may therefore be found.

(3.) Given the required state of ionization and the total
concentration (N l + N2) or the difference of the concentrations
(Nj — N2): to find Nt and N2. — The state of ionization being
given, not only are al and a2 known, but also the total ionic
concentration, al Nj + «2 Na, which is equal to the regional
ionic concentration common to the two electrolytes. Nt and N2
may therefore be determined.

(4.) Given the required state of ionization in a solution which
is to have a given conductivity : to find the concentrations Nt
and N2. — As in (3), a^ a2, and ax Nt + a2 Ns are known. The
conductivity is expressed by the equation :

k = al N^j + «2 N2 ^2,

the /"a/8 being the equivalent conductivities, at infinite dilution,
of simple solutions of 1 and 2, and being thus known. Nt and
N2 may therefore be determined.

Other methods of determining the ionization for complex

sol at ions.

(1.) Schrader1 has attempted to determine the ionization
coefficients for solutions containing two electrolytes with a com-
mon ion, by a combination of observations of their conductivity
and their electrolysis. The expression of the dissociation theory
for the conductivity of such a solution may be put into the
form :

JZur Elektrolyse von Gemischen, Inaug. Dies., Berlin, 1897.

SOLUTIONS. — MACGREGOR. 75

As al Nj and a2 N2 are the numbers of gramme-equivalents of
dissociated molecules of (1) and (2) respectively in unit volume
of the solution, and as i^aol and ^3, the respective equivalent con-
ductivities at infinite dilution, of simple solutions of 1 and 2,
may in sufficiently dilute solutions, whether simple or complex,
be regarded as equal to the velocity of either ion, relative to the
other, of 1 and 2 respectively, the quantity a2 N2 pw2/ al Nj pool
may be taken to be the ratio of the number of gramme-ions of
2 and 1 separating out primarily at the appropriate electrode,
during electrolysis. This ratio Schrader determined by electro-
lytic observations. Calling it x, we have :

k

a, =

kx

The values of the ionization coefficients obtained in this way
are affected not only by the error involved in the measurement
of conductivity, but by the more serious error involved in elec-
trolytic determinations. They cannot be expected therefore to
have any high degree of precision.

While Schrader determined the ionization coefficients for
solutions containing potassium chloride and iodide, and hydro-
gen and copper sulphates, and drew certain conclusions from
their relative magnitudes in each case, he made no attempt to
test the values obtained. They cannot of course be tested by
applying them to the calculation of the conductivity of the
solutions or the results of their electrolysis ; for these have been
used as data in their determination. But they mny be tested by
being compared with the values given \>y the method described
above. For the values given by this method have stood the test
of application to the calculation of the conductivity1, results of

1 MacGrcgor: Trans. N. S Inst. Sci., 9, 101, 1895-6.
Mclntosh : Ibid. 9, 120, 1895-96.
Archibald: Ibid. 9, 291 and 307, 1897-9S; and Trans. Roy. Soc.Can., (2), 3, sec. 3,

69, 1897-98.

McKay: Trans. N. S.Inst. Sci., 9, 321 and 343, 1897-98.
Barnes : Ibid., 10,49, 1898-99.

76

IONIZATION OF COMPLEX

electrolysis1, lowering of the freezing point2, specific gravity and
other physical8 properties, of complex solutions, in all cases
in which the attempt has been made, except in the case of
Schrader's solutions containing copper sulphate and sulphuric
acid, in which there can be little doubt that the acid sulphate
had formed. In the case of Schrader's solutions of potassium
iodide and chloride, his observations of conductivity and his
electrolytic observations have been shown to be consistent with
calculability though they are not sufficiently precise to demon-
strate it. We may thus fairly test Schrader's electrolytically
determined ionization coefficients by comparing them with those
obtained by the above method.

I have accordingly determined the coefficients for the four
solutions examined by him, and they are given in the following
table. In determining them I have used Kohlrausch's observa-
tions of the conductivity of simple solutions, and as the equiva-
lent conductivities at infinite dilution, not Kohlrausch's most
recent determinations, but those employed by Schrader. As
Schrader does not state at what temperature he made his
observations, he may be supposed to have made them at ordi-
nary laboratory temperature, which is not far removed from
Kohlrausch's temperature, 18° C.

Concentration
(gr.-eq. per litre)
with respect to

IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS.

SCIIRADKR'S.

MINE.

Difference per cent.

KI.

KC1.

KI.

KC1.

KI.

KCl.

KI.

KCl.

.02595

.02571

.857

.868

.915

.897

-6.3

-3.2

.03442

.04748

.866

.892

.886

.866

-2.3

+ 3.0

.03074

.06176

.861

.857

.879

.860

-2.0

-0.3

.01992

.03720

.819

.901

.907

.890

-9.7

+ 1.2

1MacGregor: Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., (2). 4, sec. 3, 117, 1898-99.
* Archibald: Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci , 10, 33, 1898-99.
3MacGregor: Ibid. 9, 219, 1896-97-

Archibald: Ibid., 9, 335, 1897-98.

Barnes : loc. cit.

SOLUTIONS. — MACGREGOR. 77

It will thus be seen that Schrader's coefficients differ from
mine by various amounts up to about 10 per cent., being in
most cases smaller, but in some greater. It should be noted also,
that while my coefficients are in all cases greater for the iodide
than for the chloride, Schrader's are in three out of four cases
greater for the chloride than the iodide.

(2) Kay1 has recently employed an approximation method
based upon one previously used by Arrhenius. As a first approxi-
mation the ionization coefficients of the two electrolytes in a com-
plex solution were assumed to be the same as they would be in
simple solutions of concentration equal to the total concentration
of the complex solution. The total concentration of ions of the
complex solution (equal to the regional ionic concentrations of
the respective electrolytes) was then calculated, and gave a first
approximation to the value of the regional ionic concentration.
From curves plotted with ionization coefficients of simple solu-
tions as ordinates and ionic concentrations of the same solutions
as abscissae, the values of the ionization coefficients correspond-
ing to the first approximation to the regional ionic concentra-
tions were read off and formed second approximations to the
ionization coefficients required. Calculation of the second
approximation to the total ionic concentration and a repetition
ot the above procedure gave a third approximation to the
ionization coefficients In dealing with solutions containing
sulphuric acid and a neutral sulphate, he found that in general
the second approximation was so close to the first that a third
was not necessary ; and he seems to have found that the third
in no case differed appreciably from the second.

As, in the case of electrolytes with a common ion, the varia-
tion of ionizatiou with dilution is in general not very different,
this method may be expected to give very closely approximate
results. By way of a test I have made a few determinations
for solutions containing zinc and potassium sulphates, using
Kohlrausch's conductivity data. The result is shown in the
following table in which zinc sulphate is indicated by 1 and

lProc. R. S. Edin., 22, 502, 1898-99.

78

COMPLEX SOLUTIONS. — MACGREGOR.

potassium sulphate by 2, concentration in gramme-equivalents
per litre by N, and ionization coefficient by a.

Nl

N2

BY KAY'S METHOD.

BY MY
METHOD.

1st
Approx.

2nd
Approx.

3rd
Approx.

4th
Approx.

al

a2

«l

«2

0,

«2

at

H2

al

«2

.01
.01
.002
.2
.4

.03
.04
.2
.002
.1

.509
.457
.342
.342
.276

.799
.759
.658
.658
.583

.469
.407
.281
.341
.259

.807
.766
.658
.712
.636

.470
.408
.282
.341
.260

.808
.767
.658
.712
.637

.469
.404
.280
.341
.256

.807
.777
.659
.712
.639

.260

.6£6

The above table shows that for the solutions to which it
applies, the ionization coefficients given by Kay's method agree
closely with those given by mine, the differences being in no
case greater than a little over 1 per cent., and in most cases a
small fraction of 1 per cent. It is worth noting that in the cases
in which a difference exists, the second approximation values of
Kay's method are in general less divergent from mine than those
given by higher approximations.

If Kay's method involved considerably less labour than mine
it would be worth while to carry out a more extensive com-
parison in order to determine its general trustworthiness. But
the saving of labour, after a little practice with my method, is so.
slight, that such a comparison is uncalled for. In cases in which
either the available data do not admit of the determination of
precise values of the ionization coefficients or only approximate
values are desired, sufficiently good values may be obtained,
with somewhat less trouble, by the use of Kay's method. But
in cases in which precise values are desired, and the data are
sufficiently exact to give them, the more exact method is to be
preferred, notwithstanding the slightly greater labour which it.
involves.

V. — NEW MINERAL DISCOVERIES IN NOVA SCOTIA. — BY EDWIN
GILPIN, JR., A. M., LL. D., F. R. S. C., Inspector of
Mines, Halifax, N. S.

(Read 13th March, 1899.)

The early operations in mining, metallurgy, engineering, etc.,
were much more simple than those of the present day. They
were based of course upon the same general principles that
underlie them to-day. The difference, however, in exactness and
precision have permitted of vastly greater and cheaper pro-
ductions. In smelting iron ore, for instance, the composition,
weight, and relative proportions of the fluxes, fuels, and ores, are
calculated to a nicety, so that the analysis and composition of
the resulting pig iron can be safely predicted. The direct out-
come of the application of exactness is the opportunity for
increasing and cheapening productions. The day of the rule of
thumb has passed in iron making as well as in other metallur-
gical processes.

In this Province we are to some extent interested in iron
ore, but at present the adaptability of our coals for coke making
is a subject of much enquiry. For many years coal was made
into coke by burning off its volatile ingredients in round ovens,
resembling bee hives, with more or less admission of air. The
matter driven off somewhat resembled in composition the gas
made in gas works, and contained a large amount of combus-
tible matter. The illuminating gas made in gas works was
produced from retorts into which no air was admitted during
the operation of heating. The problem was the production of
coke in ovens, on a large scale, equal to that used in the blast
furnace, and at the same time to secure the largest amount of gas,
or volatile matter, from the coking coal, with as little deteriora-
tion as possible from the admission of the nitrogen bearing
atmosphere.

(79)

80 NEW MINERAL DISCOVERIES IN NOVA SCOTIA. — GILPIX.

This problem has been gradually solved, and now it is
possible to produce a good coke, on a commercial basis, and at
the same time to save large volumes of gas adapted for illumin-
ating and heating purposes. No doubt many improvements
remain to be introduced.

The works of the Halifax Gas Company, at the North-West
Arm, are the first established on this side of the Atlantic to
carry out this principle, which has already been practised at
several places iii Europe. The experience gained here has led to
the establishment of an enormous plant on similar lines, to
supply gas in Boston. The result of this enterprise is being
watched with much interest in the United States, and its
success will lead to the establishment of similar plants at many
commercial centres. The application of gas in that country, for
engine power, and many other uses, was no doubt largely due
to the supply of natural gas available for many years. The
gradual decrease of natural gas excites interest in any scheme
proposed to fill its place.

The proposal to utilize Cape Breton coal in the new works at
Boston led to a number of tests of the coal as to its gas, coke
values, etc., as well as to the quantity and nature of the impuri-
ties present. This evening I propose to give briefly some results
arrived at, that they may be on record for comparison with
future tests I have also a few remarks on new discoveries of
ores in Nova Scotia.

At the Halifax works, the coal used is washed slack from the
Phalen and Harbor seams, of the Dominion Coal Company,
approximating GO per cent of fixed carbon. The gas is divided
into that available for illuminating purposes, and the poorer gas
to be used for heating the ovens, and for sale for heating
purposes. In 24 hours, 37 short tons yield 310,000 cubic feet of
gas, of which 100,000 cu. ft., 32.26 per cent, are illuminating gas,
and 210,000 cu. ft., 67.74 per cent, heating gas ; of the latter
170,000 cu. ft. are consumed in the process of coking, and the
balance 40,000 cu. ft. can be used as heating gas. A long ton
furnishes, on the average, 5 Ibs. ammonia gas, and 12 gallons,

NEW MINERAL DISCOVERIES IN NOVA SCOTIA. — GILPIN. 81

120 lbs.,of tar. The ammonia liquor is distilled with milk of
lirne, and furnishes a shipping ammonia liquor with 17 per cent
ammonia. The tar is available for distillation for creasote,
pitch, etc. Finally the coke, forming 75 per cent of the coking
charge, is available as a very excellent fuel. No doubt these
results will be improved on.

More interesting information is given by a test made of the
Harbor seam at the Glassport, Pa., ovens of the United Coke
and Gas Company* The coal used in these ovens was run of
mine from the Upper Youghiogheny River, with the following
composition : Moisture, 60 ; fixed carbon, 59.18 ; volatile matter,
33.01; ash, 7.21; phosphorus, .0071 ; total sulphur, 1.27. The
resulting coke, 74.2G per cent, had the following composition : —
Volatile matter, 1.00; carbon, 86.47; ash, 11.57; sulphur, .96 ;
phosphorus, .0107. A. net ton furnishes 10,000 cubic feet of gas,
of which 70 per cent is used for heating the ovens, and the
remainder is piped to steel works.

The coal from the Harbor seam was slack, washed in Cape
Breton, and at the time of coking contained as much as 9 per
cent of moisture, as the cars stood for some months exposed to
winter weather. As under normal conditions this percentage
would be very much less, allowances should be made for
purposes of comparison.

An average of several analyses gave the following as the
composition of the coal : —

Carbon 75.10

Hydrogen 3.75

Nitrogen 1.51

Oxygen, Sulphur 13.80

Ash . 5.84

100.00

Volatile matter 34.60

Fixed Carbon 59.56

Ash ... 5.84

100.00
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS.— F.

82 NEW MINEBAL DISCOVERIES IN NOVA SCOTIA. — GILP1N.

In the destructive distillation of coal the sulphur is divided
between the gas and the coke. From the former it can be
removed by increasing the purification plant, but its removal
from the latter is still practically an unsolved problem. It may
be said in general terms that about half the sulphur is usually
driven from the coal in the coking process.

As the sulphur in the coke is largely transmitted to the
pig iron made in a blast furnace, its presence in any large
amount is a serious matter. As yet, attempts to lessen the
amount of this impurity have been confined to taking advantage
of its higher specific gravity, as compared with that of coal, to
separate it more or less thoroughly by washing processes. In
this connection some figures on the practical use of Cape Breton
coke in the Ferrona furnace may be of interest. The percentage
of sulphur in the coal may occasionally reach 3 per cent ; again
it runs down to a few tenths of 1 per cent. This difference
exists between different layers of the same bed, and different
localities in the same mine. The average percentage is low.
The coke made from unwashed Dominion coal contains, as
impurities, 1.08 per cent of sulphur, and 8.2 per cent of ash.
Coals running higher in sulphur are washed before being coked.
In the manufacture of Bessemer pig the amount of phosphorus
in the coke is an important item. It is exceptionally low in
this coke, averaging .0028 per cent. The calorific value of the
dry fuel, containing 5.84 per cent of ash is, according to the
Dulong-Mahler formula, 12.437, B. T. U. The coke is of good
quality, hard and compact.

The pig iron has the following composition: —

Basic pig. Foundry pig.

Silicon 50 2 32

Manganese 87 .65

Phosphorus 1.23 1.20

Sulphur 017 .02

G. Carbon 3.64

C. Carbon .23

Iron ..97.00 9200

NEW MINERAL DISCOVERIES IN NOVA SCOTIA. — GILPIN. 83

In an oven 18 inches wide, if the coke be not required for
blast furnaces, the time of coking would be about 23 hours.

The following summary shows the results obtained per long
ton from a series of charges coked under usual working condi-
tions at Giassport : —

Lbs. Per cent.,

{large coke >!"• — 60.09 p. cent ^

small " I— 1" 1.64 " VI 593.4 71.13
dust " <|" 2.80 " j

Tar 75.7 3.38

Ammonia (1.373 per cent sulphate) 7.6 .34

Gas, total, 10,390 cu. ft. of .466 sp.gr 36S.O 16.43

Sulphur compounds in gas : —

Hydrogen Sulphide 10.8 .48

Carbon Disulphide 1.6 .07

Gas Liquor and Loss, by difference 182.9 8.17

Totals 2,240.0 100.00

Of the gas produced, 49.5 per cent was " surplus " gas, that is,
gas not required for heating the ovens. This had the following
composition : —

defines, Cm Hn 5.2

Marsh gas, C H4 38.7

Carbon monoxide, C 0 6.1

Carbon dioxide, C O2 .- . 3.6

Oxygen, O 3

Nitrogen, N 7.7

Hydrogen, H 38.4

100.0

Its calorific power, the hydrogen burnt to water, was 686
B. T. U., its candle power 14.7, and its specific gravity, .51.
The coke contains in addition to the fixed carbon, volatile matter,
1.27 ; ash, 8.91 ; phosphorus, .0041 ; moisture, 3.67. The ash
contains 27.71 per cent of silica, 13.04 per cent of aluminia, and
50.60 peroxide of iron, with small quantities of alkalies and
alkaline earths.

84 NEW MIINERAL DISCOVERIES IN NOVA SCOTIA. — GILPIN.

The yield of tar per long ton was 75.7 Ibs., or 3.38 per cent.

The following table shows its behaviour under fractional
distillation : —

Fractions. Temperature.

Light oil 80-170 3.7

Middle oil 170-230 9.8

Heavy oil 230-270 120

Anthacine oil over 270 43

Pitch 67.0

Water 2.3

Loss .9

As the ultimate analysis shows 1.51 per cent, of nitrogen in
the coal, and the .34 per cent, ammonia, 7.6 Ibs. per long ton, in
the gas liquor requires .28 per cent, nitrogen, it follows that 18.5
per cent, of the total nitrogen in the coal is converted into
ammonia, instead of usually 13£ to 15 per cent.

Three periods may be observed during the process of cok-
ing, in the composition and value of the gases given off. At
first the proportion of marsh gas (C H4) is high but gradually
lessens.

The following is the surplus gas produced during the first
14| hours :

Average calorific value 685.8 B. T. U.

Average illuminating value 14.7 C. P.

Volume per long ton 5143. C. F.

The oven heating gas produced during the remaining 19 hours
is as follows :

Average calorific value ........ 566.7 B. T. U.

Average illuminating value 9.0 C. P.

Average per long ton 5247.0 C. F.

The gas during the last few hours is very low in calorific and
candle power, but owing to its carrying a large per cent, of
hydrogen, it can after being purified, be enriched with benzole
or oil vapors and be added to the first gas. Practically, however,
the third gas is added to the oven heating gas, and the following
table shows the composition of the two : —

NEW MINERAL DISCOVERIES IN NOVA SCOTIA. — GILP1N. 85

First, or Second, or Avprac-n

Surplus Gas. Oven Gas. Av

Olefines .................. 5.2 2.4 3.8

Marsh Gas .............. 38.7 29.2 33.9

Hydrogen ................ 38.4 50.5 44.5

Carbon Monoxide .......... 6.1 6.3 6.2

Carbon Dioxide .......... 3.6 2.2 2.9

Oxygen ................... 3 .3 .3

Nitrogen ................ 7.7 9.1 8.4

100.0 100.0 100.0

The foregoing figures are interesting from a chemical stand-
point, but no doubt as experience is gained the results will be
modified and improved.

Oil shale in Cape Breton.

Experiments have been made recently on the oil values of
some shale deposits in Cape Breton County, which may appro-
priately follow the notes on the distillation of Cape Breton coals.
At Macadam's Lake, on the North side of East Bay, the lower
carboniferous measures rest on silurian and precambrian strata.
Here a number of beds of black lustrous shale are found
associated with conglomerates, gray shales, and sandstones
pitching heavily to the south, away from the older rocks.
These black shales are so highly charged with carbonaceous
matter as to be capable of combustion. Explorations have
shown a number of beds of this character from two to ten feet
in thickness, extending for several miles in an easterly and
westerly direction.

The following results are stated to have been obtained from
working tests. The distillation in retorts yields beside a little
water, a quantity of heavy oil, a little gas, and coke available for
fuel. The yield of oil is from 15 to 20 gallons per ton of 2000 Ibs.
In refining this crude distillate, the products may be divided
into different varieties, according to the market. A convenient
division yields 20 per cent kerosene, 20 per cent white spindle
or sewing machine oil, 40 per cent heavy lubricating oil, and
20 per cent pitch.

86 NEW MINERAL DISCOVERIES IN NOVA SCOTIA. — GILPIN.

The kerosene does not practically differ from ordinary
American petroleum kerosene. It refines white and is very free
burning. . White Spindle oils are the most costly in the market.
There are none, however, in the United States obtained from
petroleum so white and so heavy as this from East Bay. The
lubricating oil is heavy, while it is as light in color as the
heaviest parafine oil in America. The yield of crude oil is
found to be about 6.25 per cent, and the proportions per ton
would be : —

Kerosene oil J .25 per cent.

White Spindle oil 1.25 "

Heavy Lubricating oil 2.50 "

Pitch 1.25

Water 5.75 "

Coke 87.50

Loss, gas, etc 50 "

100.00

It is also ascertained that this material is readily distilled
and refined by methods and apparatus in general use in shale
and petroleum industries in Great Britain and the United States.
The pitch is of good quality.

If these statements are verified by actual practice, and the
costs permit, a large and important industry may be counted on
here. Should these oils find a market and demand abroad, no
doubt the shales in various parts of the province, known to be
bituminous, will receive attention.

Iron Ore.

The district lying between little Bras d'Or and East Bay in
Cape Breton County is traversed diagonally by lower silurian
strata and by the felsitic and limestone divisions of the pre-
cambrian, which are flanked by lower carboniferous strata.
The presence of iron ore near the junction of the George's River
limestone and lower carboniferous has long been known near
Gillies' Lake, and outcrops are known at Upper French Vale

NEW MINERAL DISCOVERIES IN NOVA SCOTIA. — GILPIN. 87

and near the mouth of the Barasois River, emptying into the
Little Bras d'Or. At the latter place the silurian slates are
literally soaked in iron oxide, and at several points they present
deposits which may on further investigation prove of economic
value.

To the south-west of the railway bridge at Barasois, on aline
running towards Eskasonie on East Bay, are several large out-
crops of magnetite. As yet little work has been done to test the
value of these deposits. Should these deposits prove to be free
from titanic acid, they should, judging from the following
analysis.be available for the operations of the miner : —

Oxide of Manganese and Alumina CO

Lime 11

Magnesia . 10

O

Sulphur 05

Phosphoric Acid 04

Siiica 2.12

Volatile 84

Metallic Iron 67.298

The question of the amount, quality, and cheapness of iron
ore is one of the great problems of the day. The United States
are exceptionally fortunate in having in its North-Western
States what may be termed the greatest deposits of Bessemer
ore yet discovered. The size of these deposits, their purity,
their accessibility, and the lavish expenditure for their cheap
mining and transportation have combined to build up at Chicago,
Pittsburg, and other points, the greatest individual steel works
of the world. Without the iron ores of Michigan, the United
States would to-day occupy a position much less menacing to
the commercial destinies of England and the Continent. It is
true that the competition England has had hitherto to meet in
the iron industry has come chiefly from the pig iron of
Tennessee, but this can be largely met by the English furnace
masters building larger furnaces and securing lower local rail-
way freights. Although these precious deposits, more valuable
than gold and silver mines, were heralded as everlasting already
their exhaustion is a question of not many years, as new dis-

88 NEW MINERAL DISCOVERIES IX NOVA SCOTIA. — GILPIN.

coveries are seldom announced. Already the vast iron ore deposits
on the Canadian side of the great lakes are engaging the atten-
tion of the more far-seeing of the United States iron masters
At present these deposits are not available. England, France
and Germany draw large supplies of Bessemer ore from Spain
and Algiers, This source now shows signs of weakening, and
the magnetic ores of Sweden and Norway are gradually being
drawn upon in amounts annually increasing.

There is no known geological reason why Labrador, New-
foundland, and Cape Breton should not contribute to this
demand, ever increasing and never satisfied. The existence of
iron ore at many points in Cape Breton is already known. The
attempts made to find deposits, and to test them are scarce
worth noticing. In the forest and swamp-covered tracts there
may be masses of iron ore worth an empire's ransom.

It must, however, be remembered that these deposits, to be of
any value, must be pure, extensive, and capable of cheap mining
and shipping. The output must be large and the expenses low
to enable the Cape Bretoner to enter into the world's competi-
tion in selling iron ore in the markets of the world.

Wolframite.

Last spring a discovery of this mineral was made at North-
East Margaree, Inverness County. Full particulars of this deposit
are not yet available. It is stated to occur in a vein, in places
three feet wide, and to be present in amounts permitting readily
of concentration to a high percentage. The mineral is of a dull
gray color, in places almost black, and with a somewhat
metallic lustre. Jts specific gravity is 7.1 — 7.5, and its hardness
5 — 5.5. It is sometimes feebly magnetic, and contains 67.47
WO . The price quoted for the mineral on the continent is
stated to be $375.00 per ton of 65 per cent ore. The demand at
present is not large, and is met by an annual output of a few
hundred tons. Its principal, if not its only commercial value, is
as an alloy for steel. It is believed that, if a large and per-
manent supply of the mineral could be secured, it would be
utilised for hardening armor plate and similar purposes.

NEW MINERAL DISCOVERIES IN NOVA SCOTIA. — GILPIN. 89

Coal.

In 1897 I gave some analyses of the coal from the lower
levels of the Springhill seams, and compared them with earlier
analyses of the coal from parts of the seams nearer the outcrops.
The analyses show that as the coals have been followed down
they have increased in their percentage of fixed carbon, and
consequently in their steam-raising qualities. This is borne out
by the result-of analyses made since that date. The average of
a number giving the composition of Springhill coal at present is
as follows : —

Moisture 2.05

Volatile combustible matter 30.21

Fixed Carbon 63.52

Ash . 4.?2

100.00

During the past year a tunnel has been started in the lower
workings of the underlying seam to cut some lower beds of coal
known to exist some distance to the dip. It has already cut one
seam holding about 4| feet of coal, which gives the following
analysis : —

Moisture 3.00

Volatile matter 31.30

Fixed Carbon 62.50

Ash . 3.20

100.00
Sulphur 1.19

The question of the adaptability of the coals of the Dominion
Coal Company for iron ore smelting has been a matter of much
interest for some time. The principal seam worked by this
company is the Phelan. At its outcrop the sulphur average per
cent was about 2.5. This would of course be a prejudicial
amount in coals destined for blast furnace purposes. It is
satisfactory to learn that as the workings in this seam are
extended to the dip the percentage of sulphur has materially

90 NEW MINERAL DISCOVERIES IN NOVA SCOTIA. — GILPINT.

decreased. While of course it is possible to materially decrease
the percentage of sulphur by crushing and washing the coal, it
is the ambition of every mine manager to work a coal searn
which can be charged into the coke ovens without preliminary
treatment. While this point may not yet be actually reached
in the Phalen seam, it is gratifying to notice that the lowering
of the percentage of sulphur is rapidly reaching this desirable
point. The following average of nearly two hundred analyses
of this seam in the lower levels of the various workings will
show approximately its present ash and sulphur contents: —

Average. Per cent.

Ash 392

Sulphur N 1

The ash varying from 2.95 to 5.20, and the sulphur from .8 to .93.
These results compare more than favorably with the percentages
of the corresponding impurities met in the standard American
coking coals, and warrant the presumption that in Cape Breton,
now that the sulphur question is removed, there are available
unlimited quantities of the highest grade of coking coal.

The importance of the possession of a store of such high
grade coal is at once seen on reading an editorial in a late
number of the Engineering and Mininfj Journal, New York,
which states that parts of the great Pittsburg coking searn show
signs of partial exhaustion, and that leading operators in the
coke trade are turning their attention to the acqisition of coal
lands in Virginia as containing the next best available coal for
coke making.

VI.— PHENOLOOICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898, COMPILED
BY A. H. MAC-KAY, LL.D., Halifax, from Observations
of the Botanical Club of Canada, and of over seven
hundred of the Public Schools of Nova Scotia.

(Read April 17th, 18!)9J

In order to continue the publication of the series of the
observations of the Botanical Club of Canada, 1 give hereafter a
table of the observations made by the thirteen members
making a phenological report for 1898. I can but give a sum-
mary of selections from seven hundred reports from as many
localities in the Province of Nova Scotia. That these observa-
tions are of very great value in measuring the phenological
conditions of the various portions of the province can be readily
inferred from the facts, that each report comes from a school in
which numbers of pupils were observing on their way to and
from school under the direction and stimulation of the teacher,
and is therefore likely to be in most cases more accurate than
one made by a single observer ; that the reports represent
every part of the province ; and that they represent more or less
numerous localities in each county of the province.

For the compilation of the tables which immediately follow,
ten of the most complete schedules or reports from each county
were selected (except in the cases of the counties of Queens,
Antigonish and Guysboro, where the full schedules were not
sufficiently numerous, and were respectively five, five and six).
From these were selected the same TEN plants which had the
time of "first flowering " and the time when "flowering was
becoming common " both recorded. From these averages or
mean dates of flowering have been found, which we may
speak of as " phenochrons," the times of the appearances of
the phenomena observed expressed in the terms of the days of
the year. For such computations it is necessary to have some

(91)

92 PHEXOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898. — MACK AY.

simple method of indicating the point of time. For the con-
version of the ordinary mensual date to this annual one, or
vice versa, all that is necessary to assist the operation of
mental arithmetic, is to have such a scheme as the following-
before the eye : —

Day of the year, corresponding to the last day of
each month.

January 31

February 59

March 90

April 120

May 151

June . . . . 181

July 212

August 243

September 273

October 304

November 334

December . . . 365

(For leap years increase each number except the first by 1.)

Below is a table of phenochrons for the flowering of ten
plants in each county, and for each county, for the spring of
1898, in Nova Scotia, based on ten of the best sets of observa-
tions made in each county. The first column is the average
date of the '• first flowering " observed, the second is the average
date when the flowering was considered to be "becoming
common." The counties are arranged in the order of their
phenochrons based on the average of both columns.

YARMOUTH.
130.68.

ANNAPOLIS.
132.22.

KINGS.
134.19.

Mayflower
Blue Violet
Red Maple

83.0 100.7
113.7 126.5
120.6 129.1

89.2 103.8
122.5 130.3
119.0 130.2

93.9 104.7
122.1 133.1
117.7 129.2

Dandelion

113.6 126.4

120.2 130.1

124.0 134.4

Strawberry

115.0 130.8

132.3 131.3

116.6 136.5

Wild Red Cherry....
Buttercup .

137.9 146.9
131.5 145.3

134.7 142.0
142.0 150.7

141.3 146.9
140.3 151.0

Indian Pear

139.5 144.9

136.2 140.0

139.8 143.7

Apple. .

142.6 152.5

142 2 147.2

144.5 151.5

Lilac

154.7 162.7

151.8 158.1

152.5 160.2

125.21 136.56

128.07 136.37

129.27 139.12

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898. — MACKAY. 93

DIGBY.
134.27.

HANTS.
134.97.

SHELBURNE.
135.19.

Mayflower

92.4 104.4

96.0 109.3

86.1 102.9

Blue Violet

122.8 132.9

122.8 131 2

120.9 128.7

Red Maple

127.9 184.8

119.2 127.0

122.7 131.5

Dandelion

111.9 127.1

124.0 133.2

121.8 129.8

Strawberry

117.5 132.1

123.4 133.5

126.0 135.4

Wild Red Cherry
Buttercup

140.7 150.9
145.4 155 8

141.1 145.8
140 3 152.5

144.7 150.5
139 9 152.1

Indian Pear

138.4 143.7
141.6 150.5

140.2 144.5
146 2 151.5

139.2 145.1
146.8 153.2

151.7 1630

156 0 161.8

159.0 166.4

129.03 139.52

130.92 139.03

130.71 139.56

PICTOU.
135.41.

LUNENBURG.

135.43.

QUEENS.
135.72.

Mayflower

97 9 in Q

93 4 105 5

90 8 112 0

Blue Violet

121 2 133 4

119 1 132.2

123 4 131.0

Red Maple

122 3 132 3

116 4 127.1

119 4 128.0

Dandelion

120 4 132 3

126 2 134 4

126 2 133.2

Strawberry

124 2 135 5

123 8 133 9

125 4 133 8

Wild Red Cherry..
Buttercup

143.3 148.8
142 0 149 6

140.8 146.2
149 5 158.0

140.8 145.4
148 8 157.2

Indian Pear

139 2 144 5

138 2 143.7

139 0 144.6

Apple

146 4 151 7

145 0 151 3

142 6 150.2

Lilac

152 3 159 3

159 2 164.8

157 6 165.0

131.92 139.90

131.16 139.71

131.40 140.04

COLCHESTER.
137.23.

HALIFAX.
137.29.

CUMBERLAND.
J 39.20.

Mayflower

96.8 110.5

92.8 107.2

101.4 111.7

Blue Violet

125.6 136.2

123.7 131.8

132.0 139.0

Red Maple

125.6 133.9

122.7 129.7

130.4 136.1

Dandelion

125.3 134.8

124.7 132.4

131.1 137.8

Strawberry

125.5 136 5

124.9 134.0

130.9 138.8

Wild Red Cherry..
Buttercup

141.1 146.6
148.0 156.8

146.6 151.4
148.4 156.5

142.7 146.9
147.1 155.7

Indian Pear

142.5 148.2

139.7 144.7

139.8 146.1

Apple

145.4 151.4

150.4 155.6

147.1 151.3

Lilac

153.7 160.2

161.0 167.7

155.6 162.5

132.95 141.51

1.33.49 141.10

135.81 142.59

94 PHENOLOGTCAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898. — MACK AY.

ANTIGONISH,
140.93.

CAPE BRKTON.
143.05.

GUYSBORO.

143.28.

Mayflower

106.2 120.8

101.5 114.8

100.2 124.2

Blue Violet

130.2 135.6

131.2 137.9

132.5 141.2

Red Maple

129.6 134.2

133.9 141.6

126.3 138.0

Dandelion

130.0 132.6

130.2 136.5

125.2 139.2

Strawberry

120.6 136.8

129.2 141.2

130.2 140.5

Wild Red Cherry .
Buttercup

146.8 152 8
149.0 157.2

151.9 158.7
153.5 160.2

148.2 151,5
154.3 164.7

Indian Pear

143.6 147.8

144.9 150.1

146.5 149.8

Apple . ,

154.2 158.8

155.6 160.5

152.0 161.0

Lilac

162.6 169.2

160.9 166.8

167.7 172.7

134.28 144.58

139.28 146.83

138.30 148.26

INVERNESS.
14507.

RICHMOND.
146.65.

VICTORIA.
147.97.

Mayflower

111.0 122.4

105.2 121.7

108.2 121.6

Blue Violet

126.9 139.4

132.9 142.0

131.1 138.3

Red Maple

141.7 149.0

137.0 143.2

146.0 150.4

Dandelion

125 8 139.9

134.7 142.4

134.2 142.5

Strawberry

129.4 142.0

135.5 145.9

134.4 145.3

Wild Red Cherry
Buttercup

146.0 154,2
154.9 164.1

149.2 156.9
152.9 162.9

152.7 159.1
152.6 162.3

Indian Pear
Apple . .

136.0 151.3
153.6 162.2

146.0 154.4
161.4 167.6

148.6 157.3
159.5 164.2

Lilac

171.3 180.3

166.4 174.9

172.5 178.7

139.66 150.48

142.12 161.19

143.98 151.97

PHENOLOG1CAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898. — MACK AY. 95

Mean Flowering Phenochrons of ten plants in each County of the
Province of Nova Scotia for the year 1S98, being the Means of
Observations at ten stations in each County (excepting Antigonish,
Guysboro and Queens, where they are five, six and five respectively).
These Phenochrons are the means of the ttoo series of observations,
"When first seen" and "When becoming common."

FLOWER.

YARMOUTH.

ANNAPOLIS.

KINGS.

Mayflower

91.85

96.50

99.30

Blue Violet

120.10

126.40

127.60

Red. Maple

124.85

124.60

123.45

Dandelion

120.00

125.15

129.20

Strawberry

122.80

126 80

126.55

Wild Red Cherrv

142.40

138.35

144.10

Buttercup

138.40

146.65

145.65

Indian Pear

142.20

138.10

141.75

Apple .

147.55

144.70

148.00

Lilac

153.70

154.95

156. 35

Co. Phenochrons .

130.88

132.22

134.19

DlOBY.

HANTS.

SHELBURNE.

Mayflower

98.40

102.65

94.50

Blue Violet

127.85

127.00

124.80

Red Maple

131.35

123.10

127.10

Dandelion

119.50

126.60

125.30

Strawberry . . .

124.80

128.45

130.70

Wild Red Cherry

145.80

143.45

147.60

Buttercup

150.60

146.40

146.00

Indian Pea.r

141.05

142.35

142.15

Apple ,

146.05

148.85

150.00

Lilac

157.35

158.90

162.70

Co. Phenochrons

134.27

134.97

135.13

PlCTOU,

LUNENBURG.

QUEENS.

Mayflower

104.75

99.45

101.4

Blue Violet

127.30

125.65

127.2

Red Maple

127.30

121.75

123.7

Dandelion

126.35

130.30

129.7

Strawberry

129.85

128.85

129.6

Wild Red Cherrv

146.05

143.50

143.1

Buttercup

145.80

153.75

153.0

Indian Pear

141.85

140.95

141.8

Apple .

149.05

148.15

146.4

Lilac

155.80

162.00

161.3

Co. Phenochrons ..

135.41

135.43

1&5.72

96 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898. — MACKAY.

FLOWER.

COLCHESTER.

HALIFAX.

CUMBERLAND

Mayflower

103.63

100.00

106.55

Blue Violet

130.00

127.75

135.50

Red Maple .

129.85

126.20

133.25

Dandelion

130.05

128.55

134.45

Strawberry

131.00

129.45

134.85

Wild Red Cherry

143.85

149.00

144.80

152 40

152.45

151.40

Indian Pear

145.35

142.20

142.95

Apple

148.40

153.00

149.20

156.95

164.35

159.05

Co. Phenochrons

137 23

137.29

139.20

ANTIGONISH.

CAPE BRETON.

GUVSBORO.

Mayflower

113.50

10S.15

112.20

Blue Violet

132.90

134.55

136.85

Red Maple

131.90

137.75

132.15

1 Dandelion

131.30

133.35

132.25

Strawberry

128.70

135.20

135.35

Wild Red Cherry

149.80

155.30

149.85

Buttercup

153.10

156. 85

159.50

Indian Pear

145.70

147.50

148.15

Apple , , ,

156.50

158.05

156.50

Lilac

165.90

163.85

170.20

Co. Phenochrons

140 93

143.05

143.28

INVERNESS.

RICHMOND.

VICTORIA.

Mayflower

116.70

113.45

114.90

Blue Violet

133.15

187.45

134.70

Red Maple

145.35

140.10

148 20

Dandelion

132.85

138.55

138.35

Strawberry

135.70

140.70

139 ^5

Wild Red Cherry

150.10

153.05

155 90

Buttercup

159.50

157.90

157 45

Indian Pear

143.65

150.20

152 95

Apple

157.90

164.50

161 85

Lilac

175.80

170.65

175 60

Co. Phenochrons..

145.07

146 65

147.97

On the opposite page these phenochrons are plotted so as
to show the characters of the curves.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS CANADA, 1898. — MACKAY, 97

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Set., VOL. X.

TKANS.— G.

98 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1808. — MACKAY.

An interesting irregularity in the phenochrons of the
different counties is shown in nearty every part of this table.
Their order is not parallel in the different counties. Very often
it is reversed. As the phenochrons are averages of ten observa-
tions, it cannot be laid altogether to the charge of defective
observation. The rarity of certain species in certain counties,
or in the districts in which the observations were made, tends
to make the phenochron later there, for the plants may be in
flower before they are met with. But the character of the soil,
the elevation, the slope. &c., must have had some influence.
And then, may it not be possible that the same species may
develop a tendency to an earlier or later maturing in different
regions ? These are questions which careful future observations
may help to answer.

To illustrate the effect of asymmetry of stations on the
phenochrons of a large district of country, I select five of the
best observed plants, giving first their phenochrons for a period
of seven years, 1892 to 1898, based on the few irregularly dis-
tributed stations of the Botanical Club of Canada ; secondly
their phenochrons for the year 1898, based on the observations
made, at the eight stations, Berwick, Windsor, Musquodoboit,
Wallace, Pictou, New Glasgow and Port Hawkesbury ; and
giving, thirdly, their phenochrons derived from 180 stations, ten
in each of the eighteen counties of the province, observed in
connection with the public schools of the province.

First Flowering of the

Seven Year
Phenochrons,—
Bot. Club.

Phenochrons
for 1898,—
Bot. Club.

Phenochrona
for 1898,—
180 SchooK

Mayflower

103.0

93.1

97.0

Maple

125.0

121.8

126.0

Strawberry

129.1

125.7

125.3

Amelanchier . . , .

142.6

140.7

140.9

Lilac

155.3

155.1

159.2

General Phenochrons

131.0

127.3

129.7

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898. — MACKAY. 99

From the general phenochrons we infer that the Spring of
1898 in the Province of Nova Scotia, was according to the
Botanical Club, 3.7 days earlier than the average of the seven
years preceding, and according to the Schools only 1.3 days
earlier. But what is the cause of this difference of 2.4 days
difference between the Club and the Schools ? Not defective
observations, but the fact that of the eight stations of the
Botanical Club, nearly all were either southern or central,
while those of the Schools were evenly distributed from Cape
Sable to Cape North.

Average flowering dates of five plants selected from the
preceding tables, (a) for the first nine counties of the Province
in the series, — the South-Western ; (6) for the second nine coun-
ties,— the North-Eastern ; and (c) for the w hole Province :
A.— "FIRST FLOWERING," 1898.

SPECIES.

(a) S. W. Coun-
ties.

(6) N. E. Coun-
ties.

(c) All Counties.

Mayflower

91.4

102.6

97.0

Strawberry

121.6

128.9

125.3

Maple . .... ,

120.6

132.6

126.6

Indian Pear

138.8

143.1

140.9

Lilac

155.0

163.5

159.2

Averaee .

125.48

134.14

129.80

B. — "FLOWERING BECOMING COMMON," 1898.

SPECIES.

(a) S. W. Coun-
ties.

(b) N. E. Coun-
ties.

(c) All Counties.

Mayflower
Maple

106.1
129.9

117.1
139.6

111.6
134.7

Strawberry .... ... .

133.6

140.1

1368

Indian Pear

143.9

150.0

146.9

Lilac

162.3

170.3

166.3

Average

135.16

143 42

13926

This table shows at a glance the phenological differences
between the warmer and colder halves of the Province, and

100 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898.— MACKAY.

also the average difference between the first flowering and when
the observers thought it might be said that "flowering was
becoming common." In other words, the South- Western half of
the Province was in advance of the North-Eastern half as mea-
sured by the " first flowering " and when " flowering was becom-
ing common " so far as the said five plants are concerned as
follows :

Flowering, 1898.

First
Flowering.

Becoming
Common.

Average.

Mayflower

11.2 days.

11.1 days.

11.15 days.

Maple

12.0 "

9.7 "

10.85 "

Strawberry

7.3 "

6.5 "

6.90 "

Indian Pear

4.3 "

6.1 "

5.20 "

Lilac

8.5 "

8.0 "

8.25 "

Average

8.66 days.

8.28 days.

8.47 days.

That is, the one half of the Province is on the average eight
and a half days in advance of the other half as divided
above. The difference between the extreme counties is very
much greater, however, as shown by some of the other tables.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898. — MACK AY. 101

MEANS OF TWENTY PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, NOVA SCOTIA,
FOR THE SEVEN YEARS, 1892 TO 1898, (BOTANICAL CLUB).

S

52

38

'0

rf

&

&

Species common to
the Tables of the
seven years.

Average
Date, 18

Average
Date, 18"

Average
Date, 18<

Average
Date, 18

Average
Date, 18!

oo
a>-H

?j

>Q
<5

Average
Date, 18

Seven Year
Normals or Phen-;
ochrons of the
Species.

(First appearance).

Mayflower, flower.

98

108

104.7

107.0

102.70

106.

93.14

102.79

12 Apr.

Alder, / •'
Aspen,

102
131

114
123

116.3
122.2

103.8
117.5

107.55
121.90

119.
128.

103.50
118.66

109.45
123.18

19 "
3 May.

Maple,

123

130

126.3

123.85

124.55

124.8

12180

124.90

4 "

Strawberry, "

129

133

131.6

128.55

128.50

126.5

125.75

128.99

8 "

Dog-tooth V., "

135

136

132.2

125.

128.50

131.

126.

130.53

10 "

Cherry (Cult.) "

146

142

146.3

136.6

143.00

146.

141.80

143.10

23 "

Indian Pear, "

145

144

146.

138.35

141.65

141.8

140-71

142.50

22 "

Cherry Wild "

150'

144

147.

138.15

145.25

142.6

143.20

144.31

24 "

Apple,

146

146

152.1

143.7

151.10

155.3

148.40

148.94

28 "

Lilac,

154

160

162.3

153.5

160.50

157..

155.14

157.49

6 June.

Hawthorn, "
Wild Goose

163

54
96
99
105
106
128
143

160

88
94
115
113
119
137
159

160.3

70.6
73.2
79.
112.8
119.
128.7
143,0

148.75

78.00
9930
96.65
110.55
125.75
127.50
137.25

160.25

80.00
96.14
94.66
106.30
117.76
122.00
139.30

156.

80.
91.
95.6
113.2
(117.5
141.6
143.

158.

73.80
58.
71.
101.80
(117.5)
130.50
143.50

158.04

74.91
86.81
92.99
108.95
(117 50)
130.76
144.01

7 "

15 Mar.

27 "
2 Apr.
18 "
27 "
10 May.
24 "

Robin

Song Sparrow

Swallow

Kingfisher

Humming Bird —

Night Hawk

150

134

158.8
126.62

148.00

154.33

165.5

145.30

120.88

152.28

1 June.

Annual Phenochr
ons, 1892 to 1898.

125.15

130.45

124.39

126.30

129.07

126.12

Corresponding day

6
May.

10
May

6

May

4

May.

6
May.

9
May,

30
April.

6 .
May.

6 May.

102 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898.— MACKAY.

To conclude this exhibit of phenological observations, I give
a few from those made by the Botanical Club extending across

Canada.

CANADA, 1898.

-

4

CS 0

gi

55

Muskoka,
Ontario.

Pheasant
Forks,
Assa

4

E

J

a>r->
T3-^

5

Vancou-
ver, B. C.

Frogs (first Piping)

101 8

98

112

106

41

Dandelion (first flowering).
Strawberry "
Wild Red Cherry "

124.4

125.7
143.2

121
130
136

150
142
161

153
142

84
96
110

Apple

148.4

146

116

I J lac ...

155.1

147

182

To further illustrate what has been done and what has not
teen done, I give the figures for each of the above six phenomena,
so far as obtained, for Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Ontario
(Muskoka and Niagara), Winnipeg, Pheasant Forks in Assini-
boia, Olds in Alberta, and Vancouver in British Columbia, for
the series of four years from 1895 to 1898.

CANADA, 1895 TO 1898.
FROGS (First Piping).

YEAR.

CO

fc

H
£

Ontario.

Winnipeg.

CO

M

o
n

£

•o
O

Vancouver.

1895.
1896 .

110.6
106.3
113.2

101.8

120
116

106.5
104.5
92
98

925
112.
104.

98

53
50
33
41

115
105
112

1897
1898

106

1895

D;
125.4
128.5
132.4
124.4

iNDELION

131
133

(First F
118.5
121.5 '
118
121

lowering)
123

143

99

88
89
84

1896

149

1897
1898

135

150

153

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898 — MACKAY. 103

STRAWBERRY (First Flowering).

YEAR.

03
ti

«
£

Ontario.

1

Winnipeg.

CO

•§

m

i

gl

g

0

Vancouver.

1895

1285
128.5
128.6
1257

126.8
128.5

126
127.5

128.5
130

129
144
140

136

110
102
89
96

1896 ... .

134
140
142

1897
1898

142

1895

WILD

139.8
145.2
1426
1432

RED CHI

130.5
144

:RRY (Fit

128
130
137.5
146

~st Flower

ing).

124
126
111
116

1896

1897

140

1898

1895

143.7
151. L
155.3

APPLE (

145
152

First Flo

129
131.5
143

veriny).
128

•

1896

126
117
116

1897

1898

148.4

146

1895
1896

153.7
160.5
157
155.1

LILAC ( i

150
158

Wrst Floi

137.5
133.5
148
147

jeringj.
136

125
133
131

1897

145

1898

182

1

The blanks in the table above show that the great difficulty
is to obtain observers who can keep up their observations
regularly for a series of years.

104 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898. — MACKAY.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898.

Number 1

Day of the year 1898,
corresponding to the
last day of each month.

Jan.. 31 July ..212
Fob . . 59 AUK -.243
Mar. . 90 Sept... 273
April .120 Oct... 304
May. .151 Nov... 334
June .181 Dec... .365

Berwick, N. S.

Windsor, N. S.

CO

fc
K"

«w

i

Musquocloboit Harbor,

N. S.

Wallace, N. S.

02
%

1

0

2

New Glasgow, N. S.

Hawkesbury, N. S.

Charlottetown, P. E I. |

Muskoka, Ont.

Pheasant Forks,
Aasiniboia.

Olds, Alberta.

Vancouver. B. C.

1

Wild Plants Flowering
Alder

95

106

107

87

I'M

'i
140

110

60

2

Aspen

ra

107

1?,1

135

113

133

8

Mayflower

11

78

96

101

86

94

106

105

4

Blue Violet

197

113

1?4

135

I1")

195

144

116

140

ft

White Violet .

120

122

127

125

Mi

6

Red Maple

108

1%>

193

191

139

107

7

Bluets (Houston ia)

1?,8

8

Equisetum

110

113

in

191

130

9

123

106

125

135

131

125

118

119

iis

1 V<

81

10

Adder's-Tonguc Lily . . .

196

121

ll

Hepatica —

12

Gold-Thread

131

141

13?

140

136

140

1 ! 1

140

13

Strawberry

1°?

190

loq

128

131

128

113

134

142

130

119

119

Oft

ll
15

do. Fruit ripe..
Wild Red Cherry

159

155
140

161
144

174

163
138

168
147

158
147

182

167
136

175
161

173

144
110-

16

do. Fruit ripe

192

17

Blueberry

13?

121

14?

179

1*}

IS

18
20

do. Fruit ripe
Ranunculus acris
Ranunculus repens

196
142

204
156

154

202
152

139

16?

152

21

Clintonia

139

151

IS?

1)8

2-2

Trilium .

139

136

150

145

114.

23

Trientalis

140

149

15fi

157

I'l
26

Cypripedium
Calla

149

156

156

166

96

Indian Pear

138

i39

140

137

143

141

154

129

142

118

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898. — MACKAY. 105

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898,-Continued.

Day of the year, 1898,
corresponding to the
last day of each month.

Jan.. . 31 July .212
Feb. . 59 Aug. .243
Mar. . 90 Sept. .273
April .120 Oct . .304
May .151 Nov. .334
June .181 Dec . .365

Berwick, N. S.

Windsor, N. S.

Halifax, N. S.

Musquodoboit Harbor,

N. S.

Wallace, N. S.

aj

£

jS
o
"o

£

New Glasgow, N. S.

Hawkesbury, N. S.

Charlottetown, P. E. I.

Muskoka, Ont.

Pheasant Forks,
Assiniboia.

Olds, Alberta.

Vancouver, B. C.

Wild Plants Flowering.
Indian Pear, Fruit

Raspberry

149

155

179

171

do. Fruit ripe ....

203

202

176

213

182
^0

197
165

212

Blackberry
do. Fruit ripe

166
WJ

179

113

Pale Laurel

169

177
168

157
173

157

•w

IV

Sheep Laurel

144

182
148

Pigeonberry

138

134

148

1">8

do. Fruit ripe. .

Blue-eyed Grass

157

149
173

159
175
194

161

177

155
1W

171

Linntea

Linaria

211

Rhinanthus

179

Sarr<vcenia

174

Brunclla

180

173

192
197
195
178

179

200
....

195

....

175
191

201
WO

169
189

Epilobium

Rosa lucida
Hypericum
Leontodon

172
187
211
138
1%

156
133

...
192

182

197
165

176

198

Cherry (cult.) Flower,
do, Fruit . .

144

147
<W

144

147

155

102
155

English Hawthorn

Ifi^

American Hawthorn . .

164
145

152
144
147
149

157
136
146

161

133
116

Plum (cultivated) .'.
Apple (early) Flower.

143

134
140

148
147

155
155

152

153

do. (late) do. . . .

145

106 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898. — MACKAY.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898,-Continued.

Day of the year, 1898,
corresponding to the
last day of each month.

Jan.. 31 July .212
Feb. 59 Aug. .243
Mar. 90 Sept. .273
April 120 Oct.. .304
May. 151 Nov. .334
June 181 Dec . .365

Berwick, N. S.

02

fc

C
o

CO

-a

c

£

Halifax, N. S.

Musquodoboit1 Harbor,

N. S.

Wallace, N. S.

02

&5

1
o

£

New Glasgow, N. S.

Hawkesbury, N. S.

Charlottetown, P. E. I.

Muskoka, Out.

Pheasant Forks,
Assiniboia.

Olds, Alberta.

Vancouver, B. C.

Wild Plants Flowering.
Currant (red), Flower

141

134

145

140

147

138

146

do Fruit —
Currant (black) Flower

197

197

200

213
155

189

138

148

....

100

10S

123

Lilac, Flower

153

14?

1fi3

160

157

160

151

Ifi?

147

18?

Potato Flower ....

180

101

170

151

191

909

Clover (white), Flower,
do. (red), Flower
\Vheat, Flower

135
153

148
140

163
156

156
156

163
164

153
153

176
163

158
158

....

Oats, Flower ....

Buckwheat Flower

Earliest Leafing

ISO

(First Phenomena).
Plowing

1?7

100

Sowing

11S

126

106

199

Planting Potatoes

no

ISO

14f>

137

Sheep Shearing

143

141

no

ISO

1S1

15fi

Hay Cutting .

130

909

180

•>oo

Grain Cutting

223

231

990

99^

Potato Digging

•W

?68

">8S

Rivers Opening
Lakes Opening

66

87

79

82

107

94

110

....

Ground Snow, Spring .
Air " " ....

117

116

116

117

96
116

109
109

118
119

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898. — MACKAY. 107

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898 -Continued.

b

CJ

-=

s

X

Day of the year, 1898,
corresponding to the
last day of each month.

Jan.... 31 July. .212
Feb.... 59 Aug .243
Mar. .. 90 Sept. .273
April.. 120 Oct.. .304
May ..151 Nov. .334
June ..131 Dec. 365

Berwick, N. S.

Windsor, N. S.

Halifax, N. S.

Musquodoboit Harbor,

N. S.

Wallace, N. S.

02°

_o
o

£

New Glasgow, N. S.

Hawkesbury, N. S.

Charlottetown, P. E. I. 1

Muskoka, Ont.

Pheasant Forks,
Assiniboia. |

Olds, Alberta.

Vancouver, B. C.

7-n

(First Phenomena,)

130

77

165

119

751.

Hoar Frost, Spring

168

161

108

187

Till)

77a

TTli

Hoar Frost, Autumn . .
Hard Frost "

255

255
331

268
983

283

240
305

285

316
254

251

241

7Sa
7S1.

Air Snow, "

316
319

319

264

315

287

246

?73

7<t;i

7!)b

Rivers Closing

23

343

...

363

319

....

43

10F

105

77

116

140

106
182

182

....

159
163

18?

131

149

122
151

130

149

183

184

176

153

158

184

185

158

163

160

185

175

171

170

vii

181

177

171

189

IS?

17?

199

183

175

191

178

198

179

180

183

185

1

108 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898. — MACKAY.

PHENTOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898,— Continued.

Number. i.

Day of the year, 1898.
corresponding to the
last day of each month.

Jan.... 31 July .212
Feb .. 59 Aug 243
Mar. .. 90 Sept. 273
April.. 120 Oct . .304
May... 151 Nov .334
June ..181 Dec. .365

Berwick, N. S.

Windsor, N.S.

Halifax, N. S.

Musquodoboit Harbor,

N. S-

Wallace, N. S.

03
*
3~

o

o

s

New Glasgow, N.S.

Hawkesbury, N. S.

Charlottetown, P. E. I.I

Muskoka, Ont.

Pheasant Forks,
Assiniboia.

Olds, Alberta.

Vancouver, B. C.

(First Phenomena.)
t

186

iqo

10?

197

199

227

235

235

221
9oq

218

201
214

212
001

200
*>09

204
205

202
203

....

•70fi

209

212

'10

221

215

215

215

Thunder (Continued)-(

220

WT

90S

??•!

225

99/1

W

226

09fi

231

93?

«*M

9<n

PM

232

9?T

237

248

237

237

247
"MS

237
238
247

237

236
?48

239

'TO

245

238
246

9fi9

959

*>58

266

W»

270

•>fi*>

97fi

288

'fi'i

\

303

w>

W

114

XI

(First Migration.)
Wild Duck

103

9fi

S2

Wild'Goose, going north

75

62

72

74

86

73

SOO

95

96

">1K

i

PHENOLOG1CAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898. — MACKAY. 109

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898,

Number. i

Day of the year, 1898,
corresponding to the
last or each month :

Jan.... 31 July. .212
Feb.... 59 Aug. 2i:i
Mar... 90 Sept. .273
Apl ...120 Oct . .304
May... 151 Nov. .334
June.. 181 Dec.. .3(55

Berwick, N. S.

Windsor, N. S.

Halifax, N. S.

Musquodoboit Harbor, 1

N. S.

Wallace, N. S.

02
fc
O

_o

New Glasgow, X. S.

Hawkesbury, N. S

Charlottctown, P. E. I.

Muskoka, Ont.

Pleasant Forks,
Assiniboia. 1

Olds, Alberta.

Vancouver, B. C.

S3

(First Migration.)
Song Sparrow

71

73

r<6

78

78

SI

84

American Robin

fi7

65

74

?fi

93

108

100

85

Junco

71

84

85

90

5

s<;

Spotted Sandpiper

143

is?

87

Meadow Lark

88

Kingfisher

1W

13?

89

Yellow Crown Warbler

Ill

%

Summer Yellow Bird . .

130

135

no

91

White Throat Sparrow.

Iftfi

14'7

Oft

Humming Bird

141

131

142

111

155

145

13fi

143

93

King Bird

U?

147

94

Bobolink

Af>\

134

15

American Goldfinch . . .

13fi

144

%

American Redstart

151

97

Cedar Wax wing

98

Night Hawk

145

144

flOfl

147

1 III

115

99

Frogs heard

89

104

ion

100

110

107

98

112

UK;

11

100

Snakes seen

1<X)

1T>

inn

118

VII. — OBSERVATIONS ON A FISH (Chylomycterus schcepfi) NEW
TO THE FAUNA OF NOVA SCOTIA. BY HARRY PIERS.

(Read May 8th, 1S99.)

In the summer of about 1896 a curious fish was brought to
the Provincial Museum by a fisherman who had taken it in deep
water off Sambro near Halifax.

At Dr. Gilpin's request I examined the specimen and found
that it belonged to the species Chylomycterus schcepfi, (Walbaum)
which is the same as Chilomycterus geometricus, Kaup, and
Diodon maculostriatus, Mitchell. It is variously known as the
Common Burr-fish, Rabbit-fish, Swell-toad, or Swell-fish. The
specific name schoepfi was given it in honour of its discoverer, Dr.
Johann David Schopf, a Hessian surgeon in the American
revolutionary war and a noted botanical collector.

It is a small, elliptical-oval shaped species of remarkable
appearance. The bones of the upper and lower jaws are con-
fluent, forming a short beak with a trenchant edge, without
teeth. Unlike those of the Tetrodons, these plates are without.
a median suture. The body is covered with short, stout,
triangular, dermal spines, each with three roots and consequently
immovable. It is thus well protected from enemies, and would
prove a thorny morsel to any marine animal foolish enough to
capture it.

When fresh from the water the upper parts are greenish-
black with a series of undulating blackish stripes running from
the head backward ; a similar series between eyes and across,
face ; an ocellated black spot above pectoral ; a larger one behind
the same fin ; another ocellated spot at the base of the dorsal^
with a smaller spot below it. The specimen has now lost much
of its colour in alcohol, but the markings may still be traced.

(110)

A FISH NEW TO NOVA SCOTIA. — PIERS. Ill

Length 3 inches*, of which the tail forms about f inch. Fin
rays : dorsal, 12 ; pectoral, 21 ; anal, about 10 ; caudal, 9.

This species has not previously been taken in Nova Scotian
waters, in fact it has never hitherto been captured so far north.
According to Jordan and Evermann (Fishes of North and Middle
America, 1898), its range is from Cape Cod to Florida. It is
very abundant southward in shallow water, being particularly
plentiful on the coast of the Carolinas and Florida.

C. schoepfi belongs to the Diodontidce family (Porcupine
Fishes), all the members of which are sluggish, living on the
bottom among weeds and corals, in tropical seas. When dis-
turbed, they swallow air until considerably inflated, and then
float belly upward on the water. In such a condition they
could be easily driven before the wind. They are popularly
regarded as poisonous.

* The usual length is from 6 to 10 inches.

Date of publication ; December^ Slst, , 1899.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Jforba ,Scotian Institute of

SESSION OF 1899-1900.

I. — ON THE RELATION OF THE VISCOSITY OF MIXTURES OF
SOLUTIONS OF CERTAIN SALTS TO THEIR STATE OF
IONIZATION. — BY JAMES BARNES, B. A., Dalhousie
College, Halifax, N. S.

(Communicated by Prof. J. G. MacGregor on December 15th, 1899 )

The present paper is the result of a piece of work undertaken
at the suggestion of Prof. MacGregor, for the summer vacation
of 1899, the object being to find out in the case of mixtures of
aqueous solutions of certain electrolytes with a common ion,
whether or not it is possible, by the aid of the dissociation con-
ception, to predict the viscosities of the mixtures, when sufficient
data as to the viscosities and conductivities of the constituent
solutions are available.

The salts selected were sodium chloride, potassium chloride,
barium chloride, sodium sulphate, potassium sulphate, and
copper sulphate, the viscosities of simple solutions of these salts
having been determined by 1 Reyher and 2 Wagner, and that of
mixtures of them by 8 Kanitz, and extensive series of observa-
tions on the conductivity by Kohlrausch and by former students
of Dalhousie College, being available. As will be seen below I
found 4 Kohlrausch's values of the conductivity sufficient for my
purpose.

'Ztschr. f. phys. Chemie, 2, 744, 1888.
* Ibid., 5, 31, 1890.

3 Ibid., 22, 336, 1897.

4 Kohlrausch u. Holborn : Leitvcrmogen der Elektrolyte, 1898, pp. 159, 160, tab. 2.

PROG. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci.. VOL. X. TRANS.— H.

(113)

114 ON THE VISCOSITY

1 Professor MacGregor has pointed out that, both on theoretical
grounds and because of the way in which the ionization coeffi-
cients and such physical properties as specific gravity, viscosity,
etc., in general, vary with the concentration in simple solutions,
it is to be expected that the value of any such property, for a
simple solution which is so dilute that the dissociated and undis-
sociated molecules may be regarded as without mutual action,
will be expressed by the formula :

P = PW + k(l-a)n + lan ................. (1)

where P is the numerical value of the property for the solution,
Pio that of the same property for water under the same physical
conditions, n the concentration expressed in gramme-equivalents
per unit volume, a the ionization coefficient of the electrolyte
in the solution, and /.' and I constants, called ionization constants.
He has further shown that the value of a property for a
mixture of two electrolytes will be given in terms of the values
of the ionization constants as determined for the simple solu-
tions, by the expression :

+ fk, (\-a,) n, + l, a,n,) —->- "I . . (2)

V / fj -f- V% J

where the n's are the concentrations of the constituent solutions
(the electrolytes being indicated by 1 and 2), the as the ioniza-
tion coefficients of the respective electrolytes in the mixture, the
?/s the volumes of the constituent solutions, and p the ratio of
the volume of the mixture to the sum of the volumes of the
constituent solutions.

The application of the first expression to simple solutions is,
as 2Prof. MacGregor has shown, of little theoretical interest; but.
that of the second to mixtures, because of its being based on
the dissociation theory and involving no arbitrary constants, is
of very considerable interest. It is the applicability of this
expression (2) that the present paper is intended to test with
mixtures of solutions of the above-mentioned salts.

1 Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 9, 219, 1896-97.

2 Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 10, 61 (foot note), 1898-99.

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 115

The observations of Reyher, Wagner and Kanitz were made
on somewhat stronger solutions than those for which the above
expressions might be expected to hold, but they were considered
as probably sufficiently dilute to warrant the expectation of an
approximate applicability of the expressions.

Simple Solutions.

For the determination of the ionization constants in expres-
sions (1) and (2), one must know the ionization coefficients for
the four solutions examined in the case of each salt by Reyher
and Wagrler. Unfortunately all the observations on the vis-
cosity of these salts were made at 25° C., while all the available
conductivity data, from which the ionization coefficients are
obtained, were at 18°C., and thus it was necessary either to
reduce the viscosity values from 25° to 18° or the conductivity
values from 18° to 25°. This latter reduction was carried out,
as data for the former were not available. This involved
much work ; because for the determination of the ionization
coefficients at 25°, it was necessary to obtain both the specific
molecular conductivity at 25° and the specific molecular con-
ductivity at infinite dilution for 25°.

Determination of the Specific Molecular Conductivity at

Infinite Dilution for %5°C.

The value of the specific molecular conductivity at infinite
dilution for 25° for each salt was obtained from 1 Kohlrausch's
value at 18° by aid of 2 De'guisne's data. These data were
employed in obtaining the specific molecular conductivity at
25° from the values at 18°, for the three weakest solutions
given in 8 Kohlrausch's and De'guisne's tables ; and the ratio

8 was then determined, where ^25 and fiJ8 are the

f*l 8

specific molecular conductivity at 25° and 18° respectively.

Table I gives the values thus obtained. The concentrations
are expressed in gramme-equivalents per litre, and the specific
molecular conductivities in terms of this unit and of 10~4 times
4 Kohlrausch's new unit of conductivity (ohm—1 cm.—1).

1 Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 200, tab. 8.

1 Ibid., p. 195, tab. 7.

3 Ibid., pp. 159, 160, tab. 2.

« Ibid., p. 1.

116

ON THE VISCOSITY

TABLE I.

Concentration.

Sp Mol. Cond.
at 18" C.

Sp. Mol. Cond.
at 25° C.

(/"*)

AW - n*

rnt

Na. Cl.

.0005

1085

1262

.163

.0002

1092

1270

.163

.0001

1097

1276

.163

K Cl

.0005

12S3

1484

.156

.0002

1291

1494

.157

.0001

1295

1499

.157

iBaC!2.

.0005

1183

1375

.162

.0002

1198

1394

.163

.0001

1205

1402

.163

iK3S04.

.0005

1308

1516

.159

.0002

1327

1540

.160

.0001

1335.

1549

.160

i Nan SO

2 4*

.0005

1083

1266

.169

.0002

1096

1281

..169

.0001

1105

1292

.169

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.

117

As the ratio ~ — — was thus found to be constant for the

two most dilute solutions of every salt, and as these solutions
are very dilute, this ratio may be assumed to approximately
hold for infinite dilution. Observations on the conductivity of
weaker solutions at different temperatures were not at hand ;
and the writer used the value of this ratio for the solution of
concentration .0001 for the calculation of the specific mole-
cular conductivity at infinite dilution for 25° C.

The following Table II gives the values of the specific
molecular conductivity at infinite dilution for 25° C. as thus
obtained from the values at 18° C. In the case of copper sul-
phate this method could not be employed for want of data. A
somewhat doubtful value obtained by aBredig was therefore
used. The conductivities are expressed as in Table I.

TABLE II.

Electrolyte.

Specific Molecular Conductivity at Infinite
Dilution.

18" C.

25" C.

Na 01 ,

1103
1312
1232
1350
1141

1283
1519
1433
1566
1334
1423

K Cl

£BaCl2

i K0 SO..

£Na2 SO4

\ Cu SO4

Determination of the lonization Coefficients at 25° 0.
for Simple Solution*.

The ionization coefficient for a simple solution is taken to be
the ratio of the specific molecular conductivity to the specific

1 Ztschr. f. phys. Chem., 13, 220, 1894,

118 ON THE VISCOSITY

molecular conductivity at infinite dilution. Before this ratio
could be found for 2">°C. it was necessary to determine the
values of the specific conductivity at 25° from l Kohlrausch's
values at 18° by means of 2Deguisne's and 8Kohlrausch and
Grotrian's temperature coefficients. The concentrations of solu-
tions of the salts for which Kohlrausch gives conductivity
values, did not in all cases correspond to the concentrations of
solutions for which Reyher and Wagner determined the vis-
cosity. In such cases (concentrations 0.2."> and 0.125). the values
of the specific conductivities at 25° were obtained by inter-
polation.

Table III gives both the values of the specific conductivity
at 25°C. determined as above from the values at 18°, and the
calculated ionixation coefficients at 25°. Only those coefficients
are given which are necessary in the calculation of the vis-
cosities. Under copper sulphate are given a few conductivity
values of higher concentration, these being necessary for the
determination of the ionixation coefficients in the mixtures by
the method used. The concentrations are expressed as in Table I,
and conductivities in terms of 10~4 times Kohlrausch's new
unit.

1 Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 159, table 2.

a Loc. cit.

5 Kohl. u. Holb., p. 145, tab. 1.

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS — BARNES.

119

TABLE III.

Concentration.

Specific
Conductivity
at 18" C.

Specific
Conductivity
;it -25' C.

lonization
Coefficients
at 25° C.

Na Cl.

1.0
0.5
0.3
0/25
0.2
0.125
0.1

744.0
404.5
255.6

862
469
296
252
205
131
107

.672
.732

.786

176.4

.817

92.5

KC1.

1.0
0.5
03
0.25
0.2
0.125
0.1

982.0
511.5
315.9

1128
588
363
308
248
159
129

.743

.774

.811

215.4

.838

111.9

iBaC!2.

1.0
0.5
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.125
0.1

703
388
249

811
448
287
245
200
130
106

.566
.624

.684

173.4

.726

92.2

120

ON THE VISCOSITY

TABLE III.— (Continued.)

Concentration.

Specific
Conductivity
at 18° C.

Specific
Conductivity
at 25° C.

lonization
Coefficients
at 25° C.

iK2S04

1.0

05
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.125
0.1

718.0
393.5
253.2

827
453
292
251
205
135
111

.528

.578

.640

177.8

.690

95.9

i Naa S04.

1.0
0.5
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.125
0.1

5080
298.5
199.8

142.8

591
347
230
201
166
110
91.4

.443
.520

.604

.662

78.4

J Cu SO4.

2.631
2.194
1.0
0.5
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.125
0.1

45S
421
258
154
106.5

534
489
297
177
122
107
89.9
61.7
51.6

.209
.249

.302
.347

78.4

45.0

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.

121

Determination of the lonization Constants.
Table IV gives the values of the ionization constants (k and
I) determined by the method of least squares from the data
given in Tables III and V, the observed values of the viscosity
of the four solutions of each salt being used. The relative
magnitude and the sign of the ionization constants would seem,
to show that the undissociated molecules exert the greater
influence in increasing the viscosity, while the free ions have
in some cases a diminishing effect.

TABLE IV.

Electrolyte.

k.

l.

NaCl.

+ 0.11213

+ 0.089765

K 01.

+ 0.30645

-0.12289

\ Ba C12.

+ 0.20327

+ 0.061009

iK2S04.

+ 0.21347

+ 0.0088236

\ Na2 SO4.

+ 0.30418

+ 0.13348

iCuS04.

+ 0.46500

-0.058144

Results of Calculations on Simple Solutions.
Table V gives a comparison of the calculated and observed
values of the viscosity of simple solutions, the calculated values
being determined by expression (1) with the ionization coeffi-
cients and ionization constants, as given in the above tables. In
this table all the viscosity results are relative to water at 25°C.,
and the concentrations are expressed as in Table I.

TABLE V.
VISCOSITY AT 25° C.

i

Observed Value.

Calculated Value.

Difference.

Na Cl. (Key her.)

1.0

1.0973

1.0971

-0.032

0.5

1.0471

1.0479

+ 0.038

0.25

1.0239

1.0236

-0.033

0.125

1.0126

1.0117

-0.039

122

ON THE VISCOSITY

TABLE V.— (Continued).

Concentration.

Observed Value.

Calculated Value.

Difference. ,

K Cl. (Wagner.)

1.0

.9872

.9874

+ 0.032

0.5

.9874

.9871

-0.033

0.25

.9903

.9896

-0.037

0.125

.9928

.99133

-f 0.035

i Ba C12. (Wagner.)

1.0

1.1228

1.1228

± 0.030

0.5

1.0572

1.0572

±0.030

0.25

1.0263

1.0265

+ 0.032

0.125

1.0128

1.0125

-0.033

J- K2SO4> (Wagner.)

1.0

1.1051

. 1.1054

+ 0.033

0.5

1.0486

1.0476

-0.021

0.25

1.0206

1.0206

± O'OsO

0.125

1.0078

1.0090

+ 0 0212

i Na2SO4- (Wagner.)

1.0

1.2291

1.2286

-0 035

0.5

1 . 1058

1.1078

+ 0.022

0.25

1.0522

1.0502

-0.022

0.125

1.0235 •

1.0239

+ '0.034

i Cu SO4. (Wagner.)

1.0

1.3580

1.3556

- 0.0224

0.5 1.1603

1.1675

+ 0.0272

0.25 1.0802

1.0767

— 0.0235

0.125

1.0384

1.0354

- 0.0230

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 123

As both Reyher and Wagner regard their results as affected
by a possible error of about ± 3 in the third decimal place, it is
seen that the agreement between the calculated and observed
values for all the salts except copper sulphate is very satis-
factory, the differences being well within the limit of experi-
mental error. In the case of copper sulphate, the agreement
is not so satisfactory. But it was noticed on plotting the
observed values against the concentration that the points do not
lie on a smooth curve, and that the point corresponding to the
concentration 0.5 is at quite a distance from this curve, which
leads one to think that this observed value cannot be correct.
The poor agreement in this case might also be partly due to the
doubtful value of the specific molecular conductivity at infinite
dilution used. Thus it seems that for all the salts examined,
copper sulphate perhaps excepted, expression (1) gives the vis-
cosity of a solution within the limit of experimental error
throughout a concentration range of 1.0 to 0.125.

Mixtures of Solutions.

As there is no change of volume on mixing the constituent
solutions of the above electrolytes of the concentrations given
below1, and as the solutions mixed were of equal volume and
also equimolecular, the expression (2) for the value of a property
in the case of a mixture of two electrolytes with a common ion,
reduces to :

p = P» + -^[&i (I - «i) + *i «i + fc, (1 - «,) + I* ",] • (3)

where n is the concentration of the solutions and the k's and I's
have the values obtained above for simple solutions of the
respective electrolytes. For the application of this equation to
the calculation of the viscosity of a mixture, all the quantities
required are known except the a's, the ionizatiou coefficients in
the mixture.

1 See Trans. X. S. Inst. Sci., 9, 125, 1895-% ; also 9, 297 and 310, 1897

124 ON THE VISCOSITY

Determination of Ionization Coefficients in the Mixture.

The method proposed by 1 Prof. MacGregor for finding the
ionization coefficients in a mixture of two electrolytes having an
ion in common, is by solving graphically the following equa-
tions :

fl -- ^ /4N

Vl V3

'

where the electrolytes are denoted by 1 and 2, the concentra-
tions (in gramme-equivalents per litre) of the mixture with
respect to them by Nt and N2 respectively, their ionization
coefficients by al and an, and their regional dilutions (in litres
per gramme equivalent) by Vl and V2, the regional dilutions
being the dilutions of the electrolytes in the regions which they
are supposed to occupy in the mixture, or the dilutions of the
constituent isohydric solutions.

His graphical mode of solving these equations involves the
drawing of dilution-ionic-concentration curves, which, as they
have great curvature for moderately dilute solutions, cannot be
drawn with great accuracy unless a large number of observa-
tions of the conductivity are available. As mentioned above,
extensive series of observations of the conductivity in the case
of the salts under consideration were available ; but they were
all made at 18° C. and required therefore to be reduced to 25° C.
before they could be used. In order to reduce this labour as
much as possible I devised another mode of solution which
requires only a comparatively small number of observations. It
is based on the fact that ihe specific-conductivity-concentration

1 Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 9, 101, 1895-96; also 10, 68, 1898-99.

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 125

curve of an electrolyte exhibits only slight curvature and can
therefore be drawn with fair accuracy from a small number of
observations.

The above equations may be expressed in terms of specific
conductivity and concentration as follows. Since

lf(aoi wl
and T*=^''- ' ' T <»)

* 2 "oo2

where fct and L9 are the specific conductivities of the electrolytes
in the regions which they respectively occupy in the mixture,
and the JM^-'S the specific molecular conductivities at infinite dilu-
tion for each electrolyte, equation (4) becomes :

A !«. ,

or, ^=^L1^2. . • • (10)

r«s

From equation (5) we obtain :

where Ct and C9 are the regional concentrations. Equations (6)
and (7) are based on the fact that at a definite temperature the
conductivity is a function of the concentration alone. They
therefore take the following forms :

and k,=f,(C9). • • (13)

There are thus four equations (10 — 13) for the determination of
the four unknown quantities : /q, &2, Ca, and C2.

These equations can be solved graphically. Equation (12) is
employed by drawing a curve having as abscissfe the values of
the specific conductivities and corresponding values of the con-
centrations as ordinates. Before equation (13) is used the values

126 ON THE VISCOSITY

of the conductivities are multiplied by the constant -^-25-1 . Then

^oo2

these new values are plotted against the corresponding concen-
trations. on the same coordinate paper, to the same scale as
employed for equation (12). From these two curves one finds
by inspection two points, one on each curve, having a common
abscissa, according to equation (10), and ordinates (Ct and Ca)
such that by substituting their values in equation (11) it will be
satisfied. These points can be found after two or three trials.
Thus one has determined klt GI} and C2 ; &2 being found by

multiplying k. by the constant — — a. The as are now obtained

from equations (8) and (9) ; for the reciprocals of the C's give
the Vs.

Results of the Calculations on Mixtures.

The following Table VI contains the requisite data for the
calculation, by formula (3), of the viscosity of mixtures of solu-
tions of the salts under consideration ; and it shows the agree-
ment of the values thus calculated with the observed values
The ionization coefficients of the salts in the mixture are deter-
mined as above and the concentrations are expressed as in the
former tables.

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.

127

TABLE VI.

VISCOSITY AT 25°. (KANITZ).

Concentration
Constituent
Solutions.

lonization Coefficients
in
Mixture.

Observed
Values.

Calculated
Values.

Differ-
ence.

KC1.

NaCl.

KC1.

Na Cl.

1.0

1.0

.745

.667

1.0390

1.0419

+ 0.0229

0.5

, 0.5

.775

.728

1.0180

1.0173

- 0.087

0.25

0.25

.807

.783

1.0070

1.0069

- 0.081

KC1.

j:BaC!2.

KC1.

iBa C12.

1.0

1.0

.756

.552

1.0429

1.0533

+ 0.0101

0.5

0.5

.779

.613

1.0159

1.0220

+ 0.0261

0.25

0.25

.811

.675'

1.0049

1.0082

+ 0.0a33

*KaSO4.

iNa2SO4.

iK2S04.

iNaa SO4.

1.0

1.0

.535

.434

1.1660

1.1670

+ 0.021

0.5

0.5

.597

.517

1.0773

1.0768

-0.085

0.25

0.25

.641

.604

1.0334

1.0354

+ 0.022

iK2SO4.

J Cu SO4.

JK2 SO4.

iCuSO4.

1.0

1.0

.559

.152

1.2240

1.2423

+ 0.0183

0.5

0.5

.612

.210

1.1060

1.1107

•f 0.0247

0.25

0.25

.668

.256

1.0485

1.0510

+ 0.0 225

Kanitz regards his observed values as affected by a possible
error of ± 3 in the third decimal place. Considering the many
calculations necessary to obtain the calculated values, — first, in
finding the specific molecular conductivity at infinite dilution for
25°C., and also ionization coefficients at 25° from data at 18°.
and then in the determination of the ionization coefficients of
the salts in the mixture by the graphical method, — the agree-
ment between the observed and the calculated values (calculated,

128 ON THE VISCOSITY OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.

it should be noted, with the ionization constants obtained for the
simple solutions), is very satisfactory, especially in the case of
solutions of potassium chloride and sodium chloride and solu-
tions of potassium sulphate nnd sodium sulphate, where the
differences are all within the limit of experimental error. In the
case of the stronger solutions of potassium chloride and barium
chloride and of potassium sulphate and copper sulphate, the
differences are not within the limit of error ; but a close agree-
ment, as was pointed out in the beginning, could not be
expected. It will be noticed, however, that the differences in
these cases diminish and approach the experimental error as
concentration diminishes. Observations on the viscosity of
weaker solutions of these salts were not available.

From these results, therefore, it may be concluded, that the
viscosity of mixtures of dilute solutions of the salts under con-
sideration can be predicted, by the aid of the dissociation theory,
within the limit of experimental error, from data as to the vis-
cosity and conductivity of the constituent solutions only.

II. — ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY OF AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS CONTAINING HYDROCHLORIC AND SULPHURIC
ACIDS. — BY JAMES BARNES, B. A., Dalhousie College,
Halifax, N. S.

(Communicated by Prof. J. G. MacOregor, on the 15th January, 1900.)

The prediction of the conductivity of dilute aqueous solutions
containing two electrolytes, which have-one ion in common, has
been shown to be possible, according to the dissociation theory,
when the electrolytes are salts, or a salt and a diatomic acid
such as hydrochloric acid.1 The experiments described in the
present paper were made, at Prof. MacGregor's suggestion, in
order to ascertain if it is possible to make the prediction in the
case of solutions formed by mixing hydrochloric and sulphuric
acid solutions.

The attempt to calculate the conductivity of a complex solu-
tion containing sulphuric acid as one constituent is of special
interest because of the fact that it is supposed to have a mode of
ionization which varies with the concentration of the solution,
its molecules in dilute solutions dissociating into 2 H and SO4,
but in stronger solutions partly into H and H S04. It is of
course impossible to calculate the conductivity of a complex
solution, one of the constituents of which has a mixed mode of
ionization. I have therefore assumed that the mode of ioniza-
tion in the moderately dilute solutions which I examined would
be the same as it is usually supposed to be at great dilution.

The conductivity of a mixture of two solutions of electrolytes
1 and 2, with a common ion and definite modes of ionization

1 MacGregor: Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 9, 101, 1895-6.
Mclntosh : Ibid., 9, 120, 1895-6.
Archibald : Ibid., 9, pp. 291, 307, 1897-8.
McKay : Ibid., 9, 321, 1897-8.
Barnes: Ibid., 10, 49, 1898-9.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL X. TRANS.— I.

(129)

130 ON THE CALCULATION Of THE CONDUCTIVITY

is given, according to the dissociation theory, by the equa-
tion :

, .. (A)

pv +v

where v1} v2 are the volumes, and nlt n2 the concentrations of
the solutions mixed, pgol, n^^ ^ne specific molecular conductivi-
vities of simple solutions of the electrolytes at infinite dilution,
al and «2 the ionization co-efficients of the respective electro-
lytes in the mixture, and p the ratio of the volume of the
mixture to the sum of the volumes of the constituent solutions.
1 Prof. MacGregor has shown that the ionization coefficients
in a mixture of this kind may be found by the solution of four
equations, and I have pointed out in a former paper2 that by
throwing these equations into other forms and applying a
graphical method they may be solved with little trouble, even
in cases in which but few observations of the conductivity of
simple solutions of the electrolytes in the mixtures are avail-
able. The forms of the equations referred to are as follows :

k, = /2(C2),

where the /c's and C's are the regional conductivities and
regional concentrations, and the N's the concentrations of the
mixture, with respect to the electrolytes 1 and 2 respectively.
By the regional conductivity and the regional concentration of
an electrolyte in a mixture are meant the conductivity and con-
centration of the portion or region of the mixture which the one
electrolyte may be supposed to occupy to the exclusion of the
other. If there is no change of volume on mixing, they are the
conductivities and concentrations of the isohydric constituents
of the mixture.

1 Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 10, 68, 1898-9.
* Trans. N. S. lost. Sci., 10, 113, 1899-1900.

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 131

The method of obtaining the ionization coefficients by means
of these equations is described in my former paper, the first stage
in the process being the determination of the k's and C's. In
the calculation of the conductivity, however, we save labour if
instead of determining the ionization coefficients, we express
the conductivity in terms of the k's and C's.

For this purpose we have :

"

and a = — 2

Equation (A) thus becomes :

, 1 Ik. n. v.

k =

Oj C2

In my experiments p was found to be practically equal to
unity, and the volumes of the solutions mixed were in all cases
equal. Hence the above equation becomes :

The work involved in finding k by means of equation (B),
included the following : — (1) The preparation and analysis of
series of simple solutions of both acids, and the preparation of
the mixtures ; (2) observations on the specific gravity of the
simple constituent solutions and their mixtures; (3) the measure-
ment of the conductivity of series of simple solutions ; (4) the
measurement of the conductivity of mixtures of solutions ; (5)
the determination of the regional conductivity and regional
concentration of the electrolytes in the mixtures; (6) the calcu-
lation by the aid of these data, of the conductivity of the
mixtures.

The observations were carried out in the Physical and
Chemical Laboratories of Dalhousie College, Halifax, during
the spring and autumn of 1899.

132 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY

Experimental Methods.

The hydrochloric acid was obtained from Eimer & Amend,
and the sulphuric from Merck & Co. Both were guaranteed
chemically pure. The redistilled water used in the preparation
of the solutions was obtained by the method described in
a former 1paper, and it had a conductivity ranging from
0.95 x 10~6 to 1.01 X 10~6 expressed in 2Kohlrausch's new unit
(ohm"1 cm."1).

The amount of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid in a solution
was determined volu metrically by means of aqueous solutions of
potassium hydroxide, the strength of these being determined
daily by titration with known quantities of dry oxalic acid.
Phenol-phthalein was the indicator used. The potassium
hydroxide solutions were kept in bottles with stoppers, each
containing a soda lime tube. The pipettes, burettes and flasks
were calibrated and used as described in the paper referred to
above. The specific gravity at 18°C. was determined for many
of the simple solutions with a pyknometer of the Ostwald-
Sprengel form. The comparison of the values thus obtained
with the values as given by Kohlrausch, acted as a check upon
the concentration as determined above.

Kohlrausch's method with the alternating current and tele-
phone was employed in the measurement of the conductivity.

The bath used to obtain a constancy of temperature, for a
time sufficient to make the determination of the resistance in,
contained tap water kept continually stirred by a mechanical
stirrer driven by one of Henrici's small hot air motors. This
motor worked without noise and on this account was found
more serviceable than the hydraulic motor formerly employed.
The thermometer used could be read to a hundredth of a degree,
and had been tested at the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt,
Berlin.

The resistance of the solutions was measured in a U-shaped
cell having electrodes of stout platinum foil connected by thick

'Trans. N. S. lust. Sci., 10, 49, 1898-9.

* Kohlrausch u. Holborn : Leitvermogen der Elektrolyte, 1898, p. 1.

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 133

platinum wires to the ebonite covers. These electrodes were
platinized in the solution proposed by Summer and Kurlbaum.
The reduction factor by which the conductivities obtained in
this cell are reduced to the standard employed by Kohlrausch,
was obtained by comparing the value of the conductivities of
two solutions of pure potassium chloride, twice recrystallized,
of different concentrations, with values given by 2Kohlrausch
for the same concentrations of the same salt. The ratio of
Kohlrausch's value to the observed value gives the reduction
factor. It was always determined before and after a series of
observations, and was found to be the same in value at both
times.

Solutions of different concentrations of each acid were pre-
pared and carefully analysed. Fifty cubic centimetres of one
of these solutions was placed in the electrolytic cell at a time,
and two successive dilutions prepared in the cell by the addition
of known volumes of water at 18°C. Then the other prepared
solutions were introduced in order, and the same process of
dilution repeated till a sufficient number of conductivity values
had been obtained. In the case of mixtures, equal volumes
(fifty cubic centimetres) of the constituent solutions were mixed
at 18° C., and the mixture was then placed in the cell.

For a more detailed description of some of the above instru-
ments and methods, see my former paper on conductivity.

Results of the Conductivity Observation* on Simple Solutions.

It is necessary for the determination of the regional con-
ductivities (k) and the regional concentrations (C) in the
mixture (see my former paper),8 to draw curves showing the
relation of conductivity to the concentration for each acid. In
the case of one of the electrolytes, (hydrochloric acid was
selected), the values of the conductivity must be multiplied by
a constant before plotting, this constant being the ratio of the
specific molecular conductivities at infinite dilution for the two

. Ann., 66, 315, 1897.
"Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 159. tab. 2.
8 Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 10, 113, 1899-1900.

134

ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY

acids. Kohlrausch's latest determinations1 of the values of the
specific molecular conductivity at infinite dilution at 18° C. for
the two acids were used, viz. : for hydrochloric acid, 3774, and
for sulphuric acid, 3955, both expressed in terms of 10~* times
Kohlrausch's new unit (ohm"1 cm."1). Therefore, the ratio is
1.048.

Table I gives the data, obtained from the conductivity
observations, for the drawing of these curves. The concentra-
tions are expressed in terms of gramme equivalent per litre
at 18°C. The atomic weights used are relative to Oxygen
(16.00), and the same as employed by 2Kohlrausch. The specific
conductivities are those at 18°C, expressed in terms of 1()~4 times
Kohlrausch's new unit (ohm"1 cm."1).

TABLE I.

H Cl. (36.46.)

i H2 SO

t. (49.04.)

Concentration
(»l).

Specific
Conductivity
(*i).

'""'fci i

/V 1

"°°1 1

Concentration
1 (ni).

Specific
Conductivity
(k2).

2.66

6018.

6305.

4.11

6158.

2.13

5281.

5534.

2.95

4948.

1.74

4627.

4848.

2.20

3947.

1.42

3994.

4185.

1.74

3255.

1.02

3055.

3201.

1.28

2472.

.716

2268.

2376.

.890

1779.

.502

1640.

1718.

.523

1070.

.844

1148.

1203.

.452

932.5

.265

898.3

941.2

.304

637.4

.188

645.3

676.2

.197

421.8

.126

439.7

460.8

.108

241 5

.0951

334 9

350.9

.0967

218.8

.0810

287.9

301.6

.0603

148.4

.0559

201.0

210.6

.oa52

93.77

.0356

129.3

135.5

.0262

94 67

99.20

1 Wied. Ann., 50, 385, 1893.

1 Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit.. p. 205, tab. 14.

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.

135

Determination of p.

When equal volumes of simple solutions are mixed the ratio
expressed by p is equal to the ratio of the specific gravity of the
mixture to the mean specific gravity of the constituent solutions.
Table II shows that the ratio is practically equal to unity for
the most concentrated solutions examined.

TABLE II.

SIMPLK SOLUTIONS.

Sp. Gr.
of Mixture
at 18°C.

Concentration.

Specific Gravity at 18°C.

Mean
Sp. Gr.

HC1.

JH2 SO4.

HC1.

iH2S04.

3.05

2.95

1.0525

1.0912

1.0719

1.0720

2.13

1.74

1.0371

1.0549

1.0460

1.0462

1.02

ii

1.0182

"

1.0366

1.0365

.502

ii

1.0091

ii

1.0320

1.0319

Results of the Observations and Calculations of the Conductivity

of Mixtures.

Table III contains the results of the observations and the
calculations, by means of the data given therein, of the con-
ductivity of mixtures of the acids under consideration. The
regional concentration kl of the hydrochloric acid may be
obtained from the value kz by means of the expression

^°°i 7
fcj =^~kz,

where &2 is the regional concentration of the sulphuric acid.
The specific molecular conductivities at infinite dilution have
the values given above. In this table the conductivities and
concentrations are expressed as in Table I. The differences
between the calculated and observed values of the conductivity
are given as percentages of observed values.

136 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY

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OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 137

In this table it will be noticed in the first series of observa-
tions, where the concentration of the constituent solution of
sulphuric acid is constant, while the constituent solution of hydro-
chloric acid has a variable concentration, that the calculated
values are all greater than the observed, and that the differences
gradually increase as the concentration of the hydrochloric acid
increases. This is also true for the second and third series,
except in the case of the weaker hydrochloric acid solutions
where the calculated is now less than the observed value. Prof.
MacGregor has shown in a note to my former ^aper, in which
I drew attention to a regular progression similar to the above
for series of solutions of potassium chloride and potassium sul-
phate, which were for the most part of moderate concentration,
that the regular progression observed may be due to two sources
of error. ' The second source, namely, the impossibility of draw-
ing with perfect accuracy the dilution-ionic-concentration
curves, has, I think, been considerably reduced, for in place of
drawing these curves, which for moderate concentration curve
quite rapidly, concentration-specific-conductivity curves were
employed, these curves having but slight curvature and being
thus easily interpolated. The other source of error, namely,
the using for the value of the ionization coefficient the quotient
of the specific molecular conductivity by the specific molecular
conductivity at infinite dilution, still remains. In the above
fourth series where the first two mixtures are of moderate con-
centration and the other four may be called dilute solutions, this
regular progression has disappeared and the differences are all
negative, except in the first mixture. The disappearance of
the progression is consistent with its being due to the above
sources of error ; for in dilute solutions they both produce a
very small effect upon the result. Two reasons may be assigned
for the signs being all negative in the fourth series: — (1) The
use of the above values of the specific molecular conductivity at
infinite dilution ; for if either of the values used should not be
correct then it would clearly produce an error of the same sign

1 Loc. cit.

138 CONDUCTIVITY OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.

in all the calculated values of the conductivity. There is also (2)
the possibility referred to abore, of the sulphuric acid breaking
up not only into ions of 2 H and SO4, but also into H and
HSO4.

It is also possible by plotting the above series to obtain series
of mixtures having a constant concentration for the constituent
hydrochloric acid solutions and variable concentrations for the
sulphuric acid constituent solutions ; and it will be found in
series of this kind that the same regular progression is exhibited
as in the above. It may be well to note that in the last three
series of the above Table where the sign of the difference
changes, this change happens for all when the average concen-
tration of the mixture is about 0.6 gramme-equivalents.

Finally, since my experiments are estimated as affected by
an error which may amount to about ±0.3 per cent., it is seen
in the table that as the differences for the three last series are all
within or in a few cases but little beyond this error, it may be
concluded that the conductivity of mixtures of dilute solutions
of hydrochloric and sulphuric acid can be calculated within the
limit of my experimental error, by the expression of the dissocia-
tion theory and on the assumption that the sulphuric acid dis-
sociates into 2 H and SO4 as ions, up to an average concentration
of about 0.5 in cases in which the concentration with respect to
sulphuric acid is relatively large, and up to an average concen-
tration of about 0.9 in cases in which the concentration with
respect to this acid is relatively small.

III. — ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT BY
MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — BY JAMES BARNES, B. A.,

Dalhoiisie College, Halifax, N. S.

(Communicated by Professor J. G. MacGregor on March 12th, 1900.)

In a 1 paper communicated last winter to this Society, Mr.
E. H. Archibald described experiments he had made to test the
ionization coefficients, obtained by 2 Prof. MacGregor's method,
for mixtures of equimolecular solutions of two electrolytes
having an ion in common. With these coefficients and Yan't
Hoff's constant as data, he calculated the depression of the
freezing-point of the mixtures ; and he then compared the
calculated with the experimental values. It was found that the
difference between these values was, in general, equal to the
arithmetic mean of the differences between the calculated and
experimental values of the depressions of the constituent simple
solutions, and the test was therefore concluded to be satis-
factory.

At Prof. MacGregor's suggestion, I undertook similar
experiments with mixtures, not of equimolecular solutions,
but of solutions of different concentrations. The electrolytes
selected were potassium chloride, sodium chloride, and hydro-
chloric acid.

