THE

PROCKEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS

cotian Institute of

HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA

VOLUME XII

1906-1910

HALIFAX

PRINTED FOK THE iNsiTruTE BY MCALPINK PUBLISHING Co., LTD

1913

CONTENTS

PROCEEDINGS.

PAGE

SESSION OF 1906-1907:

Presidential address, by F. W. W. Doane, C. E - i

The Institute's work " i

Research work iv

Sanitary scientific work v

Report of treasurer ix

Report of librarian ix

Exchange of publications x

Officers for 1906-1907 x

Ordinary meetings x

Institute's seal xi

Reminiscences of a Nova Scotian naturalist: Andrew Downs.

By Major-General Campbell Hardy, R. A xi

Self-recording rain-gauge for Halifax " xxx

The run-off from a small drainage area near Halifax. — By

H. W. Johnston, C. E. (Title only.) xxx

SESSION OF 1907-1908:

Annual meeting xxxi

Presidential address, by F. W. W. Doane, C. E xxxi

( 1 ) Obituary references to Edward Gilpin xxxi

(2) " Daniel McNeil Parker xxxiv

( 3 ) " George Thomas Kennedy . . xxxv

(4) " E. B. Tinling xxxv

( 5 ) Technical education xxxvii

Report of librarian and secretary xli

Officers elected for 1907-1908 xlii

Ordinary meetings xliii

Influence of radium on the decomposition of hydriodic acid. —

By H. Jermain Creighton, M. A. (See p. 1) xliii

(1) Fish-eating habits of medusae; (2) The present and
future of our fisheries. — By Prof. E. E. Prince. (Titles

only.) , xliv

(iii)

JV CONTENTS

PAGE

(1) A few chemical changes influenced by radium; a new
method for the detection of amygdalin. (2) Behavior
of solutions of hydriodic acid in light in the presence
of oxygen. — H. J. Creighton, M. A. (See pp. 34 and

49 ) xliv

Occurrence of tin in Nova Scotia. — By Harry Piers. (See p.

239.) xlv

Note on eels in water pipes. — By W. L. Bishop. (Title only) . xlv
Economic geology of Arisaig, N. S. — By Professor J. E. Wood-
man. ( Title only. ) xlv

SESSION OF 1908-1909:

Annual meeting xlvii

Presidential address: (1) Progress of the Institute since
1890; (2) progress of technical education; (3)
technical education, and research; (4) the Institute in
the public service. — By Prof. Ebenezer Mackay, Ph. D. xlvii

Report of librarian lii

Officers elected for 1908-1909 liii

Ordinary meetings liii

Recent iron and limestone investigations in Nova Scotia. — By

Professor J Edmund Woodman, D. Sc. (Title only.) . . liii
Appointment of delegate to the Geological Society of Glasgow liv
On the commonly accepted axioms in celestial mechanics. — By

Kenneth Mclntosh. (Title only.) liv

Treasurer's report liv

Water purification by ozone. — By Thomas J. McKavanagh.

(Title only.) '. Iv

Geological conditions affecting the water supply of Halifax. —

By H. Cavanagh and D. Stairs. (Title only.) Ivi

Weathering of structural stones in Halifax. — By C. J. Mac-
kenzie and G. L. Crichton. (Title only.) Ivi

Cement testing in the engineering laboratories of Dalhousie

University. — By H. W. Flemming Ivi

SESSION OF 1909-1910:

Presidential address, by Prof. Ebenezer Mackay, Ph. D Ivii

(1) Deceased members [R. R. McLeod, C. Pickford,

Dr. J. Fletcher, H. Fletcher] Ivii

(2 ) Work of the Institute lix

( 3 ) The atomic theory lix

Report of treasurer Ixix

Report of librarian Ixix

Resolution relating to death of Hugh Fletcher, B. A Ixx

Officers for 1909-1910 , Ixx

CONTENTS

(3)

PACK

Ordinary meetings Ixx

First meeting in Nova Scotia Technical College Ixx

A new Nova Scotian insect : the birch-leaf saw-fly (Phlebatro-

phia) mathesoni, Alexander MacGillivray) . By A. H.

MacKay, LL. D. (Title only.) Ixxi

On a new method of estimating iodides. Hy Harold S. Davis.

( Title only. ) Ixxi

The Californian earthquake. By Thomas C. McKay, D. Sc.

( Title only. ) Ixxi

Variation of the Hill treatment with the temperature and

previous heat treatment in the case of magnetic metals.

By Thomas C. McKay, D. Sc. (Title only.) Ixxi

History of erosion in the Cornwallis Valley, N. S. By Prof.

Ernest Haycock. (Title only. ) Ixxi

Recent results in wireless telegraphy. By Thomas J. Mc-

Kavanagh. (Title only.) Ixxii

Meeting adjourned as a mark of respect to His late Majesty,

King Edward . , Ixxii

TRANSACTIONS.
SESSION OF 1906-1907:

Influence of radium on decomposition of hydriodic acid. — By

H. Jermain M. Creighton, M. A 1

Water power of Halifax county, Nova Scotia: part 1, Dart-
mouth Lakes power. — By F. W. W. Doane, C. E 21

A few chemical changes influenced by radium : a new method
for the detection of amygdalin. — By H. Jermain M.
Creighton, M. A 34

Behaviour of solutions of Hydriodic acid in light in the pre-
sence of oxygen. — By H. Jermain M. Creighton, M. A. 49

Notes on mineral fuels of Canada. — By R. W. Ells, LL D

F. R. S. C 6i

Halifax water works. — By H. W. Johnston, C. E 72

Fungi of Nova Scotia: first supplementary list. — By A. H.

MacKay, LL. D., F. R. S. C 119

SESSION OF 1907-1908:

On the skeleton of a whale in the provincial museum, Halifax,
Nova Scotia; with notes on the fossil cetacea of North
America. — By George H. Perkins, Ph. D 139

The Myxomycetes of Pictou. — By Clarence L. Moore, M. A.. . 165

Th influence of aluminium salts on the estimation of sul-
phates.—By H. Jermain Creighton, M. A 207

The action of organic sulphur in coal during the coking pro-
cess.—By A. L. McCallum, B. Sc. . . . 212

VI ) CONTENTS

PAGE
SESSION OF 1908-1909:

Some Nova Scotian aquatic fungi. — By Clarence L. Moore,

M. A 217

On the occurrence of tin in Nova Scotia. — By Harry Piers . . 239

Scheelite in Nova Scotia,— By A. L. McCallum, B. Sc 250

Some effects of ice action near Grand Lake, Cape Breton. — By

W. S. Brodie, B. A 253

Catalogue of butterflies and moths, mostly collected in the
neighborhood of Halifax and Digby, Nova Scotia. — By

Joseph Perrin and John Russell 258

Concerning the effect of gravity on the concentration of a

solute. — By Harold S. Davis, B. A 291

SESSION OF 1909-1910:

Action of organo-magnesium compounds on quinone. By Cur-
tis C. Wallace 301

Note on recent earthquake in Cape Breton, N. S. By Donald

Sutherland Mclntosh, M. Sc 311

Rusts of Nova Scotia. By William Pollock Fraser, M. A.

(Special index of hosts, page 440 J of species, 444) • • • • 313

Occurrence of opal in granite near New Ross, Lunenburg

County, Nova Scotia. By Harry Piers . 446

APPENDICES: —

I. List of members, 1906-1907 i

II. List of members, 1907-1908 v

III. List of members, 1908-1909 ix

IV. List of members, 1909-1910 xiii

List of presidents, 1862-1910 . . : . . xvi

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

£cotran Jnstitute of gcience.

**• -/ ^"" "^

SESSION OF 1906-1907

ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.

Assembly Room, Province Building, Halifax, 12th Nov., 1906.
THE PRESIDENT, F. W. W. DOANE, in the chair.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS: (1) WORK OF THE INSTITUTE; (2)
EESEARCH WORK; (3) SANITARY SCIENTIFIC WORK. — By F.
W. W. DOANE, C. E., City Engineer, Halifax.

Gentlemen., — A year ago, at the beginning of my twentieth
year as a member of the Institute, you elected me to the highest
office in your gift, an honor which I appreciate more because I am
fully conscious that a better selection might well have been made
in order to maintain the standard established by my predecessors.

In opening the forty-fifth session of the Institute by a short
review of the events of the past year, it is a pleasure to be able to
report that we have met with no losses either through death or
resignation.

Papers. — The following papers have been communicated to the
Institute during the year :

1. Presidential Address. — By DR. H. S. POOLE.

2. The Flora of MacNab's Island, Halifax. — By CAPTAIN J. H.

BARBOUR, M. D., Boyal Army Medical Corps.

3. Catalogue of the Birds of Prince Edward Island.— By JOHN

MAC SWAIN.

PROC. & TKANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XII. PROC.— A.

ii PROCEEDINGS.

4. Mining — Ts it a Science? — By W. E. LISHMAN, M. A..

M. INST. M. E.

5. Additions to the List of Nova Scotia Fungi. — -By DR. A. H.

MACKAY.

6. Halifak Water Works.— By H. W. JOHNSTON, C. E.

7. The Oil Fields of Eastern Canada.— By DR. E. W. ELLS.

8. The Frost and Drought of 1905.— By F. W. W. DOANE.

9. Eels in Water Pipes and Their Migration. — By WATSON L.

BISHOP.
,10. Notes on Protective Coloring. — By FRANK H. EEID.

11. The Grignard Synthesis: Action of Phenyl Magnesium

Bromide on Camphor. — By H. JERMAIN CREIGHTON.

12. Contribution to the Study of Hydro xylamine. — By G. M.

JOHNSTON MACKAY, B. A.

13. Water Powers on the Mersey River, N. S.— By W. G.

YORSTON, C. E.

14. The Damage done to Timber by Teredo navalis and Limnoria

lignorum. — By R. McCoLL, C. E.

15. Pbenological Observations., Canada, 1905. — By DR. A. H.

MACKAY.

1(>. Water-rolled Weed-balls.— By DR. A. H. MACKAY.

Of the thirteen authors who gave the Institute the benefit
of their labors and observation, six presented papers for the
first time, a fact which in itself is evidence of some pro-
gress. We cannot congratulate ourselves, however, that we are in
the healthy condition that every member who has the best interest
of the Institute at heart could wish. We have been depending too
much on the work of the older members, and in consequence of the
willingness with which they devote their time and energy to the
arduous demands of each session, the enlistment of new workers
has been somewhat neglected. While the interest of the older
active members has not abated, their work could be lightened by
the assistance of the younger members, who, by a little effort,
might relieve the strain upon the knowledge and active intellect of
those whose wonderful. energy in the past has proved equal to the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

demand upon them, and who have done so much to place the Nova
Scotian Institute of Science among the chief scientific associations,
of British America. i :*«*. iHL . i

Membership. — No addition has been made to the list of cor-
responding members, but four have been proposed and approved
as ordinary members or associate members. A number of new
members have not yet qualified for membership by paying the
annual fee in consequence of defects in our financial system. This
matter is receiving the attention of the council., and it is probable
that changes will be made which will lead to the adoption of a more
satisfactory system and place the finance department on a better
business basis.

It should be our aim first to " set our house in order," then
to add to our membership as much as possible. We should have on
our roll the name of every man in Nova Scotia who has the ability
to add to our knowledge, and also all those who, though they may
not have the opportunity or the requisite preparatory training to
enable them to advance science themselves, are willing to encourage
others in their efforts by their interest and their annual fees.
There must be many of the latter class in the acquaintance circles
of all our members, who might be induced to come in and help us
if we make the effort. Indeed, there must be more persons in
Nova Scotia devoting some portion of their time to scientific work
than those whose names are inscribed on the membership roll of
the Institute of Science. Let each member make a list of the
names of those whom he considers eligible for membership and
submit it to the new council. Let it be the duty of the council,
assisted by individual members, to use every endeavor to obtain
the allegiance of such persons, and I have no doubt that the result
will be very beneficial to the Institute.

Meeting rooms. — The closing meeting of the last session was
held in the room of the Mining Society, through the courtesy of its
president. While one hesitates to record feelings of envy, it must
be admitted that the cozy quarters placed at our service suggested
speculations as to the benefits that would result to the Institute if
we were able to maintain similar headquarters. If a campaign is

IV PROCEEDINGS.

inaugurated for increasing the membership and consequently the
revenue of the Institute, the next step should be to consider the
advisability and possibility of providing a home for our society.
From the first the provincial government gave the use of the only
spare room at its disposal, and we are still indebted to the
generosity of the government for a place in which to hold our
meetings, and also a place wherein to keep our valuable library.

Publication. — We are handicapped by our limited purse and
other conditions, so that it would be impossible to expend a larger
sum at present on the publication of papers. A great effort should
be made, however, to bring this work up to date. We should then
consider the advisability of printing before they are read, all
papers of general interest or special importance. If an advance-
proof of such papers could be sent out some time before the meeting
at which they are to be read, it would doubtless result in freer and
much more valuable discussion and larger attendance at such
meetings. Even under our present system the discussion is often
second in value only to the paper itself.

Research work. — The practical value of reseach work is being
impressed upon the public, and the business portion of the public
is becoming interested more and more in the results of such work.

An address on a strictly scientific subject is not often of par-
ticular interest except to those who are engaged in the department
of science discussed. The superficial observer who sees the oak
but forgets the acorn, is likely to ascribe the great material
advances of recent times wholly to scientific knowledge and rare
ingenuity, and to consider, the great inventors and the great cap-
tains of industry as the most important agents in bringing about
the modern era. No other agent, however, has been of greater
influence in making the mechanical evolution of the latter part of
the last century possible than the great scientific investigators
whose forceful intellect opened the way to secrets previously hidden
from men.

Nature turns a forbidding face to those who pay her court with
the hope of gain, and is responsive only to those suitors whose love
is for herself alone. It is impossible to know what application

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS V

knowledge may have until after it is acquired, and the seeker after
purely useful knowledge will fail to acquire any real knowledge
whatever. In this fact lies the explanation of the extreme rarity
with which the functions of an investigator of the laws of nature
and those of the inventor who applies these laws to utilitarian pur-
poses, are united in the same person.

This theme is one of special importance at the present time,
because it is customary to ask about every new discovery in science,
What is its value? It is only by going backward over the develop-
ment of applied science that it is possible to realize the funda-
mental importance of research work. For instance, hardly any of
the basic principles of engineering were discovered by men with
any intent on practical work. The mathematical methods which
are necessary for the engineer are the result of strictly scientific
investigation, and the laws of physics and chemistry are being
determined by the research work of men who care little whether
their discoveries are to find immediate practical application or not.
The development of industrial processes often suggests new sub-
jects for investigation, and some of the best research work of
to-day is being guided by business corporations, but the men who
are so engaged are working in a purely scientific spirit, and leave
the practical development of their results to the engineer.

The beginner in research work may be discouraged when he
reviews the work of more advanced scientific investigators, in the
belief that the greater part of the work has been done. He will
soon learn, however, that in the words of the late Cecil Rhodes,
" there is so much to be done." For instance, how little we really
know of meteorology except a few statistics. How intangible is the
air, yet it uproots strong trees firmly anchored in mother earth,
tears heavy structures from their foundations and drops them in
fragments far from their original location.

There is much to learn and plenty of room for every new worker
who has the inclination, the energy and the persistency to wrest
from nature her jealously guarded secrets.

Sanitary scientific work. — In that branch of science with
whicli my daily work brings me in intimate connection, prominence

VI PROCEEDINGS.

has been given during the year to the extermination of the mos-
quito, the purification of water by copper sulphate, and the ven-
tilation of sewers and plumbing, and the abolition of the main
trap.

The extermination of the mosquito has been accomplished,
where it has been undertaken by first a campaign of education, then
the expenditure of considerable sums of money in destroying the
breeding places by draining and filling up, etc.

The copper sulphate treatment of water has engaged the atten-
tion of the world, and it is apparently becoming more and more
evident (1) that water infected with algag can be purified by -this
means, and (2) that water which has been so purified is quite fit
for human consumption, and that no one need fear harmful effects.

Abolition of the drain trap. — The ventilation of sewers and
plumbing has been a burning question elsewhere, but the " abolition
of the house trap " has become a live question in Halifax, and con-
sequently may be worthy of more than passing notice.

The regulations of the city health board require the installation
of a trap at or near the point where the drain leaves the house, and
although there has been much diversity of opinion elsewhere
regarding the necessity for its use, there had been no question here
until the master plumbers asked that the sanitary regulations be
amended so that the main trap could be omitted. This trap, known
in England as the intercepting trap, is in that country intimately
connected with the larger question of the ventilation of sewers and
drains, which has been more or less the subject of controversy since
the illness of King Edward, when Prince of Wales, in 1872. The
intercepting trap was patented by W. P. Buchan, Glasgow, about
1875, and, without any special investigation, was adopted by the
local government board and introduced into its model by-laws in
1877. Such official recognition caused its advantages to be taken
for granted, and deterred many people from investigating the ques-
tion for themselves. The controversy resulted in a general con-
census of opinion that " sewer gas must be cut off from the house,"
and the intercepting trap was adopted with that object in view.

Eecently many engineers engaged in municipal work have
favored the abolition of the trap, and their argument has been

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. vii

greatly strengthened by experiments made in England and else-
where to determine whether sewer air is actually dangerous or not.
Medical officers of health are more conservative in their views, and
are for the most part strongly ' in favor of the retention of the
trap.

It is probably true that there is no local sanitary authority in
this province, where sewers, drains and plumbing exist, which has
not had to deal, at some period or other, with complaints as to the
nuisance caused by the escape of sewer gas, and it may therefore be
assumed that the subject is of importance to every section of the
community.

It is not advisable or necessary in these remarks to introduce
the technical pros and cons that are so often used. Such arguments
may be reserved for a technical paper or for the benefit of
municipal sanitary authorities. The question which is of special
interest to us, and which, too, must be considered to a certain
extent unsettled, since it is yet under investigation, is, does sewer
air injuriously affect health?

About a year ago the borough council of Hampstead, England,
employe I two experts, F. W. Andrews, M. D., F. E. C. P., D. P. H.,
and W. H. Hurtley, I). Sc., to make analyses of sewer air and
report on the bacteria suspended therein.

The .particular points which the experts set themselves to
investigate were: (1) Can it be determined whether the emana-
tions from the sewers are likely to cause disease? (2) What is the
substance which gives rise to the disagreeable odors? (3) What is
the chemical composition of the sewer air at different levels?

As regards the first point, which is the most important, it is the
general, but not altogether unanimous opinion, that sewage bacteria
do not exist in sewer air. This opinion has been based upon the
results of only a few investigations; and on the other hand it has
been abundantly proved that sewer air, escaping direct into houses,
has injuriously affected the health of the inmates. This fact has
led to the assumption that there must be some subtle chemical
action in such cases which has not yet been discovered, and which
might possibly also exert its influence in the open air.

Vlll PROCEEDINGS.

The bacteriological examination of sewer air has not received
the attention which should have been given to it, and possibly we
have in our own ranks members who,, by research and investigation,
can throw some light on this important question. Within the last
few years improved methods for investigating air-borne bacteria,
especially Streptococci, have been introduced, but they have not yet
been applied to sewer air, and when it is borne in mind that
Streptococci are the most abundant organisms in sewage, that they
are amongst the most important of disease-producing bacteria, and
that some at least of the diseases to which sewer air is credited with
giving rise, are in all probability strepcococcal infections, it is
plain that the examination of sewer air for Streptococci should
prove an important field of investigation.

Improved methods have also been recently introduced whereby
the common intestinal bacteria belonging to the B. coli group
(including the typhoid bacillus) may be much more easily identi-
fied and isolated.

The first step taken by Dr. Andrews was to endeavor to find
sewage organisms in the sewer air, and he succeeded in finding an
organism which was not the true B. coli communis, but was identi-
cal with a characteristic sewage member of the group, present in
the sewage to the number of at least 30,000 per c. c.

The most important experiments, however, were those relating^
to Streptococci:, and Dr. Andrews established the fact that the
Streptococci of the sewer air are very different from those of the
fresh air outside the sewers, and in the very point in which they
differ from those of the fresh air they tend to approach those of
the sewage. The importance of this discovery cannot be' over-
estimated, and it is fairly obvious that the whole future disposition
of sewer ventilation or sewer air treatment may depend upon the
facts which further examination in this direction will produce.

The question arises, what effect does this variation in the con-
stitution of Streptococci have upon the human constitution? Both
Dr. Andrews and Dr. Hurtley remained in the sewers for long
periods and it is not recorded that they suffered at all; in fact,
Dr. Hurtley specifically states that he did not experience the slight-

LIBRARIANS REPORT. IX

est inconvenience. In this connection the case of sewer men, who
are notoriously healthy subjects, may be instanced.

Although these investigations seem to establish pretty clearly
that sewer air, as such, is not necessarily dangerous, and that the
probability of sewer air organisms being carried into the outer air
so as to become a danger is exceedingly remote, yet it must be
admitted that there is still an off-chance, and it is that off-chance
which produces a doubt.

There is still a belief that, for some as yet unknown reason,
sewer air escaping direct into dwelling houses is a danger, and that
sewer smells are objectionable and a nuisance no one will deny. The
public therefore will probably await the result of further
investigation.

W. MclvERRON presented the treasurer's accounts, which were
referred to the auditors.

The librarian's report was presented by H. PIERS, showing that
1911 books and pamphlets had been received by the Institute
through its exchange-list during the year 1905 ; and 1,457 had been
received during ten months (January to October) of the present
year, 1906. Particulars were also given of the total number of
books and pamphlets received by the Provincial Science Library
(with which the books of the Institute are incorporated) during
the year 1905. This number was 2,590, of which 1,911 were the
society's exchanges as above-mentioned. Increased use of the
library was reported, as shown by the number of books borrowed,
namely 536 in 1905. A card catalogue of the manuals and general
works, arranged alphabetically by authors and subjects, has been
completed during 1906, and these books have been arranged on the
shelves according io the decimal system of classification. The
report was received and adopted.

The SECRETARY reported that the KINGS COUNTY BRANCH of
the Institute had done no work during the session of 1905-6, nor
during the previous session. It was resolved that the subject of"
branch societies be referred to the incoming council.

X PROCEEDINGS.

It was resolved that the thanks of the Institute be conveyed to
His HONOR THE SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE OF ASSEMBLY, for his
courtesy in permitting the use of the assembly room as a place of
meeting.

Eeference was made to the desirability of having some exchange
system in Canada which would take the place of that of the Smith-
sonian Bureau of International Exchanges at Washington, which
latter bureau can not now undertake the work of forwarding book
packages to foreign countries owing to the magnitude to which
such work had grown of late years. The subject was referred to
the council.

The following were elected officers for the ensuing year (1906-
1907) :

President — F. W. W. DOANE, C. E., ex officio F. R. M. S.

Vice- Presidents — PROFESSOR EBENEZER MACKAY, PH. D.; PROFESSOR

J. E. WOODMAN, D. Sc.

Treasurer — J. B. MCCARTHY, B. A., M. Sc.
Corresponding Secretary — A. H. MACKAY, LL. D., F. R,. S. C.
Recording Secretary — HARRY PIERS.
Librarian — HARRY PIERS.
Councillors without Office — MAYNARD BOWMAN, B. A.; WATSON L.

BISHOP; EDWIN GILPIN, JR., LL. D., F. R. S. C., I. S. O.;

ALEXANDER McKAY; PROFESSOR FREDERIC H. SEXTON, B. Sc.;

HENRY S. POOLE, D. Sc., F. R. S. C. ; WILLIAM MCKERRON.
Auditors — PROFESSOR D. A. MURRAY, PH. D. ; R. McCoix, C. E

A vote of thanks was presented to the retiring treasurer, W.
McKJERRON, for his services ; to H. PIERS, for his work as secre-
tary; and to the PRESIDENT, MR. DOANE.

FIRST ORDINARY MEETING.

Assembly Room, Province Building, Halifax, 14th Jan., 1907.
THE PRESIDENT, MR. DOANE, in the chair.
It was reported that PHILIP A. FREEMAN, engineer, Halifax
Electric- Tram Co., Halifax, had been elected an ordinary member.

A paper was read, entitled, " Notes on Mineral Fuels of Can-
ada," by H. W. ELLS, LL. I)., F. G. S. A., F. II, S. C., of the
•Geological Survey, Ottawa. (See Transactions^ p. 61.)

REMINISCENCES OF ANDREW DOWNS. xi

SECOND ORDINARY MEETING.

City Council Chamber, Halifax, llth March, 1907.
THE PRESIDENT, MR. DOANE, in the chair.

H. PIERS and J. B. MCCARTHY were appointed a committee to
prepare a suitable design for a seal for the Institute., and to have
the same engraved.

In the absence of the author, MR. PIERS read the following
paper by GENERAL CAMPBELL HARDY :

REMINISCENCES OF A NOVA SCOTIAN NATURALIST: ANDREW
DOWNS. — By MAJOR-GENERAL CAMPBELL HARDY, R. A.,
Dover, England.

In days gone by, when the writer of this paper was quartered
at Halifax, N. S., then a great naval and military station of the
imperial government, there were two interesting spots which a
stranger generally visited first, namely the Old Point Woods and
Downs's Zoological Gardens at the head of the North West Arm.
The former are now enclosed and preserved in the area termed
Point Pleasant Park : the latter have vanished from the scene. It
is then the object of this paper to recall a picture of the past, to
speak of the remarkable man who lived at the head of the North
West Arm, and to describe his charming location, Walton- Cot-
tage.*

A little stream runs in at the head of the North West Arm, and
following it up by the road which branches from the main road
from Halifax in the direction of the Dutch Village, a few hundred
yards brought us to Downs's gates.

The cottage nestled in its prettily wooded grounds, with the
shores of the Arm in the background receding towards the blue
Atlantic. Here nature and cultivation were charmingly blended
together, and the wild birds from the hills behind loved to come in
and nest in perfect confidence in the owner's good will towards all
living creatures. For I will say this of Downs by way of introduc-

*fhe ground* on which Downs's zoological gardens were situated are now the
property of the estate of the late John Doull, and Walton Cottage is at present the
residence of Dr. Arthur Doull.

Xll PROCEEDINGS.

tion, that he was a man of sweet disposition, tender and merciful to-
all his feathered friends, and though perhaps he could not say yes
to Emerson's pointed question, "Hast thous named all the birds
without a gun?'' he was incapable of any act of cruelty or neglect.
My acquaintance with Downs commenced very soon after
arrival, for in him I found the very man who could tell me all
about the wild creatures of this favoured little province, the ideal
home of the naturalist and sportsman. To live and camp in the
great backwoods of Canada had been mv ambition in early }^outhr
and in his company I served an apprenticeship as it were, and
commenced habits of observation which have stored my memory"
with the songs and scents of the woods and the ways of their
denizens during a prolonged residence of some sixteen years.

In re-reading lately a very entertaining little book by Samuel
Smiles, entitled " The Life of a Scotch Naturalist/' I was struck
by some points of resemblance between its subject, Thomas Edward,.
A. L. S., and Andrew Downs of Nova Scotia. Both were men of
humble origin, and both became in their early lives devotees of
nature study as it is now popularly termed, leaving their respective
callings to work in that fascinating field. Both were strenuous
workers, taxidermists and collectors, practical men and not over
much given to library lore. Both were recognized by the scien-
tific world as having acquired their knowledge of natural history at
first-hand, and though cultivating their own powers of observation.
It seems, too, that they had much similarity of character, the same
honest grasping of facts and hatred of shams, the same Spartan-like
simplicity of life, with much originality and a sturdy independence
which under all circumstances compels respect. Edward was
credited^with many discoveries and additions to British zoology.
Downs gave more impetus to forwarding the knowledge of local
natural history than any Canadian before his day. Every visitor
desirous of acquaintance with wild life in the woods or by the
waters of Acadie, went to Downs for advice or reference ; and few
returned to Europe, after a sojourn more or less prolonged in the
maritime provinces, without taking back either some trophy of
the larger game or specimens of the beautiful avi-fauna of eastern
Canada which had passed through our naturalist's skilful hands.

REMINISCENCES OF ANDREW DOWNS. Xlll

An extended biographical sketch of Downs's life on the model
-of Smiles's little work would doubtless be very interesting, but as
he was a man who sought retirement and seldom troubled himself
with correspondence, and as, moreover, time is fast effacing his
memory in Nova Scotia, it would be difficult to get together suffi-
cient and reliable materials for such a compilation. I have, how-
ever, recently received from the recording secretary of the Nova
.Scotian Institute of Science,* of which I am a corresponding mem-
ber, a paper on this subject written by himself and embodying- ex-
tracts from an article by the editor of the New York Forest and
Stream, a personal friend and admirer of Downs, whom he had
visited. On reading it, I was induced to refer to a number of old
•diaries and notebooks of Nova Scotian days, and was glad to find
Downs's name frequently occurring therein, as well as an article
which I contributed in 1864 to a Halifax newspaper* and have for-
tunately preserved, undoubtedly the first notice of Downs and his
establistment which had then been published. I quote the article
here, as a contemporary account of the naturalist and his interest-
ing collection of animals :

Sketches in Our Neighbourhood-. An Afternoon with Downs.

Half an hour's walk from the city, over the Common, and down the
telegraph-road leading to the west, brings the visitor to the cross-roads at
the head of the North West Arm. If a stranger, your question — " Is this
the way to Downs's? " is probably answered by a piscatorial urchin,
seated by a little brook which here trickles into the salt-water under a
bridge, by " Yaas, that's it, where yer hear them burds screaming','' point-
ing to the road turning off towards the Dutch Village. In confirmation
whereof the shrill scream of a peacock or discordant cry of a cockatoo
reaches your ear, and we presently arrive at the gates of Walton Cottage
•Gardens.

And here let me say ere proceeding, that these gardens were the first
<; Zoo " established on the American continent — a fact often recounted to
me by the founder with some pride.

Prettily surrounded and hid from the road by fir woods, Downs's
house, approached by a circular drive, stands on a slight eminence over-
looking the whole length of the North West Arm. It is a neat, rustic
little residence with tall, sharp-pointed gables ornamented with trellis,

*Harry Piers, Esq. See "Sketch of the Life of Andrew Downs, founder of the
first zoological garden in America."— Proc. N. S. Inst. Sci., vol. x, p. cii, with portrait,
t The Acadian Recorder, edited by Mr. Peter Hamilton and Hunter Duvar.

XIV PROCEEDINGS.

and a porch groaning under the weight of the honeysuckles and Virginia
creepers which have seized upon it. Several pairs of antlers of moose and
deer adorn the sides under the roof; and tall poles, bearing painted minia-
ture cottages, are planted around for the express benefit of such birds as
will take advantage of the gratuitous lodging thus afforded, and the offer
of free board with the well-fed poultry in the yard — a spacious enclosure
with a large, clear pond fed by a stream from the hill-side in the rear, and
shaded by shrubberies, through which are cut prettily-winding walks in
every direction.

Here we probably find the owner himself spreading Indian corn
broadcast amongst a rude, greedy assembly of every kind of fowl —
land-fowl and water-fowl, great thick-thighed cochins and diminutive
bantams, hearty swans which come up to the banquet, with a hasty,
waddling gait ill befitting their dignity, and fat, glossy ducks of every hue
that at once suggest the idea of comestibles in the shape of green pease.
In fact, I was about to pass them over as being, in the language of the
advertisers, " too numerous to mention," but as Downs himself is engaged
in feeding them, it is worth our while to stay and hear him expatiate on
their beauties and peculiarities; for he is a quick, sharp-sighted, and
enthusiastic naturalist, and will point out things which we should other-
wise have never thought of noticing. " There are days," he says, " when
the light seems to bring out the colours on birds' feathers which you
would never see in dull weather, days when all nature seems brightened
up by the peculiar state of the atmosphere; when the trees seem greener,
when the sky has a greater softness and depth than commonly, and your
own feelings are in tune with all around. Look at that wild turkey as he
comes swelling along, and the sun's rays light up the wonderful metallic
hues on the neck, back and sides, hues of bronze, and green, and orange-
copper, which now and then flash with the brilliancy of the humming bird's
plumage." A pair of pigeons alight at your feet, bowing and scraping
around. Perhaps a delicate plum-bloom appears to colour their necks and
breasts; but in a moment they burn with emerald green, and in another
with the sparkling tints of hyacinth or topaz. These brilliant greens
placed on a subdued ground-colour, and changing into the gleaming tints
of precious minerals, are favourite touches of nature's pencil from
amongst the wide range of colours with which she has so lavishly painted
the plumage of birds. The beautiful pencil marking on the silver Ham-
burgs are pointed out to us, and the bright golden spangles on another
variety of domestic fowls. The uncomfortable appearance of the little
fowls from China with all their feathers curled back, and the curious blue
ear-lobes of the Japanese, which have a blue skin underneath their white
feathers and blue bones likewise; the beautiful green velvet jacket which
sits so trim and close on the East Indian duck, are all brought under
notice by the zealous exhibitor, and the uncouth — stay, I have used a
wrong word, and shall be presently corrected by Downs himself, with whom

REMINISCENCES OF ANDREW DOWNS. XV

1 heartily agree that there is nothing really ugly or frightful in nature,
and though these terms are often employed conventionally, it is really
very snobbish to do so, unless in the case of accident or design, by which
nature has been made to fall short of her work. It appears to me the
height of arrogance to criticize or disparage any of nature's handiwork.
Wherein lies our ability to judge? "Ask a toad," says Voltaire, "what
is beauty, the supremely beautiful, the TO aaMv \ He will tell you, it is
my wife, with two large eyes projecting out of her little head, a broad
and flat neck, yellow belly, and dark brown back." So, friend visitor, be
warned not to revile even the toad in the presence of our naturalist, or
perchance he may cause thee to be ashamed of thy speech.

Within a little paled enclosure adjacent to the yard are the wood-ducks,
the gems of the collection. To see these beautiful birds looking their best, we
must choose a bright day, such as has been described. No stuffed specimens
can show the vivid colouring of the living and healthy bird in its prime.
Many of the glossy hues fade in death, as well as the rich colouring on the
I'.pper mandible, of the iris and legs, and which cannot be artifically rendered
with justice to the bright tints of life. The wood-duck, so called from its
habit of roosting and building in trees, is a rather rare summer visitor
in this province. It loves to make its nest in hollows in tall trees, by the
banks of forest streams far from the haunts 01 man. Its Latin name
(Anas sponsa) signifies the bride-duck, "a pretty name for a pretty
creature," as Frank Forester says of it. As Downs chases them over the
brook which trickles through this enclosure, and up the sunny bank, that
we may the better observe the play of the light on their gorgeous plum-
age, we notice how strictly they keep in pairs, each drake accompanying
his soft, modest-looking duck, and continually uttering a little, subdued
cry — peet, peet. I have seen these birds in their wild state on the Shuben-
acadie; once on Gold River, and, more frequently, in the wild river soli-
tudes of northern New Brunswick, when, as our invading canoe scared
them from their haunts, they would fly down stream, their brightly-
painted forms standing out against the dark background of fir-forest in
the soft light of a summer's afternoon. A flock of almost equally beauti-
ful little ducks, natives of South America, with less gorgeous, but
exquisitely marked plumage and showy crimson spots on the bill, occupies
the same cage as the wood-ducks, where also stalks a very conceited and
rather obtrusive crane from the Mississippi, who marches around you,
apparently earnestly regarding the ground, but really meditating as to
the prudence of indulging in an old failing — that of casually driving his
long, sharp beak through your boot.

We cannot fail to "notice the tameness of the swallows (the white-
bellied wood- swallow), which breed in the little boxes set up for them
round the house, and sometimes but a few feet above the ground. Quite
regardless of your presence, they continue their nest-building or feeding

XVI PROCEEDINGS.

their young almost within reach of your hand. I like to see these swallow
•boxes set up round country houses; they seldom fail to attract a pair of
tenants, and nothing is more pleasing than to hear their twittering song,
as they busily flit past the window, when awakening on a bright summer's
morning.

Many other wild birds also chose these grounds for their family
residence. A pair of golden-winged woodpeckers have built in an old stump
close to the house for several seasons; robins' nests are met with every-
where ; last year a pair hatched two broods in a low fir bush by the side
of the glass-house; and in the shrubberies, close to the paths, mafny,
varietiees of warblers may constantly be seen throughout the summer
flitting to and from their closely-hidden nests. Nor is their confidence
misplaced. Downs may apply the words of our gentle-minded Cowper in
the " Winter Walk at Noon " :

" These shades are all my own. The timorous hare,
Grown so familiar with her frequent guest,
Scarce shuns me; and the stock-dove unalarm'd
Sits cooing in the pine tree, nor suspends
His long love-ditty for my near approach."

Sure of protection and ample fare, many migratory birds spend the
long, cheerless winter in these grounds. One of these late, cold, dull days,
by which the advance of the spring is this year so retarded, I heard the
first song-bird here, the joyous note of the song-sparrow emanating from
a thicket in the pheasant's enclosure. The little bird had been a guest
all winter. Blue-birds (Junco Tiiemalis] and robins also remain. The
latter are often seen during this season in many places in the neighbour-
hood.

It is very satisfactory to see robins and all other small birds now
protected by law from being shot within the precincts of the city; whereas
formerly they were continually stalked and fired at, particularly in the
spring before mating, when the former birds hop over open grass-plots
from which the snow has disappeared, in search of worms, in large flocks.
Hard times do these appear for the early visitors, and many a buffeting
snow-storm and hard-binding frost drives them to the verge of starvation
before the new land flows for them with milk and honey, as the numbers
of dead robins found on the snow-covered fields in the very cold weather
of March, 1863, testified. Instead of cruel persecution, our small birds
are deserving of encouragement and protection. In England the long-
sustained suspicions of the farmer and the peasant as to the destructive-
ness of many species have been allayed, and every hedge-row is jubilant
with songsters; whereas in France scarce a bird is to be seen in many dis-
tricts, not only from their supposed noxious qualities, but from the com-
prehensive spirit of the term " la chasse " as pursued by French gunners.

REMINISCENCES OF ANDREW DOWNS. XV11

" You call them thieves and pillagers ; but know
They are the winged wardens of your farms.
* * * * *

And think of your woods and orchards without birds !
Of empty nests that cling to boughs and leaves,
As in an idiot's brain remembered words
Hang empty 'mid the cobwebs of his dreams!

But to return from this digression to Downs's feathered captives who
are apparently not a whit less happy than the wild birds who flit around
them.

Leaving the motley assemblage of poultry and water-fowl in the yard,
we enter the shrubberies by soft tanned walks along which are scattered
the clean-looking, roomy cages allotted to a variety of feathered creatures.
Here is an airy little tenement devoted to silver pheasants. The neatness
of their plumage and the graceful sweep of their tails render them,
exceedingly ornamental; but they are, withal, so pugnacious that two
separated males apparently devote their whole lives to pacing up and
down the dividing wire netting, challenging each other to mortal combat.
The silvery plumage of their necks and backs is beautifully pencilled with
minute lines, and strongly relieved by their glossy black breasts and
bodies. We so generally see birds with the lightest colours beneath, tiiat,
when this rule is excepted, a strange appearance is produced and the bird
would almost seem inverted. Another instance is that of our common bob
o'Lincoln in its summer dress. Further on, whole groves of young spruces
are enclosed and netted over; and against their dark foliage the resplend-
ent plumage of the golden pheasants shines in bright contrast as they run
to and from the cover and their littie house in the corner. Then there
are aviaries with flocks of plump snow-buntings; another where the merle
and throstle, so often mentioned in the poetry of the fields of merry Eng-
land, nestle in the fir tree, happily forgetful of the hawthorn bush or oak
coppice; the plumed and Californian quails from the far west pick lazily
at ant-hills or squat in groups on the warm, sunny banks, under fern and
low bushes tastefully introduced in their enclosures; whilst, in another,
the spruce partridge of our own forests may be seen pruning the foliage of
his favourite larch or silver-fir.

These grounds offer great natural advantages for the tasteful arrange-
ment of a zoological garden: the sloping hillside topped by thick woods i&
continually broken by mossy hollows with numerous little brooks to which
the woodcock and bittern often resort; and the dry, grassy knolls between
r.re adorned by clumps of young firs and white birches, and the olive green
tufts of the ground-juniper, amongst the roots of which the retiring may-
flower trails towards the light.

By the side of one of these little valleys, dammed so as to form a
miniature lake over which a picturesque rustic bridge is thrown, stands a
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sri., VOL. XII. Fuoc -B.

Xviii PROCEEDINGS.

building known as the " glass house," a light and ornamental structure
of painted wood-work and glass used as a green-house and aviary for
rare tropical birds, an aquarium room, and a museum; and from the
summit of the tower can' be obtained a beautiful view of the grounds and
the surrounding scenery.*

The aquarium is very attractive; a constant stream of water, derived
from a more elevated pond, flows through all its compartments. Here
may be seen many inhabitants of our lakes and streams — the silver dace
and the yellow perch, in all respects similar to the English species save
in his bright golden hue; the cat-fish of hideous mien, whose wide, gaping
jaws and voracity render him the tyrant of the lake; the little terrapin
or mud turtle of our alluvial rivers basking on semi-submerged rock-work
with gorgeously coloured species from other climes; and several other
amphibious reptiles, including the yellow-throated and leopard frogs, and
the large yellow-spotted salamander common to our little rocky pools by
the road-side, though seldom seen, as it is strictly nocturnal in its habits.
But now let us glance at the birds of prey encaged close by. A splen-
did pair of bald-headed eagles at once arrest our attention, though they
have not arrived at the mature age necessary to produce the condition of
plumage from which their misnomer, " bald-headed," has been derived. In
the adult bird the head, neck and tail become pure white; the pointed
hackles of the neck laying in sharp regularity on the close bronze plumage
of the bird's body. The iris, beak, nostrils and legs assume a bright
golden orange hue. This is the chosen emblem of the United States — the
bird of America. The description given of its habit of depriving the
osprey of its finny prey, by the great ornithologist of this continent.
Wilson, is a beautiful piece of composition; as likewise is that of Audubon,
the subject of which is the eagle's attacK upon the wild swan in mid-air.
There is about this bird an unmistakable air of fierceness and Intractabil-
ity; and it continually indulges in a habit of throwing back its head and
giving vent to screams of defiance which must strike terror into the
breasts of the captives around.

In adjacent cages sit several specimens of our native birds of wisdom

the owls. These are the great horned owls whose deep-toned hooting
emanating from the dark spruce swamps is so familiar to the sojourner in
tjhe woods. Heard on a calm, still nignt in the forest, this sound is most
impressive, and, though so connected with melancholy associations, it
brings with it nevertheless a strange feeling of pleasure, probably owing
to the mournful notes harmonizing with the mystery with which our
imagination delights to invest the woods at night, especially when fitfully
illumined by the moon. There is a dapper little owl of this species — quite
a beau, trim in plumage and wide-awake — confined in one of these cages,
who will treat us to some of his music whenever we approach him; and
we see, if we look closely, that in emitting the sound, the bill is not opened
* The glass-house is now (1908) almost in ruins.

HKMINISCENCES OF ANDREW DOWNS. xix

in the least; the sound is very gutteral and the throat swells to a large
hemispherical bag and at the same time the tail is raised. The older
birds of his species sit far back in the shade under the sloping roof,
apparently absorbed in moody reflection; for we cannot look at their great
eyes, over which the covering membrane, which acts a» an eyelid, slowly
falls and is withdrawn, and the apparent abstraction evinced by their
form and attitude, without fancying them to be cogitating deeply.

" Upon a beam aloft he sics,
And nods, and seems to think, by fits."

A much brighter-looking bird, however, appears in the form of the
snowy owl, confined close by, a stray wanderer from Arctic climes to our
woodlands on an extended hunt for rabbits. His quick eyes, which lie
uses to seek his prey by daylight, unlike most of his family, follow our
every movement. Dr. Gilpin states that this bird may be seen sitting
in the full glare of the sun, Avatching the rabbit burrows on the sands of
Sable Island, of which he has of late years become a visitor.

Finally our agreeable guide and entertainer conducts us to the top
of the hill, where, standing on a huge, erratic boulder of granite which
has been left by glacial action in its present site on a bare plateau of slate
rock, we may enjoy the beautiful and comprehensive view which opens to
us as we turn. Beneath us and at our right are the gardens, with their
walks and shrubberies, and the .white tops of the bird houses. Beyond,
the North West Arm stretches away to the outer harbour; Thrumcap,
projecting from the eastern shore, just coming into the picture; and the
wooded top of McNab's Island appearing above the south end of the
peninsula. The snugly ensconced little sheet of water called Chocolate Lake
is partly seen. On the high lands of the peninsula which ridges in front
of us, the citadel and its signal station, the common, the fields and farms
dotted with white houses, and the wooded spur of Bockaead successively
meet our view as we sweep the horizon. Then the blue expanse of Bed-
ford Basin and its distant hills, with the little, white tower of the three-
mile church nestling in a fir grove by its shores in the foot of the valley;
the picture being bounded on our extreme left by the slopes of Geizer's hill,
thickly wooded and skirted at its foot by the road which winds round the
valley through the pretty settlement known as the Dutch Village.

And now we retrace our steps, and take leave, of our worthy guide
with many a good wish for his long enjoyment of the beauties of nature
in the pleasant retreat which he has chosen. His conceptions of her teach-
ings, and the mode in which he imparts them to the visitor, are aliKe
original and sound ; and few can leave the zoological gardens at the North
West Arm without realizing that they have spent a happy afternoon with
Downs.

XX PROCEEDINGS.

" Happy who walks with him! whom what he finds
Of ^ flavor or of scent in fruit or flower.
Or what lie views of beautiful or grand
In nature, from the broad majestic oak
To the green blade that twinkles in the sun,
Prompts with remembrance of a present God."

It was a year or so (it may have been two) after the foregoing
article was published that. I find in my diary some notes on an
incident in which I was much interested at the time, the packing
and shipment of some live specimens of moose-deer at Walton
Cottage gardens, consigned to Victor Emmanuel, then King of
Italy, who was an enthusiastic acclimatizer of large game in his
grounds at Pisa. The following is an extract from an account of
this incident which I forwarded to the London Field. I may here
mention that at this time much interest was taken in acclimatiza-
tion, to forward which there were societies in London, Paris, and
elsewhere. In Great Britain the leading men in this direction
were Buckland, Grantley, Berkeley, Tegetmeir and others. I have
not heard much of this subject of late, but curiously enough saw
in a paragraph in my Morning Post quite recently a request from
the government of New Zealand for as many as fifty moose deer,
if procurable, to be forwarded from Canada to the antipodes. Of
course the deer would go to the south island where both pine trees
and snow are to be found, but what would their food consist of?
That would prove, I think, the crux of the experiment.

It appears that Victor Emmanuel, imbued with the spirit of
acclimatization, had been procuring a number of the deer of the
New World through an agent who made known to our
provincial naturalist his majesty's wants with respect to the
monarch of the North American forest — the moose. The right
man and the right place were selected ; but although in no part of
North America is the rnoose-deer more plentiful than in Nova
Scotia, living in our small forest areas nearer the borders of civi-
lization than anywhere else, so few of these noble animals are taken
young, and successfully reared, that but three could be procured
on that occasion throughout the province.

The trio consisted of two cow-moose of the ages of two and a
half years and eighteen months, and a sprightly young bull-calf of

REMINISCENCES OF ANDREW DOWNS. XXI

seven months, the latter as nearly resembling an overgrown juvenile
donkey as could well be imagined on the part of a member of the
deer family. The youngest of the cows had been for the past year
a much-admired resident in Downs's gardens, where, perfectly
domesticated, and roaming in a railed-off patch of its native
thickets, it had thriven and afforded much pleasure in contempla-
tion of its strange action and configuration, so often described as
uncouth, but so beautifully adapted to its natural state of existence.
The larger animal was three-quarters grown, the finest tame speci-
men I had ever seen; she had been brought in from a distant
settlement, the property of a farmer whose clearings verge on
woods where moose are plentiful, and had been long a pet of the
settlement, feeding with the domestic cattle and from the child-
ren's hands, and occasionally roaming at large in the woods. " I
can't tell when I can bring her down," said the settler to Downs,
when he offered to part with her; "I guess she's away off in the
woods just now." But the next time her ladyship took a notion of
returning to a state of civilization, the stable door was shut on her,
and, driven into a roughly constructed cage of planks, she was
shipped and brought down to Halifax in a schooner. A few days
after her arrival J went to Downs's gardens to witness the packing
of the moose for their voyage to Boston. A little previous fasting,
and their excessive fondness for turnips, readily induced them to
step boldly into the narrow crates prepared for them, so narrow
that when we stuffed in the wadded bolsters to prevent their being
injured by struggling or motion on board the packet, it was as
tight a fit as could be imagined. " Pack them as tight as they can
stand," were the express orders. I never saw animals take such
sudden and close confinement so philosophically. Their long
heads and prehensile mouffles were stretched out of the apertures
in front, eagerly expecting the chopped turnips, without manifest-
ing the least alarm at the novelty of their position ; and they were
most quietly and satisfactorily drawn into town on a long truck,
and swung in their cages on to the deck of the packet. Mr. Downs
himself accompanied them, taking plenty of their natural food, i. e.
the tops of young birch and maple, and a few evergreen branches,
such as the Canadian hemlock and silver fir, to which they are like-

xxii PROCEEDINGS.

wise partial, especially in winter. The cases were securely lashed
across-ship, and the vessel started with favourable auspices. Alas,
I have now to chronicle disaster ; they made a capital run, almost
within sight of Boston light, when one of our terrible mid-winter
gales sprang up from the south-west, and drove them nearlv the
whole distance back. For nearly a week was the vessel most merci-
lessly buffeted, whilst the seas dashed over her; and under the
influence of intense frost everything on board was coated with
huge masses of ice. Suffice it to say, that the two smaller moose
died from the roughness of the passage and their cramped position..
The survivor would doubtless have perished likewise, had not two
cages been knocked into one so as to allow her to lie down and
stretch her limbs. This she always did when the weather was
heaviest, invariably lying with her head towards the seas; and she
was landed in Boston, and thence by train at New York in excellent
health, and without a gall or scratch. This fine cow — whose value,
I almost omitted to mention, was greatly enhanced by her being
heavy with calf — was joyfully received by the agent for trie King
of Italy, and shared with a herd of thirty wapiti (also the property
of his majesty, and alike awaiting a passage to Europe), the atten-
tions of many visitors in the Empire City.

Although the passage which has proved so disastrous to the
poor moose was unusually rough and protracted, even for a sailing
vessel, we have a wrinkle here in connection with shipment of large
animals of the deer tribe. Close packing, even with lots of
padding, will not answer. Applied, perhaps, to short voyages,
and where the animal is restive, it may do ; but the exhaustion from
a cramped and long-^continued position, where it has to bear every
shock as part and parcel of the ship, has proved fatal in the cases
noted. On the opposite side, witness the largest moose quietly
lying down in bad weather as soon as chance to do so was allowed
her, and her always adapting her position to the motion of the
vessel and the run of the sea. I, therefore, agree with Mr. Downs
in the idea that a crate shaped like a hen-coop, well padded on the
sides, and especially above, is the best form of cage for transport-
ing large animrls of the ruminant order on long sea-voyages.

REMINISCENCES OF ANDREW DOWNS. XXlil

As a suitable animal for acclimatization in England, I cannot
recommend the moose. The great objection is the nature of his
food; he is exclusively a wood-eater, living upon the tender
branches of deciduous trees, with a proportion, more particularly in
winter, of those of evergreens. No plantation or copse in England
could thrive with a couple of moose in it; and, though fond of
roots, such feeding would prove fatal, as I know from experience;
whilst, with one exception, I have never seen a tame moose accept
hay or grass. If it were not for this, we would have in the moose
an animal most appropriate for acclimatization — with the speed
of a trotting horse, the strength and endurance of an ox, a docile
and useful beast of burden, and good for food. Its flesh, being
very open in its fibre, is very digestible, possessing a good flavour
between that of beef and that of venison. It always commands a
good price in the market when in season.

Speaking of this animal, the moose was once exceedingly plenti-
ful in the forests of Nova Scotia, and is still holding its own
despite increasingly restricted areas, and the large ammal tribute
it is called on to pay to the sportsman — to say nothing of the
poachers, back-wood settlers or greedy Indians. And so the con-
stant employment of Downs as the one taxidermist in the province
who could set up a head and horns, can be well imagined. All
through the autumn and that part of the winter during which
moose-hunting was legal, a stream of trophies from the woods
came up to his work-sheds. The skins of the heads were there
pickled in preservative liquor in vats, and the horns, with a portion
of the frontal bone of the skull, cut out and labelled with the
shooter's name. He employed a trusted workman to carve out the
pine block (it was always of yellow pine) on which the skins were
stretched and united round the horns, which were with the con-
necting piece of the skull firmly screwed down. It was quite a
sight to see these magnificent sporting trophies ranged in his shed.
Downs stuffed many hundreds of these moose heads as well as cari-
boo (I see Mr. Piers states eight hundred in his paper) and they
are scattered all through Europe and America. Some I know of are
still in good preservation after fifty years of resistance to time and
the attacks of moth. One of his finest specimens is (or was) I

XXIV PROCEEDINGS.

believe in Buckingham Palace, having been presented to Her Late
Majesty Queen Victoria; whilst a whole family stuffed by him
appeared in the Nova Scotia Court at the Paris exhibition of 1867.
His charge was moderate; I think I used to pay him twenty or
twenty-five dollars for setting up my own heads. The true-to-
nature modelling of the curious nose of the moose was his forte.
The eyes he put in, so he told me, were the upper part of the
inturned glass at the bottom of a black bottle. I never heard any-
one express aught but delight on receiving his trophy back from
the hands of Downs.

To get the heads out of the woods to his establishment
what work we sometimes had ! To back tne huge thing
out of the woods, and such woods too, with swarms of blow-
flies trying to lay tneir eggs on it (I am speaking of the warm
days of the autumn hunting, in the winter the snow makes it much
easier) was often a difficult undertaking even for an Indian, who
carries it over his shoulders by the "carrying-strap," and he is liable
to have one of the great moose-ticks fasten on his neck — " all same
as pieces of fire, he bite." I remember once coming out of Beaver-
bank woods, twenty miles 'from Halifax, with a splendid head we
had shot while " calling " the night before. My friend was my
guest, who had come out from England to see the woods, and being
most anxious to get the head into Downs' s pickling tub the same
day, I started off with about sixty pounds weight on my back, hop-
ing to do it alone, the Indian being obliged to go back to the hunt-
ing ground to get the meat with the settlers' help. I did not get
far. It was too much, and we had to obtain a cart or rather a
waggon.

But to return from this digression to the occupant of Walton
Cottage gardens. He called it Walton Cottage after visiting
Charles Waterton, of Walton Hall, the author of Wanderings in
South America, of which more anon. There were many additions
to the zoo after my descriptive paper of 1864 was written, to wit
bears, polar and black; moose, seal, beaver, etc. White bears are
often procurable in Halifax, brought in by vessels trading with
Labrador. The specimen I saw at Downs's was always consistently
ferocious. Those of the black species, on the other hand, are pleas-
ant to have as pets. The Indians often bring them in. I bought

REMINISCENCES OF ANDREW DOWNS. XXV

a young one for a dollar which did a deal of damage in my barrack
room the first hour I possessed him, and, finally, by attacking my
legs, compelled me to get on a chair. But he was an exception. I
gave him to an officer going home — poor Welsford who fell at the
Eedan, and I believe the animal came to a had end, having
injured a child. I gave him porridge and milk, and I well remem-
ber his comical snarling face as he greedily plunged his head into
it up to his eyes, growling the whole time. My wife and I, visiting
Downs's establishment one afternoon, found two young bears
encaged there making a great fuss, the owner having gone into
town and left them without food — not a usual trait with Downs.
T went up the hill to saunter awhile in the woods, and on return-
ing, found her pacifying the youngsters by feeding them out of a
child's bottle obtained from the house, one at a time, on her lap,
to the astonishment of the boy who was left in charge. Perliaps I
had better state here that a young bear, even at mid-summer, is not
a very big animal. At birth, generally in February, it is surpris-
ingly diminutive, not more than six inches in length, almost
hairless, blind for the first month, and weighs less than a pound;
four to six hundred pounds being the weight of the adult bears,
t. e. the black species, the only one found in Nova Scotia.

Downs had some trouble with his seals. They were the ordinary
harbour species (Phoca vitulina), frequently seen in Halifax
harbour and in the North West Arm. Though wired in an enclos-
ure with a pond and running water, the smell of the sea so near
was too much for them, and several times have they been met on
the road, bumping themselves along down the hill to the head of
the Arm near which, the alarm having been given, they were
recaptured.

To Downs the province owes the introduction of both the Eng-
lish pheasant and the Canadian red-deer (Cervus virginianus),
and I find the following- paragraphs in a paper entitled, "Provin-
cial Acclimatization," which I contributed, in December, 1864, to
the N. S. Institute of Natural Science, of which I was at that time
a vice-president:

" With the fact of the introduction and breeding of the Eng-
lish and gold and silver pheasants at Mr. Downs's establishment we

XXVI PROCEEDINGS.

are well acquainted; and the most interesting fact is the well-
ascertained capability of the English pheasant to live and find its
own subsistence in our woods through a rigorous winter. Why
should not this experiment be continued?"

I have known golden pheasants on the property of Mr. Faulk-
ner, the brewery, Dartmouth, to roost out away from their weather-
proof house in the branches of fir trees, uninjured in any way, on a
cold night when 23 degrees of frost were registered.

And as to the Virginian deer, the following appears in the
same paper : — " The red deer then of Maine and the Canadas, and
more recently of New Brunswick, appears to be perfectly adapted
for an existence in the Nova Scotian woods — a graceful species,
but little inferior to the red deer of Europe, affording the excellent
venison with which the New York and Boston markets are so well
supplied. Indeed it is already with us, for a small herd of healthy
animals may now be seen at Mr. Downs' s gardens, to whom the
country is already indebted for many an unassisted attempt at real,
practical acclimatization."

Between the above and the present date, 1906, this beautiful
deer has been turned out and so thriven that it is be found now in
every county of the province. Its greatest enemy, the wolf, is
not found in Nova Scotia, though frequent in the adjacent
intervals a troop of these marauders comes in over the connecting
isthmus and is heard of here and there from various counties which
it visits, but the species has never been known to stay. There is
something about this province which does not suit its fancy. In
frequent wanderings I have only once seen the track of a wolf in
Nova Scotian woods. It was chasing a young moose in deep snow.
Thanks to the ceaseless efforts of the Game Protection Society
which was inaugurated at Halifax in 1852 when I was present, the
province has definitely added Cervus virginianus to its larger game.
It is everywnere increasing. One of the society's agents speaks of
it in last year's report as " coming out in the fields among the
cattle on several occasions."

Though spoken of in the yearly reports as being found wild
here and there, the pheasant is not doing so well, as the fox, the

REMINISCENCES OF ANDKEW DOWNS. XXV11

wild-cat, .the eagle,, owl,, and the rabit-snares are against it, with
the great host of the weazel tribe — ermine, mink and marten.
Kaccoons, too, which are numerous in some parts of the province,
are most destructive to game birds nesting on the ground.

In one of his papers 011 Nova Scotian birds, contributed by
Downs to the N. S. Institute of Natural Science in 1865, Downs
writes thus of the English sparrow : — " What a treat it would be
to see these saucy fellows preening their feathers on our roofs and
collecting in dozens round our doors to pick up the scraps, and I
would even go so far as to say, gobbling up the cherries in our
gardens; for who would not make a sacrifice of some kind to colo-
nize his domain with such a family of merry friends?" Anent
which Mr. Harry Piers, the secretarv of the Institute, writes me
the following answer to a question about the sparrow, dated Hali-
fax, 1904 : " Yes, the European sparrow is met with every-
where in Nova Scotia, I am sorry to say. I once was his friend,
but with all the evidence there is against him, I have had to turn
over to his enemies/'

Thoughtlessly brought over the Atlantic to eat up the canker-
worm in the trees of American cities, the sparrows did well for a
while, but with change of climate soon developed other tastes.
They became almost wholly seed and vegetable eaters, devouring
young buds on vines and trees, and injuring all cereal crops, so that
they are now protested against as bad citizens and criminals and
condemned by everyone. They increase very fast and spread every-
where, driving away tne native birds, taking their homes and
making themselves generally nuisances. The same storv comes
from Bermuda, where they are driving out the two wild birds of
that colony — the beautiful blue and red birds. Another instance
of the terrible mistakes which may be made by ill-advised accli-
matization.

Although it has been stated that Downs was rather shy of letter-
writing, there was one man whose correspondence he prized and
whose praises he was never tired of recounting — the veteran
naturalist, Charles Waterton, of Walton' Hall, Yorks, the author
of Wanderings in South America, and of many essays on

XXV111 PROCEEDINGS.

natural history subjects — " My worthy master in ornithology/'
he calls him, as he quotes from the well-known book which I own
took my own fancy immensely when, as a boy, I first read in its
pages the wonders of the South American forest. In those untra-
velled times there was no library without it. On Downs's return
from Europe, which he visited in 1864, being given a free passage
in H. M. S. Mersey, and taking over many cases of birds as well as a
stuffed moose, I went to see him, to hear him recount his adven-
tures. At that time I lived with my family on the shores of the
Arm and was a near neighbour. He had received many attentions
from savants and had been a guest of Waterton. He spoke of Water-
ton's tenderness of feeling towards all created things, especially the
feathered tribes ; how he would allow no guns to be fired by sports-
men or others on his estate, how the wild birds all seemed to
understand him, and what a motley gathering there was in the
groves and shrubberies of the park at Walton Hall ; how he would
inveigh against the superficial arid absurd natural history as often
published in his days both in England and the United States, even
Wilson and Audubon coming under the lash of his criticism. " You
should hear him," said Downs, " talk of the Hanoverian rat, the
only dumb creature I really believe which he really hated."
Waterton being of an old English Koman Catholic family which
had held Walton Hall for centuries, had no good word for the
Hanoverian dynasty, and averred that he had evidence to prove
that the grey rat was part of the freight of the vessel that brought
over Dutch William. Anyhow, Walton Hall, besides having
some of Cromwell's musket balls lodged in the old wood of the
house porch, was more than ordinarily troubled by the grey rats,
the deadly foes and exterminators of the old English black rat,
both in Europe and America, which latter country it very soon
reached. I remember a specimen of the black rat being shown at
one of our Institute's meetings at Halifax, which had just been
killed in Water Street. It was then stated that up to about a
century ago it was the common vermin of both countries. In New
Zealand, too, the European grey has destroyed the native black rat,
once the sole animal food of the Maori, being the only indigenous
quadruped of the islands.

REMINISCENCES OF ANDREW DOWNS. XXIX

Frank Buckland, an old friend of my own,, was delighted to
meet Downs. Every one of note visited his grounds, including
our sovereign, King Edward, the late Duke of Edinburgh, Prince
Jerome Bonaparte, and many others. Pleasure excursions to the
head of the Arm by steamers often bore numbers of Halifaxians
bent on an afternoon's ramble in his charming domain.

Offered the post of superintendent of the New York Central
Park Menagerie in 1867, he declined the post through some mis-
understanding, and, giving up his grounds at the North West Arm,
died in Halifax on 26th August, 1892, aged eighty-one years all
but one month.*

In concluding this paper, I think I cannot do better than close
with the words of our friend in ending one of his contributions
to the proceedings of our Institute, the subject of which was the
land birds of Nova Scotia, read in 1865 :

" Having now arrived, gentlemen, at the end of my present
list, I must state that all the facts I have given may be safely
relied on as they are the result of forty years7 experience in bird
life. And I would, here, as it is the very first time I have ever
appeared as a reader in public, take the opportunity of counselling
the young men of Halifax to take more interest than they do in
the natural history of their country. Many an hour passed in
walking up and down Granville Street in tight boots might be
devoted far more profitably to studying the quiet scenes of nature.
If I had listened to the advice given me by the young men of my
time, I do not think I should have had the pleasure of appearing
here this evening; and instead of being happy, as I now am, in the
presence of my brother naturalists, and possessed of a cheerful
home to which I can retire, surrounded by my feathered favourites,
I should most probably either have descended to an early grave, or
been the habitual frequenter of the tobacco and dram shops. No ;
the country for me, before all the pleasure and grandeur of the
town. Old Waterton once said to me he would sooner be in the
woods than in the finest palace in Europe."

* Other particulars regarding his life, and a list of his published papers,
will be found in Mr. Piers's article before referred to.

XXX PROCEEDINGS.

General Hardy's paper was discussed by the PRESIDENT, DR. A.
P. REID, DR. A. H. MACKAY, W. L. BISHOP, H. PIERS, and T. C.
JAMES.

The SECRETARY was directed to convey 'to GENERAL HARDY the
thanks of the Institute for his interesting communication.

THIRD ORDINARY MEETING.

Assembly Room, Province Building, Halifax, 13th May, 1907.

THE PRESIDENT, MR. DOANE, in the chair.

It was reported that Louis L. MOWBRAY, of Hamilton, Ber-
muda, had been elected a corresponding member.

The SECRETARY read a letter from MR. STUPART, director of the
meteorological service, Toronto, informing the society that the
self-recording rain-gauge for Halifax, that had been asked for that
station in accordance with a resolution of the Institute of 9th April,
1906, had been received by the department and would shortly be
installed.

H. PIERS reported on behalf of the committee appointed on
llth March, that the committee had prepared a design for a seal
for the Institute, and had had a die engraved, which had been
approved by the council.

H. W. JOHNSTON, assistant city engineer, Halifax, read a paper
entitled, " The Run-off from a Small Drainage Area near Halifax,
N. S.," the drainage area in question-being that of Bayer's Lake,
a portion of the Chain Lakes w^ater-shed. The subject was dis-
cussed by E. L. FENERTY, P. A. FREEMAN, H. PIERS, and the
PRESIDENT.

W. L. BISHOP took the chair while the PRESIDENT, F. W. W.
DOANE, city engineer, Halifax, read a paper on " Halifax County-
Water Powers: (1) Starr Manufacturing Company's Power/'
(See Transactions, p. 21). The subject was discussed by E. L.
FENERTY, W. L. BISHOP, P. A. FREEMAN, and others.

HARRY PIERS,

Recording Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Scotmit Jnstitttte of (Science.

SESSION OF 1907-1908.

ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.

Assembly Room, Province Building, Halifax, llth
* November, 1907.

THE PRESIDENT, F. W. W. DOANE, C. E., in tlie chair.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS: (1) Deceased Members; (2) Tech-
nical Education.— By F. W. W. DOANE, 0. E., City
Engineer, Halifax.

GENTLEMEN, — In laying before you a brief review of the
events of the past year, one must face the unpleasant duty of
recording the losses, with especial reference to those who have
answered the last summons.

Since the opening of the last session the Institute has lost
some of its oldest members. The death-roll includes Dr.
Edwin Gilpin, Hon. D. McN. Parker, Professor George T.
Kennedy and Commander E. B. Tinling, R. N.

DR. EDWIN GILPIN, M. A., D. Sc., LL. D., F. G. S., F. E.
S. C., C. I. S. 0., who died at Halifax, July 10th, 190T, was
the son of the Rev. Dean Gilpin. His mother was a daughter
of the late Hon. T. C. Haliburton, the inimitable Nova Scotia
humorist, " Sam Slick. " Dr. Gilpin was born at Halifax on
the 28th day of October, 1850. He attended the Halifax
Grammar School, where he was prepared for entrance to

PROC. & TRANS. X. S. INST. Scr., VOL. XII, PROC. C.

(xxxi)

XXX11 PROCEEDINGS.

King's College under the able tuition of his father. He-
received his B. A. degree in 1871, after which he took a
special course in mining, geology and chemistry, and received
the degree of M. A. in 18T3. At the same time he won the
" Welsford," " General Williams " and " Alumni " prizes.

After leaving college he began the practical study of min-
ing engineering in Nova Scotia, especially in the Albion
collieries of the General Mining Association in Pictou county,,
and extended his observations in the leading mining districts
of Great Britain.

On the 21st day of April, 1879, he was appointed inspector
of mines by the government of Nova Scotia. In September
1881 he was appointed a member and made secretary of the
board of examiners of colliery officials. In October, 1886,
he succeeded to the office of deputy-commissioner of public
works and mines.

By royal warrant, November 9th, 1903, Dr. Gilpin
shared in the birthday honors conferred by His Majesty. In
recognition of continuous, valuable and faithful service to hi&
native province covering a period of one-quarter of a century
he received the imperial service order, the presentation
being made by the late Lieutenant-Governor Jones on March
23rd, 1904, before an assemblage of prominent citizens. Thi&
event was unique, as it was the first presentation of the order
made in the province (Dr. Murphy having received his at
Ottawa).

Dr. Gilpin claimed that he should be numbered among the
oldest of those who have been interested in this Institute. At
one of our meetings at which he was presiding he stated that
he remembered being present and watching as a boy the in-
itiatory meeting of the Institute in January, 1863, being the
more interested as the late Dr. J. Bernard Gilpin, his uncle,
who read the first paper in our proceedings, took an active
part.

His name first appears in our transactions in the record of
a meeting held March 10th, 1873, when he contributed a
paper on the grouping of the Pictou coal-seams. At this time

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXX111

lie was proposed as an associate member, as he was not then
living in Halifax. His uncle, then vice-president, was in the
chair. He was elected April llth, 1873, and became a mem-
ber on his removal to Halifax in 1879. He was elected a
member of council in 1881, and was re-elected at each annual
meeting since that date. In 1894-5 he was vice-president,
and in 1895-6 and 1896-7 he held the office of president. For
twenty-five years, therefore, he was prominent in the manage-
ment of the affairs of the Institute, while the period of his
membership extended over thirty-four years. The value of
his services to the society can be appreciated best by those
members who were intimately associated with him in scien-
tific work.

During his membership he communicated to the Institute
twenty-six papers principally in the department of geology
and mineralogy. While his work as published in our trans-
actions covers a large field and contributes most valuable
information regarding the mineral resources of the province,
it by no means includes all the publications from his pen. He
was the author of a popular work on the " Mines and Mineral
Lands of Nova Scotia " published in 1883, and of able con-
tributions to the transactions of several other societies includ-
ing the North of England Institute of Mining Engineers.
His exhaustive reports to the government of Nova Scotia
attest the ability of the man in the work for which he was
chosen. He was one of the original members of the Hoyal
Society of Canada, was elected a fellow of the Geological
Society of London, England, March llth, 1874, and was a
member of the American Institute of Mining Engineers and
the Canadian ' Society of Civil Engineers. In the latter
society he was a member of council in 1889.

The degree of D. Sc. was conferred upon him by King's
College, and that of LL. D. by Dalhousie University. In the
latter he was a member of the faculty of pure and applied
science, and lecturer on coal mining.

The^news of his death was received with general regret in
his native city; in the province where through his life work

XXxiv PROCEEDINGS.

he was known widely, personally and professionally; and
throughout Canada where his eminent knowledge made him
intimate with many leading scientists. To the Institute the-
loss is a serious one, while to those amongst us who have been
associated with him for years, who have known the kindly
nature of the man, the quiet humor inherited from his grand-
father and his readiness to advise and assist especially the
younger workers, the loss is a personal one — that of a friend
who had won our sincere respect, esteem and affection.

HON. DANIEL MC-NEIL PARKER, M. D.,who died at Dart-
mouth, November 4th, 190T, was the son of Francis Parker and
Janet McNeil, descendants of Loyalist ancestry. He was born
at Windsor, April 28th, 1822, and received his preparatory
training at the Collegiate School, Windsor, and at Horton
Academy. His preliminary medical studies were pursued
with M. B. Almon, M. D., in Halifax. In 1841 he went to
Edinburgh to complete his education. In 1845 he received
his diploma from the Royal College of Surgeons, and a gold
medal for surgery. In August of the same year he graduated
M. D. from Edinburgh University.

On his return to his native province he began the practice
of his profession, which continued for fifty years. To perfect
his knowledge of surgery he spent two years — 1871 and. 1873 —
in Edinburgh. On his return he opened an office as consult-
ing surgeon. It is claimed that he was the first surgeon in
Halifax to perform an operation with the use of an anaes-
thetic, having first had it administered to himself to prove its
safety. The first case in Halifax of the removal of ovarian
tumors — which had counted their victims by hundreds and
thousands — is said to have been performed by Dr. Parker, he
having assisted Dr. Keith of Edinburgh, the distinguished
specialist in such operations.

During his long and honorable career he was president of
the Nova Scotia and Dominion Medical Associations, a mem-
ber of most of the boards governing the charitable institutions
of the city, the hospitals, Y. M. C. A., Industrial School, etc.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXXV

In 110 institution did he take more interest than in the School
for the Deaf and Dumb. He was its president for thirty
years. He was commissioner of schools, governor of Acadia
College for twenty-five years, president of the Baptist Con-
vention and held many other offices.

He was appointed commissioner to the London exhibition
in 1851 by the Nova Scotia government, and received from
the Prince Consort a commemoration medal. He was a mem-
ber of the legislative council of his native province from
1867 to 1899, when failing health compelled him to resign.

He was a life member of the Institute, being elected dur-
ing the session of 1870-71.

In all branches of the art and science of medicine great
advances were made during the long period covered by his
practice; but he was ever in touch with the times, a diligent
student in progressive science.

He guarded zealously all legislation relating to the work
of the medical profession, and with the late Dr. Edward Far-
rell, was behind the act which created the existing sanitary
system of the city, and led to the great improvement that has
been made in the sanitary condition of Halifax.

His kindness of heart and genial and courtly manner made
him a general favorite, while his unquestioned integrity,
energy, activity and devotion to duty, won for him the esteem,
trust and honor of his fellow men.

PROFESSOR GEORGE THOMAS KENNEDY, M. A., D. So., F. G.
S., died at Wolfville, March 1st, 1907. He was a son of the
late William Kennedy of York, England. Dr. Kennedy was
born in Montreal January 4th, 1845. He received the rudi-
ments of his education at the Church Colonial School and
McGill Model and High Schools. He then entered McGill
University, and took his B. A. degree with first-class honors
in natural science in 1868, M. A. in 1872, and B. Sc. in 1873.

In 1869-70 he attended the Sheffield Scientific School at
Yale College, New Haven, where he took a select course of
post graduate studies, including practical chemistry, miner-

XXXVI PROCEEDINGS.

alogy, mining, assaying, German, etc. On his return to
Montreal he became assistant to Sir J. W. Dawson in the
chemical laboratory and museum of McGill College, and later
he entered the applied science department of that university
from which position he retired to accept an appointment to
the chair of chemistry and natural science in Acadia College,
Wolfville. Resigning in 1881 he was appointed in the fol-
lowing year professor of chemistry and geology in King's
College, Windsor. He was also for some years librarian and
curator of the college museum and vice-president of the
council.

Professor Kennedy has aided in the work of the Canadian
Geological Survey in various ways and conducted for a num-
ber of years a series of interesting observations in reference
to maritime life in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

He has been an associate member of the Institute since
November 9th, 1882, and was also an associate member of
nearly all of the scientific societies in Canada, a member of
the American and of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, and a fellow of the Geological Society of
London, England. He received his honorary degree of D.Ss.
from King's College in 1890. As a geologist, mineralogist and
zoologist he occupied no inferior rank in the Dominion of
Canada.

CAPTAIN E. B. TINLING died at Halifax December 22nd,
1906. He was born in 1849, and entered the British navy
at an early age. After rising to the rank of commander he
.secured commutation of his service and retired, going to Win-
nipeg, where he purchased a farm. Later he commanded a
passenger steamer on the Pacific, but forfeited that position
when an act was passed providing that captains of United
States passenger steamers should be citizens of that country.
Later he received an appointment in the marine department,
and for some time previous to his death was stationed in
Halifax as nautical examiner. He had been a member of
ii.e Institute for a short time only.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXX Vll

Treasurer's Report

The removal of Mr. McCarthy from Halifax left us with-
out a treasurer. He had reorganized and systematized the
financial work and was making good progress in bringing it
i.i] > to' date. His books are submitted to-night and a financial
stalement can be given from them.

Technical Education.

In the rapid march of science no more important step has
been noted during the year just closing nor in the annals of
the Institute than the manly stride taken by the government
•of Nuva Scotia in providing for the establishment of a Tech-
nical College and local technical schools. "The technical
education act " was passed since our last annual meeting,
and at this moment a technical school is being opened in the
<3ity of Halifax. So much has been said, written and pub-
lished during the last two years in reference to the advant-
ages to be gained by, and the necessity for, the establishment
of such educational institutions, that a brief reference only
must be permitted in these rambling remarks.

The members of the Institute will remember with pride
that Prof. J. Gr. MacGregor, who held office in our society for
years, strongly impressed upon the public the necessity
for this important educational move. About a quarter
of a century ago, before thj rapid growth of correspondence
schools had commenced, he pointed out the incompleteness of
our educational system, the handicap suffered by our young
men through lack of training in scientific methods and the loss
io the country in consequence of the absence of modern
methods in industrial occupations.

The purpose of the technical college at Halifax being to
afford instruction and professional training in metallurgical,
civil, mining, mechanical, chemical and electrical engineer-
ing and for scientific research, it cannot fail to stimulate the
Institute, add to its membership, increase the value of its
transactions, introduce new workers in the different depart-
ments of science and inject new life.

xxxviii PROCEEDINGS.

The central institution will have a .corps of skilled
scientific men, and thoroughly equipped laboratories in which
can be solved the problems that perplex our local engineers,
manufacturers, miners, metallurgists, etc. Building stones,
woods, cements, iron and steel and all our local products that
may be used in the construction of bridges, roads, buildings,
piers, docks and other structures can be tested, and data of
inestimable value furnished to the Nova Scotia engineer.
Ores, coals, cokes, metallurgical processes can be tested and
investigated to the profit of the owner and of the province.

In every branch of engineering, the practising engineer is
too frequently confronted with the uncomfortable fact that
basic data relating to many features of his work are either
lacking altogether, or are existent in very meager and more or
less intangible form. This unfortunate condition prevails
to-day, not so much on account of a dearth of opportunity ta
acquire the information as for other reasons. These appear
to be : first, that many engineers employed on works where
data of extreme value can be procured are, or consider them-
selves to be, too busy to take advantage f their opportunities,
continuing to depend upon the work of others; secondly, that
a large volume of important information, gathered at the
expense of much toil, but under very satisfactory circum-
stances, is kept for private use alone. Happily such- a selfish
spirit seems to be rapidly disappearing, and engineers to-day
more frequently publish the facts gained privately from
research, experiment and practice.

In the realm of theoretical hydraulics, for instance, there
are many features of great importance which require accurate
demonstration, but which are frequently beyond the province
of the practising engineer. The field of research in this
branch of engineering alone is a broad one, and the new
school of science will have an opportunity to conduct trust-
worthy investigations the results of which should have a very
real value for the profession at large.

We want to know among other things the percentage of
rainfall lost by evaporation in Halifax, the run-off from water

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXXIX

sheds and the flow of streams ; the precipitation during heavy
showers; the best method of protecting cast iron pipes and
valves from the effect of salt water; how to preserve cast iron
pipes from tuberculation ; the best method of preventing the-
formation of frazil ice ; more information about water-hammer
in distribution and power line systems; more specific informa-
tion in reference to the effect of different kinds of water and
different classes of sewage on pipes and channels of varying
design and material ; the best method of harnessing the Bay
of Fundy tides; and numerous other facts and fundamental
data relating to various branches of hydraulics and hydraulic
engineering.

The aim of the old-time military engineer was destruction,
the object of the modern engineer is construction, the function
of the coming engineer is operation.

To the development of our natural resources we have ap-
plied a native energy, some capacity for organization and
considerable genius for mechanical affairs. Some portions of
the development are done on a great scale, but we often do it
very badly. It is time for us to inquire whether the thinga
that we are doing cannot be done better, if in fact others have
not developed and put to use much better methods than we
are employing.

Although the resources of a country form the basis of its
prosperity, much depends on the manner in which these-
resources are utilized, or in other words on the industrial
efficiency of the means and methods of production. We have-
developed and are developing great transportation systems,
we handle raw material on a large scale, machinery has been
applied even to the addressing of our letters and affixing
stamps; but it remains true, nevertheless, that with a few
conspicuous exceptions our manufacturing operations are car-
ried forward in trustful ignorance and disregard of many of
the factors upon which real industrial efficiency depends.
This is shewn in the stupendous waste which sometimes accom-
panies the first crude preparation of the raw material ; it is
shewn in the general absence of a true selective economy in-

xl PROCEEDINGS.

the apportionment of that raw material among the different
industries; and it is shewn again in the losses which attend
nearly every step in the progress of the raw material towards
the finished product. The absence of proper selective economy
in the adaptation of raw material to use is everywhere, as
when our railroads use untreated ties and poles, when coal tar
is burned as fuel, crystal alum used for purifying water, or
valuable publications printed on ground wood papers. We
-are still polluting our streams with wool grease, still wonder-
ing whether we can make alcohol from waste molasses, and
still buying coal without ref°rence to heating power.

When wastes so obvious and so easily remedied are every-
where taking heavy toll from our manufacturers, it is not sur-
prising that in all lines of productive effort subtle and elusive
problems present themselves and still further lower our indus-
trial efficiency. Steel rails break by thousands; trolley wires
snap; boilers corrode; milk cans, wire fences and iron roofing
rust; unsightly bloom appears on leather; cloth is stained;
paints fail to protect the metal underneath.

In a large proportion of cases those who are confronted by
the problem have neither the time, the training nor the equip-
ment required for its solution, and yet such problems and
thousands of others far more complex upon their face must be
solved if our industrial efficiency is to be brought to its proper
level.

No one at all conversant with the facts can doubt that our
industrial salvation must be found in a closer alliance between
the scientific worker and the actual agencies of production.

Since all material is subject to chemical laws, and its prop-
erties and behaviour are influenced or determined by these
laws, it follows that a large number, probably by far the
greater number of our industrial problems are problems in
applied chemistry. No better field for the initiation of work
intended to be directly effective in its bearing upon industrial
efficiency could therefore be chosen.

In selecting problems, preference should always be given
to those which promise in their solution to prove of greatest

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. xli

benefit to the community. Among subjects which may be
suggested for investigation may be mentioned the cause and
the prevention of the corrosion of lead pipe, the breakage of
steel rails, the waterproofing of cement structures, the utiliza-
tion of wastes which now involve nuisance and the preserva-
tion of iron fences and sheet iron in our climate.

Nothing will convince the average man of the industrial
value of research half so quickly as the actual solution of the
particular problems by which the individual manufacturer is
•confronted and perplexed.

In conclusion, before vacating the presidential chair,
allow me once more to thank you sincerely for the honor con-
ferred upon me in again electing me to the highest office in
the gift of the Institute.

I have much pleasure in opening the forty-sixth session.

It was announced that J. F. WHITEAVES, LL. D., F. G. S.,
F. E. S. C., etc., palaeontologist, zoologist and assistant
director of the Geological Survey of Canada, Ontario, had
been elected a corresponding member.

The librarian's report was presented by MR. PIERS, show-
ing that 1756 books and pamphlets had been received by the
Institute through its exchange-list during the year 1906 ;• and
1,440 had been received during the ten months (January to
October) of the present year, 1907. The total number of books
and pamphlets received by the Provincial Science Library
(with which the books of the Institute are incorporated) dur-
ing the year 1906, was 2,835. The number of books borrowed
in 1906 was 661, as against 539 in the previous year. Refer-
ence was also made to the desirability of having restored to
the library the annual grant which it had received from the
^government previous to 1905. The report was received and
adopted.

The secretary reported that durinj the past year no meet-
ings had been held by the King's County Branch of the Insti-
tute, and it would have to be considered as having ceased to
exist.

xlii PROCEEDINGS.

It being here reported that probably a new director of the
Geological Survey of Canada might be appointed in the near
future, some discussion took place as to the desirability of
having a man appointed who is familiar with the geology of
eastern Canada. The matter was referred to the incoming
council.

It was moved that the thanks of the Institute be conveyed
to His HONOR THE SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE or ASSEMBLY for
his courtesy in permitting the use of the assembly room as
a place of meeting.

The thanks of the society were presented to MR. PIERS for
his services as secretary.

Discus'sion took place as to the method of collecting fees,
and it was resolved the subject be taken up at the next ordin-
ary meeting.

The following were elected officers for the ensuing year
(1907-1908) :

President — PROFESSOR EBENEZER MAG^AY, PH. D., ex-
officio F. E. M. S.

V ice-Presidents — PROFESSOR J. EDMUND WOODMAN, D^
Sc., and WATSON L. BISHOP.

Treasurer — MAYNARD BOWMAN, B. A.

Recording Secretary — HARRY PIERS.

Librarian — HARRY PIER s .

Councillors without office — ALEXANDER McKAY; PROFES-
SOR FREDERIC H. SEXTON, B. S.; HENRY S. POOLE,
D. Sc., F. R. S. C.; H. W. JOHNSTON, C. E.; PROFES-
SOR A. STANLEY MACKENZIE, Ph. D., F. E. S. C. ;
PHILIP A. FREEMAN; F. W. W. DOANE, C. E.

Auditors — RODERICK McCoLL, C. E.; WILLIAM McKERRON.

The thanks of the society were presented to the retiring
president, MR. DOANE.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. xliii

FIRST ORDINARY MEETING.

Assembly Room,, Province Building, Halifax, December
9th, 1907. '

THE PRESIDENT, DR. EBENEZER MACKAY, in the chair.

H. Jermain M. Creighton, M. A., read a paper " On the
Influence of Radium on the Decomposition of Hydriodic
Acid." (See Transactions, vol. xii., pt. 1, p. 1). The paper
vas discussed by the PRESIDENT, DR. MACKENZIE, M. BOW-
MAN and DR. A. H.

SECOND ORDINARY MEETING.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 13th Jan., 1908.

THE PRESIDENT, DR. E. MACKAY, in the chair.

It was announced that the following had been elected
ordinary members: H. JERMAIN M. CREIGHTON, M. A.,
Dartmouth; PROFESSOR MURRAY McNsiLL and PROFESSOR A.
E. STONE, Dalhousie College, Halifax; A. L. McCALLUM,
B. Sc., analyst, Halifax; GEORGE B. BANCROFT, Halifax
County Academy; and A. C. HARLOW, Halifax.

A paper by CLARENCE L. MOORE, M. A., supervisor of
schools, Sydney, C. B., on "The Myxomycetes of Pictou
County, N. S.," was read by Dr. A. H. MacKay, who sup-
plemented the paper with observations of his own on the
subject. (See Transactions, p. 165). The paper was discussed
by the PRESIDENT, DR. H. H. READ, W. L. BISHOP and P. A.
FREEMAN, and a vote of thanks was passed to MR. MOORE.

THIRD ORDINARY MEETING.

City Council Chamber, Halifax, 12th February, 1908.

THE PRESIDENT, DR. E. MACKAY, in the chair.

The secretary announced that the following had been
elected members: ERNEST ROBINSON, B. A., Dartmouth
(ordinary), and CLARENCE L. MOORE, M. A., supervisor of
schools, Sydney, C. B. (associate).

xliv PROCEEDINGS.

H. PIERS was requested to interview those interested irr
order to ascertain what edition will probably be required of
the geological survey's forthcoming map-sheets of Halifax.

A. L. McCALLUM, B. Sc., read a paper on "The Action
of Organic Sulphur in Coal during the Coking- Process." (See
Transactions, p. 212). The subject was discussed by the PRE-
SIDENT, DR. A. H. MACKAY, DR. WOODMAN, M. BOWMAN, P.
A. FREEMAN, H. J. M. CREIGHTON, W. H. SOPER, and A. A.
HAYWARD. A vote of thanks was presented to the lecturer.

FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING.

Church of England Institute, Halifax, 30th March, 1908..

THE PRESIDENT, DR. E. MACKAY, in the chair.