In the case of mixtures of solutions which are not equi-
molecular Mr. Archibald's method of testing the ionization
coefficients is not applicable. I found it necessary, therefore, to
obtain an expression for the depression of the freezing-point for
such mixtures in terms of the ionization coefficients.

In a simple solution containing n gramme-molecules of an
electrolyte per litre, if a is the ionization coefficient, the
number of dissociated molecules is n a and the number of undis-
sociated (1 — a) n. If a molecule of this electrolyte breaks down

1 Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 10, 33,
* Ibid., 9, 101, 1895-96.

(139)

140 ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

into m ions, then the number of free ions is n m a, and therefore
the total number of undissociated molecules and free ions in this
solution is

(l — a)n + nma, or n(l + a (m — 1)Y

On the assumption that a free ion produces the same amount of
depression of the freezing-point as a molecule, and that in a
solution the molecules are so far apart that no association of
molecules occurs, if rf is the depression of the freezing-point and
M the molecular depression, i. e., the depression produced by
one gramme-molecule or one gramme-ion, we have

_ 6 _

= n(\+a(m-\}} ................ (1)

In the case of mixtures of simple solutions, according to the
above assumption, A the depression of the freezing-point will be
represented by the expression : —

=

where 1, 2, etc., denote the electro ytes, the m's the numbers of
ions into which the molecules of the respective electrolytes break
down, them's the ion'7 »!•'•> i coefficients in the mixture, the N's the
concentrations (in grain me-molecules per litre) of the mixture
with respect to the respective electrolytes, and the M's the
depressions produced by one gramme-molecule or one gramme.
ion of the undissociated and dissociated portions respectively of
the electrolytes. The as in this expression are given by the
method to be tested ; the m's in the case of the electrolytes
selected can have only one value ; and the N's are of course
known ; but what values the M's are to be regarded as having
is doubtful. It was found for simple solutions of the three
electrolytes employed, that the molecular depressions increased
as the solutions became more concentrated. This appears to
indicate that one molecule or one ion, when in the presence
of a large number of molecules and ions, produces a greater
depression than when it is in the presence of a smaller
number. Thus in the case of a solution made by mixing
simple solutions of different electrolytes, since the number

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES — BARNES. 141

of molecules and ions present seems to affect the power which
one molecule or ion has of lowering the freezing-point, it was
assumed that the depression produced by a molecule or an
ion of say, the electrolyte 1, which is surrounded by mole-
cules and ions of this electrolyte 1 and of the other electro-
lytes 2, 3, etc., would have the same value as if all the molecules
and ions surrounding it were of electrolyte 1. Thus the M's
of the above expression have been regarded as equal to the
molecular depressions in simple solutions of the concentration

Ni+N2+ etc-

The application of this expression to the calculation of the
depression in mixtures will form at once a test of the above
assumption and a test of the ionization coefficients employed.
I have applied it (a) to mixtures of potassium chloride and
sodium chloride, these salts being selected because of their
simple molecular structure and the approximate equality in their
grade of ionization ; (b) to mixtures of sodium chloride and
hydrochloric acid, selected because of their simple molecular
structure and the considerable difference in their grade of
ionization ; (c) to mixtures of potassium chloride, sodium
chloride and hydrochloric acid, selected for testing in addition
the method of finding the ionization coefficients in a mixture of
three electrolytes.

The following is a synopsis of the work involved : — Purifica-
tion of materials ; — construction and calibration of the instru-
ments used in the conductivity and freezing-point observations ;
— preparation and analysis of a series of simple solutions of the
three electrolytes ; — determination of the specific molecular
conductivities at infinite dilution for 0°C. ; — observations on the
conductivity at 0° for the series of simple solutions; — calcula-
tion of the ionization coefficients at 0° from the conductivity
observations ; — measurement of the depression of the freezing-
point of the simple solutions; — calculation of the molecular
depression for each solution of the three electrolytes ; — prepara-
tion of mixtures of two and of the three electrolytes ; — measure-
ment of the depression of the freezing-point of the mixtures ; —

142 ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

determination of the ionization coefficients of the electrolytes in
the mixtures; — calculation of the depression of the freezing-
point in the mixtures.

The experiments were carried out during the session of
1899-1900 in Dalhousie College, Halifax.

Materials, Apparatus and Methods.

The salts and acids were obtained from Merck. The salts
were recrystallized once, and it was found that solutions of
them, and also of the acid, had conductivity values showing
satisfactory agreement with the values as given by l Kohlrausch.
These electrolytes were therefore considered sufficiently pure
for the purpose. The water used in making the solutions was
purified by the method described in my former 2 paper, and it
had a conductivity at 18°C. of about 0.93 x 10~6 expressed in
terms of Kohlrausch's new 8unit (ohm"1 cm."1).

The solutions of potassium and sodium chloride were
prepared by direct weighing; the salts being first dried to
constant weight in an air-bath. The hydrochloric acid solutions
were analysed volumetrically by means of a standardized solu-
tion of potassium hydroxide with phenol-phthalein as indicator.
All burettes and pipettes used in the preparation and analysis
of these solutions were calibrated by the weight of distilled
water they delivered, and the flasks by the weight of water they
held at 0°C.

Observations were made on the specific gravity at 18°C. of
the simple solutions and their mixtures with a pycnometer of
the Ostwald-Sprengel form. These observations were made to
obtain the knowledge whether or not there was any change of
volume on mixing the simple solutions. It was found that with
solutions of the concentrations used, there was no appreciable
change, and it was assumed that such would also be the case
atOc.

1 Kohlrausch u. Holborn : Leitvermogen der Elektrolyte, 1898, pp. 159, 160, tab. 2.

2 Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 10, 49, 1898-99.

3 Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 1.

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES — BARNES. 143

Conductivities were determined by Kohlrausch's method
with the alternating current and telephone. The Wheatstone's
bridge consisted of four coils, two of which, the 100 and 1000
ohms, were the only ones used. These coils were correct at
17.5°C. and had a temperature coefficient of 0.000267 per centi-
grade degree per ohm. The correction for temperature was
applied when the observations were made in the basement room
referred to below. The platinoid bridge wire was calibrated by
the method proposed by l Strouhal and Barus with ten gerrnan
silver wires of equal length. A telephone made by Ericsson of
Stockholm, and an inductorium made after a plan of Ostwald's
anjl giving a clear high note were employed. For a detailed
account of the pycnometer, and of the instruments employed in
the conductivity observations, with the methods used, see my
paper referred to above.

Three electrolytic cells of two types were used. One, with
the shape of a U-tube, was employed for the stronger solutions
of the hydrochloric acid. The other two were of the Arrhenius
form. One of these, with electrodes at a distance from one
another of about \ cm., was used for the weak solutions
employed in the determination of the specific molecular conduc-
tivities for 0°C. ; the other with electrodes at a distance of about
5 cm., for the stronger solutions of the two salts. The electrodes
were all of stout platinum foil firmly fixed to the platinum wire
and glass connections, so that the capacity of the cell once
determined would remain the same throughout a series of
experiments. These electrodes were platinized in a solution
prepared from 2 Lummer and Kurlbaum's recipe. The reduction
factor of each of these cells, by which the observed conductivities
were reduced to the standard employed by Kohlrausch, was
obtained by comparing the values determined for two carefully
prepared solutions of potassium chloride, with the values given
by 8 Kohlrausch for the same concentrations. Data for the

1 Wiod. Ann., 10, 326, 1880.

» Wied. Ann., 60, 315, 1897.

s Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 159. tab. 2.

144 ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

determination of the reduction factors were available only at
18°, but as the cell was of glass its value at 0° would not be
practically different from that at 18°.

The water bath used in the observations of the conductivity
at 18° was the same as that described in my former paper. In
the case of the observations at 0° the bath was modified so that
the temperature could be kept constant at 0° by means of pieces
of ice floating in it, while the water was kept continually stirred.
The ice was prevented from coming in contact with the cell by
placing around the cell a cylindrical screen of wire gauze 17 cm.
in diameter, and reaching to within 10 cm. of the bottom
of the bath. By the addition or the removal of pieces of
ice from the salt water, the temperature of the bath could
easily be kept within one twenty-fifth of a degree for a sufficient
time to make the measurement of conductivity. The observa-
tions were made in a basement room of the college, where the
temperature, during the winter months, was generally below 6°C-
The thermometer used was graduated to a fiftieth of a centi-
grade degree and its zero point was determined by the writer.
Each solution was brought to about 0° before it was placed in
the cell, and while in the cell successive observations of the
conductivit}7 were made to insure that the temperature of the
bath had been taken.

The method employed for finding the freezing-point of the
solutions was the same in principle as that proposed by 1Loomis
The size of the protection bath was larger than that used by
Loomis, and the stirring was done mechanically.

The thermometer used was of the Beckmann form. It was
graduated to a hundredth of a degree, and could be read to a
thousandth by aid of a small microscope, mounted on an upright
stand. This thermometer was at a certain place on its stem
firmly fixed in the cork of the inner freezing-tube (the freezing-
tubes consisted of an inner and outer tube, the inner containing
the solution whose freezing-point was measured) so that when
in position its bulb was within 2 cm. of the bottom of the tube.

1 Phys. Review, 1, 199, 1893 and 9, 257, 1897.

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES. 145

This inner freezing-tube was 28 cm. in length and 2.8 cm. in
diameter and had its lower end re-entrant. The outer tube was
25 cm. in length and 3.15 cm. in diameter. The thickness of the
glass being about 1 mm., there was an air space of about 1.5 mm.
between the tubes. This space was found to be quite sufficient
to prevent the formation of ice on the wall of the tube. The
inner tube was supported in the outer by means of two rubber
bands, one at the top and the other at the bottom. These bands
also prevented the walls from touching one another. The
length of the tubes allowed the solution to be well submerged in
the protection bath and therefore almost freed it from the
influence of the outside temperature.

In the determination of the freezing-point of a solution these
tubes were surrounded by a mixture of salt water and pieces of
ice, contained in a vessel of glass 35 cm. high and 11 cm. in
diameter (called the protection bath). The cover for this vessel
was one taken from the protection bath of a Beckmann apparatus.
The glass of this vessel was \ cm. thick and was covered with
asbestos paper that the effect of the temperature of the room
might be lessened. It was found necessary to keep this bath
at a constant temperature within a fiftieth of a degree, if values
of the freezing-point agreeing with the mean value to less than
a thousandth of a degree were desired. This was obtained by
keeping the bath continually stirred. Any change of tempera-
ture was quickly recorded by means of a thermometer graduated
to a fiftieth of a degree. The temperature of the bath could be
raised by the addition of water at the temperature of the room,
or lowered by the addition of pieces of ice, snow when obtain-
able being preferable.

The platinum stirrer for the freezing-tube was of the common
ring shape, having wound around its ring a thin platinum wire,
which would rub against the wall of the tube and thereby
prevent the formation of an ice sheath. With constant stirring
there was found no tendency for the ice to mass itself together
and float to the surface, but it could be seen moving through the
whole solution in tiny glistening particles. The stirrer for the
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL X. TRANS. J.

146 ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

protection bath was of thick brass wire with two rings, one for
the upper aud the other for the lower portion. Both these
stirrers were worked mechanically by means of one of Henrici's
hot air motors placed at a distance of about 3 metres from the
freezing-point apparatus. By means of a light belt this motor
turned a small wooden wheel placed over the protection bath.
A connecting-rod connected this wheel to a slider on a vertical
guiding rod ; and to this slider also were attached the two
stirrers. Any range of stroke could be obtained by varying the
distance of the connecting-rod from the centre of the wheel.
As about 70 cc. of solution were used, a stroke of 11 cm. was
required to cause the ring of the stirrer in the freezing-tube just
to touch the bottom of the tube and reach to within £ cm. of
the surface of the solution. Thus all solutions were throughout
uniformly stirred, and as the stroke of the engine was quite
constant every solution was stirred in exactly the same manner.

Another glass vessel of the same dimensions as the protection

bath contained salt water and ice at a temperature of about

- 10°C. (called the freezing bath). The purpose of this bath

was to reduce the solution in the freezing-tube to about 0.3

degree below the freezing-point.

The hammer of a common electric bell covered with a piece
of rubber tubing, and supported on a frame over the freezing-
point apparatus, was used for tapping the thermometer. A
current from an Edison-Lalande cell had sufficient strength to
give rapid and vigorous blows.

The following method of 1 Raoult's was employed for deter-
mining the elevation above the temperature of the protection
bath, of the convergence temperature of this apparatus, i. e., the
temperature finally assumed by a solution which is being stirred
and has no ice in it, when it comes into thermal equilibrium
with the protection bath. The freezing-point of water was first
obtained. The ice formed in this observation was then melted
and the freezing tubes containing the water returned to the
protection bath and the stirring begun. With the protection

1 Ztschr. f. Phys. Chem., 27, 636, 1898.

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES. 147

bath kept constantly at 0° the temperature of the water in the
freezing-tubes at first fell rapidly, then more slowly, till it
remained constant at 0.05°. This experiment was repeated with
the same result, and thus the convergence temperature was
shown to be 0.05 degree above the temperature of the protection
bath. In all experiments, therefore, the temperature of the
protection bath was adjusted so as to be 0.05 degree below the
freezing-point of the solution. It was also found with water
that the protection bath required to be this same amount (0.05
degree) below the freezing-point in order that the value of the
freezing-point, with a very small quantity of ice present, might
agree with that obtained with a large amount of ice.

The method of carrying out an observation of the freezing-
point was as follows : — The freezing-tube was filled with the
solution up to a mark on the glass (about 70 cc.) It was then
placed in the freezing bath where it remained till the tempera-
ture was lowered with constant stirring to about 0.3 degree
below the freezing-point of the solution, this point having been
determined by a preliminary experiment. The freezing-tubes
were now quickly removed to the protection hath which was at
the required temperature (0.05 degree below the freezing-point
of the solution), and the stirring started. After ten minutes
time, in which the solution had risen to within 0.1 degree of
its freezing-point, a small crystal of ice was introduced through
a glass tube in the cork. As the particles of ice gradually formed
throughout the solution the mercury in the thermometer rose,
and in about a minute assumed a fixed position. The tapping was
begun and continued for half a minute when both it and the
stirring were stopped, the microscope brought into position and
a reading made. After again stirring and tapping, the ther-
mometer was read again, this reading acting as a check upon
the former. Care was taken to keep the protection bath constant
at the required temperature throughout both these readings.
The tubes were now removed, the ice melted, and the same
operation repeated for a second observation.

148 ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

As a change in the atmospheric pressure would cause a corres-
ponding change in the thermometer, the freezing-point of the
water used was determined about every three hours. The
temperature of the room was kept as low and as constant as
possible during the experiments, and no observation was made
when it was above 5°G.

Since the freezing of my solutions, was started about 0.1
degree below the freezing-point, the amount of ice formed was so
small that the correction usually applied for the change in con-
centration, and, therefore, in the depression, comes within my
limit of error. Thus the results are recorded without any
correction.

Simple Solutions.

With the electrolytes K Cl, Na Cl, and H Cl, there is only
one possible way for their molecules to dissociate, namely, into
two ions. Hence expression (1) reduces to

For the determination of the values of M, the other quanti-
ties, <?, n and a are obtained from observations on simple solu-
tions ; a being taken equal to the ratio of the specific molecular
conductivity to the specific molecular conductivity at infinite
dilution. As the solutions are at a temperature of about 0°C. in
the determination of the freezing-point, the ionization coefficients
should be obtained at approximately the same temperature.
For this purpose measurements were made of the conductivity
at 0°, both of solutions of the range of concentration used in the
observations of the freezing-point and also of very dilute
solutions of the electrolytes. These latter measurements are
required for the determination of the specific molecular con-
ductivities at infinite dilution for 0°C.

Determination of the Specific Molecular Conductivities at

Infinite Dilution for 0°C.

A series of simple solutions varying in concentration from
•01 to .0001 in the case of the salts, and from .01 to .001 for the

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES. 149

acid, were prepared and their conductivities measured at 18°
and at 0°. The conductivity of the water used in the prepara-
tion of these solutions was measured at both temperatures, and
its value substracted in each case from the conductivity of the
solution. Considerable care was required with these dilute
solutions to obtain good results. The electrodes were thoroughly
washed with a portion of the solution before placing them in
the cell. Both the solutions and the water used were exposed
as little as possible to the air, and the measurements were taken
immediately after a solution was made. The measurements
were repeated three times, and the mean of the values obtained
was taken as the most probable value.

The following Table I gives the values thus obtained, and the
ratio — — — , where ^ 8 and JMO are the specific molecular con-

1*18

ductivities at 18° and 0° respectively. The concentrations are
expressed in gramme-molecules per litre at 0°, and the specific
molecular conductivities in terms of this unit and of 10~4 times
Kohlrausch's new unit of conductivity.

150

ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

TABLE I.

Concentration.

Sp. Mol. Cond.
at 18'C.

(/"is)-

Sp. Mol. Cond.
at 0°C.

(/*<>)•

^18—^0

^18

KC1. (74.59).

.010

1224

775

.367

.005

1244

787

.367

.001

1278

809

.367

.0005

1284

814

.366

.0002

1293

821

.365

.0001

1298

824

.365

NaCl. <58.50).

.010

102S

638

.379

.005

1049

651

.380

.001

1075

664

.382

.0005

1084

670

.382

.0002

1094

676

.382

.0001

1098

679

.382

H Cl. (36.46).

.010

3706

25%

.300

.005

3731

2608

.301

.002

3753

2625

.301

.001

3757

2626

.301

The ratio — — - appears to increase as the concentration

^18

diminishes, except in the case of potassium chloride where it
decreases. This peculiarity is also shown in the values as calcu-
lated by means of 1Deguisne's data. The agreement between
Deguisne's conductivity values at 0° and the above for the solu-
tions of concentration .01 is very close, but with the dilute
solutions it is not so good. It was found impossible to obtain

1 Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 199, tab. 7.

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES.

151

concordant results with solutions of greater dilution than those
above. It is seen, however, that the ratio appears to reach a
constant value in these dilute solutions, and the writer has
assumed that the value of this ratio for the solution of concen-
tration .0001 of the salts and .001 of the acid would hold for
infinite dilution.

Table II gives the values of the specific molecular conductivi-
ties at infinite dilution for 0° obtained from Kohlrausch's values
at 18° by aid of the above ratios. The conductivities are
expressed as in Table I.

TABLE II.

Electrolyte.

Specific Molecular Conductivity
at Infinite Dilution.

For 18*C.

For 0°C.

K Cl

H312
ll]Q3
23774

833

682
2638

Na Cl

H 01

Determination of the lonization Coefficients at 0°C. for
Simple Solutions.

For this purpose the specific conductivities at 09C. for series
of simple solutions of each electrolyte were found. These conduc-
tivity values are also necessary for the drawing of the curves
showing the relation between the concentration and the conduc-
tivity ; these curves being required in the determination of the
ionization coefficients in the mixtures.

Table III contains the observed values and also the ioniza-
tion coefficients calculated therewith. The concentrations are
expressed in gramme-molecules per litre at 0°C., and the
conductivity in terms of 10~4 times Kohlrausch's new unit.

1 Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 200; tab. 8.
» Wied. Ann., 50, 385, 1893.

152

ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT
TABLE III.

Concentration.
(n).

Specific
Conductivity
at 0°C.
(k).

lonization
Coefficients
at 0°C.
(a).

K Cl.

.03

22.73

.910

.05

37.15

.892

.08

58.32

.875

.10

71. S3

.862

.20

138.5

.832

.30

204.5

.819

.40

268.1

.804

Na Cl.

.03

18.34

.896

.05

29.92

.877

.08

46.93

.860

.10

58.03

.850

.20

111.2

.815

.30

161.0

.787

.40

208 9

.765

H Cl.

.03

76.43

.966

.05

126.1

.956

.08

198.9

.942

.10

246.1

.933

.20

480.3

.910

.30

710.6

.898

.40

933.4

.884

Determination of the Values of M.

The following Table IV contains the values of the depression
of the freezing-point of the simple solutions. These values,
being the means of three observations, are given to four places of
decimals. It also contains the values of the lowering (M) pro-
duced by each gramme-molecule or gramme-ion of the electrolyte

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES.

153

in the solution, calculated by expression (3) with the data given
in this Table and in Table III. The concentrations are expressed
as in former tables and the depressions in centigrade degrees.

TABLE IV.

Concentration.
(n).

Depression of
Freezing-point.
(6).

Molecular
Depression.
(M).

KC1.

.03

.1060

1.85

.05

.1752

1.85

.08

.2776

1.86

.10

.3458

1.86

.20

.6795

1.86

.30

1.0L71

1.86

.40

1.3487

1.87

Na Cl.

.03

.1072

1.89

.05

.1768

1.88

.08

.2824

1.90

.10

.3515

1.90

.20

.6885

1.90

.30

1.0292

1.92

.40

1.3646

1.93

H Cl.

.03

.1078

1.88

.05

.1786

1.83

.08

.2835

1.83

.10

.3552

1.84

.20

.7138

1.87

.40

1.4553

1.93

By comparing Loomis' values of the depression of the freez-
ing-point with these values, it will be seen, that the agreement
in many cases is very close. If both results are plotted the
curve, formed by joining the points given by the above values,

154 OX THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

will be a little above that obtained from Loomis' values. As
mentioned above, the molecular depression increases as the solu-
tions become stronger.

According to Van't HofFs theory the value of the molecular
depression should be 1.86. 1Loomis found experimentally that,
with a large number of non-eleetrolytes in aqueous solutions,
the molecular depression was 1.86 for the dilute solutions. In
the case of the electrolytes used above, with the ionization coeffi-
cients determined by the conductivity method, the values of the
molecular depression are seen to be grouped around this value.
The divergence from this value may partly be accounted for by
the use of the doubtful values of the specific molecular conduc-
tivities at infinite dilution for 0°, employed in the calculations of
the ionization coefficients.

Mixtures of Solutions of Two Electrolytes.
Since equal volumes of simple solutions of two electrolytes,
having one ion in common, were mixed, and the molecules of
the electrolytes used dissociate each into two ions, expression (2),
as there was no change of volume on mixing, reduces to :
A = i[MlWl (1 +a,) + M27i2(l +*,)] (4)

in which n^ and 71 2 are the concentrations of the simple con-
stituent solutions. For the calculation of A the depression of
the freezing-point of the mixture by this expression, the n's are
known, the as are obtained by the modification of Prof.
MacGregor's method fully described in my former 2 paper, and
the M's in the manner referred to above.

Results of the Calculations.

Table V gives the data necessary for the calculation of the
depression of the freezing-point of mixtures of potassium
chloride and sodium chloride, and of sodium chloride and hydro-
chloric acid. It also shows the agreement of the calculated
with the observed values. The concentrations, molecular depres-
sions of the constituent solutions, and the depressions of the
freezing-points of the mixtures are expressed as in Table IV.

1 Phys. Review, 9, 257, 1899.

* Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci , 10, 124, 1899-1900.

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES.

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ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

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BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES. 157

It is difficult to estimate the limit of error of the above
observations. The observed values are in all cases means of at
least three observations, which were found to differ from their
mean values in different cases by very different amounts up to
0.001 degree. There are also many sources of error in the
calculations and they do not admit of exact valuation. As &
rough estimate the limit of error due to both observation and
calculation may probably be put at 0.0015 degree.

If this estimate is approximately correct, the above table
shows that the agreement between the observed and calculated
values is very satisfactory for both mixtures of potassium
chloride and sodium chloride, and of sodium chloride and hydro-
chloric acid.

Mixtures of Solutions of Three Electrolytes.

In the case of mixtures of the three electrolytes used as
equal volumes of the simple solutions were mixed, and there
was no change of volume on mixing, and as each molecule of
these electrolytes breaks down into two ions, expression (2)
becomes

A=$LMi wi(1+*i) + M27i2(l + «2) + M3 na (l + «a)] (5)

where the ris are the concentrations of the constituent solutions.
Thus in any mixture the ris are known, the M's can be obtained
as above, and the as can be determined by the method given
below.

Determination of the lonization Coefficients in Mixtures of
Three Electrolytes.

1 Professor MacGregor has shown how to obtain equations
sufficient for finding the ionization coefficients in a mixture of
any number of electrolytes having a common ion, and how to
solve them by a graphical procedure. As in the case of mixtures
of two electrolytes, 2 1 have, in the present case also, transformed

1 Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. (2), 2, 69, 1896-97.
* Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 10, 124, 1899-1900,

158 ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

Professor MacGregor's equations so as to express them in terms
of regional conductivities and concentrations.

In the case of mixtures of three electrolytes the transformed
equations are as follows : —

I.. _ f*°°i /,. _^°°i /,. ,rv

"'i — "'a — u Iv3> • \P)

7^+ ^- + ^- = 1. (7)

k,=f !

.(8)

=/•

where 1, 2, and 3 denote the electrolytes, the k's the specific
conductivities of the electrolytes in the regions which they
respectively occupy in the mixture, (these conductivities having
the same values as in simple solutions of equal concentrations),
the juoo's the specific molecular conductivities at infinite dilution,
the N's the concentrations of the mixture with respect to each
electrolyte, and the C's the regional concentrations, which in the
case of dilute solutions are the concentrations of the constituent
isohydric solutions.

We have thus six equations for the determination of three
k's and three C's.

These equations can be solved by a graphical process. In
the first place the values of the specific conductivities of elec-
trolyte 2, (&2), are multiplied by the constant 5*1, and those of

/*oo2

electrolyte 3, (7c3 ), by ™i. Equations (8) are now employed by

ftw 3

drawing curves having as abscissae the values of the specific
conductivities, and the corresponding values of the concentrations
as ordinates. Three points are now found by inspection, one on
each curve, having a common abscissa, according to equations (6)»

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES. 159

and ordinates, (Clt C3 and C3), whose values when substituted
in equation (7), satisfy this equation. By this method we
have found kl, C C3 and C3 ; and k^ and k3 are easily obtained
from equations (6). The a'», the ionization coefficients in the

k
mixture, are then determined from the relation, a = — ~«

Results of the Calculations.

The following Table VI contains the results of the calculations
by expression (5); also the experimental values obtained for the
depression of the freezing-point of mixtures of solutions of
potassium chloride, sodium chloride and hydrochloric aid. The
results in all the columns are expressed as in Table V.

160

ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

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BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES— BARNES. 161

The calculated values in this Table will have a greater pos-
sible error than those in Table V, due to the greater number of
experimental data required. In the observed values the possible
error is the same as before. Considering the many sources of
error in both these values the above agreement between them is
very satisfactory.

Conclusions.

The above results show that in the case of mixtures of solu-
tions of potassium chloride and sodium chloride, and of sodium
chloride and hydrochloric acid, and of all three, it is possible,
with the ionization coefficients obtained by the method referred
to above, and on the assumption that the molecular depression
of an electrolyte in a mixture is the same as it would be in a
simple solution of the same total concentration, to predict the
depression of the freezing-point within the limit of the error
involved in observation and calculation.

PBOC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS.— X.

IV. — ON THE SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM
IN EASTERN CANADA, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE
POSITION OF THE UNION AND RIVERSDALE FORMATIONS
OF NOVA SCOTIA, REFERRED TO THE DEVONIAN SYSTEM
BY SOME CANADIAN GEOLOGISTS. — By H. M. Ami, M. A.,
D. Sc., F. G. S., of the Geological Survey of Canada,
Ottawa.

(Read December llth, 1899.)

Considerable discussion has arisen of late amongst European
as well as North American geologists, as to where certain series
of sedimentary strata occurring near the summit of the Palaeozoic
should be placed, either in the Carboniferous or in the Devonian
system.

Whether certain other geological formations, occurring in the
Maritime Provinces of Canada, should be described as Permian,
or classed as Upper Carboniferous or Permo-Carboniferous, con-
stitutes another problem. It is not within the province of this
paper, however, at this time, to discuss this latter question, which
it is hoped may form the subject of another paper before long>

Where to draw the line between the Carboniferous and
Devonian sj'stems in Eastern Canada, is therefore the question
at issue. It is the purpose of the writer to enter this field of
enquiry without any leaning or bias to any one view, but to take
up the evidence as it presents itself to him and as it was collected
by him during the last four years in the Counties of Pictou,
Colchester, Cumberland, Antigonish, Hants, and Kings, in Nova
Scotia, referring to such other localities and additional evidence
only as the occasion may require.

Numerous and varied opinions have been given by many
writers on this important question of the dividing line between
the Devonian and the Carboniferous. These were consulted
merely with the purpose of obtaining notes of records of obser-
vations that might help to throw light upon the problem, without.

(162)

CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM IN EASTERN CANADA. — AMI. 163

any prejudice or desire to accept one view or another, unless the
facts adduced proved to be wholly reliable evidence.

Abram Gesner, Sir William Dawson, Sir Charles Lyell, Dr.
Jackson, Prof. Alger, Prof. J. P. Lesley, M. de Koninck, M. de
Verneuil, Mr. Hugh Fletcher, Dr. R. W. Ells, Mr. Henry S.
Poole, Richard Brown, Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F. R. S, J. W.
Kirkby, Mr. J. W. Salter, Dr. Henry Woodward, Dr. G. F.
Matthew, Prof. Bailey, Mr. A. Smith Woodward, Mr. Robert
Kidston, and Prof. David White, have all contributed by their
writings, published or in manuscript, to the literature of this
interesting controversy.

I shall not attempt to review the difference of opinion which
may exist between what may be tunned the two schools of
geology as regards the constitution of the Devonian system,
especially as regards the uppermost members of that system, —
The Lonsdalean School, whose characteristics of the Devonian age
are based more especially upon the life-zones or pal aeon tological
evidence which the formations hold, and the M urchisonian
School, which emphasizes more especially the stratigraphical
succession, with little reference to palseontological evidence.

From a considerable study of the origin or genesis of the
various geological formations in question, or of the cycles of
constructive forms affecting them, the periods of erosion noticed,
together with the life-zones which these formations contain, and
characterize them, one has been able to arrive at a conclusion
which, it is hoped, will be in accord with the views of the rest
of the world, so that whatever interpretation is given to the
Carboniferous system in one continent, the same should likewise
hold good for another. The same with the Devonian system.

Just as Time was a constant factor during the evolution or
history of the Carboniferous system of this world, and that the
amount of time involved is a definite period, so also was Life a
constant factor ; and the several subdivisions of the Carbonifer-
ous system — the Eo-, Meso-, and Neo-Carboniferous, must be
marked by corresponding series of Life-zones of the game
system.

164 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM

No difficulty has been experienced in separating the various
geological formations in the Counties of Nova Scotia mentioned
above, nor of understanding their taxonomic relations. The most
excellent work of Mr. Hugh Fletcher, of the Geological Survey
of Canada, who kindly furnished me with maps and plans of the
region in question, shows clearly the true and natural order of
sequence of the formations. The main question at issue, how-
ever, has been where to place the series of sediments hitherto
known, and designated by Mr. Hugh Fletcher as the "Rocks of
Union and Riversdale " : in the Carboniferous or in the Devonian
system. Mr. Fletcher would place them in the Devonian. I
include them as formations in the Carboniferous system (and
would also classify in the same system the red rocks of Mispec
and the Lancaster fern-ledges of New Brunswick, which hold
much the same flora and fauna). The various formations of the
Carboniferous system do not form an unbroken succession of
sedimentary strata in the disputed region either of Pictou, Col-
chester and adjacent counties. Great breaks and unconformities
appear on every hand.

It may not be considered out of place here to look for a
moment at some of the principles involved in such questions as
arise in this problem. Portions of formations constituting cycles
of sedimentation or of constructive forms, marking peculiar
physical conditions of deposition, followed by periods of erosion,
and subsequent depositions, occur at various horizons, and were
it not for their entombed faunas it would be most difficult to
state in which of the subdivisions of the Palaeozoic column to
place them. Where sedimentation as marked by cycles of con-
structive forms is not continuous, the basis or principle upon
which the separation of the different members of the series
depends, must obtain in the palseontological evidence collected
in the various members whose succession, though not perfect,
is, nevertheless, known as to its order.

Similarity in the types or organic forms found, assists one in
uniting series of sediments as part and parcel of one system, just
as dissimilarity enables one to separate series of sediments from

IN EASTERN CANADA. — AMI. 165

which they were derived. Comparisons must be instituted
between the various life-zones occurring in the natural succession
of strata, and wherever they are exposed they can easily be
recognized however fragmentary or isolated they may be, pro-
vided they are fossiliferons, and that the evidence thus obtained
can be compared with standard sections recognized the world
over. The characteristic life-zones of the Carboniferous System,
as they have been elaborated the world .over, can be very easily
prepared, and in order to be recognized as typical they must be
in accord with the concensus of opinion with the rest of the world-
They must not contain assemblages of organisms or types
which are not in harmony with, but must be organically and
chronologically related to, the types that are everj^where held to
be of Carboniferous age. Fortunately for the geologist, although
there are unconformities or breaks in the succession of strata
there is abundant evidence of life of various orders and classes
entombed in the various formations.

THE JOGGINS SECTION.

One grand and continuous section of strata of the Carbon-
iferous system to very near the summit thereof, in which are
entombed myriads of organisms, plants and animals in regular
succession also, is found along the Joggins shore, in the western
portion of Cumberland County, Nova Scotia. This section was
described in detail by Sir William Logan, and subsequently by
Sir William Dawson and Dr. R. W. Ells. It extends from Min-
udie to McCarren's Cove, along the shore of the Cumberland
Basin. This forms one standard section. No other such exists
in Nova Scotia, and a systematic collection of the fossil organic
remains entombed in its strata ought to be made for reference,
in order to compare the succession of life-zones here with those
of other portions of Nova Scotia and North America. In the
United States, Mr. David White informs me that there have been
noted not less than seven standard sections of the Carbon-
iferous System, in distinct fields : Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ohio,
Missouri and other States. These all have their peculiar charac-

166 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM

ters, and may be described as local series. Whereas each
particular basin of Carboniferous rocks or sediments may have
its own particular conditions of sedimentation which led to
peculiar local differences existing between the several basins
which may be under examination and comparison, there can be
no doubt at all about the series belonging to the Carboniferous
System, when the results obtained in Great Britain, France»
Germany, and the world over, have been consulted.

Such a recognized succession as the consensus of opinion in
the world has established as marking the Carboniferous System,
must be a term which includes within its scope the various
members of the different local series under examination.

Unequal amounts of sedimentation at different horizons in a
System and in different districts, have created difficulties, but
formed an interesting feature in the study of the correlation of
strata. It has been conceded that in the case of the 14,000 feet
of strata which constitute the Joggins section in Nova Scotia,
sedimentation must have been very rapid, and though deposited
in a perfectly unbroken succession, such strata may have taken
much less time actually to be laid down than a few hundred feet
of shales and sandstone belonging to the same system in another
section.

It follows from this, that local series of Carboniferous strata
may be of very great thickness in one part of the continent, or
comparatively thin in another part. It is possible for the whole
system of the Carboniferous to be unusually extensive in its
development of sediments, as has certainly been the case in Nova
Scotia when compared with sediments of the same age in Penn-
sylvania. There is evidence of great rapidity in sedimentation.
Evidence of rapidity in sedimentation is clearly seen in the
strata, what I refer to the Eo-Carboniferous of Colchester and
Pictou Counties in Nova Scotia, as represented by the Union and
Riversdale formations. Ripple-marked surfaces and shallow
water indications occur on all sides. Hundreds of feet of
unbroken succession of strata, practically each stratum beauti-
fully marked by ripples and wind action, as well as by the foot-

IN EASTERN CANADA. — AMI. 167

prints and trails of reptilian and other animals, such as are seen
to occur at East and West Bay, near Partridge Island, Parrsboro,
and point clearly to rapid deposition or accumulation of sediment
along a fast-sinking floor.

The main reason for introducing this argument is to combat
the view advanced in certain quarters, that by placing the Union
and Riversdale formations into the Carboniferous system, it
would make the latter too cumbersome and unwieldly a system,
and take away from an older, underlying system — the Devonian,
and rob it of parts of its sediments. The following occur to me
to constitute the successive series or sediments which belong to
the Carboniferous system in certain portions of Nova Scotia.

I. — THE EO-CARBONIFEROUS.

In this lower portion of the Carboniferous system, I would
place the Union and Riversdale series of sediments, which are
well and extensively developed in Pictou, Colchester and Cum-
berland Counties ; at Union and Riversdale ; along Harrington
River ; on the Moose River ; at East and West Bay, near
Parrsboro ; Archibald's Brook ; Oliver's Mills ; McKay's, etc., on
the East River of Pictou, and at numerous other localities.

The expressions " Rocks of Union and of Riversdale," I would
describe as formations, calling one the Union formation, the
other, the Riversdale formation. These are easily recognized
over wide areas, geographically, and are characterised by a well-
defined fauna and flora, at least as far as the Riversdale
formation is concerned, the Union formation owing to its highly
ferruginous character proving almost everywhere to be very
destitute of fossil organic remains.

FOSSILS FROM THE RlVERSDALE FORMATION.

The two principal localities from which the fossils of this
formation may best be obtained, occur in the Riversdale Station
district, close to the boundary line between Colchester and
Pictou Counties, and in the Harrington River district near the
boundary between Colchester and Cumberland Counties.

168 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM

Riversdale District. — Fossils from this locality were
obtained along the Black River branch of the Salmon River,
along the Calvary Brook, just east of Riversdale ; also in the
numerous cuttings along the line of the Intercolonial Railway
between West River Station (Pictou County) and Riversdale
Station (Colchester County).

In the rather fine grained dark gray or greenish gray
arenaceous and black or dark carbonaceous shales of the cuttings
along the I. C. R., plants, as well as animal remains, occur.
Amongst the groups of organic remains examined and reported
upon up to date are a series of plants sent to Mr. Robert Kidston
of Stirling, Scotland. The entomostraca were submitted to
Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F. R. S., and the Crustacea (Podophthal-
mata) to Dr. Henry Woodward.

PLANTS.

1. Arterophyllites acicularis, Dawson,( = Calamocladns equi-

setiformis, Schl.)

2. Sphenopteris marginata, Dawson.

3. Neuropteris, sp.

4. Alethopteris, sp. ; allied to Alethopteris valida, Boulay.

5. Cordaites principalis, Germar.

6. Robbii, Dawson.

7. Cyclopteris (Nephropteris) varia, Dawson.

8. Calamites, sp. (?)

9. Cardiocarpum cornutum, Dawson.

CRUSTACEA, (Xiphosura).
Belinuridce.

1. Belinurus grandsevus, Henry Woodward and T. R. Jones.

CRUSTACEA, (Entomostraca).
Phyllopoda.

1. Leaia tricarinata, Meek and Worthen.

2. Leaia Leidyi, var. Baentschiana, Beyrich and Geinitz.

3. Estheria Dawsoni, Jones.

IN EASTERN CANADA. — AMI. 169

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.

1. Anthiacomya elongata, Dawson.

2. " obtusa, Dawson.

Insecta.

1. " A neuropteroid insect allied to Miamia Bronsoni " —
determined by Prof. Charles Brongniart, of the
Mus6um d'histoire Naturelle, Paris, France.

Vermes.

I. Spirorbis Eriaia, Dawson, attached to leaves of Cor-

daites Robbii, Dawson.

Harrington River District. — The shales and sandstones,
from which the fossils of the Riversdale formation were obtained,
occur along the boundary of the counties of Colchester and
Cumberland — the strike of the strata being generally across the
direction of the stream. As pointed out by Mr. H. Fletcher,
this locality proved to be particularly rich in fossils.

PLANTS.

1. Arterophyllites acicularis, Dawson.

2. Calamites, sp.

3. Sphenopteris dilatata, Dawson.

4. " Harttii, Dawson.

5. " splendens, Dawson.

6. " marginata, Dawson.

7. " sp.

8. Aneimites valida, Dawson.

9. Adiantites ? or Archseopteris, sp.
10. Neuropteris, sp.

II. Alethopteris discrepans, Dawson, ( = Alethopteris decur-

rens, Artis, sp.)

12. Cyperites-like leaves.

13. Cardiocarpum cornutum, Dawson.

14. Psilophytum ? glabrum, Dawson.

Animalia.
BATRACHIA.

1. Hylopus Logani, Dawson.

170 SUBDIVISIOXS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM

2. Sauropus Dawsoni, (M. S.) — From rocks apparently
of this age which occur at East Bay near West Bay
and Partridge Island, two miles below Parrsboro.

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.

1. Anthracomya elongata, Dawson.

2. obtusa, Dawson.

CRUSTACEA.

1. Leaia tricarinata, Meek and Worthen.

2. Carbonia, sp.

3. Estheria Dawsoni, Jones.

4. A.nthracopalaemon ? n. sp.

The Riversdale formation thus carries a flora and fauna,
\vhich cannot be taken as one appertaining to any other system
than the Carboniferous, inasmuch as the types are all akin, and
generally conceded to be closely related, even to types in the
productive coal measures higher up in the system.

I hare no hesitation to state that, in the Union and Rivers-
•dale formations, we have obtained in Nova Scotia a fauna and
flora, which, while not as extensive nor as varied as that obtained
in the productive coal measures of the same Province, are never-
theless remarkably similar in their biological characteristics,
imbedded in a series of sediments, terrigenous in character, and
for the most part estuarine, carrying Carbonaceous shales and
sandstones, underclays and conglomerates, constituting just a
series of strata as that, which, having begun in Eo-Carboniferous

~ O

time, were interrupted by an encroachment of the Carboniferous
Sea (Windsor formation) in which marine conditions prevailed,
and limestones were deposited, holding abundance of marine
shells and other fossil organic remains peculiar to salt-water
conditions, and were followed by newer, or higher, or later strata,
such as are met in the " Millstone grit " and " Coal measures " of
the same region, of various writers, characterised also by terrig-
enous deposits, and enclosing a fauna and flora whose affinities
are remarkably akin to the forms found in the Eo-Carboniferous

IN EASTERN CANADA — AMI.

171

formations of Union and Riversdale, giving us the following
natural, though interrupted general succession of strata, in
•descending order : —

SUCCESSION.

CONDITIONS.

FOSSILS.

III. Coal Measures and
Millstone grit,

Estuarine.

Land plants, land animals,
shallow water conditions
and forms.

II. Windsor formation.

Marine.

Marine shells, corals, sea-
life.

I. Union and Riversdale
formations.

Estuarine.

Land plants, land animals,
shallow water conditions
and forms.

As evidence of the similarity of forms peculiar to the Eo-
Carboniferous of Colchester and Pictou Counties and the Coal
measures of the same, let us take the different orders or groups
•of fossil organic remains affording Pala3ontological evidence as
noted on page 181 of the " Summary Report of the Geological
Survey Department for 1898 and 1899."

EVIDENCE FROM ANIMAL LIFE.

Insecta — Neuropterous insects have been discovered in the
•shallow water deposits of Riversdale age, in a cutting on the
Intercolonial Railway east of Riversdale and Campbell's Siding,
about a mile and a half west of West River Station, and the
wing obtained and sent to the Museum d'Histoire Naturelles, is
referred to a Carboniferous genus by Prof. Brongniart, of Paris,
France — a most eminent authority on the Fossil Insects of the
Carboniferous.

Phyllopoda. — The numerous specimens of Leaia and Estheria
from the Carbonaceous and other shales of the Riversdale form-
ation of Colchester, Pictou, and Cumberland Counties, are very
similar to the forms described from the Coal Measures of Pictou,
County, and also from the Coal Measures of the United States.
All the species of Leaia recorded in North America so far, are

172 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM

referred to the Coal Measures. This genus, however, was abun-
dant in early Carboniferous times, as may be gathered from those
specimens obtained by me in the red, black and gray shales of
the Union and Riversdale formations of Nova Scotia, which*
though they underlie the Marine limestones of the Windsor
formation, are nevertheless referred to the Eo-Carboniferousi
a position which the enclosed fauna of Phyllopods warrants
in assigning.

Crustacea. — Several specimens of a new genus, and new
species of one of the Podophthalmata and Xiphosura, occur in
the Harrington River and Riversdale collections in Colchester
County. These Crustaceans are highly characteristic of the
Carboniferous system in Europe and America, and their occur-
rence at this horizon, together with their generic characters,
point to them as prototypes of higher forms found in the higher
subsequent cycle of sedimentation in the series of sediments
referred to in the Coal measures above. Of these, B'elinurus
grandcevus, T. R. Jones and H. Woodward, has been recently
described, and the authors describe it as a Carboniferous form,
related to Carboniferous species in Great Britain.

Amphibia. — Of these animals there are both footprints and
trails in the collection of the Geological Survey or National
Museum at Ottawa, which are referable to the genera Sauropus
and Hylopus, which were obtained from rocks of Union and
Riversdale horizon, and some are of gigantic size. All other
footprints referable to this genus in North America, have been
described as Carboniferous and, consequently, the Parrsboro
and Spencer's Island specimens are Carboniferous, rather than
any other horizon.

In his " Geology, Chemical, Physical and Stratigraphical,"
Oxford, 1888, Professor Prestwich gives a table "Showing the
character and distribution of the species of organic remains in
the several main groups of the Palaeozoic series in the British
area." Under the head of Amphibians (including footprints) he
notes the occurrence of these in the Carboniferous, but none in
the Devonian.

IN EASTERN CANADA. — AMI. 173

Dr. S. A. Miller, in his " North American Geology and Palae-
ontology," containing that useful Catalogue of North American
Palseozoic Fossils, does not record a single Amphibian from rocks
older than the Carboniferous, and the genera Sauropua and
Uylopus occurring in the Riversdale formation of Nova Scoti^
are identical with and similar to those found in the Carbonifer-
ous, or other regions of North America.

Prof. James D. Dana, in his " Manual of Geology," Sir Arch-
ibald Geikie in his " Text Book of Geology," also, all the leading
nomenclators and writers on North American or European
Geology and Palaeontology, agree in placing the genera Sauropus
and Hylopus to which I have referred the footprints from
Parrsboro and Harrington River, of Cumberland and Colchester
County, from the Riversdale formation, as Carboniferous.

Lamellibr<mchiata.—Ot these the most conspicuous are the

AnthracomycB of Sal tor, which Sir William Dawson described

under the name of Naiadites. These shells are abundant in the

Coal Measures of the Joggins, Springhill, Plctou and Sydney

Basins of Nova Scotia, also in the Pennsylvania, Virginia and other

coal areas of the United States, not to speak of their occurrence

in the Carboniferous of England and France, and many other

countries of Europe. They occur in bands in the Riversdale

formation at Riversdale, and in numerous outcrops along the

banks of the Harringtoh River, on the dividing line between

Colchester and Cumberland Counties, and the term " Naiadites

Bands " or " Naiadites Shales," which are usually associated

with Ostracoda of the genus Carbonia, and other allied genera

of Carboniferous affinity, is applicable to these Eo-Carboniferous

bands. All writers on Geology and Palaeontology, concur in

placing these shells in the Carboniferous. All the species recorded

from the United States are referred to the Coal Measures, whilst

those from the Union and Riversdale formations of Colchester

and Cumberland Counties in Nova Scotia, are, by the writer,

placed in the Eo-Carboniferous. It will thus be seen that the

palseentological evidence adduced in the geological collections so

far obtained from the Riversdale formation of Nova Scotia,

17-i SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM

including Insects, Phyllopods, Crustaceans, Amphibians and1
Lamellibranchiata, are all types which are markedly akin to
types well known to occur in the Carboniferous of other
countries, and more than that, such are usually met with in the-
Coal Measures of the same.*

It has been one of my constant endeavours to obtain
Devonian fossils from those areas of Nova Scotia ascribed to-
the Devonian in the Riversdale and Harrington River Sections ;.
but I have found only Carboniferous types.

EVIDENCE FROM PLANT LIFE.

Besides the above, there is the evidence adduced from the-
flora collected in the strata which yielded the forms of animal
life just cited above, and it can be truly said that it also has a
decided Carboniferous facies. The genera Asterophyllites, Spken-
opteris, Alethopteris, Cardiopteris, Stigmaria, Calamites, Poac-
ites, Gordaites are all represented. From communications recently
received from Mr. Robert Kidston, of Stirling, Scotland, the well-
known author of the British Museum Catalogue of Carboniferous
Plants, who has examined the forms sent him, we learn that he is
satisfied that the flora is truly a Carboniferous one.

Quite independently. Prof. David White of the Smithsonian
Institution and United States Geological Survey at Washington^
arrived at the same conclusion when he kindly made a prelimin-
ary examination of the collections from Nova Scotia cited above,
and then in our possession at Ottawa, and invariably referred
the forms detected to the Carboniferous system.

From our own study of the numerous collections obtained in
the so-called disputed areas in question, from the areas of the
Riversdale formation, we cannot but come to the conclusion that,
instead of finding Devonian types of plants and animals, they
proved in almost every case to be Carboniferous. Neither is it.
to be wondered at, that, on studying the affinities and relations
of the fossil plants, etc., of Riversdale, McKay's Head, and Har-

* The term " Coal Measures " is an unfortunate one to designate a Geological formation,
and should never be used to designate horizon. It is a purely lithological or econ-
omic term, and conveys no idea of the Geological position in the Time scale-
Productive Coal Measures can occur at any horizon in the Garbonif erous.

IN EASTERN CANADA. — AMI. 175

rington River, from strata now referred to the Riversdale
formation, Sir William Dawson placed them in the Millstone
Grit formation, so intimate are their relations to the plants of
the Coal Measures; and from my own observations also to
the faunas and floras which are now known to immedi-
ately underlie the Millstone Grit of certain portions of Nova
Scotia.

The Riversdale formation must now, therefore, both on
account of its position in the succession of sediments and especially
from the life-zones it holds, be classed as an Bo-Carboniferous
formation. This formation clearly underlies that series of
marine limestones referable to the Windsor formation, as this
has been described and mapped out fully by Sir Wm. Dawson,
and more lately and with special care and accuracy by Mr.
Hugh Fletcher.

II. — THE MARINE SEDIMENTS.

In the districts of Nova Scotia under examination, besides,
the Eo-Carboniferous formations of Union and Rivesdale, con-
sisting of red shales and sandstones and conglomerates, more or
less strongly cemented together, together with the series of
dark grey coloured, and black or greenish and rusty shales as
defined by Mr. Hugh Fletcher, forming a great thickness of
sediments, constitute one of the cycles of sedimentation peculiar
to the Carboniferous System, there occur certain other strata
overlying these unconformably, viz. : the marine limestones
and associated gypsum, marls, shales and sandstones.

These marine limestones, &c., hold abundance of fossil organic
remains, as shown on the East Branch of the East River of
Pictou at Springville ; at Brookfield ; and Miller's Lime Kiln near
the D. A. R. Bridge, Windsor, N. S., where the series is highly
fossiliferous and the forms are well preserved. The term,
" Windsor Series," is quite applicable to these strata and
deserves to be recognized as constituting a typical formation
or phase of the Carboniferous system in this portion of
Eastern Canada.

176 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM

Just where to place this Windsor formation in the column
of Palaeozoic formations has not yet been definitely ascertained.
Whether it is to be classed as one of the Eo-Carboniferous sedi-
ments, or whether it constitutes a factor or part ot what may be
termed, according to Prof. H. S. Williams'.s very appropriate
classfication, Meso-Carboniferous, is the question occupying our
mind at present. It is, nevertheless, to be remarked that the
fauna it contains is one in which so far not one of the Upper-
most Devonian fossils of the Gaspe and other regions of Eastern
Canada have been detected.

The occurrence of this formation in certain basins of Nova
Scotia marks a cessation of the conditions existing in the areas
which these limestones cover, showing that the sea or Atlantic
waters in Carboniferous times extended over the Eo-carboniferous
deposits previously laid down, which had been subjected to
subsidence and erosion previous to their being overlaid, whilst
the vegetation and climate did not, probably, change very
materially in the high land during this period of submergence
and encroachment of the sea. A period of elevation evidently
must have followed the deposition of the limestones, marls, &c.,
and sandstones and mudstones and shales were deposited, to be
followed later again by sandstones with shales and coal seams
peculiar to the "Coal Measures " and " Millstone Grit " formations.

Such deposits are essentially terrigenous as to their origin
and the structure, as well as origin and mode of deposition of
the Coal Measures need not be described. The flora and fauna
they hold mark the estuarine conditions existing and prevailing
at the time, also the luxuriant growth of plants on land with
the contemporaneous animal life of the period both in the water
and on the land also.

A brief summary of the succession of the sediments in the
Carboniferous of Nova Scotia in Pictou, Colchester and Cumber-
land counties in part, such as the writer has observed it in
numerous outcrops and localities, gives the following section in
ascending order : —

1. Riversdale and Union formations: Consisting of red

IN EASTERN CANADA.— AMI. 177

sandstones and conglomerates, carbonaceous shales and mud-
stones, besides diorites and other basic intrusive rocks.

2. An unconformity.

3. Windsor limestones and Hopewell sandstones, constitut-
ing distinct formations which overlie the Union and Riversdale
formations.

4. (An unconformity, according to Mr. Fletcher.) I have
not yet been able to detect any unconformity at this juncture.
There is no unconformity between the Millstone grit and the
underlying shales, calcareous and other conglomerates and sand-
stones of Cumberland Basin.

5. Millstone grit of Skinner McDonald's Brook.

6. In certain portions of Pictou County, N. S., an uncon-
formity occurs, e. g., at Blackwood Brook, opposite New
Glasgow, where the upturned edges of the "Millstone Grit"
(Logan) are overlaid by the New Glasgow conglomerate of
Fraser's Mountain, &c., whereas in other portions the Millstone
grit is directly superimposed by the Coal Measures, e. g., at
Westville and the Joggins.

This peculiar geological succession in these two areas give us
two series of sediments in the succession of formations which in
part only are synchronous, hold similar organic remains, but
exhibit great variety in sedimentation.

A. Joggins and Westville Areas. B. New Glasgow Region.

V. Millstone grit. V. Millstone grit.
VI. Coal Measures.* VI. Unconformity (of Blackwood Brook).

VII. New Glasgow conglomerate.
VIII. Spirorbis limestone.

IX. Smelt Brook shales and sandstones.
X. Pictou sandstones.
XI. Cape John formation, red sandstones
and conglomerate.

* The Coal Measures of Pictou County at Stellarton and Westville consisting of
bituraous shales, clays and sandstones, are not anywhere seen to be overlaid by any of
the formations in series B.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Set., VOL. X. TRANS — L.

178 CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM IN EASTERN CANADA. — AMI.

We would thus have the following tentative TABLE OP
FORMATIONS in the Carboniferous of part of Nova Scotia : —

FORMATIONS.

Northern Areas.

Southern Areas.

Order.

XII.

1 Pictou

XI.

NEO-CAK- J s,11Pif Rr0nk

x

BONIFEROUS j S^rook ! '.

(Spirorbis limestones

IX.
VIII.

/Stellarton 1

Unconformity.
/ Millstone grit

Coal Measures .
( Millstone grit • .

VII.
VI.

jVlFSO CAR- j \Vestville /

J Unconformity (?)

V.

i Hope well and >

IV.

(:.::::::::: :::

( Windsor . . . . /

III.

II.

Union \

Riversdale . . . . /

NOTE.— It is not at all improbable that the Smelt Brook formation (IX.) overlying
the New Glasgow (conglomerate) formation is equivalent to the Stellarton (VI.) or
" Coal Measures " formation, which would indicate clearly the existence, as in other
portions of the palreozoic in Eastern America, of two distinct series of formations
which are nevertheless synchronous. The writer hopes shortly to describe each of the
formations indicated in the above tentative Table of Formations for a portion of Nova
Scotia, together with the relations of the latter to other palaeozoic sediments in the
same and adjoining Province of New Brunswick.

V. — THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY, BY PROF. J. DAVIDSON.
PHIL. D., Fredericton, N. B.

(Read May Ikth, 1900).

It is hardly possible to determine whether there ever was a
time in the history of the race when each individual was self-
sufficient, and, like the Homeric Cyclops, paid no regard to
others. Some of the Australian tribes are so low in the scale
of civilization that even barter is unknown amongst them, but
whether these represent the universal primitive type cannot be
determined one way or the other. It is evident, however,
wherever we find the first germs of social life, we find, at the
same time, a kind of rude division of labor which necessitates,
and renders possible, the beginnings of trade. Trade in its
origin is simply barter, the direct exchange of one article for
another. But barter, however simple in appearance, is more
complicated than modern exchange. It must often have hap-
pened in the early history of trade that two parties failed to
make a trade for the simple reason that, while both were anxious
to give what they had, in exchange for what they wanted, neither
of them needed or desired what the other had to offer. This
lack of coincidence has frequently placed travellers in very
great straits. If the native who holds the store of food does
not find in articles which the explorer displays to catch the
aboriginal fancy, something which attracts him, he passes on,
and the traveller and his party have to go hungry. Sir R.
Burton warns the would-be explorer against assuming that any
sort of trinkets will suffice for the purchase of supplies and the
hiring of labor. The African native has his own standard of
taste, and no matter how gaudy and how gimcrack the stock of
Brummagem goods displayed may be, the native will take such
things only as agree with his standard of taste. Nothing wilt
induce the primitive savage to take what he does not immed-
iately require in exchange for the food the traveller desires,

(179)

180 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

unless the articles offered in exchange conform to his standard
of taste.

The inconveniences of this primitive state of barter are so
evident that no race or tribe which has made the first step away
from barbarism, can for long remain without some sort of
medium of exchange. There is need of some commodity which
will be readily received by every one, although at the moment
he may not wish to consume it, in the full assurance that he can
easily, in his turn, exchange it for the article he does desire.
Such an interposed commodity will greatly facilitate exchanges,
and to all intents and purposes may be regarded as money.
What this interposed commodity is depends almost entirely on
circumstances. At first, almost any commodity which is
esteemed by everybody in the community will serve the purpose.
There is no more foundation for the idea that there was a
sort of social contract regarding some one article to be used as a
medium of exchange than there is for the other historical
fiction that law and language are due to a primitive contract
or convention. No one article has been adopted as if by natural
right. The original medium of exchange was simply a market-
able article with a recognized value. Metallic money has
reached its present supremacy because in the struggle for exist-
ence it has demonstrated its superiority. There is no natural
desire for the precious metals ; and even for gold there does not
seem to be any natural and inherent desire apart from its utility.
The sacra fames auri is a fiction of the poet and a description
of the civilized mind ; and the first discover of a gold nugget
possibly viewed it as a sort of substitute for a bead or a shell
for a necklace. Even to this day, there are peoples who do not
esteem gold, and will give nothing for it. The various British
and Egyptian Soudan expeditions were compelled to take along
with them bulky Maria Theresa dollars, because the Arab would
not take gold in exchange. The taste of the Arab is for silver
ornaments. He is no fanatical silver man desirous of seeing
silver remonetised. Gold he could not, or at least was not
accustomed to, use as ornaments for his person, his horse, or his

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 181

weapons. Hence, gold had little utility for him, and the trans-
port service was burdened with large quantities of bulky
Austrian silver dollars. There are certain qualities which
civilized communities require in the medium of exchange ; but
in early commerce these were not always demanded, perhaps
often not even thought of. Each community has selected the,
commodity which best suits its conditions, and in the course of
progress each has adopted and in time abandoned many kinds
of monev. But whatever the nature of the medium of exchange
adopted, it served as money ; and it is justly entitled to be called
money, even although not metallic, or not coined ; for, after all,
as Prof. Walker says, " Money is that money does." For the
needs of modern trade, primitive money materials are entirely
unsuited ; but they serve their own purpose, and as in the eyes
of an early missionary to the Mexicans who, contemplating the
bags of cocoanuts used by the Aztecs, exclaimed, " Blessed
money ! which exempts its possessors from avarice since it can
not be long hoarded or hidden under ground," primitive money
may have peculiar advantages of its own !

When in any district or community any particular com-
modity comes into general use, and is readily available, it
generally comes in time to be unit of value and the medium of
exchange. Its nature will, of course, depend on the climate and
geographical position of the district ; and may be changed when
the community advances to another stage of culture. The
natural medium of exchange may be altered, even although the
community has made no such advance. When a primitive com-
munity comes into commercial contact with a more advanced
race, an entirely new medium of exchange may be adopted.
Thus, gin and gunpowder are, according to Bishop Tugwell, of
Uganda, to all intents and purposes, the only currency in certain
parts of Africa. The foreign trader may create a new value by
his demand for produce which hitherto has been little esteemed.
In the Caroline Islands stone money in the form of quartz
wheels, varying from six inches to twelve in diameter, was
formerly the money the natives used ; but since the advent of

182 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

the white trader bags of copra or dried cocoanut kernel have
come into general use.* The usual effect of such a contact of
races has been the substitution of a corresponding manufactured
article for the original commodity used by the natives. Thus,
among the Pacific Coast Indians, blankets have become the
medium of exchange in place of furs. Since all exchange is
mutual, the civilized trader must abandon his natural medium
of exchange and adopt the medium of exchange prescribed by
the character of the trade. Thus, in the New England colonies,
wampum, a form of shell money, and in French Canada, beaver
skins, were used naturally in the trade with the Indians at all
times ; and on occasion, owing to the scarcity in the colonies of
small change, these articles were used as money between
Europeans. Indeed, in many communities where money, as we
know it, is, for one reason or other, scarce, commodities may
come into use as money, not because the people know no better,
but because they have no better. Thus, on the north-east coast
of Newfoundland at this day, cod alone is currency."!*

The natural currency of a community is that commodity in
which its wealth mainly consists. In the hunting stage of
society property consists in weapons of war and the chase, in a
few simple, natural ornaments made of shells or teeth, and in
the skins of animals, which serve for clothing, and for the cover-
ing of the hut or wigwam. But as man advances in civilization,
he succeeds in taming animals, whose flesh and milk form his
foods, whose skins or wool form his clothing. This is the pas-
toral stage in which a man's wealth is reckoned by his herds.
In the more settled agricultural stage, property consists not only
of slaves and domesticated animals, but of dwellings and grain,
and above all, of stocks of the precious and other metals,
though indeed, in early history, all metals are precious. These
later forms of wealth man has come to value according to his
earlier standards of wealth ; and there is every reason to believe
that the original standards of value of metallic coins are based
on mere primitive ox and cow units. When man has come into

*F. W. Christian. Geographical Journal, Feb., 1899.

tLant : Cruising on the French shore Westminster Review, March, 1899.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 183

the possession of the metals, and has acquired the power of
working them, a long course of monetary development is possible
for him. He finds out by experience which metal suits his
purpose best ; and that purpose may change as the centuries
pass. Our present currencies are the result of the law of the
survival of the fittest. The primitive condition was general
use ; and that always remains the first condition of the use of
an article as currency. But along with that, there are other
conditions which are stated in every monetary text-book. All
the metals have been used in turn. Iron was used in Sparta,
and is used to-day in the Dark Continent. Lead and tin, and
platinum, gold, and silver, and copper, have all been used. But
experience has shown that gold and silver pre-eminently, and
copper, or some alloy of it, in a less degree, are best suited for
currency purposes.

This has been the general course of development ; but though
it is sometimes hard, amid all the talk about progress to realize
that the stationary state of society is the usual phenomenon,
yet it is true that most peoples have not become civilized, and
since many remain in the most primitive stages of society, we
still have many actual instances of primitive currency in present
day use. Progress seems alike impossible in the frozen north
and in the torrid south ; and in these regions the conditions of
life are almost unchanged, and there we may see the kinds of
money our forefathers of untold generations ago employed.

The rigour of the northern winters prevents the rearing of
domestic animals, or the systematic cultivation of the soil, and
there the primitive hunting stage still exists. The wealth of
these Arctic communities consists in skins, and in some cases of
dried fish, which they exchange with the trader from the south
for their few luxuries or use for their own clothing and sus-
tenance. Under these conditions skins, or their modern equiva-
lents, form the natural medium of exchange. A writer in a
popular magazine gives a graphic description of the skin money
used in the Hudson Bay Territories :

" In old times, when an Indian wanted a rifie, the rifle was
stood on end, and the Indian laid furs flat on the ground till

184 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

they were heaped to the top of the gun barrel ; then the Indian
took the rifle, worth possibly $50, and the Hudson Bay Company
took the furs, worth from $100 to $1000, the large variation
being due to the absense of discrimination on the part of the
Indian

" At the Hudson's Bay Company posts, on the Mackenzie
River, actual money is unknown ; all trade being conducted b)T
means of a curious imaginary currency, the unit of value of
which is ' one skin.' What sort of skin ? No one knows ; in
fact it is no sort of skin in particular. It is merely an imag-
inary skin, about equivalent in value to half a dollar. The hide
of a beaver is worth ten skins ; a musk ox hide is worth thirty
skins ; a fine silver fox hide is worth 300 skins. These are the
big bills of this unique currency.

" Small change is made by musk rat hides, worth one-tenth
of a skin ; by mink hides worth two skins, and by lynx hides
worth four skins. A wolverine hide is worth sixteen ski.ns.
There is a fluctuation in the value of this currency just as
there is a fluctuation in the value of silver, consequent upon the
increase or decrease in its production."*

But skin currency is not so unique as this writer imagines
it to be. We have no modern instance so complete, but we
have many traces of the same practice. In Northern Asia the
skin of the Siberian squirrel was and is the monetary unit ; and
etymology shows that many of the northern nations were in
the same position. " In the Esthonian language the word rutra
generally signifies money, but its equivalent in the kindred
Lappish tongue has not yet altogether lost the original meaning
of skin or fur."-f* And the name of a Russian small coin, the J
kopeck, is said to mean half a hare skin, showing that the
Muscovites had originally a skin currency — a fact which is also
established^ by the circulation of leather money in Russia as
late as Peter the Great. Even in regions where there were
possibilities of development, the earliest money was of this

*Lce Merrithew : " Cosmopolitan," Nov., 1899.

tJcvons : Money and the Mechanism of Exchange, p. 20.

JRidgeway : Origin of Currency and Weight Standards, p. 13.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 185

character. " Skin for skin, yea, all that a man hath will he
give for his life," is a text we generally understand in some
obtuse way to mean a reference to a man's own skin. What it
really points to is that, even in the pastoral stage of society
which the book of Job describes, skins were the standard of
value ; and classical writers record the traditions that the earliest
currency used in Rome, Sparta, and Carthage, was formed of
leather. Sir John Mandeville, or his unacknowledged authority,
tells us that in China, when he visited it, leather money was in
circulation.

We find what seems a still more modern instance in the fact
that Saint Louis, the great king of France, finding a great
scarcity of silver coin wherewith to pay his soldiers, caused
pieces of silver wire to be fixed on leather and so circulated.
But this was rather a device for protecting the silver than an
actual leather money. The silver gave the value, and the
leather served only as a case to preserve the small piece of silver
(9 or 18 grs.) from being lost.

In some communities, particularly those brought into closer
contact with the traders of advanced race, the blanket of the
trader has supplanted the original skin currency. This has
taken place in some parts of the Hudson Bay Company's terri-
tory and eleewhere. Along the British Columbia coast also the
Indians use blankets as the unit of exchange. The blankets are
distinguished by prints or marks on the edge woven into the
texture, the best being four-point, the smallest and poorest one
point. The unit of value in trade is a single two-and-a-half
point blanket, worth about a dollar and a half. All commodities
are exchanged according to this standard ; even the four-point
blanket is said to be worth so many blankets.*

In the case of these Indians the development may have been
due to a growing scarcity of fur bearing animals, and perhaps
from the same reason, and also from natural development, we
find in Scandinavia, in Iceland, and in the Orkney Islands,

*Dawson : Report on the Queen Charlotte Islands. Geol. Survey Report of Canada,

looU«

186 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

that cloth was the standard. Wadmail, or coarse woollen cloth
formed the basis of an elaborate system of currency in Norway.*

In Iceland this cloth currency gave place with the develop-
ment of trade to a currency of stockfish. The foreign traders
•did not desire the northern coarse cloth ; but there was a steady
market in Southern Europe for fish. There is extant a procla-
mation for the regulation of trade between England and Iceland
in which an elaborate scale of prices for articles of all kinds is
drawn up in terms of dried codfish. •}• And in Newfoundlond
cod was for a long time, and still is in many parts, the only coin.

In general, one may say that whenever there arises a scarcity
of metallic money in a community which produces one chief
article for trade, that article will serve as money. Thus cod
was used in Newfoundland, tobacco in Virginia, wheat and maple
sugar in Nova Scotia,} tenpenny nails, as Adam Smith tells us,
in Kirkaldy, olive oil in the Levant, tea in Central Asia, block
salt in Abyssinia, and in various parts of Asia and Africa.

The history of the currency experiments of the European
colonies in North America is instructive. These communities
suffered from a chronic want of coin, one of the results of an
ill-considered colonial policy. Tobacco was a form of currency
in Virginia sanctioned, not only by custom, but by actual legis-
lation. In 1619, the first General Assembly of the colony
established a ratio between tobacco and silver ; and almost every
succeeding Assembly dealt with the same question. In 1642,
tobacco became the sole legal tender ; and it was not till 1656
that silver could again be used if required. But tobacco
remained the actual medium of exchange, and in 1730 paper
money, like our modern grain receipts and pig iron warrants,
was issued against tobacco. These, along with the commodity,
formed the main money in Virginia down to the beginning of
the present century, and were preferred, because more stable in
value, to the continental currency. In the New England colonies
a very great variety of articles of trade was made legal tender.

*Morris and Bax : Socialism, its Growth and Outcome, p. 249 n.

tRidgeway : op. cit., pp. 18, 19.

JPatterson : Memoir of the Rev. James MacGregor, D. D., p. 82.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 187

Beaver skins formed the greater part of the circulating medium,
and in 1631 it was enacted that grain could be paid unless
beaver or money (that is metallic money) were called for by the
contract. This law remained in force for half a century ; and
other agricultural commodities were added to the list as occasion
seemed to demand. Corn, wheat, barley, and peas, at fixed prices
per bushel, were sanctioned by law as currency, and taxes could
be paid in them at the discretion of the taxpayer.*

A similar colonial policy produced similar results in French
Canada. The scarcity of metallic money was even greater than
in the English colonies ; and at all times commodity substitutes
for metallic coinage were in use. The scarcity was so great that
in addition to the beaver skin, which was practically the unit of
value, wheat was declared a legal tender in 1669 at four livres
the mint, while in 1673 the council further ordered that bear
skins could be tendered in payment at their current value.^f-

But to return to the monetary practice of primitive communi-
ties. In the torrid zone clothing is a burden, and nature supplies
plenteous store of the food suited" to the climate. The chief
objects of desire are ornaments. The instinct for personal
adornment is one of the most powerful instincts of the race
Shells were the earliest and simplest articles so employed ; and
we find shell money used in all parts of the world. In the
torrid zone they still form the principal medium of exchange.
The cowries of the countries round the Indian Ocean have many
of the qualities which we require in the money material. They
are durable, portable, and are universally esteemed. In India
and Siam, in West Africa, as well as in East Africa, and indeed
at one time or another in every country in the world on whose
shores they are found, cowries serve as the small change of com-
merce. They are to-day collected in vast quantities in the
Maldive and Laccadive islands to be exported to serve as money
elsewhere. The value fluctuates enormously, depending on
their abundance or scarcity. In Africa traders estimate a

*White : Money and Hanking, Chap. 1.
tKingsford : History of Canada, Vol. 1, p. 156.

188 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

thousand shells at a shilling, while in India 5000 represent a
rupee. The area over which they circulate is very large ; and
we have evidence that they were at one time used in countries
which have long since abandoned them. The familiar Chinese
cash, which are estimated by the string, is at least part proof
that shell money, which is usually strung for convenience sake,
was once the currency of the Celestial Empire, although the
cash itself is a survivor, not of this shell money, but of an
original knife money of which we shall hear later. The money
of the Solomon Islands consists of neatly worked pieces of shell
about the size of a shirt button. These are strung on strings
about four yards long, and are distinguished under the names
of white and red money. In the Caroline Islands shell money
circulates, not as shells, but as real money, without immediate
reference to adornment. The shells are chipped all round till
they form disks quarter of an inch in diameter, and then are
smoothed down with sand and pumice. The porcelain money of
China, and perhaps the clay tablets of Assyria and the seals of
Egypt, may be perhaps regarded as more developed forms of the
same kind of money. In other places shells of other sorts were
used. In early China perhaps, also, among the early Greeks,
tortoise shell was used, and in China to this day the phrase
tortoise shell is still used to indicate money.*

The wampum of America is another instance of shell cur-
rency. It consisted of black and white shells polished and
fashioned into beads, and then strung in necklaces, etc. Black
ones were twice as valuable as white. Wampum wa« so well
established as currency among the Indians that it was made
legal tender among the settlers, not that white men valued it as
ornament, but because it was in constant demand by the natives
and also because there was a scarcity of small coin. The unit
of wampum money was the fathom consisting of three hundred
and sixty white beads, and was worth about sixty pence. At
first wampum was legal tender only to the extent of 12 pence,
or the limit of the legal tender of bronze coin to-day. But in

* Ridge way : op. cit., p. 21.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 189

1G41, owing to a greater scarcity of coin, wampum was made
legal tender up to £10, though in 1643 the limit was reduced to
£2. The decline of the beaver trade drove it out of circulation.
When it could no longer be exchanged in large amounts for
beaver skins, an article of international trade, the basis of its
value was gone, although its use was continued in the frontier,
districts well down into the eighteenth century.*

Shell money is still used by North American Indians. The
tribes of California, according to Mr. Powers, make use for
money not only of the red scalps of woodpeckers, but also " of
the dentalium shell, of which they grind off the top and string it
on strings ; the shortest pieces are worth twenty-five cents, the
longest about two dollars, the value rising rapidly with the
length. The strings are usually about as long as a man's arm."
When these Indians became familiar with the silver coinage of
the United States, the use to which they put the dimes and
quarters shows how the new money, as well as the old, derived
its value as a medium of exchange, because it was prized as an
adornment of the person. " Some of the young bloods array
their Dulcineas for the dance with lavish adornments, hanging
on their dress 30, 40, or 50 dollars worth of dimes, quarter dol-
lars, and half dollars, arranged in strings."^ The same aboriginal
instinct appears sometimes among semi-civilized aldermen. The
Bowery saloon, which was paved with silver dollars, used to be,
and perhaps still is, one of the sights of New York ; and it
would not have been inappropriate had Silver Dollar Smith, the
owner, been a member of Tammany, which in the day of its
political power, still tricks its members out in paint and feathers
on gala days and sends them down Third Avenue under their
Sachems, brandishing tobacco store tomahawks.

Other articles which have been desired for purposes of orna-
ment have also been used as money. The Californian Indians
use not only shells, but the red scalps of woodpeckers for their

*White : Money and Banking, Chap. 1.

tQuoted Ridgeway, op. cit., p. 15. Conversely solid brass buttons with the eye ham-
mered flat were extensively used half a century ago in St. John, New Brunswick, for
small change.

190 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

greater units of value. In Fiji, whales' teeth were used instead of
shells, and white teeth were exchanged for red teeth somewhat
in the ratio of shillings to sovereigns.* In Africa ivory tusksv
and in the Solomon Islands dog teeth, which are worn in neck-
laces, express the higher values, while shells are used for the
smaller. The currency of the Solomon Islands includes many
different articles, and the value of each relatively to the others,
is carefully determined. The currency table, as set forth by
Mr. Cook.-f- is :

10 cocoanuts = 1 string of white money.

10 strings of white money = 1 string of red money, or

= 1 dog tooth.

10 strings of red money = 1 string dolphins' teeth.

10 strings of dolphins' teeth = 1 fine woman.

1 mable ring (for ornament) = I good hog or 1 useful young man..

When man becomes a worker in rnetals, the primitive shell
ornaments are replaced by gold and copper, and silver ; and
much of the money used in Africa to-day is of this character.

But man is a creature of customs, and the forms of his neck-
laces did not change to utilize the peculiar characteristics of the
new materials. Nuggets of native gold may have been here
and there threaded on a string; but there is little doubt that
man's first attempt in metal working consisted in imitating thfr
old shell ornaments, and in imitating those shell ornaments
which had come to be used as money. In Siam there are silver
coins in the shape of shells ; and in China we have a copper
coin known as a Dragon's eye, which was fashioned in the shape-
of a cowry. But long before the precious metals were coined,
they were in circulation by weight, as they still are in the East.
The commonest form in which the metals circulated was in the

Mevons : Money, p. 25.

tFor these details regarding the Solomon Islands, I am indebted to a note in an
issue of the " Popular Science Monthly," which I cannot find again. In the same note
it is said that rope ends, ornamented with red feathers, to be worn about the waist, are
also used as money.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 191

shape of ornaments ; and some writers have spoken familiarly
of ring money as if it were really stamped and coined money
such as we use to-day. In reality, the so-called ring money was
an article of barter, circulating by weight. The ancient ring
money of Egypt, and of the early Celts and Teutons, is repre-
sented in Africa to-day by the coin currency of Calabar, and the
rod currenc}7 of the Congo region, these being simply brass or
copper wire, soft enough to be bent into the rings and
bracelets, and other ornaments in which the African black takes
delight.

When man advances to the pastoral stage, which he has done,
and apparently can do, only in the temperate climes in which
cattle can live, we find him estimating his wealth in cattle ; and
naturally the medium of exchange adopted by such societies is
that which all desire, and all in a measure possess. Most of the
civilized nations have long since left their cattle currencies cen-

o

turies behind ; but still in their language and archaeological
remains, in their literatures and their religious customs, there
survive traces of the days when cattle formed their standard of
value and their medium of exchange. " It is very possible that
kine were first exclusively valued for their flesh and milk ; but
it is .clear that in very early times a distinct and special
importance belonged to them as the instrument or medium of
exchange."*

The Latin term "pecunia" is derived from " pecus," a herd ;
the English " fee " is from the Anglo-Saxon " feoh," which sur-
vives in the cognate German from Vieh cattle ; and rupae is said
to be derived from the Sanskrit rupa, which also means cattle ;
and in the Book of Job the word K/sitch (= a lamb) is employed
to signify a piece of money. "f

The veneration in which the cow is held in modern India by
a people to whom the eating of beef is an abomination, is held
by some to point back to the ages when the ancestors of these
people in some more northern region had a great respect for

•Maine : The Early History of Institutions, p. 149.
t Wilkinson ; The Ancient Egyptians, Vol. II., p. 151.

192 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

cattle as forming the principal item in their wealth. And
although every shepherd was an abomination to the Egyptians
(Genesis, c. 46, v. 34«), as Joseph instructed his brethren, yet the
Egyptians worshipped their great divinity Apis under the form
of a bull, and worshipped also a sacred ram ; customs which pro-
bably show that at some time or other their ancestors, whether
in the northern Soudan or in Asia, and still in the pastoral stage,
had regarded with proper veneration the cattle and the sheep
which constituted their wealth.

The earliest literatures both of Aryans and of Semites show
that cattle were wealth, and the measure of wealth and the
medium of exchange. The wealth of the Patriarchs was meas-
ured by their flocks and herds, and we need only refer, in the
almost equally familiar stones in Homer, to the one-sided
exchange between Glaucon and Diomede " of golden arms for
brazen, those worth one hundred oxen for those worth nine."
When history opens, most of the nations which afterwards
played leading parts were still in the pastoral stage. Egypt
had already passed beyond it, and the Greeks were making
the transition to the agricultural and settled conditions
of life. And as each nation first demands our notice whether
in the Mediterranean region, in northern Europe, or in Central
Asia, it is almost always the same picture that is presented of a
pastoral people whose wealth consists in flocks and herds. And
not only have we a priori reason to suppose that the chief item
of their wealth formed their rudimentary medium of exchange ;
but we know from literature and from archaeology that the ox
was their unit of value. We have scales of value preserved to
us in the Sacred Books of the East ; and of these scales we
have what might be almost exact transcripts among the semi-
civilized tribes of the Caucasus and Central Asia, and of Northern
and Southern Africa at the present day. The earliest coins of
Greece which have been discovered are stamped with the head
of an ox ; and the legal code of Draco retains with true legal
conservatism the otherwise obsolete practice of expressing values
in terms of oxen. Indeed there is more than probability, there

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 193

is proof as strong as the nature of the subject permits, that our
present system of metallic coins are translations of the earlier
cattle currency. The Greek talent of gold and the ox were
undoubtedly equivalent ; and the ox is of course the older
standard of the two ; and the small change of this commodity
currency was likewise translated into corresponding silver and
copper coins. We find the same equating, the presence of which
we partly detect and partly infer in the Greek world, going on
to-day among peoples which are just passing from the pastoral
to the settled mode of life.

When this change takes place man generally has some rudi-
mentary knowledge of metallurgy ; and the agricultural products
have not often formed a unit of value. We have local
instances and temporary instances ; but these are by no means
confined to the beginnings of the agricultural stage. They
appear in colonial history almost as frequently as in semi--
barbarous societies ; and are generally due, then and now, to a
scarcity of precious metals. Wheat has some advantages as a
standard of value over the precious metals, as those colleges at
Oxford and Cambridge know tjo their advantage who were
restricted in the reign of Elizabeth to corn rents ; but as a
medium of exchange agricultural produce has such obvious
disadvantages that no people which was able to use the precious
metals has ever systematically used grain and other produce of
the earth.

The metals are so much better suited than any other com-
modities to serve as the medium of exchange that it was
inevitable that they should rapidly supplant all other forms of
currency, so soon as gold and silver and the others had come to
possess the fundamental requisite in a medium of exchange, viz.,
that it should be an article in general use and demand. But
the metals came but slowly to possess this fundamental requisite ;
and we are certainly not justified in assuming that metallic cur-
rency superseded all others as soon as man had discovered the
means of mining and working the metals. On the contrary, it
is certain that the older currencies remained in circulation long
PROC. & TRANS. X. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS.— M.

194 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

after man had acquired the necessary metallurgical knowledge
In the Homeric poems we have evidence of the concurrent use
of definite weights of gold and silver, and iron, with the older
ox unit.

The metals acquire value as all other articles acquire value,
because they are suited to satisfy certain human needs. After
the metals have been adopted as money, they acquire a distinct
and special importance because of their utility as the medium of
exchange ; but first of all they must acquire the direct value that
arises from direct utility. The metals are valued by man chiefly
as ornaments, or as the material out of which the implements of
industry or the weapons of war may be fashioned. The precious
metals are valued for their utility as ornaments only. Neither
gold nor silver had been put to serious use either in war or in
industry. They obtained their value because of their attrac-
tiveness as ornaments for adorning the person, and in all
probability the earliest form in which gold circulated was in
strings of nuggets or beads resembling the older shell necklaces.
Ancient geographers tell us that in Arabia native nuggets were
used as ornaments. " Having perforated these they pass a
thread of flax through them in alternation with transparent
stones and make themselves chains, and put them round their
necks and wrists."* But with increasing knowledge of how to
work the metals, gold dust, as well as " fireless gold," as these
Arabian natives called it, was fashioned into ornaments, and at
first, no doubt, after the older models. Primitive coins are in
existence, and in some cases still in circulation, in which the
evolution from the ring and shell can be traced.

As man's chief employment in the early stages of society
was war and the chase, weapons of war were greatly prized and
jealously guarded. Consequently we find many traces of the
employment of the implements of war as a medium of exchange.
Even in the stone age we know that this was the case. Tough
green stone slabs, valuable for making hatchets, form the unit of
value among the lowest Australian natives who have hardly yet

*Strabo and Diodorus Siculus, quoted Ridgeway, op. cit., pp. 75-77.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 195

advanced far enough to carry on trade by means of barter.*
Weapons formed part of the currency of Homeric times and
among the ancient Norsemen. By the laws of Hakon the Good
penalties for breaches of the law could be paid among other
things in weapons.-f- Gunpowder competes with gin in the
battle of the African standards introduced by European traders ;
and, not long since, an English newspaper, in commenting on a
petition of a philanthropic committee that some other form of
currency than that of gin should be adopted in the Delta of the
Niger, suggested more than half seriously that Lord Salisbury
should use his influence with the concert of Europe " to make
the Liverpool powder keg the only legal tender in the gin lati-
tudes." Among all the aboriginal tribes which have been
brought into contact with European traders, the musket quietly
takes its place in the native standard of value. But in Borneo
they have gone a step further. A brass cannon, or as it is called
by the natives, a brass gun, is the standard of value, and in all
parts of the island one may still hear prices reckoned in brass
guns. Any one who has transactions of such importance, for the
brass guns will correspond to our larger notes, will instantly
translate the sum into dollars at the present day ; but there was
a time when ten or twenty pounders did actually pass from
hand to hand J

In more recent times, and if not among ourselves, at least
among the ancestors of many of us, bullets have circulated as
small change. Leaden bullets were legal tender in the New
England ; and the reason was no doubt partly the atmosphere of
warfare and danger in which the early colonists lived. But
there was another reason. The want of small coin in the reign
of Queen Elizabeth had induced tradesmen and others to issue
token money ; and in consequence there was great distress often
among the poorer classes for the issuer not infrequently refused

*Tylor : Anthropology, p. 281.
tRidgeway : op. cit., p. 35.

JThis fact is on the authority of an undated second-hand clipping from the " London
Standard.

196 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

to honor these tokens. Accordingly, in the reign of James I.,
the striking of copper farthings was made a monopoly, and in
the spirit of the times given to a court favorite, Lord John
Harrington, who took unreasonable advantage of his opportuni-
ties. The circulation was encouraged in various ways with
disastrous results to the commerce of the country. But not con-
tent with the fraudulent profits made at the expense of the
commerce of the country, he caused large parcels to be shipped
to the colonies. The Pilgrim Fathers, however, would have none
of them ; and it stands in the records of Massachusetts on
" March 4th, 1634, at the General Court at New Town, brass (or
copper) fathings were forbidden, and bullets were made to pass
for farthings."

But the useful metals could also be put to the more fruitful
use of serving as implements of industry, where their superiority
over stone and wood is no less obvious than when they are
fashioned into weapons of war. In Africa, which, owing to the
absence of native copper, never had a bronze age, but passed at
once into the iron age, we find still in full force the systems of
currency which have either completely disappeared, or have left
but indistinct traces elsewhere. There we find hoe money and
axe money in practically their original forms. Iron in its
natural state was a means of exchange in the Homeric age, and
the iron money of Sparta was probably traditional in origin, like
the Hindu reverence for the cow. But in Africa to-day iron is
an almost universal medium of exchange. On the west coast
the bar is the unit ; and all things are reckoned in " bars "
pretty much as they are reckoned in blankets among the Pacific
Coast Indians. Originally the bar was what its name denotes,
a bar of iron of fixed dimensions, one of the chief articles of
trade between the natives and the early European traders. Now
it has a conventional value, which, in Sierra Leone, is two shill-
ings and threepence. In Central Africa, among the Madis,
according to Dr. Felkin, " the nearest approach to money is seen
in the flat round pieces of iron which are of different sizes . .
. . They are much employed in exchange. This is the form in

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 197

which they are kept and used as money, but they are intended

to be divided into two, heated and made into hoes

Ready made hoes are not often used in barter. Iron, as above
mentioned, is preferred, and is taken to the blacksmith to be
fashioned according to the owner's requirements."* But in
Darfur the actual hoe serves as currency. " It is simply a plate
of iron fitted with a socket. A handle is fitted into this socket
and one has an implement suited for chopping the weeds in the
cornfields. Purchases of small value are made with the hoe
from one to twenty ,"-|- which may be said to be its legal tender
limit. Larger purchases are made by means of cotton cloth and
oxen. Among the wild tribes of Annam, in Asia, also, the hoe
serves as currency, and in ancient times many nations seem to
have ueed it. We know that the Chinese had originally a
barter currency of real hoes and real knives, articles in great
demand among them. These in time became conventionalised in
form, and were reduced in size to serve as real money. The
Chinese cash is the survival of the original knife money, while
the hoe, in a certain form, still circulates in Thibet, as it did in
China hundreds of years ago. Within recent years the
Thibetans have adopted the Indian rupee; but have not pre-
served its integral form. They cut it up for purposes of small
change into little pieces which represent the conventionalized
form of their own original hoe currency.

The hoe served as a general article of barter because of its
indispensability in agriculture ; but among fishermen the fish-
hook was a more useful and desirable implement. Among the
fishermen of the Persian Gulf, and round the coast to Ceylon
and the Maldive Islands, there was originally a fish-hook cur-
rency ; and when true money was adopted the old form was
retained. Down till the beginning of the present century larins,
a bent piece of silver wire, the conventionalized form of the
fish-hook, were in circulation ; and it is possible that, had the
natural process of evolution gone on without interference from

•Quoted Ridge way, op. cit., p. 43.
+Ridgeway, op. cit., p. 45.

198 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

the outside, in course of time the piece of double wire would
have become a bullet-shaped piece of metal, just as the bullet coins
of Siam struck in European fashion represent the last stage of
the original ring currency of that country.*

At one time axes served as money in many countries. At
first it was the actual implement or weapon itself; but in time a
conventionalized form was adopted. In West Africa to-day
almost the sole currency in many districts has the form of an
axe. These are too small now to be actually used, either as
weapons of war or as implements of industry ; but the shape
has been preserved unchanged, and it is evident that the days
are not long past when a currency of actual axes was employed.

We have evidence from archaeology and from literature of a
similar usage among the Greeks. There seems to be little ground
for doubting that the earliest coins were imitations in metal of
the older article which the metallic currency replaced. Thus,
the coins of many Greek states and cities bear on their faces
evidence of the nature of the commodity currency they replaced.
When the coins were for circnlation among a purely Greek
people, there could be no difficulty in passing at once from the
commodity to a piece of metal stamped with the image of the
article whose value the coin represented. For instance, the
Greeks of Cyzicus stamped their coins with the image of a
tunny fish which was probably a part of their commodity cur-
rency at an earlier date ; and these coins are, in most respects,
like modern coins. But, in Olbia, a Greek colony on the Black
Sea, where the Greeks traded with the barbarians, and the
population moreover was of mixed race, the tunny fish was also
the chief article of trade. There it was found necessary to
make a concession to the lower level of intelligence of those with
whom they traded, and perhaps also of many of their own
citizens ; and consequently a coin in the actual shape of a tunny
fish was struck to represent the probable original commodity
currency. In the same way the axe appears on the coins of

*Dcl Mar : A History of Money in Ancient Countries, p. 109.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 199

Tenedos, and there is more than probability that just as the
tunny fish coin of Cyzicus represented the earlier form so the
axe stamped coins of Tenedos represented an earlier axe cur-
rency. We know from the Iliad that axes were given along
with oxen, slaves, kettles, etc., as prizes in the funeral games for
Patroclus. " But he (Achilles) set for the archers dark iron, and
he set down ten axes and ten half axes," Iliad XXIII., 11. 850-1 ;
where the half axe is obviously the single headed axe. The
earliest coins of the Island of Tenedos, which lies off the Troad,
bear the device of the double headed axe and represent an
original axe currency such as we find in Africa to-day.

While the ox undoubtedly formed the unit of value and a
medium of exchange over the whole of the wide area from the
Straits of Dover to the Himalayas, as indeed in every other
region where it can flourish, it was nowhere the sole medium of
exchange. In almost every region of which we have any infor-
mation, there is, or was, a regular scale of value in which the ox
was simply the chief unit. Some writers have tried to show
that the ox was unsuited for currency purposes, because it was
incapable, without the adoption of the Scythian practice of cut-
ting steaks from the flanks of the living animal, or the Celtic
practice of bleeding the cattle to make the unleavened bread
more nutritious, of sub-division to transact the smaller exchanges;
and that their use must quickly on that account have been
abandoned. Cattle were unsuitable in many ways, though they
had considerable stability and uniformity of value throughout
their continental range ; but the reason their use as money was
given up was not their lack of divisibility, for, as we have said,
they never formed more than the principal article in a carefully
constructed scale of exchange values.

To this day in the Soudan we find, that while the ox is almost
universally the standard of value and the medium ot exchange
for more valuable articles, each particular district has its own
peculiar lower units, generally selected from the articles most in

•For this and the other instances from the Greek coinage which follow, and for
many others from which these are selected, see Ridgcway, op. cit., Ch. XII.

200 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

demand in the district, or from those which the district has
special facilities for producing. In one Dlace it is sticks of salt,
in another tobacco, in. another cotton thread, in another raw
cotton in the pod, in another onions, in another hoes, in another
copper rings, beads, shells, etc., and in most districts more than
one of them. These are for small change, so to speak. But all
of them are recognized submultiples of the standard unit, the
ox, as our quarters and ten cent pieces are of the dollar ; and in
the same way, slaves are in many districts there now. as they
were in Homeric times, the larger currency, being recognized
multiples of the standard ox.

From Greek coins which have been preserved, it is inferred
that the Greeks had the same system. There are traces of it
not only in Homer, but on the silver coins themselves. With
the introduction of metallic currency, the Greeks equaled the ox
with the gold talent, while its submultiples were represented by
corresponding silver coins. At first, at least, these silver coins
often bore as their stamp the representation of the commodity
currency with which they were equaled and which they dis-
placed. In many cases no doubt the image and superscription
were religious ; but there is no reasonable ground for doubting
that in their origin many, perhaps all, of these coins bore on
their face the evidence of the particular commodity they had
displaced as currency. In some cases the representation was
carried so far that the coin reproduced the actual shape of the
commodity ; and even where the stamp on the coin is of a
religious character, there is a striking resemblance between the
stamp and the article for which the district was famous. In
many cases this correspondence is so clear that it is impossible
otherwise to explain the peculiar form and image of the coin.

Thasos, for instance, was famous for its wine ; and the wine
cup or measure appears on its early coins. The unit of capacity,
in the case of wine was the measure, and the measure is stamped
on the coins to express the fact that this silver coin, bore the
same relation to the sold talent as the actual measure of wine

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 201

bore to the original ox unit with which the gold talent had been
equaled. The olive, again, was the most important product of
Attica, and was probably, as it still actually is in many of the
countries bordering on the Mediterranean, whether in the shape
of olives or of olive oil, an actual medium of exchange ; and the
silver coins of Attica which replaced this olive currency most
appropriately bore the olive sprig. The cuttle fish was an
esteemed dainty by the Greeks, as it is to this day in Naples,
and also along the Levant ; and the coins of Croton bore its
image. The ear of wheat appears on the coins of Metaportum,
which grew wealthy because of the agricultural resources of
Magna Graecia.

Before the invention or discovery of the art of pottery, man
made use of natural shells, and many of the Greek names for
earthenware vessels are the names of sea shells. Even after
earthenware and wood had replaced these primitive and natural
utensils, vessels were fashioned, as can be seen in the museums
of antiquities to-day, in the old shapes. Thus there are Greek
vases in the British Museum which reproduce the shape of the
tortoise, and in the South Sea Islands to this day the natives
imitate the tortoise shell in wood and earthenware. The tortoise
shell was always specially valued, and in China it was used, and
perhaps is still used, to make bowls of great beauty. It is to be
expected that we should find, as we do, the tortoise shell stand-
ing at the top of the ancient Chinese scale of values. Among
the Greeks and other Mediterranean peoples it was also valued ;
and it was the principal article with which the citizens of Aegina
carried on their trade with the Phrenicians. It naturally, there-
fore, was a unit in their scale, and when the shell and commodity
currency was replaced among them, as among the other Greek
peoples, by silver coins, they stamped their silver coin with the
image of the tortoise. And they took pains to make the coin
actually represent the tortoise, for it has a high round upper
side with a flat under side and markings to indicate the shell.
The scarabs of Egypt, pieces of baked clay or porcelain, cut or
moulded in the shape of beetles and tortoises, were in all proba-

202 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

bility used as money and represent an earlier shell, probably
tortoise shell currency.*

In time the mercantile significance of these symbols was
forgotten, and a religious interpretation placed on them. But
even in the peculiar deities of a district we may often trace the
history of its early commerce ; and the religious symbolism of
the later coins does not contradict the mercantile significance of
the images on the early ones. Early peoples, and later ones,
very easily discover grandiose explanations for what in their
origin are commonplace facts. To take but one instance. The
famous iron money of Sparta, which, according to tradition,
Lycurgus caused to be dipped in vinegar while red hot to render
it worthless as a commodity, thus to restrain the cupidity of the
citizen soldiers, was in all probability not adopted from any
ascetic motive. The current explanation was, without doubt, an
aetiological myth, a grandiose explanation long after the com-
monplace event. The iron money was the survival of a time
when iron was a favorite article of exchange, as it was in the
Homeric age, and as it still is, as we have seen, in Africa to-day.
But the Spartans were a very conservative people, and clung to
their primitive money long after the superiority of other metals
for coinage had been demonstrated by experience ; and long
after the real origin of their money had been forgotten. To
explain their own backwardness, they gave, as so many other
peoples have given, a religious and moral sanction to their own
lack of progressiveness/f-

After the introduction of metallic money there was room for
a long process of development. Man had still to determine
which of the metals was the most suitable for his purposes ;
and the actual selection which civilized man has made is the
result of the survival of the fittest. There are certain qualities
which we have come to look for in money, qualities which all
metals seem to possess in a greater degree than any one sub-
stance, but qualities which all metals do not possess in the same

*Del Mar: op. cit., p. 147.
tEnc. Brit., Art. Money.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 203

degree. These are Utility, Portability, Indestructibility, Homo-
geneity, Divisibility, Stability of Value, (Cognizability. These
qualities are possessed in an especial degree by gold and silver,
and in a less degree by copper. Iron was used, and is still used
in many regions ; but it is not the best money material because
of its cheapness. It does not contain great value in small bulk,
and it is not indestructible. Lead was used in classical times,
and is still current in Burmah, but it is too soft to be made into
good coins which will retain their stamp and be always cogniz-
able. Tin was early adopted as a money material. It was
coined by Dionysius, of Syracuse, who was the first to use it of
whom we can speak with certainty ; and it has remained in use
as a money material ever since. In 1680, Charles II. issued tin
farthings, and his example was followed by William and Mary
in 1690; and it was employed in Java, Mexico, and elsewhere.
But it has the defect of being too soft. Copper, either pure or
in alloy, has been extensively employed, and it possesses almost
all the qualities requisite, except that it does not contain great
value in small bulk, and has comparatively little stability of
value. Platinum is in many respects suited for currency pur-
purposes, but it is in but slight demand, and the stock on
hand is very small. Consequently any change in the demand
is apt to cause great fluctuations in value. Russia, which owns
platinum mines in the Ural Mountains, began to coin it in 1828,
but abandoned the experiment in 1845, because of the cost of
striking coins. Nickel has been largely used in alloy, but it is
subject to the disadvantage of fluctuations in value owing to the
limited number of mines. Silver and gold are pre-eminently
the metals suitable for coinage. They possess all the qualities
necessary in a currency material. These qualities, of course,
they do not possess in a perfect degree ; but they possess them
in a higher degree than any other substances. They have great
utility. They contain great value in small bulk and are readily
portable. Except by the slow process of wear and tear they are
practically indestructible. They are almost perfectly homo-
genous after they have been reduced to uniform degrees of

204 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

fineness, which can be easily done, so that equal weights of them
have practically equal values. They can be easily divided into
the weights and fractions desired so as to express large values
and small values. They have a very large degree of stability
of value, not so much perhaps as wheat, but more than, most
articles which could be employed as money. And lastly, they
are readily recognizable and cannot be easily counterfeited, and
above all, are soft enough and yet hard enough to be coinable,
" so that a portion, being once issued according to proper regu-
lations with the impress of the state, may be known to all as
good and legal currency equal in weight, size and value to all
similarly marked currency."*

The precious metals are simply those commodities which
experience has shown to be the most suitable for general money
purposes. This, or than money article, may have this or that
money quality in a higher degree than gold or silver, but taking
them all in all, the precious metals have been found to be the
most suitable. They have survived, not because of any prejudice
in favor of the metals, but because they have shown themselves
to be the fittest to survive.

Mevons : Money and the Mechanism of Exchange, p. 40.

VI. — ON THE PRESENCE OF ACID SULPHATE OF COPPER IN
MIXTURES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF SULPHURIC ACID
AND COPPER SULPHATE — By CHARLES F. LINDSAY, Dal-

housie College, Halifax, N. S.

(Communicated on 8th May, 1899, by Prof. E. Mackay, Ph. D.)

Anton Schrader* in a paper on the " Electrolysis of Mixtures,''
measured the conductivity and other properties of solutions
containing mixtures of sulphuric acid and copper sulphate,
analysing his mixtures for the amount of acid present by titra-
tion. In his paper, no methods of any kind are given for the
analyses. Prof. MacGregorf has held that Schrader's results
point towards the presence of acid sulphate of copper in
the solution. At the suggestion of Prof. Mackay this work was
undertaken to find if any light could be obtained on this ques-
tion by chemical analytical methods.

The work was carried out in the Chemical and Physical
laboratories of Dalhousie College, and consisted primarily in
making up solutions of sulphuric acid and copper sulphate,
analysing them, and determining their densities. In the begin-
ning the densities were taken only as a means of calculating the
concentration of the mixtures from the concentration of the
simple solutions. The work also included the purification of the
materials used, and the calibration of burettes and pipettes.

Calibration of Burettes and Pipettes.

All burettes and pipettes were carefully calibrated, by weigh-
ing the amount of water of known temperature which they
delivered. The burettes used could be read to .01 c.c. They
were calibrated for every 2 c.c. throughout their length.

The pipettes, in emptying, were held against the side of the
vessel into which they were being emptied, the last drops of
water being removed by blowing sharply once.

* Inaugural Dissertation, Berlin, 1897.
t Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, (2), 4, Sec. 3, 117, 1898-9.

(205)

206 SOLUTIONS OF SULPHURIC ACID

Purification and Analysis of Copper Sulphate.

The copper sulphate was obtained as chemically pure, and
after careful re-crystallization, was found to be free from iron
and the members of the ammonium sulphide group.

The copper sulphate solutions were analysed by precipitating
the sulphate, in known volume, with barium chloride, and weigh-
ing as barium sulphate.

The following are the results of three analyses of the same
solution : —

Cu S04 in 5 c.c. of solution = .5782 grammes.

= .5788
= .5790

Mean = .5787

These figures would seem to show that my results might be
in error about 0.1 per cent.

Purity and Analysis of Sulphuric Acid.

The sulphuric acid was the best obtainable from Merck, and
was taken as chemically pure. The sulphuric acid solutions
were analysed volumetrically with standard caustic potash,
using as an indicator phenol phthalein.

The following results show with what accuracy such analyses
could be carried out : —

2 c.c. H2 S04 solution contained .1627 grammes H2 S04

" .1624

Mean - .16253 "

Thus, the possible error of a single measurement would seem
to be about 0.11 per cent.

Preparation and Analysis of Mixtures.

Equal volumes of the simple solutions, whose concentrations
and densities were known, were mixed at 18°C. The density of
the mixture being obtained, the concentration of the mixture
with respect to each of the constituents, was obtainable.

AND COPPER SULPHATE — LINDSAY. 207

The ordinary methods of acid titration are, of course, unavail-
able in this case, for not only does the copper sulphate itself
affect alkalimetric indicators, but the sulphate is precipitated as
hydroxide, by the base used for titration. The latter fact isthe
one used in the method of titration which was employed.

Standard caustic potash solution is added from a burette to
the mixture, with constant stirring, until the solution just begins
to become cloudy, owing to the beginning of the precipitation of
the hydroxide of copper. I found that, using this precipitating
point as an indicator, very good determinations of the acid
present could be obtained, and would suggest that copper sul-
phate might be used as an indicator in the determination of free
sulphuric acid, in cases where the ordinary indicators are of
no use.

The following results of an analysis will show with what
accuracy the determination of this precipitating point could be
ascertained :

5 c.c. of a mixture CuS04 + H2 S04, began to be cloudy on
addition of 43.88 c.c. decinormal caustic potash.
43.97
43.99
44.86

43.92 = mean.

Tnus, in these determinations, the difference between the greatest
and least values would be about .3%.

A second set of determinations is added :

5 c.c. of a mixture CuSO4 + H2SO^, began to become cloudy
on addition of 28 94 c.c. of decinormal caustic potash.
28.91
28.99

28.95 = mean

In this case, the difference between the greatest and least
values is about .27%.

208

SOLUTIONS OF SULPHURIC ACID

It is thus seen not only that the precipitating point is a per-
fectly definite one, but that it can be determined with consider-
able accuracy.

The next question is, whether it expresses accurately th&
amount of acid present.

Concentration.

H2 S04

Error.

H2 S04

CuS04

Calculated.

Found.

.416
.277

.364
.727

.2036
.1356

.2039
.1357

+ •!&%

+ .08%

Column I. contains the concentration of H2S04 in mixture in

gramme-molecules per litre.
" II. contains the concentration of CuSO4 in mixture in

gramme-molecules per litre.
" III. contains the amt. of H28O4 in grammes, calculated to

be in every 5 c.c. of mixture.

" IV. contains the same, as found in every 5 c.c. of mixture.
" V. contains the percentage error.

We thus see that by this means, the sulphuric acid present
can be determined with considerable accuracy.

In the above analyses, the mixture under analysis was dilu-
ted very much, the reason being, that so far the work has been
only to find a good method of analysis, and not to prove or
disprove the presence of acid sulphate.

But now a number of analyses were performed on the above
mixtures, keeping the mixtures concentrated, and in no case was
there any appreciable difference in the amount of caustic potash
needed before precipitation would commence.

The results obtained from analyses of the concentrated mix-
tures, gave, as a rule, slightly less quantities of sulphuric acid.
But this I would attribute to the fact that the precipitate would
be more easily noticed in the smaller volume than in the larger^

AND COPPER SULPHATE — LINDSAY. 209

I also made a number of determinations, using standard
ammonia in place of the standard potash, but although the pre-
cipitating point could be fairly well determined, the results did
not agree as well with the amount of sulphuric acid known to be
present.

We thus see that this method of chemical analysis for sul-
phuric acid, while it gives us a good method of analysis for such
mixtures, sheds no light on the presence of acid sulphate in
solution.

While any recognizable decrease in the amount of sulphuric
acid given up to analysis from that known to be present, would
yield an almost conclusive proof of the presence of acid sulphate,
the result obtained here, does not of necessity lead to the reverse
conclusion.

Specific Gravity Measurements.

All specific gravity measurements were made at 18°, and are
referred to water at 18°. In these measurements, a pycnometer
of the form recommended by Ostwald, and holding about 25 c.c.
was used.

The pycnometer was brought to 18° by being placed in a
water bath, provided with a mechanical stirrer, whose tem-
perature could easily be kept constant to 1/20 of a degree.
When the liquid had come to the temperature of the bath, the
meniscus was brought to the mark, the pycnometer taken out,
dipped in distilled water, dried carefully with a linen towel, and
weighed.

From several successive measurements of the same solution,
it would appear that my measurements of density might be in
error by about 5 in the fifth place of decimals.

Favre and Valson* have found that, in the case of concentra-
ted solutions of K2SO4 and CuSO4, and K2S04 and H2SO4, the
density of a mixture of equal volumes of the constituents, is less
than the mean value of their densities. From these results they

*Compt. Rend., 77, 907.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS.— N.

210

SOLUTIONS OF SULPHURIC ACID, ETC. — LINDSAY.

drew the conclusion that acid or double sulphate was present in
solution. Also McKayf- has noticed the same for mixtures of
potassium and magnesium sulphates.

In the case of more concentrated solutions of CuSO4 and
H2S04) I have found the same result to hold. But from lack of
time I was unable to push this far.

I give two of my measurements, showing the concentration
and density of the constituents, the density of the mixture, and
its departure from the mean value.

Parts of
Ha SO* in 100
parts Sol'tion.

Parts of
CuSO4 in 100
parts Sol'tion.

Density
H2 SO4

Density
CuSO*.

Mean
Value.

Density
of
Mixture.

Differ-
ence.

17.41

16.083

1.12586

1.19108

1.15842

1.15603

.00239

16.23

13.877

1.11525

1.14802

1.13163

1.12952

.00211

t Trans. N. S. lust. Sci., 9, 348, 1897-98.

VII. — ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS FOR
ELECTROLYTES. — BY PROF. J. G. MACGREGOR, Dalhousie
College, Halifax, N. S.

(Received June 20th, WOO.)

The object of this paper is to describe a diagrammatic method
of taking a bird's-eye view of such knowledge as we possess of
the relation of the depression of the freezing-point to the state
of ionization in aqueous solutions of electrolytes, and to show
that such diagrammatic study gives promise of throwing much
light upon the following questions: (1.)* — Has the depression
constant a common value for all electrolytes, and if so, what
is it ? And (2), What is the state of association, and what the
mode of ionization of electrolytes, in solution ?

Construction and Properties of the Diagram. .

If an extremely dilute solution contain an electrolyte whose
molecule, as it exists in solution, contains p equivalents, and dis-
sociates into q free ions, and if a is its ionization coefficient and
k its depression constant, the equivalent depression will be :

If therefore we plot a diagram of curves with ionization coeffici-
ents as ordinates, and equivalent depressions as abscissae, the
resulting curves must, at extreme dilution (a = 1), be tangential
to the straight lines represented by the above equation, provided
the proper values of k, p, and q be employed. These straight
lines, which, for shortness, we may call the tangent lines of the
curves, can readily be drawn in the diagram, with any assumed
value of k, and on any admissible assumptions as to the values
of p and q. In the diagram on page 235 the dashed lines are the

* On this question, see also a paper recently communicated to the Royal Society
of Canada, and to be published in its Transactions for 1900.

(211)

212 ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

tangent lines for the electrolytes examined, on various assump-
tions as to constitution in solution and mode of ioniZation, and
for k= 1.85. They are indicated by the inscriptions 1 — 2, 2 — 3,
etc., the first figure in each giving the number of equivalents in
the molecule as it is assumed to exist in solution, and the second,
the number of free ions into which the molecule is assumed to
dissociate. Thus 1 — 2 is the tangent line for an electrolyte such
as NaCl, on the assumption that it exists in solution in single
molecules, each of which has therefore 1 equivalent, and disso-
ciates into 2 ions. If assumed to associate in double molecules,
with unchanged mode of ioni/ation, its tangent line would be
indicated by 2 — 4, and if the double molecules were assumed to
dissociate into Na and NaCl2, by 2 — 2. The line for HaS04, on
the assumption that its molecules undergo no association, and
have thus 2 equivalents, and that they dissociate each into 3
ions, would be 2 — 3 ; and 4 — 6 would be its line if it associated
into double molecules, dissociationg each into 6 ions.

In a few cases dotted lines have been introduced, to show
what the tangent lines would be with other values of k, — 1.83,
1.84, 1.86, 1.87, the constant used in such cases being indicated.
The curve for any given electrolyte, must start at the inter-
section of its tangent line with the line : a = 1, to which point we
may refer, for shortness, as the intersection of its tangent line.
What its form will be, may be anticipated from the following
theoretical considerations : — The equivalent depression in dilute
solutions of non-electrolytes, is proportional to the osmotic pres-
sure, P, and the dilution, V, which corresponds to the product of
the pressure, p, and the specific volume, v, in the case of a gas.
If pv is plotted against v, the resulting curve is convex towards
the axis of v, and passes, in general, through a point of minimum
value of pv. Hence, if PV, and therefore equivalent depression,
be plotted against V, we may expect to get curves of the same
general form. And experiment shows, in some cases at least,
that we do. As in the case of gases the variation of pv is
ascribed to the mutual action of the molecules and their finite
volume, so in the case of solutions, the variation of PV is attrib-
uted to similar disturbing: influences.

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR. 213

Owing to ionization, the curve of an electrolyse will differ
from that of a non-electrolyte, (1) because of the change thereby
produced in the number of molecules (including free ions) in unit
of volume, and (2) because of the change produced in the dis-
turbing influences referred to. The former change is doubtless
the more important, and I shall assume the latter to be negligible
for the present purpose. Now dissociation increases continu-
ously with dilution. If, therefore, association of molecules does
not occur, and if the mode of ionization does not change, the
equivalent depression must be increased by the dissociation, in a
ratio which increases continuously with dilution. The change
produced in the curve by dissociation, therefore, will be a shear
parallel to the equivalent depression axis, and increasing with
dilution. The resulting curve will consequently remain convex
towards the axis of dilution, but it will be less likely than the
curve of a non-electrolyte, to exhibit the minimum point.

If, now, we plot equivalent depression against ionization
coefficient, instead of dilution, the result will be the same as if
we shortened the dilution ordinates of the various points of the
curve just mentioned, in ratios increasing with the dilution,
which process must leave the curve convex towards what was
the dilution axis, but is now the ionization coefficient axis.

If, therefore, no change occur in the association of molecules
or in the mode of ionization, the curve of an electrolyte on the
diagram must start at the intersection of its tangent line, tangen-
tially to that line, and bend away from it, as dilution diminishes,
to the right, possibly passing through a point of minimum
equivalent depression. We may speak of such a curve as the
normal curve for the tangent line, corresponding to the given
conditions as to constitution in solution, and mode of ionization.

If, the constitution of the electrolyte in the solution remaining
constant, the mode of ionization changes as dilution diminishes,
say, in such a way that the molecules dissociate, on the average,
into a smaller number of ions, the equivalent depression will
diminish more rapidly than it otherwise would. The curvature
of the curve will therefore diminish, and may possibly become

214 ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

zero, and change sign, the curve thus becoming concave towards
the ionization coefficient axis, and possibly crossing the tangent
line. In such a case, it will at the start coincide with the normal
curve of the tangent line determined by the initial conditions as
to association and mode of ionization, and at the finish, with the
normal curve of the tangent line, determined by the final con-
ditions; and between the start and the finish it will gradually
change from the one to the other.

If, as dilution diminishes, association of molecules into double
or other multiple molecules occurs, the mode of ionization
remaining the same, the equivalent depression will be thereby
made to diminish more rapidly than it otherwise would, and the
general effect on the form of the curve, will be of the same kind
as under the conditions just considered. But the normal curves
of the tangent lines determined by the final conditions, will be
quite different in the two cases.

It follows that by plotting, so far as experiment allows, the
curves of observed equivalent depression against ionization
coefficient, and drawing in the tangent lines for different values
of the depression constant, and on different assumptions as to
association and mode of ionization, we may be able to determine,
with a smaller or greater probability, what the state of associa-
tion and the mode of ionization are, what are the tangent lines
to whose intersections the curves would run out if observations
at extreme dilution could be made, and what the values of the
depression constant are, to which these lines correspond.

Data for the Diagram.

To draw the experimental curves, we must have correspond-
ing values of the depression, and of the ionization coefficient, at
the freezing point, or, what in most cases would be sufficiently
near, at 0°C. The former are obtained by direct measure-
ment ; but the latter only indirectly, from conductivity observa-
tions. It is not, of course, known how closely the ionization
coefficients, even during the passage of the current, can thus be
determined, or if the state of ionization during the passage of the

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR. 215

current is to be regarded as being the same as when the current
is not flowing. But as it has been shown that electrically deter-
mined coefficients enable us to predict within the limit of error
of observation, not only the conductivity and the results of
electrolysis* of moderately dilute complex solutions, but also their
density, viscosity, and other non-electrical properties,^ it would
appear to be probable that for moderately dilute and very dilute
solutions, electrically determined coefficients are approximately
exact, not only for a solution through which a current is passing,
but generally.

The available data as to ionixation coefficients at 0°, are
unfortunately few. Whethanrf has recently published some
most valuable determinations, having measured the conductivity
at 0°, of series of solutions down to extreme dilution, with what
one may call appareil de luxe, and found the ratio of the equiv-
alent conductivity to the maximum equivalent conductivity. For
neutral salts, his coefficients must inspire great confidence. But
in the case of the acids, they seem to me to be probably too high.
For the maximum equivalent conductivity of an acid is probably
lower than it would be, were it not for the disturbing influence
whatever it is, which makes the equivalent-conductivity-con-
centration curve not only reach, but pass through a maximum
point.

Archibald and Barnes,:}: working in my laboratory- , measured
the conductivity at 0° and 18° for series of solutions, down to
dilutions, at which the ratio of the two conductivities became
constant ; and assuming that the same ratio would hold at
extreme dilution, they calculated the equivalent conductivity at
extreme dilution for 0° from Kohlrausch's values for 18°. They
used this method only because appliances were not available,
with which observations at extreme dilution could be made. If

* MacGregor : Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. (2), 4, Sec. 3, 117, 1898.

t MacGregor : Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci. 9. 219. 1895-7, and Phil. Mag. (5), 43, 46 and
99,1897. Also Archibald : Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci. 9, 335, 1897-8, and Barnes : Ibid., 10, 49.
and 113, 1899-1900.

t Ztschr. f. phys. Chem., 33, 344, 1900.

t Archibald : Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 10. 33, 1898-9. Barnes : Ibid., 10. 139, 1899-
1900, and Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, (2), 6, — , 1900.

216 ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

the ratio mentioned really does become constant as dilution
increases, the method is likely to give coefficients with too low
or too high values, according as the ratio at moderate dilutions
diminishes or increases with dilution (it was found to increase
with KC1 and K2SO4.) For it will probably become constant
within the limit of error of observation, before it has really reached
constancy. And if it changes with dilution in a slightly wavy
manner, even though on the whole tending to constancy, it may
be regarded as having become constant, when really passing
through a maximum or a minimum point.

Deguisne's* observations on the variation of conductivity
with temperature between 2°C and 34° have enabled me, by the
method just mentioned, to make rough determinations of the
ionization coefficients at 0° in some cases, on the assumption that
his empirical constants might be used down to 0°. According to
Deguisne's observations, the ratio of the conductivities at 0° and
18° usually changes gradually down to dilutions of 1,000 litres
per gramme-equivalent, and between that and 2.000, undergoes
rapid change. As observations at great dilution are attended by
considerable difficulty, I have assumed that these sudden changes
were probably due to errors of observation. If they were not,
my Deguisne coefficients (for which De'guisne himself is of course
not to be held responsible) may be considerably out.

In some cases, 1 have obtained coefficients from the above
data by extrapolation, in order to make use of available depres-
sion data. In such cases I have plotted, side by side, ionization-
coefficient-concentration curves, for both 0° and 18°, using values
for 18° based on Kohlrausch's conductivities, and I have then
produced the 0° curve beyond the limit of observation, under the
guidance of the 18° curve.

I have used all the accessible observations of depression in the
case of the electrolytes for which data were available for deter-
ing the ionization coefficients at 0°, including observations by

* Temperatur-CoefHcienten des Leitvermogens sehr verdiinnter LSstingen, Dis-
sertation, Strassburg, 1895. See also Kohlrausch u. Holborn : Leitvermogen der Elek-
trolyte, Leipzig, 1898.

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES— MACGREGOR. 217

Arrhenius,1 Raoult,2 Loomis,8 Jones,4 Abegg,5 Wilderraann,6Ponsot,7
Archibald8 and Barnes8. The methods used by these observers
are, for the most part, well known. Archibald and Barnes used
modified forms of Loomis's method. Arrhenius's observations,
and some of Raoult's, were made before important improvements
in freezing-point determinations had been recognised, as neces-
sary.

In cases in which there was but one series of observations
available, I have plotted the actual observations in the diagram,
though sometimes smoothing the curves a little. In cases in
which two or more series were available, I first plotted the vari-
ous observations, and then drew mean curves, making them
represent all the observations as well as I could, but giving
greater weight to recent observations than to those of earlier
date, and to long series of consistent observations than to short
series, or to series which were more erratic.

The following table gives the data employed in plotting both
the curves given in the diagram, and those not so given, which
are referred to below. The table includes the concentration in
gramme-equivalents per litre, the ionization coefficient at 0°, and
the equivalent depression in degrees centigrade per gramme-
equivalent in one litre of solution. The interpolated coefficients
are indicated by i, and those extrapolated by e, and the observers
from, or by the aid of, whose observations they were obtained,
by A, B, D, W, representing Archibald, Barnes, D6guisne and
Whetham. Non-significant figures are printed in italics.

1 Ztschr, f. phys. Chemie. 2, 491. 1888.

2 Ibid., 2, 501. 1888, and 27, 617, 1898.

3 Phys. Review, 1, 199 and 274, 1893-4 ; 3, 270, 1896, and 4, 273, 1897.

4 Ztschr. f. phys. Chem., 11, 110 and 529, 1893 ; and 12, 623, 1893.
8 Ibid. 20, 207, 1896.

« Ibid. 19, 233, 1896.

7 Recherches sur la Cong61ation des Solutions Aqueuses : Paris, Gauthier-Villars,
1896.

218

ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

lonization
Coefficient
at 0°C.

Equivalent
Depression.

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

lonization Trm,jVaipnf
C°aCtfflO'C?nt SesS

KC1. (Barnes.)

KC1. (Abegg.)

.0001
.0002
.0005
.001
.005
.010
.03
.05
.08
.10
.20
.30
.40

.989
.986
.977
.971
.944
.930
.910
.892
.871
.862
.832
.819
.804

.00488
.00972
.0118
.0145
.0193
.0237
.0240
.0286
.0354
.0469
.0583
.0697

.976 i.W.
.%2
.958
.953
.944
.917i. B.
.917
.912
.904
.895
.887
.878

3.70
3.63
3.64

3.63
3.53
3.51
3.49
3.51
3.50
3.47
3.45
3.43

3.533
3.504
3.470
3.458
3.398
3.390
3.372

KC1. (Wildermann.)

KC1. (Loomis.)

.009818
.009822
.01954
.03883
.0*.884
.07652
.07668

.9431. B.
.943
.924
.900
.900
.873
.873

3.538
3.583
3.542
3.515
3.532
3.491
3.487

.01
.02
.03
.035
.05
.1
.2
.4

.943i. B.
.923 '
.910 '
.905 '
.892 '
.862 '
.832 "
.804 "

3.60
3.55
3.52
3.53
3.50
3.445
3.404
3.353

KC1. (Ponsot)

KC1. (Jones.)

.0234
.0439
.1465
.1688
.2344
.2456
.2472
.2544

.915i. B.

.896
.846
.840

.827
.825
.825
.824

3.419
3.417
3.413
3.406
3.392
3.375
3.378
3.377

.001
.00299
.00499
.00698
.00897
.01095
.02
.04
.0592
.078
.09646
.2
.28

.992i.W.

.983 "
976 "
.970 "
.965 "
.960 "
.944 "
.897i. B.
.885 "
.873 "
.863 "
.832 "
.821 "

3.80
3.675.0
3.707^
3.62#>
3.6120
3.59.V2
3.5750
3.5325
3.5367
3.492,3
3.468*
3.4300
3.41072

NaCl. (Barnes.)

.0001
.0002
• .0005
.001
.005
.010
.03
.05
.08
.10
.20
.30
.40

.996
.991
.982
.974
.955
.936
.896
.877
.860
..850
.815
.787
.765

KC1. (Raoult.)

3.573
3.536
3.530
3.515
3.443
3.431
3.412

.01445
.02895
.05825
.1168

.953 i.W.

.933 "
.904e.W.

.878 "

3.523
3.561

3.478
3.431

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR.

219

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

lonization
Coefficient
at O'C.

Equivalent
Depression.

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

lonization
Coefficient
atO'C.

Equivalent
Depression.

NaCl. (Loom is.)

NaCl. (Abegg.)

.01
.02
.03
.04
.05
.06
.07
.08
.09
.10
.20

.936 i. B.
.916 "
.896 "
•886 "
.878 "
.870 •'
.864 "
.860 "
.855 "
.850 "
.815 "

3.674
3.597
3.560
3.541
3.531
3.529
3.510
3.501
3.494
5.484
3.439

.00241
.00478
.00714
.00948
.01180
.01410
.0221
.0439
.0653
.0871
.1083

.9651.B.
.956
.945
.937
.931
.925
.906
.882
.867
.856
.847

3.91
3.91
3.84
3.82
3.70
3.66
3.56
3.57
3.55
3.50
3.47

NaCl. (Jones.)

NaCl. (Arrhenius.)

.001
.002
.< 02999
.004
.004998
.005995
.006995
.007985
.008985
.01
.02
.0298
.0395
.04955
.05975
.0697
.0790
.0882
.0973
.1063
.15
.1925
.2329
.300

.9741. B.

.967 "
.963 "
.959 "
.955 '
.950 '
.947 '
.942 '
.939 '
.936 '
.915 '
.896 '
.887 '
.878 '
.870 '
.865 '
.861 '
.856 '
.851 '
.848 '
.831 '
.818 '
.805 '
.787 '

3.7500
3.7500
3.683
3.650
3.68/
3.675
3.63^
3.625
3.625
3.605
3.578
3.544
3.538
3.519
3.507
3.500
3.492
3.483
3.477
3.469
3.447
3.418
3.414
3.410

.0467
.117
.194
.324

.879 i. B.

.843 «•
.816 "
.781 "

3.79
3.64
3.54
3.51

NaCl. (Ponsot.)

.1318
.1808
.2016

.2248
.2288
.3136

.836i. B.

.821 '
.814 •
.808 '
.806 '

.784 •

3.445
3.418
3.413
3.403
3.405
3.402

HC1. (Barnes.)

.001
.002
.005
.010
.0207
.0518
.0829
.104
.207
.305
.40

.996
.995
.989
.984
.971
.955
.941
.932
.909
.897
.884

NaCl. (Raoult.)

3.638
3.595
3.569
3.556
3.585
3.633
3.638

.0300
.0584
.1174
.2370

.896 i. B.
.870 "
.843 "
.804 "

3.656
3.550
3.473

3.465

_

220

ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

lonization
Coefficient
at 0°C.

Equivalent
Depression.

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

lonization
Coefficient
at 0°C.

Equiva ent
Depression.

HCl.'(Loomis.);

HN08. (Loomis.)

.01
.02
.05
.1
_2
'.3

.982 i. B.
.972 '
.955 '
.933 '
.910 '
.897 '

3.61
3.60
3.59
3.546
2.565
3.612

.01
.02
.03
.05

.977 i. D.
.967e. D.
.959 "
.950 "

3.50
3.56
3.53
3.51

HNO3. (Jones.)

HC1. (Jones.)

.001054
.003158
.005253
.007378
.009456
.01153
.03119
.05103

.994 i. D.
.989
.982
.981
.978
.9756. D.
.958
.949

3.795.?
3.7682
3.7695
2.7409
3.735-?
3.7294
3.7179
3.7076

.001222
.003662
.000112
.008538
.01222
.03619
.05919
.08127
.1025
.1228

.996 i. B.
.991
.987
.984
.979
.962
.951
.940
.933
.928

3.76£S
3.74//
3.7467
3.705,?
3.674?
3.6750
3.661/
3.5856
3.5609
3.5692

KOH. (Loomis.)

NH4C1. (Loomis.)

.01
.02
.05
.1

.965 i. D.
.956 e. D.
.943 "
.932 "

3.43
3.45
3.44
3.43

.01
.02
.035
.05

.951 i. D.
.931 "
.914 "
.900 "

3.56
3.56
3.50
3.48

KOH. (Jones.)

NH4C1. (Jones.)

.001069
.003202
.005327
.007443
.009550
.01069
.03163
.05174
.07481

.983 i. D.
.973
.969
.967
.9(55
.964e. D.
.950
.942
.935

3.7418
3.7477
3.7169
3.69^7
3.68-59
3.6296
3.6265
3.5756
3.6142

.001
•00599
.00997
.0595

.987 i. D.
.963 '•
.951 "
.892e. D.

3.8
3.7062
3.61ft?
3.5145

KNO8. (Loomis.)

Bad 2. (Loomis.)

.01
.02
.025
.05
.1
.2

.938i. D.
.915 "
.899 "
.876 "
.832e. D.
.789 "

3.46
3.52
3.46
3.41
3.314
3.194

.02
.04
.1
.2
.4

.860'i. W.
.820e. W.
.768 "
.724 "
.658 "

2.495
2.475
2.385
2.345
2.3275

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES— MACGREGOR.

221

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

lonization
Coefficient
at 0° C.

Equivalent
Depression.

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

lonization
Coefficient
at 0" C.

Equivalent
Depression.

BaCl2. (Jones.)*

K2ssO4. (Archibald.)— Continued.

.002
.003996
.005988
.008
.009984
.011964
.01394
.01592
.01788
.02

.953 I W.
.932
.917
.906
.8%
.889
.880
.872
.866
.860

2.7500
2.7027
2.6720
2.6250
2.&142
2.582*
2.5755
2.575^
2.5560
2.5500

.002
.004
.005
.008
.010
.050
.055
.060
.070
.080
.100
.200
.250
.300
.350
.400
.450
.500
.600
.700

.925
.904
.895
.871
.859
.755
.748
.743
.732
.722
.705
.645
.629
.616
.606
.598
.591
.588
.583
.580

2.370
2.356
2.345
2.327
2.314
2.285
2.161
2.118
2.080
2.056
2.032
2.014
1.990
1.950
1.916

BaCl2. (Ponsot)

.00926
.00994
.01030
.01290
.01304
.02500
.02740
.03310
.03588
.03676
.03824
.04810
.05112
.05520
.0620
.0680
.0774
.2060
.2095
.2235
.3100
.3280
.3470

.900 i. W.

.897
.895
.887
.883
.845
.839
.827 e. W.
.822
.820
.818
.803
.802
.796
.790
.785
.771
.717
.716
.710
.685
.682
.679

2.484
2.575
2.524
2.457
2.531
2.480
2.482
2.477
2.487
4.475
2.455
2.45.3
2.445
2.446
2.436
2.426
2.416
2.316
2.320
2.309
2.297
2.308
2.317

K2SO4. (Loomis.)

.02
.04
.1
.2
.4
.6

.821 i. A.

.772 "
.705 "
.645 "
.59$ "
.583 "

2.46

2.38
2.271
2.1585
2.0335
1.9455

K^SO4. (Jones.)

.002
.003992
.005990
.007970
.009930
.012
.01396
.01590
.01784
.01976
.03949
.0579
.07556
.10

.925 i. A.
.904

.886
.871
.859
.850
.842
.836
.829
.823
.771
.745
.727
.705

2.725
2.693
2.663
2.641
2.613
2.613
2.593
2.582
2.545
2.525
2.469
2.413
2.372
2.307

K2SO4. (Archibald.)

.0001
.0002
.0004
.0005
.0006
.0008
.001

.983
.976
.969
.964
.960
.953
.946

* I have by oversight used one of Jones' two sets of observations, instead of the
mean of his two sets ; but the curve of mean values would not differ appreciably from
the curve of single values.

222

ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre-

lonization
coefficient
at 0° C.

Equivalent
Depression.

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

lonization
coefficient
at 0° C.

Equivalent
Depression.

K2 804. (Jones.)— Continued.

Na2 SO4. Archibald.— (Continued.)

.116
.1357
.152
.16765
.1826
.19685

.692 i. A.
.677 "
.668 "
.661 "
.624 "
.647 "

2.289
2.231 .
2.208
2.197
2.178
2.160

.250
.300
.350
.400
.450
.500
.600
.700

.600
.578
.561
.546
.535
.525
.511
.501

2.120
2.084
2.045
2.025
1.993
1.975
1.925
1.890

K2 SO 4. (Abegg )

Na2 SO4. (Loomis.)

.00876
.01306
.01734
.0216
.0258
.0299

.865 i. A.
.846 "
.829 "
.815 "
.803 "
.794 "

2.79
2.60

2.47
2.43
2.40

2.385

.02
.04
.10
.20
.40
.60

.821 i. A.
.771
.694
.624
.546
.511

2.545
2.435
2.295
2.170
2.036
1.938

K2 SO4. (Arrhenius.)

Na2 SO4. (Raoult.)

.0728
.182
.454

.729 i. A.
.654 "
.590 "

2.53
2.225
2.09

.1174
.2866
.426

.678i. A.
.584 "
.540 "

2.39

2.18
2.68

K2 SO 4. (Ponsot.)

Na2 804. (Arrhenius.)

.0724
.0752
.2295
.2360
.4140
.4280

.731 i. A.

.726 "
.635 "
.633 "
.596 "
.594 "

2.307
2.301
2.113
2.110
2.012
2.002

.056
.1402
.234
.390

.741 i. A.
.661 "
.607 "
.549 "

2.515
2.325
2.205
2.095

H2 SO4. (Barnes.)

Na2 SO4. (Archibald.)

.002
.004
.010
.020
.0406
.1016
.1622
.204
.406
.608

.883
.831
.783
.734
.720
.644
.609
.596
.569
.553
1

.005
.008
.010
.050
.055
.060
.070
.080
.100
.200

.893
.870
.859
.752
.743
.736
.722
.712
.694
.624

2.382
2.371
2.360
2.340
2.320
2.286
2.165

2.224
2.084
2.017
1.979
1.940
1.918

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR.

223

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

lonization
Coefficient
at 0° C.

Equivalent
Depression.

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

lonization
Coefficient
at 0° C.

Equivalent
Depression.

H2SO4. (Loomis.)

H2 SO4. (Wildermann.)— Continued.

.02
.04
.10
.20
.40

.770 i. B.
.721 "
.645 "
.598 "
.570 "

2.247
2.155
2.065
1.984
1.925

.06244
.09216
.1358
.1930

.688 i. B.
.653 "
.622 "
.599 "

2.098
2.049
2.004
1.970

Na2CO3. (Loomis.)

&2 SO4. (Jones.)

.02
.04
.10

.735i. D.
.684 "
.6lle. D.

2.535
2.465
2 32

.002696
.007182
.011650
.016106
.02054
.02696
.07100
.11358
.15472
.19450
.2330

.962i. W.
.906 '

.870 «
.844 '
.823 '
.796 '
.678 i B.
.633 '
.612 '
.598 '
.586 '

2.7077
2.5620
2.5150
2. 4091
2.3710
2.310*
2.2185
2.051^
1.9952
1.9732
1.9498

Na2 COa- (Jones.)

.003030
.008068
.013090
.018096
.02120
.04802
.07736
.09588

.859 i. D.
.803
.770
.743
.730
.670
.632e. D.
.613 "

2.805
2.764
2.755
2.741
2.722
2.676
2.494
2.335

H2SO4. (Ponsot.)

.0149
.0181
.0365
.0395
.0503
.0669
.0727
.0876
.2570
.2580
.4476
.4216
.8872

.790e. B.
.770
.726
.720 i B.
.706
.681
.674
.658
.587
.587
.565
.565
.535

2.282
2.265
2.192
2.205
2.147
2.105
2.09^
2.045
1.895
1.899
1.850
1.849
1.859

Mg SO4 (Loomis.)

.02
.04
.06

.594 i. D.
.522 "
.485 "

1.331
1.277
1.237

Mg SO4 (Jones.)

.002
.003996
.005998
.007976
.009960
.011994
.01400
.015972
.017940
.019904
.03950
.05872

.8171. I>.
.773
.728
.694
.669
.651
.634
.614
.608
.596
.521
.502

1.7000
1.6767
1.6555
1.6174
1.606^
1.59^5
1.5785
1.5590
1.5496
1.5325
1.4912
1.4392

H2SO4. (Wildermann.)

.009208
.009216
.016808
.016834
.01690
.03206
.03212
.06238

.8891. W.
.889
.842
.842
.840
.776
.735 i. B.
.688 "

2.422

2.388
2.297
2.293
2.325
2.190
2.183
2.10

224

ON* A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

lonization
Coefficient
atO° C.

Equivalent
Depression.

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

lonization
Coefficient
at 0 °C.

Equivalent
Depression.

H3 PO4 (Loomis.)

1
H8 PO4 (Jones).

.03
.06

.614 i. D.
.513 "

0.94
0.893

.003279
.009843
.019605
.027705
.03279

.881 i. D.
.771 "
.669 "
.627 "
.602 "

1.18SJ

1.15/5
1.0967
1.072.?
1 .0522

The curves of the diagram are so labelled with the initial
letters of observers' names, (Ab for Abegg), as to show both the
depression observations, on which they are b«sed, and the ioni-
ization coefficients used in plotting them. Thus the inscription
KC1 (J — W), means that Jones' depressions and Whetham's
coefficients were used ; H2S02 (J L B — B), that the curve is a mean
curve based, mainly at least, on depression observations by Jones,
Loomis, and Barnes, and plotted with Barnes' coefficients. The
limits of concentration for the curves, are indicated also, in
gramme-equivalents per litre.

Some of the curves are entered on an inset, drawn on four
times the scale of the main diagram.

In interpreting the curves, we must not only bear in mind
what has been said above about the probable accuracy of the
ionization coefficients, but must in addition note the tendency
exhibited by the curves of the various observers, as dilution
increases, to run off at great dilution in directions characteristic
of the observers, to the left or right relatively to the course pur-
sued by them at moderate dilution. Thus Abegg's curves (see
Nad, KC1, K2S04), and Jones's (see NaCl, KC1, NH4C1, HC1)
run off to the right. So do Arrhenius's in a marked manner.
Raoult's tendency is also to the right, (see NaCl ; his K2SO4, not
plotted, shows it also ; his most dilute KC1 observation, he him-
self clearly regards as accidentally out.) On the other hand,
Loomis's curves (see HC1, KN03) NH4C1, BaCl2) go to the left.

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR. 225

So do Ponsot's, and probably Wildermann's (not plotted), and I
gather from Ponsot's diagrams of Pickering's observations, to
which I have not access, that Pickering's also have the leftward
tendency. Archibald's and Barnes' curves show less tendency to
diverge than those of any other observers. And although this
may be partially, it is not wholly, due to their having worked at
moderate dilutions only. For in several cases, pointed out below,
the curves of other observers start on a divergent course within
their limit of dilution. But the fact that their curves usually
agree with Loomis's, would lead one to suspect them of a left-
ward tendency.

The divergence, as shown on the diagram, is most marked in
the case of highly dissociated electrolytes (NaCl, HC1, etc.) in
which, at great dilution, the rate of increase of ionization with
dilution is small, the curves being crushed up, therefore, into a
small space. But it is obvious also, in the K9S04 curves (espec-
ially Abegg's) and the BaCl2 curves (including Ponsot's, not
shown). And although for MgSO4 and H8P04, whose ionization
increases rapidly with dilution, the single curves do not reveal it,
the relative positions of the two curves in each case are what
they might be expected to be, if they were tending unduly,
Jones's to the right, and Loomis's to the left.

This tendency is explicable at once, when we reflect that as
it is equivalent depression that is plotted, the errors of the obser-
vations are brought into greater and greater prominence as
dilution increases. According, therefore, as the characteristic
error of an observer's method of measuring total depression is
positive or negative, will his curves of equivalent depression
diverge at great dilution to the right or left of their true
course. And they must diverge even if the error is very
small.

The equivalent depression curves of single observers are
therefore open to grave suspicion at high dilutions ; and since one
can never be sure that the errors of different methods will even
approximately neutralise one another, mean curves are, at high

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS.— O.

226 ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

dilution, not much more trustworthy than their components.*
It is much safer, therefore, to base conclusions as to depression
constant on moderate dilution curves, although the conclusions
they admit of may not be so exact as we might wish.

Discussion of the Curves.

Electrolytes such as NaCl, HN08, KOH, have 1 equivalent
in the single molecule, and 2 ions. If, therefore, they exist in
solution in single molecules, their curves should be normal 1 — 2
curves. If the molecules are all double or triple, the curves
should be 2 — 4 or 3 — 6 curves, provided the association does
not involve change in the mode of ionization. If it does, they
may be 2 — 2, or 3 — 4, 3 — 3, 3—2 curves respectively, according
to the change that may occur. If the molecules are single at
extreme dilution, but become double or triple as dilution dimin-
ishes, the curves should start as 1 — 2 curves, and undergo
the appropriate transformation.

The electrolyte for which we have the most complete and
trustworthy data, is KC1. The LB — B curve is based
on two series of observations in close agreement and
by a method exhibiting less divergence than the others.
Jones's runs a little to the right of it ; Abegg's a
little to the left. Both Raoult's and Wildermann's cross it, the
latter being somewhat steeper, the former less steep. Ponsot's

* It follows that it is inadmissible to proceed as Raoult has done in determining
depression constants, (loc. cit. p. 658), viz., by selecting high dilution curves which are
in agreement, and applying extrapolation to a mean curve derived from them ; for such
procedure may mean the selection of observations made by methods which have char,
acteristic errors of the same sign. In fact, a mean curve based on observations whicn
agree well at low dilution, but disagree markedly at high dilution, would be likely to
give a better result, as more probably combining observations with small characteristic
errors of opposite sign. Raoult's procedure is open to other objections. For (1 ) his
curves of equivalent depression against total depression, make series of observations
appear to be in greater disagreement than they really are, and are thus not helpful in
making a judicious selection of observations to be used ; and (2.) extrapolation of such
curves not only gives a result affected by the average of the characteristic errors of the
observations used, but also neglects the possibility, in some cases the probability, that
owing to change in association and mode of ionization, the law of the change of curv-
ature may be very different beyond the limits of observation, from what it is within
these limits.

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR. 227

coincides with the lower part, but in the upper part diverges to
the left. In form the curve is thus probably trustworthy. But
being plotted with Barnes' coefficients it may be too high or too
low. The R — W and J — W curves (see inset) are not open to
this suspicion, but at the dilutions to which even.their lower and
more trustworthy parts apply, they may have begun to diverge
unduly rightwards. If the L B — B curve (see inset) be raised
about 2.5 per cent., as is shown to be necessary by a comparison
of Whetham's and Barnes' coefficients, it comes into a position
to the left of the R — W and J — W curves, the usual relative
position of the curves of these observers. Loomis's own curve
for somewhat greater dilutions than those of the L B— B curve,
when plotted with Whetham's coefficients, coincides very nearly
with the boundary line of the inset ; Wildermann's is a little to
the left of Loomis's, and somewhat steeper. Both exhibit a
slight rightward bending, as do all the others.

It would be difficult to draw a mean curve with any confi-
dence ; but any such curve would run about midway between the
1 — 2 and 2 — 4 (1.83) lines, would have a slight rightward bending
at its upper end, and if produced with diminishing curvature,
would run out to a point a little to the right of the 1 — 2 (1.85)
intersection.

If this intersection were the starting point of the curve, and
if there were no association, the curve should lie wholly to the
right of the 1 — 2 (1.85) line. If, as dilution diminished,
sufficient doubling of molecules with unchanged mode of ioniza-
tion should occur, the curve, after first bending away from that
line to the right, would change its curvature, bend towards the
line.and cross it, and then run towards, and finally away from, the
2 — 4 line, as the mean curve appears to do.

As the 2 — 2 line is far to the left, the mean curve might be
accounted for also, on the assumption of a very slight formation
of double molecules dissociating into two ions ; and a slight
formation of such molecules would probably involve no greater
variation of the migration numbers with concentration than
has been observed.

228 ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

If the 1 — 2 (1.80) intersection, were assumed as the starting
point of the curve, the mean curve would cut the 2 — 4 (1.86)
line. If, therefore, association in molecules with unchanged
mode of ionization were assumed, some formation of triple mol-
ecules would be indicated, and if the associated molecules were
assumed to dissociate into two free ions, a greater extent of such
association would bo indicated. Thus, with this starting point,
less probable assumptions as to association must be made, to
account for the observations.

If the 1 — 2 (1.84) or even the 1 — 2 (1.845) intersection were
taken as the starting point, the curve must bend considerably to
the left before running out, — of which bending none of the
experimental curves give any indication whatever.

The most probable conclusion, then, that we can draw from
the observations, is that the depression constant is 1.85, with a
limit of error of .01, or perhaps .005, that the electrolyte has
single molecules at great dilution, and that as dilution diminishes,
either double molecules with unchanged mode of ionization form
to a considerable extent, or double molecules dissociating into
two ions, to a small extent.

Loomis's and Barnes' observations, on which the NaCl
(L B — B) curve is based, are also in close agreement; but as
Loomis's curve for slightly greater dilution bends slightly to the
right, the upper part of the L B — B curve should probably
have greater curvature. Jones' curve for moderately dilute
solutions runs a little to the left of it, and at higher dilutions
diverges markedly to the right, as separately shown. Abegg's
observations are on both sides of it, but at higher dilutions his
curve also goes to the right. Raoult's touches it, but goes off to
the right. Arrhenius's is considerably to the right, and goes
widely rightward at greater dilutions. Ponsot's is a little to the
left. As the L B — B curve is plotted with Barnes' coefficients,
it is probably too low. If it be raised about as much as was
found necessary in the case of the KClcurve.it will lie along the
1 — 2 line, or a little above or below it, with its upper end, as
drawn, so directed, as to run out probably at a point nearer the

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES— MACGREGOR. 229

1 — 2 (1.85) intersection, than either the 1 — 2 (1.83) or the 1 — 2
(1.87) .intersection. Thus the defective data as to ionization
prevent our drawing a more definite conclusion than that the
association indicated, if any, is less than in the case of KCl, and
that the depression constant is 1.85, with a limit of error of
perhaps .02.

The HC1 curve is interesting as exhibiting a point of mini-
mum equivalent depression. The observations on which the
L B — B curve is based, are in good agreement. Jones' curve
almost coincides with it in the lower part, but goes off to the
right in the upper part and at higher dilutions, as shown separ-
ately. Loomis's curve at higher dilutions (also separately shown)
goes to the left, but in a less marked manner. As drawn, the
upper part of the mean curve lies between the 1 — 2 and 2 — 4
(1.85) lines, and it is running out to a point a little beyond the
1 — 2 (1.86) intersection (see inset). But as it is plotted with
Barnes' co-efficients it is perhaps too low. If raised 1 or 2 per
cent, it would appear to run out at some point between the 1 — 2
(1.84) and 1 — 2 (1.86) intersections. The data are of course very
defective ; but they are consistent with a depression constant of
about 1.85, and they seem to indicate a greater extent of associ-
ation than in the case of KCl.

The L — D and J — D curves for NH4C1 are not in agreement,
having the usual relative position of Loomis's and Jones' curves.
A mean curve based on their lower parts would be slightly to
the left of the 1 — 2 (1.85) line, and directed to a point consider-
ably to the right of the 1 — 2 (1.86) intersection. It might thus
indicate anything between a high value of the depression con-
stant accompanied by very considerable association of molecules,
and a constant of about 1.85, with no association in dilute
solutions, and only a slowly increasing association in stronger
solutions.

The HNO8 curve (see inset) is a mean curve based on
Loomis's and Jones's. Both are beyond the bounds of the inset,
the former to the left, the latter to the right. Neither this curve
nor that of KN08 is sufficiently trustworthy to warrant any

230 ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

close inspection, but both are clearly consistent with the 1.85
value of the depression constant. If the leftward bending of the
KNO8 curve in its lower part were actual, as well as the position
of the curve, the formation of triple molecules might be indicated.
But being a Loomis curve, it is open to the suspicion of being as
a whole, too far to the left ; and it is plotted with doubtful
coefficients.

The KOH curves, Loomis's on the main diagram and Jones's
on the inset, are useful only to illustrate the difficulty of making
concordant observations by different methods. As usual, Loomis's
is to the left, and Jones's to the right.

Electrolytes such as BaCl2, H2SO4, Na2C08, have 2 equiva-
lents in the single molecule, which may dissociate into 3 or into
2 ions. If there is no association, they will therefore have 2 — 3
or 2 — 2 curves, according to the mode of ionization. If there is
complete doubling of molecules, the curves will be 4 — 6 or 4 — 4
curves, provided the doubling does not involve change in mode
of ionization. Otherwise they might be 4 — 5, 4 — 3 or 4 — 2
curves. (The corresponding tangent lines are so far to the left
of the experimental curves that they are not entered on the
diagram.) If the molecules are associated in threes, the curves
will be 0 — 9 or 6 — 6 curves, with the above proviso.

Both Loomis's and Jones' curves for BaCl2 are shown on the
diagram, plotted with Whetham's coefficients (rough extrapol-
ated values, however, in the case of the former). Ponsot's curve
agrees very closely with Loomis's. Bearing in mind the right-
ward and leftward tendencies of Jones's and Loomis's curves,
respectively, we may conclude from the curves of the diagram
that the actual curve runs down to the right of the 2 — 3 line,
bending away from it to the right, and that it would intersect
the a = \ line at a point between the 2 — 3 (1.85) and 2 — 3(1.87)
intersections, probably nearer the former than the latter. The
curve is thus, so far as we can judge, a normal 2 — 3 (1.85 ± .01)
curve, running, however, very close to the 2 — 3 line. The dia-
gram, therefore, indicates that BaCI2 exists in solution in single
molecules, dissociating into 3 ions, at least for the most part, and
that it has a depression constant nearer 1.85 than 1.87.

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR. 231

The H2SO4 (J — W) curve for high dilutions, being a Jones
curve, is probably too far to the right, and being plotted with
Whetham's coefficients, is probably too high. Wildermann's
curve for high dilutions runs parallel to it, considerably to the
left. The J L B — B curve, for lower dilutions, is very nearly
coincident with Barnes' curve, and in its lower part with Jones's
and Loomis's as well. But in the upper part, Jones' curve goes
off markedly to the right, and Loomis's markedly to the left-
Wildermann's is slightly to the left at the lower end, and diver-
ges somewhat leftwards in the upper part. Ponsot's runs nearly
parallel to it, somewhat to the left, and diverging to the left at
higher dilutions. The J L.B — B curve is thus trustworthy as to
form ; but being plotted with Barnes' coefficients, it is probably
too low. The actual curve would thus appear to cross the 2 — 3
(1.85) line not far from its starting point, bend towards the 4 — G
line, and run down below that line, finally bending slightly
towards it. Its course is therefore what it would be if it started
as a 2 — 3 curve, for k= 1.85 or thereabout, changed its curvature
at a somewhat early stage, and tended to be transformed slowly
into either a double molecule curve or a 2 — 2 curve, or perhaps
both. The diagram would therefore indicate that at extreme

o

dilution H2S04 exists in solution in single molecules, dissociating
into three ions, that at an early stage and in a somewhat marked
manner, either doubling of molecules sets in, or partial dissocia-
tion into two ions, or perhaps both, that the change increases
slowly and steadily as dilution diminishes, and that at a concen-
tration of about 0.6, if the coefficients at this concentration are
to be trusted, the change is increasing in rate ; also that the
depression constant may quite readily be about 1.85.

The K2SO4 (L J A — A) curve, is based on series of observa-
tions which in the main are in good agreement. It very nearly
coincides with the Loomis and Archibald curves, and Ponsot's
runs down slightly to the left. In its lower part it coincides
with the Jones curve, but in its upper part the Jones curve,
which is separately represented for great dilutions, runs off to
the right. Abegg's curve for higher dilutions runs even more

232 ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

markedly to the right, although it is farther to the left at its
lower end. Arrhenius's is considerably to the right, and diverges
widely rightwards. The Na2SO4 (L A — A) curve is also almost
coincident with both the Loomis and the Archibald curves. Both
Raoult's and Arrhenius's are considerably to the right, and
diverge slowly rightwards. Such of these curves as are entered
on the diagram, being plotted with Archibald's coefficients, are
probably somewhat too high or too low, as the case may be.
Those for great dilutions are too discordant to admit of dis-
cussion. The mean curves for both salts have the fame general
form, and run down, as drawn, a little below the 2 — 3 line.
Their upper ends are so directed as to suggest their running out
at the 2 — 3 (1.85) intersection, or thereabout. At their lower
ends they turn sharply to the left and cross the 2 — 3 line, going
towards the region of the double molecule curves, or of the 2 — 2
curve. The turns are too sharp, and the 4 — 6 and 6 — 9 lines
too near, to make their transformation into double or triple mol-
ecule curves, with unchanged ionization, probable. The diagram
suggests rather their transformation into 4 — 5, 4, or 2 or 2 — 2
curves. If this be accepted, it means that at extreme dilution
these sulphates exist in solution in single molecules, dissociating
into three ions, that partial dissociation into two ions or doubling
of molecules sets in, apparently at an early staije, but increases
more slowly than in the case of H2SO4, until the dilution has
been considerably diminished, when it undergoes a rapid increase.
A close determination of the depression constant cannot be made;
but even if the curves have to be either raised or lowered a little,
and if, Loomis's tendency being leftward, their upper parts have
to be shifted somewhat to the right, they will be consistent with
its being about 1.85.

The Na2CO8 curves are too discordant to form a basis
for discussion. But either Loomis's curve or a mean
curve, or even Jones's curve itself, is quite consistent
with a depression constant of about 1.85 ; and both curves indi-
cate the occurrence of rapid association or of rapid change of ioni-
zation after considerable diminution of dilution. The fact that

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR. 233

Loomis's curves bend towards the left, suggests that the actual
curve after starting at the 2 — 3 intersection, may bend consider-
ably to the right before association or change of mode of
ionization has advanced sufficiently to change the direction of its
curvature.

An electrolyte such as MgS04, according as it may exist in
solution in single, double or triple molecules, and according to its
mode of ionization in associated molecules, may have a 2 — 2,
4 — 4 or 2, or 6 — 6, 4, 3 or 2 curve. Jones' curve lies to the
right of the 2 — 2 (1.85) line, bending towards it, and may quite
readily be a 2 — 2 (1.85) curve, changing to a 4 — 4t or 4 — 2 curve.
Loomis's lies between the 2 — 2 and 4 — 4 lines. A mean curve
would already, at a concentration .02, have crossed the 2 — 2 line.
The data, such as they are, are consistent with the depression
constant having a value of about 1.85, and would indicate single
molecules in dilute solutions, doubling of molecules at a very
early stage, and a steady increase in association through-
out.

According asH8P04,if it exist in solution in single mole-
cules, may dissociate into 4, 3 or 2 ions, will it have a 3 — 4,3 — 3,
or 3 — 2 curve. If it have double molecules, its curve may be a
6 — 8, G — 7, etc., to 6 — 2 curve, according to the mode of ioniza-
tion. Jones' curve runs down to the right of the 3 — 2 (1.85)
line, bending towards the line. Loomis's lies between the 3 — 2
and G — 4 lines. A mean curve would be just to the right of the
3—2 line, and might readily run out at the 3 — 2 (1.85) inter-
section. This would indicate single molecules in dilute solutions
dissociating into two ions, an early occurrence of doubling of
molecules, and steady increase in the extent of association as
dilution diminished, the double molecules formed dissociating
into 4, 3, or 2 ions, but not into more. Although the coefficients
with which the curve is plotted are doubtful, the curve is so
nearly parallel to the axis of ionization coefficients, that even a
considerable error in their values would not affect the above
conclusions.

ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS, ETC.

General Conclusions.

Although the observations on which the above discussion is
based are defective, and the particular conclusions drawn are
consequently tentative, I think it may be held with some con-
fidence (1) that the curves of equivalent depression against ioni-
zation coefficient, have positions, forms, and slopes, such as they
might be expected to have, on reasonable assumptions as to
mode of ionization and constitution in solution, according to the
Van 't Hoff-Arrhenius theory of the depression of the freezing-
point in solutions of electrolytes, (2) that for all the electrotytes
examined, they are consistent with the depression constant
having a common value of about 1.85, and that in the case of the

O

electrolyte for which we have the best data, the curve is not
consistent with a greater limit of error in this value than about
.01, unless improbable assumptions are made with respect to the
constitution of the electrolyte in solution, and (3) that the dia-
gram enables us to reach in some cases, conclusions of considerable
probability with respect to the constitution of the electrolyte in
solution, and its mode of ionization.

DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS.

235

VIII. — GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE IN NOVA SCOTIA. — BY
HUGH FLETCHER, ESQ., B. A., of the Geological Survey
of Canada.

(Communicated on the Uth Mfiy, 1900.)

THE DEVONIAN.

In the summer of 1876, a great series of metamorphic rocks,
cut by masses of granite and trap, was separated in Cape
Breton from the overlying Carboniferous conglomerate made
up of their detritus. These rocks were then traced from Loch
Lomond to St. Peters, through Isle Madame and into Guysboro
and Antigonish counties, as recorded in the reports of the
Geological Survey between 1877 and 1881.

Localities were described at which the Carboniferous, com-
paratively unaltered, comes in contact with and contains pebbles
of these metamorphic rocks ; several sections indicating a thick-
ness of at least 10,000 feet were given in detail and mention
was made of carbonized plants, fish remains, ostracods and
other fossils found in many of the beds, the plants including
forms like Psilophyton, a characteristic Devonian genus.

Above them lies a formation,, several thousands of feet in
thickness, containing marine fossils of the Carboniferous Lime-
stone series of England and characterized everywhere from
Newfoundland to the western boundary of New Brunswick, a
distance of 450 miles, by the occurrence of thick beds of
gypsum ; while at their base lie about 3,000 feet of limestones
and other beds of marine origin, shown by Dr. Honeyman,
in one of the finest pieces of combined stratigraphical and
palseontological geology yet done in Nova Scotia, to range at
Arasaig from Medina to Lower Helderberg.

Rocks in this position, precisely similar in lithological
character, had been called Devonian in New Brunswick, New-
foundland, Gaspe' and on Logan's map of the Pictou Coal field,
and this name was accordingly applied to them in Cape Brecon.

(235)

236 GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE

It was subsequently found that the large Pre-carboniferous
area, eighteen miles wide at the Strait of Canso and five miles
in width at Lochaber, thirty-five miles to the south-west, instead
of being Silurian as claimed by Sir William Dawson, contains
only these plant-bearing Devonian strata which are divisible
into three groups corresponding closely with those into which
the Devonian rocks of New Brunswick had already been sub-
divided. They extend from Lochaber along the East River of
St. Mary's and the East River of Pictou to strike the Inter-
colonial railway near Glengarry, form the high land south of
Truro and pass unconformably beneath the Carboniferous of
Stewiacke River; and a small area is found at MacAra Brook,
from which come the fish remains and Pterygotus subsequently
described by A. Smith Woodward as homotaxial with the upper
Silurian or lower Devonian of England.

As this grouping affected also rocks referred by Sir William
Dawson * on the evidence of their fossil plants " to the lower
part of the coal formation or Millstone Grit " and even higher,
it was naturally called in question; and in 1885 Mr. T. C.
Weston was sent to Nova Scotia, assisted by Mr. J. A. Robert,
to collect fossils between Riversdale and the Strait of Canso.
They found everywhere Lepidodendron corrugatum, Stigmaria
ficoides and Cyclopteris acadica, forms supposed to be charac-
teristic of the Horton series ; on the East River of St. Mary's
plants which resemble rhizomes of Psilophyton ; and, near
Sunnybrae, Cordaites and numerous markings of Psilophyton
allied to P. glabrum and P. elegans ; at and near Riversdale
they obtained Catamites, Sphenopteris, Anthracomya elongata
and A. laevis, Lepidodendron corruyatum, Stigmaria ficoides,
ferns and erect trees, characteristic again of the Horton series.

These rocks near Truro and on Cobequid Bay and Minas
Basin had in the meantime been recognized by Dr. Ells as
probably identical with the Devonian of New Brunswick.

* Acadian Geology, pages 485 and 489; Plants of the Lower Carboniferous and
Millstone Grit, p. 13.

IN NOVA SCOTIA— FLETCHER. 237

The Reports of the Geological Survey for 1885 and 1886
were sharply assailed by Sir J. W. Dawson for their disregard
of fossils ; they were assumed to cast doubt upon the value and
accuracy of the work done in Cape Breton. " As to the rocks
of the Riversdale section and that at MacKay Head, I have no
hesitation in saying that it would be contrary to all analogy,
not only in Nova Scotia but everywhere else, that they should
be as low as the Horton series. They are unequivocally Mill-
stone Grit and the flora of these sections is so well known that
there can scarcely be any mistake respecting it. The opinion
advanced by Dr. Ells that the rocks of MacKay Head are like
those of Riversdale is quite correct, they being the same series ;
but the comparison of them with the St. John Devonian is
quite unwarrantable, the fossils being quite distinct."

This strong dissent induced Dr. Selwyn in 1892 to visit the
region and see for himself the position of these strata. His
view of their relations was emphatically expressed in the Sum-
mary Report for that year. In the conclusions arrived at by
Mr. Fletcher he fully agreed. In 1895, Dr. Selwj'n was suc-
ceeded as director of the Geological Survey by Dr. G. M.
Dawson. Maps of Pictou and Colchester counties were then
being engraved. The compilation of Sheets 43 to 48 was com-
pleted and that of Sheets 56 to 65, 76, 83, 100 and 101 well
advanced. In the same year Dr. Ami was sent to Nova Scotia
to obtain palaeontological evidence of the age of the rocks in
question ; in the following seasons he was accompanied by the
director, and in one season by Dr. Ells.

But in 1898 " certain points connected with the geological
structure of that region remained still critical," although it was
hoped that the special investigations of that year might render
it possible to complete the information for several of the above
sheets, which in that event would be promptly issued. At this
time, Dr. Ami was protesting against the publication of a report
in which he was represented as advocating the Carboniferous
age of these rocks. On the contrary, he believed the evidence
to show " that the strata of Union and Riversdale may be

GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE

regarded as equivalent to those in Lancaster township, New
Brunswick, described and held to be of Devonian age," adding
that several typical Horton fossils, such as Lepidodendron cor-
rugatum and Cyclopteris acadica are common to the Riversdale
and Union rocks and to the Devonian of New Brunswick.

In the following year, however, he states that so far as the
faunas are concerned they clearly indicate a Carboniferous facies
for the New Brunswick Devonian, the rocks of Harrington
River, Parrsboro, Riversdale, Union and Horton Bluff. The
only proof adduced for this radical change, and the addition of
15,000 feet of strata beneath the Limestone to the already
enormously developed Carboniferous of Nova Scotia, is that of
certain fossils, assumed to have a definite range, in regard to
some of which he is surety mistaken. For " the protolimuloid
crustacean, usually referred to the Carboniferous system " is on
the contrary* also found associated with such characteristic
Lower Devonian forms as Pterygotus, Coccosteus, Pterichthys
and Glyptolepis ; Estheria is not " all the world over recognized
as Carboniferous " any more than Pterinea is peculiar to the
Devonian ; Leaia occurs in Pennsylvania in rocks regarded by
most geologists as Devonian ; and Professor Marsh has described;
from the Devonian, amphibians as highly developed as the
Dendrerpeton found by Sir William Logan at Horton Bluff in
1841 and by Dr. Ami, at Parrsboro in 1898, the affinities of
which the latter regards as Permian.

Collections of fossil plants from these rocks in Nova Scotia
and New Brunswick were examined by Mr. David White of the
United States Geological Survey in 1898, and by Mr. R.
Kidston of Stirling, Scotland, in 1899, who came to almost
the same conclusions on perfectly independent grounds. Their
views are given at length by Dr. Whiteaves in his " Address on
the Devonian System in Canada." and may be thus summarized :
(1) The Horton series is nearly contemporaneous with the
Pocono formation of the eastern United States and the lower

* Ottawa Naturalist for January, 1900, Vol. VIII, No. 10, p. 256.

IN NOVA SCOTIA — FLETCHER. 239

Carboniferous of England. (2) The Riversdale and Harrington
River series are assuredly newer than the Horton and have a
most pronounced Upper Carboniferous facies. (3) The plant-
bearing beds near St. John, N. B. are not Middle Devonian but
Carboniferous and are the exact equivalents of the Riversdale
series.

Dr. Whiteaves adds : " Our knowledge of the organic
remains of the Devonian of Nova Scotia is still in its infancy,,
and it would seem that the plant-bearing beds near St. John,
N. B., which have so long been regarded as Devonian, may
possibty be Carboniferous."

Admitting apparently that " a classification by faunas alone
is one-sided and that the physical history of the strata should also
be considered," Dr. Ami, in 1899, set aside the authority of the
palaeontologists mentioned above and accepted the order of super-
position* given by " the two geologists on the Canadian Survey
staff, who have studied the question from a stratigraphical and
lithological point of view," but, as a sort of compromise, for their
name Devonian he substituted <%Eo-Carboniferous," just as he had
previously employed the word " Eo-Devonian " for the so-called
Lower Oriskany of Nictaux. This stratigraphical sequence has
indeed been admitted by all geologists who have examined it in
the field. Richard Brown, Campbell, Gesner, Lyell, Honeyman,
Logan, Poole, Ells, Fletcher, Selwyn and others in Nova Scotia ;
Gesner, Hartt, Matthew, Bailey and Ells in New Brunswick ;
Murray in Newfoundland ; Ells and Whiteaves in Gaspe — all
place these rocks beneath the Carboniferous Limestone, near
the debatable line between Carboniferous and Devonian, in
man}'' indisputable sections where no thrust-faults, outliers,
overturned fossil trees or other agency of theoretical biologists
are available to make part Devonian, part Coal Measures.

It becomes, then, a question of the transference across this
line not of a few feet of strata but of a system of 10,000 to
15,000 feet of beds cut off from a marine formation both above

* Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XIII, No. 9, p. 207.

240 GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE

and below by great unconformities and intrusions of granitic
rocks. The only evidence brought against the name Devonian
is that of certain fossils assumed to have a definite range in
geological time. Were such a means of classification possible in
the present state of our knowledge, and we were to understand
that, for example, rocks must not be called Devonian above the
horizon of the appearance of amphibians, or Silurian above that
of fishes, such a classification would be quite satisfactory.
Paleontology is not, however, one of the mathematical or
exact sciences, but has its limitations even in the countries .in
which it has been most diligently studied ; consequently, uncer-
tainty exists both in Europe and America regarding the proper
limits of this and other formations. We have heard, for
example, the work of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsyl-
vania, a most important and thorough industrial investigation,
described as conducted on the plan that correlations can best be
made by lithological means. " Frequently one meets with
expressions of lack of confidence in the evidence offered by
fossils." And in a recent report on the Devonian and Car-
boniferous* " the whole subject of the value of fossil plants
as means of correlation " is said to be " under consideration."

It is only necessary to read this report to realize the diffi-
culty met with in attempting to group these rocks by their
fossils in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Virginia, Illinois, Michigan and
other statesf — a difficulty well stated in a report of the Ameri-
can committee of the International Congress of Geologists J as
follows : (1) " Shall we include the Catskill rocks (and, when no
marine faunas occur, up to the base of the Olean conglomerate and
equivalents) in the Devonian ? (2) Shall the Chemung marine
fauna be taken as the uppermost fauna of the Devonian ? Or
shall a part or the whole of the marine faunas between the
middle Devonian and the conglomerate which introduces the
Coal Measures be called Devonian ? If an arbitrary line is to

* Bulletin of the U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 80, pp. 123, 208 and 228.

t Cf. also " Science " for 26th Jan. 1900, p. 140.

J Rep. Geol. Congress, 1888, A. pp. 102, 144 ; B. pp. 144, 153, 154, 156.

IN NOVA SCOTIA— FLETCHER. 241

be drawn faunally it should be between the Chemung and the

Waverley The difficulties are not less serious in

England, and the Pilton and Baggy beds hold faunas which it is
as difficult to settle" on the Devonian or Carboniferous side as it
has been with the Waverley, Kinderhook or Marshall." Pro-
fessor J. S. Newberry then proposes a classification in which he,
includes in the Carboniferous system all strata from the Permian
to the Chernung, both inclusive ; whereas Professor Hall adopts
the first alternative suggested above and restricts the term
Catskill group to the beds known as X and XI of the Pennsyl-
vania survey (Pocono and Mauch Chunk) ; and others speak of
the latter as distinct from and overlying the Catskill. Adopting
Professor Hall's grouping it would seem that the Mauch Chunk
and Pocono may represent respectively the Union and Rivers-
dale series of the Nova Scotian Devonian ; and that, unless the
littoral and estuarine sediments of Pennsylvania represent the
pelagic rocks of the east, there must be a great unconformity
by which the gypsiferous formation, traced, as above stated,

from Newfoundland to the Aroostook, is lost. It h
that in working up from the lower Palaeozoic,
to carry the Catskill to XI of the Pennsylvania
in working downward from the upper Palseozo
seem to carry the Permian to VIII (Venango).

The International Congress proposes to place t

s been found

fossils seem

classification,

the fossils

e upper limit

of the Devonian at the base of the Carboniferous Limestone
and to include in the former the Catskill and the so-called
Lower Carboniferous or Tweedian group of Scotland. The
Tweedian has been also correlated with the Condroz beds of
Belgium, from which one of the subdivisions of the Devonian
(Condrusian) in the classification of the Congress takes its
name.

The annexed tabular view of various classifications proposed
for these rocks will show at once their radical inconsistency and
the indefinite range of the fossils : —

PKOC. & TKANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS.-P.

242

GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE

I

CANADIAN GEOLO-
GICAL SURVEY.

2

ELLS & FLETCHER.

3

DAWSON
IN NEW HRUNSW'K.

4

DAWSON
IN NOVA SCOTIA.

CARBONIFEROUS
SYSTEM.

Permian.

Permian, or Upper
Carboniferous.

Upper
Carboniferous.

Coal Measures.

Coal Measures.

Coal Measures.

Union or Salmon
River.

Millstone Grit.

Millstone Grit.

Millstone Grit.

Riversdale.

Carboniferous
Limestone.

Carboniferous
Limestone.

Windsor Series.

Windsor Series (Up-
per Carboniferous
of Schuchert.)

Carboniferous
Conglomerate.

Carboniferous
Conglomerate.

Horton Series or
''Albert Shales.

Horton Tweedian of
Scotland.!

DEVONIAN
SYSTEM, t j

Catekill.

Union, including
rocks of MacAra

Perry.

Chemung.

Brook, Lochaber
and Economy.

Mispec.

Logan's Devonian
of Middle River of
Pictou. Rocks of
Brookfleld.

Hamilton.

Riversdale, Harring-
ton River (4000 ft).
MacKay Head and
Horton.t

Cordaite Shales
Dadoxylon Sand-
stone.

Corniferous.

Basal Conglomerate.

Bloomsbury.

Oriskany.

SILURIAN SYSTEM.

Dr. G. F. Matthew
suggests placing
the Cordaite Shales
in the Silurian.

*An unconformable series beneath the lower carboniferous limestone and con-
glomerate.

t The relation of the Horton to the beds immediately overlying the Silurian has not
yet been worked out.

IN NOVA SCOTIA — FLETCHER.

243

5

R. K 1 1 ISTI IN.

6
DAVID WHITE.

7

PENNSYL-
VANIA.

8
JAMES HALL.

9

J.S.NEWBERRY.

Union ?

Permian.

Riversdale.Harring-
ton River, and
Cordaite Shales
(St. John Devon-
ian).

Union

Coal Measures.

Riversdale and Cor-
daite Shales (Dev-
onian of St. John,
N. B.)

Pottsville
XII
(Olean.)

Millstone Grit

Mauch
Chunk XI.

Carboniferous
Limestone.

Horton — (Lower
Carboniferous of
England).!

Horton (Pocono of
Pensylvania.Wav-
erly. Newer than
Kiltorcan).

Pocono X
(White
Catskill of
Lesley).

Waverley.

Catskill IX.

Mauch
Chunk XI.
Pocouo X.

Catskill.

Chemung
VIII
(Venango).

Chemung.
DEVONIAN

SYSTEM.
Hamilton.

Corniferoua.

Oriskany.

SILURIAN

SYSTEM.

t Referred by the International Congress of Geologists to the Devonian (Con-
drusian).

.244 GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE IN NOVA SCOTIA— FLETCHER.

'Only the knowledge that palaeontologists sometimes "give
more consideration to the results of theoretic biologic studies
than to the already established stratigraphic succession of the
faunas " can explain the foregoing table, which offers the alter-
native of correlating with the Nova Scotian productive coal
measures, lying thousands of feet above the Riversdale, either
the Coal Measures of England or the Cretaceous coal-bearing
rocks of the Pacific coast.

The Horton cannot be at the same time above and below
and on the same horizon as the Riversdale ; and Dr. Ami has
perhaps acted wisely in omitting it from his classification, its
prominence in the others being due to its being easily accessible
and first examined. At Horton Bluff it contains only 287 feet
•of strata well exposed on one side of a syncline, and 459 feet,
not so well exposed, on the other ; whereas the section at Har-
rington River shows nearly 4000 feet of black and gray beds ;
that near Union station 6468 feet of red beds of the upper *
group alone (of which 684 feet, containing fish remains through-
out, were remeasured at MacAra Brook); while a great thickness
of the lower gray and black beds is exposed along the railway
from Riversdale to West River and in every brook flowing south
from the Cobequid Hills, these exposures being sometimes almost
•continuous for several miles, as recorded in the reports of the
•Geological Survey.

It will be readily understood that fossils thus studied and
-applied, having fixed no definite horizon higher than the Lower
Helderberg, have hindered not helped in mapping the com-
jparatively simple geological structure of these formations, while
imost satisfactory progress has been made by Mr. Fairbault in
.an investigation of 27,000 feet of more complicated, non-
fossiliferous rocks comprising the gold-bearing series of the
province.

* Goal. Survey Report for 1886, Part P, page 65.

IX. — NOTES ON A CAPE BRETON MINERAL CONTAINING
TUNGSTEN, AND ON THE EFFECT OF WASHING CERTAIN
CAPE BRETON COALS. — BY HENRY S. POOLE, F. G. S.,
F. R. S. C., Assoc. Roy. Sch. Mines, etc., Stellarton, N. <SL

(Read April Uth, 1900.)

In the last issue of the Transactions of this Institute there"
was published a paper read March 13th, 1899, entitled " New
Mineral Discoveries in Nova Scotia." The paper made reference
to the finding at North East Margaree, C. B., of a mineral con-
taining tungsten and speaks of it as Wolframite with 67.47 per
cent, of W O3, but makes no note of its other constituents. &..
month later, at a meeting of the Mining Society, Mr. A. C. Ross
read a paper on the same mineral, and in the discussion which
followed an analysis made by Mr. Mason, the assayer at Hali-
fax, was given by Mr. Missener. This analysis,* of concentrated
ore, showed but a trace of iron, and was as follows : —

Tungsten Trioxide 6(3.32

Silica 6.25

Manganese 12.02

Iron. . .12

8471

* The following letter from Mr. Mason gives additional information about this
analysis : —

Halifax, Nova Scotia, April 23rd, WOO.
MY DEAR MR. POOLE :

The analysis was made for commercial purposes, not for scientific ones. How-
ever, being of a curious turn of mind I am able to give you some further information,
although unfortunately only qualitative, not quantitative. A close inspection of the
mineral (I fancy I gave you a sample) will I think reveal that it is composed of Quartz
and Hiibnerite principally, but there is also a little Scheelite. With regard to the
missing 15 per cent., the Manganese is reported as metal. I fancy it exists in the
mineral as Mn3 O4, and if so, that accounts for a difference of about 4.5 %. The bal-
ance was ihade up of mixed oxides of Niobium and Tantalum, and also of Lime.
Whether the lime all belongs to the scheelite or whether part of it should join the
quartz as gangue, I did not determine. I regret that I have mislaid the memo, of the
quantities. I did not discover that the mineral also contained Scheelite until I panned
some of it, but afterwards clearly detected it in some samples but could not find it in
others. Yours very truly,

F. H. MASON

(245)

246 NOTES ON A CAPE BRETON MINERAL AND

The absence of iron and the comparatively large amount of
Manganese in the composition of this mineral would class it as
more nearly allied to Hiibnerite than to Wolframite.

In the same paper reference is made to the beneficial effects
from washing certain Cape Breton coals, whereby the quantity
of Sulphur ordinarily contained in coal as supplied from the
slack heaps is greatly reduced, and the resulting Coke is made
suitable for Iron smelting. The experience at the Ferrona fur-
nace is spoken of, but as the reference to the operations at that
furnace are somewhat incomplete, the following data supplied
by the Manager, Mr. J. D. Fraser, will doubtless on comparison
prove of interest. A test made in September and October, 1895,
with fifty-ton samples from each of the following Mines, gave

as follows : —

RAW COAL. WASHED COAL.

Hub

Ash.
7.507

Sulphur. .

3.24-7

Ash.

4.377

Sulphur.

2.387

Caledonia . .

/o

15.00 ,.

/o

3.02 „

/o

7.05 ..

/o

2.87 ..

Stirling ...
Gowrie ....

11.09 ,.
11.55 „

4.23 „
5.26 „

5.50 „
6.01 ii

3.12 „
3.15 „

D. HERTING, Chemist.

A test of 10,000 tons of small coal in December, 1897, and
January, 1898, received from the Dominion Coal Company,

gave the following average results : —

RAW COAL. WASHED COAL.

Moisture , 2.10% 1.97%

Volatile Combustible Matter. 31.00 .. 33.21 „

Fixed Carbon 56.83 ., 60.00 „

Ash 10.07 ii 4.82 ..

Sulphur 2 38 .. 1.79 ..

Coke made from this washed coal analysed : —

Ash 9.16%

Volatile Combustible Matter 1.86 ••

Fixed Carbon 88.98 „

Sulphur 1.62,,

I. MACFARLAN, Chemist

ON WASHING CAPE BRETON COALS. — POOLE.

247

For comparison with the work done in the coal washer, a
laboratory test was made. An average sample of the coal was
treated in a solution of Calcium Chloride of 1.40 Sp. Gr., the
coal of 1.30 Sp. Gr. floated on the solution, and the shale of
2.04 Sp. Gr. sank to the bottom. Thus separated, the coal and
shale were thoroughly washed and dried, and severally bore to
the unwashed material the following proportion : —

Coal 81 %

Shale, etc 90 „

Dried at 212° Fahr. they yielded on analysis : —

RAW WASHED CTT .

COAL COAL.

Volatile Combustible Matter. 33.06 % 33.79 % 31.43 %

Fixed Carbon 55.93 „ 61.33 ,t 15.33 ..

Ash 11.0 1 i, 2.89 ., 48.08 .,

Sulphur 2.41 n 1.64 u 5.16 n

The same Coal treated in the coal washer yielded : —

RAW WASHED cprATii-

COAL. COAL.

Volatile Combustible Matter. 33.06 % 34.07 % 30.82 %

Fixed Carbon 55.93,, 61.26,, 23.21,,

Ash 11.01,, 4.67- 41.22,,

Sulphur 2.41,, 1.70 » 448,,

On cokino-, 204 ovens made 683 tons of coke which showed

O *

•an average composition as follows, after being dried at 212° F. : —

Moisture 0.40

Volatile Combustible Matter 1.60

Fixed Carbon 89.82

Sulphur 1.65

Silica 3.52

Metallic iron 1.71

Alumina 46

Manganese 03

Lime 82

Magnesia 16

Phosphorus 02

Available Carbon, 87.02.

X. — MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — BY E GILPIN, JR.,.
LL. D., F. R. S. C., Inspector of Mines.

(Communicated 12th February, 1900.)

The Government of Nova Scotia having decided to assist the
Canadian Geological Survey in the preparation of the Canadian
Mineral Exhibit at the Paris Exhibition, the work of collection
was assigned to the Mines Office. In the process of collection
opportunity has been afforded of procuring some interesting
information. I do not contemplate giving a detailed account of
each mineral locality represented, as that would occupy an
undue space in the Transactions, but will confine myself more
especially to those exhibits which were accompanied by descrip-
tive matter, analyses, etc. It may be remarked that no trouble
has been spared by the Survey to make the mineral exhibit a
leading feature of the Canadian representation at Paris, so that
all the mining districts will undoubtedly receive a most impor-
tant and valuable advertisement. It is to be regretted that so-
many mining men have neglected the opportunity offered of
presenting not only their own operations, but also those of their
country to the gaze of the world. At no time has ihere been on
the continent of Europe so marked a difficulty in procuring the-
raw material, and the unworked metals, and there is also a great
demand for opportunities for investment of capital. This
interest is not confined to the precious metals, but extends to
every mineral that can be utilized in the arts. In many cases,
the Department, instead of receiving samples from mine ownera
only too pleased to have their products exhibited, was obliged
to send to the quarries, etc., and procure specimens, while the-
owners showed no interest whatever. Paternalism may be good,
but the individual should show an interest in his own welfare.

Coal

As would be expected the coal fields are well represented.
The Springhill coals were shown in their different forms as-

(248)

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

249

presented for consumption. These coals Are largely used for
steam purposes, especially in locomotives, they are also good
coking and domestic coals. In recent communications to the
Institute I have given a number of analyses of these coals,
showing the increase of their steam values, etc., as they have
been followed to the dip.

The Dominion Coal Company exhibited the various forms of
round, run of mine, slack, pea, nut coals, etc., required by the
trade. This company also presented a column of coal, a section
of the Phalen seam .which attains a thickness of nine feet. This
column is to stand by a similar one from British Columbia, an
illustration of the resources of Canada on the Pacific and on the
Atlantic. In my last paper I drew attention to the interesting
diminution in ash and sulphur in the Phalen seam as it was
followed away from its outcrop. I also gave a summary of the
tests of coal made at Glassport, Pa., U. S. A. I now give, as an
interesting comparison, the results of similar tests of the Phalen
and Hub seams made at the Solway ovens, in Syracuse, New
York, U. S. A. Owing to rainy weather the car loads were
saturated with moisture. Allowing for the moisture the sample
of the Phalen seam weighed 405 tons, and that from the Hub
seam weighed 307 tons. There were obtained from these coals
respectively 302 tons, 74.68 per cent; and 224.74 tons, 72.37 per
cent, of dry coke and breeze.

The Phalen seam yielded 11,012 cubic feet of gas per long
ton. Of the gas 55.47 per cent was used under the ovens. The
average calorific power of the gas was 571.85 B. T. U. The
average illuminating value of the gas, with a fishtail burner was
9.9 candle power, with a Welsbach burner, 54.34 candle power.

The following is the average analysis of the gas: —

Carbon dioxide 2.7 per cent.

Illuminants 2.9

Oxygen 13 "

Carbon monoxide . . 5.8

Marsh gas 32.3 per cent.

Hydrogen 51.1

Nitrogen 5.07

Total . . . 100.0

250 MINERALS FOfe THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — G1LPIN.

The Hub seam yielded 10,539 cubic feet of gas per long ton,
of which 55.46 per cent was used under the ovens. The average
calorific "power of the gas was 576.54 B. T. U. The average
illuminating value of the gas with a fishtail burner was 9.8
candle power, with a Welsbach burner 54. candle power.

The average analysis of the gas was as follows : —

Hydrogen 50.7 per cent.

Marsh gas 30.9

Nitrogen. ....... 5.0 "

Carbon dioxide .... 3.1 per cent.

Illuminants 2.7

Oxygen 2

Carbon monoxide. .7.4

Total 100.0

The Phalen seam yielded per ton 32.91 Ibs. of ammonium
sulphate, and the yield from the Hub seam was 32.24 Ibs. In
commercial estimates a deduction of from 5 to 10 per cent
should be made for loss of ammonia during the process of con-
centration.

The Phalen seam yielded per ton 12.89 gals, of tar, 128.9 Ibs.,
and the Hub seam yielded 13.89 gals, of tar, 138 9 Ibs. The
Phalen seam yielded .103, and the Hub seam .111 gals, of
benzole.

In considering the illuminating power and composition of the
gases given above it must be remembered that they are averages.
It was pointed out in my last paper that the gas obtained from
the first portion of the period of coking is much higher in illum-
inating power, etc., than that given off during the latter portion
of the period of coking.

The General Mining Association. — This company has a
large number of valuable coal seams, but has hitherto confined
its operations to one, known as the Sydney Main Seam. This
seam has been worked for over one hundred years, and still
remains one of the most valuable assets of the Province. The
average thickness of the seam is five fest two inches. The
annual output 271,000 tons. The portion of the seam now being
worked is entirely under the Atlantic Ocean, the samples
exhibited being taken from a point 2,200 yards from the nearest
land, and at a depth of 1,000 feet below the bottom of the ocean.

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 251

The following analyses made at different periods will show the
general uniformity of the seam :

(1871.) Analysis by Dr. How.

Moisture 3.04

Volatile Combust. Matter.31.14

Fixed Carbon 61.50

Ash . . 4.32

100.00

Average Coke 70.30

Theoretical Evapora-
tive power 9.06 Ibs.

Sulphur 1.24

Specific Gravity .... 1.30

(1890.) Analysis by the Writer.

Slow Coking. Fast Cokiug.

Moisture « 420 .420

Volatile Combustible Matter 34.962 37.1 10

Fixed Carbon 59.993 57.845

Ash . . 4.625 4.625

100000 100.000

Sulphur . . . .' 95 .95

(1891.) Average Samples from Five Sections of the Mine.

Moisture 1.536

Volatile Combustible

Matter ..36.372

Fixed Carbon 57.008

Ash 5.084

Sulphur 1.894

Of the underlying seams in the North Sydney district, not
much can yet be said. The General Mining Association has
recently proved them by a shaft to the fourth seam. These
seams are of good quality, and from three to four feet thick. I
append an analysis of the third seam, made a few years ago,
from samples taken from the openings of the North Sydney
Mining Company, along its outcrop : —

Moisture 2.06

Volatile Combustible

Matter ..30.16

Fixed Carbon . . . 60.32

Ash . . 7.46

100.00

Subhur .84

These seams are now receiving attention at the hands of the
Sydney Coal Company, and, although' thinner than the main
seam, will undoubtedly in the near future prove valuable from
their uniformity and proximity to deep water.

252 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

The coals of Pictou County are represented by samples from-
the mines of the Acadia Coal Company. These deposits have
long been worked. Samples of coal are also shown from the
Chignecto, Jogoins and Springhill Colleries. Interesting
analyses, etc., of the seams found at the last-named district have
been furnished by me in late numbers of the Transactions of the-
Institute.

Manganese.

At present the production of manganese is at a low ebb i»
this province. For many years the Tenny Cape Mines had a.
world-wide reputation for the production of small amounts of
extremely pure ore. For some time past little ore has been
mined. It is not doubted that the resources of the district are
exhausted ; but the researches of the chemist have pointed out
methods for the production of pure manganese oxide as a by
product, which have lessened the demand for a native ore almost
chemically pure. However the demand for manganese for steel
making purposes has again offered a market for manganese ores>
high in grade, and phosphorus free. Attention is now being
directed to the ores of this district, and with modern appliances
for prospecting and mining it is anticipated that Tenny Cape
will again become a producer. The samples collected exhibit
well the celebrated crystalline pyrolusite characterising the
district.

The following analysis will serve to show the character of
the ores of this district, which occur in lower carboniferous
limestones : —

I. II.

Moisture 1.66 2.05

Water of Composition 3.63 ....

Iron peroxide 603 2.55

Oxygen 7.036

Baryta 724 1.12

Insoluble 1.728 2.80

Phosphoric acid 1.029

Manganese oxides 84.620 ....

Peroxide of manganese 90.15

Lirne.. trace.

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 253

Ores less crystalline but equally pure occur at Loch Lomond
in Cape Breton County, at the Moseley Mines. The ore is found
in both the crystalline and amorphous forms in a red shale of
lower carboniferous age about five feet, thick. It is presented
as layers and beds from one to eighteen inches in thickness.
The enclosing material being soft it is readily extracted. The
position of the mine has necessitated unfavorable conditions for
shipment, but the construction of the railway now under con-
tract between the Strait of Canso and Louisburg will furnish a
ready access to admirable shipping facilities.

The following analyses will serve to show its quality : —

I. II. ill.

Peroxide of manganese (available). .. .91.84 87.64 92.C5

Peroxide of iron , 12 trace. 4.14

Insoluble 2.71 8.51 trace.

The ores of this metal occnr in workable amounts in Onslow,
near Truro, as veins, and in the partings of the lower carboni-
ferous sandstones.

During the past few months New Ross, in the northern part
of Lunenburg County, has promised to become a producer of
manganese ores. Miner T. Foster has opened a number of veins
which are of high grade, and available for economic extraction.
A few tons have been shipped, and have found a ready sale.
The extent of the manganiferous ground, and the age of the
strata holding the ores, has, I believe, not yet been worked out.
Explorations made during the past season, have shown that the
Dean and Chapter lands adjoining the Foster properties contain,
at several points, deposits which promise to be valuable. The
ores of this district have, so far as I can learn, not been exhaus-
tively analysed. They contain, however, manganese in amount
suitable for steel and chemical purposes.

The Mineral Products Company of Bridgeville.Pictou County,
also exhibit samples of manganite, and of manganiferous
limonite. It is reported that recent developments in the iron
ore mines of this locality have shown the presence of consider-
able amounts of the latter mineral.

254 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

Gold Ores.

The collection of gold specimens procured for the exhibition
although not as rich as could be desired, may be termed repre-
sentative of a number of the best known districts. I will refer
briefly to the districts represented. The department contributed
a set of Montagu specimens, valued at Si, 200.00, at present on
exhibition at the Imperial Institute, London, also specimens from
Renfrew, Mt. Uniacke, and Waverly. Another handsome set,
approaching in value that first named, was secured from Messrs.
Jack & Bell. Another sample was from the famous " Plough
Lead " at Isaacs Harbor.

The following parties also contributed samples, some of
which were very handsome, accompanied by samples of
concentrates, wall rocks, photos, eic. :

J. J. Withrow South Uniacke Gold-beariug quartz.

" " Concentrates.

J. Hirschfield Goldenville

Guflfey Jennings Caribou Gold-bearing quartz.

W. C. Sarre Cow Bay

Cashon & Mines Leipsigate

" Concentrates.

Elk Mining Co Caribou Gold-bearing quartz.

" Concentrates.

Montreal & London Gold

Dev. Co Salmon River Gold-bearing quartz.

Gue & Wilson Waverley "

R. R. McLeod Malaga

J. H. Townsend . . , .Lawrencetown. . "

" Wall rocks, etc.

W. L. Libbey N. Brookfield Gold-bearing quartz.

" Wall rocks.

" " Concentrates.

Note. — At this mine there is a successful chlorination plan,
the first in the Province.

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 255

J. D. Huntingdon Yarmouth Gold bearing quartz.

" Concentrates.

W. C. Anderson Montagu Gold-bearing quartz.

Jack & Bell "

Cunningham & Curren. Mount Uniacke "

Concentrates.

J. D. McGregor Fifteen Mile Stream.Gold-bearing quartz.

Lead.

As yet the development of our lead ores has not reached the
productive stage.

In Inverness County, in Laurentian felsites, at many points,
are visible the effects of solfataric action, in deposits of copper,
lead and zinc ores, often noticeably enriched with gold and
silver. Some measure of development has been attained at
Cheticamp by Halifax capitalists, who have opened a promising
silver lead deposit. It is expected that these ores will be shipped
to the smelter at Pictou, or to Swansea. Openings show the
deposit to be from 3 to 10 feet thick, and to continue for several
hundred feet. Roughly speaking, the ore carries one ounce of
silver for each unit of lead, some samples showing as high as
78 per cent, of lead and 80 ounces of silver. Gold also shows in
quantities varying from 3 to 14 dwts. per ton of 2,000 Ibs.
Similar results in gold and silver have been obtained from the
Silver Cliff deposits and from zinc blende deposits in the same
locality.

As yet the auriferous alluvium in the Cheticamp River has
not received systematic attention. If there are gravels in the
river worth working, they will be found where the river leaves
the mountain, and not in its narrow gorges subject to frequent
and severe freshets. No free gold veins have yet been reported,
and the alluvial gold which attracted so much attention some-
time ago is probably derived from the felsites, which are
reported to occasionally show fine flakes of gold.

At Red Head, a few miles to the north, some development
work has been done on copper deposits, also auriferous. Galena

256 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

ore running high in lead and silver occurs at Caledonia,
Guysboro County, and at Smithfield, Hants County.

Graphite.

The upper or slate division of the Nova Scotia gold fields
frequently shows beds highly carbonaceous, but I am not aware
tnat they have been practically tested. In the prccambrian
felsites and gneisses of Cape Breton, plumbaginous slates are
not uncommon. Samples have been secured from the River
Dennys district, and from the vicinity of the Grand Narrows.
The rock from the latter locality yielded to the analyst of the
Geological Survey :

Graphite Carbon 50.23

Rock matter 43.27

Water 6.50

100.00
Copper.

An interesting set of specimens and photos show the
development work of the Cape Breton Copper Company at
Coxheath, Cape Breton County. Here a number of deposits
have been traced for several thousand feet, and proved to depths
upwards of 300 feet. The deposits vary in thickness up to 12
feet, and may, so far as exploration work has been carried, be
described as very long lenses, bedded in precambrian felsites
and slates.

While some of the lenses carry copper contents up to 10 per
cent., the ore will presumably belong to the class requiring
concentration. Working tests have shown that concentration
readily presents a suit-able furnace material, unusually free from
injurious ingredients. The following tables of analyses and of
working tests of concentration are of interest :

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILHN. 257

.