PROFESSOR E. E. PRINCE, Dominion fishery commissioner,
Ottawa, read a paper on "The Fish-eating Habits of Medusae"
and also delivered and address on "The Present and Future
of our Fisheries," illustrated by the electric projection
lantern. The subject was discussed by S. Y. WILSON, A. H.
WHITMAN, and DR. A. H. MACKAY. A vote of thanks wa&
presented to the lecturer.

FIFTH ORDINARY MEETING.

City Council Chamber, Halifax, 13th April, 1908.

THE PRESIDENT, DR. E. MACKAY, in the chair.

H. JERMAIN M. CREIGHTON, M. A., read two papers: (1)
"A Few Chemical Changes influenced by Hadium : a new
method for the detection of Amygdalin " (see Transactions,
vol. xii, pt. 1, p. 34); (2) "The Behaviour of Solutions of
Hydriodic Acid in Light in the Presence of Oxygen" (see
Transactions, vol. xii, pt. 1, p. 49). The papers were dis-
cussed by the PRESIDENT, A. L. McCALLUM, D. M. FERGU-
SON, and DR. A. S. MACKENZIE.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. xlv

SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING.

Assembly Room, Province Building, Halifax, IXi.h May,
1908.

THE PRESIDENT, DR. E. MACKAY, in the cliair.

It was announced that H. B. Pickings, department of
mines, Halifax, had been elected an ordinary member.

HARRY PIERS, curator of the Provincial Museum, Halifax,
read a paper " On the Occurrence of Tin in Nova Scotia,'*
illustrated by specimens. (See Transactions, p. 239) . The
subject was discussed by the PRESIDENT, DR. WOODMAN, W.
L. BISHOP, and A. L. McCALLUM.

WATSON L. BISHOP, superintendent of water-works, Dart-
mouth, presented a "Note on Eels in Water-pipes" (see
Transactions, p. 640), which was discussed by F. W. W.
DOANE and JOHN FORBES.

PROFESSOR J. E. WOODMAN, D. Sc., delivered a lecture on
the "Economic Geology of Arisaig, N. S.," illustrated by
specimens of iron-ore, maps, etc. The subject was discussed
by the PRESIDENT, H. PIERS, and F. W. W. DOANE.

HARRY PIERS,

Recording Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

^otrnn Institute of Science.

SESSION OF 1908-1909

ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.

Assembly Committee Room, Province Building, Halifax;
14th October, 1908.

THE PRESIDENT, DR. EBENEZER MACKAY, in the chair.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS: (1) Progress of the Institute since 1890;

(2) Progress of Technical Education; (3) Technical

Education and Research; (1) The

Institute in the Public Service.

By PROFESSOR E. MACKAY, PH. D., Dalhousie College, Halifax.

In opening the present session of the Institute of Science, I
wish at the outset to take the opportunity — the first that has
presented itself — of expressing to the members of the Institute
my appreciation of the honor which they conferred upon me one
year ago in electing me to occupy the chair.

It has been the custom to make the opening meeting of each
year an occasion .for reviewing in its various aspects the work of
the past, and especially that of the past year. In accordance with
this usage we are to receive reports on our library and our finances,
and it is my duty and privilege to present to you some report upon
our present condition and activity as a scientific organization.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Scilt VOL. XII. PROC.-D

(xlvii

xlviii PROCEEDINGS.

Progress of the Institute since 1890.

The Institute enters to-night upon the forty-seventh year of its
existence. It is, therefore, old enough to permit us to indulge in
the exercise of looking backward with some interest and not, I hope,
without profit.

In 1890 the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science became
incorporated under the title of the "Nova Scotian Institute of
Science," thus proclaiming by its name what it had previously
acknowledged by its practice, that it took the whole domain of
science for its province. I shall select the date of this change as
setting a convenient limit to a brief retrospective glance at the work
of our society in the past. A survey of this period, covering
nearly two decades,, should furnish some help in answering the
question which is always of vital interest to a live organization :
Are we making progress ? With this in view I have collected some
statistics for the period mentioned showing (1) the. number and
length of the papers contributed each year and subsequently
published in the Transactions, and (2) the total number of
members for each year of the period.

First, then, as regards the papers, I find that for the sixteen
years ending in May, 1906, the last for which complete data are
available, there were 153 papers contributed, averaging about 13
pages in length. This gives an average annual contribution of
rather less than 10 papers, or in the aggregate, about 131 pages.
To show how these contributions have been distributed over the
above period, I have plotted two curves, one showing the variation
in the aggregate number of pages presented each year and the
other the variation in the number of papers. It is seen that with
the exception of a depression in 1892-3, and again in 1896-9, the
number of papers keeps pretty uniformly in the neighborhood of
10. The curve of pages shows much greater variation. The
minimum is reached in the first year of the present century, the
maximum three years later, in 1904-5. If we divide the period
of sixteen years for which the curve is drawn, into two 'equal parts
of eight years each, it will be found that the average annual
contribution for the last eight years is 155 pages, or about 50
pages more than the average for the first eight. We must not, of

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

course, infer too hastily on this account that real progress has been
made ; for knowledge is not always advanced in proportion to the
number of pages published in the name of science. But whether
to be taken as an index of progress or not, there can be no doubt
that the papers published in the Transactions are gradually
becoming longer. In an opening address to the Institute in 1888
Professor MacGregor stated that the average length of paper given
io the Institute for the first quarter century of its existence was
9 pages. The average for the sixteen years previous to 1907 was,
as we have seen, 13 pages, and for 'the last eight years of the same
period 15 J/2 pages.

During the past year eleven contributions were presented, of
which four were biological, four chemical, and three related to
geology and mineralogy. It is probable that in volume these will
at least equal the average for recent years.

To turn now to statistics of membership, the Institute started
in 1890 with a total membership of 91. This number rose to 131
in 1897 and to a maximum of 136 in 1899. It then fell somewhat
abruptly to 110 in 1901, and remained at about this number until
1906, when it fell to 104. The rapid decline for the two years
following 1899 is not to be considered a mark of decay. It merely
signifies that inactive members had been dropped from the list.

It is pleasant to be* able to report that during the past year
our membership suffered no losses by death. One ordinary member
resigned owing to his removal from the province. At the same
time one corresponding and nine ordinary members were added
to our number. This is a gratifying increase; but more gratifying
still is the fact that from these new members came five papers or
nearly half of the total contributions for the year.

Progress of Technical Education.

Viewing the present prospects of the Institute in the light
of past achievement we find on the whole much encouragement to
renewed effort in the future. Progress has not been rapid, but
there is reason to think it has been real. So much is a fair
inference from the facts that have just been presented. And if
we look bevond the walls of the Institute we shall find in some

PROCEEDINGS.

respects still greater cause for hopefulness. Take the recent
progress of /technical education for example. In reading the
addresses to the Institute of eighteen years ago and of some
succeeding years, one is struck with the spirit of hopeless
resignation in which the question of technical education is
discussed. The speakers, while realizing fully the need for
industrial education, saw no prospect of adequate provision
being made for it. In contrast with that outlook, we are now able
to look forward with confidence to seeing in the early future fully
developed courses, of all grades in applied science placed within
the reach of every deserving boy in Nova Scotia. Here, then, at
least, we have progress gratifying in the highest degree to members
of a scientific association such as this.

Technical Education and Research.

It is not to be expected that this extension of our educational
system will produce any immediate effect in increasing the amount
of research. For some time the whole energy of the new
department will have to be expended in developing courses for
mechanics and miners on the one hand and for engineers on the
other. But when these initial difficulties have been overcome we
may hope that neither men nor means will be wanting to undertake
the solution of some of the problems in applied science of most
importance to our provincial industries, to devise, for example,
improved methods of treating certain of our native ores, to
institute careful tests of our native woods, to investigate industrial
processes with a view to effecting economies in them, and similar
problems. The effect of such investigations would not be merely
to benefit directly some particular industry. A much more
important and far-reaching effect would be the gradual formation
of a bond between scientific research and the industries which
.might perhaps develop into such an intimate relation as exists,
for example, in Germany where the industries lean upon research
and research is in turn vitalized by the industries. There is no
doubt that a great deal of exceedingly valuable work is done where
research has no intimate relation with industries at all. But there
is also no doubt that it is in those countries where the most
intimte relations between science and industry have been

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. li

established that research in both pure and applied science is most
vigorous and is pursued with greatest enthusiasm. "Whenever
directors of industries begin to discover that research men whom
they have been accustomed to think unpractical and visionary can,
working in their laboratories, sometimes help them in ways that
their practical shop-trained workmen were powerless to do, the
first step on the road to a complete understanding will have been
taken. I believe it is through the work of the technical college
on problems having the most obvious practical bearing that there
is the best chance of that first step being made possible. Then once
the value of research work is appreciated in industrial circles there
will no longer be difficulty in getting men to take an interest in
scientific work, and our Institute, no longer obliged to go into the
highways and hedges in order to compel men to come and fill up
its programmes, will be embarrassed with the wealth of papers at
its disposal.

There is one mistake which can do a great deal to retard the
good understanding between science and industry, from which,
if it came about, so much is to be expected. It is the mistake of
underestimating the severity of the training required for effective
research work in a physical science, and, in consequence over-
estimating the value of the half-trained student of science to an
employer. The only kind of scientific man who can be of real
service in industrial work — unless the service required is some
comparatively simple routine analysis — is a man of the highest
training. The training of the evening school or of the high school
or of the ordinary college course in science is absolutely without
value for this purpose.

The Institute in the Public Service.

Last year the Institute endeavoured with some success to
arouse public interest in the problems that are embarrassing our
fisheries. I would venture to hope that our society, without losing
interest in the fisheries, would this year give a share of its
attention to one of the most serious industrial problems facing the
province — the conservation of our forests. A few weeks ago one
of the leading lumbermen of the world, writing in the London
Times, expressed the opinion, after careful study of the matter,

Hi PROCEEDINGS.

that at the present rate of destruction the lumber supply of the
world would not last more than about thirty years. If that is the
case it furnishes a strong additional reason for conserving our Nova
Scotian forests. It is wholly unnecessary to tell the members of
this Institute in what imminent peril the remnants of our forests
are placed by the scourge of fire, and perhaps even more by reckless
and wasteful methods of lumbering. This is m not the place to
suggest what steps should be * taken in order to awaken public-
opinion, which must be first aroused if effective action in the
matter is to be possible. I am only concerned at present in urging
that where important natural resources are being wasted, it is the
duty of a scientific society such as the Institute to do all in its
power to arrest the evil. The Institute is the only scientific
society in the province and as such should be the official exponent
of scientific opinion. It should be able to create what may be
called a scientific public opinion powerful enough to make itself
felt. It is as true now as in the days of the wise king that "Where
there is no vision the people perish." In such a case as the
present it is for men of science to supply the lack of vision. ,

In conclusion let me express the fervent hope that the present
session will excel all its predecessors in the value of its work for
science and for the community.

In the absence of the Treasurer, the financial report was
deferred to a future meeting.

The Librarian's report was presented by MR. PIERS, showing
that 1781 books and pamphlets- had been received by the Institute
through its exchange-list during the year 1907; and 1261 had been
received during the nine months of the present year, 1908, viz.,
January to September, inclusive. The total number of books and
pamphlets received by the Provincial Science Library (with which
the books of the Institute are incorporated) during the year 1907,
was 2510. The number of books borrowed in 1907, was 607, as
against 661 in the previous year. The report was received and
adopted.

It was resolved that the thanks of the society be conveyed to
His HONOR THE SPEAKER or THE HOUSE OF ASSEMBLY, for his

ORDINARY MEETINGS. llll

courtesy in permitting the use of the assembly room as a place
of meeting.

Attention was drawn to the approaching fiftieth anniversary
of the foundation of the Institute, and it was resolved that the
incoming council present at a future meeting a preliminary report
on the subject of an appropriate celebration of such an anniversary.
The following were elected officers for the ensuing year (1908-
1909) :—

President, — PROFESSOR EBENEZER MACKAY, PH. D., ex-

officio F. E. M. S.

1st Vice-President, — PROFESSOR J. EDMUND WOODMAN, D. Sc.
2nd yice-President, — WATSON L. BISHOP.
Treasurer, — MAYNARD BOWMAN, B. A.
Corresponding Secretary, — A. H. MACKAY, LL.D., F. E. S. C.
Recording Secretary and Librarian, — HARRY PIERS.
Councillors without office, — ALEXANDER McivAv; PROFESSOR
FREDERIC H. SEXTON, S. B.; H. W. JOHNSTON, C. E. ;
PROFESSOR A. STANLEY MACKENZIE, PH. D.; PHILIP
A. FREEMAN; F. W. W. DOANE, C. E.; A, L. MCCALLUM,
S. B.
Auditors,--Bx>VEBiGK McCoLL, C. E. ; WILLIAM MCKERRON.

FIRST ORDINARY MEETING.

Geological Lecture Room, Dallwusic College, Halifax; 16th
November, 1908.

THE PRESIDENT, DR. EBENEZER MACKAY, in the chair.

It was announced that F. H. McLEARN, Halifax, and W. S.
STAPLETON, supervisor of public schools, Dartmouth, had been
elected ordinary members.

PROFESSOR J. EDMUND WOODMAN, D. Sc., Dalhousie College,
read a paper on "Eecent Iron and Limestone Investigations in
Nova Scotia,*' the subject being illustrated by specimens, maps and
photographs. The paper was discussed by the PRESIDENT, H.
PIERS, PROFESSOR F. H. SEXTON, T. YARDY HILL and others.

v PROCEEDINGS.

SECOND ORDINARY MEETING.

Assembly Room, Province Building, Halifax; 14 1 h December
1908.

THE PRESIDENT, DR. EBENEZER MACKAY, in the chair.

PROFESSOR J. G. MACGREGOR of Edinburgh University, was
appointed delegate to represent the Institute at the public meet-
ing of the Geological Society of Glasgow, to be held at Glasgow
on 28th January, 1909.

A. L. McCALLUM, B. Sc., Halifax, read a paper "On the
Occurrence of Sheelite in Nova Scotia," describing the deposit
lately discovered at Moose River gold district, Halifax county.
(See Transactions, p. 250.) The paper was discussed by JOHN
FORBES, DR. A. H. MACKAY, H. PIERS, DR. WOODMAN, and
others.

In the absence of the author, DR. A. S. MACKENZIE read a
paper by KENNETH MC!NTOSH, of St. Peter's, C. B., "On the
commonly accepted Axioms in Celestial Mechanics." The subject
was discussed by- DR. MACKENZIE, the PRESIDENT, DR. A. H.
MACKAY, and DR. WOODMAN.

DR. WOODMAN exhibited a specimen of auriferous quartz with
arsenopyrite from the Middle River gold mine, Inverness county.

The Treasurer, M. BOWMAN, presented his annual report for
the past year, showing a balance of $114.92, tj reserve fund of
$214.95, and a permanent endowment fund of $810.49. The
report was received and adopted. It was resolved that the Trea-
surer prepare a statement of the financial condition of the Institute
and the need of funds, and mail the same with a bill for dues to
such members as are in arrears, such bills not to include arrears
previous to the financial year 1907-8.

THIRD ORDINARY MEETING.

Assembly Room, Province Building, Halifax; llth January,
1009.

THE PRESIDENT, DR. EBENEZER MACKAY, in the chair.

It was announced that DONALD M. FERGUSSON, chemist of the
Acadia Sugar Refining Company, Halifax, had been elected an
ordinary member.

ORDINARY MEETINGS. lv

MR. PIERS drew attention to the map-sheets of Halifax
and its vicinity just published by the Geological Survey of Canada,
and exhibited the same.

DR. A. H. MACKAY read a paper by CLARENCE L. MOORE, M.
A., supervisor of schools, Sydney, C. B., on "Some Nova Sootian
Aquatic Fungi," illustrated by drawings of the species described.
(See Transactions, p. 217). DR. MACKAY prefixed an account of
the characters, etc., of the group to which they belong. The paper
was discussed by DR. WOODMAN and W. L. BISHOP.

The Secretary was directed to write for particulars regarding
the conditions governing the application of the Carnegie Eesearch
Fund, in order to ascertain if it was available for the purchase of
books needed by investigators in this province.

FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING.

Committee Room,, House of Assembly, Halifax; 15th February,
1909.

THE PRESIDENT, DR. EBENEZER MACKAY, in the chair.

A paper by JOSEPH PERRIN of McNab's Island, Halifax, and
JOHN EUSSELL of Digby, N. S., entitled "Catalogue of Butterflies
and Moths, mostly collected in the neighborhood of Halifax and
Digby, N. S.," was communicated by Hi PIERS. ( See Transactions,
p. 258). A vote of thanks was passed to Messrs. Perrin and
Eussell for their excellent paper.

FIFTH ORDINARY MEETING.

Council Chamber, City Hall, Halifax; 8th March, 1909.

THE PRESIDENT, DR. EBENEZER MACKAY, in the chair.

THOMAS J. MCKAVANAGH, chief electrician of the cable SS.
"Minia," read a paper on "Water Purification by Ozone," which
was experimentally illustrated. The paper was discussed by the
PRESIDENT, W. L. BISHOP, F. W. W. DOANE, G. M. J. MACKAY,
and BEV. H. W. CUNNINGHAM. A vote of thanks was presented to
the lecturer.

Ivi PROCEEDINGS.

SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING.

House of Assembly, Province Building, Halifax; 24th April,
1909.

The FIRST VICE-PRESIDENT, DR. J. E. WOODMAN, in the chair.
The following papers were read : —

(1) "Geological Conditions affecting the Water Supply of
Halifax." By H. CAVANAGH and D. STAIRS, Dalhousie College.
Discussed by DR. A. H. MACKAY.

(2) "Weathering of Structural Stones in Halifax/' By C.
J. MACKENZIE and G. L. CRICHTON, Dalhousie College. Discussed
by H. PIERS.

(3) "Cement Testing in the Engineering Laboratories of
Dalhousie University." By H. W. FLEMMING, Dalhousie College.
This paper which gave results of tests made of Sydney slag-cement,
was discussed by W. L. BISHOP, A. L. MCCALLUM, T. V. HILL,
DR. A. H. MACKAY, H. PIERS, and G. M. J. MACKAY.

(4) "Effects of Ice Action near Grand Lake, Cape Breton
county." By W. S. BRODIE, B. A., Lunenburg, N. S. (See
Transactions, p. 253). Discussed by DR. A. H. MACKAY.

(5) "The Influence of Aluminium Salts on the Estimation
of Sulphates." By H. JERMAIN M. CREIGHTON, M. A., Birming-
ham University, Birmingham, England. (See Transactions, vol.
xii, pt. 2, p. 207).

A vote of thanks was presented to the non-members who had
presented papers.

HARRY PIERS,

Recording Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

^cotian Inartitnte of Science.

SESSION OF 1909-1910.

ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.
House of Assembly, Province Building, Halifax;

Stli November, 1909.
THE PRESIDENT, DR. EBENEZER MACKAY, in the chair.

Other members present : DR. A. PI. MACKAY, DR. A. STANLEY
MACKENZIE, MAYNARD BOWMAN, ALEXANDER MC!VAY, WATSON
L. BISHOP, F. W. W. DOANE, PARKER R. COLPITT, WILLIAM
MCKERRON, THOMAS C. MC!VAY. and HARRY PIERS.

PRESIDENTIAL ADUKESS: (i) Decc-a^ea members; (2) Work of
the Institute; (3) The atomic theory. — By PROFESSOR
EBENEZER MACKAY, Pn. D.. Dalhousie College, Halifax.

Deceased Members.

In reviewing the history of our Jast year preparatory to
beginning, as we do this evening, the work of a new session, it is
fitting that reference should first be made to the losses which our
membership has sustained through death. It is with profound
regret I have to record the death of four members: one associate
member, Mr. R. R. McLeod, and three corresponding ' members,
Mr. Charles Pickford, Dr. James Fletcher and Mr. Hugh Fletcher.
Of these the last named was, by virtue of his geological work in
the Province and his contributions to the Transactions of the
Society, associated in an especial way with the work of the Institute.

Puoc. & TRANS. N. S. IXST. Sci., VOL. XII. PROC. R

(Ivii)

Iviii PROCEEDINGS.

MR. ROBERT RANDALL McLEOD, of Brookfield, Queens County,
died at Winthrop, Massachusetts, in February of the present year.
Mr. McLeod was a man of high intelligence and wide reading.
He was master of ^an "excellent English style, and perhaps no con-
temporary Nova Scotian author was so well-known to the reading
public of the Province. He was besides a true lover of nature and
was the author of aln the Acadian Land," a charming series of
nature sketches. He was also the author of a work on the resources
of Nova Scotia, entitled "Markland."

MR. CHARLES PICKFORD, of Halifax, was never identified with
;v,he scientific work of the Institute. But he will be remembered
by older members as having done our society the service of attend-
iing to its financial affairs during the treasurer(ship of the late
W. C. Silver.

DR. JAMES FLETCHER, of Ottawa, who died in November, 1908,
was one of the foremost Canadian naturalists and was the author
of numerous papers on the insect life of Canada. Since 1887
he was entomologist and botanist at the Central Experimental
Farm, Ottawa. He was also sometime Honorary Secretary and
Treasurer of the Royal Society of Canada, of which he was a
Fellow. A man of pleasing personality as well as an accomplished
scientist his loss will be felt by a much wider circle than that of
his personal friends.

When in last September the death of MR. HUGH FLETCHER
was announced through the press, many members of this Society
and many others in all sections of the Province felt a sense of
personal loss. His death occurred at Lower Cove, Cumberland
County, on the 23rd of September. Mr. Fletcher entered the
service of the Geological Survey of Canada about thirty years
ago, after a brilliant undergraduate course in the University of
Toronto. Much of his professional work was done in Nova Scotia,
and na one else possessed so intimate a knowledge of the geology
of this Province as he. His was the ideal scientific temperament
— painstaking, accurate and conscientious as an observer, cautious
in reaching his conclusions, tolerant of the opinions of others, but
firm in his adherence to what he himself believed to be the truth.
To the mining interests of the province he rendered notable and
widely acknowledged services, and to pure science his work is of

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS— MACKAY x

no less value. Mr. Fletcher was much more, however, than a mere
geological specialist; he was an accomplished linguist, and a man of
wide culture and broad interests. But no sketch of him would be
adequate which did not above all recall characteristics of the heart
as well as of the head, the lovable personality, the nobility of
character, which will make his name long cherished in the wide
circle of his friends in Nova Scotia. In Mr. Fletcher's death
Canada loses one of its most eminent scientific men and most
devoted public servants.

Work of the Institute.

The work of the Institute for the past year has not Deen
characterized by any unusual features. Eleven papers were com-
municated. Of these four were geological, two botanical, and two
chemical, and of the remainder one dealt with celestial mechanics,
one with mineralogy, and one with the examination of cement.

Having now submitted some report upon our doings for the
past year, I hope I shall be pardoned if, following the practice in
many scientific societies, I devote the remainder of the time given
me this evening to a brief discussion of a scientific topic.

The Atomic Theory.

The last two decades have been as rich in epoch-making work,
at least in the departments of physics and chemistry, as the cor-
responding decades a century ago which saw the formulation of
the laws of definite and multiple proportions and the birth of the
atomic theory And some of the most notable discoveries of these
two decades have been of such a character as to raise doubt in some
minds as to whether Dalton's theory is any longer tenable. On
the one hand the investigation of the nature of radiant matter
seems to show the existence of bodies a thousand times more
minute than the smallest of Dalton's atoms, while on the other
hand among many new kinds of matter discovered some have
revealed properties of so revolutionary and .anarchistic a character
as seemingly to threaten the stability of the whole chemical edifice,
hitherto thought to be securely founded on its century-old atomic
foundations. The statement is frequently heard that these dis-

IX PROCEEDINGS.

eoveries must revolutionize chemical theories and conceptions. It
is my purpose this evening to attempt to show very briefly what
the position of the great central theory of modern chemistry is in
the light of the most recent investigation.

It is just a year more than a century ago that Dalton published
to the world the first full account of his atomic theory, in order
to explain the laws of chemical combination which he had himself
helped to formulate. The idea that matter has a grained structure,
or is composed of minute particles more or less distant from one
another, was advanced by one of the early Greek philosophers more
than twenty-four centuries ago, and thereafter similar specula-
tions had been from time to time entertained by various poets,
philosophers and scientists. But to Dalton is due the credit of first
applying these ideas to the explanation of chemical laws, and
thereby converting an idle metaphysical speculation into a fruitful
scientific theory. The fundamental fact which the atomic theory
has to explain is that the combination of elements with one another
not only takes place in certain invariable proportions but also that
these proportions can all be expressed as integral multiples of cer-
tain numbers, one for each element. Thus, the only proportions
in which oxygen is known to combine with other elements can be
expressed by 16 multiplied by 1, or 2, or 3, or some other whole
number. The proportions in which carbon is found iri any of its
hundred thousand compounds can always be expressed by 12 or
some integral multiple of 12. These are the facts. Now it is
plain that these facts receive a simple explanation if we suppose
that each element is composed of minute particles, all of constant
weight for the same element, and that chemical combination takes
place between these particles. This was Dalton' s atomic hypo-
thesis. According to it, then, elementary matter resembles those
articles of commerce that we can only buy in cakes or parcels of a
definite weight, like soap. Different elements correspond to differ-
ent brands of soap, each brand being made up into cakes of a
uniform weight, but of different weight from the cakes of any
other brand. The association of one or more cakes of one brand
with one or more cakes of any other constitutes chemical com-
bination. Now let us suppose our cakes so minute that they are

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. — MACKAY Ixi

far beyond the powers of the most delicate balance to weigh or of
the most powerful microscope to reveal and we have a fair con-
ception of Dalton's atom and of the atomic hypothesis.

A scientific hypothesis to be of value must serve two purposes:
it must satisfactorily explain the facts already known and it must
Doint the way to fresh discoveries. Judged by this criterion, the
atomic hypothesis is among the most valuable in the " history of
science. Its effect in stimulating research was immediate and
permanent. Under its influence, in the second decade of the last
century, the great Berzelius carried out the gigantic work necessary
to establish the laws of chemical proportions, which henceforth
became the foundation of all chemical research. And from that
time until the present the atomic theory has dominated chemical
thought.

Dalton assumed the atom to be indivisible and of constant
mass or weight, but made no assumption regarding its other
properties, for example, its size or shape or colour or any of its
physical characteristics. But as investigation proceeded this con-
ception was modified in two directions. On the one hand the idea
was advanced that the atom might itself be composite ; on the other
hand it was endowed with certain new properties. The first of
these modifications was proposed within a decade of Dal ton's
publication of his theory. Prout, an English physician, observing
that atomic weights as then determined were all either whole
numbers or very nearly whole numbers if the weight for hydrogen
were made unity, put forward the hypothesis that hydrogen was
the one primordial substance of which all other elements were
composed, their atoms being simply groups of hydrogen atoms.
This hypothesis has proved itself one of the most seductive in
the history of science. It appealed to the imagination of the
chemical philosopher since it revived the ancient idea of the one-
ness of matter and provided a soul-satisfying unity underlying, the
infinite multiplicity of chemical changes. It was soon found,
however, that several atomic weights could not be expressed by
whole numbers. That of chlorine, for example, was certainly
nearer 35.5 than 35. To meet these facts it was assumed that the

Ixii PROCEEDINGS.

primordial matter was not hydrogen but something having half
that weight ; so that the hydrogen atom itself was composite. After-
wards, as methods of determining atomic weights became more
refined and the existence of various fractional values in atomic
weights could be maintained with certainty, this primordial matter
had to be still further subdivided, until its subdivisions became too
minute to" be capable of verification by chemical analysis. The
truth or falsity of the hypothesis could then no longer be tested
by experimental methods and the hypothesis itself retreated from
the territory of science into that of speculative philosophy. Mean-
time under the, stimulating influence of the atomic theory the
investigation of atomic weights and the properties of elements
contnued until,, a little more than fifty years after the publication of
Prout's hypothesis, these investigations blossomed into a general-
ization which recalled to chemists once more, this time with con-
vincing force, the conception that the atoms must after all be
composite substances. This was the Periodic Law of Mendeleeff and
Lothar Meyer. If we arrange the elements in a long line in the
order of their atomic weights and then observe successively their
properties, we find the same set of properties recurring again and
again at regular intervals. It is as if we were dealing with a
succession of generations, the individuals of each generation repro-
ducing more or less faithfully the characteristics of their respective
'ancestors. Now we are free to adopt either of two attitudes
towards this law. The facts are undeniable: and we may either
refuse to speculate about the cause, or we may allow ourselves to
indulge in that luxury. If we choose the latter course, it is diffi-
cult to avoid the conclusion that our elements are not the ulti-
mate forms of matter; and if we assume the atomic theory, it
follows that our atoms are composite.

We now see that the idea of the composite character of atoms
is nearly as old as the atomic theory itself and in one form or other,
like the poor, has been with us always. But the validity of the
atomic theory has not thereby been undermined or in any way
affected. For the conception of an atom involved in it is not that
it is the smallest particle of matter capable of existence, but is
that minute mass of matter which maintains its individuality

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — MACKAY.

throughout all chemical reactions. No difference how composite
it may be, if it maintains its unity throughout all chemical opera-
tions to which it can be subjected in the laboratory, then it is, so
far as the chemist is concerned, indivisible, and constitutes a
chemical atom. This is the conception of an atom that has long
prevailed in chemical circles.

About ten years ago Sir Joseph Thomson's researches on the
nature of radiant matter revealed the existence of corpuscles a
thousand times smaller than the hypothetical hydrogen atom of
the atomic theory. This great discovery seems to have disturbed
the faith of weaker brethren, who imagined they saw in it the
approach of a cataclysm which would sweep away old landmarks
and leave few or none of our familiar chemical conceptions any
longer recognisable. But from what has now been said it will be
clear that while the discovery was one of extreme interest to
chemistry, it had no tendency to invalidate the atomic theory.
The tendency was rather in the opposite direction, since the dis-
covery furnished additional evidence of the existence of extremely
minute particles of matter.

Just half a century after the publication of the atomic theory,
the progress of chemical knowledge and the corresponding evolu-
tion of chemical thought resulted in endowing the atom with a new
property, namely, a strictly limited capacity for combining with
other atoms, as measured by the number of atoms with which it
can combine. This is the property called valency. The facts
known were best explained by the assumption that a given atom
cannot become directly associated with or, figuratively speaking,
linked to, an indefinitely large number of other atoms. On the
contrary, the number is at most small, the atoms of each element
having a certain maximum capacity of combining. The capacity
of the atoms of some elements, hydrogen for example, is exhausted
when it has combined with one other atom. An atom of oxygen,
jn the other hand, can combine with two but with no more than
two such atoms as hydrogen. Or again, the limit of combination
for an atom of carbon is four atoms of hydrogen or two atoms of
oxygen. Hydrogen atoms accordingly are said to have a valence
of one, oxygen atoms of two, carbon atoms of four. The highest

Ixiv PROCEEDINGS.

valence which any atom exhibits is eight. The effect of this exten-
sion of the atomic theory was to vastly increase its usefulness. It
now became possible to formulate relationships between the atoms
in the molecules of even complex organic compounds. In other
words, chemists were now able to form a mental picture of the
internal mechanism of molecules of compounds, which, whether it
corresponded closely to fact or not, at least justified itself, for it
greatly facilitated chemical investigation. A single example will
serve to illustrate this. An analysis of acetic acid shows that it
is composed of 40.11 per cent, carbon, 6.80 per cent, hydrogen,
and 53.09 per cent, oxygen. Expressed in the language of the
atomic theory, this composition would be given by the formula
CH20. Physical as well as chemical considerations lead to a mole-
cular formula just double this, or C0H402, expressing, of course,
the same composition. Now experiment shows that one-quarter
and no more than one-quarter of the hydrogen in acetic acid can
be replaced by an equivalent weight of a metal, as sodium, yielding
sodium acetate. The remaining three-quarters cannot be so
replaced. This fact is expressed in terms of the atomic theory
by the statement that one hydrogen atom in the molecule of acetic
acid bears a relation to it different from that of the other three.
Again, experiment shows that in a wide variety of reactions where
one-quarter of the hydrogen of the acid is abstracted from it, one-
half of the oxygen also disappears at the same time, and these
quantities of hydrogen and oxygen reappear again together in one
of the products of the reaction. The inference is that part of the
oxygen and hydrogen in acetic acid are closely associated, or, in
terms of the atomic theory, one of the hydrogen atoms in the
molecule is closely combined with, or linked to, one of the oxygen
atoms; and as the valence of hydrogen is unity and that of oxygen
two, the hydrogen must be attached to the rest of the molecule
by means of the oxygen ; and hence if the oxygen is split off the
hydrogen must go off with it. Proceeding in this way, interpret-
ing experimental results by the atomic theory and its extension
in the theory of valency, we finally arrive at a mental picture of
the molecular structure, of a compound. Xow the important
feature is that this mental picture may suggest new methods of

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — MACKAY Ixv

making the compound and may point to new and unexpected
properties, which in turn can be verified by further experimenta-
tion; and thus knowledge grows from more to more.

A striking illustration of this process is furnished by the
benzene theory. This is simply a mental picture of the relation
of the atoms in a molecule of the hydrocarbon benzene. Its publi-
cation in 1865 led to an unexampled advance in the knowledge
of that great class of organic compounds known as benzene
derivatives, which include, among many other substances, the
aniline dyes ; and it was this advance which made possible the
great German colour industry of to-day with its millions of capital,
its army of workmen and, last but not least, its alluring dividends.
No more practical proof than this of the utility of a theory can
reasonably be demanded.

But this very utility has had a train of evil consequences. So
universally useful has the atomic theory been in explaining the
properties of matter that in some quarters the existence of atoms
is tacitly assumed as a fact. Careless writers of elementary text-,
books are especial sinners in this respect, and in consequence many
beginners in chemistry acquire as firm a belief in the reality of
atoms as in the existence of footballs or chocolates, to the complete
subversion of all clear thinking in chemical subjects. I have in
mind a text-book of elementary chemistry which I keep by me
as a constant reminder of how the subject should not be presented.
On one of the first pages of this book, the author, having defined
"mass" and "molecule" in the same breath, directs the attention
of the student to a piece of sugar and inquiries:

"Cannot the smallest particle of sugar, the molecule, be
separated into still smaller particles of something else? May it
not ho a compound body, and will not some force separate it into
rwo or n«ore substances? The next experiment will answer this
rmestion."

The pupil is then instructed to pour some sulphuric acid on
=ugar. The sugar is charred, and the author, after pointing out
that this action is an example of chemical change continues as
follows:

Ixvi PROCEEDINGS.

"From this we see that molecules are not the ultimate divisions
of matter. The smallest sugar particles are made, up of still
smaller particles of other things which do not resemble sugar, as
a word .is composed of letters which alone do not resemble the
word."

A few sentences later we have the statement: "An atom, is
the smallest particle of an element that can enter into com-
bination."

Now, if after faithfully working in the laboratory, book in
hand, the high school pupil comes away with the idea that he has
proved the existence of atoms, and that there is much the same
sort of evidence for their reality as there is for that of sugar,
, whose fault is it? And if after a course of laboratory training
of this sort, he seems to have lost forever the power of drawing
trom simple experiments the deductions which they warrant and
those only, whose fault is it?

While at the present day the atomic theory is at the basis of
the explanations of all properties of matter both in chemistry and
physics, it has had to be confessed hitherto not only that it has
not .been proved but that it is perhaps incapable of direct
experimental proof.

To understand the difficulty one has only to realize the extreme
minuteness of the magnitudes to be dealt with. The calculations
of Lord Kelvin and others have shown that, assuming the existence
of atoms and molecules, the atom is probably not more than one-
millionth of a millimeter in diameter, that is, ten million atoms
placed side by side so as to touch one another would just stretch
across the nail of one's little finger. Similar calculations show
that a cubic centimeter of air, that is, a little cube each edge of
which measures about the width of one's little finger nail, would
contain under normal conditions twenty million million million
molecules, each of them being a group of two atoms. Professor
Fleming, of London, gives the following illustration:

"We can in a good Whit worth measuring instrument detect a
variation in length of a metal bar equal to one-millionth of an
inch. This short length would be occupied by 25 molecules placed
in a row together. We can in a good microscope see a small object

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. — MACKAY Ixvii

whose diameter is one hundred-thousandth of an inch. In a small
box of this size we could pack 16 million molecules close together.
The smallest weight which can be weighed on a very good chemical
balance is one-hundredth of a milligram. The united weight of
one million million million molecules of hydrogen would therefore
just be detectable on such a balance.'7

It is not surprising that direct confirmation of the existence
of bodies having such infinitesimal magnitudes has seemed hope-
less ; and in consideration of this there arose a school of chemists
in Germany in the last decade of the last century who, with
Ostwald at their head, have attempted to dispense with the atomic
theory and rebuild the fabric of chemical theory on a surer founda-
tion than an hypothesis at once unproved and seemingly incapable
of proof. If this attempt were ultimately approved by the
world of physicists and chemists, whatever the philosophic gain
might be, the practical loss would undoubtedly be great and the
progress of physical science retarded. On this account the recent
announcement of Professor Eutherford that he has obtained a
direct experimental proof of the existence of atoms is one of
unusual interest and importance.

This evidence has come from a quarter from which at one time
some timid souls thought present chemical conceptions had much
to fear, namely, from the investigation of radio-active matter.
The contrary has proved to be the case. Light has already been
thrown on atomic structure, of which previously nothing could be
asserted, since its problems could not be attacked by ordinary
chemical methods. The new knowledge is thus making conceptions
more definite wlikh formerly had to be left vague through ignor-
ance. It has not come to destroy but to fulfil.

Tfie brilliant researches of Rutherford and his oo-workers on
radium and other radio-active matter have led to the conclusion
that the astonishing properties of these substances are only to
be explained on the assumption that atoms are to be thought of
as complex systems and that the atoms of radio-active substances
are unstable, some of them constantly undergoing spontaneous
decomposition. In decomposing the atom usually projects particles
into the surrounding space while at the same time new forms of
matter make their appearance.

Ixviii PROCEEDINGS.

Tn the case of radium two kinds of particles are projected
with great velocity,, a particles of atomic dimensions, and /3
particles of the same order of size as the corpuscles detected by
Sir Joseph Thomson, or a thousand times smaller than an atom
of hydrogen. The question at once arises, how is the detection of
such minute masses of matter possible? The answer is that these
particles are electrically charged and that the possibility of follow-
ing their movements is thereby almost infinitely increased. Sir
Joseph Thomson in his recent presidential address to the British
Association at Winnipeg gave a very striking illustration of this
fact. The smallest quantity of unelectrified matter ever detected
is, probably, a trace of neon amounting to half a millionth of a
cubic centimeter. This small quantity would contain about ten
million million molecules. "Now", to quote the words of the
address, "the population of the earth is estimated at about fifteen
hundred millions, so that the smallest number of molecules of
neon we can identify is about 7000 times the population of the
earth. In other words, if we had no better test for the existence
of a man than we have for that of an unelectrified molecule we
should come to the conclusion that the earth is uninhabited."
On the other hand when molecules are electrified the presence of
only three or four of them in a cubic centimeter can be detected.
It was by taking advantage of this fact that Rutherford and
his co-workers have recently been able to detect by a special
electric method the entrance of a single a particle into a vessel
prepared for its reception. The detection was effected by the
impulse given to an electrometer needle on the entrance of the
particle. The experiment was so arranged that each a particle
emitted could be counted by continuing the impulses of the needle.
The next step was to allow these a particles to be projected in
vast numbers into a suitable receiver previously exhausted. It
was found that helium gas accumulated in the receiver. Xow it
may be shown that, if there are such things as molecules at all,
the molecule and atom of helium must be identical, that is, it is
what is called a monatomic gas. It follows that the a particles
expelled from radium are helium atoms or molecules and hence
v,re have what seems direct experimental proof of the* existence of
tVie atom.

REPORTS Ixix

This result was confirmed by a second method. Everyone is
probably acquainted with the little instrument devised by Sir
'William Crookes in which a speck of radium set up in front of a
screen of phosporescent zinc sulphite under a microscope slide is
seen with a lens to produce upon the screen innumerable flashes
of light. These scintillations can only be due to the a particles
emitted by the radium. Rutherford modified this arrangement
until the scintillations produced were no more numerous than
could be counted, and thus not only had a second demonstration
of the existence of atoms but obtained data based on actual
counting from which could readily be calculated the number of
molecules in a cubic centimeter of gas. Henceforth, therefore, we
may feel that the atomic theory, unlike the systems that have
their day pud cease to be, is to abide with us as a permanent utliity.

The Treasurer, M. BOWMAN, presented his annual report,
showing that the receipts for the year ending November, 1909,
were' $881.92, the expenditures $626.73, and the balance in
current, account $255.19; while the permanent endowment fund
is $834.79, and the reserve fund $18.87. The report, having been
audited, was received and adopted.

The Librarian's report was presented by H. PIERS, showing
that 1,697 books and pamphlets had been received by the Insti-
tute through its exchange-list during the year 1908 ; and 1189
had been received during the first nine months of the presenr
year (1909), viz., January to September inclusive. The total
number of books and pamphlets received by the Provincial Science
Library (with which those of the Institute are incorporated) dur-
ing the year 1908, was 3,761. The number of books borrowed
w#s 381, besides the many that were consulted in the library. No
binding has Been done for some years owing to lack of funds.
Arrangements have been made to move the Provincial Scienc0
Library from No, 201 Hollis street to the new Technical College,
on Spring Garden road, where it will be placed in a stack-room,
48 by 41 feet, with a small adjoining reading-room, on the second
floor of the building. — The report was received and adopted.

The subject of binding volumes in the Institute's library was
referred to the incoming council.

On motion of DR. A. H. MACKAY and H. PIERS the following
resolution was unanimously adopted:

1XX PROCEEDINGS.

"Whereas, the Nova Sootian Institute of Science has learned
with deep regret of the death of its corresponding-member, MR.
HUGH FLETCHER, B. A., geologist of the Canadian Geological
Survey, which sad event occurred at Lower Cove, Cumberland
county, Nova Scotia, on the 23rd of September, 1909;

"Therefore resolved, that the Institute of Science at its annual
meeting held on the 8th of November, 1909, place on record an
expression of appreciation of his high scientific and scholarly
attainments, of his untiring, enthusiastic, extensive and accurate
work in the field of Nova Scotian geology, of his sterling modesty
of character, and of his kind disposition and helpfulness towards
all with whom he came into touch."

It was resolved that the thanks of the society be conveyed to
His Honor, the SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE OF ASSEMBLY, and the
Hon. the COMMISSIONER OF PUBLIC WORKS AND MINES for their
courtesy in permitting the use of the assembly room as a place
of meeting.

The following were elected officers for the ensuing year
(1909-10) :
Prmder^,— PROFESSOR EBENEZER MACKAY, PH. D., ex officio

F. B. M. S.

1st Vice-President, — WATSON L. BISHOP.

2nd Vice-President, — PROFESSOR A. STANLEY MACKENZIE, PH. D.
Treasurer, — MAYNARD BOWMAN, M. A.

Corresponding Secretary, — A. H. MACKAY, LL. D., F. E. S. C.
Recording Secretary and Librarian,— HARRY PIERS.
Councillors without office, — ALEXANDER McKAY; PROFESSOR
FREDERIC H, SEXTON, B. Sc. ; PHILIP A. FREEMAN ;
FRANCIS W. W. DOANE, C. E.; A. L. McC-ALLUM. B. Sc.;
DONALD M. FERGUSSON; and PARKER E. COLPITT. ^
Auditors, — WILLIAM MCKERRON and H. W. JOHNSTON, C. E.

FIRST ORDINARY MEETING.
Mining Engineering Lecture Room, N. S. Technical College,

Halifax; 13th December, 1909.
THE PRESIDENT, DR. E. MACKAY, in the chair.
The PRESIDENT referred to the meeting of the society being
held for the first time in the Technical College, at which place
future meetings will take place.

ORDINARY MEETINGS..

it was announced that at the April meeting of the council,
W. S. BRODIE, B. A., of Lunenburg, N. S., had been duly elected
an associate member.

DR. A. H. MACKAY delivered an address on "A new Nova
Scotian insect: the Birch-leaf Saw-fly (Phlebatrophia mathesoni,
Alex. MacGillivray)." The subject was discussed by MESSRS.
DOANE, PIERS,, BISHOP and BROWN.

HAROLD S. DAVIS, of Dalhousie University, read a paper pre-
pared by himself and H. W. MATHESON, "On a New Method of
estimating Iodides." The paper was discussed by the PRESIDENT,
C. B. NICKERSON, D. M. FERGUSSON, and DR. A. H. MACKAY.

SECOND ORDINARY MEETING.
Mining Lecture Room, Technical College, Halifax;

14tk February, 1910.
THE PRESIDENT, DR. E. MACKAY, in the chair.

It was announced that -at the last meeting of the council, the
EEVEREND M. C. KELLY, of St. Mary's College, Halifax, had been
duly elected an ordinary member.

D. S. MclNTosH, B. A., B. Sc. lecturer on geology, Dalhousie
University, read a paper entitled "A Note on the Recent Earth-
quake in Cape Breton." (See transactions, p. 311). The sub-
ject was discussed by PROFESSOR A. S. MACKENZIE; and DR. T. C.
McKAY gave a description of his experience during the late great
Calif ornian earthquake, which he illustrated by stereopticon views
made from photographs.

T. C. McKAY, M. A., D. Sc., instructor in physics, Dalhousie
University, presented a paper on "The Variation of the Hill Effect
with the Temperature and Previous Heat Treatment in the case
of Magnetic Metals."

PROFESSOR A. S. MACKENZIE followed with a discussion of the
phenomena produced by any physical strains causing molecular
change in metals.

THIRD ORDINARY MEETING.
Assembly Room, Technical College, Halifax;

llth April, 1910.

THE PRESIDENT, DR. E. MACKAY, in the chair.
PROFESSOR ERNEST HAYCOCK, of Acadia University, Wolfville,
read a paper entitled "The History of Erosion in the Cornwallis

Ixxii PROCEEDINGS.

Valley, N. S." The paper was discussed by PROFESSOR SEXTON,
H. PIERS and D. S. MACINTOSH.

THOMAS J. MC!YAVANAGH, electrician of the cable steamship
"Minia," gave an address on "Recent Results in Wireless
Telegraphy/7 illustrated by experimental apparatus in operation.

FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING.
Mining Lecture Room, Technical College, Halifax;

9th May, 1910.

THE PRESIDENT, DR. E. MACKAY, in the chair.
On motion of MESSRS. PIERS and MCKERRON, it was resolved
that, as a mark of respect to the memory of His late Graciouc
Majesty, KING EDWARD, the meeting adjourn to this day fortnight

ADJOURNED FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING.
Mining Lecture Room, Technical College, Halifax;

23rd May, 1910.

THE PRESIDENT, DR. E. MACKAY, in the chair.
The following papers were presented :

(1) "The Rusts of l\Tova Scotia."— By WILLIAM P. ERASER

M. A., Pictou Academy, Pictou, N". S, Read by title.
(See Transactions, p. 313).

(2) "The Action of Organo-metallic Halides on Quinone." — By

C. C. WALLACE, B. A., Dalhousie University. Read by
title. (See Transactions, p. 301).

(3) "A Possible Change in the Concentration of Solutions due

to Gravity." — By HAROLD S. DAVIS, B. A.. Dalhousie
University. (See Transactions, p. 291).

(4) "The Occurrence of Opal near New Ross, Lunenburg

County, N. S." — By HARRY PIERS, curator of the Pro-
vincial Museum. (See Transactions, p. 446).
The papers read were discussed by those present, and a vote
of thanks presented to the non-member, MR. DAVIS.

HARRY PIERS,

Recording Secretary.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

cotimt Jnstitute of §£t

SESSION OF 1906-1907-

THE INFLUENCE OF RADIUM ON THE DECOMPOSITION OF
HYDRIODIC ACID.* — H. JEKMAIN M. CREIGHTON, M. A.
Dalhousie University, Halifax, N. S.

(Communicated by Dr. E. Mackay. 25th October, 1907.)

The first mention of the influence of radiant energy of any
kind on chemical reactions was made by William Cruickshanks1,
who observed that hydrogen and chlorine combine under the
influence of light. This particular reaction has been the source
of many investigations, carried out by such men as Dalton2,
Draper3, Bunsen and Roscoe, and, very recently, Mellor4, Bevan5,
and Burgess and Chapman8. Of the numerous reactions affected
by light, the following are some of the more important : — in-
fluence of light on silver salts, on the action of bromine and
chlorine on metallic silver, on dyed colours, on enzymes in
oxygen and hydrogen, on glass, on the oxidation of iodoform,
action of oxygen on carbon bisulphide under the influence of
light, the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by light, effect of
light on the combination of hydrogen and bromine, and the
reaction between chlorine and benzene in the light.

*Contributions from the Science Laboratories of Dalhousie University— [Chemis-
try]. Printed in advance in present part by permission of the Council of the Institute.

1. Nicholson's Jour., 1801, (1), 5, 202.

2. A New System of Chem. Phil., p. 300.

3. Phil. Mag., 1844, (iii), 25, 9 : 1845, (iii), 26, 473.

4. Journ. Chem. Soc., 1904, 63.

5. Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., 1902, (ii), 264-266.

6. Jour. Chem. Soc., 1906, 88, 1399.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XII. TRANS. 1.

2 THE INFLUENCE OF RADIUM ON THE

Other forms of radiant energy whose effects on chemical
action have been investigated are ultra violet light, Rontgen
rays and radium radiations.

Only a comparatively small amount of work has been car-
ried out on the effect of radium on chemical reactions. Hardy
and Wilcocks1 have investigated the oxidation of iodoform when
acted on by Rontgen rays and by radium, and Hardy2 has ob-
served the coagulation of globulin under the influence of the
latter. Becquerel3 found that white phosphorus is changed into
the inactive red phosphorus, and that mercuric chloride in the
presence of oxalic acid is reduced to mercurous chloride by the
radiations from radium. The Curies4 have shown that the rays
from radium change oxygen into ozone and discolour glass.
Berthelot5 cites the following cases : iodic acid is decomposed
by radium rays and by light, with liberation of iodine, this
change being much slower than that of iodoform ; nitric acid
gives off nitrous fumes when acted on by radium rays and by
light. These, as far as I have been able to discover, are all the
reactions that have been investigated up to the present time.

These investigations have been mainly of a qualitative
nature, the quantitative side receiving very little attention. The
following experiments were carried on with a view, to finding
out whether a quantitative examination of the change, if any,
produced in hydriodic acid by the presence of radium would
throw light on the part played by the rays in this decomposi-
tion. Hydriodic acid was chosen on account of its instability ;
and from its behaviour under the influence of light, it was
believed that it would be affected by radium rays.

The effect of light on the decomposition of hydriodic acid
has, in the last few years, been largely investigated. Pinnow 6,

1. Proc. Roy. Soc., 72, 480, 200.

2. Proc. Phys. Hoc., 1903, May 16.

3. O. R., 1901,133, p. 709.

4. C. R., 1899, 129, p. 823.

5. C. R., 1901, 133, p. 659.

6 Ber. d. deut Chem. Gee., 1901, 34, 2528.

DECOMPOSITION OF HYDRIOD1C ACID. — CREIGHTON. 3

who has done a lot of this work, used acid solutions of potassium
iodide for the production of hydriodic acid. He found that the
best results are obtained when the solution of potassium iodide
used has a concentration of 1 gram per litre. It was a solution
of this strength that was used in all the following work. The
hydriodic acid was set free from the iodide by a solution of
sulphuric acid consisting of one part of acid (sp. g. 1.84) te
five parts of water. The proportion of acid to iodide solution
was one to eight.

o

The amount of oxidation was determined in the usual wa3r,
by titrating the liberated iodine with j^o sodium thiosulphate
solution.

It was found that the end point could be determined very
quickly and accurately by highly illuminating the solution by
means of an electric light placed behind it, and reflecting back
the rays through the solution by placing a piece of white paper
around the beaker on the opposite side.

The potassium iodide used was the chemically pure guaran-
teed reagent supplied by C. F. Kahlbaum.

By carrying out the titration in the above manner, the error
was found to be about ± 0.08 cc. sodium thiosulphate solution;

Five milligrammes of radium bromide of activity of about
1,000,000 were employed. The radium was enclosed in a amain
glass tube, so that only the ft and 7 rays were used.

The starting point in the investigation was to determine
whether radium exerted any influence on the oxidation of
hydriodic acid. For this purpose, the radium was placed over
a vessel containing the acid solution of potassium iodide, of the
concentration mentioned above, and allowed to bombard the
solution for a certain time ; at the end of that time the amount
of decomposition was compared with that of a similar solution
that had not been acted upon by radium. The vessels used to
contain the solutions were ordinary wide-mouthed reagent
bottles, with a capacity of about 1 25 cc. The small glass tube-

4 THE INFLUENCE OF RADIUM ON THE

containing the radium was held in the end of a hollow brass
rod, which was placed in a fixed position in a wooden block;
this latter fitted into the mouth of one of the bottles Thus, by
filling the bottle to a definite mark, the distance between the
radium and the surface of the liquid was always kept the same.
This distance was between two and three millimeters.

These experiments were all carried out in a photographic
dark room, so that there was no chance of the reaction being
influenced by light. The solution which was not to be acted on
by radium was protected from the rays by a screen of lead, so
placed that the solution would not be affected appreciably by
the secondary rays set up in the lead.

(Several experiments carried out in this way showed, at the
end. of twenty- four hours, that the decomposition in the solution
acted upon by radium was greater than the decomposition in
the other; but the excess varied in different trials from 15 per
cent to 25 per cent. In order to obtain more concordant
results for similar experiments, the temperature at which the
reaction took place was kept constant for a series of measure-
ments and it was found that this made a decided improvement
in the agreement of the results. It was still found, however,
that the differences in results under similar conditions were
considerably greater than those due to experimental error. In
'order to see whether these differences were due to small errors
in the mixing of the solutions, a large quantity of solution was
prepared and divided into six equal parts of 225 cc. each. These
were allowed to stand for twenty hours in the dark room, with-
out radium, at a temperature of 16 ± 0°.5C. At the end of
that time the amount of decomposition, as measured by the
number of cc. of titrating solution required, was found to be for
the several- portions, 5.38, 5.23, 5.41, 5.34, 5.07, 5.33, respectively.
The lack of equality of these numbers shows that the irregular-
ity is not to be accounted for in this way.

The influence of the impurities in the ordinary distilled
water used in making up the solution was next investigated,

DECOMPOSITION OF HYDRIODIC ACID. — CREIGHTON. 5

and it was found that when the water had a conductivity of
2.0 x 10'8 or less, at 18°C., expressed in Kohlrausch's unit
(ohm'1, cm'1)1, the agreement between the amounts of decomposi-
tion of several similar solutions was within the limits of experi-
mental error.

The water used in the following experiments was prepared
according to the method of Jones and Mackay2, The ordinary
distilled water was doubly distilled. The steam from the first
flask, which contained th 3 water mixed with an alkaline solution
of potassium permanganate, was bubbled through an acid
solution of potassium bichromate in a second flask. Into the
neck of the latter flask was thrust a block-tin condenser, and
held there by means of a cork made of a mixture of plaster of
Paris and asbestos. The water thus obtained has a mean con-
ductivity of 1.6 x 10'6 at 18°C. It was kept in bottles which
had been used several years for that purpose.

It was found that the purity of the water, as determined by
the conductivity, played an important part in the rate of decom-
position of the solution. The table below shows the results
obtained when using water of two different grades of purity in
the preparation of the solutions.

In this table, and all those that follow, the numbers given
denote the amount of ^ normal sodium thiosulphate solution
required to titrate the free iodine content in the hydriodic acid
solution at the specified times after the instant of mixing. The
mixing was done in the dark room. In all cases the amount of
hydriodic acid solution experimented upon was 50 cc.

The numbers in the following table are for the case where
the mixture was left to stand in the dark room, and was not
subjected to the action of radium or • any other external
action. The temperature was 15 + 0°.5C.

1. Kohlrausch und Holborn : Leitvermogen der Elektrolyte, 1898, p. 1.

2. Zeit. phy*. Chem., 1897, 22, 237.

THE INFLUENCE OF RADIUM ON THE

TABLE I.

Time in hours.

No. of cc. of j25o Na2S2O3 solution required
in titration when hydriodic acid solutions
were made up with

Wa.ter of conductivity
4.98 x IO-6.

Water of conductivity
2 16 x 10-«.

7

0.73

0.90

11

0.97

1.04

15

1.38

1.40

20

1.68

1.63

25

2.05

....

30

2.45

1.79

35

2.80

. .

40

2.86

1.95

50

3.20

....

70

4.05

.

95

4.37

3.08

120

4.25

3.35

170

3.75

3.24

200

3.24

3.24

300

3.45

3.22

380

1.58

3.2.3

450

....

3.21

550

....

3.25

650

0.89

3.20

1100

3.24

From an examination of this table it will be seen that there
is a striking difference between the behaviour of solutions made
up with ordinary distilled water, and with water which has
been more carefully purified. For the less pure water the
content of free iodine rises to a maximum in about four days,
and then gradually falls off again ; but with the purer water
the iodine content increases with the time for the first five days
and then remains constant for the next six weeks during which

DECOMPOSITION OF HTDRIODIC ACID. — CREIGHTON. 7

it was under observation. Similar hydriodic acid solutions
made up with the less pure water were subjected to the influ-
ence of sunlight, and in that case also the iodine increases at
first, reaches a maximum after some days, and finally disappears.
Hence the effect of impure wacer is of the same nature
whether the solution be left in the dark or acted on by the
sunlight. It will be seen later that in certain circumstances
radium has the same effect on solutions made up with
pure water.

It would seem that the effect of the small amount of
impurity in the water is to cause the iodine, by some sort of
catalytic action to change into a third iodine product in addi-
tion to the hydriodic acid and free iodine, which alone we
might at first expect. In the case of solutions made up with
the purer water, where the iodine content tends towards a
constant asymptotic value, as given in the third column of the
above table the simplest explanation is that a third product is
not being formed, and that we have there the ordinary
equilibrium between the hydriodic acid, the hydrogen and the
iodine. If the third product is still being formed, two sugges-
tions present themselves to account for the continued constancy
of the amount of free iodine present : (1) that the rate of
formation of the third product is very small, but that in time
the numbers in the last column of the table would begin to
decrease also ; (2) that the whole system reaches a state of
equilibrium, and the iodine content will be constant however
long the time. The. former suggestion is the more probable
one, since it is likely that by a more careful distillation of the
water we have not got rid entirely of the cause of the trouble,
but only reduced it in amount.

This, however, is not the only effect of the impurity in the
water ; it also accelerates the rate of accumulation of iodine.
This is evident from the fact that the maximum value reached
in the case of the less pure water is greater than the asymptotic
value approached in the case of the more pure sample. As it

8

THE INFLUENCE OF RADIUM ON THE

was found that the rate of production of free iodine was much
affected by temperature, it was felt that an answer to the
question of whether radium radiations had a specific action of
their own on hydriodic acid, or only changed in degree the
action going on in their absence, was to be looked for from a
study of the action at different temperatures both with and
without the presence of radium. Further efforts at an explana-
tion of what is the action of external agencies such as impurity,
light, Becquerel rays, etc., will therefore be deferred until the
experiments on the effect of temperature on solutions with and
without radium have been detailed.

The following table contains the results obtained with
water of a high degree of purity at a temperature of 24° C., both
with and without radium. A new sample of 50 cc. of hydriodic
acid solution was taken for each period of time shown.

TABLE II.

No. of cc. of ^ Na2 S2 O3 solution required in titration
when decomposition of hydriodic acid solution takes place
in the dark in the presence of

Time m
hours.

No radium.

Radium.

Observed

Calculated from

Observed

Calculated from

y

a=1.54, 6 = 0.175

y

a = 2.10, 6 = 0.175

2

0.45

0.45

0.58

0.62

3

0.65

0.63

0.85

0.86

5

0.92

0.90

1.25

1.23

7

1.10

1.09

1.51

1.48

10

1.23

1.27

1.73

1.73

12

1.27

1.35

1.77

1.85

F6

1.38

1.45

1.94

1.98

21

1.52

1.50

2.01

2.05

38

1.56

1.54

2.09

2.10

DECOMPOSITION OF HYDRIODIC ACID. — CREIGHTON. 9

In the third and fifth columns of Table II. are added num-
bers calculated from the equation

y = a(l-erbt)

with the values of a and 6 there given, to show how well the
observations are represented by curves of this type. These
calculated curves are plotted in figure (1), the amounts of
sodium thiosulphate solution being represented as abscissae.
The observed values are marked and lie remarkably well on the
curves. The similarity of these two curves seems to show that
with pure water, at this temperature, the action of radium is of
the same nature as that which goes on without it in the dark,
but is greater.

10

THE INFLUENCE OF RADIUM ON THE

DECOMPOSITION OF HYDRIODIC ACID. — CREIGHTON. 11

If now, in t e reaction under investigation, we assume that
the hydriodic acid breaks down into iodine, and that this in
turn breaks down into a third substance, then we have a case
which is similar to the successive changes which take place in
the break down of radium. Rutherford1 has shown that if in
such a change as this n is the amount of any substance A, in
this case hydriodic acid, initially present, then the amount of
B, in this case free iodine, at any time is given by the equation

2/=(e-V-e-V) .............. (1)

where \ and X2 represent the rates of change of A into B and
of B into C, respectively, where C is the third product.

Assuming that this third product is formed, there seem to
be three probable ways in which the radium may act.

(1) The production of iodine is accelerated and also the
production of the new product into which the iodine is changed.

(2) The production of iodine is unaffected, but that of the
third product retarded.

(3) The production of the iodine is accelerated, while the
production of the third product is retarded.

Of these three cases the two latter seem to be the least
probable.

Let us apply equation (1) to the results of observation at
24°C. If the second change is very slow or zero, that is, if
X2 is negligible, the amount of free iodine at the end of time t
would be given by the equation

y = n(I-e-\*>) ............... (2)

Solving this equation for \, we get

x_^log n-log (n-y)

t Iog10e

Substituting in this equation values of t and y obtained
from columns 1, 2, and 4 of Table II, we derive for X values
which show a very satisfactory agreement, as is seen in the fol-
lowing table :

1. " Radioactivity," p. 332.

12

THE INFLUENCE OF RADIUM ON THE
TABLE III.

No radium curve ,n= 1 54

Radium curve .n — 2. 10

Time in
hours.

Amb. Na2 82 03

Rate of
change.

Amt. Na2 S2 03

Rate of
change.

y

A

y

A

2

0.45

0.173

0.58

0.162

3

0.65

0.183

0.85

0.173

5

0.92

0.182

1.25

0.181

7

1.10

0.719

1.51

0.181

10

1.23

0.160

1.73

0.174

This justifies us in supposing that at 24°C., both with and
without radium, there is no third product being formed from
the iodine ; and the numbers given in columns three and five of
Table II were calculated from equation (2). As was pointed
out before, the action of radium serves merely to accelerate
the action which goes on in its absence.

In order to see if more light would be thrown on the action
of the radium the decomposition of hydriodic acid was observed
at other temperatures.

The reaction was next observed at 12°C., and the results
are given in the following table :

TABLE IV.

No. of cc. of — - Na2 S2 O3 solution required in titration
when the decomposition of hydriodic acid takes place in
the dark in the presence of

Time in
hours.

No radium.

Radium

Observed

y

Calculated from
y = a (l-e-bt)
a=l 92,6 = 0.07

Observed

y

Calculated from
y = a (l-e-bt)
a = 2. 90, b = 0.07

2.5

0.30

0.31

0.49

0.46

8.0

0.75

0.83

1.15

1.25

10.0

0.95

0.96

1.43

1.46

18.0

1.47

1.37

2.15

2.08

30.0

1.69

1.69

2.55

2.55

DECOMPOSITION OE HXDRIODIC ACID. — CREIGHTON.

13

The curves for these numbers are similar in form to those
for 24°C. The only difference between the behaviour at this
temperature and that at 24°C. is that at the former the decom-
position of the solution is much slower, and the equilibrium
values consequently much longer in being reached. The effect
of radium is again apparently only to increase the action in
degree, but not to change it in type. Here, too, as at 24°C.,
there is probably no third product being formed from the iodine.
The reaction was next observed at 36°C., and the following
table shows the results obtained :

TABLE V.

No. of cc. of j-^ Na2 S2 O3 solution required in titration
when the decomposition of hydriodic acid solution takes
place in the presence of

Time in
hours.

No radium

Radium

Observed

Calculated from

Observed

Calculated from

y

a = 0.92.fe = 070

y

a = 3 3, 6 = 0.06,
c = 0.3l

0.5

0.18

0.27

0.30

0.38

1

0.35

0.46

0.60

0.69

2

070

0.69

1.15

1.15

3

0.85

0.81

.50

.46

4

0.88

0.87

.65

.64

6

0.93

0.91

.75

.79

8

0.92

0.92

.75

.75

10

0.93

0.92

.65

.64

12

0.91

0.92

.50

1.52

16

0.90

0.92

1.25

1.24

27

0.93

0.92

0.65

0.65

The curves formed from these numbers are given in figure 2.

14

THE INFLUENCE OF RADIUM ON THE

S0 V'N

DECOMPOSITION OF HYDRIODIC ACID. — CREIGHTON. 15

At this temperature it is seen that the maximum is quickly
reached in the case of the solution under the influence of the
radium ; and the effect due to the second reaction, the supposed
changing of the iodine into a third substance, is soon noticeable.
On the other hand, the curve for the solution not affected by
radium resembles the curves for both radium and no radium at
lower temperatures, but it would seem probable that in this
case the time taken to reach the maximum is shorter. In this
case also there is therefore no measurable formation of the
third product. A comparison of the no radium curves for 12*,
24° arid 3(j°C will show that with a rise in temperature the rate
of decomposition of hydrioclic acid increases, while the maximum
amount of iodine in solution is less and the time taken to reach
this maximum shorter. The same is true for the radium curves
at 12° and 24°C.

If the theory previously stated of what is taking place be
correct, the general equation (1) should be the equation of the
radium curves for 36°C.

Rutherford1 has shown that the smaller of the two quanti-
ties \ and X2 is given by the latter part of the downward curve.
The equation of this part of the curve is then of the form

_Xt
y = n.e (4)

Accordingly, from the observed values of y at 12, 16 and 27
hours, n was found to be 3.3 and \ to be 0.06. By finding the
differential of equation (1) with regard to time and equating it
to zero, we find that the maximum occurs at a time T, given by
the equation

X^^e-^ (5)

Putting for t the value 6.6 found from the curve, and for
\ its value 0.06, we find X2 to be O.ol. The numbers calcu-
lated from equation (1) with these values of the constants are
given in the last column of Table V, and the agreement with
the observed values falls well within the limit of experimental
error.

1. Loc. cit., p. 313.

16 THE INFLUENCE OF RADIUM ON THE

Since for no radium at 36°C., \ was found to be 0.70, and
X2 was zero (or very small), we see from the foregoing
results that the influence of the radium at this temperature is
to decrease the rate of decomposition of the hydriodic acid into
iodine, and to increase the second action considerably, namely
the transformation of the iodine into the third compound.
- It is an easy matter to determine when the amount of
hydriodic acid is half gone. If n is the amount of hydriodic
acid initially present and P is th e amount present at any time
t, then p = n e-V

Calling T the time taken for half of the hydriodic acid to be
transformed, we have J = e l"

loge 0.5
whence T = —

\

Substituting the values of X obtained with no radium for
24°C. and 36°C. in this equation, we find that it takes about 384
hours at the former temperature and about 17 hours at the
latter for half the amount of hydriodic acid to be decomposed
into iodine.

Effect of Temperature.

In order to show the effect of temperature alone, both when
the solution is under the influence of radium and without it,
the reaction was allowed to proceed for ten hours at various
temperatures. The results were as follows :

DECOMPOSITION OF HYDRIODIC ACID. — CRE1GHTON. 17

TABLE VI.

Temper-
ature.

No. of cc. of — Na2 S2 O3 solution required in
titration when the decomposition of hydriodic
acid takes place in the dark in presence of

Difference.

No radium.

Radium.

0

0.20

0.78

0.58

4

0.45

1.02

0.57

8

0.68

1.21

0.53

12

0.95

1.43

0.48

16

1.20

1.73

0.53

20

1.25

1.75

0.50

24

1.23

1.73

0.50

36

0.93

1.65

0.72

Mean of all Differences except that for 36°C. . 0.53

If these numbers are plotted it is seen that the curves are
straight lines below 16°C. If the latter are produced backward
they will cut the axis of temperature at about — 12°C. and
— 3°C. for the radium and no radium curves respectively. At
these temperatures there should be no decomposition unless the
curves should become asymptotic, and, considering the steepness
of the curves at 0°C., this would not seem probable for the "no
radium " curve at least. Of course it was out of the question
to keep the solution at — 12°C. on account of its freezing, but
a solution could easily be kept at — 3°G. for a time.

This temperature ( — 3°C.) was easily obtained by placing the
solution in a bath of very dilute alcohol, which was surrounded
by a mixture of salt and snow. It required but little attention
to keep this bath at a temperature of about — 3° 6C. to — 4°C.

It was found at the end of ten hours that the decomposition
in a solution not under the influence of radium, and kept at a
temperature of — 3°C. during that time, was equivalent to
0.19 cc. sodium thiosulphate. Hence the curves at 0°C. must
cease to be straight lines, and begin to run asymptotically
toward the axis of temperature.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XII. TRANS. 2.

18 THE INFLUENCE OF RADIUM ON THE

From this work on the effect of temperature we are again
led to conclude that the radium intensifies the action that is

already going on.

Effect of 7 Rays A lone.

Hardy and Wilcocks1 have shown that the 7 rays from
radium accelerate slightly the decomposition of iodoform, but
that the acceleration is small as compared with that due to the
ft rays. In order to determine whether the 7 rays behave in
the same way upon the hydriodic acid reaction, the rays from
the radium were made to pass through 6 millimetres of lead
before entering the solution. This thickness of lead is sufficient
to absorb all but the fastest ft rays, and does not appreciably
absorb the 7 rays. The reaction was first allowed to go on for
ten hours at 24°C, when the amount of free iodine was found to
be equivalent to 2.10 cc. sodium thiosulphate solution.

For the sake of comparison the results for ten hours are here
grouped :

No radium for 10 hrs. at 24°C 1.23 cc. ~ Na2 S2 03 solution

ft and 7 rays " " 1.73 " "

7 rays " " 2.10 "

At first this result seems to disagree with that obtained by
Hardy and Wilcocks. Indeed it does not seem reasonable that
the 7 rays, whose energy is much less than that of the ft rays,
should accelerate the decomposition more than the latter. Closer
consideration, however shows that the disagreement is only
apparent and that the result is in accordance with the above
theory of the break down of hydriodic acid.

For if, as we have supposed, there are two successive
reactions taking place, both of which are accelerated by the
influence of radium, then since it has been shown that the
second one of these is the more influenced, it is quite probable
that when the energetic ft rays are absorbed and not allowed to
enter the solution, the second reaction is relatively retarded, and
so we have the amount of free iodine in the solution increased.
If this is what is happening, then for a few hours after the

1. Loc. cit.

DECOMPOSITION OF HYDRIODIC ACID. CREIGHTON.

19

beginning of the reaction, before the second reaction begins to
make itself felt, we should expect to find that the amount of
iodine set free is less when the solution is acted upon by 7 rays,
than when it is acted upon by /3 and 7 rays. At the end of
three hours, when the solution had been kept at 24°C., the
decomposition was found to be as follows :
No radium for 3 hrs. at 24°C . . .0.65 cc. - Na2S203 solution

and 7 rays
7 rays

0.85
. . .0.72

Influence of Sunlight and Radium in the Absence of Oxygen.

If a hydriodic acid solution such as was used in the pre-
ceding experiments be entirely freed from occluded air, and
placed in a tube from which all the air has been removed, it
was found that this tube could be placed in the sunlight for
any length of time, without the solution showing any decom-
position. In order to remove all occluded air before being
sealed off, the solution was kept in a vacuum in the dark for
twenty-four hours ; for otherwise it is found that extremely
minute quantities of dissolved air will slightly decompose the
hydriodic acid.

The same experiment was then tried with radium, instead of
sunlight. In order to keep the solution under a vacuum for
two or three days, without sealing up the radium in a tube with
the solution, the vessel containing the solution with the radium
was placed under a bell jar on a brass plate, connected by a
glass tube to a " Geryk " vacuum pump. The joint between the
bell jar and the brass plate was made

t~f> oump

= perfectly tight by sealing it with a
preparation made by heating together
equal parts of pure india rubber, par-
affin, and vaseline. When the vacuum
was made this tube was sealed off from
the pump. A delicate manometer con-
nected with the jar, showed no change

20 INFLUENCE OF RADIUM ON HYDRIODIC ACID.

in vacuum at the end of several days. It was found that the
radium also produced no effect. The experiment was tried at
room temperature only.

Summary.

1. When prepared with very pure water a hydriodic acid
solution decomposes in the dark, reaching an equilibrium value.
(Experiments made up to 36°C.)

2. Ordinary distilled water contains impurities producing
some catalytic action which accelerates the decomposition of
hydriodic acid solution in the dark, at the same time intro-
ducing another reaction, which causes the amount of free iodine
to reach a maximum value and then fall off indefinitely.
(Experiments made at 15°C. only.)

3. At any temperature up to 24°C, more iodine is liberated
in a given time from a solution of hydriodic acid in the dark,
under the influence of radium, than from one that is not so
influenced.

4. When the experiment is tried at 36°C. this last statement
is only true up to 24 hours ; for whereas the amount of free
iodine with no radium reaches an equilibrium value, with
radium it reaches a maximum and then falls off indefinitely.

5. At 36°C. radium seems to cause the formation of the
same third product which impurity in water produces at low
temperature.

6. In general, increase of temperature tends to increase the
amount of free iodine at any time, whether radium is used
or not.

7. The 7 rays alone cause more iodine to be free than do
the @ and 7 rays together. (Experiments made at 24°C. only.)

8. Neither sunlight nor radium causes decomposition of
hydriodic acid solution in absence of oxygen. (Experiment
made at room temperature only.)

I wish, in conclusion, to thank Professors Mackay and
Mackenzie, for their kind suggestions and criticisms during the
progress of this work.

Dalhousie University, June 1st, 1907.

WATER POWER OF HALIFAX COUNTY, NOVA SCOTIA : PART I,
DARTMOUTH LAKES POWER. — BY F. W. W. DOANE,
C. E., City Engineer, Halifax.

(Read 13th May, 1907.)

It is not the purpose of this paper to present, any novel or
improved ideas in hydraulics or hydro-electric power, but first
to call attention to the undeveloped possibilities in our well-
known water courses, and second to describe somewhat in detail
the water power available from a water shed i'n the county of
Halifax, a portion of which is partially developed, the
remainder almost as nature formed it.

To the average man a water power is Inecessarily something
with a big dam across an imposing stream. Indeed, many
engineers are accustomed to look for large watersheds and high
heads, overlooking entirely the possibilities of the small streams.
In the House of Assembly a short time ago, it was stated that
there are no water powers in Nova Scotia worthy of the notice
of the government. This assertion may or may not be correct,
yet while all of the larger powers have been discovered, and
many of them harnessed, there still remain many falls on our
streams which have escaped notice or have been considered too
unimportant to develop. Many hydraulic powers are in use,
but are inot furnishing anything like the quantity of power
which they are capable of developing.

The board of trade last year, in a quarterly report,
regretted the lack of cheap powers for industries in Halifax,
but went no farther in a search for a remedy. Mr. Yorston, in
his paper read before the Institute last year, stated fully the
possibilities of the power on the Mersey River iln Queens
County. A portion of the dormant power in the Gaspereau
Valley is being developed for transmission to the neighboring

(21)

22 WATER POWER OF HALIFAX COUNTY, NOVA SCOTIA:

towns, Wolfville and Kentville, while the latent energy of the
tides of the Bay of ITundy still await the master haind of the
engineer, the promoter, and the capitalist.

With the rapid growth of the demand for power, and the
necessity for obtaining that power as cheaply as possible, we can
no longer afford to ignore the possibilities of the minor hydrau-
lic powers, many of which are yet undeveloped, while others now
in use are not developed to their full capacitv.

We have no mountain streams with great heads in Halifax
County, but there are many streams which contain possibilities
which would justify investigation at least.

At twenty feet head it takes a wheel a couple of feet in
diameter and a flow of about 3,500 cubic feet of water -oer min-
ute to give 100 horse-power. At eighty feet head a 10-inch
wheel will do the same work on one-quarter of the quantity of
water, while with a very high head a mere brook may suffice to
give a power that may be worth at least developing for local use.

Minor powers are not uncommon in ainy hillv district, but
the small flow diverts attention from them. Yet this very class
may have possibilities in the way of storage of water that would
make them most attractive. In some cases where a -number of
square miles of watershed are available, it may be possible by
the construction of dams to form storage lakes or increase the
capacity of existing natural reservoirs, and by this means create
a useful power where only a moderate stream flowed before.

There is, of course, a limit to the minimum quantity of con-
tinuous water power that is worth considering, whether for local
use or in connection with electric transmission. The governing
features of the problem are the general cost of development and
equipment, the cost of transmission, alnd the cost of operation.

In hydraulic work the cost of conduits from the dam to
the power house is generally the controlling item, and this is
again determined by the distance necessary to be covered and
the available flow.

DARTMOUTH LAKES POWER. — DOANE. 23

If the cost can be kept in the neighborhood of $100 per
horse-power, the outlook for an economical short transmission
is good, since this means an annual charge of no more than
$10 or $12 per horse-power for the motive power. The cost of
wheels and generators with their equipment will ru'n generally
from $25 to $30 per kilowatt in cases where raising trans-
formers are not needed, the usual case for small powers. All of
this can be approximated very readily, as also can the cost of
the necessary buildings.

The heaviest charges in small work come in the operating
expenses and in the pole line. Pole lines for light wires need
not cost more than $250 to $300 per mile, exclusive of wires
and right-of-way. The latter, in working on a small scale, is
commonly along the highway, so that the cost is small ; but the
cost of wire, ulnless the line is short, may add considerably.
Still, at a given voltage, the cost of copper per kilowatt trans-
mitted is a constant, and the only relatively fixed item is the
cost of stringing, which varies only slightly with the size of wire
until the larger sizes are involved. For mechanical reasons,
however, it is not desirable to string wire smaller than E"o. 4 or
No. 5, so that the minimum cost of conductor is somewhere
about $500 per mile. Fortunately, the depreciation charge
against bare wrire is practically negligable, and wire of this
minimum size will carry comfortably the output of the class of
plant considered.

In hydro-electric plants the operating expense is largely one
of fixed charge, while with steam plants it is made up of fixed
charges coupled with variable items of coal, water, oil, waste
and incidentals. With the hydro-eleetric plant, consequently
the cost per horse-power per year is almost constant, regardless
of whether supplied one hour a day or twenty-four hours a day.
Repairs are about the only variable, and they may be coinsidered
as increasing in direct proportion to the load factor. Labor, oil,
waste, etc., are nearly the same, irrespective of the proportion

24 WATER POWER OF HALIFAX COUNTY, NOVA SCOTIA :

of light loads to full loads. With the steam plant, on the con-
trary, the items of coal, labor, etc., increase rapidly with the
load factor, and hence the cost per horse-power per annum
increases in almost the same proportion.

The cost of attendance is the most serious outlay in small
stations. It means, generally, the pay of at least three men, and
occasional extras — not less than $2,000 per annum, even for a
very small plant. At 100 kilowatt capacity this would come to
at least $20 per kilowatt per year, which added to the other
charges, is pretty nearly prohibitive. At 200 kilowatt capacity,
the operating charge gets down to reasonable figures. In a
rough estimate, one will not go far wrong in saying that for
electrical purposes a water power of 250 to 300 horse-power on
steady flow is worth considering. Anything below this is of
little account, except for local utilization, and the usefulness of
the power increases rapidly above this point.

If the situation is favorable for storage, a good deal can be
done with small streams ; but unless the above amount can be
made available without going to heavy expense, there is not
much that can be done. If two or more such powers are avail-
able they can be often worked together to advantage. There are
powers near the limiting size that have been passd over as too
small, and these are the olries which ought to be carefully looked
after in the interest of small places and small industries.

The fundamental fact that faces the engineer of a hydro-
electric plant is that the total amount of hydraulic power avail-
able is, once for all, a fixed quantity. Of the rain that falls in"
the drainage area of the stream a certain proportion finds its'
way into the stream and that is all that is there available. Tak-
ing a series of years, too, the distribution of this available water
through the year is approximately uniform, so that one can
state broadly the total normal power per year, and that its dis-
tribution through the year follows a certain power curve. In
some streams this curve is very regular, in others extremely

DARTMOUTH LAKES POWER. — DOANE. 25

irregular, showing torrents at certain seasons and rivulets at
others. The task of the engineer is to take the power curve and
do with it the best hie can in earnings, attacking the problem
with all the resource at his command.

No hydro-electric plant of limited capacity should be
studied at the present time without considering tie use of
auxiliary power. Oftentimes such a study would result i'n. the
rejection of auxiliaries altogether. At other times, after all has
been done that is possible in obtaining the best available storage,
there may remain a feature of the problem which may be econ-
omically handled only by steam or gas auxiliaries. But a short
time ago, the presence in any hydro-electric system of steam or
gas auxiliaries, was considered a confession of weakness in the
hydraulic system. Fortunately this false idea is fast losing-
ground, and it is recognized that the best of engineering is shewn
by their use, and in consequence, hydro-electric opportunities
are bei'ng utilized which were previously neglected.

Streams of comparatively constant flow, by the installation
of steam or gas auxiliaries, are enabled to supply heavier loads
than would be otherwise possible, though perhaps the most
important use for auxiliaries is found in cases where the normal
stream flow is very materially reduced during short periods of
the year, by reason of special conditions in the watershed.

It is not reasonable to develop a hydro-electric station when
a steam or gas station could be built which would supply the
same territory at a lower cost, but it is also unwise to condemn
a hydro-electric development because the cost per unit of capac-
ity is high, when at the same time it can develop cheaper power
than can be done in any other manner.

In the province of Ontario, the government has appointed a
hydro-electric power commission, whose duty it is to develop and
supply electric energy not only to municipalities requesting it,
but also to any railway or to a private company distributing
electricity.

26 WATER POWER OF HALIFAX COUNTY, NOVA SCOTIA :

In the annual report of the ^ew York state Avater supply
commission, that body strongly urges the state control of
waters. This refers not only to such a regular examination of
water supplies for potable purposes as shall insure the detection
of any serious change in their quality, but also to the larger
problem of the regulation of stream flow in order to prevent
floods. The commission believes that it is unwise to allow the
appropriation of potable waters for power purposes, except
under such state supervision and regulation as is at present
exercised in the case of water-works plants. The diminution of
floods, the report states, could be brought about by the construc-
tion of reservoirs which need not flood public forests, an act
prohibited by the constitution, and the waters stored in these
reservoirs might be made a source of revenue. The portions of
the report recently made public do not reveal any definite plans
for legislation to carry out the suggestion, but the general pro-
position that the state should exercise an equitable supervision
and control over the unappropriated waters of the state meets
with public approval. The time is coming quickly when water
powers and water supplies will be appraised much higher than
now, and any failure to secure state control of them, so far as
they are -now unappropriated, may be unfortunate.

It is becoming daily more and more apparent that the coal
mines, steamers and railroads cannot supply a permanent and
continuous generation of power so readily as the rivers. The
experience of the past has brought this home to all classes and
sections of the Dominion, till in some parts of the country we
are now appealing to our courts and legislative bodies to relieve
us from the perils of fuel famine. These conditions are but
the natural outgrowth of a national improvidence which in the
past has consumed our store of domestic fuel for power purposes
and has allowed to run to waste the easily available power
resources of the water which constantly falls upo'n our hills, and
will continue to fall while the earth is habitable.

DARTMOUTH LAKES POWER. — DOANE. 27

Cheapness of power has long ago been demonstrated for the
hydro-electric plant and transmission line; reliability is now
being proved. The duplicate line has already become a'n estab-
lished factor in the system, and attention has been turned to the
duplicate plant as well. The advantages of the duplicate source
will be the next study.

Not only is the unreliability in the supply of coal aiding in
the development of hydro-electric projects, but the price also is
exercising a great influence. We do not have to go far afield to
hear tales of scarcity of fuel and closed plants in consequence of
strikes, car famine, etc., and every consumer of coal knows that
there has been a permanent increase of about 50 per cent, in the
cost. This price will not be reduced, but in all probability will
continue to advance, so that it may be claimed that the hydro-
electric plant, which will begin by paying expenses, must neces-
sarily become a source of profit in the near future.

Water Power of the Dartmouth Lakes.

The nearest water power to the city of Halifax is that ow'ned
by the Starr Manufacturing Company, in Dartmouth. Until
very recently this power was not controlled entirely by one
company. By the amalgamation of the Starr Company and the
Dartmouth Rolling Mills Compalny, the whole water power
becomes the property of the new company, and it is now possible
to develop it to its full capacity.

The drainage area from which this power is obtained
includes the watershed and water surface of five lakes. Begin-
ning at a divide a short distance south of Cranberry Lake, which
lies on the south side of the Preston Road, about three and one-
half miles east of Dartmouth, the surface slopes northwardly
and westwardly. Cranberry Lake empties by a stream about
one-third of a mile in length, crossing the Breston Road into
Lake Loo'n, which in turn drains into Lake Charles, about one
mile and one-half westwardly as the crow flies. From Lake

28 WATER POWER OF HALIFAX COUNTY, NOVA SCOTIA :

Charles the surface slopes both northwardly and southwardly,
Lake Charles being the highest of the chain of lakes utilized in
the construction of the Shubenacadie Ca'nal. While no longer
needed- for canal purposes, the masonry of the old locks is still
iln good condition, and' is used by the Starr Company in con-
nection with their storage dams.

When the lakes are overflowing, Lake Charles has an outlet
at both ends, but except in time of freshet, the outlet is south-
wardly into Second Dartmouth Lake. The stream between
Lake Charles and Second Dartmouth Lake is about seven-
eighths of a mile in length, and passes through two of the old
locks. From Seco'nd Dartmouth Lake the water flows directly
into First Dartmouth Lake. From the latter, it is let down
through Sullivan's Pond as it is required. Penhorn Lake, lying
south of the Preston Road, about a mile and a half east of Dart-
mouth, drains into the Second Lake. Oathill Lake, situated
about three-quarters of a mile eastwardly from the town, and
south of the Preston Road, empties into First Lake.

From a map in the possession of the Deputy-Commissioner
of Public Works and Mines, the areas have been obtained as
follows : —

Lake Loon watershed 840 acres.

Lake Charles watershed 3400 "

First and Second Lakes watershed .... 3060 "

Total area of lakes and watershed. . 7300 " =11.4 sq. miles
Lakes only :

Cranberry Lake 23 acres.

Loon Lake . . 190 "

Reservoir below Loon Lake 23 "

Lake Charles 337 "

First and Second Lakes . 441 "

Other lakes 36 "

Area of lakes 1050 «' . = 1.6 sq. miles

Area of watershed, not including lakes 6250 " = 9.8 sq. miles

DARTMOUTH LAKES POWER. — DOANE. 29

The country is rough and broken, a portion beinp; wooded,
and a large proportion waste land.

After passi'ng through the Starr Manufacturing Company's
works, the water, previous to the amalgamation of the two com-
panies, was used again at the electric light station below Port-
land Street.