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258

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

CAPE BRETON COPPER COMPANY, (LIMITED), NOVA SCOTIA, CANADA.
TABLE I.

WASTE.

5

X

i-H O O

In retralar work there will be obtained from the 781 Kos. mixed products still Concentration trials on Coxheath Ore, by
aK 80 Ko. Schlich/so that the total yield would amount fo 18.5 %. Humboldt Works, Kalk, Germany.

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MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

259

CAPE BRETON COPPER COMPANY, (LIMITED), NOVA SCOTIA, CANADA.
TABLE II.

WASTE.

d

*

d d ?i

In regular work there will be obtained from the 579 Klg. mixed products still Concentration trials en Coxhcath Ore, by
about 60 Kos. Schlichs, so that the total yield would amount to 11,85%. Humboldt Works, Kalk, Germany.

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260

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

Samples of similar ores are shown from St. George's River,
Eagle Head and French Road, in the same County.

In Antigonish County the traces of copper ore are wide
spread. At some points prospecting work has given promising
results, but as yet the various licenses to search have received
little attention.

A sample of copper ore from St. Joseph's is from a bed of
mixed chalcopyrite and shale in lower carboniferous strata close
to their junction with precarboniferous rocks, presumably of
lower silurian age. There are about eight beds, reported to be
from two to six feet in width The following analysis of a
sample from the No. 2 vein is by the Geological Survey Depart-
ment :

Copper 27.00

Iron 29.70

Sulphur 33.50

Silica. 3.40

Moisture 20

Carbonate of Iron 6 20

100.00

At Poison's Lake somewhat extensive development work has
shown, in Devonian strata, beside a dioritic dyke, a large mass
of carbonate of iron and calc spar carrying copper pyrites. The
ore is stated to average from 9 to 16 per cent, of copper, and to
carry several dollars' worth of gold and silver. On the opposite
or west side of the Lochaber lake, similar but richer ores occur
in numerous veins with spar and specular iron. Exploratory
work done here a number of years ago was fairly promising.

In addition to these deposits, carbonates, sulphides and
silicates of copper are not uncommon in the carboniferous shales
and sandstones in irregular masses, frequently rich, but limited
in extent. Further work may, however, show localities where
this class of deposits will reach economic values.

In Pictou County similar ores occur at a number of places in
the permo-carboniferous and in the millstone grit and lower
carboniferous. Traces of copper sulphide also occur in the
district forming the water shed between the Bay of Fundy and

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 261

the Strait of Northumberland. The deposits near Pictou and
River John have received some attention and will probably prove
sources of this metal. At Dalhousie Mountain a good deal of
surface exploration has been done on a vein from 2 to 3 feet
wide carrying copper pyrites. Samples have shown up to 15
per cent, of copper and about $2G.OO of gold per ton.

It may be anticipated that where the Devonian strata of
this district are intersected by dioritic and granitic dykes oppor-
tunity v/ill be afforded for copper ores, in some cases, of
commercial value. The rocks referred to appear again in the
southern part of New Annan, and indications cf copper ore are
wide -spread in quartzites and felsites associated with dioritic
dykes, etc.

Developments have been made at New Annan, on the East
Branch of the French River, about five miles from Tatarnagouche
Station. The property being developed presents a bed about
four feet thick, carrying stringers of black sulphide and carbonate
with nodules of various copper sulphides in a fine sandstone
conglomerate resting on a blue clay floor. Similar deposits also
occur at the Palmer mine, near Wentworth. Here the bed is
about ten feet thick and much mixed with clay, The quality of
these ores varies very much, according to the state of concen-
tration reached in the process of formation. Samples can be
had running up to 50 per cent of copper, with gold and silver
in varying amounts. It is expected that these deposits and
others of a similar character scattered from Amherst to Pictou
will furnish material for the smelter at Pictou. More extended
development will be required to determine this point. It is,
however, extremely probably that the older rocks lying to the
south of the carboniferous will yield deposits of ore larger and
more uniform in quality.

Copper pyrites also occurs on the Portapique River, Col-
chester Co., in a stratum, presumably of Devonian age, over a
tract several hundred feet wide and a mile in length. Samples
show up to 20 per cent, copper, with traces of gold.

262 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

Iron.

Among the most interesting of the exhibits under this head
is that of the Nova Scotia Steel Company. This company is an
example of the successful progress of enterprise combined with
commercial and technical skill. The forge works of New
Glasgow, which acquired well-deserved notice for their work in
ship frames, shafts, steins, etc., gradually grew and prospered
With the iron ores and coal of Pictou County at the doors of
New Glasgow, it needed one step and the company produced
its own raw material. A railway was built from Hopewell to
the head of the East River, to open the Bridgeville iron ores
and limestones. A furnace was built at the junction of the
East and West branches of the East River, and a large steel
works made Trenton another New Glasgow.

This measure of progress has not limited the company's
ambition. By a lucky stroke of business they acquired possession
of an enormous iron ore deposit on the coast of Newfoundland.
This deposit was capable of yielding at the cheapest rate an ore
suitable for the basic process. Accordingly large amounts have
been annually imported for mixture with the limonite ores of
Bridgeville. Exports have also been made to the United States
and Europe. The company has sold part of this deposit to the
Dominion Iron and Steel Company, it is said, for the sum o£
$1,000,00000. Now they propose to absorb the 22 square miles
of coal area of the General Mining Association and to erect at
North Sydney a steel plant rivaling that of the Dominion Steel
Company.

The ores of the Pictou iron field comprise limonites, red
hematites, and spathic and specular ores. As yet operations
have been confined to the limonites mined by the Steel Co.
There are enormous deposits of red hematites and specular ores
yet untouched, and affording material for the establishment of
an iron industry surpassing that contemplated at the Sydneys.

The samples exhibited by the company comprise ores, fluxes,
fuels, pig iron, and the steel products.

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 263

The transactions of the Nova Scotia Mining Institute
contain a full description of the plant of this company. The
following analyses are self-explanatory :

Nova Scotia Steel Company, Trenton and Ferrona.

Iron Ores.

Red Hematite from Wakana Mine, Newfoundland, owned
by N. S. Steel Co. Average analysis for year 1898 at 150,000
tons. Dried at 212° F. Moisture, 0.66.

Loss on ignition .... 2.08 p. c.

Silica 11.57 "

Iron Oxide 77.67 "

Manganese Oxide.. .. 0.08 "

Alumina 4.55 "

Lime(CaO.) 1.81 "

Magnesia 0.44 "

Phos-Acid 1.62 p. c

Sulphuric Acid 0.07

Titanic Acid 0.25

Metallic Iron 54.37

Phosphorus 071

Sulphur 0.03

Magnetic Iron ore from Cuba, dried at 212 F. Average
analysis :

Silica 991 p. c.

Alumina 0.85 "

Lime 0.50 "

Magnesia 0.32 "

Manganese 0.41 p. c.

Metallic Iron 61.02 "

Phosphorus 0.04 "

Sulphur 0.087 "

Red Hematite. (High phosphorus.) Torbrook, N. S. :

Silica 13.00

Ferric Oxide 77.60

Alumina 4.28

Manganese Dioxide . . 0.38

Calcium Oxide 1.90

Maonesium Oxide . . 0.35

p. c.

Titanium Trace.

Barium Oxide "

Volatile matter Nil.

Carbonic Oxide "

Phosphorus 1.21 p. c.

Lirnonite Iron ore, washed sample, from East River, Pictou.

Average analysis :

Comb, water 12.40 p. c.

Silica 11.25 "

Ferric Oxides 73.23 "

Alumina 1.49 "

Lime.. . 0.39 "

Magnesia 0.16 p. c-

Manganese 0.33 "

Phosphorus 0.032 "

Sulphur 0.084 "

Metallic Iron.. ..51.26 "

264 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION.— GILPIN.

Limonite — Lump sample from East River:

Comb, water 10.50 p. c.

Silica 8.18 "

Ferric Oxide 76.30 "

Alumina 210 "

Lime . . 0.31 "

Magnesia 0.21 p. c.

Manganese 1.25 "

Phosphorus 0.02 "

Sulphur .... 0.06 "

Metallic Iron.. ..53.41 "

Limestone, Springville,

Moisture 0.20

Silica 3.10

Alumina 0.24

Ferric Oxide 1.86

Calcium Carbonate. .88.94

Fluxes.
Pictou Co.
p. c.

Average analysis :

p. c.

No. 1 Foundry.

Silicon 2.85

Manganese 0.54

Phosphorus 0.90 "

Sulphur 0.01 "

Gr. Carbon 3.70 "

Comb Carbon 0.16 "

Copper. Nil.

Arsenic "

Barium Trace.

Hematite Iron.

Silicon 1.00 p. c.

Manganese 0.95 "

Phosphorus 008 "

Sulphur 0.08 "

Gr. Carbon 3.12 "

Comb. Carbon 0.70 "

Copper Nil.

Arsenic "

Barium . . . . Trace.

Magnesium Carbonate 4.90
Calcium Sulphate . .. 0.20

Organic matter —

Lime ) ( 49.81

Magnesia jAvailable\ 2.35

Pig Iron.

Basic Iron.

Silicon 0.40

Manganese , . . . 0.75

Phosphorus 1.00

Sulphur 0.03

Graphitic Carbon 3.27

Combined Carbon . .. 0.63

Copper Nil.

Arsenic "

Barium.. ..Trace.

p.c.

p. c.

No. 3 Foundry.

Silicon 2.10 p.

Manganese 0.60 '

Phosphorus 0.91 '

Sulphur 0.02 '

Gr. Carbon 2.50 '

Comb. Carbon 0.60 '

Copper Nil.

Arsenic "

Barium . . . Trace.

c.

No. 2 Foundry.

Silicon 2.50 p. c.

Manganese 0.55 "

Phosphorus 0.90 "

Sulphur 0.012 "

Gr. Carbon 3.20 "

Comb Carbon 030 "

Copper Nil.

Arsenic "

Barium Trace.

No. 4 Foundry.

Silicon 1.75 p. c.

Manganese 0.65 "

Phosphorus 0.92 "

Sulphur 0.03 "

Gr. Carbon 2.00 "

Comb. Carbon 0.90 "

Copper Nil.

Arsenic "

Barium.. ..Trace.

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION.— GILPIN. 265

Fuels.

48 hour (Retort) Coke. Made in " Bernard's " Coke oven, from
washed coal at Ferrona, Iron Works.

Moisture 0.40 p. c.

Vol. Comb Matter... 1.60 "
Fixed Carbon (by

Ash 7.22 p. c.

Sulphur 1.15 "

Phosphor as 0.01 "

diff.) 90.78

Slate, etc., from coal washer from coal used in making coke.

Moisture 1.00 p. c.

Vol. Comb. Matter.. .18.14 "

Ash 76.31 p. c.

Sulphur 6.23 "

Fixed Carbon 4.55 '

Washed coal used for making coke.

Moisture 1.07 p. c.

Vol. Comb. Matter. ..31.69 •'
Fixed Carbon .. ..63.14 "

Ash 4.17 p. c.

Sulphur 1.46 "

Culm Coal, one-third Springhill and two-thirds Reserve

Coal, (C. B.)

Moisture 0.82 p. c.

Vol Comb. Matter... 28.31 "
Fixed Carbon.. ..59.87 "

Ash 11.06 p. c.

Sulphur 2.12 "

Another interesting exhibit is that of the Mineral Products
Company, of Bridgeville, Pictou County. These people leased
the Charcoal furnace at that place for the manufacture of ferro-
manganese. The manganese was obtained from a deposit in
New Brunswick. This deposit consisted of bog ore, which was
dried and made into briquettes. It was smelted with the
limonite ore of the East River, and made a product of good
marketable value. The expense incurred in handling the man-
ganese ore and its freight has b'een assigned as the cause of the
abandonment of the enterprise. I regret to say that, owing to
the absence of the manager from the Province, I am unable to
give analyses of the raw materials and of the product.

In this district, in addition to the limonite ores, there are
large deposits of specular, red hematite, spaltic and clay ironstone
ores, which will no doubt before long be mined for the smelter.

266 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

In Cape Breton as yet there has been little iron ore
development. An extensive and valuable deposit at Gillis Lake,
is known as the Moseley mine.

The following set of analyses will tend to show its quality :
1. 2. 3. 4.

Iron C3.45 63.20 58.90 64.10

Silica 6.96 6.42 13.38 4.71

Phosphorus 0212 .014 .0257 nil.

Sulphur 0631 .0604 .0041 .0027

The bed, which has been traced for several miles, averages
about seven feet in thickness, and is associated with a crystalline
limestone, presumably of laurentian age. It is within about
four miles of deep water, and about eight miles from the
Intercolonial Railway.

In the devonian strata in the neighborhood of St. Peter's,
Richmond County, there are a number of deposits of specular
ore, similar to those found in strata of the same age in Guysboro
County.

The following analysis from the Micmac mine, about six
miles from St. Peter's, will serve to show the class of this ore:

Iron 68.18 Sulphur 15

Silica 2.48 | Phosphorus 05

Prospecting work at Whycocomagh, Cape Breton, has shown
the presence of a number of beds of magnetite and red hematite
up to twelve feet in thickness. Judging from surface indications,
there is an extensive iron field in this locality. Analyses show
metallic iron, from 49.13 to 63.20 ; Silica, up to 21.90 ; Sulphur,
trace to .55 ; Phosphorus, trace to .49.

Very extensive deposits of a similar character occur at
Nictaux, Annapolis Co., and are represented by a number of
samples. A deposit of red hematite, at Torbrook, in this
district, about six feet thick, was worked for some years, until
the Londonderry Furnaces were closed. A description of the
ores and analyses will be found in a paper on the Iron Ores of
Nictaux read by me before this Institute a few years ago.

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 267

Other localities which have been drawn upon for samples
are briefly as follows : Mira River, Cape Breton County, where
there are several beds of red hematite from three to six feet
thick.

Extensive deposits of magnetite and red hematite are
reported from George's River, in the same county. As yet the
explorations in these deposits have not been carried to any
extent. The following analysis by F. A. Mason, of Halifax, will
show that rich ore exists :

Metallic Iron 58.56

Manganese 1.98

Silica . , 5.79

Phosphorus 019

Sulphur 013

Titanium . .95

Londonderry, Colchester County, has for many years
yielded limonite ore of very high quality. A very elaborate
report and analyses were made some years ago by Dr. Selwyn,
and published in the report of the Canadian Geological Survey
Samples of the varieties of limonite and specular ores, and of
the carbonates, etc., worked here have been forwarded.

Quarries.

These notes refer to the Quarries in the northern part of
Cumberland County, which furnished samples of their pro-
ducts.

Quarries at River John. — No. 1. This is the only quarry at
present working in this district. It is situated at River John
and about a quarter of a mile from I. C. Railway, and con-
nected therewith by a good road.

It contains a reddish sandstone of fine grain, and has been
opened for about 350 feet in length, exposing a face so far of
about 14 feet. Stones are cut here up to about 33 cubic feet,
though almost any size could be obtained with larger machinery.
The seams are very regular in formation and lie nearly
horizontal. Worked for nearly a year.

No. 2. Adjoins the first quarry, and resembles it in general
•characteristics, though the stone is of a lighter colour.

268 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

No. 3. About a quarter of a mile up the river from No. 1,
was worked for six years intermittently. Many grindstones
were cut in this quarry, which yields a firm grey sandstone.

Wallace Harbor. — The Wallace Grey Stone Co., Wallace
Harbor, John Stevenson, Manager. This quarry is situated at
Wallace, and a great part of the stone is shipped by water,
though it is connected with the I. C. Railway by a good waggon
road about two miles long.

Though the stone is carried to the wharf by horses, a
tramway (gravity) could easily be operated, the quarry being
situated on a hill. The distance is about a quarter of a mile*
This quarry has been worked for a period of nearly thirty years
off and on, and is still only partially developed. It produces an
average of about 1,500 tons (" quarry ") a year, of fine grained
sandstone in two colours — " olive " and " bluish."

Blocks up to ten tons in weight and measuring fourteen feet
are cut, and the greater part of the stone is shipped to the Bos-
ton and New York markets. The poorer stone is sold locally.

Wallace Harbor.— The G. P. Sherwood Co., T. C. Dobson,
Manager. This quarry adjoins the quarry of the Wallace Grey
Stone Co., and the same remarks apply to it also.

At Wallace Bridge the famous Battye Quarry is being-
operated by George Battye. Stone has been taken from this
quarry since the year 1809, and there is still much in sight. It
is situated on the I. C. Railway and the Wallace River. Chief
market New York and Eastern States' cities. Blocks up to ten
tons are cut. At present 25 feet of rock is shown in the face,
with seams measuring from 2 to 6 feet in thickness. This is
composed of a very uniform and beautiful sandstone, suitable
for monumental as well as construction work.

On the River Philip, about five miles from Pugwash, is
situated the quarry of McLeod & Embree. It produces a
handsome red sandstone contained in seams from 2 to 7 feet, and
shows altogether VQ feet in the face. Blocks cut to 8 tons. Has
been operated for upwards of 30 years and usually ships to the

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 269

States. This year all the stone quarried is being supplied to
Toronto.

The Atlantic Stone Co., Limited, R. S. Hibbard, Manager. —
The quarry of this company is situated on Cumberland Basin,
3£ miles from Joggins Station, on the Canada Coal Company's
Railway, and 16 miles from I. C. Railway. The stone is shipped
chiefly by water, in vessels up to about 300 tons. The market
is mainly in the New England States, though the stones are sent
much further west occasionally. 2,000 tons shipped per year.
This quarry produces a very superior form of grindstone.
Stones from half an inch to 14 inches thick, arid up to 7 feet in
diameter are cut, though almost any size that could be handled
are procurable.

At Lime Rock, West River, Pictou Co , are sandstone quarries
yielding good building stone. Samples are shown by Mr. J. H.
Fraser. In the Merigomish district the strata lying above the
productive measures yield grindstones and fair qualities of
freestone.

The owners of quarries of granite, syenite, etc., neglected to
respond to the invitation of the Department to send samples.
The demand for granite is limited practically to the City of
Halifax, where this stone is used to some extent for foundations,
trimmings, and in the fortifications. The present available
sources of supply are Shelburne, and the North-West Arm, near
Halifax. At Nictaux there are blue varieties of granite of very
fine quality, and in Cape Breton there are syenites, gneisses,
etc., available for decorative and other purposes.

An interesting deposit of sandstones yielding building
stone, grindstones, whetstone, etc., is found at Lower Cove,
Joggins, Cumberland County. Samples of the raw and
manufactured article are contributed by Mr. R. L. Hibbard.
These quarries have been worked continuously for many years,
and an extended market has been found for the grindstones.
The quarry yields stones one-half to seven inches in thickness
and up to seven feet in diameter. The superior quality of these

270 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

stones has secured a reputation for the district second only to
that acquired by quarries more favorably situated in large
industrial districts. Similar deposits are known at several
places along the Joggins shore.

Marbles are represented by a sample from Escasoni, Cape
Breton County, contributed by Mr E. T. Bown.

The following list shows the building store quarries from
which samples have been secured for the Exhibition : — A. Allen,
W. W. Gannon, River John ; T. C. Dobson, Wallace ; McLeod &
Embree, Pugwash ; Wallace Graystone Company, Wallace; A.
McPherson, Eight Mile Brook; R. L. Hibbard, Joggins; J. H.
Fraser, Limebrook.

Barytes.

This mineral is known at Five Islands, Stewiacke, River
John, and at Lake Ainslie, in Cape Breton. At present a few
hundred tons are annually mined at the last-named locality.
The ore occurs in a vein about nine feet wide, and is extracted
through a tunnel. It is of excellent color and quality, and low
in carbonate of lime Samples of this mineral are exhibited by
Messrs. Henderson & Potts.

Gypsum.

This mineral is found in great abundance in Nova Scotia.
It is presented as hard and soft gypsum in every variety of
texture and purity. The annual production is about 150,000
tons, principally from Hants County. Small amounts are
quarried at other localities for local use, as an ingredient for
fertilizers, etc. The exports from Hants County go to the
United States, and a considerable shipment is made from
Victoria County to Montreal and Philadelphia. Samples are
exhibited from Windsor, Wentworth, St. Croix, Newport and
other localities, in Hants County. Selenite is also shown from
Enfield, in the same county, which has yielded a few hundred
tons.

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION.— GILPIN. 271

The Windsor Plaster Company also show the following
products : (1) "Calcined plaster " used for putty coating, finishing,
etc. (2) " Selenite cement " used for under coating, etc. (3)
" Land plaster," ground gypsum, used for fertiliser manufacture,
stables, etc.

Tripolite.

Of late years considerable attention has been paid to the
infusorial earth deposits of the province, and to deposits of very
fine grained quartz available for polishing, insulating, and other
purposes.

Among the localities represented may be mentioned River
Dennys, Inverness Co., where the Cairo Polishing Company are
doing development work ; Bass River, Colchester Co., where
extensive works are curried on, the shipments for the last fiscal
year amounting to 21 tons. The Bass River Infusorial Earth
Company procure the raw material from Bass River Lake,
where it is found in a bed about three feet thick, and purify it
in a large plant, which has been in operation for over two
years.

The Victoria Tripolite Company have commenced extensive
operations near St. Ann's, in Victoria County, and are making a
specialty of insulating material.

Molybdenite occurs at many points in the Province, but as
yet deposits of workable size have not been reported. New
Ross, Lunenburg, yields very large and fine crystals. A sample
is shown from this district. A few tons have been shipped
from Gabarus, Cape Breton County. From the Margaree
district, Inverness County, are shown samples of ores of
Tungsten, fuller reference to which will be found in these
Transactions.

Antimony. The sulphide of this metal was some years ago
worked intermittently at West Gore, Hants Co. The Messrs.
McNeil, of Halifax, have lately given some attention to the
district, and have proved three leads. The ore carries consider-

272 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

able gold values, and there appears to be some difficulty found
in extracting it. Assays show the following values :

I. II.

Antimony 60.29 p. c. 43.73 p. c.

Gold 2.06 oz. per ton 2,000 Ibs. 2.48 oz.

Silver .10"

Fire clays occur at several places in the coal measures, and
other horizons of the carboniferous, and are apparently valuable.
The manufactnre of fire brick was carried on for some time at
Stellarton, but is, I believe, at present discontinued.

Allied economically to the fire clay is a sample of felsite from
Coxheath, Cape Breton Co , which has been proven experiment-
ally to make a good fire brick when mixed with about one per
cent, of lime.

Samples of coal oil shale and their products of parafine, wax,
illuminating and lubricating oil are shown from East Bay,
Cape Breton Co., where a plant is being erected to treat them on
a large scale. These shales occur in lower carboniferous con-
glomerates and sandstones near their junction with laurentian
measures.

XL— Ox THE VARIATION OF THE RIGIDITY OF VULCANIZED
INDIA-RUBBER, WITH TENSION.— BY THOMAS C. HEBB,
B. A., Dalhousie College, Halifax, N. S.

f Communicated by Prof J. G. MacGregor on the lUfi May, 1900.)

Mr. W. A. Macdonald* found in the course of experiments
conducted in Dalhousie College last year, that the rigidity
(kinetically determined) of a fresh or partially fatigued vulcan-
ized india-rubber cord, when subjected to increasing tension, at
first diminished, then reached a minimum, and finally increased ;
while in the case of a sufficiently fatigued cord, the minimum
point seemed to disappear. But owing to a doubtful mode of
gripping the ends of the cord, his experiments were not
conclusive.

At Prof. MacGregor's suggestion, I have made the experi-
ments described below with the object of settling this question
and finding out what I could about the phenomenon.

For this purpose I have (1) used the method of gripping the
cord which Mr. Macdonald employed in his last series of experi-
ments in order to exclude the source of error affecting his earlier
observations ; (2) applied the static as well as the kinetic method
of determining the rigidity ; (3) made experiments both on the
cord which Mr. Macdonald used and on fresh cords, and (4)
adopted modes of procedure, suggested by the results of my
earlier experiments, with respect to the time between the
loading of the cord and the determination of the rigidity, and
to the rnagnitn.de of the angle of torsion.

The cords used were cylindrical in section, about forty
inches in length, and one-third of an inch in diameter. The grips
consisted of pieces of brass tubing of the same diameter (inside)
as the cord, in one end of each of which three longitudinal cuts
had been made. The ends of the rubber cord were drawn into

* Proc, N. S. Inst. Set., 10, 28, 1898-99.
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Set., VOL. X. TRANS.— R.

(273)

274 ON THE RIGIDITY

the cut ends of these brass tubes and firmly fastened there by-
wire twisted around the tubes outside. Cords of considerable
length were used, in order that the eHect of the gripping at the
ends might be inappreciable.

The cords were suspended from an iron bracket, moveable
on vertical guide-posts which were attached to the wall of the
laboratory, and capable of being firmly clamped to these posts
at any desired elevation.

The upper brass tube passed through a wooden socket
firmly fixed in the bracket. It was held in this socket by
friction, and while it could be rotated by hand, there was no
danger of its shifting its position otherwise. The brass tube
projected above the socket, and carried a wooden disk, on which
was a divided circle. A pointer fixed over the disk indicated
the number of degrees through which the cord was twisted.
Thus any desired torsion could be given to the cord at the
upper end.

The brass tube at the lower end of the cord carried, in a
plane perpendicular to it, a light wooden arm for the application
of the twisting force in the static experiments, and which
served as a platform for the stretching weights.

These weights were square leaden plates of about four
inches' edge. They had holes of the size of the brass tube cut
in the centres, and slits leading to them from the edge, so that
they could be easily put on and taken off.

In applying the kinetic method, the cord was kept fixed at
the top, while the lower end, with the plates attached, was
twisted through some angle and then let go. The time of
oscillation was then determined by means of a stop-watch.
This datum, together with other data easily obtained, viz.,
length and diameter of cord, and moment of inertia of plates,,
gave the means of finding the rigidity. In determining the
time of oscillation, it was soon noticed that it varied with the
angle through which the cord was twisted. Hence the cord

o «*

was always twisted through known angles. In the static, as in

OF VULCANIZED INDIA-RUBBER.— HEBB. £75

the kinetic method, the rigidity varied with the angle, and
here, also, definite angles of twist were always used.

In using the static method, the twisting force was applied at
the end of the arm carried by the lower brass tube. In the
earlier experiments it was applied by means of a thin silk
string, horizontal and perpendicjlar to the arm, which passed
over the pulley of a set of frictionless wheels taken from an.
Attwood's machine, and carried a small plummet of known,
weight. The plummet was so light that the cord was not
appreciably deflected from the vertical. In order to make the
friction as nearly as possible the same in all experiments with
the same plummet, I observed the position of the end of the
aim before the plummet was attached or the cord twisted,
and then having attached the plummet, I determined the
amount of twist to be applied in order that the arm might
make small oscillations about this position.

Even with this procedure, however, successive observations
showed a lack of agreement which was traceable to friction.
Hence, in the later experiments, I used Mallock's* method of
applying the force, which I found not only to" give more con-
sistent results, but to occupy less time. A small plummet of
known weight which was suspended from the end of the arm,
by a tine silk string was drawn aside by a second silk string,
which was kept horizontal, the two strings being in a plane
perpendicular to the arm. The distance to which it was drawn
aside was determined by the aid of a second plummet hanging
freely from the end of the arm. The horizontal force at the-
end of the arm was then equal to the weight of the first
plummet multiplied by the ratio of the distance to which it was
drawn aside to the distance below the end of the arm of the
point of junction of the two strings. These distances,
together with the length of the arm, could be measured with
consifieiable accuracy, and thus the torque to which the cord
was subjected determined.

• Proc. R. S. L., 46, 233, 1889.

276 ON THE RIGIDITY

In most of the measurements made, the quantity under con-
sideration was determined as a mean of several observations.

Lengths were measured by means of a beam compass reading
to .01 inch. The limit of error of a mean value was found by
comparing a number of such mean values with their mean, the
greatest divergence being taken to be the possible error of a
determination. It was found to be different according as it was
the length of the cord or of a side of the Mai lock triangle or
of the arm, that was determined. In the two former cases the
greatest divergence from the mean was .01 in., in the latter
.005 in.

The diameters of the cords, which were approximately
cylindrical, were found by means of a screw-gauge reading
to .001 inch. The possible error was found by the above
method to be .0005 in. Owing to the difference in diameter at
different parts of the cord, it was found necessary to have
marks on the cord, at which the measurements were always
made.

The error that might be made in determining the angle of
twist in the static method was estimated to be about a quarter
of a degree.

The weight of the small plummet used in twisting the cord
was found by means of a balance weighing to .001 grm. The
method of weighing was that of substitution, and the limit of
error was estimated to be .0005 grm.

The time of oscillation was found by means of a stop-watch
divided into fifth-seconds, but capable of estimation to .1 sec.
The limit of error was determined in the same way as in the
case of length, and found to be about .04 sec.

In the static method the formula used for the calculation of
the rigidity was the following : n = 2 Tl/^r *o in which T is the
torque in Ib.-inch units, applied at lower end of cord, I is length
of cord in inches, r is radius of cord in inches, and f> is angle
twisted through measured in radians. For the kinetic method
the formula : n = S^lI/t2r*g was used, in which I and r were

OF VULCANIZED INDIA-RUBBER — HEBB. 277

expressed as in the previous formula, / is moment of inertia
expressed in Ibs. and inches, and t is the time of a complete
oscillation expressed in seconds. The moment of inertia of the
plates used in stretching the cords was found by means of the
following formula : I = M (a2 — 62) /1 2, in which M is mass of
plates in Ibs. and a and 6 are the lengths of sides of plates in
inches. The moment of inertia of the brass tube at the end of
the cord was found to be negligible.

The values of the rigidity determined as above would thus
be expressed in inch-lb-second gravitational units.

The effects on the calculated values of the rigidity, of the
above possible errors of the component observations, were
calculated in a few cases, and were found in the static observa-
tions to be between 1.5% and 2.5%, and in the case of the
kinetic observations to be between 2.5^/ and 3°/.

My first observations were made on the cord which Mr.
Macdonald had previously used. He had subjected it to repeated
and prolonged extension, and found that the minimum point
which in the earlier series of observations seemed to characterize
the variation of its rigidity with tension finally disappeared.
Since the time of his experiments it had lain for six months
unstretched.

The static method was the only one employed, the torque
being applied by means of the frictionless wheels. The proce-
dure was as follows : First a weight was hung on the cord, and
left there for at least a day. Then its rigidity was determined,
after which the load was increased and the cord left
for another day. On the third day the same process was
repeated, and so on. It was not until later on in the
experiments that the importance of allowing the loads to act
for corresponding intervals of time was realized. The following
table «rives the results obtained :

278

ON THE RIGIDITY

TABLE I.

DATE.

Temp.

re.)

Length,
(inches )

Diam.
(inches).

Angle
of
Torsion,
(degrees.)

Torque
(Ib -in.)

Rigidity.

Load
lib")

Oct. 20..

1.611

" 23 .

17.5

46.82

.322

917

.0209

58

it

" 24 .

17.4

49.68

.313

1013

.0209

62

2.150

" 20..

21.4

52.98

.303

625

.0117

69

2.678

" 26 .

20.5

53.07

.302

1093

.0209

71

"

" 27..

19.5

56.96

.291

1235

.0209

78

3.216

" 30..

18.5

57.28

.291

713

.0117

77

'•

" 30.

18.8

57.28

.291

1256

.0209

78

•'

" 31.

17.8

61.82

.278

1373

.0209

92

3.758

Nov. 1

19.5

66.88

.270

1545

.0209

99

4.289

Although the above table shows considerable disagreement
"between successive observations, due probably in some measure
to friction, to difference of temperature slightly, and to
inequality in the times of application of the loads, the values
obtained clearly increase with the tension, and give no indication
of a minimum point. This result is in agreement with Mr. Mac-
donald's last series of observations, and seems to show that the
rigidity increases steadily with tension in a cord which has
been subjected to sufficiently prolonged extension, provided at
least a day is allowed to intervene between increasing the ten-
sion and determining the rigidity.

The next observations were made on a fresh cord of a
different rubber from Mr. Macdonald's. It was harder, and
contained 60 per cent of pure rubber, according to the state-
ment of the manufacturer. A freshly-cut surface showed a
dark gray colour.

All the series of observations given below were made on
rubber cords of this kind.

Both static and kinetic methods were applied, very little
time being allowed to intervene between the two determina-
tions, in order that the cord might be in the same state, as

OF VULCANIZED INDIA-RUBBER. — HERB.

279

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280 ON THE RFGIDITY

nearly as possible, in both. In the static determinations of this,
and of all subsequent series, Mallock's mode of applying the
twisting force was used. The kinetic observations were made
with different amplitudes of angle of oscillation, and the static
observations with different angles of torsion. The general
procedure was as in the former case. Table II contains the
results.

In none of the columns of rigidity values of this table
do the values found indicate any simple law of variation with
tension. They do not even increase or decrease continuously as
tension increases, but appear to oscillate between increment and
decrement, and by amounts which are not accounted for merely
by errors of observation. The variations cannot be accounted
for even by errors of method, because in general both methods
give similar variations. They may, perhaps, be partially at
least, accounted for by defective procedure. Nevertheless, two
conclusions may be drawn : — (1) The smaller the angle of
torsion in the static determinations and the angle of oscillation
in the kinetic determinations, the greater is the value of the
rigidity obtained. Mallock drew the same conclusion as to
kinetic rigidities from his observations. (2) The kinetic
determinations show a point of minimum rigidity as tension
increases ; but the static determinations are not sufficiently
exact to be decisive as to whether or not the existence of this
point is independent of the method. Thus the kinetic observa-
tions bear out Mr. Macdonald's result that the kinetic rigidity
exhibits the minimum puint in the case of a cord previously
unstretched.

The cord used in the last experiment being now in a state of
tension, was experimented on in a reverse manner. It was left
a day under the full load, when its rigidity was determined.
Then one of the weights was taken off, and it was again left for
a day under the diminished load, and its rigidity determined >
and so on.

OF VULCANIZED INDIA-RUBBER. — HEBB.

281

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282 ON THE RIGIDITY

Table II T gives the results of the observations. There is a
•greater uniformity in the way in which the values of the
rigidity vary with change of tension than there was when the
tension was increasing, which may be ascribed in part to the
somewhat greater uniformity of the time intervals between
changing the load and determining the rigidity, and in part to a
greater permanence of internal structure produced by the
previous prolonged extension. It will be noticed (i) that the
values of the rigidity run through pretty much the same
•course as they did in Table II, when the tension was being
increased, though the final values of Table III, in the case of
the static rigidity for the greater angle of torsion and in the
case of the kinetic rigidity for the greater angles of oscillation,
are less than the initial values of Table II, and (2) that the
minimum point is given not only by the kinetic results for the
amplitudes 180° and 90°, but also by the static results, which
shows that the occuri'ence of the minimum point is not due to
a defect peculiar to the kinetic method.

To see what effect the time interval between the putting on
of the load and the finding of the rigidity, had on the rigidity, a
new cord was experimented with in the following manner: — A
weight having been put on the cord, the rigidity was deter-
mined both immediately afterwards and after the lapse of certain
intervals of time. Then nnother weight was added and the pre-
vious process repeated. Owing to lack of time, only the kinetic
method was used. Table IV gives the results.

OF VULCANIZED INDIA-RUBBER. — HEBB.

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284 ON THE RIGIDITY

It appears from these results that increase of tension in a
cord which has been under tension for some time immediately
decreases the rigidity, but that if the cord is left under the
tension the rigidity increases again. According to the longest
series of observations made, the rigidity of a cord thus left
under a constant load seerns to pass through a maximum point*
but that is perhaps doubtful.

Since the immediate effect of increase of tension is to
decrease the rigidity, it might be expected that the twisting of
the cord in the determination of its rigidity would increase the
rigidity, and that consequently the greater the angle the cord is
twisted through the smaller will be the value of the rigidity
found. This expectation is borne out by the results as given
in the tables. It was also noticed when taking several obser-
vations of the time of oscillation in order to get a mean value,
that the first values were always the smallest, a fact which
seems to indicate that the rigidity decreases with strain.

From the preceding it is easily seen that the procedure
followed above was not such as could give a simple relation
between the observed rigidity and the tension. For since the
rigidity of a cord under tension varies with time, the experiments
must always be made, if they are to give a definite result, when
the rigidity is at a minimum or a maximum. Now the minimum
value of the rigidity of a cord under tension appears from the
last table to be immediately after the tension is applied. If,
however, we decide to determine the rigidity when at its
minimum, not only must the rigidity be found immediately
after the tension is applied, but the rigidity of the cord due to
its previous tension must not have had time to change from the
minimum value. Hence the procedure should be as follows :
Load the cord and find the rigidity immediately, then increase
the load and find the rigidity immediately, and so on, the whole
series of experiments being carried out in the shortest time
possible.

With a new cord of the same kind as before, this pro-
cedure was followed, and the results of Table V obtained.

OF VULCANIZED INDIA-RUBBER.— IIEBB.

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28G RIGIDITY OF VULCANIZED INDIA-RUBBER. — HEBB.

There is some lack of regularity in the results of this table-
so far as the determinations with smaller loads are concerned,
but the divergence from regularity is probably within the limit
of error of the observations. The results obtained with the
larger loads exhibit much greater regularity than the results of
the previous series of observations. The table shows that if the
tension be increased as rapidly as is consistent with the deter-
mination of the rigidity at successive stages, the rigidity
increases with the tension continuously, at first comparatively
slowly, and finally with greater rapidity.

The comparatively slow increment of the rigidity under the
smaller loads would suggest the possibility that the rigidity
may not appreciably vary with the tension at all under the
circumstances aimed at in the experiments. For in the light of
the results of Table IV the larger values of the rigidity under
the greater loads may be due entirely to the time effect of
the previous increments of load.

XII. — RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES IN KINGS COUNTY,
N. S. — BY PROF. E. HAYCOCK, Acadia College, Wolfville,

N.S.

(Read 9th April, 1900.)

It WHS my privilege last Autumn to make a hasty survey
of that part of Kings County lying north of Canning, including
Cape Blomidon. Several interesting problems were suggested
during this trip, which I hope to follow up in the future.

I had in view two definite aims in visiting this region. The
first was to look for the contact of the basaltic trap of the North
Mountain with the underlying north-westerly dipping sandstone,
and I hoped to find this contact laid bare and accessible to
observation in the natural cross section formed by the line of
cliffs which extends westwardly from Cape Blomidon to Cape
Split. This line of cliff's was carefully examined from Amethyst
Cove, where the trap extends beneath the sea, eastward to Cape
Blomidon where red sandstone cut into many fantastic shapes
by wind and water rises nearly two hundred feet and is sur-
mounted by a sheet of black basaltic trap some two hundred
feet in thickness ending abruptly in vertical cliffs behind and
above the towers and bastions of the sandstone. Although the
place where the contact of the two formations reaches the beach
is easily determinable, and is marked by a long sloping line of
springs, the talus of loose blocks and debris from the trap above
is so great that at no point was the actual contact visible or
accessible, so that the problem to be settled, whether the trap
was poured out on a smooth sea bottom or on an old eroded
land surface, remained undetermined.

The second object of the trip was to examine the coast
section south-west from Scot's Bay. In the Transactions of the
Institute for 1893-9*, (Volume VIII, pp. 416,419,) Mr. R. W.
Ells mentions the occurrence, in this vicinity, of a calcareous

(287)

288

RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES

NORTH-EAST PAKT OF KINGS COUNTY, N. S.

Scale : About four miles to one inch. Vertical scale 2400 feet to one inch. Depth of
water in fathoms.— For Mines, read : Basin of Mines.

IN KINGS COUNTY, N. S.— HAYCOCK. 289

sedimentary formation overlying the trap of the North Mountain
which was hurriedly observed by him in 1876. He states that
no fossil-* had been found in these rocks, but concludes from the
superposition of this formation on the trap that it is of more
recent date. He does not hint at its probable age further than
the above, but remarks that Prof. Bailey has reported rocks of
somewhat similar nature in association with the trap of Bigbv
Neck. Having been unable to find the statement in any of
Prof. Bailey's writings accessible to me I made inquiry of him
a.nd found that he did not know of such a formation, or of
having made the statement ascribed to him. This being the state
of knowledge in regard to these rocks I hoped to find some-
thing that would throw light upon their age and possibly reveal
a part of the geological history of this region during that long
period so blank in records in Eastern Canada and New England,
from early Mesozoic to the Glacial period.

In pursuit of this purpose I examined the shore south-west
from Scot's Bay and was pleased to find for about four miles
occasional good exposures in the coves of the formation men-
tioned by Dr. Ells, until Ira Woodvvorth Bay was reached. This
is the exposure mentioned by him and was the most westerly
outcrop seen. Beyond this according to local authority none of
the rocks mentioned -are found. Considerable value can be
ascribed to the local accounts in this case owing to the search
for amethysts which occur in cavities of masses of red jasper in
some of the layers of limestone, and are collected by the inhabi-
tants to supply the tourist trade. Only a hurried survey was
made on thin occasion and but one fossil was found, which, tho'
poorly preserved, was plainly the coiled shell of a gastropod.
The general appearance of the strata, however, led me to hope
that better results would repay a careful and systematic
search.

On November Gth, I left Wolville for a further study of this
interesting formation. The results of my observations on this
trip I will endeavor to put before you.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Scr., VOL. X. TRANS.-S.

290

RECORDS OF TOST-TRIASSIC CHANGES

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The general topography of the-
region alluded to is probaMy familiar
to you all, as well as the common
explanation of the geological sti ucture,.
which appears to be, in the main, cor-
rect. From the parallel east-north-
east and west-south-west ridges of
slate and sandstone of later Palaeozoic
age, which extend along the south-
east side of the Cornwall?* Valley, a
slightly undulating rich farming coun-
try stretches away to the north-west
for* some ten miles to the abrupt
escarpment bounding the valley on its.
opposite side. The principal topo-
graphic features of this beautiful
valley are three low ridges parallel in
general trend with the older hills

o

before mentioned and separated from
each other and from the bounding
ridges by long tongues of fertile
dyked marsh in the basins of the
Cornwallis, Canard, Habitant, and
Pet eau rivers. The existence of these
ridges seems to be due to the occur-
rence of coarser harder groups of
strata in the underlying red sandstone
which dips with considerable unifor-
mity and regularity to the north-west
at angles of from eight to ten degrees.
The ridges correspond with the strike
of the formation and the valley topo-
graphy is apparently one of erosion.
The wearing out of the valleys took
place when the country stood at a
higher level, and the marsh deposits of

IN KINGS COUNTY, N. S. — HAYCOCK. 291

recent times now extend for several miles up the drowned
valleys. That this topography is ptobably Pre-glacial is indi-
cated by the occurence of a layer of Boulder clay of variable
thickness mantling both hill and valley. The changes in topo-
graphy since the disappearance of the ice of the Glacial period are
exceedingly slight in this region and are confined almost wholly
to the deposition, during a subsequent slight submergence, of
some banks of stratified sand and gravel, some wearing away
and retreat of the coast cliffs, and the tilling-in of the river
basins mentioned.

The North Mountain has the prevailing trend of the other
ridges, and would appear to owe its present elevation above the
valley to the harder and more resistant character of the sheet of
volcanic rock, which protects the underlying soft sandstone from
the action of the eroding agents that have worked with such
effect upon the unprotected sandstone to the south-east. The
junction of the sandstone and trap is some two hundred feet or
more above the floor of tne valley, and the conviction is forced
upon the observer, when looking south-eastward from this point-
that not only the smaller valleys mentioned but also the whole
broad depression he has crossed has been worn out of the soft
red sandstone, and that excepting minor inequalities of surface
the present relief of this part of the Province is wholly due to
differential resistance of the underlying rocks.

The trap sheet retreats more rapidly along its edges than
the sandstone owing to frostwork and its vertical jointing, and
when they both appear in the face of the escarpment the over-
lying trap is never overhanging but always well behind the
sandstone which generally forms a steep slope upon which the
fragments of the trap are precipitated, forming broken masses
which conceal the contact of the two formations. Because of
the soft nature of the sandstone and its calcareous cement it
weathers much more rapidly than the trap wherever exposed to
the action of rain and wind, but since the jointing is not well
developed it is not affected to a very great extent by the action
of the frost.

292 RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES

From the top of the divide, which is near the edge of the
escarpment, the surface slopes away to the north-west at angles
of from eight to ten degrees. This is about the inclination of
the beds of trap rock, and the present surface therefore corres-
ponds in general inclination with the original surface of the
formation. This ridge is cut by transverse valleys, the bottoms
occupied by small brooks which seem altogether too small to
have excavated the trenches they now occupy. A bank of
boulder clay containing glaciated pebbles was seen resting in
the bottom of a ravine on the floor of trap rock over which one
of the larger brooks is now flowing. If these depressions were
filled with the boulder clay of the Glacial period, the work since
that time has been wholly expended in clearing out their ancient
channels and the brooks have but just begun to renew their
excavation on the Trap rock.

The four miles of coast examined form the south-east shore
of Scot's Bay, and from Ira Woodworth Bay, Cape Split, the
terminating point of the huge wall of rock forming the opposite
side of Scot's Bay, bears nearly north. At this point the shore
swings from south-west to about west-south-west which is the

O

general trend of the coast for some sixty or seventy miles. With
the exception of the Arnygdaloidal character of the Trap, the
shore below high water mark is not unlike many other portions
of this Bay of Fundy coast. Beachy coves are more common
because of the relatively sheltered position, but between these
the black rough rocks slope seaward in sheets and reefs with
very few outlying rocks and ledges. The sea at high tide washes
the bases of a line of low cliffs some twenty to forty feet high,
except in the deeper coves, where a narrow strip of gravel beach
is left uncovered by all but the highest tides. Several brooks
empty in small coves within the area examined and in their
beds the extent of the shore formations landward can be
traced.

IN KINGS COUNTY, N. S. — HAYCOCK.

293

Diagram 2.— Section in Ira Woodworth Bay.

In the shore cliffs four distinct formations are revealed and
in the ascending order they occur as follows : —

1. Trap Rock.

2. Sandstone and Impure limestone, 20-30 feet.

3. Boulder clay with striated stones in irregular masses,
20-30 feet.

4. StratiHed sand and gravel 4 to 6 feet in thickness about
thirty feet above high water mark.

Trap Rock.

The Basaltic Trap is, in this locality mainly amygdaloidal
and occurs in sheets varying from two or three to many feet in
thickness. The strike corresponds to the general trend of the
shore. In many places the beds are intersected by a network
of shrinkage cracks which have been subsequently filled with a
dark reddish brown jasper. This is more resistant than the
trap and the veins form a network of intersecting riilges separat-
ing saucer shaped depressions a foot or more in diameter. As
the Trap approaches its contact with the limestone it becomes.

294 RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES

more and more decayed until at the contact the rock is so loose
and unconsolidated that it will scarcely hold together to form a
hand specimen.

Sandstone and Impure Limestone.

The lower layers of the calcareous formation are largely
made up of this disintegrated material but it is not found more
than two or three feet from the contact. These lower layers
are poorly defined and conform to the minor inequalities of the
eroded surface of the Trap. The Trap debris then gives place
to a fine grained light grey to green sandstone with calcareous
cement, in thin laminae, which is overlain by beds of impure
limestone from one to three feet thick alternating with thinner
layers containing flint-like quartz bands. At one spot in Broad
Cove a brown sandstone in beds three or four feet in thickness
is seen overlying the limestone. The maximum thickness of
this sedimentary formation would be about twenty-five feet.
Altho several brooks cut across these beds at right angles, in
only one can the limestone be traced, and there for a distance of
but twenty or thirty yards from the beach where the trap
appears in the bed. The other brooks have cut completely
through and flow over the underlying trap until the beach is
reached. This shows how little remains of what must have been
an extensive formation and explains in part why it remained so
long unnoticed.

The dip of these beds is, at first, somewhat confusing. On
the north-east sides of the coves it is always to the south-west,
and at angles as high as twenty degrees. On the south-west
sides of the coves it is correspondingly high to the north-east.
In the bed of the brook mentioned, which is in the centre of one
of the coves, the dip proved to be from three to five degrees to
the north-west. At several places the trap was visible beneath
the apparent synclines arid showed no corresponding deformation.
Moreover, the variable inclination of the layers was there seen
to be that of the contact surface of the trap on which they rest.
As the layers recede from this surface they become more uniform
in inclination which is seen to be to the north-west at an angle

TRANS.N.S.INST.SCI. VOL. X.

PLATE I.

FIG. i.

BROAD COVE, LOOKING EAST, SHOWING LIMESTONE AND SHALE RESTING ON AMYGDALOIDAL TRAP.

FIG. 2. UNCONFORMABLE CONTACT OF GREENISH SHALE WITH AMYGDALOIDAL TRAP IN BROAD COVE.

To face page 294.

IN KINGS COUNTY, N. S. — HAYCOCK. 295

slightly smaller than that of the trap, or the same as the obser-
vation taken in the brook.

In some of the lower fine grained calcareous shales sun cracks
frequently occur and together with trail-like mat kings and
carbonaceeus impressions of branching fucoid-like plants point
to shallow water or tidal conditions prevailing during the
•deposition of the lowest layers. The fineness of the material of
these lowest layers also indicates a very gradual quiet submer-
gence of the disintegrated Trap rock and the absence of heavy
waves upon the .subsiding benches. The heavier bedded lime-
stone is quite free from inorganic sediment, and is a deposit in
deeper and purer water. The heavy bedded brown sandstone
marks some change bringing about a ureat increase of inorganic
sediment. Whether it was a re-elevation bringing the area
nearer shore, or advent of currents carrying such sediment is at
present undetermined.

Fossils occur in the underlying shale and limestone, altho'
they are, as a rule, poorly preserved. Among those collected
•are fish scales and teeth, objects resembling the .*eed cones of
gymno^perms, marine fucoids, and long, tapering, generally
straight, objects that are thought to be the shells of cephalopods.
These occur in the limestone and calcareous sandstone often in
great profusion and may reach a length of eight or ten feet, and
•a diameter at the larger end of eight or nine inches. The
smaller ends are rounded, and usually about one, though some-
times two or three, inches in diameter. They are cylindrically
or longitudinally knobbed, hollow in the centre, and composed
mainly of a red jasper. That these forms are of organic origin
and aie not concretions is indicated by their similarity in form
and by their lying, in one bed, in such numbers that they cross
each other in every conceivable way, but always the character-
istic form of each individual can be determined. In all cases
the finer laminae of the beds are pressed down beneath by the
weight of the object, and those deposited after curve up over it
without interruption. Other forms occur here also. One cf
these was twenty-seven inches in diameter and appeared cup-
like in shape.

296 RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES

Ifc has been stated that these strata rest unconformably on a
surface of decomposed trap, and that the lower layers are made
up. in part, of the triturated fragments of the trap. This would
indicate that after the pouring out of these lava sheets their
surface was above water, was carved into valleys and hills, by
the streams of the time, and subjected to the decomposing action
of atmospheric agencies and vegetation, until the ancient surface
came to present the irregular and weathered aspect that we may
now see on portions that have been subjected to similar action
during recent geological time. This necessarily long exposure
preceded the subsidence and submergence during which the
stratified formation was deposited and would indicate, to my
mind, that at least a whole geological period had intervened
between the outpouring of the trap and the deposition of the
marine formation unconformably upon its weathered surface.
The trap is considered to be of Triassic age and I would place
that of the limestone as probably Cretaceous. Again, from Cape
Cod southwards marine deposits were laid down along the
Atlantic border during Cretaceous times. Altho' I have as yet
been unable to find any traces of foraminifera in the soft greenish
sandstone that occurs in one of the coves, yet the general aspect
of the fossils so far found is also suggestive of Cretaceous age.

The hollows or depressions in which these remnants are
preserved are at present small valleys, occupied by brooks and
terminating on the shore in small coves which also owe their
existence to the erosion preceding the deposition of this forma-
tion. The Topography of this portion of the North Mountain is
thus shown to be much older than the Glacial period and not
only are the brooks flowing in Mesozoic channels but the Bay
of Fundy waves are again washing the shores of coves from
which they have been excluded since the Mesozoic period.

The facts observed here are in accord with the conclusion
ariived at from a comparison of the present stream beds with
the streams that now occupy them. Some of the gorges in this
area are equal in magnitude to those of the secondary streams
of the South Mountain, although the volume of wa^er now flow-

IN KINGS COUNTY, N. S.— HAYCOCK. 297

ing in them is insignificant. The cro&s trenches in this particular
locality are, however, small as compared with those that cross
the mountain at intervals of a few miles throughout its length,
some of which are scarcely above sea level, others as Digby Gut
and Petite Passage 150 to 200 feet below.

These deep gorges are probably Pre-glacial, as well, since
they are partly filled with boulder clay and usually, if not
always, set opposite to corresponding depressions in the older
hills on the opposite side of the valley. The ice of the Glacial
epoch flowed over ridge and through hollow alike, and beyond
sweeping away the decayed and shattered layer down to the
undecomposed rock seems to have had little effect in transform-
ing the general topography of the county. These gorges then
are doubtless Pre-glacial, but how much older ? Though much
larger they are of the same character as the smaller hollows
tilled with the sedimentary limestone, and ate probably of the
same, or Mesozoic age. Although direct evidence of this has
not yet been obtained it may exist, only awaiting the coining of
a careful observer.

The most significant features of these greater gorges is their
positions, just mentioned, nearly opposite to corresponding river
gorges on the south-east side of the valley. Almost every deep
gorge in the North Mountain has its corresponding river valley
in the higher ground of the South Mountain opposite. The
depressions reaching the Bay of Fundy coast at Parker's Cove,
Digby Gut, Sandy Cove, opposite the Lequille, Bear, and Wey-
mouth rivers are striking examples. A possible if not the only
plausible explanation of this fact, taken in connection with the
evidence of the great age of these depressions, is that they are
respectively the old outlets of Mesozoic rivers that flowed north-
westwardly across the sandstone and its overlying trap sheet,
draining a country more extensive than the present Nova Scotia,
because of its greater elevation, and with their greater volume
wearing broad channels through the red sandstone but abrupt
and precipitous trenches in the trap. The effect would be the
same in the basins of the smaller streams such as those now

298 RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES

heading back to a low divide some three or four miles from the
coast.

During the submergence of the region in late M^sozoic or
early Tertiary times, the streams were drowned by the sea and
the silicious and calcareous deposits described were laid down in
the old river valleys Deposits forming in this way would be
protected from the disturbances of the open shore, and probably
be composed of fine sediment laid bare at each low tide and dried
and sun cracked in bright warm days until carried below the
tidal limits by the slow subsidence of the whole region. The
limestone deposits indicate a submergence great enough to have
forme 1 large inland basins in the broad valleys in the sandstone
country .south-east of the edge of the trap sheet. These were pos-
sibly separated from each other by low divides which would be
gradually lessened by the rapid vertical decay of this rock refer-
red to earlier in this paper. When once covered by the sea, the
swiftly moving north-east and south west tidal currents char-
acteristic of this region would scour out the valley at a rapid
ivte, while the trap sheet would not retreat along its edges at a
corresponding rate since the frost work had not yet been
inaugurated, mild and warm climates extending at this time
even within the Arctic Circle. On the re-elevation of the country
in middle or late Tertiary times, the rivers would not return to
their ancient channels across the trap which were now higher
than the valley floor and filled in with deposits of the kind
described, but would flow along the valley parallel with the
mountain in either direction only discharging at the lowest out-
lets as Digby Gut at the south-west and Minas Basin and Channel
at the north-east.

The colder climates of late Tertiary times were now setting
in with winter frosts and snow, and the sheet of trap would
b-gin the rapid horizontal retreat which has continued until the
present day.

Boulder Clay.

Boulder clay containing many striated stones from local
sources occurs throughout this whole region and is seldom absent

IX KINGS COUNTY, X. S — HAYCOCK. 299

except from the loftier and more exposed portions of the ridges.
The prevalence of compact and arnygdaloidal trap from the
North Mountain in the Boulder clay all over the south side of the
valley, as well as the rounded and worn north facing slopes of
the elevations indicate that the general movement of the trans-
porting agent vva.s from the north. The general trend of all the
striations I have yet seen in this vicinity is in the same direction.

Although Boulder clay is rarely seen along the exposed side
of the North Mountain except when sheltered by the precipitous
walls of the deep gorges which have been alluded to, on the
stretch of shore south-east of Scot's Bay, deposits of considerable
thickness rest alike on trap and limestone and contain striated
fragments of both formations. In general the nws has the
same decided red color as the sandstone cliffs underlying the
trap at Tape Blomidon. One exception to this occurs in Ira
Woodworth Bay where the underlying portion of this deposit is
completely made up of a calcareous light gre}' clay mixed with
angular, occasionally striated fragments of the sedimentary
formation. It is wholly composed of the broken and pulverized
layers of this sedimentary formation and passes up abruptly
into the red clay and trap boulders among which no trace of
limestone could be found.

The abundance of boulder clay on this strip of coast proves it
to have been a region of deposit rather thnn of erosion during
its burial beneath the ice of the Glacial Period. That deposition
was not continuous is shown, however, by the occurrence of the
debris of the adjacent calcareous strata at the most westerly
point at which these strata were seen. Farther east the red
deposits seemed to rest directly upon the light grey limestone
nnd sandstone and these portions do not seem to have sufferer]
as much from the grinding action of the ice sheet.

The evidence from stnations and from travelled boulders
prove that the general movement of this ice sheet wa*< from the
north. From Ira Woodworth Bay, Cape Split bears due north
•and from this bold Cape a line of vertical cliffs from two to four
Iwndied feet in height extends eastward for eight miles to Cape

300 RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES

Blomidon, offering a huge barrier to the advancing ice sheet
which would deflect the main current, and leave a sheltered
area behind where the eroding action would be small or absent
altogether, and the conditions favorable for deposition during
the decline and disappearance of the ice.

This protected area would extend about to Ira Woodworth
Bay, whence westwardly the shore would be exposed to the full
sweep of the mas-» passing to the westward of Cape Split. It is
significant that east of this Bay occur the heavy deposits of
boulder clay while to the west a bold bare coast of black for-
bidding trap extends for a hundred and twenty miles with but
an occasional heap of red boulder clay that has been deposited
behind some projecting cliff. Have we not here a simple
explanation of the preservation of this fragment of marine lime-
stone, this mere remnant of what must have been a formation
of considerable extent, the sole representative in north-eastern
America, containing the only known records for that region, of
the Geological history of the long period of time between the
Triassic and the Glacial periods.

Stratified Sand and Gravel.

But the records preserved in this strip of coast do not end
with those of the Glacial period. Overlying the boulder clay is
a deposit of stratified sand and gravel several feet in thickness,
the base of which is now some thirty feet above high tide level.
The upper limit of this formation was not determined, but the
coarse and water worn character of the material classes it as a
shore deposit., laid down within or but slightly below tidal
limits. This formation has been noticed at Wolfville, Pereau
and at several localities-- in Digby County. In the Cornwallis-
Valley it consists mainly of stratified sands in which the cross-
bedding indicates that during their deposition the. currents
flowed strongly both to the north-east and to the south-west, or
parallel with the general trend of the valley.

These deposits tell of a submergence succeeding the Glacial
period of at least thirty or forty feet and a re-elevation of at-

IN KINGS COUNTY, N. S. 301

least the same magnitude. It is probable that during the
deposition of these beds the waters of Minas Basin, Digby Basin
and St. Mary's Bay were connected and that the present flat
and fertile valley stretching from the base of the North Moun-
tain to the low Palaeozoic hills on the south was a shallow strait
through which twice a day the ebb and flood swept swiftly
planing down the valley to a uniform level but sweeping up
here and there long bars of shifting sands. These still remain
but form minor features in the topography of the valley.

This shallow strait was sheltered from the rougher waters of
the Bay of Fundy by the protecting barrier of the North
Mountain and the deposits in the valley are much finer than
those of the same age on the Bay of Fundy coast. The North
Mountain itself was cut up into a line of nairow islands by the
submergence which brought the bottoms of several of the deeper
gorges below sea level, and the old shore lines in some of these
may still be seen. The length of the chain was practically the
same as at present since Briar Island the westermost extension
of the trap ridge then formed two small islands rising some fifty
feet above the sea as shown by the old shore line about eighty
feet above the present sea level.

When the land again arose, the waters left the valley, the
rivers extended seaward removing the sand and gravel from
their old channels, wearing them deeper, and the now submerged
forests grew.

But again a gradual subsidence followed. The sea slowly
advanced up the river channels. The fine sediment brought
down by the rivers was arrested by the tidal currents and
deposited in their shallow estuaries, and the marine marshes
were formed.

This is as we find it at the present day. The changes are
still in progress. The history of this region which we have
followed from early Mesozoic times to the present, or as much
of it as the records known to us reveal, is still being written in
the changing surface features of the land, the retreating coast
line, and the strata now forming off our shores. Every change,

302 POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES IN KINGS COUNTY, N. S. — HAYCOCK.

no matter how small is thus recorded, and this account is merely
an attempt to read aright such records as have come under the
observation of the writer in a few hasty journeys among the
newer formations of our Province.

Brief and limited as these opportunities for observation have
been, they have convinced me that the field for Geological
investigation, in this region at least, is ample; that it is wonder-
fully rich in undiscovered facts ; and that for variety in litho-
logical, in palaeoritological and in structural features, it is
unequalled by any area of similar extent in eastern North
America. That such is the case is shown by the results achieved
by Sir J. Win. Dawson during the third quarter of the century
and set forth by him so clearly and interestingly in his " Acadian
Geology," a work which must ever remain for us a model of
close observation, broad and scientific induction, and elegant
expression.

Because of its exceptional richness, however, the field has
not yet been exhausted, in the region of Minas Basin and west-
ward the soil has merely been broken. The broader relations of
the crreac formations to one another have been worked out and

o

their relative age established, hut in knowledge of their litho-
logical composition, fossil contents, structural peculiarities,
conditions of deposition, relation to present topographic features,
etc., we are almost wholly deficient. The field is alluring and
full of promise to the Geologist. Let us who are native born
reap the rich harvest of facts before we are anticipated by
workers from the over-crowded fields of New England.

XIIL— PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1890, BY A. H.
MACKAY, LL. D.

(Read 9th April, 1!)00.)

The schedule on which the observations referred to here
were recorded specifies 100 different objects, some with sub-
divisions. Of the great majority of them, two classes of
observations are asked to be recorded : " When h'rst seen," and
" When becoming common." In the tabulated dates recorded
by the Botanical Club of Canada, given at the end of this,
paper, the first series only is taken. The character of the
schedule is also indicated in these tables of observations at the
thirteen stations throughout Canada.

The identical schedule is also used in the public schools
of the Province of Nova Scotia. The observations here are
made by the pupils in attendance as a part of their " nature
study," when going to and returning from school, and are
tested and recorded by the teacher in duplicate, one copy of
which is preserved as a local record, and the other is sent with
the school returns to the Inspector for the Education Office.

Seven hundred and twenty-five school sections (school
districts, localities, or stations) returned schedules of observa-
tions, the majority more full than those of the thirteen stations
of the Botanical Club reporting. The summation of these in
tabular form would require a large volume, and cannot, there-
fore, be attempted here. The schedules are bound up in a
volume for each year, so that the information may not only be
preserved for the future use of students, but may be conveniently
accessible. The series of volumes will be a mine of information
bearing on at least one phase ot the problem of secular variation
of climate.

The same ten plants taken last year are here selected from
the list of one hundred objects for the purpose of comparison

(308)

304 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACKAY.

as to the average time of first flowering and when flowering
was beginning to become common. In some counties the
observations were so full that thirty good stations could be
selected for averaging, ten from the sea coast, ten from low
inland settlements, and ten from high land settlements. These
average dates or phenochrons of flowering are arranged in
parallel columns for the sake of comparison. In some counties
only twenty satisfactory stations for averaging, and in others
only ten, were found, as can be seen at a glance from the
tabulation of the figures.

The average phenochron for each plant's first flowering and
flowering becoming common is calculated for each county, and
the mean of the two series is finally taken for comparison
with the similar general phenochron for the same phenomenon
in 1898. These general phenochrons are plotted on the accom-
panying diagram so as to show their curves through the
Bounties of the Province arranged in a linear series beginning at
the west and south, and proceeding to the east and north.

This order of the counties will be uniformly followed in
future plottings of the phenochronic curves, for the greater ease
of comparing those of one year with those of another. Last
year the counties were arranged in the order of their most
general phenochrons. Were the same rule followed this year
the positions of some of the counties would be changed ; but if
•the positions of the counties remain fixed the configurations of
the phenochronic curves will illustrate the variations very
clearly from year to year.

On a future occasion I propose to plot the phenochrons of
the same /phenomena running through the counties of the
province for two or three consecutive years, in order to study
the character of the annual observations, or the peculiarities of
climate or flowering. Unfortunately, we cannot be sure of
the degree of variation originating in the latter causes until we
are sure of a uniform system of correct observations symmetric-
ally distributed.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACK AY. 305

Apart from any generalization of value which may be
expected from such work carried on continuously for years, it is
found to be a valuable stimulus to the formation of habits o£
accurate observation in the pupils of the public schools, and!
to the study of nature on the road to and from school, when it
does not interfere with any other study, and when it adds-
interest and often amusement to otherwise monotonous road
travel. For this purpose alone the trifling cost of supplying the
schedules are many thousands of times repaid.

The names of the ten plants whose average dates of
flowering are given in the columns following, as described,
cannot be given on the same page with their phenochrons without
overcrowding. The names are, therefore, to be understood to
be prefixed in the following order to each column :

1. The Mayflower ( Epigcea repens).

2. The Blue Violet (Viola cucullata).

3. The Red Maple ( Acer rubrum).

4. The Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale).
4. The Strawberry (Fragaria Virginiana ).

6. The Wild Red Cherry (Prunus Pennsylvanicum).

7. The Tall Buttercup (Ranunculus acris).

8. The Indian Pear (Amelanchier Canadensis ).

9. The Cultivated Apple (Pyrus malus).
10. The Lilac (Syriiiga vulgaris}.

PROC. & TKANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS ~T.

306 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACKAY.

FLOWERING PHENOCHRONS

Of the foregoing ten Plants in the Eighteen Counties of Nova Scotia,
for the year 1899.

YARMOUTH COUNTY, 1899.

First Seen.

Becoming Common.

General Phenochrons.

Coast.

Low
Inlands

High-
lands.

Aver-
age.

Coast.

IX)W

Inlands.

High-
lands.

Aver- '
age.

Annual
date.

Menwual
date.

98.2
117.8
125.2
117.4
118.3
135.9
141.8
142.8
147.5
160.4

87.8
118.2
129.2
119.7
115.6
137.3
130.6
136.6
139.0
151.6

93.0
118.0
127.2
118.5
116.9

109.7
127.4
130.5
129.6
131.8

103.7
124.2
134.2
127.5

125.8

106.7
125.8
132.3
128.5
128.8
143.5
147.5
145.0
153.1
162.4

99.85
I 121.90
129.77
123.55
122.87
140.05
141.85
142.35
148.20
159.22

10 April.
2 May.
10 '
4 '
3
21
22
23
29
9 June.1

136.6
136.2
139.7
143.2
156.0

144.1
153.8
146.6
157.4
166.9

142.9
141.2
143.4
148.9
158.0

130. 531 126.56

128.54

139.78

134.98

137.38

132.96

13 May.

SHELBURNK COUNTY, 1899.

99.9

101.2

100.5

108 2

110 9

109 5

| 105 05

16 April.

122.0

121.0

.. . 121.5

129.5

127.0

128.2

1 124 87

5 May.

125.5
120.0

124.0
123.5

124.7
121 7

[134.2
132 7

133.9
131 1

134.0
131 9

129.40
126 82

10

7

121.8
142.0

121.9
140.5

:121.8

... . 141.2

133.2
150.0

130.1
146.8

131.6
148.4

12*5.75
144.82

7
25

135.7

144.8

140.2

148.4

151.0

149.7

144.97

25

138.1
147.0
156.7

137.6
147.0
157.8

'137.8
;147.0
157.2

146.7
155.1
163.9

146.6
155.4
163.3

146.6
155.2
163.6

142.25
151.12
160.42

23
31
10 June.

130.87

131.93

. .. . 131.40

140.19

139.61

139.90

135.65

16 May.

DIGBY COUNTY, 1899.

*

*

*

*

102.4

102.6

104.1

103.0

110.6

117.4

122.0

116.6

109.86

20 April.

119.7

120.2

122.6

120.8

127.2

130.6

127.3

128.3

124.58

5 May.

130.4

133.4

126.2

130.

137.8

138.8

132.0

136.2

133.10

14

118.4

121.4

123.9

121.2

128.0

127.8

121.3

125.7

1 123.46

4

116.4

120.2

119.7

118.7

128.8

130.4

128.2

129.1 |

1 123.95

4

136.8

143.6

136.9

139.1

148.2

153.8

143.6

148.5

143.81

24

145.8

146.4

143.6

145.2

153.2

156.4

150.7

153.4

149.35

30

141.0

136.8

132.5

136.7

149.6

148.2

138.2

145.3

141.05

22

144.8

142.4

140.0

142.4

154.2

151.6

147.3

151.0

146.71

27

156.6

157.6

152.6

155.6

162.0

164.8

159.3

162.0

158.81

8 June.

131.24

132.46

130.21

131.20

139.%

141.98

136.99

139.64

135.47

16 May.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899.— MACKAY. 307

FLOWERING PHENOCHRONS — Continued.

QUEENS COUNTY, 1899.

First Seen.

Coast.

Low
Inlands.

High-
lands.

Aver-
age.

103.2

106.2

104.7

124.2

121.4

122.8

128.6

120.4

124.5

125.5

123.7

124.6

125.9

123.3

124.6

140.7

138 4

139.5

149.9

148.3

149.1.

136.2

133.0

134 6

146.9

144.2

145.5

157.0

152.6

154.8

133.81

131.15

132.48

Becoming Common.

General Phenochrons.

Coast-

Low
Inlands.

High
lands.

Aver-
age.

Annual
date.

Mensual
date.

! 112.7

113.8

113.2

108 97

19 April

131.6

127.4

129.4

126 12

7 May

136.9

125.8

130.8

127.67

8 "

134.4

134.1

134 9.

129 42

10 "

1 138.4

134.0 13(i.2

1 130.40

11 "

147.4

145.5

146.4

143 00

23 "

158.9

157.9

158.4

153.75

3 June.

145.2

i 137.2 i!41 >>,

137 90

18 .M;iv

152.5

151.1

151.8

148.67

29 "

164.2

157.0

160.6

157 70

7 June.

142.11

138.38

140.24

136.36

17 May.

ANNAPOLIS COUNTY, 1899.

99.9

107 7

103 8

110.1

117.1

113.6

198 70

19 April.

124.7
129.3
125.3

126.0
123.7

128.8

125.3
126.5
127.0

132.2
134.0
133.6

133.1
128.4
135.1

132.6
131.2 j
134.3

129.00
128.85
130.70

9 May.
9 "
11 "

122 2

123 5

122 8

130.7

133.5

132.1

127 47

8 "

137 8

140 7

139 2

143.6

146.9

145.2

142 25

23 "

145.9
133.4

147.5
136 0

146.7
134 7

155.1
137.5

156. 3
141.2

155.7
139.3

151.20
137.02

1 June.
18 May.

139.9
152.3

145.7
153.7

142.8
153 0

148.3
159.1

152.3
159.4

150.3
159.2

146.55
156.12

27 "
6 June.

131.07

133.33

132.20

138.42

140.33

139.37

1 135.78

16 May.

LUNENBURG COUNTY, 1899.

102.4

104.6

105.3

104.1

111.1

114.2

114.7

113.3

108.71

19 April

123.5

123.9

122.8

123.4

130.4

129.9

129.6

129.9

j 128. 68

7 Way.

123.6

120.2

122.0

121.9

129.7

129.4

127.5

128.8

1125.40

6 "

126.2

128.3

127.0

127.1

131.3

137.2

134.0

134.1

130.66

11 "

126.0

125.3

1-22.7

124.6

131.6

134.1 1130.2

131.9

128.31

9 "

139.1

137.2

139.9

t38.7

144.2

143.2

146.5

144.6 '141.68

22 "

150.5

149.7

148.9

149.7

157.6

156.6

155.0

156.4

153.05

3 June.

142.0

130.5

132.0

134.8

148.6

139.4

138.2

142.0

138.45

19 May.

144.3

145.8

144.6

144.9

! 155.0

152.3

152.3

153.2

149.05

30 "

158.5

154.5

153.0

155.3

164.5

159.8 1156.7

160.3

157.83

7 June.

133.61

132.00

131.82

132.47

140.401 139.61 138.47 139.49

135.98

16 May.

308 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACKAY.

FLOWERING PHENOCHROXS —Continued.

KINGS COUNTY, 185)9.

First Seen.

Becoming Common.

General Phenochrons.

Coast.

Low | High-
Inlands. lands.

1

Aver-
age.

Coast.

IjOW

Iniauds.

High-
lands

Aver-
age.

Animal
date.

Mensual
date.

103.8
120.7
124.1
123.6
122.5
142.0
140.2
136.2
141.6
152.9

130.76

109.9
125.8
12.1.6
127.5
123.5
141.5
152.7
134.7
145.8
154.6

106.8
123.2
124.8
125.5
123.0
141.7
146.4
135.4
143.7
153.7

114.8
126. 7
132.3
133.6
133.fi
150.2
153.8
144.0
152.6
159.1

118.0
134.4
133.0
135.8
131.7
14(5.3
157.!)
140.7
152.4
161.3

116.7
130.5
132.6
134.7
132.6
148.2
155.8.
142.3
152.5
160.2

111.77
126.90
128.75
130.12
127.60
145.00
151.15
138.90
148.10
156.97

22 April.
7 May.
9 "
11 "
8 "
25 v'
1 June.
19 May.
29 "
6 June.

17 May.

134.16

132.46

140.06

141.21 140.63

136.54

HANTS COUNTY, 1899.

103.8

109.3

106.5

114.9

119.1

117.0

111.77

22 April.

123.8

127.8

125.8

129.4

134 . 8

132.1

128.95

9 Mny.

126.6
125.2

126.9
129.6

126.7
127.4

131.0
134.3

131.8
136.7

131.4
135.5

129.07
131.45

10 '
12 "

123.2

126.6

124.9

134.7

132.7

133.7

129.30

10 "

138.6

146.2

142.4

147.2

151.3

149.2

145.82

26 "

141.3
135.6

153.3
144.0

147.3
139.8

154.6
142.6

159.7
149.5

157.1
146.0

152.22
342.92

2 June.
23 May.

144.7

150.8

147.7

151.1

157.5

154.3

151.02

1 June.

153 1

156 9

155.0

160.6

163.7

162.1

158.57

8 "

131.59

137.14

134.36

140.04

143.68

141.86

138.11

19 May.

HALIFAX COUNTY. 1899.

104.6

105.9

108.2

106.2

119.2

114.9

118.8

117.6

111.93

22 April.

123.3

123.9

128.7

125.3

132.2

130.1

136.7

133.0

129.15

10 May.

124.6

126.3

122.7

124.5

132.7

133.9

133.0

133.2

128.86

9 '•

126.3

127.5

130.1

127.9

135.9

134.4

138.6

136.3

132.13

13 "

126.9

124.0

125.8

125.5

137.1

135.3

135.5

135.9 || 130.76

11 "

144.1

144.1

142.6

143.6

152.9

150.1

147.3

150.1 ,| 146.85

27 "

151.8

149.6

150.0

150.4

161.5

157.2

161.0

159.9

155.18

5 June.

143.5

138.1

138.1

139.9

150.7

145.5

145.6

147.2

143.58

24 May.

154.5

148.3

151.1

151.3

164.1

156.8

157.5

159.4

155.38

5 June.

167.7

158.0

156.9

160.8

175.6

164.6

162.7

167.6

164.25

14 "

136.73

134.57

135.42

135.571 146.19

142.28

143.67

144.04

139.81

20 May.

PHEXOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1890. — MACKAY. 309

FLOWERING PHENOCHRONS — Continued.

GUYSBORO COUNTY, 1899.

First Seen.

Becoming Common.

General Phenochrons.

Coast.

Low
In land.

High-
lands.

Aver-
age.

Coast.

Low
Inland.

High-
lands.

Aver-
age.

Annual
date.

Mensnal
date.

i

113.8

122.4
135.2
131.3
141.8
144.4
153.2
165.0
150.8
162.3
169.0

118.10
132.45
127.50
138.75
138.65
150.90
162.35
148.10
159.40
166.85

29 April.
13 May.
8 "
19 "
19 "
31 "
12 June.
29 May.
9 June.
16 "

129.7

123.7

135.7

1

132.9

| il48.6

159.7

145.4

156.5
164.7

.'141.07

147.54

144.30

25 Mav.

CUMBERLAND COUNTY, 1899.

1

116.7

111. 9

110.7

113.1

123.5

121.7

118.5

121.2

117.16

28 April.

124.8

127.3

127.5

126.5

131.2

136.0

134.4

133.8

130.20

11 May.

127.4

126.8

123.1

125.7

134.6

132.7

130.9

132.7

129.25

10 "

131.4

130.2

128.8

130.1

137.6

13U.7

136.0

137.7

133.95

14 "

126.8

129.0

123.7

126.5

134.3

141.3

134.7

136.7

131.63

12 "

145.9

141.1

140.4

142.4

151.2

146.9

146.4

148.1

145.31

26 "

154.7

149.1

150.3

151.3

160.3

159.5

155.8

158.5

154.95

4 June.

141.0

137.4

135.5

137.9

147.1

145.3

142.7

145.0

141.50

22 May.

152.4

149.3

149.5

150.4

158.6

154.3

155.7

156.2

153.. JO

3 June.

156 5

155.2

155.5

155.7

162.6

161.5

161.2

161.7

158.75

8 "

137.76

135.73

134.50

135.99

144.10

143.89

141.63

143.20

139.60

20 May.

COLCHESTER COUNTY, 1899.

106.1

112.2

118.9

112.4

118.1

117.6

125.4

120.3

116.38

27 April.

124.4

126.3

127.3

126.0

132.9

132.6

I'M. 2

133.2-

129.61

10 May.

129.5

127.9

128.9

128.7

135.3

132.5

134.6

134.1

131.45

12 "

128.4

129.7

128.9

129.0

137.2

136.3

136.6

136.7

132.85

13 "

126.8

126.5

126.0

126.4

134.7

136.2

135.0

135.3

130.86

11 "

141.3

140.3

147.4

143.0

147.3

147.8

152.4

149.1

146.08

27 "

149.3

148.6

149.5

149.1

157.5

156.7

156.1

156.7

152.95

2 June.

141.2

138.4

141.2

140.2

147.1

143.7

148.7

146.5

143.38

24 May.

148.1

146.5

152.0

148.8

155.5

154.6 158.5

156.2

152.53

2 June.

156.5

157.4

160.8

158.2

163.4

162.3

166.8

164.1

161.20

11 "

135.16

135.38 138.09 136.21

142.90

142.03

144.83

143.25

139.73

20 May.

310 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACKAY.
FLOWFRING PHENOCHBONS - Continued.

PICTOU COUNTY, 1899.

First Seen.

Becoming Common.

General Phenochrons.

Coast.

Low
Inland.

High-
lands.

Aver-
age.

Coast.

Low
Inlands.

High-
lands.

Aver-
age.

Annual
date.

Mensual
date.

107.4

111.8

112.2

110.4

118.0

122.5

119.2

119.9

115.18

26 April.

126.4

127.1

127.1

126.8

134.4

134.8

134.8

134.6

130.76

11 May.

126.7

123.3

126.2

125.4 i

133.0

130.1

131.9

131.6

128.53

9 "

127. 3

128.6

180.4

128.7

134.5

135.5

137.2

135.7

132.25

13 "

128.8

126.2

126.7

127.2

135.8

136 8

137.2

136.6

131.91

12 "

148.5

144.6

145.9

146.3

152.8

149.7

151.0

151.1

148.75

29 "

148.8

148.7

150.0

149.1

155.7

155.9

156.4

156.0

152.58

2 June.

142.0

141.3

140.9

141.4

147.4

145.4

145.3

146.0

143.71

24 May.

150.9

146.7

149.4

149.0

156.1

153.5

1%.3

155.3

152.15

2 June.

156.1

156.2

157.2

156.5

161.3

160.9

162.7

161.6

159.06

9 "

136. 29 ! 135.45

136.60ll36.ll

142.90

142.51 1 143. 20

142.87

139.49

20 May.

ANTIGONISH COUNTY, 1899.

117.4

125.9

121.65

2 May.

127.6

134.6

131.10

12

132.8

136.6

134.70

15

130.1
128.2

;:;;;.

;;;;;;;;

136.8
139.9

133.45
134.05

14
15

146.9
153.8

153.4
161.0

150.15
157.40

31
7 June.

145.4

151.2

148.30

29 May.

152.9

158.1

155.50

5 June.

..

160.4

165.8

163.10

13 "

139.55

146.33

142.94

23 MHV.

RICHMOND COUNTY 1899.

110.7

121.5

J29.9
138.2

136.5
145.9

131.6

140.6

132.0

140.4

154.0

159.1

159.2

166.4

146.9

152.4

160.3

16H.9

167.8

172.2

143.06!

150. K

116.10
133.20
142.05
136 10
136.20
156.55
162.80
149.65
163.60
170.00

April.

June.

May.
June.

146.62 | 27 May.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 189P. — MACKAY. 311

FLOWERING PHENOCHRONS — Continued.

CAPE BRETON COUNTY, 1899.

First Seen.

I

Becoming Common.

General Phenochrons.

Coast.

Low
Inlands.

High-
lands.

Aver-
age.

Coast.

Low
Inlands.

High-
lands.

Aver-
age

Annual
date.

Mensual
date.

111.8

120.8
137.9
134.5
139.4

116.30
134.95
131.25
135.80

27 April.
15 Mny.
12 "

16 "
14 "
3 June.
4 "
31 May.
10 June.
17 "

132.0
128.0

132 2

127.7

138.7
156.3
163. 7 |

133.20
153.45
154.95

150.6

149 2

147.2

152.9 1
163.4
170.3

150.05
160.00
167.60

156.6

164.9

Jl40.2

I

147.49

143.75 ' 24 May.

INVERNESS COUNTY, 1899.

116.5

122.8 '

119.65

30 April.

128.1
134.1

135.3
141.2

131.70
137.65

12 M«y.

18 '

131.9

138.9

135.40

16 '

129.7

136.6

133.15

14 •

151 9

157.7

151.80

4 June.

::::::::

151.2

148.7
152.9
163.8

159.3
159.6
158.5
170.1

155.25
154.15
155.70
166.95

5 '

4 «
5 '
16 '

140.88

148.00

144.44

25 May.

VICTORIA COUNTY, 1899.

117.2

122.3

119.75

30 Apr.l.

129.9

1:33.6

131.75

12 May.

130.3

136.8

133.55

14 "

131 7

137.3

134.50

15 "

127.9
149.8
155.8

135.5
155.2
163.5

131.70
152.50
159.65

12 "
2 June.
9 "

147.2
157.1

152.7 :

162.8

149.95
159.95

30 May.
9 June.

164.7

171.8

168.25

18 "

141.16

147.15

144.15

23 Mny.

312 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899.— MACKAY.

PHENOCHRON CURVES OF FLOWERING.

(Moan of "first seen " and " becoming common ").

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899.— MACKAY. 313

Observations of Botanical Club of Canada.

In order to keep unbroken the series of observations made
"by the Botanical Club of Canada, in the Transactions of the
Institute, especially as they have not yet become too voluminous,
the following tabular summation of them for 1SD9 is given.
The seven stations in the other provinces of the Dominion
;show observations which will be interesting in comparison with
those made in Nova Scotia.

Phenological Stations and Observers of the Botanical Club
of Canada, 1S90.

St. Stephen, N. B.— J. Vroom, Esq.

Yarmouth, N. S. — S. A. Starratt, Esq.; Seymour Critcher, Esq.

Berwick, N. S. — Miss Ida A. Parker.

Halifax, N. S. — Harry Piers, Esq.

Musquodoboit Harbour, N. S. — Rev. James Rosborough.

New Glasgow, N. S. — Miss Maria Cavanagh.

Wallace, N. S. — Miss Mary E. Charman.

Charlottetown, P. E. I. — John McSwain, Esq.

Beatrice, Muskoka, Ontario. — Miss Alice Hollingworth.

Pliea^ant Forks, Assiniboia. — Thomas R. Donnelly, E*q.

Olds, Alberta.— T. N. Willing, Esq.

Willoughby, Saskatchewan. — Rev. C. W. Bryden.

Vancouver, B. C. — J. K. Henry, Esq., B. A.

Explanation of Annotation* over the Date Fiyurt* in the following Table:

* — " When becoming common."
b — Ruhus spectabilis (flowering).
c — " " (fruiting).

« — Ranunculus rhomboiileus.
t — Fragaiia Chilensis.
u — Primus emarginata.

f— Rubus occidentalis. »• — Tri-ium ovatum.

'k— Turdus propinqua. "-' — Tiientalis Europcea.

o — Sturnella neglecta.
q — Chordeiles Uenryei.

x — Amelancliier alnifolia.
y — Kosa Nutkana.

314 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACK AY.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899.

Number.

Day of the year 1899 cor-
responding to the last
day of each month.
Jan. ... 31 July .212
Feb. . . .59 Aug -243
March . 90 Sept .273
April. .120 Oct . .304
May .. .151 Nov. .334
June . .181 Deo. .365
(First flowering or fruit-
ing of plants and first ap-
pearance of migratory ani-
mals, etc.)

«

fc

£

a
o,

S

X

03

Yarmouth, N. S.

Berwick, N. S.

Halifax, N. S.

Musquodoboit, N. S.

New Glasgow, N. S.

Wallace, N. S.

Charlottetown, P. E. I.

Beatrice, ?»luskoka, Ont.

Pheasant Forks, Assa.

Olds, Alberta.

Willoughby, Sask.

Vancouver, B. C.

1

Alnus incana, Willd . *

103

11'

11'

Ill

T1

*

in

68

2

Populus tremuloides

ion

TO

1'1

138

116

114

1?6

3

Michx.
Epigeea repens, L

11?

99

%

10ft

105

IT

115

4

Viola cucullata Gray

1'3

in

T6

I")

T4

*

119

144

5

V. blanda Willd.

119

199

111

119

122

Tl

*
119

IIS

6

Acer rubrum, L

118

133

191

*
119

7

130

122

8
9

Equisetum arvense, L —
Taraxacum officinale

Tl

115
115

134
11?

T3

1'5

120
119

*
132

Tl

92

10
11

Weber.
Erythronium Amer., Ker.

Hepatica triloba Chaix

115

132

126

»

119

12

Coptis trifolia, Salisb.

133

T3

111

*
157

1^9

13
14

Fragaria Virginia, Mill . .
(fruit ripe)

...

127
167

117
15'

122

158

*
132

175

126

122

160

*
146

128
176

152
186

127

t
114

15

Primus Pcnnsyl . L

14?

119

151

146

IT

u
122"

L6

991

IT

137

IT*

127

157

18

159

190

19

Ranunculus acris, L

150

?

147

163

T3

•
163

.s
1'6

20

R. repens L. . .

151

151

132

91

Clintonia borealis Raf

155

111

157

•
157

•>•>
83

Trillium erythrocarpum,
Michx.
Trientalis Ameri., Pursh.

131

Tin

119

142
1?7

151

157
158

114

151

151

139
139

V

88
111
131

•'I

15'

160

117

•>:,

Calla palustris L

158

15'

L'I;
87

Amelanchier Canadensis
T. &G.
" (fruit ripe)

129

131

143

?04

131

141

123

X

126

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACKAY. 315

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899.

Day of the year 1899, cor-
responding; t,o the last
day of each month.
Jan 31 July 212
Feb.... 59 Aug ....243
March.. 90 Sept ... 273
April.. .120 Oct 3"4
May 151 Nov 334
June.. 181 Dec 365

X
53
o

CO

fc

£

CO

fc

co'
5?

CO

Z.

'o

,2
O
*«?

CO
55

1

CO

>5

w

OH*
O

5

j, Muskoka. Ont.

it Forks, Assa. i

5

t.

^

J

1

CO

X

JS
JS

c3

pa

u

V

^

Numbel

(First flowering or fruit-
ing of plants and first ap-
aearance of migratory ani-
nals, etc.)

5.

OJ
CO

co

Yarmot

Berwicl

Halifax

O1
3

s

New Gl«

[3

I?

Chariot

Beatric

Pheasar

<

•f.

•o

0

\Villoug

0

8
1

28

171

Ti?

l-l

ft

7ff

29

" (fruit ripe)

101

100

r
159

30

175

163

4

31

232

99R

32

150

156

140

33

151

213

179

171

31

140

161

*
~\f4

16"*

m

35

36

1V>

15C

163

37
38

Linneea borealia, L
Linaria Canaden., Duni.. .

168

2°1

170

155

39

18°

40

L.

178

182

41

17^

182

42

195

9Q1

19S

198

104

11

119

1OT

w

144

44

Hypericum pcrforat , L. .

213

189

171

192

1(V7

155
1

46

it

Pmnus Cerasus (cultiv ).
" (fruit ripe)

135

150

146

r.H

154

llfr

174

111.'

»
163

152

Ti0

50
51

Prunus domestica (f.ul'd).
Pyrus mains (cul d) early.
" " late

133

158
157

14G

153

146
150
1V

157

128
144

' 12i

II-

128

154

54

(fruit ripe)

161

....

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACKAY.

PHE^OLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899.

Number.

Day of the year 1899, cor-
responding to the last
day of each month.
•Ian 31 July 212
Feb .59 Aug 243
March.. 90 Sept ...273
April. ..120 Get 304
May.... 151 Nov 334
June . .181 Dec 365
(First flowering or fruit-
ing of plants and first ap-
pearance of migratory ani-
mals, etc.)

n
x

o

p,

W
OQ

Yarmouth, N. S.

Berwick, N. S.

Halifax, N. S.

Musquodoboit, N. S.

i

New Glasgow, N. S.

Wallace. N. S.

Charlottetown, P. E. I.

Beatrice, Muskoka, Ont '

Pheasant Forks, Assa.

Olds, Alberta.

Willoughby, Sask.

Vancouver, B. C.

,55

R. nigrum (cultivated). . .

1T>

56

(fruit ripe)

,57

Syringa vul.. L. (cultiv.)..

143

160

153

160

153

161

144

168

128

.58

Solanuii tuberosum L.

171

182

<>10

.59

Phleum pratensc, L

150

185

GO

Trifolitim rcpens, L

139

150

132

61

T. pratensc, L

1.51

156

157

174

155

*
166

62

Triticum vulgarc, L

9]")

«3

Avena sati va, L

«4

Fagopyrum esculen., L...

65a

Earliest full Icaf'g of tree.

151

I'M

«5b

Latest " "

06

Ploughing (first of season)

%

121

115

67

Sowing

T>6

126

T>8

117

68

Potato-planting •'

1'1

130

141

T>8

«9

Sheep-shearing

136

153

156

70

100

193

210

19S

71

Grain-cutting "

*
•xffi

°33

*M1

7?

258

968

258

276

73a

73h

Opening of rivers "

II9

100

110

111

107

74a

00

11fi

I'M

I'M

133

V'3

74b

I'M

135

156

135

75b

149

113

155

76a

111

115

76b

" " low ..

PHKNOLOGICAL OBSEUVATIONS, CANADA, 1899.— MACK AY. 317

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899.

Number.

Day of the year 1899. cor-
responding to the last
day of eat-h month.
.Ian 31 July 212
Feb 59 Aug 242
March.. 90 Sept 273
April... 120 Oet 304
May ... 131 Nov.. ..334
June. ..181 Dec 365
(First flowering or fruit-
ing of plant* and first ap-
pearance of migratory ani-
mals, etc.)

«
55

0

P.
q

<M
«!

CO

Yarmouth, N. S.

Berwick, N. S.

Halifax. N. S.

Musquodoboit, N. S.

New Glasgow, N. S.

Wallace, N. S.

Charlottetown, P. E. I.

Beatrice, Muskoka, Out.

Pheasant Forks, Man.

Olds, Alberta.

Willoughby, Sask.

Vancouver. B. C.

77a
77b

First autumn frost, hoar.

227

258
3(17

258

251

254

221

221

...

78a

^76

977

315

78h

"01

316

?07

<X)|

317

79a

310

370

79b

?11

on

64

64

64

61

5

64

]90

78
1<w

64
1'1

104

T>O

1%

108

146
156

156

128
164

148
110

,

142

....

H7

157

V")7

165

151

16?

165

155

160

170

166

166

167

156

171

157

17<>

188

n9

172

163

173

176

176

171

165

175

200

177

177

176

176

174

177

?,19

185

181

177

184

178

187

1S6

108

107

?W

194

104

104

104

?14

W4

Ml

*.v"

202

105

90*>

105

904

•>10

208

WO

?33

fllfl

236

"in

•'"•,

W1

?is

?.V»

•Ml

216

•>46

•'•10

202
??0

221

Wto

?,i9

....

971

99fi

260

031

318 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACKA.Y

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899

Number1.

Day of the year 1899, cor-
responding to the last
day of the month.
Jan. ... 31 July... .212
Feb... . 59 Aug. .. .243
March . 90 Sept .. .273
April . 120 Oct... .304
May... .151 Nov .. .334
June.. 181 Deo... .365
(First flowering or fruit-
ing of plants and first ap-
pearance of migratory ani-
mals, etc.)

m
fc

r
P.
£

O3

-J
02

Yarmouth, N. S.

Berwick, N. S.

Halifax, N. S

Musquodoboit, N. S.

New Glasgow, N. S.

Wallace, N. S.

Charlottetown, P. E. I.

Beatrice, Muskoka, Ont.

Pheasant Forks, Man. 1

Olds, Alberta.

Willoughby, Sask.

Vancouver, B. C.

80

Thunderstorms — dates. . . .

??8

^87

">46

''Ofi

"57

SI a

Wild ducks migrating, N.

86

110

00

81 b

S.

82a

" geese " N.

100

04

78

81

00

110

100

sfln

S.

317

9 16

<X)j

286

S3

Melospiza fasciata. North.

105

9-'

04

94

98

.84
.8.5

Turd us migratorius, "
Junuo hit-malls, "

102

80
10"

88
81

97
00

100

96
11?

k
116

k
97

k
116

•8fi

Actitis macularia, "

.87

Sturnella magna "

0

10T

88

Ceryle Alcyon. •'

10*

80

Dendrceca coronata, "

140

144

00

D. testiva,

?

146

91

Zonotrichia alba, "

1?0

134

fl?

Trochilus colubris, "

143

1?8

135

144

03

Tyrannus Carolinen , "

145

9+

Dolychonyx oryzivor.,"

95

Spinis tristis,

141

9G

Setophaga ruticilla, "

116

07

Ampelis cedrorum, "

88
99
100

Chordeiles Viginian., "
First piping of frogs
First appearance, snakes.

115

151
1C6
109

97

149
112

144

156
117

107
123

&
115
127

108

110

XIV. — A FRESH WATER SPONGE FROM SABLE ISLAND. — BY A.
H. MACK AY, LL. D., Halifax.

(Read Oth April, 1900.)

{

L i i i i I i i i i j

This sponge was collected in considerable abundance on the
18th of August, 1899, by Professor John Macoup, Botanist of

(319)

320 A FRESH WATER SPONGE FROM SABLE ISLAND. — MACKAY.

the Geological Survey of Canada, in the fresh water pond found
in the centre of that great sand-shoal in the Atlantic Ocean,
well known as Sable Island, nearly one hundred miles from
Nova Scotia, the nearest part of the continent. It was growing
around the submerged portion of the slender stems of Mi/ri-
ophyllum tenellum, Bigelow, in green, compact, lobular masses,
showing, where broken, numerojs orange yellow gemmules.

It appears to approach most nearly to the following fresh
water sponges described by Potts : II eteromeyenia ryderi, v.
baleni, found from Florida to New Jersey, in its epicnlation ;
and Heteromej/enia ryderi v. walshii, from Gilder Pond, Massa-
chusetts, in the fasciculation of its skeleton spicules.

General form : Encrusting the submerged stems of Myri-
ophyllum tenellum, (which in the specimens examined are about
2 mm. thick), in a smooth, compact, green, lobular mass extend-
ing to a gross diameter of about one centimeter, and to a height
or length along the stem of about 5 or 6 centimeters in some
cases, the lobes suggesting an abortive attempt at branching;
pores and osteoles very minute ; gemmules very abundant,
appearing wherever the central mass is broken.

Gemmules : Light orange in color, spherical, varying from
500 to 800 microns in diameter, but generally between 600 to
700 microns ; foraminal aperture from 30 to 70 microns in
diameter, not produced into a tube beyond the crust; dense
inner (chitinous) coat of gemmule nearly 10 microns thick,
surrounded by the light cellular crust (in which the short
siliceous birotules or amphidisks are vertically embedded) to a
depth of about 25 microns ; both short and long birotules or
amphidisks with one disk or rotule resting on the chitinous coat,
their shafts radially directed, packed as closely as their disks
allow, the long birotules being fewer with the distal rotules
extending beyond the crust, their few slightly incurved rays
somewhat adapted for attaching the gemmule to any finely
fibrous environment.

Short birotules : From 18 to 26 microns in length,
generally from 20 to 24, with a smooth uniform shaft

A FRESH WATER SPONGE FROM SAHLG ISLAND.— MACRAY. 321

ranging from 1.5 to £ microns thick; the rotules being plane
disks less than "2 microns thick from the point where the shaft
begins to swell into them, and from 10 to 16 microns in diameter,
commonly near 12 microns, laciniately blunt-lobed around their
margins, the shaft occasionally extending 1 micron beyond the
disks, making the exterior of the rotule slightly umbonate.

Long birotules : From 35 to 50 microns, commonly from 40
to 45, with usually a smooth, uniform shaft about "2 microns
thick ; the rotules generally of 3, to 4 or 5 rays which are slightly
incurved, the rotule ranging from 8 to 14 microns in diameter,
commonly from 10 to 11 microns.

Larger skeleton spicules : Slightly curved, microspined or
rough, tapering gradually from the middle, then more rapidly
towards the ends; ranging from 150 to 260 microns in length,
commonly from 180 to 220; and from 3.5 to 5 microns in
breadth at the thickest part.

Intermediate skeleton spicules: Generally smooth, and from
2 to 3 microns thick, and from 150 to 200 microns in length,
numerous and generally fascicled into strands which are often
connected transversely by the larger spicules.

Smaller strand spicules and filament strands : Finer strands
than those referred to above, appearing as if made up of continu-
ous filaments instead of spicules: strands commonly from 10 to
15 microns across, made up of about 20 filaments or more, each
about one micron thick, where broker, across appearing as if
they were flexible to some extent, the ends of the filaments
showing a more or less distinct curvature. Under the micro-
scope they appear identical with the more slender spicules with
the exception that they appear to be continuous in the strand.
Examined with polarized light they are visible in the dark field,
as are also, more or less, the strands made up of the interme-
diate spicules while the spicules are cemented together, suggest-
ing a peculiar colloidal siliceous or a spongin cement. When
heated with nitric acid these filaments appear first to separate
and break into pieces, then partly at least to disappear. At the
earliest opportunity I purpose to examine the nature of these
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sri., VOL X. TUANS.-U.

322 A FHESH WATER SPONGE FROM SABLK ISLAND — MACKAY.

strands and their relationship to the other portions of the skele-
ton ; hut this crude provisional treatment of them suggested
that the filaments might be spongin fibres partly silicified, or
nascent siliceous spicules.

The two classes of birotules arming the gemmule put the
sponge int'> Potts's genus Hete>-omeyenia. I therefore propose
the name Heteromeyenia macouni, in allusion to the distin-
guished naturalist who discovered it. It is possible that a com-
parison of the sponge with the two varieties referred to first
ab)ve as approximating to this species may reduce it to Hetero-
meyenia ryderi v. macouni ; but from the descriptions publish-
ed it appears to be specifically distinct.

The sponge is especially interesting on account of its habitat
in the only fresh water pond of a sand island in the Atlantic
Ocean nearly 100 miles from the continent. The island is
about 20 miles long at present and about one mile broad. It
has been described as consisting of " two parallel ridges of loose
grey sand, in a bow or crescent shape, with the inner side to the
north. In the valley between these is a lake, now not more
than eight miles long, formerly nearly twice that length."* This
is the pond in which Heteromeyenia macouni has been growing
in abundance.

* Sable Island : Its History and Phenomena, by Rev. George Patterson, D. D., in
Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, Section II., 1894, (3).

Date of Publication ; December 31st, 1900.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

rt Scotran Jnstitute of Science.

SF:SSION OF 1900-1001.

I. — GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE is NOVA SCOTIA. — BY HUGH
FLETCHER, B. A., of the Geological Survey of Canada.

(Communicated lOfi December, 1900. )

NEW GLASGOW CONGLOMERATE.

Another of the debatable questions in Nova Scotian geological
classification is that of the age of the New Glasgow Conglomerate.
This formation is thus described by Sir William Logan :
"At the bridge of New Glasgow is exposed a series of con-
glomerates, which, in general colour, are between a brick-red
and chocolate or Indian-red, and whose inclosed masses, varying
from the smallest pebbles to boulders of two feet in diameter,
are, for the most part, unmistakabty derived from the red and
greenish-gray sandstones, red shales and impure nodular lime-
stones of the Millstone Grit, some of them containing the same
vegetable organic remains. With these pebbles and boulders
are associated a few from the rocks still lower down. The whole
are inclosed in a matrix of the same mineral character, constitut-
ing an argillo-arenaceous cement, which is also calcareous, and
in the interstices of the boulders and pebbles is often observed a
network of white calcspar aiding to keep them together. There
are interstratified in the rock, bands, from a few inches to several
feet in thickness, of fine red sandstone and red shale, which
serve to give assurance of the dip, and these occur at such dis-
tances apart as to render the conglomerate beds thick and
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS.— V.

(323)

324 GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE

massive, their transverse measure varying from ten to sometimes
nearly 100 feet.

" From a point a short distance above the bridge, to one much
farther below, these conglomerates have a breadth of very nearly
a mile, giving a total thickness of about 1,600 feet. This great
mass of conglomerate composes Eraser's Mountain, towards the
south flank of which, presenting the outcrop escarpment of the
inferior part, the red and gray strata of the Millstone Grit dip
in such a way as, without other evidence, to induce the supposi-
tion that the one series overlies the other comformably. But on
the west side of the East River Mr. Hartley has evidence to
show that there is a want of conformity, at least in some places.

" Three miles eastward of New Glasgow these conglomerates
have a breadth of about fifty-four chains, and they are here
immediately and conformably overlaid by the following ascend-
ing section :

ft in.

Gray limestone which has been quarried for burning ... .20 0

Measures concealed 10 0

Bluish-gray slightly calcareous sandstone 5

Bluish-brown concretionary limestone, the surface of which
presents concentric botryoidal thinly laminated con-
cretions, with grayish and red clay in the interstices

and inequalities 10

Gray and red clay 8

Reddish concretionary limestone, with concentric botryoidal

laminae as before 1 0

Whitish-gray limestone 1 0

Gray and red mottled clay, resembling fireclay 1 4

Glay flaggy sandstone 1 8

Gray clay 6

Whitish arenaceous limestone, holding abundance of Spir-

orbis arietina 2 2

Grayish-blue, spotted, slightly argillaceous sandstone .... 1 0
Measures concealed, including several feet of underclay . .24 0
Coal and black carbonaceous shale, including about eigh-
teen inches of good coal at the bottom, which used to
be mined by Mr. W. Fraser, for the purpose of burn-
ing the limestone in the lower part of the section .... 4 5

69 0

IN NOVA SCOTIA — FLETCHER. 325

" Very nearly on the strike they are again met with on a
brook on the property of Mr. James Small, on the road to Little
Harbour, Merigomish. The one locality is as much as three
miles from the other ; but the botryoidal concretionary limestone
layers in both are so peculiar and so strikingly like in appear-
ance, and in their relation to any overlying seam of coal, that
no doubt can be entertained of their equivalence ; and I have no
evidence yet to shew that the mass is here of less volume than
farther to the west."

Another exposure of these rocks, 1,372 feet in thickness,
occurs at Alrna mills bridge on the Middle River, beyond which
they reappear in Rogers Hill and Mount DaJhousie at the
eastern end of the Cobequid range, also at the head of River
John, and in considerable thickness on Waugh River. To the
eastward, they have been followed through Quarry and Olding
Islands to the Big Island of Merigomish.

O CT

In tracing them west from New Glasgow to the Middle
Eiver, they appear along the northern flank of Waters Hill to
directly overlie the altered Devonian rocks of that locality.
Exposures would seem to give direct proof of the unconformity
of the conglomerate with the rocks of the Millstone Grit, which
unconformity we should naturally have expected from the pre-
sence of pebbles derived from rocks of the latter division in the
former.1

Of these rocks Gesner wrote thus in 1836 :2 " The red sand-
stone * * * covering the great coal basin of Pictou * * *
is often associated with beds of conglomerate * * * these
towards the surface seem to pass insensibly into a red soft sand-
stone, which from its ready disintegration yields a rich and
fertile soil." At the same time, however, he correlates the
Mountain Limestone with the Permian of Caribou Harbour and
Pictou Island ; while certain fossils of that limestone at Economy
and Merio-omish he calls Belemnites and Ammonites.

1 Logan and Hartley— Geol. Survey Report 1866-69, pages 13 to 15 and 64 to 66.
1 Geology and Mineralogy of Nova Scotia, pages 141, 134, 126 and 29.

326 GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE

In 1845, Sir J. W. Dawson described these rocks as follows r
" The coal measures of the Albion Mines, on the banks of the East
River of Pictou * * * are succeeded, in ascending order*
by a great bed of coarse conglomerate, which, as it marks a
violent interruption of the processes which had accumulated the
great beds of coal, shale and ironstone beneath, and as it is.
succeeded by rocks of a character very different from that of
these older coal measures, forms a well-marked boundary, which
we may consider as the commencement of the Newer Coal
Formation.1"

The fossils of this latter, he adds, show the continuance of
the coal flora with terrestrial vertebrate animals through a
thickness of 5,000 feet or more.

This description indicates what seems to be the true struc-
ture ; yet in 18532 he prefers to regard the conglomerate as a
gravel beach contemporaneous with the Albion coal measures,,
which it "guarded against the disturbing causes which in other
localities prevented the continuous accumulation of coal."

In 186b8 he argues in favor of the theory that " the New
Glasgow conglomerate is to be regarded as an anomalous and
peculiar modification of the Millstone Grit, succeeded in ascend-
ing order on the south side by the great coal measuress of the
Albion Mines, and on the north by a depauperated representative
of these beds, graduating upward into the Upper or Newer Coal
measures ;" and in 18764 again assigns it to "the upper part of
the Millstone Grit or lower part of the Middle Coal formation,'*
the depauperated Albion mines measures being the 660 feet next
overlying, succeeded conformably by the " Upper Coal formation."

The physical conditions under which a beach of shingle could
accumulate 1,600 feet of coarse conglomerate contemporary and
in juxtaposition with 5,567 feet of beds of entirely different
character, including more than 2,000 feet of black bituminous

1 Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, Vol. I., p. 322. ,Cf. also
Trans. N. S. Inst. Nat. Sc., Vol. II., p. 95, Vol. II., Part 3, page 155.

1 Geol. Jour. X, pp. 42-47 ; Acadian Geology, First Edition, 1855, p. 249.
» Acadian Geology. Second Edition, pp. 322-326.
4 Suppl. Acad. Geol., pp. 34 and 49.

IN NOVA SCOTIA— FLETCHER. 327

shales and many large seams of coal, seemed so anomalous, that
Sir William Logan naturally set aside as untenable the supposi-
tion of contemporaneity with the Albion coal measures, tacitly
classified the conglomerate beneath the latter, but coloured it on
his map of the Pictou coal field as distinct from both the Coal
Measures and the Millstone Grit. " No rocks," he says,1 " having
the typical character of this conglomerate appear to have been
brought to the surface by either the south or the east fault, or
by Mr. Hartley's west fault. This does not, however, disprove
their possible presence beneath the whole of the productive area
abutting against these faults and constituting the base of Dr,
Dawson's Middle Coal formation, as inferred by Mr. Hartley."

" This inference seems to be supported by the presence,
immediately on the summit of the conglomerate, of the coal
seam worked by Mr. William Eraser (Moose) for the burning of
his limestone, and another said to overlie it; and although the
occurrence of these is not strengthened by the known existence
of any of the larger workable coal seams in the Pictou synclinal,
the deposits of which have yet to be examined by the officers of
the Survey, it would not be surprising to find, in a country
apparently so broken by great dislocations, that the absence of
the larger seams may be due to a structure resulting from some
of these faults, of as important a character as those affecting
the productive part of the field above New Glasgow."

Since 1869, however, the district referred to has been closely
examined by the Geological Survey, shown to be broken by no
great dislocations, but on the contrary to be occupied by
undisturbed strata which conformably overlie the conglomerate
and are equivalent to those above the productive coal measures
of the Joggins section. A glance at the geological map of this
district will suffice to show that the conglomerate is the natural
base of the Upper Carboniferous or Permian rocks of Merigomish,
Pictou, River John and Wangh River.

In support of Sir J. W. Dawson's later views it has been
stated that the fossils of the strata immediately overlying the

1 Geol. Surv. Rep. for 1866-69, page 52.

328 GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE

conglomerate at the East River more nearly resemble those of
the coal measures of McLellan Brook than those from Permian
rocks.1 But when we remember the vagaries of this method of
classification with regard to fossils from the Millstone Grit in
Cape Breton2 and in New Brunswick,8 and the sinking similarity
of fossils from these formations both in Europe and America,
too much importance need not b^ attached to such a statement

Mr. R. G. Haliburton in 18675 inferred, on evidence obtained
from explorations undertaken for the practical purpose of dis-
covering and developing coal mines, that discoveries similar to
those already made must soon be made in other directions. He
described the Pictou coal basin as constituting two distinct
basins, the one lying to the southward and the other to the
northward of the conglomerate, which, according to him, under-
lies the productive measures. But he could find no equivalents
of the southern coal measures in the northern basin and assumes
that they were always distinct basins, and now differ from their
measures having been formed under different circumstances.

On the assumption that the conglomerate was the base of a
coal formation, the productive portion of which was concealed
by unconformity and might be reached, a borehole was in 1876
put down 734 feet, under the direction of Sir Win. Dawson, at
Sutherland Point on the East River below New Glasgow. No
such coal measures were, however, found to intervene.

In 1893, Mr. FT. S. Poole, whose intimate knowledge of
the field is the result of many years of close observation and
study,8 discussed the geological position of the New Glasgow
Conglomerate in a paper on the Pictou coal field, classifying it
as the base of his Permian series while pointing out that it
has an interest of a practical character in connection with the

1 Trans. N. S. Inst, Sc. Vol. X. Session 1899-1900. p. 178; Sum. Rep. Geol. Surv. 1897,
p. 134.

'Geol. Survey Report for 1874-75, page 192.

1 Geol. Sur. Can. Report for 1872-73, page 222 and subsequent reports and maps.

4 Geol. Mag., London, May 9, 1900 ; Acadian Geology, p. 283 ; Trans. N. S. Inst. Sc.
Vol X, p. 235.

8 Trans. N. S. Inst. Sc., Vol. II, Part 1. p. 93 and Vol. II, Part 3, p. 155.

8 Tranr. N. S. Inst. So., Ser. 2, Vol. I, Part 3, p. 240.

IN KOVA SCOTIA — FLETCHER. 329

possible extension of the coal seams beneath it. He showed
clearly that there is no recognized unconformity between the-
Millstone Grit and Coal Measures in Nova Scotia, that no beds
equivalent to the conglomerate are known in the southwest part
of the Pictou field, where the Millstone Grit is best exposed in
regular sequence under the coal measures, ami that the supposi-
tion that " the underlying strata of the Richardson seam rested
upon the conglomerate dipping to the southward,"1 which largely
led Dawson to put the New Glasgow Conglomerate at the base
of the coal measures, arose from an entire misconception of the
relation of this seam, (which lies high up in the coal measures,
1129 feet above the main seam), to the north fault.

Mr. Poole showed further that although the conglomerate
apparently coincides in dip with the strata underlying it in the
district ot Pine Tree, its unconformity near the East River west
of New Glasgow is indisputable. In the country about Green-
hill, the Middle River and Plainfield, it rests only on metamor-
phic and Lower Carboniferous rocks. The Devonian rocks of
Waters Hill " are certainly not overlaid by deposits of an age
intermediate between Lower Carboniferous and the conglom-
erate," while the latter contains pebbles of strata evidently
newer than the Lower Carboniferous, regarded by Logan as
Millstone Grit, by Poole, as possibly upper coal measures.

The coal measures are nowhere known to rest on the con-
glomerate and " the strata overlying it are, with the exception
of the till, the highest in the field," comparatively little dis-
turbed, everywhere comformable to it and in some parts of their
course holding fossils supposed to be characteristic of the upper
Carboniferous or Permian and Triassic. On the other hand, the
unconformity found below it is characteristic of the contact of
the base of those so-called Permo-Carboniferous rocks, as shown
on Dr. Ells' geological map of Cumberland County.1

> Trans. N. S. Inst. Sc.. Vol. II, Part 1, p. 96 and Vol. II, Part 2. p. 156.

* O. S. C. Report for 1885, Part E.

NOTE— Reference to the m>vp accompanying Mr. Pooled paper on the Picto i Coal
Field. Tran«. N. S. Inst. Sc.. vol. viii. (2nd ser.. vol. 1). p 223, will facilitate the under-
standing of these notes on the New Glasgow Conglomerate On Mr. Poole a map the
limits of that Conglomerate and of the other rock-formations of the coal-Held are well
defined.

IT. — DESCRIPTION OF TRACKS FBOM THE FINE-GRAINED SILICEOUS

MUDSTONES OF THE KNOYDART FORMATION (EO-DEVONIAN)

OF AKTIGONISH COUNTY, XOVA ScoTiA.1 — BY H. M. AMI,
M. A., D. Sc., F. G. S., of the Geological Survey of
Canada.

(Read May ISth, 1901.)

ICHTHYOIDICHNITES ACADIENSIS, n. sp.
Plate no. 2.

1897, Protichnites carbonarius, Fletcher, (partim) Annual Report, Geol. Survey
of Canada, new series Vol. 2, p. 68 P.

These tracks are arranged in pairs and indicate an animal
possessing bilateral symmetry with powers of locomotion and
suspension in water without leaving a trail or mark of the body
proper. They were evidently made by some fin or spine-like
appendage attached to the body of the organism, which may
have been that of an acanthodian or other early form of fish
existing in the early Devonian lake, sea or estuaries of Nova
Scotia.

There are eight pairs of tracks preserved on one slab showing
seven completed strides, steps or series of advances. They con-
sist of two more or less parallel linear depressions, which spread
slightly anteriorly in the direction of progress or advance for-
ward, accompanied posteriorly by two somewhat raised ridges
or monticules, the result of the accumulation of the once soft
fine mud or sediment by the fine or spine-like pointed appendage
in the forward motion of advance. As preserved, the eight
pairs of tracks indicate that at the time they were made the
animal took a turn to the left and changed the direction of its
course by an angle of thirty-eight degrees.

1 Published with the permission of the Director of the Geol. Survey of Canada.

(330)

TRANS. N. S. INST. SC., VOL. X.

PLATE II.

ICHTHYOIDICHNITES ACADIENSIS, N. SP.

(TO ILLUSTRATE PAPER BY DR. H. M. AMI.)

Face p. jjo.

DESCRIPTION OF DEVONIAN TRACKS, ETC. — AMI.

331

The impression or track made by the left fin or spine appears
slightly in advance of that made \)y the right appendage in all
the eight pairs preserved on the type specimen, which seems to
indicate that the creature used its appendages in locomotion in
-a slightly alternating manner, striking the mud with the left
appendage first. The average distance in advance of the left
imprint or track from the right is between three and four milli-
metres measured in a direction at right angles to the course
taken by the organism from the apices of the monticules.

The slabs on which these tracks are preserved consists of a
thin-bedded, fine-grained, greenish and chocolate-red coloured,
siliceous sandstone with numerous minute glistening scales and
pai tides of mica along the divisional planes of stratification.

The following table is prepared with a view of giving the
number of pairs of tracks preserved on the type-specimen, the
•exact measurements of the linear depressions or imprints made
by the spine-like appendages as well as the distances between
them, the relative size and distance between each and the
•different pairs of the monticules measured from their apices,
together with the length of the stride :

MEASUREMENTS IN MILLIMETRES TAKKX FROM TYPE-SPECIMEN.

PAIRS OF TRACKS.

Length of
left linear
depressions

Length of
right linear
depressions

Greatest
diameter of
the left
monticules.

Greatest
diameter of
the right
monticules.

Distance
between the
monticules.

First pair

5.00 mm.

2.50 mm.

2.50 mm.

1.50 mm.

5.00 mm.

Second pair

5.50 mm.

1.50 mm.

2.50 mm.

1.50 mm.

4.00 mm.

Third pair

4.50 mm.

3.25 mm.

3.50 mm.

1.25 mm.

5.00 mm.

Fourth pair

4.25 mm.

1.50 mm.

2.00 mm.

1.00 mm.

8.00 mm.

Fifth pair

6.50 mm.

4.00 mm.

2.75 mm.

1.00mm.

5.50 mm.

Sixth pair

4.50 mm.

3.50 mm.

2.00 mm.

2.00 mm.

7.00 mm.

Seventh pair

5.00 mm.

3.75 mm.

2.50 mm.

1.75 mm.

5.50 mm.

Eighth pair

5.00 mm.

2.25 mm.

2.25 mm.

1.75 mm.

5.50 mm.

332

DESCRIPTION OF DEVONIAN TRACKS, ETC. — AMI.

TABLE SHOWING LENGTH OF STRIDE, STEP, OR SPACE BETWEEN IMPRESSIONS

MEASURED FROM THE APICES OF THE MONTICULES.

PAIRS OP
TRACKS.

Between
1st & 2nd

Between
2nd & 3rd.

Between
3rd & 4th

Between
4th & 5th.

Between
5th & 6th.

Between

6th & 7th.

Between
7th & 8th.

Left

18.00mm.

16 00mm

14 50mm

17 00mm

17 50 mm

Right

17.50mm.

15 50 mm

16 50mm

17 00mm

17 50mm

It will thus be seen that the length of steps or space between
the impressions are at comparatively equal distances, and in the
neighbourhood of seventeen millimetres. The sixth and seventh
pairs of tracks are the most normal in the series.

These tracks are unlike any recorded from North America.,,
and the name Ichthyoidichnites Aca<liensis is suggested with a
view of indicating the localit}' where the tracks were found, as
well as the possible organism that made it.

Locality and Horizon : — A few yards below the earth and
stone bridge over the Me Arras Brook along the shore or post-
road near the schoolhouse at McArras Brook, P. O., Antigonish
Co.. Nova Scotia; in the dark red and drab, evenly-bedded, fine-
grained siliceous and jointed mudstones of the Knoydart forma-
tion of early Devonian (Eo-Devonian) age, supposed to be the
equivalents of the Lower Cornstone or old Red Sandstone of
Herefordshire, England. [Between stations No. 5 and No 6 of
Mr. Hugh Fletcher's section]1 and a few feet below the bed of
tufaceous rock 'holding Pteraspis, Cephalaspis and Psammosteus.

Collector :— Mr. T. C. Weston, F. G. S. A. Date : August Gth,
1886. The sp^cim^n is now deposited in, and forms part of the
collection of Knoydart fossils in the Museum of the Geological
Survey of Canada.

Geological Survey of Canada,

Ottawa, April 19th, 1901.

1 See Can. Rec. Science, Vol. viii, No. 5, p. 303, Montreal, January loth, 1901.

III. — ON DRIFT ICE AS AN ERODING AND TRANSPORTING AGENT.
-BY W. H. PREST, Bedford, N. S.

(Communicated lUh January, 1901.)

Introductory.

In the following notes, although I may not be able to bring
forward any new facts of importance, I can at least ad'l my
testimony to that of those who have studkd in the same line.

Having had an opportunity, while in Labrador, during the
the past summer, of observing the action of drift ice as an erod-
ing and transporting agent, I submit the following, prefaced by
a few notes on the elevation now going on there.

On the north-fast coast of Labrador, where my observations
were made, the action of purely drift ice is more marked than
anywhere else in the same latitude; and during the melting and
transportation of the northern ice there is abundant opportunity
for gathering information relating to the subject.

During the short Arctic summer the northern ocean pours
forth a tremendous stream of ice. This stream, borne southward
on the bosom of an Arctic current, sweeps fiom side to side, the
sport of ever-changing winds, like the tail of a gigantic kite.
Sometimes this stream or tail is swept out into the Atlantic,
then against the rock-bound coast of Labrador, and often through
the Straits of Belle Isle into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The
field- or pan-ice inshore, and the bergs in deeper water, here
exhibit their capabilities under many varying conditions. Their
action in deep and shoal waters, or on steep shores and sub-
merped ridges, and their power as erosive and transporting agents,
can be seen to advantage. There are several reasons why this
c^ast should be considered the best known station for the obser-
vance of the effects of drift ice : —

1st. Its convenient nearness to civilization and the source
of ice supply.

(333)

334 OX DRIFT ICE AS AN ERODING

2nd. The direct and continuous action of ice upon a coast
line nearly 1000 miles in length, and reaching from the source
of supply almost to the limit of its drift.

3rd. The phenomenon of a rapidly rising coast line.

My enforced detention here by ice blockades drew my atten-
tion to these advantages for study and evinced the close connec-
tion between present conditions in Labrador and the later
Pleistocene of the Maritime Provinces.

General Appearance.

The shore along the northern side of the Straits of Belle Isle
is generally sloping, sometimes steeply so, rising at a shrrt
distance into high rounded or rugged hills. On these slopes the
sea has written both history and prophecy, the record being
marked by ancient shore lines. Here and there, as at Henley
Harbor, bold cliffs line the shore and give variety to what would
otherwise be an intensely monotonous waste of rock and moss.
North of Battle Harbor the mountains approach the shore more
closely, and being of a rugged outline and pierced by deep inlets,
and often faced with precipices, present a wild and forbidding
appearance. Along the whole outer coast, for nearly 100 miles
north of the straits, a tree is not to be seen. The islands
especially are barren and storm-swept to a degree that makps
this coast more like perfect desolation than any other place in
the same latitude. The fine doep harbors, however, partly com-
pensate for the extreme desolation of their surroundings.
Thence, onward to Hamilton Inlet, the coast is lower; and long
gentle slopes run up from the sea, and the hillsides are often
clothed with trees. The headlands and islands, however, con-
tinue bare, even moss being absent on some of the most exposed
points and headlands. Such a thing as tillable soil, as we know
it in Nova Scotia, I have not seen on this barren shore. Only
on the flowage plains of the large rivers is there any soil worthy
of the name ; and on this ice-scoured shore its presence would
be strange indeed. There, sin2e the last glacial eposh, through

AND TRANSPORTING AGENT— PREST. 335

subsidence and elevation, the annual stream of Arctic ice has
washed and scoured until every vestige of lighter material has-
been slowly but surely swept into the ocean.

Elevation of Land.

A condition that has influenced, somewhat, ice erosion ia
Labrador, is the elevation now in progress in that region. The
resulting raised beaches and escarpments on the Straits of Belle
Isle and elsewhere, are the most marked of the minor features
of that coast. These evidences of former subsidence extend from
the valley of the St. Lawrence around the whole coast of
Labrador and Arctic America. The subsidence reached its
greatest development in the St. Lawrence Valley and on the
shores of Hudson Bay, where ancient shore lines are seen at
heights of 600 to 875 feet The highest of the shore lines of
south-eastern Labrador are between 150 arid 180 feet above the
sea level. They are four to seven in number, of which the
second is the most prominent and shows the longest period of
rest for the elevating agencies. Then follows the third, while
the fourth and fifth are barely traceable in some places. These
escarpments do not mark the full number of pauses in elevation
on the Labrador coast, but only the principal ones. Mr. Low, of
the Canadian Geological Survey staff, noticed 14 small terraces
within a few yards at the mouth of the Northwest River,
Hamilton Inlet. This process is also shared in by the west
coast of Newfoundland, the evidence of which can be seen
almost to Cape Ray. On this coast, however, there appears to
be a pivot or centre of oscillation, as the south coast of New-
foundland is sharing in the subsidence now general from Prince
Edward Island to New Jersey.

The rise in Labrador does not seem to have been gradual, but
to have proceeded in a series of pulsations which, apparently, are
still going on. In fact the recent rise of " Mad Moll," a ledge of
Sandwich Bay, seems to indicate the present as another period
of elevation. The oldest inhabitants claim to remember when
this ledge was visible only at low water. Now it is seldom

336 ON DRIFT ICE AS AN ERODING

covered even by spring tides. The first appearance of " Mad
Moll" was a noteable event in the life of the preceding genera-
tion. The north or main passage of Sandwick Bay, not many
years ago navigable for small vessels, is now impassable for any-
thing but boats At Mullen's Cove and Black Island, raised
beaches are seen composed almost entirely of mussel shells, some
of them unbroken and clean as if thrown up yesterday. These
shell deposits are of course seen only in the more sheltered coves
where they are protected from the grinding action of drift ice.
The rate of elevation here indicated is considerably greater than
some recent estimates, and I would like to hear new evidence on
this point.

One noticeable point is, that the hillsides above the escarp-
ments show the same smooth and storm-swept appearance as
between and below them, as if they had been subject to the same
influences and wear by drift ice. Whether the upper escarp-
ment marks the limit of subsidence or not, the natural inference
seems to be, that a gradual and regular elevation of a sloping
exposed surface, especially when comparatively rapid, leaves no
traces of ice action. The retiring sea and ice washes off and
carries to lower levels the debris formerly covering the solid
rock. Only when the downward movement is arrested, does it
form escarpments and beaches, and the fact that no escarpments
nor beaches are seen above the highest shore line is no proof
that the sea level had not once been higher. Neither on nor
around any of the hills near Battle Harbor and Cape Charles
(some of which are 700 feet high), is there any sign of glacial
debris ; and had it once been there it does not seem possible
that either land-slides or fluvatile action could have banished it
so thoroughly from both hill and valley.

The raised beaches are seen only in sheltered bays where not
exposed to the possibility of being swept away by water or
landslides from above, or intense ice action from the sea below.

A. C. Low, from observations on Hudson Straits, supposes
that part of the coast to have come to a standstill. But on the
Straits of Belle Isle the last escarpment seems to be rapidly
advancing beyond the level of mean tide.

AND TRANSPORTING AGENT — PREST. 337

Drift Ice as an Eroding Agent.

A great part of the erosion now acknowledged as due to
other causes has often been ascribed to drift ice. Formerly
great stress was placed on erosion by drift ice, particularly by
icebergs as in opposition to drift ice. No doubt some erosion
was actually effected, but that its traces in the form of striations
are still retained above the sea level is very doubtful.

In the official reports of some of the Canadian Geological
Survey staff, and also in the writings of other geologists, we can
trace a gradual conversion from the old theory to the new, in
which ice-action is confined almost solely to the polishing out of
former inequalities and striae In some of the latest reports,
erosion by drift ice is considered possible only under exceptional
circumstances. The cause is often proved by circumstantial
evidence, or entered with a mark of interogation. It is also
admitted that only where a low point or ridge is exposed to an
ice jam forced over it by a storm, is striation possible, and then
only when the ridge can also be reached by stones to act as
graving tools.

Some of the results of my observations on ice action are as
follows: Ice action on a steeply sloping shore occurs with an
onward rush of water carrying immense masses of ice 5 to 15
feet in thickness. When reflex action begins the ice is poised
for a few seconds on the rocks until the water drains partly
away. Then, being deprived of support, it slides back with a
tremendous plunge into the next advancing wave, dragging with
it into deep water such rock fragments as it may have been able
to reach. And what is very important, these rock fragments
are never carried forward again ; for the next wave lifts the ice
pans forward, high over every obstruction. The scoring, if any,
in this case is done while the ice mass is sliding into the water
with stones beneath it, as it exerts little downward pressure
when rising with the rush of water. Where exposed to the
Atlantic swell, ice pans 15 feet thick and 50 feet in diameter
are often carried forward through a perpendicular distance of

338 ON DRIFT ICE AS AN ERODING

25 feet, sweeping everything clean before them. The result is,
that in very few places in Labrador are there any boulder ridges
such as we see in Nova Scotia. Therefore, these latter can
hardly have been the product of exactly the same conditions as
are present in Labrador.

Ice action on ridges, shoals and low points, consists of an
onward rush of ice as described above, but the ice in front is left
poised on the ridge until pushed forward by other ice masses
brought in by succeeding waves. Loose stones moved on those
nearly flat or slightly sloping surfaces are nearly always rolled,
and not pushed. But any stones caught beneath the ice, act as
gravers and score the rock over which they slide. Striae made
by stones in such a position are easily distinguished from the
straight scratches left by retiring ice on a sloping shore, and
also from striae of acknowledged glacial origin. Such striae are
sometimes curved owing to the swinging of the ice mass and
consequent change of course of the graver beneath. But they
often form a furrow of which different parts run in different
directions. This latter is owing to irregular and repeated pushes
from ice in the rear.

Another form of marking is made when a large quartz or
granite boulder is rolled on a soft slate bottom. It then produces
a series of notches and irregular scratches.

But it must not be forgotten that the first ice thrown up in
the spring usually cleans off the debris previously gathered,
after which it is exposed to months of continuous wear by ice,
sand, and water. And should such striae be covered by a layer
of debris, this is certain to be worked over to a great extent
before being swept into deep water, or thrown beyond the reach
of the highest tides. Therefore, the preservation of striae in
such positions seems to be well nigh impossible, except on the
inner side of the ridge or point, where its formation is extremely
doubtful.

There are, however, two classes of marine striae which are
not usually polished out.

AND TRANSPORTING AGENT — PREST. 339

To one class belong the scratches caused by the expansion of
harbor ice holding large stones which are pushed up from shoal
water. These are most prominent in the best protected positions,
where it appears impossible for glaciers or drift ice to act.

The other class of marine striae is formed by large boulders
lying usually at high watermark, and which have been rolled
down from frost-shattered cliffs near by. They are pushed back
by ice jams or by ice hurled against them in a scorm, and move
a foot or a few inches at a time. These strite are partly pro-
tected from obliteration by the boulder itself.

In regard to the question of erosion by icebergs, the first
point to be considered is whether bergs carry stones in positions,
suitable for eroding.

Observers in the far north, as well as those who have exam-
ined glaciers in more temperate latitudes, maintain that debris
falls into cracks, or is lodged on the surface of those ice masses
and are then carried to sea when the bergs are detached. But
it is plain that stones attached to the sides and bottoms would
melt off during their long voyage, and this contention is sup-
ported by much negative evidence. Although I saw many
overturned bergs I saw no stones attached. I therefore feel
compelled to fall back on the theory that bergs striate the sea
bottom only by bringing their great weight to bear on loose
rocks. Should such striae have been formed before the old shore-
lines were raised to their present positions, they could not
possibly have emerged above the polishing influence of the field
ice., Being formed only in the positions afterward exposed to
the wear of pan ice. I am thoroughly convinced that such a
phenomenon asstrise by ice-bergs does not exist above the sea level.

A rising coast as in Labrador, exposes a well worn rock
bottom, smoothed by ice action during the preceding subsidence ;
and in an exposed position all protecting debris is speedily-
washed into deep water, and oil signs of berg erosion obliterated.
A sinking coast carries its strife with it, if such striae can be
retained long enough to get below the intense ice action seen ia
Labrador.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XL TRANS. X.

340 DRIFT ICE AS AN ERODING

Finally some of the most exposed situations show no signs
of abrasion by floating ice. Such are the Magdalen Islands and
Labrador, although in the latter place I have made special search
for such evidence. And though sea-borne ice may be counted
on as an eroding agent of moderate possibilities, as a factor in
the production of existing continental striations it can be allowed
only a very minor position, if indeed it cannot be altogether
eliminated.

Transportation of Debris by Sea-borne Ice.

It has been maintained by some of our foremost geologists,
that the Grand Banks of Newfoundland as well as the banks
off the Nova Scotia coast are chiefly of sub-Arctic origin.
Concerning this, questions like the following may arise in the
mind of an inquirer : If so, where are the moraines, the certain
results of glacial transportation from the provinces mentioned ?
What has become of all the debris carried from these provinces
when the river valleys were excavated, and when they stood at
a higher level than now ?* Also, is the quantity of material
brought south equal to the formation of such immense accumu-
lations ?

I do not know that any very extended observations have
been made to find out to what extent this debris is being trans-
ported. Several observers in the polar regions have noticed
large quantities of loose stones and earthy matter on pan ice or
attached to icebergs, notably, Scoresby, Wilkes, and Sir John
Ross. Based on these statements, many investigators have given
great prominence to the transporting power of Arctic ice, and
write as if earth-laden ice was a common sight off the New-
foundland and Labrador coasts. But of those who have given
their time to the question, I know of none who have made
actual observation among the drift ice the basis of their theories.
Only by getting a fair idea of the quantity of debris remaining
on the ice toward the close of its long voyage, can a just opinion
be given of its capabilities as a transporting agent.

1 See papers by W. H. Prestin Transactions of N. S. Institute of Science, 1891-92,
page 143 ; 1895-96, page 153.

AND TRANSPORTING AGENT — PREST. 341

I think that a great mistake is made in making no allowance
for the melting of drift ice by water and air during its 1000 or
2000 miles journey to the temperate zone. When we reflect
that icebergs 300 feet in height are common in the Arctic
regions, and that very few of these are seen off the Newfound-
land and Labrador coasts, the waste must be enormous. Many
thousand tons of ice from the exterior of the bergs, containing,
of course, the greater part of the debris, have been dissolved by
air and water or have been washed away by the waves and surf
of these stormy seas near their starting point. Icebergs, of
which I saw several hundred from 40 to 200 feet high, were
washed as clean as surf and melting water could wash them
Overturned bergs showed the same cleanly condition. Icebergs
excavated to a dept of 100 feet by wave-washed caverns showed
the purest and most beautiful blue, untinged by the slightest
impurity. This melting process which is done chiefly by the
sea, is so rapid at the water's edge that before they reach the
Straits of Belle Isle many of the smaller bergs assume the form
of gigantic umbrellas and finally topple over. These ice
umbrellas, by the way, are one of the most fantastic sights of
the northern seas. Often the caps are 30 to 60 feet in diameter
with a stem 3 to 6 feet thick, and 5 to 15 feet high. They do
not appear to be always perfectly poised, but the immense weight
of the lower portion keeps the upper part erect. And this ice
is always free from impurities.

In regard to field or pan ice, I have examined it from high
hills with a powerful glass, and have chopped my way through
it in an open boat, but have very seldom seen a discoloured pan.

The only ice-borne debris worthy of mention is that frozen
to the bottom of field or pan ice while grounded on shoals at
low tide. Sand or mud is frozen to the bottom; then at high
tide this is covered by a layer of pure ice, which process is often
repeated. Though the probabilities are that nearly all shoal-
water ice from the far north will be inter-stratified with debris
yet the fact is that an exceedingly small part of what came
under my observation was thus stratified. Though watching

342 DRIFT ICE AS AN ERODING

for many days the upturned edges of the ice floes as they were
driven on shore, I saw very few with debris thus frozen in. The
deposits seen by me were often very unequally laid on, and
frequently absent near the bottom, where they naturally should
be. Sometimes an overturned ice pan showed sand, but for the
old idea that field ice obtained most of its debris from overhang-
ing precipices I could find no evidence.

Conclusions.

After having spent two months surrounded by ice fields, and
often beset on all sides with its difficulties, I have concluded
that very little of all the debris seen on the ice in polar regions
ever reaches the latitude of the Straits of Belle Isle, and also
that the Grand Banks are only receiving a fraction of the amount
of material formerly supposed. Consequently the Banks from-
Newfoundland westward aie almost solely the products of the
period of the greatest extension of ice erosion when the source
of the debris was our own provinces. It appears, therefore,
that those submerged banks are but the marine representatives
of the sand dunes and flats of New Jersey, Long Island, Cape
Cod and other places, and are principally the natural result of
greatly prolonged wave action on true glacial moraines ; with,,
however, this difference, that while the western deposits were
formed almost solely from the detritus from Apalachian and
local glaciers, the eastern have been added to in the later Pleis-
tocene by an Arctic current. The paucity of transported material
on the ice in the latitude of the Straits of Belle Isle convinces
me that it takes but a short time for storm and surf to clean
thoroughly all the ice brought down by the Greenland current.
Therefore, we cannot look farther north than Eastern Labrador
and Newfoundland for the source of any debris that may have
been added to the Grand and Sable Island Banks. In regard to
Sable Island, a recent paper by Dr. A. H. MacKay, on a fresh
water sponge found there, may furnish food for speculation as
to its origin. This, however, I do not think would affect my
conclusions. The sponge, if not an evolution from a marine

AND TRANSPORTING AGENT— PREST. 343

form, may have been transported from the continent in a block
of river ice.

As to the period of this age of transportation, it probably
coincided with the retirement of the continental ice-cap and the
elevation of Canada and the Arctic regions. Before this, the
glacier ice was shed directly into the ocean in front. The
elevation of the polar sea-bottom probably greatly strengthened
the otherwise weak Greenland current, thus turning the debris-

o

laden Labrador and Newfoundland ice to the southward.

In connection with this, the beautifully precise theories of
oceanic currents do not seem to apply fully to the Labrador
and other northern currents, as the constant outpouring of polar
waters is not met by an equal inflow. Even the most northern
branch of the Gulf Stream is stopped at Spitzbergan, and returns
by way of the east coast of Greenland, apparently forced to do
so by the current which carried the " Fram " in a southwesterly
direction. The rapid rise of the north Polar regions seems to
•contribute largely to all the currents which flow outward from
that point. The great depth of the Polar ocean as proved by
Nansen would supply the surplus water needed, through the
•constant rise of its bottom.

With the increasing amelioration of the climate of the north
temperate zone, came the gradual retirement of the Labrador
glaciers and the consequent cessation of the supply of the build-
ing material to the Newfoundland banks. Therefore, the trans-
portation of sea-borne detritus has been gradually lessening
owing to the retirement of the source of ice supply, in spite of
the fact that the power of the Greenland current had been
probably increasing until it reached its maximum a few centuries
ago, when the flow of ice to the southward was much larger
than it is now.

The building, or increase of submarine banks, is doubtless still
going on, but the work in now confined to the neighbourhood of
Greenland and northern Labrador.

How long this ice-bearing Arctic current will continue to
flow, must depend largely en the rise of the land in the polar

344 DRIFT ICE AS AN ERODING AND TRANSPORTING AGENT — PREST.

regions. The narrow channels through which the water flows
from the north and northwest have been gradually getting
shallower and narrower, and should the present elevating process
continue the force and bulk of this current must be greatly
lessened, if not altogether extinguished.

There is much room for investigation in this subject ; but
circumstances compel me to leave to my more professional
brethren the work of proving or disproving fully the conclusions
I have arrived at.

IV. — STIGMARIA STRUCTURE. — BY HENRY S. POOLE, F. R. S. C.

F. G. S., &c.

(Read March 18th, 1901.)

The specimen of Stigmaria here exhibited is from the Coal
Measures at Stellarton, and from a fireclay bed between two of
the working coal seams. The original fragment, about 9 inches
long and 3.5 by 2.25 in cross-section, was given to the Geological
Survey Museum with a preferred right to a section should the
piece ever be cut. This was done on the advice of the Director,
the late Dr. Dawson. who also sent another section to Mr.
Kidston of Stirling, Scotland.

The special interest in the specimen, lies in the exceptionally
well preserved condition of the heart or medulla due to infiltration,
the whole root having been converted into clay ironstone. The
piece here shown presents a cross section only of the beautifully
preserved scalariform tissue of the medulla which is placed below
the centre of the root and nearest the concave underside. Mr.
Kidston in his acknowledgment to Dr. Dawson, remarked that
the section was one of considerable interest from a botanical
point of view, shewing more numerous and finely radiating
wedges of vascular tissue than other stigmaria roots he has lately
been studying.

Stigmaria, when first found, were considered a distinct g^nus
but are now known to be but the roots ot Sigillaria. The late
Mr. R. Brown of Sydney Mines, Cape Breton, found in the cliffs
near the pits a tree trunk that clearly showed the passage of the
Sigillaria stem into the Stigmaria roots, and similar specimens
have been found elsewhere.

The Sigillaria, Mr. Carruthers describes as consisting of a
central cellular pith or medulla surrounded by a sheath consist-
ing wholly of scalariform vessels, the whole enveloped in an

(345)

346 STIGMAIilA STRUCTURE— POOLE.

external cortical mass of cellular tissue. The medullary sheath
is perforated by meshes for the passage outwards of the vascular
bundles which go to the aerial appendages (the leaves and
branches), but there are no true medullary rays. Hence he
classes the Sigillaria as Cryptogamic and Lycopodiaceous.

The external surface of Stigmaria is without the vertical and
parallel fluting between the pits or shallow tubercles distinctive
of the Sigillaria, and in this particular specimen the pits are
rounder), depressed and widely separated and not sharply defined.
No rootlets were attached. When found the fire-clay bed had
weathered away from the specimen.

The internal structure exhibits a central pith surrounded by
a sheath of scalariform vessels, the wh >lo enclosed in a cellular
envelope. Dr. A. H. MacKay, our President, kindly undertook
to examine this specimen, and I am glad to be able to append
his description with reproductions of photographs of magnified

portions of the section.

I would merely add that it is now believed that such piths as
this specimen illustrates have, when separated from their
envelope, given rise to fossils classed as Sternbergia, which are
described as comprising cylindrical transversely marked casts of
pith}' cylinders of other plants, belonging chiefly to conifers, but
referable also to sigillaria.

Dr. MacKay s Description of the Section.

The section is transverse, about 21mm thick, black, with infil-
trations of brown to white in some crack-like lines, and is
polished where cut. This polished black surface (clay iron-
stone) can be scratched by the point of a hard steel knife, but
does not effervesce under a drop of hydrochloric acid. The
whitish infiltrated lines referred to effervesce as if calciferous.

The contour of the section is an irregular oval with rectan-
gular axes respectively about 95mm and 60mm- An approxi-
mately concentric crack-like line partly infiltrated with whitish
material runs around more than two-thirds of the periphery,
about 4mm from the edge, suggesting an exterior bark layer.

TRANS. N. S. INST. SC., VOL. X.

PLATE III.

Photograph by DR. \. H. MAcKxv.
TRANSVERSE SECTION OF VASCULAR CORE OF STIGMARIA.

Magnified about 3% diameters.
(TO ILLUSTRATE PAPER BY MR. POOLE.)
Face p. 3*6.

TRANS. N. S. INSTITUTE SCM VOL. X.

PLATE IV.

Photograph by DR. A. H.

TRANSVERSE SECTION OF VASCULAR BUNDLE FROM CORE
OF STIGMARIA.

Magnified 16 diameters.

(TO ILLUSTRATE PAPER BY MR. POOLE.)
Face p. j<f6.

STIGMARIA STRUCTURE — POOLE. 347

Eccentrically placed within the dark and apparently struc-
turless surface, about 30mm from one side and less than ten from
the opposite side, is a nearly circular band of over thirty slightly
wedge-shaped bundles of rectangular cells, surrounding a struc-
tureless central circular area like the rest of the section surface
about llmm in diameter.

The bundles of cells are in radial direction from 6 to 7mm in
length and from less than 1 to about 2mm in breadth, containing
from 5 to 15 radial rows of cells, each having about 40 or more
rectangular ce)ls in a row. The bundles are separated by the
uniform black material within and without the ring of bundles
of cells, each bundle being separated by a space of more or less
than lmm-

The lumen of the cell is white (a calcium carbonate infiltra-
tion), rectangular, 100 microns by 175 being a common size.
The cell wall is black and thin, less than 10 microns thick.
The smaller cells are often nearly square. 50 to 75 microns, but
the tendency is to a greater length radially than in breadth.
•Cells 125 microns by 200 are the largest commonly found. The
<jells become larger generally, as they recede from the centre,
and the widening of the bundles in the same direction is also
caused by the appearance of interstitial rows of cells, so that
the bundle has a few more rows of cells across the wider than
across the narrower end, as a rule.

V. — THE STAR-NOSED MOLE (Condylura cristata) — ITS BREED-
ING HABITS, ETC. — BY WATSON L. BISHOP, Dartmouth, N. S.

(Read March 18th, 1901.)

The Star-Nosed Mole occurs from Nova Scotia to Indiana and
northward, but as far as I am aware is not anywhere abundant.
The soil where it is most commonly found is sedimentary
and quite near to water. Intervale or meadow land is almost
invariably selected as its place of abode. In such a locality, during
the spring and autumn months, little mounds of black soil are
thrown up in zig-zag rows marking the course of its subterra-
nean roadways.

To dig one of these little fellows out of the ground is no easy
task, although the holes are quite easily found and readily
followed ; there are so many angles and turns that one's labours
are seldom rewarded with as much as a glimpse of the little
creatures.

On May 22nd, 1890, while having some apple trees planted, I
had the good luck to find a nest containing four of the young.

The locality where the nest was found was two miles south
of Kentville in King's County, Nova Scotia. The land had been
cleared of small forest trees several years before and had grown
up with grass and was mowed every year.

The particular spot where the nest was found was a
little hillock or cradlehill which had been formed appar-
ently by a tree having been blown down. When the roots had
rotted away a small dry mound of soft black sedimentary
earth was formed, and in this the nest was built. This mound
was high enough to be out of reach of storm-water during wet
weather.

The excavation containing the nest was ten inches below the
surface, and was made in a circular form, seven inches in
diameter. The nest was built of old dry grass, and was very

(348)

STAR-NOSED MOLE : ITS BREEDING HARITS. — BISHOP.

compact aud neatly made. Although the mound contained a
complete network of roadways, no earth was thrown to the
surface within ten feet of the nest.

The young were probably ten days old, the fur just begin-
ning to start, which gave the skin a dark brown colour. They
were at once taken and preserved in spirits, and have since been
presented to the Provincial Museum at Halifax (accession,
no. 149.)

VI. — RECENT DEVELOPMENTS WITH THE CALYX DRILL IN
THE NICTAUX IRON FIELD.— BY D'ARCY WEATHERBE, C. E ,
Mines Dept. of N. 8., A. M. Can. Soc. C. E.

(Received August 20th, 1901.)

Introductory : Geological and Historical.

It would be as well perhaps for the benefit of those
unacquainted with this district to preface the following account
with a few descriptive remarks on its general geology. The
measures which accompany the ferriferous deposits here are
generally considered to be of Lower Devonian age: The
area with which the operations herein to be described
deal, may be said to be bounded as follows : — On the north
by the Triassic red sandstones which underlie the con-
temporaneous trap diorites of the North Mountain range; on
the west by a band of granite extending northerly, partly
across the valley between the North and South Mountain, and
lying about a mile west of the Nictaux River. This latter is
not strictly speaking a geological boundary, as the same veins
of ore have been followed west of the granite, and are possibly
overlain by it. On the south alonsj the summit ridge of the
South Mountain begins that enormous mass of granite which
extends half way to the Atlantic Ocean, and effectually prevents
prospecting in that direction. Towards the east, the boundary,
as far as these veins are concerned, may be said at present to be
indcfiiite, though they can be traced several miles east of the
Nictaux River.

Until 1891 little practical attention had been devoted to the
prospecting of the region, and with the exception of the early
attempts at mining and smelting, no development of any import-
ance had been undertaken. In that year (1891), the Torbrook
Iron Co. commenced operations on a vein of red hematite

(350)

DEVELOPMENTS WITH THE CALYX DRILL— WEATHERBE. 351

averaging about 9 feet in thickness and showing from various
tests the following analyses:*

Metallic
Iron.

Silica.

Phosphorus.

Sulphur.

Lime, Mang.
and Alumina.

52.44
60.72

11.00
10.28

1.66
.17

none
trace

8.64

59.00
61 38

12.86
26.50

trace

trace

trace

47.<'0
55 74

10.12
14.97

1.08
„ trace

trace
trace

5.30

74.59

17.21

.18

.23

11.57

5.93

.17

.08

57 93

.16

.09

59.86

none

.36

From which it will be seen that though rather asilicious ore,
it is low in sulphur and phosphorus, and high in metallic iron.

The vein dips at an angle of about 80° to the south at the
surface, and flattens to 45° at a depth of 350 feet (as proved by
the workings of the Torbrook Iron Co.), and the general strike
throughout the district is about N. 62 E.

This company in 1896 completed their contracts, and no
immediate market offering elsewhere, they closed their mine,
after having shfpped in the live years 135,000 tons of ore to the
Londonderry and Ferrona furnaces. When closed down, th&
mine showed large quantities of good ore in sight, and a vein
from 6 ft. to 12 ft. in thickness.

About 65 feet to the south of this vein lies another deposit of
red hematite, called from its fossiliferous character the " Shell
ore vein," which from several analyses runs about 54% metallic
iron. This vein measures about 6 to 9 feet in width. The
fossil shells occuring in this bed consist of varieties of Spirifer,
Strophomena, A try pa, Avicula, Bellerophon, etc., etc.

North of the vein worked by the above company, and about
a mile west of their mines, another vein five feet in width has
been found, which at this point presents in common with most of
the iron deposits in the district, different characteristics, as it is-

These analyses are from a paper on the Iron Ores of Nictaux, by Dr. EL
Gilpin, Nova Scotian Institute Science— session 1894-95.

352 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS WITH THE CALYX DRILL

found further to the west. The most marked of these changes

~

is the magnetic property probabl}* imposed by the inetamorphism
nduced by the proximity of the granite. On the abandonment
of the mines, the district remained for some years undisturbed,
a state from which it was aroused early in 1900 by the energetic
prospecting operations of a syndicate of Halifax gentlemen, who
it is understood control practically all of the ground described
above, which may now under the light of recent developments
be fairly termed the Torbrook orNjctaux "synclinal."

Description of Drill.

A few words may not be amiss as to the parts and working
of this drill. It cuts a 4 or 5 inch core as desired, and the
satisfactory results attained may be judged by the fact that the
writer recently saw several complete unbroken cores 5 inches in
diameter and measuring nearly 7 feet in length. An idea of
the valuable record secured by such a core is gathered from the
fact that they contained slate, quartzite, and magnetite with
crystallized geodes of quartz and stringers of calcspar, all
dipping obliquely across the vertical axis of the core.

The apparatus consists of an upright boiler and compound
engine (about 12 h. p.), drum, chain and sprocket wheels
driving shaft and bevel wheel, rotating device, drill head and
hoisting derrick.

The drill proper consists of the " cutter," a hollow steel
cylinder with peculiarly shaped teeth at the bottom, set alter-
nately at approaching and diverging angles with its axis. This is
screwed to the bottom of the core barrel which is simply an iron
tube of the same diameter into which the core passes when cut

In hard rock, instead of the cutter and core-barrel, the shot
bit and barrel, a fifteen foot steel cylinder of the same diameter
is used, and under its edges are fed chilled steel shot, and the
friction caused cuts the core.

The drill rods are of 3 in. hollow steel, and are screwed by
means of a " reducing plug " into the upper end of the core-
barrel.

IN THE NICTAUX IRON FIELD — WEATHERBE. 353

The "calyx," or as it has been aptly termed the "chip
barrel," is also a tube of the same diameter as the core-barrel,
and surrounds the lower drill lod. ]t rests on the reducing plug,
and is open at the upper end. Water being fed down the drill
rods, passes out at the bottom of the hole, and is forced up
between the rock wall and the core-barrel and calyx.
This water naturally carries with it the sand and rock chips
formed during the process of cutting the core, until when the
top of the calyx is reached, the pressure is lessened by the space
being increased, and the chips fall into the calyx, thus forming
a perfect, though inverted record of the formation passed
through. To the top of the pulley-head is screwed the feed pipe,
and to the bottom a square rotating rod which is screwed to the
highest drill rod, and fitting through the rotating device is held
by a clutch, and thus the motion is given to the drill.

Method of Operation.

After setting up the drill, the first operatiou is to insert the
pipe-casing — an iron tube slightly larger in diameter than the
outside of the core-barrel — through the loose surface material,
and a short distance into the bed rock.

This is done by placing on top of the pipe-casing a wooden
block (about 12" thick), and using a pounder worked with the
hoisting gear. A heavy, flanged iron pipe, weighing probably
400 Ibs. has been used for this purpose with success. Great
care must be taken to keep the piping plumb, as mistakes at this
stage will probably necessitate abandoning the hole.

Another error that is sometimes made, and which by experi-
ence has been corrected here, is the digging of a shaft in which
to sink the casing. Even with the greatest care being exercised,
it is found that though the shaft outside the pipe may be filled
and thoroughly tamped, there is great liability of the hole being
blocked, and of the top of the calyx catching on withdrawal of
the drill.

Having successfully placed in position the casing, the cutter,
and core-barrel, or if the rock is very hard, the shot bit is intro-

354 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS WITH THE CALYX DRILL.

duced, and the engine set going. When a sufficient depth s
reached the calyx chip-cup is coupled on and the rods success-
ively placed between the chip-cup rod and the square
rotating rod.

It occasionally happens that a rod-coupling breaks at a depth
below the surface. The portion of the drill above the break is
withdrawn, and a threaded cone called a " tap " is inserted on
the end of a rod, and screwed into the broken coupling and the
bottom portion is withdrawn.

When the core breaks accidentally it immediately becomes
known by the riding motion of the drill, and the drill runner
should be on the alert at such a time to prevent much weight
being placed on the drill head, as the couplings at once become
endangered.

When it is desired to withdraw or break a core, the motion is
stopped, and a heavy flush of water is forced down the drill
rods, coarse gravel being at the same time fed with it. The
gravel becomes jammed between the core and core barrel, thus
holding the former firmly ; the pipe wrenches are now placed on
the square rotating rod at the top, and with the aid of the engine
a sharp twist is given to the drill, and the core breaks.

In the event of a piece of the. core splitting off below, and it
being found impossible to re-insert the cutter or shot-bit, the
chopping-bit, a steel head like a blunt chisel is placed on the end
of a rod, and repeatedly dropped into the hole, breaking up the
offending piece of rock.

As little water as possible is used with the. shot, as it tends
to waste by depositing it in the chip cup, or bringing it up to
the surface. On the other hand, with the cutter in softer
rock all the water possible is used.

Records of Boring.

Boring was commenced on October 13th, 1900, on the " Ber-
teaux " Farm, at Torbrook, the drill being under the charge of
Mr. Burnett, the drill company's expert.

IN THE N1CTAUX IRON FIELD — WEATHKRBE. 355

A position was chosen for the first hole at a point about 12
feet south of the hanging wall of the "Shell Ore" vein. This
vein, as mentioned, has been proved for a long distance east and
west, and the dip at this point was supposed to be about 85° to
to the south. Thus the vein should have been tapped at a
depth of about 137 feet from the surface; but this, as will be
shown by the records given below, did not prove to be the case.

In this first hole the following section was exhibited:

/

No. 1 Hole.

Material.

Feet.

Detritus,

clay and loose

boulders

12

Reddish

shale (soft and

friable)

48

Total

60

At this depth, 60 feet from the surface, the hole was aban-
doned in consequence of its being blocked by boulders getting
jammed in it under the metal pipe casing, which it seems had
not been properly inserted below the surface of the bed rock.
A shaft had been dug for its insertion.

The next hole, 15 feet to the eastward of no. 1, was the
same distance from the supposed position of the hanging wall.
Owing to a delay in the arrival of piping, it was not commenced
uniil Oct. 2Gth. From this date it was sunk continuously till
Nov. 2lst, when a depth of 201 feet was reached.

PKOC. & TKANS. N. S. INST. Sci , VOL. X. TRANS. Y.

350

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS WITH THE CALYX DRILL

The following section shows all particulars with regard to
the boring:

No. 2 Hole.

Date.

No. of Hours
of Boring.

Material.

Feet.

Oc
X

t. 26
27 .
29..
30 ..
31 ..
v. 1 . .
2
3 .'.
5 ..
6 ..
7 ..
8 ..
9 ..
10 ..
12 ..
13 ..
14 ..
15 ..
16 ..
17 ..
19 ..
20 ..

1

34

42

5*

64
74
8"
5
10
8J
8
9
10
9A
8A

84
94
10
9
9
14A
(i

R(

B

I!

V

sdSha

<

<

ue sla
rd br

ry ha

les .

4
17
22
24
19
7
6
6

54
10

7
7 '
6
7
6

54
7
64

5*
6
13
4

and blu

3 slate

te

oken slates with quartz

rdbl

ue sla

tes and spar stringers . . .

Total . . .

171^

201

It will be noticed how the rate of boring decreased when the
drills left the soft shales, and entered the hard blue slate, and
although not shown in the section, bands of quartzite were also
met with. As seen by the record the cores would seem to show
that the vein had feathered out into the shales or that the angle
of dip was much more nearly vertical than at first assumed. In
support of this latter theory it must be stated that the cores
showed the dip of the rock to be practically vertical throughout.

The drill was now moved over to a position 12 feet to the
north or actually on the hanging wall of the vein, and No. 3
hole was commenced on Nov. 26th. It should be mentioned
that Mr. Burnett (the Drill Company's expert) left towards the
end of October, and Mr. Phinney took charge of the drill on

IN THE NICTAUX IRON FIELD — WE.ATHERBE.

357

behalf of the Government. The drill was finally drawn from
this hole on Dec. 27th, after operating about 396 hours.

No. 3 Hole.

Material.

Feet.

Surface clay and boulders

10

Slate ond soft shales

3

Red shales with spots of spar and hematite

13

Blue slate and spar (very hard)

3

Red shale (hematite in spots)

13

Blue and red shale (hematite in streaks)

14

Soft red shale (hematite)

30

Slate and brownish ore

37

(Hematite with red shale)

27 -V

Brown ore, shsle with spar (very hard)

11"

" " blue and red shale (hard)

19^

Red and brownish ores

3

" and slate

28

Brown ore and slate

15^

Softish shales showing spar stringers

102

Total

330

Ou examining the record above, it will be seen that the drill
encountered ore from a depth of 13 feet at intervals down to
228 feet. At the same time it is a fact that no solid vein of any
thickness was passed through in this hole, though the ore
actually brought up iu the core-barrel appeared to be of good
quality, and to run high in metallic iron.

Unfortunately it is a disadvantage of the large sizes
of this drill that with its present arrangement of high top
gear, it cannot be manipulated successfully at an inclination to
the vertical, and the results of this hole leave one in consider-
able doubt as to whether any thing of value has been proven here.

Owing to a peculiarity of the strike of the measures in this
part of the district, it appears that they are subjected to a series
of twists, or that short faults occur at intervals, throwing the
portions affected to the south, when followed in a westerly
direction. It may be therefore, that this hole has been sunk

358

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS WITH THE CALYX DRILL

exactly at one of these points where the strata would probably
be much distoited and broken. However, be that as it may, it
will be adm itted that the following attempts on the part of the
operators have proved eminently successful, not only in estab-
lishing the fact that large bodies of ore exist; but in assisting
to prove that the formation here is a true synclinal basin.

The position for this hole was ch osen after some deliberation,
and it proved to be a happy one. At a point on F. Wheelock's
farm, about 2 miles to the west of the above workings, the
three veins spoken of in the first part of the paper, were proved
on the surface, and the drill was set up 40 feet to the south of
the most southerly of the three (the " Shell Ore " vein). (See
Plate V.) The crops of the other two were respectively 84 feet,
and 124 feet northerly from the drill. The three veins were
intersected at the depths shown, and by reference to the sectional
view, it will be seen that they are widening and flattening as
they descend. Boring commenced here on Jan. 3, 1901, and
finished on April, the drill operating for K60 hours:

No. 4 Hole.

Dip.

Material Bored Through.

Thick-
ness in
Feet.

Total No. of
feet from
surface.

84°

Surface material . . .

14

14

76

Red and blue slates with bands of quartzite ( very hard)
Brown hematite ore (showing fossil shells)

98
38

112
150

Slates as above

176£

326£

70°

Brownish hematite ore

38 A

365

Slates and small seams of brown ore

75

440

76°

Brown ore

36

476

Slates and bands of ouartzite

144

620

On the completion of this very satisfactory boring, the drill
was moved over on the south side of the valley, formed by the
Torbrook or Black River, and boring was commenced well up
on the South Mountain ridge. The drill was situated close to a
vein of compact magnetite, whose surface measurements gave
the writer the following results taken from north to south :

IN THE NICTAUX IRON FIELD — WEATHERBE.

359

Material.

Feet.

Inches.

Feet,

Inches.

Ore

5

Slute

i>

10

Ore

1

Slate

1

1

Ore ...

1

10

Total

7

10

3

11

It should be stated that at the time of measurement the
width given in the above section shows all the ground then
opened, but it is possible that 7 feet 10 inches may not repre-
sent the extreme width of ore in the vein.

This and other deposits on the south side of the valley have
been traced on the surface for long distances, and analyses of
these southern beds show the following results : *

No.

Metallic
Iron.

Silica.

Phosphorous.

Sulphur.

Manganese .

Titanic
Acid .

1
2

3
4
5

54.70
42.80
54.84
53.10
55.40

11.6

10.39
10.80
14.10
20.35

.66
3.96
1.40

.70
.50

.007
.01
.02
.14

".52
.41
.24

.28

1.44

Thus it appears that their characteristics are practically the
same as the beds elsewhere in the district.
No. 5 hole produced a section as follows :

No. 5 Hole.

Dip.

Hours
of
Boring.

Material.

Thick-
ness in
Feet.

Total
Measure-
ment from
surface.

Remarks.

Surface

5

5

Casing

changes
from 87°

99i
17"
53

Dark slate, loose and broken
Slate mixed with iron
Ore

50
7
30

55
62
92

put down.
Rock
generally

to 83° at

&i

68

Slate mixed with iron
L)ark slates

4
27

96
123

loose and
broken.

hole.

19
76

Slate mixed witn iron
Ore

7
29

130
159

36
51

Slate mixed with iron

13
20

172
192

SeeGilpin, Iron Ores Nictaux, Nova Scotian Institute Science— session 1894-95.

360 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE NICTAUX IRON FIELD.

From this it is obvious that two veins were passed through,
both of which flatten with depth. (See Plate V.)

Plate VI is a plan showing the surface features of the locality.

A few notes collected by the writer relative to the rate and
cost of boring with this drill as proved by practical experience
may be found interesting :

In boring the 620 feet hole on the Wheelock Farm 1560
hours were employed, which time included that taken up in the
drawing of rods, sharpening bits and cutters, and other minor
delays, so that fairly deducting say 25% of this, it would leave
620 feet of core produced in 1170 hours of actual drilling, or an
average rate of boring was attained of over 6 inches per hour.

The cost of boring this hole may be very approximately set
down at $2.00 per foot, made np as follows :

Labor $670.00

Management 250 . 00

Fuel ; 195.00

Lighting, oil, waste, etc 35 .00

Shot 50.00

Wear and tear . ... 50.00

$1250.00
In considering the above, it must be borne in mind that the

o *

rock here though composed of slates and shales, is very hard,
and often intercalated with quart/ite, and highly ferruginous
bands; and further, though the drill runner is a competent
man, all the conditions at first were new, and consequently both
the cost and rate of boring will probably be materially reduced
as the operations progress.

In order to show that this hole was a severe test, the record
of no. 2 may be taken in comparison, and it will be seen that on
the average- over 1 foot per hour was bored, while from 4 feet
to 6 feet per hour was done. in the softer portions of the rock.

The cost of boring in this softer rock is also reduced by the
fact that the cutter is used instead of shot, which latter method
is not only expensive in the consumption of shot but also of shot
barrel, which costs about $2.25 per foot, and wears away at the
rate of about 1 foot of barrel in 50 feet of rock.

BOD

VII. — THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE GASPEREAU VALLEY,
NOVA SCOTIA.— BY PROFESSOR ERNEST HAYCOCK, Acadia

College, Wolfville, N. S.

^(Received for publication 18th Dec., 1901.)

A line drawn across the eastern portion of King's County
from the Bay of Fundy to the southeast county line, a distance
of about eighteen miles in a southeasterly direction, will cross
three distinct bands of country which, with slight local variations,
run parallel with the coast and represent the soil and surface of
that part of Nova Scotia bordering this bay on the southeast and
draining into its waters.

From the shore the surface of the land rises for about four
miles in gentle undulating slopes to the crest of the ridge, which
marks the boundary of this northernmost band. At short
intervals the brooks have cut deep trenches at right angles to
the coastline, and these, from their steep sides and generally
abrupt character, are locally known as vaults Thus the surface,
though sloping but gently seaward, is very uneven and the
drainage good. The soil is dark grey, thin und stony, scarcely
concealing, in many places, the underlying rock, and largely made
up of its more resistant constituents. Where not boggy the land
is thus subject to drouth, and adapted to pasturage rather than
to tillage.

The underlying rock is an ancient lava-flow, or a mass formed
by successive lava-flows, and the peculiar features of the soil and
surface arc the natural results of the chemical and mechanical
action of subaerial forces upon its gently sloping sheets.

From the crest of the ridge the surface drops suddenly away
to 'an undulating plain but little above sea-level, about .seven
miles wide, made up of alternate strips of level marsh and
smoothed and rounded ridges. When one leaves behind the
rough roads, lined with the rail fences of stony pasture and
hay lands or flanked by steep slopes with their scanty covering

(361)

362 THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE

of spruce and fir, and emerges upon the crest of the ridge, this
lovely plain lies spread out beneath like a picture. With white
Jure clouds sailing across a blue sky, patches of shadow and
sunlight sweeping across the squares and parallelograms of deep
brown ploughed-land, pink and white apple-orchards and grass-
green marsh to the purple slopes of tidal flats and blue sparkling
waters of the basin, this plain presents a picture to the onlooker
that is in the strongest contrast to the rough hard lines and
sombre coloring of the land and life at his back ; for the life
necessarily reflects the character of the land whence it draws
its sustenance.

Here again, to the underlying rock, hidden by its own debris
except where tidal scour has swept away the crumbling fragments
from the shore, is due the soil and surface that makes Cornwallis
the garden of Nova Scotia. It is red sandstone, in some parts
coarse and gravelly but mainly fine-grained, rapidly breaking up
with rain and frost and forming a sandy loam particularly
adapted to the growth of root-crops and fruit trees.

The southern edge of this plain meets the northern edge of a
gentle slope which, within a mile or two, rises to an older loftier
plain some five hundred or six hundred feet above the sea.
Although carved and sculptured along its borders by water-
courses, the uniform elevation of the detached ridges and the
main mass, and the regular and even sky-line when viewed from
the crest of the North Mountain opposite, point to it as a base-
leveled and then elevated and dissected plain, and to the essential
unity of the separated ridges and the central portion.

This third band stretches for about seven miles to, and then
beyond, the southeast county line. Towards the eastern border
of the county it descends somewhat and is abruptly truncated
by the Avon River, forming the well-known Horton Bluffs. Its
south westetn extension forms the central watershed of the
province.

Within this strip the surface is generally level, with low hills,
sluggish drainage and abundant lakes in the inner portions, steep
slopes, rapid streams and deep water-courses along the borders-

GASPEREAU VALLEY, NOVA SCOTIA — HAYCOCK. 363

The soil is more variable. Boulder-clay lies in thin sheets or
in thick masses in some places on the North Mountain ; it is
more abundant in the Cornwallis Valley ; but it reaches its
greatest development along the bordering slopes and in the minor
depressions of the elevated southern band. This deposit almost
always forms deep and heavy but workable soils. Along the
lower slopes it is made up in large part of debris dragged and
pushed from the adjacent valley, and to that extent it possesses
the fertility of the valley soils ; but farther south the slates
make up a larger and larger portion and the soils are correspond-
ingly poorer. Where the boulder-clay is wanting, the underlying
slates are hare or thinly covered by a worthless soil ; while
farther south towards the granite country the surface is thickly
strewn with granite boulders and wholly given over to forest
growth.

The town of Wolfville lie* at the foot of the northern slope
of this elevated band of country, but the slate ridge to the south
of the town, though essentially a part of the plain above des-
cribed, is cut off from it by a river valley and narrow strip of
fertile land which duplicates in every essential character the
broader Cornwallis Valley to the north. The Gaspereau Valley is
as essentially an outlying fragment of the Cornwallis Valley as
the Wolfville ridge is an outlier and separated fragment of the
broad southern tableland.

This ridge, some three hundred feet in height behind the town
of Wolfville, gradually rises towards the southwest and within
a few miles becomes level with and a part of the plain to the
southeast. To the northeast it descends with long and convex
sweeps, sinking beneath the marsh at Lower Horton. From its
southern brow of slate the observer looks down upon a silvery
stream winding through double lines of drooping willows, or
through level intervales rising into broad low terraces, which
sweep with many a curve up into the bounding hills, the whole
presenting a scene of quiet and tranquil beauty that the broader
valley cannot equal.

Opposite Wolfville the valley bottom is rather more than a
mile in width. Eastwardly, as the enclosing northern ridge

36-fc THE GEOLOGICAL HISTOR\' OF THE

becomes less pronounced, drurnlin-like hills of boulder-clay
increasing in abundance encroach from both sides upon the
valley and veneer the eastward extension of the table-land
beyond. Westwardly this table-land curves gradually in around
the head of the valley which, within a few miles, becomes a deep
gorge within steep walls. of slate.

These topographic features are in part dependant on the
characters of the underlying geological formations ; in part they
depend on structural features, subsequent to the deposition, and
independent of the characteristics, of the rocks.

In the region under discussion these rocks present consider-
able variety in texture and composition. Passing over the newer
and unconsolidated sediments, that form the marine marshes,
the terrace gravels, and the hills and sheets of boulder-clay, to
the foundation rocks of the district, we find uppermost and
resting against the lower slopes of the ridge at Wolfville a dull
red sandstone composed of a variable mixture of grains of
different minerals. Rounded particles of white and colorless
quartz appear to predominate, and minute gleaming flakes of
both muscovite and biotite are scattered through the rock.
Bright red specks are numerous, and according to their relative
abundance the sandstone varies considerably in coloring between
red and grey. The cementing matter is calcite, which is present
in considerable quantity filling the interstices between the other
minerals and effervescing briskly when the rock is touched
with acid The size of the grains also varies considerably and
rounded pebbles of white vein quartz are not uncommon. The
stratification is uneven and the beds dip north at angles of from
10 to 12 degrees.

This sandstone, possessing the same general characters, but
varying in texture and in the relative abundance o£ its constitu-
ents, underlies the whole Cornwallis Valley and extends
westwardly for upwards of 90 miles. Eastwardly it forms a
narrow interrupted band along the margin of the Basin of Minas,
which appears to lie in a slight depression of its surface.

Near Wolfville this formation, which is regarded as of

GASPEREAU VALI.EY, NOVA SCOTIA— HAYCOCK. 365

Triassic age, is "only found along the base of the hills. Deeply
buried by heavy accumulations of boulder-clay it forms the first
low rise or step, but is not known to ascend the slopes of the
southern tableland. Its contact with the rocks that form these
slopes is not visible here, but the inclination of the beds is such
that their continuation would carry them up over, and thus indi-
cate that they rest upon, the next appearing beds to the south.*

These older beds, dipping northeasterly at angles of from 12
to 20 degrees, first appear at or near the surface within a few
hundred yards of the above mentioned Triassic sandstone. They
are dark grey, drab, purplish and black shales, in thin layers,
containing abundant plant remains. These shales become more
sandy to the south, passing first into fine-grained sandstones
which separate in weathering into remarkably uniform thin
laminae. These in turn are underlaid by coarser and coarser
grey sandstones, with occasional interstratified beds of black
mud-rock and occasional layers of conglomerate, in more and
more variable uneven or lenticular strata, as the crest of the ridge
and the base of the formation are approached. This whole series
is inclined to the northeast at angles varying from 5 to 20 degrees.
If the strata were continued, this inclination would carry them
up over the slates which are the next appearing rocks to the
south.

The contact of the sandstone and slate is concealed by surface
mateiial, but the above mentioned geographical and structural
relations point to the sandstones as the newer rocks. The occur-
rence of pebbles and partial!}' worn fragments of slate in the
coarse sandstone beds, and the unmetamorphosed condition of
the occasional black carbonaceous layers very near the contact
with the slate, are convincing proofs of the subsequent deposition
of the sandstone and shale series.

This sandstone is largely made up of sub-angular, grey,
translucent, quartz grains. Muscovite is common, and the
presence of small ironstained cavities points to the former presence

*At Avonport, this unconformable superposition is revealed by a fault which brings
up the base of these red beds to the surface of the beach.

366 THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY" OF THE

of some iron-containing mineral, now decomposed and in part
removed. Soft slate-colored specks and pieces, which are doubt-
less fragments of the slate formation beneath, are also present.
The cementing matter of the rock is a light grey powdery
substance, probably decomposed feldspar, which appears to be
quite easily removed by the mechanical action of rain. There
is no effervescence with acids, showing the absence of carbonates.
Because of its constituent minerals the rock is light grey in
color, although the joint surfaces are frequently stained a dark
red by iron oxide. This is a further indication of removal of
iron oxide ; and the absence of carbon from these coarse and
somewhat porous sandstones when compared with its abundance
in the accompanying fine-grained argillaceous beds, is suggestive
of the mutual decomposition of the organic substances and iron-
containing minerals, and their subsequent removal in solution by
the underground water.

The prevalent red color of the overlying Triassic red sand-
stones, which, without doubt, were derived in large part from
these older sandstones, is probably due to the subsequent oxida-
tion and precipitation of these same dissolved iron compounds.

Because of their relations to adjacent formations, and their
fossil contents, this series of beds has been regarded as of Lower
Carboniferous and even of Devonian age.*

A short distance south of the last outcrop of sandstone,
greenish-grey compact slates with clean-cut joint planes come
to the surface in many places along the summit of the ridge,
and generally underlie the country to the south and west. At
this locality the cleavage is nearly vertical and the beds
dip northwesterly at angles of from 20 to 70 degrees. Several
almost vertical veins of quartz, from one to two feet in thickness,
lie in the slate along the southern brow of the ridge approxi-
mately parallel with the cleavage planes of the rock.

Just below the southern brow, a narrow band of sandstone,
exactly similar to the coarser beds of Carboniferous sandstone
above described, crops out at the top of the slope. Its elevation

*See H. M. Ami, Summary Report of the Geol. Surv. Dept. for 1898. Pp. 180-182.

GASPEUEAU VALLEY, NOVA SCOTIA — HAYCOCK. 307

above the Gaspereau Valley is about 200 feet, and, like the similar
beds on the northern slope, it dips to the northeast or directly
into the hill, and seemingly must pass beneath the slate. That it
does not is proved by the presence of fragments of the slate and
vein quartz in the sandstone itself, and some other explanation
of this relation must be sought.

Along the lower slopes to the south, and in the bottom of
the Gaspereau Valley, the underlying rock is concealed by sur-
face material ; but along its south side the brooks from the
southein tableland have plowed deep furrows at right angles to
the valley in the surface material and rock formations beneath,
and have revealed the whole structure from the top of the
terraces which flank the river to the level of the high land beyond.
The first rocks to appear from beneath the terraces in the
Angus brook are grey or brown sandy shales in rather thin
layers. Their surfaces are abundantly ripple-marked, the ridges
of the ripples running generally north 70° west. Worm trails
are common ; and the surfaces frequently bear the imprints of
stems of Lepidodendra. These beds dip to the north at an angle
of about 20 degrees, and the brooks flow directly across them
at right angles to the strike and in the direction of the
dip, so that in stepping from bed to bed as they successively
come out from beneath each other, one is passing to older and
older strata while ascending the brook and the slope. There is
a good deal of local variation in the direction of the strike and
in the amount of inclination from the horizontal. An average
strike, however, would be a little north of west ; an average
dip about 15 degrees in a general direction a little east of north.

The beds vary in composition from sandy to argillaceous and
carbonaceous shales, and in coloring from grey or brown to black
according to the abundance of organic matter and the degree to
which they have been open to the passage of underground water.
Here, as in the series of strata lying on the north slope of the
Wolfville ridge, the finer sediments are succeeded by coarser and
coarser materials with occasional interstratifiod layers of black
mud-rock as we pass down into the series and up the slope of the

368 THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE

hill, until we come to massive beds of coarse irregularly bedded
sandstone with sub-angular quartz grains powdery cementing
matter and all the conspicuous features of the sandstones form-
ing the basal members of the Horton series before described.

In the Duncan Brook the sandstones finally change, rather
abruptly, in character, a soft reddish-brown substance appearing
and making up a larger and larger portion of the rock, until it
passes at a well-defined boundary, into a soft argillaceous rock
with bright ribbon-like bands of coloring where the edges of
highly inclined green, brown and drab layers have been smoothed
and rounded by the stream. This rock is evidently the source
of the soft brown constituent of the immediately over-lying
sandstones, and furnishes certain proof that they are newer than
and laid down upon these argillaceous beds.

Cleavage is not well-marked in these underlying clay rocks
at this point, but the bedding is plainly shown by the color
banding and by the occurence of occasional gritty layers. The
dip at the contact is to the southeast, but in passing up the
brook the beds gradually become vertical and then dip to the
northwest, suggesting an overturn. The rocks also change
gradually to compact bluish slates with well-deffned cleavage.

The succession in the next brook to the east is the same, but
the contact of the two formations is concealed by loose material
in the bed of the brook. The argillaceous color-banded beds
are well exposed, dipping to the southeast at an angle of 45
degrees. Dr. Ami has found Dictyonema Websteri in these beds
and considers them as of Silurian age.* Farther south, these are
succeeded by blue slates, as in the Duncan Brook.

The topographic features of the region have been stated to
be due in part to the characteristics of the underlying geological
formations, in part to structural phenomena subsequent to the
deposition, and independent of the characteristics of these rocks.

Wolfville rests at the junction of the slate with the overlying
sandstone. From the town this junction extends eastwardly,
ascending the ridge obliquely to the crest, where it suddenly

"Summary Report of the Geol. Surv. of Canada for year 1893. Pp. 180-182

GASPEREAU VALLEY, NOVA SCOTIA — HAYCOCK. 309

curves to the southwest and just below the brow of the hill con-
tinues along in that direction for about half a mile to the
westernmost outcrop of the sandstone on the north side of the
valley. The next outcrop of sandstone occurs on the opposite
side of the Gaspereau Valley, about a mile and a half to the
southwest, in a brook just west of Gaspereau Village. It is here
about two hundred feet below its last mentioned occurrence on
the brow of the ridge, and its contact with the slate lies within
a few rods of this exposure, as the next watercourse to the
west lies in compact bluish slates. The line of contact next
ascends the slope, but curves eastwardly before reaching the edge
of the southern tableland and extends in that direction for about
three miles, when it again sweeps around southerly, and then
southwesterly, up the valley of the Half-way River.

The slate is tough and resistant, and the country occupied by
it to the southwest of this bounding line presents smooth level
outlines gashed by sudden gorges. The sandstones and shales to
the north and east of it are variable in hardness but relatively
less resistant than the slates, and the country underlaid by these
younger rocks lies, as a rule, at a lower level and presents broadly
undulating outlines.

The Cornwallis Valley has a geological history which has
already been traced out as far as the records have been available
and intelligible to the writer up to the present time.* The
Gaspereau outlier has been subject to the same general changes,
but its separation from the main portion calls for additional
explanation.

If we imagine a vertical plane cutting deep into the earth's
crust and extending north and south from the borders of the
Minas Basin at Wolfville to the edge of the elevated southern
plain, and if the part on the west side were removed so that we
could see the underlying structure of the whole district, the
surface exposures lead us to believe that the rocks in the
geological section thus laid bare are arranged as in the accom-

* " Records of Post-triassic Changes in Kings County, N. S." Transactions of the
Nova Scotian Institute of Science, Vol. X., Session 1899-1900. Pp. 287-302.

370 THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE

panying Plate VII, Fig. 1, in which the horizontal and vertical
distances are represented on the same scale of two inches to one
mile.

The most striking feature of this section is the repetition of
geological formations. The red Triassic sandstone of the margin
of the Basin is underlaid by the shales and sandstones of the
Horton series, which are in turn underlaid at the summit of the
ridge by slates. Upon the corresponding slope on the opposite
side of the valley, shales and sandstones are again underlaid by
slates. The red sandstone is not found in the Gaspereau Valley
along the line of the section.

Several interpretations of the underlying structure are
suggested by the surface indications. The beds are all water-
formed, and all dip to the northern quadrant of the compass, so
that the first and simplest explanation is that they form
successively deposited series, as shown in Fig. 2, the southern-
most slate older than and succeeded unconformably by the
southern series of sandstone and shale, this clipping beneath and
therefore older than the slates of the Wolfville ridge, and these
again unconformably overlaid by the Wolfville sandstone and
shale series, and these again by the calcareous red sandstones of
the Cornwallis Valley.

A brief study of the rocks, however, reveals the fact that the
sandstone and shale formations of both slopes are alike, not only
in mineralogical composition but also in fossil contents, and that
they are merely geographically separated parts of the same for-
mation. If further reasons for rejecting this explanation were
necessary, the slates also possess similar characteristics, and we
know of no way in which the clay-slates of the Wolfville ridge
could have been cleaved and altered while the sedimentary beds
beneath, often as fine in texture, remained unchanged.

A second explanation is that the rocks appearing at the sur-
face are the northern limbs respectively of two anticlines, as
shown in Fig. 3, the joining limb being concealed by the thick
surface deposits of the lower slopes of the north side and bottom
of the Gaspereau Valley.

GASPEREAU VALLEY, NOVA SCOTIA — HAYCOCK. 371

An objection to this view is, that the bit of north-dipping
sandstone on the southern brow of the Wolfville ridge lies where

O

the south-dipping limb of the northern anticline should be
found ; and this explanation must also be rejected.

Still a third explanation remains. The repeated outcrop of
the same set of beds can be accounted for by a theory that is not
in opposition to known facts and even has some special evidence
in its favor. If a fault, concealed by the heavy accummulations
of surface material, is supposed to extend east and west along
the north side of the valley, and the rocks on the north to have
moved upwards relatively to those on the south side of the fault,
as in Fig. 4, the same strata that dip northerly from the southern
side of the valley would be cut off, a mile or more to the north,
along with the formation on which they rest. Erosion would
act more effectively along the elevated surface, and the soft
overlying shales would be quickly removed down to the coarse
and more resistant sandstones, and these even worn through to
the underlying slates.

On the south side of the fault, the relatively lower position
would be less favorable to removal and the softer shales would
remain to furnish evidence of the amount of material that had
been worn away to lay bare the sandstones and slates of the
Wolfville ridge. The northerly dips in the south-sloping surface
of this ridge are what we would expect on this theory.

Some additional facts in support of this explanation exist.
A line of springs lies along the north side of the valley well up
on the slopes of the ridge, and quartz veins a footer more in
thickness, extend along in the same direction, very near the
line of springs. If these springs rise in the line of fracture
caused by the fault, as appears probable, their occurrence is
explicable. The water for these can scarcely be supplied from the
almost bare rock surface of the part of the ridge, or escarpment*
above, but its source must be rather in the more distant and higher
lands to the southwest. A somewhat long underground journey
for the water is thus required, and this is favorable to the removal
of silica from the rocks along the path and its deposition along
PROC. AND TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS.— Z.

372 THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE

the sides of the fissure as the waters approach the surface, giving
rise to the mineral veins that have been mentioned.

If this be the correct explanation, the amount of displacement
that has taken place along the fault can he approximately esti-
mated from the average dip, and the present position and
elevation of corresponding portions of the same formation. This
dip is about 15 degrees, and the horizontal distance between the
outcrop of the coarse carboniferous sandstones on the south side
of the valley, and the outcrop of the same set of beds on the
ridge on the north side, is about two miles ; so that a displace-
ment of about 2,500 feet would be necessary to bring the coarse
basal sandstones that dip beneath the surface on the south side
of the valley to the same elevation on the Wolfville ridge.

The scenic effects of this displacement upon the surface of
this portion of the county, are more conspicuous than those
described as due to the characteristics of the underlying rocks.
By it the harder, more resistant sandstones and compact under-
ing slates are again brought to the surface and produce the
Wolfville ridge. By it a long tongue of the Cornwallis Valley,
with its fertile farms and apple orchards, has been cut off to form
the Gaspereau Valley. If this fault had not occurred, the
broader valley would have swept without a break up to the base
of the main southern table-land beyond, and the most charming
bit of scenery of this portion of Nova Scotia would have no
existence.

There are indications that the movement taking place along
this line of fracture has been exceedingly slow ; that the Gas-
pereau Valley is even more sncient than the Carboniferous
sandstones that rest in it ; that it bordered a loftier land to the
south which, even in that remote time, supported upon its
sheltered slopes and bottom-lands a luxuriant forest of Lepido-
dendra and magnificent ferns whose remains have been partially
preserved in the muddy sediments of an ancient river flowing
from this southern land.

Reasons have been advanced for believing that the quartz
veins of the slate of the Wolfville ridge have been deposited by

GASPEREAU VALLEY, NOVA SCOTIA— HAYCCCK. 373

the action of underground water while finding its way to the
surface through the fissures of the fractured zone of the
Oaspereau fault. These veins, though newer than the slate in
which they occur, are still older than the Carboniferous sand-
stones that overlie them and contain abundant fragments of
the white quartz of which they are composed. If the interpre-
tation of their origin be correct, it follows that the fault along
which they were formed had its beginnings before the Car-
boniferous period. The outlining of the Wolfville ridge was
contemporaneous with the formation of the fault, and its
Pre-Carboniferous origin is thus indicated.

The simplest interpretation of the strip of sandstone dipping
into the southern brow of this ridge is that it was deposited
along the southern shore when the ridge projected eastwards,
as a low point, into the Carboniferous sea. Contemporaneous
bed* of similar material were deposited on the north side of the
point of land. The whole area gradually subsiding, the coarse
sandstones that lined the coast in shallow water crept farther
and farther up the slopes, covering the low point of slate as the
water level rose upon the land. Subsequently, as farther move-
ment along the fault plane took place, these newer beds were
broken and their ends pushed upward along its northern side
until elevated above the sea and laid bare by ages of erosion, we
now see them apparently dipping into the hill of slate along
which they were deposited as approximately horizontal beds
when the hill itself was a low point of land on the coast of a
Carboniferous bay.

The Triassic sandstones have not yet been observed in the
Oaspereau Valley along the line of section, although there seems
to be no good reason for there not being found if they exist
there. A reasonable interpretation of their absence is that when
the Triassic sandstones that occur at corresponding levels on the
north side of the ridge in the Cornwallis Valley were being laid
down as a shallow water formation, along a slowly subsiding
coast, the displacement along this fault plane had not taken place
to its present extent and the land surface south of the fault was

374 THE GEOLOGICAL H1STORY OF THE

relatively higher and thus above sea-level. If subsequently-
submerged and buried by deposits, as seems not unlikely, tln>
beds have been removed along with those that have disappeared
from above the present surface of the Triassic beds to the north.

From the above we have reason to believe that displacement
along this fault began in Pre-Carboniferous times, continued after
the deposition or the Horton series of beds, and had not reached
its present proportions when the Triassic rocks of the valley
were being laid down. There has probably been no perceptible
displacement within recent times, but the slow movement of
elevation or subsidence that separated the broken ends of the
same beds one half a mile in the lapse of time between the
earliest Carboniferous and the Glacial Periods, may still be pro-
ceeding at the same rate and the movement since the Glacial
Period remain unnoticed.

We can scarcely leave the subject without attempting to
decipher some of the faint records of that Palaeozoic valley land
and bay, the traces of which lie, for the most part, beneath the
surface accummulations of more recent geological periods. The
slate was then, as now, a surface rock, along the coast at least,.
as its unconformable contact with the sandstones and the presence
of its fragments among their constituents plainly indicate. The
region was also subsiding, as the passage of coarse shallow-water
sediments up into fine muddy beds, characteristic of deeper,
quieter water as plainly proves. The land lay to the south as
the derivation of the sediments testifies. As the sea advanced,
the coast line must have retreated and its changing outline, for
any particular time, is very difficult to fix. It would seem, how-
ever, that for the time represented by the basal Wolfville
sandstones the coast line must have followed approximately their
present line of contact with the slates, outlined earlier in the
paper, which was then more nearly horizontal ; its present
departure from that level being readily explainable by the
subsequent displacement along the Gaspereau fault plane.

The early existence of the Wolfville ridge and its undoubted
westwardly continuation, would form a barrier then as now to-

GESPEREAU VALLEY, NOVA SCOTIA — HAYCOCK. 375

the direct northward flow of the drainage from that ancient
land ; and this little indentation of the coast line was doubtless
the estuary of a small river. The absence of coarse conglomerates
from the basal sandstones, indicates quiet sheltered waters along
the shores. With the exception of ice-transported material,
the shore deposits of the Minas Basin average about the same in
coarseness as these Lower Carboniferous or Devonian deposits.
This would lead to the inference that the ancient Bay was but
little more extensive than the Minas Basin of to-day, and that
the shores were not exposed to more violent wave action than
the more exposed portions of the borders of the present Basin.

This absence of conglomerates also indicates gentle slopes of
the land, but we can scarcely do more than speculate as to the
character of the interior. The lowest sandstones are evidently
made up of the more or less decomposed constituents of a granitic
rock. The present boundary of the granite country is to the
south, not nearer than from seven to ten miles, and because of
the lowering of the surface of the land by erosion in subsequent
geological times, this boundary must be nearer now than when
these beds were laid down. In what manner all this material
could have been transported from the inland areas whence it
evidently was derived, is a most perplexing problem.

The land was clothed with a luxuriant vegetation, ns the
abundant plant remains testify, but the picture of the life that
inhabited it must be sketched by the palaeontologist. The
Geological Record is not one of living forms alone, but geo-
graphical and scenic features have a histor}" that forms a too-
often overlooked part of that record. This history of the
Oaspereau Valley is but a single instance in the evolution of the
topographic features of the Nova Scotia of to-day. Whether
the facts have been rightly arranged and interpreted, must be
left to the judgment of those who follow ; but the great age of
this valley, and its checkered history, the latest stages of which
have not been looked into, are reminders of the wealth of
material about us for study, and of the exceedingly slow and
labored process by which the landscape has come to be as it to-day.

VIII. — FOSSILS, POSSIBLY TRIASSIC, IN GLACIATED FRAGMENTS
IN THE BOULDER-CLAY OF KINGS COUNTY, N. S. — BY
PROFESSOR ERNEST HAYCOCK, Acadia College, Wolf-
ville, N. S.

(Received for publication, ISth December, 1901.)

The belt of red Triassic sandstones that extends from St.
Mary's Bay to Truro, a distance of one hundred and fifty miles,
has not as yet yielded any fossils

It has, for several years, seemed to me unlikely that living-
things were absent throughout this region when this great series
of water-formed beds, often showing ripple-marks and current-
bedding, was being laid down. It has seemed equally improba-
bly that at no time or place were the conditions favorable for
the preservation of the remains of those living things, if they
were present. For these reasons I have believed that such
remains exist and are likely to be discovered if carefully
searched for.

In many of the finer laj'ers of the red sandstone where it
forms bare red cliffs along the north shore of St. Mary's Bay afc
Rossway, occur spherical greenish-gray blotches with a black
central spot, which vary in size from minute specks to spheres
an inch in diameter. They appear to be due to the original
presence of some organism, the carbon of which has been oxi-
dized from the red oxide of iron which forms the coloring
matter of the beds, producing soluble compounds which have
been removed, leaving a bleached zone surrounding the former
position of the organism.