For this purpose the water was carried to a point opposite
the light station by a flume 4 ft. 6 in. wide, and 15 in.
deep. When examined by the writer the water was flowing
about 14 in. deep with an inclination of .002 feet per foot.
Under those conditions the sluice would discharge 1134 cubic
feet per minute. From the flume the water was taken by a 4 ft.
pipe to a 20 in. crocker turbine, working under a head of 18 ft.
4 in. At 75 per cent, efficiency the wheel would develop 29.25
horse-power.

The water running the Starr works is drawn from Sullivan's
Pond through a 44 in. pipe, 417 feet long, with a discharging
capacity of 12,900 cu. ft. per minute. The wheels work under
31 ft. head. The shop is run by a 30 in. wheel, " standard "
make, purchased from T. H. Risdon & Co., Mount Holly, New
Jersey. The grinding room machinery is kept in motion by a
10 in. " American " turbine manufactured by the Dayton Globe
Iron Works Co., Dayton, Ohio. A 22 in. " special " new
American turbine (Dayton make) has been used to operate elec-
tric generators for lighting the town.

The catalogue capacity of these wheels is : —

Cu. ft. of water

Size

30 in.

Head in ft.
31

Revolutions.

262

Horse-power.

83.4

used.

1674

10 in.

31

681

21.8

465

22 in.

31

326

116.7

2492

A comparison with the theoretical horse-power of the water
used shows that the wheels are rated at higher efficiency than

30 WATER POWER OF HALIFAX COUNTY, NOVA SCOTIA :

they can reach in practical work. The large wheel is rated at
85 per cent, efficiency and the other two at 80 per cent.

At 75 per cent, efficiency 1674 cu. ft. at 31 ft. head = 73.5 horse-power.
75 " '• 465 " 31 " = 20.25

75 " .' 2492 " 31 " = 109.5

The Starr Company was under contract to supply power to
the Electric Light Company up to 100 horse-power from sunset
to midnight, and 30 horse-power from midnight to dawn. It is
estimated, therefore; that the average quantity of water con-
sumed per day in developing power was : —
1674
465

2139 cu. ft. per minute x 60 x 9 hours = 1 153,560 cu. ft. per day.
2482 " " x60x6 " = 897,120

1134 " " x60x5 " =2,390,880 "

This quantity used at an equal hourly rate for twenty-four
hours would produce 73 horse-power at 75 per cent, efficiency.
Adding the 29.25 horse-power developed below, the total 24-
hour power would be 99.25 horse-power. For nine hours it
would produce 195+29.25=224.25 horse-power.

Assuming for the present that the quantity of water used
daily is correct, it is not developing the total horse-power that
it is capable of producing. If, instead of the present system,
all of the water were carried in a pipe from Sullivan's Pond to
a wheel at the electric light station, there would be a head of at
least fifty feet. The above quantity of water would then develop
at 75 per cent, efficiency, 116.75 horse-power for twenty-four
hours, or 314.25 horse-power for nine hours. The nine-hour
power would be an increase of 90 horse-power, or 40 per cent.
In order to obtain this additional power it would be necessary to
coinvert the hydraulic plant now running the Starr works into
a hydro-electric plant.

The same water used for power at the Starr works is available
for the development of power at the foot of First Lake, as Sul-

DARTMOUTH LAKES POWER. — DOANE. 31

livan's Pond, through which water is drawn from First Lake
for the Starr Company's plant, is comparatively very small, and
has practically no watershed. When First Lake is full, there
is a head of about twelve feet above Sullivan's Pond. Assum-
ing that First Lake can be maintained at overflow level every
day of the year, and that the quantity hereinbefore estimated is
available, a wheel at the canal lock would develop at 75 per cent,
efficiency, 28 horse-power for 24 hours, or 77.5 horse-power for
9 hours. If Sullivan's Pond could be raised 12 feet, this addi-
tional power would be available at the Starr works without
electric transmission.

The quantity of power that could be taken from the estim-
ated available water by carrying it in a pipe from First Lake to
a wheel at high-water mark would not be greater than that
developed by a wheel at the Canal lock at the foot of First Lake,
and another at high-water mark, operated by water drawn from
Sullivan's Pond. The total would be about 390 horse power for
9 hours, or 145 hore-power for 24 hours.

The fall in the stream from Lake Charles to Second Lake
affords another opportunity to increase the total capacity of this
power. This portio'n of the old canal is known as Port Wallis
Locks. The upper lock gate is closed, and holds the water up to
the level of Lake Charles. There is a fall in the lock of about
19 feet, and at the lower lock about 10 feet. Estimating the
available portion of the rainfall over the watershed draining to
this point at two feet, a wheel at Port Wallis Locks would
develop 25 horse-power for 24 hours or 66 horse-power for 9
hours.

The quantity of water available, depending not only on the
rainfall but on the possibility of storage, it is of the greatest
importance to know what can be done to hold the water draining
through the old canal. The writer is not familiar with Lake
Loon, and has had no opportunity to ascertain the storage poss-
ibilities of this lake. It is stated, however, that a rise of three
feet would cause the water to flow in another direction.

32 WATER POWER OF HALIFAX COUNTY, NOVA SCOTIA :

Lake Charles can be dammed at both ends. At the south
end there is a good location for a dam. The lake could be raised
six feet by a structure about 100 feet long. At the north end
.the dam would be from 100 to 200 yards in length. At one point
on the Waverley Road the highway would have to be raised, as
it is not much above the present overflow level of the lake. Rais-
ing Lake Charles six feet would increase the storage capacity
about 90,000,000 feet, or about 40 days' supply for the Stan-
works. This additional storage would be nearly one-third of
the estimated available rainfall, and there is no doubt in the
mind of the writer that the storage in this power system can be
increased so that the whole run-off in a dry or ordinary year can
be held and used as required.

The contract with the Electric Light Company began
January 1st, 1898. In 1894, which was a very dry year, the
water failed, but all the wheels did not stop again for want of
water until 1905, which was the dryest year on record.
In 1904 the shop ran by steam from August 5th to September

10th.

In 1904 the electric lights ran by water without stop.
In 1905 the electric lights ran by steam from September 14th

to November 22nd.
In 1905 the shop ran half water, half steam, from August 29th

to September 14th.
In 1905 the shop ran by steam from August 14th to Dec. 1st.

The Starr Manufacturing Company has an auxiliary steam
plant, as may be inferred from the foregoing statement, which
they use in case of emergency, or when once in ten years water
fails. This plant affords a good illustration of the advantages
of the auxiliary system, which permits a larger horse-power
development on the available water than would be possible with-
out it. In its absence the daily capacity of the plant would be
reduced, and there would be danger of complete shut-down, in
case of accident or shortage of water.

DARTMOUTH LAKES POWER. — DOANE. 33

The estimate of the quantity of water used daily at the Stan-
works is based on information given by the manager. If cor-
rect, the proportion of the rainfall is much larger than the usual
estimate. 2,390,880 cubic feet of water every day, equals
872,671,200 cubic feet a year, which, spread over 7,300 acres,
would be 33 inches, or 59 per cent, of 55,927, the average rain-
fall in Halifax. It is, therefore, probable that the estimated
capacity is in excess of the actual capacityt The estimated
capacity based on the manager's data is : —

At high-water mark (9-hour day) 365 days 314.25 h. p.

At first lock ". . 75 5 "

At Port Wallis locks 66 "

457.75 "
Possible nine-hour power under present

development 224.25

Possible increase 233.5 " 104 p. c.

It would be very interesting to know positively the exact
quantity of water used by each wheel at the Starr works, and
the exact total time run during one year, so that the run-off
determined by Mr. Johnston and that at the Starr works could
be compared.

PROC. & TKANS. X. S. INST. Sci., VOL XII. TRANS. 3.

A FEW CHEMICAL CHANGES INFLUENCED BY RADIUM: A
NEW METHOD FOE THE DETECTION OF AMYGDALIN.*—
By H. JERMAIN M. CREIGHTON, M. A., Dalhousie
University, Halifax, N. S.

Read 13th April, 1908.

Up to the present time only a comparatively small amount
of work has been carried out on the effect of radium on chem-
ical reactions. Hardy and Wilcocks1 have investigated the
oxidation of iodoform, when acted on by Rontgen rays aind by
radium, and Hardy2 has observed the coagulation of globulin
under the influence of the latter. Becquerel3 found that white
phosphorus i® changed into the inactive red phosphorus, and
that mercuric chloride in the presence of oxalic acid is reduced
to mercurous chloride by the radiations from radium. The
Curies4 have shown that the rays from radium change oxygen
into ozone and discolour glass. Berthelot5 cites the following
cases : iodic acid is decomposed by radium rays and by light,
with liberation of iodine, the change being much slower than
that of iodoform ; nitric acid gives off nitrous fumes when acted
upon by radium rays and by light. The decomposition of
hydriodic acid has been observed and studied by Creighton.6
These,, as far as I have been able to discover, are all the
reactions that have been investigated up to the present time.

Wheta it had been decided to investigate what influence
radium had on different chemical changes, it seemed probable
that the best results would be obtained if the radium were
allowed to act on the substances that were to be transformed,
under the conditions most favourable to the transformation. It
was mainly for these conditions that the following substances
were choseln.

*Oontributions from the Science Laboratories of Dalhousie University fCheniistry.I

1 Proc. Roy. Soc., 72, 480, 200.

2 Proc. Phyp. Soc., 1903, May 16.
* C. R., 1901, 133, p. 709.

4 C. R., 1899, 129, p. 823.

5 C. R., 1901, 133, p. 659.

6 Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Science, XII, 1, 1.

(34)

CHANGES INFLUENCED BY RADIUM. — CREIGHTON.

35

Five milligrammes of radium bromide of activity of about
1,000,000 were employed. The radium was enclosed in a small
glass tube, so that only the a - and /3-rays were used.

Action of Radium on Lead and Tin.

After a particularly cold winter, 1867-68, it was found that
some blocks of tin that had been stored in the customs house
at St. Petersburg, had mysteriously crumbled to a ffrey powder.
It has since been shown that tin exists in two allotropic forms,
one of which is this grey powder, the other the ordinary white
malleable metal. The transition temperature of these two
varieties of tin is about 20° C., the former being stable below,
and the latter above this temperature. The reason all ordinary
tin, most of which is at a temperature below that of transition,,
does not change into the grey kind, is due to its being in a state
of unstable equilibrium, aind kept there by an unknown agent,
to which the name passive resistance has been given. If in
some way this passive resistance could be overcome, then the
transition of white into grey tin would readily take -nlace.

It was in order to see whether radiums would do this that
the following experiment was carried out.

Two pieces of white tin, about two and a half centimetres
square and a millimetre thick were prepared from pure mossy

tin, and their surfaces made
smooth and clean. These
were placed in a small
leaden box, Fig. 1, and
separated from each other
by means of a leaden
partition, which was suffi-
ciently, thick to keep all but
the fastest /3-rays from
passing from one compart-
ment to the other. The ends of the box were left open. The

36 A FEW CHEMICAL CHANGES

small glass tube, containing the radium, was held in the end of
a hollow brass rod ; this latter passed through a hole in one end
of the leaden cover of the box, so that the radium was over, a'nd
about a millimetre distant from, the square of tin in one of the
compartments of the box. This box was placed in a large tin
box and kept at a temperature of about 0°C. for four months.

At the end of that time, the pieces of tin were taken out and
.examined under the microscope, and it was found that there
was a formation of grey tin on the surface of each, but that the
amount on the piece that had been bombarded by the rays from
the radium, was greater than that on the piece which had not
been so acted upo'n. This difference, however, was not very
great, but the lead box which had contained the pieces of tin,
had undergone a. curious change, during the four months. The
inside of the compartment into which the tube containing the
.radium had penetrated, was completely covered, with the
exception of the bottom, with a thin white film, which was
.present in some. places, particularly the top of the box, in rela-
tively large quantities, while the other compartment did not con-
tain the most minute trace of this substance. Around the hole
in the top of the box, where the tube containing- the radium
entered, the lead was coated with the white substance, much
more thickly than anywhere else. Some of this oowder was
scraped off and analysis showed that it was lead carbonate.

The only explanation the author can give of its formation
is this. Some of the rays from the radium, after striking the
surface of the tin, which was probably not perfectly even, were
reflected upward, and bombarded the top of the lead box and
ionized it, thus making it more active than it was. The por-
tions of the lead which were thus made active, were able to
combine with the moist carbon dioxide in the air, with the
production of lead carbonate. This seemed to be borne out by
the fact that it was the top of the box that was most coated with
the carbonate.

INFLUENCED BY RADIUM. — CREIGHTON. 37

The Action of Radium on Hydrogen Peroxide.

The action of radium on hydrogen peroxide was next inves-
tigated, as on account of its behaviour under the influence of
light/ it was believed that it would be affected by radium rays.

The hydrogen peroxide solution used in these experiments
had a strength of 4.832 grams per litre.

Since hydrogen peroxide, when it decomposes, breaks up
into water and oxygen, its decomposition can be estimated by
measuring the oxygen produced, or the amount of hydrogen
peroxide left in the solution by titrating with potassium per-
manganate. As this latter method necessitated changing the
amount of substance in the system, the former was chosen, and
the oxygen was measured by the change of pressure it produced.

A large reagent bottle, with a side tubulature near the bot-
tom, was half-filled with hydrogen peroxide. Into the side neck
was fitted a long graduated tube with a bend at right angles,
which was to act as a pressure gauge. The brass tube contain-
ing the radium was passed through a tightly-fitting' rubber cork,
which was fixed firmly into the neck of the reagent bottle and
so adjusted, that the radium was about three or four millimetres
away from the surface of the liquid. In this way, any increase
in the volume of the gas over the peroxide would produce a
change in its pressure, and this change could be read by means
of the pressure gauge. Figure 2 shows the apparatus.

These experiments were carried out in a photographic dark-
room, so that there was no chance of the reaction being
influenced by light.

D'Arcy, Phil. Mag., 1902 [VI]. 3, 42.

38

A FEW CHEMICAL CHANGES

360 cc. of hydrogen peroxide, of the
strength mentioned above, were placed in
the bottle just described, a'nd put in the
dark without being under the action of
radium. The volume of gas enclosed over
the liquid was 350 cc. The variations in
pressure as observed by the pressure gauge
were recorded for three hundred hours.
After correcting this pressure for the varia-
tions due to changes of temperature and
pressure, it was found that the pressure of
the enclosed gas had not varied, showing
that the peroxide had not suffered any
decomposition during the time it was under observation.

Next an experiment was carried out, similar to that just
described, except that the surface of the peroxide was bom-
barded by radium radiations. The increase in pressure was
recorded from time to time, and the results obtained are
tabulated in the following table :

TABLE I.

Time in
hours.

Barometric
pressure
mm. Hg.

Temperature

•c.

Height of
liquid in
manometer
divisions.1

Increase
in pressure
of gas
mm. Hg.

Corrected
increase in
pressure of
gas mm. Hg.

0

761.0

19.1

145.0

7

762.01

18.8

149.9

"6'«

*i*7

15

762.11

18.0

157.3

1.1

4.4

30

764.10

18.8

160.2

1.4

4.1

40

763.90

19.2

165.0

2.0

2.7

50

764.01

18.0

156.0

1.0

5.8

75

761.39

17.1

151.3

0.6

6.4

100

767.11

16.6

155.5

1.0

10.9

118

764.31

16.8

163.0

1.9

10.0

142

766.01

17.9

167.0

2.2

8.4

165

764.02

18.0

162.1

1.9

6.7

200

765.13

18.0

160.1

1.4

6.8

219

764.99

18.1

158.4

1.3

6.3

238

764.41

18.1

155.0

1.0

5.6

265

760.99

19.5

163.0

1.9

0.8

20 scale divisions = 25 mm.

INFLUENCED BY RADIUM. — CREIGHTON. 39

In the preceding table column five gives the changes in pres-
sure of the gas in millimetres of mercury. These values have
been calculated from the data in column four, the hydrogen
peroxide having a density which is approximately one. Column
six contains the values of colum'n five after approximate cor-
rections have been made for the changes due to variation in
temperature and pressure ; that is, these numbers represent the
changes in pressure due to the increase of gas.

From these results, then, it is seen that the effect of radium
on the solution of hydrogen peroxide is to decompose it. This
decomposition, however, is small; for the increase in pressure
corresponds only to a small increase in volume. In its behaviour
towards hydrogen peroxide radium resembles light. It will be
noticed that the pressure exerted by the gas, as given in the
sixth column of the above table, after a time begins to decrease.
The reason of this diminution in pressure will be considered
later.

It is a well-known fact that the presence of finely divided
solid matter or salts of the heavy metals slowly decomposes con-
centrated solutions of hydrogen peroxide, even at ordinary
temperature. For this reason 10 cc. of ^ solution of lead
nitrate were added to 350 cc. of the dilute hydrogen peroxide
'used in these experiments. The addition of the lead nitrate to
the peroxide caused the formation of a finely divided precip-
itate, the presence of which should also tend to decompose the
solution. After making the necessary approximate corrections
for changes in temperature and pressure, it was found that
during the ten days the solution was under observation the pres-
sure had not changed at all. Hence, it would seem that dilute
solutions of hydrogen peroxide are not, or at most only exceed-
ingly slowly, decomposed by the presence of finely divided solid
matter or solution of lead nitrate.

A'n experiment similar to this was next carried out, with

40

A FEW CHEMICAL CHANGES

the exception that the surface of the liquid was bombarded
with radium rays. The results are given below in Table II.

TABLE If.

Time
in
hours.

Barometric
pressure
mm. Hg.

Temperature

Height of
liquid in
manometer
divisions-1

Increase
in pressure
of gas
mm. Hg.

Corrected
increase in
pressure of
gas mm. Hg.

0

759.99

20.8

142.0

9

759.90

20.8

160.5

i"7

(.7

12

759.71

21.2

167.0

2.3

1 7

15

759.41

21.4

169.5

2.5

0.8

19

758.74

21.6

165.0

2. 1

0.1

23

759.21

21.8

156.5

\A

1.5

33

759.20 <

21.1

141.5

O.I

1.1

36

7*9.30

20.6

142.8

0.1

0.4

41

759.21

19.6

136.6

0.5

2.3

48

759.41

19.1

138.0

0.4

3.9

58

759 53

17.4

95.0

4.3

4.3

63

759.91

17.4

107.0

2.3

63

67

760.10

17.4

108.0

3.3

5.3

73

765.31

17.4

90.0

4.8

6.3

82

767.90

16.8

89.0

4.9

9.9

87

769.18

17.6

104.0

3.5

9.0

32

767.20

18.5

123.0

0.7

9.0

100

766.17

18.0

170.0

2.6

13.2

104

764.39

18.0

208 . 0

6.1

15.7

109

75^.55

18.0

252.5

10.1

16.7

115

754.54

18.5

305.0

14.1

17.9

120

758.52

18.4

352.5

19.3

24.9

130

758.63

18.7

483.7

31.2

36.0

136

758.63

18.7

489/2

31.8

36.6

153

761.05

18.6

358.2

19.8

27.5

160

761.52

19.6

394.5

23.2

>26. 9

167

761.09

19.0

387.0

22.5

28.4

177

760.99

17.4

343.0

18.6

28 3

188

761.26

17.4

389.0

22.8

32.5

194

761.84

17.2

413.0

25.0

35.5

202

765.17

17.0

391.0

23.0

35.6

216

764.69

15.4

299.0

14.4

30.9

225

762.70

12.6

238.0

8.8

31.5

236

761.75

14.2

299.0

14.4

34.2

240

761.23

14.2

334.0

17.6

37-1

255

769.36

15.6

379.0

21.8

41.5

265

761.91

14.8

354 . 5

19.5

35.7

276

763. SO

11.6

274.5

12.2

37.9

294

765.86

11.8

286.5

13.2

39.6

304

767.02

12.3

303.0

14.8

40.4

314

752.34

12 8

638.3

46.4

63.7

321

752.34

13.6

711.3

52.3

67.4

324

753.86

13.6

681.0

49.6

65.2

20 scale divisions = 25 mm.

INFLUENCED BY RADIUM. — CREIGHTOX. 41

Iii column six of this table the increases in oressure due to
the decomposition of the hydrogen peroxide are given, and 'on
comparing these results with those given in Table I, it will be
seen that the effect of the radium is to produce a much greater
decomposition when lead nitrate is present than when it is not.

The Curies1 have shown that the effect of radium radiations
on oxygen is to transform it into ozo'ne. It is to this cause that
the decreases in pressure, corresponding to contractions in vol-
ume of the gas, observed in these experiments, have been
attributed. Why there is this periodic 'change, the accumula-
tive effect of which, as shown in Table II, is to enlarge the
volume of gas, will have to be investigated more thoroughly
before a suitable explanation can be given. On examining the
gas which was over the liquid when the experiment was over, it
was found that it contained 1.4 per cent, of ozone.

The foregoing experiments show that neither solutions of
hydrogen peroxide (4.832 grams per litre), nor solutions of
hydrogen peroxide in which lead nitrate is present undergo any
decomposition in the dark; also that dilute solutions of hydro-
gen peroxide are slowly decomposed by radium, this decom-
position being much more rapid when the solution contains lead
nitrate and finely divided solid matter. Lastly, that ozone is
produced by the action of radium on the oxygen present.

Action of Radium on Chloroform.

It is well known that the reason chloroform, CHC13, does
not give a precipitate with silver nitrate, is due to the fact that
it is unionized. As there seems to be no absolutely undisso-
ciated substance, there is in chloroform, probably some few
chlorine ions ; these are so few that when they unite with the
silver ions present in the system, the amount of silver
chloride is very much too small to be visible. However, as soon
as these chlorine ions are removed from the system as undis-
sociated silver chloride, more of the chloroform dissociates in

i Loc. cit.

42 A FEW CHEMICAL CHANGES

order to maintain the value of its solubility product, which
must be exceedingly small. Thus the silver chloride accumu-
lates very slowly and finally becomes visible. This explanation
would seem to account for the appearance of silver chloride in a
mixture of silver nitrate and chloroform a long time after
mixing.

The following experiment was carried out to find whether
chloroform could be ionized by radium to a sufficient extent, as
to produce a visible amount of silver chloride when mixed with a
solution of silver nitrate. About 50 cc. of chloroform which were
found to produce no precipitate on mixing with a solution of sil-
ver nitrate, were placed in a wide-mouthed reagent bottle, with
a capacity of about 125 cc. The brass tube containing the
radium was passed through a tightly fitting rubber cork and fixed
firmly into the mouth of the bottle. This solution was placed
in the dark, and at the end of twenty-four hours it was shaken
up with a few cc. of silver nitrate solution. After removing the
water from the chloroform by allowing it to remain for a few
hours over anhydrous copper sulphate, the liquid remaining
possessed a milkiness which must have been due to the presence
of silver chloride, thus proving that chlorine ions had been
separated from the chloroform by the action of the radium.

Action of Radium on Amygdalin.

The laws of the action of light on glucosides, enzymes,
toxins and antitoxins have been thoroughly investigated by
Dreyer and Haussen,,1 who have shown that the effect of light-
on the glucosides is to cause them to break down with the
formation of glucose. For the purpose of investigating the
action of radium upon the glucosides, the most common one,
amygdalin C H NO was chosen. The amount of decom-
position could readily be measured by estimating the amount
of glucose formed.

I C. R , 1907, 115. p. 564.

INFLUENCED BY RADIUM. — CKEIGHTON. 43

A saturated solution of amygdalin in water, was subjected
to the action of radium rays for four days. At the end of that
time part of the solution was tested with Fehling's solution for
glucose. Not the least trace of glucose was found to be present.
Another part of the solution was boiled with ammonium poly-
sulphide, and after the excess of the latter had been removed
by boiling, a few drops of dilute ferric chloride were added.
As there was no change in colour hydrocyanic acid was inferred
to be absent. Solutions of amygdalin were acted upon by
radium for different lengths of time up to ten days, with the
same result as above.

Although on boiling the solution of amygdalin, which had
been under the influence of radium for a time, with a few drops
of Fehling's solution, the copper was not reduced, thus showing
the absence of glucose, the blue colour due to the copper, almost
disappeared, a whitish or pale blue gelatinous precipitate was
formed, and a fairly stro'ng odour of ammonia was given off.
If more than a few drops of Fehling's solution were, added to
the amygdalin, the blue colour did not disappear 011 boiling.
When Fehling's solution was added to an ordinarv solution of
amygdalin, it was found that the same changes took place on
boiling, except that the solution of amygdalin which had not
been acted upon by radium, was not able to discolour as much
Fehling's solution as was a solution that had been acted upon
by radium. These changes must be due to some reaction taking
place between the amygdalin and the Fehling's solution, or one
or more of its constituents; these reactions are more complete
when the amygclalin has been under the influence of radium
for a time.

Amygdalin solutions were boiled with the constituents of
Fehling's solution combined in all possible ways, but it was
only when they were present so as to form Fehling's solution
that the 'above results were obtained. When a solution of
amygdalin was boiled with caustic potash alone, ammonia was
given off but no precipitate was formed.

44 A FEW CHEMICAL CHANGES

Liebig and Wohler prepared amygdalic acid or glucoman-
delic acid, C9 H O from amygdalin, by boiling it with

baryta water, the change taking place i'n this way: —

This acid is a white crystalline substance which readily
forms amorphous salts.

It is probable that the change taking place with Fehling's
solution is one similar to this. The action of the potassium
hydroxide is to form amygdalic acid and ammonia., 'and at the
same time a'n insoluble salt of the former is formed with the
copper, which is held in solution by the sodium and potassium
tartrate in the Fehling's solution.

The decomposition of amygdalin by Fehling's solution does
not take place unless the solution is boiled. However, if the
solution of amygdalin is boiled with potassium hydroxide,
cooled, and then a few drops of Fehling's solution added to it
the bluish precipitate is formed.

A quantity of this precipitate was formed and washed free
from amygdalin and Fehling's solution. When some of it was
heated on a piece of platinum foil it charred, showing that it
contained organic matter, and a greyish residue containing a
carbonate and copper, but no sodium nor potassium was left
behind,

From the foregoing facts it would seem that, on adding
Fehling's solution to a solution of amygdalin and boiling, we
have ,a change taking place like that observed bv Liebig and
Yvohler, resulting in the break down of the amygdalin. As a
result of this decomposition the nitrogen of the amygdalin is
changed to ammonia, and a bluish white precipitate, which is
probably a copper salt of amygdalic acid, is formed. It is
believed that the evolution of .ammonia and the formation of the
precipitate noted above, might be used for the detection of
amygdalin. When the amygdalin has been under the influence
of radium for a time, it is found this change is more complete.

INFLUENCED BY RADIUM. — CREIGHTON. 45

Since solutions of glucosides are readily changed into glucose
by hydrochloric acid, even in the cold, it was believed that
if a solution of amygdalin were bombarded with radium radia-
tons, this transformation might be accelerated.

The solutions of amygdalin used for this purpose had a con-
centration of ten grains per litre; the hydrochloric acid con-
sisted of one volume of acid (sp. g. 1.2) to five volumes of water.
The proportion of amygdalin to acid solution was ten to one.

The amount of decomposition was determined bv titrating
the glucose that was produced, with Pavy's solution, 25 cc. of
which =0.0151 gram of glucose C H 70 .

To determine whether the radium exerted any influence on
the hydrolysis of amygdalin, the radium was placed over a vessel
containing the acid solution of amygdalin, of the concentration
mentioned above, and allowed to bombard the solution for a
certain time; at the end of that time the amount of decom-
position was compared with that of a similar solution that had
not been acted on by radium. The vessels used to contain the
solutions were ordinary wide-mouthed reagent bottles with a
capacity of 125 cc. The tube containing the radium was
securely fixed in a wooden block, which loosely fitted over the
mouth of one of the bottles. Thus, by filling the bottle to a
definite mark, the distance between the radium and the surface
of the liquid was always kept the same. This distance was
between two and three millimetres,

The following experiments were carried out in a photo-
graphic dark room, so that there was no chance of the reaction
being influenced by light. The solution which was not to be
acted on by radium was protected from the rays by a screen of
lead, so placed that, the solution would not be affected, appre-
ciably by the secondary rays set up in the lead.

Several experiments were carried out in this way, and the
amount of glucose formed was estimated after different lengths
of time. In the following table the numbers given in column two

46

A FEW CHEMICAL CHANGES

denote the amount of amygdalin solution required to decolour-
ise 2 cc. of Pavy's solution (25 cc.=0.0151 g. CgH^Og), at

the specified times after the instant of mixing. The tempera-
ture at which the action took place was 18 ± 0° .5 C.

TABLE III.

Time in
hours.

No. of cc. of Amygdalin solu-
tion required to decoloxirise 2 cc.
of Pavy's solution when acted on
by

No. of grams .of glucose per 1
cc. of Amygdalin solution acted
on by

RADIUM.

No RADIUM.

RADIUM.

No RADIUM.

19
30

48
66

11.54
13.39
14.77
16.27

12.08
12.29

12.28
12.39

0.000104
0.000089
0.000081
0.000073

0.000099
0.000097
0.000097
0.000097

From an examination of this table it will be seen that there
is a striking difference between the behaviour of solutions of
amygdalin acted upon by radium and those which have not been
so influenced. For the solutions that have been bombarded with
the radiations from radium, the content of glucose reaches a
maximum and then falls off again; but with the solutions not
under the influence of radium the amount of glucose present
increases with time and then remains constant. An effect sim-
ilar to this has been observed by the author1 when acid solutions-
of potassium iodide made up with ordinary distilled water are
allowed to decompose in the sunlight or dark ; and when acid
solutions of potassium iodide made up with pure water (con-
ductivity 2.16 x 10 ), are allowed to decompose under the
influence of radium. In each of these cases the content of free
iodine reaches a maximum and then gradually falls off again.

It would seem that the effect of the radium is to cause the
glucose, in some manner, to change into some new product. In
the case of the solution of amygdalin which has not been under

Loc. cit.

INFLUENCED BY RADIUM. — CREIGHTON 47

the influence of radium, where the content of glucose tends
toward a constant asymptotic value, the simplest explanation is
that the new product is not being formed, and we have an ordin-
ary example of equilibrium between the amygdalin and its
products of decomposition. If the new product is being
formed two suggestions present themselves to account for the
continued constancy of the glucose present: (1) that the rate of
formation of the new substance is very small, but that in time
the numbers in column five of the table would begin to drop
also; (2) that the whole system reaches a state of equilibrium,
and the amount of glucose will remain constant however long
the time.

In order to ascertain whether the glucose was transformed
into a simple substance or a complex one, by the action of
radium, the effect of the latter on solutions of glucose in Water
and dilute hydrochloric acid, and on solutions of pure cane
sugar in dilute hydrochloric acid was next studied.

Solutions of glucose and cane sugar of various strengths
were experimented upon for different lengths of time, the
change being measured by means of the polari scope. It was
found that in no case was the change in the solution under the
action of radium any different from that which was not
influenced by radium, which seemed to show that the substance
into which the glucose was changed in the amygdalin solution
was not likely a simple one.

Action of Radium on Brass.

As has been mentioned before, the radium used in these
experiments was enclosed in a narrow glass tube, which was
held in the end of a hollow brass rod. The radium had been
kept in this brass rod for about a year previous to these experi-
ments. Some time after being nlaced there it wras observed
that the end of the brass rod, at which the radium was, began to
be discoloured, and finally turned a deep grey. This discoloura-

48 A FEW CHEMICAL CHANGES.

tion was only at the surface next the air, for on scraping the
surface of the rod with a knife, the inside was found to have
the yellow colour of brass. While allowing the radium to act
on hydrogen peroxide in the experiment previously described,
where the brass rod was enclosed in an atmosphere of ozone,
and ,air containing more oxygen than ordinary air. there was
found on the part of the rod near the radium, a small quantity
of this dark grey substance. Some of this was scraped off, care
being take'n not to remove any of the brass. On analyzing this
substance it was found to contain only copper, there not being
even so much as a trace of lead or zinc present. What has
probably taken place is that the action of the radium on the
brass in the prese'nce of oxygen has slowly converted the copper
of the alloy to copper oxide; the greater the amount of oxy-
gen present the more rapidly the change takes place.

The results here given show that i'n many reactions the effect
of radium is to accelerate that action already going on, and in
the case of amygdalin and hydrochloric acid it may perhaps set
up a new >action of its own, besides accelerating the hydrolysis
of the amygdalin into glucose, etc. Lastly the presence of
amygdalin may be detected by boiling a solution supposed to
contain it with a few drops of Eehling's solution "and noting
whether or not the odour of ammonia is given off.

The author's best thanks are due to Professor MacKay for
the interest he has shown in these experiments.

DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY, Halifax, X. 8.
March 30, 1908.

THE BEHAVIOUR OF SOLUTIONS OF HYDKIODIC ACID IN LIGHT
IN THE PRESENCE OF OXYGEN.* — By H. Jermain M.
Creighton, M. A., Dalhousie University, Halifax, 2sT. S.

Read 13th April, 1908.

It is well known that solutions of hydriodic acid and acid
solutions of potassium iodide readily change into free iodine
and water. These reactions are accelerated by light, and also,
as the author1 has shown, by radium. While investigating "the
influence of radium on the decomposition of hydriodic acid"
the author2 observed that the iodine set free by the oxygen
increased with the time, reached a maximum and then grad-
ually fell off again, under certain conditions. It was also
observed that solutions of iodine placed in the sunlight slowly
became colourless. It was to try to account for the disappear-
ance of this iodine that this investigation was undertaken.

The hydriodic acid used in these experiments, was set free
from solutions of potassium iodide by means of a sulphuric
acid solution consisting of one volume of acid (sp. g. 1.84) to
five volumes of water. The solutions of potassium iodide used
had a concentration of 1 gram per litre. The proportion of acid
to iodide solution was one to eight.

The amount of oxidation was determined in the usual way,
by titrating the liberated iodine with T-^ sodium thiosulphate
solution.

It was found that the end point could be determined very
quickly and accurately by highly illuminating the solution by
means of an electric light placed behind it, and reflecting back
the rays through the solution by placing a piece of white paper
around the beaker on the opposite side.

Contributions from the Science Laboratories of Dalhousie University [Chemistry].

1 Creighton, Proc. and Trans. N. S. Inst. Science, vol. xii, 1, 1.

- Loc. cit. Also Creighton and Mackenzie, Amer. Chem. Jour., 1908. 39, 4 (April).

PKOC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XII. TRANS. 4.

(49)

50 THE BEHAVIOUR OF SOLUTIONS OF HYDRIODIC ACID

The potassium iodide used was the chemically pure guaran-
teed reagent supplied by C. F. Kaulbaum.

By carrying out the titration in the above manner, the error
was found to be about ± 0.08 cc. sodium thiosulphate solution.

As has already been stated, the iodine in solutions of
hydriodic acid diminishes under certain conditions; in the case
where the hydriodic acid is placed in the sunlight the iodine
entirely disappears in time. If there was a new substance
being formed, it was felt that its nature could best be ascer-
tained from a study of the change under the action of sunlight,
as this was the most easy to control and by far the most rapid.

As a starting point in this investigation, a large quantity of
solution was made up in the manner previously described, and
placed in a window where it would receive the most sunlight.
Portions of 50 cc. of this solution were titrated with sodium
thiosulphate from day to day and thus the variations in the
content of free iodine were established.

On account of the reaction being a reversible one and its
point of equilibrium being changed bv light, the numbers i'n
the following table are given for the days which were of about

the same degree of brightness.

TABLK I.

Time in
hours.

24

72
120
144
189
236
288
408
456
504

No of cc. of ifj-Q Na2s203

solution required in titra-
tion when the decomposition
of hydriodic acid takes place
in sunlight.

Time in
hours.

No. of cc. of T£ ^ Na2S203

solution required in titra-
tion when the decomposition
of hj^driodic acid takes place
in sunlight.

46.31
58.42
64.42
58.93
52.14
49.97
45.14
44.12
28.55
23.41

552
720
840
888
960
1056
1152
1272
1368
1392

20.42
18.55
16.62
14.26
11.80
10.74
6.41
3.12
0.46
0.00

IN LIGHT IN THE PRESENCE OF OXYGEN. — CREIGHTON. 51

From this table it is again seen that the iodine content
reaches a maximum very rapidly and then slowly falls off again
and finally disappears. During the last two hundred hours the
disappearance of the iodine is relatively rapid. In this experi-
ment it was found that the disappearance of the iodine was due,
in part, at least, to evaporation; accordingly, to see whether
evaporation was responsible for the whole change,, and at the
same time to determine how much light influenced this change
of iodine, the following experiment was carried out.

300 cc. of an acid solution of potassium iodide, such as had
been used already, were put in each of two reagent bottles, one
amber colour, the other clear; these were closed, and about
every twelve hours the air that was over the liquid was passed
through U-tubes containing a solution of potassium hydroxide
(sp. g. 1.27), by means of an aspirator.

52 THE BEHAVIOUR OF SOLUTIONS OF HYDRIODIC ACID

IN LIGHT IN THE PRESENCE OF OXYGEN. — CREIGHTON. 53

The air thus removed was replaced by air from outdoors,
which first passed through a U-tube containing potassium
hydroxide. The air, after passing through this solution of
potassium hydroxide divided, and half went to one solution and
half to the other. After passing over these solutions it went,
as stated, through the potassium hydroxide in the U-tubes, A
and B, and then met in a common tube leading to the aspirator.
By these mea:ns it was very easy to pass the same quantity of
air over each solution. A diagram of the apparatus is given in
Fig. 1. After the last trace of the iodine had disappeared the
amount absorbed could easily be estimated. The use of the
second smaller IJ-tubes marked B in the diagram was to make
sure of the complete absorption of the iodine.

After the solution had been exposed to the action of sunlight
for seven weeks, the solution in the bottle that was not coloured,,
became colourless. The solution in the amb^1 coloured bottle
still contained considerable quantity of iodine, and it was not
for nearly another seven weeks that its colour entirely dis-
appeared. This shows that the change of the iodine is acceler-
ated by light, and that its loss cannot probably be totally
accounted for by evaporation. On examining the U-tubes con-
taining the caustic potash solution, it was found that the first
one, A, contained iodine, while there had been none absorbed in
the second smaller tube, B, showing that no escape of iodine
had taken place.

The amount of iodine carried away by the air and absorbed
by the solution of potassium hydroxide was next determined.

When iodine is absorbed in potassium hydroxide, there is
formed five molecules of potassium iodide to one of iodate. The
solution of hydroxide was acidified with sulphuric acid ; and as
some of the iodide might have oxidised to iodate, a little iodide
was added to ensure complete decomposition of the iodate, then
a few cc. of starch solution added, and the liberated iodine
determined by means of sodium thiosulphate solution.

54 THE BEHAVIOUR OF SOLUTIONS OF HYDRIODIC ACID

The potassium hydroxide solution from the U-tubes was
diluted to 200 cc. 45 cc. of this solution were acidified and
titrated with ^ sodium thiosulphate solution, of which 1.53 cc.
were required to remove the blue colour due to the iodine. From
this data it may be shown that the 200 cc. of hydroxide, there-
fore, contain 0.0864 grain of iodine. Only one-sixth of this
iodine was present as iodate in the potassium hydroxide solu-
tion, that is 0.0144 gram. The quantity of iodine as iodide
was estimated by oxidising it to iodate by means of potassium
permanganate solution; 1 cc. of this solution = 0.00 5 6 gram of
permanganate. 25 cc. of the solution of potassium hydroxide
which had been diluted to 200 cc. was acidified slightly with
sulphuric acid and then made alkaline with potassium carbon-
ate. The permanganate solution was then added until the
liquid became slightly pink. In this titration 4.40 cc. of the
potassium permanganate solution, corresponding to 0.0246 gram
of potassium permanganate, were required to oxidise the iodine.
It will readily be seen that this amount of potassium perman-
ganate has been used in oxidizing 0.0098 gram of iodine.
Therefore, the amount of iodine in the potassium hydroxide
solution as iodide was eight times this amount, or 0.0784 gram.
Hence, the total amount of iodine lost by evaporation- from the
iodine solution and absorbed by the potassium hydroxide solu-
tion was,

0.0144 gram iodine as iodate
0.0784 " " « iodide

0.0928 " absorbed.

In this experiment 300 cc. of iodide solution (cone. 1 gram
per litre) which contained 0.2293 gram of iodine, were used,
From these numbers it will be seen that the loss by evaporation
was 40.47 per cent., which leaves still sixty per ce'nt. to be
accounted for.

Before leaving this experiment it would be wrell to mention
hero that after all the iodine had disappeared from the solution

IN LEGHT IN THE PRESENCE OF OXYGEN. — CREIGHTOX. 55

it still possessed a slight colour, not unlike the colour produced
when Nessler's solution is added to a solution containing a min-
ute quantity of ammonia. About a week after the last of the
iodine had disappeared, this colour went also. In all solutions
of hydriodic acid, where the iodine disappears, this colour was
observed.

Although it seemed absolutely certain, from the fact that
the seco'nd U-tube, B, in the above apparatus contained no
iodine, none of it could have escaped out of the latter into the
atmosphere, yet the objection arose that as the gas inside the
bottles was taken out, carrying with it iodine, some of the
iodine, although very unlikely, might have escaped. It was to
overcome this objection that the experiment to be described was
carried out.

500 cc. of acid potassium iodide solution were placed in a

reagent bottle provided
with a tightly fitting
rubber cork, through
which passed a glass
tube provided with a
stop-cock. This glass
tube went almost to the
bottom of the liquid as
shown in Fig. 2. This
tube was connected
with a gas holder con-
taining oxygen under pressure, the gas from which was first
purified and dried, by passing through wash bottles containing
sodium bicarbonate and concentrated sulphuric acid, before
being allowed to enter the iodide solution.

The stop-cock was opened, the rubber cork loosened, and the
air in the bottle displaced by oxygen. The rubber stopper was
then tightly fitted, the oxygen in the bottle allowed to attain
the same treasure as that in the holder, and the stop-cock closed.

56 THE BEHAVIOUR OF SOLUTIONS OF HYDRIODIC ACID

At the end of twenty-four hours on opening the stop-cock again,
a large quantity of oxygen was found to bubble through the
solution, showing that some of the oxygen there had been used
up during the twenty-four hours. Every day as much oxygen
as possible was forced into the bottles containing the solution,
until at the end of about nine weeks, the solution had lost all
its colour, with the exception of the slight peculiar colour men-
tioned previously. Some of the solution was drawn off and
tested for iodine and iodides, but 'not the least trace of either
was found to be present. The passage of oxygen into the solu-
tion was continued with the result, that at the end of another
week, the slight colour possessed by the solution entirely dis-
appeared. During this time it was roughly estimated that not
less than twenty-five litres of oxygen, at the ordinary tempera-
ture of the laboratory and a pressure somewThat above the
normal, were passed into the iodide solution.

On the foregoing grounds then, it is not unreasonable to
suppose that the iodine is being transformed into some oxygen
compound, and that this transformation is accelerated by light.

Creighton and Mackenzie1 have shown in the case of solu-
tions of hydriodic acid acted upon by radium, where the iodine
content .after a time begins to diminish, it is very probable it is
the hydriodic acid that is transformed and not the iodine itself,
thus lessening the content of free iodine by upsetting the equili-
brium between the two substances. On account of the similar-
ity between the two cases, it is possible that this is the manner
in which the cha'nge takes place here.

The colourless solutions from which the iodine had dis-
appeared were now examined. It was found that these solu-
tions contained no iodide, but,, however, a small quantity of
iodate. If these solutions were allowed to stand for a few weeks
after becoming colourless, before testing, there could not be
obtained the slightest trace of iodate. These facts would seem

1 Loo. cit.

IN LIGHT IN THE PRESENCE OF OXYGEN. CREIGHTON, 57

to show that the process of the change is one of oxidation,
through the different oxygen compounds of iodine. The amount
of iodine as iodate in the solution into which oxygen was passed,
just after the last trace of iodine had disappeared, was found
to be 0.0000372 gram per cc. or the 500 cc. started with would
contain 0.0186 gram; that is, 4.87 per cent, of the original
amount of iodine.

It is evident then that the amount of iodate present in the
solution will be greatest just after the solution becomes colour-
less; that is, never very much greater than 4.87 per cent. This
will readily be seen from the consideration that no appreciable
amount of iodate could exist, while there was any potassium
iodide or hydriodic acid present in a solution containing sul-
phuric acid. Also it has been show'n that the amount of iodate
decreases with time, after the solution loses its colour.

It seemed a not unlikely explanation that the iodine might
be changed into periodates. It would appear a perfectly
natural process for the hydriodic acid to be oxidised to iodic
acid,, possibly through the intermediate formation of hypoiodous
acid, and this quickly transformed to some of the periodic
acids. Of course, there could not, and need not, be a'ny appre-
ciable amount of these intermediate substances present at any
time. In order to test this explanation the solution was exam-
ined for periodates.

On adding a solution of silver nitrate to the acidified solu-
tio'n a slight milkiness appeared. 0.0062 gram of this precip-
itate yielded on heating 0.0031 gram of metallic silver, which
amount corresponds to the quantity of silver contained in silver
dimesoper iodate, Ag4I2Og + SH^O. However, it could not be
this substance, as the solution failed to yield iodine on reduction.

Since from the manner in which the iodine disappeared, it
was believed that the iodine must have changed to some oxygen
compound, the effect of strong reducing agents were tried on
the solution. Zinc dust was added to the acid solution and

58 THE BEHAVIOUR OF SOLUTIONS OF HYDRIODIC ACID

allowed to act for a couple of hours ; portions of the residue from
the solution were heated with potassium cyanide a'nd powdered
charcoal, and with powdered magnesium ; and lastly some of the
residue was heated in a current of hydrogen to such a high tem-
perature, that the sodium sulphate was reduced to sulphide. In
neither of these instances was the slightest trace of iodine
obtained.

As it was thought that an analysis of the solution might
throw some light on the problem, the following determinations
were undertaken.

80 cc. of the colourless solution that had been acted
on by pure oxygen, and which, therefore, must have con-
tained all the* iodine originally in it, were exactly neutralized
with potassium carbonate and evaporated to dryness. The
residue after being dried at 110° for an hour weighed 8.0530
grams. This residue was used for the analysis, and the only
substances that it could contain besides the iodine, were potas-
sium, and sulphuric acid in the form of sulphate, (it was
proved that there was no carbonate present).

The amount of sulphuric acid (SO'^ ) was determined by

precipitating with barium chloride. The following <\;e the
results obtained :

( 1 ; 1.4914 grams residue yielded 1.9813 grams Ba SO 4
(2) 1.4914 " " ." 1.9842 " "

mean 1.9827

This weight of barium sulphate corresponds to 0.8168 gram of
S04, or to 54.76 per cent, of the residue used.

The potassium was estimated by precipitating as double
potassium-platinum chloride. This precipitate after being
thoroughly dried, was heated with oxalic acid and reduced
to a mixture of metallic platinum and potassium chloride,

IN LIGHT IN THE PRESENCE OF OXYGEN. — CREIGHTON. 59

Pt + 2KC1. From this the amount of potassium was deter-
mined. It was found that:

(1) 0.4890 gram of residue yielded 0.9674 gram Pt + 2KC1.

(2) 0.4890 " " 0.9610 "

mean 0.9642 " "

This corresponds to 0.2193 gram of potassium, which is 44.83
per cent, of the residue used.

These results are arranged in the following wav so as to be
more obvious :

Theoretical composition Composition of residue examined,
of K2S04 (1) High results. (2) Low results.

Potassium 44.87% 44.98% 44.68%

Sulphuric acid(SO;). 55.13% 54.81% 54.73%

100.00% 9979% 99.41%

When the weights of the substances corresponding to these
percentages are calculated for 1.4914 grams there is obtained:

Theoretical Residue examined,

for K.,S04 (1) High results. (2) Low results.

Potassium 0.6694 g. 0.6699 g. 0.6664 g.

Sulphuric acid (SOp 0.8220 g. 0.8175 g. 0.8162 g.

1.4914 g. 1.4874 g. 1.4826 g.

It will be seen that 1.4914 grams of the residue used, cor-
respond to 14.81 cc. of solution, and should therefore contain
0.0100 gram iodine. The above analysis shows the difference
between this amount of residue and the amounts of potassium
and sulphuric acid (SO1^) that it contains. The discrepancy
between this difference and the amount of iodine that should
be in the residue can'not be accounted for at present.

Although the results of this investigation have been nega-
tive in the main, nevertheless some information as to the
behaviour of hydriodic acid in the presence of oxygen and

60 THE BEHAVIOUR OF HYDRTODIC ACID IN LIGHT.

light has been ascertained. It has been shown that hydriodic
acid in the presence of oxygen is slowly changed to some-
thing else, the colour of the solutio'n due to the liberated iodine
ultimately disappearing. This change is greatly accelerated by
light. There is good reason to believe that the process of the
change is one of oxidation, but all attempts to reduce this oxida-
tion compound have failed, and the condition in which the
iodine exists still remains unsolved.

In conclusion, my most hearty thanks are due to Professor
Mackay for his valuable criticisms, and the kind interest he has
taken in this investigation.

DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY, Halifax, N. S.
April 2nd, 1908.

NOTES ON MINERAL FUELS or CANADA: BY R. W. ELLS,
LL. I)., F. K. S. C., Geological Survey.. Ottawa.

(Read 14th. January, 1907.)

The rapidly growing importance of the Dominion of Can-
ada, with its ever-increasing development of manufacturing
industries, and its general commercial progress, calls for con-
tinued research for materials suitable for the generation of
light, heat a'nd power. To some extent the latter feature is now
being supplied by the production of electricity through the
utilization of the numerous waterfalls found in every province,
and the power thus furnished will doubtless in a few years be
sufficient not only to supply our numerous manufacturing
centres, but to do away to a large extent with the use of steam
on our great lines of railway. But since the varied climate of
our country makes artificial heat a necessity for nearly half the
year, and many industries exist for which electrical power is
not readily available, a constant supply of mineral fuel will
always be required. From this standpoint, therefore, a brief
glance at our present known available resources in this line may
not be devoid of public interest.

Not so many years ago it was the generallv accepted opinion
that Canada, as a whole, was largely lacking in this element of a
nation's progress. The coal fields of the Maritime Provinces
were known to some extent, and had been worked on a small
scale for many years, but Ontario and Quebec were regarded as
entirely lacking in a natural fuel supply; As regards coal
proper, this is practically true for both provinces, yet other
materials exist which, as will be pointed out, will furnish a
fairly good substitute for bituminous coal. Of the boundless
stores of mineral fuel which have been discovered on the great

(61)

62 NOTES ON MINERAL FUELS OF CANADA. — ELLS.

plains and in the valleys scattered through the sea of mountains
in British Columbia, as well as along the Pacific coast, our
knowledge even forty years ago was exceedingly limited.

The object of the present paper is to direct attention to the
large supplies of this fuel which are found in all parts of the
Dominion, and which are suitable for the generation of light,
heat and power. The substances available for this purpose
include, in addition to the several varieties of coal which ra'nge
from anthracite to the newest lignite, such minerals as anthrax-
olite, albertite, oil-shale, petroleum, natural gas a'nd peat.

Coal, etc.

The coals of the Atlantic provinces have been mined for
nearly or quite a century. They belong to the Carboniferous
period, and in point of age contrast strongly with the immense
deposits found o'n the great western plains, along the eastern
slopes of the Rocky Mountains, and further west on the Pacific
coast, which belong in part to Cretaceous and in part to Tertiary
rocks.

The eastern deposits have been described in numerous
reports and papers, both in governmental and scientific pub-
lications. The principal areas, considered from the economic
standpoint, are in Xova Scotia, where at least four well-defined
coal-basins occur. Of these the most easterly, known as the
Sydney area, is divided into several portions, in which a number
of seams are found, aggregating probably not far from fifty
feet of coal. This basin probably represents the western margi'n
of a great Carboniferous area which extends beneath the inter-
vening broad strait which separates Cape Breton from New-
foundland, since in the south-western part of the latter province
a well-defined coal basin also occurs. The seams of the Sydney
basin exte?nd seaward, and have been worked for many years
beneath the water, the extension in this direction forming a
coal area of great economic importance.

NOTES ON MINERAL FUELS OF CANADA. — ELLS. 63

Other important coal deposits in this island are in the west-
ern part, and are found i'n the Richmond and Inverness basins.
In recent vears, owing to railway construction, these areas have
been rendered accessible, and large quantities are now regularly
shipped both by land a'nd water.

O'n the mainland of Nova Scotia, the most important coal
field at present is in Pictou County, and though this field is
much faulted in places, it has been worked for a century, and. is
noted for the immense thickness of the coal beds contained,
wThieh in one case reaches nearly or quite forty feet. In the
western part of the provi'nce, in Cumberland County, the
Springhill basin inland, and the Joggins basin on an arm of the
Bay of Fundy, are lara'e and important factors as regards a coal
supply, and though the seams worked at these two places have
as yet never been directly connected, the extension of the beds
of the Joggins along the northern limit of the Carboniferous
basin has been traced for many miles, and a number of collieries
have been located along their outcrop. These have been pro-
ducers of coal in considerable amounts for a number of years.

The Carboniferous basin of New Brunswick is extensive,
comprising more than 10,000 square miles. The formation,
however, is comparatively thin, and the coal-bearing rocks are
regarded as of Millstone-writ age, and as beneath the Productive
measures of Nova Scotia, the thick beds of that province not
appearing i'a this direction. The workable seams in New
Brunswick rarely exceed twenty inches in thickness, so that the
output can never equal that of the adjacent province, but some
thousands of tons are mined yearly and find a ready market. In
the Upper Carboniferous formation, also, several small seams
are found, but these are not sufficiently large to be mined.

In Quebec seams of coal are almost entirely absent,, the only
deposit of the kind occurring in Devonian slates, in a small
layer two to four inches thick, o'n the shore of Gaspe Basin, and
of no economic value. The oil-fields of this district, though

64 NOTES ON MINERAL FUELS OF CANADA. — ELLS.

exploited for a number of years by numerous borings, heve as
yet failed to produce petroleum in paying quantity ; but there
are large areas of peat throughout the province, which, by the
new process of manufacturing into blocks by drying and
pressure, promise to become an important factor in the mineral
resources of the province before many years. Bori'ngs for
natural gas and oil in the valley of the St. Lawrence, between
Montreal and Quebec, have shewn that the former occurs at
several points in this district, and has been locally utilized to
some extent already, though up to the present there has bee'a no
large development of these substances such as found in Ontario.
In the latter province true coals are entirely absent ; but in the
area south of James Bay large deposits of low-grade lignite
have recently been found, which, though of poor quality, may
become of value as this part of the province becomes opened up
for settlement. Anthraxolite is also found in deposits of con-
siderable extent in the old rocks of the area west of Sudbury,
which are probably of Huronian age. This, at first, was regard-
ed as possibly furnishing a new source of supply for fuel. The
large percentage of impurity in the material, with its low colori-
fic value, has hitherto prevented its utilization for commercial
purposes. The large deposits of natural gas and petroleum in the
Niagara and Petrolea districts have been largely utilized, the
former being piped to several cities in the United States, not-
ably to Buffalo and Detroit, as well as supplying a constantly
increasing local demand. The peat deposits of this province are
also being utilized for the manufacture of a very excellent fuel
suitable for domestic purposes and for the generation of heat in
factories and on railways.

The area north of Lake Superior is occupied bv crystalline
rocks which extend westward to the shores of Lake Winnipeg,
where they are again overlaid by sedimentaries of Silurian and
Devonian age. The Carboniferous rocks are not found in this
direction, but a broad area of Cretaceous sediments commences

NOTES ON MINERAL FUELS OF CANADA. — ELLS. 65

a short distance west of the Red river, near Winnipeg, and
extends, apparently without interruption, to the Rocky moun-
tains. This formation contains numerous beds of coal, princi-
pally of the lignite variety.

These deposits of the west were first brought into promin-
ence from twenty-five to forty years ago. Many of them are
high grade and true coking coals, which occasionally pass into
anthracite in the eastern slopes of the mountain range, while the
great seams of the plains east of the Rockies still remain in the
form of lignite to a large extent. Among the most important of
the true coals which have been extensively worked since the
building of the Canadian Pacific railway, are the large seams
found in the Crows Nest pass, and along the valley of the Bow
River, near Banff.

The anthracite character of these coals has evidently been
developed through the agency of heat induced by pressure dur-
ing the time of mountain uplift. All these western coals are
therefore of much more recent date than are those of the eastern
provinces. It is so far as yet known, the true Carboniferous rock*"
of the Rocky Mountains do not contain coal.

Between the eastern outcrop of the Cretacous rocks of the
plains and the coal outcrops of the eastern slope of the Rocky
Mountains, immense deposits of lignite and of lignitic coal
occur. They are mined at several points, the most easterly
being at Souris, near the western boundarv of Manitoba. In
some places this lignite has a high fuel value, but can be dis-
tinguished from true coals, among other things, bv the fact that,
unlike the bituminous variety, lignite and even the higher
grade known as lignitic coal will not coke. Lignite also contains
a much higher percentage of moisture tha'n the true coals, this
feature in some cases reaching as much as 15 to nearly 20 per
cent. Immense beds of this lignite are found along the upper
portion of the North and South Saskatchewan Rivers, and fur-
ther north extend into the Peace River district. It is exteri-
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., Vol.. XII. TRANS. 5.

66 NOTES ON MINERAL FUELS OF CANADA. ELLS.

sively mined for local use at Edmonton on the North Saskat-
chewan, and at several places nearer the United States bound-
ary.

Passing westward across the broad chain of the Rocky
Mountains there follows a great belt of rocks, presenting a
number of formations ranging from the Carboniferous down
into the pre-Cambrian, in which 110 coals may be expected. But
about 200 miles east of Vancouver in a direct line, or near
Sicamous on the Canadian Pacific railway, coal-bearing rocks
again make their appearance. These are of a still more recent
date than those of the plains, being for the most part of Tertiary
age. Owing, however, to greater alteration, the lignite charac-
ter of the contained coals has been changed, so that the fuels
from these deposits, which occur for the most part as basins
resting 011 igneous rocks, are now in the form of true coals, and
in many cases form a fuel of great value. The contained coals
are sometimes of ' large extent, ranging in thickness from thin
seams up to great; beds of twenty feet, or even in some cases of
more than sixty feet in thickness.

Among these important deposits may be mentioned those of
the Nicola and Similkameen valleys, lying to the south of the
Canadian Pacific railway; of the North Thompson, 40 'miles
north of Kamloops, and of the Marble Canon a few miles north-
west of Ashcroft. Further north, numerous deposits of coal are
found, among the most important of these being the recently
discovered areas in the Bulkley valley, south of the Skeena
river, and not far from the projected line of the Grand Trunk
Pacific railwav, where large seams of high grade bitumin-
ous coals and semi-anthracites are exposed. These promise to
be of great value on the advent of the railway. Along the upper
waters of the Peace river, also, several large seams of fine
coal have recently been located ; but at present these are not
available owing to distance from transportation.

NOTES ON MINERAL FUELS OF CANADA. — ELLS. 67

On the Pacific coast the ' coal-beaTiog jrp.cks again change
their character and belong to the Cretaceous series. Here, as
at Vancouver , island,. ,are the large mines of Wellington,
Naiiaimo, Comox, and Lady smith, in which area large seams
occur, some of which, as in the Wellington district, have been
worked extensively for nearly forty years. These not only snp-
, ply the fnels for the Pacific division of British Columbia, but
are shipped very largely to the cities on -the American coast, as
far south as San Francisco. These coals are of the bituminous

a.» . . ; • •-,;•. ...

variety, generally of excellent quality, and well adapted for
coking. Further north, on Graham island, of the Queen Char-
lotte group, both the anthracite, bituminous a'nd lignite varieties
are found. The former, although exploited at intervals for
... nearly forty years, has never been found sufficiently firm to be
mined at a profit. The alteration at this place from the lignite
or bituminous coal has evidently been due to heat induced by
pressure of the beds agai'nst the igneous rocks which form high
mountains to the west, whereby the rocks and contained coals
have been crushed, while dikes of newer rocks have also pene-
trated the series. Smaller deposits of anthracite have been found
in the coal basin of the interior, occurring under like conditions.

In this interior basin of Graham island, however, large
deposits of high grade bituminous coal occur which outcrop at
.several places in beds of great thickness. This part of the
island gives promise when opened up, of becoming one of the
mpst important coal fields of the Pacific slope. The containing
rocks of both the bituminous and anthracite varieties are of
Cretaceous age, while the eastern part of the island is occupied
by Tertiary rocks, in which are found seams of lignite, of good
thickness.

Still further north, in the Yukon district, large deposits of
lignite have been found along the Klondike and several other
streams. These have been mined to a small extent locally, and
will, doubtless, become important as the countrv is opened up.

68 NOTES ON MINERAL FUELS OF CANADA. — ELLS.

Some of the seams contain coal of very good quality, and in the
White Horse district coals of fine quality have been reported.

The northern portion of the Dominion, as along the valley
of the Mackenzie river, and even on several isla'nds off the
mouth of that great stream, are known to contain coal beds,
mostly of the lignite variety, which, however, have not yet been
utilized.

Petroleum and Natural Gas.

In addition to the coals so briefly sketched, other sources of
supply for heating and lighting are found in the presence of
petroleum, natural gas, bituminous shales, a'nthraxolite, alber-
tite and peat. These, with the possible exception of the last
named, have a different origin from the ordinary coals. They,
however, constitute a very important factor in the development
of the various interests of the Dominion.

Among these, petroleum a'nd natural gas may be regarded
as the most important. In Ontario, where these occur in the
greatest abundance, the petroleum has hitherto been regarded as
derived from rocks of Devonian age, though that these are the
original source of the gas and oil has never been conclusively
established. In the oil fields of the United States, more
especially in the Appalachian area, the source of the oil is as
low as the Trenton limestone, while in the western or Pacific
states it is found in great abundance in formations as high in the
geological scale as the Cretaceous and Tertiary, so that petrol-
eum has even a wider range than coal itself. As for that peculiar
form of carbon known as anthraxolite, its range is still lower
since it is found in rocks generally styled Laurentian, as well
as in the Huronian a'nd Lower Cambrian.

In the Atlantic provinces and in Gaspe, borings for oil have
been carried on for more than half a century in rocks chiefly of
Devonian age. Owing largely to the fact that these rocks are
much broken and tilted, and often inclined at high angles, no
important economic results have as yet been obtained from any

NOTES ON MINERAL FUELS OF CANADA. — ELLS. 69

of the areas thus tested. Among the principal petroliferous
rocks in the eastern provinces are deposits of bituminous shale
which are found in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and in
Gaspe. Oil springs are seen at a number of points in the
areas occupied by these rocks, and in part these shales are so
highly charged with bituminous matter as to yield by dis-
tillation from 30 to over 100 gallons of oil per ton. Some of
these form a good fuel, burning readily in the grate or fur-
nace, the great drawback to a perfect combustible being the
very large amount of residue or ash.

In the nresent stage of oil distillation as conducted in Scot-
land, Germany, France, Australia, New Zealand, and else-
where, there would appear to be a good opportunity for success-
fully exploiting these bituminous shales for the manufacture of
petroleum by distillation, since in the several countries just
mentioned, this industry is carried on extensively and profit-
ably on material much less rich i'n bituminous matter than the
shales of our own country.

In natural gas, which is an industry of comparatively recent
development in Canada, the advance in production has been
very rapid. Large quantities have been found in western
Ontario, much of which is piped to the cities of Detroit and
Buffalo adjacent to Lake Erie. Natural gas has also been found
in somewhat limited quantity as yet in Quebec, in the St. Law-
rence Valley, and at several of the borings for oil in the eastern
provinces. But little attention has, however, been paid to this
industry in this part of the Dominion.

In the great north-west, however, the indications for large
developments of gas are favourable. Thus at Medicine Hat,
and at other points along the Canadaia'n Pacific railway, at
Edmonton, and further north along the upper Athabaska river,
it has been found, and in some places has already been applied,
to the purposes of lighting and heating. At the last named

70 NOTES ON MINERAL FUELS OF CANADA. — ELLS.

locality it was struck in immense volume in connection with tlin
borings made some years ago by the Dominion government for
petroleum, the rush of the gas being so great that the borings
were suspended. At this place it has been constantly escaping for
the last ten years, no attempt having been made till recently to
check the enormous waste that has been going on for all this time.
As the area, however, is entirely uninhabited, and ;at a long dis-
tance from settlement, this waste has hitherto been of less im-
portance than if the area were near commercial centres. It is
probable that in the near future, natural gas will play a very
irhportant part in the economy of the new provinces of the west
and will be the great source of light and heat, as well as of
power, for many of the cities of the plains.

It is also to be expected that in certain portions of the plains
country, east of the Rocky Mountains, properly located borings
will disclose the presence of oil-fields in that area. The oil
fields of Colorado, as at Florence and Boulder, are situated on
rocks practically of the same horizon, the oil there being, found
in the Pierre shales, which underlie the lignite-bearing
La-ramie sandstone. The Florence oil field has been a pro-
ducer continuously for more than twenty years, several of the
wells having yielded enormously. Up to the present time,
in the western part of Canada but slight attempts have been
made to find oil, with the exception of the borings made
under government management some ten to twelve year,s
ago, in the area along the upper North Saskatchewan- and
Athabaska rivers. Ai neither of these places, however, did
the borings reach the supposed oil-bearing strata, owing
largely to the great flow of gas encountered.

Peat.

Peat is found in large quantities in nearly all parts of the
Dominion, and about forty years ago attempts were made to
utilize certai'n deposits in Quebec in the manufacture of a peat
fuel. As the product was simply pulped and air-dried, wi thorn

NOTES ON MINERAL FUELS OF CANADA. — ELLS. 71

being consolidated, the results, while giving good results as a
fuel both for domestic and railway consumption, were unfitted,
owing to its great bulk, for the purposes required. Within the
last few years, however, a series of experiments have shewn
that peat, properly dried and then compressed, furnishes an
excellent fuel for many purposes, and can be made and sold on
the market at a good profit, the demand far exceeding the avail-
able supply, so that it is anticipated that in a few years, with
still further improvements in modes of drying and pressure,
this source of mineral fuel will form an important part of
Canada's mineral resources.

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — H. W. JOHNSTON, Assistant City
Engineer, Halifax, N. S.

Read 12th February. 1906.

The city of Halifax is situated on a peninsula, at the head
of Chebucto Bay, formed by the harbour and Bedford Basin
on the east and north, and the North West Arm on the west,
and joined to the mainland by a strip of land about 1-J miles
wide at the Dutch Village, separating the Arm and Basin. The
slopes to the water on all sides are steep, and there is a prac-
tically level plateau at the summit extending north and south
about two miles and east and west one mile, with a high hill
called Shaffroth's or "Hungry Hill" .at the north end. The
general elevation of this plateau is from 150 to 170 feet above
mean low tide, and the elevation of Shaff roth's or " Hungry
Hill", the highest point in the city, is 247.50 feet. There is
also an elevation at Willow Park, the highest point at present
supplied with water, of 225. The business district lies on the
eastern slope between Jacob Street and Salter Street, surmount-
ed by the citadel, which is 214 feet above mean low tide. The
chief wharves are from Richmond to South Street, a distance
of about 2 J miles. The rest of the city, with the exception of »i
few streets, is residential, with few houses on the western and
northwestern slopes.

The city was founded in 1749 and incorporated in 1841.
Previous to 1844 the city was dependent entirely upon wells
for its domestic supply, and on them and the salt water of the
harbour for fire protection. It was the custom at that time on
an alarm of fire being sounded for the citizens to turn out and
assisted by the troops line the streets and pass buckets of
water from the harbour to supplement the scanty supDly from
the wells, which was drawn by a hand fire pump owned by the

(72)

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON. 73

military authorities. In the year 1844 a company composed of
local men was formed, with a capital of £15,000, under the
name of the Halifax Water Company, which on the 17th of
April obtained a charter from the legislature of Nova Scotia,
for the purpose of supplying the inhabitants of the city with
water. An amendment to the act of incorporation was passed
during the same year, providing that the city council might
make such ordinances as might be deemed necessary for raising
such monies as might be required to furnish the city with
public fountains, hydrants and fire plugs, abundantly supplied
with water, by causing a fair and proportionate rate, not less
than £400 in each and every year, to be made upon the whole
property of the city ; and that the said company should in con-
sideration of the said annual payment of £400, erect and build
in the city eighteen fountains and hydrants and twenty-five fire
plugs. The first meeting of the company was held at the
Exchange Coffee House on the 22nd July, 1845, when a board
of directors, consisting of James B. Uniacke, Thomas Hoster-
man, W. A. Black, William Lawson, Jr., William B.
Fairbanks, James N. Shannon, and William Stairs, were
elected. Mr. Stairs refusing to act, the Hon. Michael Tobin
was elected in his stead. Mr. Uniacke was elected president,
and continued to act as such until 1855. Mr. Charles W.
Fairbanks was employed by the directors to make surveys of the
lakes adjoining the town, and on their completion Mr. John B.
Jarvis, a well known engineer of New York, was engaged to
report on a scheme to supply the city with water.

On the 28th August, 1845, he submitted his report to the
Company recommending that the water be brought from Chain
Lakes — two lakes about 2^ miles long, situated about 1 j- miles
from the head of the North West Arm — by a line of pipes to a
reservoir on Wind Mill Hill (now called Camp Hill), the
elevation of this reservoir to be 170 feet above mean low tide.
That the Chain Lakes be connected by an open channel or canal
with Long Lake (formerly called Beaver Lake) about 1200

74 HALIFAX -WATER ,; WORKS,— JOHNSTON.

feet 'long, and that: the surface of Long -Lake be raised from its
elevation of 175 feet to 200 foet above tide bv a dam at its
cutlet at Mclntosh's run. Mr. Jarvis estimated the population
of the town at from 20,000 to 25,000, and that there would be
1500 water takers within five years . from the introduction of
the supply, and that this number would ultimately reach 2000.
This would require, at 200 gals, for each tenant, 400,000
gals per day. The natural flow from the vallev of the Chain
Lakes was' estimated to be capable of supplying the mill owners
who had rights in the stream and dams alreadv built, and to
furnish the town with 300,000 gals per day for five months
in the year, leaving seven months supply to be stored in the
reservoirs. This supply he estimated could be obtained from
'the Chain Lakes storage reservoir. In his report he makes no
mention of any data regarding precipitation, and the presump-
tion is that as there were- no records for Xova Scotia in exist-
ence previous to this record, the Kew York or Massachusetts
records were taken. He recommended that a 12-inch pipe,
which wab estimated to be capable of discharging 800,000
gallons per day Avhen new, but only 700,000 when incrusted,
be laid from the Chain Lakes to the reservoir in the city. The
estimated cost of the works, including Long Lake, the reservoir
on Wind Mill Hill and the distribution, was about $120,000.
The reservoir was proposed to be 1.58 acres in area and about
15 feet deep, which would hold a supply when drawn down of
about 5,000,000, gallons.

Before leaving this report, there is a clause dealing with
the principle of municipal ownership of water-works which
should be quoted, especially as the question of municipalities
owning or controlling all public utilities is to-day a very live
issue. After reciting several benefits following the introduc-
tion of water-works, he says : "A good supply of pure water
has a further public benefit in promoting the cleanliness,
health and general comfort of the citizens. These, are con-

HALIFAX WATER WORKS.— JOHNSTON. 75

siderations that should induce a city to, supply water under
their own authority. If the rates should not be sufficient the
•general benefits would : be ample remuneration for an defi-
ciency that might, under favorable circumstances for the
introduction of water, be necessary."

A further report was submitted by Mr. Jarvis on the 10th
September, 1845, on the advisability of bringing water direct
from Long Lake without connecting with Chain Lakes. He
reported that the cost of bringing the water by open cut to
within 1500 feet of the lower end of Chain Lakes and then
laying pipes, would be practically the same as the original
estimate, and he could see no objection to the scheme. How-
ever, the directors adhered to the original scheme and con-
structed a dam at Long Lake, the canal from Long Lake to
Chain Lake, and a 12-inch pipe line from Chain Lake to St.
Andrew's Cross (the local name for the junction of Bobie
Street and Quinpool Road) , but did not build the reservoir on
Wind Mill Hill. Considerable trouble was had in. securing
the rights to Chain Lakes from the rnill owners, but even-
tually these w^ere secured, although on terms which have been
the cause of dispute ever since.

The water was turned on to the city in 1848, the first
service pipe being laid to Mr. Liswell's house and bakery on
Gottingen Street on the 29th September, 1848. (The 6-inch
main originally laid on this street was taken up in 1905.)

A contract with the city was made on October 3rd, 1849,
agreeing to supply eighteen fountains OT hydrants and twenty-
five fire plugs at an an'nual rental of £400. In July, 1849, the
directors of the company authorized a free surrnly of water to
be given the poor from certain hydrants between the hours of
six and seven morning and evening.

At this time the engineer reported that 'there were 2700
houses inhabited and 400 uninhabited between North Street
nnd the gas works.

76 HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

In 1849 the shareholders instructed the directors not to
build the reservoir, and in 1851 the portion of the act requir-
ing this to be done was repealed. In December, 1849, the
directors issued a notice to water takers that they should during
the ensuing winter keep the water constantly running in a
small stream during the night to keep the oipes free from frost
— an order that has ever since been only too faithfully carried
out, much to the detriment of the works and the financial show-
ing of the system.

In fact, as early as 1854, the directors, in replying to the
city's complaint of poor pressure, said that the difficulty in
keeping up the supply has been caused bv the great waste of
water, by the water takers running it off during the severe
weather. In this year, finding the supply insufficient, the
directors employed Mr. J. Forman to make an examination of
the lakes and report on the advisability and expediency of
raising Lower Chain Lake, and to what extent, and also the
propriety of laying another 12-inch pipe from the head works
at Chain Lakes and the advantages to be derived from it. Mr.
Forman reported to the directors on the 5th August, 1854, and
at a special meeting of the shareholders on the 24th February,
1855, a resolution was passed authorizing the directors to pro-
ceed with the laying of a new line of pipes, providing the
opinion of a competent engineer who had not been connected
with the company be nrist obtained. An amendment that the
directors turn their attention to the immediate waste of water
was defeated by a large majority. Acting under this resolution,
Mr. Forman was again engaged to report on an increased
supply, and in alnswer to a series of questions put to him, advised
that the effect of a 12-inch pipe would double the supply and
would cost £6,026. To give full effect to the increased supply the
9-inch, 6-inch and 3-inch distribution pipes should be changed
to 12-inch, 9-inch and 6-inch. Also that a 15-inch main would
give fully one-half more than the existing supply at a cost of

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON. 77

£8,500, and that there was more water in the lakes than a much
larger pipe than one of this capacity could run, and that there
would be no danger to existing distribution pipes from increased
pressure. He also reported that the cost of bringing the water
to the pipe-house direct from Long Lake in a conduit would
cost £7,200 ; but he could see no advantage to be gained. By
repairing and raising Long Lake dam 290 million gallons, extra
storage would be gained at an outlay of £550. He did not
think that a reservoir on Camp Hill would obviate the necessity
of a new pipe to the lakes; but it would add to the present
supply by storing water at St. Andrew's Cross when the con-
sumption of the town was less than the flow through the mains.
This would be the case at some periods and tend to preserve the
effective head. In reply to the request whether he could sug-
gest anything to remedy the present evil resulting from frost,
he recommended that frequent inspections of water-cocks be
made and consumers warned against allowing a more copious
flow to run than was necessary.

At the annual meeting on the 2nd July, 1855, Formaii's
report was adopted, and the directors authorized to lay another
line of 12-inch pipe if necessary arrangements could be made
with the city council as to increased cost. A resolution also
passed that a strict supervision be had over water takers to
prevent excessive waste. The city having agreed to pay £200
per annum for an additional ten hydrants, providing some
changes were made in the distribution, at a meeting 15th
January, 1856, the shareholders decided to lay a 15-inch pipe,
which was done in the fall of this year. The company also
raised its rates to all private takers fifty per cent. The city
first approached the company in this year with a view to buying
the works, but the latter's reply was that they were not then
in a position to sell. In 1859 a committee of the city council
was appointed, after the great fire of the 9th September in
that year, to report on the improvement of the fire department
and on the best means of obtaining an additional supply of

78 HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

....water for the city. After considering several propositions this
committee reported to the council recommending : the purchase

, of .the company's works by : the city," and also tHat the Birch
Cove Lakes be acquired and connecte'cP to' a reservoir on
Shaffrotlis Hill, from whence the wafe'r be ; distributed by
three lines of pipes, one supplying the north, one the south
and the .other the middle district of the city. This scheme was
proposed and advocated by Mr. E. J/ Longard.' Acting upon
this report, the council again approached irne ;cblhpa',ny, and at
a special meeting of the latter 'it Wa:s resolved "to sell the works
to the city for £5 '2,OOQ, which offer the city accented, delivery

. ; to be made on the first of May, 1860 ; but as the city neglected
to secure the necessary legislation, the agreement 'fell through.
In the following year, however, the sale was made to the city
for £56,000. The transfer of the works1 'was made on the 30th
June, the formal transfer of the deeds, etc., being itiade o'n the
5th August, 1861.

The water company's capital when the works were taken
over by the city was £44,000.r There were 960 water takers at
an average rate of £13 per annum, with special rates to the
military, breweries, bakeries and distilleries; and £700 was
being paid by the city for rental of fire and street hydrants.
There wras about 21 miles of pipes laid for the supply of the
city. After the transfer, the works were managed on behalf of
the city by a board of three paid water commissioners under
authority of an act passed 15th April, 1861. The commission
was composed of J. A. Bell, chairman, and Messrs. J. L. Barry
and E. J. Longard, the latter taking the place of Mr. J. R.
Morse, who was elected by the city council "but declined to
serve. These gentlemen continued to act u'ntil the control of
the works was vested in a committee of the council (the board
of works) on the 30th September, 1872.

Before the purchase of the works a commission on water-
supply, with Mr. Henrv E. Pugsley as chairman, was appoint-

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON. 79

e(tby the city' council, and they "engaged Mr. James E. Laurie,
C. E., of ^"ew York, to report 011 tile '' works arid increased
sources of supply. 'Mr. : Laurie submitted his report, which is
an exceedingly interesting and valuable document, on the 10th
May; 1860. The population of the town at « that date was
30,000, and there ' were 892 water tenants on the books of the
company. Allowing eight 'persons to a family,: this would give
7,136 people using the -water; but as the barracks/ navy yard
and city counted as single' tenants and a large number were
using water from free hydrants,; he estimated that there were
about 20,000 consumers. While tli£>, -mains were capable of
discharging 2,000,000 gallons per -day^-on account of there
being only about two 12-inch distributing: mains only about
1,500,000 gallons were being; used by ; these ;20r, 000 consumers,
or at the rate of 75 gallons. per capita per clay. la calculating
for an increased supply he based his estimate 'on a population
of 60,000 using at the rate of 83^ gallons ^er, capita .per day or
for a total of 5,000,000 gallons per day. , ,!r

He discussed two plans for increasing the supply, and two
for the proposed high service, and also improvements, in thb dis-
tribution system: —

1st. Long Lake. — By raising this lake, ithree feet and replac-
ing the 12-in'ch main with a '24-inch main a daily supply of
5,000,000 gallons witlra storage 'capacity for 160jdays would be
obtained at an estimated cost of $70,070.00.

2nd. Birch Cov^: Lakes.1— -These lakes consist of several
bodies of water connected -by "narrow passages, having a sur-
face elevation of 239 feet above mean lowr tide, a'iicl an area of
241 acres, with several other lakes emptying into them. The
natural flow was small, a 9-inch x 12-inch penstock carrying the
greater part of the ''water in' the dry season to a mill on the
stream. Assuming' the lakes to be capable of being raised ten
fret, which was problematical, as the eastern banks were low and
unsuitable for dams, ;and eighfc feet of water being drawn off,

80 HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

the capacity of the reservoir would be 586,000,000 gallons or
117 days full supply for the city. But as the mills on the
stream would require the whole natural flow through the sum-
mer and autumn, it would be necessary to purchase their
rights, or there would be available for the city's use but forty-
six days supply. The cost of bringing water from these lakes,
including $40,000 for land and compensation and $30,000 for
reservoir on Shaffroth's Hill, would be $353,980.

3rd. High service, Kagged Lake. — This lake lies about 21/4
miles westerly from the gate-house at Chain Lake, and contains
about 100 acres of water area at an elevation of 325 feet above
tide. Lying at the summit level of the country, it has a limited
water-shed (less than 300 acres by a later survey) and would
not be a suitable source to furnish the quantity required. The
estimated cost of obtaining a supply from this source, exclus-
ive of the distribution, was $55,030.

4th. Pumping by steam power to Shaffroth's Hill. — The
most convenient station for pumps would be near St. Andrew's
Cross, and the costt, including the annual working expenses
capitalized at 6 per cent, would be $99,000. Another scheme
was suggested — to use the stream running from, the Chain
Lakes to Hosterman's mill to pump into a ktand pipe, and
thence by gravity to a reservoir on Shaffroth's Hill. The first
cost would not be very different from pumping by steam, but
the operating expenses would be less. The practicability of the
pla'n depended on the amount of water running from Chain
Lakes in a dry time, the amount required to operate the pump
being about 4^ million gallons per day. In summing up, Mr.
Laurie recommended that Long Lake dam be raised and a 24-
inch main be substituted for the 12-inch from the lakes to St.
Andrew's Cross, as the whole of the city, with the exception of
the district lying to the north and west of Gerrish and Creigh-
ton Streets, could be supplied by gravitation. This district
would have to be supplied either by bringing; water from a

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON. 81

higher source or by pumping to a reservoir. He also recom-
mended extensive changes in the distribution system.

In 1863 the original 12-inch main was taken up and a 24-
inch main laid in its stead. Long Lake dam was not raised
until some years later, but the distribution system was
remodelled and enlarged on the lines of the report. The com-
missioners in their annual report for this year discussed the
necessity for a high service supply and warmly advocated some-
thing being done, as without artificial means being employed
sufficient head could 'not be obtained from Long Lake to supply
the higher levels of the city with water by gravity. In review-
ing Laurie's report they mentioned a high hill near the foot of
Chain Lakes suitable for a reservoir site, which would do away
with the necessity of a stand pipe and reservoir on Shanroth's
Hill in case it was decided to adopt the method of pumping
from the Chain Lakes. William Gossip, Jr., C. E., was en-
gaged to report o'n the question of obtaining a high level sup-
ply from this source. On the 29th of June of this same year
he submitted a lengthy report dealing with this matter and
also with the general state of the works, in substance as fol-
lows : — That to pump by water-power from tne Chain Lakes to
a reservoir on the adjacent hill would require the following
quantities of water: To work the wTater-wheel and keep the
reservoir full (supposing 600,000 gallo'ns per day to suffice for
the high service for some years to corne) 5,000,000 gallons per
day, to which must 'be added 2,000,000 gallons for the low
service, 600,000 for the high and 100,000 for leakage and
waste, or a total amount of 8,600,000 gallons per day from the
Long and Chain Lakes reservoirs. The lakes in their then state
were estimated to be capable of sustaining a daily draught of
5,000,000 gallons without reducing the level of Long Lake to
more than two feet below the waste weir in the driest part of
the year, leaving a deficiency of 400,000,000 gallons. By
raising Long Lake dam three feet (at a cost of $1,450) 260,-
000,000 gallons additional storage could be had, leaving 140,-

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XII. TRANS. 6.

82 HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

000,000 gallons more required, which could only be obtained by
tapping some new source. The waters of Spruce Hill Lake
could be diverted into Long Lake and supply this amount by a
cut about a quarter of a mile long at a cost of $10,000. The
cost of the new works, using water-power for pumping, would
be $61,411 and using steam-power $44,537, the annual oper-
ating charges in the former case being $800 and in the latter
$3,286.50.

The commissioners, however, were imbued with the idea that
the Spruce Hill Lakes, lying about three miles to the westward
of Long Lake, were the best available source of supply, and in
1865 obtained the services of Mr. AY. B. Smellie to "make sur-
veys and report on their capabilities. On the 5th April, 1865,
he reported that he had made a survey of the lakes and found
the second lake had an area of 02 ^ acres, and was 153 feet above
Long Lake, and the third lake an area of 70 acres, and about
2^ feet higher than the second. He recommended a dam across
the outlet of the second lake, raising the water 7^ feet, which
would allow, say, 6 feet of water to be drawn from the second
lake and 3^ feet from the third, and would yield 217 millions of
gallons, or 180 days' supply of 2,000,000 gallons per day. By
raising the lake one foot higher twenty-two days' further sup-
ply could be had, and by lowering the pipe three feet below the
existing surface an extra quantity equal to twenty days' con-
sumption would be obtained.

In a further report on the 8th July, 1865, the cost of build-
ing a canal to let the water of Spruce Hill Lakes down to Long-
Lake was estimated to be $33,500, and to conduct the water by
a line of pipes to a reservoir near Chain Lakes would be $87,-
000. But neither of these schemes commended itself to him,
and he recommended conducting the water from the lakes to
St. Andrew's Cross by a 15-inch pipe, which would be capable
of delivering two and one-half million gallons every twenty-
four hours.

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON. 83

The commissioners, after considering the various reports
upon the proposed increase in supply, had no hesitation in
recommending that Spruce Hill Lake be raised 10 feet, and
the water conducted into the city by a line of pipes.

In 1866 the whole scheme was submitted to Mr. Thomas
C. Keefer, and on September 25th of that year he submitted
his report. He recommended taking the supply from Spruce
Hill Lake by gravity, and estimated that these lakes would
ordinarily furnish a supply of 2,000,000 gallons, a'nd in a dry
year not less than 1,000,000 gallons per diem, or sufficient for a
liberal supply for 20,000 persons, or about double the number
assigned to the high level district. A 15-inch pipe to within
a mile and a quarter of the lake and a 20-inch pipe connected
through the intervening distance to the lake would deliver
2,000,000 gallons per day at the higher levels and 3,000,000
per day at a level of 100 feet above tide. He also suggested
that in future an intermediate system might be obtained by
catching a portion of the Lotog Lake water at an elevation of 50
feet above the lake and forming a reservoir and runniiur a line
of pipes to town. In January, 1867, the city council adopted
this report. Work was commenced on the 17th April, 1868,
on. the dam and pipe line, and the work was finished in the
following year.

By an act of legislature, passed 18th April, 1872, the
powers and functions hitherto exercised by the commissioners
of water supply were to cease on the 30th September of the
same year, and a committee of the city council called the board
of works was vested with all the said powers and functions. The
following quotation is taken from the first report of Mr. E. II.
Keatiing, the first city engineer of Halifax, in 1873. Adverting
to the formation of the commission in 1861, he said : "The
new commLssion seemed to work well, and great praise is due
to the gentlemen who comprised the board for the energetic
in aimer in which they grappled with the difficulties with which
tliev had to contend, and for the rmVnner in which the work

84 HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

of the department was planned and executed. To them is due
the credit of establishing the works as we have them to-day,
and if unsatisfactory it is through no fault that ca'n be attached
to the plans that were adopted, but rather through the neglect of
enforcing stringent ordinances, the necessity for which I am
informed was repeatedly urged upon the council by the board."
Since 1872 the works have been under the control of the board
of works and managed by the city engineer of the city of
Halifax.

As may be gathered from the foregoing history of the works,
the district supplied by the Long and Chain Lakes lies at an
elevation below 150 feet above mean low tide, and that sup-
plied by the Spruce Hill Lake system above this elevation. The
former is called the low service district and the latter the high.
Both are supplied by gravitation. One of the great difficulties
in connection with the high service shortly after its intro-
duction, was the constant and urgent demand of the consumers
near the higher levels of the low service district, as the pressure
became lower through the increased consumption for the letting
down of this service to the lower levels. While this was coin-
batted strongly by the commissioners and subsequently by the
city engineer, it was frequently done, and greatly impaired the
efficiency of the high service system. However, since the intro-
duction of the 27-i'nch low service main the supply has been
kept back nearer its proper level. At present the lowest points
supplied by the high service are the Victoria General Hospital
and poor house, where the ground is at an elevation of 100 feet,
and on Uniacke Street, at an elevation of 120 feet.

Low Service Gathering Grounds and Storage Reservoirs.

The water .shed of the low service system comprises an area
of 4,455 acres, including the lakes — 904 acres in the Chain
Lakes and 3,551 acres in the Long Lake gathering grounds, the
water area in the former being 97 acres and in the latter 459
acres. Included in the Chain Lakes water shed is Bayer's Lake

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON. 85

with an area of 16 acres. The run-off from this water-shed has
never been measured, although some measurements of the flow
from the Bayer's Lake portion have been made, and the cal-
culation of its yield has to be made from the rainfall. In
estimating the capacity of the gathering grounds there must be
considered the extent and character of the drainage area, the
average and minimum yearly rainfall, the distribution of the
rains through the various months of the year, the average and
least percentages that are carried by the streams, the storage
capacity that can be secured and the evaporation from the sur-
face of the area.

The slopes of the drainage area of Long Lake and Chain
Lake are steep, and consist chiefly of rock formation with
scanty soil and not very much vegetation. The rainfall is
measured by the Dominion meteorological agent in the city of
Halifax, arid at the lakes by the city water department. The
gauges at the lakes are set in such a position that they should
measure accurately the precipitation. The average yearly rain-
fall in the city of Halifax, from 1869 to 1905, is 56 inches
and the minimum 45.808 inches in 1894. In Mr. Keefer's
report of 1876 the rainfall for the years 1859 to 1865 is giveTi,
and during' this time a minimum of 39 inches is recorded for
1860 and an average of 51.62 inches for the seven years. It is
not known by whom these records were made.

The writer is unaware of any studies to determine the
evaporation having been undertaken in Nova Scotia, but the
generally accepted rule here is to allow that one-half the rain-
fall will be lost from this cause and all that falls on the water
surface of the drainage area. In his opinion this would cover
the loss on the low service water-shed as there are few swamps
or shallow places where the water lies, and as before mentioned,
the slopes are fairly steep. In fact, taking the area of the
water-shed, the amount flowing over the waste weirs, the
amount estimated to be delivered in town, the loss from leak-
age at the dams and the amount delivered to the mill owners,

86 HALIFAX WATER WORKS. JOHNSTON.

the writer is of the opinion that an average of 50 per cent,
throughout the whole year is available as the run-off from the
Long Lake drainage area. Since 1889 the quantity running to
waste yearly over Long Lake waste weir has varied from
250,000,000 gallons to 2,173,000,000 gallons. The reservoir
has always been full during those years i'n either March, April
or May.

To increase the available flow, it is necessary to store the
water in time of flood and thus equalize the distribution of the
rainfall. There are three low service reservoirs, — Long Lake,
with waste-weir level at 206.00 feet, having a surface area of
423 acres, an available depth of 8.20 feet and a capacity of
871,522,000 gallons; Upper Chain Lake, with waste-weir at
same level and sluicb at 194.70, an area of 37 acres and a
capacity of 107,674,000 gallons; Lower Chain Lake, with
waste-weir at same level of 206.00 feet, main pipe at level of
192.24 feet, and an area of 42 acres and a capacity of 157,374,-
000 gallons ; giving a total available storage in the low service
reservoirs of 1,136,570,000 gallons — sufficient TO supply the
.legitimate wants of a population of 50,000 for a period of 225
days, allowing 100 gallons per capita. But to show the enor-
mous draught on this system, in November of 1905 all but
60,000,000 gallons of this storage had been exhausted in sup-
plying 18,000 consumers between the 15th of Juno, when the
reservoirs were full, and the 15th of November, the rainfall
during this period amounting to 12.683 inches. The lowest
level to which Long Lake has been drawn down being 8
feat below waste-weir on the 14th November, 1905. At the
end of December, 1905, the level of Long Lake waste-weir
was raised one foot, which will increase the available storage
by 115,000,000 gallons.

High Service Gathering Grounds and Storage Reservoir.
The water-shed of Spruce Hill Lakes amounts to 1,009
acres, including a water area of 218 acres in the lake and 6

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. JOHNSTON. 87

acres in Fish Pond. The geological formation is similar to
that of the Long Lake water-shed, but the slopes are somewhat
flatter. Mr. Keefer estimated the yield from this gathering
ground in the driest year at an average of one and one-quarter
million gallons per day, a'nd that in wet years this amount
would be doubled. The storage capacity of the lake is estimated
to be 700,000,000 gallons, or sufficient for a population of
31,000 for 225 days, allowing 100 gallons per day per capita.

Cleaning Lakes.

In. raising the Spruce Hill Lakes, the area flooded was
thickly covered with trees, brushwood and moss, which appar-
ently had never been cleaned out, and which after a short time
died and greatly contaminated the water.

The effect was so bad that for a few years previous to 1876
the water became unfit for domestic use. In that year the lake
was drawn down to a level of 7 feet 9 inches below the waste-
weir, and the bed of the lake was cleared of fallen trees, brush-
wood and decomposed vegetable matter, and the stumps were
grubbed out, The trees a'ad stumps taken out were covered
with a green slime. When Long Lake was raised, the shores
were thoroughly cleared, but in common with all the lakes
certain forms of vegetation thrive between high and and low-
water level, and it has to be periodically cleaned out.

Growths.

The growth of alga? was first noticed in 1878. In that year
samples of water, algas auid mud from Chain Lakes and water
from Long and Spruce Hill Lakes were collected in September
when the water was low and sent to Professor Lawson to
analyze. His analysis of water from Long Lake yielded a dry,
solid residue, as follows: —

Inorganic matter 1.71 grains to the gallon.

Organic " '2.13 •«

Total . -.3.84 "

88

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

Another sample, taken from Chain Lakes near the pipe-
house, gave: —

Inorganic matter . . 2 . 48 grains to the gallon.

Organic " 2.68 "

Total 5.12 •' "

The inorganic matter consisted chiefly of alumina and iron,
with silica (soluble), common salt and a mere trace of lime.
The water belonged to the class of soft waters such as are col-
lected in districts where there are no rocks capable of yielding
soluble substances. The sources of the impurity taken up by
the water in its passage through Chain Lakes was discovered in
the form of a very peculiar deposit found in Upper Chain Lake
extending over the greater portion of the lake bottom, of a
thickness of over five feet in level places. It varied in con-
sistency from that of soft cheese to that of baker's bread, and
in color from whitish to dark ferruginous brown, in some places
nearly black. It consists to a very large extent of the remains
of microscopic organisms belonging to the class of infusoria.
The chemical analyses of four samples is as follows : —

No. of
sample.

Color.

Insoluble
in
H. 01.

Soluble
in
H. 01.

Total
Inorganic
matter.

Organic
matter.

Water .

,

Pale brown.

38.40

11.36

49.76

11.32

38.92

2

Pale whitish.

38 . 96

9.44

48 . 40

9.60

42.00

3

Between 1 and 2.

38.16

11.04

49.20

8.72

42.08

4

Dark fur. brown.

24.70

1 1 . 85

63 . 45

This deposit has no doubt originally consisted of swamp
muck formed by the remains of plants, infusoria, etc.,, but
by the long subjection to the action of water passing over it has
lost much of its organic matter.

A few specimens of fresh-water sponge (Spongilla), whose
decay gives a very offensive odor to water, were found in Upper
Chain Lakes in 1878, a'nd in 1883 the growth was increasing

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON. 89

to such, an extent that men were sent to collect all the specimens
that could be found, since which date no more' have been
observed. In 1877 a microscopic alga called trichormus flos
aqua was found in Spruce Hill Lake, which had the effect of
giving the surface of the water, especially near the shore, a
brilliant green color. This is not known to be injurious, but
is regarded as an indication of water being stagnant or con-
taining organic matter. It has not reappeared, and was prob-
ably removed by clearing the lakes of vegetable matter. In 1885
new forms of alga? appeared hi Chain Lakes, consisting of a
galatinous substance forming in detached masses, from the size
of a -marble to a large apple, and adhering but slightlv to the
soil and sto'ne under water, a light breeze being sufficient to
detach quantities of this substance and carry it to the screens in
the pipe-house where, if allowed to collect, it would soon cut off
the supply to the city. Lime scattered along the shores of the
lakes seems to kill this growth, and a certain amount is depos-
ited yearly to prevent its starting.

An analysis of the water from the various lakes was made
in 1890 by Mr. Maynard Bowman, with the following results:

90

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

'V ssl!IO

co Tf i-

•s.moq f uj

t^ h- Oi O Tf CO CO

§-§£s^

O CO SO «O W O SO

rf 00

•« ig

i» »O

•pioy ouoqdsoqj

CO •<*• O O -f
O O —

ptouuunqjv '

•r o oo oo — 30 oo
SI « 'M CM SI 01 <M

o o
ps j /?: ^ c

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON. 91

There are two points in the above that require special con-
sideration, viz., the high figures for albuminoid ammonia and
the oxygen absorbed. An opinion based on those leads to but
one result, that the water is impure.

According to AYanklyn, Chapman, and Smith, the limit for
albuminoid ammonia is 0.066 parts per million for a good
Avater, while here we have from 0.1470 to 0.1814, which is a
very large excess.

This impurity is chiefly attributable to contamination with
animal matter, but situated as the lakes are and considering
their surroundings its origin is not apparent. Nevertheless,
there is no question but that Lower Chain Lake must in the
spring receive a large amount of impurity from the accumu-
lations of the winter washed into it from the road along its
banks. Ragged Lake under this head is the least of all, though
its figures are much higher than they should be. As to the
oxygen absorbed, 3 parts per million is considered to be the
limit of a water of medium purity, while we have here more
than 6.

This does not necessarily condemn the water, peaty water
not being considered injurious. Still the figures are high, and
the water carries a large amount of organic matter and should
be filtered before use in all cases.

The following is extracted from a report of Prof. George
Lawso'n on the foregoing analysis : —

"The result of analysis showing Ragged Lake water to
contain 0.1470 parts per million of albuminoid nitrogen and
the other samples from 0.1671 to 0.1814, the average of the
whole being 0.1714, affords sufficient evidence of organic im-
purity in all the waters. The high rate of oxygen absorbed
tells the same tale, I'n such cases it is usual to regard the
albuminoid nitrogen as having its origin in sewage or animal
matter, hence the great stress laid by water analysts upon the
albuminoid nitrogen. Without further knowledge of them.

92 HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

these three waters, with the exception perhaps of Ragged Lake,
would be regarded by most water authorities as impure, Unfit
for use, or at least, doubtful. It may be, and I incline strongly
to this view, that the acidity of our waters enables it to give
results by the ordinairv ammonia process which tends to exag-
gerate the apparent amount of albuminoid nitrogen. It is still
more likely that a large proportion of the albuminoid 'nitrogen
is due to vegetable sources. The avidity for oxygen is prob-
ably owing to peaty and other vegetable substances, as well as
ferrous salts, all of which we know exist in the water and are
not injurious in the way in which decay i'ng animal matter and
sewerage are. For these reasons, I see no immediate cause
for alarm, but there is certainly good reason for thorough inves-
tigation as to the sources of the apparent pollution. Dr. Fox,
in his book o>n sanitary examinations of water, etc., gives an
analysis of a water closely resembling the Halifax samples
(albuminoid ammonia=0.18, free ammonia— 0.08, nitrates
and nitrates=0.1, chlorine=4.5) and remarks, 'Such a water
when the nitrates a'nd nitrites and chlorides are insignificant
cannot be condemned, but would simply be described as some-
what dirty.' It may be that our Halifax water is. not essen-
tially impure, but only somewhat dirty. Those who use it are.
impressed with this latter feature of the \vater by observing its
color and sediment. As a natural water accumulated in a
silicious and granitic, rocky, comparatively uninhabited dis-
trict it ought to be pure and no doubt will be when measures
are taken to preserve its purity. The first thkig to be done is
to make a thorough survey of the shores of the several lakes
and their tributary streams, and of the deposits and accumu-
lations in the lake bottoms. In this w<ay the sources of pol-
lution can be reached. It may then be possible to avoid or
remove them and to supply Halifax with as pure water as is
within reach of any city on the continent."

HALIFAX WATER WORKS.- — JOHNSTON.

93

In October, 1905, samples were collected and analyzed by
Prof. E. MacKay, Dalhousie College, with the following
results : —

SOURCE or SAMPLE.

AMMONIA.

o
o
O

NITROGEN.

Required oxygen.

OB

1

"3
EH

1

Albuminoid.

a5

a

3

1

Long Lake
Tap, Young Avenue. . .
Spruce Hill Lake
Tap, Dalhousie College.

.01
.014
.026
.020

.222
.224
.120
.1-24

10.5
10.9

8.0
7.8

.425
.400

.WO

9.870
9.80
9.<i8
9.60

12.8
13.4
14.1
14.1

118.0

122.8
103.2
107.9

The above are given in parts per million.

In his report Prof. MacKay says: "All samples had a
somewhat yellowish tint due to dissolved vegetable matter. Of
the total dissolved solids more than 70 per cent., was found to
be of vegetable origin. The amount of vegetable matter is
relatively large, and to this is due the high values found in
ammonia. The analyses showed all samples to be wholly free
from indication of essentially injurious constituents or con-
tamination.'7

In a paper read before this Institute, Dr. Campbell said
he found the Halifax water remarkably free from bacteria?.

Dams and Waste-Weirs.

The dam at the foot of Long Lake was built by the Halifax
Water Company in 1848. It was 950 feet long and 29 feet
high. The original design called for a structure 20 feet wide
on top, 29 feet high above the surface, the inner slope to be
3 to 1 and the outer 1 J to 1 ; a puddle-wall .to be built 6 feet
thick, its front in line with the inner edge of the top, to be
backed with 6 feet of coarse gravel, the whole surrounded with
fine gravel and loam; the outer slope to be covered with

94 HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

stones, the too of the inner slope to be composed of coarse
gravel and small stones ; the level of the waste- weir (which
was a wooden structure) to he 200.00 feet above mean low tide.

In 1877 the dam was raised and strengthened by putting
rafts of brushwood and straw covered with fine material in front
where leaks had developed, and raising the dam five feet,
widening the top to twenty-four feet and flattening the outer
slope to Ql\ to 1. The water side was protected by a heavy
sloping wall surmounted by a granite coping 18 inches high and
forming a low wall along the front. The dam was lengthened
to 1,018 feet to the west of the waste-weir. In 1892 the dam
was raised two feet and strengthened by depositing 5,000
cubic yards of good material da the face. The present waste-
weir at a'n elevation of 205.99 feet above low tide was con-
structed in 1878 of massive granite masonry and strengthened,
in 1888 by the addition of a. concrete wall at the front. It is-
62 feet 6 inches long and the crest is 3 wide and level, the fall
from the crest to the apron being 3-J feet. The latter is con-
structed of granite slabs about six feet long with granite pav-
ing outside. There is a sluice-way closed with an iron gate at
the eastern end, 62 inches wide and 50 inches high and at a
level of 198.90.

In December, 1905, iron staunchions were secured to tlio
top of the weir and the sill raised one foot, or to an elevation
of 207.00 by placing two 6-inch timbers in position.

The highest level to which the water has risen over 'che
weir is 25 inches on the 19th October, 1S96.

In 1873 leaks were reported in the Long Lake darn by the
city engineer, and in June, 1877, thermoinetrical observations
were taken in the lake and at each of the runs of water along
the foot of the dam, when it was found that the two largest
runs were from leaks and the rest from springs under the em-
bankment. Weirs were placed on these, and the actual amount
of leakage was found to be 14.7 gallons per minute from the

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. JOHNSTON. 95

eastern one and 6.6 gallons per minute from the western one.
As the results of the improvements made in 1892 these leaks
have been very materially reduced, in one case a flow of 2
inches over the measuring weir dwindling to £ inch and the
other stopping altogether.

When Lower Chain Lake was raised in 1894, a new dam
was constructed outside the existing one. It is practically two
dams joined by a natural hill, the north one also having a hill
projecting into and buttressing it. The north Bart of the dam
has a concrete core-wall 4 feet wide on top and 6 feet at bottom
carried down to the solid ledge-rock and continued into the
banks on each side and running through the waste- weir. The em-
bankment is formed of gravel and loam laid in thin layers and
well compacted. The old 12-inch pipe used to let down water
to the mill owners runs through the dam, also the 24-inch main
to the pipe-house, which is at the foot of the outer slope. A
leak developed where the 24-inch came through the core-wall,
but it was repaired with concrete and has shown no signs since.
The length of this dam is 550 feet, the top width 12 feet. The
outer slopes are 2 to 1, and the inner 3 to 1, paved with heavy
stones. The waste- weir is at the northern end of the dam at an
elevation of 206 feet, and is of similar design to the Long Lake
weir, the dimensions being 16 feet long, width of crest 3 feet,
and a fall of 9^ feet broken by a ledge 5-J feet from the crest.
The apron is paved with heavy granite slabs and concrete. A
20-inch exit pipe runs through the weir to be used as a waste
pipe. The •south part of the dam is constructed to the same
design as the northern part, with a gate-house in the centre of
it. The top and outer slopes of both this dam and Long Lake
dam were covered with street sweepings hauled from town and
sown with grass seed and in a year were covered with a. strong,
thick sod. There are two small dams between the two Chain
Lakes, the south one built in 1883, with a sluice 24x36 at ;i
level of 194.70; the north with the old waste-weir built in
1886.

96 HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

The main dam at Spruce Hill Lake is an earthen structure
1,200 feet long, 12 feet wide on top the slopes, both inner and
outer, being built of granite about 16 inches thick. There is
no puddle or core-wall through it, but it was built by simply
compacting layers of the best available material. There are two
smaller dams about 300 feet and 250 feet long respectively, of
the same section as the main dam. The dams were constructed
in 1868 and the granite face wall in front of the dam was
built in 1891-3 and the dams raised at that time. The present
waste- weir was built in 1883 at an elevation of 362.79. It is
constructed of granite with four openings of 9 feet 3 inches
each in the clear, separated by cast-iron standards to receive
stop logs to retain the surplus water. There are three such
timbers in place, each 6 inches square, thus raising the level to
364.29.

Gate-Houses.

There are two gate-houses at Chain Lakes. The north one,
originally built in 1857, is located at the north part of the dam
at the toe of the outer slope, and consists of an iron tank built in
sections, bolted together and caulked. The water is drawn
from the lake to this chamber by a 24-inch pipe. It was raised
in 1894 by bolting a section to the existing chamber: The 24-
inch supply main is connected with this house.

The south gate-house was built in 1894, over the channel
which led to the old south pipe house, which was the original
one built in 1848 and destroyed when the new one was com-
pleted. The new one is built of concrete and is 16 feet deep by
12-J feet wide by 16^ feet long with walls 4 feet thick. It is
drained by a 12-inch pipe. Both the 24-inch and the 27-inch
mains connect in this house, but may be separated should
occasion arise. There is a straining wall about 100 feet long in
front of this gate-ihouse built of loose stones, 4 feet 6 inches
thick on top with slopes of 1 to 4. The new house is ample in
size and avoids the difficulty always had with the north house
which is too small to vent the water freely, and was always in

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON. 97

danger of choking up owing to the small size of the screen
chambers. There is a weir near the north gate-house to measure
the water let down by the 12-inch pipe to the mill owners.

The original Spruce Hill Lake gate-house was of similar
desig'n to the old ones at Chain Lake, consisting of an iron
tank with three divisions, an inlet, screen and outlet chamber,
and was built about 150 feet north of this dam,, a 20-foot pipe
running through the dam and connecting with the lake. In 1889
a permanent structure of brick, concrete and granite was built
in the dam of the following dimensions : 16 feet deep by 10
feet 4 inches wide >and 8 feet 5 inches long, with walls 4 feet
thick.

The scree/ae ?re made of ISTo. 19 brass wire, and have sixty-
four meshes to the square inch.

Employees of the water department live both at Spruce Hill
Lake and at Chain Lake dams, whose duty it is to look after
the dams and gate-houses. The screens, in summer when the
water is low, require changing frequently as they become choked
with leaves or other impurities suspended in the water. Dur-
ing the fall of 1905, when the water was at its. lowest, two men
were on duty day and night continually changing the screens,
otherwise the supply could not have been kept up to the city
through them.

Canal.

As has already been stated, the water was conduct el from
Long Lake to Chain Lakes by a canal, which was originally
constructed in. 1848 by an open cut, and was intended to be
low enough to draw the water of Long Lake down seven feet
below the waste- weir level, but during construction, owing 'to
difficulties met with by the contractor, the grade line was raised
1 foot 3 inches, thus, only allowing 5 feet 9 inches of Long
Lake water to be drawn off. The conduit was 2 feet by 2J feet,
and was entirely too small to pass the water in sufficient volume
to give full effect to the storage of Long Lake. The present

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Fci., VOL. XII. TRANS. 7.

98 HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

conduit, rebuilt ,in 1886, is 1,300 feet long, 3^ feet wide and 4J
feet high, built of 4-inch by 4-inch hemlock deal, with four
manholes throughout its length. Its upper end is at an eleva-
tion of 196.20, with a fall to Chain Lake of six inches.

Ice.

The experience with, the formation of a'achor ico has been
similar to that of other places. With a sheet of open water at a
temperature of 32 degrees F., and the temperature of the air
varying from 5 degrees to 20 degrees above zero, and a high
wi'nd blowing, the ice forms in small detached needles or crys-
tals. Thin portions of it accumulate in spongy masses and float
along at or below the surface, their specific gravity differing
but little from that of water. They adhere readily to all solid
bodies with which they come in contact, and grow rapidly when
once they have secured a centre of crystallization. It will not
form in bright sunshine — on the contrary, it rises to the sur-
face in spongy masises, and when the surface freezes over it
lets go its grip. The lee side of a reservoir gets most of its
anchor ice, and whenever we have been troubled with it the
wind has always been from a north-westerly direction. Between
1883 and 1893 ;no trouble was had from ice, and it is thought
that this was due to the fact that a screen of stout pickets
driven into the bottom, capped on top with a boom rising a'nd
falling with the level of the water, was placed in front of the
gate houses. In 1892 this was removed, and on the llth
December of that year ice closed the sluice gate at the south
gate-house cutting off the supply to the 24-inch main, and con-
tinued until four o'clock in the morning, when the wind sub-
sided, and the ice stopped running. In. 1898 the filter wall
already referred to was built in front of the south gate-housa,
but ice formed inside the wall, and there was danger that the
gate-house would freeze up solid, so the screens were removed
until the danger had passed. This is the last time there has
been any trouble from it.

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON. 99

Riparian Rights.

When the Halifax Water Company decided to bring the
water from Chain Lakes there were several mills situated on.
the stream flowing from the lakes and enjoying the privilege of
the water from them. Some difficulty having arisen in securing
the rights to the water, it was seriously contemplated by the
company to bri'ng the water direct from Long Lake. However,
an agreement was eventually made in 1849 with the owner of
the privileges, that for a consideration of £500 the water com-
pany could build dams and take the water from Chain Lakes,
provided that they would not interfere with the natural flow
through the lakes as heretofore enjoyed by the mill owners.
The first difference arose in 1863, when the commissioners of
water-supply received a letter from the attorneys of the mill
owners, stating that the mills had closed down for want of
water, and that in previous years the water company had let
down a supply in dry weather. The commissioners on this
occasion gave orders to their superintendent to let down enough
water to fill Chocolate Lake, on the understanding that this
was not to be taken as a precedent or to act as any acknowledg-
ment of the rights of the mill owners to the supply, and on
April 13th, 1863, they presented a lengthy report dealing with
these claims. From that time to this there has been constant
friction with the mill owners as to the amount of water which
should be let down to them under the agreement. This has cul-
minated in an action being brought by them for a declaration
of their rights and an injunction restraining the city from
interfering with their supply. As this is now before the courts
the question may not be discussed fully, and is mentioned only
to serve as an example of the necessity for looking to the
demand for a largely increased supply always following the
introduction of water to a town in a short time, and of the
advisability of either securing all the rights to a watershed, or
at least, having a definite agreement as to the actual quantity to

100 HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

bo allowed the owners, and the method by which said quantity
should be measured.

Mains.

The water was originally brought from the Chain Lakes to
the city by a 12-inch main to St. Andrew's Cross, laid in 1848,
and was assumed by Mr. Jarvis to be capable of delivering at
this point 800,000 gallons daily. It was of cast iron, and was
ordered in Scotland through Messrs. Kidston & Son, of Glas-
gow, and cost £7 5s. per ton delivered, the freight being 15/ per
ton. 2,550 feet of these pipes were to be f inch thick, to be
tested to withstand a pressure of 160 pounds to the square
inch, and 13,650 feet to be J inch thick tested to 145 pounds.
All pipes were to be 9 feet long. 550 of these pipes were
ordered with spigots cast on them to fit a f-inch iron service
pipe, so that the water would not have to be turned off in mak- •
ing connections. The pipes were uncoated and were laid with
lead joints.

In January, 1856, the water company ordered from
Kidston & Sons 284 lengths of 15-inch pipe, 9 feet long, f inch
thick, to be laid in the valley of the North West Arm, and 1,341
lengths f inch thick; the pipes to be tested to 165 and 135
pounds respectively. These pipes were laid during that year
alongside the 12-inch. The estimated delivery of this pipe was
over 1,000,000 gallons per day at St. Andrew's Cross. Messrs.
Kidston wrote to the directors recommending the use of a coat-
ing (Smith's patent varnish) which was then just coming into
use, and the directors wrote saying that if this coating had the
approval of authorities in Great Britain to put it On the pipes ;
but subsequently, fearing it would reduce the capacity of the
pipes, passed the following resolution, a copy of which they
sent their agents : —

Resolved, — That the directors having ordered a 15-inch
pipe, which was larger than was contemplated for the very pur-
pose of preventing the pipes filling up, do not consider that the

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON. 101

glazing mentioned will be necessary ; but if the glazing is con-
sidered an advantage that all the small pipes ordered be glazed.

Fortunately, before this letter was received, the order had
been placed and the pipes came out coated. These pipes were
laid with wood joints. The cost was £5 14s. lOd. per ton,
exclusive of freight.

In 1862 the commissioners of water-supply took up the
original 12-inch main and substituted therefor a 24-inch main.
These pipes were ordered from Glasgow. The quantity required
for the North West Arm valley to be 1 inch thick, tested to 200
pounds; and the remainder to be f inches, tested to 150 pounds.
All pipes to be 9 feet long and coated with Smith's patent
coating. They were laid with wooden joints and cost £4 4s. 3d.
per ton, exclusive of freight or duty, or £6 18s., exclusive of
truckage. The total cost of laying this main was $54,994.39,
or an average cost of $4.00 per lineal foot. The estimated
capacity was 5J million gallons when new. There is a 12-inch
exit pipe at the Dutch Village Road. On the introduction of
the "high 'service " in 1868," the 15-inch main laid in 1856 was
used as a part of the supply main and was extended to within
1^ miles of Spruce Hill Lakes, this latter distance being laid
with 20-inch pipe. These are f inch thick and the 15-inch are
f inch. They are 9 feet long and coated with Smith's patent
varnish and are laid with wooden joints. That portion of the
old 15-inch lying in the valley of the Arm was uncovered
and lead joints substituted for the wood. On the 14th January,
1869, the commission had a report from their superintendent,
complaining that the 15-inch pipes laid the previous year were
giving considerable trouble from the fact of the unequal casting,
a number of pipes breaking under a pressure of 68 pounds. On
examination these pipes were found to be only f inch thick on
one side and full J inch on the other, a'nd during the winter the
pressure wras regulated so as not to exceed 45 pounds at Chain
Lakes pipe house. The pipes split along the thin side. The

102 HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

estimated capacity of this main when discharging at an eleva-
tion of 250 feet was 2,485,000 gallons. There are exits in
this main at the end of the 20-inch, at Beaver Dam Brook, at
head of Chain Lakes, and at the Dutch Village Eoad.

In 1893 a new low service main, 27 inches in diameter, was
laid from the Chain Lakes. This main follows the route of
and is laid alongside the other two supply mains, to the brow
of the hill on the western side of the Dutch Village Road,
thence striking across the valley in a straight line to Bayer's
Road near North Kline Street, thence along Bayer's Road and
in prolongation thereof to Kempt Road, and then to Young
Street at the corner of Gottingen Street, connecting there with a
24-inch main running to Cogswell Street, where the latter joins
the 12-inch and 15-inch running from the 24-inch at St.
Andrew's Cross. The specification for this pipe calls for three
thicknesses — |, $-, 1 ^V. — the first to test to 250 pounds, and
the latter to 300 pounds per square inch, and while this test is
being applied the pipes to be struck a series of sharp blows at
various points throughout their length with a 3-pound hammer
attached to a ha'ndle 16 inches long. The pipes are 12 feet
long with turned and bored joints, and coated inside and out
with coal-pitch varnish. The contract price delivered in Halifax,
free of all charges, was $32.05 per 2,000 pounds for plain pipe
and $56.10 for special castings. The contract for excavating
the trench was. let for $1.85 per cubic yard for rock and 28
cents for earth excavation; measurement limited to a trench
4 feet wide. The cost of the 27-inch main laid was $5.71 per
lineal foot, inclusive of all charges. The cost of the 24-inch
laid in Gottingen Street was $5.52, inclusive of all charges.
This main slopes from the lake and from Gottingen Street to
the Dutch Village Road, where a 12-inch exit pipe is placed.

Coating.

The coating on the high service main and on the 24-inch
was ordered as "Smith's patent varnish." This is probablv the

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON. 103

coating process of Dr. Angus Smith, which was first introduced
in the United States in 1858. The weight of experience seems
to show that in unco'ated pipes the first ten; or twelve years of
their life results in more or less rapid corrosion. After they
have become thoroughly tuberculated very slight changes take
place. If this is removed by scraping or c-leani'ng it begins to
form again, and the life of the uncoated pipe becomes much
reduced.

The interior of coated *pipes become tuberculated in the
same way, due to a large extent to defects in the coating, but
very much less quickly, a(nd when removed by scraping the
iron is uninjured. The writer was present recently when a
piece of pipe was cut out of the 15-inch main, and when the
deposit was rubbed off the coating was as sound and good as
when first put on. The outside of the pirpe was also in good
condition. The pipe had been cleaned a year previous, and
the tubercules had not begun to form, but there was a slight
deposit over the face of the pipe. The following points should
be observed in coating cast-iron water pipes : —

That the ovens in which the pipes are heated before being
dipped in the coal tar bath shall be so arranged that all portions
of the pipes shall be heated to an even temperature.

The pipes should be heated to a temperature of 300° F.
before being dipped.

The varnish to be heated to a temperature of not more than
300° F., and kept at this while the castings are in the bath.

The pipes should 'not be submerged for less than five min-
utes, and when taken from the bath should be evenly coated.

Joints.

There are three kinds of joints in use in the water system,

—lead, wood, a'nd turned and bored. These latter joints have

been in use since 1890, but they do not seem to find favor with

engineers in America and are very little used in Canada or the

United States ; although in the Metropolitan Water Works of

104 HALIFAX AVATER WORKS.— JOHNSTON.

Mass., for the crossing of the Charles River, one of the three
kinds of joints used was described as follows: Three turned
grooves were made in the bell instead of the single one so as to
hold the lead more securely, and the spigot was smoothly
turned with a straight taper to a standard pattern so as to be
interchangeable. After inserting one of these tapering spigots
in the bell of the pipe and running the joint with lead the
spigot could be withdrawn, and when again inserted would
make a tight joint. This is practically one pattern of a turned
and bored joint. In the pattern used in Halifax a lip or rim is
cast on the spigot end of the pipe, varying in length from 2J
inches in a 27-inch, to If inches long on a 6-inch pipe, tapering
about 1-24 of aa inch in its length. A finished lip or rim is cast
in the hub, the pipes are then centered in a lathe and the rim
on the spigot end is turned and the rim on the hub end is bored
by the same movement of the lathe. Care is taken that the
pattern is made to give a full size casting so that when planed
down the ends fit accurately. The total depth of the hub varies
in the different sizes from 4 to 5 inches.

In laying, the pipe is lowered into the trench with the joint
smeared with oxide paint, and placed in position on, the block-
ing, entering the faucet of the last laid pipe. The 'next pipe is
then lowered and held in its slings while the men in the trench
swing it backwards and forwards and thus ram the last laid pipe
tightly home in its place. A block of hard-wood between the
pipes are lowered with a derrick. Should there be any slight
diameter are held in slings by four men on the bank; larger
pipes are lowered with a derrick. Should there be any slight
weepage the joint soon rusts tight. In the fifteen years'
experience with this form of joint there have only been
two discovered leaks through them, one ia the 27-inch
main near Young Street, and one in the 6-inch main in Young
Avenue. In the latter case the pipe was laid in the sewer trench.
As the back fill'iig of the latter settled, the blocking of the pipe
was disturbed : nd the pipe settled and drew one joint. In the

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON. 105

case of, the 27-inch, a leak developed during the winter follow-
ing the laying of the pipe, and on digging down to the main a
joint w7as discovered to have drawn out about J of an inch.
This was caulked with cold lead and gave no trouble until the
following winter, when it again showed signs of leaking, and on
investigation the joint was found to have drawn another ^ inch.
The blocking of the pipes on each side had apparently not
settled out of place, being laid on the top of the ledge rock. It
was thought that this drawing apart of the joint might have
been due to the contraction of the pipes. Assuming the differ-
ence of temperature to have been 30 degress, which is a fair
estimate between the temperature of the pipes when laid and
when the leak developed, the contraction to open the joint f
inch would have to take place through 324 feet of pipe. If this
took place on each side of the defective joint there would be a
strain on the joint of over 16 tons, the pipes weighing a ton
and a quarter to the 12-foot length, if the leakage was from this
cause, it should close up again in the summer when the tem-
perature of the pipe rose. Unfortunately, the | inch which is
said the pipes separated in the second winter was not measured
accurately, but was estimated by the foreman and may have
been overstated ; but assuming it to be correct, the writer can-
not advance any theory for the increase in the opening from
this cause, as there would not be any more difference in the
temperature than the amount given above. It is possible that
the joint may not have been driven home, and as at this point
there was only about four pounds pressure when testing, the
oxide paint used may have prevented the leak showing when
the pipe was tested on being laid, and a settlement may have
occurred in one or two lengths of pipe distant from the leak
dragging the pipe apart at the weakest point.

It will be seen from the description of the method of laying,
that the process of lowering and blocking is exactly the same as
for plain pipe, except the ramming home, which takes but very
little more time than the extra care required in centering the
pipe for a lead joint and then the joi-nt is complete; whereas,

106 HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

with the plain pipe the process of joining has not yet been
begun and necessitates considerable labor and material being
employed to finish the work. To get the best results with lead
or wood, jornts also requires a higher class of labor. The pipes
can be sprung around curves, but in this case should be caulked
with lead.

Previous to the introduction of the turned and bored pipes,
wooden joints were used extensively for pipes of 6 inches and
over. They have the merit of cheapness as compared with the
lead joint a(nd are durable, but possess the defect of being liable
to be blown out with a sudden increase of pressure, and most
of our trouble with discovered leaks has been from this cause.
The faucets of the 24-inch and 15-inch for this kind of joint
were made tapering | inch inwards. The joint is made as fol-
lows : — 'After the pipe is inserted in the socket it is raised up
by means of a tool called a raising iron and soft pine wedges
or staves, thoroughly seasoned and cut to the radius of the pipe,
are inserted on the lower side for about ^ of the circumference
of the pipe. The pipe is then lowered, and raising irons are
driven in the top and on each side of the joint, at intervals of
about 3 to 5 inches. The wedges are then driven in
with a sledge-hammer beginning from those already laid
and working up both sides, the raising irons being with-
drawn as the work proceeds. When all the wedges are in, keys
are driven where necessary between them to tighten the joint.

The wood joints in the 15-inch main, where under the water
of the Chain Lakes, were strengthened by adding an angle strap
of wrought-iron bolted closely to the pipe in front of the wedges.
The difference in cost of turned arid bored, and plain pipes,
has varied from 55 cents to $1.00 per ton, the former being
the difference in the tenders for the 27-inch and 24-inch pipes
laid in 1893. The 'net saving over lead joints in laying the 27-
indi man amounted to $3,147. Taking the cost of turned and
bored pipes at 75 cents per ton more than plain pipes, the fol-
lowing table gives the detailed cost of laying mains with
turned and bored, lead, and wood joints.

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

107

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108 HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

Incrustation of Pipes, and Cleaning.

In 1875 the old 3-inch water pipes laid by the Halifax
Water Company having become 'almost choked up with rust
and sediment, they were cleaned out during the succeeding
year by a scraper attached to iron, rods and propelled by hand.
The scraper had four arms or knives, attached to a center
and sprung outwards by a thick rubber disc. This method
was not practically applicable to pipes of a larger diameter
than 12 inches. The cost of cleaning was 14 2-10 cents per lineal
foot. In 1880 about a mile of 12-inch pipe was cleaned by a self-
acting mechanical scraper, imported from Scotland, and known
as the Kennedy scraper. 1887 Mr. Keating, the city engineer,
at that time, constructed new scraping machines which differed
from the others in having additional springs for the cutters
and pistons. These scrapers consist of an iron rod to which are
attached two pistons and two sets of cutting tools, one in front
of the other. The cutters aire each made up of four strips of
steel 2^ inches broad, sloping -backwards from the rod, and at
their outAvard termination sharpened like the barbs of an arrow,
thus they can yield when necessary and the cutting diameter can
be altered by moving the steel strips. The pistons are of iron,
lead and leather to which are added rubber springs. All the
main supply pipes were cleaned in that year at an average cost
of 2 8-10 cents per lineal foot. The immediate results were
that the average pressure on twenty-five hydrants on the
wharves increased from 34.2 pounds in February, 1881, to
52.4 pounds in February, 1882. These were on the low service.
On the high service there was a pressure of 19 pounds on
hydrants where in the previous year there had been no water
at all. The pipes have been cleaned periodically since that
date and usually twice a year.

In cleaning the mains the water is turned off at the gate-
house and the exit opened and pipes emptied. A section of
pipe, jointed with collars and bolted together, is removed and

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTOX. 109

the scraper inserted by Land into the main. The piece taken
out is thdn replaced and secured. The water is turned on,
and by its power forces the scraper along. As it passes the
exits they are turned off by men stationed there, and the scraper
continues its course to the end of the main where a
length of pipe has been removed. A sufficient quantity
of water escapes through the valves ahead of the scraper to
wash the incrustation removed and keep it from sticking. The
water is allowed to run for some time until the sediment dis-
appears, wyhen it is shut off and the length of pipe inserted
again and the water turned on to the distribution pipes. The
average cost of cleaning the 24-inch low service mala for the
past twenty years has been 15.07 for each cleaning of 13,400
feet, and of cleaning the high service main $18.80 for each
cleaning of 36,340 feet. Between 1882 and 1904, both inclu-
sive, there has been cleaned 223 miles of mains at a total cost
$732.07, or at an average rate of $3.28 per mile.

Distribution Mains.

The pipes in the distribution system are of cast iron, all
those laid since 1855 being coated, and those 6-inch and over
laid before 1890 having mostly wooden joints. They range
in size from 3 inches to 24 inches in dameter, the mains to the
hydrants being, Avith few exceptions, taken from a 6-inch pipe
or larger. Some of the old 3-inch mains lately removed and
replaced with larger pipes, when cut, were found to be so
choked that there was barely room to insert a lead pencil
through the opening. These were old, uncoa.ted pipes and the
metal had deteriorated badly. The mains are generally laid
on the north and east sidles of the streets, with valves set in
line with the street lines. Iron pipes with sleeves, were first
used for stopcock boxes about 1862, before that wood had been
used. The valves used for letting the high service into the low
for purposes of fire protection are kept clear from ice and snow
during the winter.

110 HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

In 1905 there were 69.68 miles of mains and distribution

pipes, and 804 valves.

Hydrants.

There were 424 hydrants in use at the end of 1904. A
large number of these are of an old style set in a brick-well
or chamber below the sidewalk inside the curb. The chamber
is covered with a cast-iron plate, provided with a hatch, by which
access is gained to the bottom of the hydrant where it joins the
branch from the mains. This arrangement, while admitting
of the easy removal of the hydrant, is objectionable on account
of the difficulty and expense in keeping the valves free from
ice, and the large iron plate becoming smooth and dangerous
to pedestrians. These hydrants are gradually being replaced
by a hydrant of a special pattern. The main valves and guide-
rod, which also forms the waste valve, are similar to the
Matthews' hydrant. A brass and leather attachment to the
valve rod forms the waste valve. There is a waste hole bored
in the center of the flange in the stand pipe against which this
valve works. The hole was formerly at the bottom of the hy-
drant, but owing to the difficulty of reaching it, it has in the
later patterns been placed in the side. The main screw of the
valve rod is protected from the action of frost and water by a
partition and stuffing box. The frost jacket is securely bolted
to the iron seat, and when once set need never be removed.
It forms ain air chamber which prevents the frost from reach-
ing the valve. A third nozzle is added to take the suction
hose of the fire engines. The hydrants are examined and
opened twice a day by the employees of the water department
all through the winter.

Service Pipes.

When the city took over the works in 1861, only about one
quarter of the number of families on the line of pipes were
supplied with water directly by service pipes to their houses,
the remainder obtaining their supply from the free domestic
hydrants paid for by the city. These service pipes were in all
cases f inch cast iron pipes connected to the distribution mains

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON. Ill

by spigots cast on the latter. When on the assumption of control
of the works by the city, a general assessment was levied to
provide the funds necessary to maintain them, all ciltizens on the
line of pipes applied for service pipes to their properties. There
had been considerable doubt in the minds of the directors
of the water company as to the material to be used for service
pipes, and in 1846 they asked Mr. Jarvis for a report as to the
merits of tin-lined lead pipes for this purpose. He replied
that three-quarters of the service pipes used in New York at
that time were common lead pipes, and adds that there was
considerable discussion then going on as to the kijurious effects
of lead pipe on water. He had no doubt they injured a pure
water, but that the length is so short that no material influence
is produced. However, the water company, as before stated,
laid all service pipes of cast-iron. The commissioners of water-
supply decided to use lead pipes, and during their first year in
office they laid over 6^ miles of lead service pipes to supply
water to 1,058 takers. A large number of these were renewals
as the old f inch iron pipes were found to be badly choked
and corroded. Since that time all services have been lead pipes.
While Halifax water is a very soft water, and as such, from
general observation elsewhere, should be injuriously affected by
lead pipes, such has mot been the case, the experience being
that after a short time a film or layer of sedimentary deposit
forms over the surface of the pipe which prevents the water
coming in direct contact with it. ~No cases of lead poisoning
from using the water have been reported since the intro-
duction of lead pipes for services in 1861. Under the regu-
lations of the water department, each building is entitled to
one J inch service pipe laid at the department's expense from
the main to the street line. In the event of a larger pipe being
required the difference in cost is paid for by the person desir-
ing the same. In the winter of 1882-3 a very large number of
underground leaks were discovered and were found to result
from the service pipes being severed at the connection with the

112 HALIFAX WATER WORKS. JOHNSTON.

main. The gas company had the same trouble during this
winter, and the city engineer at the time suggested that the
only cause of this could be from shock of earthquake felt on the
peninsula on the 31st December, 1882. Subsequent to the
explosion of the Acadia Powder Company's works at WaVerley
(about 12 miles from Halifax) on the 1st January, 1905, the
gas company had the same trouble with a number of their
service pipes, especially on Coburg Road and in that vicinity,
but the water pipes escaped injury.

At one time in the history of the works eels were a constant
annoyance in choking service pipes, but latterly it is quite
rare to have any bother from this cause. An exception to this
was in 1896, when owing to the danger of ice blocking the
screens a;t thle pipe house they were removed, and the following
spring there were several complaints of service pipes being-
choked by eels.

The total number of service pipes laid up to the first of
January, 1904, was 6,939.

Consumption and Waste.

In January, 1906, three Venturi meters were received from
the makers, to measure the quantity of water flowing into
the city. One of them the 15-inch, was installed, and
it was hoped that results would have been obtained before
the reading of this paper, but owing to delav in sending the
registering apparatus no records have as yet been obtained.*

* The Venturi meters having been set and put in operation during the period
between the reading of this paper and its publication, the exact consumption has
been obtained, and this note is added giving the revision of the figures in accord-
ance with the information thus gained. For the 24 hours ending at 1 p. m. on the
6th December, 1906, the following quantity of water passed through the meters : —
Through the 14" meter 2,291,500 gallons.
24" " 4,492,500
26" " 4,586,000

Making a total of 11,370,000 imperial gallons flowing into the
city. This would give a consumption of 140 gallons per day per consumer on the
high and 477 gallons per consumer per day on the low service, or an average of 321
gallons per day per consumer, or taking the whole population of the city, an average
consumption of 277 gallons per capita per day. The figures given in the body of
the paper were conservatively estimated, and while startling enough, were consider-
ably below the actual results, which are unequalled by any other city of which the
writer has any knowledge.

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. JOHNSTON. 113

The Venturi meter is different in principle, design and opera-
tion from the water meters generally nsed for measuring water,
it consists of two truncated cones of cast-iron, joined at the
smallest diameter by a short throat lined with brass having
a diameter varying in different meters from one-quarter to
one-half of the diameter of the large ends of the cones, the
three parts making what is known as the meter tube. At the
up-stream end and at the throat small holes are drilled into
the tube, from which pipes are carried to the register. The
operation of the meter is due to the fact that when water is
flowing through the tube the pressure at the throat is less than
at the up-stream end, and that the difference in pressure is
dependo.it upon the quantity of water flowing through the tube.
The differing pressures at the up-stream end and throat of the
meter tube are transmitted through small pipes to the register,
which can be located at any convenient point within 300 to 400
feet of the tube. Li the register the differences of pressure
affect a column of mercury which carries a float. The
position of the float is thus made dependent upon the quantity
of water passing through the meter ; and by suitable mechanism
the quantity is recorded by a counter, and the rate of flow at
intervals of ten minutes is recorded upon a chart, so that the
fluctuations in the flow throughout each day can bo observed.
Although the pressure at the throat of the meter is often several
pounds less than at the inlet or up-strearn .end, the lost pressure
is almost all regained by the time the water reaches the outlet
end of the tube, so that the net loss of pressure caused by the
meter is seldom more than one pound under ordinary con-
ditions of use. The meters in Halifax are set on a by-pass so
as not to interfere with the operation of the scraper in cleaning
the mains.

As there has been no direct means of measuring the water
used it has had to be estimated by finding out the loss of
pressure by friction in the pipes by gauges placed on hydrants
ni, different points, and to estimate the co-efficient to use

PROO. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., You XII. TRANS. 8.

114 HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

in the Chezy formula. In a report 011 the water system of St.
John, N". B., it was found, by experiment, that the co-efficient
to use there was 65. For new pipe this should be about 120,
so that the discharge from their 24-inch main laid in 1873
Avould be a little more than one-half that of a new pipe. The
24-inch and 15-inch in Halifax have been cleaned regularly
twice a year for some time, although the usual fall cleaning
was omitted last year on account of the lowness of the water
in the lakes ; but from an inspection of the condition of the
pipes where cut this yearj the above co-efficient of 65 is con-
sidered much too low for the mains of the Halifax water-
works system, and 80 would be nearer the mark, although this
is considered a .minimum. However, assuming 80 to be
applicable, the amount of water flowing into the citv on the
8th of January, 1906, was 3,288,600 gallons through the 24-
inch main, 4,294,000 gallons through the 27-inch main, and
1,600,000 gallons through the 15-inch main, or a total of
7,582,600 gallons for the low service and 1,600,000 for the
high, or 9,182,600 for the whole city. The day was mild and
there had been but little frost for some days previously. There
are 19,000 consumers 011 the low service and 16,400 on the
high. This would mean an average consumption for all the
water takers of 260 gallons per capita per day, or 399 gallons
per capita on the low service and 98 gallons per capita on the
high.

Our population as given by the last four census returns is as
follows : —

1871 29,582 1881 36,100

1891 38,437 1901 40,332

The figures for per capita consumption were given for the
actual number of consumers. The better and usual practice is
to give the per capita consumption for the total population as
there may be some industries using large quantities of water,
the employees of which may not be using water for domestic
purposes. The figures given above would show a consumption

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON. 115

for the entire population (assuming it to be 41,000) of 224
gallons per capita per day. From exhaustive investigations
undertaken by the Metropolitan Water Board of Massachusetts,
the conclusion arrived at was that a liberal supply for domestic
purposes is 25 gallons per day, for manufacturing, mechanical
and trade use 23.5 gallons, and for public use 7 gallons,
making a total of 55.5 gallons per capita per day. Taking
these figures as being applicable to Halifax, the consumption
should be 2,275,000 gallons per day, which means that
6,907,680 gallons per day are being wasted. The average
daily consumption through 144 meters an dwelling houses of
various values in the city amounts to 105 gallons for each ser-
vice pipe. Allowing five persons to a family, this would give
21 gallons per capita per day, which agrees practically with the
amount stated above as being a fair and liberal allowance for
domestic use. Another proof that the figures of the daily con-
sumption are under estimated, is the fact that during the past
year 011 the low service supply over 1,000 million gallons of
storage was used up during 155 days which would equal 6,500,-
000 gallons per day.

If 60 gallons per capita per day be assumed as a fair allow-
ance, it follows that at least 170 gallons per capita per day
brought into the city is wasted either through leaks in the mains
or water pipes and fittings in private premises. There is no
doubt considerable leakage from the mains, particularly on the
low service where so many of them are laid with wood joints;
and a number of them are laid through or near old drains and
sewers, so that the leaks do not show at the surface but the
water runs off through drains. In Milton, a small town in
Massachusetts, where all the services are metered and where the
total quantity of water supplied is measured, and there are 35
miles of pipe laid, the leakage from the mains amounts to about
3,600 gallons per day per mile of pipe. In Fall Eiver it
amounts to 10,000 gallons per day per mile of pipe, although
in their case they have only 96 per cent, of their services

116 HALIFAX WATER WORKS.— JOHNSTON.

metered, and the consumption for the other 4 per cent, is
estimated; and in seven cities having over 86 per cent, of the
services metered the amount of water unaccounted for varies
from 3,500 to 23,000 gallons per mile per day (these amounts
are in United States gallons). Waste from pipes and fittings
on the premises of water takers is due to defective plumbing or
to negligent or wilful waste in allowing the water to run from
the taps. In a house with modern plumbing the chief cause of
waste is from a leaky ball-cock in the tank supplying fixtures.
In one instance a meter was put on a pipe supplying a closet
where the valve in the flushing cistern was worn and did not
fit its seat properly. The waste was but a trickling stream, but
the consumption was 1,073 gallons a day, while after the valve
was repaired it was reduced to 43 gallons. In other houses
closets supplied with hopper-cocks are the chief cause of waste.
There are at present about 450 of these in use in the city. In
1891 a test was made on nine of these closets, and applying the
results then obtained there would be a waste from this source
alone of three-quarters of a million gallons per day. During
the cold weather an enormous amount of water in the aggregate
is allowed to run to prevent pipes freezing. As up to the
present there has been no means of accurately measuring the
water supplied to the city, this amount cannot be stated in
gallons; but the pressure at night at the various permanent
gauges throughout the city drops from five to ten pounds below
that of the day time. The modern method of controlling waste
is to supply each taker through a meter, so that each consumer
pays only for the water used. There were on May 1st, 1905,
6,939 service pipes, of which 5 per cent, were metered. In
October, 1905, when owing to the small rainfall there was
danger of the supply becoming exhausted a house to house
inspection by the police was ordered, and wherever a'ny leaky
fixtures were found the water was turned off and only turned
on again when repairs had been made and on payment of a fine.
The immediate result of this was a gain of eleven pounds

HALIFAX WATER WORKS. — JOHNSTON.

117

pressure all over the city, notwithstanding there was a loss of
3^ pounds owing to the lowness of the lakes. This in con-
junction with the fact of the pressure lower ing at night would
seem to prove conclusively that the waste from the mains bears
a very small proportion to that from negligent and wilful waste.
The following table of the data of the consumption of water
of eleven cities about the size of Halifax gathered from late
reports is here inserted to enable a comparison, to be made, and
also to show the effect meters have on the consumption of water.
It will be noticed that the average consumption of those cities
having over 50 per cent, of their services metered is 41 United
States gallons, and those under 50 per cent. 91 gallons, or 50
and 197 imperial gallons per capita respectively:

,

CONSUMPTION.

u -T3

8

TOWN.

c — :
•2.2

* 8

'- 0

o|

II

1

2
g

e8 O,

Ji

1 8

5

.

II

SI

1*5

|

rS4

•§)

&

55 A

5S

£

&

37,800

90

36

\Voonsocket

34,474

86 7

28

Newton

35,400

86

54

Maiden

36,900

6,700

63 4

8°

47

25

Haverhill

37,200

10.

95

Waltham

24 550

6

99

Quincey .

26,800

4,850

3 I

83 7

39

57

Salem

36 250

3

79

Everett .

28-,()00

4 670

42

81

55

Chelsea

35 000

6 251

2

38 7

94

Halifax

35,400

6,939

5!

69.6

260

Financial.

The rates are levied from four sources, — meter, fire protection,
domestic and special.

The meter rates, vary from 15 cents to 7 cents per 1,000
gallons by a sliding scale, depending on the quantity of water
used per day. A meter rental is charged on all meters except

118 HALIFAX WATER WORKS. JOHNSTON.

those on domestic supply. The consumer pays only for the
actual quantity used, a'nd there is no minimum rate for this
class of consumer. The fire protection rates are levied on the
assessed value of all lands and premises and are paid by all
classes of consumers.

The domestic rates are levied on the assessed value of
properties and also on the number of fixtures, the minimum
rate for fire and domestic purposes being $4.00 where no meter
is on the premises.

Water is supplied to the military and naval properties and
the Intercolonial railway under special agreements, in the
former cases at so much per fixture and in the latter by actual
measurement of water consumed, with a lump sum added for
fire protection. ~No mains are extended in the distribution
system unless a bond is executed guaranteeing the interest at
5 per cent, on the actual outlay required. This business-like
method of making extensions has been the means of assuring
the revenue keeping pace with the expenditure. The following
statement shows the amount of the funded debt and annual cost
of maintenance in five year periods since the city took over the
w^orks.

I860 Funded
1865
1870
1875
1880
1885
1890
1895

1905

Debt, £ 71,900 — Thecc
$ 640,000 - Nova
669,653.33— Domii
740,973.33
740 973.33 - Maint
740,973.33
633,906.48
990,266 67
1,056,600.00
1.056600.00

st of the works, £56,000 paid for this year
Scotian currency,
lion currency.

enance $55,496.46
58,605.76
66534.96
65,894.91
69,252.38
83,511.77*

Includes cost of renewing old 3-inch mains with 4-inch mains.

FUNGI OF NOVA SCOTIA : FIRST SUPPLEMENTARY LIST. — BY
A. H. MACKAY, LL. D., F. R. S. C., HALIFAX.

Read llth December 1905 ; revised to November 1907.

This list is the first supplement to the " provisional list "
presented to the Institute on the 8th December, 1902 — three
years ago — a'nd published in the Transactions, vol. xi, page 122.
My colleagues contributing to this list are (1) , Mr. E. K.
Gates, M. A., of Middleton, Annapolis county [in 1907, doing
post-graduate work at Chicago University] ; (2) , Mr. Clarence
L. Moore, M. A., of Pictou Academy [at present, 1907,
principal of county academy and public schools, Sydney]
and formerly a* post-graduate student in Johns Hopkins
University; (3), Miss Minnie C. Hewitt, science teacher in
the Lunenburg Academy; and (4), Mr. W. P. Fraser, B. A.,
science master in the Pictou Academy (last collection in
1906). The list is not large, and some of the determinations
may be inexact, but it is hoped that the annual publication of
new species found will stimulate these and our other students
of the fungi to more energetic and systematic exploration and
study of the species indigenous to the province.

It is also expected that the corps of workers now taking
an interest in our fungi will, before long, enable us to correct
any wrong determinations, if there are any, in this a'nd in the
provisional list of 1902. The nomenclature will then be revised
so as to keep in touch with the most modern classification, and a
new and more complete list be published. In the meantime,
the general order and nomenclature of M. C. Cooke , which
were followed by our earliest fungologists and by the pro-
visional list, will generally govern the order and nomenclature
of this supplementary list as far as convenient. The author-

(119)

120 FUNGI OF NOVA SCOTIA. MACK AY.

ities are noted in the usual manner by their condensed initials ;
RRG, CLM, MCH, WPF, and AHMK.

Species Not Reported in the " Provisional List/'

Amanita frostiana Pk. Point Pleasant Park, Halifax,
AHMK. Middleton, BEG. Poisonous. It approaches in
appearance A. muscaria, but is much smaller. Lunenburg,
MCH. New Glasgow, WPF .

A. rubescens Pers. Point Pleasant Park, Halifax,
AHMK. Commo»n in woods, Middleton. Said to be edible;
but eve;n the expert should use caution if experimenting with it.
It is distinguished from the other Amanitas by the reddish
color which suffuses the stem and other parts when bruised,
ERG. New Glasgow and West River, Pictou county, WPF.

A. flaviconia Atkinson. New Glasgow, WPF.

Lepiota cristata A. & S. Lunenburg, MCH.

L. granulosa Batsch. Lu'nenburg, MCH.

L. illinita Fr. Lunenburg, MCH.

Armillaria robusta A. & S. Middleton, edible, RRG.
Lunenburg, MCH.

A. viscipedes Pk. Lunenburg, MCH.

A. ponderosa Pk. ( ?). Lunenburg, MCH.

Tricholoma schumacheri-^T. Middleton, RRG.

T. imbricatum Fr. Lunenburg, MCH.

T. virgatum Fr., var. acutum. Middleton, RRG.

T. brevipes Bull. Lunenburg, MCH.

T. albobrunneurn Pers. Middleton, RRG.

Clitocybe ectypoides Pk. Middleton, RRG.

C. ochropurpurea Berk. Middleton, edible, RRG.

C. fumosa Pers. Lunenburg, MCH.

Collybia butyracea Bull. Middleton, edible, RRG.

C. acervatus Fr. Lunenburg, MCH.

Pleurotus peMoides Bull. Lunenburg, MCH.

Mycena la! i folia Pk. Middleton, edible, RRG.

FUNGI OF XOVA SCOTIA. — MACKAY. 121

M. leaiana Berk. Middleton, REG.

Omphalia campanella Batsch. New Glasgow, WPF.

Pluteus cervinus Shaeff. New Glasgow, WPF.

Clitopilus micropus Pk. Middleton, rare, RUG.

Pholiota caperata Pers. Middleton, edible, RRG.

P. squarosoides Pk. Lunenburg, MCH.

Hebeloma glutinosum Lind. Lunenburg, MCH.

H. crustulini forme Bull. Lunenburg, MCH.

Galera tenera SchsefT. Lunenburg, MCH.

Stropharia ceruginosa Curt. A group of this species was
found in October of 1904 near the door steps of the house
of Mr. Watson Bishop, in Dartmouth. It was remarkable
on account of its more or less azure-blue green color, due
to the colored slime mainly, for the ground color was more or
less yellowish. Its spores were purple tinged. This fall only
very small caps developed in the same spot, presumably on
aocou'n.t of the unusually dry autumn season, AHMK.

8. stercoraria Fr. Dartmouth Park, Halifax Co., AHMK.

Hypholoma perplexum Pk. Halifax and Dartmouth,
AHMK. Middleton; "From H. sublateritium it is distin-
guished by its usually smaller size, more slender hollow stem,
the yellow-greenish and purplish tints of the gills, and the
absence of a bitter flavor;" C. H. Peck, Memoir, N. Y. State.
Museum, No. 4, vol. 3, Nov. 1900, RRG. Lunenburg, MCH.

Cortinarius cinnamomeus Fr. , var. semi-sanguineus Fr.
Middleton, edible, RRG.

PaxiUus involutus (Batsch) Fr. Middleton, edible, RRG.

P. atro-tomentosus (Batsch) Fr. New Glasgow, WPF.

Hygroplwrus pudorinus Fr. Middleton, RRG.

H. fuligineus Frost. Middleton, edible although exceed-
ingly glutinous. Common in woods, especially under pines
after the autumn frosts, occurring with the following Middle-
ton species, RRG.

H. limacinus Fr. Lunenburg, MCH.

122 FUNGI OF NOVA SCOTIA. — MACK AY.

H. flavodiscits Frost. Middleton, edible, REG. Lunen-
burg, MCH.

H. distant Berk. Lunenburg, MCH.

H. puniceus Fr. Halifax, AHMK. Lunenbur^, MCH.

H. coccineus Schseff. Lunenburg, MCH.

Lactarius scrobiculatus Scop. Middleton, RRG.

L. aurantiacus Fr. Middleton, RRG.

L. deceptivus Pk. Middleton, edible, RRG.

L. theiogalust (Bull) Fr. Middleton, edible, RRG.

L. volemus Fr. New Glasgow, WPF.

L. hysginus Fr. Middleton, edible, RRG.

L. chelidonium Pk. New Glasgow, WPF.

L. pallidus Fr. Dartmouth, AHMK.

Russula foetens Fr. Middleton. Has a heavy empyreu-
inatic odor, RRG. Pictou county, WPF.

R. brevipes Pk. Lunenburg, ^ICH.

R. flavida Pk. Lunenburg, MCH.

R. variata Ba'nn. Purple capped Russula, Dartmouth,
AHMK.

CratereUus caniliarellus (Sclnv.) Fr. Dartmouth, AHMK.

Marasmius cohcerens (Fr.) Bres. Pt. PI. Park^ Halifax,
AHMK.

Boletinus porosus Pk. On new made lawn, New Glas-
gow, WPF.

Boletus piperatus Bull. Common in open fields, Middle-
ton, RRG. New Glasgow, WPF.

B. scaber Fr., var. fuligineus. Middleton, edible, RRG.
var. fuscus, Lunenburg, MCH.

B. ornatipes Pk. Middleton, edible, RRG.

B. subglabripes Pk. Middleton, RRG.

B. versipellis Fr. Common, New Glasgow, WPF.

B. salmonicolor Frost. Dartmouth, spores, 8-9 microns
x3. AHMK.

B. rubinellus Pk. Under conifers, New Glasgow7, WPF.

FUNGI OF NOVA SCOTIA. — MACKAY. 123

B. unicolor Frost- Lakes, Dartmouth, AHMK.

B. peckii Frost, var. Iwvipes. Pt. PI. Park, Halifax,
AHMK.

B. exiniius Pk. Point Pleasant Park, Halifax, AHMK.

B. conicus Eav. Spores 12 x 4 microns, Dartmouth,
AHMK.

B. affinis Pk. Waverley, Halifax county, AHMK.

B. purpureus Fr. Dartmouth, AHMK.

B. bovinus L. Lunenburg, MCH. Dartmouth, AHMK.

Polyporus (fomes) ribis Fr. On the bases of old red cur-
rant bushes, Dartmouth, AHMK.

P. Jiispidoides Pk. On dead trunks of Pivea. New Glas-
gow, WPF.

P. scliweinitsn Fr. Dartmouth, AMHK. Lunenburg,
MCH. (Phceolus sistotremoides Murrill.)

Hydnum cyathiforme Schseff. Common near Pictou town,
in thickets of spruce and fir, CLM.

H. scabrosum Fr. Lunenburg, MCH.

H. graveolens subzonatum Pk. Middleton, KRG.

Plnosodon fennicits (Karst.) Hennings. On the ground
under conifers. Merigomish, WPF.

Tremellodon gelatinosum Pers. A few specimens were
found on decaying firs or spruce lying on mossy ground in the
woods above Hartley's Waterfall, Pirate's Cove near Mulgrave,
Strait of Canso, Nova Scotia, o'a the 29th Sept., 1904. Dr.
G. U. Hay and AHMK.

The following descriptive note was made on the largest
specimen about 36 hours after collection, when it must have
shrunken considerable. Pileus white, opal-like, spatulate,
spines white, 500 by 600 microns long, 250 to 300 microns broad
at the base, from whiich they taper to the points which are dis-
tinctly recurved towards the stipe. Length of specimen 15mm,
breadth of the' fan-shaped frond 7 mm, and of the stipe 4 mm.
Spores 6 to 7 microns in diameter. The whole was shrinking

124 FUNGI OF NOVA SCOTIA. — MACKAY.

very rapidly while drying and becoming smoky brown and
opaque.

Clavaria pisiillaris Linn. Middleton, edible, RRG.

C. fusiformis Sow. Middleton, common, edible, RRG.

C. vermicularis Scop. Lu'rienburg, MCH.

C. ligula Schreff. Growing under conifers. French River
and New Glasgow, WPF.

C. mucida Pers. Growing on decaying log. New Glas-
gow, WPF.

Exidia glandulosa Fr. Middleto;n, RRG.

Dacromyces stillatus Nees. On railroad ties, Middleton,
RRG. New Glasgow, WPF.

Phallus dcemonum Rumph. Lunenburg, MCH.

Bovista pila B. & C. Common, Pictou, WPF.

Ly coper don wrightii B. & C. Lunenburg, MCH.

Septoria acerina Peck. On leaves of Acer pensylvanicum,
New Glasgow, WPF.

8. oenotherce West. On leaves of Oenothera biennis, New
Glasgow, W7PF.

CoUetotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc. and Magnus)
Briosi and Cavara. On cultivated beans. New Glasgow,
WPF.

Phragmidium subcoriicium (Schrank) Wint. Common on
Rosa, New Glasgow, WPF. On Rosa blanda, Pictou, CLM.

Triphragmium clavellosum Berk. O'n leaves of Aralia
nudicaulis, New Glasgow and West River, WPF. Pictou,
CLM.

Gymnoconia interstUialis (Schlecht) Lagerh. Cceoma nitens
(Schw.). Sori form orange colored confluent patches on the
under side of the leaves of Ruhus strigosus. Pictou, CLM.

Coleosporium solidaginis (Schw.) Thum. On Aster
patens. Pictou, CLM.

Melampsora medusce Thum. On leaves of Populus gran-
didentata. The areas surrounding the sori become almost coal
black in color early in autumn. Pictou, CLM.

FUNGI OF NOVA SCOTIA. MACKAY. 125

Peridermium balsameum Peck. The aecidia are white,
arranged in two irregular rows on the under side of the leaves.
The whole leaf takes on a bleached appearance. I have only
found this species occurring at considerable altitudes. Pictou,
CLM.

Peridermium decolorans. Peck. On Picea rubra. Pictou,
CLM.

Peridermium elatinum (A. & S.) K. & S. On Abies
balsamea, causing the formation of " witches' brooms."
Pictou, CLM.

Puccinia suaveolens (Pers.) Rostr. Pictou, appearing
throughout spring and summer on the leaves and stems of the
Canada thistle. Affected plants appears very rarely to mature
seed if at all, CLM. On leaves of Carduus lanceolatus. New
Glasgow, WPF.

P. taraxaci Plow. On Taraxacum officinale. Pictou,
CLM.

P. coronata Corda. Common on leaves of Avena sativa.
Pictou and New Glasgow, CLM, WPF.

P. rubigo-vera (DC.) Wint. On leaves of Agropyron vul-
gare. New Glasgow, WPF.

P. orbicula Peck and Clinton. On Nabalus. New Glas-
gow, WPF.

P. menthce Pers. On Mentha. Piedmont Valley, WPF.
Pictou, CLM.

P. circcece Pers. On Circcea. French River and New
Glasgow, WPF. Saltsprings, Pictou, CLM.

P. cicutce Larch. On leaves of Cicuta maculata. Piedmont
Valley, WPF. Pictou, CLM.

P. asteris Duby. Common on Aster macrophyllum. West-
ville, WPF.

P. violce (Schum.) DC. Common on Viola. Pictou,
CLM and WPF.

P. claytoniata (Schw.) Syd. On Claytonia virginica.
Loch Broom, WPF.

126 FUNGI OF NOVA SCOT! A. MACKAY.

Puccinia acuminata Peck. The sori form cushion-like,
dark purple spots on the under sides of the leaves of Cornus
canadensis. On the upper side a corresponding depression
marks the position of the sorus. Pictou, CLM.

Puccinia sessilis Perse ( ?). On Maianthemum cana-
dense. Pictou, CLM.

Ustilago levis (Kellerman and Swingle) Magnus. On
Avena sativa, WPF.

U. nuda (Jensen) Kellerinaa and Swingle. Common on
Hordeum vulgar ef WPF.

Sphacelotheca hydropiperis (Schum.) DeBary. On
Polygonum sagittatum. Pictou and Piedmont Valley; WPF.

Entyloma lineatum (Cke.) Davis. On leaves of Zizania
aquatica. New Glasgow, W^PF.

Uromyces trijolii. (Hedw). Lev. On Trifolium pratensc
and T. repens. Pictou, CLM.

Uromyces caladii (Schw.) Farlow. On Ariscema tri folia.
New Glasgow, WPF. Saltsprings, Pictou, CLM.

Chrysomyxa pirolce (DC.) Host. Middleton; forming a
bright yellow coating on the under surface of the leaf of Pyrola
elliptica, REG.

Cystopus candidus (Pers.) Lev. Pictou, common on Cap-
sella Bursapastoris, CLM.

Uredo agrimGniw (DC.) Scliroet. Common on leaves of
Agrimonia eupatoria, WPF. Saltspriugs, Pictou, CLM.

Cercospora callow Peck and Clinton. On leaves of Calla
palusiris. New Glasgow, WPF.

C. leptosperma Peck and Clinton. On the leaves of Aralia
nudicaulis. New Glasgow, WPF.

Cladosporium herbarum (Per?.) Link/ On decaying fungi.
New Glasgow, WPF.

Sepedonium chrysospermum (Bull.) Fr. Common on
Boleti, (Conidial fetage of Hypomyces chrysospermus) , WPF.

Empusa muscce Cohn. Pictou, common everywhere on. the
house fly, more particularly during the autumn months, CLM.

FUNGI OF NOVA SCOTIA. — MACKAY. 127

Sporodina yrandis Link. Pictou and New Glasgow on
decaying Boleti, WPF.

Onygena equina (Wild) Pers. Growing on the hoofs of
horses. New Glasgow, WPF.

Sphcerotheca castagnei Lev. Collected at Pictou 28th
Aug., 1905, on Bidens frondosa ; and 21st Sept., 1905, on
Taraxacum officinale, CLM.

Phyllactinia suffulta (Beb.) Sacc. Pictou, 2nd Oct., 1905,
on leaves of Alnus.incana, CLM.

Uncinula salicis DC. Collected at Pictou, 15th Sept.,
1905, on species of Salix, probably discolor, CLM.

U. circinata C & P. Pictou, 10th Oc., 1905, on leaves of
Acer rubrum, CLM

Podosphc&ra oxyacantha. Pictou, on Spiraea salicifolia.
Noted on S. tomentosa, CLM.

Micro splicer a alni D. C. Pictou, very common on Lilac, the
mycelium appearing in July and spores maturing in August
and until late in the fall. Also common on Alnus incana, 2nd
Oct., 1905; and on Viburnum cassinoides, CLM. On leaves of
Syrinya rw/gwm, New Glasgow and Pictou, WPF.

Jl/". erineophila Peck. Collected near Saltsprings, Pictou
county, 10th August, 1905, on leaves of Fagus ferruginea
affected with leaf mites, CLM.

M. vaccinii (Schw.) Pictou, 3rd Oct., 1905, on Gay-
lussacia resinosa; 1st Oct., 1905, on Epigcea repens, CLM.

ErysipJie communis Wall Collected at Pictou, 29th Aug.,
1905, on Oenothcra biennis, Ranunculus acris, and R. repens,
CLM.

E. cichoracearum DC. Collected at Pictou, 23rd Sept.,
1905, on various species of Solidago, CLM.

E. galeopsides DC. Pictou, 10th Aug., 1905, inear Salt-
springs on Chelone ylabra. Common o^n this host in shaded
situations and on the lower shaded leaves of plants growing
closely together, CLM.

128 FUNGI OF NOVA SCOTIA.— MACKAY.

E. aggregata Peck. Collected at Pictou, 25th Aug., 1905,
Very common on the fertile aments of Alnus incana — as many
as two-thirds of them being affected over considerable districts.
Spores were forming at date of collection but were not mature.
Spores mature about May of the spring following. Alnus
viridis does not seem to be so susceptible to its attacks, CLM.

Helvetia crispa Fr. Middleton, RRG.

Geopyxis carbonaria (A. & S.) Sacc. Middleton, RRG.

Peziza vesiculosa Bull. Middleton, RRG.

Chlorosplenium ceruginosum Tul. Pictou county. Asco-
carps on rotting trunks of Fagus ferruginea, 3rd Sept., 1905.
Also on decaying Alnus incana. The fructification of this
species is said to be rather uncommon, CLM. Middleton, com-
monly occurring da rotten wood giving it a green color and mak-
ing it phosphorescent, RRG.

Exoascus robinsonianus Giesenhagen. Deforming 'Jie
bracts in the pistillate aments of Alnus incana. Very common,
WPF.

Elaphomyces cervinus (Pers.) Schroter. Pictou, under
beech trees; parasitized by Cordyceps ophioglossoides, CLM.
Subterranea'n at the base of pine stump, Pictou WPF.

Claviceps purpurea Fr. Pictou, on barley, 2 Oct., 1905,
GLM. On Agroyprum repens, New Glasgow, WPF.

Cordyceps ophioglossoides Ehr. Collected at Pictou, 23rd
Sept., 1905, growing in leaf mould under beech trees in a sub-
terranean fungus probably a species of Elaphomyces,, CLM.
Parasitic on E.. cervinus, Pictou, WPF.

Hypomyces riridis (Albertini and Schweinitz). Middle-
ton, rare. The same as H. luteo-virens. Identified by Prof.
W. G. Farlow, Cambridge, Mass., TJ. S. A. The host in this
case was not determined with certainty, but it appeared to be
Hygrophorus pudorinus Fr. The gill surface only was attacked,
becoming a dark green.

FUNGI OF NOVA SCOTIA. MACK AY. 129

Xylaria polymorpha Grevr. Pictou, collected in August and
September, and at Saltsprings. Appears-here to grow exclusive-
ly on rotting Fag-us fernujinea on, which it occasionally
becomes very abundant, CLM. Middleton, KKG.

Daldinia concentrica (Boltoin) Ces. and D'eNot. On dead
Ulmus americanus, New Glasgow, WPF.

Phyllachora graminis (Pers.) Fckl. On. Agropyrum repens
New Glasgow, WPF.

Dothidea pteridis Fr. On Pteris aquilina, near Yarmouth,
by Miss E. Chesley Allen, AHMK.

Dimerosporium collinsii (Schw.) Collected at Pictou
lOtb Sept., 1905, on leaves of Amelanchier canadensis. The
affected leaves frequently persist on the branches through, the
winter and spores mature in May of tiie following spring.

Podospora amphicornis Ell. Collected 10th Aug., 1905, on
rabbits7 dung at Saltsprings, Pictou county, CLM .

The Myxomycetes.

Mr. C. L. Moore, M. A., published in The Bulletin of the
Pictou Academy Scientific Association, Vol. L, 'No. 1, June,
1906, a list and general sketch of thirty-three species of
Myxomycetes, under the title, " The Myxomycetes of Pictou
County," Nova Scotia. A monograph of the Myxomycetes of
Pictou County by Mr. Moore, may appear soon in the
Transactions of the Institute ; so that there will be 'no advantage
in the enlargement of the present list to contain a reprint of the
list of 1906.

Species Previously Reported but Found in New Localities,

with Notes.

Amanita vaginata Bull. Amanitopsis vaginata (Bull)
Roz. Middleton, generally mouse colored, but often variable;
a yellowish brown form occurring in this vicinity; also the
deadly poisonous A. plialloides, common in woods, RRG.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XII. TRANS. 9

130 FUNGI OF NOVA SCOTIA. — MACKAY.

Lunenburg, MCH, and also verna, coesarea, and muscaria.
New Glasgow, vaginata, verna, and muscaria, WPE.

Armillaria mellea Vahl. Common on decaying stumps,
especially of coniferce, in the neighbourhood of Halifax, Pictou,
Middleton, AHMK and EKG. Lunenburg, MCF.

Tricholma equestre, sejunctum and columbeita. Lunenburg.
MCH.

Clitooybe laecata Scop. Common near Halifax. (Var.
stria tula) , Pictou and Middleton. Variable, not poisonous,
BRG and AHMK.

Clitocybe nebularis, candicans and multiceps. Lunenburg,.
MCH.

C. clavipes Pers. Shelburne, CSB. Middleton, REG.

C. infundibuliformis Schseff. Pictou, September, CLM.

Pleurotus serotmus Schrad. Edible. Middleton, RRG,
Truro, JMS. Pictou, AHMK. Lunenburg, MCH,

P. lignatilis Pers. Lunenburg, MCH.

Cottybia platyphylla and dryophila. Lunenburg, MCH. (7.
radicata, New Glasgow, WPF.

Mycena galericulata Scop. Lunenburg, MCH.

Omphalia umbellifera L. Lunenburg, MCH-

Pluteus cervinus Schdseff. Edible, Middleton; RRGr
Halifax, JS.

Naucoria pediades Er. Lunenburg, MCH.

PsallMa campestris, Stropharia semi-glob ata, and Hypho-
loma sublateritium. Lunenburg, MCH.

Psylocybe faynisecn P. Willow Park, Halifax, JS. Glace-
Bay, Cape Breton, N.S., R. A. H. MacKeen, M. D- This
latter species was identified by C. H. Peck, State botalnist, of
New York, to whom I referred it after receiving it with a
communication Containing the following information from
Dr. MacKeen: —

" Early this week I was called to attend three children
ranging in age from 3.5 to 4.5 years. The history I obtained
was practically the same in each case.

FUNGI OF NOVA SCOTIA. — MACKAY. 131

u The parents noticed a staggering gait, inability to talk,
and a tendency to laugh in a hysterical way. When I saw the
patients some time had elapsed from the appearance of the first
symptoms. There was a marked dilation of the pupils, flushed
face, inability to stand, restlessness, occasionally an idiotic
laugh. The appearance was one of intoxication. The children
lived some distance apart but had been playing in the backyard
when taken sick. There was practically nothing alarming as
pulse, temperature and respiration were normal. The whole
impression seems to have been made on the nervous system.

" The appearance was suggestive of belladonna poisoning,
but as there was no way of their obtaining that plant, we had
to look elsewhere. The mother of one patient handed me a
mushroom or toadstool which he had brought her, saying it was
'•good to eat berries." This looked like evidence of the
infant's having eaten of this fungus. The other children, I
learned subsequently, had been playing among the same fungi.
What puzzles me is that I have always understood this class of
poisons produced gastro-intestinal irritation, vomiting and purg-
ing. Not only were these symptoms absent, but it was ex-
tremely difficult to provoke vomiting. Happily, after a few
hours the symptoms passed away, leaving no after effects."

This description was written on the 21st of September,
1905, and a week or two later, Mr. Peck wrote as follows:

" The -specimens of mushroom ,sent are in my opinion a
small form of Psilocybe fcenisecii (Pers.) Fr., called the Mow-
ers' mushroom or Haymakers' mushroom. It is usuallv found
growing among grass in meadows, pastures or lawns. I have
eaten it when cooked and regard it as an edible species, having
never experienced any ill effects from it. It is not pleasant in
flavor when raw, and I would not think children Would eat
enough of it in the raw state to produce any ill effects."

This genus of fungi has purple-brown spores, but when old
is not easily distinguished from others of similar habit such as

132 FUNGI OF NOVA SCOTIA. — MACKAY.

Panwolns which is black spored, and Stropharm which is
reddish spored. The spores of the Glace Bay sDoeimens were
rather larger than the measurements given of Psilocybe by M.
C. Cooke; so that it may not be identical with the species
reported from elsewhere. Cook's measurements give the size
about 10 x 6.25 microns, while those of our species varied from
13 x 8 to 14 x 9 microns. Again, although the cooked fungus
might be -safe, the uncooked might be deleterious. In order to
stimulate the observation and recording of experiments on these
fungi I report some of the observations already made on the
genera referred to above. Of Panceolus campanulatus
Macllvane says :

" Mr. R. K. Macadam, Boston, Mass., informs me that he
has information of a case of poisoning by this fungus. * The
victim experiences dizziness, dimness of vision, trembling and
loss of power and memory. He recovered after simple treat-
ment, and was well inside 24 hours.7 A full account of this
case is to be found in i The London Medical and Surgical
Journal,' vol. 36, Nov., 1816. The poison acts as a sedative. I
have several times eaten of this fungus in small quantities,
because larger could not be obtained, and with no other than
pleasant effect. There does not appear to be any case of poison-
ing reported of it since 1816, which, considering the i'nquis-
itiveness of man, is singular. Caution is advised."

With respect to the nearly related species, Panceolus papi-
lionaceus, Macllvane says :

" The effects of eating this fungus are very uncertain. I
have seen it produce hilarity in a few instances, and other mild
symptoms of intoxication, which were soon over and with little
reaction. Many personal testings have been made without
effect. Testing upon others vary with the individuals. It is
not dangerous, but should be eaten with caution. Being of
small size, and not a prolific species, quantities of it are

FUNGI PF NOVA SCOTIA. — MACK AY. 133

difficult to obtain. Moderate quantities of it have no effect
whatever."

Of the reddish spored Stropharia, he says :
" The entire genus has been under a cloud. Writers upon
it assert some of its members to be dangerously poisonous. So
far as carefully tested by the writer (Macllvane) no doubtful
species has been encountered, and one (8. semiglobata) has
bee'n eaten by himself and friends since 1881, notwithstanding
its dangerous reputation."

It was Sowerby who drew attention to the above discussed
species as dangerous, and intimated that in one case it had
been fatal. A near relative of the Glace Bay species, Psylocybe
semilanceata,, a dark-purple spored agaric of the same general
appearance, has its spores nearly of the same size. And, accord-
ing to M. C. Cooke, a careful English authority, it has a
dangerous reputation, having been said to have proved fatal to
children when eaten raw. Macllvane says it is not deleterious
when cooked.

As there is much to learn yet about the effects of eating the
different species of our fungi, it is hoped that all well attested
experiences may be reported for publication and record. A
fatal case of poisoning was reported from the neighborhood of
Kentville the previous year; but the .species were not known.
The victim was an old man who had collected them for his sup-
per, which it is presumed he had often done before. The symp-
tons were those of Amanita poisoning, and the accidental
inclusion of one specimen in the collection would have been
sufficient to account for the results.

This case was thus described in a communication from W.
B. Moore, M, D., on the llth August, 1904:

" Mr. M., a f aimer age 62 years, came home from his work
late in the evening, apparently in good health, and very hungry.
On his way home he hastily gathered a lot of mushrooms, and
as hastily prepared them, with the assistance of his old wife

134 FUNGI OF NOVA SCOTIA. — MACKAY.

(no tfne else living in the house) for supper with meat, etc. He
ate them all, the old lady not partaking, and soo'n afterwards
developed marked symptoms of poisoning from an irritant and
depressing agent. There was severe pain and distress in
stomach and bowels, with vomiting and rapid exhaustion
accompanied by abdominal distension, drawn features and hag-
gard countenance with, clammy and cold skin, subnormal tem-
perature and cardiac failure, suppression of urine and paraly-
sis of bowels. Although eliminative and supportive measures
were used thoroughly it was impossible to prevent death, which
occurred in about 33 hours from the time he ate the supper —
apparently from paralysis of the heart from the effects of some
toxic agent.

" Ptomaines might produce a similar train of symptoms,
but there was no evidence to show that the food he ate had
undergone any decomposition likely to produce poiso'nous
alkaloids. I think the most reasonable assumption is that some
poisonous fungus was included in the lot he gathered, although
this cannot be proven as the fungi were eaten. The old lady
could not give a clear idea of the different kinds which might
have been present.

" I saw a somewhat similar case a few years ago, in which
the man recovered ; and in this case it was also impossible to
demonstrate the kind or kinds of mushrooms eaten. As I have
seen only these two cases during a period of more than twenty
years i'n general practice, in a community in which large quan-
tities of mushrooms are consumed, I assume that the poisonous
fungi are few and far between in this region of the province ;
for I think there is doubtless much carelessness among people
in the matter of selection."

Panceolus retirugis Fr. Edible, Middleto'n, RRG-. Anti-
gonish, JMS.

Panceolus campanulatus L. Luneinburg, MCH.

FUNGI OF NOVA SCOTIA. — MACK AY. 135

Coprinus comatus Fr. Middleton, RRG. Common
throughout the province, and one of the most valuable edible
species, AHMK. Lunenburg, MCH.

C. micaceus (Bull.) Fr. Middleton, RRG. New Glasgow,
WPF.

C. pttcatiUs Fr. Lunenburg, MOH.

Cortinarius violaceus (L) Fr. Middleton, edible with an
earthy flavor, RRG. Reported in " provisional list " from
other parts of the province, AHMK.

C. albo-violaceus and cinnamomeus. Lunenburg, MCH.

Lactarius resimus Fr. Middleton, rather common in pine
woods, RRG. Antigonish,JMS.

L. lignyotus Fr. Middleton, RRG. Pennant, Halifax,
JS. The " bright crimson surface resembling fine silk plush "
reported by Dr. John Somers and quoted in the " provisional
list " of 1902, has not been observed by any other collector,
and is supposed to be an accidental error.

L. vellereus Fr. Lunenburg, MCH.

L. piperatus Fr. Middleton, RRG.

L. subdulcis Fr. Middleton, extremely variable. RRG.

Eussula heterophylla Fr. Dartmouth, AHMK. Shelbutfne,
CSB. Lunenburg, MCH. Macllvane has eaten specimens
cooked repeatedly without harm. RRG.

R. adusta, depallens and alutacea. Lunenburg, MCH.

Cantharellus cibarius, aurantiacus and floccosus. Lunen-
burg, MCH ; cibarius, New Glasgow, WPF.

Panus stypticus Fr. Middleton, common on stumps, tastes
unpleasant in the throat, RRG. New Glasgow, WPF.

Schizophyllum commune Fr.^ Lunenburg, MCH. Middle-
ton, RRG. New Glasgow, WPF.

Lenzites sepiaria Fr. Middleton, RRG. Lunenburg,
MCH. L. abietina Fr. New Glasgow, WPF.

L. betulina Fr. Lunenburg, MCH.

136 FUNGI OF NOVA SCOTIA.— MACK AY.

Boletus caripes Kalchb. — (Boletinus pictus). Pt. PL
Park, Halifax, AHMK; also at New Glasgow, WPF.

B. clmtonianus, luteus, subluteus, edulis (claviceps). Lun-
enburo-, MCH; also at New Glasgow, americanus, granulatis ,
chrysanteron, chromapes and jelleus, WPF.

B. felleus Bull. Pt, PL Park, Halifax, spores 14-15 x 4
microns, AHMK.

Polyporus lucidus Fr. (Ganoderma tsugce Murrill).
Middleton, EKG. Lunenburg, MCH. New Glasgow, WPF ;
also picipesi.