In beds of the same formation near Pereau, Kings County,
the same bleached spheres were noticed in the sandstone, at
about the same stratigraphical horizon, taking the surface of
contact with the overlying trap as a datum line.

When examining, last summer, the splendid coast section
along the southwest side of Minas Basin between Kingsport and

(376)

FOSSILS IN THE BOULDER-CLAY OF KINGS COUNTY — HAYCOCK. 377

Pereau river, a fragment of a very fine-grained, laminated,
reddish-brown, calcareous shale was noticed on the beach which
when broken open was found to contain beautifully preserved
impressions of small shells that suggested the small bivalve
Crustacea usually known as ostracods. The origin of the frag-
ments was for some time in doubt. Careful search of the north-
dipping beds in the immediate vicinity failed to reveal it, but
several other fragments of the same material, some of which
contained fossils, were found within a mile or two of the place
where the first piece of shale was found.

The surface of the red sandstone is here surmounted by a
rather thick coating of boulder-clay. About midway between
Kingsport point and Pereau river this sheet descends to near
the level of the beach, and is well exposed and accessible to
examination where a small brook meets the shore. A brief
search in this formation brought to light a glaciated fragment
of the same material, which when broken open revealed the same
fossils and the problem of the immediate origin was solved.

The location of the strata from which these fragments were
detached by the ice of the Glacial Period has not been fixed as
yet. The striation of the bed-rock in this county, and the
presence of arnygdaloidal trap from the North Mountain in the
boulder-clay, indicate that the ice moved and brought its load of
clay and stones from the northwest. The source of these frag-
ments must also be to the northwest, but in that direction the
Triassic red sandstone extends to the trap of the North Moun-
tain. Beyond the trap, on the very shore of the Bay. is a newer
formation of greenish calcareous shale ; but a careful study of
every exposed section of these newer beds has revealed no layers
in any respect resembling the fragments in color, composition or
fossil contents, and there is no evidence that they were derived
from that formation. That they were derived from beds on the
Cumberland shore, the more distant New Brunswick coast or
the bottom of the Bay of Fundy is also unlikely, so that we
must look to the Triassic beds intervening between the Kings-
port shore and the North Mountain as the source of the frag-
ments.

378 FOSSILS IN THE BOULDER-CLAY OF KINGS COUNTY— HAYCOCK.

Some internal evidences of this derivation are found in the
fragments themselves. The material differs from the usual red
sandstone beds only in fineness of texture. It contains the
minute spherical blotches that have been described as occurring
in these sandstones at Rossway and Pereau, and the Pereau
locality lies about two miles to the north. Again, the glaciation
of the fragments does not indicate a long journey; though
deeply scratched, the corners are only partially rounded. The
rather soft and brittle nature of the rock is also unfavorable to
a long exposure to ice action. Thus there seems to be little
doubt that these fossils were derived from the Triassic sand-
stones ; that the layers from which they were derived lie between
Kingsport point and the contact of the sandstone and trap on
the southern slope of the North Mountain, and that they are
more likely to be found on the north side of the Pereau river.

If the origin of the fossils proves to be as supposed, they are,
so far as my knowledge goes, the first recorded animal remains
from this formation in Nova Scotia ; and they may help to fix
the age of a series of beds that heretofore have had their posi-
tion in the Geological Record determined by their lithological
resemblances to a formation in the Connecticut Valley several
hundred miles distant.

IX. — 1 : — PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS OF THE BOTANICAL
CLUB OF CANADA, 1900 ;

2 : — ABSTRACT OF PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE FLOWER-
ING OF TEN PLANTS IN NOVA SCOTIA, 1900 ; WITH

3: — REMARKS ON THEIR PHENOCHRONS — BY A. H. MACKAY,
LL. D., Halifax.

(Read May ISth, 1901.)

1.
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.

STATIONS AND NAMES OF THE OBSERVERS.

Nova Scotia.

Yarmouth, Yarmouth Co. — Miss Janet Keith Bruce Kelley.
Berwick, Kings Co. — Miss Ida A. Parker.

Musquodoboit Harbour, Halifax Co. — Rev. James Rosborough.
Wallace, Cumberland Co. — Miss E. G. Charman.
East Wallace, Cumberland Co. — Miss A. B. Mackenzie

Prince Edward Island.
Charlottetown — Principal John MacSwain.

Ontario.
Beatrice, Muskoka — Miss Alice Hollingworth

Assiniboia.
Pheasant Forks — Mr. Thomas Donnelly.

Saskatchewan.
Willoughby— Rev. C. W. Bryden, B. A.

British Columbia.
Vancouver — Mr. J. K. Henry, B. A.

(379)

380 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. — MACKAY.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.

Day of the year 1900 corresponding to the
last day of each month.

Jan 31 July 212

02

£B
^

M

w

&H

1

_<i

M

03

ri

Feb 59 Aug 243

*iXJ

a

•a

CO

March . . 90 Sept 273

'A

<5V

g

i

o

,

m

April 120 Oct 301

£

*

c8

R

-i-

J3

S'

May lot Nov 334

-

•91

.

73

I

(S

*->

•f3

6

June 181 Dec 365

o

1

^

>

§

2

s
X

(First flowering or fruiting of plants and
first appearance of migratory animals, etc.)

1

es

p<

t*

•

M

rs

f

1

1

JS

O

JX

05

a
$

o

A

OH

5
§

o

fl

1

1

95

110

105

10°

137

in

6&

fl

Populus tremuloides. Michx

111

109

137

in

111

3

Epigeea repens, L

10?,

80

101

119

11.5

119

m

4

Viola cucullata Gray

m

115

141

140

1%

119

1?6

1
91

K

V. blanda, Willd

11?

T>8

197

Iffi

131

19fi

13?

6

I0)

134

174

199

148

190

rf
1?5

2
91

7

Houstonia cserulca, L

its

8

Kquisct inn arvcnse, L

118

i^n

I .Vi

140

143

77

0

30

I'M

136

138

1°8

144

196

13?

10

Erythronium Amcricanum Ker

116

11

Hepatica triloba, Chaix

196

a

98

a

11?

1"

Coptis trif olia Salfcb

137

199

132

144

140

110

i:i

Fragaria Virginiana, Mill

1°6

1?l

136

1^7

I'M

151

140

13?

14

168

169

169

u

Primus Pennsylvanica, L

150

159

156

140

140

3

107

in

" (fruit ripe)

*
?10

?05

17
18

Vaccinium Penn. v. Can.. Lam
" (fruit ripe)

143

150
•>10

152

140

4

71

Tl

Ranunculus acris L

147

151

161

157

157

161

•'(1

R. repens, L

147

176

''1

Clintonia borealis Raf

159

155

169

.,.>

Trillium erythrocarpum, Michx

141

141

vn

139

•_':!

24

'")

Trientalis Americana Purah
Cypripedium acaule, Ait
Calla palustris L

150
159

160

158
161
155

...

152
170
115

M

148

152

139

130

27

" (fruit ripe) . . .

191

* = Year 1899. 1 = V. palustris. 2 = A. macrophyllum. 3= P. emarginata
4 = V. myrtilloides. a= Anemone patens. d = Acer Negundo.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. — MACKAY. 381
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.

Day of the year 1900, corresponding to the
last day of each month.

Jan 81 July.. 212

a3
^

*J
H

*

X

^

d

Feb . 59 Aug 243

.

i?CD

.

.jPJ

M

1:

1

March 90 Sept 273

z

'Sy

!f

.

O

0Q

April 120 Oct 804

•

fc

jS<

fc'

_^

O

fi

ja

b

.

May 151 Nov 384

£

TI y-

8

eS

••J

f

£•

5

June 181 Dec . 305

o

c£

g

•g

^

«5

a

6
&

(First flowering or fruiting of plants ard
first appearance of migratory animals, etc.)

E

1

>

(4

8
K

T*

s«
^

"5

^

1

'C

1

O

-t
<n

3

~-

]

—

a,

_£
1

1
1

'fi

Rubus strigosus, Michx

<*)

30

171

11

32

173

154

33

186

156

170

14

Cornus Canadensis, L

l:-t!

140

16?

ISO

1.15

154

35

•JC

155

163

159

161

37

38

Linneea borealis, L

163

165

157

....

....

9O

174

V?>

40

172

41

176

175

40

202

?()!

190

43

186

181

147

5

134

AA

*
2°6

186

18"

i\

186

184

AC

147

IV)

1^4

157

9ft

1%

100

18

163

49

149

142

148

165

141

R7

1M

i ".M

150

151

158

14?

100

TiS

11°

1

53
M

Ribes rubrum (cultivated)
! '* (fruit ripe)

14/>

145
193

141

143

182

132

= Year 1899. 5=R. Nutkana.

382 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. — MACKAY.
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.

•-
<o

x>

1

55
56
57
53
59
60
61
62
63
64
65a
65b
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73a
73b
74a
74b
75a
75b
76a
76b

Day of the year 1900 corresponding to the
last day of each month.

Jan 31 July 212

Yarmouth, N. S.

Berwick, N. S.

Musquodoboit,
Halifax, N S.

Wallace, N. S.

East Wallace, N. S.

Charlottetovvn,
P. E. I. !

Muskoka, O.

Pheasant Forks,

Assa. i

Willoughby, Sask.

Vancouver, B. C.

Feb 69 Aug 243

March 90 Sept 273

April 120 Oct. ... 304

May 151 Nov 334

June 181 Dec 365

(First flowering or fruiting of plants and
first appearance of migratory animals, etc.)

R. nigrum (cultivated)

155

*

117

141

143

100

" (fruit ripe)

Syringa vulgaris, L. (cultiv.)

157

159

163

163

148
179

188

148

203

Phleum pratenso, L

202

167
167
165

168
168

T pratense L

7r>R

161

135

Triticum vulgare, L

159

1W

....

^i

Earliest full leafing of tree ...

111

147

Ifil

158

Ploughing (first of season)
Sowing "

115

199

113
14?

125

121

127
130
136
194
221
?f>7

95
103
121

209
221

109
111
121

Potato-planting "

141

Sheep-shearing '•

138

143

237

238

•>6S

Opening of rivers "

80

%

91

Last snow to whiten ground
" to fly in air
Last spring frost hard ....

102
147

116
132
139
1fi8

155

134

104
123
130
139

123

111

" " low

|

'= Year 1899.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. — MACKAY. 383

PHEXOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA. 1900.

Day of the year 1900 corresponding to the
last day of each month.

Jan 31 July ....212

02

55

03

W

<£

n

Feb 59 AUJ? 243

.

^j

j

C

CB

March .... 90 Sept 273

j^

o

§

.

o

—

April 120 Oct 304

55

4

55

I

9

X

b

May 161 Nov 334

•d

.

"3

o

ce

•*»

0

June 181 Dec 365

o

o

o

w

>>

•

bo

3

s

3

55

(First flowering or fruiting of plants and
first appearance of migratory animals, etc.)

E

c

o

a

3

"3

I

t.

6

•g

3

£

1

S

fl

77a
77b

78n

First autumn frost, hoar
" " hard.

259

*

293

*>90

....

246

*

279

*

?77

251

313

239

258

78h

316

306

79a

sn

%<>

?(.

80

111

99

109

108

112

115

113

133

114

138

136

134

126

1??,

13?;

151

158

Ti8

134

153

17°

I"9

147

147

177

179

179

153

153

180

190

156

197
198

181

182

181

165

189

194

193

190

202

194

196

°08

200

....

*

207

209

210

210

...

213
214

219
226

211

218

....

*
225

239

216
236

237

224

229

' = Year 1899.

384 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.— MACKAY.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.

Day of the year 1900 corresponding to the
last day of each month.

Jan 31 July 212

CO

03

HH

w

d

'O
V.

•¥

Feb 5!) Aug 243

>4

aj

March 90 Sept 273

£

-tT

o

^

C

n

April 120 Oot . . 304

-

ft

3

£

<a

o

O

^

iT

.

May 151 Nov. 334

2

rf

jS

<o

•

June 181 Dec ... 36o

1

0

O

i

M

C

do

3

I
1

(First flowering or fruiting of plants and
first appearance of migratory animals, etc.)

c«
><

C
o

M

o-

3
Z

13

£

East\

<

JS

o

^t

a
%

i
<o

'JS
OH

5
1

8
1

80

Thunderstorms— dates

260

*

261

246

238
"W

259
262

233

*

273

280
299

Wi

81a

Wild dncks migrating, N

93

100

81 h

S

82a

" geese N ....

91

78

70

110

81

82h

S

9;il

285

83

Melospiza f asciata, North

8?

101

110

84

Turdus miKratorius "

M

67

71

10)

99

it

98

k
112

85
86

.1 1 1 n no liiemalis "
Actitis macularia "

74

95

111

94

87

Sturnella magua "

n

88

Ceryle Alcyon "

89

Dendrceca coronata "

90

D. sestiva "

91

Zonothrichia alba "

92
93

Trochilus colubris " •
Tyrannus Carolinensis "

138
143

144
1"9

141

....

....

94

Dolychonyx oryzivoms"

116

110

9o

Spinis tristis "

98

Setophaga ruticilla "

97

Ampelis cedrorum "

98

Chordeiles Viginianus "

144

IVi

H7

99
100

First piping of frogs
First appearance, snakes

94
111

106
134

111

108
110

97
103'

105
119

61

*= Year 1899. &=M. propinqua.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. — MACKAY. 385

2.
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, NOVA SCOTIA.

THE TIME OF FLOWERING OF TEN PLANTS, SPRING OF 1900,
THROUGHOUT THE PROVINCE OF NOVA SCOTIA.

•(Compiled from Phenological Observations made in the Public
Schools of the Province.)

The counties are arranged in the order of latitude and longi-
tude, beginning with the South and West. For the ease of
comparison the same order will hereafter be followed.

The tables contain merely the phenochrons or average dates
of appearance at ten stations on the " coast," " lowlands " or
" highlands," as the case may be — the names of the plants being
omitted for the purpose of condensation. But the ten plants in
•order are the following throughout the whole table :

1. Mayflower (Epigaea repens).

2. Blue Violet (Viola cucullata).

3. Red Maple (Acer rubrum).

4. Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale).

5. Strawberry (Fragaria Virginiana).

6. Wild Red Cherry (Prunus Pennsylvanica).

7. Blueberry (Vaccinium Can. and Penn.)

8. Buttercup (Ranunculus acris).

9. Apple — cultivated (Pyrus malus).
10. Lilac (Syringa vulgaris).

The phenochrons of " first " flowering, and flowering " becom-
ing common " of these ten plants on coast, tow inlands and high
inlands, and their general averages, are all lined across the page
for the ease of comparison of the effects of coast waters and
altitude. The classification of the observation stations into
these three groups was made by the Inspectors through whom
the schedules were sent to the Education Office.

As a rule, ten of the best schedules are averaged in each
column. When ten good schedules for each of the three divi-
sions of each county could not be had, the ten best schedules for
the county are averaged, etc.

386 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. — MACK AY.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.
YARMOUTH COUNTY, 1900.

First Seen.

Becoming Common.

General Phenochrons

Coast.

Low
Inlands.

H gh-
lands.

Aver-
age.

Coast.

Low
Inlands.

High-
lands.

Aver
age.

Annual
date.

Mensual
date.

88.9

104.6
132.8
131.9
133.2
134.2
147.7
153.1
150.8
155.8
167.0

96.75
128.10
127.05
126.35
126.85
146.70
144.35
147.25
148.70
162.80

7 April.
9 May.
8 May.
7 May.
7 May.
27 May.
25 May.
28 May.
29 May.
12 June.

123.4

122.2

119.5

119 5

145.7

135.6

143.7

141 6

158.6

129.87

141. ll!

135.49

16 May.

SHELBURNE COUNTY, 1900.

96.4

106.3

101.35

12 April.

125.6

132 9

129 25

10 May

128.1

134.1

131 10

12 May

121.3

129.8

125.55

6 May

125.8
143.0

132.5
148 9

129.15
145 95

10 May.
26 May

134.7

145.3

140.00

20 May

143 6

150 3

146 95

27 May

144.7

153.1

148 90

29 May

157.9

162.9

160.40

10 June.

132.11

139.61

135 86

17 May

DIGBY COUNTY, 1900.

105.3

100.4

106.7

104.1

111.2

109.0

113.8

111.3

107.70

18 April.

123.2

126.1

122.3

123.9

133.3

133.3

131.5

132.7

128.30

9 May.

135.0

124.3

129.0

129.4

140.4

132.3

134.9

135.9

132.65

13 May.

121.6

123.3

126.1

123.7

138.8

134.6

139.6

137.7

130.70

11 May.

119.6

124.5

124.3

122.3

134.9

135.9

135.1

135.3

129.05

10 May.

145.4

145.9

146.1

145.8

150.0

150.8

152.9

151.2

148.50

29 May.

145.4

143.4

145.1

144.6

152.2

151.3

147.9

150.5

147.55

28 May.

148.7

150.1

147.0

148.6

154.9

155.9

152.6

154.5

151.55

1 June.

147.9

150.3

147.8

148.7

153.8

154.4

156.3

154.8

151.75

1 June.

157.5

160.0

156.6

158.0

164.6

165.0

161.9

163.8

160.90

10 June.

134.96

134.83

135.10

134.96

143.41

142.25

142.65

142.77

138.87

19 May.

PHILOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. — MACK AY. 387

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — Continued.

QUEENS COUNTY, 1900.

First Seen.

Becoming Common.

General Phcnochrons.

Coast

Low
Inlands.

Higli-
lands.

Aver-
age.

Coast.

Low
Inlands.

High-
la 'ids.

Aver-
age.

Annual
date.

MciiAual
date.

102.1

97.1

99.4

99.5

112.9

110.8

Ill 0

111.6

105.55

16 April.

128.1

131.6'

129.4

129.7

138.8

133.5

136.8

136.4

133.05

14 May.

127.9

120.8

1 •_>.->.!

124.6

136.1

129.0

130.2

131.8

128.20

9 May.

123.1

123.8

134.8

127.2

134.3

131.8

142.0

130.0

131.60

12 May.

128.9

132.0

1 .'{•_>. 7

131.2

141.9

145.1

142.6

143.2

137.20

' 18 May.

142.0

142.8

147.4

144.1

152.7

149.8

151.7

151.4

147.75

28 May.

139.2

1 45. 6

143.2

142.6

149.2

151.5

15±.4

151 .0

140.80

27 May.

150.6

150.0

153.5

151.4

156.8

156.3

156.2

156.4

153.90

3 June.

148.6

147.3

148.1

148.0

156.9

154.1

155.4

155.5

151.75

1 June.

161.6

156.1

154.8

157.5

168.4

160.6

160.3

163.1

160.30

10 June.

135.21' 134.70 136.84135.58

144.80

142.25 143.86

143. 641

139.61

20 May.

ANNAPOLIS COUNTY, 1900.

104.0
128.6
124.9
129.6
128.5
145.6
139.0
150.9
150.3
156.5

107.1
132.9
127.6
133.8
133.2
144.7
144.5
150.6
150.8
158.7

105.6
130.7
126.3
131.7
130.8
145.2
142.0
150.8
150.5
157.6

115.9
135.9
128.0
139.6
141.3
151.0
150.6
156.0
156.0
102.0

114.5
137.9
133.5
140.9
139.5
148.5
148.3
150.4
154.2
162.2

115.2
1X6.9
130.8
140.2
140.4
149.8
152.4
150.2
155.1
162.1

110.40
133.80
128.55
135.95
135.60
147.50
147.20
153.50
152.80
159.85

21 April.
14 May.
9 May.
16 May.
16 May.
28 M*y.
28 May.
3 June.
2 June.
9 June.

i .....

135.85

138.39137.12

144.23

143.59143.91

140.52

21 M

LUNENBURG COUNTY, 1900.

102.6

100.6

101.2

101.5

111.7

115.7

111.2

112.9

107.20

18 April.

131.7

128.3

131.8

130.0

138.2

138.3

136.5

137.7

134.15

15 May.

127.1

128.1

123.5

126.2

131.5

127.8

129.3

129.5

127.85

8 May.

127.4

12!). 5

133.2

130.0

135.2

136.2

139.2

136.9

133.45

14 Mny.

130.1

129.9

131.9

130.6

139.3

137.3

141.1

139.2

134.93

15 May.

144.7

^141.8

144.4

143.6

150.6

147.7

148.0

148. 8

140.20

•J7 .May.

141.8

144.6

144.6

143.7

140.4

153.5

151.4

150.4

147.01

28 May.

151.7

147.8

153.0

150.8

158.3

157.0

157.8

157.7

164.26

4 June.

150.4

149.0

150.2

149.9

166.3

156.0

154. 9

166.7

152.80

2 June.

160.4

157.7

157.3

158.5

165.5

164.0

162.4

164.0

1C, I/.'.-)

11 June.

136.79

135.72

137.11

136.54

143.30

143.35

143.18

143.28

139.91

20 May.

PROC. AND TRANS. N. S. I VST. Sci., VOL. X.

TKANS. A A.

388 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. — MACKAY.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — Continued.

KINGS COUNTY, 190C.

Firs Seen.

Becoming Common.

General Phenochrona.

Coast.

Low-
lands.

High-
lands

Aver-
age.

Coast.

Lovr-
lands.

High-
lands.

Aver-
age.

Annual
date.

Mensual
date.

103.0
124.0
123.1

110.2
182.6
1.16.1

106.6
128.3
129.1

111.8
139.2
129.6
138.9
139.6
152.6
155.8
157.5
153.5
162.3

119.2
141.8
140.2
143.9
14.S.9
153.4
155.3
159.9
157.3
164.8

115.5
140.5
134.9
141.4
141.8
153.0
155.5
158.7
155.4
163.6

111.05
134.40
132.00
138.20
134.65
150.30
152.90
155.20
152.95
161.60

22 April.
15 May.
12 May.
19 May.
15 May.
31 May.
2 June.
5 June.
2 June.
11 June

131.4
121.9"
147.0

148.8
148.8

138.5
133.2
148.1
151.8
154.6

135.0
127.5
147.6
150.3
151.7

147.5

158.0

153.5
161.2

150.5
159.6

135.35

141. 88' 138. 62

144.08

147.97

146.03

142.32

23 M«y.

HANTS COUNTY, 1900.

99.3
130.3
125.7
132.1
134.3
149.9
150.1
152.3
151.8
159.2

107.0
129.1
124.0
136.7
133.7
149.9
152 0
154.0
152.7
161.4

103.2
129.7
124.8
134.4
134.0
149.9
151.1
153.1
152.3
160.3

113.3
136.6
134.3
138.5
142.3
155.2
156.4
156.4
157.1
162.4

116.7
137.0
130.4
143.7
142.6
152.4
155.6
158.6
155.6
166.0

115.0
136.8
132.4
141.1
142.4
153 8
156.0
157.5
156.4
164.2

109.10
133.25
128.60
137.75
138.20
151.85
153.55
155.30
154.35
162.25

20 April.
14 May.
9 May.
18 May.
19 May.
1 June.
3 June.
5 June.
4 June.
12 June.

138.50

140.05

139. 28!

145.25

145.86

145.56

142.42

25 May.

HALIFAX COUNTY, 19DO.

103.9

104.3

105.2

104.5

118.1

117.0

120.0

118.4

111.45

22 April.

133.9

126.7

134.0

131.5

141.8

136.5

145.2

141.2

136.35

17 May.

132.2

124.0

127.8

128.0

141.6

131.0

136.0

136.2

132.10

13 May.

130.1

134.4

135.3

133.3

143.0

140.8

142.0

141.9

137.60

18 May.

132.0

128.6

132.7

131.1

144.0

141.4

145.6

143.7

137.40

18 May.

154.1

150.9

146.6

150.5

158.4

152.3

151.5

154.1

152.30

2 June.

143.7

147.3

1J5.9

145.6

153.3

153.0

153.2

153.1

149.35

30 May.

156.4

153.9

152.7

154.3

162.6

160.0

162.0

161.5

157.90

7 June.

155.2

153.4

152.0

153.5

160.8

158.5

160.8

160.0

156.75

6 June.

162.1

162.6

156.7

160.5

169.0

166.5

163.1

166.2

163.35

13 June.

140.36

138.61

138.89

139.28

149.261 145.70 Il47.94

147.63

143.45

24 May.

•

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. — MACKAY. 389

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — Continued.

GUYSBORO COUNTY, 1900.

First Seen.

Becoming Commen.

General Phcnochrona.

Coast.

Low-
lands.

High-
lands.

Aver-
age.

Coast

Low-
lands.

High-
lands.

Arer-
age.

Annual
date.
f

M'-n-na
date.

1
109.1

120.5
142.1
139.0
145.1
14U.7
159 0

)
114.80
138.10
137.30
141.10
144.70
156.40
158.95
160.6ft
163.00
170.80

25 April.
19 May.
18 May.
21 May.
25 May.
6 June.
8 June.
10 June.
12 June.
20 June.

1 34 1

135.6

' ,137.1

1 39. 7

153 8

155.9

162.0
164.2
Iti5.9
173.7

157.1

160.1

|167.9

1

.. . '145. 04l!...

i

152.12

1 148.58

29 May.

CUMBERLAND COUNTY, 1000.

116.6

110.9

119.0

115.5

122.2

121.1

129.5

124.3

119.90

30 April.

134.7

131.4

137.3

134.5

142.2

l:!8.3 146.7

142.4

138.45

19 May.

132.7

127.3

130.6

130.2

138.9

135.0 135.2

136.4

133.30

14 May.

138.7

140.0

142.2

140.3

144.9

144.6

150.1

146.5

143.40

24 May.

137.0

133.9 |138.0

136.3

142.8

141.7

148.8

144.4

140.35

21 May.

148.3

147.5

148.4 148.1

154.1

152.3 1154.7

153.7

150.90

5 Jnne.

150.9

146.9

148.0 148.6

154.4

153.8

155.9

154.7

151.65

1 June.

156.5

152.2

158.1 |155.6

162.2

159 5

162.9

161.5

158.55

8 June.

154.0

153.0

154.8 153.9

160.4

157.6

159.9

159.3

156.60

6 June.

160.9

160.6

160.9

160.8

166.1

164.3

166.3

165.6

163.20

13 June.

143.031 140.37 |l43. 73 142.38

148.82 146.82

150.98

148.88

1 145.63

26 May.

COLCHESTER COUNTY, 1900.

111.0

106.5

115.3 !l!0.9

120.5

114.5

121.8

118.9

114.90

25 April

131.5

127.0

132.9

130.5

13S.3

138.0

139.2

138. 5

134.50

15 May.

127.9

124.2

126.5

126.2

133. 5

133.2

136.3

134.3

130.25

11 May-

133.4

130.9

137.6

134.0

141.3

138.0

143.1

140.8

137.40

18 May.

130.1

133.4

136.8

133.4

140.2

141.1

147.0

142.8

138.10

19 May.

146.7

146.7

147.7

147.0

152.7

151.3 |154.1

152.7

149.85

30 May.

151.7

148.7

153.8 1151.4

1156.3

155.3

159.7

157.1

154.25

4 June.

153.1

155.4 1156.4 ;155.0

158.4

161.6

161.5

160.5

157.75

7 June.

154.7

154.8

156.2 1155.2

1159.3

159.0

159.6

159.3

157.25

7 June.

164.0

162.3

163.9 J163.4

168.4

166.4

168.2

167.7

165.55

15 June.

140.41

138.99 !142.7l'l40.70

146.89

145.84 '149.05

147.26

143.93

24 May.

390 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. — MACKAY.
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — Continued.

PICTOU COUNTY, 1900.

First Seen.

Becoming Common.

General Phenochrons.

Coast.

Low
lands.

High-
lands.

Aver-
age.

Coast.

Low-
lands.

High-
lands.

Aver-
age.

Annual
date.

Mensual
date.

112.1

112.5 121.2

115.3

122.3

122.7

129.1

124.7

120.00

30 April.

132.9

133.4 133.1

133.1

137.8

142.6 1139.9

140.1

136.60

17 Mny.

135.7

122.7 126.9

128.4

138.0

128.7 1131.0

132.6

130.50

HMny.

141.7

135.6

139.4

138.9

146.9

141.5 144.4

144.2

141.55

22 May.

138.7

135.4

138.7

137.0

147.1

147.1 1145.5

146.7

142.15

23 May.

140. 5

151.7

149.7

14'.).:$

153.7

160.1

154.3

156.0

152.65

2 June.

151.6

151.1

153.0

1.YL.9

159.4

lfiO.2

158.2

159.2

155.55

5 June.

154.3

152.8

155.8 154.3

160.4

159.9

161.7

160.7

157.50

7 June.

153.9

156.5

155.5

155.3

158.3

159.3

160.0 159.2

157.25

7 June.

160.8

162.2

161.5

161.5

165.7

106.9

165.7 |166.1

163.80

13 June.

142.82' 141.39

143.48142.56'

148.%

148.90 '148. 98 148. 93

145.75

26 May.

ANTIGOXISH COUNTY, 19CO.

118.1

124.9

121.50

2 May.

135.5

141 1

138 30

19 Msiy

131.8

140.7

136 25

17 May.

136 1

143 6

139 85

20 May

136.1

149 0

142 55

23 May.

149 8 '

156 8

153 30

155.9
157.7

162.9
163.2

159.40
160 45

9 June.
10 June.

157.1

]62 2

159 65

161.2

167 0

164 10

14 June.

143.93

151 11

147 53

28 May

.

RICHMOND COUNTY, 1900.

119 1

128 9

124 00

4 May

139.4

147 6

143 50

24 May.

138 5

145 6

142 05

2.3 May

144.2
142.2

152.4
153 9

148.30
148 05

29 May.
29 May .

159 7

165 1

162 40

12 June

163.6

170 3

106 95

16 June.

163 0

168 5

165 75

15 June.

168.5

175.0

171 75

21 June.

178 3

183 9

181 10

1 July.

151.65

159.12

155.38

5 June.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. — MAf'KAV. 391
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS — Continued.

CAPE BRETON COUNTY, 1900.

First Seen.

Becoming Common.

General Phenochronn.

Coast.

Low-
lands.

High-
lands.

Aver-
age.

Coast.

Low-
lands

High-
lands.

Aver-
age.

Annual
date.

Monsual
date.

110.1

116.2
140.0
139.4
140.0
141.0
156.3
162.7
164.8
166.1
172.2

113.15
137.85
137.80
137.80
138.35
153.80
160.50
161.55
164.20
170.25

24 April.
18 MHy.
18 May.
18 May.
19 M*y.
3 June.
10 June.
11 June.
14 Jane.
20 June.

135 7

136.2

135 6

135.7

151 3

158 3

158 3

162 3

IfiS 3

i

i

.. 145.18

149.87,' 147.52

28 Mav.

INVERNESS COUNTY 1000.

117 8

' 128 4

193 10

4 May

134.7

1142 1

138 40

19 May

145.0
141 6

1153.2

148 7

149.10
145 15

30 May.
26 M«y

137 4

148 4

142 90

23M»y

'

158 9

164 0 '

161 75

11 June

159 G

... 1167.1 1

163 35

13 June.

163 0

168 I |

165 55

15 Juno.

159 7

1(15 3

162 50

12 .Tune.

162 8

. 170.3

166.55

16 June.

148. 05'

155.62

151.83

1 June.

VICTORIA COUNTY, 1900.

119.5

125.1

12-2.30

3 May.

137.0
139 3

142.1
144.4

139.55
141.85

20 M»y.
22M*y.

140.9 |
136.1

146.9
146.5

143.90
141.30

24 M*y.
22 May.

154.4
158.9

159.9
164.fi

157.15
161.75

7 June.
11 June.

161.1

165.6

16:;. 35

13 Juno.

160.7

162.9

161.80

11 Jun«.

170 5

175.4

172.95

22 June.

147.84

153.34

1E0.59

31 May.

392 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1000. — MACKAY.

PHENOCHRON CURVES OF FLOWERING.
(Meao of "Jtrtf seen " and •' becoming o&mmon ").

in oiacr

from
SOUTH tc
NORTH.
and froni
WEST 10
EAST.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATION^ CANADA, 1900. — MACK AY. 393

3.

REMARKS ON THE NOVA SCOTIAN PHENOCHRONS.

The Nova Scotian phenochrons are based on observations
made in from ten to thirty observation stations in each county,
on the 100 phenomena briefly indicated on pages 386 to 391
— preceding " Phenological Observations in Canada, 1900."

The observations, as a rule, are carried on by the pupils of
the public schools, who are in competition with each other as to
who will be the first observer of each phenomenon each year
As these pupils often radiate as many as two miles from the
school house each day, the observations " when first seen " are
likely to be as early as the most favorable spot in each school
section will allow. The second date recorded — " when becom-
ing common " — is more a matter of judgment ; but must
practically be as near the date " whin first seen" in the most
unfavorable spots of each school section as can be determined.

The average differences between these two dates of flowering
— " when first seen " and " when becoming common " — in each
county of the Province for the ten plants selected for our study
are as follows :

Days. Days.

Yarmouth 11.24 Guysboro 7.08

Shelburne 7.50 Cumberland G.50

Digby 7.81 Colchester 6.56

Queens 8.06 Pictou 6.39

Annapolis 6.79 Antigonish 7.21

Lunenburg . 6.74 Richmond 7.47

Kings 7.41 Cape Breton 4.69

Hants 6.28 Inverness 7.57

Halifax 8.35 Victoria 5.50

The average difference between the two dates for the Pro-

o

vince is 7.175 days — about one week and four hours.

Owing to the mild winter weather in Yarmouth, some plants
flower very early in sunny spots ; but the general flowering is
so retarded as to be less in advance of the rest of the Province
than the " first " flowering. On the average, it appears that
flowering becomes common about one week after the first
blossoms are seen.

394 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. — MACKAY.

ORDER OF FLOWERING (MEAN OF " WHEN FIRST SEEN " AND

" WHEN BECOMING COMMON ") IS THE PROVINCE AND

IN EACH COUNTY.

Mean flowering phcnochron.s for
whole Province of Nova Scotia.

113.01 Mayflower 25 Apr .

133.69 Red Maple 14 May

135.33 Blue Violet 16

137.53 Dandelion 18

137.86 Strawberry 18

151.96 Wild Red Cherry. . . . 1 June

153.39 Blueberry 3

156.93 Apple 6

157.05 Buttercup 7

165.05 Lilac . ...15

Order of flowering in each County.

o '-G

•-•

a

Order of fl
ering for
Nova Sco

Yarmouth.

Shelburne.

A

M

2

X

H
5

Annapolis.

Lunenburg

•f.

M

c

5

.

J

X

S

Guysboro.

Cumberlan

Colchester.

Pictou.

Antigonish

Richmond.

Cape Breto
Inverness.

1

1

1

i

1

1

1

i

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1 1

2

t

4

8

2

2

2

2

1

'2

2

2

•2

a

2

2

2 3

3

0

ft

ft

4

1

4

8

::

8

1

8

I

3

3

3

4 5

4

2

8

4

3! 5

8

5

4

ft

4

ft

4

4

4

5

3 4

5

8

2

2

5

1

5

1

5

4

ft

4

ft

ft

5

4

5 2

k

i

6

7

7 7

7

T

6

(i

6

7

6

76

6

6

6 6

7

0

6

e

6

0

7

7

j

6

7

6

7

7

7

9

7 8

8

8

0

8

8

B

B

9

B

8

B

9

9

9

8

81 9

1

9

B

9

9

9

8

8

8

8

8

B

8

8

8 8

7| 9 7

i

10

10 10 10 10 10 10

1010

10

10 10 10

10 10 10 10 10

1

1

We see from the above that the order of the ten plants in
our schedule and the tables, is not the exact order of flowering
in the Province as a whole. The Red Maple and Blue Violet
change places, as do also the Apple and the Buttercup. And the
order for the Province is noc that for each county. In Yarmouth
and Shelburne, the Dandelion (4) and Strawberry (o) come
ahead of the Red Maple and the Violet. The Blueberry (7) in
the five South Southwestern counties comes ahead of the Wild
Cherry (6); while in the case of the Apple (8) and Buttercup
(9) they are in normal order while in the following counties they
are mostly reversed.

The plate (page 392) of curves of the " mean " flowering
phenochrons for 1900 of eight plants (two, the Maple and Violet,
omitted because they would crowd 4 and 5) throughout the
eighteen counties of the Province, which represent the "general

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. — MACKAY. 395

phenochrons " given in the last two columns of the tables pre-
ceding, show to the eye the general trend as well as several
peculiarities of the time of flowering.

The general trend is seen in the later flowering as the coun-
ties lie north and east. There is a general conformity in this
trend between the eight plants which fall into four groups, the
Mayflower averaging 113.01 (24th April), the Dandelion and
Strawberry 137 + (18th May;, the Wild Cherry, Blueberry,
Buttercup and Apple 154 + (4th June), and the Lilac 165 +
<15th June).

A general trend is also seen in passing from Guysboro in the
east back to Cumberland in the west; although moving on the
whole northward, the flowering becomes earlier. A similar
change takes place in passing from Richmond to Cape Breton.
This latter is more remarkable, for Cape Breton is not only north
but also east of Richmond. This seems to suggest that the
observers in Guysboro and paiticularly in Richmond, might not
have been so keen in the search for the first flowering as those
in Cumberland and Cape Breton The small number of obser-
vers in these counties also suggests such a possibility. But by
reference to the table, it will be seen, that as a rule, in counties
where the observation stations are so numerous that ten could
be selected from the coast, ten from the low inlands, and ten
from the high inlands, the earliest flowering is on the low inlands,
then on the coast, and latest on the highlands. It must be
remembered, that there is a very great difference in the altitudes
of what are called the low and high inlands in the different
counties.

From such considerations, it is proposed in future to divide
the Province into meteorological districts and sub-districts,
instead of counties — the sub-districts being the coast belt, low
inland belt and highland belt of each district; each district
including a simple meteorological region or geographical slope.

Among the peculiarities shown by these curves are, for
instance, the lateness of the Strawberry as compared with th«

396 PHENOLO6ICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. — MACKAY.

Dandelion in Shelburne, Queens and Guysboro ; and its advanced
appearance in Kings, Cumberland, Inverness and Victoria.
Does the breath of the Atlantic retard the flowering of the
Strawberry as compared with the Dandelion ?

It al*o appears that the southern and sea surrounded Yar-
mouth is favorable to the early flowering of the Mayflower, but
comparatively not so favorable to the Lilac. The manner in
which the other curves intersect each other have also their
explanations. But we are not yet in a position to be able to-
state them.

The stations of observations are, necessarily, not the same in
each county each year. It is therefore possible that the pheno-
chrons might" be affected by a change in the relative number of
coastal, inland and highland stations.

As all these observations are bound carefully into a large
volume for each year, anyone having the time can use the facts
recorded in any combination promising the most useful results.
The present selection of ten plants, and the comparison of their
flowering pbenochrons in each county is merely a sort of pre-
liminary or provisional testing of the possibilities and probable
value of such observations — sufficient to interest the observers,
while they are developing accuracy — and a record of facts for
future generalization.

In the second plate (page 397) there is a comparison of the
" mean " flowering phenochrons of the Mayflower, Strawberry,.
Apple and Lilac, for the years 1898, 1899 and 1900.

It indicates that the Spring of 1898 gave early promise,,
while those of 1899 and 1900 were later as measured by the
Mayflower. The averages of these two years over the whole
Province are nearly the same, the differences in the different
counties being explicable as due to prevalent winds and degrees
of sunshine.

As measured by the Strawberry, the first half of May 1900,
was nearly a week more backward than in 1898 and 1899.

As measured by the Lilac, inhere was not much difference

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. — MACK AY 897

PHRNOCHRON CURVES OF FLOWERING.
(Mean of "yfrV seen " and " becoming common ").

Arranged

in oider

from

tO

NORTH,

and from

Wevr to

EAST.

398 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. — MACKAY.

between the three seasons in the state of vegetation during the
first week or two of June.

But the continuous black line of 1900 is the lowest and latest
for the Strawberry, Apple and Lilac ; so that generally the
month of May and the first week in June of this year was later
from the "flowering" or estivation point of view.

It will be noticed on this table that the curves for the three
years are to a great extent conformable, which demonstrates the
important effect of the position of each county. The variations
from con form ability, are probably due to the differences in the
winds and sunshine.

In the meantime we can make no mistake in recording and
preserving at many accurate local phenological facts as possible.
In a few years we shall be better able to estimate their value
for many purposes.

In the future arrangements may be made for the publication
of the observations of each year, as Dr. Ihne of Darmstadt is
now doing for Europe. Our observations are more voluminous,
however, and the cost of full publication would be great.

X.— RAINFALL NOTES, NOVA SCOTIA.— % F. \V. W. DOAXE,
M. Can. Soc. C. R, City Engineer, Halifax, N. S.

(Read May 13th, 190 1.)

If officials in charge of water works, water power and sewer
systems are inclined to profit by knowledge acquired in the
school of experience, the lessons presented to them during the
year just closed have been severe and extraordinary ones. The
long drought of 1900 will be remembered and referred to by
meteorologists and others for many years to come. One of the
severest ever recorded, occurred between the months of May and
November. This condition was far-reaching, and extended
throughout the whole of New England and New Brunswick,
but does not seem to have reached Nova Scotia. The scarcity of
water in public supplies as a result of the unusually dry season,
was one of the most unpleasant features of the year. Water
supplies, heretofore considered inexhaustible, failed. The fields
and forests became thoroughly wilted and parched. The rural
population suffered not only frpm the failure of wells, but more
from the failure of their crops ; and added to this, was the
devastation and damage caused by numerous forest fires which
covered large areas of country.

There were many superintendents of water works who, in the
spring, contemplated with satisfaction the overflowing reservoirs
and the abundant sources of supply which fed them, and who
thouo-ht, no matter how much their fellow citizens consumed and

P5 *

wasted, nature had provided, and would continue to provide,
sufficient water for all purposes. Before the summer had far
advanced, the fast receding water lines on the reservoir embank-
ments and the steady decrease of the " meadow stream and
mountain torrent " warned them of the approaching short supply,

(399)

400 RAINFALL NOTES, NOVA SCOTIA. — DOANE.

and not until late fall, and not even then in many localities, did
the dreaded water famine come to an end.

With this condition all around us, Nova Scotia is to be con-
gratulated. Precipitation reports from Yarmouth, Halifax,
Truro and Sydney, show that the rainfall during the summer
was about the average.

In St. John, New Brunswick, Mr. Murdoch, the engineer in
charge of sewers and water works, states that the whole rainfall
during the months o£ Jnly, August and September, amounted to
only 4.65 inches, or an average of 1.55 inches per month, which
was the lowest in six years.

During the same months in Halifax, the rainfall was 10.908
inches, or very little below the average. Truro had a rainfall
of 11.11 inches, Sydney, 8.76, and Yarmouth, 11.09, inches,
while the total rainfall in Nova Scotia was above the average.
The total precipitation at Sydney was the highest on record.

The last paper read before you on this subject (Trans., vol. ix,
p. 279,) gave the maximum storms to December 31, 1896. Since
that date new records have been made for minimum as well
as maximum rainfall. In August, 1899, the rainfall at Halifax
was 1.542 inches, the lowest on lecord for that month. In Octo-
ber, 1897, the rainfall was 0.746 inches, the lowest record for any
month. In November, 1898, the highest rainfall for that month,
viz., 10.248 inches, was recorded.

On the 18th of June, 1897, a heavy storm occurred at
Halifax. It was reported by Mr. Augustus Allison, Dominion
Government Meteorological Agent, as 0.577 inches, and 4.2 hours
in duration. Mr. R. Cogswell gave the precipitation as 0.5 for
the heaviest part of the storm. It Is to be regretted that the
actual time of the heaviest downpour was not noted. Several
observers give the time as about 15 minutes, which would make
the rate of fall two inches per hour.

Mr. James Little, meteorological observer at Truro, reports a
thunderstorm of great severity, accompanied by heavy rain, on

RAINFALL NOTES, NOVA SCOTIA. — DOANE. 401

August 1st, 1900. Rain began to fall at 11.30 a. in., and in 25
minutes measured 0.765 inches, a rate of 1.83 inches per hour.
On the same day a second heavy rain and thunderstorm lasted
from 3.15 p. m. to 4.30 p. m., the measurement being 0.85 inches,
a rate of 0.68 inches per hour. No heavy rain was observed
elsewhere in Nova Scotia on that date.

The tables appended show further details of the rainfall at
Halifax, Truro, Sydney and Yarmouth during 1900: —

402

RAINFALL NOTES, NOVA SCOTIA. — DOANE.

PRECIPITATION AT HALIFAX, N. 8., 1900.

TABLE COMPILED FROM RETURNS OF MR. AUGUSTUS ALLISON, MET. AGENT,

SHOWING DEPTH OF RAINFALL AND MELTED SNOW IN INCHES AND

DURATION OF EACH STORM.

Day of Month.

JANUARY.

FEBRUARY.

MARCH.

APRIL.

MAY.

JUNE

2

o

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1
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4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

8.9
1.2
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1.0

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20
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.357
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.310
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.124
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2.0
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1.340
.058
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3.5

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7.0
13.7
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4.5
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.160
.599
.330
.060
.010
.018

0.4

4.7
4.0
7.5

T.
.142

.200
.498

4.6

.213

1.5

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4.0

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.020

7.1
3.1

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.030

15 7
3.4

2 3(54
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0.2
9.6

T.

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10.2
21 5

9, 5

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1.502
.110

17.5
7.5

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.460

5.0

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3.5

4.0

.284
.590

2.0

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.320

6.9

.262

3.6

.170

1.0
5 6

T.
6.44

4.5
6.3
7 8
13.5

.010
.246
.567
1.212

7-5
1.0

.387
.020

0.4
2.0
15.1
1.0

T.
.032
1.332
T.

9.5
10.1
3.0

.236
.440
.010

10.3
17.8
14.5

.370
.960
.966

*

2.8
20

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.020

2.6
3.5
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1.5

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.340
T.
.060

10.3

1.830

0.7
0.5

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T.

8.0
2.0
4 0

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.072

1.7

11.6
1.0

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1.272
T.

2.5
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15

.058

6 5

125

T.

10 1

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1.5
1.2
3.0

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.053
.380

8.0

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0.5

T.

.112

9, 0

.010

6.0

.333

10 1

522

8.532

5.277

6.577

3.949

4.254

2.656

RAINFALL NOTES, NOVA SCOTIA. — DOANE.

403

PRECIPITATION AT HALIFAX, N. S., 1900.

TABLE COMPILED FROM RETURNS OF MR. AUGUSTUS ALLISON, MET. AGENT,

SHOWING DEPTH OF RAINFALL AND MELTED SNOW IN INCHES, AND

DURATION OF EACH STORM.

4

1

«M

O

I

JULY.

AUGUST.

SEPT.

OCTOBER.

NOVEMBER.

DECEMBER.

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5.043

....

7.165

6.858

3.321

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X.

Tit AN s.— BB.

404

RAINFALL NOTES, NOVA SCOTIA. — DOANE.

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RAINFALL NOTES, NOVA SCOTIA. — DOANE.

405

PRECIPITATION AT HALIFAX, N. S.

TABLE SHOWING, IN INCHES, MONTHLY RAINFALL DURING 1900, IN COMPARISON

WITH MAXIMUM, MINIMUM AND AVERAGE MONTHLY PRECIPITATION,

FROM 1869 TO 1900.

Month.

Year.

Maximum.

Minimum.

Average,
1869-1900.

Rainfall,
1900.

January

1895

10.131

5 757

8KOO

«

1896

1.72

February

1870

10.34

4.892

5 277

«

1873

1.61

March

1878

10.274

5 449

fi 177

«

1889

2.046

April

1889

7.403

4 075

3 949

1886

0.82

May

1886

8 82

4 170

4 254

1894

1.769

June

1874

7.92

3.675

2 656

ii

1879

1.191

July

1896

8.729

3.918

1 872

1894

1.059

August

1887

8 351

4.272

3 993

«

1899

1.542

September ....

1896

12.092

3.613

5.043

1878

0.800

October

1896

15.039

5.688

7.365

«

1897

0.746

November ....

1898

10.248

5.753

6.858

«

1882

1.392

December ....

1893

10.167

5.136

3.321

«

1875

1.61

Totals

1896

69 862

56.332

09.697

«

18!)4

45.808

RAINFALL NOTES, NOVA SCOTIA. — DOANE.

PRECIPITATION AT HALIFAX, N. S.

TABLE SHOWING THE MONTHLY AND ANNUAL DEPTH OF RAIN AND MELTED
SNOW, EXPRESSED IN INCHES ; ALSO THE AMOUNT THAT HAS FALLEN FROM
JANUARY IST TO THE END OF EACH MONTH, INCLUSIVE, DURING EACH YEAR.

Compiled from Observation* and Records made by the Meteorological Agent of
the Dominion Government.

C1

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1869

4.53

4.38

8.91 7.95

16.86

2,57

19.43

5.57

25.00

3.92

28.92

1870

7.11

10.34

17.45

3.02

20.47

3.91

24.38

3.19

27.57

1.69

29.26

1871

3.73

5.88

9.61

6.16

15.77

4.88

20.65

2.59

23.24

2.96

26.20

1872

3.88

4.49

8.37

5.37

13.74

2.85

16.59

4.44

21.03

4.23

25.26

1873

7.83

1.61

9.44

4.09

13.53

2.86

16.39

2.34

18.73

2.96

21.69

1874

5.42

531 10.73

3.98

14.71

4.55

19.26

4.77

24.03

7.92

31.95

1875

3.48

5.90

9.380

2.11

11.49 j 3.38

14.87

3.96

18.83

4.07

22.90

1876

3.576

6.401 9.977

6.329

16.306 3208

19.514

5.66225.176

3.376

28.552

1877

4.200

1.809 6.009

8.666

14.675 3 801

18.476

4,02422.500

3.841

26.341

1878

7.534

2.697 10.231

10. 274 20. 505' 3. 452 23. 957

5.76929.726

4.477

34.203

1879

4.400

3.001 7.401

604413.445 3.481

16.926

4.68721.613

1.191

22.804

1880

7.738

5.12212.860

3.365

16.225 4797

21.022

4.08825.110

1.34326.453

1881

3.607

5.329 8.936

6.55615.492 3.498

18.990

2.46021.450

530826.751

1882

6.840

5.94912.789

7.068 19.857i 4.824

24.681

4.67729.358

5.50734.865

1883

4.930

3.860 8.790

494113.731 3.703

17.434

8.61326.047

3.32229.369

1884

4.406

6.161 10.567

7 034 17.601

7.213

24.814

3.62928.443

3.77332.216

1885

6.388

5.09011.478

3.889

15.367

3.520

18.887

3.28222.169

2.749

24.918

1886

8.67

3.84 12.51

4.03

16.54

0.82

17 36

8.82

26 18

2.71

28.89

1887

7.656

6.735 14.391

4629

19.020 6.38625.406

2.12627.532

2.121

29.653

1888

5.442

6.28411.726

4.310

16.036 3.67519.711

2.87722.588

4.939

27.527

1889

4.391

6.181 10.572

2.046

12.618

7.40320.021

3.871 23.892

3.755

27.647

1890

3.963

4.645 8.608

9.889

18.497

2.958

21 455

3. 970 2.->. 425

3440

28.865

1891

8.383

8.74017.123

2.685

19.808

4.010

23 818

4.19528.013

4.131

32.144

1892

6321

2.605 8.926

5.986

14.912

2.653

17.565

5.45923.024

3.638

26.662

1893

4.781

5.979

10.760

2.303

13063

4.209

17.272

5.05422.326

1.75324.079

1894

7-122

3.571

10.693

3.623

14.316

5.648

19.964

1.76921.733

3.803,25.536

1895

10.131

4.605

14.736

5.931

20.667

3.95624.623

4.08928.712

1.827

30.539

1896

1.720

4.199

5.919

8.786

14.705

1.41316.118

2.532 18.650

4.671 23.321

1897

S.896

2.898

8.794

5.470

14.264

6.211 20.475

4.61325.088

6.07031.158

1898

4.060

4.422

8.482

4.058

12.550

7.346

19.896

236622.262 5.59827.860

1899

5.083

3.613

8.696

7.178

15.874

3278

19 152

3.67722.829 3875

26.704

1900

8.532 5.27713.809 6.57720.386

394924.335 4.25428.589 2.656

31.245

RAINFALL NOTES, NOVA SCOTIA. — DOANE.

407

PRECIPITATION AT HALIFAX, N. S.
TABLE SHOWING THE MONTHLT AND ANNUAL DEPTH OF RAIN AND MELTKD

SNOW, EXPRESSED IN INCHES ; ALSO THE AMOUNT THAT HAS FALLEN FROM

JANUARY IST TO THE KND OF EACH MONTH, INCLUSIVE, DURING EACH YEAR.

Compiled from Observations and Records made by the Meteorological Agent of
the Dominion Government.

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1869

2.92

31.84

2.58

34.42

1 57

35.99

7.30

43.29

5.47

48.76

5.77

54.53

1870

3.21

32.47

2.20

34.67

3.33

38.00

6.85 4-1.85

6.28

51.13

6.06

57.19

1871

3.38

29.58

3.69

33.27

4.81

38.08

4.49 42.57

4.18

46 75

4.39

51.14

1872

2.88

28.14

6.82

34.96

1.41

36.37

4.88 41.25

6.65

47.90

6.16

54.06

1873

3.90

25.59

4.45

30.04

4.48

34.52

8.63 43.15

7.98

51.13

4.31

55.44

1874

2.29

34.24

3.37

37.61

5.04

42.65

2.46 !45.11

3.58

48.69

5.49

54.18

1875

5.61

28.51 3.56

32.07

2.06

34. 13

9.98 44.11

5.54

49.65

1.61

51.26

1876

3.914

32.4461.909

34.375

6.094

40.469

4.076 44.545

7.397

51.942

3.16455106

1877

4.468

30.8093.539

34.348

3.164

37.512

6.85744.369

8.678

">3.047

4.49357.540

1878

1.483,

35.6863.127

38.813 .800

39.613

5.06044.673

6.909

r>1.582

5.12056.702

1879

3.843

26.6474.827

31.474 2.600

34.074

4.76038.834

4.837

43.671

4.029

47.700

1880

3.086

29.5393.920

33.459 5.702

39.161

4.59043.751

4.710

48.461

4.291 52.752

1881

3.177

29. 935 3. 062 32. 990 3. 1 05

36.095

4.206'40.301

4.420

44.721

7.03451.755

1882

5.071

39.9363.925

43.861

5.914

49.775

7.40357.178

1.392

18.570

3.45262.022

1883

3540

32.9095.342

38.251

3.864

42.115

5.841 47.956 3.478

51.434 6.678

38.112

1884

8.294

40.5102.771

43.281

1.788

41069

3.09348.162 5.992

54.154 9.124

63.278

1885

5.817

30.7353.001

33.736

2.497

36.233

6.28042.513 5.423

47.936' 8.693

56.629

1886

6.53

35.42 4.53

39.95

4.46

44.41

2.13 46.54

5.28

51.82

5.47

57.29

1887

2.045

31.6988.351

40.049 3.308

43.357

3.0584(5.415 6.718

53.133 4.120

57.253

1888

5.001 32 528 7.000

39.528 5.331

44.859

685951.718 6.802

58.520 7.774

66.294

1889

2 668 30.315

2.633

32.948

1.399

34.347 4.179

38.526 7.145

45.671 2.988

48.659

1890

2.141:31.006

7.04238.048

4.534

42.582 6.603

49.185 3.716

52.901 7.202

60.103

1891

4.00336.147

3.38539.532

3.052

42.584

9.621 52.205 2.388

54.593 4.076

58.669

1892

2.71029.3726.80936.181

1.744

37.925

3.47241.397

9.240

50.637

3.053

53.690

1893

4.75728.8365.95434.790

4.391

39.181

5.64044.821

3.760

48.581 10.167

58.748

1894

1.059 26.595 3.993 30.588

1.01031.598

3.863 35.461

5. 785 41.241! 4..Mi2

45.808

1895

3.924 34.463 5.502 39.965

2.491 42.456

5.627 48 083

8.22356.306 5.846

62. 152

1896

8.729 32.050 3.037 35.087

12.09247.179

15.039

52.218

4.39666.614 3.24X

69.862

1897

3.66134.8195.18540.004

1.16941.173

0.746

41.919

6.051

47.970

3.552

51.522

1898

5.66231.6125.65137.163

4.158'41.321

4.845

46.166

10.248

")6.414

4.066

60.480

1899

5.747J32.451 1.54233.993

3.20137.194

6.191

43.385

4.590

47.975

5.038

53 013

1900

1.872 33. 11713.993 37.110

5.043'42.153

7.365

49.518 6.858

36.376 3.321 59.697

408

RAINFALL NOTES, NOVA SCOTIA. — DOANE.

PRECIPITATION AT SYDNEY, N. S.
TABLE COMPILED FROM RETURNS OF MR. R. L. LAFFIN, MET. AGENT.

MONTH (1900).

Precipitation.
(1900.)

Year.

Total.

January

7.72

1893

33.49

February

5 60

1894

35 88

March

7.12

1895

38 81

April »

6.66

1896

38 61

May

3.28

1897

29.23

June

3.44

1898

37 47

July

2.14

1899

39.58

August

2.54

1900

53.18

September

4.08

October

2.36

November

7.40

December

.84

Totals

53 18

Average.

38 28

PRECIPITATION AT TRURO, N. S., 1900.
TABLE COMPILED FROM RETURNS OF MR. JAMES LITTLE, MET. AGENT.

MONTH.

Rainfall.

Snow.

Melted
Snow.

Total.

January

4.37

16 7

1.30

5.67

February

2 66

20 0

1 52

4.18

March

3 55

18 7

1 44

4 99

April

3.23

15.2

1.17

4.40

May

3 60

3 60

June

4 55

4.55

Julv

2.51

2.51

August

6.06

6.06

September

2 54

2.54

October

6.22

0.5

0.04

6.26

November

4.97

8.1

0.63

5.60

December

0.89

25.5

1.96

2.85

Totals..

45.15

104.7

8.06

53.21

PRECIPITATATION AT YARMOUTH, N. S., 1900.
FROM RETURNS OF MR. J. E. MURPHY, MET. AGENT.

MONTH.
July ...

Precipitation.
2.65

August ....

3.28

5.16

October •.

11.38

Total for year . ,

60.32

TRANSACTIONS

OK THE

Scotian Jnstitute of .Science.

SESSION OF 1901-1902.

I — ON A DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSION
CONSTANT FOR ELECTROLYTES. — BY THOS. C. HEBB,
M. A., Dalkousie College, Halifax, N. S.

(Communicated on 10th February, 190S, by Prof. J. O. MacGreyor.)

In a paper read before the Royal Society of Canada,* Dr.
MacGregor has described a method of combining the observa-
tions of different observers on the freezing-point depressions of
electrolytes, for which the ionization coefficients at 0°C. are
known, for the purpose of determining the depression constant
for electrolytes. He also applied the method to a few sets of
observations made in the Dalhousie College Laboratory, and
found that the value so obtained agreed very closely with what
one would expect from theory. In a subsequent paperf pub-
lished by the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, he described a
second method, and applied it to all the available data for
electrolj'tes, in which both determinations of the freezing-point
depressions, and of the ionization coefficients had been made.
At his suggestion, I have applied the first method to the experi-
mental material contained in the second paper, and to a few
observations of my own as well, with the result given below.

The method is based upon the assumption, verified by
experience, that the formula: 6 = k (1 — a) + fa — where <f is the

* Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. (2), Vol. 6, Sec. 3, 3, 1900-01.
t Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. x. p. 211. 1899-00.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS. CC.

(409)

410 DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSION

equivalent depression, i. e., the depression of the freezing-point
divided by the concentration, « is the ionization coefficient at
O°C. and k and I are constants — holds for electrolytes, in which
the dilution is sufficient to make the mutual action between the
molecules probably negligible. If, in the above formula, the
concentration be expressed in gramme-equivalents per litre, the
constant k will be the depression of the freezing-point caused by
a gramme-equivalent of the undissociated electrolyte, and I will
be the depression caused by a gramme-equivalent of the dissoci-
ated electrolyte.

Since this hold?, it is evident that, if, for any electrolyte, we
plot equivalent depressions s against ionization coefficients a, we
will at sufficient dilution get a straight line. Hence, knowing
the equivalent depressions, and the ionization coefficients for
different concentrations, for any electrolyte, we can draw in the
ionization-equivalent depression curve. Then, finding that
portion of the curve, which seems to be rectilinear, we can draw
in the straight line, which best represents the results. The
equation of this line from the above is A = k (1— a) + la; and we
may determine k and I by taking two points on the line, substi-
tuting the values of 6 and a so obtained in the equation, and then
solving the two simultaneous equations obtained.

Now it is clear that the constants, k and I, bear a simple
relation to the depression constants, i. e., to the depression of the
freezing-point produced by a gramme-molecule of the undissoci-
ated electrolyte, and the depression produced by a gramme-ion
of the free ions. Call these two constants m and i.

In the case of NaCl, KC1, HC1, NH4C1, KNO3, HN03 and
KOH, since each gramme-equivalent is a gramme-molecule, we
have/c = m; also, since each molecule breaks up into two ions
each of which is equally effective in lowering the freezing-point,
^we have l = 2i.

In the case of BaCl2, K2S04, Na2S04 and HaS04, sines
•each gramme-molecule contains two gramme-equivalents, we
have fc=£ra; and we have l = %i, if we assume the molecule in

CONSTANT FOR ELECTROLYTES — IIEBI5.

411

each case to break up into three ions, as, according to Prof.
MacGregor's Diagram of Freezing-point depressions, it seems to
do.

In the case of MgS04 'each gramme-molecule contains two
gramme-equivalents, hence fc— Jm ; and since each molecule
breaks up into two ions we get l = i.

In the case of H3P04, if each gramme-molecule contains
three gramme-equivalents, we have k = \m ; also, if each molecule
breaks up into two ions, as Loomis's and Jones's results seem to
imply, we have l = % i.

As the constants, m and i, depend so simply on the constants,
k and I, the accuracy of their determination will depend on the
accuracy with which we can determine k and I. Dr. MacGregor
has shewn that the values of I can be determined with a much
greater degree of accuracy than can k.

Thus if AB or AB' be the true curve representing the rela-
tion between 6 and a — the curves for different electrolytes bend
in different ways — then the equation 6=k (1 — a)-{-la will repre-
sent the straight line AE, i. e., the tangent to the curve at
infinite dilution if AC represents unity.

a /

A A f

412 DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSION

If in this equation n = l then 6=1 which is represented OD
the diagram by DA. Again if a=o then 6-—h which is repre-
sented by OE on the diagram. Now suppose that in drawing
in our straight line we consider somfe portion as QP or Q'P' a&
straight, and hence get the line as represented by our formula,
to be A"E" or A'E'. In this case our I will be A"D or A'D-
instead of the true value AD, and k will be OE' or OE" instead
of OE. The error in I is A"A or A'A, while that in k is EE" or
EE'. It is plain that A A" or A A' is less than EE" or EE', i. e.,
that the accuracy with which I is determined is greater than
that with which k is determined. Hence the values of i are
affected with a smaller error than are those of m.

Since the depressions for dilute solutions are affected with a
considerable error, the part of the ionization-equivalent depres-
sion curve near A is very untrustworthy. This is shewn by Dr^
MacGregor in one of the papers referred to above. He has
pointed out that the curves of the different observers for the-
same electrolyte deviate at great dilution, some to the right
and others to the left of what their general course is at moderate
dilution. Not only this, but the different observations of the
same observer become very irregular as dilution increases.

As, therefore, the curves of the different observers have this
rightward or leftward tendency — and sometimes to a great
extent — as dilution increases, it is evident that wo get better
values of k and I, if we obtain them from a part of the ionization-
equivalent depression curve, which corresponds to a concen-
tration at which trustworthy determinations of the depressions
can be made, than if we use the very erratic observations at high
dilution. 1 have, therefore, in the determinations of k and I
used only the observations on solutions of moderate dilution.
As, however, some curves begin to curve rapidly as the concen-
tration increases, even at an early stage, one has to use some
discretion in choosing a part of the curve, which is least affected
on the one hand by the natural bend of the curve, and on the
other by the bend due to the error of method of the observer.

CONSTANT FOR ELECTROLYTES — HEBB 413

The data, as I have indicated, are taken from the second of
the papers referred to above. Before, however, plotting the
ionization-eqnivalent depression curve, I plotted in each case the
equivalent depression against concentiation, and drew in the.
smooth curve which best represented the results, so that approxi-
mately as many points fell on one side of the curve as on the
other. In drawing in this curve, however, I did not use many
of the observations — only those of the stronger concentrations*
This was done in order to get rid, as much as possible, of the
error due to the rightward or leftward tendency of the observa-
tions ; for, had I plotted all the points and then drawn in the
smooth curve which best represented them, these latter erratic
points would have given a rightward or leftward tendency even
to the part of the curve corresponding to the stronger concentra-
tions. Hence, as a general thing, I discarded all but three or
four of the observations on the stronger concentrations. In
cases where I have kept more it is due to one of three things :
(1) because the points were close together; (2) because there was
very little rightward or leftward tendency to the ionization-
equivalent depression curve, or (3) because the ionization-equi-
valent depression curve for these stronger concentrations had a
rapid natural bend to it. The information in (2) and (3) was
ascertained by a preliminary plotting of ionization coefficients
against equivalent depressions. Having thus drawn in the
smooth concentration-equivalent depression curve, I read off
the values of the equivalent depressions corresponding to the
given concentrations, and have given them in brackets alongside
of the observations themselves.

1 then plotted these corrected equivalent depressions against
their corresponding ionization coefficients, and finding by inspec-
tion the portion of the curve thus obtained, which was straight,
I drew in the straight line which I thought best represented the
results. In drawing in this straight line I generally gave more
weight to points corresponding to solutions of greater concen-
tration. This straight line was then 'treated as pointed out
above, and k and I were thus obtained.

414 DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSION

The following table gives all the data together with the
values of k and I thus obtained. The values of the ionization
coefficients given were taken directly from the second of Dr.
MacGregor's papers referred to above. The letters i and e
which follow the coefficients indicate as to whether the values
were obtained by interpolation or extrapolation. While the
letters A, B, D and W refer to the observers Archibald, Barnes,
De-iuisne and Whetham.

CONSTANT FOR ELECTROLYTES— HEHB.

415

TABLE 1.

Concen-
tration,
(gr eq ID

Toni/.ntion
Coefficients
at 0° C.

Equivalent
Depression.

Concen-
tration,
(gr. eq.//).

Toniwition
Coefficients
at 0* C.

Equivalent
Depression.

KC1. (Loomis.)
fc=2.065; £ = 3.673.

KC1. (Ponsot.)
Jk=1.920; J=3.687.)

.01
.02
.03
.035
.05
.1
.2
.4

.943 i. B.
.923 "
.910 "
.905 "
.892 "
.862 "
.832 "
.804 "

3.60
3.55
3.52 (3.528)
3.53 (3.519)
3.50 (3.498)
3.445 (3.450)
3.404
3.353

.1468
.1688
.2344
.2456
.2472
.2544

.846i. B.
.840 "
.827 "
.825 ' "
.825 "
.824 "

3.413 (3.415)
3.406 (3.404)
3.392 (3.381)
3.375 (3.378)
3.378
3.377

KC1. (Wildermann.)
k -2.034; J-3.6&.

KC1. (Jone.s.)
A:=2.180 ; J=3.678.

.03883
.03884
.07652
.07668

.900 i. B.
.900 "

.873 "
.873 "

3.515 (3.5235)
3.532 (3.5235)
3.491 (3.489)
3.487 (3.489)

.04
.0592
.078
.03646
.2
.28

.900 i. B.
.885 "
.873 "
.863 "
.832 "
.821 "

3.5325
3.5067
3.4923(3.487)

3.4688(3.473)
3.4300
3.4,107

KC1. (Hcbb.)
A =1.755; f=3G95.

.0628
.1065
.2121
.3186

.882 i. B.
.859 "
.830* "
.817 "

3.451 (3.465)
3.415 (3.430)
3.404 (3.375)
3.340

KC1. (Raoult.)
fc = 1846; i = 3.652.

.05825
.1168

.904e.W.

.878 "

3.478
3.431

NaCl. (Loc

mis.)
3722.

KC1. (Abegg.)
fc = 1.344; /=3.719.

A=2.140; /=

.08
.09
.10
.20

.860 i. B.
855 "
.850 "
.815 "

3.501
3.494 (3.493)
3.484 (3.485)
3.439

.0469
.0583
.0697

.895 i. B.
.887 "
.878 "

3.47
3.45
3.43

416 DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSION
TABLE I.— Continued.

Concen-
tration.
<gr. eq. ID

lonlzation

Coefficients
at 0° C.

Equivalent
Depression.

Concen-
tration,
(gr. eq. /I.)

lonization
Coefficients
at 0* C.

Equivalent
Depression.

NaCl. (Jones.)"
A — **' 050 * 1 — 3 726

HC1. (Loomis.)
A.-=2O95; Z=3.643.

.01
.02
.05
.1
.2
.3

.982 i. B.
.972 "
.955 "
.933 "
.910 "
.897 "

3.61 (3.615)
3.60 (3.599)
3.59 (3.574)
3.546 (3 555)
3.565
3.612

.0790
.0882
.0973
.1063
.15
.1925
.2329

.861 i. B.
.856 "
.851 "
.848 "
.831 "
.818 "
.805 "

3.492
3.483 (3.484)
3.477 (3.476)
3.469
3.447 (3.442)
3.418 (3.424)
3.414

HC1. (Jones.)
fc=1.950; Z=3.684.

Naf 1. (Abegg.)
/t=.800 ; 1=3.957.

.08127
.1025
.1228

.940 i. B.
.933 "
.928 "

3.5856 (3.580)
3.5609 (3.568)
3.5692 (3.565)

.0439
.0653
.0871
.1083

.882 i. B.
.867 "
.856 "

.847 "

3.57 (3.580)
3.55 (3.537)
3.50
'3.47

NH^Cl. (Loomis.)
fc=13SO; Z=3.700.

.01
.02
.035
.05

.951 i. D.
.931 "
.914 "
.900 "

3.56 (3.585)
3.56 (3.540)
3.50
3.48

Nad. (Arrhenius.)
A:=1992; J=3697.

.194
.324

.816 i. B.
.781 "

3.54
3.51

NH^Cl. (Jones.)
fc=2.050; 1=3.692.

00997
.0595

.951 i. D.

.892e. D.

3.6108
3.5143

NaCl. (Ponsot )
fc=2.000; Z=3.728.

.1318
.1808
.2016
.2248
.2288

.836 i. B.
.821 "
.814 "
.808 "
.806 "

3.445
3.418 (3.419)
3.413 (3.411)
3.403(3.405)
3.405 (3.404)

K NO, . (Loomis.)

3

& = 1.580; 1 = 3.682:

.025
.05

i

.899i. D.
.876 "
.832e. D.
.789 "

3.46
3.41
3.314
3.194

CONSTANT FOR ELECTROLYTES. — HEHB.

417

TABLE I.— Continued.

Concen-
tration.
(gr.eq./Z.)

lonization
Coefficients
at 0* C.

Equivalent
Depression.

Concen-
tration,
(gr. eq. 11.)

lonization
Coefficients
at 0' C.

Equivalent
Depression.

K2 S 04. (Ponsot.)
fc-.874; J-2.834.

H2 S O4. (Ponsot.)
&=.617; 1=2.797:

.0724
.0752
.2295
.2360
.4140
.4280

.731 i. A.
.726 "
.635 '«
.633 "
.596 "
.594 "

2.307
2.301
2.113(2.115)
2.110(2.109)
2.012 (2.010)
2.002 (2.005)

.2570
.2580
.4476
.4516

.587LB.
.587 "
.565 "
.565 "

1.895 (1.897)
1.899 (1.897)
1.850
1.849

H2 SO4. (Wildermann.)
&=1.080; 1=2.565.

.1358
.1930

.6221 B.
.599 "

2.004
1.970

Na2 S 64. (Loomis.)
£=1.100; J=2.815.

.20
.40
.60

.624 i. A.
.546 "
.511 "

2.170
2.036
1.938

Mg SO4. (Loomis.)
fc=.713; 1=1.793.

.04
.06

.522i. D.

.485 "

1.277
1.237

Na2 S O4. (Arrhenius.)
ft= 1.180; 1=2.950.

Mg SO4. (Jones.)
A-=1074; 1=1849.

.234
.390

.607 i. A.
.549 "

2.205
2.095

•015972
.017940
.019904
.03950
.05872

.614i. D.
.608 "
.596 (<
^.521 "
'.502 "

1.5590
1.5496 (1.545)
1.5323 (1.535)
1.4912 (1.486)
1.4391 (1.444)

H2 SO4. (Loomis.)
k= 731 ; 1=2 826.

.20
.40

.598 i. B.
.570 "

1.984
1.925

H3 P O4. (Loomis.)
A-=.654; 1=1.1198.

H2 SO4. (Jones.)
A:-. 792; 1-2.767.

.03
.06

.614 i. D.
.513 "

0.94
0.893

.11358
.15472
.19450
.2330

.633 i. B.
.612 "
.598 "
.586 "

2.0514 (2.042)
1.9952 (2.001)
1.9732
1.9498

H3 P O4. (Jones.)
fr=620; 1=1.338.

.019605
.027705
.03279

.669i. D.
.627 "
.602 "

1.0967(1.101)
1.0721 (1.069)

L.00B2

i

418 DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSION
TABLE I.— Continued.

Concen-
tration
(gr. eq. /I.)

lonization
Coefficients
at 0° C.

Equivalent
Depression.

Concen-
tration,
(gr. eq. //.)

lonization
Coefficients
at 0° C.

Equivalent
Depression.

K O H. (Loomis.)
&=2256; Z=3.516

Ba C12. (Ponsot.)
fc=l,136; Z-2.786.

.05
.10

.943e. D.
.932 "

3.44
3.43

.05520
.0620
.0680
.0774
.2060
.2095
.2235
.3100

.796e.W.
.790 "
.785 "
.771 "
.717 "
.716 "
.710 "
.685 "

2.446
2.436
2.426 (2.427)
2.416 (2.415)
2.316
2.320 (2.315)
2.309(2.311)
2.297

HNO3. (Jones.)
fc=2.640; 1=3.765.

.03119
.05103

.958e. D.
.949 "

3.7179
3.7076

KOH. (Jones)
&= 2.019; 1 = 3.699.

K2 S O4. (Loomis.)
fc=1.118 ; /=2.752.

.01069
.03163
.05174
.07481

.964e.D.
.950 "
.942 "
935 "

3.6296 (3 640)
3.6263(3.616)
3.5756 (3.600)
3.6142 (3 590)

.02
.04
.1
.2
.4
.6

.821 i. A.
.772 "
.705 "
.645 "
.598 "
.583 "

2.46
2.38
2.271
2.1585
2.0335
1.9455

Ba CI2 (Loomis.)
&=1.198; Z=2743.

.02
.04
.1
2
.4

.860i. W.
.820e. \V.
.768 "
.724 "
.658 "

2.495 (2.505)
2.475 (2 465)
2.3fe
2.345
2.3275

K2 SO4. (Jones )
A=.849; Z=2.879.

.1357
.152
.16765
.1826
.19685

.677 i. A.
.668 "
.661 "
.654 "
.647 "

2.231 (2.234)
2.208 (2.210)
2.197 (-M92)
2.178(2.176)
2.160(2.162)

BaCJg. (Jones)
&=1.4U; i=2.731.

K2 S 04 (Abegg.)
k= 901 ; Z=2.771.

.011964
.01394
01592

.01788
.02

889 i. W.

.880 "
.872 "
.866 "
.860 "

2.5823 (2.590)
2.5753
2.5754 (2.565)
2.5560
2.550

.01734
.0216
.0258
.0299

.829 i. A.
.815 "
.803 "
.794 "

2.47
2.43 (2.428)
2.40 (2.402)
2.385

CONSTANT FOR ELECTROLYTES — HE15B.

419

The following table gives the values of the constants k and I
given in table I. together with the values of m and i — i. e., the
depressions of the freezing-point due to a gramme-molecule of
the undissociated salt, and that due to a gramme-ion of the dis-,
sociated salt — as obtained from them.

TABLE II.

Electro-
lyte.

Observer.

lonization Constants.

Depression Constanta for

k

I

Undissociated
Molecules (m).

Free Ions (»).

KC1

2.065
2.180
1.846
1.344
2.034
1.920
1.755
2.140
2.050
.800
1.992
2.000
2.095
1.950
1.380
2.050
1.580
2.640
2.256
2.019
1.198
1.414
1.136
1.118
.849
.901
.874
1.180
1.100
.731
.792
.617
1.080
.713
1.074
.654
.620

3.673
3.678
3.652
3.719
3.689
3.687
3.695
3.722
3.726
3.957
3.697
3.728
3.643
3.684
3.700
3.692
3.682
3.765
3.516
3.699
2.743
2.734
2.786
2.752
2.879
2.771
2.834
2.950
2.815
2.826
2.767
2.797
2.565
1.793
1.849
1.120
1.338

_ _ •

2.065
2.180
1.846
1.344
2.034
1.920
1.755
2.140
2.050
.800
1.992
2.000
2.095
1.950
1.380
2.050
1.580
2.640
2.256
2.019
2.396
2.828
2.272
2.236
1.698
1.802
1.748
2.360
2.200
1.462
1.584
1.234
2.160
1 426
2.148
1.962
1.860

1 837
1.839
1.826
1.860
1.845
1.844
1.848
1.861
1.863
1.979
1.849
1 864
1.822
1.842
1.850
1.846
1.841
1.883
1.758
1.850
1 829
1.823
1.857
1.835
1.919
1.847
1.889
1.967
1.877
1.884
1.845
1.865
1.710
L79J
1.848
1.080
2.007

— - -*

' Jones

Tfannlt.

Wilder maun.

Wplih

NaCl |Loomis

Arrhenius. . .
Ponsot

HC1

!NH4ci"

KN08 . .
HNOg . . .
KOH ....

Bad 2* ! ! !

K2S04 '. !
«

Na2SO4 !

H2S04 . !
«

Mgso4 : ;
H.p<>4::

Jones
Loomis

Jones

Loomis ....
Jones
Loomis ....
•Tones
Loomis ....
Jones
Ponsot ....
Loomis ....
Jones
Abeae . .

Ponsot
Arrhenius . . .
Loomis
Loomis
Jones

Ponsot
Wildermann
Loomis ...'..
Jones
Loomis
Jones

One sees from an inspection of this table that the values of i,
though they vary considerably, are in most cases not

420 DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSION

the value expected from theory. In the case of the undissociated
molecules, however, the variation of their values is much greater-
As the depression produced by molecules is supposed on theore-
tical grounds to be the same as that produced by free ions, the
difference between the variations of m and i is probably due to
the different degrees of accuracy with which, as seen above, m
and i are capable of determination.

If we assume, as is customary, that the depression produced
by the molecules, whether they are undissociated molecules or
free ions, is the same for all electrolytes in dilute solution, we
can arrive at better values of both m and i by finding the mean
values. This becomes obvious when we take into consideration
the sources of error which affect the values of k and I. For the
straight line, from which k and I are determined, may be either
too high or too low ; or it may be too much or too little inclined
to the equivalent depression axis. The line may be too high or
too low because of defective observations of depression, defective
values of ionization coefficients, or the way in which I have
drawn it in. So far, at least, as two of these sources of error
are concerned, the resulting errors will in some cases be positive
and in others negative; and in finding the average these errors
will in part cancel one another. Defective inclination of the
line may be due, in addition, to the characteristic error of the
observer's method, which may be such as to make the curve at
great dilution go off either to the right or the left as dilution
increases, or to the natural bend of the curve itself which may
be either to the right or left as concentration increases. The
errors due to these sources will also be, in some cases, positive,
and in others negative, and hence will practically neutralize one
another on averaging.

The determinations of the above table are not all of the same
oider of trustworthiness Some are based on freezing-point
observations made by means of old methods ; others on those
of newer and more accurate methods. Some are based on many
observations, others on few ; some on observations in good agree-
ment, others on more erratic series. In some cases, also, the
ionization coefficients employed are more trustworthy than in

CONSTANT FOR ELECTROLYTES — HEBB. 421

others If an estimate could be made of the relative value of the
various determinations, the weighted mean would give a closer
approximation to the true values of the depression constant",
than can be given by a mere average. I have not attempted,
however, to attach weights to the determinations, being unable
to do so with any confidence.

Assuming that averaging will eliminate the greater part of
the errors we get as the values of TO and i, 1.932 and 1.851
respectively. The value for i is undoubtedly the more accurate
of the two ; and, as we assume that undissociated molecules have
the same effect as free ions, the value of TO is to be taken as
1.851 also. That the average value of TO is so much greater
than that of i may be due not only to the defects of the method
employed in determining it, but to the fact that the bend of the
curve of an electrolyte is more likely to be to the right than to
the left, as concentration increases. For it is only where associa-
tion of molecules takes place that it bends to the left.

Some of the sets of observations given in the paper, from
which I have taken my data, I did not use. A few of these
sets were so erratic that I could make nothing out of them.
The other cases, however, had been worked out by Dr. Mac-
Gregor, and, hence, I did not think it worth my while to do so.
If, now, I combine my results with those obtained by him, I will,
with the exception of the few sets mentioned above, have made,
use of all available data. The mean values of TO and i, as
given by him, are 1.895 and 1.850 respectively and hence the
values of TO and i as given by averaging his mean values with
mine are 1.913 and 1.851.

The above result is in agreement with that reached by Prof.
MacGregor by means of the second method referred to above
The conclusion he arrived a.t was that, for all the electrolytes
examined, the curves of his diagram were consistent with the
depression constant having a common value of about 1.85. That
the two methods should give results which are not only in close
agreement with one another, but are also in close agreement with
the value of the depression constant given by Van 't Hoff's
theoretical expression for it, must be regarded as of considerable
interest.

II. — ON THE DETERMINATION OF THE FRKEZING-POINT DEPRES-
SIONS OF DILUTE SOLUTIONS OF ELECTROLYTES — BY
THOS. C. HEBB, M. A., Dalkousie College, Halifax, N. S.

(Read March 10th, 1001.)

Dr. MacGregorhas shown,* that, if for any electrolyte curves
be plotted using ionization coefficients as ordinates and the
equivalent depressions of different observers as abscissae, the
curves so drawn diverge, as dilution increases, some to the right
and some to the left of what their general course is at moderate
dilution. He has also shown, that this tendency to diverge is
less for the results of Archibald and Barnes, both of whom
worked in the Dalhousie Physical Laboratory. This indicates
that the method they adopted was free from some source or
sources of error which affected the methods of other observers.
As they had not carried their observations to solutions of great
dilution, he suggested that 1 should go over the ground with
one or two electrolytes and see if, for higher dilutions, their
results were borne out. This I have done for potassium
chloride with the results given below.

I chose this electrolyte for the following reasons: — (1) It is
one of the salts for which Whethamf has made determinations of
the ionization coefficients for dilute solutions at 0°C. ; (2) The
rightward or leftward tendency, above mentioned, is most
marked for this electrolyte ; and (3) solutions of known con-
centrations are quite easily made up.

Salt.

The salt was obtained as chemically pure from Merck. On
testing it, however, I detected free acid. This disappeared on
once re-crystallizing and heating to constant weight. Solutions

* Proc. and Trans. N. S Inst. Sci.. Vol. X., p. 211, 1899-00.
t Phil. Trans., A, Vol. 194. 1900, pp. 321-360.

(422)

DETERMINATION OF FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS, ETC. 423

of it gave values of conductivity agreeing very well with those
given by Kohlrausch.*

Water.

The water used, both in making up the solutions and in.
determining the freezing-point of water, was purified by boiling
distilled water, containing a few grammes of barium hydroxide
in a copper boiler and condensing it in a block-tin worm. It
was kept in glass bottles, which had been used several years for
that purpose. The conductivity of the water, obtained by once
distilling, was never more than 1.25 x 10~" at 18°C. expressed in
Kohlrausch's new unit (ohm~l cm."1).-!- The determination of
the conductivity was ir-ade by means of Kohlrausch's method
with the alternating current and telephone. The constant of the
electrolytic cell used was determined by comparing the conduc-
tivities of known solutions at 18° with those given by
Kohlrausch.J I did not try to obtain water of a greater degree
of purity, for the amount of any electrolyte present to give it
this conductivity is so small that the freezing-point would not be
affected in the fourth place of decimals. This I have deter-
mined by using Kohlrausch's § table of conductivities, together
with observations made on the freezing-point depressions of
electrolytes of different observers. Of course theie is the possi-
bility of a non-electrolyte being present, but we may safely
assume that the amount of it present is, at least, not greater
than that of the electrolyte, and even twice the amount of salt
present, which would be necessary to give the above conduc-
tivity, will not affect the freezing-point of water in the fourth
place of decimals.

Solutions.

All solutions were made up at 0°C. The greater number of
them were made by putting a known amount of the water-
free salt in a 1000 c. c. flask, and tilling it up with water at 0°C.
A few of the diluter solutions were made from these by means

• Kohlrausch u. Holborn : Leitvertnogen der Elektrolyte, 1898, p. 159, tab. 2.
t Kohlrausch u. Holborn : Loitveruiogen der Elektrolyte, 1898, p. 1.
I Loc. cit.
i Loc. cit.

424 DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS

of another flask of 200 c. c. capacity. Both flasks were calibrated
at 0°C. The concentrations, in gramme-equivalents per litre of
solutions at 0°C., were hence easily calculated. But in some of
the cases I was not sure of the dryness of my salt, and hence
determined their concentrations gravimetrically by precipitating
the KC1 of a known quantity of the solution with Ag NO,.

Measurement of Freezing-Points.

The method used in determining the freezing-points was a
modification of that used by Loomis.* The principal changes were:

(1) the stirring was done mechanically and at a constant rate;

(2) the stirrer was not simply of the ring form but had vanes
attached to it; (3) the temperature surrounding the whole
apparatus was kept within .5 degree of 0°C. The work was
clone in a basement room of the college in which there was no
source of heat, and experiments were only made when the
temperature of the air could be kept at 0°C. by raising the
windows.

The freezing-apparatus consisted of three parts as follows :
(1) an outer bath containing ice and water ; (2) a bath which
stood in this called the protection-bath, and which contained a
mixture of salt water and snow, at a temperature of .005 degree
centigrade below the freezing-point of the solution, whose
freezing-point was being determined ; (3) the freezing-tubes
immersed in this, which contained the solution under experiment.

The freezing-tubes consisted of two glass tubes one inside the
other, the outer being about 3.2 cm. in diameter. The
space, of about 1 mm., between the two was kept uniform
throughout by winding silk thread about the inner one at two
distinct places. This air-space, together with one at the bottom
of the tubes, caused by the bottom of the inner tube being
re-entrant, kept an ice sheath from being formed on the wall of
the tube. The two tubes were sealed together at the top, in
order to keep moisture from getting in between them, and in
order to have their relative positions always the same. These

*Phys. Review, 1, 199, 1893, and 9, 257, 1899.

OF DILUTE SOLUTIONS OF ELECTROLYTES. — HEBB. 425

tubes fitted tightly into the cover of the protection bath, and,
as the outer tube was 30 cm. in length, they extended to a
considerable distance into this bath. A cork made of vulcanite
and pierced by three holes fitted into the inner tube. Through
the hole in the centre of the cork a thermometer passed. It was
fastened tightly, and in such a manner, that its bulb came
within 2 cm. of the bottom of the inner tube. A stirrer passed
through one of the other holes, while the third was kept for the
introduction of an ice crystal. The last two mentioned holes
were lined with platinum foil.

The stirrer which was made in the usual form with a ring at
the bottom, was of platinum wire. This ring, which was smaller
than the internal diameter of the inner tube, had fastened to it
vanes of platinum foil. These were fastened on by platinum wire
and extended in towards the centre. This form of stirrer I
found to be much more effective in stirring than the ring
commonly used.

In order to guide this stirrer, and in order to keep the
thermometer in the centre of the freezing-tube, another cork, of
rubber, was fastened on to the thermometer, some distance above
the highest point reached by the solution when the thermometer
was in position in the freezing-tube. Through this cork there
were two holes — one for the stirrer and one for the introduction
of an ice crystal. These holes were linei with glass tubing.

The above arrangement kept the stirrer from scraping against
the sides of the freezing-tubes. And, in order to keep it as much
as possible from rubbing against the sides of the holes in the
corks, a link was introduced in the part of the wire outside of
the tubes. This allowed it to hang in a perfectly vertical
position.

The protection bath was 38 cm. in height and 13 cm. in
diameter. Its cover consisted of a brass plate through which
passed the freezing-tubes, a thermometer and a stirrer. This
stirrer consisted of a wire shaft, which had two rings fastened to
it — one for the upper and one for the lower portions of the
mixture. The rings held vanes of tin. This kept the mixture
PROC. & TRANP. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS. DD.

426 DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS

well stirred, and any change in temperature was quickly recoicled
by the thermometer.

It was so arranged that both these stirrers — viz., the one in
the protection bath and the one in the freezing-tubes — should
have the same stroke. Hence they were both fastened to a
slider on a vertical guide-post. This slider was worked by a
crank vertically above it. The axis carrying the crank was-
turned by a hot-air motor. The stroke of the crank was equal
to the stroke required by the stirrers.

The two thermometers — viz., the one in the protection bath,
and the one in the freezing-tubes — were both of the Beckmann
form, and were graduated to .01 degree. The one used in the
freezing-tubes had been calibrated at the Physikalisch-Technische
Reichsanstalt, Berlin. The value of its degree — its length being-
about 5.4i cm. — was given to the third place of decimals. As^
however, it had been tested with its bulb at O°C. and its scale
at 15°C., I had to make a correction due to the fact that I used
it with its scale also at O°C. In the corrected form the value
of the degree was correct. For some time before it was used,
and while it wa* being used, it was kept hanging in a vertical
position with its bulb and scale approximately at zero. This
precaution is indispensible, as the constancy of the thermometer
depends on it. This thermometer was read by means of a
microscope, which was firmly mounted on an adjustable stand.
The eye-piece of the microscope contained a micrometer scale,
thirty-seven divisions of which corresponded to .01 degree. As
half divisions were easily estimated I could read to .0001 degree.
To get a clear imagine of scale and mercury, a small incandescent
lamp.driven by a current from several Samson cells, was placed,
when a reading was being taken, directly behind the thermometer.
As, however, the mercury and scale are at different distances
from the microscope, one cannot focus the both at once. Hence
I always made a reading with the mercury focussed, for it waa
quite easy to estimate the centre of the blurred image of the
scale line. In the course of my experiments, I found out how
important it was to have the microscope always inclined at the

OF DILUTE SOLUTIONS OF ELECTROLYTES. — HEBB. 427

same angle to the thermometer. This one sees when he takes
into consideration, that the distance between the mercury column
and the scale, which is back of it, is at least 120 times as great
as the smallest distance read on the scale. In order to keep the
microscope always at the same inclination to the thermometer, I
had two arms rigidly attached to the microscope — one above
and one below it. Before a reading was taken, the stand of
the microscope was so adjusted that the arms touched the
thermometer.

Directly over the top of the thermometer was placed aw
electric hammer, driven by a current from a Samson battery,
It gave quick, sharp taps and, hence, prevented the mercury
from sticking at one place.

The following method was used to find the convergence
temperature. The apparatus, as described, was set in order with*
a mixture at 0°C. in the protection bath, and water in the
freezing-tubes, and then the stirring was begun and kept run-
ning until the apparatus arrived at a state of thermal equili-
brium. With the apparatus working at 50 complete strokes per
minute, I found it to be .005 degree above that of the protection
bath. Hence in all of my determinations of freezing-points, the
temperature of the protection bath was kept .005 degree below
the freezing-point of the solution under experiment — it having:
been approximately determined beforehand. This convergence
temperature is much smaller than that found by other experi-
menters. Its smallness may be due to two things : (1) the
freezing-tubes may be too easily affected by the protection bathv
or (2) the apparatus may be free from friction and other sources-
of heat. I am fully convinced that its snmllness in my case was
noi due to the former, but due to the fact that the amount of
friction was very small, and that the nir temperature was 0°C.

The following was the method used in making a determina-
tion of the freezing-point. The approximate freezing-point of
the solution having been found, the temperature of the protec-
tion bath was brought to be .005 degree below this. The portions
of the apparatus, in contact with the solution were then-

428 DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS

thoroughly cleaned and rinsed with the solution. The inner
freezing-tube was then filled up to a mark on its side — this mark
being about 2mm. above the highest position reached by the
stirrer. The cork bearing the thermometer wa=« put in its place,
the tubes were then placed in a mixture cf snow and salt, and
the solution kept continually stirred until its temperature fell to
•3°C. below its freezing-point. They were then placed in position
in the protection bath, and the stirring was begun. When the
mercury, which rose very slowly, arrived at .1 degree below the
freezing-point, an ice-crystal was introduced through the holes
in the corks. After the mercury became stationary, the tapping
of the electric hammer was begun and lasted for half a minute.
The stirring was then stopped, the light put into position, and a
reading made with the microscope. The stirring was then begun
again and after a few minutes a second reading made. With my
apparatus, I found no difficulty whatever in getting the mercury
to remain stationary for at least five minutes. In cases where
more than one observation was made on the same solution, the
mean value was taken. As it was only the depressions that I
wanted, I found the freezing-point of water immediately before
or immediately after the above determination. The water used
was of the same degree of purity as that used in making up the
solutions. Other conditions, such as the introduction of the ice-
crystal, were kept the same in both cases. If the barometer was
varying rapidly, the freezing-point of water was taken immedi-
ately before and after that of the solution, and the mean taken.

The depression is the difference between the freezing-point
of water and that of the solution under consideration. I found
by experiments performed on different days, that of a series of
depressions, a single value varied from the mean value by not
more than .0005 degree. As this would be large for dilute
solutions, I was unable to deal with solutions of greater dilution
than I have used.

To correct for the change in concentration, due to the intro-
duction of an ice-crystal .1 degree below the freezing-point, I
made use of Raoult's method* for determining the depression

« Ztechr. f. phys. chem., 27 6i3, 1899.

OF DILUTE SOLUTIONS OF ELECTROLYTES. — HEBB. 429

when the over-cooling is zero. For this purpose I took a solu-
tion and found its depressions for different over-coolings. These
depressions I plotted as ordinates against the over-coolings as
abscissae. This gives practically a straight line which, if pro-
duced to cut the depression axis, cuts off a portion from it
representing the depression when the over-cooling is zero,
Raoult has shewn that the following relation holds for solutions
of different concentrations

C1=C(1+KS)

where C1 is the observed depression for over-cooling S, C is the
depression for over-cooling zero, and K is a constant. Hence.
determining C and S for different solutions, and knowing K to
hold for all solutions, we can find C in each case. I determined
K to have the value .02. Hence it can easily be seen that for an
over-cooling of .1 degree the values of the depressions will be
.02% too great.

The ionization coefficients are taken from a paper by
Whetham.* Since he only carried his concentrations to .03
gramme-equivalents per 1000 grammes of solution, I have
extended the curve under guidance of extrapolated values given,
by Dr. MacGregor.-f* He obtained his extrapolated values by
plotting, alongside of one another, the ionization coefficient-
concentration curves for 0° and 18° — the latter being obtained
from data given by Kohlrausch.

In the following table the concentrations are given in
gramme-equivalents per litre of solution at O°C. The depressions*
which have been corrected for over-cooling, as pointed out, are
given in degrees Centigrade. The ionization coefficients are for
0°C., and the equivalent depressions are the depressions in
degrees Centigrade divided by the concentration in gramme-
equivalents per litre of solution at 0°C. The letters i and e after
the coefficients shew whether they were obtained by interpola-
tion or extrapolation.

* Loc. cit.

t Proc. and Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. X. p. 218. 1899-90.