P. sulphur eus Fr. Cow Bay, on decaying coniferous stump
Halifax county, AHMK.

P. albellus Pk. Middleton, KEG.

P. fomentarius Fr. Middleton, common, REG. Lunen-
burg, MCH. (CoUriria, Murrill). New Glasgow, WPF.

P. epileucus Fr. Lunenburg, MCH.

P. chioneus Fr. Middleton, EEG. Lunenburg, MCH.

P. applanatus Fr. Middleton, EEG. Lunenburg, MCH.
New Glasgow and Pictou, WPF.

P. circinatus Fr. Middleton, EEG. Lunenburg, MCH.

P. betulinus Fr. Middleton, common on birch, EEG. New
Glasgow, WPF.

P. elegans Fr. Lunenburg, MCH.

P. brumalis Fr. Middleton,EEG. Lunenburg, EEG.
New Glasgow, WPF.

P. perennis Fr. and cinnamomeus (Jacq.) Sac. Lunen-
burg, MCH. (Coltricia, Murrill). New Glasgow, WPF.

P. versicolor Fr. Polystictus versicolor, Middleton, very
common, EEG. Lunesaburg, MCH.

P. abietinus Fr. Lunenburg, MCH.

P. hirsutus Fr. Middleton. EEG. Lunenburg, MCH.
New Glasgow, WPF; also pinicola (Swartz) Fr., pergamenus
FT., cinnabariniis, ignarius and Favolus europceus.

FUNGI OF NOVA SCOTIA. — MACKAY. 137

Dcedalia confragosa P. Lunenburg, MCH. New Glasgow,
WPF ; also quercina and unicolor.

Hydnum imbricatum L. Middleton, KKG. New Glasgow,
WPF.

H. zonatum. Lunenburg, MCH.

//. repandum L. Middleton, ERG. Lunenburg, MCH.

Hydnum coralloides Scop. Mt. Thorn, Pictou Co., on
Fagus ferruginea, CLM. Lunenburg, MCH.

Stereum hirsutum Fr. Middleto'n, RRG.

Clavaria cinerea Bull. Middleton, RRG. Lunenburg,
MCH.

C. botrytis, cristata, rugosa and stricla. Lu'nenburg, MCH.

C. aurea Schseff. Dartmouth, AHMK.

Clavaria coralloides L. Pictou, September, on ground,
CLM.

Tremella lutescens Fr. Lunenburg, MCH.

Hirneola auricula-judce Pk. New Glasgow, WPF.

Cyanophallus caninus Fr. Lu'nenburg, MCH.

Lycoperdon gemmatum Fr. Middleton, RRG. Pictou,
LCH. Lunenburg, MCH. New Glasgow, WPF.

L. pyriforme SchseflF. Lunenburg, MCH.

Scleroderma vuigare Fr. Lunenburg, MCH. New Glas-
gow, WPF.

Crucibulum vuigare Tul. On decaying trunks of deciduous
trees, Pictou,CLM. New Glasgow, WPF.

Puccinia graminis Pers., Ustilago- tritici Jen,, U. avenceJen.
New Glasgow, WPF. Pictou, on wheat and oats, CLM.

"Ascophora mucedo Tode = Mucor mucedo L. = Rhizopus
nigricans Ehrenb. (The common black mould of bread, &c.).
Common, Halifax, Pictou, &c., AHMK, CHM, and WPF.

Morchella conica Pers. Middleton, RRG.

Gyromitra esculenta Fr. Middleton, common, May in
sandy soil under pines, and reputed poisonous, RRG. Dart-
mouth, AHMK.

138 FUNGI OF NOVA SCOTIA. — MACKAY.

Mitrula vitettina Sac., var. irregulare Pk. Near Dart-
mouth, AHMK. Pictou, CLM. Lunenburg, MCH.

Spaihularia velutipes Cook & Farlow. Middletoto, RRG.

Leotia lubrica Pers. Lunenburg, MCH.

Peziza badia P. Middleton, ERG.

Hypomyces lactifluorum (Schw.) Tul. Middleton, com-
mon, RUG. Pictou, common, CLM.

Scorias spongwsa (Schw.) Fr. Specimen growing on alder
found near Halifax by Mr. Harry Piers, within a few weeks
ago, reported previously from Bedford Range and Yarmouth.

TRANSACTIONS

Scotran Jnstitnte of <§dence.

SESSION OF 1907-1908

ON A SKELETON OF A WHALE IN THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUM,
HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA; WITH NOTES ON THE FOSSIL
CETACEA OF NORTH AMERICA. — BY GEORGE H. PER-
KINS, PH. D., Professor of Geology, University of Ver-
mont, State Geologist of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.

(Received for publication 29th July, 1908.)

Skeleton c-f a Whale from Jacquet River, New Brunswick.

Jn the- Transactions of the Nova Scotian Institute of
Science, vol. ii., pp. 400-404, 1873, Dr. J. Bernard Gilpin pub-
lished " Observations on some Fossil Bones found in New
Brunswick.'7 In course of a study of the fossil cetacea of
North America, the attention of the author was directed to the
above article, and learning that the bones described by Dr.
Gilpin were preserved in the Provincial Museum of Nova
Scotia, at Halifax, enquiries concerning them wene sent to Mr.
Hiarry Piers, the curator, and by his courtesy the specimens
were sent from Halifax in order that they might be carefully
studied and compared with the skeleton of the Vermont speci-
men with which the Canadian bones had been considered
identical.

The account written by Dr. Gilpin is brief and without
illustration, and he had no similar bones with which he could

PKOC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XIT. TRANS. 10

(139)

140 ON A SKELETON OF A WHALE IN THE

compare those in which he was especially interested. Hence it
will not, it is hoped, appear an unnecessary undertaking to give
a full description with illustrations of different bones, of this
very valuable and interesting specimen.

The bones described by Dr. Gilpin were found in a cutting
of the Intercolonial Railway on the Jacquet River, Bay de
Chaleurs, New Brunswick. " After cutting through about
twelve feet of sand and gravel a bed of clay was reached. In
this the bones were bedded." Numerous shells common in
Pleistocene deposits, as Saxicava, Mya, Macoma, occurred in
the clay.

There came to the writer from the Halifax museum twenty-
three bones, namely: two fragments of the basioccipital, both
scapulas, though considerably broken, one periotic, the sternum,
four dorsal vertebra?, five lumbar vertebra?, eight caudal ver-
tebrae. Dr. Gilpin mentions " a small portion of the atlas,
twelve fragments of the skull, about one half of a lower ja,w,
one humerus, radius, ulna, phalanx," in addition to those named
above. These bones appear to have been mislaid. At any rate
they were not among those which I received. All the bones-
are chalky, brittle, and more or less broken. Of the total skele-
ton, the following bones are represented :

The Periotic. — The left periotic is all that was found of
the ear bones. This bone has, as the lower figures on plate I
show, the usual irregular form. This can be better appreciated
by examination of the figures than by any verbal description.
It is shown in the figur.es of natural size.

No other bones of the head, except two fragments from the
base of the skull were among those sent. It is especially unfor-
tunate that more of the cranium was not found, for, as will
appear later, if we could have the front part of the rostrum
it would be easy to determine with absolute certainty at least
the genus of this specimen.

PROVINCIAL MUSEUM, HALIFAX, N. S. — PERKINS. 141

Vertebrae. — It should be noticed that plate II shows the
vertebrae that were sent, very much reduced, except one, that
would have been the last, accidentally omitted by the photo-
grapher, arranged as nearly as possible in their natural position ;
but as more than half of the series are missing, the order must
at best be much broken.

As will be seen, all are more or less imperfect as to the
processes. The centra are in very good condition. In only two
is the neural arch complete, and o'nly one neural spine remains.
The transverse processes, though badly broken, have fared
somewhat better, and! five or six of them are sufficiently whole
to indicate fairly well their original form. As would be
expected from the different form of the caudals, the above
remarks do not apply to the last three or four in the plate. No
cervicals have been seen a'nd the first four or five dorsals are
also wanting.

Dorsal vertebrae. — There are four dorsal vertebrae present.
That placed first is undoubtedly one of the anterior bones of the
series, but, as indicated, not one of the first. This is shown by
the evident carina on the under side.

As shown in the top figure, plate III, the neural arch is com-
plete, but the transverse processes are nearly gone. On plate
III, this and other vertebrae are shown about one-third natural
size. From comparison with skeletons of recent individuals, it
is inferred that this bone was about the fifth or sixth in the
dorsal series.

The body, or centrum, is- somewhat concave above and dis-
tinctly carinated below. It is, measured anteriorly, as are all
that follow, 60mm. (2f inches) wide, 52mm. (2 inches) high,
and 65mm. (2 9-16 inches) long. In this the neural canal is
much larger than in any of the vertebra that follow. It
is 48mm. (If inch) high, and 73mm. (2f inches) wide. The

142 ON A SKELETON OF A WHALE IN THE

ends of the centrum are nearly flat, the posterior slightly
concave.

The following vertebrae are probably nearer the end of the
series, as it appears that between first and second, in the figure,
three or four bones are wanting.

As the figures show, in the second vertebra, the neural arch
is quite destroyed, but the left transverse process is in very good
condition. The centrum is much heavier than in the first. Its
dimensions are: — length 72mm. (215-16 inches), width
65mm. (2^ inches), height 60mm. (2 5-16 inches), neural
canal 70mm. (2f inches) wide.

The transverse process is stout, much thickened at the end,
flat above, convex below. It is nearly perfect, and is 76mm.
(3 inches) long, 32mm. (1^ inches) wide next the centrum,
and 51mm. (2 inches) wide and 25mm. (1 inch) thick at the
end. This bone is shown in plate IV, upper figure. In the
third bone, which is probably the eighth or ninth dorsal, we
have perhaps the most complete of the series. The neural arch
and transverse processes are fairly complete, as the figures show.
The centrum of this vertebra is 61mm. (2| inches) high, 70mm.
(2f inches) wide, and 76 mm. (3 inches) long; the neural
canal is 37mm. high, and 57mm. wide. The left transverse
process, which is most complete, is 92mm. long. The last dorsal
in the specimen, fourth of 1st series of plate II, is perhaps the
eleventh. The centrum, especially beneath, has the characters
of the lumbars. It is 65mm. (2^ inches1) high, 70mm. (2J
inches) wide, and 82mm. (3J inches) long. The left transverse
process is quite complete, and shows all the features of that part
of the bone. It is 121mm. (4J inches) long.

Lumbar vertebrce. — In the absence of chevrons it is difficult
to determine the point where the lumbars pass into the caudals,
but five of the bones aire considered as lumbar. The bodies
lengthen and the vertical diameter increases towards the caudal

PROVINCIAL MUSEUM, HALIFAX, N. S. — PERKINS.

end. All have a strong inferior cariaa, but it decreases towards
the caudal end.

The first vertebra of the second set, plate IT, appears to
belong to the anterior portion of the series, third or fourth. The
centrum is 68mm. (2f inches) high, 71mm. (2f inches) wide,
and 85mm. (3f nches) long. As in all lumbars, the transverse
processes are, compared with the dorsal, thin 'and flat. All are
so broken that it is not possible to ascertain the length with
exactness.

The most typical cetacean lumbar is that shown in the third
figure from the top in plate IV. This is more perfect than the
other lumbars, and the left transverse process is nearly complete.
It is the only process that shows the widened ends found
normally in all these vertebrae. This was probably the third or
fourth in tha actual series. The measurements are as follows :
height of centrum 69mm. (2f inches), width 71mm. (2 13-16
inches), length 87mm. (3-J inches). The transverse process is
114mm. (4^ inches) long, and 60mm. (2f inches) wide at the
end. The length was originally slightly greater, as the end is
somewhat broken. In all cetacea the spines of the lumbars are
very long, and were these present in this specimen they would
give a different aspect to the series. The remaining lumbars do
not offer any essential differences. That which appears to be
the last, has the centrum rather more nearly circular, the width
being only a little more than the height, and the neural canal
is considerably less, its width being 35mm. (If inches).

Caudal vertebrae. — The eight remaining vertebrae are con-
sidered caudal. As the lower series, plate II, indicates, there
is much difference between the first and the last lower right hand
figure, plate IV. The wHole series of caudals, except one as
stated before, is shown in plate II, lower series. If there were
originally twenty-six caudals, of course this series must be very
incomplete.

114 ON A SKELETON OF A WHALE IN THE

As we have them, the changes may be in some measure
noted by a study of the bodies which increase in size to the
fourth of the series, ,and then suddenly decrease. There are
evidently several vertebrae missing between the third and fourth
vertebrae, plate II.

In the third the body is larger than in any other of the whole
series. Here also the spine has an entirely different form from
that found in the preceding bones. It is not only shorter, and
relatively broader, but, as may be seen in plates II and IV, there
are short, blunt metapophyses. The centrum here has a height
of 87mm. (3^ inches), a width of 83mm. (3J inches), and a
length of 95mm. (3f inches). The neural canal, however, is
reduced to a width of only 10mm., or a seventh of that in the
first vertebra mentioned. The transverse processes are also
reduced to mere ridges, and they soon grow so small as to be
hardly noticeable, and in the last have nearly disappeared.

As seen, though not as distinctly as might be desired, there
is a backward projection from the spine in h so that the whole
ridge, rather than process, is as long as the body. In the caudal
last on plate IV, the body is nearly circular. None of the button
or discoid vertebrae, such as always form the final portion of the
tail, are present. Apparently, there should be at least twelve
after the last shown in plate II. The caudal that was acciden-
tally left out when the bones were photographed as seen in plate
II, is seen in the last plate IV.

As stated, there were probably twenty-six caudals origin-
ally. If twelve of the eighteen missing bones should come
after the last in plate II, then six should be placed between the
third and fourth of the last series in plate II, or at any rate in
that region.

Chevrons. — ~No chevrons were with the bones received from
the Halifax museum. In the plate of -the skeleton of Mono-
don, Van Benedea and Gervais (Osteograpliie des Cetaces)
there are fourteen chevrons.

PROVINCIAL MUSEUM, HALIFAX, N. S. — PERKINS.

145

When laid in continuous series, as in plate II, the ver-
tebrae measure 135 cent. (55 inches) in length. Of course this
leaves out .all intervertebral cartillages which would add
materially to the total ^length of the column. The whole of
the cervicals and the head are also to be added to complete the
original length.

As far as it has been possible to determine by comparison
with skeletons from recent specimens, the Halifax whale was
not far from twelve feet long when living. This corresponds
well enough with measurements of recent individuals. If this
specimen should be referred to Monodon, as I have little doubt
twelve feet would be a fair length for a medium-sized specimen.

The following table of measurements of the different ver-
tebrae will not be without interest to one who may wish to
make a thorough examination of the specimen. All the measure-
ments were made at the anterior face of each vertebra :

Measurements of the vertebrae of the Halifax whale.

Length of
body.

65mm

Width of
body.

DORSALS.

60mm.

Height of
body.

52mm.

Width of
neural canal.

73mm.

72mm

7 Omm.

60mm.

70mm.

7 6mm

70mm.

61mm

57mm.

82mm

70min.

65mm.

48mm.

85inm

LUMBARS.

7lrnm.

fiftmm

48mm.

87mm

7lmm.

\J O HI All,

69mm.

43mm.

90mm

73mm.

73mm

40mm.

90mrn

7^mm

i o 111111.

*7 4-m m

^7mm

93mm.

IS 111111.

76mm.

I Jlllllll.

75mm.

ft 1 111111.

35inm.

j 93mm. 78mm. 76mm. 32mm.

k 93mm. 81mm. 77mm. - 25mm.

1 94mm. 83mm. 77mm. 22mm.

m 95min. 87mm. 80mm. 10mm.

11 69mm. 85mm. 83mm. 10mm.

o 66mm. 77mm. 83mm. 8mm.

p 56mm. 65mm. 70mm. 5mm.

q 49mm. 62mm. 70mm. 4min,

143 ON A SKELETON OF A WHALE IN THE

In discussing individual vertebrae, many of the resem-
blances and differences existing between them have been
noticed. A few additional points may be mentioned.

The centra vary slightly from vertebra to vertebra. This
may be seen in plates III and IV, if different figures are com-
pared. It will be seen that the form changes as we pass from
the anterior dorsals back. This is better seen if the table of
measurements be examined. Here it will be found that the
length of the body increases from the. beginning back to the 13th?
of the series as given in plate II. The great diminution between
the 13th and 14th indicates that several bones are lacking, but
from the 13th the length of the body decreases rapidly, and had
we the final caudals, the shortening of the bodies would be still
more apparent. The width of the centra increase up to the same
vertebra, while the height increases beyond to the last but one,
and from here is a rapid decrease. That is to say, the centrum
of each vertebra is wider than high to and including the 14th of
the fossil series. In the next vertebra the width is considerably
less than the height, and so remains in the rest of the series.

The neural canal is largest at the beginning, top figure, plate
III. Here it is broadly oval, much wider than high, but in c,
which, unfortunately, is the only other vertebra in which both
height and breadth can be measured, until we go back nearly to
the end of the caudals, the width is reduced to from 73mm. to
57mm., and the height 73mm. to 38mm., and so on until in the
last caudal we have it only 4mm. wide and about the same in
height.

Sternum. — This bone is very thick and large, and, in the
fossil, spongy in texture. As plate I shows, its general out-
line is triangular. The segments are entirely anchylosed so
that 110 trace of sutures remains. Although the bone is not
perfect, as will readily be seen, still enough remains to supply
a fair indication of its complete form. Articular surfaces for

PROVINCIAL MUSEUM, HALIFAX, N. S. — PERKINS. 147

three ribs are plainly seen, but those for the remaining three
cannot be well made out. It is reduced one-half in plate I.

While on account of the condition of the bone, exact
measurements cannot be made, yet it may be well to notice that
as we have it, the total length is 229mm. (9 inches), width
across the upper end 191mm. (7J inches), width across the
articular spaces at the lower end, 83mm. (3-J inches), thickness
at the upper part 38inm. (1^ inches), average thickness rather
more than 18mm. (f inch). The whole bone is somewhat
curved longitudinally.

Scapula. — Both scapulas were preserved, but in a much
broken condition, so much so that the original form cannot be
made out. It is, however, most probable that these bones had
the same form as in recent specimens of Monodon. They
appear to have been thin and thus easily broken. A consider-
able part of the glsnoid cavity is present in each scapula.

Specific position. — In Dr. Gilpin's account of this speci-
men we find the following, " The fragment of the lower jaw so
exactly resembles the cut in Dana's Geology, of Beluga ver-
montana, as to hazard the conjecture that they are closely allied
if not identical." Students of anatomy do not need to be told
that this is very slight foundation for regarding the two speci-
mens as of the same or allied spscies. Dr. Gilpin's account
was published in 1873, and since then, the Halifax specimen
has bean assumed to be the same as Thompson's Vermont
specimen.

After the bones were received from the Halifax museum
they were compared with those of the Vermont specimen, and
it soon became evident that the two were in important respects
unlike. Had the Halifax specimen been as complete as is the
Vermont, it is certain that the differences would have been more
numerous and more marked.

Very fortunately, there is one periotic with each skeleton,
and thus we can compare what is probably the most important

148 ON A SKELETON OF A WHALE IN THE

bones of all for specific identification. Plates I and VIII
show these, and the dissimilarity must be (evident to anyone who
examines them with care.

The sternum in the Halifax whale also presents important
differences from that of the Vermont one, as plates I and VII
show. The various vertebrae in each skeleton present greater or
less differences.

It is perhaps unnecessary to go into a detailed comparison
of the two sets of bones. It will be sufficient if a few of the
more important points are mentioned.

As will be seen by comparing the sternums of the two
whales, there is a marked dissimilarity in the form. It should
be stated here that the two are not shown in the plates on the
same scale, hence this must be taken into account in comparing
them. The Halifax sternum is shown on plate I a little less
than half, exactly 4-9ths, natural size; while the sternum of
the Vermont whale, as shown in plate VII, is one-third natural
size. It will be noticed that the Halifax specimen is much
wider relatively across the top, and tapers more rapidly from
the top down, and it is thicker at the top than is the Vermont
specimen. The latter is probably longer ; but the lower end of
the Halifax bone is broken, so that its actual length cannot be
ascertained.

As to the more important bone, the peri otic, I am happy to
be able to quote the opinions of others who are much better able
to decide questions in cetacean anatomy than the author. After
examination of photographs of the Halifax periotic, Dr. F. W.
True wrote as follows: " As regards the Nova Scotia specimen,
I think that there is no doubt that it is not Delphinapterus, on
account of the shape of the periotic and short lumbar vertebrae.
Our skulls- of Monodon, unfortunately, are without the periotics
so that I cannot make comparisons of importance, but Van
Beneden's and Gervais' figures indicate a shape similar to that
shown in your photographs." Much to my regret I could not

PROVINCIAL MUSEUM, HALIFAX, N. S. — PERKINS. 149

show the actual bone to Dr. True, but at the time of my visit to
the American Museum in New York, I had the bone and was
able to leave it with Mr. Andrews, who later wrote concerning
it: "I have just finished a comparison of the periotic bone
which you sent with that of Delphinapterus leucas and of
Monodon monoceros. As soon as I looked at the periotic of this
specimen, it seemed to resemble very closely the corresponding
bone of Monodon. A comparison shows that in size and gen-
eral shape it agrees very much better with M. monoceros than
with D. leucas. In fact the whole shape of the bone is decidedly
unlike Delphinapterus. In order to verify my opinion, I
showed the specimen to Dr. W. D. Matthews, and he agreed
with me -that while there are some points of difference between
the periotic of this specimen and that of Monodon, yet it is
certainly closer to that genus than to Delphinapterus. Your
specimen, on the other hand, agrees well with Delphinapterus,
consequently it would seem to me unlikely that it and the Hali-
fax whale can be of the same species or even the same genus.
. . . . The tympanic and periotic are, so far as I am
aware, subject to less individual variation than any other bones
in the cetacean skeleton, a'nd the remarkable difference shown
in the Halifax whale would seem a pretty good ground for a
close examination of the species if it has been referred to Del-
phinapterus. Of course if you could see the rostrum of the
Halifax specimen and determine whether or not the upper
teeth were present, it would simplify matters very greatly, for
Moncdon has no teeth aside from the tusk." The above is, I
think, conclusive as to placing the Halifax specimen in the
genus Monodon.

Only a single living species of this genus is recognized by
any of the authorities. Whether the fossil specimen is to be
referred to the living speciese, or should -be placed in a species
by itself, cannot well be settled from the material in hand.
Undoubtedly, the fossil bo'nes are very much like corresponding

150 ON A SKELETON OF A WHALE IN THE

bones in the living species. I have compared them with speci-
mens in the American Museum at New York, and, while some
differences certainly do appear, yet it seems to me that 011 the
whole it would not be wise to create a new species where there
is so close similarity.

Nicholson and Lyddeker, Manual of Palaeontology, page
1307, say : " Remains of Narwhal, Monodon monoceros, are
found in the Norfolk Forest bed and the Pleistocene of
Alaska."

At present, Mcnodon has been, though rarely, taken as far
south as England. ' Monodon and Delvhinapterus are closely
allied species, and Flower, Trans. Zoological Society, London,
1886, placed thess two genera in a group, Beluginece, which
includes no others.

Notes on fossil cetacea of North America.

It may add to the value of this article if a few notes on
other fossil cetaceans are included. This is the more 'true
because nearly all the specimens of this order that have been
found have occurred in Canada. One of the most perfect
skeletons is that described by Thompson from Vermont, and,
with the possible exception of a few isolated bones, this is the
only specimen that has been found in the United States. The
following is, so far as I can ascertain, a list of all the specimens
thus far discovered:

I. — 1849. A nearly complete skeleton; Charlotte, Ver-
mont; Professor Z. Thompson. State Museum,
Montpelier, Vermont.

II. — 1858. Several caudal vertebrae; Mile-end Quarries,
Montreal ; Sir W. Logan. Museum of the Geological
Survey, Ottawa.
III. — 1864. A few bones ; Riviere du Loup, Ont. ; Sir J.

W. Dawson. Peter Redpath Museum, Montreal.
IV. — 1870. A nearly complete skeleton ; Cornwall, Ont. ;
Mr. E. Billings. Geological Survey Museum, Ottawa.

PROVINCIAL MUSEUM, HALIFAX, N. S. — PERKINS. 151

V. — 1874. A considerable portion of a skeleton; Jacquet
River, N. B. ; Dr. J. B. Gilpin. Provincial Museum,
Halifax, N. S.

VI. — 1883. A few vertebrae and fragment of a rib; Smith's

Falls, Out. ; Sir J. W. Dawson. Redpath Museum.

VII. — 1891. A portion of the lower jaw of a larare whale;

Metis, Quebec; Sir J. W. Dawson. Redpath Museum.

VIII. — 1895. A nearly complete skeleton; Smith's brickyard,

Montreal; Sir J. W. Dawson, Redpath Museum,

Montreal.

IX. — 1901. A hyoid, ribs and other bones ; Williamstown,

Out. ; Mr. E. Ardsley. Redpath Museum.
X. — 1901. Several vertebrae, ribs and parts of cranium;

Smith's brickyard, Montreal. Redpath Museum.
XI. — 1906. Most of the skull, several vertebrae; Pakenham,

Ont, ; Dr. J. F. Whiteaves. Not i'n a museum.
The following notes on the above specimens may not be
without value to those who have not ready access to the
skeletons themselves. With the exception of the Pakenham
specimen, the author has examined all the specimens named in
the list. Hearty acknowledgments are due Mr. Harry Piers,
Provincial Museum, Halifax, N. S. ; Mr. Edward Ardsley, of
the Peter Redpath Museum ; Dr. Whiteaves and Mr. Lambe of
the museum of the Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, for
freely giving all possible aid in the examination of the specimens
in those museums.

I. — The Vermont specimen, plates V-VIII, has been longest
known and has often been considered as the tvpe to which most
of the others since discovered have been referred. For this
reasoiii, as well as for the sake of adding completeness to this
paper, a somewhat full account of this historic specimen may be
given in this connection. Plate V shows this specimen as now
mounted in the Vermont museum. Very unfortunately,
the mounting was not done by an anatomist, and most of the

152 ON A SKELETON OF A WHALE IN THE

vertebrae back of the dorsals are reversed. The cranium was
badly shattered when found, and was restored in some respects
very satisfactorily, but in others quite erroneously. The
mounting was done some fifty or more years ago, and the bones
are so easily broken, though much less fragile than those of the
Halifax specimen, and the rods used in mounting the separate
bones have so rusted that, while the curator hopes at some time
to remount the skeleton, he has not as yet ventured to under-
take the task.

In the plate the upper figure shows the entire skeleton
reduced to about one-fourteenth natural size, and the two lower
show most of the vertebrae reduced to about one-third natural
size.

Those interested in cetacean anatomy will find it profitable
to compare plate V with plate II, which shows the vertebrae of
the Halifax specimen. Like most of the remains of cetacea
found in pleistocene deposits, the Vermont specimen was dis-
covered in a bed of clay, " (between eight and nine feet below the
surface,'7 in a railroad cut. They were secured by Professor Z.
Thompson, who studied and described them, but with very poor
illustrations, and after considerable deliberation placed the
animal in a new species, believing, and as recent investigations
show rightly, that while very closely allied to the living white
whale, D\elphinapterus leucas, it nevertheless presented differ-
ences of sufficient importance to warrant its separation specifi-
cally from the living form.

The following named bones were found and are now pre-
served in this skeleton. The cranium was badly broken, but
enough fragments that could be pieced together were found to,
as Thompson says, " determine very nearly the form and entire
length of the head and of one side of the lower jaw, and of its
symphysis with the other side."

From the alveoli it appears that the animal had seven teeth
in the lower jaw and eight in 'the upper on each side, or thirty
in all. Only nine of these were found. Forty-one vertebra

PROVINCIAL MUSEUM, HALIFAX, N. S.— PERKINS. 153

were found, four cervical, eleven dorsal, ten lumbar and sixteen
caudal. Five of the chevrons were saved, the right periotic,
sternum, hyoid, both of which are large and heavy, the scapulas,
one humerus, both ulnas, one radius, more or less complete por-
tions of nine pairs of ribs and fragments of others. Thus while
somewhat less complete than either the Smith's brickyard or
the Cornwall specimen,, a large majority of the bones have been
preserved in the Vermont specimen, including some, as the
periotics, not found in the others.

II. — The bones discovered in 1858 in the clav near Mont-
real, are now in the museum of the Geological Survey at
Ottawa. They are mostly caudal vertebrae, but there are sev-
eral lumbars among them. In all there are twenty vertebrae.
Thus a considerable portion of the caudal series is present.
Probably not more than five or six are wanting. The spines,
neural arches and transverse processes i<n most are present. Of
course these are smaller and stouter in .the caudals, after the
first few, than elsewhere, and would therefore be more likely
to withstand unfavorable conditions. These processes are,
however, more or less incomplete in all. These vertebrae do not
differ essentially in size or form from those in the Cornwall
specimen. As now mounted with the intervertebral cartilages
supplied by wooden disks, the total length, of the series is sixty-
five inches.

In " Superficial Geology of Canada," Geological Survey,
Canada, page 919, Sir W. Logan says, " At the mile-end
quarries, Montreal, upon a slight ridge are found stratified
sand and gravel holding boulders and shells in the lower part.
The deposit sometimes rests directly on the limestone rock,
which is at other times covered with a thin layer of boulder
formation. ... A thick deposit of this clay is seen at the
brick-yard of Messrs. Peel and Comte, where it is overlaid by
Saxicava sand, and has furnished one of the pelvic bones of a
seal, arid several of the caudal vertebrae of a cetacean, Beluga
vermontana, besides fragments of .white cedar."

154 ON A SKELETON OF A WHALE IX THE

III. — In the Eiviere du Loup specimen there ar3 preserved
only a portion of the atlas and one caudal vertebra which is one
of the posterior portion of the series.

IV — This is a very fine and nearly complete skeleton. It
is well mounted and is in the Ottawa Geological Survey
Museum.

For a copy of the following account by Mr. E. Billings, I
am indebted to Dr. Whit-eaves. u Several months ago, Mr.
Charles Poole, of Cornwall, wrote to the secretary of the society
that a large skeleton, resembling that of Ichthyosaurus, had
been found in the ne:ghborhood, by the men engaged in excavat-
ing clay for brick. In another letter be stated that Mr. T. S.
Scott had procured the lower jaws, and states that Mr. Scott
presented the jaws to the geological museum." Mr. Billings
then went to Cornwall and obtained from Mr. Poole the bones
which were in his possession. " These were discovered in Post-
pliocene clay about sixteen fe.et below the surface. They are
those of a small whale closely allied to the white whale, Beluga
leucas, which lives in the northern seas, and at certain seasons
abounds in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The lower jaws are
nearly perfect. The skull and upper jaws are much damaged
and some of the part3 lost. Thirty-five of the vertebra?, the two
shoulder blades, most of the ribs, and a number of small bones
were collected. The length of the animal was probably about
fifteen feet. The lower jaws have the sockets of eight teeth
upon the right side and seven on the left." E. Billings, Cana-
dian Naturalist and Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. v., pp.
438-9.

Some of the parts of this skeleton are more perfect than in
any other that has been found; but taken all in all, this and
the best specimen in the Montreal museum are about equalp and
both rather more perfect than the Vermont specimen. How-
ever, each has some portions that are lacking in the others.

As mounted in the Ottawa museum the Cornwall whale is
twelve feet and one inch long. The cartilages have been sup-

PROVINCIAL MUSEUM, HALIFAX, N. S. — PERKINS. 155

plied by wooden disks. There are present the following parts :
The cranium is tolerably complete, but broken at the rostral
engl and also in the occipital region. Measured in a straight
line from the front of lower jaw, which being perfect locates
the missing part of the rostrum, the upper jaw being broken at
the end, to the lower part of the foramen, the length is twenty-
one inches, and nine and a half across the condylar region. There
are no teeth, but alveoli for eight o'n each side of the upper and
right side of lower jaw, while on the left side of the latter,
there are only seven alveoli. ~No ear bones were found. The
hyoid and one stylohal are present.

There are thirty-eight vertebrae, viz., all the seven cervicals,
ten dorsal, 'ten lumbar,, eleven caudal and one chevron, In all
but four, the spines are complete, and nearly so in one of these.
The neural arch is seen in all but two. The transverse processes
are present in all, but in all are more or less broken^ though not
badly in many. The bodies increase in length from the cervi-
cals backwards 'to the tenth lumbar. In the cervical behind the
axis the length of the body is one-half inch, and in the largest
it is four a,nd a quarter inches.

Probably not less than thirteen caudals are wanting from
the end of the column.

The scapulas are not only both present, but are in excellent
condition. Each is somewhat broken on the border, but as they
are not broken in the same part it is possible by taking them
together to make out the entire outline. Even the very long and
slender coracoids are perfect. Each bone measures from the
top border to the glenoid border eight inches, and ten inches
across the upper border. The coracoids are nearly ten inches
long on the upper border.

The humerus, like all the arm bones., is rather short and
stout. It is five and a half inches long; the radius is three
and a half, and the ulna four and a quarter inches.

Puoc. & TRANS. X. S. TNST. Sci., VOL. XII. TRANS. 11.

15G ON A SKELETON OF A WHALE IN THE

There are ten ribs on the right side and iiiiiie on the left.
Some of them are considerably broken, but others are nearly
perfect. The longest in this skeleton is the fifth, which fr,om
vertebra to sternum, is thirty-five inches on the outside curve.
This specimen is more perfect than any other in its vertebric
and scapulas.

V. — This is the Halifax specimen, which is described in
the first part of this paper.

VI. — In American Journal of Science, 3rd series, vol. xxv.,
p. 200, Dr. Dawson writes: " Bones of large whales
are not of infrequent occurrence in the lower St. Lawrence.
The bones found on lower and therefore modern terraces are
usually in a good state of preservation, and have a very recent
appearance." After mentioning several specimens of " Beluga,7'
all of which are discussed in these pages, Dr. Dawson mentions
particularly several large bones found in a gravel pit thirty
feet below the surface.

In Canadian Ice Age, p. 268, Dr. Dawson refers to these
brtnes as follows: " M egaptera longimana, Gray. Portions of
a skeleton of this species were found in 1882 in a ballast pit of
the Canadian Pacific Railroad, three miles north of Smith's
Falls, Ontario, 81 miles north of the St. Lawrence River.
They were imbedded in gravel along with shells of Tellina
grcenlandica, apparently on a beach of the Pleistocene period, at
an elevation of 4-40 feet above the sea, wliich corresponds nearly
with one of the principal sea-coast terraces on the Montreal
mountain and other parts of the St. Lawrence valley."

These bones, now in the Redpath Museum, consist of a dor-
sal, a lumbar vertebra, part of the neural arch of another, and
a part of a rib. The centrum of the lumbar is ten inches in
diameter and from tip to tip of the transverse processes it is
thirty inches.

PROVINCIAL MUSEUM, HALIFAX, N. S. — PERKINS. 157

The bones have a much fresher appearance than those of the
other fossils here recorded. Dr. Dawson cays of these: " I have
no doubt that they belong to the Humpback Whale, Megaptem
longimanas (hoops).

VII. — In Canadian Ice Age, page 269, Dr. Dawsoii writes:
" I secured last summer, 1891, a large jaw-bone found in dig-
ging a cellar in the shelly gravel of the lower terrace at Metis."
This fragment, for the interior portion is wanting, is over eleven
feet long and eighteen inches wide near the articular end.

VIII. — This is one of the finest of our fossil cetacea. It
includes nearly all the bones of the skeleton, and most of them
are in very good preservation.

The cranium is better in this than in either the Ottawa or
the Vermont specimen, although it lacks ear bones. The lower
jaw is less perfect. The hyoid, one stylohyal and part of the
other are present. Nine teeth are preserved in the upper jaw
and two in the lower. Both scapulas and all the arm bones are
present, but no phalanges. There is also a considerable part of
the sternum.

In all, thirty-six vertebra? are seen in the skeleton. These
are all the cervicals, ten dorsals, ten lunibars and nine caudals.
There are no chevrons. Most of the vertebrae are essentially
complete. All except two have at least a part of the neural arch
and spine, and in most these are in good condition. The trans-
verse processes are all, at least partially, present, but most arc
somewhat fractured. The last of the caudals are missing, and
a few which would come in between tli~se mounted in the speci-
men. The whole are exceedingly well set up and accurately
placed. The ribs are in fairly good condition.

The missing cartilages have not been, supplied in this speci-
men. As it is mounted, it is one hundred .ind twelve inches
long.

158 ON A SKELETON OF A WHALE IN THE

IX. — A few bones consisting of the hyoid, sternum, nearly
complete, several phalanges and ?ome fragments of ribs were
found by Mr. Edward Ardsley at Williamstown, Ontario, in
1901. This find is especially interesting as giving the only
phalanges we have in the fossil skeletons.

X. — In the same clays in which the complete skeleton was
discovered at Smith's brickyard, Montreal, a number of bones of
a young individual were found. There are ten vertebrae, appar-
ently mostly caudals, though some are lumbar s* In all, the
apophyses are separated from the centra of the vertebrae, but
were secured with the rest.

All the bones are small, the largest centrum being; one and

o o

three-fourths inch in diameter. The bones indicate an
immature animal, but more than half grown. Besides the ver-
tebrae there are five parts of ribs and portions of the craiiium.

XI. — -Most of the skull and a number of vertebrae found at
Pakenham, Ontario. Not placed in a museum, but presumably
in the possession of Mr. Patrick Cannon, of Pakenham. Of
this Dr. Whiteaves writes in the Ottawa Naturalist, vol. xx,
pp. 214-216, as follows: " On the fifth of September, 1906, a
skeleton, which is obviously that of a very young individual of
white whale, was found by Mr. Patrick Cannon while digging
a well on his farm at Pakenham, Ontario. . . . This
skeleton was imbedded in blue clay, fourteen feet below the
surface, and only a portion was dug out. In digging the well,
some depth of clay was first bored through, then a mixture of
clay and shells, in which the skeleton was found, was struck,
and the excavation ended in blue clay. The bones that have
been exhumed so far consist of a nearly, perfect skull, with only
a few of the teeth missing, and one of the tympanic bones with
most of the cervical vertebrae and three of the dorsals with some
of their epiphyses. Apart from the obvious immaturity, this
Pakonham skull and the vertebrae immediately adjoining

PROVINCIAL MUSEUM, HALIFAX, N. 8. — PERKINS. 159

thereto seem to be essentially similar to -the corresponding parts
of the skeleton of the Beluga from Cornwall Pleistocene and
that of a recent specimen of the white whale from Metis in the
museum of the survey."

In Bulletin 179, U. S. Geological Survey, Mr. O. P. llav
Enumerates seventy-eight species of fossil cetacea. Most of
these species are not now living. Of the whole number, forty-
three are found in the Miocene, eleven in the Eocene, seventeen
in the Tertiary, epoch not stated,, and six in the Pleistocene.
There is one species not assigned. Of the six Pleistocene
species, one found in Louisiana is a doubtful fossil^, Physeter
macro cephalus. Another, Physeter veins, is from South Carol-
ina, one from Vermont, Delphinapterus Vermont anus, one from
Alaska, Monodon monoceros, two from Canada, Delphinapterus
leucas and Megaptera boops. To the above should be added the
Halifax specimen, that from Pakenham, and sundry isolated
bones found in Canada, all of which are given in the foregoing
list.

As many of the references given show, nearly all of
the Canadian specimens have been referred, by those geologists
who have had occasion to mention them, either to the living
Delphinapterus leucas or to Thompson's D. verrnontanus,
mostly to the former.

In those specimens which are very imperfect, it is not
possible to determine as to the correctness of these identifica-
tions, since the resemblances, which always exist in most of the
bones of allied species of cetacea, are so close as to render separ-
ation useless. This would be emphatically true when, only a
few vertebrae were found. When the periotic is present it
should be possible to come to more satisfactory conclusions.

Dr. Dawson says that the Cornwall specimen was compared •
by Mr. Billings with recent bones of D. leucas, a<nd as a result
of this comparison Mr. Billings " concluded that it belonged to
the modern species, and I believe extended his conclusion to Mr.

160

ON A SKELETON OF A WHALE IN THE

Thompson's specimen.'7 So far as appears, Mr. Billings hall
never seen the Vermont specimen, at least had not studied it.
Dr. Whiteaves writes : " The identification of the Mile-end
specimen, and of that from Cornwall, with Beluga vermontana,
it must be remembered, is solely on the authority of Mr. Bill-
ings. It seems to me that the specimens from those two local-
ities and the skull, etc., from Pakenhain, which are all that I
have seen, are at any rate all referable to the same species. A'nd
I do not see how they are to be distinguished from the present
D. leucas!'

The question whether the Vermont specimen is as Thomp-
son decided, a new species or leucas. has usually been decided
by writers in favor of the living species. Thompson's reasons
for .separating it from leucas were, a difference in dentition, in
size of maxillary bones and some minor points. None of these
are sufficient, considering the individual variation within the
same species of many cetacea. As has been previously noticed,
the periotic is less likely to vary in different individuals of the
same species than any other bone. After a study of this bonev,
Mr. Andrews writes, " 1 have compared the bone with the ear-
bones of several specimens of Delphinapierus leucas. The
resemblance, except in size, is very close indeed. The bullate
portio'n of the periotic in your specimen is somewhat smaller in
proportion to the whole length than in Delpliinapterus leucas.
The internal auditory meatus is also slightly different in shape.
However, I believe that these characters are open to a slight
individual variation. The difference in size seems to ine an
important one, as it probably indicates that your animal, if
adult, is a smaller animal than Delpliinapterus leucas. A com-
parison with the periotic of a very young individual of Delpliin-
apterus leucas shows this bone in the latter to be considerably
larger than in your specimen."

The author visited the American Museum, New York, twice
for the purpose of comparing the fossil bo'nes with those of
recent skeletons, and then went to the National Museum, Wash-

PROVINCIAL MUSEUM HALIFAX, N. S. — PERKINS. 161

ington, for the same purpose. Here Dr. True was most help-
ful, as has already been noted. A series of photographs of the
periotic of the Vermont specimen was examined by him, and
he reports as follows : " The periotic of D. vermontanus appears
to indicate that the species is distinct from leucas. The prin-
cipal differences are that in the former the petrosal is larger,
the poms acusticus interims also larger and differently shaped,
the posterior process of the petrous portion much longer and
more pointed, the anterior process more rounded, the fenestra
cochleae larger. I cannot see that the vertebrae of vermontanus
present any tangible differences of importance. The neural
arch of the axis appears to be differently shaped, but this is
probably due to its imperfect condition. The vertical .foramina
in the sides of the centra of the caudals appear smaller, but
there is considerable variation in this character. The coracoid
process of the scapula is narrow at the end, but this is also
variable. I think the ulna is straighter. It is really necessary
in identifying such material to exami'ne the SDecimens them-
selves."

As to what Dr. True notices in respect to the neural arch of
the axis, it may be well to say that this vertebra in the Vermont
specimen does not seem to have been broken to any such extent
as to change its form, especially that of the upper border of the
spine, from that of D. leucas to that which it now has.
In all specimens of the recent species which I have seen, the
upper portion of the spine slopes rapidly from back down to the
front, while in D. vermontanus it is nearly horizontal, that is,
it has little slant from the back to the front edge.

The hyoid, too, is much more cylindrical in the thyrohyal
portion. Of course it may be said that most or all of these
characters are subject to individual variation in the cetacea, but
allowing for this it seems probable that some at least of these
characters are constant and may be regarded as at least varietal
if 'not specific. It appears, then, that Thompson was justified
in establishing the species vermontanus.

162 ON A SKELETON OF A WHALE IN THE

After a somewhat careful study of all the different speci-
mens given in the foregoing list, the following conclusions have
been reached by the author as to the specific position which
should be occupied by these specimens. Very fortunately, in
both the Eedpath Museum a'nd that at Ottawa there was a well-
mounted skeleton, of D. leucas close at hand, so that com-
parisons were readily made. As the measurements show,
there is no great difference in the size of the three skeletons,
Vermont, Cornwall and Montreal, which are sufficiently com-
plete to make any comparison worth while. The Cornwall
skeleton at Ottawa is rather larger,, and the Smith's brickyard
one at Montreal rather smaller than the Vermont, but as they
are somewhat differently set up, and especially, as the Ottawa
specimen alone has anything to take the places of the inter-
vertebral cartilages, exact comparison is not possible.

From comparison of separate bones it seems to the author
most probable that the Vermont specimen a'nd the most perfect
one in the Redpath Museum are identical, and are sufficiently
different from the modern 1). leucas to warrant placing thorn
as at least a distinct variety, if not species. Had not a species
been already established by Thompson and long well-known, it
might seem best to regard the fossils as belonging to a "small
variety of I), leucas rather than to add a new specific name ; but
as it is, it seems best to allow Thompson's species vermontanus
to stand.

The reasons for separating the fossil from the recent forma
have alreadv been given.

The Cornwall whale presents greater resemblance to the
modern species than either of the others, and I agree fully with
those who have considered it identical. If only we had the ear
bones, it would probably be possible to speak with more certain
conviction as to the above. As it is, the author would state what
hai been said rather as his opinion than as an indisputable fact.

PROVINCIAL MUSEUM, HALIFAX, N. S. — PERKINS. 163

As to the Mile-end specimen, since there are only vertebra.1,
it is impossible to do more than suggest the probability that the
individual from which they came was of the same kind as the
Montreal and Vermont specimens.

Of the smaller portions of skeletons enumerated,, I should
not wish to express even an opinion, except that they are all of
the genus Delphinapterus.

Setting aside those specimens which are too incomplete to
make any identification possible, we have in accordance with
the foregoing, the following species of fossil cetacea : —

(1) Delphinapterus leucas, Gray. Museum of Canadian Geo-

logical Survey, Ottawa.

(2) Delphinapterus Vermont anus, Thompson. Museum 'of

MeGill University, Montreal. Vermont State Museum,
Montpelier.

(3) Monodon monoceros, Linn. Provincial Museum of K"ova

Scotia, Halifax.

(4) Megaptera longimana (hoops), Gray. Museum of McGill

University, Montreal.

LIST OF PLATES.

1. MONODON— (Provincial Museum, Halifax ; from Jacquet River, N. B.)

Sternum, one-half natural size. Periotic, natural size.

2. MONODON— (Provincial Museum, Halifax ; from Jacquet River, N. B.)

vertebrae, about one-fifth natural size

3. MONODON— (Provincial Museum, Halifax ; from Jacquet River, N. B.)

Dorsal vertebrae, one-third natural size.

4. MONODON — (Provincial Museum, Halifax ; from Jacquet River, N. B.)

Lumbar and caudal vertebrae, one-third natural size.

5. DELPHINAPTERUS VERMONTANUS, THOMPSON— (State Museum, Mont-

pelier, Vt. ; from Charlotte, Vt). Upper figure one-fourteenth
natural size ; lower figures about one-fourth natural size,

6. DELPHINAPTERUS VERMONTANUS, THOMPSON- (State Museum, Mont-

pelier, Vt. ; from Charlotte, Vt.). Anterior part of skeleton, about
one-seventh natural size.

7. DELPHINAPTERUS VERMONTANUS, THOMPSON— (State Museum, Mont-

pelier, Vt. ; from Charlotte, Vt.). Sternum and ribs, one-third
natural size.

8. DELPHINAPTERUS VERMONTANUS, THOMPSON— (State Museum, Mont-

pelier, Vt.; from Charlotte, Vt.). Periotic, natural size.

(164)

TRANS. N. S. INST. SC., VOTV. XII.

PTyATR I.

MONODON.

(Provincial Museum, Halifax; from Jacquet River, N. B.)
STKKNUM, one-half natural size. PERIOTIC, natural size.

TRANS. N. S. INST. SC., VOI,. XII.

II.

MONODON.

(Provincial Musetnn, Halifax; from Jacquet River, N. H.)
VKRTKHR^<:, about one-fifth natural size.

TRANS. N. S. INST. SC., VOL,. XII.

PI.ATR III.

\

WfcT'
i

MONODON.

(Provincial Museum, Halifax; from Jacquet River, N. B. )
DORSAL VERTEBRA, one-third natural size.

TRANS. N. s. INST. sc., vor,. xir.

PIRATE IV.

MONODON.

(Provincial Museum, Halifax; from Jacquet River, N. B.)

MTMHAK AND CAUDAL VKKTEBK^C, one.-tllini natural size.

TRANS. N. S. itfST, St., VoL XII.

DKIYPHINAPTE;RUS

TAN (JS, THOMPSON.

TRANS. N. S. INST. SC., VOI,. III.

DEI.PHINAPTERUS VKRMONTANUS, THOMPSON.

(State Museum, Montpelier, Vt.; from Charlotte, Vt.)

ANTERIOR PART OF SKELETON, about one-seventh 'natural size.

TRANS. N. S. INST. SC., VOI<. XII.

PIRATE VII.

DElvPHINAPTERUvS VERMONTANUS, THOMPvSON.

(State Museum, Montpelier, Vt.; from Charlotte, Vt.)

STERNUM AND RIBS, one-third natural size.

TRANS. N. S. INST. SC., VOI^. XII.

PIYATR VIII.

DRIYPHINAPTRRUS VRRMONTANUS, THOMPSON.

(State Museum, Montpelier, Vt.; from Charlotte, Vt.)

PERIOTIC, natural size.

THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — By CLABENCJS L.
MOORE,, M. A., Supervisor of Public Schools in Sydney,
Nova Scotia.

(Read 13th April, 1908 )

The present paper embodies the results of studies of our
Nova Scotia forms of Myxomycetes carried on during the sum-
mers of 1905 and 1906. It is here presented as a contribution
to our knowledge of the flora of the Province and of the distri-
bution of these organisms which, though generally small and
inconspicuous, present in their life histories features of great
interest to the biologist. The group is one which has been
almost totally ignored by students of our fauna and flora, the
only reference to be found to it in any of our local scientific
literature being in a paper by the late Dr. Seiners on Nova
Scot' a fungi, published in the transactions of tlie Nova Scotia
Institute of Science. Dr. Somers there lists two of our common
forms, viz. : Lycoyala epidendrum Fr. and AethaHum septicum
Fr. \Fuligo ovata (Schseff) Macbr.]. These two species are
also enumerated by Dr. A. II. MacKay in his provisional list
of the Nova Scotia fungi, published in the transactions of the
same society (Vol. XI, Parti, pp. 122-143).

In the following general discussion of the Myxomycetes, I
am necessarily indebted for many facts to the writings of
various .students of the group, a list of whose works which I
have freely consulted will be found at Iflie conclusion of this
paper.

Life History. The life history of typical Myxbmyceftes

may be briefly sketched as follows: Under suitable conditions
of temperature and moisture the spores germinate, the walls
cracking open and the contents escaping in the form of small
protoplasmic globules. These soon exhibit amoeboid movements,

(165)

166 THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE.

and, before long, each becomes somewhat elongated or pear-
sihaped and develops a flagellum, by means of which, it is able
to move rapidly through the water with a characteristic jerking
motion. During this stage the " swarmers," eo called, increase
rapidly in number by division ; but eventually they settle down,
the flagella are withdrawn and they again assume the amoeboid
form, creeping over the substratum. Soon a number of the
amoebae coalesce to form a small protoplasmic mass which con-
tinues to exhibit amoeboid movements as a whole and character-
istic internal protoplasmic streamings. The plasmodium, as the
protoplasmic mass is now called, increases in size by fusion with
other amoebae and by the ingestioni -and assimilation of food
material until the condition of maturity is attained whicth leads
to the fruiting or reproductive phase. The whole plasmodium now
becomes heaped up into a number of protuberances into which
the whole of its protoplasm passes, with the exception, in some
cases, of a small portion which remains behind to form a film-
like coating over the substratum and which is known as tlie
hypothallus. When these protuberances are distinct from each
other they are known as sporangia, and these may be either
sessile or stipitate. The stipe may be prolonged into or through
the cavity of the sporangium to form a columella. When the
sporangia are vein like or sinuous, retaining largely the charac-
teristic form of the plasmodium, the fructification is described
a-5 plasmodiocarpous, or as a plasmodiocarp. In other cases the
sporangia are partially fused together, the walls between them
may be imperfectly developed and their individuality to a cer-
tain extent lost. Sucih a form of fructification is known as
an sethalium and is well exemplified by such a species as Fulifjo
ovata.

The protoplasm of the interior of the Sporangia is for the
most part converted into spores ; but a residual portion fre-
quently gives rise to a capillitium. This may consist of a net-
work of threads or tubules extending throughout tdie cavity of

THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE. 167

the sporangium, with points of attachment to the walls of the
latter, or to the columella when present, or to both. The threads
oi* tubules frequently present expansions or thickenings, gener-
ally at the nodes of the net, and the expansions may take the
form of vesicles filled with grannies of tihe carbonate of lime.
In other cases the capillitium consists of simple or branched free
threads or elaters exhibiting, as in the Trichias, spiral markings
and recalling the elaters of some of the Hepatics.

The spores are small and for the most part spherical. In
the different species they vary in size from 3/4 — 20/u, in
diameter, a great many falling between the limits, 7/4 — 1 2/u,.
They are provided with a firm cellulose wall which may be
almost smooth bnt more frequently exhibits thickenings, in the
form of spines, warts or reticulating bands. Those of a great
many species germinate readily when placed in water at a tem-
perature in the vicinity of 20 degs. C., and cases are recorded)
where the power of germination has been retained by spores
preserved in the herbarium for several years. The time
required for germination varies with tihe species, those of some
species germinating in a few hours after being placed in water,
while others require several days. My own observations on the
germination of spores have been wholly confined to those of
Fuligo orata. These I found to germinate readily in ordinary
tap water in from four to five hours after immersion. The
material used had in every instance been. in collection for several
months.

The Swarmers. The swarmerg? which are developed from
the germinating spores, exhibit a hyaline peripheral and granu-
lar inferior portion. During the flagellate stage they are
generally more or less pear sihaped, the flagellum projecting
from the narrow anterior end. Near this end, also, is found the
nucleus and in the broader, posterior part, one or more con-
tractile vacuoles. The posterior border is rendered more or less
irregular by pseudopodia which are continually projected and

168 THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE.

retracted. Food material is apparently absorbed in solution,
but a series of observations recorded by Mr. Arthur Lister
(Linn. Journ. Botany, Vol. 25), establishes the fact that, in
some instances at least, living bacteria constitute no inconsider-
able portion of the food of the swarmers. His observations
were made on the swarm cells of Stemonitis fusca, Triclila
fragilis and Chondrio derma 'difforme. In all these cases, bac-
teria were seized and drawn into the body of the swarmer
by means of pseudopodia projected from the posterior end.
The ingested bacteria were stored in vacuoles where they were
gradually digested. The process completed, the vacuoles were
observed to rise to the surface of the swarmer as bubbles and
discharge their contents of refuse and undigested material.

Preparatory to undergoing division the swarm cell with-
draws its nagellum and rounds off. The nucleus then divides
by karyokinesis, the two daughter cells develop flagella and the
swarmer form is resumed.

The swarmers frequently pass into a resting condition,
rounding off and developing a thin wall. In this form they are
known as microcysts. After being dessicated and remoistened
tihe wall breaks open and the escaping contents resume the
swarmer form.

In the fusion of the swarmers to form plasmodia the nuclei
do not appear to be involved, but these persist as the nuclei of
the plasmodium.

The Plasmodium. The Myxomycetes exhibit two types of
plasmodia, the first forming a network of vein-like strands which
spreads over the surface of the substratum or within its larger
cavities ; the second is more watery in consistency and lives in
the interstices of decaying wood, from which it issues only for
fructification. The first type is characteristic of the PhysaracesG
and the plasmodiia of various members of this order have furn-
ished most of the material for the investigation of the mor-
phology and physiology of the living plasmodium. This consists

THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE. 169

of a hyaline protoplasmic ground substance which, in the
periphery, is free from granules, but within is filled with
plasmodic grains and frequently grains of carbonate of lime,
and shews also numerous vacuoles. The interior is also tra-
versed by a network of channels in which streaming movements
are continually going on. The flow in these channels is rythinic,
persisting in one direction for a period of from one to two
minutes, then reversing and continuing in the opposite direction
for a similar period. The streaming, 'however, continues for a
somewhat longer period in tttie direction of the general move-
ment of the plasmodium. This advances by the ectosare push-
ing out in the direction of movement followed by a flow of the
interior granular substance. Then follows a short pause, dur-
ing Avihich tihe advancing margin withdraws somewhat, but some
of the gain made is retained. The next onward movement of
the ectosare carries the border beyond the line previously
attained. In this way, by a series of pulsations, a general
onward movement of the mass is accomplished.

Numerous nuclei are observable in the substance of the plas-
niodium, and, as its mass increases, tjiere is a corresponding
increase in the number of nuclei by karyokinetic division. The
nuclei are undoubtedly those of the original swarmers which
coalesced to form the plasmodiuni, and the product of their
division.

In addition to the nuclei, plasmodic granules and refuse or
semi-digested material, there are found in the interior of the
plasmodia of many species, granules of tiie carbonate of lime.
Associated with the granules, more particularly those of lime,
are the pigments which imp-art to many plasmodia bright and
characteristic colors. The plasmodia of Pliysarum virescens
and Fiiligo ovata, for example, exhibit brigjht shades of yellow,
that of Pliysarum globuliferum has a delicate lavender coloring,
that of Lycogala epidendrum a faint rose. The prevailing color
among plasmodia, however, is a watery or opaque white or grey.

170 THE MYXOMYCETES OF P1CTOU COUNTY. — MOORE.

A series of careful experiments conducted by Rosanoft' (Mem.
de la soc. Imp. des. Sc. nat. de Cherbourg, T. XIV) on tihe
plasmodium of Fuligo ovata seems to establish that/ in this case
at least, the plasmodium is strongly negatively geotropic, the
general movement of the plasmodium on an inclined surface
invariably taking place against tihe force of gravity. The same
investigator observed a like tendency to progress against the
centrifugal force when the plasmodium was placed upon a
rotating plate.

This negative geotropism is exhibited by many species in
connection with the fruiting phase, and appears to be an adap-
tion to provide for more effectual spore disposal. Preparatory
to fruiting, the plasmodic mass will ascend and often almost
completely envelop blades of grass, moss plants, etc., and these
points of vantage gained the transformation into nature spor-
angia takes place with astonishing rapidity. Particularly
noticeable for this tendency are the plasmodia of Physarum
wrescens and Pliysarum cinereum; but the characteristic is
exhibited in a greater or less degree by almost all species.

Plasmodia also shew a marked sensitiveness to temperature
changes. That of Fuligo ovata is positively thermotropic up to
33 degrees C. — 34 degrees C., but becomes negatively so above
tii at point. An exposure to a temperature of 2 degrees C. does
not kill this plasmodium, but all movement ceases and a pro-
longed exposure at that point eventually results in death. The
maximum temperature in the case of this species is 52 deg, C.— -
53 deg. C.

Intense illumination has also been found to check move-
ments of the plasmodium, and in unequal illumination it moves
towards the shade ; in varying moisture towards t<he more moist
side. The direction and rapidity of movement is also strongly
influenced by the presence of appropriate nourishment and,
moreover, the plasmodium shews a marked power of discrimina-
tion in this connection. A series of very interesting observations

THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE. 171

by Mr. Arthur Lister on. the plasmodium of Badhamia utricu-
laris are reported in the Annals of Botany, Vol. 2, No. 5. He
found that the plasmodium of this species could be raised from
a sluggish and scarcely moving condition to one of groat activity
by supplying it with Agaricus campestris, Boletus flavus or with
the prepared hymenial surface of Stereum liirsutum. When
Ayaricus fasciularis was supplied, the plasmodium for three
hours refused it altogether, but when at last invaded, in one
instance the section was rejected and never touched again and
in another the plasmodium which had partaken of this fungus
exhibited the most pronounced symptoms of disorder. Mr.
Lister also found that starch, after being treated with warm
water was readily absorbed and digested by the plasmodium of
this species, but that perfectly raw starch remained unaffected.
The process of digestion appears generally to take place in
the streaming granular interr r substance ; but in one instance
at least, a like power of digestion was exhibited by the hyaline
margin, in which the dissolution of fungus hyphse was observed
tu take place.

Resting State. When subjected to a slow drying process,
young plasmodia may pass into a resting form, known as
macrocysts. The plasmodium breaks up irregularly, each part
rounds off and surrounds itself with a wall which becomes
thickened and laminated. When placed in water the contents
of these cysts swell up and issue forth as amoeboid bodies.
M'acrocysts of this kind occur in Periclicena and Fuligo.

Another resting form sometimes occurs in fully developed
plasmodia. A plasmodium comes to rest and forms a number
of lumps of almost liorn-like consistency, frequently connected
by strands of similar material. These lumps and strands con-
sist wholly of compaiatively laige ceils filled with a granular,
generally colored plasma. These forms are designated sclerotia
and exhibit the wintering condition of plasmodia. When the
sclerotia are brought into contact with water, each cell swells

PHOC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XII- TRANS. 12.

172 THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE

up and becomes an amoeboid body and all fuse together to again
form a motile plasmodium.

Sporangia. The structure and peculiarities of the spor-
angia capillitium and spores,, in so far as illustrated by our
known Nova Scotia forms, are more or less fully set out in the
detailed descriptions of the species in my collection.

In this connection it may be stated that in the evolution of
the Myxomycetes, the most prominent feature is the gradual
perfecting of the mechanical contrivances to effectuate r^pore
dispersal. The most primitive form of fructification must be
regarded as the plasmodiocarp, consisting of a limiting mem-
brane enclosing a mass of spores which only escape by its
gradual breaking down. Such forms we find in the less special-
ized families of the Cribrariacece.

Starting from this simple form there offshoot two main lines
of development exhibiting the gradual perfecting of two distinct
forms of adaptation for insuring effectual spore dispersal.

The first consists in the modification of the sporangial wall,
its thickenings becoming discontinuous so that the breaking
down of the thinner, more delicate areas facilitates the escape
of the enclosed spores. This line of development is exhibited
through the Cribrarias to Dictydium cancellatium, where it
reaches its tiigest expression. In this species, the walls of the
ripe sporangium become reduced to a mere framework of ribs
connected by delicate transverse threads, the whole structure
dangling on the end of the stipe which is weak and tenuous at
its upper extremity.

The second consists in the development of a capillitium,
either with or without a columella. The highest forms with
columella are found among the Stemonitacece in such genera as
Stemonitis, Comatricha and Lamproderma. The most perfect
adaptations for securing spore dispersal, however, are found in
forms destitute of a columella, such as the Arcyrias and Tri-

THE MYXOMYCETES OF P1CTOU COUNTY. — MOORE. 173

cliias; in the former in their highly elastic capillitial nets and
in the latter in their free elastic elaters.

The terminal twig in the direct line of development from
the primitive plasmodiocarp is, undoubtedly, represented by
Lyccgala epidendrum in which we have a highly specialized
setlralium-, composed of sporangia destitute of capillitium. The
walls of the interwoven sporangia, however, persist to form a
pseudo-capillitium of tubules, the lumina of which represent
the interstices between the individual sporangia.

Historical and Systematic. The appearance of the Systema
Mycologicum of Fries in 1829 marks the first great advance in
the systematic study of the Myxomycetes. Previous to this,
many species had been recognized, and more or less accurately
described, but they were distributed among the various groups
of the Fungi — Gasteromycetes, Hymen omycetes, Discomycetes
and Mucors. Fries was the first to grasp their essential unity
in structure and in development, and accordingly he collected
the hitherto scattered genera and species into a distinct group
under tihe name Myxogastres, characterised as " primitus mucil-
aginosi, fluxiles." That he fully appreciated the marked pecu-
liarities of the vegetative phase of these organisms in comparison
with that of other fungi, is clearly shown in his discussion of
the group. " Vegetatio," he says, " maxime singularis a reli-
quorum fungorum prorsus diversa," and in consequence of this
knowledge he should, perhaps, have set off the group from the
fungi, or at least have given them an independent position in
that class. He, however, placed them as a sub-order of the
Gasteromycetes, misled by the striking analogies between
their mature fructifications, the sporangia, capillitium and
spores, and the corresponding structures in that group. The
limits of the genera (17) and species according to the form and
structure of the fruit bodies were demarked by him with such
systematic insight that in great part they still remain.

174 THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE.

All of the forms assigned to the Myxogastres by .Fries were
Myxomycetes producing spores in closed sporangia — the
Endosporece of modern writers. He did not recognize the close
relationship to tihese, of such forms as Ceratiomyxa — the med-
em Exosporece — and these he assigned to the genus Ceratium,
of the order Cephalotrichei, class Hyphomycetes.

In 1833, Link recognizing the fundamental distinction
between the Myxogastres and the remaining Grasteromycetes,
proposed to erect them into a new order of the class Fungi,
under the title Myxomycetes. In tihe same year this term was
also used by Wallroth.

From the time of the publication of the Systema Mycologi-
cum until 1864, little advance was made in a knowledge of the
Myxomycetes ; but in that year was published the results of
cleBary's work on the group. It was this investigator who first
followed the history of tihese organisms from the germination
of the spore through the swarmer, amoeboid and plasmodic
phases to fructification and spore formation. Impressed with
the remarkable similarity between the life history of these
organisms and that of undoubted animal forms, he was con,-
strained to assign tlhem a place without the vegetable-, but not
necessarily within the animal kingdom. With the Myxomy-
cetes as previously understood, he united the Acrasiece of Van
Tieghem, a small group inhabiting the excrement of animals,
and proposed for the whole group the term Mycetozoa. Under
this head, ihowever, he still retained the term Myxomycetes for
the section so named by Link.

The Acrasiece are saprophytes, the plasmodia of which are
formed by the aggregation, without fusion, of amoeboid bodies.
These latter arise directly from the germinating spores and the
flagellate stage is wanting. In fructification,, these amoeboid
bodies aggregate in large numbers, creeping up agiainst one
another and finally eacih becomes surrounded by a firm mem-
brane and functions as a spore. In many forms some of the

THE MYXOMYCETES OF P1CTOU COUNTY. — MOORE. 175

amoebae do not give rise to spores, but soon become rigid and
united -together to form a simple or branched stock. The other
amoebae creeping up on this finally come to rest and form an
aggregation of free ©pores.

The distinction between these organisms and the true
Myxomycetes appears to be an essential one, and consists in
this — that in the former no true plasmodia are produced, the
coalescing amoebae retaining throughout their individuality.

In 1875, Rostafinski, a pupil of deBary, published a mono-
graph of the group, and, adopting the view of th© latter that the
life history of the Myxomycetes indicated a wide separation
from the fungi, he suppressed that name altogether and adopted
instead deBary's Mycetozoa. As this monograph has to a large
extent formed the basis of all subsequent systematic work on
the group, I insert an outline of Rostafinski's system :

MYCETOZOA.

Division I. EXOSPORE^E (Ceratium).
Division II. ENDOSPORE.E.

Sub-division I. AMAUROSPORE^E. Spores violet or violet brown,
Section A. ATRICHvE. Fructification without a capillitium. Protodermese.
Section B. TRICHOPHOR^E. Fructification always with a capillitium.
Order I. CalcaPese. Cienkowskiacefe, Physaracece, Didymiacece, Spumariacea
Order II. AmailPOChSBtese. Stemonitacece,EnertheiiemacefK,Amaiirochcetacece,
Brejeldiacece, Echinosteliacece.

Sub-division II. LAMPROSPOREJE. Spores variously colored,

never violet.

Section A. ATRlCHyE. Fructification without a capillitium.
Order I. AnemeSS. Dictyosteliacete, Liceacew, Clathroptychiacece.
Order II. HeterodermeSB, Cribrariacece.

SectionB. TRICHOPHOR^]. Fructification always with a capillitium.
Order I. Reticularlese. Reticulariaceai.
Order II. CalonemeSB. Trichiacew, Arcyriacecc, Perichwnacece.

176 THE MYXOMYCETES OK PICTOU COUNTY. MOORE.

Zopf in his treatment of these organisms (Die Pilzthiere
oder Schleimpilze, 1885), united with them the Monadineae,
a group mostly aquatic and embracing such forms as Vampy-
rclla, Bursulla, Pseuxlospora, Protomyxa, etc. He also includes
in the Monadineae, Plasmodiophora and Tetramyxa, forms
which as will be seen, are regarded by most subsequent students
as more nearly related to the true Myxomycetes. The second
sub-division in Zopf s system is the Eumycetozoa with the same
limitations as deBary's Mycetozoa.

This scheme of classification is open to criticism for, while
it is perhaps not possible to draw a sharp line between the
M-onadina? and the true Myxomycetes, it is undoubtedly true
that the former appear to be m the direct line of ascent to the
rhizopods and heliozoa and hence to the whole series of animal
forms. Moreover, while the characteristic plasmodium forma-
tion is exhibited in a number of them, for example Protomyxa,
it is in the great majority unknown.

Schroter (Engler & Pranils Die Nat. Pflanzenfamilien)
adopts the term Myxomycetes which he uses synonymously with
de Bary's Mycetozoa ; but he admits into the group such forms
as Plasmodiophora, which were excluded by the latter as
doubtful.

He divides the Myxomycetes into three principal groups :

A. Mature fructification consisting of a mass of free spores.

1. Saprophytes — the amoeboid bodies uniting in masses

but not fusing.

Acrasieae.

2. Parasitic in the interior of living plant cells — so

far as known true plasmodia.

Phytomyxinae.

B. Spores produced in the interior of sporangia, or on the

outside of discoid or columnar fructifications.

Myxogasteres.
Massee in his monograph (1892) uses the Friesian term.

THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE. 177

M ij.vogastres with the limits originally assigned it — that is, us
co-extensive with the Endosporece of Rostafinski's classification
arid narrower than the Myxoyasteres of Schroter which is a
synonym of Rostafinski's Mycetozoa.

Lister, on the other hand, accepts the group Mycetozoa as
established by Rostafinski, hut excludes Dictyostelium, one of
the Acrasiece, which had been admitted by the latter evidently
through a misapprehension of the nature of its plasmodium.
" We have thus," he says, " a clearly defined group of organ-
isms separated from all others by the following combination of
characters. A spore provided with a spore wall produces on
germination an amoeboid swarm cell which soon acquires a
flagellum. The swarm cells multiply by division and subse-
quently coalesce to form a plasmodium which exhibits a rythmic
streaming. The plasmodium gives rise to fruits which consist
of supporting structures and spores. In the Endosporece these
have the form of sporangia each having a wall within which the
free spores are developed. A capillitium or system of threads,
forming a scaffolding among the spores is present in most
genera. In the Exospcrece the fruits consist of sporophores
bearing numerous spores on their surface." (A monograph of
the Mycetozoa, p. 2.)

Macbride in his North American Slime Moulds (1899),
uses the term " Myomycetes (Link) de Bary," as a general
title, but includes in the group such forms as Plasmodiophora
which, as has been said, were excluded by de Bary in his treat-
ment of the group as being of doubtful affinity. As> thus limited,
the group embraces the Phytomyxinse and Myxogasteres of
Schroeter's system.

Macbride groups the Myxomycetes as thus defined into three
main divisions or sub-classes :

A. Parasitic in the cells of living plants.

Sub-class. Phytomyxinae.

178 THE MYXOMYCETES OF P1CTOU COUNTY. — MOORE.

B. Saprophytic, developed in connection with decaying
vegetable material.

(a) With free spores.

Sub-class. Exosporeae.

(6) With spores in receptacles or sporangia.

Sub-class. Myxogastres.

The correctness, (however, of including in the group such
forms as Plasmodiophora may well be questioned. It still
remains unsettled as to whether these form true plasmodia, the
production of which must be taken as the great outstanding
feature in the life history of the remaining members of tlhe
class. This doubt might well be considered sufficient ground
for their exclusion.

In the account of Nova Scotia forms which follows, I have,
however, adopted the classification and nomenclature of Mac-
bride in toto. The description of species have been compiled
from collections of my own made during the summers 1905 and
1906 in the vicinity of Pictou town and in various other parts
of Pictou county. The list of forms is undoubtedly far from
exhaustive, but I think will be found to include most of our
common Nova Scotia species and some which Avill probably be
found to be of rather rare occurrence.

One form I have described as a new species. I may say that
a portion of the gathering from which the description is com-
piled was submitted to Dr. Macbride, who reported it tentatively
as Margarita metallica Lister, a species hitiherto unknown from
this continent. A careful comparison with the description of
Margarita metallica as given by Lister has led me to the conclu-
sion that we have here a distinct species of the genus Margarita.

In determining spore characteristics a Leitz 1/12 oil immer-
sion objective was used in combination with a No. 5 eyepiece
affording a magnification of 1200 diameters. Except where
otherwise indicated, the drawings are camera lucida sketches
made during my studies of the various species.

THE MVXOMYCETES OF PICTOQ COUNTY. — MOORE. 179

In the foregoing account of the group I have refrained from
discussing the vexed question as to whether these organisms
should be assigned to the animal or to the vegetable kingdom ;
whether tihey belong to the province of the zoologist or the botan-
ist. This question does not appear to me to be one of very great
moment. All students agree that the group is a terminal one
and distinct from the main line of development of plants and
of animals alike. " The most characteristic morphological
peculiarity of the plants/' says Huxley , tl is the investment of
each of its component cells by a sac, the walls of whicih contain
cellulose or some closely analogous compound ; and the most
characteristic physiological peculiarity of the plant is its power
of manufacturing protein from chemical compounds of a less
complex nature."

" The most characteristic morphological peculiarity of the
animal is the absence of such cellulose investment. Tthe most
characteristic physiological peculiarity is the want of power to
manufacture protein out of simpler compounds."

Applying the foregoing as criteria it is clear that the
Myxomycetes in their vegetative phase shew undoubted affini-
ties with the lower animal forms while in tlheir fruiting phase
plant characteristics predominate.

The view as to their true position in the world of organized
things which seems to commend itself most is that formulated
by Shroter. " At the same point where the Schizomycetous
series takes rise, there began certain other lines of development
among the most primitive protoplasmic masses. Through the
amoeba one of these lines gave rise on the one hand to Rhizopods
and Sponges in the animal kingdom ; on tiie other hand to the
Myxomycetes among the fungi."

MYXOMYCETES (Link) deBary.

Organisms destitute of chlorophyll of which the vegetative
phase consists of a naked mass of protoplasm. Reproduction
takes place by means of spores which are produced either (1)

180 THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOLJ COUNTY. MOORE.

free or (2) externally on columnar or membranous sporophores
or (3) in closed capsules or sporangia. In germinating the
spores produce amoeboid bodies whicih pass through a ciliated
stage and which eventually fuse to form a multinuclear proto-
plasmic mass, the plasmodium, which gives rise to the fructifi-
cations.

Sub-class 1. PHYTOMYXIN^E.— Mature fruit bodies
converted into an aggregation of free -spores. Parasitic in cells
of living plants.

Sub-class 2. EXOSPOBE.E.— Spores formed superficially
on membranous or columnar sporophores. Saprophytic.

Sub-class 3. MYXOGASTKES.— Spores formed within
sporangia. Saprophytic.

PHYTOMYXIN^E Schroter.

Parasitic in the cells of living plants. The spores are formed
by tohe simultaneous division of the mature plasmodium and lie
free in the cells of the host.

Genus., Plasmodiophora Woronin.

The only representation of the genus and sub-class which
has come under my observation is :

1. Plasmodiophora brassicce Woronin. — This species is
parasitic on various cruciferse such a,s the turnip, cabbage, rape
and kale, producing in these plants the disease popularly known
as " Club root." T|he roots of infected plants exhibit irregular
and distorted growth, become covered with irregular protuber-
ances and swellings and eventually decay. A section through
one of these swellings shews the enlarged parenchymatous cells
almost completely filled either with plasmodium ( ?) of the
parasite or with the spores. These are spherical and about 1.5/*
in diameter.

.. What is probably the same parasite also occurs here on spe-
cies of wild mustard and is pretty generally distributed through-

THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICFOU COUNTY. — MOORE. 181

out the county, although only in a few districts does it appear
to occasion serious damage to crops. From one district, how-
ever, namely, that of Lower Mount Thorn, the loss is reported
as amounting to 25 per cent, of the total turnip crop of the
present year (1906).

EXOSPOBE^E Host.
* Genus, Ceratiomyxa Schroter.

Kipe fruit bodies consist of membranous processes which
may be columnar and in tufts or may form a net-work. The
surface of these processes or sporophores is divided into a great
number of polygonal areas, obscurely indicated in the mature
fruit, from the center of each of which arises a delicate stalk
supporting a single spore.

The phenomena exhibited in Ceratiomyxa in connection
with spore germination and the development of the swarm cells
differ markedly from those presented in this connection by
members of the Endosporese. The mature spores germinate
very readily in water, the contents escaping in the form of an
ellipsoid mass of protoplasm which remains quiescent for some
hours. Amoeboid movements in ay then be observed and by suc-
cessive constrictions the original spore mass becomes divided
into eight small spherules which continue connected together
until each develops a flagellum. By the lashing of these the
associated group may swim abouit for some time but eventually
the individuals break apart and their subsquent development
resembles in all respects that observed in the Endosporece.

2 Ceratiomyxa fructiculosa (Muell.) Macbr.— Fructifica-
tion white, forming mould like patches on decaying wood in
shaded situations. The sporophores are columnar, wihite; the
spores colorless by transmitted light, large, elliptical o>r ovoid.
They measure 6 — S/AX 10 — 14 /A and the -delicate stalks on which
they are supported average 15 //• in length.

Found on decaying pine logs.

182 THE MYXOMYCETES OF P1CTOU COUNTY. — MOORE.-

3. Ceratiomyxa porioides (Alb. & Schw.) Schroter. — In
this species the plate-like sporophores are connected together
after the manner of a honeycomb, giving the fructification the
appearance of a small, sessile, upturned polyporus. The plas-
modium is watery white and after emerging for fructification
forms a mucilaginous porose layer extending over a considerable
area. The spores are similar to those of the preceding species.

Found on decaying hemlock blocks

Lister in his monograph of the Mycetozoa includes both of
the foregoing species in Ceratiomyxa mucida Schroter.

Myxogastres (Fries) Macbr.

Myxomycetes in which the spores are developed in spor-
angia. The germinating spores produce amoeboid swarmers
which eventually lose their flagella and become amoeboid bodies.
They multiply by division and, later, fuse to form plasmodia.
In the mature condition fruit bodies are formed consisting
chiefly of spores enclosed in a structureless limiting membrane,
the peridium, which may consist of one or two layers. In most
cases the sporangia contain in addition to the spores a structure
consisting of filaments or tubules, of characteristic form, the
capillitium.

Order I.

PHYSABACE^.

Capillitium present, generally containing lime deposits in
the form of amorphous granules which are aggregated in vesi-
cular expansions of the capillitial threads forming the so-called
lime knots. Lime granules also occur in connection with the
peridium and stipe.

In the family Physarese the lime deposits occur both in the
peridium and in the capillitium which is intricate. In the
family Didymiese the capillitium is comparatively simple and
the lime deposits are confined to the peridium.

rJHE MYXOMYCETES OF P1CTOU COUNTY. MOORE. 183

Family, PHYSAKE^.

This family is represented in my collection by seven species
distributed through four genera, viz. : Fuligo, Physarum,
Tilmadoche and Leocarpus.

Genus, Fuligo (Haller) Pers.

In this genus tihe sporangia are elongated and interwoven
to form a thick cake-like fruit body or sethalium in which it is
impossible to trace the individual sporangia. The outer portion
of the sethalium forms a hard calcareous crust and tlie whole
rests upon a well developed hypothallus. The capillitium is
well developed, consisting of a filamentous net with irregular
lime vesicles.

4. Fuligo ovata (Schseff) Macbr. — ^Ethalia pulvinate rest-
ing on a well developed spongiose hypothallus ; frequently cover-
ing an area of several square centimetres and in some cases
attaining a height of two centimetres. The outer calcareous
crust varies much in tihe extent to which it is developed, in some
instances, being thick and firm, in others, scarcely evident. The
crust also varies in color from white to orange. The oapillitium
Consists of a net of hyaline filamentous tubules flattened at the
angles. The lime knots are irregular in shape and in some
gatherings almost wanting. Spores violet colored by transmitted
light, smooth, 7 — 10 /-tin diameter.

This is a common species with us occurring everywhere on
moss, rotten wood, etc.

Genus, Physarum (Persoon) Eost.

In this genus the capillitium consists of irregularly branch-
ing filamentous tubules united to form a net with vesicular
expansions, generally at the nodes, containing amorphous lime
granules. The ends of the capillitial filaments are attached to
the peridium which at maturity ruptures irregularly.

In all the species \vthich I have collected the fructification
consists of distinct sporangia.

184 THE MYXOMYCETES OF P1CTOU COUNTY. — MOORE.

5. Physarum virescens Ditmar. — Plasmodium lemon color.
Sporangia clustered in heaps, greenish yellow in color, sessile
or very short stipitate. The aggregate habit gives rise to con-
siderable irregularity and frequently sporangia fuse together.
When regular they are obovoid or spherical in shape and about
.2mm broad. The yellow color of the peridium is due to small
lime granules. Capillitium rather scanty, the hyaline threads-
delicate, the lime knots fusiform or irregular in shape, yellow
or orange yellow in color. Spores violet brown by transmitted
light, delicately warted, 7 — 9. 5 ft in diameter.1

On moss.

6. Physarum cinereum (Batsch) Pers. — Sporangia small,,
about one-third of a millimetre in diameter, sessile, closely
crowded and superimposed covering considerable areas. They
are frequently irregular and contorted. The peridium is mem-
branous, grey in color from numerous included lime granules;
in old fructifications, when many of the sporangia have split
cpen, this color may be concealed by the purple brown of the
spores in mass. Oapillitium dense witih irregular, angular and
branching white lime knots which are frequently confluent.
The hyaline threads are short. Spores violet brown by trans-
mitted light almost smooth, 10 — 11.5 ft in diameter.

Found fruiting on moss and blades of grass, sometimes com-
pletely covering these with its heaped sporangia ; also on decay-
ing wood.

7. PJiysarum globuliferum (Bull.) Pers. — Plasmodium pale
lavender in color. Sporangia stipitate, erect, spherical, about
.45mm in diameter, wjhite from encrusting lime granules. Stipe
white, brittle, tapering upward about .9mm in length. Columella
not evident. Capillitium abundant and delicate, the lime knots
small, white. Spores violet tinted by transmitted light,, almost
smooth, 8/>t in diameter. They show in this species a tendency
to adhere in clusters.

On decaying Abies balsamea. l^ot common.

THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE. 185

Genus, Tilmadoche (Fries) Host.

In this genus the eapillitial filaments regularly branch
dichotomously, anastomose sparingly and terminate in delicate
free ends. The lime knots are small and fusiform. In all tiie
species the sporangia are distinct.

8. Tilmadoche alba (Bull) Macbr. — Sporangia grey or
white, spherical, stipitate, nodding, about .4mm in diameter.
Peridium with crowded clusters of included white lime granules.
Stipe short and stout, about equal to the diameter of the spor-
angium or slightly exceeding it, subulate, dark in color below,
pale towards the upper part. The capillitial threads arise from
the base of the sporangium, branch dichotomously with flattened
expansions at the axils, and are provided with numerous small,
white lime knots. Spores violet tinted by transmitted light,
smooth, about 8ft in diameter.

On decaying conifers, fairly common.

9. Tilmadoche viridis (Bull) Saccardo. — Sporangia scat-
tered, yellow or orange in color with a cast of green, stipitate,
spherical, nodding. Peridium with numerous included lime
granules. Stipe about lmm long, tapering upward,, furrowed,
twisted at the top; dark below from refuse material becoming
pale above. Sporangia about .5mm in diameter. Capillitium
abundant persisting as a tuft after the dispersal of the spores.
Lime knots orange colored and fusiform, generally small. The
capillitial threads are delicate, branch frequently and are not
expanded at the axils. Spores violet colored by transmitted
light, nearly smooth, 9 — 10 ft in diameter.

On 'decaying Fagus ferruginea.

Genus, Leocarpus (Link) Eost.

Peridium double, the outer thick, calcareous, brittle and
shining. Capillitium consists partly of hyaline threads and
partly of broad anastomosing tubules filled with colored lime
granules.

186 THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE.

10. Leocarpus fragilis (Dickson) Host. — 'Sporangia obovoid,
1.8mm long, .9mm broad, shining, brown in color. Peridium
double, stipe very weak, straw colored, not supporting the spor-
angia which generally lie on the substratum anchored by tdie
weak, thread-like stipes. Capillitium forming a net the terminal
branches united with the inner peridium. The net consists
partly of hyaline tubules somewhat expanded at the nodes and
partly of broader, more expanded tubules packed with dark
colored lime granules. Spores violet colored by transmitted
light, spinulose, 12 — 14ft in diameter.

On decaying Abies balsamea^ moss, leaves, etc.

In all of my collections the sporangia are numerous and
crowded.

Family, DIDYMIE^.

Characterized among the Physaracese by the calcareous
deposits being confined to the peridium. The family is repre-
sented in my collections by but two species, the first of which
appears to be one of our commonest Myxomycetes.

Genus, Didymium (Schrad) Fr.

Fruit bodies separate sporangia or plasmodiocarps. Peri-
dium simple or double, the outer wall covered more or less
completely with lime crystals which generally lie loosely upon
it or more rarely are united into a firm crust. Columella want-
ing or present and hemispherical or disc shaped. Capillitium
filamentous, free from lime.

11. Didymium melanospermum (Pers.) Macbr. — Spor-
angia gregarious covering areas of several square centimetres
in extent ; light ashen grey or almost white in color ; depressed
hemispherical deeply umbilicate below, stipulate, about .75mm
in diameter. Columella hemispherical. Stipe black, short,
stout below tapering upward, one-sixth of a millimetre or less
in height, the sporangia in fact sometimes apparently sessile.
Peridium thickly frosted with stellate lime crystals. Hypothal-

THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE, 187

lus evident. Capillitium consisting of delicate flexuous threads
sparingly branched extending from the columella to the peri-
el ium to which the ends are attached. Spores large, purplish
brown by transmitted light, distinctly warted, 10 — 12 ^ in
diameter.

One of our most common species occurring on decaying
wood and bark of various trees — more commonly those of
deciduous species.

12. Didymium minus Lister. — Tihis species differs from
the last in its smaller sporangia, .5 — .6mm in diameter, its
relatively longer and more slender stipe imparting a more trim
and erect appearance. The spores also are smaller, 9.5 — 10 /A
in diameter, delicately roughened.

On fallen leaves of Fagus ferruginca.

Lister regards this as merely a well marked variety of
Didymium farinaceum Schrader, of which Didymium melano-
sperum (SchsefT.) Macbr. is a synonym.

Order II.
STEHONITACEJE,

Capillitium present, formed of solid strands, plate or fila-
ments. Columella usually well developed and from this the4
capillitium arises and by repeated branching and anastomosing
forms a more or less complicated network. Spores in mass dark
violet or more rarely brown.

Family, STEMOXITE^E.

Fructification when mature generally consisting of distinct
sporangia. Peridium delicate soon disappearing, destitute of
lime. Capillitium usually arising from a columella, formed of
solid filaments without lime.

This family is represented in my collection by six species
and two genera.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XII. TRANS. 13.

188 THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE.

Genus, Stemonitis (Gleditsch) Eost.

Sporangia standing close together, before maturity forming
a slimy mass which only later divides into the individual spor-
angia. A columella is present and from this the capillitial
filaments branch out on all sides and, repeatedly dividing and
anastomosing with one another, form at the periphery a
characteristic more or less close meshed net. Peridium evanes-
cent.

13. 8temonitis fusca (Koth.) Eost, — Sporangia cylindrical
growing in tufts on a well developed hypothallus, purplish
black in color, becoming pallid after spore dispersal. Total
height about 5mm. Stipe black, .about one-third the total height.
Columella becoming sinuous some distance below the summit of
the sporangium, but traceable almost to the apex. The capillitial
branches arise from the columella at right angles and anastomos-
ing form an open interior scaffolding of dark drown threads
with flat expansions at the junctions. The peripheral net formed
by the anastomosing of the ultimate capillitial branches shews
polygonal meshes varying considerably in size. Peridial pro-
cesses conspicuous. Spores pale violet by transmitted light,
smooth, 7 — S p in diameter.

On decaying Pinus strobus and other conifers.

14. Stemonitis maxima Scbweinitz. — Sporangia in tufts,
cylindrical, stipitate, purple black in color becoming grey with
a purple tint after spore dispersal. Total weigjht about 15ram.
Stipe black, about one-half the total height. Hypothallus thin,
transparent and shining. Columella dissipated near the apex
in capillitial branches. The peripheral net of uniform, small
meshes, the peridial processes short. Interior scaffolding open.
Spores violaceous grey by transmitted ligiht, regularly and beau-
tifully reticulated, 7 — S/^in diameter.

On decaying Far/us ferruginea.

15. Stemonitis smithii, Macbr. — Sporangia forming dense
clusters on a well developed hypothallus, cylindrical, stipitate.

THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE. 189

Total height about 12mm. Stipe black, about one-third the tot J
height: Columella dissolving in capillitial branches some dis-
tance below the apex. The interior scaffolding is made up of
strong, brown, generally uniformly thickened threads .which do
not shew the same tendency to form flat expansions such as are
exhibited in the two preceding species. Spores almost colorless
by transmitted light, smooth, 6 — 7 p in diameter.

Common in coniferous woods. j

Genus, Comatricha (Preuss) Eost.

Sporangia isolated, cylindrical, ovoid or spherical, stipitate.
Stipe continued up into the columella and giving off branches
which anastomose more or less freely to form the capillitium,
the ultimate tips free. Peripheral net generally wanting but
in some cases imperfectly developed.

16. Comatricha nigra (Pers) Schroter. — Sporangia scat-
tered, erect, ovoid, stipitate. Stipe relatively long, slender and
tapering upward, about 2mm in length. Expanded capillitium
.3mmx.6mm. Peridium evanescent. Hypothallus none. Colu-
mella extending to about the middle of tihe sporangium where it
dissolves in capillitial branches. Capillitirim consisting of a
tangled net of dark brown, stiff, uniformly thickened threads
which arise from all parts of the colurr.ella, branching and
anastomosing to form the net. Free ends and short peridial
processes are numerous at the periphery. Spores violaceous
brown by transmitted light, smooth or nearly so, 7 — 9^ in
diameter.

A very neat, trim looking little species found 011 decaying
Abies balsamea and other conifers.

17. Comatriclia stemonitis (Scop.) Sheldon.— Sporangia
gregarious, cylindrical, stipitate. Total height, 3 — 4mm. Stipe
black and shining one-fourth to one- third the total height.
Hypothallus distinct. Columella reaching nearly to the summit
of the sporangium, becoming weak and flexuous in its upper

190 THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE.

parts, or, in some cases, terminating abruptly at the apex of the
sporangium in an enlarged extremity which gives rise to a
number of branches. Interior scaffolding of the capillitium
dense, of stout purplish brown threads. Peripheral net stemo-
uitis-like but discontinuous an 1 ueneraUy more fully developed
towards the base of the sporangium. Free ends common, often
bifurcated. Spores violaceous grey by transmitted light,
marked with a few scattered, umlbo-like warts,, the areas between
these roughened, Avarted, or reticulated, 6 — 7.5/iin diameter.

On decaying conifers.

This appears to be a very variable species. The only con-
stant spore character is the presence of the um'bo-like warts. I
have specimens in which the surface between these is beautifully
reticulated, others in which it is roughened, and still others
where it is minutely warted. The extent to which a^ peripheral
net is developed is also subject to great variation.

Family, LAMPKODERME^E.

This family is characterized by the capillitium being
developed chiefly or solely from the summit of tihe columella.
It is represented in my collections by but one species of the genus
Lamproderma.

Genus, Lamproderma II<>M.

Sporangia distinct, stipitate. Stipe black. Capillitium
consisting of branched anastomosing threads radiating from the
upper part of the columella. The peridium is shining, irides-
cent and somewhat persistent, particularly at the base of the
sporangium.

18. Lamproderma arcyrionema Host. — Sporangia distinct,
gregarious, stipitate. Total height lmm or sligftitly exceeding
this. Stipe relatively long, tapering upward about .6mm in
length. Diameter of expanded capillit inni about .5mm. Peri-
dinni falling away except at the base where it persists as a
Oolumolla reaching to about the middle of the spor-

THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE. 191

angium where it divides into the primary branches of the
capillitium. These repeatedly divide and anastomose to form
a crisped net of purple brown threads. Free ends short.
Spores pale purplish grey by transmitted light, nearly smooth,
C — 7 /i in diameter.

O'n decaying Abies balsamea, not rare.

Order III.
CRIBKAEIACE^E.

This order is characterized by the entire absence of a
capillitium and by the color of the spores which are either
pallid or some shade of brown without any violet tint. In the
less highly developed forms the fructifications are plasmodio-
carpous or aethaloid ; in the higher forms they consist of distinct
sporangia. In these, too, the peridium becomes locally thickened
and at maturity the unthickened portions break away, leaving
the modified portions in the form of a closed net of flat bands
or plates.

Family, LICE^E.

Fructification plasmodiocarpous.

The family is represented in my collections by a single
species.

Genus, Licea (Schrader) Rost.

The generic characteristics are well exemplified by—
19. Licea varidbillis Schrader. — Fructification plasmodio-
carpous, irregular, annulate, repent, varying greatly in size,
dark red brown in color. The peridium is double, the outer
opaque, filled with particles of refuse matter ; the inner smooth,
delicate, translucent. Spores pale yellowish by transmitted
light, large, strongly spinulose, 13 — 14/u, in diameter.
On decaying Pinus strobus, not common.

Family, TUBIFERE^E.

Fructification aethaloid, the sporangia tubular, seated on a
v\cll dr-vclnpcd livpothallus, closely appressed, numerous and in

192 THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNT?. — MOORE.

one or more series ; typically rupturing irregularly at the apex.
This family is represented in my collections by two species.

Genus, Linbladia Fries.

Sporangia compacted on a spongy hypothiallus in one or
more series, short, tubular. When in a single series sometimes
distinct and sihort stipitate. Peridium containing numerous
dark granules. Spores olivaceous.

20. Linbladia effusa (Ehr.) Host. — Sporangia compacted
in a thick spongy hypothallus in a single series (in all. of my
collections), tubular, about lmm high and .5 — .75mm in diameter,
almost black. Walls of the sporangia membranous with numer-
ous small, round, dark granules. Fructifications frequently
covering considerable areas, as large as 20 x 15cm. Spores
almost colorless by transmitted light, smooth, 6.5 — 7 A1 in
diameter.

On decaying logs and on leaf mould in coniferous woods.
Common.

Genus, Tubifera Gmelin.

Fructification sethaloid formed of closely appressed cylindri-
cal sporangia seated on a well developed hypothallus. . The side
walls are grown together but the individual sporangia are never-
theless, clearly discernible. SpoTangia rupturing at the apex.

21. Tubifera ferruginosa (Batsch Macbr. — Sporangia long,
tubular, cylindrical or prismatic from mutual pressure, convex
above, appressed together to form a pulvinate sethalium, sessile
on a well developed hypothallus. Walls of the sporangia mem-
branous. Spore mass umber brown. The setlhalia may cover an
area of several square centimetres. The individual sporangia
are from 2mm to 4mm in height and about .5mm in diameter.
Spores almost colorless by transmitted light, delicately reticu-
lated over the greater portion of their surface, 6.5 — 7 /A in
diameter.

On decaying Psuga canadensis and other conifers. Common.

THE MYXOMYCETES OF P1CTOU COUNTY. — MOORE. 193

Family, CEIBEAKIEJE.

Fructifications of distinct sporangia. The peridium be-
comes locally thickened and at maturity the unmodified parts
fall away, leaving the thickened portions in the form of a
closed net of flat bands or plates. The plasmodia live in decay-
ing wood and issue from this for fructification in the form of
small, slimy lumps, each of which gives rise to a sporangium.

The family is represented in my collections by four species,
three of which belong to the genus Oibraria and one to 1ihe
genus Dictydium.

Genus,, Cribraria (Pers) Schrader.

Sporangia distinct, stipitate. The thickenings of the
peridium take the form of a delicate persistent net of ban&-
like filaments with thickenings at the nodes. The lower part
of Ijhe peridium generally persists in toto to form the so-<?alled
calyculus, .strengthened by radiating ribs marked by dark plas-
modic granules.

22. Cribraria argillacea Persoon. — Sporangia umber brown,
crowded, spherical, stipitate,, about .5mm in diameter. Stipe
brown, stout, short, about .3mm long. Peridium persistent and
in the lower part marked by thickenings in the form of broad,
dark brown, radiating bands with numerous plasmodic granules ;
above this the bands become narrower and anastomose, but do
not present thickenings at the nodes ; on the top of the sporangia
there is observable, here and there, a tendency to form thicken-
ings at the nodes, and the net becomes more typically cribraria
like. Spores light brown in mass, pale by transmitted light,
distinctly warted, about 6. 5 /A in diameter.

On decaying Abies balsamea. Rare. The largest fruc-
tification whicn. I have seen covers an area 5 x 5mm.

23. Cribraria macrocarpa Schrader. — Sporangia gregarious,
spherical, stipitate, nodding, umber brown or yellowish brown
in color, about .Ymm in diameter. Stipe about 1.5mm long, .08mm

194 THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE.

in diameter, at the base, tapering upward. Calyculus with
radiating ribs, the margin toothed, the teeth merging into the
net above. The nodes are flattened, elongated and confluent near
the calyculus; in the upper parts, prominent, polygonal and
angular, the angles continued into the connecting threads. These
latter are delicate and free ends are common. The meshes ctf
the net are 3 — 5sided. Spores almost colorless by transmitted
light, slightly roughened. 5 — 6ft in diameter.

This is with us a rather common species forming large
fructifications on decaying Psuga canadensis and other conifers.
The largest fructification which I have met with was 30 x 10cm.

24. Cribraria dictydioides Cke and Balf. — Sporangia gre-
garious, spherical, small, .5mm in diameter, cernuous. Stipe
lmm long, dark. Calyculus well developed marked with radiat-
ing lines of dark plasmodic granules, the margin denticulate.
Tihe nodes of the net are dark brown, connected by rather broad
hyaline threads radiating from the angles. Free ends numer-
ous. In the lower part of the net the nodes are more elongated
and branching. Spores almost colorless by transmitted light,
faintly warted, 7 — 8 p in diameter.

On decaying conifers of various species. Kot rare.-

Genus, Dictydium (Schrad.) Eost.

Sporangia distinct. Peridium with narrow band-like thick-
enings on the inner surface, , radiating from the attachment of
the stipe to the top of tihe sporangium and connected by delicate
transverse thickenings. In the mature condition, the unthickened
portions disappear and the thickenings persist as a basket-like
structure with rectangular meshes, enclosing the spore mass.

25. Dictydium cancellatum (Batsch.) Macbr. — Sporangia
closely gregarious, depressed globose, cernuous. The older
sporangia become umbilicate at the top; .5mm in diameter or
slightly larger. Stipe .6 — 2.4mm in length, tapering upward, at
the top weak, twisted and white. Calyculus generally wanting.

THE MYXOMYCETES OF PlCTOU COUNTY. — MOORE. 195

Spores brown or purplish in mass, reddish by transmitted light,
smooth, 6.5 — 7.5/Ain diameter.

This is undoubtedly our most common Myxomycete occur-
ring on decaying wood of a variety of deciduous and coniferous
trees, but much more frequently of the latter.

OMer IV.
LYCOGALACE^E.

Sporangia fused together to form an sethalium with a tough
membranous outer covering. Capillitium consisting of branched
smooth or wrinkled tubules. The order contains but a single
genus, represented in my collections by one species.

Genus., Lycogala Micheli.

^Ethalia conical or depressed globose, with an outer cover-
ing consisting of two sharply denned layers ; the outer contain-
ing vesicles filled with air and traversed by flattened tubes which
are continuous with the tubes of the capillitium. Capillitium
a system of branching tubules arising as above stated and with
numerous free, rounded ends.

26. Lycogala epidendrum (Buxb.) Fries. — ^Ethalia de-
pressed globose, most commonly appearing in clusters on
decaying wood ; they often vary in size in the same cluster from
omm to lcm in diameter. Color pinkish grey. Cortex papery,
the spores escaping by an irregular rupture at the apex. Capil-
litium consisting of numerous branched tubules with wrinkled
and roughened walls and numerous rounded free ends. Spore
mass pinkish grey. Spores almost colorless by transmitted
light, their surfaces roughened in ridges, wh'ch on some parts
take the form of an irregular reticulation 6 — 7 ^ in diameter.

This is the most puffball-like of the Myxomycetes. It is
very common on decaying conifers from which the plasmodium
issues in the form of rosy globular masses of protoplasm. With
us it is the first to appear in the spring, beginning to fruit about
the first of June.

196 THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE.

Order V.
MAKGAEITACE/E.

This order is thus characterized by Lister : " Sporangia
normally sessile, sporangium wall single, smooth, translucent;
capillitium abundant, not consisting of separate elaters nor com-
bined into a net; spores pinkish or yellowish grey."

Genus, Margarita Lister.

" Sporangia globose ; capillitium a profuse web of coiled
hair-like, sparingly branched, slender, solid threads with
indistinct attachments to the sporangium wall."

27. Margarita pictoviana Sp. !N"ov. — Sporangia small,
depressed globose, sessile, clustered, at times confluent and
irregular in form, brown in color with a metallic lustre when
fresh, .5 — lm in diameter when regular. Peridium single,
smooth translucent pale yellowish by transmitted light with
scattered included concolorous granules. Capillitium not
copious, of delicate somewhat flattened hair-like threads papil-
lose along both margins, the flattened surface roughened, rarely
branching and occasionally shewing attachments to the peri-
clium; threads about 2/>t in maximum diameter. Spores pale
yellowish by transmitted light, spinulose 11 — 13.5/>t in diameter.
Spore mass pinkish grey. Collected on decorticated decaying
Psuga canadensis at Pictou, !N". S., September 23rd, 1905.

Order VI.
TRICHIACE.E.

Fructifications of distinct sporangia, rarely plasmodio-
carpous. Capillitium consisting of definite threads, free or
attached to the sporangial wall or united to form an elastic net.
Generally marked with thickenings in the forms of warts,
spines, spirals, rings, cogs, etc.

THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE. 197

Family, AECYIE^E.

Characterized by the capillitium forming a distinct elastic
net attached below to the sporangial wall. The thickenings on
the threads take the farm of spines, warts, cogs, half ring, etc.,
often arranged in a spiral but never take the form of continuous
spiral bands. The family is represented in my collections by
four species all of the genus Arcyria.

Genus,, Arcyria (Hill) Pers.

Fructifications of distinct stipitate sporangia ; the peridium
evanescent above, persistent below as a calyculus. Capillitium
a more or less elastic net without free ends, attached below to
the interior of the stipe or to the calyculus. The threads or
tubules are marked with spines^ cogs, half rings, etc. The stipe
is hollow and filled with spore-like cells or vesicles.

28. Arcyria nuians (Bull.) Grev. — Sporangia cylindrical,
distinct, stipitate crowded on ,a well developed hypothallus,
dusky yellow in color and about 7mm in total height. Stipe
generally long, 5mm in length, and weak, filled with spore-like
vesicles. Capillitium expanding to form a very loose, drooping
net, dusky yellow in color, one^half to three-fourth of a centi-
metre in length, loosely attached to the calyculus, the tubules
are marked with close-set spines and cogs arranged in an open
spiral, and in addition to these their surface frequently shew
faint reticulations. Calyculus spinulose within. Spores pale
by transmitted light, very slightly roughened, 7 — 10 ^ in
diameter.

A common species occurring on decaying wood of various
conifers.

29. Arcyria incarnata, Persoon. — Sporangia closely crowded,
cylindrical, stipitate, 1 — 1.5mm in total height. Stipe
short, about .25mm long, or reduced to a mere point beneath
the calyculus, dark colored, furrowed and filled with spore-
like cells. Calyculus plicate to the margin and spinulose.

198 THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY.— MOORE.

Capillitium a loose net of pink or rose-colored threads, 3 — 3.5 AI
wide, attached by a few strands which run to the centre of the
stipe. The strands or tubules are marked with rather distant
cogs and half rings arranged in an open spiral. Perforated
plate-like expansions are found here and there at the nodes,
more particularly in the lower portion of the net. Free ends
are occasionally found but are rare. Spores colorless by trans-
mitted light, almost smooth or slightly roughened and with a
few scattered warts, 7 — 8 /A in diameter.

A common species found on decaying Populus tremuloides,
Fagus ferruginea and Abies balsamea.

30. Arcyria denudata (Linn.) Sheldon. — Sporangia gre-
garious, cylindrical stipitate; total height with expanded
capillitium 3 — 4mm. Stipe about lmm, filled with spore-like
cells 12 — 14 /A in diameter. Calyculus plicate, smooth; capilli-
tium, a net of rosy threads fading to dusky yellow, 3 — 4/A wide
'and adorned with distant cogs and half rings arranged in the
form of .an open spiral. Near the calyculus the threads are
almost smooth. The capillitium is attached to the calyculus at
many points and hence is not deciduous. Spores colorless by
transmitted light, smooth, about 7 /A in diameter.

Found on decaying conifers ; not rare.

31. Arcyria cinerea (Bull.) Pers. — Sporangia gregarious,
cylindrical or somewhat broader at the base, stipitate, ash
colored. Stipe variable in length, in some gatherings .T5mm
long, in others, the sporangia are almost sessile. Total height
of sporangia with expanded capillitium, 2 — 2.5mm. Stipe dark,
of almost uniform thickness, hollow, filled with spore-like cells.
Calyculus plicate at the base. Capillitium a close net attached
at many points to the calyculus. The peripheral portions of the
net consist of threads or tubules 3 — 3. 5 /A wide adorned with
close-sot spines and presenting many plate-like expansions at the
nodes and elsewhere. The interior portions of the net and also
the part near the calyculus consist of tubules somewhat wider

THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE. 199

and almost smooth. Spores colorless by transmitted light,
granular., 6 — 7ft in diameter. The fructifications of this species
are with us frequently large, in some cases, extending over an
area 20 — 30cm long and several centimetres wide, with numer-
ous sporangia.

A fairly common species found on the decaying wood of
various deciduous and coniferous trees.

Family, TKICHIEzE.

Capillitium consisting of free elaters or of tubules con-
nected to form a loose net with many free ends. The elaters or
tubules are marked with spiral thickenings.

This family is represented in my collections by six species,
three of the genus Hemitrichia and three of the genus Tricliia.

Hemitrichia Kost.
Capillitium consisting of a net of branching anastomosing
tubules with many free ends, and marked with regular spiral
thickenings.

32. ITemitrichia vesparium (Batsch) Macbr.- — Sporangia
crowded, sessile, clavate, of a deep red color and with a metallic
lustre. Capillitium a loose net of orange colored threads about
6/4 wide with numerous free ends. The threads are adorned
writh a number of spiral bands and beset with numerous long
spines. Spores yellowish by transmitted light, strongly warted,
10 — 11 1*> in diameter.

On decaying Populus trenuloides. Rare.

33. Hemitrichia stipata (Schw.) Macbr. — Sporangia closely
crowded on a well developed hypothallus, stipitate, cylindrical
or somewhat irregular from mutual pressure. Copper colored
and shining when fresh becoming dark red brown when old.
Total height about 1.5mm. Stipe short, .5mm in length, dark red
brown, striaite, hollow, filled with spore-like cells. The lower
part of the peridium persists as a plicate calyculus to which the
eapillitium is attached at a few points. Capillitium a loose net

200 THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE.

with many free swollen ends, the threads beset with short spines,,
and adorned with a number of very faint spiral lines. The
threads or tubules are about 3. 5 /A wide. Spores colorless by
transmitted light, marked with a few small scattered warts,,
6.5 — 8. 5 fJL in diameter.

On decaying Populus grandidentata. 'Not common.

34. Hemitrichia stipitata Massee. — Sporangia scattered,
stipitate, obovoid, dusky yellow. Total height with expanded
capillitium about 2.5mm. Stipe about one-half the total height,
dark colored, hollow, filled with spore-like cells. The lower por-
tion of the peridium persists as a calyculus extending to about
one-third the height of the capillitium, its interior surface
covered by minute papilla?. The capillitium consists of a" close
net of even brown threads, 6 — 6.5 ^ wide, adorned with a num-
ber of regular spiral ridges, somewhat closely wound. Free
ends are not evident. Spores colorless by transmitted light,,
minutely warted, about 7/4 in diameter.

On decaying Pinus strobus. Common.

Genus, Trichia (Haller) Rost.

Capillitium of free elaters, simple or branched, and adorned
with a number of spiral ridges. Sporangia sessile or stipitate.
Spores generally yellow.

35. Trichia inconspicua Rostafinski. — Sporangia gregar-
ious, small, spherical, ellipsoid reniform or arcuate, sessile, red
brown in color. The elaters are brown, simple, 3 — 4/4 wide,
marked with a number of close-wound spiral ridges projecting
sharply. The ends are somewhat swollen behind the curved
or hooked tips which are sometimes bifurcated. Spores yellow-
ish by transmitted light, papillose, about 10/4 in diameter. The
gathering which I have referred to this species combines many
of the characteristics of Trichia inconspicua Host., and Trichia
contorta (Ditmar) Rost, as given by Dr. Macbride (N. A. Slime
moulds, pp. 210, 211.) The sporangia shew a strong tendency

THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE. 201

to form elongated, curved plasmodiocarps, while the elaters are
long, slender and even (with the exception of the extremities),
and the spirals regularly wound. The extremities, on the other
hand, are frequently swollen behind the curved tips.

On the inner side of fallen bark of Fagus ferruginea. Bare.

36. Trichia varia (Pers.) Host. — Sporangia closely
crowded, spherical, or contorted^, dusky yellow, shining when
fresh, sessile, about .75mm in diameter when regular. Elaters
simple, 4 — 5u wide, somewhat irregular in outline, marked
with two spiral ridges irregularly wound and projecting sharply.
They narrow abruptly at the ends, which are 12 — 14/* long
and marked almost to the tips with faint spiral lines. Imme-
diately behind the ends, the elaters sometimes show a slight
enlargement and spinous outgrowths, sometimes curved, are not
uncommon. The ends also sometimes terminate in two or three
sharp tips. Spores pale yellowish by transmitted light, almost
smooth, 13 — 14 p in diameter.

On decaying Populus grandidentata. oSTot common.

37. TriMa decipiens (Pers.) Macbr. — Sporangia closely
gregarious, obovoid dusky yellow or olivaceous yellow, stipitate ;
total height about 2mm, diameter .8mm. Stipe furrowed, hollow,
filled with spore-like cells. Elaters simple, about 5/u- wide,
marked with three spiral ridges not traceable to the ends which
are long and tapering. Spores almost colorless by transmitted
light, reticulated, 11 — 12/A in diameter.

On decaying Populus grandidentata. "Not common.

202 THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOOKE.

WOKKS OF REFERENCE.

" Linne Systema Naturae." Gmelin 1788

" Synopsis Methodica Fungorum." D. C. H. Persoon 1801

" Mycologia Europsea." C. H. Persoon , 1822

'^'Systema Mycologicum." Elias Fries 1829

" On the Mycetozoa." A. deBary — abstract published in the Annals

and Magazine of Natural History, Ser. 3, vol. 5 1860

" Morphologic und Physiologic der Pilz, Flechten and Myxomyceten."

deBary 1866

" De 1'influence de Fattraction terrestre sur la direction des plasmodia

des Myxomycetes." S. Rosanoff . . . . i 1869

" Die Pilzthiere oder Schleimpilze." W. Zopf 1885

" Notes on the plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis and Brefeldia

maxima." A. Lister 1888

" Notes on the ingestion of food material by the swarm cells of

Mycetozoa." A. Lister 1889

" A monograph of the Myxogastres." Massee 1892

" On the division of nuclei in the Mycetozoa." A. Lister 1893

" A monograph of the Mycetozoa." A. Lister 1894

" Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien." Engler & Prantl. 1 Teil. 1

Abteilung* 1897

" Notes on some physiological properties of a Myxomycete plas-
modium." J. B. Clifford 1897

"North American slime moulds." T. H. Macbride . 1899

TRANS. X. S. INST. SC., VOIy. XII.

I,ATE IX.

THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE. 203

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX.

3. — Leocarpus fragilis (Dicks.) Host. A. — Sketch of a few sporangia
shewing habit of growth. B. — A portion of that part of the capil-
litium filled with granules x 166. C. — Portion of hyaline part of
same x 166. D. — A group of spores x 166.

13. — Cribaria macrocarpa Schrad. A.. — Sketch of a sporangium. B. —
Portion of wall of sporangium after spore dispersal taken from
upper part of net x 166. C. — Spores x 300.

9. — Plasmodiophora brassicae Woron. A. — Sketch of a turnip shewing
distorted growth due to parasite. B. — Portion of a section through
one of the irregular swellings shewing cells filled with the spores of
the species x 300.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XII. TRANS.

204 THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE X

2.—Didymium melanospermum (Pers.) Macbr. A. — Columella shewing
origin of capillitial filaments x 33. B. — Spores x 250. C. — Portion
of the peridium with capillitial threads attached x 166. D. — Stellate
lime crystals from peridium. E. — Diagrammatic section of sporan-
gium shewing relations of columella, capillitium and peridium.

7. — Stemonitis 'maxima Schweinitz. A. — Portion of columella and capil-
litium x 500. B. — Spores x 500. C. — Sketch of cluster of sporangia,
shewing habit of growth.

8. — Fuligo ovata (Schaeff. ) Macbr. A. — Sketch of an aethalium shewing
habit of growth. B. — Portion of capillitium x 300. C. — Spores
x 300.

TRANS, x. s. IXST. sc., voi,. xu.

B

TRAXS. N. S. INST. SC., VOI,. XII.

PI.ATK XI.

B

A

A.

THE MYXOMYCETES OF PICTOU COUNTY. — MOORE. 205

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI.

5. — Arcyria denudata (Linn.) Sheldon. A. — A portion of tubule of capil-
litial net.

6. — Hemitrichia stipata (Schw. ) Macbr. A. — Free end of a capillitial
tubule x 450. B. — Spores x 450.

1. — Physarum globuliferum (Bull) Pers. A. — Portion of capillitium.
B. — Spores x 450.

4. — Dictydium cancellatum (Batsch) Macbr. A. — Sketch of sporangium
and upper part of stipe. B. — A portion of the wall of a sporangium
after spore dispersal x 250. C. — Spores.

206

THE MYXOMYCETES OF P1CTOU COUNTY.— MOORE.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII.

14. — Margarita pictoviana Sp. nov. A. — Group of sporangia shewing habit
of growth. B. — Spores x 750. C. — Portion of capillitia] thread
x 750.

^2. — Comatricha stemonitis (Scop) Sheldon. A. — Terminal part of
columella and capillitium in one collection made x 96. B. — Spores
of same x 450.

11. — Licea variabilis Schrader. A. — Sketch of plasmodioc,°rpous fructifica-
tion x 8. B. — Spores x 450.

10. — Lycogala epidendrum (Buxb.) Fries. A. — Sketch shewing a cluster
of aethalia. B. — Portion of a capillitial tubule shewing free ends.
C. — Spores.

TRANS. X. S. IXST. SC., VOTV. XII.

PJ,ATF, XIT.

C

14

A

THE INFLUENCE OF ALUMINIUM SALTS ON THE ESTIMATION
OF SULPHATES. — BY H. JERMAIN M. CKEIGHTON, M. A.,
Birmingham University, Birmingham, England.

i

Read 24th April, 1909.

During an experience extending over three years, in the
estimation of sulphur in coal gas, the writer at various timer
observed the presence of a flocculent white precipitate in the
liquid which resulted from the condensation of the vapours
formed by the burning of the gas. The following investigation
was therefore carried out with a view to determining the
nature of this precipitate and the influence its presence had
on the estimation of the sulphur present in the liquid. It
may be mentioned here that the amount of sulphur in coal gas
was determined by burning a known volume of the latter in a
special burner which was surrounded with lumps of ammonium
carbonate. Over the burner fitted a large glass tube, up which
the gases of combustion passed into a glass tower filled with
glass balls. On coming in contact with the cold balls, the sul-
phur dioxide, ammonia, water vapour, etc., condensed and were
caught in a beaker placed beneath the tower. After oxidation,
the sulphur in this liquid was determined by precipitation with
barium chloride. It was in this liquid which I shall refer to as
the " sulphur solution/' that the white flocculent precipitate
referred to was frequently observed.

It should be pointed out that the coal from which the gas
was generally made was that supplied by the Dominion Coal Co.,
in Cape Breton; and that analysis showed it to be very often
high in sulphur. On several occasions where different American
coals low in sulphur were used, no such precipitate occurred.

This white precipitate readily dissolved in dilute hydro-
chloride acid, and was re-precipitated by ammonium hydroxide

(207)

208 INFLUENCE OF ALUMINIUM SALTS ON THE

but not by sodium hydroxide. On heating some of the washed
precipitate on charcoal, allowing it to cool, and heating again
after moistening with cobalt nitrate solution, the mass became
sky blue on cooling a second time. A qualitative analysis proved
this precipitate to contain aluminum only.

As the only source of aluminium seemed to be the glass balls
in the condensing tower, many of the bottom ones being greatly
corroded, an analysis of them was made. The sodium carbonate
used for fusing was free from aluminium. These balls were
found to contain a quantity of aluminium.

The weight of this white precipitate which was present in
the alkaline " sulphur solution " in the form of hydroxide,
usually varied from 10 to 40 milligrams.

Peckham* has observed that when sulphates are precipitated
by barium chloride in the presence of aluminium, the p-recipitate
is contaminated with aluminium, and hence its weight is greater
than that which corresponds to the actual amount of sulphur
present. This case is similar to that which occurs in the precipi-
tation of sulphates in the presence of ferric salts. The following
experiments were carried out to determine whether the amounts
of aluminium usually present in the " sulphur solutions"
caused any marked error in the sulphur estimation.

Two sets of experiments were carried out. On the one hand,
varying amounts of an aluminum salt were added to constant
amounts of sulphate solution; on the other hand, constant
amounts of the aluminium salt were added to varying quanti-
ties of the sulphate solution. The sulphate in each case was
determined by precipitation with barium chloride.

The sulphate used was the ammonium salt. The strength
of this solution was about ten grams per litre. The object of
using the ammonium salt was to reproduce as far as possible the
conditions existing in the above mentioned sulphur estimation.
- The aluminium salt used was the chloride. This solution,
which was prepared by dissolving pure aluminium in hydro-

*Peckham J., Arner. Chem. Soc., 1899, 21, 772.

ESTIMATION OF SULPHATES. — CREIGHTON.

209

chloric acid, contained one gram per litre ; or 1 cc. was equiva-
lent to one milligram of the metal.

The precipitation of the sulphate was carried out at 100° C.,
and the precipitate was allowed to digest in the hot (80 — 90° C.)
liquid for three or four hours before filtering.

The results given in the following tables are the means of
three analyses.

The experimental error in this work is ± 0.0008 grams.

In the first table are given the results obtained by adding
various amounts aluminium chloride solution to 50 cc. of
ammonium sulphate solution.

TABLE 1.

Volume of

Volume of

Weight of

Increase in

Ammonium

Aluminium

Barium

Weight due to

Sulphate
Solution used.

Chloride
Solution used.

Sulphate
Precipitate.

the presence of
Aluminium.

cc.

cc.

grams

grams

50 . 00

0 8649

50.00

10.00

0.8651

0.0006

50.00

15.00

0.8672

0.0023

50.00

20.00

0.8699

0.0050

50.00

25.00

0.8714

0.0065

50.00

35.00

0.8710

0.0061

50.00

50.00

0.8711

0.0062

The second table gives the results obtained by adding a
constant volume of aluminium chloride solution to different
volumes of ammonium sulphate solution.

210

INFLUENCE OF ALUMINIUM SALTS ON THE

TABLE 2.

Volume of
Ammonium
Sulphate
used.

Volume of
Aluminium
Chloride
used.

Weight of
Barium
Sulphate
Precipitate.

Increase in
Weight due to
the presence of
Aluminium.

cc.
10.00

cc.

grams
0 1729

grams

10.00
30.00

25.00

0.1738
0.5193

0.0011

30.00
50.00

25.00

0.5235
0.8650

0.0042

50.00
80.00

25.00

0.8714
1.3838

0.0064

80.00
100.00

25.00

1.3950
1.7362

0.0112

100.00

25.00

1.7501

0.0139

From the foregoing results, it is seen that the effect of the
presence of small quantities of aluminium chloride is to produce
a material increase in the weight of the barium sulphate pre-
cipitate. With increasing amounts of aluminium chloride and
a constant amount of sulphate present, the weight of aluminium
taken up by the barium sulphate at first increases and then
remains constant, while in the second case, where the amount
of sulphate is varied, the degree of contamination of the barium
sulphate is proportional to the weight of sulphate used. These
results are similar to those obtained by Schneider* for iron. In
a solution containing 0.5 gram of ammonium sulphate and 0.025
gram of aluminium there would be an error of about 1 per cent,
in the estimation of the sulphur present, as carried out in the
ordinary way.

Although it is well known that ammonium carbonate cannot
be kept in clay or stoneware jars on account of its action upon
them, the presence of ammonium carbonate round the gas burner
is not sufficient to explain the corrosion of the glass balls in the

*Schneider, E. A., Zeit. f. physik. Chem., 1892, 10, 425

ESTIMATION OF SULPHATES. — CREIGHTON. 211

condensation tower ; for if such were the case one would expect
to find aluminium hydroxide continually present in the " sul-
phur solution " instead of only occasionally. It is important
to note that this aluminium precipitate only occurs when the gas
contains a large quantity of sulphur, which I may mention is
mostly present in some organic form. This consideration leads
me to believe that there is probably a connection between the
formation of this aluminium hydroxide and the amount of sul-
phur, and the condition in which it exists, in the coal; more
especially as the Oape Breton coals contain, for the most part,
a large percentage of sulphur organically combined, and conse-
quently not completely removed in the purification of the gas,
while this is not the case with the American co>als referred to.
It is hoped in a future paper to give a complete explanation of
this behaviour. In conclusion, I would point out the advisabil-
ity of using glass balls that are free from aluminium, in deter-
mining sulphur in coal gas by the method here described.

Birmingham University, February 26th, 1909.

THE ACTION OF ORGANIC SULPHUR IN COAL DURING THE
COKING PROCESS. — By A. L. MCCALLUM, B. Sc., Halifax.

Read 12th February, 1908.

I was led to undertake this investigation by the conflicting
statements of the authorities as to the action of organic sulphur
during the coking process. Some say that the whole of the
organic sulphur remains in the coke, others that part is volatil-
ized, and still others that all the organic sulphur is driven off
in the coking process. It is barely possible that all these state-
ments are true of different coals, but I wanted, if possible, to
find out what was the case with a typical Nova Scotia coking
coal.

It occurred to me that if I could get a series of samples with
a decreasing amount of inorganic sulphur and an increasing
amount of organic, I would be able to get some data on the
above subject, by 'determining the amount of inorganic and
organic sulphur, and at the same time the amounts of volatile
and fixed sulphur in the various samples.

It might be well at this point to say a few words as to the
manner in which sulphur occurs in coal. To the best of our
knowledge sulphur occurs in three forms in coal:— (1) as
sulphates; (2) as iron pyrites; (3) as organic sulphur.

The coal used in this investigation was practically free from
sulphates so that we have the two latter forms only *o deal with.

The action of iron pyrites when subjected to heat without
access of air is well known. There is a loss of one atom of
sulphur according to the equation Fe S,= Fe S + S. The coke
oven presents ample time and the necessary conditions for this
reaction to be complete.

(212)

THE ACTION OF ORGANIC SULPHUR IN COAL. McCALLUM. 213

Not knowing in what state of combination the organic
sulphur occurs in coal, it is impossible to say what effect the
heat of the coke oven will have. It was, as previously stated,
in an attempt to throw some light on this question, that the
investigation was undertaken.

Now to return to our coal samples. The only way o
obtain such a series of samples as previously mentioned, viz. :
with decreasing inorganic and increasing organic sulphur was
to fractionate the co<al on the basis of specific gravity, that is
separate it into several fractions of gradually decreasing specific
gravity. The means used to accomplish this were solutions of
calcium chloride of varying specific gravities. The coal used
was crushed to pass through fa inch mesh screen and was
then placed in a vessel containing a solution of calcium chloride
of slightly higher specific gravity than that of the coal.

For instance, the raw coal was found to have a specific
gravity of 1.323. For this a calcium chloride solution of 1.35
specific gravity was used. This separated the coal into two
fractions having the following specific gravities: the lighter
material 1.275, and the heavier 1.731.

Part of this lighter or floating fraction was reserved for
analysis and the remainder was treated with a calcium chloride
solution of lower specific gravity. This procedure was kept
up until, at a specific gravity of 1.24, there was no floating
fraction.

Between these two extremes I obtained five fractions of the
following respective specific gravities :

No. 1 1.323

No. 2 1.275-

No. 3 1,2<>1

No. -1 '. 1.253

No. 5 . 1.243

214 THE ACTION OF ORGANIC SULPHUR IN COAL. McCALLUM.

The proximate analyses of these samples are as follows : —

TABLE I.

No.

Volatile
matter.

Fixed carbon.

Ash,

Sulphur.

Sulphur in
coke.

1 ....

35.10

59.74

5.16

2.06

1.80

2

35.92

61.57

2.51

1.29

1.17

3 ....

36.10

62.27

1.63

1.09

.85

4

37.47

61.50

1.03

.95

.78

5

37.75

61.35

.90

.88

.68

The only method at present available for the determination
of the organic sulphur in coal is by difference, and there is one
inherent source of error which, however, I think is not material.
The method referred to is as follows : — The percentage of iron
is determined. Then this iron is combined with the necessary
amount of sulphur to form iron pyrites (Fe S2 ). This amount
of sulphur is deducted from the total amount in the coal and
the balance is called organic sulphur.

The error referred to in this method is due to the fact that
it is almost certain that there is some iron present as silicate
in the " stone and shale" which are always present in, the coal.
But as the percentage of iron in the " stone and shale " rarely
exceeds 3 per cent, and the percentage of stone and shale in the
coal under consideration rarely exceeds 5 per cent, of the coal
by weight, it will readily be seen that any error introduced will
be exceedingly small.

Applying this method to the samples under consideration,
we obtain the figures given in Table II.

TABLE II.

No, Organic sulphur. Inorganic sulphur.

1 37.86% 62.14%.

2 56.59% 43.41%

3 71.56% 28.44%

i 83.16% 16.84%

5 85.23% 14.77%

THE ACTION OF ORGANIC SULPHUR IN COAL. — McCALLUM. 215

We have thus clearly obtained a series of samples with
gradually decreasing inorganic and increasing organic sul-
phurs.

There is also another way in which the total sulphur may
bp distributed, viz. : as volatile and fixed sulphur ; meaning >f
course, that sulphur which escapes during the coking process
and that which remains in the coke.

The method used in obtaining this information is to first
determine the total sulphur in the coal and then the total sul-
phur in the coke produced from that particular coal. From this
it is easy to calculate the amount of sulphur volatilized.

Table III gives the figures thus obtained.

TABLE III.
No. Volatile sulphur. Fixed sulphur.

1 33.49% 66.51%

2 42.64% 57.36%

3 50.46% 49.54%

4 49.47% 50.46%

5 52.27% 47.73%

There is not the same regularity as shown in Table II, but
there seems to be an increase in the amount of volatile sulphur
in those samples having a high percentage of organic sulphur.

Now if the only sulphur volatilized was the one atom of
sulphur in pyrites according to the above mentioned squation,
we can calculate what the percentage of volatile sulphur should
be-; because the sulphur called inorganic is assumed to be
present as iron pyrites. So that if we take half the inorganic
sulphur it should correspond with the percentage of volatile
sulphur if the above supposition is true, and also if there is no
organic sulphur volatilized.

216 THE ACTION OF ORGANIC SULPHUR IN COAL. — McCALLUM

The result of this calculation is given in Table IV.
TABLE IV.

No.

One half the
Inorganic sulphur.

Volatile sulphur.

Difference.

1 .

31.07

33.49

2.42

2

21.70

42.64

20.94

3 .

14.22

50.46

36.24

4 ,
5

8.42
7.38

49.47
52.27

41.05
44.89

This would seem to indicate that when the inorganic sul-
phur was in excess the above supposition is approximately true,
but that it does not hold at all when the organic is in excess.
It seems rather strange why this should be so unless it is due
to mass action.

I think we are perfectly justified in concluding that in the
coking process a very considerable part of the organic Bulphur
is volatilized.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

gcotian Institute of <$nenc£.

SESSION OF 1908-1909

SOME NOVA SCOTIAN AQUATIC FUNGI. — BY CLARENCE L.
MOOKE, M. A., Sydney, N. S.

Read llth January, 1909.

The Saprolegniinece constitute a group of the Pkycomycetes
characterized by their possession of a well developed mycelium
of more or less richly branched siphonaceous filaments and by
the production of two kinds of reproductive bodies, viz. : (1)
small, non -sexual spores, generally appearing as warm spores,
and (2) sexual spores.

The order has been divided into the following families :
A. Strictly aquatic fungi, with a mycelium of generally
stout siphonaceous filaments ; zoosporangia approximate-
ly cylindrical, not at all or little broader than the sup-
porting filaments ; sexual fertilization doubtful ; conidia
wanting.

a. Vegetable filaments of uniform thickness,

1. Saprolegniaoeae.

b. Vegetable filaments constricted at intervals.

2. Iteptomitacfice.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XII. TRANS. 15.

(217)

218 SOME NOVA SCOTIAN* AQUATIC FUNGI. — MOORE.

B. Fungi with -a mycelium of delicate thread-like hyphse,
mostly saprophytic, rarely parasitic, living in water or
facultatively in moist air ; zoosporangia generally spheri-
cal, resembling in form the oogonia and strongly marked
oft from the vegetative portions of the hyphse ; formation
of oospores preceded by a sexual act ; conidia present.

3. Pythiac <'((>.

The zoospores are produced in sporangia and are formed in
large numbers by the simultaneous division of the contents of
these organs, and, as has been stated, usually escape as swarm
spores. In all of the genera of the family Saprolegniaceoe, with
the exception of Pythiopsis, Dictyuchus, Thraustotheca and
Aplanes, the swarm spores escape as terminally biciliate
zoospores, and soon after their escape encyst. After a period
of rest, generally a few hours, they escape from their enclosing
membranes and pass through a second swarming stage as more
or less kidney shaped later-ally biciliate zoospores. After a
second encystment germination takes place. This phenomenon
is referred to as diplanetisni. In Pkytkiopsis. the second
swarming stage is suppressed and germination takes place im-
mediately upon the escaping zoospores first coming to rest. In
Dictyuckics, the zoospores encyst within the sporangia and
finally escape, each by a separate opening through the outer
wall, and then appear with lateral cilia. In this genus the first
swarming stage is suppressed. The same suppression is also
found in Thraustotheca, and in the genus Aplanes the disappear-
ance of the swarming stages is practically complete. Here the
spores germinate within the sporangium, the germ tubes push-
ing out through the wall.

The history of the swarm spores in the family Leptomitacece
has not been so completely worked out, but in the genera
Leptomitus and Apodacfdya, they appear to be diplanetic.

In the third family of the order, Phthiacece, the swarm
spores are monoplanetic.

SOME NOVA SCOT1AN AQUATIC FUNGI. — MOORE. 219

The sexual reproduction in the order is by means of
oogonia and antheridia. The former are, as a rule, spherical
and terminal on the main filaments or lateral branches, or at
times intercalary, when they may be spherical, barrel shaped or
cylindrical. The antheridia are cylindrical, club shaped or ovate
cells cut off i'rom the ends of special branches which become
appressed against the walls of the oogonia, and in some cases at
least send through the walls of the latter organs fertilisation
tubes. A modification of the common type of antheridium is
found in Saprolegnia hypogyna Pringsheim, and in Achlya
hypogyna Coker & Pemberton1. In these species an antheridial
cell is cut off from the oogonial branch by a septum a short
distance below the basal wall of the oogonium. and a tube-like
growth from this basal wall pushes up directly into the cavity
of the latter organ. In some forms antheridia are absent, and
it appears to be doubtful whether in the great majority of the
first two families of the group, even when they are present,
they have not become functionless. The contents of an oogonium
gives rise to one or more oospheres which ripen into resting
oospores and lie free in the cavity of the oogonium. The ripen-
ing process generally occupies two or more weeks. In the ripe
condition the fat contents of an oospore usually collect in one or
a few large globules. When the oil globule occupies one side of
the spore and is not included by the remaining spore contents,
the spore is described as " excentric." When the oil globule is
surrounded by the other spore contents the descriptive term
" centric " is applied. A good example of the first is found in
Achlya americana Humph., an 1 of the second condition in
Achlya apiculata DeBary.

The walls of the oogonia may be smooth or provided with
more or less numerous outgrowths ; they may become uniformly
thickened or definite areas may remain unmodified, giving rise
to pits. These unthickened areas or pits are best brought out
by treatment with chlor-zinc-iodine solution, which gives to the

220 SOME NOVA SCOTIAN AQUATIC FUNGI. — MOORE.

walls generally a color which has been described as an Indian
red, while the pits appear as light areas.

The members of the first two families grow in water on
decaying vegetable and animal remains, such as dead algse,
sticks, the bodies of insects, etc., and may readily be procured
for study by collecting some of the debris and slime from the
bottom of any more or less permanent pool and throwing on the
water the dead body of an insect such as the common house fly,
first sterilized by soaking for a short time in absolute alcohol.
In from 24 to 48 hours the body of the fly will generally be
found to be covered with a filamentous growth quite visible to
the naked eye. Several species will, as a rule, be found to have
developed, and so general is the distribution of these forms of
life, that, in my own experience, only about one attempted
culture in every twenty was a complete failure.

While the Saprolegniace.ee are normally saprophytes, various
species, of the genera Saprolegnia and AcJdya may become
facultative parasites and have been the cause of serious epidemics
among fish, the salmon appearing to be particularly suscep-
tible to their attacks. The fungus may develop on various
parts of the body of the fish, infesting the eyes and gills and
eventually causing blindness and death. The mortality among
the fresh water fish in the aquaria of the U. S. Fish Commission
at the World's Fair, Chicago, in 1892, was so great as to call
for a special investigation when the trouble was found to be due
to a Saproleynia, probably S. mixta2.

All of the forms which are herein described and figured
belong to one or other of the families, Saprolegniacece and
Leptomitacece. and were collected during 1907 and 1908 in the
vicinity of Pictou, N. S.; Lower Mt. Thorn, Pictou Co.; and
Sydney, N. S. The number is not large, but the aiea covered
was small and, in addition to those here described, a considerable
number of forms appeared in the cultures made which are not
referred to ; the observations of them not being sufficiently

SOME NOVA SCOTIAN AQUATIC FUNGI. MOORE. 22.1

complete for certain determinations. This paper will, at least,
serve to direct the attention of our botanists to the group which
will, no doubt, be found to be well represented in our flora.

Family, SAPROLEGNIACE/E.

In this family the generic divisions are based upon the
characteristics of the sporangia and zoospores ; the specific divi-
sions upon the characteristics of the sexual organs. The three
genera which have appeared in the cultures made are Sapro-
legnia, Achlya and Aphanomyces.

In the first, the zoospores escape from the sporangium by a
common moulh and swarm separately. The sporangia are, as a
rule, renewed by the filament continuing its growth up through
the empty sporangium. A second sporangium may be cut off"
before the tip reaches the top of the old sporangium and tbus
several empty sporangia may be found one within the other
(fig. 1). In a few cases, the innovation of sporangia is by
cymose branching.

In the genus Achlya the zoospores, on escaping from the
sporangium, collect to form a hollow sphere at its mouth and
there encyst (Fig. 16). The sporangia are renewed by the
filament containing its growth by a lateral branch arising at the
base of the old sporangium (Figs. 10 & 16). In both of the
preceding genera the swarm spores are produced in an indefinite
number of rows in the sporangia.

In Aphanomyces, the zoospores are produced in a single
row, and after escape encyst at the mouth of the sporangium in
the same manner as in the genus Achlya. In this genus, too,
the rule is that but one oospore is produced in an oogonium,
while in Saprolegnia and Achlya the number is generally in-
definite within certain limits.

222 SOME NOVA SCOTIAN AQUATIC FUNGI. — MOORE.

Genus, Saprolegnia Nees von Essenbeck.

8. monoica Pringsh. (Figs. 1 and 2). Hyphse robust, gener-
ally not very long. Sporangia
cylindrical. Oogonia abun-
dant, spherical, on short
generally straight lateral
branches or terminal on the
main filaments. Walls with
very large pits,oospores 2-1 2 1
usually 4-6 ; 24/*-27/-t in dia-
meter, centric. Antheridial branches, rather stout,
arising from the main filaments near the oogonial
branches, one or more to each oogonium. Antheridia
nearly cylindrical, long and partially encircling the
oogonium.

This species appeared in a culture made from material taken
from a swamp alongside Columbus Avenue, in the city of Sydney,
in May, 1908, and in November of the same year in a culture
made from a collection from a pool near the Washing Brook in
the same town.

$. diclina Humph. (Fig. 8). Hyphae as a rule not v-ery long,
rarely exceeding .5cm-. Sporangia
cylindrical. Oogonia spherical, ter-
minal on short straight lateral
branches or on the main filaments,
rarely intercalary. Walls pitted, but
the pit? are small and inconspicuous.
Oospores 4-2o, generally 8-10 in an
oogonium ; 22/u-26/Lt in diameter,
centric. Antheridial branches of
diclinous origin, delicate. Numerous
antheridia attached to each oogonium, short clavate.

This species appeared in cultures made from material taken
from a small brook flowing from Kehoe's Lake, near Sydney,
and also from material collected at Cossitt's Lake.

SOME NOVA SCOTIAN AQUATIC FUNGI. — MOORE. 223

Genus, Achlya Nees von Essenbeck.

A. americana Humph. (Fig. 4.). Hyphae long, robust.
Sporangia abundantly developed, nearly cylindrical. Oogonia
spherical, on short, straight lateral branches racemosely ar-
ranged. Walls more or less abundantly pitted. Oospores up to
15 in an oogonium, 23/<t-27/Lt in diameter, excentric. Antheridial
branches abundant, arising from the main filaments near the

oogonial branches, generally much branched. Antheridia
cylindrical, encircling to a greater or less extent the oogonia
usually several to each oogonium.

Typical representatives of this species were obtained at Mt.
Thorn, Pictou Co., and also from a swamp adjacent to Sullivan's
Brook, near Sydney. From material collected at Cossitt's Lake,
near the same town, there developed a form which may be
found to be worthy of varietal rank. In it the walls of the

224

SOME NOVA SCOTIAN AQUATIC FUNGI. — MOORE.

oogonia were covered with short, blunt, wart-like outgrowths,
and the supporting branches of the oogonia were shorter than
the typical form. Its characteristics remained constant through
several generations, but it was obtained only from the one
source. It appears to agree very closely with Trow's A.
amencana var. cambrica*.

A. deBaryana Humph. = A. polyandra deBary (Figs. 5-8).

Hyphse robust and long*
reaching one centimetre.
Sporangia produced in mod-
erate numbers — somewhat
spindle shaped, with a longer
tapering apex than in most
Achlyas, often developed in
basipetal succession. Oogonia
spherical, terminal on short,
straight lateral branches,
raceinosely arranged or on
main filaments. Walls thick-
ened, but not pitted. Oospores
2-10 in an oogonium, usually
2-5; 23/z-35/x in diameter,
exceritric. Antheridial
branches produced on fila-
ments bearing oogonia, very
long and much branched, the
branches uniting indifferently with oogonia borne on the same
filament or on others. The antheridia are long, cylindrical or
slightly clavate and wrapped about the oogonia — several to
each.

The material in which this species appeared was taken from
a pool near the Grand Lake Road, Sydney, near a large brook
flowing into Grand Lake. The walls of the oogonia, while not
definitely pitted, show a few small more lightly stained areas

SOME NOVA SCOTIAN AQUATIC FUNGI. — MOORE.

225

when treated with chlor-zinc-iodine, indicating thinner portions
probably where the germ tubes have penetrated. This is said
to be one of the commonest European species, but has not before
been described from America.

226

SOME NOVA SCOTIAN AQUATIC FUNGI. — MOORE.

A. polyandra Hild. (Fig. 9). Hyphae robust and long,
frequently exceeding a centimetre in length. Sporangia some-
what spindle shaped, not very
abundant. Oogonia terminal
on rather long lateral branches
which are generally curved
and at times helically coiled,
or terminal on the main
filaments. Walls not much
thickened, smooth and un-
pitted, slightly brownish when
old. Oospores 1-20 in an
oogonium, commonly 8-12 ;
23-30/4 in diameter, centric.
Antheridial branches arising
from the oogonial branches or
from the main filaments near
them, generally more or less
branched. Antheridia usually
short clavate, several to each
oogonium.

This species appeared on
materials collected from a
number of sources at Lower Mt. Thorn, Pictou county, and
appeared to be the most cjinmon of the Saprolegniacece in that
district. In young cultures the oogonia are spherical, but in old
cultures, when they are being abundantly developed, they
frequently become more or less irregular in shape-ovate or
obovate. This characteristic was constant in a large number
of cultures made. Not infrequently, too, an apiculus appeared
on an oogonium. This species appears to be very closely
related to the next, differing from it principally in the
smaller size and greater numbers of its oospores, in the more
branched character of the antheridial branches, and in the more
abundant productiDn of sporangia. In old cultures, as in

SOME NOVA SCOT! AN AQUATIC FUNGI. — MOORE.

227

A. apic-ulata, the oogonial branches frequently branch, each
twig terminating in an oogonium. Rarely an intercalary
cylindrical oogonium has occurred in cultures.

A. apiculata deBary (Figs. 10-13). Hyphse stout, at times
considerably exceeding 100/u, in diameter at the base and reaching
1.5cm- in length. Zoosporangia generally very abundant, some-
what spindle shaped. Oogonia spherical or slightly ellipsoidal,

terminal on lateral branches, racemosely arranged and usually
curved ; rarely intercalary ; commonly terminating in a short
apiculus. Walls smooth and unpitted. Oospores 1-10, generally
3-5 on an oogonium, large and dark-colored when young,
33-40/1 in diameter, centric. Antheridial branches arising as in
the last species, but frequently unbranched. Antheridia, several
to each oogonium, short clavate or almost ovate.

This species appeared in a large number of cultures made
from materials collected at Mt. Thorn, Pictou county, and in

228

SOME NOVA SCOTIAN AQUATIC FUNGI. — MOORE.

the vicinity of Sydney. It appears to be one of our most com-
mon Saprolegniacece. The frequency of the development of an

apicnlus appears to vary considerably in cultures obtained from
different sources. In some, practically all of the oogonia are so
terminated, while in others not more than one in three is so
furnished.

A. racemosa Hildeb. (Fig. 14). Hyphae of moderate length,
robust. Sporangia generally abundantly produced, cylindrical.

Ooogonia terminal on main fila-
ments and on lateral branches,
racemosely arranged p Walls
unevenly thickened, but not
pitted, brownish when old.
Oospores 1-6 in an oogonium,
most commonly 3-4, 23/-t-30ft in

— — diameter, centric. Antheridial

branches arise from the oogonial

branches or from the walls of the oogonium or occasionally from
the main filament near the oogonial branches. Antheridia 1-3
to each oogonium, short clavate, turned at right angles to the

SOME NOVA SCOTIAN AQUATIC FUNGI. — MOORE.

229-

long axis of the antheridial branch and applied by their apices,
to the walls of the ooo;onium.

O

This species appeared in material taken from the Columbus
Avenue swamp, Sydney, and from various other sources near
the same town. The irregularly thickened walls of the oogonia
and the antheridia are very characteristic. It is not of rare
occurence in caltures, but, in my experience, has not appeared
so frequently as the following well marked variety.

A. racemosa var. stelligera Cornu (Fig. 15). This variety
differs from the type in that the walls of
the oogonia are more or less closely beset
with short, rounded outgrowths. The
number of oospores varies from 1 -7. Their
average diameter is, in my experience,
somewhat greater than in the type and the
antheridial branches appear to take their
origin more frequently from the walls of
the oogonia. As has been stated the
form appears to be more common than
the type in the districts from which col-
lections were made.

A. acadiensis sp. nov. (?). (Figs. 16-19), Hyphse generally
very stout and long, frequently exceeding 100/^ in diameter and
attaining a length of 1.5cm\

Zoosporangia almost cylindrical or somewhat fusiform, spar-
ingly developed, in some cultures rare. Oogonia terminal on
main filaments or on usually long lateral branches or inter-
calary. The oogonial walls are provided with more or less
numerous blunt outgrowths, sometimes comparatively long, and
the terminal oogonia have, as a rule, strongly developed apiculi.
The oogonia, in older cultures, are produced in series, frequently
5-7 in a chain. The intercalary oogonia are barrel-shaped or
cylindrical. Tn addition to the outgrowths the walls of the
oogonia are also pitted. The oospores may reach 40 in an,

230

SOME NOVA SCOTIAN AQUATIC FUNGI. MOORE.

oogonium, are centric in structure
and measure from 30-35/u in
diameter. Antheridial branches
are rarely absent, generally two
or three arising from the filament

a short distance below the basal
wall of the oogonium. These are
often branched. Antheridial
branches from adjacent filaments
not infrequently attach themselves

to an oogonium, The antheridia are almost cylindrical or
slightly clavate, comparatively long.

This species is the largest and most striking of the Achlyas
observed and, in the vicinity of Sydney, is apparently one of
the most common. It also appeared in material collected in a
pool on the "Barren" near Pictou, N. S. The filaments are
unusually stout in vigorous cultures, sometimes reaching 140//-
in diameter at the base, and at times attaining a length of
.almost 2cm- This species appears to be more sensitive than

SOME NOVA SCOTIAN AQUATIC FUNGI. — MOORE.

231

most AMyas with regard to the
behaviour of the zoospores.
When a culture is placed in a
small quantity of water in a
watch glass all of the sporangia

may fail to empty and the
zoospores germinate after the
manner of an Aplants. Under
such circumstances the germ
tubes shew a rapid growth of
from 30-40/n per hour. In other cases, where the environment
does not appear to be favorable to normal developement, the
zoospores may escape and, after the first encystment, germinate
without a second swarming stage, as appears to be normal
manner in A. aplanes Maurizio4. Cultures of the species were
made for some months in water containing a few living sphagnum
plants, and under these conditions the zoospores invariably
followed the normal course. At will, the Aplanex condition
•could be induced by removing the culture for a few hours to a
watch glass, but it soon disappeared upon return to its crigina-1
habitat. When oogonia are produced in a chain or series the
.antheridial branches attached to the distal members of the series
take their origin from the walls of the oogonia next below, as
in the case of Saprolegnia androgyna Archer5, (Aplanes braunii
deBary). The number of oospores in the first formed oogonia
on the main filaments or large branches is generally large,
ranging from 8 — 15, and frequently from ]5 — 25. In old

232 SOME NOVA SCOTIAN AQUATIC FUNGI. — MOORE.

cultures the larger filaments or branches may give rise to fine
branches terminating in oogonia containing only one or two
oospores and with walls, showing but a few blunt protuberances.
In one culture this species was attacked by a parasite identical
with or closely resembling Olpidiopsis saprolgnice A. Braun.

A species which bears a very close resemblance to the pre-
sent one is that described and figured by Dr. Humphrey6, as
Saprolgnia treleaseana. The generic position of that species
was determined from the observation of one empty sporangium
by Dr. Trelease. Its vegetative habit is, according to Dr.
Humphrey, very Acklya like. In all of the cultures made of
A. acadiensis the sporangia were produced in sufficient
numbers, although sometimes scarce, to render its generic posi-
tion readily established. Through the kindness of Dr. Johnston,
of Johns Hopkins University, I have been enabled to examine
the only preparation of 8. treleaseana in Dr. Humphrey's col-
lection. This preparation shews oogonia and resting sporangiaj
which correspond closely with those of the present species. No
mention is made by Dr. Humphrey of the pitting of the walls
in 8. treleaseana and as the pits are always obscured by the
outgrowths, and are generally only evident after treatment with
chlor-zinc-iodine, no comparison could be made in this respect
between the two species. I have provisionally described the
present form under a new name, but further investigation of
Dr. Humphrey's species in its type locality may shew that they
are identical, in which case the older specific name would pre-
vail, and it would be known as Achlya treleaseana.

Genus Aphanomyces deBary.

A. stellatus deBary (Fig. 20). Hyphse delicate, 6/^-7 //. wide,
little branched. Zoospores forming in a single row and after
escape collecting in a cluster at the mouth of the sporangium.
Oogonia terminal, the walls with blunt outgrowths giving a
star-like appearance. Oospores single, filling the oogonium.
20Ai-25/u, in diameter. Antheridia present, one to each oogo-

/

SOME NOVA SCOTIAN AQUATIC FUNGI. — MOOKE.

233

mum,
.as the

the antheridial branch arising from the same filament

oogonium, some distance below the latter.

Hyphse with sporangia, apparently those of an
Aphanomyces, appeared in several cultures from
materials collected at various points near Sydney,
but in only one case, from material collected at
Cossit's Lake in October, 1908, did oogonia appear.
The maximum diameter of the oogonia on the
plants examined was about 30/-&. I am not aware
^hat this species has been previously reported
from America.

Family LEPTOMITACE^.
Genus Leptomitus Agardh.

Leptomitus lacteus (Roth), Agardh. (Figs. 21, 22). Hyphae
delicate, constricted at intervals, the largest rarely exceeding
40/4 in diameter at the base, decreasing in successive segments
rarely branching elsewhere than at the distal ends of the
segments. Cellulin grains conspicuous about 10ft in diameter

PROC. & TRAXS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XII.

TRANS. 16.

234

SOME NOVA SCOTIAN AQUATIC FUNGI. — MOORE.

and frequently forming a plug at the constrictions between sue*
cessive segments. Sporangia formed from slightly swollen
segments, often in series. Zoospores in a single row averaging
about 13/J in diameter, sometimes encysting within the
sporangium, but generally escaping and swarming separately
Except in terminal sporangia the escape papilla is lateral.

This species was of frequent occurence in the cultures made
appearing first in December, 1907, in a culture made from tap
water of the Sydney water supply. Grown on dead flies it
forms a thick, white, felted covering over the substratum.

Genus Sapromyces Fritsch.

Sapromyces Sp; (Figs 23 and 24). A form belonging to
this genus appeared in a culture made from material collected

SOME NOVA SCOTIAN AQUATIC FUNGI. — MOORE.

235

at the upper extremity of Gilholme's Lower Lake, about four
miles from the city of Sydney and south of the Cow Bay Road,
The observations of it were very incomplete.
The branched hyphse attained a maximum
length of about 2mm- in the culture, but might
possibly have grown longer as it early became
overrun with bacteria, and it was found im-
possible to maintain it. The sporangia were
elongated egg-shaped and averaged about
30/*x90/A. The encysted zoospores were about
\0fji in diameter. These were not observed in
the act of swarming, but empty sporangia were
common and in some, as in the one figured (Fig.
24), a few zoospores had evidently failed to escape and had en-
cysted within the sporangium. Two or three sporangia may be
found formed at the extremity of a segment. No structures were
observed in this form corresponding to the conceptacula of
Reinsch7, and which are unhesitatingly referred by Dr. Thaxter
to the work of chytridiaceous parasites attacking the sporangias.

24*

236

SOME NOVA SCOTIA N AQUATIC FUNGI. MOORE.

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REFERENCES.

(1) Botanical Gazette, vol. 45, p. 194.

(2) Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission for 1893, p. 163.

(3) "Observations on the Biology and Cytology of a new variety of

Achlya americana," Annals of Botany, vol. 13, no. 49.

(4) "Zur Entwickelungsge&chichte und Systematik der Saprolegnieen"

Miinchen, 1894.

(5) "On two new species of Saprolegniece." Journal of Microscopical

Science 1867, p. 121.

( 6 ) " The Saprolegniacece of the United States with notes on the other

species." Trans. Am. Philos. Soc., 17 : 63-148, 1892.

(7) "Beobacht. fiber einige neue Saprolegniaceen." Jahr. f. Wissensoh.

Bot., bd. xi, 1878.

(8) The genus Ncegclia of Reinsch. Bot. Gaz., vol. 19, p. 49-55.

238 SOME NOVA SCX)T1AX AQUATIC FUNGI. — MOORE.

EXPLANATIONS OF FIGURES.

(The numbers in brackets give the approximate linear magnification.)
Saprolegnia monoica Pringsh. Figs. 1-2.

1. (100) Empty sporangia.

2. (225) Oogonium.

Saprolegnia diclina Humph., Fig. 3.

3. (225) Oogonium with attached antheridia, The connection of these

with their filaments of origin is readily severed.
Achlya americana Hump., Fag. 4.

4. (225) Oogonium with antheridiial branch and atitheridia.

Achlya deBaryana Humph. = A. polyandra doBary, Figs. 5-8.

5. (225) Empty .sporangium, young culture.

6. (100) Two filaments with oogonia and antheridial branch. The

production of an oogonium at the base of an antheridial
branch as here figured is very rare. (6) A ripe eceiitric
oospore.

7. (225) Oogonium with young oospores and antheridia.

8. (225) Oogonium with much coiled antheridial branch.

Achlya polyandra Hlldeb., Fag. 9.

9. (225) Typical oogonium with antheridial branches and antheridia.

The antheridial branches in this case take their origin in
part from the oogonlal branch and in part from other
filaments.

Achlya apwnlata deBary, Figs. 10-13.

10. (50) Empty sporangia from vigorous culture.

11. (225) Oogonium with antheridial branch and antheridia. No

apiculus on oogonium.

(225) Typical oogonium — antheridia omitted.
(225) A rare intercalary oogonium.

Achlya raccmosa Hildeb., Fig. 14.

14. (225) Oogonium with antheridia.

Achlya raccmosa var. stcllir/era Cornu., Fig. 15.

15. (225) Oogonium with antheridia.

Achlya acadiensis sp. nov., Figs. 16-19.

16. (100) Sporangium with encysted zoospores.

17. (225) An intercalary oogonium.

18. (225) Terminal oogonium.

19. (225) A portion of the wall of an cogonium.

Aphanomyces stellatus deBary, Fig. 20.

20. (225) Oogonium with oospore.

Leptomitus lacteus Agardh. Figs. 21 and 22.

21. (225) A portion of a hypha shewing method of branching and

cellulin granules.

22. (225) A terminal sporangium with zoospores encysted within it.

Kapromyces sp. Figs. 23 and 24.

23. (100) Hypha3 shewing method of branching and formation of

sporangia.

24. (225) Empty sporangium with three r— icy • ted /oospores.

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF TIN IN NOVA SCOTIA. — BY HARKY
PIERS, Curator of the Provincial Museum, Halifax.

Read 18th May, 1908.

In the following notes I desire to place on record such par-
ticulars as are known regarding the recent interesting discovery
of tin ore in situ in Nova Scotia.

Tin supply and demand. — New sources of tin ore are being
•eagerly looked for throughout the world, and every new find
immediately attracts attention; for when we consider the large
and yearly increasing consumption of tin, and the limited
sources of supply, we readily see that the supply is now not
^qual to the demand, and new (deposits must be looked for.
During the year 1907 the average price of tin in New York
was about 38 cents per pound. In 1903 the average price was
28 cents. With the exception of the Cornish mines, nearly all
the world's production of tin is obtained from alluvial deposits
and not from vein formations. Over half of the world's
production comes from the alluvial deposits of the Malay
States. Owing to the high price of the metal, it is possible to
work very low-grade ores, if in quantity. If a vein contain but
one per cent, of metallic tin, with the metal at 38 cents a
pound, it would make an ore worth $7.60 a ton, and should be
-a profitable proposition if the deposit was of sufficient size.

In North America tin has been found in Maine, New Hamp-
shire, Massachusetts, North and South Carolina, Virginia,
Alabama, South Dakota, Texas, California, Alaska, Mexico,
and in the Yukon in Canada, and it has been detected by
analysis in small quantities elsewhere. In the United States,
with th? exception perhaps of Alaska, the deposits found in
N~orth and South Carolina are the only ones lately discovered

(239)

240 OCCURRENCE OF TIN IN NOVA SCOTIA. — PIERS.

that have offered any chance of becoming commercial producers
of tin. In Carolina the ore mostly occurs in pegmatite dikes,
etc., in a wide area of schist (probably of Cambrian age),,
(ordered by granite on one side and gneiss (probably Archsean)
on the other.*

Previous occurrences in Nova Scotia. — In tracing the-
reported finds of tin in Nova Scotia, we learn that some time-
previous to 1869, W. Barnes is said to have discovered tin in a
gianitic sand, composed of grains of quartz and feldspar, at
Tangier, Halifax county; and John Campbell is said to have
found it at Shelburne.f Dr. E. Gilpin also obtained it in
panning gold at Tangier. It has likewise been reported from
Country harbor, Guysborough county.:): I have also been
informed on good authority (Dr. E. Gilpin) that it was found
in a granite boulder near Rawdon, Hants county. All of these
finds were in connection with drift material derived from
granite areas, none of which was traced to its original source.

I may say that since the discovery at Lake Ramsay, now ix>
be described, tin has been reported to me as found in small
quantity and determined by test at two other localities in Nova
Scotia, but at present I am not at liberty to give further
information thereof.

Tin at Lake Ramsay. — For some years past, two or three-
persons have been employed in prospecting for tin in Nova
Scotia, and from time to time suspected samples have been
brought to the Provincial Museum, whkh mostly proved to be
sphalerite or zinc-blend, or tourmaline. One of these prospec-
tors who has been longest in the field, is Charles Keddy, of Lake
Ramsay, to whom further reference will soon be made.

During the summer of 1906, pieces of quartz crystal were
discovered on the surface of John Reeves's land, in woodland
a few hundred yards south-westward of his house, and about

* Piatt (J. H.) and Sterrett(D. B.). Tin deposits of the Carolinas. N. Carolina.
Oeol. Sur., Bui. 19 (1904).

t How (H.)- Mineralogy of N. S., 1869, p. 78.
1 Gilpin (E.). Minerals of N. S., 1901, p. 60.

OCCURRENCE OF TIN IN NOVA SCOTIA. PIERS. 241

f-th of a mile south of the Dalhousie road, and about £th of a
mile south-south-west of the southern extremity of Lake Ram-
say, to the west of New Ross, 16 miles inland from Chester*
Basin, Lunenburg county, K". S. With the expectation of find-
ing diamonds, Mr. lieeves and a neighbor, Benjamin Meister,.
dug a shallow pit where the crystals were observed, and soon
were in a deposit of white kaolin in which occurred large
crystals of auartz, mostly with a faint smoky tint, and also a
little purplish-black fluorite. Specimens of these minerals were
first brought to the Provincial Museum on 29th August, 190Y, -
and other samples subsequently.

Charles Keddy, the prospector before-mentioned, examined
the material thrown out by Reeves .and Meister in the course
of their operations, and found a few small pieces of a heavy,,
dark-colored mineral which he brought to the museum in the
middle of October, 1906. This proved to be cassiterite (tin
oxide), a mineral which, when pure, contains theoretically 78.6
per cent, of metallic tin. This was the first discovery of tin
ore in situ in Canada in anything approaching economic quan-
tity, and the first discovery of it in situ in Nova Scotia. Mr. A.
L. McCallum, assayer of Halifax, produced a button of metallic
tin from Keddy' s samples. This interesting button is now in the
museum. Upon discovering the character of his find, Keddy
took up the property on 22nd October, under a license to search,
in the names of John Reeves, Benjamin Meister and Charles
Keddy of Lake Ramsay, and E. E. Bishop of Halifax. Since- $
then I understand Reeves's and Meister's shares have been
transferred. ~N\o work was done on the prospect for the rest
of the yesir, owing to the lateness of the season and lack of
harmony among those interested.

As the find was one of unusual interest, I was directed by
the inspector of mines to make an examination of it, and pro-
ceeded to the locality accompanied by M. H. McLeod of the-
Geological Survey, who wished to obtain samples for that

<>('( TRREXCE OF TIN IN NOVA SCOTIA. — P1EKS.

department. On the way there a snowfall unfortunately
occurred which covered all exposures. I visited the deposit on
29th November, and found a small pit, about 12 feet long by
5 feet wide and 10 feet deep. The hole was nearly three-
quarters full of water, and this with the mantling of snow,
made it impossible to make a satisfactory examination. From
what could be seen under these unfavorable conditions, the
country-rock was apparently an ordinary grey granite, consist-
ing of quartz, white feldspar and mica. I noted masses of
reddish granitic rock, perhaps a half-mile eastward on the Dal-
housie road, and it was also reported at Lake Ramsay, but it
seemed to have no connection with the deposit at lieeves's. I
could not hear of any sedimentary rocks in the neighborhood,
the nearest rocks of this kind being about two miles to the north-
west towards Wallabach lake. None were associated with the
tin deposit.

It was found that the cassiterite occurred in small quantities
in either a dike or. a schlieren of coarse pegmatite, becoming
aplitic in parts, cutting or segregated from the ordinary granite.
The pegmatite mass apparently had a nearly vertical attitude,
and if the length of the hole indicated the strike of the deposit,
•as it undoubtedly did, it lay in a north-east and south-westerly
direction. How far the pegmatite extended in either direction
horizontally, or how it change:! in character in those direc-
tions could not be ascertained, and I recommended that the
surface be stripped at intervals on the strike that this might be
ascertained if possible, in preference to continuing to sink for
the present in the pit.

The feldspar in the upper parts of the deposit had decom-
posed to kaolinite, some portions of which were of fair quality
and colour. In the deeper part of the pit the rock was becoming
less altered. In the kaolin and unaltered feldspar were
numerous immense crystals of quartz, of a slightly smoky tint,
unfortunately not sufficiently transparent to make them of com-

OCCURRENCE OF TIN" IN NOVA SCOTIA. — PIERS. 243

mercial value. The largest of these crystals, which is now in
the museum, with two others nearly as large, measures 27
inches in length by 10 inches in thickness. Theee are by far
the largest quartz crystals ever found in Nova Scotia, and they
bear favorable comparison with large crystals found elsewhere
in America.

Mica was not as abundant as I had expected, as I sup-
posed it might have been segregated into large masses commen-
surate with the size of the quartz and feldspar crystals. Such
possibly may yet be found to be the case in another part of
the deposit. Most of the mica, especially in the more aplitic
parts, is a lithia mica, probably lepidolite, sometimes with a
•delicate lilac-pink tint.

The cassiterite occurred in small quantities in the kaolinite,
as far as shown by the material then taken out, although it was
lioped that elsewhere in the deposit it might be found more
largely segregated. It could not be ascertained if the ore
occurred specially in any particular part of the deposit or in a
pay-shoot.

Associated with the pegmatite and kaolinite were also
purplish-black fluorite, amblygonite .of a beautiful light blue
•color (the first time this mineral has been discovered in Can-
ada), black tourmaline, wolfram, tungstite, scheelite, molyb-
denite, etc.

Subsequent to my visit another dike or vein carrying tin
was reported to have been found near the main road, not far
from the first locality.

From samples brought to the museum, I find that some of
tho grey and reddish granites near Lake Ramsay carry small
amounts of chalcopyrite or pyrite; and small vugs in some of
the reddish granitic rocks contain deposits of purple fluorite
as well as the sulphides. Slender crystals of transparent tour-
malino with a dark outer shell occur in a hematite-coated
quartz bouldor from tho shore of Lake Ramsay. Ordinary

244 OCCURRENCE OF TIN IN NOVA SCOTIA. — PIERS.

black tourmaline occurs in the granite of the district. Sphal-
erite has also been brought to me from the district, as well as
a small gold specimen in quartz isaid to occur in the granite of
Lake Ramsay. About one and a half miles eastward of the tin
deposit, is an interesting occurrence of molybdenite in a dike or
vein in granite on Larder river. At Wallabach lake, to the
north-west, is a well-known deposit of manganese ore in a
fissure in granite, which has been rather extensively mined in
the past.

A report on the discovery of tin at Lake Ramsay was made
in the Museum Report for 1906, and the find immediately
attracted .attention, and enquiries regarding the deposit were
received from the United States and elsewhere.

In May, 1907", Mr. W. F. Ferrier, formerly a member of
the staff of the Geological Survey of Canada, visited the locality
in company with Mr. A. A. Hayward, president of the Mining
Society of Nova Scotia, iand brought away samples which are
now at the museum. Work at sinking was then in progress
under charge of Neil A. King, who had acquired an interest
therein. In June, July and September, Mr. Mclntosh of the
Geological Survey visited the deposit to watch developments,,
and in August Mr. E. R. Faribault examined it, the hole then
being 18 feet deep, 12 feet long and 10 feet wide; and in
October and November Mr. R. A. A. Johnston of the survey
was there, on the last occasion accompanied by Dr. G. A.
Young of the department, who has special knowledge of igneous
rocks. The pit was then about 20 feet deep.

Mr. Faribault reported on the deposit in the Summary
Report of the Geological Survey for 1907, pp. 80-83,* and Dr.
Young in the same report, p. TY.f The former states that there
is no well-id efined foot- or hanging-wall. The strike, he says,
is N. 65° E. and the lip is to the north-west at an angle vary-

* Faribault (E. R.). New Ross tin deposits. Sum. Kept. Oeol. Surv. Canada, 1907,
pp. 80-83.

tYounpfG. A.). The tin-bearing locality at Now Ros<, X. S. Sum. Rent. Gcol.
Surv. Canada, 1907. p. 77.

OCCURRENCE OF TIN IN N7OVA SCOTIA. PIERS. 245

ing from 75° at the surface to 60° at the bottom of the pit.
The outcrop is about 8 feet wide and 12 feet long, but at one
*end at least it extends farther to the north-east under a cap of
granite. The deposit, he continues, appears to be what is often
called by miners a i blow-out/ and is probably the result of deep
solfataric action, and it should extend to a great depth. He
considered that the results so far should be considered very
satisfactory and warrant much greater development.

I had hoped that additional surface work might prove that
the pegmatitic cassiterite-bearing rock extended to some dis-
tance, as is the case in most dikes, but Dr. Young reports that
at the time of his visit a certain amount of stripping in the
immediate neighborhood had failed to disclose further outcrops
•of the tin-bearing body, which seems to be of the nature of an
irregular, acid schlieren, closely connected in origin with the
-containing muscovite granite. He says the light-colored mus-
•covite granite with which the cassiterite-bearing pegmatite is
associated, was seen at a number of points in the neighborhood
and appears to be cutting ai coarser-grained biotite granite.*

Much activity followed the discovery of tin-ore at this place,
and several pegmatite dikes, etc., near New Boss were located
and prospected. The Geological Survey found traces of tin in
-small specimens from a pegmatite dike, 24 feet wide, a mile
north of Nevertell lake, six miles south of Beeves's place. Bis-
muthinite and molybdenite were discovered in a silicious and
aplitic dike or vein, one mile south of New Boss corner; and
tungsten ores and1 rare earths were found in a dike of pegmatite,
20 feet wide, one mile east of New Boss Corner, on land taken
up, on a license to prospect, by Dr. Lavers and Frank Boylen
•of New Boss.

Associated minerals. — As a result of the examination made
&t the survey's laboratory, by Mr. B. A. A. Johnston, of
material from all the deposits in the granites of the vicinity of

* Young (G. A.X Loc. cit.

24(i OCCURRENCE OF TIN IN NOVA SCOTIA. — PIERS.

Lake Ramsay and New Ross, the following unusually long list
of minerals have been detected in varying quantities: — Cas-
siterite, monazite, one of the colunibite minerals, durangite,.
amblygonite, a lithium mica (probably lepidolite), wolframite,
scheelite, hiibnerite, molybdenite, sphalerite, beryl, apatite,
tourmaline, fluorite, pyrolusite, manganite, limonite, hematite,
magnetite, siderite, bismuthinite, argentiferous galenite, chalco-
pyrite, pyrite, arsenopyrite, kaolin, and crystals of light and
dark smoky quartz.* Some of these are rare minerals which
have a use in the arts and command a large price. Amblygonite
and durangite tare new to Canada.

Concentration test. — On 6th August, 1907, a sample of the
material from the deposit at Reeves' s pit at Lake Ramsay, con-
sisting of 14 bags, each weighing about 300 Ibs., was received
by Professor Frederic H. Sexton, director of technical educa-
tion, Halifax, from Neil A. King, in order that a test thereof
might be made. This lot of ore was stated to have been taken
directly across the deposit (<about 12 feet wide), from wall to
wall, at a depth of 18 feet, and represented the .average ore that
could be extracted from the pit at that depth. The lot was just
as it had been taken from the pit, except that the large crystals-
of quartz had been picked out, and it was said that about one-
fifth to one-sixth of the bulk of the ore in quartz crystals had
thus been removed by hand-picking. Professor Sexton
reports that the ore consisted for the greater part of transparent
vitreous quartz, quartz crystals, a soft friable lustrous greenish
feldspar, and soft kaolin from the decomposition of the feld-
spar by weathering agencies. Some lumps were stained a dark
red, indicating the weathering of pyrites, and Mr. King said
that such material contained the most tin. Muscovite in small
crystals was sparsely distributed throughout the ore. Sprinkled
through the ore were small dark crystals of tourmaline and
almost black fluorite. Cassiterite was not identified in any of

* Faribault (E. R.). Loc. cit.

OCCURRENCE OF TIN IN' NOVA SCOTIA.- — PIERS. 247

the lumps inspected. Some of the fluorite occurred in dendritic
form.

A sample of five bags was selected for treatment, whose
combined net weight was 1403.94 pounds (637 kilos). The
results of the concentration and assays are thus summarized by
Professor Sexton, in his report dated' 4th September, 1907:

(a) The original ore as sampled and assayed contained
only a trace of tin.

(b) 543.2 pounds of product through 4 on 8 mesh were
treated on a Collom jig with no resulting concentration what-
ever. An assay of the material fed showed a trace of tin.

(c) 310.8 pounds of product through 8 on 16 mesh were
treated' on a Collom jig and only a very thin layer of about
|th inch on the first sieve showed signs of being concentrated
material. This layer when separated by skimming was found
to consist mostly of included grains of quartz and feldspar,
with fluorite and tourmaline, and when this product was
assayed it was found to contain tin, but in such small quantity
that it could not be weighed.

(d) 257.3 pounds of product through 16 mesh sieve was
treated on a half-size Wilfley table, making a small amount of
impure heads containing 0.583 per cent, of tin, a very small
amount of very impure tailings containing 0.08 per cent, of
tin, and about 237.81 pounds (107.9 kilos) of clean tailings
containing no tin at all. A calculation of the tin in the whole
product fed to the Wilfley table showed it to contain 0.0192
per cent., a very small amount indeed.

Professor Sexton concludes that the percentage of tin pre-
sent in the ore supplied to him is so small as to miake the work-
ing of such ore as a whole unprofitable ; and he thinks that the
cf.£siterite must exist in the form of minute flakes and crystals
in the ore, and in small quantity. He recommends the locating,
by careful inspection and assays, of some ore-shoot which con-
tains enough tin to make practical mining profitable, for it will

248 OCCURRENCE ()F TIN IN NOVA SCOTIA. — PIERS.

evidently :iot pay to mine the whole width of the pegmatite
material (12 feet) because of its paucity of tin.

This proper method of concentration of this tin ore is direct
graded crushing and concentration on a fine sand concentrator
such as a jerking table like the Wilfley pattern.*

Conclusions. — Professor Sexton's test indicates that the
whole width of the dike, at that depth, is low in tin contents,
and an effort should be made to discover if the cassiterite is
segregated in any one part of the dike, as is quite likely, in
which case the percentage would be increased in the portion of
the dike that might be mined. Numerous pieces of ore,
about the size of a hazel-nut, have been obtained and are
in the Provincial Mnseum, but it is not known from
what part of the deposit they were taken. The presence
of an ore-shoot should be ascertained if possible. It must
be remembered that some of the associated minerals are
valuable for various purposes, and bring excellent prices in the
market, and if some of 'them are proved to be in sufficient quan-
tity might be even more profitable than the tin, or at any rate
might be worked conjointly with that ore, and so make a profit-
able proposition. So far these associated minerals do not seem
to have attracted the attention of the owners, although they
much merit consideration.

I would suggest that the gravels and sands of the low-lying
districts about New Ross .and other favorable localities on or
adjoining the granitic areas of Nova Scotia be carefully exam-
ined for the occurrence of stream tin, as such alluvial deposits
might be found to be more valuable than those in situ. Peg-
matite dikes in granite and in the adjacent sedimentary metro-
morphis rocks of the gold-measures, particularly such dikes as
contain boron and fluorine minerals, such as tourmaline,
fluorite, etc., and also lithium-bearing minerals, should be

* Sexton (F. H.) Report on concentration test on tin ore from Xew Ross. 4th Sept.,
1907. Manuscript.

OCCURRENCE OF TIN IN NOVA SCOTIA. — PIERS. 249

closely examined.* In the neighborhood of New Ross, the
vicinity of the sedimentary rocks, adjoining the granite,
towards Wallabach lake, might well be prospected. f

It may be noted that sphalerite and tourmaline are some-
times mistaken for cassitrite, as I have found the case in Nova
Scotia, but the unusual weight and hardness of the latter will
probably be the readiest way for the prospector to roughly
distinguish the mineral in the field. At Lake Ramsay the pros-
pectors have often mistaken wolframite for tin ore. Cassiterite
may be determined by the blow-pipe, by taking a small quantity
of the mineral, very finely powdered, thoroughly mixing it with
six or eight times its volume of sodium carbonate (baking
soda) and a little powdered charcoal, and fusing this mixture
on charcoal before the blow-pipe with the reducing flame, when
a button of metallic tin will result.

* Prospectors might well examine, for traces of tin, the reported chalcopyrite-
bearing granite of the Alton road which leads north from the Dalhousie road.

tOn 24th June, 1908, there was received at the Provincial Museum from Dr. Henry
W.Cain, a specimen of cassiterite with chalcopyrite, pyrite and sphalerite from a vein-
like deposit in granite on the north-west side of Wallabach stream, (a branch of Gold
river,) about half way between Camp and Harris Lakes, and nearly 1 mile south-west
of south end of Wallabach Lake, on farm of Henry Meister, 3£ miles north of New
Ross, Lunenburg Co. It was reported that the deposit had been found late in the
summer of 1907, by Ernest Turner of Mill Road, New Ross, and the rights are now
held by Mr. Turner, Mr. Meister, and Dr. Cain. Other specimens brought in later
contained a little epidoteand talc. Ore from this deposit assayed by A. L. McCallum
of Halifax, gave the following result : silica (Si O2), 2.50%; cassiterite (Sn Q2), 47 00% ;
chalcopyrite (Cu Fe S2), 38.00% ; Zinc (Zn), 12.25%. This ore differs in chaiacter from
that at Reeves's.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XII. TRANS. 17.

SCHEELITE IN NOVA SCOTIA. — BY A. L. McCALLUM, B. So.,

Halifax.

Read 14th December, 1908.

The deposit under consideration is situated at the western
boundary of the Moose Kiver gold district, Halifax county,
being about 1£ miles west of the old Torquay crusher.

The first discovery made was a boulder containing a fairly
large amount of tungstite. Up to the present no more of this
tungstite has been found, but always unaltered scheelite.

The first scheelite drift was found in the bed of a small
brook which runs through the property. Scheelite drift was
found quite plentifully in this brook up to a point beyond which
at that time we were not able to find more. At this point a cut
was made in the bank with the result that the first scheelite
vein was found. A small trial pit was sunk at this place and
another one a little further east on the same vein.