430 DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS

The table also contains the values of the depression constant,
i. e., the lowering produced by each gramme-molecule or gramme-
ion of the electroyte in solution. It has been calculated by aid
of the expression : B = i (1 + a) where 8 is the equivalent depres-
sion, i is the constant and a is the ionization coefficient. This
formula only holds for electrolytes such as KC1 where the
gramme-molecule is equal to the gramme-equivalent and the
molecule breaks up into two ions.

TABLE I.-KC1. (74.59).

Concentration.
<gr. eq. 11.)

Depression of
Freex.ing-
Point.

Equivalent
Depression.

Ionization
Coefficients
at 0° C.

Depression
Constant (i).

.004124

.0151

3.66

.979 i.

1.850

.006207

.0228

3.67

.972 "

1.863

.006363

.0233

3.66

.972 "

1.857

.009310

.0341

3.66

.964 "

1.867

.009544

.0344

3.60

.963 •'

1.836

.01009

.0362

3.59

.962 "

1.829

.01060

.0381

• 3.60

.961 "

1.833

.01085

.0395

3.64

.960 "

1.858

.01473

.0531

3.61

.952 "

1.847

.01514

.0549

3.63

.952 "

1 857

.01862

.0673

3.614

.946 "

1.857

.01909

.0688

3.60

.946 "

1.852

.020596

.0738

3.583

.943 "

1.844

.02402

.0860

3.580

.938 "

1.847

.03031

.1086

3.583

.932 "

1.854

.03161

.1131

3.578

.930 e.

1.854

.05541

.1950

3.519

.906 "

1.846

.05583

.1958

3.507

.906 "

1.840

.05673

.2001

3.527

.905 "

1.851

.05770

.2033

3.523

.905 "

1.849

.07383

.2578

3.492

.894 "

1.844

.07408

.2597

3505

.894 "

1.851

OF DILUTE SOLUTIONS OF ELECTROLYTES. HEBB. 431

In these results I have not continued my determinations to
as concentrated solutions as I would have liked, but I was
unable to do so on account of lack of cold weather. On the
other hand, it would be useless for me to attempt to deal with
diluter solutions than I have used, for my possible error is too
great.

The values of the depression constant seem to oscillate about
the value 1.85 and if the mean be taken we get 1.849. This is
the value arrived at by two methods suggested by Dr. MacGregor.
The one he applied* and the other I appliedf to a considerable
number of data.

If from the above table we plot concentrations as ordinates
against equivalent depressions as abscissae, we get points which,
though they do not lie on a smooth curve, can be represented by
drawing a smooth curve through them in such a manner that as
many points fall on one side of it as on the other. If we draw
in this curve we find that it is convex towards the concentration
axis. Further, if we plot alongside of it similar concentration-
equivalent depression curves for other observers, we find that
in all cases their curves lie nearer the concentration axis than
mine, although no two of them pursue exactly the same course.
That the values of my depressions are greater than those of
other observers might be expected, for I am not aware that any
of them worked with their air temperature at zero. Also the
fact, that the values of the depression constant, as obtained from
my results, agree so well with what is expected, would lead one
to suppose that my values of the equivalent depressions are not
too great.

The following table will give some idea as to how Loorais',J
Jones',! an^ ray concentration-equivalent depression curves lie.
I have roughly drawn smooth curves through each observer's
results, and then read off the results for the different concen-
trations.

» Proc. and Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. X., p. 211, 1899-00.
t Proc. and Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. X., p. 409, 1901-02.

t Not having access to their papers, I have taken the data from a paper by Prof.
MacGregor : Proc. and Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. X., p. 211, 189COO.

432 DETERMINATION OF FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS, ETC.

TABLE II.

Concentration,
(gr. eq. /I.)

Equivalent Depression.

Loom is.

Jones.

Hebb.

.075

3.470

3.495

3495

.05

3.50

3518

3528

.03

3528

3553

3.570

.02

3.550

3575

3598

.01

3.60

3605

3.64

.005

....

3665

3.67

If now we plot ionization coefficients as ordinates, against
equivalent depressions as abscissae, it is generally assumed that
at great dilution we shouid get a straight line. My results are
too erratic to lie on a straight line, but the general course of
them is no doubt a straight line, and does not tend to either the
right or left, as do the curves of others — at least up to the con-
centration .01. Above this it seems to have a slight rightward
tendency, but not nearly as great as Jones'. Of all the observer's
results to which I have access, and this includes Loomis, Jones,
Raoult, Abegg, Ponsot and Wildermann,* there are none which
give a curve as high or higher than mine. Jones' curve at the
lower part seems to coincide with mine, but from the concentra-
tion of about .08 to .007 it goes to the left of mine, and from
this on it passes away to the right. Loomis' curve is to the left
of both Jones' and mine and has the leftward tendency, but looks
as if it would pass off to the right, if dilution were carried far
enough. Abegg's curve is to the left of Loomis'. It starts at a
concentration of .07, runs parallel to mine for a space and then
passes off to the right. Wildermann's curve has the leftward
tendency, while Raoult's seems to be inclined towards the right.
In plotting all the above curves I have used Whetham's
coefficients.

Hence it appears to rne that my results have bourne out — at
least to a large degree — what Archibald's and Barnes' results
seem to imply.

•These data are all takcu from MacGregor's paper cited above.

in. — THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION IN NOVA
SCOTIA.— BY R. W. ELLS, LL.D., F. R. S. C., of the Geo-
logical Survey of Canada.

(Read 13th January, 190!.)

Probably in no part of the Dominion of Canada is there a
more interesting field for geological research than is found in
Nova Scotia and in the sister province of New Brunswick. The
formations range from the top of the Triassic to the lowest known
rocks, presumably the fundamental gneiss, and there is a large
development of the strata peculiar to the Carboniferous, Devonian
and Cambrian systems, in all of which important geological ano!
economic problems are presented.

It has been found impossible to classify and arrange the
different roc's formations of the maritime provinces in accordance
with the scheme of nomenclature laid down more than half a
century ago by the Geological Survey of the state of Nevr York>
and subsequently adopted by Sir W. E. Logan for the province
of Ontario and Quebec. In consequence of this difficulty, the
necessity has arisen of placing large groups of strata in division*
which have been designated by local names, and this feature has-
been the cause of some confusion to many persons who are not
familiar with the localities and the points of structure peculiar
to each.

Too often, also, there has been an attempt made to parallel
the rock formations there found with those which they are sup-
posed to represent in England on the one hand, and in distant
portions of the United States on the other, ignoring the possibility
that the succession of life forms on the globe in early years may
not have moved forward simultaneously over the whole surface*
but that their distribution may have followed some law of evo-
lution or development which has not yet been sufficiently
considered. Geological problems in connection with certain

(433)

434 THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION

formations in the maritime provinces have thus occasionally
presented features difficult to reconcile with those which are
found in supposed similar formations elsewhere, when the attempt
at interpretation has been made purely from the standpoint of
the contained fossils by those who were not familiar with the
local conditions of structure or the nature of the rock formations
which are there presented.

In the present paper no attempt will be made to discuss the
different views which have been put forth from time to time
regarding the horizons of the several rock groups in Nova Scotia.
To do justice to this aspect of the subject would extend the
limits of the paper to great length. It is proposed, therefore, to
give merely a brief statement of some of the work which has
been done in this field, with a short notice of the men who have
been largely instrumental in elucidating the principal points of
structure throughout the province.

Much of this early work in the field was carried out by two
Nova Scotians, viz., Dr. Abraham Gesner, a name well-known in
the central portion of the province, and by Sir William Dawson,
a native of Pictou. Both of these men, under many difficulties,
partly inseparable from that early date, devoted much of the
time taken from their otherwise arduous duties to the study of
the somewhat complicated geological problems there presented.

The task which these two distinguished men, who may well
be styled the pioneers in geological science in the eastern prov-
inces, thus voluntarily assumed in the first half of the last
century was no easy one. Even in England, the actual work of
a geological survey had scarcely been commenced. The nomen-
clature of the science was in its infancy, and the many helps
towards deciphering the writings in the great book of the rock
formations, which are now available to the students of geological
structure, were altogether, or almost entirely, lacking.

When these men began their work the country was com-
paratively but little opened up for settlement. Roads were few
and far between when once the main lines of communication

IN NOVA SCOTIA — ELLS. 435

were left behind, so that the facilities for detailed careful
examination and comparison were rarely found. That so large
an amount of really valuable information was obtained in those
early days is matter for gratulation and clearly proves that these
early students of the earth's crust were not only careful obser-
vers but were imbued with the true scienti6c spirit.

Probably the earliest description, from the scientific stand-
point, of the rocks found in Nova Scotia, is contained in a
somewhat lengthy paper, contributed to the American Journal
of Science by Messrs. Jackson and Alger, two leading American
geologists, in 1828-29. This paper was illustrated by a sketch
map of a portion of the province, which is probably the first
attempt at a geological map issued in Canada.

Without going into details as to the points of structure which
are there described, it may be said that this paper contains much
interesting information relative to the trap formations of the
Bay of Fundy, and to their contained minerals. The gypsum
deposits, found along the south side of the Basin of Minas, also
received a fair amount of attention, and there is a good descrip-
tion of the iron ores which occur in portions of the South
Mountain range at different points.

At that early date the long list of names now employed to
distinguish the many formations to which the various rocks
which form the earth's crust are now assigned was not formu-
lated. The use of the term Primitive for certain granite masses
was common, and these were supposed to represent the oldest
group of rocks. The term Transition was also employed to
designate certain altered sediments which are in contact with
the granites at different points ; but such names as Silurian,
Devonian, Carboniferous and Triassic were not yet invented.

The terms trap, sandstone and slate are, in this early paper,
in general use, but details of geological structure are almost
entirely wanting. The article, however, is interesting from
its very full description of the trap formation found in the
North Mountain range, and to some extent valuable from t
description therein contained relative to tie mode of occurrence

436 THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION

and distribution of some of the leading economic minerals. Ir*
this connection the iron ores of the South Mountain range which-
are seen at Mictaux and Bear River are regarded as probabljr
continuous throughout the entire mountain range, passing to
the rear of the village of Horton, and possibly continuing further
east to connect with theiron deposits found in Pictou county.

Considerable information is also given as to the coal and
copper deposits in Cumberland, Colchester and Pictou counties,,
in the latter of which the coal mines, now of so much importance,,
were then just being opened.

Probably the most important of the early writings on the
subject of Nova Scotian geology are from the pen of Dr. Abraham
Gesner. The first of his publications to appear has the date-
1836, and is entitled, " Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy
of Nova Scotia." The volume contains the results of his obser-
vations throughout the province during several preceding years,,
and is the first attempt made to place the geological formations,
there found in regular order. Gesner arranged the several rock
groups into districts, and placed the granites, which he found so-
persistent along the Atlantic coast, in the Primary district,
regarding these as his oldest division. A second belt which he-
outlined throughout a great part of the central area of the prov-
ince, and which consisted largely of slates, he styled the Slate-
district, and regarded them as more recent in age than the
granite.

These were succeeded northward by a great series of reddish
sandstones, shales, and some slaty beds, which now include for*
mations from the Silurian to the Trias, both inclusive, which he
termed the Red Sandstone district. This division embraced also-
what is now known as the Coal formation, while to the great
ridge of volcanic rocks, including basalts, diabase and amygda-
loids, which are found chiefly in the North Mountain range, he
gave the name of the Trap district.

This classification, it will be observed, was based largely on
physical and lithological characters and upon the predominant
rock masses in each.

IN NOVA SCOTIA — ELLS. 437

This volume of Gesner's was accompanied by a small map of
the province on which the limits of the several divisions were
outlined as then understood.

Of Dr. Gesner, it may be truly said that he was a remarkable
man for his times. The collection and preparation of the great
mass of facts contained in his first book must have involved a
large amount of hardship in the field and in his study, and in
the preface he states that " amidst the arduous duties of a
laborious profession, and under the annoyance of perpetual
interruption, most of the following pages have been written ; or
•during the silent hours of midnight, when the labours but not the
fatigues of the day had departed."

Gesner's subsequent publications relative to the subject of
Nova Scotia geology may be briefly mentioned. In 1843 an
important paper was read before the Geological Society of
London, Eng., which was accompanied by a geological map of a
large portion of the province, and this shews a marked advance
-as compared with those which had previously appeared ; and a
similar paper was published in the London Mining Journal in
1845.

A second volume styled " The Industrial Resources of Nova
Scotia " appeared in 1849. This contained two chapters devoted
to the geology and mineral resources of the province. In this
volume it will be readily noticed that a great advance has been
made in geological science since the date of the first book in 1836.
The several formations have been fairly well arranged in accord-
ance with modern ideas of nomenclature, though the work was
necessarily done on the broad scale. The rocks were arranged
tinder seven heads, as follows : —

1st. The granites or hypogene rocks of the south coast,
including the syenites and traps. 2nd. The stratified non-
fossiliferous rocks of the interior, now known as the gold-
bearing and other associated slates, which he called ^Cambrian,
in which classification they still remain. 3rd. The fos-
siliferous clay slates, with greywackes, which he styled

438 THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION

Silurian, the term being still held as applicable to a large
part of these sediments. 4th. The overlying series to the base
of the Carboniferous, regarded as of the age of the old Red sand-
stone or Devonian. 5th. The Carboniferous proper or Coal
formation. 6th. The New Red sandstone and the intrusive or
igneous rocks associated, now regarded as probably of Triassic
age ; and 7th, the overlying drift or boulder formation.

The arrangement of so many groups of rock formations
throughout the province in such a manner as to be fairly well
sustained by more recent and detailed investigation, conclusively
establishes the fact that in Dr. Gesner the province possessed a
geologist of no mean order, having a wonderful grasp of the
difficult problems everywhere presented in connection with the
rock structure in the eastern provinces, and indicating a marvel-
lous capacity for scientific investigation.

During the years from 1838 to 1843, Gesner, at the request
of the government of New Brunswick, made a comparatively
close study of the rock formations found in that province. The
results of his work appeared in five separate reports of great
interest, the terms employed to designate the several rock groups
corresponding closely with those which he employed in his work
in Nova Scotia. He also published a volume on the general
resources of New Brunswick which appeared in 1847, in which
several chapters were devoted to the geological features there
observed, so that it will be readily seen the life work of Dr.
Gesner was of great importance and value to both the eastern
provinces.

As a sample of his style of writing, the following, taken from
his description of the Cornwallis valley, as contained in his first
volume, 1836, may be given : —

" Before the visitor descends from the South Mountains near
Kentville, let him take a view of the extensive valley before him,
On the north side rise those mountains of basaltic columns^
which, with proud elevation, line the coast of the Bay of Fundy,
protecting the beautiful and fertile Township of Cornwallis, and
all the settlements situated at their base from the bleak north-

IN NOVA SCOTIA — ELLS. 439

wester, so well-known, and so little admired in Nova Scotia. Let
him turn his eyes towards the western horizon, and as far as
vision extends, the red sandstone supports the soil of the almost
level country before him, while rocks of different classes are
thrown up like walls on each of its sides, affording shelter from
southern and northern gales ; and lastly, let a glance be taken at
the bustling little village beneath his feet, and he will admire
not only the grand and beautiful spectacle before him, but also
the infant town below, prepared to afford him those refreshments
his stroll will have rendered necessary. In the neighbourhood
of Kentville, the new red sandstone is in contact with the old red
sandstone, the members of the mountain limestone and coal
groups being deficient. The great bed of iron, represented as
occupying a place throughout the whole South Mountain range,
has not yet been discovered south of that village ; but from the
occurrence of detached pieces of the ore, iron pyrites, and the
carbonate of iron at Beech Hill, no doubt can be entertained of
its uninterrupted existence, even farther eastward than that place."
An important feature in the history of Nova Scotian geology
was the visit of Sir Charles Lyell who, in 1842, made a geological
excursion through portions of the province. In this work he was
aided by Dr. Gesner and also by Sir William Dawson, the latter
at that time a young man of about twenty-three years of age.
The results of this visit of Sir Charles Lyell are given in his
book," Travels in North America," published in 1845. He paid
much attention to the group of rocks which had been classified in
large part by Gesner under the head of the red sandstone division,
and as a consequence of his examination these were separated into
three portions styled respectively, the upper carboniferous, the
productive coal measures, and the lower carboniferous or gypsif
erous formation. The last named was placed in its true position
beneath the coal measures, while the soft red sandstones, so con-
spicuous around the shores of Minas Basin, were regarded as an
upper division and regarded as probably belonging to the Trias.
The visit of Sir Charles Lyell was therefore important as serving
to determine more clearly the true horizons of this important
series of rocks.

440 THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION

Among the workers in the eastern portion of the province
who have aided materially in elucidating points of structure may
be mentioned the name of Mr. R. Brown. From his intimate
connection with some of the leading coal mines of Sydney, Mr.
Brown enjoyed great facilities for studying the rocks of the Car-
boniferous formations in that area, and he has contributed much
valuable information regarding the arrangement and distribution
of these rocks for that portion of the province. Some of the
results thus obtained have appeared in the Journal of the
Geological Society of London, the first article being apparently
printed in 1853, as well as in more recent publications.

The association of Sir William Dawson with Sir Charles
Lyell in 1842, greatly stimulated the love of the former for
scientific investigation, and for many years thereafter much of
his spare time was devoted to the study of the rocks in his native
province. From his position as Superintendent of Education,
•which appointment he held for some years previous to his removal
to Montreal as principal of McGill University, he was enabled to
visit many localities where interesting problems of structure
were presented.

Sir William was an early contributor to the scientific journals,
since we find a communication from his pen in the Journal of the
•Geological Society for 1842 on some geological phenomena which
he had observed in Prince Edward Island. Many of his papers,
more especially in the early years of his work, were read before
the Geological Society, of which body he soon was appointed a
fellow. Up to the date of his death, which occurred near the
close of 1899, his pen was rarely idle, the list of his published
writings reaching a total of nearly four hundred, in which are
included many books of much interest, some of which dealt
exclusively with scientific matters, while others had a wider
scope.

The first of these volumes relating to the geology of the
maritime provinces was his " Acadian Geology," the first edition
of which appeared in 1855. A second edition, much enlarged,
was published in 1868, and this was added to by a supplement

IN NOVA SCOTIA — ELLS. 441

in 1878 and another in 1891, in which the latest information on
the subject was supposed to be incorporated.

The " Acadian Geology" has for many years been regarded
as a standard work in the field of S2ientific research, though, as
more detailed investigitions have been carried out, severaUtate-
ments regarding the structure of certain formations have of
necessity undergone revision. A large portion of Sir William's
life work was spent in the study of fossil plants, in which line of
investigation he was justly regarded as an eminent authority.
These studies embraced the fossil remains found in the Devonian
and Silurian of Gaspe and New Brunswick, and in the Carbon-
iferous rocks of all the maritime provinces, as well as the fossil
plants found in the newer formations of the Pacific slope. Like
Gesner, Sir William Dawson may rightly be considered as one of
Nova Scotia's most distinguished sons in the line of scientific
investigation.

Among other zealous workers in the geological field in Nova
Scotia must be mentioned the name of the Rev. Dr. Honeyman-
Formerly a minister of the Presbyterian church and settled in
Antigonish, his fondness for geological study early led him to a
close investigation of the complicated rock formations which are
found in the eastern part of the province. Afterwards, being
transferred to Halifax, he became the curator of the Provincial
Museum. Here his field of work became somewhat enlarged,
and his researches extended over many parts of the province.
The results of his field work appeared in a number of interesting
and valuable papers, many of which were published in the Trans-
actions of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, though others
were read before the scientific societies both of England and the
United States.

The first of these contributions by Dr. Honeyrnan on the
geology of Nova Scotia was apparently presented before the
Literary and Scientific Society of that province in 1859, and from
that date to the time of his death in 1889, articles from his pen
appeared at frequent intervals. Though the chief field of his
labours for many years was the classic ground of Arisaig, where
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci , VOL X. TRANS — EE.

442 THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION

probably his best work was accomplished, his eyes were open to
the natural phenomena which are everywhere presented to him
who cares to read the story of the earth.

A full list of his publications has apparently never been pub-
lished, and the collecting of these in proper order is a duty yet
devolving upon some one of those with whom he was intimately
associated in the scientific work which has been and is still being

o

carried on in the Acadian provinces.

Prior to the admission of the eastern provinces into the
Canadian confederation the work of the Geological Survey did
not extend east of Quebec.

Almost the earliest work, however, of the first director, Sir
William Logan, was the examination and measurement, in 1843,
of the celebrated Joggins section on the western coast of Cum-
berland county, embracing a total measured thickness of 14,570
feet of Carboniferous strata, in which were included a large part
of the Lower Carboniferous formation, the Millstone-o[nt, the

O '

Productive Coal-Measures, and the Upper Carboniferous in part-
The work so ably done at that early date has since been revised
by several other workers in the field, notably by Sir William
Dawson, the results of whose examinations, stated in much detail,
will be found in the second edition of the Acadian Geology,
1868. The section as originally published has ever remained as
the standard basis of classification for the rocks of the Carbon-
iferous system in the maritime provinces.

With the advent of Confederation in 1867, the work of .the
Geological Survey was extended to New Brunswick and Nova
Scotia. In 1868 Sir William Logan and Mr. Edward Hartley
began a detailed examination of the coal fields in Pictou county
which was carried on till the death of the latter at the close of
1870. The results of these examinations in the Pictou coal-field
were of the greatest importance, and the coal basin was mapped
with great accuracy.

. In consequence of the importance which the gold-fields of
Nova Scotia had assumed, Dr. Selwyn who had been appointed
director of the Geological Survey in 1869, made a somewhat

IN NOVA SCOTIA — ELLS. 443

•detailed examination of that district in 1870, and published a
-valuable report on the subject in the annual volume of the
Department for 1870-71. In this report the gold-bearing rocks
of the province were fully described and compared with those
found in the province of Quebec, and also with those of the gold-
fields of Australia in which district he had already worked for
some years as Director of the Geological Survey of that colony.
In 1871 Dr. Selwyn also made a study of the iron-ore deposits
of the Londonderry district, the results of which were stated in
the Report of the Department for 1872-73.

In 1870 work was commenced in the Springhill coal basin
by Mr. Scott Barlow, and carried on continuously by him till the
close of 1878. In addition to mapping the Springhill areas,
Mr. Barlow's work extended over a large portion of the county
•of Cumberland, the results appearing in several important reports
to the Geological Survey Department. In 1873 Mr. Walter
McOuat began a series of surveys in parts of the same field, but
more particularly in the area to the north-east of that assigned
to Mr. Barlow, which were carried on till his death at an early
age in 1875. The results of his explorations also appear in
several valuable reports addressed to the same Department.

In 1872 Mr. Charles Robb, after several seasons spent in New
Brunswick, began a systematic exploration of the Cape Breton
coal-fields. In this work he was associated with Mr. Hugh
Fletcher, who, on the retirement of Mr. Robb in 1875, assumed
control of and completed the mapping of the coal-basin. The
explorations were thereupon extended and the whole of the island
carefully surveyed and mapped in great detail.

Upon the completion of this work, Mr. Fletcher's field of
operations was transferred to the main land, and the same detailed
series of surveys which had been inaugurated in Cape Breton
were there continued. In this way much of the northern and
eastern portions of the province have been carefully mapped and
the geological details indicated with great minuteness, including
the counties of Guysboro, Antigonish, Colchester and Cumber-
land, and large portions of Hants and Kings. The minuteness

444 THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION

of detail shewn in such of these map-sheets as have been pub-
lished, attest the scientific training of their author and the extreme
care which has been taken in their preparation. Much attention
has been devoted to the accurate mapping of the important coal-
basins of Pictou and Cumberland counties, and to the determin-
ation of the economic value of other deposits of economic
minerals which are found in the area.

The mapping of the great belt of rocks along the Atlantic
coast, including the slates, quartzites and granites, which in the
early days of Gesner were styled Primitive and Transition, and
in which the gold mines of the province are principally located,
has been carried out along similar lines by Mr. E. R. Faribault,
also of the Geological Survey staff. In addition to the general
maps, shewing the distribution of the several rock formations of
that district, a valuable series of map-sheets shewing the detailed
structure of the principal gold areas has been prepared. Some
of these have been already published, while others are in course
of preparation and are of inestimable value to the mining com-
munity of the province. The complicated series of rocks which
were broadly outlined half a century ago by Gesner and Dawson
have thus been worked out in the greatest detail, and the several
geological divisions indicated in the clearest manner.

Among those who have done more or less work in the prov-
ince, it may be said that the writer of this article, in 1884, in
connection with his work in south-eastern New Brunswick, spent
some weeks in tracing out the formations in the area between
the Bay of Fundy and Northumberland Straits in the prepara-
tion of the map of Cumberland county.

In 1S91 and 1892, Mr. R. Chalmers made a series of careful
examinations in connection with the surface deposits of Cumber-
land county, with particular reference to the glaciation of that
district ; and in the years from 1890 to 1896, Dr. L. W. Bailey,
of the University of New Brunswick, carried on a somewhat
extended examination of the southern and western portions of
the province, including the counties of Digby, Yarmouth, Queens
and Annapolis. A detailed report of the work thus done,

IN NOVA SCOTIA — ELLS. 445

accompanied by a map of the area, was prepared and published
in the annual volume of the Geological Survey for 1896. in which
the leading geological formations were outlined and many import-
ant facts relating to the structure and mineral resources were
given. The detailed mapping of portions of this district is still
in progress, in order that the map-sheets of that portion of the
province may conform with those already published of the
northern and eastern divisions.

Valuable papers have also appeared from time to time from
the pen of Mr. H. S. Poole, for many years connected with
important mining operations in the Pictou coal-fields, which
afforded him excellent opportunities for the study of the rocks
of the Carboniferous system, and also from Dr. E. Gil pin, of the
Department of Mines, Halifax, who has ably dealt with certain
points of structure presented by the rocks of that district, and
also with many questions relating to the occurrence of economic
minerals at many points throughout the province.

In connection with Acadia College, Professor Haycock has
recently published two valuable papers, dealing largely with the
question of local geology, which are of much interest. In the
area about Wolfville and along the Gaspereau Valley, as well as
in connection with the rocks of the North Mountain range,
there is a most interesting field for investigation which has been
as yet scarcely touched. It is to be hoped that this area will
now receive that attention from local geologists which it well
deserves.

In a paper of this kind it is, of course, very evident that
many points of great interest must be omitted. The merest
outlines of the subject have of necessity been stated, and there
are other names which have been associated to a greater or less
extent with the work of investigation, to which but slight
reference can be made. Among those who have thus contributed
papers relating to the geological structure and mineral resources
of the province at a comparatively early date, may be mentioned
by Mr. J. Campbell of Halifax, whose reports on the gold-fields,
in 1863 are of much interest, and Dr. H. Y. Hind of Windsor,

446 GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION IN NOVA SCOTIA — ELLS.

who, from 1869 to 1872, published several articles on the same-
subject. Papers of more or less importance relating to the gold
of Nova Scotia, have also been printed by Mr. C. Fred Hartt in
1864 and by Mr. H. F. Perley in 1865, both in the Canadian
Naturalist of Montreal, and by Professors Marsh in 183 L and
Silliman in the American Journal of Science.

•

Among contributors to the literature pertaining to the coal-
fields of the province, in addition to those already referred to, may
be mentioned Mr. H. Poole who contributed two papers, one in
the Journal of the Geological Society of' London, 1853, the other
in the Canadian Naturalist in 1860, and Professor J. P. Lesley,
whose elaborate article on the stiucture of the Cape Breton areas
was published in the American Journal of Science for 1863. .

From the pen of the late Dr. H. How of Windsor, several
valuable articles appeared between 1857 and 1866, principally in
the Transactions of the N. S. Institute of Natural Science. These,
for the most part, described the occurrence of valuable and some-
times rare minerals, found at different places in the province.
Various publications, more particularly relating to the occurrence
and determination of fossils from various localities have also
appeared from time to time, both in the official reports of the
Geological Survey and in various scientific journals, and represent
the work of Messrs E Billings, T. C. Weston, D. Honeyrnan, H.
Poole, H. M. Ami and others. These can only be thus briefly
alluded to, since the aim of this paper has been to give broadly
some slight sketch of the leading workers in this field, and a brief
statement of the results of their labours. The details of the sub-
ject may well be left to others, who through a moie intimate
acquaintance with the progress of geological science in the
province, both as regards men and localities, are better fitted
than the writer for the task of elaboration.

IV. — ON THE UPPER CAMBRIAN AGE OF THE DICTYONEMA
SLATES OF ANGUS BROOK, NEW CANAAN AND KENTVILLE,
N. S.— BY H. M. AMI, D. Sc., F. G. S., of the Geological
Survey of Canada.

(Read 10th February, 1902.)

In his " Acadian Geology," second edition, 1868, p. 563, Sir
William Davvson figures Dictyonema Webateri and places it as a
Silurian (Upper Silurian) species. In describing the slates from
which the type-specimens of this species were obtained he
writes : " Passing from the Cobequid Mountains to the slate
hills of the south side of the Bay " --meaning the Bay of Fundy
— " in Kings County, we find slates not very dissimilar from
those of the Cobequids," — which he had described on the previous
page, 562 — " in the promontory northward of the Gaspereau
River. Here the direction, both of the bedding and of the
slates structure, is N. E. by S. W. ; but the planes of cleavage
dip to the S. E., while the bedding, as indicated by lines of
different color, dips to the N. W. These slates with the quartzite
and coarse limestones, are continued in the hills of New
Canaan, where they contain crinoidal joints, fossil shells, corals,
and in some beds of fawn-coloured slate, beautiful fan-like
expansions of the pretty Dictyonema represented in fig. 196.
Very fine specimens of this fossil were found by the late Dr.
Webster of Kentville. It was the habitation of thousands of
minute polypes, similar apparently to those of the modern
Sertalaria. The general strike of the rocks in New Canaan is
N. E. and S. W., and they extend from that place westward to
the Nictaux River. Westward of Nictaux River, as already
mentioned in describing the Devonian, the beds of the Upper
Silurian, as well as those of the last mentioned formation, are
nterrupted by great masses of granite which form the hills
along the south side of the Annapolis River, from a place called

(447)

448 UPPER CAMBRIAN AGE OF DICTYONEMA SLATES OF

Paradise to Bridgetown, and with some interruptions nearly as
far as the town of Annapolis."

In my " Synopsis of the Geology of Canada,"* the following
paragraph refers to the Silurian of the region in question as pre-
sented and systematized from the accepted and available sources
of information : —

'' In the County of Annapolis, Nova Scotia, and in the
vicinity of Nictaux, Silurian strata occur, including the Nictaux
iron ore beds and the Torbrook sandstone formation, whilst near
Kentville, the Kentville formation is seen as well as on Angus
Brook in the Gaspereau Valley, also at New Canaan with
Dictyonema Wcbsteri, Dawson."

Slates holding Dictyonema Websteri, Dawson, and thus
known to occur : (I) At New Canaan, the t\pe locality ; (2) At
Kentville, N. S., and (3) along the upper portion of the valley
of Angus Brook, a small stream entering the Gaspereau River
between the village of Gaspereau and the Avon River shore.

The general section of the rocks holding the specimens of
Dictyonema and the truly Silurian fossil-bearing strata of the
district, in which corals and encrinites and brachiopods occur, as
furnished me by Sir William Dawson some years ago, distinctly
showed that he connected the two in a general way only, follow-
ing the inclination and strike of the strata in that part of Nova
Scotia which have been affected by the same physical forces
that disturbed rocks belonging to various members of the Palaeo-
zoic succession. It is thus seen that the intrusive masses of the
district have affected not only the Cambrian strata, but likewise
the later deposits, exclusive of the rocks of the Horton and its
underlying co-formation, the Gaspereau formation, and the
Grand Pre formation of later Triassic Age.

Heretofore, the slates which have yielded the specimens of
Dictyonema Websteri have been invariably referred to the
Silurian system, but more recent examination of the type
specimens of D. Websteri, have revealed a remarkable resem-
blance to, and the close affinity of this species with the

« Trans. Royal Soc. Can., 2nd Ser., 1900-1901, Vol. VI., Sect. VI., p. 203.

ANGUS BROOK, NEW CANAAN AND KENTVILLE. — AMI. 449

Dictyonema flabelliforme, Eichwald, which finds a synonym in
the D. sociale, Salter, a characteristic Upper Cambrian fossil.

In his " Niagara Fossils," Part I, Graptolitidse of the Upper
Silurian, Prof. J. W. Spencer writes of Dictyo-nema Websteri,
Dawson : —

" This beautiful frond occurs at New Canaan, Nova Scotia, in
fawn-colored slate of the Upper Silurian System. It iscelluli-
ferous on one side, and in appearance it is more closely related
to D. retiforme than to D. gracile,"

In comparing the microscopical characters of D. Websteri with
those of D. flabellifor me, Eichwald, especially as they are pre-
sented and illustrated in Carl Wiman's classic workf the relative
size and proportions of the peculiar rope-like structure of the
main skeleton in the rhabdosome is clearly discernible, so that
there is practically no doubt as to the identity of the two
species.

It will therefore now be necessary to refer D. Websteti, as a
synonym of D. flabelliforme, Eichwald, and to refer the Kent-
ville formation, not to the Silurian (Upper) System, but to the
Cambrian. In fact, the slates of the Kentville formation of
Kings and Annapolis Counties in Nova Scotia, are equivalent in
age or are taxonomically similar to the slates of Barachois, and
associated localities in the Mira Series of Cape Breton, as well as
to the Dictyonema slates of Navy Island, near St. John City,
and the slates of Eel River, near Benton, in New Brunswick.
All of these are referable to the Upper Cambrian.

The first rapprochement made between Dictyonema flabelli-
forme and D. Websteri, took place some two years ago when the
Dictyonema, obtained by Prof. L. W. Bailey, near Benton, along
the Eel River, in York Co., N. B., was compared with the
specimens of D. Websteri, at present in the collections of the
Geological Survey Department, and they were found to be so
closely related as not to be practically separable. From speci-
mens of D. flabelliforme, obtained on Navy Island, and kindly

1892?

See Bull. Mus. Univ., State of Missouri, vol. I, no 1. p. 26, St. Louis, 1884.
t Ucber die Graptoliten, Bull. Geol. last. Upsala. PI x. figures 13 and 14, p. 53.

450 UPPER CAMBRIAN AGE OF DICTYONEMA SLATES. — AMI.

loaned to me for study and reference by Prof. L. W. Bailey of
the University of New Brunswick, it was readily seen that the
Benton specimens were also Upper vJambriau in age.

In order to ascertain definitely whether D. Websteri,
Dawson, from New Canaan, was identical with D. flabelliforme,
the type specimens of the former, which formed part of the
Dawson collections in the Peter Redpath Museum of McGill
University, were sought, and kindly loaned to the writer by Prof.
F. D. Adams. These are preserved on two slabs of more or less
hardened sericeous or glossy red shale or slate, and scattered
over the surface of the slates in a rather fragmentary state of
preservation, 'except in one specimen, from which the illustration
on p. 563, (fig. 196,) was very probably made when the " Acadian
Geology " was prepared.

From a careful study of all the material in hand, the writer
is satisfied that the upper beds of the Cambrian System are thus
represented in that portion of Nova Scotia where the Dict-
yonema flabelliforme beds of Kentville, New Canaan, and the
Gaspereau Valley, (south side,) occur.

We thus find that the zone or horizon of Dictyonema flabelli-
forme, Eichwald, occurs at the following localities in Canada,
which may consequently be referred to the Upper or Neo-
Cambrian : —

(1.) Matane, Quebec, South Shore of St. Lawrence River.

(2.) Cape Rosier, Gasp6, Que., near Lighthouse.

(3.) Barachuis, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia.

(4.) Navy Island, near St. John, New Brunswick.

(5.) Shales near Benton, above Fredericton, York County,

New Brunswick.

(6.) New Canaan, Annapolis Count}', Nova Scotia.
(7.) Kentville, Annapolis County, Nova Scotia.
(8 ) Angus Brook, Gaspereau Valley, Kings County, Nova

Scotia.

Associated with Dictyonema flabelliforme at Angus Brook,
are found obscure remains of a Bryograptus, allied to B.Kjeridjl
from the Upper Cambrian of Scandinavia.

V. — NOTES ON DR. AMI'S PAPER ON DICTYOXEMA SLATES OF
ANGUS BROOK, NEW CANAAN, AND KEXTVILLE, N. S. —
BY HENRY S. POOLE, F. 0. S., F. R. S. C., ETC.

(Read 10th February, 1902.)

When handed Dr. Ami's paper to read at this meeting, I was
requested to make some remarks on it. I comply, but only do
so with the understanding that I can speak with no authority,
nor am I able to properly discuss it.

It may be of interest to some present to know that the fossil
in question, Dictyonema, is classed with the curious fossil forms,
Graptolites, and the modern Sertularia among the order of
Hydrozoa. These beautiful zoophites are like branching plants
and are found on temperate coasts. They have two rows of cells
on the horny branches.

The Dictyonema also reminds one of the coral Fenestella
which occurs in the limestones at Windsor and Brookfield in
lower carboniferous rocks ; but the branches of Fenestella which
frequently biforate are connected by narrow bands, with charac-
teristic round cellules on a calcareous frond. The skeleton of
Dictyonema is striated, serrated and horny. The animals of
this class are jelly-like, radially symmetrical, living in colonies,
and building up for the common good these horny structures
which have been preserved as fossils while all trace of the
animal has disappeared. The allies of the Dictyonema, the
Graptolites, reached their maximum in Silurian times, and dis-
appeared with that age after evolving many varieties of form
and habit.

Sir A. Geikie speaks of Dictyonema as a characteristic fossil
of the primordial zone in Scandinavia, where it is associated
with allied but doubtful forms. In Canada it also occurs at
Point Levis and other places, with graptolites.

(451)

452 NOTES OX DR. AMI'S PAPER ON DICTYONEMA SLATES— POOLE.

It certainly is new to place these Dictyonema beds as
Cambrian, and it is not easy to understand how Dr. Ami came
to change the views he expressed before the Royal Society in
1900, without visiting the locality, unless he has been influenced
by the examination lately made by Mr. H. Fletcher. I .should
like to know what Mr. Fletcher has to say of the stratigraphy
and the age of these fossils. I know he has suspected some
rocks in this locality to be Cambrian, and that he got Mr.
Faribault to go over the ground with him. Mr. Faribault, as
we all know, has for years made a study of the Cambrian in
Nova Scotia, and has written a bulletin of the greatest practical
value to miners, on the structure of these rocks and the manner
of occurrence in them of auriferous leads and paystreaks. So
much has this pamphlet been appreciated that our Mining
Society has issued nearly 1000 copies to miners, engineers and
students. I may also say I hestitate to accept Dr. Ami's interpre-
tation of the paragraph he quotes from " Acadian Geology," in
which Sir W. Dawson says : " These slates . . . are continued in
the hills of New Canaan, where they contain crinoidal joints,
fossil shells, corals, and in some beds of fawn-colored slate, beau-
tiful fanlike expansions of the pretty Dictyonema." Therefore
before accepting a supposition that he meant otherwise than he
wrote, I would like to know the views of Mr. Fletcher. Prof.
Haycock, of Wolfville, has been with Mr. Fietcher in this field,
and has besides made explorations on his own account. What
are his views ? If the crinoid, shell and coral beds mentioned
are associated with the Dictyonema beds, the series of fossils
they probably yield should determine beyond doubt the age
of Dictyonema Websteri. These associate fossils are not
enumerated.

Sir W. Dawson, it is true, spoke of them as Upper Silurian,
but then he clasaed the overlying beds of Bear River as
Devonian. Dr. Honeyman put them down as Lower Silurian,
and the overlying beds as Upper Silurian, and thus maintained
the same relative positions.

Dr. Ami quotes from his " Synopsis of the Geology of
Canada," in which many references are made to Nova Scotian

NOTES ON DR. AMl'.S PAPER ON DICTYONEMA SLATES. POOLE. 453

geology. Some of these have brought out papers in reply in
our own " Transactions," in the Ottawa "Naturalist," the proceed-
ings of the Mining Society, etc. The comments make itclearthat
the groups of beds he then proposed as typical formations, and
the names he suggested, have not been generally acceptable.

As issued, this Synopsis has some paragraphs not easy of
interpretation, e. g., he says : " The most fossiliferous limestones,
as at Windsor and Brooktield have been referred to the Windsor
formation. . The Windsor is followed or accompanied by an
extensive aeries . . to which the term Millstone Grit has been
applied. The Westville formation is equivalent to the so-called
Millstone Grit, below the productive coal measures. — Uncon-
formably above the Westville is the New Glasgow formation,
which is overlaid by Smelt Brook formation. Then follows the
Picton formation, overlaid by the Cape John formation" Then
we are told — " The Cape John rocks, sometimes called Permo-
carboniferous, are well developed in Prince Edward Island . . .
and probably represent the equivalent of the Windsor and West-
ville formations of Nova Scotia." If not a mistake of the
printer, a veritable round robin — a complete cycle of formations
here exists.

Further on he says, " It is very possible, however, that the
Cape John formation and associated formation may be equiva-
lent to ' Permian ' strata in other portions of North America
or Europe ;" thus he leaves the situation still obscure.

To a student of our Cambrian rocks the presence of fossils
in any members or any reputed members of the series is of
interest. Discoveries of a few have been leported, some of
which have been adjudged to be only concretions. But Mr.
Prest has found in the quartzites of Bedford and Lockport
Island radiating obscure structures called Astropolithon. Dr.
Selwyn, late Director of the Geological Survey in 1871 dis-
covered in the dark slates at the Ovens in Lunenburg County,
markings which Mr. Billings determined to be Eophyton,
similar °to that found at St. John, N. B. Worm tracks, I
believe, have been before seen, but the specimen I show is

454 NOTES ON DR. AMI'S PAPER ON DICTYONEMA SLATES. — POOLE.

from the syncline at Green Bank, Point Pleasant Park, Halifax.
I obtained it last autumn, but could not detect other structures
in the same beds *

D. Websteri was named by Hall forty years ago; if it be the
same as D. fldbelliforme or D. sociale, I for one am not disposed
to take later names " made in Germany," but contend we should
maintain our oldest Nova Scotian name of D. Websteri.

A consideration of dates shows that the Eel River fossils
were reported on a year before Dr. Ami wrote his Synopsis, and
it is hard to understand how their discovery influenced Dr. Ami
AFTER he wrote his Synopsis.

Nor can we cannot accept Dr. Ami's conclusion, that the
specimens of D. Websteri at McGill are the type specimens.
Hall named it, and Dr. Webster's collection of some two dozen
slabs are in the Provincial Museum at Halifax. They show
cellules, etc., and, I fancy, a second species.

Any examination in criticism of the finding of Hall should
"be made of the large collection in the Halifax Museum, and at
Wolfville, and not be restricted to the two specimens at McGill.

* The specimen i9 now in the Provincial Museum at Halifax.

VI— SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON DRIFT ICE AS A TRANSPORTING
AGENT.— BY WALTER H. PHEST, Bedford, N. S.

(Read 10th March, 190J.)

A second visit to Labrador has largely confirmed my obser-
vations of 1900*, and convinced me that the transportation of
debris by floating ice has been greatly overrated. Although
again in the midst of icebergs and field-ice for over three months,
I could find extremely few icebergs carrying earthy material.
The field-ice, in huge pans, often several acres in extent, and 40
or 50 feet thick, seemed almost as destitute of debris as the
bergs. The only drift-bearing ice was comparatively thin,
usually much broken up arid refro/en.and without doubt formed
in shallow coast waters. Near the Straits of Belle Isle, the little
remaining djbris on this was nearly all marine or much mixed
with marine organisms. Further north, especially in the bays,
the transported material was largely of littoral origin. This
difference was owing to the fact that the surf had nearly
completed its cleansing process before the arrival of the ice at the
Straits. Some of this debris-bearing ice, when examined closely,
is found to be merely discoloured by a very fine, dust like
material, probably not T^a part °f the weight of the ice bearing it.

I had the pleasure of seeing how the harbor ice received its
burden, on a shallow, sandy shore called the Strand, a short
distance north of Sandwich Bay. Parts of this coast, even in
the month of June, were fringed with ice near high- water mark.
Over this ran rivulets carrying mud and gravel from the banks
above, while the waves contributed their share of debris in the
form of sand, seaweed, and shells.

One fact strongly supporting my contention of 1900, was
brought the more prominently to my notice as I went north.
This was the ever increasing quantity of debris on the thin ice

* See paper by the writer in Trans. N. S. I. S.. vol. x, pt. 3.

(455)

456 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON DRIFT ICE

as I proceeded toward its source, showing that the ice drops the
greater part of its burden near the northern Labrador coast.
But the heavy field-ice and bergs even in the latitude of Nain,
showed very few traces of impurities. Further south the
remarkable cleanliness of the heavy ice was more noticeable.
Along the southern 150 miles of the north-east Labrador coast,
although icebergs were constantly in sight. I saw only five that
carried impurities, the most of these having merely discoloured
patches and bands. The pure white sides of the vast number of
these ice masses gave evidence of the cleansing power of sun and
surf since leaving their northern home.

I have made many enquiries concerning the presence of earth
and stones on the ice in the North Atlantic. Among the men
questioned was Captain Nordby, an old Norwegian mariner, now
at Parrsboro, N. S.; Captains James and William McConnell, of
Port Hilford, N. S., who have had life long experiences in these
northern seas; and also several Newfoundland sealing captains,
men who have had more experience with drift ice than any
other seamen in the world. I find among them an almost
unanimous opinion that the quantity of debris brought south by
the bergs and field-ice is extremely small, and that the addition
to the Grand Banks by these means would be hardly noticeable
even in a hundred centuries.

That the Grand Banks of Newfoundland are not the immense
deposits of ice-transported mud and other debris formerly
supposed, I may instance the Virgin Ledges, awash at low water.
The Tertiary fragments dredged up there indicate the existence
of large areas of exposed rocky ledges, rather than the results
of drift transportation from more northern regions. The disin-
tegration of these rocks, no doubt, greatly assisted in the
formation of outlying portions of the banks at a time when the
eastern part of the American continent was much higher and
more extensive than at present. The evidence seems to point
to the existence there of an undulating, rocky plateau, which,
like the adjacent provinces, had its morraines, karnes, and other
accumulations of drift, subsequently slightly added to by oceanic
circulation.

AS A TRANSPORTING AGENT. — PREST. 457

In reference to erosion by drift ice — noticed in my former
paper — an exact counterpart of the peculiar markings and
furrows seen in Labrador is to be seen in the Mount Uniacke
gold district, Nova Scotia. There, about three-quarters of a
mile east of the 30-stamp mill, on several large exposures of
quartzite, are seen hundreds of the curved furrows and scratches
possible only with the irregular movements of storm-tossed
boulders. These scratched surfaces incline slightly toward a
shallow valley to the northwest, and show on that side the
strongest evidences of ice action. Some of the more protectedv
portions show evidences of earlier glacial action, the striations-
varying from S. 8° to S. 16° E.

In concluding these notes, I can only reiterate my opinions
of a year ago : — 1st, that the drift ice from the Arctic performs
but an extremely infinitesimal part in the building of the accu-
mulation known as the Banks of Newfoundland ; 2nd, that
these banks had their origin in Pleistocene times, and are simply-
glacial debris worked over by the sea ; 3rd, that their terrestrial,
equivalents can be traced in the broad belt of morraines, kames,
dunes, and other modified deposits which reach in a huge,
irregular curve from Nova Scotia and the southern part of the
New England States to the prairies of the Canadian Northwest.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X TRANS.-FF.

VIL— AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.— BY JOHN DAVIDSON, PHIL. D.,
Professor of Political Economy, University of New
Brunswick, Fredericton.

(Head 10th March, 1903.)

The great business of agriculture has generally shown itself
conservative in character and slow to adopt innovations in the
methods and organization which have been freely adopted in
other industries ; and the result has not infrequently been an
agrarian crisis arising out 'of the conflict of old established ways
and new ideas. Such a crisis occurs when a nation or a people
is passing from a natural economy to a money economy, that is,
from a condition when each farm was almost a self-sufficing
unit, to a condition in which rents and wages are paid in money.
At such periods there has usually been a good deal of distress.
To a smaller degree the same difficulties arise with every exten-
sion of the market and every improvement of transportation
which separates producer and consumer, and brings in a greater
competition. The farmers of Europe have, during the last half
century, been experiencing such difficulties ; and apparently the
farmers in the newest countries, whether in America or in the
antipodes, have found that their enterprise in forcing an entrance
into the European market has made a decisive change in their
own conditions. Briefly speaking, the change is that farming
has become a business requiring all the aids and assistance that
modern businesses require. The days of the self-sufficing farmer
have gone, never to return. Men will never again carve out
homes for themselves in the wilderness. It is not that the men
of to-day have not the grit and the energy and the perseverance
of the heroic pioneers. It is simply that the farmer has become
a producer for a market, and that his success is measured by his
achievements in that market. He no longer measures himself
by the old standard. He expects to buy, not to make, much of

(458)

AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 459

what he needs to use. He does not fashion his implements,
" knock together " his furniture, weave his own cloth. These
things he buys, and is the better for buying. Nor does he look
to consume in his own household most of that which his farm
produces. He has become a member of another kind of society.
He is a business man perforce, and produces for a market ; and
access to markets on the most profitable terms is as vital to him
-as to any other producer.

When it began to be perceived a quarter of a century ago
that farming had become a business, many people, both practical
men and theorists, jumped to the conclusion that the tendency
towards production on a large scale would show itself in agri-
culture. But time has shown that production on a large scale is
not so profitable in agriculture as in manufacturing, and many
ot the large farms which were started have been broken up. It
was claimed for the large farmer, that he would have the very
.great advantage of being able to command the large capital
which a business which produces for a distant market, as farm-
ing had become, required. Farming under the regime of world
•competition could be profitable to those only who could obtain
credit and take advantage of the liuctuations of the market.
This, the small fanner could not do, because he had little capital
and less credit. The advantage of the large farmer has not been
so great; but the disadvantages of the small farmer have nob
•been less than is thus stated. And the world over, on the con-
tinent of Europe, in the Old Country, in the United States and
in Canada, and in New Zealand and Australia, there is the same
•cry and demand from the farmer, that he is handicapped because
of the high rates of interest he has to pay to obtain the capital
and the credit his business requires. His occupation has become,
and is daily more and more becoming, a business that depends
on markets and marketing. The fanner has to measure himself
•by the business standard, and his complaint is that he is not
provided with the necessary requisites for so conducting his
•business as a business. Various devices and proposals have been
put forward to assist the farmer on easier terms to the two

460 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.

requisites of business, viz., capital and credit ; and to the exam-
ination of some of these, and to an investigation of the relation
of the Canadian farmer to our existing credit institutions, this
paper is devoted. The greater part of it was presented* as a
report to a committee of the New Brunswick Fanners' Congress,
which had been appointed to discuss the problem of cheaper
money for the farmer. It was presented after a statement by
the committee of the abuses and wrongs to which the farmer
has to submit. In the opinion oi the writer, the committee did
not make out a very strong case, although some striking instan-
ces of usurious rates of interest and of the disabilities of reput-
able farmers in approaching a bank, were given. The negative
character of the conclusions drawn in the report was thus, in a
measure, justified by the failure of the committee to make out
its case, and there is not, in the opinion of the writer, much
room for general regret that schemes successful elsewhere are
not adapted to our Canadian conditions.

The description of the difficulties in the way of the farmer
obtaining the credit the modern conditions of his business
demands, which has been given by Mr. Hubbard, naturally
raises the question why it is that the farmer has not shared, to
the full, the benefits which a developed banking system has con-
ferred on other industries. Is there any reason in the nature of
things, or has it been simply an accident, that the banks have
not served the farmer as they serve the merchant or the manu-
facturer ? Credit is just as necessary in agriculture as in
commerce and industry, and it is therefore necessary to enquire
whether agriculture and commerce, for instance, are so different

o '

in character that the credit they require cannot be provided by
one institution. Only after coming to the conclusion that our
present banking system is not suited to provide agricultural
credit, as it provides commercial credit, need we take the trouble
to consider remedies adopted in other countries to deal with a
similar situation.

Broadly speaking, there is a marked difference. Returns in
agriculture are slower than returns in trade and industry. The

* 28th January, 1902.

AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSOX. 461

latter require, or should require, loans for short periods only ;
the former needs advances for long periods which, however, and
unfortunately, are too long for lending and too short for invest-
ment, if such investment were permitted by our banking laws.
Generally speaking, capital is not turned over in agriculture in
a period much short of a twelvemonth, and should the season
prove unfavourable, and the crop fail, credit may be required
for still longer periods than a twelvemonth. It is a maxim of
good banking and good business that loans should be repaid,
after earning a profit for the borrower, out of the property
in which the loan has been invested.

When a bank lends to a merchant, it lends on the security
of a stock of finished and marketable commodities, which both
merchant and manufacturer have, using their knowledge of
market conditions, considered to be marketable, the manufac-
turer because he produced these commodities to sell them, and
the merchant because he bought to sell. The bank has, therefore,
every reason to be confident that the goods on which it lends
will, in this case, find a market, provide a profit for the merchant,
and a fund from which the loan can be repaid. The manufac-
turer has not, other things being equal, quite such a good
standing with the banks. The bank has one judgment only
guaranteeing that the goods being pro luced will find a market.
So far as the raw material is concerned, the bank may confidently
advance, because what has foun I a market once will find it
again ; but with regard to the commodities into which this raw
material is to be converted" the bank has at the best the security
only of the manufacturer's judgment that the goods will sell.
It is true that the manufacturer has often a better standing
than the merchant ; but this advantage arises from the larger
amount of capital invested. The small manufacturer has not,
as a rule, as good a standing as the merchant using the same
amount of capital. The farmer, again, has not as good a standing
as fcue manufacturer, for the simple reason that the normal basis
of agricultural credit is raw material yet to be produced ; and
the bank has the farmer's judgment only that the goods when

462 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.

produced will find a ready market. It is true that they do find
a market, for man must live on the fruits of the soil ; and there
is a pretty sure market for the staple agricultural products.
Except on staple crops, banks lending to farmers are making
speculative loans, for the market is not assured ; and even with
staple crops, there are greater risks in agriculture than in manu-
factures, owing to seasons, etc.

It is true that loans are sometimes made on other security
than the property in which the loan is to be invested. The
bank may lend on the basis of personal earnings from other
sources, or it may lend on the security of character or of other
property ; but such loans are likely to be small in amount, and
the ordinary type of business loan is made on the security of the
property in which the loan is to be invested, and on the judg-
ment that the product of the investment will find a ready sale.
When the producer is well known in business circles, and his
judgment is accepted readily regarding market conditions, the
producer even of raw materials may have little difficulty in
finding accommodation at the banks. The lumber operator is
not, in many respects, in a much better position than the farmer.
He, too, requires advances for long periods, and he, too, has, as
the security he offers, a raw product on which no judgment but
his own has been expressed ; and his industry is to an even
greater extent than the farmer's the plaything of the seasons.
But the operator has little difficulty in getting the necessary
advances, even from the commencement of his season's opera-
tions, and in getting larger and larger advances as his material
product comes nearer to his market; for he is generally a man
of capital, known in the business community and accepted as a
man on whose judgment reliance can be placed. But the farmer
is not a man of capital, and the banks have no confidence in his
individual judgment, for they do not know him. And so the
poor farmer gets none.

It is perhaps hardly necessary to say that the banks are not
animated by any hostility to the farmer. The dreaded " money
power " is the creation of politicians and demagogues of the

AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 463

wild west. The banks are ready for any kind of business that
is profitable, and does not depart radically from their methods of
doing business. Agriculture requires a kind of credit they have
not been in the habit of giving. The farmer asks credit for too
long a period, and above all, for an uncertain and indefinite
period, if it is to be of the fullest advantage to him. Moreover,
the banker knows little of the individual farmer, and has but
very limited opportunities for watching the business proceedings
of a farmer who borrows ; and the ordinary process of everyday
business does not bring the farmer debtor under the banker's
observation as it does the merchant or manufacturer who bor-
rows. When the farmer is ready to market his crop, the bank is
more ready to do business, although the business is usually done
by middlemen ; but as a producer, as a farmer pure and simple,
he has not, and in the nature of things cannot expect to have,
the same credit facilities as the merchant. What may be the
case when the government does fully what in Australasia and to
a much less extent in Canada, governments are beginning to do,
viz., to guarantee a market for the farmer's produce, and even to
advance the price, or part of the price, is another question. In
such cases the banks ought to be willing to treat the farmer on
the most favourable terms ; bnt in such a case the farmer is
likely, having cash in hand, to be comparatively independent of
bank advances. But till that time the farmer has not much to
look for from the banks. It is true, as the Hon. Mr. Blake has
asserted (Hansard, 1890, p. 4295) that,

" The moment a farmer can show that he can give the same
prospect of a return, with the same advantage, with the same
security that other competitors for the stock of available money
can give, he will get all the money he wants ; and to the extent
he cannot show that he will never get it."

But it must be remembered that the difficulty lies in the
nature of the business, not in the honesty of the borrower. The
problem of agricultural credit is not the problem how fco supply
money at low rates of interest to those who do not deserve to
get it and do not know how to use it. That is likely to remain

464 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.

a problem, but it is not of any interest to the community. The
problem of agricultural credit is how to supply money at low
rates of interest to those who are competent to manage it, so as
to make it yield enough to repay the loan with a profit to the
borrower. For it must always be remembered in this connection
that" what the lender wants is interest, not farms ; and when,
owing to incompetence on the part of the borrower, the lender
runs a risk of getting a farm instead of his principai and interest,
he will insist on being paid for the risk he runs. The farm may
be just as good, but the lender does not want it, and does not
care for the risk of having it left on his hands. Lending monev

O ^

is a matter of business, and a bank exists chiefly for this purpose ;
but the borrower must show that he has a legitimate use for the
loan, and that he is competent to use it so as to provide for
repayment at maturity. As business is, the farmer cannot satisfy
these commercial requirements ; and the problem for which a
solution is sought is how the farmer can obtain the credit his
business requires.

Is is desirable, in order to promote an understanding of the
situation, that we should distinguish carefully between the
general and the special advantages which arise from an efficient
banking system. Our banking system is designed primarily as
an agent of commerce and of industry, but it confers great and
undoubted benefits upon the whole community. It provides
a sound and elastic money ; it gives facilities to the investor and
the depositor, and by affording real services to the merchant and
the manufacturer, it promotes the interests of every member of
the community. Fortunnately it is not true that one man's gain
is another man's loss, and we all reap some advantage, directly
or indirectly, from the prosperity of our neighbours. Whatever
general benefit a good banking system confers on the community
at large, that the farmer shares with all his fellow citizens, and
in our own case these benefits are large.

The farmer also has his share in the personal credit which
the banks give, and this for him and for others under stress of
competition may be of considerable amount. But this is not

AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 465

really legitimate credit. It is consumer's, not producer's credit ;
it is accommodation which is intended to cover expenditure
already made, credit which is not intended to yield a profit. It is
not a credit of which a man may be proud, and it hurts or ought
to hurt the standing of a man to be known to receive it. This
kind of credit the farmer may receive ; but it is precisely this
fact that requires a remedy. He, a producer, should be entitled
to legitimate or producer's credit, and should not be held down
to that which non-producers, in an overdeveloped banking prac-
tice, may be given. The farmer's just ground of complaint is
that, while he may share with the general public in the general
benefits which a banking system confers, he is debarred, from
one reason or another, from a perfectly legitimate producer's
credit as a matter of business, although he may receive a limited
amount of personal credit as accommodation.

Our banking system is not specially adapted to the needs of
the farmer as farmer. In so far as agiiculture is a branch of
commerce, that is, in so far as the farmer has finished goods to
sell, he may be specially benefitted. He is then in almost as
good a position as the manufacturer, who, too, like the farmer,
markets his wares at second hand ; and the whole process of
exchange is facilitated by sound banking as much for the wheat
from the farm as for the cloth from the factory. For commerce
we have a most excellent system, eminently well fitted to assist
in marketing goods of all kinds. It provides us with an elastic
currency which makes money easy at the time when most business
is to be done. It facilitates the moving of the crops in the latter
end of the year, and it is doubtful if the farming community
realizes how much it benefits in this way, and how much harder
the case would be if our bankiug system was less perfect, than it
is. In a general way, there is a recognition of its excellence,
because the banks have served the communitj so well that ^ye
have heard but the faintest echoes of a "silver question" in
Canada.

But we have to consider the farmer, not merely as having
something to sell, but, in his more important aspect, as a pro-

466 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.

ducer. Like the manufacturer, the farmer benefits when he has
to market his produce, but, unlike the manufacturer, he receives
little or no assistance from the banks to assist him in production ;
and it is precisely here that the pinch comes. Our banking
system provides no credit facilities for the farmer as producer-
Where, in other countries, farming is carried on on a large scale,
and where the farmer is as well-known in the business world as
the manufacturer using the same capital, the question of agri-
cultural credit does not specifically arise ; and if all farmers were
farmers on a large scale, like the typical tenant-farmer of Great
Britain, who, because he operates with a comparatively large
capital and is .well-known, can command credit, like any other
producer, on tolerably easy terms, we could trust the farmer to
get what credit his standing warranted. But large tenant-farm-
ing is not common with us, and the farmer who is in a moderate
or small way of business is not known in the business world, and
does not obtain the credit he requires from the banks on any-
thing like as easy terms as the small manufacturer or tradesman,
or retail shopkeeper. Wherever agriculture is followed as a
business, pure and simple, little difficulty has been found in
granting the farmer the necessary credit for his business; and as
agriculture is coming to be pursued more and more as a busi-
ness, with the market in constant view, it is possible that the
farmer in the future may get more special benefit from our
banking system.

Even as it is, the Canadian banks do more for the farmer
than any other banking system does. Some eulogists of our
banking system have applied the term agricultural to it, and
this, at least, is true, that if ever a commercial banking system
was entitled to the term agricultural our national system is. It
is significant that where it is proposed to amend the banking
system of the United Slates so as to afford better credit facilities
for the farmer, the proposal takes the form of a system of branch
banks such as we hive in Canada. The only system which can
compare with our own in this respect is the Scottish, where the
famous " cash credits " had an enormous influence in developing

AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 467

the industry and the agriculture of the country. One writer says
enthusiastically : — " In the space of a hundred and fifty years it
raised its country from the lowest state of barbarism to its pres-
ent proud position," and ' the far-famed agriculture of the
Lothians, the manufactures of Glasgow and Paisley, the unri-
valled steamships of the Clyde, are its proper children." This,
as applied to agriculture, is no exaggeration, and it is not a little
significant that the founders of the agricultural banks on the
continent of Europe, to which reference will be made later,
adopted from the Scottish Cash Credit System the idea of per-
sonal responsibility, which was its essence. We have not now
the cash credit system in Canada, It was tried in the early days
and had definitely to be abandoned because it was not suited to
a country where the population was as migratory as it is with
us. But the system of overdraft is quite as useful, and our banks
are able to maintain the essential benefits of the cash credit
system which did so much for agriculture in Scotland.

Our banks to-day do more for the farmer than the Scottish
banks can now dor. In Scotland itself, the cash credit as applied
to agriculture is a thing of the past, and has been little used for
half a century. The cash credit was partly, at least, a device
for increasing the note circulation of the bank. An extra risk

o

was taken on the loan to secure an extra profit on the notes
which were thus got into circulation. When the right of
issuing notes at discretion, secured only by the general assets of
the bank, was withdrawn in 1845, the banks no longer had any
motive for encouraging borrowers in this way, and the cash
credit system was gradually withdrawn from agriculture and
confined in a restricted way to commerce and industry. And it
must be remembered that the farmers of the Lothians were
already men of some financial standing, and that the benefits of
the cash credit were never experienced by the small farmer and
crofter of the north. Our Canadian banks, however, still prac-
tically retain the right and privilege of note issues at the discre-
tion of the bank, and they are thus able to extend crrdit facilities
to districts which would otherwise go unserved. They still have

468 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.

the motive of seeking an extra profit on their note issues to
induce them to take some risk on their loans. The Canadian
public and the Canadian farmer are, when all is taken into con-
sideration, the scattered population and the imperfect means of
communication in particular, better served by the banks than the
Scottish public and the Scottish fanner. The Scottish banks
are praised because they assisted the farmer, and it was the
peculiar feature of the Scottish system that suggested the Euro-
pean Popular Banks. The Canadian bank is in most respects
like the Scottish, and has done even more for the farmer.

Our banking system is, like the Scottish, a system of branch
banks, and the number of the branches is continuously increas-
ing. By this means the banks are adapted to local needs, and it
is their policy to extend their services to the remotest districts.
In the eighties of last century there was considerable agitation
which found expression in parliament, for a system of far-
mers' banks, and since that time the banks, having apparently
become conscious of the danger in which the system was if more
attention was not paid to the agricultural districts, have steadily
increased the number of their branches. In 1881 there were 287
branches in Canada ; in 1890 this number had increased to 444;
and in 1900 there were 64; 1, of which a large number are in
purely agricultural districts. These branches are distributed all
over the Dominion, and if the Canadian farmer has not all the
banking facilities he ought to have, the reason is not here, what-
ever may be the case in other countries, that the bank is not at
his door.

An attempt is sometimes made to show that our banking
system confers a special benefit upon the farmer because it is
calculated to equalize the bank rate all over the country, but
that, at the best, is a blessino- for which the farmer in the west

* ' o

has more reason to be thankful than the farmer in the east.

It is said that our system gathers up the surplus money of
one district and uses it elsewhere where money is scarce ; but
the New Brunswick farmer who borrows is not likely to regard
this as an advantage. For if the rate of interest is equalized all

AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 469

over the Dominion, some districts must be made to pay more
that others may pay less. If the surplus savings of the east are
sent to the west, it is the western borrower and the eastern
depositor who gain ; the eastern borrower has to pav a higher
rate of interest. Broadly speaking, the eastern, and particularly
the maritime, provinces save more than the banks find local
investment for at seven per cent. There are no figures published
to show the relative discounts and deposits in the 105 banks and
branches in the maritime provinces, but the Upper Canadian
banks which are coming down here are seeking deposits, and
the maritime banks which are seeking openings in the west are
seeking a better outlet for their deposits. The Savings Bank
returns are evidence, at least, of the relative instinct of saving
in theditferent provinces. New Brunswick has $27.35 deposited
per head of population; P. E. Island, §19.25; Nova Scotia,
$17.73 ; Manitoba has $5.41 ; N. VV. Territories, $1.79. 7. do not
desire to be guilty of sectionalism in any shape or form, and that
is one of the prevailing political vices of the maritime provinces ;
but it is not difficult to see that the Canadian banking system
does not work quite so much for the benefit of the maritime
borrower as it does elsewhere. For the business man the slight
disadvantage of slightly dearer money is more than made up to
him by the advantages of membership in a great banking
system ; but for the farmer there is not the same compensation.
The great merit that is claimed for People's Banks in the
continent of Europe is that they fix savings in the locality in
which they are made. It is there felt as a grievance in the
country districts that the savings of the people are drawn to the
great money centres and help there to build up the towns at the
expense of the country, and accelerate the drift of population to
the cities. That does not happen with us ; but we have our
own difficulty. The savings of the east are taken for the
development of the west, and this has been regarded by some
who professed to speak for the agricultural interests as an evil
to be remedied. During the eighties of last century several
motions to introduce bills to adapt the banking system of the
Dominion to the needs of the farmer were debated, and it was

470 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.

then repeatedly urged that " a measure which would provide
facilities for the establishment of local banks . . . would
confer a great benefit." (Can. Hansard, 1885, p. 119.) And the
advantage was supposed to be that savings would by this means
be fixed in fcheir own localities, to the great benefit of borrowers,
at least in such provinces as New Brunswick, which saves more
than it can lend. Whether this difficulty can be overcome is
another question. It is not overcome by any European system,
for People's Banks were devised to provide a remedy for this
evil. Nor is it overcome under the highly decentralized system
of the United States. The Canadian banking system is not an
agricultural system, ar\d perhaps never has been any more fitted
to supply agricultural credit than it is to-day; but it is a better
system, even for the farmer, than any other that has been
devised as an ordinary banking system. As a matter of fact,
fixing local savings, which seems so desirable to the borrower
who resides in a district that saves more than it invests, is not
realisable under modern business conditions. Sooner or later,
economically or otherwise, surplus savings will find their way to
the district where there is demand for them. The distant bor-
rower may be made to pay more, but the money cannot be kept
at home.

There have been various proposals to amend our own and
other banking systems in the interests of the farmers. So far
as the Dominion is concerned, these proposals have been either
to adopt the Dominion system of local banks or to establish land
banks — neither of which promises any relief. The small local
bank is not forbidden by our Canadian banking act, though
new banks with less than $500,000 cannot now be established
with rights of issuing paper money. Such local banks do continue
to exist, and chiefly in the maritime provinces. Of fourteen
banks with a paid up capital of less than a million, ten are in
the maritime provinces. None of the New Brunswick banks has
an authorized capital of more than $500,000, and the average is
only $293,000 ; one of these, the People's Bank, the smallest in
the Dominion. Yet these small banks do not serve to fix savings

AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 471

in their own localities. All of them have large deposits with
other banks in Canada and elsewheie; and it is the Fanners'
Congress of New Brunswick, the home of the small bank in the
Canadian system, that calls for this report on Agricultural Credit.
The proposals to establish land banks are generally charac-
terized by an entire absence of knowledge of banking conditions
and of the history of credit institutions. If any principle has
been established by bitter experience it is that land is not a
satisfactory basis for a bank. One agitator declared in the
House of Commons (Hansard, 1884, p. 213,) that money based
on the landed property of a country is perfectly safe, whereas
experience has shown again and again that money might as well
be issued based on the rings of Saturn. To attempt to modify our
banking system in this way would destroy all its present value,
which is, however, commercial rather than agricultural. And
the problem before us is not how to destroy the credit which
the merchant and the manufacturer enjoy, but how to make
that credit, or some credit, available for the farmer. In my
opinion, the Canadian banking system is doing all it can do, and
one might even venture the assertion that it is sometimes doing,
by " liberal banking " in this province and elsewhere, and by
undue concession of purely personal accommodation, more than
it is safe for banks to do. For the farmer, as a seller of
produce, it does and can do much ; for the farmer, as a member
of the general public, it does and can do much ; for the farmer,
as a farmer, it can do but little ; and it is strictly forbidden by
law to attempt more than it does do. The banks are forbidden
to lend on mortgage or the security of land. They may, and do,
to a large extent, I believe, evade this prohibition by making
land the basis on which personal accommodation is given. But
the prohibition stands. Further, the wording of the act was
amended so as to stand in the way of the bank making advances
to a farmer as a "producer." This was done professedly to
protect the interests of the farmer. It was pointed out that the
general credit of the farmer " with merchants and others rests
on the visible possession of certain personal property, such

472 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.

chattels as grain, cattle and implements. An assignment of
these, according to the form prescribed by the act, would not,
like a chattel mortgage, become notorious, and the basis of a
farmer's credit would be badly impaired, no creditor being able
to know whether the ownership o£ property is in the person
whom he is asked to trust or in some bank." (Breckenridge,
p. 348.) The principles of our banking system are so well
established and its practice so well approved by experience, that
the farmer has nothing more to hope for in that quarter. He
has still less to hope for from any tinkering and amendment of
that system which might destroy its present perfect adaptation
to our commercial and currency needs without being able to
improve the farmer's position in the slightest degree.

But the problem still remains how the farmer is to be
accommodated with the capital and the credit his business
require. We may acquiesce in the political wisdom of rigidly
confining the banks to their proper function of providing com-
mercial credit, but must we acquiesce in the absence of credit
facilities for the farmer ? Agriculture is in all countries the
most important, and in most the dominant, industry, and its pro-
gress cannot be hampered and hindered without national loss.
We may ask, therefore, whether it is not possible to develope
credit institutions, under government regulation, it may be, to
supply this need, or whether it is possible for the government of
the country to supply the lack directly. Such attempts have
been made, and we now turn to a description of what has been
done, and is being done, in other countries, or among ourselves,
to meet the demand. There are two great methods, people's
banks and government loans. Both are of comparatively recent
origin, and both have the same aim of providing the farmer with
what the banks have not, and, in my opinion, cannot adequately
provide.

The People's Banks of Europe were established to provide
farming credit, and it is difficult to realise the amount of busi-

o

ness that is done through them. They are of two classes : one
better adapted for providing credit to small merchants and pro-
ducers, the other distinctively agricultural. They aim at making

AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.— DAVIDSON. 473

the principle of self-help productive as well as provident. They
are not mere savings banks instituted to encourage habits of
thrift; they endeavour to supply credit to their members. This
they do by one of two methods. They may issue shares of small
amounts to form a capital of guarantee and then borrow on the
security of this capital and lend out to their members. This first
class is co-operative in character, but they often manage to com-
bine co-operation with high dividends on shares, and the dividend
earning instinct may influence their business to a greater extent
than their co-operative principle. These are known as the
Schulze Delitsch banks, after their founder, and are mainly
industrial in character. They have not been found peculiarly
well adapted to agriculture. The other type is peculiarly suited
for the needs of small farmers and cultivators, and the}' do a
very large and a very safe business. They are entirely co-oper-
ative in character, and are almost invariably managed by an
unsalaried committee, and confine their operations to a very small
area, such as the parish. They borrow the money they lend
again to their members; but this money is not secured by any
capital of guarantee. The members are jointly and severally
liable to an unlimited extent for what they borrow to lend again.
To put the matter in another way, they borrow on a joint note,
to which every member is a party, and the money so obtained
is loaned out to individual members. This unlimited liability
makes members very careful about the character of those admit-
ted or retained, as a man is careful about the character of a man
whose paper he endorses. The loans are made for specfic pur-
poses to individuals known to the committee who are able to
ascertain whether the loan is applied to the purpose for which it
was borrowed. As there are no expenses of management worth
mentioning, the bank is able to lend to its members at a very
small advance on what it pays, and every member shares in the
joint credit of all, and the system has been well characterized as
the capitalization of character and honesty. The system is well
developed and it has not resulted in loss. Not a penny has been
lost to any one in all the forty-seven years' experience of these
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS.--GG.

474 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.

Raffeissen banks, as they are called. They do not lend on mort-
gages, but on simple acceptances, and yet their business has
proved not only safe tut much safer than the ordinary business
of the commercial banks. It has been estimated that at least
$750,000,000 is made available for the small producer, farmer
and merchant, by these popular credit institutions, and the gain
is not economic alone. Germany, Austria and Italy have
thousands of these co-operative banks in operation.

The movement has extended to Ireland during recent years.
It had to meet not only the opposition of ignorance, I ut the
political prejudice of the mass of the people who saw in people's
banks nothing but another device for killing Home Rule by
kindness. The man most directly responsible for the establish-
ment of these co-operative people's banks is Mr. Plunkett, who
was defeated in the recent election by Col. Lynch of the Boer
army. Yet, in spite of prejudice in Ireland, in five years since
the movement was started, 75 Raffeissen banks have been estab-
lished. Last year these banks loaned out $45,000, on which the
loss amounted to $7, and what is more remarkable, there are no
overdue accounts. One of the objections which the commercial
bank has to the farmer as a borrower is that he is not punctual
in his payments. In these co-ope ration banks, whether in Ire-
land or on the continent, punctuality in payment is universal.
In one of the Irish banks 536 loans were made last year, and in
twelve cases only was there a week's lateness in making pay-
ment. This is the more remarka ble when it is remembered that
these loans are made for strictly productive purposes, and that
the borrowers are strictly held to their declared purpose. Loans
are made for short or for long periods, though generally for
three months with the privilege of renewal in full if the purpose
is still approved and the borrower's character remains good.

Within the Dominion at least one attempt has been made to
establish People's Banks on a co-operative basis to assist the
farmer to obtain cheaper agricultural credit. British Columbia
has legislation on its statute book authorizing the formation of
and offering a subsidy to such agricultural credit institutions.

AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.— DAVIDSON. 475

But so far the law is a dead letter, and the British Columbia
Department of Agriculture explains the absence of interest in
the scheme by the lack of the co-operative spirit. As a matter
of fact the legislation seems to be of almost a pure academic
character, answering to no popular demand and inspired by the
instinct of revelation which leads people to suppose that an
institution that has succeeeded elsewhere must be needed and do
good here. British Columbia is probably the least agricultural
of all our provinces, and is likely long to remain so ; and British
Columbia is very well supplied with what banking facilities our
system can provide for the farmer. The failure is not due to
the absence of the co operative spirit, but to the absence of any
great need for co-operation All that is secured so laboriously
and so painfully by co-operative production and co-operative
banking in European countries, is without effort secured for us
in the natural organisation of business. America has few exam-
ples of co-operative enterprises, because the spirit of co-operation
is already largely embodied in our every-day business institu-
tions, and we enjoy in Canada very largely all the benefits
which co-operative banking secures in Europe without any of
the inconveniences which accompany conscious co-operation. In
Europe, co-operation affords scope for the latent abilities of men
who have little hope of rising above the class in which they
were born ; in America there is a free career for the latents, and
the born co-operators become independent managers of men.
Briefly, the Canadian banking system may be said to do as much
for the farmer as the European system of popular banks accom-
plishes there, and it is very doubtful whether, among men of
our race, co-operative banking would accomplish any good result.
Our areas are too vast, our population is too much scattered, our
people too migratory and too anxious to rise to positions of com-
mand, to make co-operation a success. We have tried and
abandoned the Scotch Cash Credit System as not well adapted
to our needs ; and as we have already noted the cash credit
system originally suggested the European co-operative banks.

It must not be forgotten that there are two distinct questions
involved in the use of the terms Agricultural Credit, and I do

476 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.

not know which of these was in the mind of those who moved
for the committee which asked me to report. There is the
question, which is rapidly becoming a very important question,
of credit for carrying on the business of farming, with which
question I have been dealing. There is the entirely different
question of loans for the improvement of property. Last fall
there was a great drought on the North Shore, and farmers had
to sell their cattle because of lack of fodder to carry them through
the winter. Co-operative banking is designed to meet just such
cases as this, and positively to enable the farmer to extend his
operations wherever there is a prospect of profit. These banks
are not mortgage banks, though some of them do lend on mort-
gage— a position which the apostles of the movement regard as
illegitimate. There are in Europe, in addition to these popular
banks, many institutions which exist for the purpose of lending
money on mortgage for the improvement of land. These banks
have more than a century of successful history, but their opera-
tions are confined to the landlord class, and do nothing for the
business of farming as such. We have had similar institutions
in America, and in Canada in particular, although they are here
called by another name. We know them as Loan Companies
and Trust Companies, which do a very large business in lending
money on mortgage, particularly in the province of Ontario.
These are purely private undertakings, and are not backed, as in
Germany, by the explicit approval of the state. In 1899 there
was real estate mortgaged to these loan companies to the value
of 216 millions for loans amounting to 111 millions, or 51 per
cent, of the value. These companies are said by a very com-
petent observer, Professor Shortt of Queen's College, to
provide an efficient and not very costly credit instrument for
the farmer. Such institutions, however, are making loans for
improvement, not for making the business of farming profitable.
It is true that money is often borrowed on mortgage for other
than improvement purposes, but such " calamity loans," as the
United States Census of 1890 called them, are not made to
promote the business of farming. " People mortgage their real
estate to get married, to obtain divorces, and to pay alimony ;

AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 477

to pay their taxes, to pay rent, and to pay the money lender.
They raise money by mortgage in order that they may travel, and
that they may expend it in extravagant living ; they speculate
with it, and they relend it. Politicians pay their political debts
by means of mortgages. Wives pay the debts of their husbands
and educate them for the ministry. Men mortgage their real
estate to pay their physician, their undertaker, and their lawyers,
to help their friends and relatives to make good their defalca-
tions, to educate their children, and to support their parents."
(U. S. Census, 1890, Mortgage Vol., p. 279). But after all, loans
for such purposes form but a small part of the whole, not G per
cent, of the number, not 2 per cent, of the amount in the United
States ; and probably this proportion holds true of Canada,
although we have no definite information. Most of the mort-
gages are incurred to effect improvements of a more or less
permanent character.

Information is lacking regarding the rate of interest which
is paid on mortgages in Canada. There is no doubt that it is
high, although in New Brunswick, at least, the rate is falling,
and corporations which have money which they must invest in
first-class securities are being forced to consider whether it is
worth while to invest in mortgages which now bring a grudging
six per cent, only, with a prospect that five will soon be all that
is obtainable. It is because the rate of interest is high that
there is a demand in some quarters that the state should place
its credit at the disposal of the farmers to enable them to borrow
at less than the present market rate. Such a proposal is regarded
with great alarm in some quarters, but there is ample and
conservative precedent for it. The English Royal Commission
on Agriculture, recognizing the demand for " increased outlay on
improvements necessitated by changes in agriculture," recom-
mended state loans to farmers, for which they claimed rightly
that there was ample precedent in English agrarian legislation.
The gist of the evidence laid before this commission brings out,
according to Mr. Wolff (People's Banks, p. 54.) that " wherever
in agriculture there is ample command of money for working a

478 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.

farm, for manuring, feeding, cultivating, and holding over
produce, just as circumstance may dictate, without stint and
without limit, the effects of distress are very much mitigated ;"
and it was to afford such a mitigation to all, that the commission
recommended a system of state loans.

In English and in Scottish land legislation to a slight extent,
and in Irish legislation to a very great extent, the principle of
using the state credit to improve the position of the farmer has
been adopted and carried out. The chief object is one which has
little meaning under Canadian conditions, but the same principle
is involved in using state credit to create a class of small land-
owners as in using it to reduce the rate of interest on mort^a^es.

O o O

Irish land legislation has advanced far from the tentative
proposals in the Bright clauses of the Land Act of 1870. This
first act proposed that the state advance two-thirds of the
money required to convert the tenant into owner, to be repaid,
capital and interest, in equal instalments of 5 per cent, in 35
years. The famous Land Act of 1881 incidentally made it
possible to advance state money to the amount of three-quarters
of the purchase price, repayable in 49 years But the outstand-
ing pieces of legislation are Conservative in origin. The Land
Purchase Act of 1885 permitted the advance of the whole
purchase money, repayable, capital and interest, with 4 percent,
interest, over 49 years. Under this act purchases were made on
behalf of 13,700 Irish tenants, at a cost of about 45 million
dollars, and the Irish tenant could, and did, become the owner
of his farm by making, for that period, annual payments 41 per
cent, less than his former rent had been. " This great boon/'
says Mr. Shaw Lefevre (Agrarian Tenures, p. 142,) "is due to the
use of money borrowed from the state at 3 per cent, to purchase
the landlord's interest on the very low terms of 17J times the
rent." Mr. Balfour's Land Purchase Act of 1891 went still
further in the same direction. It involves the use of Imperial
credit on a very large scale, and was distinguished by an effort
to provide some security to the Imperial Government for lepay-
ment of the loans — a provision not unlike the process by which

AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 479

the Dominion Government can deduct allowances from the
Dominion subsidies to the provinces. And still further legislation
is demanded by the Irish party.

The Irish land question stands by itself, and perhaps it were
as well not to quote Irish agrarian legislation as a precedent ;
but there is no such objection to the precedent established in our
sister colonies of New Zealand and Australia. There the prin-
ciple of using state credit to assist the farmer has been carried
out on a very large scale. The policy has still to stand the test
of experience, and particularly the experience of hard times. At
present the policy is still popular. The New Zealander, accord-
ing to his eulogist, Mr. Lloyd, uses his national credit to get
money in London to lend again in advances to settlers and free
the farmer from the high rates of interest he is paying the pri-
vate bankers. (Newest England, p. 151.) New Zealand began
this policy in 1893, and since then its example has been followed
by New South Wales, South Australia and Victoria. The system
is described thus by Mr. Lloyd :

" The world over, one of the greatest obstacles in the way of
the small farmer, and the large one, is the difficulty of getting
capital. Often there is no money to be borrowed in the district
where he lives, or if there is, it is in the hands of rich neigh-
bours or banks, who know nothing but their bond and the
pound of flesh. But in New Zealand the settler has only to go
to the nearest post office to get into communication with a
money lender who charges no commission or brokerage, and no
fees, except for actual expenses, never exacts usury, offers no
cut-throat mortgages for signature, will let him have any
amount from as little as $125 to as much as $15,000, has never
foreclosed, does not try to induce him to borrow more than he
really needs ; if he has no freehold, will lend on leasehold and
good will and improvements, gives him thirty-seven and a half
years to pay the money back, and accepts it from him in small
instalments of principal with every payment of interest, so as
to make it as little of a burden as can be, will allow him if he
happens to have $25 to spare, to pay it in at any time to reduce

480 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.

his indebtedness, and when it finds itself making a protit out of
the business, instead of accumulating a fortune, gives him the
benefit by reducing his rate."

New Zealand charges interest at the rate of 5 per cent., and
up till 1900 had made about 7000 loans, amounting to more than
ten million dollars, and it is claimed that not a cent has been
lost, and that in 1900 there was not a penny of interest or prin-
cipal due which had not been collected. The entrance of the
government into the business of lending money, brought rates
down all over the country, and not only those who borrowed
from the government, but all borrowers, had the benefit of a
reduction in the rate of interest of something like two per cent-
One supporter of the New Zealand government claimed that " the
action of the slate in entering the money-market has made an
average reduction of 2 per cent, on £32,000,000 of landed
indebtedness, and £32,000,000 of other debts." The benefit may
not have been as great as this and yet have been very great in
its immediate effects.

The state advances money to the Australasian farmer at
both ends. It advances money on his farm, and then lends him
money on its produce and helps him to market it at the best
terms. With this latter activity of the state on behalf of the
farmer we are more familiar in Canada. Neither Dominion nor
provincial governments have yet found it necessary or advisable
to lend its credit to its farmers. Ontario is a slight exception,
that province, I believe, making slight advances for purposes of
drainage. But the Department of Agriculture, with all its mani-
fold paternal activity on behalf of the farmer, has not advanced
money for improvement or for cultivation — at least to the native
farmer. To some classes of immigrants small advances have been
made by another department. The Mennonites received a loan
of nearly $100,000, which has all been repaid with interest ; the
early Icelandic settlements received some $30,000, which, owing
to adverse circumstances in the settlement, had to be written off
as a bad debt, the security being destroyed by disastrous floods ;
and similar small advances have been made to the Dcukhobors

AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 481

and to individual Galician settlers, the loans being secured by
liens on the land. Beyond these, I know of no direct lending by
the Canadian government.

Yet the Canadian governments, in their own way, are doing
a great deal to make the business of farming profitable. The
provision of cheap credit is not the sole condition of success, and
many of the other conditions are provided. I need not say any-
thing about the assistance^ which the government gives in
establishing and maintaining creameries and cheese factories, or
of the instruction how to make the best use of his opportunities
offered the farmer by means of the agents of the departments.
From one point of view, this assistance might be regarded as a
system of technical education for farmers ; from another point
of view, as the quid pro quo given to the farmer who has borne
the chief part of the burden of the attempt to build up indus-
tries by protection. These, however, are but the beginning of
what the government does, and when one contemplates the vast
projects upon which we, as a people, have embarked, or are
likely to embark, it seems almost necessary to call caution.
Practically, the agricultural departments have made it their aim
to remove all obstacles in the way of finding a market. It uses
its vast power and machinery to form an intelligence bureau in
the interests of the farmer. It has improved the means of trans-
portation ; it has insisted on coal storage on train and steamer,
and it has erected cold storage facilities in farming districts and
at seaports ; in some cases it insures the farmer against some of
the ravages of nature ; it has brought the best of all markets to
his door ; it buys eg^s and butter and poultry from him at a
fixed price, and pays over to him any surplus, and events may
force it to l.uy the fruit crop in so far as that is intended for
export; it buys oats from him on account of the imperial
government, and when it succeeds in making a better bargain
than anticipated with the steamship companies, hands the profit
over to the farmer. And as I write, ray evening paper comes to
tell me that in order to encourage poultry-raising in the mari-
time provinces, the Dominion Department of Agriculture has
decided, in the event of cold storage facilities not being forth-

482 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.

coming on any steamer from St. John or Halifax to Liverpool
during the year, to pay all freight charges on poultry shipped to
Montreal in excess of one dollar per hundred pounds. On the
other side of the Atlantic, almost equal care and anxiety is
shown by the agents of the department that the produce o^
Canadian farms shall receive the best price and gain the best
reputation that can be obtained.

It is no wonder that the president of a Farmers' Supply
Association in the old country, with whom I had some corres-
pondence in relation to this report, should declare that in the
provision of facilities of all kinds the Canadian farmer is a full
generation ahead of the farmer in the mo therland.

But it may be asked why should the Government not go one
step further and adopt the Australasian policy of assisting the
farmer in producing as well as in marketing ? Why not lend
the credit of the state to the farmer to enable him to borrow
money more cheaply to make improvements or simply to make
the business of farming profitable ? It is true that we need not
trouble ourselves much about words, for if state lending on mort-
gage is socialistic, what shall we say about the manifold activi-
ties of the agricultural departments? The New Zealander has
not been frightened at the word, and indeed declares that the
epithet is misapplied. The essence of socialism is state owner-
ship of the means of production, and the effect of this kind of
state activity is to establish individual ownership more firmly.
The New Zealander is of the opinion, according to Mr. Lloyd
(Newest England, p. 375) that his action simply amounts to "the
state giving its principal efforts to the stimulation, as a silent
partner, wise counsellor and democratic co-operator, of the
enterprise and industry of the individual." It may, moreover,
be easily argued that in a democratic country, government aid is
simply a highly organized form of self-help, that the people are
using the machinery of the state for the ends for which it was
devised, viz., the good of the citizens.

This is true. At times we may look at things in this way,

AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.

yet the usual way is to regard a government as an external
benefactor who favours us, or our district, at the expense of
others. It is true that it is our own money that constructs our
roads and our bridges, builds our railwa)s and executes our pub-
lic work, yet when some protesting writer or some opposition
candidate points this very fact out to us, we feel instantly that
he is talking not of things as they are. As a matter of fact, we
do not regard government aid as a highly organised form of self-
help, but rather as a highly organised form of helping ourselves
at the general expense. And it is not well that we should come
to look too much for government aid in the management of our
business.' There is already too much leliance upon government
and too little individual initiative. There are, for instance, too
many men wasting time looking for government jobs, and too
many people who think that five dollars of government money
is worth ten dollars offered by any one else. There is some dan-
ger to national character in too great a reliance upon government
assistance.

Nor can we regard the resources of a government as illimit-
able. A state can borrow cheaply because it borrows moder-
ately and with discretion. It is true that a government may
borrow at three per cent, or a little more, while the private
borrower has to pay six or a little more. Why should not the
government of Canada or the government of New Brunswick
fend again to the fanner ? For the very good reason that, if it
did to any extent, it would not long be able to borrow at three
per cent, and the whole community would be burdened. New
Zealand's experience is riot quite conclusive, because it has not
continued long enough. We have had in our history some
experience of lending the state's credit. The legislature of
Canada passed in 1849 a guarantee act, guaranteeing the interest
on railway bonds, as Manitoba is doing to-day, and the result
was that the credit of the colony was quick to show the effects,
and the guarantee system had to be withdrawn. New Zealand,
during the first depression of trade, may have an even more
disastrous experience.

484 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON.

Nothing need be said regarding the political aspect of the
proposal, though that is the first which occurs to most people.
What would be the relation between the borrower and the
government about election time ? Would concessions be made
to partizans, in the matter of time, if the interest was not ready ?
It must be admitted that there is no evidence of similar discrimi-
nation in other business conducted by the government. After
extensive enquiries, of Liberals regarding Conservative admin-
istration, and of Conservatives regarding Liberal administration,
of the Intercolonial Railway, I have heard of one instance only
of discrimination in freight rates in favour of a partizan. and
that was in the shape of a tacit permission to overload a car.
That is rather remarkable, and along with it we must take the
fact that advances to settlers are generally repaid in full —
though this is not so remarkable, for these men are not voters.
Still there remains the general impression that politics would
inevitably enter into the question of government loans to
farmers, and politics are already so complicated that both parties
would fight shy of such a measure.

To sum up: — The farmer need not look to any amendment
of the banking system to provide him with cheaper credit,,
though possibly an improved banking practice might help him a
little The European system of agricultural credit on a co-opera-
tive basis could not be adopted in this country, and need not be,
for our farmer is not as helpless and as much subject to the
usurer as the continental peasant. The results of this co-operative
system do not place the European on as good a footing as the
Canadian farmer now has. No government will ever attempt
the task of lending money to make the business of farming
profitable. The action of governments in relation to agricultural
credit has been confined 10 lending on mortgage. This is, in my
opinion, not desirable in Canada, either for the Dominion or for
the provinces. The safe line is to develop the present activities
of the government on behalf of the farmers, for cheaper credit
is only one of the conditions of success.

AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. — DAVIDSON. 485

If we trace the farmer's activity from start to finish, we can
see at a glance what is being done :

I. Agricultural education for adults at present — for the young

in the immediate future ; this includes lectures by
experts, continuous experimentation, etc.

II. Assistance in certain kinds of production — creameries and

cheese factories, etc.

III. For improvements — practically nothing. The Canadian

governments do not lend on mortgage, nor is it desirable
that they should. But something might readily be
done to cheapen law costs and to facilitate the transfer
of lands ; perhaps, also, to encourage local agricultural
societies to form themselves into local co-operative
mortgage banks, borrowing on mortgage bonds to lend
on mortgage.

IV. For the provision of credit to carry on the business of

farming, the government does nothing and can do
nothing, though here, again, it might encourage the
agricultural societies to greater practical usefulness as
co-operative supply associations.

v. Markets. This has been assumed by the government in so
far as export is conceined ; and since the government
advances the price, it may thus assist the farmer more
than by providing cheaper credit. With a practical
government guarantee of a market, indeed, the banks
might safely advance to the farmer almost as fully as
they do to the lumber operator and the manufacturer ;
and if this were to prove the case, the demand for
cheaper money for the farmer would no longer be heard.

VI1L— PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN NOVA SCOTIA AND
CANADA, 190 L— By A. H. MACKAY, LL. D.

(Received for Publication May, IMS.)

I present herewith a summary of the phenological observa-
tions made in about 450 of the public schools of the Province
of Nova Scotia, each county being represented by a greater cr
less proportion of observers.

The observations were for the most part made by the pupils
of the schools under the supervision and direction of the teachers
who are responsible for their accuracy. The observers are
specially directed to the determination of two dates (pheno-
chrons) — one for the first app earance of the event (leafing, flower-
ing, ripening of fruit, etc.), the other for the date when it may
be said to be "becoming common." As pupils radiate from the
school-house, in rural districts especially, to a distance of one or
even two miles daily, and as the monotony of the walk home
and back again to school next morning is very much lightened
by the eager lookout for the first appearance of each phenom-
enon during the procession of the season, (which, when reported
to the teacher and demonstrated by the presentation of the
specimen, is recorded to the credit of the observer), these obser-
vations must be much more accurate than those made by a
single observer, especially if he can only go out into the fields
or the woods at intervals of sometimes several days. In fact,
while it must be acknowledged from the investigation of the
schedules that mistakes are sometimes made in noting the first
date, or mistaking the species of the plant, and even in record-
ing a correct observation, the general agreement of many school
sections proves that the phenomena are most promptly noticed
and correctly reported.

These 450 schedules (the best of a larger list sent in) were
divided between four of the leading botanists of the Province

(486)

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, 1901. — MACKAY. 487

for the purpose of their detailed study and compilation to find
average dates (phenochrons) of occurrence in each meteorological
district, of which there are twelve defined in Nova Scotia. A
summary of the reports of this staff — consisting of C. B. Robin-
son, B. A., of the Pictou Academy. Principal E. J. Lay of the
Amherst Academy, Principal B. McKittrick of the Lunenhurg,
and Miss Antoinette Forbes, B. A., of the Windsor
Academy — was published in the Journal of Education, April,
1902. The repurts pointed out some of the errors likely to be
made by observers, and suggested improvements on the schedule,
which have already been adopted. They also summed up the
observations so as to show the general phenochron for each
object in the shore or coast belt, the low inland belt, and the
highland belt of each county and of each region, some of which
contain portions of seve»al counties. These phenochrons would
be very interesting to the numerous localities throughout the
whole Province, but they are too voluminous for publication.
They were still further generalized, so as to give the pheno-
chrons for each region, by Mr. G. M. J. MacKay. This table is
presented on pages 492 to 495.