The formation shown by this work was as follows: Very
sharply defined "whin" (quartzite) walls with a three foot slate
belt between, dipping at an angle of about 75° N. The vein is
on the f ootwall and consists of a series of lenses of varying sizes.
The vein-matter is composed of scheelite, quartz and a little
mispickel (arsenopyrite) . The vein-matter is very irregular in
composition , varying from pure scheelite to pure quartz or pure
mispickel, and all combinations of these three.

Subsequently drift was found north of this vein, and event-
ually three veins were found about fifty feet north. To the
south of this first vein, ten veins in all have been opened up.
Several of these at the points opened up are too low-grade to be
of any value. The rest are all fairly high grade. On account
of the great variations in the composition of the vein-matter,
it is difficult to form an opinion of the average contents of the
veins taken as a whole ; but leaving out those that are too low-

(250)

CHEELITE IN NOVA SCOTIA. — McCALLUM. 251

grade, the remainder will probably average between 30 and 50
per cent, scheelite.

So far, prospecting has been confined to a belt 200 feet wide
north and south, and a distance about 1200 feet east and west.
The total width of vein-matter in the 200 feet would be about
50 inches.

Wolframite has been known for centuries to German and
Cornish tin miners. It was found by experience that when
smelted with tin in the furnace it impeded the reduction of the
tin and facilitated its scorification , so it was thought it ate up
the tin, as the wolf eats the sheep. Hence the derivation of
the word wolfram.

In Cornwall the miners termed it "call" or mock-lead on
account of its great weight, thinking it contained lead. But the
Swedish chemist, Scheele, proved in 1781 that this mineral, as
well as another which he had called tungsten, contained a speci-
fic mineral acid now called tungstic acid, and that wolframite
is essentially a tungstate of iron, and tungsten now called
scheelite, is tungstate of lime.

These minerals were employed in 1840 by the English
chemist Robert Oxland for the preparation of tungstate of soda
to be used as a mordant in dyeing cloth, and as proposed by
Versmann and Lyon Playfair, for the impregnation of vege-
table tissues, linen and cotton, to render them non-inflammable
and almost fire-proof.

Its greatest use is as an alloy with steel. Tungsten steel*
was first made in 1855 in Austria, and was introduced to the
trade later by Musket, an Englishman. It makes armor plate
very tough and difficult to fracture and split. In projectiles
and high speed tools it forms an alloy which retains its temper
at a red heat. It makes car springs stiffer. It increases the
permanency of magnets and makes a more powerful response in
sounding plates and wires for musical instruments.

It is commonly stated that it will take the place of carbon
in producing hardness, but this is not true. It is more correct

252 SCHEELITE IN NOVA SCOTIA. McCALLUM.

to say that it will assist carbon in producing hardness and
therefore high tungsten steels may have a lower carbon.

!N"o amount of tungsten or any other element will make steel
hard in the absence of carbon or even when the carbon is low.
The tungsten produces hardness by its effect on the condition of
the carbon ; that is, by helping to retain the carbon in its solid
solution and not by any effect of its own. It is for this reason
that a lesser amount of carbon will produce hardness in the
presence of tungsten or other similar element.

A variety of bronze-powder is made by fusing potassium,
tungstate and tin. It is also used for coloring glass and as a
glaze for porcelain. Eecently metallic tungsten is being used
extensively in the manufacture of incandescent electric lamps.
It is claimed that it uses only one-third the amount of current
required by a carbon lamp, and that it maintains its rated
candle power for 1,000 hours.

SOME EFFECTS OF ICE ACTION NEAR GRAND LAKE, CAPE
BRETON. — BY W. S. BRODIE, B. A.

Read 24th April, 1909.

In the vicinity of Grand lake, about four miles from Syd-
ney, as also near other lakes within a radius of fifteen miles
from that spot, may be noticed some curious formations.

Roughly parallelling the shores of Grand, Waterford and
Sand lakes are found mounds of considerable extent. These
mounds vary in length, height, and width, running through
swamp, forest and open ground. Sometimes they leave the lake
shore distant hundreds of yards, at other places sloping to the
water's edge. To consider the nature and origin of these
mounds is the object of this paper. I will refer particularly to
that at Grand Lake as being a type of all.

Size. — In length, I have traced this one in a fairly continu-
ous line, though with frequent breaks, for over a mile.

Height. — Five or six feet above present lake level is their
limit. Above the ground at base, the extreme height is about
4J feet. The elevation of crest seems to bear no uniform ratio
to distance from present shore line. I had no means of taking
levels along the summit, but judging by the eye it is nearly
level. There is at least no decided slope in either direction.

Width. — Where the mound is most pronounced, I found its
base to measure about 15 feet in cross-section, its top about six.
Allowing a height of five feet, this gives a side slope of 1 in 1.3.
Generally, the slope is much less decided. I would judge that
when first deposited the slope was sharp. Weathering, erosion,
and plant growth has evidently flattened it to a large degree.
I could not determine whether the side slopes differed in any
uniform way on the same mound. Sometimes one side, some-

(253)

254 SOME EFFECTS OF ICE ACTION NEAR

times the other was steeper, but for the most part they are
almost as much alike as the two sides of a railway fill. ^

Structure — Physically the material is of all sizes and
shapes from sand grains to boulders three and four feet in
diameter. Asa rule it is gravelly, containing more stones than
the surrounding soil. There is no stratification, nor very
marked assortment of material.

Miner alogically, the materials do not differ from those of
the adjacent soil. All the stones show a weathered surface.
Many are somewhat rounded, but this appears to be the result
of weathering rather than of water action . I found no facetted
surfaces, nor were there any glacial striae; the stones, how-
ever, were not of sufficiently close texture to receive or retain
such markings. A good deal of the "oil in the mound seems
to have resulted from the decay of boulders "in situ."

Age. — On the mound are trees growing many feet in height.
One, which had recently been cut down, measured fifteen inches
across the butt, 2J feet from the ground. The roots of this
tree, as of many others, spread out immediately at or below
the surface, indicating that it had grown on the mound after
it had been heaped up. This would show the deposit to be at
least as old as the tree. For a birch to grow to that size on
sterile soil and in a severe climate, would require 60 or 70 years
at least, probably more.

From the weathering of the rocks contained, I would infer
a much greater age for the mound than that. .

Origin. — By the neighboring country folk, to whom these
mounds offer convenient, if somewhat erratic foot-paths, their
formation is readily explained. To the industrious beaver of
bygone days is given the credit of building these extensive ram-
parts.

But the beaver, I believe, usually selects a spot on a stream
flowing through a narrow gap, to make his work as light as
possible in proportion to the increase of depth in water thus
secured. These mounds, however, sometimes run through

GRAND LAKE, CAPE BRETON. — BRODIE. 255

nearly level country, and occasionally along hillsides, where,
had they been absent, the hill itself would have served as a dam.
Further, I have found no sticks of timber in any diggings or
cuttings that I have examined.

Mounds somewhat resembling these are ascribed to glacial
formation. Streams flowing beneath the ice of modern glaciers
are loaded to the limit of carrying capacity with morainic
material. This is deposited at the bottom of the ice tunnel, and
on the final recession of the glacier there is left a sinuous heap
of clay, gravel and boulders, to which the name of esker is
given. Such mounds found throughout Canada and the north-
ern United States are considered to be the work of Pleistocene
ice.

But the sub-glacial stream seeking a lower level would
scarcely bend upon itself in such fashion as shown in the accom-
panying blue print.

Further, in such a long stream it would surely enlarge its
cavern at some points, say where it was obstructed by large
boulders, and there spread its load in wide heaps. Although
the mounds at Grand lake ramify for short distances, there are
no such widenings as might be expected as above. Again the
uniformity in height argues against the esker theory.

At the present margin of the lake there are narrow gravel
beaches. On one occasion in midwinter, after a thaw of a few
days' duration followed by sharp frost, I noticed that the ice
in tne lake had pushed against this frozen mass of pebbles. The
surface layer, cemented by frost, had buckled under the ice
pressure in the form of a ridge, a few inches in height. I have
a small photo attached showing this. The question .arises, could
the large mounds have been formed by the same agency as these
small ones? I made several visits to the lake to observe any
upbuilding comparable with the mounds in question. I could
not find any effects of modern ice shove at all approaching in
size the mound under discussion.

256 SOME EFFECTS OF ICE ACTION NEAR

Salisbury, in his Glacial Geology of New Jersey, p. 98,
makes mention of Endmoranes or Geschiebewalls. They have
originated through marg'nal masses of ice becoming separated
from the main body during a retreat, probably the final one,
of the ice. Here we have a debris loaded iceberg melting
where it stands and showering down around it gravel and
boulders. These, heaped up in a ridge more or less circular in
form, serve as a retaining wall for the water of the lake left
at the final melting of the ice.

Or if this ice mass, instead of being entirely separated from
the main body, projected as a lobe, we would again have con-
ditions to form such a wall. If the lobe kept melting back as
fast as it was pushed forward, its load would be discharged in
a continuous line along a stationary front. Naturally where
the lobe united with the main body of the ice, we would expect
to find the wall missing.

I greatly regret that I was compelled to leave my investiga-
tions before completing the survey of the upper end of the lake,
from which direction the glacial movement took place.

GRAND LAKE, CAPE BRETON. — BRODIE.

257

CATALOGUE OF BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS, MOSTLY COLLECTED
IN THE NEIGHBORHOOD OF HALIFAX AND DIGBY, NOVA
SCOTIA. — By JOSEPH PERRIN, MacNab's Island, Halifax,
and JOHN RUSSELL, Digby, N. S.

Read 15th February, 1909.

In preparing this list no trouble has been spared to make
it as accurate as possible. Errors possibly exist in it, but in
the main we feel that it is correct.

All specimens that could not easily be determined, were
submitted to the late Dr. James Fletcher, entomologist and
botanist of the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, who in
turn sent the rarer or more difficult specimens to other
specialists, such as Dr Harrison G. Dyar, custodian of lepidop-
tera, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.; Dr. J. B.
Smith of New Brunswick, N. J.; Rev. G. W. Taylor of
Departure Bay, British Columbia, and others ; and we now take
this opportunity of thanking these gentlemen for their kindness.

The nomenclature adopted is that of Dr. H. G. Dyar's List
of North American Lepidoptera ( " Bulletin of the U. S.
National Museum," No. 52 ; Wash., 1902), and the numbers
prefixed are those used in that list. Our list contains 60 nom-
inal species and varieties of butterflies and 470 moths, total 530.

The list is almost entirely founded on specimens collected
recently by the authors, the MacNab's Island (Halifax Harbour)*
records being by Mr. Pen-in and the Digby ones by Mr.
Russell. f Other localities referred to have affixed the name of
the one responsible for the record.

There have also been inserted a few additional species, not
met by us, from specimens collected near Truro, Colchester

*It may be mentioned that MacNabs Island is situated in the mouth of Halifax
Harbour. Fall River, to which reference is occasionally made in the list, is near
Waverley , Halifax co., about 16 miles from Halifax.

t A set of Mr. Russell's specimens are now in the Provincial Museum at Halifax.

(258)

CATALOGUE OF BUTTERFLIES AND *MOTHS. 259

county', N. S., by Miss Lucy C. Eaton, her collection being now
n the Provincial Museum at Halifax, accession no. 2900 (see
Trans. N. S. Inst. Science, vol. 9, p. xvii), and also some
species in the late Andrew Downs's"small collection made about
Halifax some years ago. These specimens have been personally
examined and verified. Other species reported by other
writers, but not seen by us, are not as a general rule included.
Those interested may, however, consult the following papers :

Belt (Thomas). — List of butterflies observed in the neighbor-
hood of Halifax, Nova Scotia. Trans. N. S. Inst. Nat.
Sc., vol. i, pt. 2, pp. 87-92. 1864. [30 nominal species
mentioned].

Bethune (Rev. Charles J. S.). — Nova Scotian lepidoptera, with
additional notes by J. Matthew Jones. Ib., vol. ii, pt. 3,
pp. 78-87. 1879. [79 nominal species mentioned, 7 of
which belong to the Rhopalocera (butterflies).]

Jones (J. Matthew). — Review of Nova Scotian diurnal lepi-
doptera. Ib., vol. iii, pp. 18-27, 100-103. 1871-2.
[35 nominal species mentioned.]

Silver (Arthur P.). — List of Nova Scotian butterflies. Ib.,
vol. vii, pp. 86-88. 1888. [46 nominal species
listed, without further data.]

Bethune (Rev. Charles J. S.). — Butterflies of Eastern Pro-
vinces of Canada. 25th Annual Rept. of Entomological
Soc. of Ontario, 1894, pp. 29-44. [Sessional papers of
Ontario, 1895, No. 18.]

Eaton (Miss Lucy C.). — The butterflies of Truro, N. S.; with
remarks, by H. Piers, regarding a few of the species
mentioned. Trans, JV. S. Inst. Sc., vol. ix, pp. xvii-
xviii (Eaton), xviii-xxi (Piers). 1895. [26 nominal
species mentioned in the Eaton list. Collection on
which the paper was founded is now in the Provincial
Museum.]

260 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS, COLLECTED AT

Order LEPIDOPTERA.

RHOPALOCERA (Butterflies).

Superfamily PAPILIONOIDEA

Family PAPILIONID^E.

lla. Papilio turnus Linn. Very common in all parts of the
province ; May 24 to July.

14. P. thoas Linn. (P. cresphontes Cram.). Lake View
(near Windsor Junction), Hx. Co.; about Aug., 1901
One specimen taken by Miss Helen King. This
specimen is now in the Provincial Museum, Halifax
(access, no. 977). First occurrence in Nova Scotia

Family PIERID.E.

38d. Pontia napi var. oleracea Har. MacNab's Is., Halifax ;

scarce. Truro (Miss L. C. Eaton). Was formerly

reported common at Halifax by T. Belt and J. M

Jones.

40. P. rapce Linn. Very common everywhere ; May to Aug.
66. Eurymus philodice Godt. Common everywhere ; May

to Sept.
71. E. interior Scud. Fall River, Hx. Co., and Digby; not

so common as E. philodice ; July, Aug.
85. Eurema euterpe Menetries. MacNab's Is., Halifax ;

Aug. 24, 1904. Digby; Aug., 1904.

Family NYMPHALiDyE.

99. Argynnis cybele Fabr. MacNab's Is.; July 22nd, 1904.
Digby; very rare; July 13, 14, 1907.

100. A. aphrodite Fabr. MacNab's Is. and Digby; very com-
mon ; July.

102. A. atlanti* Edw. MacNab's Is. and Digby; very com-
mon ; July.

131. Brent kis myrina Cram. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; very
common ; June and Aug.

HALIFAX AND DIGBY, N. S. — PERRIN & RUSSELL. 261

146. Euphydryas phceton Drury. Truro; Aug. 1901 (Miss
Lucy C. Eaton).

169. Cinclidia harrisii Scud. Fall River, Hx. Co.; not com-
mon (Pen-in). Formerly reported as Charidryas
nycteis by Miss L. C. Eaton (Trans. N. S. Inst. #c.,
vol. ix).

186. Charidryas ismeria B. & LeC. Nova Scotia (J. M.
Jones). Vide Bethune's " Butterflies of Eastern
Canada," p. 32,

189. Pyciodes tkaros Drury. Very common everywhere ;
June, July and Aug.

205. Polygonia interrogations Fabr. MacNab's Is.; plenti-

ful during some seasons. Digby ; very rare.
205a. P. interrogations var. umbrosa Lint. MacNab's Is. and
Digby ; but always rare.

206. P. comma Harris. Formerly reported from Halifax by

T. Belt and J. M. Jones.

207. P. satyrus Edw. Digby; but not at all common; Aug.
20 7a. P. satyrus var. marsyas Edw. Digby ; not common ;

Aug.

209. P. faunus Edw. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; common ;
late July and Aug.

214. P. progne Grain. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; common ;

late July and Aug.

215. Eugonia j-album B. & LeC. Fall River, Hx. Co., and

Digby ; common ; Aug.

217. Euvanessa antiopa Linn. Very common everywhere ;

late July and Aug.

218. Aglais milberti Godt. Truro ; Aug. 1 900 (Eaton).

219. Vanessa atalanta Linn. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; quite

common ; June, July, Aug.

220. V. huntera Fabr. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; not com-

mon ; Aug. and Sept.

221. V. cardui Linn. Very common every where ; Aug.

262 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS, COLLECTED AT

237. Basilarchia artkemis Drury. MacNab's la. and Dig by ;

not common ; July.
237a. B. artkemis var. proserpina Edw. Digby ; rare ; July.

Halifax (Bethune, " Butterfli s of Eastern Canada,"

doubtless on authority of J. M. Jones).
239. B. archippus Cram (B. disippe Godt). Fall River, Hx

Co. (Perrin).

Family AGAPETID.E

258. Cercyonis alope Fabr. MacNab's Is.; scarce ; Digby

common ; July and Aug.
2tf8c. C. alope var. nephele Kirby. MacNab's Is. and Digby :

very common ; July and Aug.
286. Enod^a portlandia Fabr. Fall River, Hx. Co.; two

specimens; July 23,1905. (Perrin).
288. Satyrodes cantkus Linn. Truro ; July 1901 (Eaton).

Family LYMNADHXE.

308. Anosia plexippus Linn. MacNab's Is.; plentiful during
some seasons ; Digby ; always rare ; July and Aug.

Family LYC.ENID.E.

335. Uranotes melinus Hiib. Digby; July 20, 1907.

371. Incisalia augustus Kirby. Northwest Arm," Hx.; not

common ; Digby ; common ; May.
374. /. irus Godt. Irus has recently been separated into two

species (Canadian Entomologist, 1907). irus, Godt.,

and polios, Cook ; and all the specimens taken at

Digby come under the description of polios (Russell).

Cole Harbour, Hx. Co.; scarce (Perrin) ; May.
374a. /. irus var. arsace B. & LeC. Digby; May 5 to 22,

1906.
376. /. henrici Grote & Rob. Digby; May 24, 1905 : May

26,1908.

378. I. niphon Hubn. Northwest Arm. Hx.; rare (Perrin).
383 Erora Iceta Edw. Mt. Beaman (Ben Lomond). Digby ;

very rare ; June 19, 1905 ; June 7, 1906.

HALIFAX AND DIGBY, N. S. — PERRIN & RUSSELL. 263

385. Feniseca tarquinius Fabr. Fall River, Hx. Co., and
Digby ; rare ; May, Aug., Sept.

398. Epidemia epixanthe B. & LeC. MacNab's Is.; July

25, 1909.

399. Heodes fiypopkleas Boisd. Very common in all parts of

the province ; May, June, Aug.
440a. Cyaniris ladon var. lucia Kirby. MacNab's Is. and

Digby ; very common ; May and June.
440b. C. ladon var. marginata Edw. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

very common ; May and June.
440c. C. ladon var. violacea Edw. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

common ; May and June.
440f. C. ladon var. neglecta Edw. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

rare ; June.

Family HESPERIID.E.

459. Amblyscirtes vialis Edw. Fall River, Hx. Co.; two

specimens, June 12, 1906 (Perrin).

463. A. samoset Scud. Fall River ; not common (Perrin).
469. Pamphila palcemon Pal. (P. mandan Edw.). Fall River ;

not common (Perrin).
484. Atrytone hobomok Har, Very common everywhere ;

June and July.
520. Thymelicus mystic Scud. MacNab's Is. and Digby f

very common ; June and July.
523. T. cernes B. & LeC. Very common everywhere ; June

and July.
526. Polites peckius Kirby. Very common everywhere ; June

and July.

617. Thanaos brizo B. & LeC. Formerly reported from Hx.

by T. Belt and J. M. Jones.

618. T. icelus Lint. Fall River and Digby ; common ;

May 31 to July 14.
625. T. juvenalis Fab. Fall River ; rare (Perrin).

264 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS, COLLECTED AT

HETEROCERA (MOTHS).

Superfamily SPHINGOIDEA.
Family SPHINGID^E.

653. Hemaris diffinis Boisd. Halifax and Digby ; not very
common ; July.

656. H. thy she Fa. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; common ; June

and July.

657. Lepisesia flavofasciata Walk. Digby; May 24, 1906.

670. Deilephila gallii Rottem. (D. intermedia Kirby). Mac-

Nab's Is.; summer of 1900; Digby ; common in July.

671. D. lineata Fabr. MacNab's Is., 1900.

677. Pholus vitis Linn. MacNab's Is.; July 29, 1907.

681. Ampelophaga chcerilus Cram. (Darapsa pholus). Mac-
Nab's Is.; July 17, 1901; June 27, 1906; Digby;
very common in June.

700. Sphinx (Hyloicus) kalmice S. & A. MacNab's Is. and
Digby 5 quite common ; June and July.

703. S. gordius Stoll. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; not common ;

June and July.

704. S luscitiosa Clem. Digby ; quite rare ; generally take

3 or 4 specimens each year; July 1 to 30 (Russell).

One specimen taken at Dartmouth, N. S.^ July 10,

1910 (Perrin).
722. Geratomia undulosa Walk. Digby; MacNab's Is.; 28

July, 1908 (Perrin): not common; June and July.
726. Lapara coniferarum S. & A. 11 July, 1908; MacNab's Is.

728. Marumba modesta Harris. Truro ; June 1901 (Eaton) ;

Halifax (Downs).

729. Smerinthusjamaicensis Drury (S. geminatus Say). Very

common at both places ; June and July.

730. S. cerysii Kirby. Digby ; July 9, 1906 ; June 22, 1905 ;

July 6, 7, ly05; rare.

731. Paonias exccecatus S. & A. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

not common ; July.

732. P. myops S. & A. Truro; June 1901 (Eaton). Halifax

(Downs).

HALIFAX AND D1GBY, N. S. — PERRIN & RUSSELL. 265

Snperfamily

Family SATURNIID^E.

789. Samia cecropia Linn. Very common everywhere.

747. Tropcea Iwna Linn. Dartmouth, N. S., July 10, 1910.

(Perrin). Digby; very rare; June 20, 1905;
June, 1908.

748. Telea polypheinus Cram. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; not

so common as S. cecropia ; June and July.

Family CERATOCAMPID^,

770. Anisota virginiensis Drury. MacNab's Is.; July 8,

1907 ; Jan. 3, 1908.

771. A. rubicunda Fabr. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; not com-

mon ; July.

vSuperfamily BOMBYCOID^;.
Family SVNTOMID^E.

798. Ctenucha virginica Char. Plentiful everywhere ; July.

Family LITHOSIID.E.

817. Clemensia albata Pack. Digby; Aug. 3, 1905; Aug. 9,
16, 1907; Aug. 9, 1908.

Family ARCTIIDJE.

834. Enbaphe aurantiaca Hiibn. Digby; July 22, 1906.
834c. E. aurantiaca var. brevicornis Walk. Digby ; generally

quite common during late July.
836. Utetheisa bella Linn. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; rare ;

Sept.
851. Estigmene acrcea Drury. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

common ; late June, July.
856. Hyphantria textor Harris. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

plentiful.

859. Isia Isabella S. & A. MacNab's Is. and Digby; quite

common ; July.

860. Phragmatobia fidiginosa Linn. MacNab's Is.; June

21, 1908.

PROC. & TRANS., N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XII. TRANS. 18.

266 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS, COLLECTED AT

86 la. P. assimilans var. franconia Slossin ; Digby ; June

6, 1906.
862. Diacrisia virginica Fabr. Plentiful in all parts of the

Province ; July.
872. Hyphoraia parthenos Harris. Very rare ; MacNab's Is.,

1900; Digby, July 3, 1905.
874, Apantesis virgo Linn. Very common everywhere ; July.

922. Halisidota maculata Harris. MacNab's Is. and Digby :

quite common ; June and July.

923. H. caryce Harris. MacNab's Is.; June 9, 1910. Digby;

very common ; July.

Family AGARISTID^.

949. Alypia octomaculata Fabr. Digby ; common ; July,
952. A. langtonii Couper. MacNab's Is.; July 11, 1907 ;
Digby; July 16-22, 1907.

Family NOCTUID^E.

Subfamily NOCTUIN^;.

958. Panthea portlandia Grote. MacNab's Is.; June 25, 1907.
(Perrin).* Halifax (Downs).

961. Demas propinquilinea Grote. MacNab's Is.; 15 June,
1906.

964. Charadra deridens Guenee. MacNab's Is.; July 11,
1907 ; Digby; quite common in June.

968. Raphiafrater Grcte. MacNab's Is.; July 15, 1907,

972. Apatela americana Harris. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;
common ; June and July.

975. A. dactylina Grote, Digby; June 11, to July 15, 190^7.

984. A. lepusculina Guen£e. Digby; Aug. 9, 1907. Mac-
Nab's Is.; June 27, 1908.

988. A. innotata Guenee. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; common ;
June and July.

*This specimen was examined by Dr. .T. B. Smith of New Brunswick, N. J., who
writes regarding it, " I cannot make it the same as P. acronyctoides, Walker, as that
stands in my collection. If we had a female it might help us out; but as between the
males I must place it with portlandia, unlikely as it seems." P. portlandia occurs
in the Pacific States, whereas P. acronyctoides is an Atlantic States species.

HALIFAX AND DIGBY, X. S. — PERRIX & RUSSELL. 267

990. ' A. morula Grote. MacNab's Is.; June 26, 1907 ; Digby ;

common ; June and July.

991. A. interrupta Guene'e. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 12, 1907 ;

Digby; June 20, July 1, 1907.
999. A. raddi/ei Harvey. MacNab's Is.; July 26, 1907;

Digby ; common ; June.
1003. A. hamamelis Guenee. Digby; June 20, Aug. 2,16,

1907.

1001. A. supera ns Guenee. Digby; very common ; June.
1006. A. tritonia Hiibn. MacNab's Is.; July 2, 1905.
1008. A.fanemlis Grote.- MacNab's Is.; June 29, 1907.
3009. A. fragili* Guenee. Digby; Aug. 2, 1907: Jane 23,
1908; MacNab's Is.; rare.

1013. A. revelata Smith. MacNab's Is.; July 20, 1906 ;

Digby ; June 22, 1906 ; Aug. 2 to 9, 1907 ; June
25, 1908.

1014. A. grisea Walk. Digby ; June 20 to July 14, 1907.;

June 17 to 23, 1908 ; scarce.

1026. A. brv.mosa Guenee. MacNab's Is.; June 26, July 2r
1907 ; Digby ; very common ; June and July.

1028. A. retardata Walk. Digby ; June 28, July 14, 1906.

1029. A. sperata Grote. Digby ; June 17 to 25, 1907 ; June

8 to 17, 1908.

1030. A. noctivaga Grote. Digby ; very common ; June.

1031. A. impressa W^alk. MacNab's Is.; May 13, 1906 ;

Digby ; very common ; July and Aug.

1039. A. impleta Walk. MacNab's Is.; rare ; Digby ; com-
mon ; June and July.

1041. A. oblinata S. & A. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; scarce ;
June.

1046. Aphareta dentata Grote. Digby ; Aug. 29, 1907 ; one
specimen.

1053. Harrisimemna trisignata Walk. Have several times
found the larva of this species on lilac about
Digby (Russell).

268 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS, COLLECTED AT

1054. Microccelia dipteroides Guenee. Digby ; June, 1907 ;

Jane 30, 1908 ; not common.

1054a. M. dipteroides var, obliterata Grote. MacNab's Is.;
July 11, 1907 ; Digby ; June 17, 1907.

1055. Jaspidia lepidula Grote. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

plentiful ; June.
1030. DLpktkerafallax H. S. MacNab's Is.; Aug 1, 1905;

Aug, 9, 1907 ; Digby ; always very common ; June

19 to Aug. 11.
1067. Chytonix palliatricula Guene'e. Digby; very common ;

June.
1075. Bailey a doubledayi Guenee. MacNab's Is.; July 17,

1906 ; Digby ; July 7, 1905 ; very rare.
1078. Hadenella minuscula Morrison. Digby ; very rare ;

Aug. 3, 1906 ; Sept. 11, 19, 1907.
1092. Balsa malana Fitch. Digby ; June 8, 1908.
1102, Caradrina midtifera Walk. Digby ; July 31, 1906.
1136. Oligia festivoides Guene'e. Digby; very common;

June.

1138. 0. versicolor Grote. MacNab's Is.; July 5, 1909.
1149. Hadena bridgkami Grote & Rob. Digby; Aug. 3,

1905 ; Aug. 7 to 28, 1906 ; Sept. 9 to 30, 1907.
1153. H. clan lens Walk. MacNab's Is.; July 26, 1907.
1166. H. muctata Gu^nee. MacNab's Is. and Digby; Sept.

1211. //. stipata Morrison. MacNab's Is; Sept. 13, 1909.

1212. H. passer Guenee. Digby ; July 9, 1906.

1217. H. remissn Hubn. MacNab's is.; not common ; Digby;

July 9, 1906 ; Aug. 28, 1907 ; rare.
1220. H. viiltnosa Grote. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; not

common ; June and July.
1224. H.finiti ma Guenee. MacNab's Is.; rare; Digby ; July

9, 1906.
1227. H. dubitans Walk. MacNab's Is. and Digby; very

common ; Aug.
1230. H. ducta Grote. Digby; not common.

HALIFAX AND DIGBY, N. S. — PEIIRIN & RUSSELL. 269

1231.. H. impulsa Guenee. MacNab's Is.; scarce; Digby ;
June 28, 1907.

1232. //. devastatrix Brace. MacNab's Is. and Digby; com-
mon ; July and Aug.

1235. H. arctica Boisd. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; common ;
July and Aug.

1241. H. verbascoides Guenee. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;
scarce ; July 1 to Aug.

1250. H. lignicolor Guenee. MacNab's Is.; scarce ; Digby ;

July 26, 1906.

— . H.rorulenta. MacNab's Is.; July 11, 1905; July
31, 1909. Identified by Dr. James Fletcher.

1268. Polia medialis Grote. Digby ; Sept. 20, 1906.

1277. Dryobota illocata Walk. MacNab's Is. and Digby;

very common ; Aug. and Sept.

1278. Hypa xylinoides Guenee. MacNab's Is. and Digby;

June and Aug.

1282. Feralia jocosa Guenee. MacNab's Is.;' June 21, 1907.
1286. Momophana comstocki Grote. MacNab's Is.; June 10,

1909.
1288. Ewplexia lucipara Linn. Common at MacNab's Is.

and Digby ; July.
1291. Actinotia ramosula Guenee. Digby ; common ; Aug.

1295. Pyrophila pyramidoidcs Guenee. Digby ; scarce ; Aug.

1296. P. tragopoginis Linn. MacNab's Is.; quite rare;

Digby ; very common ; Aug. 23 to Sept. 12.

1297. Heliotropha . reniformis Grote. MacNab's Is. and

Digby : common ; Aug. 8 to 28.
1297a. H. reniformis var. atra Grote. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 13,

]906. Digby ; not common ; Aug. 8 to 28.
1341. Oncocnemis atr if aseiata Morrison. Halifax (Downs).
1370. Adita chionantlti S. & A. Dig-by ; Sept. 19, 1907.

1389. Rhynchagrotis gilvipennis Grote. MacNab's Is.; rare ;

Digby ; not very common ; July 24, to Aug. 10.

1390. R. rufipectus Morrison. Digby; July 7, 1906.

270 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS, COLLECTED AT

1393. R. anchocelioides Guenee. Aug 31, 1906.

1393a. R. anchocelioides var. brunneipennis Grote. Digby;

Aug. 28, 1906.

1397. R. alter nata Grofce. Digby; common; Aug.
1415. Adelphagrotis prasina Fabr. MacNab'sIs. and Digby ;

very common ; Aug. 3 to 17.
1423. Eueretagrotis perattenta Grote. MacNab's Is. and

Digby ; plentiful ; July 29 to Aug. 10.
1421 E. attenta Grote. Digby ; July 31 to Aug. 7.
1426. Semiophora elimat a Guenee. Digby; very common;

Aug. 18 to Sept. 11.
1426b. S. elimata var. janualis Grote. MacNab'sIs; June 11,

1909. Digby; very common ; Aug. 15 to 31.
1429. S. youngii Smith. Digby; not common ; Aug. 15 to

31, 1907 ; Aug. 20 to 30, 1907.

1437. Pachnobia salicaru m Walk. MacNab's Is. ; scarce.
1454. Agrotis ypsilon Rottemb. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

very common ; Aug. 10 to Sept. 4.
1462. Peridroma occulta Linn. MacNab's Is. and Digby j

very common ; Aug.

1464. P. astricta Morrison. Digby; common; Aug 3 to 14. :
1467. P. margaritosa Haworth. Digby ; common ; Aug.
1467a. P. margaritosa var. saucia Hiibn. MacNab's Is. and

Digby ; scarce ; Aug.

1475. Noctua smithii Snellen. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

very common ; Aug. 1 to 17.

1476. N. normaniana Grote. Digby; very common ; Aug.

3 to 17.
1478. N. bicarnea Guenee. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; very

common in both places; Aug. 3 to 17.
1481. JV. c-nigrum Linn. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; June 26

to Aug. 20.
1484. N. phyllophora Grote. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; scarce;

Aug. 3 to 17.
85. N. rubifera Grote. Digby ; very common ; Aug. 1 to 25.

HALIFAX AND DIGBY, N. S. — PERRIN & RUSSELL. 271

1487. N. rosarici Grote. Digby ; July 1, 1907 ; one specimen.

1489. N.fennica Tauscher. Digby ; Aug. 8, 1905 ; Sept. 3,

1907.

1490. ' N. plecta Linn. MacNab's Is. and Digby; very com-

mon ; July 28 to Aug. 10.

1491. N. collaris G. & R. Digby; scarce; Aug. 23, 1905;

Aug. 4, 1906.
1493. N. haruspica Grote. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; not

common ; July 29 to Aug. 7.
1496. N. clandestina Harris. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

July 17, 1905; July 27, 1906.
1540a. Felt ia jacidif era var. herilis Grote. MacNab's Is. and

Digby ; not common ; Aug. 7 to 22.
1545. F. venerabilis Walk. MacNab's Is.; scarce; Digby;

Sept. 11, 1907.

1549. F. valubilis Harvey. Digby ; June 28, 1905.
1552. Porosagrotis vetuustu, Walk. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 28,

1906; one specimen.

1556. P. mimallonis Grote. Digby; Sept. 17, 1907.
1603. Paragrotis velleripennis Grote. Digby; Sept. 19, 1907.
1620. P. scandem Riley. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 20, 1903.
1649. P. messoria Harris. Digby; quite common; Aug. 22,

to 31.
1707. P. insulsa Walk. Digby; quite common; Aug. 10

to 28.
1719. P. ochrogaster Guenee. MacNab's Is.; scarce; Digby;

Aug. 10, 12, 1905; Aug 22, 1906.
. P. bestitura. MacNab's Is ; Aug. 12, 1909; determined

by Dr. J. B. Smith.
1737. P. redimieula Morrison. Digby; not common; July

29 to Aug. 22.
1753. Auytus privates Walk. MacNab's Is.; not common;

Digby; very common; Aug. 3 to Sept. 11.
1756. A. profundiut Smith. Very common at Digby during

August.

272 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS, COLLECTED AT

1762. Ufeus satyricm Grote. MacNab's Is.; April 4, 1906.

1773. Mamestra nimbosa Guenee. Digby; Aug. 12, 1907.

1774. M. imbrifera Guenee. MacNab's Is.; scarce; Digby:

common; July 14 to Aug. 3.

1775. M. purpurissata Grote. Digby ; common ; Aug. 3 to 14.

1792. M. ailantica Grote. MacNab's Is.; Digby ; June 22,

1907.

1793. M. radix Walk. Digby , June 17, 1907.

1796. M. sabjuncta G. & R. Digby; Aug. 17, 20, 1907;
June 25, 1908.

1800. M. grandis Bois. MacNab's Is; June 6, 1910.

1801. M. trifolii Rottemb. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 11, 1907 ; not

common. Digby; June 28, 1905; June 19, 1907.
1803. M. rosea Harvey. Digby ; July 22, 1905 ; June 25, 1907.

1806. M. rubefada Morrison. Digby; June 18, 1906.

1807. M. picta Harris. MacNab's Is, and Digby; June 21,

1905; June 22, 1906.

1808. M. cristifera Walk. MacNab's Is.

1809. M. assimilis Morrison. MacNab's Is. and Digby; rare.

1810. M. latex Guenee. Digby; July 8, 1907.

1812. M. adjuncta Boisd. MacNab's Is.; rare; Digby; July
3, 1906; June 8, 1908.

1822. M. ligitima Grote. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; June 20,

1907.

1823. M. lilacina Harvey. MacNab's Is.; rare.

1829. M. renigera Stephens. MacNab's Island and Digby ;

not common; July 18 to Aug. 22.
1832. M. olivacea Morrison. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; very

common ; Aug. 3 to 22.
1842. M. lorea Guenee. Digby and MacNab's Is.; common;

June 15 to July 14.
1882. Barathra curialis Smith. MacNab's Is.; rare; Digby;

July 13, 1906.
1885. Morrisonia sectilis Guenee. Digby ; not common ;

June.

HALIFAX AND DIGBY, N. S. — PERR1N <fe RUSSELL. 273

1885a. M. sectUis var. vomerina Grote. Digby; common;

June.
1950. Nephelodes minians Guenee. MacNab's Is.; common;

Digby; common; Aug. 15 to Sept. 4.

1953. Heliophila unipuncta Haworth. MacNab's Is. and

Digby ; common ; Aug. 14 to Sept. 5.

1954. H. pseudargyria Guen6e. Digby ; July 17, 1907 ;

June 17, 1908.
1957. H. luteopallens Smith. MacNab's Is. and Digby; very

common ; June 20 to Aug. 2.

1975. H. insnetci Guenee. MacNab's Is.; Sept. 7, 1907.
1979. H. commoides Guenee. MacNab's Is. and Digby : not

common ; July 12 to 22.

1996. Orthodes crenulata Butler. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 15, 1906;

Digby ; common ; July 15 to Aug. 3.

1997. 0. cynica Guene'e. MacNab's Is.; July, 1907 ; Digby;

very common ; July 22 to 28.

1998. 0. vecors Guenee. MacNab's Is.; June 3, 1910. Digby;

July 15, 1905 ; Aug. 31, 1908 ; June 8, 1908.
2009. Crocigrapha nor mani Grote. Digby; Feb. 3, 1905;

June 18, 1907.
2015. Graphiphora oviducta Guenee. Digby; June 6, 1907;

June 6. 1908.

2024. G. fwrftirata Grote. Digby.
2040. G.alia Guenee. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; May, 1906 ;

June 13, 1907; May 7, 1908.
2077. Litfiomoia germana Morrison. Digby; quite common;

Aug. 31 to Sept. 13.
2091. Xylina laticinerea Grote. Digby; Sept, 1, 1906.

2093. X. ferrealis Grote. Digby; Sept. 20, 1906.

2094. X. sign osa Walk. Digby; not common ; Aug. 23 to

Sept. 10.

2097. X. bethunei G. & R, Digby; Sept. 2, 1905; Aug. 6 to
20, 1906 ; nine specimens.

274 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS, COLLECTED AT

2100. X. fagina Morrison. MacNab's Is; June 3, 1910,
Digby; July 1, 1905; April 25, 1907.

2107. X. tepida Grote. MacNab's Is.; April 7, 1904. Digby;

Sept. 28, 1907.

2108, X. bailey i Grote. Digby; Sept. 17, 28, 1907.

2111. X. thaxteri Grote. MacNab's Is.; June 12, 1909.

2112. X.pexata Grote. Digby ; March 14 ; 1906; Sept. 17,

1906.
— . X. fletcherii. Digby; Sept. 20, 1906; Sept. 19,

1907.

2115. Litholomia napcea Morrison. MacNab's Is.; rare. \
2118. Calocampa nupera Lint. MacNab's Is.; rare.

2121. C. ciiruimacula Morrison. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

not common ; July and Aug.

2122. Cucidlia convexipemiis G. & R. MacNab's Is. and

Digby.
2127. C. asteroides Guenee. MacNab's Is. and Digby; not

common ; July.
2132. C. intermedia Speyer. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; June

26 to July 27.
2149. Sphida obliqua Walk. Digby; June 9, 1907.

2161. Gortyna velata Walk. MacNab's Is. and Digby; not

common ; Aug. 2 to 22.

2162. G. nictitans Bork. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; common ;

Aug.

2199. Xantkia fiavago Fabr. MacNab's Is. and Digby; not
common; Sept. 9 to 18.

2203. Brotolomiairis Guen6e. Digby and MacNab's Is.; July

18, 1907 ; not common ; June.

2204. Trigonophora pericvlosa Guenee. MacNab's Is. and

Digby ; common ; July 25 to Aug. 6.
2204a. T. pericidosa var. v-brunneum Grote. Very common

at Digby July 29 to Aug. 12.
2206. Eucirrcedia pampina Guenee. MacNab's Is. and

Digby ; common ; Aug. 28 to Sept. 21.

HALIFAX AND DIGBY, N. S. — PERRIN & RUSSELL. 275

2207. Scoliopteryx libatrix Linn. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

common ; Oct. 4 to 9.

2217. Cosinia paleacea Esper. Digby ; common ; Aug. 24 to 31.
2222. Orthosia bicolorago Guen^e. Sept. 19, 28, 1907.
2222a. 0. bicolorago var. ferruginoides Guene'e. MacNab's Is.

and Digby ; very common ; Aug. 14 to Sept. 11.
2235. Parasticktis discivaria Walk. Digby ; not common ;

Aug. 20 to 29.

2241. Scopelosoma wcdkeri Grote. Digby ; May 7, 1906.

2242. 8. sidus Guene'e. Digby; April 3, 1906.

2247. Glcea inulta Grote. MacNab's Is.; one specimen ; 1900 ;

Digby ; common ; Aug. 4 to 31.
2261. Ipimorpha pleonectusa Grote. MacNab's Is.; Sept. 14,

1906.
2307. Ehodophora florida Guenee. MacNab's Is.; July 19,

1906 (one specimen). Common at Digby ; July 7

to 14.
2473. Polychrysia formosa Grote. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 17,

1 906.

2475. Plusia ccroides Grote. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

common ; July and Aug.

2476. P. balluca Geyer. Digby; 1904. MacNab's Is.; Aug.

20, 1907.

2479a. Eiichcde'<a festuue var. putnami Grote. -MacNab's Is.
and Digby ; not common ; July.

2480. E. venmki Walk. MacNab's Is ; 20 July, 1908 (Perrin).

Halifax (Downs).

2481. EosphorQptcryx thyatiro'ides Guenea. MacNab's Is;

rare. Digby; Aug. 14,1906.

2482. Autoympha mappa G. & R. MacNab's Is. and Digby;

Aug. 5, 1905 : July 20, 1906 ; very rare.

2483. A. bimacidata Stephens. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

not common ; Aug. 3 to 23.

2488. A. precationis Guenee. MacNab's Is.; scarce. Digby J
Aug. 10, 1906.

276 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS, COLLECTED AT

2491. A. flayellum Walk. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; July 25,

1907.

2496. A. brass icoe Riley. MacNab's Is ; Sept. 23, 1909.
2501. A. alias Ottol. MacNab's Is.; scarce. Digby ; Aug.

8, 1906.

2503. A. altera Ottol. (?) MacNab's Is.: rare.
2505. A. rectangula Kirby. MacNab's Is.; plentiful. Digby;

scarce ; Aug.
2509. A. selecta Walk. MacNab's Is.; rare. Digby: Aug.

21, 1906.

2515. A. epigcea Grote. MacNab's Is.; common.
2517. A. ampla Walk. Digby ; July 8, 1905 ; July 20, 1906,

MacNab's Is.
2519. A.falcigera Kirby. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; common;

June, Aug., Sept.

2555. Alabama arg illacea Hiibn. MacNab's Is.: Oct. 8, 1905.
2568. Rivula propinqualis Guenee. Digby ; Aug. 7, 1907 ;

July 6, 1908.
2601. Eustrotia albidula Guenee. Digby ; common ; June

1£ to July 13. MacNab's Is.; one specimen; June

14, 1906.
2604. E. con-cinnimacula Guenee. Digby ; 1904 ; June 20,

1908.

2612. E. apicosa Haworth. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; Sept.

3, 1907 ; June 25, 1908.

2613. E. carneola Guenee. MacNab's Is.; July 9, 1909,

Digby ; July 7, 1906 ; June 25, July 20, 1908.
2622. Lithacodia bellicula Hiibn. Digby; 1904.

2715. Metathorasfi monti/era Guenee. MacNab's Is. and

Digby ; not common ; June 19 to 22.

2716. Euherrichia moll i si inn Guenee. Digby; June 22, 1906.
2725.. Pangrapta decoralis Hiibn. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

common ; June 7 to Aug. 14.

HALIFAX AND DIGBY, N. S. — PERRIN & KUSSELL. 277

2734. Homopyralis contracta Walk. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 9,
1909. Digby ; rare; June 28, 1906; Aug., 1907;
June 17, 1908.

2754. Drasterea erechtea Cramer. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

common ; Aug.

2755. D. crassiuscula Haworth. Digby ; common ; May 5 to

10; Aug. 10 to 20.

2769. Meliopotis limbolaris Geyer. North West Arm, Hali-
fax ; Aug. 15, 1909 (Pen-in). Digby; 1904; July 28,
1907 ; June 17, 1908J

2826. Catocala relicta Walk. MacNab's Is.; scarce. Digbj^ ;
not common ; Aug. 17 to Sept. 15.

2826a. C. relicta var. bianca Edw. Digby ; rare ; Sept. 1
,to 15.

:2830. C. concumbens Walk. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; com-
mon ; Aug. 11 to Sept. 28.

2848. C. unijuga Walk. Digby ; common ; Aug. 10 to
Sept. 11.

.2854. C. briseis Edw. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 12, 1905. Digby ;
not common ; Aug. 22 to Sept. 4.

2857. C. parta Guenee. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; Aug. 17
to Sept. 14.

2864. C. ultronia Hiibn. Digby ; not common ; Aug. 30 to

Sept. 4.

2865. 'C. ilia Cramer. Digby; Sept. 31, 1906.
2872. C. cerogama Guenee. Digby ; Aug. 25, 1906.

2884. C. antinympha Hiibn. Digby ; not common ; Aug. 14

to 26.

2886. C. codebs Grote. Digby ; not common ; Aug. 10 to 24.
2892. C. polygama Guenee. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 25, 1904.
2892a. C. polygama var. cratcegi Saunders. MacNab's Is;

Aug. 17, 1907. Digby; Sept, 17, 1907.
2900. C. prcedara G. & R. Digby ; Sept. 17, 1907.
2905a. C. gracilis var. sordida Grote. MacNab's la. and

Digby ; very common ; Aug. and Sept.

278 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS, COLLECTED AT

2921. Parallelia bistriaris Hiibn. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

June 22 to Aug. 12:
2977. Zale horrida Hubn. Digby; very common ; June 15

to 24.
2983a. Ypsia undidaris var. ceruginosa Guenee. Digby ; com-

mon ; June.
2986. Homoptera lunata Drury. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

very common ; May 17 to June 22.
2986a. H. lunata var. edusa Drury. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

common ; June.
3002., H. duplicata Bethune. Digby ; scarce ; June 6 to 20.

Subfamily

3008. ' Epizeuxis americalis Guenee. MacNab's Is. and;

Digby ; common ; Aug. 3 to 10.

3009. E. cemula Hubn. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; common ;:

Aug.

3012. E. lubricalis Geyer. Digby ; not common ; July.
3025. Zandognatha marcidilinea Grote. Digby ; common ;.

Aug.
3036, Philonetra metonalis Walk. Digby ; July 18, Aug. 2,

1907 ; June 30, 1908.

3044. Renia sobrialis Walk. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 10, 1909..

Digby ; Aug., 1906.

3045. R. ditosalis Walk. Digby; Aug., 1806.
3049. Bleptina caradrinalis Guenee. MacNab's Is.
3054. Heterogramma pyramusalis WTalk. MacNab's Is.
305J8. Palthis angulalis Hiibn. Digby ; not common ; June.
3060. Capis curvata Grote. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 22, 1909 ;

July 10, 1910.

3063. Lomanaltes eductcdis Walk. Digby ; June 24, 1907 ;
June 27, July 21, 1908.

3065, Bomolocha bqltirnomlis Guenee. Digby.

3066. B. bijugalis Walk. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 8, 1907. Digby.
3072. B. toreuta Grote. Digby ; July 27, 1907 ; June 27, 1908.

HALIFAX AND DIGBY N. S — PERRIN & RUSSELL. 279

3079. Plathypena scabra Fabr. Digby ; common ; Aug.

29 to Sept 8.

3080. Hypena humuli Harris. MacNab's Is.; very common.

Digby ; scarce ; Aug.

Family NOTODONTID^.

309 2a. Melalopha apicah's var. orrtata G. & R. MacNab's Is.

and Digby ; July 2, 1907.

3094. M. indusa Hiibner. MacNab's Is.; June 10, 1910.
3096. M. albosigma Fitch. MacNab's Is.; July 4, 1907.
3098. Datana ministra Drury. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

not common ; July.
3111. Hypercuschra stragula Grote. Digby ; March 15, 1905 ;

June 30, July 12, 1906.

3118. Pheosta diinidiaia H.-S. MacNab's Is; one speci-
men emerged July 3, 1910.
3120. LopJiodonta fwrrug inea Pack. MacNab's Is.; June 15,

1906.

3123. Nadata gibbosa S. & A. MacNab's Is.; rare.
3125. Symmerisia albifrons S. & A. Digby and MacNab's

Is.; not common ; June 16 to July 5.
3137. Heterocampa manteo Doubl. MacNab's Is.
3140. H. biundata Walk. MacNab's Is. and Digby; July

2, 1907.

3148. Schizura ipomaece Doubl. MacNab's Is.
3148b. S. ipomoecv var. cinereofrons Pack. MacNab's Is.
3151. 8. unicornis S. & A. MacNab's Is. and Digby.
3153. 8. badz'a Packard. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 6. 1907 ; Aug.

7, 1910.

3164. Harpyiascolopendrina Boisd. Halifax (Downs).
3164b. H. scolopendrina var. albicoma Strecker. MacNab's

Is.; Aug. 10, 1907.
3166. Gluphisia septentrional is Walk. SlacNab's Is.; Aug.

16, 1906.

280 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS, COLLECTED AT

Family THYATIRID^.

3173. Habrosyne script-i Gosse. MacNab's Is. and Dig-by ;
common ; June 22 to Aug. 3.

3176. Pseudothyatim cymatopkoroides Guenee. MacNab's

Is. and Digby ; July 21 to 29.

3177. P. expultrix Grote. MacNab's Is. and Digby; com-

mon ; June 19 to July 19.

Family LIPATUDJE.

3187. Notolophus antiqua L,inn. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

not common ; Sept. and Oct.
3190. Hem~3rocamp-i leucostiginz S. & A. MacNab's Is. and

Digby; very common; Aug. and Sept.

3195. Olene plagiata Walk. MacNab's Is.: Aug. 6, 1907.
3197. Ewproctis chrysorrhwi Linn. Digby; July 14,1905;

first specimen taken in Nova Scotia.

Family LASIOCAMPIDJE.

3208. Tolype velleda Stoll. MacNab's Is .; Oct. 4, 1909.
3214. Malacosoma americana Fabr. Digby and MacNab's

Is.; rare ; July.
3221. M. disstria, Hu'bn. Digby ; very common during July

1905, less so in 1907, scarce 1908.
3223. Epicnaptera americana Harris. Digby ; Jan. 17, 1905 ;

bred ; and MacNab's Is.

Family PLATVPTERYGID^S.

3226. Oreta rosea Walk. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 4, 1904. Digby ;

Aug. 2, 1905.
3229. Drepana arcuata Walk. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; not

common; June 16 to July 18.
3229a. D. arcuata var. genicida Grote. MacNab's Is. and

Digby ; not common.
3231. Falcaria bilineata Pack. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 9, 1909.

Digby; July 26, 1907.

HALIFAX AND DIGBY, N. S. — PERRIN & RUSSELL. 281

Family GEOMETRID^E.

Subfamily DYSPTKRIUIX*.

3234. Nyctobia limitata Walk. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

common ; April and May.
3237. Cladora atroliturata Walk. MacNab's Is. and Digby :

not common ; May 7 to June 13.
3240. Rachela bruceata Hulst. Digby ; not common ; Nov.

Subfamily HYDRIOMKNIS.*;.

3247. Alsophila pometari a Harris. MacNab's Is. Digby;

Nov. 23, 1905.

3248. Eudide mendica Walk. MacNab's Is; not common.

Digby; very common ; June 7 to 19.

3256. Talledega tabulata Hulst. Digby; June 13, 1907.
3282. Tephrodystis albicapibtta Pack. MacNab's Is.; not

common.
3287. T. Icdipennis Hulst. Digby; July 29, 1908.

— . T.togatu. Digby; June 18, July 7,1906; July 22,
1907; June 22-29, 1908.

. T. quebecata Taylor. Digby; Sept. 11, 19, 1907.

— . T. catskillata. MacNab's Is.; one, May 5, 1909. Digby:
Aug. 18, 1908.

. T. mutate* Digby; July 27, 1908.

3323. Eucymatoge anticaria Walk. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 10.
1906. Digby; not common ; Aug. 14 to 29.

3327. E. intestinuta Queue* e. MacNab's Is. and Digby

3328. E. vitalbata Denis & Schif. Digby.

3329. Venusia cambr ica Curtis. MacNab's Is.; June 10, 1906,

3330. V. duodecemlineata Pack. MacNab's Is.

3331. V. compturia Walk. Digby ; July 26, Aug. 29, 1907 ;

June 29 to July 20, 1908.

3332. Euchceca albovittata Guen&e. MacNab's Is. and Digby :

common ; June 13 to July 7.

*The last four species were identified for Mr. Russell, and in hisabsence the author-
ity for names, which do not appear in Uyar's list, cannot be inserted.— ED.

PKOC. & TRANS., N. S. INST. Scr., VOL. XII. TRANS. 19.

282 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS, COLLECTED AT

3337. Epirrita dilutata D. & S. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

Oct. 10, 1907.
3340. Hy drill unduluta Linn. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

common ; July 7 to 31.
3348. Eustroma divers dineatu Hiibn. MacNab's Is. and

Digby ; not common ; Aug. 28 to Sept. 1.1.

3352. E. prunata Linn. Digby ; not common ; Aug.

3353. E. nubilita Pack.* Digby ; Aug. 3, 1906.

3355- E ex,>lanata Walker. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 1, 1909.
3359. Rheumaptertt kistata Linn. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

common ; June 12 to July 23.
3361. R. sociata Bork. Digby ; Aug. 16, 1907; July 14r 1908.

3370. Percnoptilota flnvintu Hiibn. Digby; Sept 11,1907.

3371. Mesoleuca ruficdlwta Guenee. MacNab's Is. and

Digby ; common ; July.

3374. M. lacustrata Guenee. MacNab's Is.
3376. M. intermediates Guenee. Digby; Aug. 3 to 17, 1906.
3379. M. truncata Hufnagel. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

common ; Sept.
3381. M. silareata Hiibn. Digby; not common: June 15

to 20.
3383. M. hersiliata Guenee. Digby; May 9, 1905; July

22, 1907.

3386. M. visdliata Guenee. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; not

common ; May 22 to June 80.

3387. Hydriomena sord/data Fabr. Digby ; common ; June

1 to 18.

3388. H. autumnalis Strb'meyer. MacNab's Is.; common.
3390. H. tceniata Stephens. Digby ; Aug. 16, 1907.
3395. H. contracta Pack. Digby ; Aug. 10 to Sept.

3401. H. multiferat't. Walk. MacNab's Is.; July 18, 1906;
Digby; July 2, 1906.

*The range of E, nubilata is givon a.s ''the Pacific States" in I»yar's list, which
would cause us not to expect it here. — ED

HALIFAX AND DIGBY, N. S. — PERRIX & RUSSELL. 283

3402. H. Latirupta Walk. MacNab's Is.; July 10, 1906.
3416. Trii>ho#<i dubitcUa Linn. MacNab's Is ; Sept. 13, 1909.
3438. Gypsockroa designate Hufnagel. McNab's Is.; May 15,
1910.

3449. Petropkora incursata Hiibn. MacNab's Is.

3450. P. abrasarxi Herrich-Schaeffer. Digby ; July 7, 1906.

MacNab's Is., two specimens, July 6, 1906; July

4, 7, 1908.

3457. P fernujata Clerck. Digby ; common ; June.
3463. P. fluctuata Linn. MacNab's Is. arid Digby ; July 2,

1906; June 29. 1908.
, P. pl«nata Taylor. Digby; July 2, 1906.

Subfunily STK.IRIIISA:.

3480. Cosy mb la huncnaria Hiibn. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

not common.

34S6. Synelys alabastarid Hiibn. Digby; not common : July.
3487. S. ewiiudeata (juenee. Digby ; not common ; June 28

to July 11.

Subfamily GEOMHTRIN.I-:.

3568. Eiicrvfitis Incei-tata Walk. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

common : Ma}'.
3587. AploHes mimosaria Guenee. MacNab's Is. Digby;

June 12, July 1, 1907 : June 8 to 28, 1908.

Subfamily ENSOMIN*.

3603. Epel'x tranratana Walk. MacNab's Is. and Dgiby ;

con i m on ; June.

3604. Eufidonia notataria Walk. MacNab's Is, and Digby ;

common : June 14 to 24.

31)35. Oi'tkofidonia exornata Walk. 'MacNab's Is. and Digby ;
not common : June.

360(5. 0. st>m'n'l<i,i'<ita Walk. MacNab's Is. and Digby; com-
mon ; June.

284 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS, COLLECTED AT

3608. 0. vestaliata Guene'e. NacNab's Is. and Digby ; June

24 to July 3.
3618. Psysostegania pustular i a Guenee. MacNab's Is.; Aug.

18, 1906. Digby; July 12 to Aug. 13. Not

common.
3619 Gueneim ba.iiaria Walker. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 15

1907.
3623. Dtiiinia variolaria Guenee. Digby and MacNab's Is ;

common ; June.

. 3624. D. erythiemaria Guenee. MacNab's Is; one speci-
men; June 25, 1906.
3647. Sciagraphia granitata Guenee. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

common ; May 28 to June 16.

3666. Philobia notata Linn. Digby.

3667. P. enotata Guene'e. MacNab's Is. and Digby; not com-

mon ; July.

3683. Macaria glotneraria Grote. MacNab's Is.; May 25, 1908,
3695. Cymatop/tora brunneata Thunberg. Digby; July 7,

1906; July 6, 1908.
3705. C. subcessaria Walk. Digby ; not common ; July 14

to 22.

3708. C. wauaria Linn. MacNab's Is. ; July 30, 1906.
3748. Homocklodes fritillaria Guenee. MacNab's Is. and

Digby ; common ; June.

3753. Apcecasia detersata Guenee. Digby ; common ; May

and June.

3754. A. deductaria Walk. MacNab's Is and Digby.

3755. A. defluata Walk. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; common :

May and June.
3764. Caripeta divisata Walk. MacNab's Is. and Digby :

common ; June 18 to July 29.
3780. Nepytia semiclusaria Walk. Digby.
3803. Paraphia subaiomaria Wood. MacNab's Is.; common.
3850. C/eora pampinaria Guenee. Digby ; Aug. 17, 1907.

HALIFAX AND DIGBY, N. S. — PERRIN & RUSSELL. 285

3855. C. Larvaria Guenee. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; not
common ; June 17 to 30.

3858. Melanolophia canadaria Guenee. MacNab's Is. and

Digby ; not common.

3859. jEikaloptera intextata Walker. MacNab's Is. and

Digby.
3862. Ectropis crepuscularia Denis & Sch. MacNab's Is. and

Digby; June 6, 20, 1907.

3867. Lycia cognataria Guenee. MacNab's Is.; July 11, 1907,
3873. Nacophora quernaria S. & A. MacNab's Is.; March

24, 1907.
3884. Erannis tiliaria Harris. MacNab's Is.; Sept. 21,

1906 (Perrin). Halifax (Downs).
3886. CingiliacatenariaDrury. MacNab's Is.; Sept. 22, 1901.

Digby; very common ; Sept. 15 to 21.
3898a. Anagoga pulveraria var. occiduaria Walker. Digby ;

June 20, 1907 ; July 6, 1908.
3902. Sicya macidaria Harris. MacNab's If.: Aug. 28, 1904.

Digby ; Aug. 3, 1906.

3908. Therina endropiaria G. & R. Digby ; June 22, 1907 ;

June 18 to 29, 1908.

3909. T. athasiaria Walker. Digby ; June, 1908.

3910. T. fiscellana Guene'e. Digby ; very common ; Sept

10 to 22.

3911. T. fervidaria Hiibn. MacNab's Is.; very common.
3913. Mctrocampa prcegrandaria Guen6e. MacNab's Is. Tviid

Digby ; not common ; July 26 to 31.

3922. Ennomos subsignarius Hubn. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 9,

1904.

3923. E. 77mgnarius Guene'e. MacNab's Is.

3925. Xanthotype crocaturia Fabr. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

July.
3927. PLagodis serinarlu H.-S. MacNab's Is.; June 24, 1904.

Digby; June 24, 1905.

286 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS, COLLECTED AT

3934. Hyperitis micaria H.-S. MacNab's Is. and Digby :

June 23, 1908.

3939. Ania limbata Haworth. Digby ; common ; Aug.
3941. Gonodontis ky ochra la H -S. MacNab's Is.; two

specimens; July 9, 1909
3944. G. duarm Guenee. MacNab's Is. and Digby; June 12,

1907 ; June 4 to 11, 1908.

3957. Euckloma efrectaria Walk. Digby ; July 4 to 10, K0(>.
3971. Ewt apeLt kenta.ia Grote. MacNab's Is: three speci-

men's.

3981. Metanema inatomari't Guenee. MacNab's Is. and

Digby ; not common ; July.

3982. M. determinate Walk. MacNab's Is. and Digby; not,

common ; July.

3986. M. quercivoraria Guenee. MacNab's Is.; June 12, 1906-
3990. Priocycla armantaria H. & S. MacNab's Is.; July 21 »

1905.
4001. Azelina ancetaria Hiibn. MacNab's Is. and Digby; not

common ; July.

4007. Caberodes confmaria Hubn. MacNab's Is.; June-2, 1906.
4011. Tetrads crocaiiata Guenee. MacNab's Is. and Digby ;

June.
4016. Sabulodes lorata Grote. MacNab's Is. and Digby :

common ; June 14 to 22.

4026. S. trwnsversata Drury. Digby ; very common ; Sept.
4028. Abhotana demataria S. &.A. MacNab's Is. Digby :

June 25, 1908.

Subfamily

4037. Bre,>hos infans Mdschler. MacNab's Is. and Digby :
May 7, 1907 ; May 16, 1908.

HALIFAX AND DIGBY, N. S. — PERRIN & RUSSELL. 287

Superfamily TiNKOiDEA.
Family COCHLIDIID.E.

4106. Tortricidia testacea Pack. Digby ; June 24, 1907.

Family SESIID.*.

4191. Bembecia marginata Harris. Digby; July.

Family PYRALID.E.
Subfam PYRAUSTIN^.

4278. Hymem'a fasmatis Cram. MacNab's s.; two specimens.

4277. Desmia funeraiis Hubner. MacNab's Is.; rare.

4336. Evergestis stramtnalis Hubner. MacNab's Is. and

Digby ; common ; July.

4342. NomophUa noctueUa D. & S. MacNab's Is.
4347. Loxostege chortalis Grote. Digby; June 17, 1907.
4413. Phlydcenia tertialis Guenee. MacNab's Is.; July 20,

1-906.

4418. Pyraustafissalis Grote. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 9, 1909.
4436. P. fumalis Guenee. MacNab's Is; Aug. 1, 1909.
4454. P. insequalis Guer.ee. Digby ; June 5, 1907.
4472. P. funebris StrOm. Digby; June.
- . P. ochosahs Fitch, MS. (See W. H. Holland's " Moth

Book," p. 398, and pi. 47, fig. 57.) MacNab's Is.:

rare.

Subfamily

4516. Pyralis farinalis Linn. MacNab's Is. and Digby ; July

]8, 1905, and Aug. 2; 1907.

4521. ercitha olinalis Guenee MacNab's Is.; Aug. 7, 1908.
4523. H. himoniaiix Zeller. Digby ; Aug. 2, 1907.

288 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS, COLLECTED AT

Subfam'ly

4575. Omnibus agitatellua Clemens. Digby ; June 9, 11, 1906.

Subfamily PHYCITIN/E.

4832. Euzofthera semifuneralis Walk. Digby ; July 14, 1906;
June 5, Sept. 19, 1907.

- . Palpita hortulata. (Identified by Prof. C. H. Fernald.)
MacNab's Is.; nob common. Formerly reported by
Dr. J. Fletcher as Pyrausta generosa G. & R.

Family PTEKOPHORID^E.

4962. Pterophorua homoda< tylus Walker. MacNab's Is.

Family TORTKICID^C.

Subfamily ObETiiREUTiNA:.

5167. Thiodia aspidiscana Hiibner. Digby.
5296. Cydia pomonella Linn. Digby.

Subfamily TORTRICIN^K.

5331. Epagoge sulfareana Clemens. Digby; Aug. 9, 1905.

5352. Sparganothis violaceana Robinson. Digby.

5356. Archips rosaceana Harris. MacNab's Is: Aug. 16, 1909.

5379. A. persicana Fitch. Digby.

Family YPONOMEUTID^E.

5537a. Orchemia diana var. betu,li/>erda Dyar. MacNab's Is.;
Sept. 1, 1909.

Family

5889. Depressaria heracUana De Geer. MacNab's Is.; Aug

15, 1909.
5893. Semioscoftsis ackar delta Clemens. MacNab's Is.; May

12, 1909.

HALIFAX AND DIGBY, N. S. — PERRIN & RUSSELL. 289

Family

6236. Bucculatrix canadensisella Chambers. Dr. A. H.
MacKay, of Halifax, reports this species very com-
mon during the last two years, the larvae attacking
the leaves of birches. It has been associated, at
least in Pictou, Colchester and Halifax counties,
with the birch-leaf sa,\vf\.y,Phlebotrophia. mathesoni*
MacGillivray. Bucculatrix larvae eat patch --s out
of the leaves, leaving the epidermis of one side ;
Pklebotrophia larvae mine between the upper and
lower epidermis, forming circular patches deprived
of the green central layer of the leaf.

6487. Tineola bisselliella Hum in el. (Clothes moth). Very
common,

6532. Trichophaga tapetzella Linn. This may be 6520, Tinea
pelh'onella Linn, (the fur moth), there not I eing a
specimen at hand to be certain (Perrin).

6557. Adda purpura Walker. MacNab's Is.

vSuperfamily MICROPTERYGOIDKA.
Family HEPIALID^.

6604. Sthenopis argenteomaculatus Harris. Halifax (Downs
collection).

6609. Hepialus mustelina Pack. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 25,

1907.

6610. H. gracilis Grote. MacNab's Is.; Aug. 16, 1907.

*Phlebotrophia mathesoni MacGillivray may be only a variety of the European
species.- ED.

290 IHJTTERFLIES AND MOTHS, HALIFAX AND DIGBY,

ADDITIONS TO THE CATALOGUE.

The following additional species should be inserted in the
foregoing list, as indicated by their respective numbers :

1225. Hadena lateritia Hiibner. MacNab's Is.; common.

1226. Hadena cogitata Smith. MacNab's Is.; June 30, 1910.
1252. Hadena inordinata Morrison. MacNab's Is.; June 21,

1910.
1805. Mamestra conger mana Morrison. MacNab's Is.; July

23, 1907.
— . Ma,mestra incallida. (Identified by Dr. J. B. Smith):

MacNab's Is.; June 9, 1909.
2 197 p. Pyrrhia umbra var. exprimens Walker. MacNab's Is.:

July 30, 1907.
2240. Scopelosoma tristigmata Grote. MacNab's Is.; May 21,

1907.

Amended number of nominal species and varieties in the
preceding catalogue : Butterflies, 60 ; moths, 480 ; total, 540.

Since the preparation of the catalogue, one of the authors,
Mr. John Russell, has removed from Nova Scotia, and his
present address is Hope Station, British Columbia.

CONCERNING THE EFFECT OF GRAVITY ON THE CONCENTRATION
OF A SOLUTE. — BY HAROLD S. DAVIS, B. A., Dalhousie
College, Halifax, K S.*

Read 3 1st May, 1911.

Suppose that a solution of uniform concentration is placed
in a tube of constant cross-section and of vertical height, 7, and
is exposed to the influence of gravity.

In general the concentration must now change throughout
the solution in order to produce equilibrium which obtains after
an infinite time.

If (Fig. 1) the height <4_ A,

of the tube is represented
by M N", and the concen-
tration at any point by a
distance x perpendicular
to M. N, then x will trace
out a line A B represent-
ing the concentration of
the solution at any point.
At the beginning, A B will
be a straight line parallel
to xy. At final equil-
ibrium it will be a straight
line which )is in general
inclined to M N". See L.
Vegard, Contributions to
the Theory of Solutions,
Phil. Mag., series 6, no. B,
77, page 258). For any
time t less than infinity, A B will represent the distribution of
the solute.

* Published in this part by porini«sion of the council of the N. S. Institute of
Science.

(291)

292 CONCERNING THE EFFECT OF GRAVITY

i

In the article referred to above, Vegard proves from con-
sideiations of dynamical and thermodynamical equilibrium,
that the final distribution of the solute will depend on whether
the density of the solution at that particular concentration
increases or decreases for an infinitely small increase in con-
centration. In the special case in which a small change in
concentration makes no corresponding change in density, the
concentration of the solution will remain uniform throughout
even when exposed to gravity.

Suppose now the homogeneous solution is exposed to grav-
ity, its concentration will begin to change, solute flowing from
the top to the bottom or vice versa, according as the density at
that particular concentration increases or decreases with the
concentration. This flow will be comparatively large at first,
but will fall away to zero as an exponential function of the time.
When equilibrium is reached, there is the same concentration
gradient at every height of the column. If now we consider
the force of gravity removed, the solution will begin to diffuse
back to its initial condition of uniform concentration, and it
seems reasonable to suppose that the flow will be exactly similar
to that in the original solution, that is it will be comparatively
large at first, and will fall away as an exponential function of
the time.

If this be true, then the original diffusion flow is exactly
similar to one in a tube not exposed to any force such as gravity
and where the initial concentration gradient 'is equal to that
which actually exists in final equilibrium in the solution exposed
to gravity.

Now it is always assumed that the diffusion of a solute is
analagous to the flow of heat, and obeys Fourier's linear diffu-
sion law, and the conditions in the differential equation:

r>— c ^T
da* "= d~t

ON THE CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTE. — DAVIS.

293

Where T = time.

c = concentration of solute,

x = distance from any fixed plane perpendicular
to the direction of flow.

D = a constant for that particular solvent and solute.

Assuming this, the other condition we have is that no solute
passes through the limiting layers A IN' or B M (Fig. 1).

To get this problem into a form suitable for mathematical
analysis let us imagine that we have an infinite number of
tubes -of solution such as in (Fig. 1) of length I, and with a
concentration gradient as in final equilibrium. Suppose now
we place these together end to end so that the end of greatest
concentration in one meets the end of greatest concentration
in the other (Fig. 2).

tr,

Diffusion begins and the solute in the tube M N flows in the
direction of the gradient and similarly in the other tubes. The
concentration at the plane M P therefore decreases and that at
n Q increases. But since there is no gradient at the plane
P M or at the plane n Q, so solute can pass through them,
which is the condition required in our problem.

Now, since the concentration in M n obeys Fourier's linear
diffusion law, it is a function of the distance x from the plane
P M, and of the time T , and may be expanded in a Fourier's
series, but since 3> (x) = & ( — #) only cosine terms enter.

204 CONCERNING THE EFFECT OF GKAVITY

Let 3> (x) = (Ao X Ai Cos y x + A2 Cos .

where Am = — & (,,-) Cos -- dx

where A = -*® x dx.

Let (a) be the difference in concentration between the initial and
final at the plane PM, which is of course equal to that at the
plane NQ

Then at time T = o

£CL3£

<|> (a;) = a — — — from o to /

_ 3a from / to 2/

I fl / ^ax^ tmr

/. A =--/ l« --- -i Cos — #

r^o \ i ; /

.
Cos

Sin

mTT

^ mTT I2 WITT

»»7T

2a_ / _ COS m-TT 4- COS O + COS 2?W7T - COS 7717T I

2?T2 V

= o when "m" is even

Sa
= — — - when "w is oaa

ON THE CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTE.— DAVIS. 295

In the same way ;

A =
o

1 fl ( 2ax\ 1 f21 ('lax ,

- 6o/

So. If $> (x} = Jg. (Cos ^ x 4- | Cos ^ * + -i Cos JZ «.

4- ... etc)

and if a; = I then <E> (a?) = — a
x = o then <I> (a;) = a

x = - then 4> (a; } = o

which shows that the analysis is correct physically. So that at
any time,x T

/

V

Sa c P r w , 1 e p 37T

Cos U— Cos -- a;

7T' x / ^

- 257T2DT \

, _L€ " ~l Cos 5?r ^r /

which is a Fourier's Series as is readily seen.

If then we have (D) the diffusion coefficient of the sub-
stance and (1) the length of the solution tube, and (a) the
initial difference in concentration at the limiting layer from
that at final equilibrium, we can calculate what will be the
value of («) at any future time.

Three things are necessary that this change in concentra-
tion, due to gravity, may be detected in a solution in a, reason-
able time:

(1) The change in density with concentration must be
large at that concentration.

(2) The diffusion constant must be as large as possible.

296 CONCERNING THE EFFECT OF GRAVITY

(3) The substance must lend itself readily to the detec-
tion of change in concentration.

It seems likely that some organic solutes and solvents can
be found which will have all these factors at a maximum. Data
on the first two factors can be found for some substances in
Landolt Bornstein's tables, and of these cane sugar seems to bo.
one of the most satisfactory. It has a large diffusion constant,
and can be obtained very pure, and its concentration can be
accurately estimated by the polariscope.

The following calculations are made for a tube 3 meters in
length, and D for cane sugar is taken as .300 as about the mean
of the results of Grahm and Arrhenius.

D = .300 where the cm. is the unit of length, the gram the
unit of mass, and the day the unit of time.

Calculation of the fall for one year ; that is, for a at x = 0,
and t = 365.

- 10 x .3 x 365 - 9 x 10 x 0.3 x 365

Sa
it — —

— i \J *. **J * u\ju — *s *> xv A. v.t-» /»> t»ut/

9000CTxT 90000~xT~ \

4- )

7T

-0.012 -0.108

(

^ (0.988. + 0.098 .................... \

= o.9a approximately.

So that in a tube of this length the fall in concentration of
the sugar solution at the end of one year would only be about
one-tenth of the total fall after an infinite time. For a con-
centration of 1 to 4 this would be about ten per cent, of

-7 -6

10x10 x 150 = 15x10 gr. which is a change of con-
centration that in a solution of that strength would defy detec-
tion,

THE CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTE.- — DAVIS. 29/7

Nor would any material advantage be obtained by either
shortening or lengthening the tube, for in the first case the
total effect is decreased and soon gets beyond the limit of detec-
tion, and in the other, the time to obtain the same percentage
fall is increased so as to soon debar experimental verification.

This effect would then be difficult to show in the laboratory,
except perhaps for some organic substances, and for these there
is no available data on diffusion constants or on density. In
nature, however, there are immense bodies of water in the
ocaen. These have been there for a long time, though with
disturbing factors, and here this effect might be detected.

Practically the only comprehensive and reliable data on the
composition of sea water is to be found in the Reports of H.
M. 8. Challenger, Physics and Chemistry ? vol. 1. A great
number of samples of waters from various latitudes and depths
were secured and analysed. The whole results are given. There
is also an excellent report on deep-sea temperatures.

Now it will be well to consider whether there are other
factors present which would modify the effect in question.
These are:

(1) Ocean currents which tend by continually stirring up

the water to keep the whole at constant concentration.

(2) The effect of hydrostatic pressure. In the article
referred to above, Vegard assumes that the fluid is

incompressible and his results are worked out on that
assumption. (See also Ostwald, Solutions, Muir's
translation, 1894, p. 61).

(3) Temperature.

The effect of temperature on the concentration of a solute
is difficult to calculate for this reason.

•HOC. & TRANS. X. P. IN ST. Sci., VOL. XII. TRANS -20.

298 " CONCERNING THE EFFECT OF GRAVITY

o

/=>0

77

/- / <£L CS /

FIG. 3.

Suppose we have the space A, B, C. D (Fig. 3) filled with
a liquid and its vapour, and attempt to form a temperature
gradient between A, B and D, C. Then, if we keep the planes
A, B and C, D at two fixed and different temperatures, the
same amount of heat will not pass out through the one at lower
temperature as passes in through the one at higher temperature
for two reasons:

(1) The liquid itself will circulate and do work because

every liquid changes its specific volume with tem-
perature, consequently if it expands with heat, the
heated part will rise to the top and give place to
cooler and vice versa if it contracts.

(2) The vapour will circulate from points of higher vapour

pressure to those of lower.

It would then be impossible to obtain a permanent fixed
horizontal temperature gradient in a liquid. Perhaps this fact
has some bearing on ocean currents and trade-winds, since the
tendency is for the water at the poles to be colder than that at
the equator. Currents of water and water vapour must result.

The only possible permanent temperature gradient, then,
which can exist in a liquid, that changes its specific volume with
temperature, is a vertical one. The direction of this gradient
will be from top to bottom or vice versa according as the liquid
expands or contracts with heat.

Suppose such a gradient to exist in a solvent, and let solute
be introduced without disturbing the solvent till it is saturated
at each point. Then if we neglect the change in specific gravity
due to the introduction of solute or suppose it to be less than
that due to the temperature gradient, there will be an increase
or decrease in the concentration with height, in the case of a

ON THE CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTE. — DAVIS. 299

temperature gradient from top to bottom, according as the
solubility increases or decreases with temperature.

If such a concentration gradient exists for the saturated
solution, there would still exist one, thought not the same in
magnitude in solutions not saturated.

Taking the case where increase of temperature is followed
by increase of solubility as is the case of most salts in sea water,
and where the direction of the temperature gradient and of the
flow of heat is downward, as in the ocean, the concentration will
increase from the bottom upward.

Now the temperature of the ocean decreases fairly rapidly
down to about 800 fathoms, from about 70 F. to 38 F., but
after that for the next 1,000 fathoms .or more it decreases only
1 to 2 F, so that the temperature of the ocean at great depths
is remarkably constant. See Challenger Reports, vol. 1, table
6, and also the report on deep-sea temperatures).

800

The effect of temperature will thus be a decrease in con-
centration with depth down to the point where the temperature
becomes fairly constant. After this the effect of temperature will
gradually die away.

300 CONCERNING THE EFFECT OF GRAVITY DAVIS.

Superposed on this is the effect of gravity, which, as we have
seen, will, for inorganic salts, be to increase the concentration
with the depth. I have roughly represented the first effect by
the curve (1), Fig. 4, and that of the second by curve (2). They
will give a resultant curve (3) of change in concentration with
depth, and if we suppose the first effect to be the greater near
the surface, then the concentration will first decrease, not neces-
sarily uniformly, down to a certain point where the two effects
just counterbalance, and from thence will increase steadily to
the bottom.

This would account for the actual distribution of the saline
contents of sea water as actually found from the summary of
the researches on the "Challenger" as given by Dittmar. (See
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th edit., "Sea Water").

"In places where there is active dilution at the surface, the
salinity as a rule increases down to some 50 or 100 fathoms,
but thence downward it follows the general rule, that is, it
decreases down to 800 or 1,000 fathoms, and thence increases
steadily to the bottom/'

Of the data available from the reports on the concentration
of the separate constituents, only that of the absorbed gases is
of value since the others were determined relatively to the total
chlorine content.

Apart from the fact of the large increase of solubility of
gases with temperature, the increase of density with concentra-
tion, though positive, is extremely small and difficult to measure.
(S e Ostwald, Solutions, p. 32).

Tt was found that:

(1) The amount of nitrogen increases with the depth.

(2) The amount of oxygen decreases with the depth.

But as a matter of fact, the increase of density with con-
centration for oxygen is greater than for nitrogen, which ought
therefore to show a greater increase with the depth.

Dittmar explains the decrease of oxygen as being due to
oxidation.

(For the greater part of the mathematics in this paper I am
indebted to Dr. H. L. Bronson, of the Department of Physics,
Dalhousie College.)

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Institute of rience

SESSION OF 1909-1910

THE ACTION OF ORGANO-MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS ON QUINONE.
-By CURTIS C. WALLACE.*

Read May 23rd, 1910.

It is generally known that quinone has properties common
to both a diketone and a peroxide, but it differs, however, from
the former in being a powerful oxidizing reagent and from
the latter in forming an oximide compound with hydroxyla-
mine. It is also known that diketone1 with Grignard's
reagents undergoes the pinacone condensation yielding the
corresponding pinacone. Further, Bamberger and Blangey2
obtained a quinol of the structure

CH

with methyl magnesium iodide from toluquinone and xylo-
quinone, hut were unable to get the same from quinone. In

* Contributions from the Science Laboratories of Dalhousie University [Chemistry].

1 Zelinsky, Ben d deutsch. chem Ges. 35, 2138, (1902).

2 Bamberger u. Blangey, Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges. 36, 1625, (1903).

PROC. & TRANS., N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XII. TRANS. 21.

(301)

302 THE ACTION OF ORGANO-MAGNES1UM COMPOUNDS

the following investigation I have endeavored to study more
minutely the behaviour of quinone with G-rignard's reagents,
methylmagnesium iodide, ethylmagnesium bromide and
phenylmagnesium bromide.

EXPERIMENTAL.
Quinone and Methylmagnesium Iodide.

5 grams of clean magnesium ribbon were placed in a 500
c.c. flask. The flask was fitted to a reflux condenser, and 30
grams of methyl iodide, dissolved in 40 grams of absolute
ether, slowly added through the condenser. Immediately a
reaction set in, which was moderated by cooling the flask.
When the reaction was about complete, the flask was warmed
on a water-bath for an hour. An ethereal solution of 10 grams
of quinone was then added, 5 c.c. at a time, with constant
shaking, waiting each time until the reaction somewhat
abated. The saturation point was obtained by noting when
no precipitate formed on the addition of the quinone solution
to a test-tube containing a portion of the ethereal solution
taken from the flask. On addition of quinone, a violent
reaction took place, accompanied by a cracking noise ; the
reaction product precipitated as a green amorphous mass
insoluble in ether. With the object of moderating the
reaction, the experiment was repeated, the ethereal solution
being this time kept in a freezing mixture (-8°G) , with, how-
ever, the same results as obtained at ordinary temperature ;
one molecule of quinone united with two molecules of methyl-
magnesium iodide. The methylmagnesium iodide quinone
compound was found impossible to isolate ; it was either
insoluble or the solvent caused decomposition.

After allowing the quinone mixture to stand over night,
75 c.c. of cold water and dilute hydrochloric acid enough to
acidify the solution were added. No change of colour was
apparent on addition of the water, but the acid changed the
mixture brown and precipitated a brown flocculent precipitate.

ON QUINONE. — WALLACE. 303

This- precipitate was filtered, washed with ether in which it
was insoluble, and dried on a filter-paper. The brown powder
remaining readily dissolved in ethyl and methyl alcohols and
acetone, forming a brown solution, which on evaporation left
a black enarnel-like residue. It was insoluble in water, and
all other common organic solvents, but those mentioned
above. It was impossible to obtain it in a crystalline form,
but a precipitation of it \vas obtained by adding water to a
concentrated alcoholic solution and evaporating until little
or no alcohol remained. This process was not satisfactory, as
the compound separated as a colloid in pure water. This sub-
stance was not further studied. The total yield from the
experiment was only about 0.5 gram.

On evaporating the ethereal solution in a porcelain dish,
there remained a green crystalline substance in the central
part, with a brown amorphous mass surrounding it. The
crystals were removed and in order to obtain more of them
the amorphous mass was redissolved in ether and again evap-
orated. This mechanical process of separation was repeated
until a quantity of the crystals was obtained. They were
recrystallized from ether and a pure-looking product obtained
with a practically constant melting point of 170°C.

An analysis gave the following results :
0.1501 gram of substance gave 0.3646 gram CO, and 0.0609
gram H O.

Calculated for Found.

C^tTioO-i. I

C 66.02$ 66.29$

H 4.63$ 4.51$

The green crystals gave tests for a quinhy drone ; the
analysis prove it to be of the formula (\s tT10 O4, or ordinary
quinhy drone.

The remaining amorphous tarry residue left from the ether
solution consisted of free iodine, some quinhydrone and re-

304 THE ACTION OF ORG A NO-MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS

duction products of the reaction. It was fairly large in
quantity, but it was not practicable to isolate any other pure
product from it.

Quinone and Ethylmagnesium Bromide.
An ethereal solution of 11 grams of quinone was added
gradually, 5 c.c. at a time, to a solution of ethylmagnesium
bromide obtained by dissolving 5 grams of magnesium ribbon
in 25 grams of ethyl bromide and 50 grams of absolute ether.
To ensure a more complete reaction, the mixture was allowed
to stand a day with occasional shaking. The blue reaction
product which separated out insoluble in ether, was treated
with ice water and acidified with dilute hydrochloric acid. The
addition of water turned the mixture green, while a further
addition of acid turned it brown, separating out at the same
time, as in the case of the methyl iodide compound, a brown
precipitate insoluble in ether or water. It was observed that
although the ethylmagnesium bromide quinone compound was
blue, the mixture, after the addition of water, was green
and that no such change of colour was noticed with the iodide
quinone compound. This was probably due to the, fact that
both the iodide quinone compound and its products of decom-
position were green. Moreover, it was found that the amor-
phous precipitate, insoluble in ether, was readily soluble in
alkalis, producing a green solution"; and since magnesium
hydroxide, which would be produced by the addition of water,
is slightly soluble in water, it would dissolve enough of the
substance to colour the mixture green.

The acidified mixture was then filtered and the amorphous
precipitate remaining on the filter paper was washed with
dilute hydrochloric acid and then with ether and dried. The
ethereal solution was next separated and the water solution
further extracted with ether. On a partial evaporation of the
ether a solid separated, which was filtered and recrystallized
from ether. The substance gave practically a constant melt-

ON QUINONE. — WALLACE. 305

ing point of. 171°C. Analysis of the substance gave the
following results :

I. 0.1326 gram of substance gave 0.3219 gram of C02 and
0.0548 gramofH2O.

II. 0.1336 gram of substance gave 0.3224 gram of
C02 and 0.0597 gram H2O.

Calculated for Found.

C12H1004. I II Mean

C 66.02% 66.21% 65.82% 66.01%
H 4.63% 4.59% 4.96% 4.77%

The sample was pure quinhy drone.

The remaining residue left from evaporation of the
remainder of the ethereal solution contained more quin-
hy drone and a brown tarry decomposition product, but no
evidence of any free halide as was the case with the methyl-
iodide residue.

The brown powder, obtained from the residue washed in
ether, was then further extracted with ether free of alcohol
until nothing remained in it that was soluble in ether. It was
next boiled in 100 c.c. of water, filtered and washed with
water. When dry, it was dissolved in alcohol, filtered and the
alcohol evaporated off. A shining black enamel-like residue
remained, which decomposed at a very high temperature .
When dried in a hot-air closet for two hours at 125°C.,
analyses gave the following results :

I. 0.1620 gram of substance gave 0.3876 gram C02 and
0.0682 gram of H2O.

II. 0.1560 gram of substance gave 0.3702 gram CO2
and 0.0678 gram of H2O.

A slight residue remained after each combustion, but
nothing of appreciable weight.