The table of observations throughout Canada, made under
the auspices of the Botanical Club of Canada by individual
observers who made only the first series of observations, is also
presented here, pages 497 to 501, as in the report of the Botanical
Club to the Royal Society of Canada. This is done, first,
to keep the series of Canadian observations uninterrupted in our
transactions; secondly, for the purpose of instituting compari-
sons, and, thirdly, for the purpose of showing the greater fullness
and accuracy of the observations as conducted in the public
schools.

Thpn again, it must be considered that by far the greatest
value of the Nova Scotian plan appears to be the stimulation of
the pupils of the public schools to observe and record, and
eventually to compare. It is found to be a great aid to the
teacher in interesting the pupils in many departments of Nature
study ; it cultivates those powers of the mind without which

488 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN NOVA SCOTIA

future learning is, for general purposes, of little real value, and
at the same time it makes the life of the pupil on the road a
healthful and happy one by the added interest of the chase.

For some years Professor Ihne of Darmstadt, Germany, has
been collecting and puUishing annually similar observations,
covering Europe from Wales to Austria and from the Baltic to
Switzerland, with nearly pne hnndied individual observers.
The object here is the minor one of obtaining phenological data,
as it is with the Botanical Club of Canada.

But within the last year the Natural History Society of
British Columbia issued a similar schedule, specially adapted to
the west side of the continent, which has been sent to the
teachers of the public schools, in order to obtain the educational
benefit for the pupils all over the country, while at the same
time securing more valuable phenological data than is possible
otherwise.

In Denmark the same plan is also being tried this year on
the recommendation of Carl Michelsen, School Inspector, Skan-
derborg. M. J. Mathiassen, Mullerup, Skole pr. Slagelese,
issues an admirable schedule, with very effective instructions
for teachers.

The phenochrons in the tables being the means of a number
of dates, as a rule contain fractions, which for the sake of
compactness, as no material difference is made, are omitted.

The treatment of the thunderstorm observations in a compact
form appeared to be impossible, so that they are omitted from
the Nova Scotian table. They may be considered by themselves
on a future occasion.

The original schedules are carefully preserved, bound up in
a handsome volume, — one each year. Over five hundred obser-
vations have been sent in with some schedules. The com-
pendiums made for each belt of each region are also thus
preserved for the use of future students of weather and of the
changes of climate.

As a portion of the result of the study of the schedules of
the n jrth and eastern meteorological regions, I have pleasure in

AND CANADA, 1001. — MACKAY. 489

presenting also a paper on the " Early Intervale Flora of
Northern Nova Scotia," by Mr. C. B. Robinson, B. A., of Pictou
Academy. It will be found following the tables referred to,
on pages 502 to 506.

The following are the instructions printed on the ruled
blanks for the summation of the individual schedules into the
sheets showing the

"REGION" OR "BELT" PHENOCHRONS.

" Each province may be divided into its main climatic slopes
or regions which may be seldom coterminous with the bound-
aries of counties. Slopes, especially those on the coast, should
be subdivided into belts, such as (a) the coast belt, (6) the low
inland belt, and (c) the high inland belt."

" In Nova Scotia the following regions are marked out :—

No. REGIONS OR SLOPES. BELTS.

1. Yarmouth and Digby Co.'s (a) Coast, (6) Low Inlands, (c) High Inlands.

2. Shelburne, Queens and Lunen-

burg Co.'s "

3. Annapolis and Kings Co.'s (a) South Mts. , (b) Annapolis Valley, (c) Corn-

wallis Valley, (rf) North Mts.

4. Hants and Colchester Co.'s. . (a) Coast, (b) Low Inlands, (c) High Inlands.

5. Halifax and Guysboro Co. 's . "

6. Cobequid Slope (to the South). "

7. Northumberland Straits Slope

(to the North) "

8. Richmond and Cape Breton Go's "

9. Bras d'Or Slope (to South-East) "
10. Inverness Slope (toGulf.N.W.) "

Averaging Local Phenochrons for " Region " or " Belt "

Phenochrons.

"If ten or fewer good phenological observation schedules can
be selected from those belonging to any given belt, they may be
averaged as indicated in the columns within. If there are not
ten from each belt, then it may be better to combine two belts,
or if necessary, the three belts, on the form within. In the
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS.- HH.

490 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN NOVA SCOTIA

latter case, the average will be the " region " phenochrons.
When a full sheet can be made out for each belt, the averages of
the phenochrons for the three " bells" will give the phenochrons
for the " region "

Blanks.

" There is a convenience in averaging the dates of the ten
stations, which accounts for the ten columns for stations in the
form within. When a few dates are not given, it may be fair
to enter in the blanks the dates from a similar neighboring
station which is not otherwise utilized for the sheet. Gieat
care should be taken that such observations taken from a
schedule not summarized should appear to be what might have
been observed at the station indicated in the heading; and to
indicate such a transference the date should be surrounded by
a circle with the pen, which will always mean that the obser-
vation was not made in the station heading the column, but in
a neighbouring one, and was taken from a supernumerary
schedule."

Thunder-storms.

" These dates will be entered in their respective columns and
opposite the month indicated. They will not be averaged, of
course."

A ccuraci/.

"Care must be exercised in selecting schedules, the observa-
tions of which appear to have been carefully made, neglecting
any which give reason for doubt, when selecting for summation
on the form within. Great care must also be exercised in
copying the figures and entering them, so that no slip may
occur. Every entry should be checked. One slip may spoil the
effect of all the accurate numbeis entering into the summation.
In like manner, great care has to be taken in adding and aver-
aging the figures ; and for this purpose every sum should be
done twice in reverse order, so as to give absolute confidence in
the accuracy of the work."

AND CANADA, 1901. — MACK AY. 491

Remarks.

" The Compiler filling one of these blanks should keep one
copy for himself while sending the other to the compiler-in-
chief."

" The set of stations on the right, under " when becoming
common," must be exactly the same as on the left, under " when
first seen."

A plate of graphs showing the relation between the flower-
ing phenochrons in each region of the province of Nova Scotia,
for the dates " when first seen " and " when becoming common "
is given on page 496. " When becoming common " must always
be a matter of personal judgment ; so that the general conform-
ity of the five pairs of curves for the flowering of the Mayflower,
Strawberry, Apple, Lilac, and Blackberry, on the said plate is
very interesting.

492

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN NOVA SCOTIA

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AND CANADA, 1901. — MACKAY.

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494

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN NOVA SCOTIA

-oil

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AND CANADA, 1901. — MACKAY.

495

as, eg c**-

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•«6 -535

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496 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN NOVA SCOTIA

AND CANADA, 1901.— MACKAY. 497

LIST OF OBSERVERS AND STATIONS FOR TABLE OF BOTANICAL
CLUB OF CANADA, 1901, ON THE FOLLOWING PAGES.

Nova Scotia : Four hundred and fifty School Sections.
New Brunswick : Mr. J. Vroom, St. Stephen.
Prince Edward Island : Mr. John MacSwain, Charlottetown.
Quebec: Miss A. L. Beckett, Richmond (1).
Miss J. M. Varney, (2)

" Miss Annie M. Dresser, Nicolet.
Ontario : Dr. James Fletcher, Ottawa (I).
Dr. Cephas Guillet, " (2).
" Miss Alice Hollingworth, Beatrice, Muskoka.

Manitoba: Mr. B J. Hales, Macgregor.
Assiniboia : Mr. T. H. Donnelly, Pheasant Forks.
Saskatchewan : Rev. C. W. Bryden, B. A., Willoughby.
Alberta: Mr. Percy B. Gregson, Waghorn.
British Columbia : Mr. J. K. Henry, B. A., Vancouver.

REFERENCES IN " VANCOUVER " COLUMN OF THE TABLE

FOLLOWING :
a. Alnus rubra.
6. Acer macrophyllum.

c. Prunus emarginata.

d. Vaccinium myrtilloides.

e. Rubus occidentalis.
/. Rosa Nutkana.

498

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN NOVA SCOTIA

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1901.

(The Phenochrws for Nova Scotia are averages based on observations made at about
450 stations, and have fractions which are omitted in this table. J

Number.

YEAR, 1901.

Day of the year corresponding
to the last day of each month.

Jan 31 July .212
Feb 59 Aug .243
March . 90 Sept .273
April.. .120 Oct.. .304
May. .. .151 Nov .334
June .. .181 Dec. .365

Average dates for Nova II
Scotia. ||

OBSERVATION STATIONS.

St. Stephen,
New Brunswick.

Charlottlitown,
P. E. I.

Richmond,
Quebec.

Richmond,
Quebec.

colct, Quebec.

Ottawa, Ontario.

Ottawa, Ontario.

Muskoka, Ontario.

Mncgregor, Manitoba-

Pheasant Forks,
Assiniboia

Willoughby,
Saskatchewan.

Waghorn, Alberta.

t

I

C

•i;
>..
•3*
0 •

"->:
c
a
>

d

<N

fc

s

£i

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27

104
109
101
121
117
118
134
126
123
130
129
128
117
151
139
204
138
199

104

126

140
145
126

113
113

110

118

!()!»

110
111
111
12 1

108
108
108

113

109
108

107
113

....

i>l

Populus tremuloides, Michx.
Epigeea repens, L ...
Viola cucullata, Gray
V blanda, Willd

141

147
151

119

142
153

118

106

123
123
116

135
139

98

Acer rubrum, L

107

ns

J

t

Taraxacum offlcinalc, Weber.
Erythronium Amer, Ker —
Hepatica triloba, Chaix
Coptis trifolia Salisb

132

155
141
140

139
125

123

118

in

114
115
105

118
114
104
124
99
164
128

121
118

143

122
147
132
167

169

132
132
182
132

Fragaria Virginiana, Mill
" " (fruit ripe)
Prunus Pennsylvanicum, L...
" (fruit ripe) .

135

141

191

112

ir>«

121

161

139

137

11

12C

162

127

141

142

138
201

147

1?1

Cl.

•w

Ranunculus acris, L

144
149
146
140
I'll

161

172

141
144

170
140

147
150
i 1

ll'.l

144

149
129

143
143

169

116

147

11

R. repens, L

Clintonia borcalis, Raf
Trilliumerythrocarpum, Michx

HI

Cypripedium acaule, Ait

152
HI

160

151

11)3

117
128

148

169

...

Amelanchier Canaden., T.& G.
" " (fruit rice)

137

190

143

128

123

138

136

198

13

AND CANADA, 1901. — MACK A V.

499

PHKNOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1901.

1
")

>3
1

IT)
I!

S
(!)
if)

n
;L'
I

;i
,-.
6

7
1

'.I

n

i

0

a

i
i

YEAR, 1901.

Day of the year corresponding
to the last day of each month.

Jan. . . 31 July . .212
Feb. .. .69 Aug. .243
March . 90 Sept. 273
April.. .120 Oct. . 304
May .. .151 Nov.. .334
June .. .181 Dec .. .365

Average dates for Nova
Scotia.

OBSERVATION STATIONS.

St. Stephen,
New Brunswick.

Charlottetown,
P. E. I.

(1) Richmond,
Quebec.

(2) Richmond,
Quebec.

Xicolet, Quebec.

(I) Ottawa, Ontario.

(2) Ottawa, Ontario.

Muskoka, Ontaria.

Macsrregor, Man i toba.

Pheasant Korka,
Aminiboia.

Willoughby,
Saskatchewan.

VVaghorn, Alberta.

Vancourer.
British Columbia.

Rubus strigosus. Michx
" (fruit ripe)
Rubus villosus, Ait

156
193
1*55

H'.i

151

190
201

146e

IV

" (fruit ripe). .

fl?5

T>

Kalmia glauca, Ait

149
159

162

121

K. angustif olia, L

Cornus Canadensis, L

H?

117

Ill

134

" (fruit ripe)
Sisyrinchium angustifolium..
Linnnea borealis L

190
155
159
17?

^8

167

177

181

<:,:•

151

170

137

....

Linaria Canadensis Dum

117

,-.,

Rhinantbus Crista-galli, L. .

IfiS

166

169

18?

ITS

1<K1

192
166

m

148/

177

Ills

189

189

131

164

193
191

168

•>fi<l

Prunus Cerasus (cultivated).,
n (fruit ripe)

113

189

147

143

188

132

107
167

153

153

153
139

160
167
140

143
140

145
124

146
129
138

142
141

....

104
117

Prunus domcstica (cultivated)
Pyrus malus (cultivated) early
" " late .
Ribes rubrum (cultivated) —
11 (fruit ripe) ....
R. nigrum (cultivated)

144
146
153
138

187
141
194

147

129
187

ill

143

1 1.',

129

141

...

....

! I.'.

136

133

....

139

....

500

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN NOVA SCOTIA

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1901.

Number.

YEAR, 1901.

Day of the year corresponding
to the last day of each month.

Jan 31 July 212

Average dates for Nova
Scotia.

OBSERVATION STATIONS.

St. Stephen,
New Brunswick.

Chariot tetown,
P. E. I.

(1) Richmond,
Quebec.

(2) Richmond,
Quebec.

Nicolet, Quebec.

(1) Ottawa, Ontario.

(2) Ottawa, Ontario.

1

3

s
O

03
^
O

p

S

Macgregor, Manitoba.

Pheasant. Forks,
Assiniboia.

Willoughby.
Saskatchewan.

Waghorn, Alberta.

Vancouver.

Hritinh Columbia.

Fob 59 Aug. .243
March .. 90 Sept. ..273
April. ...120 Oct . ..304
May ....151 Nov . 334
June ....181 Dec. ..365

57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65a
65b
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73a
73b
7ia
74b
75a
75b
76a
76b
77a
77b
78
78

Syringa vul., L. (cultivated)..
Solanum tuberosam, L
Phleum pratense, L

165

183

177

153

150

ilii
id
]->•>

133

129
133

140
193
193

12'
Hi!

1»
14

201
205
190

Trif olium repens, L
T. pratense, L. ......

155

15?

171
178

185

Hit
HI

Triticum vulgare L

193

9fl9

Avena saliva, L

19">

?0fi

Fagopyfum esculentum, L .

1<M

Karl irst full loafing <>f tree

135

129

Latest full leafing of tree

T»7

Ploughing (first of season)
Sowing "
Potato-planting "

108
119
118

108

130

118
123
121
121

121

ill

99

119
133
134
153
237
245
263
10(

115
116
137
158

205

105
102
110
147
193

191
83
1*0

Sheep-shearing »
Hay -cutting "
Grain-cutting "
Potato-digging "

122
192
239
"fifi

213

181

Opening of rivers"
Opening of lakes "

81

!M

97

127

93

<W

Last snow to whiten ground . .
Last snow to fly in air
Last spring frost — hard

107
116

129
153
97

217
256
28(3
294
306

130
145

129

159
179
191

121

121

110

110

111
111

89
117

T>6

166
132

155
157

252

155

156
156
156
117
330
229
307
248
248

IS

Water in streams— high
" low
First autumn frost— hoar . .
" » hard . . .
First snow to fly in air
First snow to whiten grounc

270

356

311

314

314

277
280
276
27C

94

••••

111

144

AND CANADA, 1901. — MACK A V.

501

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA. 1901.

Xumber.

YEAR, 1901.

Day of the year corresponding
to the last day of each month.

Jan... . 31 July .212
Feb. ... 59 Aug. .243
March . 90 Sept. .273
April.. .120 Oct.. .304
May .. .151 Nov. 334
June .. .181 Dec. 365

CJ

0

b

a>

o

"S

-a

8,3

— ^

- O

OBSERVATION STATIONS.

St. Stephen,
New Brunswick.

Charlottetown,
P. E. I.

(1) Richmond,
Quebec.

(2) Richmond.
Quebec.

Nicolet, Quebec.

(1) Ottawa, Ontario.

(2) Ottawa, Ontario.

Muskoka, Ontario.

Macgregor.;Manitoba

Pheasant Forks,
Assi niboia.

Willoughby.

.^.l-k.ll. lir-u .in.

Waghorn. Alberta.

Vancouver,
British Columbia.

79a
79b
81a
81 b
82a
82b
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100

Closing of lakes

343

Closing of rivers

5

Wild ducks migrating, north. .

83

SIS

126

103

103

96

84

....

Wild geese migrating, north..
" » south..
Melospzia fasciata, north —
Turdus migratorius, "
Junco hiemalis, " —

83
325
92
84
81
134

77
244
104
99
105

125
108

118
100

112

82
81
87

114

85

108

....

83
245

86
88
92

116

99

88

....

117

127

95

70S

100

g

130

134

ISO

D. Bestiva, " —
Zonotrichia alba, " ....
Trochilus colubris, » —

136
127
146
135

126

171

124
115

181

135
94

128

129
105
141
131

138

Dolychonyx oryzivorus, " ....
Spinis t rist is, " —

126
139
no

144

161

138

127

136
116
136

118

148

48

Chordeiles Viginianus, " —
First piping of frogs
First appearance of snakes. . . •

133

100
109

132

152
99

141

162

118
118

Hi-
lls

135

141

100
103

162
101
103

94

96

145
112
114

Ill

108
121

59

502 EARLY INTERVALE FLORA

EARLY INTERVALE FLORA OF EASTERN NOVA SCOTIA. — BY
C. B. ROBINSON, B. A., Pictcu Academy.

[Report on Phonological Schedules of Northern Nova Scotian Public Schools, 1901 ]

Information regarding the distribution of several of our most
interesting specimens of flowering plants has been so greatly
extended of late, especially through the increased attention
given to this subject in the public schools, that some generaliza-
tions are becoming possible, and it will be the aim of this paper
to attempt a modest beginning along these lines in the case of
one society of plants, that composed of the earlier blooming
species of the intervale flora of Eastern Nova Scotia.

Even in Macoun's Catalogue only two references each for
the entire Province, are given to Sanguinaria Canadensis L.,
Bicuculla C u,cu,llaria (L.), Millsp., and Erythronium Ameri-
canum, Ker. Now, all three of these species grow abundantly,
either upon the intervales themselves or still more commonly on
shaded banks bordering them, in the case of each of the three
rivers flowing into Pictou harbor, beginning just beyond the
farthest point reached by the tide and continuing towards their
head-waters as far as any observations have been made.

Nor are these exceptional cases. While no school in the
Coast belt of Cumberland reported in 1901 any of these three,
seven, possibly eight, in the Lowland belt record Erythronium,
and four of these in additional observations include at least one
of the others.

Of the eleven Cumberland Highland Stations sending in
schedules no less than six have credible dates for Erythronium,
though none have noted either of the others. It should be
stated that while Erythronium is among the plants listed for
observation, the others are not, so that, in view of the facts
elsewhere, such negative evidence is of little, perhaps of no
value.

In West Colchester four out of six Coast and threi out of
seven Highland Stations report Erythronium. In Northern
Colchester (Stirling) only one Coast and no Lowland Stations

OF EASTERN NOVA SCOTIA. — ROBINSON. 503

assign a date to Erythronium, though one of the latter notes
Bicuculla, but in the Highlands this is changed, as four out of
five report at least two and one of them all three species.

Only one Coast Section in Pictou County records any of these,
but it has two, Erythronium and Sang uinaria. An interesting
isolated fact may be related here. At Brown's Point, on the
I. C. R., just outside Pictou, Erythronium grows in the open,
and not one hundred yards from salt water. It is supposed to
have been accidentally introduced by students bringing speci-
mens from their homes on East or West River for class
examination at the Academy.

Two Pictou Lowland Stations report Sanguinaria, one the
others also ; but nine out of fifteen Highland Sections have
Erythronium, and six of these at least one of the others.

East of Pictou County it is very doubtful whether these
species are any longer co-existent. From Antigonish the only
reference to Erythronium is clearly an error for Clintoniat
while beyond the Strait there is not at present any sufficient
proof of its occurrence.

One of the Highland Districts of Antigonish reports
Sanguinaria and Bicuculla Cucullaria, another Sanguinaria
and B. Canadensis (Goldie) Millsp. The latter is very likely to
have been the more common species, as this error is rather
frequent. But from Richmond and Cape Breton Counties there
is no mention of any of these, though four out of the five Inver-
ness stations on the Bras d'Or Slope report Bicuculla and one of
these Sanguinaria as well, and one of the two Victoria schools
to send in a schedule assigns a date to B. Canadensis.

Finally on the Gulf Slope, the only Lowland and one of the
three Coast sections report Bicuculla, the former Sanguinaria
also.

These facts seem to warrant the conclusion that, with the
exception noted, all three of these species are regularly found
upon most of the river intervales in this district, beyond the
reach of salt water. In most of the Coast and many of the Low-
land districts cultivation has so far proceeded that they must

504 EARLY INTERVALE FLORA

often have been exterminated ; but, in addition to this, the con-
ditions prevailing in the more hilly districts seem to favor their
growth. Indeed, the more probable presence of a shaded hillside
beside the stream would go far in itself to explain this.

These species have been chosen as both eminent!}'- typical
and likely to have been noticed. With them would almost
everywhere be found the Spring Beauty (Claytonia Caroliniana,
Michx.), but its distribution is very much- wider, as it is found
in rich woods even on the summits of some of our highest hills.

Just outside the limits of shade will nearly always be found
the Downy Yellow Violet, Viola scabriuscula (T. & G.), ISchwein,
which is widely reported throughout the district from Cumber-
land to Cape Breton. V. rotundifolia, Michx., is said to occur
in several localities, all such, however, that the preceding species
would be expected, and to it these references probably belong.
V. Labradorica, Schrank, and V. arenaria, D. C., are likely
found throughout the district, the latter on drier sandy soil, and
apparently the commoner in Pictou Co.

Uvularia sessilifolia, L. has been noticed by a much smaller
number of observers, but it is widely distributed, and probably
on the whole nearly as common as the others.

To complete this list, so far as the common earlier flowers
are concerned, there should be added Ranunculus abortivus, L.,
Actaea rabra (Ait.) Willd, and Dentaria diphylla, Michx., though
none of these is strictly restricted to such localities. Prof.
Macoun, (Catalogue, Part III., p. 480), states that his N. S. speci-
mens of R. abortivus belong to Var. Micranthus, as then
understood. Careful study of plants gathered at various points
along West River, Pictou, where they are abundant, leaves no
doubt that they at least should be referred to R. abortivus.

Panax tri/olium, L is less often reported, and is certainly
not found in some localities where all of the preceding are com-
mon, but its distribution is probably pretty general.

Interesting and beautiful, but rare, is Hepatica Hepatica
(L.), Karst, not certainly known except from the East River of

OF EASffifcN NOVA SCOTIA.— -fcOfitNSOtf. 505

Pictou and Antigonish. Equally so is Primula Mistansinica,
Michx., found in only two places.

The Northern Inverness stations are responsible for the
addition of Caltha palustris, L. Anemone Americana, L. is
another contribution from this district, but blooms later.

Much more common is Trillium cernuum, L., but it grows
also in other situations. Moreover, on the West River of
Pictou there occur some unusual forms, which seem intermediate
between this species and T. erectum. Some Antigonish
references to T. grandiflorum may indicate a similar fact.

The trees and shrubs first to bloom in such localities are the
Elm (Ulmus Americana}, which has everywhere been left on
account of its striking beauty, and the Beaked Hazel (Corylus
rostrata.) But still more typical, though later blooming, are
the species of Cratoegus, which so often occur along the banks,
forming in many cases almost impenetrable thickets. Until
recently these have all been referred to C. coccinea, L., but it is
now known that there are several species, at least five and
probably six, including some new to science, C. coccinea being,
however, the commonest and in the greatest numbers where
found, C. acutiloba, the next in order of frequency, being hardly
an intervale plant.

During June the intervales become covered with verdure,
including most of the plants of field and roadside, whether
native or introduced. But there are again some rather typical
forms. 'Among them should first be noted tianicula Marilan-
dica, L. ; Washingtonia Claytoni (Michx.), Britton ; W. longisty-
lis (Torr), Britton, (which is much commoner than usually
supposed) ; Geum Virginianum, L. ; G. Canadense, Jacq. ;
Heraclcum lanatum, Michx., which seem to be found nearly
everywhere. Some others call for more particular attention.
Ranunculus recurvatus, Poir, is known from two localities on
West and one on East River, Pictou County. Thalesia uniflora
(L.), Britton, is found at nearly the same places. The former
has recently been reported from Inverness.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. TKANS.-!!.

506 EARLY INTERVALE FLORA Of fiASfERtf tf. S.— ROBINSOtf.

Triosteum perfoliatum, L., occurs at Riverton, and near
it is Anemone Virginiana, L. Polygonatum biflorum (Walt.),
Ell., which is widely though sparingly reported, prefers
the shade, as does Juncoides pilosum (L), Kuntze, while
on steep, stony banks Rhus radicans is frequent. Rough
places beside the stream are almost sure to contain Senecio
obovatus, Muhl., S. Balsamitae, L., and Apocynum canna-
binum, L. ; A. androsaemifolium, L., being even commoner,
but in richer soil. With them on each of the three Pictou
rivers will be seen the leaves of Meibomia Canadensis (L.),
Kuntze, the flowers not appearing before the middle of July. It
is, however, hardly too much to say that the distribution of
almost all of these species is as yet insufficiently known.

Many plants found in other locations are also frequent here.
Such are B dbtnaria dilatata (Pursh), Hook, Vagnera racemosa,
L., Myrica Gale, L., and Ranunculus reptans, L., but it has not
been the purpose of this paper to enumerate them.

Why this, the richest and most interesting division of our
flora, should have received such scanty attention is, perhaps, a
rjuzzle, and even yet not enough is known of the later species to
make many general statements. It is, of course, a matter of
common knowledge that the most characteristic plant during
the middle of July is Lilium Canademe, L., which later gives
way to Clematis Virginiana, L., and this in its turn to the
Asters, but much more work must be done before the subject
can be accurately treated.

IX. — LABRADOR PLANTS [COLLECTED BY W. H. PREST ON THE
LABRADOR COAST NORTH OF HAMILTON INLET, FROM
THE 25TH OF JUNE TO THE 12TH OF AUGUST, 1901.]
-BY A. H. MACKAY, LL. D.

(Communicated lltth January, 190S.J

The plants which I present herewith, mounted, were col-
lected by Mr. Walter H. Prest, of Halifax, when exploring the
Labrador coast north of Hamilton Inlet last summer (1901),
between the 25th of June and the 12th of August. The speci-
mens were collected merely as flowers to be taken back as
mementos of a visit to this far-off region, so that only the more
striking portions of the plants, such as could be easily accom-
modated between the pages of a magazine, were taken. These
portions were characteristic enough, however, to enable the
species in nearty every case to be determined. They have also
been referred to Professor John Macoun, Dominion Botanist.
In the list following I observe the order of the " List of Plants
known to occur on the Coast and in the Interior of the Labra-
dor Peninsula," compiled by James M. Macoun, and published
in the Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Canada, vol.
viii., part L., Appendix vi. Nearly all the plants of our list are
also on Macoun's list, which is compiled from at least four other
lists — all except possibly four or five species and varieties. The
list is as follows :

RANCNCULACE^E. Arenaria Groenlandica, Spreng.

Linn" var' tri'

„ Stellaria humifusa, Rottb.

Coptis trifoha, Sahsb. Cerastium alpinum, Linn.

CRUCIFER"*:. LEGCMINOS.K.

, Linn., var. Groen- ^^^^^

VIOLACE*, Lathyrusmaritimus.Bigel.

Viola canina, Linn., var. sylvestris,

Regel. Rubus Chamaemorus, Linn.

CABYOPHYLLACE^E. Rubus articus, Linn.

Silene acaulis, Linn. Rubus strigosus, Michx.

Lychnis alpina, Linn. Sibbaldia procumbens, Linn.

(507)

508

LABRADOR PLANTS. — MACKAY.

Potentilla Norvegica, Linn.
Potentilla maculata, Poir.
Potentilla palustris, Scop.
Potentilla tridentata, Sol.
Potentilla anserina, Linn.
Pyrus Americana, D. C.
Amelanchier Canadensis, T. and G.,
var. oligocarpa, T. and G.

SAXIFRAGACE.E.

Saxifraga rivularis, Linn.
Parnassia palustris. Linn.
Ribe? prostratum. L'Her.

CRASSULACE.1E.

Sedum Rhodiola, D. C.

Hippuris vulgaris, Linn.

ONAGRACE.*.

Epilobium latifolium, Linn.
Epilobium palustre, Linn.

UMBELLIFERA:.
Archangelica Gmelini, D. C.

CORNACEA;.

Cornus Canadensis, Linn.
Cornus Suecica, Linn.

CAPRIFOLIACE^I

Viburmim pauciflorum, Pylaie.
Linnaea borealis, Gronov.
Lonicera caerulea, Linn.

COMPOSITE.

Solidago multiradiata, Ait.

Solidago.

Aster Novi Belgii, Linn.

Achillea Millefolium, Linn.,

nigresoens, E. Meyer.
Senecio Pseudo-Arnica, Less.
Taraxacum officinale, Weber,

alpinum, Koch.

VACCINIACE.«.

Vaccinium nliginosum, Linn.
Vaccinium Vitis-Idaea, Linn.
Vaccinium Oxycoccus, Linn.

ERICACEAE.

Cassiope hypnoides, Don.
Andromeda polifolia, Linn.
Loiseleuria procumbens, Desv.
Bryanthus taxifolius, Gray.

Kalmia glauca, Ait.
Ledum palustre, Linn.
Ledum latifolium, Ait.

PRIMULACE^E.

Primula farinosa, Linn.
Primula Mistassinica, Michaux.
Primula Egaliksensis, Hornem.
Trientalis Americana, Pursh.

GENTIANACE^;.

Gentiana Amarella, Linn., var. acuta,

Hook.

Pleurogyne rotata, Griesbach.
Menyanthes trifoliata, Linn.

BORRAGINACE^E.

Mertensia maritima, Don.

SCROPHULARIACKA;.
Veronica alpina, Linn.
Castilleia pallida, Kunth.
Euphrasia officinalis, Linn., var. Tar

tarica, Benth.

Pedicularis Croenlandica, Retz.
Pedicularis Lapponica, Linn.
RhinanthusCrista-galli, Linn.

LENTIBULARIACE.E.

Pinguicula vulgaris, Linn.
Pinguicula villosa, Linn.

PLANTAGINACE^.

Plantago maritima, Linn.

POLYGONIACEjE.

Polygonum viviparum, Linn.

SANTALACE^E.

Comandra livida, Rich.

ORCHIDACE^E.

Habenaria hyberborea, R. Br.
Habenaria obtusata, Rich.
Habenaria dilatata, Gray.

IRIDACE.*;.
Iris Hookeri, Penny.

LILLIACE^E.

Streptopus amplexifolius, D. C.
Tofieldia borealis, Wahl.

GRAMINEA;.
Elymus mollis, Trin.

APPENDIX.— I.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1898~99.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Allison, Augustus, Halifax Feb. 15. 1869

Anderson, James F., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 2, 1894

Austen, James H., Crown Lands Department, Halifax Jan. 2, 1894

Bayer, Ruf us, Halifax March 4, 1890

Bennett, Joseph Nov. 3, 1886

Bishop, \\ atson L., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 6, 1890

Bliss, Donald M., Boston, U. S. A Jan. 31, 1890

Bowman, Maynard, Public Analyst, Halifax March 13, 1884

Brown, R. B., Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 10, 1891

Butler, Professor W. R., c. E., Royal Military College, Kingston, Ont. . . .Nov. 27, 1889

Campbell, Donald A., M. D., Halifax Jan. 31. 1890

Campbell, George Murray, M. D., Halifax Nov. 10, 1884

Clements, E. F., Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 10, 1891

Cowie, A. J., M. D., L. R c. P. E., Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

DesBrisay, A. E., Halifax Jan. 4. 1891

DeWolfe, James R., M. D., L.R.C.S.E., Halifax Oct. 26, 1865

Dick, Alexander, M. E., Halifax Nov. 29. 1894

Doane, F. W. W., City Engineer, Halifax Nov. 3. 1886

Donkin, Hiram, c. E.. Point Tupper, Cape Breton Nov. 30. 1892

Egan, Thomas J., Halifax Jan. 6, 1890

Elliott, Miss Bertha March 4. 1895

Fearon, James, Principal, Deaf and Dumb Institution, Halifax May 8. 1894

Finn, Wm. D., M. D., Halifax Oct. 29. 1S94

Faville, E. E Nov. 29, 1894

Forbes, John, Halifax March 14. 1883

Foster, James G., Dartmouth, N. S March 14, 1883

Fraser. C. F., Principal, School for the Blind, Halifax March 31, 1890

Fraser, Rev. W. M., B. A., B. sc., Halifax Nov. 29, 1894

Fyshe, Thomas, Montreal Jan. 9, 1888

Gates, Herbert E., Architect, Dartmouth, N. S April 17, 1899

Gilpin. Edwin. M.A., LL. D.. F.B. B.C., Inspector of Mines, Halifax April 11, 1873

Greer, T. A., M. D., Colborne, Ontario April 7, 1893

Hall, Charles Frederick, Halifax Dec. 31, 1894

Hare, Alfred A Dec. 12, 1881

Harris Herbert, Vancouver, British Columbia Jan. 31, 1880

Hattie, William Harrop, M.D., Halifax Nov. 12. 1892

Hendry, William A., Jr., c. E., Halifax Jan. 1. 1892

Irving, G. W. T., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Jacques, Hartley S., M. D., Halifax May 8, 1894

Johnston. H. W., c. E., Halifax Dec. 31, 1894

Keating, E. H., c. !•:., ( 'ity Engineer, Toronto, Ontario April 12. 1882

Kennedy, \V. T., Principal, County Academy. Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

PROC. & TRAXS. X. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. APP.— A

II LIST OF MEMBERS.

Date, of Admission.

Laing. Rev, Robert, Halifax Jan. 11, 1885

Locke, Thomas J Jan. 4, 1892

McColl, Roderick, c. E., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Macdonald, Simon D., F. o. s.. Halifax March 14, 1881

Macdonald, W. A., c. E., Halifax April 17, 1899

MacGregor, Prof. J. G., M. A., D. sc. , Dalhousie College, Halifax Jan. 11, 1877

Mclnnes, Hector, LL. B. , Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

Macintosh, Kenneth, Mabou, Cape Breton Jan. 4, 1892

*McKay, Alexander, Supervisor of Schools, Halifax Feb. 5. 1872

MacKay, A. H., B.A., B.SC..LL.D., K.R.S.C., Superintendent of Educa-
tion, Halifax Oct. 11, 1885

MacKay. Prof. Ebenezer, PH. D. , Dalhousie College. Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

McKerron, William, Halifax Nov. 30, 1891

MacNab, William; Halifax Jan 31, 1890

Mai-shall, G. R. . Principal, Richmond School, Halifax April 4, 1894

Ma'son, F. H., F. c. s.. Halifax Dec. 31,1894

Morrow, Arthur, M . D. , Sand Coulee, Montana, U. S. A Nov. 27, 1889

Morton, S. A., M. A., County Academy, Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

Murphy, Martin, c. E., D. sc., Provincial Engineer, Halifax Jan. 15, 1870

Newman, C. L., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 27, 1893

O'Hearn, P. . Principal, St. Patrick's Boys' School, Halifax Jan. 16, 1890

'Parker, Hon. Daniel McN.. M. D., M. L. c., Dartmouth, N. S 1871

Pearson, B F., Barrister, Halifax March 31, 1890

Piers. Harry, Halifax Nov. 2, 1888

Poole, Henry S., F. G. s., Stellarton, N. S Nov. 11, 1879

Read, Herbert H., M. D., i. R. c. s., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

Ritchie. Thornas, c. E Jan. 2, 1894

Robb, D. W.. M. E., Amherst, N. S March 4,' 1890

Rutherford. John, M. E.. Stellarton, N. S r Jan. 8, 1865

Shine, Michael. Halifax Dec. 3, 1891

Silver Arthur P., Halifax Dec. 12, 1887

Silver, William C.. Halifax May 7, 1864

Smith, Capt. W. H., R. N. R., F. R. G. s., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

Spike, C. J., Halifax May 8, 1894

Stewart, John, M. B. C. M.. Halifax Jan. 12, 1885

Tremaine, Harris S. , Halifax Jan. 2, 1894

Twining, Charles, Bank of B. N. A. , Halifax Dec. 3, 1896

Uniacke, Robert F., c. E., March 9, 1885

Weatherbe, Hon. Mr, Justice, Halifax March 28, 1895

Whcaton, L. H., Chief Engineer, Coast Railway Co., Yarmouth, N. S..Nov. 29, 1894

Willis, C. E., M. E.. Halifax Nov. 29, 1894

Wilson, Robert J . , Secretary, School Board, Halifax May 3, 1889

Yorston, W. G..C. E., Truro, N. S Nov. 12, 1892

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

Caie, Robert, Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 31. 1890

*Cameron, A., Principal of Academy, Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

Coldwell, Professor A. E., M. A., Acadia College, Wolf ville, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

DeWolfe, MelvilleG., Kentville, N. S May 2, 1895

Dickenson, S. S., Superintendent, Commercial Cable Co., Hazelhill,

Guysborough Co., N. S _, March 4, 1895

Eaton, F. H., M. A Jan. (i, 1890

Edwards. Arthur M.. M. D., F. L. s., Newark, N. J Dec. 12, 1898

* Life Member.

LIST OF MEMBERS. HI

Date of Admission,
F;iribnuli. K. R., C. E., Ottawa, Ontario . ...March 6. 1888

Fox. John J., Montreal jjay 8,1882

Halliday, And., M. D., Shubcnacadie, X. S ' Dec. 12. 1898

Hardiiian. John E., M. E., Montreal March 4. 1890

Harris. Prof. ('., Hoyal Military College, Kingston, Ontario Nov. 13; 1881

Hnnton. Prof. S. W.. M . A.. Mount Allison College, Sackville, X. B Jan. 6. 1890

.Tunies. ( '.('.. M. A., Dcp. Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario Dec. 3. 1898

"Johns. Thomas \V.. Yarmouth, X. S Nov. 27, 1889

Kennedy. Prof. Geo.T., M. A.. D.8C..K.O.S., King's College. Windsor, N.S.Xov. !). 1882

McKenzie, W. B., C.E.. Moncton, N. B March.ll. 1882

McLeod. R. R., Brookficld. X. S Dec. 3, 1897

Magee, W. H., PH.D., High School, Pnrrsboro', X. S Nov. 29. 1894

Mathcson, W. G., M. K.. New Glasgow, X. S Jan. 31. 1890

Prest, W. H. , Chester Basin. X. S Nov. 29. 1894

*Reid, A. P., M-D., L.R.C.S.. Supt. Victoria Gen. Hospital. Halifax Jan. 31. 589(1

Rosborough, Rev. James, Musquo'oboit Harbor, X. S Nov. 29. 1894

Russell, Lee, B. S. , Normal School, Truro. X . S Dec. 3. 1896

Smith, Prof. H. W., B.SC., Prov. Agricultural School. Truro. X. S. ...Jan. 6, 1890

Wilson. B. C . Waverley, X. S March 4. 1890

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Ami, Henry M., D.SC., F.O. 8 , Ottawa, Ontario Jan. 2, 1892

Bailey, Prof. L. W., PH.D., LL.D., K. R. s.c.. University of Xew Bruns-
wick, Fredericton, N. B Jan. 6, 1890

Ball, Rev. E. H., Tangier. X. S Nov. 29, 1871

Bethune, Rev. C. J. S., Port Hope, Ontario Dec. 29, 1868

Davidson, Prof. J., PHIL. D., Fredericton. N. B Dec. 12. 1898

Da wson. Sir J. W., c. M. G-, LL.D-. F. R. s., Montreal Jan. 31, 1890

Dobie, W. Henry, M. D., Chester, England — Dec. 3, 1897

Duns, Prof- John, New College. Edinburgh. Scotland Dec- 30, 1887

Ells, R. W., LL.D., K.G.S.A.,K.R.S.C., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ont..Jan. 2, 1894
Fletcher, Jas., LL.D., K. L. s., v. R. s. c.. Entomologist and Botanist,

Central Exp. Farm, Ottawa, Ont March 2. 1897

Fletcher, Hugh, B. A., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario March 3, 1891

Ganong, Prof. W. F., B.A., PH.D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass ,

U. S. A Jan. 6, 1890

Harrington, W. Hague, F.R.S.C., Post Office Department, Ottawa May 5, 1886

Harvey, Rev. Moses, LLD., K R. s. c.. St. John's, Newfoundland Jan. 31, 1890

King, Major, R. A Nov. 19. 1877

Litton, Robert T., K. G. s.. Melbourne, Australia May 5, 1892

McClintock, Vice- Admiral Sir Leopold, Kt.. F. R. 8 June 10, 1880

Matthew, G. F, M. A., D.sc.. K. R.s. c., St. John, X. B Jan. 6. 1890

Maury. Rev. M..D.D., Ithaca. X. Y.. U. S. A Nov. 30, 1891

Peter, Rev. Brother J. , St. Joseph's Coll. lust. Buffalo, X. Y Dec. 12, 1898

Prince. Prof. E. E., Commissioner and General Inspector of Fisheries.

Ottawa, Ontario Jan- 5- 1897

Smith, Hon. Everett. Portland, Maine, U. S. A... March 31, 1890

Spencer, Prof. J. W., PH. D., F. G. s., Washington, D. C.. U. S. A Jan. 31. 1890

Trott, Capt., S. S. " Minia," Anglo- American Telegraph Co Jan. 31, 1890

Waghorne, Rev. Arthur C, St. John's, Newfoundland .. ...May 5.1892

Wt-ston. Thomas ( '.. K . <;.s . A . , Ottawa, Ontario May 12, 1877

Life Member.

APPENDIX.-II.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1899-1900.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date Of Ail mission.

Alli&on, Augustus, Halifax Feb. 15, 1860

Austen, James H., Crown Lands Department, Halifax Jan. 2, 1894

Bayer, Rufus, Halifax March 4, 1890

Bishop, Watson L., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 6. 1890

Bliss, Donald M., Boston, U. S. A Jan. 31, 1890

Bowman, Maynard, B. A., Public Analyst, Halifax March 13, 1884

Brown, R. Balfour, Yarmouth. N. S Jan. 10, 1891

Butler, Professor Wm. R , c. E., Royal Military College, Kingston, Ont.Nov. 27, 1889

Campbell, Donald A., M. D., Halifax Jan. 31, 1890

Campbell, George Murray, M. D., Halifax Nov. 10, 1884

Clements, E. F., Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 10, 1891

Cowie. Andrew J., M. D., L. R. C. p. E , Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

De Wolfe. James R.. M. D.. L. R c. 8. E., Halifax. . Oct. 26, 1865

Dick, Alexander, M. E., Halifax Nov. 29, 1894

Doane, F. W \V., City Engineer, Halifax Nov. 3, 1886

Donkin, Hiram, c. E., Point Tupper, Cape Breton Nov. 30, 1892

Egan, Thomas J,. Halifax Jan. 6, 1890

Elliott, Miss Bertha, Dartmouth. N. S March 4, 1895

Fearon, James, Principal Deaf and Dumb Institution, Halifax May 8, 1894

Finn. Wm. D., M. D., Halifax Oct. 29, 1894

Faville, E. E., President, National Farm School, Doyleatown, Pa Nov. 29, 1894

Forbes, John, Halifax MarchH, 1883

Foster, James G., Judge of Probate. Dartmouth, N. S MarchH. 1883

Fraser, C. F., Principal, School for the Blind, Halifax March 31. 1890

Fraser, Rev. W, M., B. A., B. sc.. Halifax • • Nov 29, 1894

Gates, Herbert E., Architect, Dartmouth, N. S April 5. 1899

Gilpin, Fdwin, M. A., I-L. D., F. R. 8. c.. Inspector of Mines, Halifax April 11. 1873

Greer, T. A., M. D., Colborne, Ontario April 7. 1893

Hall, Charles Frederick 1)ec- 31, 1894

Hare.AlfredA Dec. 12. 1881

Harris. Herbert, Vancouver, British Columbia Jan. 31, 1

Hattie. William Harrop, M. D.Halifax Nov. 12, 1

Hendry. William A., Jr., c. E., Windsor, N. S Jan. *. 1

Irving, G. W. T., Halifax Jan- 4« l

Jacques, Hartley S., M. D, Halifax Mfty 8- l

Johnston, Henry W , c E., Halifax Dec- 31. 1

'Keating, E. H., c. E., City Engineer, Toronto, Ontario April 12, 1

Kennedy, W. T., Principal, County Academy, Halifax Nov. 27. 1889

* Life Member.
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. App.-ll.

VI LIST OF MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Laing, Rev. Robert* Halifax Jan. 11, 1885

Locke, Thomas J., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

McColl, Roderick, c. E., Halifax Jan. 4. 1892

Macdonald, Simon D., v. o. 8., Halifax March 14, 1881

Macdonald, W. A., c. E., Sydney, C. B April 5, 1899

MacGregor, Prof. James Gordon, M. A. D. sc., F. K. s., Dalhousie College,

Halifax Jan. 11, 18T7

Mclnnes, Hector, LL. B., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

'McKay, Alexander, Supervisor of Schools, Halifax Feb. 5, 1872

*MacKay. Alex. Howard, B. A., B. sc , LL. D , F. K. 8. C., Superintendent

of F.ducation, Halifax Oct. 11, 1885

MacKay, Prof. Ebenezer, ph. D., Dalhousie College, Halifax Nov. 27. 1889

McKerron, William, Halifax Nov. 30, 1891

MacNab, William, Halifax Jan. 31, 1890

Marshall, G. R., Principal, Richmond School, Halifax April 4, 1894

Mason, F. H., F. c. s., Halifax Dec. 31, 1891

Morrow, Arthur, M. D., Sand Coul6e, Montana, U S. A Nov. 27, 1889

Morton. S. A., M. A., County Academy, Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

Murphy, Martin, c. E., D. sc., Provincial Engineer, Halifax Jan. 15, 1870

Newman, C. L., Dartmouth. N. S Jan. 27, 1893

O'Hearn, Peter, Principal, St. Patrick's Boys' School, Halifax Jan. 16, 1890

*Parker, Hon. Daniel McN.. M. D., M. L. c., Dartmouth, N. S 1871

Pearson, B. F., Barrister, Halifax March 31, 1890

Piers, Harry, Halifax Nov. 2, 1888

•Poole, Henry S., F. G. 8 , F. R. s. C , Stellarton, N. S Nov. 11, 1872

Read. Herbert H., M. D.. L R. c. s.. Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

•Robb, D. W.. M. E., Amherst. N. S March 4, 1890

Rutherford, John, M. E., Stellarton, N. S Jan, 8, 1865

Shine, Michael, Halifax Dec. 3, 1891

Silver, Arthur P., Halifax Dec. 12, 1887

Silver, William C., Halifax May 7, 1864

Smith, Capt. Wm Henry, R. N. R . F. R G. a., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

Stewart, John, M. B., c. M., Halifax Jan. 12, 1885

Tremaine Harris S., Halifax Jan. 2. 1894

Weatherbe, Hon. Mr. Justice, Halifax March 28, 1895

Wheaton, L H., Chief Engineer, Coast Railway Co , Yarmouth, N. S.. .Nov. 29. 1894

Willis, C. E., M. E., Halifax Nov. 29, 1894

Wilson, Robert J., Secretary, School Board, Halifax May 3, 1889

"Yorston, W. G.. c. E., Truro, N. S Nov. 12, 1892

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

*Caie, Robert, Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

*Cameron. A., Principal of Academy, Yarmouth, N. S ..Nov. 27, 1889

Cold well, Professor A. E., M. A , Wolf ville, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

DC Wolfe, Melville G.. Kentville. N. S May 2, 1895

*Dickenson, S. S., Superintendent, Commercial Cable Co., Hazelhill,

Gujsborough Co., N. S March 4, 1895

Eaton, F. H.. M A.. Superintendent of Public Schools, Victoria, B. C ...Jan. 6, 1890

Edwards. Arthur M., M. D., F. L. s , Newark, N. J — Dec 6, 1898

Faribault, E. R., C.E., Ottawa, Ontario March 6. 1888

Halliday, And , M. D., Shubenacadie, N. S Dec. 6, 1898

Hardman, John E., M. E., Montreal — March 4, 1890

* Life Member.

LIST OF MEMBERS. VII

Date of Admiaaion.

Haycock, Prof. Ernest, Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S May 17, 1899

Jlunton, Prof. S. W., M. A . Mount Allison College, Sackville. N. B Jan. 6, 1890

James, C. C., M. A., Dep. Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario Dec. 3, 1696

* Johns, Thomas W., Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

Kennedy, Prof. Gco. T., M. A., D.SC., KG s. King's College, Windsor.N.S. Nov. 9. l?g2

Macintosh, Kenneth, St. George's Channel, Richmond Co., C. B Jan. i, 1892

McKenzie, W. B..C.E., Moncton, N. B March 31, 1882'

McLeod, R. R., Brookfleld. N S Dec. 3, 1897

Mag ee, W. H., Ph.D., High School, Parrsboro', N S Nov. 29, 1894

Mathoson, W. G , M.E.. New Glasgow, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

Prest, Walter H., Bedford, N. S Nov. 29, 1891

•Reid, Alex P , M D., L.R.C.S , Middleton, N.S Jan. 31, 1890

Rosborough, Rev. James, Musquodoboit Harbor, N. S Nov. 29, 1894

Russell. Lee, us.. Normal School, Truro. N. S Dec. 3, 18%

Smith, Prof. H. W.. B. sc., Prov. Agricultural School, Truro. N. S Jan. 6, 1890

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Ami, Henry M.. D. sc., K. o. s., Ottawa, Ontario Jan. 2, 1892

Bailey, Prof. Loring Wort, Ph. D., LL. D., F. R. s. c., University of New

Brunswick, Fredericton. N. B , Jan, 6, 1890

Ball, Rev. Edward H., Tangier, N.S Nov. 29. 1871

Bethune, Rev. C. J. S , Port Hope, Ontario Dec. 29, 1868

Davidson, Prof. John, Phil. D., Univ. of N. Brunswick, Frcd'ton, N. B. .Dec. 12, 1898

Dobie, W. Henry, M D., Chester, England Nov. 3, 1897

Duns. Prof. John. LL.n , F R s.E , New College, Edinburgh, Scotland.. .Dec. 30. 1£87

Ells, R W., LL.D., F.G S.A., F.R.S.C., Geological Survey. Ottawa. Out Jan 2, 1894

Fletcher, Jas , LL.D., F.L s., F.R.S.C., Entomologist and Botanist, Central

Exp. Farm, Ottawa, Ont March 2, 1897

Fletcher, Hugh, B. A., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario March 3. 1891

Ganong, Prof. Wm. F., B. A., ph. D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass.,

U.S.A Jan. 6, 1890

Harrington, Wm. Hague, F.H a.c . Post Office Department, Ottawa. .May a, 1896

Harvey, Rev. Moses, LL.D., F.R.S.C., St. John's, Newfoundland Jan. 31. 1890

King, Major. R. A Nov. 19, 1877

Litton, Robert T., F. o S. , Melbourne, Australia May 5, 1892

McUliutock, Vice- Admiral Sir Leopold, Kt., F.R s. June 10, 1880

Matthew, G. F., M. A., D sc , F. R. s. C.. St John. N. B Jan. 6, 1890

Maury, Rev. Mytton, D. D . Ithaca, N. Y , U. S. A. .. . ..Nov. 30, 1891

Peter, Rev. Brother Junian, St. Joseph's Commercial College, Detroit,

Mich Dec . 12. 1898

Pickford, Charles. Halifax March 2. 1900

Prince, Prof. E. E , Commissioner and General Inspector of Fisheries.

Ottawa, Ontario '....Jan. 5, 1597

Smith, Hon. Everett, Portland, Maine, U. S. A March 31, 1890

Spencer, Prof. J. W., ph. D., F. G. s., Washington. D. C , U. S. A Jan. 31. 1890

Waghorne. Rev. Arthur C, St. John's, Newfoundland May 5. 1892

Weston, Thomas C., F. a. 8. A., Ottawa, Ontario May 12. 1877

Life Member.

APPKNDIX.— III.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 19OO-O1.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Allison, Augustus, Halifax Feb. 15, 18C9

Austen, James H., Crown Lands Department, Halifax Jan. 2, 1894

Bayer, Ruftis, Halifax March 4, 1890

Bishop, Watson L., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 6 1890

Bowman, Maynard, Public Analyst, Halifax March 13, 1884

Brown, R. Balfour, Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 10, 1891

"Campbell, Donald A., M D,, Halifax Jan. 31,1890

Campbell, George Murray, M. D., Halifax — Nov. 10, 1884

Cowie, Andrew J., M. D., L. R. c. p. E , Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

*Davis, Charles Henry, c. E., New York City, U. S. A Dec. 5. 1900

Doane, F. W. W., City Engineer, Halifax Nov. 3,1886

Donkin, Hiram, c. E., Glace Bay, Cape Breton Nov. 30, 1892

Edwards, George M., n.sc , Halifax March C. 1901

Egan, Thomas J., Halifax . Jan. 6, 1890

Elliott, Mis* Bertha, Dartmouth, N. S March 4, 1895

Fearon, James, Principal, Deaf and Dumb Institution, Halifax May 8, 1894

Finn, Win D., M. D., Halifax Oct. 29. 1894

*Forbes, John, Halifax March 14, 1883

Foster, James G., Dartmouth, N. S March 14. 1883

Fraser, C. Frederick, Principal, School for the Blind, Halifax March 31, 1890

Gates, Herbert E., Architect, Dartmouth, N. S April 17, 1899

*Gilpin, Edwin, M. A., LL.D., F. R. s. c., Inspector of Mines, Halifax. . . . April 11, 1873

Hattie, William Harrop, M. D., Dartmouth NTov. 12, 1892

Hendry, William A., Jr., c. E , Windsor, N. S Jan. 4. 1892

Irving, G. W. T., Halifax Jan. 4,1892

Jacques, Hartley S.. M. D., Halifax May 8,1894

Johnston, Harry W., c. E., Halifax ...Dec. 31.1894

Laing, Rev. Robert, Halifax Jan. 11, 1885

Locke, Thomas J., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

McColl, Roderick, c. E., Halifax Jan. 4.18

Macdonald, Simon D., F. G. s., Halifax : : March 14, 1881

McDonald, W A , c. E., Halifax April 17, 1899

MacGregor. Prof. J. G., M. A., D. sc., Dalhousie College, Halifax Jan. 11. 1877

Mclnnes, Hector, LL.B., Halifax ••

*McKay, Alexander, Supervisor of Schools, Halifax Feb. 5, 1872

*MacKay, A. H., B. A., B.sc., LL.D., F. R. s. c., Superintendent of Educa-
tion, Halifax Oct- u> ls

MacKay, Prof. Ebenezer, PH. D., Dalhousie College, Halifax Nov. 27. W

McKerron, William, Halifax Nov- *°' 18

MacNab, William, Halifax Jan- 3I- 18

* Life Member.
PROC. P TBANS. N. S. INST. Scr., VOL. X. Apr. III.

X LIST OF MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Marshall, Gilford R., Principal, Richmond School, Halifax April 4, 1894

Mason, Francis H., F. c. 8 , Halifax l)cc. 31, 1894

Morton, S. A., M. A., County Academy, Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

Murphy, Martin, c. K., D.SC., Provincial Engineer, Halifax Jan. 15, 1870

Newman, C. L., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 27, 1893

O'Hearn, Peter, Principal, St. Patrick's Boys' School, Halifax Jan. 1C, 1890

•Parker, Hon. Daniel McN., M. D., M. L. c., Dartmouth, N. S 1871

Pearson, B. F., Barrister, Halifax March 31, 1890

Piers, Harry, Curator, Provincial Museum, Halifax Nov. 2,1888

*Poole, Henry S., A. M., ASSOC. R. s. M., F. o. a., F. R. s. c., M. CAN. soc. c. -E.,

HON. MEM. INST. M. E., Halifax Nov. 11, 1872

Read, Herbert H.. M. D., L. K c. S., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

*Robb, D. W.,M. E., Amherst, N. S March 4, 1890

Rutherford, John, M. E., Windsor, N. S Jan. 8, 1865

Silver, Arthur P., Halifax Dec. 12,1887

Silver, William C., Halifax May 7,1864

Smith, Prof. H. W., B. sc.. Prof. Agricultural School, Truro, N. S., Assoc.

Memb., Jan. 6, 1890 Dec. 1900

'Stewart, John, M. B. c. M Halifax Jan. 12, 1885

Weatherbe, Hon. Mr. Justice, Halifax March 28, 1895

Wheaton, L. H., Chief Engineer, Coast Railway Co., Yarmouth, N. S...Nov. 29, 1894

Willis, C. E., M. E., Halifax Nov. 29, 1894

Wilson, Robert J., Secretary, School Board, Halifax May 3, 1889

*Yorston, W. G., c. E , Sydney, C. B Nov. 12, 1892

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

*Caie, Robert Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

"Cameron, A., Principal of Academy, Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

Coldwell, A- E , M.A., Wolfvillo, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

*Dickenson, S. S., Superintendent, Commercial Cable Co., Hazelhill,

Guysborough Co., N. S March 4, 1895

Edwards, Arthur M., M. D., F.L s., Newark, N. J Dec. 12,1898

Faribault, E. R , B A. so. (Laval), Ottawa, Ontario March 6, 1888

Halliday, Andrew, M. D., Shubenacadie, N. S Dec. 12, 1898

Haycock, Prof. Ernest, Acadia College. Wolfville, N. S May 17, 1899

Hunton, Prof. S. W. M.A., Mount Allison College, Sackville, N. B....JUU. 6, 1890

Jaggar, Miss A. Louise, Smith Cove, Digby Co., N. S Dec. 5,1900

James, C. C., M. A., Dep Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario Dec- 3, 1896

•Johns, Thomas W., Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

*Keating, E H., C.E., City Engineer, Toronto, Ont., Ord Memb., April

12,1882 April 11, 1900

*Kennedy, Prof. Gco. T , M A., D sc., F.Q.S., King's College, Windsor,

N. S Nov. 9, 1882

Macintosh, Kenneth, St. George's Channel, C. B , Ord. Memb, Jan. 4,

1892 June, 1900

McKenzie, W. B., c. E., Moncton, N B March 31, 1882

McLeod, R. R., Brookfleld, N. S Dec. 3,1897

Mag<>.e, W.H..PH D., High School, Parrsboro', N. S Nov. 29, 1894

Matheson, W. G , M. E., New Glasgow, N S Jan. 31,1890

*Reid, A. P.M. D., L.R.C.S , Middleton, Annapolis Co., N. S Jan. 31, 1890

Rosborough, Rev- James, Musquodoboit Harbour, N. S Nov. 29, 1894

Russell, Prof. Lee, B.s , Normal School, Truro, N. S Dec. 3, 1896

Sawyer, Prof. Everett W., Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S Feb 6, 1901

Sears, Prof. F C., Director N.S. School of Horticulture, Wolfville, N.S.Feb. 6, 1901

* Life Member.

LIST OF MEMBERS. XI

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Ami, Henry M , n.sc., F G.S., F.R.S.C., Ottawa, Ontario Jan. 2, 1892

Bailoy, Prof. L.W , PH D., LL.D , F R.S.C., University of New Bruns-
wick, Fredericton. N. B Jan. 6, 1890

Ball, Rev. E. H., Westville/N. S Nov. 29,1871

Bothune, Rev. C. J. S., M.A , D.C.L.. F.R.C-S., London, Ontario Dec 29, 1868

D.-;»'idson, Prof . John, PHIL. D., Fredericton, N. B Deo. 12, 1898

DeVVolf, James R , M.D., L.R.C s E , Halifax, Ord. Memo., Oct. 26,1865. Nov. 2, 1900

Dobie, W. Henry, M. D., Chester, England Dec. 3, 1897

Duns, Prof. John, New College, Edinburgh, Scotland Dec. 30, 1887

Ells, R. W., LL.D., F o S.A .F.R.S.C., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Out. Jan. 2, 1894

Fletcher, Hugh, B. A., Geological Survey. Ottawa, Ontario March 3, 1891

Fletcher. James, LL D , F. L. s., F.R s c , Entomologist and Botanist,

Central Exp. Farm, Ottawa, Ontario March 2, 1897

Ganong, Prof VV. F , B.A , PH.D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass.,

U.S. A Jan. 6,1890

Harrington, W. Hague, F.R s.c. , Post Office, Department, Ottawa May 5, 1896

Harvey, Rev. Moses, LL.D , F R s.c., St. John's, Newfoundland Jan. 31, 1890

Litton, Robert T., F.o s., Melbourne, Australia May 5, 1892

McClintock, Vice- Admiral Sir Leopold, Kt., F R.s June 10,1880

Matthew, G. F., M. A., D so , F.R.S.C., St. John, N. B Jan. 6. 1890

Maury, Rev. Mytton, D D., Ithaca, N. Y., U.S.A Nov. 30,1891

Peter, Rev. Brother Junian, St. Joseph's Commercial College, Detroit,

Mich Dec. 12, 1898

Pickford, Charles, Halifax ••••... ....Mar. 2,1900

Prest, Walter H., M. K., Bedford, Assoc. Memb., Nov. 29, 1894 Nov. 2, 1900

Prince, Prof. E. E., Commissioner and General Inspector of Fisheries,

Ottawa, Ontario : Jan. 5, 1897

Smith, Hon. Everett, Portland, Maine, U. S. A March 31. 18

Spencer, Prof. J. W., PH. D., F. G s., Washington, D. C-, U. S. A Jan. 31, 18

Weston, Thomas C., F. o. s. A., Ottawa, Ontario May 12, 1877

A P REN 13 IX. —IV.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 19O1-O2.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Allison, Augustus, Halifax Feb. 15, 18C9

Austen. James H., Crown Lands Department, Halifax Jan. 2, 1894

Bayer, Rufus, Halifax March 4,1890

Bishop, Watson L., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 6 1890

Bowman, Maynard, B. A., Public Analyst, Halifax March 13, 1884

Brown, R. Balfour, Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 10, 1891

"Campbell, Donald A., M D,, Halifax Jan. 31,1890

Campbell, George Murray, M. D., Halifax Nov. 10, 1884

Cowie, Andrew J , M. D.. L. R. c. p. E , Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

*Davis, Charles Henry, c. E., New York City, U. S. A Dec. 5 1900

Dixon, Prof. Stephen Mitchell, B. A., B. A. i., Dalhousie College, Halifax. April 8, 1902

Doane. F. W. W., City Engineer, Halifax Nov. 3.1886

Donkin. Hiram, c. E., Antigonish, ?N. S Nov. 30. 1892

Egan, Thomas J., Halifax Jan. 6, 1890

Elliott, Miss Bertha, Dartmouth, N. S March 4. 1895

Fearon, James, Principal, Deaf and Dumb Institution. Halifax May 8, 1894

Fnn, Wm D , M. D., Halifax Oct. 29 1894

•Forbes. John, Halifax March 14. 1883

Foster, James G., Dartmouth, N. S March 14. 1883

Fraser, C. Frederick, Principal, School for the Blind, Halifax March 31, 1890

Gates, Herbert E., Architect, Dartmouth, N. S April 17, 1899

*Gilpin, Edwin, M. A., LL.D., F. R a. c.. Inspector of Mines, Halifax April 11, 1873

Hattie, William Harrop, M. D., Dartmouth Nov. 12, 1892

Hendry, William A.. Jr , c. E , Windsor, N. S Jan. 4. 1892

Irving, G. W. T., Education Dept., Halifax Jan. 4,18

Jacques, Hartley S.. M. D., Halifax ..May 8,18

Johnston, Harry W., c. E., Halifax Dec. 31.1894

*Laing, Rev. Robert. Halifax Jan. 11. 1885

Locke, Thomas J., Halifax ...Jan. 4.1892

McCarthy. J. B., B. A., B. sc., teacher of Science, County Academy,

Halifax ..Dec. 4,19

McColl, Roderick, c. E., Assistant Provl. Engineer, Halifax Jan. 4. 18

Macdonald, Simon D., F. O. s., Halifax ...March 14, 18

McDonald, W. A , c. E., Sydney APril 17« 1899

*MacGregor. Prof. J. G., M. A., D. sc.. F. R. 8., F. R. B. c., Edinburgh Uni-
versity, Edinburgh Jan-

Mclnnes, Hector, LL.B.. Halifax • •

*McKay, Alexander, Supervisor of Schools, Halifax Feb. 5, 1872

'MacKay, A. H , B. A., B.SC., LL.D., F. R. s. c., Superintendent of Educa-
tion, Halifax

MacKay, Prof. Ebenezer, PH. D., Dalhousie College, Halifax Nov. 27, 18

* Life Member.
PROC & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. X. APT. IV.

XIV LIST OF MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

McKerron, William, Halifax Nov. 30, 1891

MacNab, William, Halifax Jan. 31, 1890

Marshall, Gilford R., Principal, Richmond School, Halifax April 4, 1894

Morton, S. A., M. A., County Academy, Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

Murphy. Martin, c. K., DSC , Provincial Engineer, Halifax Jan. 15, 1870

Newman, C L., Dartmouth, N. S *. Jan. 27,1893

O'Hearn, Peter, Principal, St. Patrick's Boys' School, Halifax Jan. 16, 1890

*Parker, Hon. Daniel McN., M. D., M. L. c., Dartmouth, N. S 1871

Pearson, B. F., Barrister, Halifax .March 31, 1890

Piers, Harry, Curator Provincial Museum and Librarian Science

Library, Halifax Nov. 2, 1888

•Poole, Henry S., A. M., ASSOC. R. s. M., K. a. s., F.B. 8. c., M. CAN. soc. c. E .

HON. MEM. INST. M. E., Halifax Nov. 11, 1872

Read, Herbert H., M. D., L. R. c. s., Halifax. Nov. 27, 1889

•Robb, D. W., M. E,, Amherst, N. S March 4, 1890

Rutherford, John, M. E., Windsor, N. S Jan 8, 1865

Silver, Arthur P., Halifax Dec. 12,1887

Silver, William C. Halifax May 7,1864

•Smith,|Prof. H.W., B sc., Prof. Agricultural School, Truro, N.S. ; Assoc.

Memb., Jan. 6, 1890 Dec. 1900

•Stewart. John, M. B. c. M., Halifax Jan. 12,1885

Weatherbe, Hon. Mr. Justice, Halifax March 28. 1895

Wheaton, L. H., Chief Engineer, Coast Railway Co., Yarmouth N S.-.Nov. 29, 1894

Wilson, Robert J., Secretary, School Board, Halifax May 3, 1889

* orston, W. G., c. E , Sydney, C. B Nov. 12, 1892

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

*Caie, Robert, Yarmouth, N S Jan. 31, 1890

'Cameron, A., Principal of Academy, Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27. 1889

Coldwell, A. E , M.A., Wolfville, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

*Dickenson, S. S., Superintendent, Commerc'al Cable Co., Hazelhill,

Guysborough Co., N. S March 4, 1895

Edwards, Arthur M., M. D.. FL s., Newark. N J Dec. 12,1898

Faribault, E. R , B.A. sc. (Laval), Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario.. March 6, 1888

Haley, Prof. Frank R., Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S Nov. 5, 1901

Halliday, Andrew. M. D., Halifax, N.S Dec. 12, 1898

Haycock, Prof. Ernest, Acadii College. Wolfville, N. S May 17, 1899

Hunton, Prof. S. W., M.A., Mount Allison College, Sackville, N. B....Jun. 6, 1890

Jaggar, Miss A. Louise, Cambridge, Mass. Dec. 5, 1900

James, C. C., M. A., Depy Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario Dec. 3, 1896

•Johns. Thomas W., Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27,1889

•Keating, E H , C.E., Toronto Ry. Co., Toronto, Ont. ; Ord Memb.,

April 12,1882 April 11, 1900

•Kennedy, Prof. Geo. T , MA., n sc., F.G.S , King's College, Windsor,

N. S Nov. 9, 1882

Macintosh, Kenneth, St. George's Channel, C. B ; Ord. Memb, Jan. 4,

1892 June, 1900

"MacKay, Hector H., M.D., New Glasgow. N S Feb. 4,1902

McKenzie, W. B., c. E., Moncton, N B March 31, 1882

McLeod, R. R., Brookfleld, N. S Dec. 3,1897

Magc,e, W. H..PH.D., High School, Parrsboro', N. S Nov. 29, 1894

Matheson, W. G , M. E., New Glasgow, N S Jan. 31,1890

Payzant, E. N., M. D., Wolfville, N. S April 8. 1902

* Life Member.

LIST OF MEMBERS. XV

Date of Admission.

Pineo, Avard V., LL. B., Kentville. N. S Nov. 5. 1901

*Reid, A. P., M. D., L.R.C.S , Middleton, Annapolis Co., N. 8 Jan. 3l| 1890

•Rosborough, Rev. James, Musquodoboit Harbour, N. 8 NOT. 29, 1894

Russell, Prof. Lee, B s , Worcester, Mass Dec. 3, 1896

Sawyer, Prof. Everett W., Acadia College. Wolf ville, N . S Feb 6, 1901

Sears, Prof. F C., Director N S. School of Horticulture, Wolf ville, N.S.Feb. 6, 1901

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Ami, Henry M., D.sc., F.G.S., F.R.S.C., Geological Survey, Ottawa,

Ontario Jan. 2, 1892

Bailey, Prof. L.W., PH D., LL.D., v R s.c , University of New Bruns-
wick, Fredericton, N. B Jan. 6, 1890

Ball, Rev. R. H., West ville, N. S Nov. 29,1871

Bethune, Rev. C. J. S , M.A., D.C.L.. F.R.C.S., London. Ontario Dec 29, 1868

Davidson, Prof. John, PHIL. D., Univ. of N. B., Fredericton, N. B Dec. 12, 1898

Dobie, W. Henry, M. D., Chester, England Dec. 3, 1897

Duns, Prof. John, New College, Edinburgh, Scotland Dec. 30, 1887

Ells, R. W., LL.D., F G.S.A , F.R.S. c., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ont.Jan. 2, 1894

Fletcher, Hugh, B. A., Geological Survey. Ottawa, Ontario March 3, 1891

Fletcher. James, LL D., F. L. s., F.R s c , Entomologist and Botanist,

Central Exp. Farm. Ottawa, Ontario March 2, 1897

Ganong, Prof W. F., B A., PH.D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass.,

U. S. A Jan. 6, 1890

Harrington, W. Hague, F.R. B.C., Post Office Department, Ottawa May 5, 1896

Litton, Robert T., F.G s., Melbourne. Australia May 5, 1892

McClintock, Vice- Admiral Sir Leopold, Kt., F.R.S June 10, 1880

Matthew, G. F., M. A., D sc , F.R.S. C., St. John, N. B Jan. 6. 1890

Maury, Rev. Mytton, D D., Ithaca, N. Y., U.S.A Nov. 30,1891

Peter, Rev. Brother Junian, St. Joseph's Collegiate Institute, Buffalo,

N. Y Deo. 12, 1898

Pickford, Charles, Halifax •••• Mar. 2,1900

Prest, Walter H., M. K., Bedford ; Assoc. Memb., Nov. 29, 1894 Nov. 2, 1900

Prichard, Arthur H. Cooper, Museum of Brooklyn last, of Arts and

Sciences, Brooklyn, N. Y Dec. 4, 1901

Prince, Prof. E. E., Commissioner and General Inspector of Fisheries,

Ottawa, Ontario Jan. 5, 1897

Smith, Hon. Everett, Portland, Maine. U. S. A . March 31. 1890

Spencer, Prof. J. W., PH.D., F. o s.. Washington, D. C., U. S. A Jan. 31, 1890

Weston, Thomas C., F. G. s. A., Ottawa, Ontario May 12. 1877

VOL.

(Roman numerals refer to the Proceedings ; Arabic numerals to the
Transactions. )

PACK

Agricultural credit. By Prof. J. Davidson, Phil. D 4T>8

Air, school-room. By L Russell, B. Sc xxi

Ambrose, Rev. John, D. (7. L., obituary notice of. By A. McKay iv

Ami, Henry M., D. Sc. — Description of tracks (Ichtkyoidichnites aceulienaie,

n. sp. ) from the fine-grained siliceous mudstones of the Knoydart

formation (Eo-Devonian) of Antigonish County, N. S . . 330

Subdivisions of Carboniferous system in eastern Canada, with special

reference to position of Union and Riversdale formations of Nova

Scotia, referred to Devonian system by some Canadian geologists. 162
Upper Cambrian age of Dictyonema slates of Angus Brook, New

Canaan and Kentville, N. S 447

Angus Brook, N. S , Notes on Dr Ami's paper on Dictyonema slates of.

ByH. S. Poole 451

Angus Brook , N. S , Upper Cambrian age of Dictyonema slates of. By

H. M. Ami, D. Sc. 447

Antigonish County, N. S. , Tracks from Knoydart foimation of. By H.

M. Ami, D. Sc 330

Ants, Periodical appearance of, in a chimney. ByH. S. Poole xlix

Aqueous solutions. See Lindsay, C F 205

Archibald, E. H., M. Sc.— On a test, by the freex.ing-point method, of the

ionization coefficients determined by the conductivity method,

for solutions containing potassium and sodium sulphates

Atlantic, Material taken from the bottom of. By A H. MacKay, LL. D. . 1

Barnes, James, B. A. — On the calculation of the conductivity of aqueous

solutions containing hydrochloric and sulphuric acids 129

On the conductivity, specific gravity and surface tension of aqueous

solutions containing potassium chloride and sulphate

On the depression of freezing-point by mixtures of electrolytes .

On the Relation of the viscosity of mixtures of solutions of certain salts

IP*
to their state of ionization ....

Bee's nest, Unusual site for. By H. S. Poole, F. < !. S xlix

(xvii)

XV111 INDEX.

PAGE

Bishop, Watson L. — Exhibition of a collection of Nova Scotian birds' eggs,

and remarks thereon. (Title only) Ixviii

Star-nosed Mole (C. cristata), its breeding habits, etc 348

Boehner, R. S., B. Sc.— Standardization of Hydrochloric Acid with Borax.

(Title onfy) ci

Botrychium tenmtum, Condensed form of. By A. H. MacKay, LL. D. . . . xcix

Branch Societies, formation of authorised Ixviii

Branch of Institute at Wolfville, Report on. By Prof. E. Haycock xcviii

Purposes and Aims of By Prof. E. Haycock cix

Calyx drill. See Weatherbe, D'A. , on Nictaux iron field 352

Cambrian slates of Halifax, Worm trails in. By H. S. Poole 453

Cape Breton coals, Notes on effect of washing. By H. S. Poole, F.R S.C. 245
Carboniferous system of eastern Canada, On the sub-divisions of. By A.

H. MacKay, LL. D xlvii

Carboniferous system, Sub-divisions of, in eastein Canada, with special

reference to position of Union ai;d Riversdale formations of Nova

Scotia, referred to Devonian system by some Canadian geologists.

By H. M. Ami. D. Sc 162

Chylomycterus sch&pf. See Piers, H 110

Coals, Notes on effect of washing certain Cape Breton. By H. S. Poole,

F. R. S. C 245

Condensed form of Botrychium ternatvm. By A. H. MacKay, LL. D. . . . xcix
Conductivity, specific gravity and surface tension of aqueous solutions

containing potassium chloride and sulphate. By J. Barnes 49

Conductivity. See Barnes, J 129

Condylura cristata, Star-nosed mole, its breeding habits, etc. By W. L.

Bishop 348

Conglomerate, New Glasgow. By H. Fletcher 323

Consumption and expenditure in Canada, Statistics of. By Prof. J.

Davidson

Copper sulphate, Solutions of. See Lindsay, C. F 205

Credit, Agricultural. By Prof. J. Davidson, Phil. D. ' 458

Davidson, Prof. John, Phil. Z>. — Agricultural credit 458

Natural history of Money .... 179

Statistics of expenditure and consumption in Canada 1

Dawson, Sir J William, obituary notice of. By A. McKay xxxvi

Resolution on death of xlvi

Depression of freezing-point by mixtures of electrolytes. By J. Barnes . . 139

Depression of freezing-point for electrolytes. By Prof. J. G. MacGregor.. 211
Determination ot freezing-point depression constant for electrolytes. By

T. C. Hebb 409

Determination of freezing-point depressions of dilute solutions of electro-
lytes. By T. C. Hebb 422

Devonian, The : geological nomenclature in Nova Scotia. By H. Fletcher,

B. A. . 235

INDEX. Xix

PACK

Devonian system in Nova Scotia. See under Ami, H. M., Sub-divisions of

Carboniferous system K52

De Wolfe, Dr. James R., Death of Ixi, Ixxxiv

Diagram of freezing-point depressions for electrolytes. By Prof. J. G.

MacGregor 21 1

Diatomacese of Nova Scotia. By A. H. Mackay, LL. D xix

Dictyonema slates of Angus Brook, New Canaan, and Kentville, N. S.,

Notes on Dr. Ami's paper on. By H. S. Poole 451

Dictyonema slates of Angus Brook, New Canaan, and Kentville, N. S.,

Upper Cambrian age of. By H. M. Ami, I). Sc 447

Doane, F. W. W.— Rainfall notes, Nova Scotia 399

Downs, Andrew, founder of the first zoological garden in America, Sketch

of. By H. Piers cii

Drift ice as an eroding and transporting agent. By \V. H. Prest 333

Drift ice as an eroding and transporting agent, Supplementary notes on.

By W. H. Prest 455

Early intervale flora of eastern Nova Scotia. By C. B. Robinson 502

Earths, The rare. By W. H. Magee, Ph. D Ixii

Edwards, Dr. A. M — Infusorial earths of the world and the iceberg

period. (Title only. ) xix

Elastic properties of india-rubber. See India-rubber.

Election of officers for 1898-9, xvii. 1899-1900, xlvi. 1900-01, Iviii.

1901-02, xcviii.

Electrolytes, Depression of freezing-point by mixtures of. By J. Barnes. . 139
Electrolytes, Determination of freezing-point depression constant for. By

T. C. Hebb 409

Electrolytes, Determination of freezing-point depression of dilute solutions

of. By T C. Hebb : 422

Electrolytes, Diagram of freezing-point depressions for. By Prof. J. G.

MacGregor 211

Ells, R. W., LL. D.— Progress of geological investigation in Nova Scotia. 433

Erosion and transportation. See Drift ice.

Expenditure and consumption in Canada, Statistics of. By Prof J.

Davidson

Fish ( Chylomycterus schcepji) new to the fauna of Nova Scotia. By H.

Piers 110

Fletcher, Hugh, B A . —Geological nomenclature in Nova Scotia: the

pot

Devonian

Geological nomenclature in Nova Scotia : New Glasgow conglomerate

Flora, Early intervale, of eastern Nova Scotia By C. B. Robinson 502

Flowering of plants See Phenological observations.

Fossils, possibly Triassic, in glaciated fragments in the boulder-clay of

King's County, N S. By Prof. E. Haycock

Fox, J. J., obituary notice of. By A. McKay. .

Freezing-point depression constant for electrolytes, Detenu ination of. By

T. C. Hebb . 409

XX INDEX.

PAGE

Freezing-point depressions of dilute solutions of electrolytes, Determina-
tion of. By T C. Hebb 422

Freezing-point, Depression of, by mixtures of electrolytes. By J. Barnes. 139
Freezing-point depressions for electrolytes. By Prof. J. G. MacGregor . . 211
Fresh water sponge [ffeteromeyenia macoinii, n. sp. ] from Sable Island.

By A. H. MacKay, LL. D 319

Gaspereau Valley, Geological history of. By Prof. E. Haycock 361

Geological investigation in Nova Scotia, Progress of. By R. \V. Ells, LL. D. 433
Geological nomenclature in Nova Scotia : the Devonian. By H. Fletcher,

BA 235

Geological nomenclature in Nova Scotia : New Glasgow conglomerate. By

H. Fletcher 323

Gilpin, Edwin, jr., LL. D. — Further explorations in the Torbrook iron

district. (Title only. ) Ixxix

Minerals for the Paris exhibition 248

New mineral discoveries in Nova Scotia 79

Halifax, Worm trails in slates of. By H. S. Pool« 453

Harvey, Rer. Moses, LL D , death of Ixxxv

Haycock, Prof. Ernest. —Fossils, possibly Triassic, in glaciated fragments

in the boulder-clay of King's County, N. S 376

Geological History of Gasperuau Valley. Nova Scotia . 361

Kings Co Branch of the N. S Institute of Science : outline of pur-
poses and aims cix

Records of Post-Triassic changes in King's County, N. S 287

Hebb, Thomas C., B. A— Determination of freezing-point depression con- .

stant for electrolytes 409

Determination of freezing-point depressions of dilute solutions of

electrolytes 422

Variation of rigidity of vulcanized indiarubber with tension 273

Ifeteromeyenia macouni, n sp. See Fresh water sponge from Sable Island.

By A. H. MacKay, LL. D 319

Hiibnerito. See Notes on a Cape Breton mineral containing Tungsten.

By H. S. i'oole, F. R. S. C 245

Humble-bee's nest, Unusual site for By H S. Poole, F. G. S xlix

Hydrochloric acid, solutions of. See Barnes, J 129

Ice, drift, as an eroding and transporting agent. By VV. H. Prest 333

Ice, drift, as an eroding and transporting agent, supplementary note on.

By W. H. Prest 455

Ichthyoidichnitea acadieims, n. sp. By H. M. Ami, D. Sc 330

Indiarubber, Variation of rigidity of vulcanized, with tension. By T. C.

Hebb " 273

Indiarubber, vulcanized, Notes on the variation with tension, of the elas-
tic propsrties of. By Prof J. G. MacGregor and W. A. Mac-

donald xxviii

Infusorial earths of the world, and the iceberg period. By Dr. A M.

Edwards. (Title only. ) xix

INDEX. XXJ

Intervale flora, Early, of eastern Nova Scotia. By C. B. Robinson 502

lonization coefficients. See Archibald, E. H

lonization, On finding the, of complex solutions of given concentration,

and the converse problem. By Prof. J. G. MacGregor, D. Sc. . tiT
lonization. See also Barnes, J.
Iron field, Nictanx, Recent developments with calyx drill in. By D.

VVeatherbe JJ^Q

Jaggar, Miss A. Louise.— Notes on the Flora of Digby County, N. S.

(Title only.) ., c

Jones, John Matthew, Sketch of life By H. Piers. Ixxx

Kentville, N. S , Notes on Dr. Ami's paper on Dictyonema slates of. By

H. M. Poole 451

Kentville, N S. , Upper Cambrian age of Dictyonema slates of. By H. M.

Ami, D. Sc • 447

Kings County, N. S., Records of Post Triassic changes in. By Prof. E.

Haycock 287

Kings County, N- S. See also Gaspereau valley 361

Kings County Branch of the N. S. Institute of Science : outline of pur-
poses and aims of. By Prof. E Haycock cix

See also p. xcviii.
Knoydart formation (Eo-Devonian) of Antigonish Co., N. S., description

of tracks from. By H M. Ami, D. Sc 330

Labrador plants, collected by W. H. Prest north of Hamilton Inlet, from

June to August, 1901. By A H. MacKay, LL. D 507

Librarian's Report (1897-8), xv. (1898-9), xlii. (1899-1900), Iviii. (1900-1),

xcviii.
Lindsay, Charles F. — Presence of acid sulphate of copper in mixtures of

aqueous solutions of sulphuric acid and copper sulphate 20o

Macdonald, W. A., and MacGregor, Prof. J. G. — Notes on the variation

with tension, of the elastic properties of vulcanized india-rubber, xxviii
MacGregor, Prof. James Gordon, D. Sc., F. R. S. — Diagram of freezing-
point depressions for electrolytes 211

Finding the lonization of complex solutions of given concentration,

and the converse problem 67

Laws of dilution for aqueous solutions of electrolytes. (Title only) . xlviii
Use of the Wheatstone bridge with alternating currents. (Title only. ) Ixii
and Macdonald, W. A. — Note on the variation with tension, of the

elastic properties of vulcanized india-rubber xxviii

McKay, Alexander.— Presidential address [(a) Obituary notices of John

Somers, M. D., Jules Marcou, and Rev. John Ambrose, D. C. L.;

(b) Notes on the early history of the Institute ; (c) The position

of science in our educational system.]

Presidential Address —[(a) Review of year's work ; (b) Obituary

notice of J. J. Fox and Sir J. W. Dawson ; (c) The utility of a

scientific library and ;v properly equipped museum. ]

XX11 INDEX.

PAGE

MacKay, A. H., LL. D., F. R. S. C.— Condensed form of Botrychium

ternatum xcix

Description of section of Stigmaria 346

Diatomaceae of Nova Scotia xix

Freshwater sponge [ffeteromeyenia macouni, n. sp ] from Sable Island 319
Labrador plants, collected by W. H. Prest on the Labrador coast

north of Hamilton Inlet, from June to August, 1901 507

Material taken from the bottom of the Atlantic by the Cable S. S.

"Minia" 1

Note on gravel taken by the mushroom -anchor of the " Mackay-Ben-
nett," cable steamer, from the bottom of the Atlantic, 40 miles

west of Sable Island. (Title only. ) Ixi

Phenological observations, Canada, 1898 91

Phenological observations, Canada, 1899 303

(1) Phenological observations of Botanical Club of Canada, 1900; (2)
Abstract of phonological observations on flowering of ten plants
in Nova Scotia, 1900 ; with (3) Remarks on their phenochrons. . . 379

Phenological observations in Nova Scotia and Canada, [1901] 486

Presidential address [(a) On the scope of work of the Institute ; (b)
Provincial Museum and Science Library ; (c) Death of Capt.

Trott and Rev. A. C. Waghorne] liii

Presidential address, 1901. [(a) Obituaries of Dr. J R. DeWolfe,
Capt. VV. H. Smith, and Rev. Moses Harvey ; (b) Work of the
Institute ; (c) Provincial Museum and Science Library ; (d) Pro-
vincial Progress ; (e) Malaria, yellow fever and Sheep-fluke

Object Lessons ; (f) Marine Biological Station.] Ixxxiv

Sub-divisions of the ("aiboniferous System of Eastern Canada xlvii

McLachlan, R. W.— Talk on Roman Coins. (Title only.) Ixxxiii

Magee, W. H. , Ph. D. — The rare earths; their scientific importance as

regards the periodic law Ixii

Marcou, Jules, obituary notice of. By A. McKay iv

Material taken from bottom of the Atlantic by Cable S. S. Minia. By A.

H. MacKay, LL. D 1

Members, Lists of ; 1898-99, Appendix I ; 1899-1900, Appendix II ; 1900-
01, Appendix III ; 1901-02, Appendix IV.

Mineral discoveries, new, in Nova Scotia. E. Gilpin, jr , LL. D 79

Minerals for Paris exhibition. By E Gilpin, jr., LL. D 248

Mole, star-nosed, (C. cri*tata), its breeding habits, etc By W. L. Bishop 348

Money, Natural history of. By Prof. J. Davidson 179

New Canaan, N. S., Notes on Dr. Ami's paper on Dictyonema slates of.

By H M. Poole 451

New Canaan, N. S., Upper Cambrian age of Dictyonema slates of. By H.

M. Ami, D. Sc 447

New Glasgow conglomerate. By H. Fletcher 323

New mineral discoveries in Nova Scotia E. Gilpin, jr., L.L. D 79

Nictaux iron field, Recent developments with calyx drill in. By D'A.

Weatherbe . 350

INDEX. xxiii

PAGE

Notes on Dr. Ami's paper on Dictyonema slates of Angus Brook, New

Canaan and Kentville, N. S. By H. S. Poole 451

Notes, Supplementary, on drift ice as an eroding and transporting agent.

By W. H. Prest 455

Nova Scotia, Progress of geological investigation in. By K. W. Ells,

LL. D 433

Obituary notices. See Ambrose, Rev. J. ; Dawson, Sir .T. W ; De Wolfe,

Dr. J. R. ; Fox, J. J. ; Harvey, Rev. M. ; Marcou, J. ; Somere,

Dr. J. ; Smith, Capt. W. H. ; Trott, Capt. ; Waghorne, Rev.

A. C.

Observations on a fish ( Chylomycterus schrepji) new to the fauna of Nova

Scotia. By H. Piers 1 10

Officers for 1898-9, xxii. 1899-1900, xlvi. 1900-01, Iviii. 1901-02, xcviii

Paris exhibition, Minerals for. By E. Gilpin, jr., LL, D 248

Pasea, C. M. — On a relation between the ionization coefficients of electro-
lytes, and its application as an interpolation formula. (Title

only) xlix

Periodic law. See Rare earths Ixii

Peter, Rev. Brother Junian. — Exhibition of a collection of dried plants from

the vicinity of Buffalo, U. S. A Hi

Pheriological observations, Canada, 1898. By A H. MacKay, LL D 91

Phenological observations, Canada, 1899. By A. H. MacKay, LL. D 303

(1) Phenological observations of Botanical Club of Canada, 1900 ; (2) Ab-
stract of phonological observations of flowering of ten plants in
Nova Scotia, 1900 ; with (3) Remarks on their phenochrons. By

A. H. MacKay, LL. D 379

Phenological observations in Nova Scotia and Canada, [1901]. — By A. H.

MacKay, LL. D m

Piers, Harry. — Notes on Nova Scotian zoology ; no. 5. (Title only.) xxxiv

Observations on a fish (Chylomycterus schcepfi) new to the fauna of

Nova Scotia • • ll°

Sketch of life of Andrew Downs, founder of first zoological garden in

America

Sketch of life of J. M. Jones

Plants, Flowering of. See Phenological observations.

Plants, Labrador, collected by W. H. Prest north of Hamilton Inlet, June

to Aug., 1901. By A. H. MacKay, LL. D . .
Poole, Henry S., F. G. S., F. R. S. C.— Description of the Davis Calyx

Drill. (Titleonly.)

Notes on a Cape Breton mineral [Hubnerite] containing Tungsten, ar

on effect of washing certain Cape Breton coals. . .
Notes on Dr. Ami's paper on Dictyonema slates of Angus Brook, N

Canaan and Kentville, N. S

Notes on the periodical appearance of ants in a chimney, and

unusual site for a humble-bee's nest

34o

otigmana structure < _

Worm trails in slates of Halifax

XXIV INDEX.

PAGE

Portraits : Somers, Dr. J., op. p. i. Gilpin, Dr. J. B , op. p. xxxv.

Jones, J. M., op. p. liii. Downs, Andrew, op. p. Ixxxiii.
Post-Triassic changes, Records of, in Kings County, N. S. By Prof. E.

Haycock • 287

Potassium chloride and sulphate. See Barnes, J 49

Potassium sulphate. See Archibald, E. H 33

Presence of acid sulphate of copper in mixtures of aqueous solutions of

sulphuric acid and copper sulphate. C. F. Lindsay 205

President's address : (1898, A. McKay), i. (1899, A. Mackay), xxxv.

(1900, Dr. A. H. MacKay),*liii. (1901, Dr. A. H. MacKay), Ixxxiv.

Prest, Walter H — Drift ice as an eroding and transporting agent 333

Labrador plants collected by. By A. H. MacKay, LL. D 507

Supplementary notes on drift ice as an eroding and transporting agent 455
Prichard (A. H. Cooper) — Exhibition of Roman coins of Provincial

Museum Ixxxiii

Progress of geological investigation in Nova Scotia. ByR. W. Ells, LL. D. 433

Rainfall notes, Nova Scotia. By F. W. W. Doane 399

Rare earths : their scientific importance as regards the periodic law. 'By

W. H. Magee, Ph. D Ixii

Recent developments with calyx drill in Nictaux iron field. By D'A.

Weatherbe 350

Records of Post-Triassic changes in Kings County, N. S. By Prof. E.

Haycock 287

Reid, A. P., M. D. — Exhibition and explanation of a model of a sanatorium

for consumptives xxvii

Report of librarian (1897-8), xv. (1898-9), xlii. (1899-1900), Iviii. (1900-1),

xcviii.
Report of treasurer, (1897-8), xv. (1898-9), xli. (1899-1900), Iviii. (1900-1),

xcvii

Report on Wolfville Branch of the Institute By Prof. E. Haycock .... xcviii
Rigidity of vulcanized indiarubber, Variation of, with tension By T. C.

Hebb 273

Riversdale formation. See Sub-divisions of Carboniferous system in east-
ern Canada. By H. M. Ami, D. Sc 162

Robinson, C. B. — Early intervale flora of eastern Nova Scotia 502

Rubber. See India-rubber.

Russell, Lee, B Sc School-rooom air xxi

Sable Island, Freshwater sponge [ffeteromeyenia macouni, n. sp.] from.

By A. H. MacKay, LL. D 319

School-room air. By L. Russell, B Sc xxi

Science, Position of, in our educational system. By A. McKay viii

Smith, Prof. H. W., B. Sc. —Rotation of crops. (Title only.) Ix

The Preservation and use of the tops of turnips and other root crops.

(Title only.) Ix

Smith, Capt. W. H., death of Ixxxiv

Sodium sulphate. See Archibald, E. H 33

INDEX. xxv

PAGE

Solutions. See Archibald, R. H. ; Barnes, .T. ; Lindsay, C. F. ; Mac-

Gregor, J. G.

Somers, John, M. D. — Obituary notice of. By A. McKay in

Sponge, Fresh water, [ffeteromeyenia macouni, n sp.] from Sable Island.

By A. H MacKay, LL. D ' 319

Star-nosed Mole (Condylura cristata), its breeding habits, etc. By \V. L.

Bishop 348

Statistics of expenditure and consumption in Canada. By Prof. J.

Davidson 1

Stigmaria structure. By H. S. Poole 345

Sub-divisions of Carboniferous system in eastern Canada, with special

reference to position of Union and Riversdale formations of Nova

Scotia, referred to Devonian system by some Canadian geologists.

By H. M. Ami, D. Sc 162

Sub-divisions of the Carboniferous system of eastern Canada. By A. H.

MacKay, LL. D xlvii

Sulphate of copper, acid, in mixtures of aqueous solutions of sulphuric acid

and copper sulphate. C. F. Lindsay 205

Sulphuric acid, solutions of. See Barnes, J 129

Supplementary notes on drift ice as an eroding and transporting agent.

ByW. H. Prest 455

Tracks [Ichtliyoidichnites acadien#i#, n. sp.] from fine-grained silicious mud-
stones of Knoydart formation (Eo-Devonian) of Antigonish Co ,

N. S. By H. M. Ami, D. Sc 330

Treasurer's report (1897-8), xv. (1898-9), xli. (1899-1900), Iviii. (1900-01),

xcvii.

Trott, Capt. , death of Ivii

Tungsten, Notes on a Cape Breton mineral [Hiibnerite] containing. By

H. S. Poole 245

Union and Riversdale formations of Nova Scotia. See Sub-divisions of

Carboniferous system in Eastern Canada. By H. M. Ami, D. Sc 1(52
Upper Cambrian age of Dictyonema slates of Angus Brook, New Canaan

and Keiitville, N. S. H. M. Ami, D. Sc 447

Variation of rigidity of vulcanized indiarubber, with tension. By T. C.

Hebb 273

Ventilation. See School-room air.

Viscosity of aqueous solutions. See Barnes, J 113

Vulcanized indiambber, Variation of rigiditj' of, with tension. By T. C.

Hebb 273

See also India-rubber.

Waghorne Rev. A. C., death of 1™

Washing Cape Breton coals, Notes on effect of. By H. S. Hoole, F.R.S.C. '-'4.-,
Weatherbe, D'Arcy, C. E.— Recent developments with calyx drill in

Nictaux iron field •*•**

Wolfville branch of the Institute, Report on. By Prof. E. Haycock xcviii

See also p. cix .
Worm trails in slates of Halifax. By H. S. Poole ^">:{

2797 4

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