Calculated for
ernperical formula- Found.

06H502 I II

C 66.02$ 65.25$ 65.88$
H 4.63$ 4.67$

306 THE ACTION OF ORGANO-MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS

The compound was extremely hygroscopic. An analysis of
the same sample as analysed above, but before the continued
drying at high temperature, gave the following results:

•0.1298 gram of substance gave 0.2876 gram C02 and
0.0619 gram H2O.

C 60.42$

H 5.29$

The total yield was about 10 per cent of the quinone used.
The colour of a concentrated alcoholic solution of this sub-
stance is dark brown; one cubic centimeter of this concen-
trated solution added to 200 c. c. of water is pink ; and the addi-
tion of a drop of any alkali gives a grass green, while a drop
of acid will restore the pink again. This substance reduces an
alkaline solution of potassium permanganate, and is apparently
oxidized by adding bromine water to an alcoholic solution of
it. By either of these treatments an amorphous product with
a light yellow colour was obtained.

A method of precipitation of this same substance was
developed. About 0.4 gram of the same sample as analysed
above, was dissolved in a few cubic centimeters of sodium
hydroxide and diluted with water to one liter. The green
solution was heated to boiling, acidified with strong hydro-
chloric acid and then the brown precipitate thus formed
allowed to settle. A tall cylindrical jar was used, as it offered
a smaller bottom surface and a greater column of water, thus
making it possible, when the precipitate had settled, to syphon
the solution off, leaving but little with the precipitate. The
precipitate was heated again with another liter of dilute
hydrochloric acid, 10 volumes of water to 1 volume of acid,
Sp. G. 1.2, and allowed to settle. The decantation was
repeated three times with the same quantity of dilute acid each
time. The fourth dilution was filtered while hot through a
hot-water funnel and washed thoroughly with hydrochloric-
acid of the same dilution as above , the last washing being with

ON QUINONE. WALLACE. 307

pure -water. When dried as much as possible with a suction-
pump, it was heated while still on the filter-paper in a hot-air
closet for three hours at 125°C. As the precipitate adheres so
closely to the filter paper, a suction pump and a platinum cone
are practically indispensable in carrying out the above filtra-
tion. The brown mass • was then removed from the filter
paper, dissolved in ethyl alcohol and filtered. On evaporation
of the alcohol, the remaining residue was the same as obtained
by the other method. An analysis gave the following
results :

(The same analyses of the substance as given above, are
also given here for comparison.)

0.1492 gram of substance gave 0.3605 gram C02
and 0.0598 gram of H2O.

ulated fcr

'«Hs02.

Found.

Former Analyses.
I II

66.02$
4.63$

65.89$
4.45$

65.25$

4.67$

65.88$
4.89$

c

H

Quinone and Phenylmagnesium Bromide.

An ethereal solution of 6 grams of quinone was added
gradually to a solution of phenylmagnesium bromide obtained
by dissolving 3.5 grams of magnesium ribbon in 25 grams of
brornbenzene and 40 grams of absolute ether. On standing
for a day, 75 grams of water and dilute hydrochloric acid,
enough to acidify the mixture, were added. The brown pre-
cipitate produced was filtered off and the ethereal solution
separated as in the former compounds. The precipitate was
washed with hot water, then ether, and left to dry. The
residue left from dissolving in and evaporating from ethyl
alcohol was small. Its properties were similar to the com-
pounds obtained from methyl iodide and ethyl bromide. The
product obtained from phenyl bromide and methyl iodide has
not yet been analysed. The pure substance, however, could

308 THE ACTION OF ORGANO-MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS

be obtained easily enough by following either of the methods
of procedure described in the separation of the ethyl bromide
compound, preferably the hydrochloric acid precipitation
method, and the analysis thus procured if materials or time
allowed.

On a partial evaporation of the ethereal solution, a quan-
tity of quinhydrone crystallized, which was filtered and
recrystallized from ether. It had a practically constant melting
point of 170°C.

Analyses gave the following results :

I. 0.1372 gram of substance gave 0.3330 gram C02
and 0.0584 gram H2O.

II. 0.1224 gram of substance gave 0.2984 gram C02
and 0.0531 gram H2O

Calculated for Found.

CMHW04. I II Mean

. C 66.02$ 66.19$ 66.48$ 66.33$

H 4.63$ 4.73$ 4.82$ 4.77$

The carbon and hydrogen were both too high. This was
expected as the sample had a slight odour of diphenyl.

The residue remaining after the complete evaporation of
the ether was extracted with 75 c.c. of carbon tetrachloride ,
25 c.c. at a time. The carbon tetrachloride was then distilled
off and there remained in the flask a product which did not
boil until the temperature nearly reached 250°C. The portion
distilling from 250-260°C. solidified in the condenser tube was
collected and crystallized from alcohol. The product con-
s'., ied of transparent lustrous plates which had a constant
melting point of 70°C. An analysis gave the following results,
which prove it to be diphenyl.

0.1210 gram of substance gave 0.4143 gram C02
and 0.0731 gram H2O.

Calculated for Found.

* GgHsCeH,;.

0 93.45$ 93.38$

II 6.55$ 6.71$

ON QUINONE. — WALLACE. 309

The method of separation was by no means complete, but
nearly 2 grams of diphenyl were obtained.

DISCUSSION.

The organo-magnesium halide quinone compounds, which
form with such energy on the addition of quinone to the
organo-magnesium halide , are not stable , but decompose when
exposed to the air. The bromide is blue and the iodide is
green. Their formation is possibly in accordance with the
following equation :

I. CH\ /CH

\C-O-O-CC + 2 R Mg. X =

CH/ \CH

CHx/ COMgX x/ R \/CH:
CH/ R /\ COMgX/ XCH

Two molecules of the organo-magnesium halide are used to
each molecule of quinone.

The formation of the quinhydrone may be explained by
the production first of hydroquinone, as shown in the following
equation :

II CH v COMgX R / CH HOH

N/ \/ S/ _i_

R /^ COMgR 7 \ CH HOH
OH OH

CH - ^ CH

The hydroquinone then reacts with the unattacked quinone,
the reaction being expressed by the following equation :
III. C6H4(OH)2 + C6H402 = [C6H4(OH)2 + C6H4O2]

The production of diphenyl in the action of phenylmag-
nesium bromide quinone is evidence in support of the reaction
as given in equation II.

310 ACTION OF ORGANO-MAGNES1UM COMPOUNDS, ETC. — WALLACE.

The investigation of the compound having the empirical
formula C6H5O obtained from the action of ethyl-
magnesium bromide on quinone is proceeding ; as indicated
in the experimental part, similar and probably identical com-
pounds were obtained from methylmagnesium iodide and
phenylmagnesium bromide, but until further study has shown
the nature of this substance, nothing definite can be stated
of the part it plays with regard to the reaction.

No pinacone has been obtained, and no quinol of the
structure obtained by Bamberger and Blangey.

These experiments were carried out in the laboratories of
Dalhousie University and were suggested by Professor E.
Mackay, and I wish, in conclusion, to thank him for the sug-
gestions, helpful criticisms and kindness offered during the
progress of the work.

Chemical Department, Dalhousie University,
Halifax, N. S., April 15, 1910.

ON RECENT EARTHQUAKE IN CAPE BRETON. — BY D. S.
MclNTOSH, B. A., M. Sc., Lecturer on Geology, Dal-
housie University, Halifax, "N. S.

Head 14th February, 1910.

On the afternoon of December 20th, 1909, about three
o'clock, a distinct earthquake shock was felt in a part of Inver-
ness county, Cape Breton. The disturbed area embraced Port
Hood, Mabou, Inverness, Lake Ainslie, Whycocomagh, and
Orangedale. From beyond these localities it is not reported.
In the towns of Port Hood and Inverness, it was thought that
an explosion had taken place in the mines. At Lake Ainslie
it is said that a fracture was made in the cement walls of a
cellar by the shock. Mr. A. Stirling McLean thus describes it at
Orangedale : "While not destructive or terrifying in any way, it
was quite pronounced in this locality. One could feel the whole
building trembled in a sort or rapid vibratory motion. Tin-
ware'and crockery on shelves danced at a great rate. The
shock lasted for about five seconds — long enough for one to
realize what was taking place. A loud rumbling noise was
distinctly heard before the shock which was thought by s'ome
persons to be that of an approaching train, by others that of a
flue on fire."

The disturbance would appear to have been merely local.
At no place on the Island, other than those referred to does it
seem to have been noticed. On account of the small area
affected, the seat of the disturbance would not likely be far
removed from the surface. Nor would it likely be found in
the igneous rocks which outcrop in a few places, and probably
underlie the younger rocks of the district. Did a fault take
place in these rocks, the effect would likely be more wide-
spread than the recent occurrence. The cause of the shock is

(311)

312 NOTE ON RECENT EARTHQUAKE IN CAPE BRETON. — McIN.TOSH.

rather to be sought for in the sedimentary strata that overlie
the igneous rocks. Limestones and gypsum are plentiful in
these. The falling in of the roof of a subterranean cavern
formed by the action of percolating water on the limestones and
gypsum would account for the shock. It is highly probable
that such a cave-in, or a fault produced by some readjustment
of the carboniferous strata, was the cause of the recent earth-
quake shock.

THE BUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — BY WILLIAM POLLOCK
FKASER, M. A., Macdonald College, P. Q.

Read 23rd May, 1910.

This paper embodies the results of field and microscopic
studies of the rusts of Nova Scotia carried on during the years
1908 and 1909.* A few collections were made in 1906 and
1907, but careful and systematic study was begun in the
summer of 1908 and has been continued since that time. The
most of the collections were made near Pictou and in the
surrounding districts, so that it might seem more appropriate
to name the paper "The Busts of Pictou County," but it was
thought best to include all the collections made in the province,
thus the more inclusive title is used.

Scarcely any attention has been given to this interesting
group of fungi in Nova Scotia. The only references that have
been found are in Dr. MacKay's "Fungi of Nova Scotia" and
"First Supp. List." In these papers (Trans. N. S. Inst. of
Science, 11:141. 1905; 12:124-126. 1908), the following
species are listed: Puccinia graminis, Gymnosporangium
Juniperi, Gymnoconia interstitialis, Coleosporium Solidaginis,
Melampsora Medusae, Puccinia acuminata, P. Taraxaci, P.
sessilis (?), P. suaveolens, P. coronata, P. Menthae, P.
Circaeae, P. Cicutae, P. Violae, P. Asteris, P. orbiculata,
P. daytoniata, P. rubigo-vera, Uromyces Trifolii, U. caladii,
Phragmidium subcorticium, Triphragmium clavellosum,
Chrysomyxa Pirolae, and the forms Rostelia laceraia, Uredo
Agrimoniae, Peridermium 'balsameMm, Per. decolorans and
Per elatinum.

Of the species named in Dr. MacKay's list I now regard
Phragmidium subcorticium as Phragmidium americanum,
Uredo Agrimoniae is the uredinial stage of Pucciniastrum

* Revised to include collections and studies during 1910 and 1911.

(313)

314 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA.— FRASER.

Agrimoniae, Puccinia coronata is described in the following-
pages as Puccinia Lolii and Puccinia rubi$o-vera as Puccinia
triticina. Peridermium decolorans is the aecial stage of
Melampsoropsis ledicola and Peridermium elatinum of
Melampsorella elatina. The position of Gymnosporangium
Juniperi and Rostelia lacerata is discussed under the genus
Gymnosporangium.

In the present paper 92 species and 2 forms are described.
A few of these have not been previously reported from North
A-inerica.

In the general discussion and in some of the notes I am
indebted to the literature of the rusts. A list of the works
consulted will be found at the end of the paper.

INTRODUCTION.

The Uredinales (Uredineae) constitute a large group of
fungi which are parasitic on flowering plants and ferns. Their
structure consists of an inconspicious mycelium in the tissues
of the host plant and more or less conspicious spores that
usually break through the epidermis and appear as powdery
masses or crusts. The vegetative mycelium is similar through-
out the group, but the spores produced are unlike so that a
study of the rusts is largely a study of the spore forms and
their relation ;to each other and to the host plants. The
mycelium eventually gives rise to the teliospores which are
generally regarded as the last stage. Spores of five kinds are
produced, though they are not all present in every species.
Arthur has proposed new terms for these spores, which are
used throughout this paper. The list below gives in order the
term proposed by Arthur and the more commonly used term
for each spore form:

Basidiospore, sporidium.

Pycniospore, spermatium .

Aeciospore, aecidiospore.

Urediniospore, uredospore.

Teliospore, teleutospore.

THE RUSTS OF NOV7A SCOTIA. — FKASER. 315

These spores always follow each other in a definite order-
that is, first pycniospores, then aeciospores, urediniospore-s,
and lastly teliospores. One or more of the spore forms may
be absent in certain genera or species, except the teliospores,
but the spore succession is the same. The basidiospores are
produced on a short promycelium developed directly from the
teliospore and are thus always present. The largest number
of rusts have all the spore forms present; the next largest is
the series with all the forms suppressed except the teliospores ;
then the series with the urediniospores absent, and the smallest
number is that in which the aeciospores are wanting. Not
much attention has been given to the presence or absence of
tihe pycniospores, for they seem t0 be present in a gpreat
majority of species, though wanting in a few.

Mycelium.

The vegetative mycelium of the rusts is very inconspicuous.
It is much branched, colourless, septate and usually ramifies
in the walls of the cells, sending haustoria into the cavities.
It may be localized or it may permeate the whole plant, and
in the latter case is often perennial. Thus the fungus may
appear in the same plant year after year without spore infec-
tion. In Puccinia obtegens, the rust of the Canada thistle, the
mycelium lives in the upper part of the rootstock during the
winter and infects the young shoots in the spring. In the
"'Orange Rust of Raspbeiry" (Gymnoconia interstitialis) the
aecial mycelium is perennial in the canes and thus lives from
year to year.

Eriksson has advanced the theory that the mycelium may
live in the cells of the host in the form of a plasma intimately
mixed with the protoplasm of the host, and that under favour-
able conditions, as in the spring, this mycoplasm develops into
the ordinary mycelium. This would account for the winter-
ing of many rusts where the aecial hosts are not found and
for the sudden outbursts that often occur in the cereal rusts.

316 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. FRASER.

The mycelium often produces abnormal growths. The
most conspicuous in this region is the "witches' broom" of the
balsam fir and the elongated and abnormally thickened stems
of the bluberry due to the telial stage of Calyptospora colum-
naris. Some species of the genus Gymnosporangium produce
spherical galls on the cedar, but they do not seem to have been
collected in Nova Scotia. In these cases the mycelium is per-
ennial, but even localized mycelium may produce swellings
and deformation especially in the stalks and midribs of the
leaves. This is so in the case of the aecial stage of Puccinia
sambuci which is common in the spring on Sambucus
canadensis.

Pycniospores.

The pycniospores are produced in a pycnium (pycnidium,
spermagonium) which is a small inconspicuous, punctiform
body. It is usually flask-shaped averaging 100-150^ in
diameter, formed immediately beneath the epidermis, with the
narrow neck protruding in order to discharge the spores into
the air. Usually the opening is provided with a small tuft
of hairs. Sometimes the pycnium is formed immediately
beneath the cuticle and is then more or less hemispherical or
conical. The pycnia are usually on the opposite side of the
leaf from the spore-form accompanying them, but sometimes
on the same side when usually they surround the accompany-
ing form. Their position, arrangement, form, color and size
are characters of some taxonomic value. Usually pycnia
appear after infection by basidiospores without any regard to
the kind of spore that is to follow: thus, though they usually
precede the aecia, they may accompany the other spore forms
when aecia are wanting.

The pycniospores are very small, oval or rounded bodies a
few microns in length (about 5-8ft). They are produced
within the pycnium in short chains from converging hyphae
and are held together by a viscid sugary secretion, which some-
times attracts insects. As far as is known these spores havfi

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA.— FRASER. 317

no function nor any connection with the further development
of the fungus. They may be made to grow and bud in a
nutrient solution but nothing further has been obtained. It
may be that they had some sexual function that has been lost,
but there is not much evidence to support this view.

The pycnium is rarely absent in the life cycle, but it only
occurs once, not being repeated with each generation. If the
aecia repeat, spermagonia only occur with the first generation.
If the pycnium accompanies the uredinia it does not repeat.
In the case of the teliospore it has not been established whether
it accompanies each generation or not.

Aeciospores.

The mycelium, which results from the entrance of the
germ tube of a basidiospore after it has produced a certain
number of pyciiia, soon develops aeciospores. Within the
plant tissues hyphae collect together into a compact mass grow-
ing perpendicular to the surface of the host, and from the
closely crowded hyphae the spores are cut oft' in basipetal
succession so that they are produced in chains. At first-
sterile cells alternate with the spore cells, but these usually
disappear by the time the spores are mature. The outer layer
of hyphae usually becomes a wall or peridium, which surrounds
the spore mass, and after the rupture of the epidermis usually
becomes cylindrical or cupshaped. Sometimes the peridium is
absent or it may be replaced by paraphyses as in the genus
Phragmidium. The spore mass with its peridium or para-
physes is called an aecium or aecidinm. The spores are at
first polyhedral from mutual pressure, but they soon become
free and are then usually globose or ellipsoid in shape. The
wall is usually colorless (deep brown in the genus
Gymnosporangium,') with verrucose sculpturing. The rough-
ened wall aids the spores in adhering to the host plant. The
contents are chiefly orange-red or orange-yellow and in many
cases soon become colourless. Eventually the aecia rupture the

I'KOC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Scr., VOL. XIT. THANK. 22.

318 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. ERASER.

epidermis, the peridium breaks open, sometimes in a character-
istic way, and the spores escape. They are most effectively
distributed by the wind.

Sometimes all unconnected aecia are placed in the form-
genus Aecidium, but other form-genera are used, based on
the presence or absence or form of the peridium. Thus, when
the peridium is elongated and dehisces by longitudinal slits,
the aecia are assigned to the form-genus Roestelia; when it is
extended and ruptures irregularly, to Peridermium; when
absent, to Caeoma; the other forms in which the peridium is
usually cupshaped or cylindrical, to the form-genus Aecidium.

Aeciospores are provided with germ-pores, but they are
usually visible only at germination. They germinate readily
in water in a few hours. A germ tube is pushed out from one
germ pore and the contents of the cell soon pass into the tube.
On the host plant the tube enters through a breathing pore.

Botanists differ as to the length of time that aeciospores
retain their germinating power. Plowright found they retained
it only a few hours, Klebahn found they retained it for weeks,
others found them uncertain.

The aecia that develop from the mycelium resulting from
basidiospore infection are called "primary" aecia. When the
complete series of spore-forms is present no further aecia are
formed, but if the uredinia are wanting the aecia may repeat
•themselves for some time. That is, aeciospore infection may
take place and produce aecia. These are called "secondary"
aecia.

Urediniospores.

The urediniospores are produced in spore masses or
cushions called uredinia, which usually rupture the epidermis
and expose the spores as a dusty mass. They may develop
from mycelia produced from the entrance of the germ tube of
a basidiospore, an aeciospore or another urediniospore.
Mycelial hyphae become crowded together in the host plant

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. FRASER. 319

at certain points ; from this intertwined hyphal mass a number
of branches are given oft' perpendicular to the surface of the
host, and from each of these branches a urediniospore is pro-
duced. Sometimes paraphyses are present as in Melqmpsora
and Phraymidium, and in a few genera a peridium is pro-
duced as in Pucciniastrum and Melampsoridium.

The urediniospores are usually produced singly on pedicels
which soon fall away, but sometimes in chains, as in
Clirysomyxa and Coleosporium. When arising in chains they
resemble aeciospores, but the order of development will dis-
tinguish, the aeciospores always being produced first. The
urediniospores are always unicellular, with verrucose or
echinulate walls. They are never smooth, and are usually
coloured brown. Two or more germ-pores (rarely one) are
present which are usually evident. As the number is often
definite, it sometimes forms a character of value in the
determination of the species.

The urediniospores germinate readily in water, as in the
case of the aeciospores. When mature and under favourable
conditions on the host plant a germ tube is pushed out through
one of the germ pores, which grows very rapidly, and the
nucleus of the spore soon passes into it. When it reaches a
breathing pore the tip swells into a vesicle, the appressorium,
into which the protoplasm of the tube collects. A thin process
passed down through the pore and swells into a vesicle in the
respiratory cavity, the protoplasmic contents soon pass into
the internal vesicle. Tubes or hyphae are soon formed from
this vesicle which make their way among the cells. The
development of the haustorium begins as a minute process from
the hypha, which pierces the cell wall and at once swells up
at its distal extremity into a minute head. Soon this grows
out, often as an irregularly branched or variously shaped body.
In many cases the growth is directed toward the nucleus and
infection is complete. (Ward. Phil. Trans. Roy. Society, Lon-
don. R, 100: 20-46. 1002).

320 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA.— FKASER.

The urediniospore is primarily a spore for the rapid dis-
tribution of the fungus so that it may repeat, that is the
nredospores may infect the host plant. Often the first formed
generation which appears in early spring and originates either
from basidiospore infection, aeciospores, or from perennial
mycelium, are called ''primary" uredinia, and the second
generation which develops from uredospore infection are called
^secondary" uredinia. The primary uredinia are usually
larger and more richly coloured, as in Puccinia obtegens.

In countries where the aecial host is absent and the
urediniospore propagates the fungus, there is a tendency to
abundant development of this stage, as in Puccinia graminis in
Australia. This rust has lost the power to infect the barberry
there and urediniospores are produced abundantly, almost to
the exclusion of the tcliospores.

Urediniospores retain their germinating power for some
time. Bolley states that the uredospores of P. graminis in
certain cases may survive the winter even in North Dakota,
and thus carry the fungus over that period.

Amphisp ores.

.Another kind of urediniospore which has thickened walls
and persistent or subpersistent pedicels is found in some species
of gramineous rusts. The sori resemble telia and the spores
have been mistaken by some observers for teliospores. They
can be separated from the true teliospores by the presence of
several germ-pores. They have been germinated in 1901 by
Oarleton and later by Arthur, and the germ tube of the
nrediniospore was the result. They have not been found in
any species represented in Nova Scotia.

Arthur states that they belong to species having their main
development in arid or semi-arid regions. They occur only in
the United States and Mexico, except one species in India.
Arthur (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 32: 35. 1905) gives a list of five
species which he found to possess amphispores. All are from

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 321

the western United States and Mexico. The amphispore is
evidently a uredospore which has developed the function of a
teliospore.

Teliospores.

These are the last spores of the life cycle. It may possibly
be that in some cases they are absent, but usually it is simply
a case of not having been found. Teliospores are very varied
in their forms and on this account have been used largely for
purposes of classification. More stress is now laid on other
characters.

They arise like the urediniospores in sori called telia or
teleutoeori, beneath the cuticle or the epidermis. They usually
break through the epidermis at length, though they may remain
covered. The sori may be pulverulent or compact and often
dark in colour, though sometimes colourless or bright coloured.
They may be borne on. pedicels or sessile. In one genus
(Endophyllum) not represented in !N"orth America the telio-
spores originate in chains and are surrounded by a peridium
regarded as the test of the teliospore. The walls of the telio-
spores are usually much thickened and may be smooth or
verrucose, but never echinulate. Sometimes finger-like pro-
jections are present at the apex, as in Puccinia Loin. The
number of cells varies from one in Uromyces to several as in
Phragmidium. The number of germ pores in a cell is usually
one. In Uromyces it is always placed at the apex. In the
genus Phragmidium and Gymnosporangium there are several
in each cell.

The telia as in P. "rubigo-vera" is often divided' into com-
partments by modified hyphae, which have been called para-
physes, but Arthur regards this as a stroma and not part of the
sorus ; he regards such sori as compound.

Some teliospores germinate at maturity on the host plant.
But the teliospore is primarily a winter spore, whose purpose
is to tide the plant over winter, and the majority will not

322 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

germinate unless exposed to the weather for some time. If
kept inside during the winter germination does not follow even
if placed under favourable conditions.

After exposure to the weather for some time, they usually
germinate under favourable conditions, though germination is
somewhat uncertain. A tube emerges from the germ pore and
soon divides into four, each segment is called a basidium and
produces on a sterigma a small, usually hyaline spore. These
spores, called basidiospores (sporidia), when they reach a suit-
able host germinate, the germ tubes make their way through
the epidermis and infection results.

When the teliospores germinate at once usually the other
spore forms are suppressed. They are not lost, however, as
they occasionally make their appearance. When the telio-
spores germinate at once the germ-tube of the b0Qicliospore is
said to enter at the breathing pore.

Mesospores.

In many rusts of the genus Puccinia, beside the usual two-
ctellledi spores large numbers of the single-celled spores are
formed. These resemble the teliospores and function like
them, the only difference being in form and the number of
cells. They are called mesospores. They are common, espee1
ially in some species of the grass and sedge rusts. The presence
of these one-celled spores seems to indicate a close relationship
to the genus Uromyces. It is possible that the genus Puccinia
developed from Uromyces.

Pleteroecism.

Many rusts pass part of their life cycle on one plant and
part on another, while in some species the whole life cycle is
confined to one host plant. Those belonging to the former are
called heteroecious species and the latter autoecious species.
In heteroecious species one host plant bears tho pycnia and
aecia, the other the uredinia and telia. Usually the host plants

1HE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FKASER. 323

are not nearly related. Thus the species belonging to
Gymnosporangium have their aecial stage on a tribe of the
rose family while the telial stage is on conifers. The grass
and sedge rusts usually have their telial stage on the Com-
positae, though there are many exceptions. All the grass and
sedge rusts are heteroecious with one or two exceptions. Com-
mon autoecious rusts are those belonging to the genus
Phragmidium; other species are Puccinia Menthae, P. Violae,
Uromyces Limonii and U. Polygoni.

When different forms occur together on the same host
plant they are often assumed to belong to the same species, but
it is not always safe to do so, without the test of infection
experiments.

In the largest number of heteroecious rusts the teliospores
are formed at the close of the season or of the life of the host,
and rest during the winter. The aecial host is infected in the
spring, and the alternate host from the aeciospores. That is
the case in Puccinia graminis and many other rusts. In other
eafc-es the telial .mycelium hibernates, the teliospores are pro-
duced in the spring and germinate immediately, and the
basidiospores infect the aecial host, as in Chrysomyxa ledicola.
Again the telial mycelium may be actually perennial, the
teliospores formed in the spring and germinating infect the
aecial host, the aecial mycelium lasting only during tJie sum-
mer as in Gymnosporangium. There are other types in which
the aecial mycelium hibernates, or the mycelium of both
generations may be perennial.

The aecia of heteroecious rusts develop only from mycelium
formed by basidiospore infection, the aecia do not repeat, nor
can the basidiospores produce infection in the host plants in
which the telia are produced. The mycelium that bears telia
and uredinia arises only from infection by aeciospores or
urediniospores. The rust, however,- may be propagated by the
urediniospores for some time, probably indefinitely. In Aus-
tralia P. grarninis has lost the power to infect the barberry

324 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. FRASER.

and, as far as known, aecia are never produced, yet it is very
common.

The heteroecism of rusts was first suspected and established
in the wheat rust, P. graminis. For years before botanists
made the discovery, practical farmers suspected that the bar-
berry was connected with the spread of wheat rust. In 1760
a law was passed in the State of Massachusetts for the destruc-
tion of barberry bushes. In 1816 Schoeler, a Danish school-
master, planted small barberry bushes in the middle of a field
of rye and found that the rye around those bushes became
rusted while not a rust spot could be found in the rest of the
field. He also carried rusted barberry leaves into a field of
rye, and rubbed them on the rye plants till he could see the
"yellow dust" of the barberry leaves adhering to the plants.
These plants were marked and were found to be the only ones
in the whole field which became infected with rust. But
botanists took no notice of these experiments or of farmers'
observations, as they believed the barberry fungus and the rust
on rye belonged to different genera. Tulasne showed that
the uredinia and telia, which up to this time had been regarded
as different genera, were connected. In 1861 -De Bary
pointed out that many of the rusts had urediniospores and
teliospores and also that the latter gave rise to aeciospores. and
conversely the aeciospores to urediniospores. In 1864 he sowed
the teliospores of Puccinia graminis on barberry and produced
aecia, and in 1865 he sowed aeciospores on rye and produced
uredinia and telia, thus establishing the connection of the
different forms. However, it was not till about 1880 that the
heteroecism of the rusts was generally accepted. Since that
time many botanists have carried on infection experiments, so
that the number of heteroecious rusts now known amounts to
over 150 species.

Much has been learned of the heteroecious rusts by infec-
tion experiments carried on by European and American
botanists. In America Farlow and Thaxter for eleven years

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — ERASER, 325

(1880-1891) studied the genus Gymnosporangium in this way,
and Arthur began culture work in 1899 and has carried it on
to the present time.

The method used in culture experiments is usually as fol-
lows. Hosts or suspected hosts are grown from seed or trans-
planted into pots and kept in some suitable place. Teliospores
that have been wintered are germinated in a moist chamber,
and the basidiospores are then applied to the leaves of the
plants, which are then kept under a bell jar for a few days.
If successful the pycnia usually appear in 8 to 12 days. Infec-
tion by basidiospores is usually more marked than by aecio-
spores or urediniospores ; a rich infection usually follows and
is not likely to be confused with accidental infection. The
writer has obtained the best results from first placing the leaves
or parts bearing telia in a moist chamber till the teliospores
had germinated, usually twelve or fifteen hours. These were
then suspended above the suspected aecial hosts so that the
basidiospores would fall on the leaves, the whole was then
covered with a bell jar for a day or two.

The easiest and most successful way to obtain clues to the
alternate hosts is to watch for the appearance of aecia in the
spring and early summer. If they are found thickly covering
the leaves or parts of a plant, usually search in the immediate
vicinity will reveal plants bearing telia, and if the teliospores
are or have germinated, it will be evidence that the aecia
and telia are probably connected, especially if no other rust
can be found near. These clues can be tested at once by
cultures if viable material can be found ; if not, the test can
be made in the following season, when it may be easier to
collect viable teliospores.

Association of Spore Forms.

As has alreadv been stated, the spore forms appear in a
definite order. Thus, when the cycle of development is com-
plete, the germinating teliospores give rise to the basidiospores,

326 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. FHASER.

the mycelium produced by basidiospore infection develops
pycnia followed by aecia, later the urediniospores appear, and
finally the teliospores. Any of these forms may be omitted
except the teliospores and basidiospores. The Roman numerals
I, II, III, are used to represent, respectively, the aecia,
uredinia and telia, and a cipher is used for the pycnia. The
order of development and the suppression of the spore forms
may be represented as follows :

Complete series, 0, I, II, III.

Uredinia wanting, 0, I, — , III.

Aecia wanting, 0, — , II, III.

Aecia and uredinia wanting, 0, — , — , III.

~Noi enough attention has been given to the presence or
absence of the pycnia to be sure of the number of series, but
it is probable that there is also the following series:

Pycnia and aecia wanting, — , — , II, III.

Pycnia, aecia and uredinia wanting, — , — , — , III.

Schroeter has proposed names for the different types of
association of spore forms. Taking the genus Puccinm for
example, and it may be used for other genera as wellf the types
would be as follows :

Eu-puccinia, complete series, 0, I, II, III.

Puccini opsis, uredinia omitted, 0, I, — , TIT.

Brachy-puccinia, pycnia and aecia wanting, — , — , IT, III.

Micro-puccinia, pycnia, aecia and uredinia wanting, — , — ,
— , III. (Teliospores germinating only after a period of rest).

Lepto-puccinia, pycnia, aecia and uredinia wanting, — , — ,
— , III. (Teliospores germinating immediately).

Duggar suggests terms applicable to all genera having
similar spore forms, and- at the same time expressing
heteroecism and autoecism. He employs the word uredo as the
common root in combination with the prefixes used by
Schroeter. Thus a form that is eu-heteroecious will be termed

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. FRASER. 327

eulieteruredo ; a eu-autoecious, euautouredo ', an opsis^heteroeci-
ous, opsisheteruredo, and the other combinations in a similar
manner.

As the terminology of the spore structures in this paper-
is that proposed by Arthur, his definitions of the terms are
quoted (Bot. Gax. 39:221. 1905):

"The terms I have to propose apply to the sorus. By sorus
is meant the structure which arises from a single fertile hyphal
mass or hyinenium, either with or without a peridium, now
usually called spermagonium, aecidium, uredosorus, teleu-
tosorus and kindred names. A sintple sorus includes the
peridium and all true paraphyses whether peripheral or discal.

"The new terms consist of four words, with their deriva-
tives, one for each of the four stages of uredineal fungi. For
the initial stage, usually designated by a cipher and called
spermagonium, pyciiidium, etc., I propose pycnium: derivatives
pycnial, pycniospores, etc. For the sorus of the first spore-
stage usually designated by the Roman numeral I, and called
aecidium, roestelia, peridermium, etc., T propose aecium:
derivatives aecial, aeciospore, etc. For the sorus of the
second spore-stage, usually designated by the Roman numeral
II, and called uredosorus, etc., I propose uredinium (uredo) :
derivatives uredinal, urediniospores or if preferred uredospore,
etc. For the sorus of the third spore-stage, usually designated
by the Roman numeral TIT, and called teleutosorus, I propose
tclinin : derivatives telial, teliospores, etc."

Specilization.

Species have been based largely on morphological
characters. Infection experiments have led to a new conception
of species, based on the ability of the fungi to infect hosts.
Thus it has been found that some rusts morphologically alike
show differences in infecting power. On the other hand it has
been found that rusts which show differences in the choice of

328 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — -FKASER.

hosts are morphologically unlike, although the fact was not
noticed until attention was called to it in this way.

By infection experiments it has been shown that Puccinia
coronata, which was previously regarded as one rust, can be
broken up into. two species, one producing aecia on Rhamnus
frangula and the other on Rhamnus cathartica. Again the
latter, Puccinia Lolii, may be broken up into specialized forms
based on their infecting power. This rust occurs both on oats
(Avena sativa) and on grass, Festuca elatior; but spores from
Avena will not infect Festuca, nor spores from Festuca infect
Avena. In the same way the spores of P. graminis from oats
will not infect rye nor the reverse, although the spores produced
from the germinating teliospores of both will infect the barberry.
The aecia produced on the barberry from the specialized form
on rye will not infect oats nor the aecia from the form on oats
infect rye. The forms remain true although no morphological
differences exist. In some cases, however, the forms do not
seem fixed and the aecial host acts as a bridge, the aeciospores
from either form infecting both host plants. Different names
are given to these forms: biological species, physiological
species, sister species and specialized forms, are some of the
terms used. If the aecial stage occurs on different plants, even
if no morphological differences exist, the rusts are usually
regarded as separate species; but if the aecia are produced on
the same plant, and differences of infecting power exist, they
are regarded as specialized forms or form species.

Sexuality.

Sapin-Trouffy showed that in - the promycelium, sporidia
and aecial mycelium to the base of the aecium, each cell con-
tains but .one nucleus, while in the aeciospores and the
succeeding spores and mycelium each cell contains two. These
fuse in the teliospore and he regards this fusion as a tru:?
sexual process.

THE RUNTS OF NOVA SCOTJA. — FRASEH. 329

Blackman found that the aecial stroma formed taiieath the
epidermis consisted of small cells about three cells deep. The
upper cells divide by walls parallel with the leaf surface.
The upper cells thus formed are sterile. The lower cells formed
by this division are fertile and have a large nucleus. Each
cell elongates and soon two nuclei are seen in the cell, one of
these having migrated into the fertile cell from the mycelial
cell directly beneath or at the side of the base. A minute
pref oration is made in the wall and the nucleus migrates
through. These nuclei divide side by side forming four
nuclei, a wall separates the pair and the end cell forms the first
spore. Conjugate division continues in such a way as to form
a long row of cells each having two nuclei. Each cell does not
at once form a spore but conjugate division of the nucleus takes
place again, and a small cell is cut off from below, thus form-
ing the spore and the intercalary cell. This migration and
association of the nuclei is regarded as sexual fusion. This
marks the beginning of the binucleated condition of the sporo-
phyte generation. The unnucleated stage, on the other hand,
from the basidiospores up to the base of the aecium, constitutes
the gametophyte generation. Blackman regards the process
as of the oosporic type — "a female cell is fertilized by the
nucleus of an ordinary vegetative cell.7'

Blackman regards the sterile apical of the female gamete
as homologous with the trichogyne of some other plants, and
suggests that it once pushed its way through the epidermis, and
functioned as a trichogyne fusing with the spermatia. He
regards the spermatia as male cells that have lost their function,
a simpler "internal" fertilization having replaced the former
"external" fertilization.

Christman described a process of fertilization by the fusion
of two cells, but the two cells he found to be approximately
equal, so that the fusion is of the zygosporic type, the con-
jugation of two equal gametes.

330 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. FllASEH.

Olive (Annals of Botany, 22: 331-360. 1908) confirms the
work of Christman and Blackman and brings some of their
apparently conflicting results into harmony, but on the whole
confirming Christman's conclusion.

In general the nuclear life history of a species showing
all the spore types is as follows : The mycelium which pro-
duces the pycnia and the aecia is uninucleate, as well as the
pycniospores. There is a fusion of cells in the aecia and the
aeciospores and the mycelium that produces the urediniospores.
and these spores themselves are bi-imcleate. Fusion of the
nuclei takes place in the teliospores, so that the basidiospores

are uninucleate.

. Spread of Busts.

The question of how the rusts are spread and continued
from season to season is an important one in the case of the
grain rusts. Puccinia gramimis, P. Lolii and other destructive
grain rusts are heteroecious with hibernating teliospores, but as
has often been shown the aecial host is not sufficiently dis-
tributed to explain the regular and general appearance of these
rusts; in fact the general impression is that the barberry has
little to do with the spread of the grain rusts. -Where the
winter is not too severe probably the rusts are continued from
year to year by hibernating uredospores and mycelium.
Carleton (Bull. 16, Div. Phy. and Path. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
1899) shows that several rusts winter over in the uredinial
stage. Bolley states definitely that in some cases the uredo-
spores may hibernate even in North Dakota and thus propagate
the rust. Investigation tends to show that uredospores may
winter and this favours the theory that spring infection comes
from this source.

Another view is that the urediniospores are blown from
more southern localities, where the winters are mild, and prob-
ably this has much to do with severe outbreaks. The large
acreage of grains in all parts of the world and the known
fact that in dust storms particles of dust are carried long

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 331

distances make this view probable. Klebahn placed wads of
cotton batting in high exposed places and found thousands of
rust spores in these traps. He concludes that this is the most
probable method of rust distribution and accounts for the
reappearance in northern latitudes. Ericksson claims that the
grain seeds contain the rust in the form of "Mycoplasma," an
intimate mixture of the protoplasm of the fungus with that of
the host, and that under favourable conditions the mycoplasma
separates and developes the normal mycelium of the rust. This
would account for the reappearance of the rusts and the sudden
outbreaks. He claims to have found the "corpuscle®" or first
visible signs of the "mycoplasm" separating from the normal
cell protoplasm, but Ward has shown these to be haustoria.
There is not sufficient evidence to support the theory, which
has received much attention owing to the valuable work done
by Eriksson in his study of the grain rusts.

Rust Enemies.

A parasitic fungus, Darluca filum Cast., is often present
on the uredinia or-telia. I have found it very common on all
the rusts infecting Juncus, and also on many of the sedge and
grass rusts. In some cases it was difficult to obtain teliospores
owing to its attack. I have also found it very plentiful on the
uredinia of Coleosporium Solidaginis and Phragmidium
Potentillae-canadensis. This parasite can be recognized by
the small, black pycnidia, which are filled with colourless,
fusiform two-celled spores. The pycnidia are usually on the
uredinia and occasionally on the telia and aecia. The parasite
is doubtless an important factor in checking the spread of rusts.

Another parasite, a species of Tuberculina, was found
attacking the aecial stage of Gymnoconia inter stitialis, but it
did not seem to be generally distributed.

The larvae of a species of Cecidomyia is very commonly
present feeding on the aeciospores of many species. These

3o2 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA.— FKASEK.

probably tend to reduce the fungus by devouring the spores,
but they may aid in their distribution by spreading them as
they crawl about.

Economic Aspects of the Rusts.

The rusts are true parasites and unable to live except in
the tissues of their hosts. They attack many valuable trees
and shrubs as well as field and garden crops, and, as they live
at the expense of their hosts, often cause serious damage. They
cannot be combatted with much success by spraying with the
Bordeaux or other mixtures. Usually a knowledge of their
life history will alone suggest some method of holding them in
check.

Rusts of the Conifers : Many rusts of the genus Coleo-
sporium and Cronartium have their aecial stages on some
species of pine, but no rusts were found on the pine in Nova
Scotia and none are likely to occur, unless the European
currant rust (Cronartium rubicola) should be introduced. The
aecial stage is found on the white pine (Pinus strobus) and is
said to be very destructive in Europe. The uredinial and
telial stages on currant bushes does not seem to be of much
importance. An outbreak occurred at Geneva, 1ST. Y., in 1906,
and in 1909 pine seedlings which were imported from
Germany and were distributed through the north eastern
United States and Canada were found to be diseased. The
only way to control the fungus would seem to be to destroy
the wild species of Ribes in the neighbourhood of the pine
forest areas.

The leaves of the balsam fir (Abies balsamea) are attacked
by the aecial stage of the blueberry rust (Calyptospora column~
am) by Peridermium balsameum and by a Caeoma. The
spores are formed on the under side of the leaves which turn
yellowish. Peridermium, elatinum, the aecial stage of
Melampsorella elatina, forms the rather conspicuous witches'
brooms on the same host. These may be removed in the spring

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 333

before the spores are shed and burned. However, little injury
is done by these f uiigi and no measures of control are necessary.

Peridermium Peckii and Caeoma Abietis-canadensis Farl.
occur on the leaves of the hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) , but
they are not very common nor of much importance. Necium
Farlowii, which attacks the leaves and young twigs, is more
injurious. The infected twigs soon curl up and die, but the
fungus is rare and therefore of little importance.

The leaves of the spruces (Picea) are attacked by the aecial
stages of the Ledum rusts (Melampsoropsis ledicola, M.
abietina) and though sometimes the}7 are very richly infected
yet no serious injury seems to be done. The destruction of the
Ledum plants in the neighbourhood of the spruces would
probably be effective in controlling these rusts. The spruce
cones are also attacked by the aecial stage of the Pyrola rust
(Melampsoropsis Pyrolae).

The aecial stages of the willow and poplar rusts (Melamp-
sora Bigelowii, M. Medusae} are found on the larch (Larix
laricina} but they are rare and of no economic importance.

Rusts of Deciduous Trees : The leaves of the poplars and
willows are attacked by the uredinial and telial stages of
Melampsora Medusae and M. Bigelowii respectively, and those
of the birches by Meldmpsoridium Betulae, but the injury is
not serious and does not usually call for control. The burning
of the infected leaves in the fall would probably be helpful in
checking the rusts.

The aecial stage of some rust of the genus Gymno-
sporangium has been collected 011 the fruit of the wild plum
( Amelanchier) , and probably the alternate host is the low
juniper. It is probably rare and of little importance. In the
United States the aecial stages of some, species of the genus
Gymnosporangium attack the leaves of the cultivated apple,
but these have not been reported from !N"ova Scotia.

Rusts of Shrubs: The rusts of the genus Phragmidium
attack the wild roses freely and may attack the cultivated

PRO<'. & TRANS. N. S. Is ST. Scr., VOL. Xlf. TRANS. 23.

334 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. PHASER.

species, but no injury to the latter plants has been reported
from Nova Scotia. Control measures would be the destruction
of the affected parts in the fall before the dispersal of the
spores.

The "'Orange Rust" of the raspberry and blackberry
(Gymnoconia inter stitialis} is a serious pest in some parts of
the United States, attacking the cultivated species. As far
as reported it is confined to wild species in Nova Scotia. The
mycelium is perennial so that to combat this rust the diseased
plants should be dug up and burned.

The aecial stage of a sedge rust sometimes occurs on the
fruit of the cultivated gooseberry. This stage usually passes
under the name of Aecidium grossulariae. It is probably not
common enough to call for control measures, which would be
the destruction of the sedges in the vicinity.

Rusts of the Cereals: A few collections of corn rust have
been made, but it is not usually common enough to cause any
serious injury and has not received much attention.

The black or stem rust (Puccinia graminis) attacks wheat,
oats, barley, rye and many grasses. It has a world wide
distribution and does immense damage to the grain crops.

It does not seem to be very common about Pictou, but in
some parts of the province it is abundant and must cause
much injury to the oat and wheat crop. It can be recognized
by the black uncovered telia which are usually found on the
stem, though they may occur on the leaves and sheaths.

The aecial stage is on the barberry, but this shrub is not
common enough to explain its appearance year after year. It
is probable that the barberry has little to do with the rust in
Nova Scotia, and that the aecial stage is usually omitted. The
uredospores live for some time and have been shown to sur-
vive the winter even in cold climates. Another theory is that
the uredospores are carried from more southern countries,
where they survive the winter, by the wind, and thus the spring

~ THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 385

infection takes place. Many grasses are attacked by this rust,
arid some observers have thought that the mycelium may
survive the winter in these grasses, and that infection of the
grain crops may come from this source in the spring when
uredospores are produced. However, artificial infection experi-
ments indicate that few of the grass rusts will grow on wheat
or other grains. The rusts on the various species have become
adapted to their particular host and will not usually grow on
other species.

Little can be done to combat this rust. Varieties that ripen
early are not usually so badly affected, so early sowing and the
sowing of early varieties would be advantageous. Some varieties
are more susceptible than others and attention is now being-
given by plant breeders to the production of rust proof varieties.
It is probable that much may yet be accomplished along this
line. The barberry which is sometimes grown in hedges should
be destroyed as it probably forma a bridging host between the
various specialized forms on the grasses.

The crown rust of oats (Puccinia Lolii} is very common on
the oat about Pictou and must do much injury to the crop. It
is found only on the oat and can be easily distinguished from
the stem rust, as the telia remain covered by the epidermis ani
occur only on the loaves and sheaths. The aecial stage is found
on the buckthorn, an introduced tree or shrub which is rather
common along some roadsides near Pictou. This may account
for the prevalence of the rust as these trees showed a rather
pronounced infection in the springs of 1909-10. !N"o control
measures are known, but the destruction of the aecial host.

The brown or covered rust of wheat, Puccinia triticina, is
quite common about Pictou. The telia are usually formed
on the lower side of the leaves. They are black in color and
remain covered by the epidermis. This rust usually passes in
America under the name Puccinia rubigo-vera or P. rubigo-
rero iritici Its systematic position is somewhat unsettled, and
its aecial stai^e somewhat doubtful.

336 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA.— FRASEH.

The timothy rust only began to attract attention in North
America a few years ago. It seems to be rapidly increasing.
Some regard it as identical with the stem rust of wheat, while
others regard it as a distinct species with unknown aecia. In
gross and microscope -appearance it cannot be distinguished
from the stem rust of wheat. It is quite common on the timothy
about Pictou, especially on timothy about roadsides and fences
that has not been cut at the harvest season. It seems to be
increasing so rapidly that there is danger that it may become
a pest, but the early maturing of the hay crop may prevent any
serious damage.

Red Clover Rust : The uredinial and telial stages of clover
rust (Uromyces trifolii) is common on the leaves of clover in
the fields of Pictou. They appear as brownish powdery spots
on the under surface of the leaves and on the stems. The
aecial stage is unknown. It is said to do little damage to the
early crop, but the attack on the second crop is more "severe.
Control is unnecessary, and no prevenlta.tive measures are

known.

Classification.

The classification of the rusts presents many difficulties
owing to the variable number of forms and the heteroecism of
many species. Besides, rusts that cannot be distinguished
morphologically have become specialized or show physiological
differences in the choice of their hosts, and botanists are not
agreed as to the classification of these. Some regard them as-
separate species, while others would place them as simply
physiological species or form species. The classification is
likely to remain unsettled until they are more fully studied
and their life histories and relations to their hosts more com-
pletely known.

The rusts are regarded by most botanists as belonging to
the class Basidiomycetes on account of the germinating telio-
spore producing four basidia which either remain within the
spore cell or are borne in the air on a short promycelium, each

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 837

basidiurn bearing a single spore. A few botanists regard the
teliospore as an ascus in which the spore- wall is united with
the ascus-wall, thus the rusts would belong to the class
Ascomycetes.

The order Uredinales (Uredinae Tul.) to which the rusts
belong is divided by Dietel into four families : Melampsoraceae,
Coleosporiaceae, Cronartiaceae and Pucciniaceae. The separa-
tion is based on the character of the telia and the teliospores.

In the Melampsoraceae the teiit>sfK)res stand side by side
forming one-layered, flattened masses, which are separated with
difficulty; or they may be scattered in the tissues of the host,
then they are usually two- or four-celled; the genue
Uredinopsis belongs to the latter group. The teliospores are
always sessile.

In the Coleosporiaceae the teliospores are united into
one- or two-layered, light-coloured, waxy crusts. They germin-
ate without a promycelium, the spore cell soon divides1 into four
basidia and each of these produces a large basidiospore about
20/x long. The teliospores are sessile except in a South
American genus Chrysopsora.

The Cronartiaceae have sessile teliospores which are formed
in series and either separate from each other or remain united
in filiform masses, as in Cronartium, or are formed in chains
and compacted laterally forming cushion-shaped masses as in
Chrysomyxa.

The Pucciniaceae, which contain the well known rustsr
have stalked teliospores either fasicled or free, usually easily
vseparable from the host plant, but sometimes, as in the genus
Gymnosporangium, embedded in a gelatinous mass.

Arthur recognizes three families: Coleosporiaccae, Uredin-
aceae (the latter including DietePs Melampsoraceae and
Cronartiaceae), and Aecidiaceae corresponding to Puccini-
aceae.

The following is a synopsis of the genera represented in
north eastern North America. It is largely based on DietePs
Uredinales in Die NaturlicJien PflanzenfamiUen.

388 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. FRASER.

M I':i,AMl'Si>KACKA K.

I. Teliospores mostly 2- and 4-celled, in the latter case the.
Avails in the furm of a cross.

1. Teliospores singly in the parenchyma tous tissue

of the host Ureditiopsis.

2. Teliospores united in single layered crusts —

A. Teliospores formed outside the colls

of host Pucciniastrum.

B. Teliospores within cells of host —

a. Life cycle with aecia and telia

Calyptospora.

b. Life cycle with telia, on Tsuga

. Necium.

IT. Teliospores 1-celled, always united in small or large
crusts.

1. Teliospores formed outside the cells of host —

a. Uredinia with paraphyses intermixed with

spores. Aecia without a peridium ...
Melampsora.

b. Uredinia and aecia with peridium. No

paraphyses Melampsoridium.

2. Teliospores formed inside of cells of host—

a. Uredinia opening by a pore

Melampsoo'ella.

b. Uredinia not opening by a pore, telio-

spores hyaline Hyalopsora.

COI.ROSPORI AC^A K.

1. Teliospores formed in a gelatinous swelling of sporo-

phore, on Pinus Oallowaya.

2. Teliospores in flat crusts, uredinia in chains

Coleosporium.

CRONARTIACKA K.

1. Telia cushion shaped Ohrysomyxa.

2. Telia thread-like or columnar . . .Cronartinm.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 339

PUCCINIACHAK.

I. Teliospores embedded in a gelatinous matrix, on

Ooniferae Gymnosporangium.

II. Teliospores not embedded in a gelatinous matrix, not

on Ooniferae —

1. Teliospores one-celled Uromyces.

2. Teliospores more than one-celled.

A. Teliospores two^celled—

a. Aecia without peridium

Gymnoconia.

b. Aecia with peridium .... Puccinia.

B. Teliospores more than two-celled—

a. Spore cells in a row—

(1) Teliospores colourless
Kuehneola.

(2) Teliospores coloured

Phragmidium.

1}. Spore cells, three in the form of
a triad . Triphragmium.

All the genera included in this synopsis are represented
in Nova Scotia except Gallowaya and Hyalopsora. The last
one will probably yet be found.

Arthur has adopted a new system of classification of the
rusts. His classification is based largely on the number of
spore forms present. For example the genus Puccinia as now
commonly known is replaced by four genera, Dasyspora with
teliospores, Bullaria with urediniospores and teliospores,
Allodus with aeciospores and teliospores, and Dicaeoma with
all spore forms. Yet the author of the system states that "it
would be a wholly false impression to assume that this
character of the suppression of the spore forms is the only one
separating the genus from others of the group. It is the
most prominent and most easily stated, but in the most cases
will be found associated with other characters of accepted

340 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

value." He adds that bis classification has to do fundament-
ally with the progressive evolution of the rusts and not with
adaptations; thus the genus Dasyspom includes species that
have progressed in their evolution to the stage where aecio-
spores and urediniospores have been effectively suppressed
from the life cycle. Such a classification demands a more
intimate knowledge of the rusts and more insight into their
life history than the old system which was based largely on
the structure of the teliospores.

He also states that there are some short cuts that enable
one to name his collections. "Thus, telia associated with
pycnia may be safely assumed to belong to a genus in which
aecia and uredinia are wanting, or at most so little developed
as to be of no taxonomic importance. In like manner pycnia
associated with uredinia, the so-called primary uredinia, may
be assumed to indicate a genus in which aecia are wanting.
If aecia show telia arising within or about them from the
same mycelium, it may safely be assumed that no uredinia
belong to the life cycle. Furthermore it rarely or >neve?r
happens that teliospores of the Uromyces-Puccinia type,
germinating immediately on maturity, belong to genera with
other spore forms in the life cycle, excepting some largely
tropical genera. Short cuts are also available in other direc-
tions. All gramineous and cyperaceous hosts bear rusts that
inay be assumed to possess all spore forms and are heteroecious.
Qnly one exception is known at present."

In the following pages the species occurring in Nova Scotia
are described. The classification is largely that of Dietel in
"Die Natiirlichen Pflaiizenfamilien/' While it might be better
tjo follow Arthur's classification, as he has made the most
extensive and thorough study of !N"orth American rusts, yet
his work has not progressed far enough to make thait possible
in all cases, so for the present the classification that follows
has been adopted.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FKASER.

341

A -list of Nova Scotian genera follows with the number of
species that have been found in each genus. The names used
by Arthur in the North American Flora are enclosed in
brackets where they differ from those in the classification
adopted. Melampsoropsis, however, is used instead of
Clirysomyxa, although Dietal adopts the latter term.

Nova Scotian Families and Genera.

Genus.

Coleosporiacae. Coleosporium

1

Melampsoracese,
(Urediniaceae).

Melampsora (Uredo) ............... 3

Pucciniastrum ................ ..... 6

Melampsoridium ............... .... 1

Melampsorella ..................... 1

Hyalopsora ....... . ............... „ 0

Calyptospora . . . .................. t 1

Necium ................... . . ..... 1

Uredinopsis ............. ... ....... 5

Puceiniaceae, /Melampsoropsis (Chrysomyxa) ...... . 5

(Urediniaceae). I Cronartium ....................... 1

Phragmidinm

Earlea

Triphragniium
Gymnoconia
Kuehneola
Gymnosporangium

( Aecidium)

Pucciiiiacoae.
(Aecidiaceae).

ITromvces •

Pileolaria

Nigredo
TJromycopsis
Klebahnia
v Telospora

Tranzschella
Polythelis
Dioaeoma
urenlia \ Allodiw
I Bull aria
\ Dasyporn

THE RUSTS OF NO\7A SCOTIA.— FRASER.

The descriptions that follow are based on the collections
of Nova Scotia material. It was necessary when certain forms
were not collected or when the collections were scanty to make
use of the systematic literature cited at the end of this paper.
These oases are recorded in the notes that follow the descrip-
tion of the species.

An interesting feature of the work was the field study
with the object of connecting aecial and telial stages and the
culture experiments undertaken to test the clues thus obtained.
As a result the life histories of a number of species previously
unknown were worked out. These are noted under the
descriptions of the species.

A 50$ solution of lactic acid was used for the purpose of
clearing the sections and swelling the spores to their normal
shape and size. This is necessary in the case of the spores of
the Puccinia Hieracii type, as the dried spores are much con-
tracted and wrinkled. The spores or sections were placed on
a slide and a drop of the lactic acid solution added. The slide
was then heated over a spirit lamp and the liquid was brought
to the boiling point or allowed to boil for a few seconds.
This also brought out the germ pores more clearly. -

The drawings are made with the aid of a camera lucida
to a uniform magnification of 480 diameters, except in a few
cases noted in the descriptions accompanying the drawings
which are reduced to one-half the diameters in the photo-
gravure process.

Gray's "New Manual of Botany" was used in deter mining
the host plants.

The writer is deeply indebted to Dr. J. C. Arthur for
valuable suggestions and for the determination of doubtful
species. He is also indebted to John Macoun, Naturalist,
Geol. Survey Dept. of Canada, for the prompt determination
of a few doubtful host plants.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 343

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

Family 1. COLKOSPORIACEAK.

Basidia internal, i. e. each original cell soon divides into
four superimposed divisions (the basidia), each of these
germinates by a single sterigma bearing a large basidiospore.
Telia waxy. Teliospores compacted laterally into layers,
sessile (in all North American species) ; walls weakly gelatin-
ous.

This family is represented in North America by one genus,
Coleosporium, or according to Arthur's classification by two
genera, Coleosporium and Gallowaya, the life cycle of the latter
having only telia. The family is represented in Nova Scotia
by only one species, and no more are likely to occur as all the
other species thus far reported in North America are of a more
southern range. It is possible that C. Campanulae (Pers.)
Lev., which has been collected in Vermont may yet be found
to occur.

COLKOSPORIUM L«-v.

Pycnia flattish, without ostiolar filaments. Aecia with
large peridium. Aeciospores having colourless Avail with
dense deciduous tubercles. Uredinia without peridium.
Urediniospores eaten ulate ; wall colourless, verrucose, pores
obscure. Telia waxy, usually roundish. Teliospores sessile,
one-celled, (appearing four-celled owin^; to early division of
contents) ; wall smooth, colourless, thickened and gelatinous at
the apox.

Coleosporium Solidaginis (Schw.) Thuem.

0 & I. On Pinus rifjida Mill. P&ridermium acicolum
TJnd. & Earle.

II. Uredinia mostly hypophyllous, sometimes caulicolous,
scattered or sometimes gregarious, small, soon naked.

344

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

pulverulent, yellow or orange-yellow, ruptured epidermis
rather inconspicuous. Urediniospores globoid or ellopsoid,
16-22 by 19-35/i; wall rather thin, strongly verrncose; con-
tents orange-yellow, slowing fading to colourless.

III. Telia hypopiiyllous, scattered or crowded and con-
fluent, roundish or irregular, slightly elevated, small reddisn-
orange. Teliospores terete, 18-25 by 54-85/A, round or obtuse
at both ends, wall swelling above 30-40/&; contents orange-
yellow; basidiospores globoid or ellipsoid, about 12 by 18/*,
yellowish.

Uredinia and telia on Solidago and Aster species, Pictou,
Truro, etc. The following hosts were determined: Solidago
tricolor L., 8. rugosa Mill., 8. canademis L., Aster cordifolius
L., A. umbellatus Mill., A. lateriflo'rus (L.) Britton.

The uredinial and telial stages of this rust are very com-
mon on the various species of SoKdago and Aster near Pictou,

and probably throughout the
Province. The aecial stage is
found on Pinus rigida Mill, and
in North America is known only
from a small area from Massa-
chusetts to southern New
Jersey. (Arthur & Kern, Bull.
Torr. Bot. Club, 33:413. 1906).
Since the aecial stage (Peri-

l. Section of telium of Coleospormm
Solidaginis.

demium acicolum Und. & Earle) appears to be limited to a
small region along the Atlantic coast, and the other stages are
common almost throughout the United States and Canada, the
question arises how it passes the winter. Clinton carried out
some experiments that would tend to show that the mycelium
was not perennial in the rootstocks (Conn. Exper. Sta, Report
378, 1907). He believes that the mycelium of the fungus is
carried over the winter in the basal rosettes of young
which may survive the winter.

THE RUSTS OF NOvA SCOTIA. — ERASER. 345

Family 2. MEI/AMPiORACEAE.

Basidia external, i. e. germination with a typical pro-
mycelium with small spherical sporidia. Telia in more or less
definite single layered crusts. Teliospores compacted laterally
into layers, or rarely solitary within the tissues (Uredinopsis),
sessile ; wall usually firm, rarely with an outer gelatinous
1 aver.

«/

This family is represented in north-eastern North America
by eight genera, and of these seven occur in Nova Scotia. The
remaining genus Hyalopsora, which is confined to ferns, prob-
ably occurs, as H. Aspidiotus (Peck) Magn. on Phegopteris
Dryopteris (L.) Fee has been reported from New Hampshire,
and H. Polypodii on Cystopteris fragilis Bernh. from New
York.

MK LAM PSORA Cast.

Pycnia conoidal or hemispheric without ostiolar filaments,
hynienium flattish. Aecia without peridium or parapbysea.
Uredinia without peridium. Urediniospores borne singly on
pedicels; wall colourless, verrucose; capitate paraphyses inter-
mixed with the spores. Telia indehiscent in waxy layers or
-crusts. Teliospores one-celled, closely compacted into a single
layer, prismatic or ellipsoid; wall smooth, coloured.

Both heteroecious and autoecious species belong to this
genus, the former only have been found in Nova Scotia.
Melampsora lini (Pers.) Tul. is an autoecious species which is
destructive to flax in the United States.

Melampsora Bigelowii Thuem.
Uredo Bigelowii (Thuem.) Arth.

0. Pycnia chiefly epiphyllous, scattered, minute, puncti-
form, pale yellow, inconspicuous.

1. Aecia chiefly hypophyllous, scattered or somewhat gre-
garious, on whitish areas occupying part of the leaf, small,
round or mostly oblong, pale yellow fading to colourless, soon

346 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASEK.

naked, pulverulent, ruptured epidermis evident. Aeciospores
mostly globoid, about 18-24/u; wall colourless, thick, minutely
verrucose.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, on conspicuous yellow spots,
usually gregarious, round, oval or irregular .3-. 6mm. across,
sometimes confluent, ruptured epidermis inconspicuous, soon
naked, somewhat pulverulent. Urediniospores globoid or
ellipsoid, 15-19 by 18-27/*, wall colourless, thick, evenly
verrucose, pores scattered; paraphyses mixed with the spores,
capitate, smooth, 50-80/* long, heads 19-24^ broad, wall thick,1
3-5.5fi.

III. Telia amphigenous, sometimes mostly hypophyllous,
scattered, often abundant and occupying most of the leaf
surface, roundish or irregular, often confluent, sometimes
elevated, orange-yellow, becoming yellowish or purplish-brown,
eubepidermal, teliospores prismatic, sometimes oblong, 12-15
by 33-44/A, rounded at both ends or truncate; wall cinnamon-
brown, smooth, uniformly thin or sometimes thickened above.

Pycnia and aecia on Larix laricina (DuRoi) Koch, Pictou.

Uredinia and telia on Scdix rostrata Richards., and other
Salix species, Pictou, Truro, Oakfield.

Collections of aecia on Larix laricina were made on June
24, 1910, and during the following week. The aecia were
found to be widely distributed in the vicinity of Pictou, so
that almost every tree of Larix examined showed at least a few
infected leaves. In June, 1912, aecia were found to be very
abundant in one region near Pictou, the young Larix trees
appearing yellow at a considerable distance. It was impossible
to determine whether the aecia belonged to this species or to
M. Medusae as there is no morphological differences. It seems
probable, however, that these collection belong to this species
as cultures by the writer showed that the poplar rust in this
repon has aecia on Tsiiga canadensis.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — ERASER. 347

Melampsora Medusae Thuem.

0. Pycnia amphigenous, mostly hypophyllous.

1. Aecia hypophyllous, often on the young twigs causing
deformation, elongate or rounded, ruptured epidermis incon-
spicuous, pale yellow fading to white. Aeciospores globoitl,
ahout 16-20/x; wall colourless, thick, minutely verrucose.

II. Uredinia amphigenous or mostly hypophyllous, often
on yellowish spots, scattered, roundish, very small, soon naked,
somewhat pulverulent, orange-yellow, fading to pale yellow.
Urediniospores ellipsoid or obovate-ellipsoid, 16-17 by 22-27^,
wall colourless, rather thick, sparsely but rather strongly
verrucose; paraphyses numerous, capitate, thick walled, inter-
mixed with the spores. (Urediniospores often flattened later-
ally with flattened sides smooth).

III. Telia amphigenous, usually only hypophyllous,
scattered or confluent, irregularly roundish, small, slightly
elevated, reddish-brown, becoming dark chocolate-brown,
subepi dermal. Teliospores prismatic, 10-16 by 27-46/*; wall
smooth, light brown, uniformly thin.

Pycnia and aecia on leaves and cones of Tsuga canadetisis
(L.) Carr., Pictou, Truro.

Uredinia and telia on Populus grandidentata Michx., Pic-
tou, New Glasgow, Truro; P. tremuloides Michx., Pictou.

The writer has shown by cultures that this species has in
this region its aecia on Tsuga-candensis. (See Mycologia 4: 188.

1912). The aecial stage
is Caeoma Abietis-caiwdensis
FarL, which is rather com-
mon on its host. Arthur
has shown by cultures that

2. Surface view of part of teliuui of the aecial Stage also OCCUl'S
Melampsora Medusae. Side view. Qn j^^ (J()Ur Mycol 1Q .

13. 11)04: 11:52. 1905; 12:13. 1906). It is probable that
there are two races of the same species, that in the east having
aecia on Tsuga and in the west on Larix.

348 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

The telial stage is rather common on the large-toothed
aspen about Pictou. It is rather rare on the more common
poplar, (Populus tremuloides Michx.). The uredinial stage
is not conspicuous but leaves, when, the telial stage appears in
the fall, soon turn black and are then quite conspicuous.

Melampsora arctica Rostr.

Uredo Eostrupiana, Arth.

0. Pycnia amphigenous, chiefly hypophyllous, punctiform,
inconspicuous, honey-yellow.

1. Aecia hypophyllous, arranged in two rows, roundish.
oval or oblong, pale orange-yellow, fading to colourless, socm
naked, pulverulent, ruptured epidermis evident, .2-. 3 by .3 -.7
mm. Aeciospores globoid, about 16-21/x in diameter; wall
thick, colourless, verrucose, contents pale yellow.

II. ITredinia chiefly hypophyllous, scattered, round, very
small, orange-yellow fading to pale yellow, somewhat pulveru-
lent, ruptured epidermis inconspicuous. Urediniospores ellip-
soid or obovate, small, 14-16 by 16-20/*; wall colourless, thin,
uniformly and closely verrucose; paraphyses mixed with the
spores, smooth, about 50/n long with heads about 22/u, broad,
wall thickened above.

III. Telia mostly hypophyllous, rounded or irregular,
scattered or often confluent, slightly elevated, reddish brown,
becoming dull brown, subepidermal. Teliospores prismatic or
oblong, 8-10 by 22-32/u; wall smooth, pale brown, thin.

Pycnia and aecia on Abies balsamea (L.) Mill., Pictou.

Uredinia 'and telia on fialix discolor Muhl., and 8. rostrata-
Richards, Pictou.

This rust can be distinguished from M. Bigelowii by the
small and thin walled urediniospores. It is common, in the
vicinity of Pictou. Cultures by the writer during the spring
of 1912 showed that the aecial stage is on Abies balsamea.
(See Mycologia 4: 187. 1912).

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 349

MELAMSORIDIUM Kieb.

Uredinia with a firm peridium dehiscing by a central pore,
cells of the orifice sharp pointed. Urediniospores borne singly
on pedicels. Telia indehiscent, forming evident layers beneath
the epidermis. Teliospores oblong or prismatic, one-celled.

The genus includes three species on Betulaceae. Arthur in
the North American Flora reports from North America only
the species described below.

Melampsoridium betulinum (Pers.) Xleb.
Melampsoridium Betulae (Schum.) Arth.
0 & I. On Larix decidua Mill. (Europe). Not yet col-
lected in North America.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, on small yellow spots,
scattered, small, round, reddish-yellow, at length pulverulent;
peridium hemispherical, firm, opening by a central pore, cells
polygonal, with pointed cells at the orifice, points 10-14/* long.
Urediniospores elongate-elliptical or elongate-obovate, 10-16 by
25-40/u; wall colourless, thin, strongly and sparsely echinulate
except smooth apex.

III. Telia hypophyllous, small, often thickly covering
the surface of the leaf, at first waxy yellow, becoming brown
and finally blackish, indehiscent. Teliospores prismatic in a
palisade like layer beneath the epidermis, 7-16 by 30-50/u,
somewhat rounded at each end; wall nearly colourless, thin,
slightly thicker at the apex, smooth.

Uredinia and telia on Betula populifolia Marsh, B. lutea
Michx., Pictou.

The uredinial stage of this species was common on Betula
populifolia about Pictou during the fall of 1909. It is con-
spicuous as the leaves are thickly covered with small yellow
spots and usually a number of leaves near together are infected.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci. VOL. XII. TKANS. 2

350 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

It was less common during the fall of 1910, only one collec-
tion being made. The telial stage was not found although
collections were made at various intervals during the fall and
early winter. The aecial stage, Peridermium Laricis (Kleb.)
Arth. & Kern, has not been collected in North America.

MELAMP3OHELLA. Schroet.

Aecia with peri.dium. Aeciospores with verrucose walls.
Uredinia with peridium. Telia effused, indehiscent. Telio-
spores within^ the epidermal cells, one-celled ; wall ' smooth,
colourless.

But one species of this genus is found in North America.
Some of the species which Dietel places in this genus are
assigned to Hyalopsom by Arthur.

Melampsorella Cerastii (Pers.) Schroet.

Melampsorella elatina (Alb. & Schw.) Arth.

0. Pycnia epiphyllous, few, scattered, punctiform, incon-
spicuous.

1. Aecia from a perennial mycelium forming witches'
brooms ; hypophyllous, in two rows, dropping out "of leaf at
maturity, mostly irregularly oblong or roundish, rather large;
peridium colourless, soon falling away and exposing spores.
Aeciospores sub-globoid or ellipsoid, 15-22 by 19-27/A; wait
colourless, thin, closely verrucose.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, scattered or grouped, small,
round, .1-.4 mm. across, orange-red when fresh, pale yellow
when dry; peridium hemispherical, dehiscent by a small
central orifice. TJrediniospores ellipsoid or obovoid, 12-18 by
16-30ju; walls pale yellow, rather thin, sparsely echinulate.

III. Telia hypophyllous, on whitish or pale reddish spots.
Teliospores within the epidermal cells, one-celled, short-
cylindrical or polygonal, 13-20/x broad; wall colourless, smooth,
thin.

THE RUbTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 351

Aecia on Abies balasmea (L.) Mill., Pictou, July 10, 1909.
Uredinia and telia on Stellaria and Cerastium (Europe and
United States).

The aecial stage, Peridermium elatinum (A. & S.) Kunze
& Schmidt, is common and widely distributed. It produces
the conspicuous witches' brooms so common on the balsam fir.

Klebahn and Fischer have proved by numerous cultures
the connection of the aecial stage on Abies and the stages on
Alsine, Stellaria and Cerastium. The uredinial and Belial
forms are very inconspicuous, but they have been collected a
few times in North America, mostly in the western United
States.

PUCCINIASTRUM Otth.

Uredinia barely protruding through the epidermis; per-
idium present, opening by a central pore. Urediniospores
borne singly on pedicels with colourless walls, pores not
evident.

Telia forming layers in the epidermal cells or immediately
beneath the epidermis. Teliospores oblong or prismatic, two
to four-celled by vertical or oblique walls in two planes.

Nine species of this genus are found in North America.
Six are here described from Nova Scotia. Another species,
P. sparsum (Winter) Ed. Fisch., may occur on Arctostaphylos
alpina (L.) Spreng., as it has been. collected in Quebec.

Pucciniastrum pustulatum (Pers.) Diet.

0. Pycnia hypophyllous, abundant, inconspicuous.

1. Aecia hypophyllous, mostly in two rows, cylindrical,
about 1 mm. high. Aeciospores ovoid or irregularly globoid,
10-20 by 16-22/x; wall colourless, finely verrucose, rather
thick, contents orange-yellow.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous and frniticolous, scattered or
in small groups, not discolouring the leaf, small, bull ate, round,
dehiscent by a central pore, orange fading to pale yellow, long
covered by the arched epidermis; peridium hemispherical,
delicate, cells cuboid al, wall smooth. Urediniospores obovate

352 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

or oval, sometimes globose, 11-16 by 15-24/t; wall colourless,
thin, finely echinulate; contents orange-yellow when fresh.

III. Telia hypophyllous, indehiscent, flat, small, scattered
or often gregarious and confluent, reddish-brown, becoming
blackish-brown. Teliospores usually in one layer, oblong or
angular by pressure, about 18-30/x high by 16-27/* wide; walls
pale brown, smooth, thin, thicker at the apex.

Pycnia and aecia on Abies balsamea (L.) Mill., Pictou,
June, 1911.

Uredinia and telia on Epilobium angustifolium L., E.
Hornmanni Reichenb., Pictou ; E. adenocaulon Haussk., Truro.
Arthur gives the measurement of the teliospores as 10-14
by 17-35/A. This species is very common on its hosts especially
on Epilobium angustifolium. The leaves become discoloured
when the telia are well formed, and usually soon die.

The life history of this species in North America was
worked out by the writer. (Mycologia 4: 176. 1912). It had
been previously established in Europe, the aecia occurring
there on Ribes pectinata DC. The aecia of this rust have
not yet been recognized elsewhere in North America.

Pucciniastrum arcticum (Lagerh.) Tranz.
0 & I. Pycnia and aecia unknown.

II. ITredinia hypophyllous, usually thickly scattered over
extended areas, round, small, orange-yellow, fading to pale
yellow, dehiscent by a central pore, somewhat pulverulent;
peridium firm, ostiolar cells coarsely echinulate above.
Urediniospores obovate or ellipsoid, 13-15 by 16-2 5ft; wall
colourless, thin, distinctly echinulate- with low points.

III. Telia hypophyllous, brownish, small, flat, inconspicu-
ous. Teliospores intercellular, globoid or cuboid, about 19-24/u
in diameter; wall smooth, light brown.

On Rubus triflorus Richards, Truro, Pictou ; Rubus idaeus
Var. aculeatissimus, (Rubus strigosus Michx.), Pictou, New
Glasgow.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

353

3. Partial section of aecidium ofPuccin

astum arcticum. Surface and side

view of teliospores.

The uredinial stage is very common on the raspberry. It
is not conspicuous, but can be easily recognized by examining

the under side of the leaf. The
telial istage is difficult to dis-
tinguish, but late collections of
leaves affected by the uredinal
form usually show abundant
telia, when sectioned and exam-
ined with the microscope.

Arthur in the "North Ameri-
can Flora'7 reports this species
only from Alaska on Eubus
stellatus. Farlow (Rhodora 10:
13. 1908) mentions a specimen of typical P. arcticum on Eubus
triflorus from Grand Manan, "N. B. He also describes a
Pucciniastrum found on Eubus neglectus and Eubus strigosus
in the north-eastern United States, and regards it as a variety
of P. arcticum differing from the type in the markedly conical
shape of the peridium and prominent spines. To distinguish
it he gives it the name P. arcticum (Lagerh.) Tranz., Var.
americanum Farlow. If this separation holds good the collec-
tion on Eubus triflorus belongs to the species and that on
Eubus idaeus Var. aculeatissimus to the variety.

Pucciniastrum Myrtilli (Schum.) Arth.
Pucciniastrum Vacciniorum Diet.
0 & I. Pycnia and aecia on Tsuga canadensis.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, scattered or somewhat grer
garious, small, bullate, round, long covered by the overarching
epidermis; peridium hemispherical, cells small, cuboidal.
Urediniospores obovate or ellipsoid, 13-16 by 16 24/x; wall
colourless, minutely and sparingly echinulate ; contents orange-
yellow.

III. Telia chiefly epiphyllous. Teliospores in the
epidermal cells, ellipsoid or globoid, 18-23 by 20-30/x; wall
smooth, thin.

354 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

On Vaccinium Pennsylvanicum Lam., Pictou, Oct. 4, 1910.

Arthur in the "North American Flora" describes the telia
as hypophyllous, and the teliospores as oblong or columnar
and T-10 by 14-17/*. There is a marked difference in the
position of the telia and the size and shape of the teliospores
of my collections from this description. The uredinia agree
with Arthur's description.

The rust is inconspicuous and, though only a few collec-
tions were made, it will probably be found to be common.

The aecial stage of this rust is doubtless the Peridermium
so common on Tsuga canadensis which has been confused with
Peridermium Peckii. Clinton (Report Conn. Agric. Exper.
Station for 1909-1910, page 719) has connected this rust with
Peridermium Peckii, but it is probable his aecia are the most
common form which have been confused with the true Peckii.
The aecia, which doubtless belong to this species, were found
to be very common at Truro, Oakfield and Pictou, and the
field evidence was very strong that they were connected with
this rust. Collections sent to Dr. Arthur wrere regarded as
distinct from Per. Peckii.

Pucciniastrum Pyrolae (Pers.) Diet.
0 & I. Pycnia and aecia unknown.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, on small reddish spots, small,
scattered or grouped, mammillose, yellowish-red, dehiscent by
a central pore, long covered by the overarching epidermis;
peridium hemispherical, cells elongated vertically below,
ostiolar cells large, echinulate. Urediniospores oblong or
ellipsoid, 13-16 by 24-35ju; wall colourless, rather thick,
minutely and sparsely echinulate; contents orange-yellow when
fresh.

III. Telia hypophyllous, adjoining uredinia, inconspicu-
ous, subepidermal, an even layer of laterally flattened cells.
Teliospores oblong or columnar, 10-12 by 24-28/*; wall uni-
formly thin, colourless.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 355

On Pyrola elliptica Nutt., Pictou, Oct. 4, 1910.
Only the uredinial stage was collected. The species does
not seem to be common.

Pucciniastrum minimum (Schw.) Arthur.

0. Pycnia hypophyllous, rarely epiphyllous, numerous,
scattered, inconspicuous.

1. Aecia hypophyllous in two rows, 'Occupying part or
usually all of the leaf, cylindrical, small, about .5-1 mm. high;
peridium colorless, dehiscing at the apex, cells joined loosely,
slender. Aeciospores broadly ellipsoid, 13-17 by 19-21>; wall
colourless, rather thin, finely and evenly verrucose.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, small, scattered or chiefly
grouped on indefinite discoloured areas, mammillose, pale
yellow, dehiscent by a central pore, finally pulverulent, long
covered by the overarching epidermis ; peridium hemispherical,
cells smlall, cuboidal. Urediniospores ellipsoid or obovate-
oblong, 15-18 by 19-27/*; wall colourless, thin, finely and
sparsely echinulate.

III. Telia amphigenous, chiefly epiphyllous. Teliospores
in the epidermal cells, ellipsoid or globoid, 16-24 by 19-35/*;
wall uniformly thin, pale yellowish, smooth.

Pycnia and aecia on the leaves and cones of Tsuga canaden-
sis (L.) Carr., Pictou, July, 1911.

Uredinia and telia on Rhodora canadense (L.) BSP.,
Pictou.

This species was found to be rather common near Pictou
on Rhodora canadense. The aecial stage was shown by cul-
tures of the writer to occur on the leaves and cones of Tsuga
canadensis (see Mycologia 4:184. 1912). This stage was
determined as Peridermium Peekii by Dr. Arthur. The aecia
were much lighter in colour than the much more common aecia
on Tsuga canadensis which has usually passed as Peridermium
Peekii. The more common form doubtless belongs to
Pucciniastrum Myrtilli.

356 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. ERASER.

Pucciniastrum Agrimoniae (Schw.) Tranz.
0 & I. Pycnia and aecia unknown.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, thickly scattered over definite
or extended yellowish areas, bullate, round, small, orange-
yellow, dehiscent by a central pore; peridium rather delicate,
hemispherical, cells small, cuboid. Urediniospores broadly
obovate or globoid, 12-16 by 15-23/x; wall hyaline, rather thin,
finely echinulate ; contents orange-yellow, fading to pale yellow.

III. Telia hpyophyllous, forming scattered, irregular
patches, indehiscent. Teliospores intercellular, beneath the
epidermal cells, oblong or somewhat cylindrical, 18-30 by
19-32/*; wall smooth, brownish-yellow; contents colourless.

On Agrimonia gryposepala Wallr., New Glasgow, Truro.

This species was collected only near New Glasgow, but
there was a rich development on the plants infected. The
telia can -be easily recognized when the leaves have been killed
by the frost as small dark brown patches on the under side of
the leaves. They are late of being formed and only in late
collections will telia be found. Search was made on the
neighbouring conifers in the spring for the aecial stage, but
without success. Nothing whatever is known of it, but as
Pucciniastrum pustulaium has aecia on Abies in Europe, this
species may have like aecial hosts.

UREDINOPSIS Magn.

Cycle of development not understood ; telia and two other
spore forms known, called aecia and uredinia.

Aecia small, bullate, roundish, indehiscent, Peridium
depressed globoid, delicate. Aeciospores borne singly on pedi-
cels, obovate to globoid, angular or polyhedral ; wall colourless,
medium thick, minutely verrucose.

Uredinia bullate, roundish, usually larger than aecia,
dehiscent by central rupture, spores ejected in a long white
filament; peridium delicate. ITrediniospores borne singly on

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 357

pedicels, fusiform, acute or beaked above, narrowed below;
wall colourless, thin, smooth except two opposite longitudinal
thickened ridges bearing single rows of minute projections,
not always evident when wet.

Teliospores globoid, one to four-celled or more, usually with
intersecting septa; wall smooth, colourless, thin.

This genus is found only on ferns. The species can usually
be recognized in the field by the yellow areas, on the lower side
of which the minute nredinia can be made out with a lens.
Often the small white filiform columns of urediniospores can
be seen, where they have emerged.

The teliospores can be studied best by sectioning the leaf,
or if a small piece of the discoloured area be boiled for a few
seconds in lactic acid the spores can then be made out with
the aid of the microscope. Viewed from above they appear
circular with the walls (if four-celled) appearing as two
diameters at right angles. Viewed from the side they usually
appear two-celled.

Dietel in "Engler and Prantl" regards the form, which
Arthur places for convenience as an aeciospore, rather as a
stalked teliospore, but its true position is not known.

Arthur in the "North American Flora" describes seven
species, of these five are here described from Nova Scotia.
The other two have been reported only from the Pacific coast.

From careful field study the writer believes that the fern
rusts belonging to this genus are heteroecious, the aecidial
stages in some species being found on Abies balsamea. This
matter is discussed further under Peridermium balsameum.

Uredinopsis Osmundae Magn.

I. Aecia unknown.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, on yellowish spots, usually
bounded by veins, small, roundish, dehiscing by central open-
ing, spores exuded in a white filiform column. Urediniospores
oval or fusiform, sometimes clavate, 10-19 by 31-52/x, acute or

358

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA — FRASER.

acuminate above, with a straight or bent beak, usually 8-15*
sometimes obsolete, narrowed below and truncate; wall colour-
less, thin, smooth except for two longitudinal lines of delicate
cilia.

III. Teliospores crowded in and beneath epidermal cells,
globoid, ellipsoid or somewhat irregular, about 20-27/* broad
by 18-32/A high, usually four-celled, sometimes two to many-
celled; wall colourless, thin, smooth.

On Osmunda cinnamomea L., 0. Claytoniana L., Pictou,
Truro, Folleigh Lake, Oakfield; 0. regalis L., Oakfield.

This species is very
common and widely dis-
tributed on Osmunda
cinnamomea and 0. Clay-
toniana. It is usually
conspicuous from the
sharply defined yellow
areas between the veins.
Collections in August and
September show abundant development of both the uredinia
and telia.

Uredinopsis mirabilis (Peck) Magn.

I. Aecia hypophyllous, scattered or somewhat gregarious,
roundish, small; peridium strongly developed. Aeciospores
angularly obovate or polyhedral, 15-20 by 24-36ju; wall colour-
less, medium thick, minutely verrucose.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, scattered on discoloured
areas, usually bounded by the veins, roundish, small, soon
dehiscent by an apical rupture ; peridium delicate. Uredinio-
spores fusiform, ovate-fusiform or clavate, 12-17 by 27-5 5/*,
acuminate above tapering into a beak 3-1 4/x long, wall colour-
less, thin, smooth except two lines of closely set minute spines.

III. Teliospores thickly scattered in the mesophyll of the
leaf, globose or often broader than wide, usually about 22-32/x

Uredinopsis Osmundce,. Two aeciospores. Two
uredinospores. Teliospores, surface view,
cross section.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASEK. 359

broad by 19-25/* high, 2-4 celled; wall colourless, thin,
smooth.

On Onoclea sensibilis L., Pictou, Truro, -Folleigh Lake.

This species is abundant and usually shows a rich develop-
ment of the uredinial stage on its host. The aecia are not
common on my collections. Specimens of July 30 show
abundant uredinia but no teliospores. August and September
collections have well developed teliospores.

Uredinopsis Struthiopteridis Stoerm.

I. Aecia hypophyllous, scattered, roundish, bull ate, pale
yellow, peridium well developed. Aeciospores oblong or ovate,
somewhat angular, 16-20 by 24-35/*; wall colourless, thick,
especially at the angles, minutely verrucose; pedicels hyaline,
usually shorter than spore.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, scattered on yellowish or dis-
coloured areas, roundish, pale yellow, dehiscent by an apical
rupture; peridium delicate. Urediniospores mostly fusiform,
13-17 by 30-40/A, acute or accuminate, with a beak 3-8/* long;
wall colourless, thin, smooth, with two longitudinal serrated
ridges.

III. Teliospores in the mesophyll, abundant, globose,
usually broader than, high, 20-2 7/* broad by 14-22/* high, 2-4
celled wall colourless or slightly yellowish, thin, smooth.

On Onoclea 8truthiopteridis (L.) Hoffmn., New Glasgow,
Folleigh Lake.

Collections at Folleigh Lake on August 31, show all the
stages well developed. The aeciospores in my collections are
distinctly though finely verrucose even when wet.

Uredinopsis Atkinsonii Magn.

I. Aecia hypophyllous, on pale spots, small ; peridium
strongly developed. Aeciospores oval or obovate, angular,
12-20 by 25-43/A, sometimes acute; wall colourless, rather thick,
closely and minutely rugose, appearing smooth when wet.

360 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, scattered on discoloured areas,
roundish, very small, opening by a central aperture, the
spores oozing out in a small column. Urediniospores ovoid or
fusiform, 10-15 by 27-45/A, acute with apex prolonged into a
slender beak, 5-16/* long; walls colourless, thin, smooth except
two longitudinal lines of very minute papillae, only visible
when dry.

III. Teliospores numerous, in the mesophyll of the leaf,
aggregated in the areas occupied by the uredinia, globoid,
15-25 by 22-30/*, 2-4 celled, wall thin, colourless.

On Aspidium Thelypteris (L.) Sw., Pictou, .Oakneld;
Asplenium Filix-femina (L.) Bernh, Pictou.

This rust did not seem very common but was collected in
several places near Pictou, the first collection being on Sep-
tember 11, 1909. My collections show abundant uredinia and
telia but few aecia. It has been reported from Massachusetts
but that seems to be the nearest station. It is probably, how-
ever, not rare.

Uredinopsis Phegopteridis Arth.

I. Aecia unknown.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, scattered on discoloured
nreas bounded by the veins, roundish, small, brownish-yellow.
Urediniospores ovoid or fusiform, 10-16 by 2T-58/*; >acute or
accuminate, prolonged into a long and slender beak, 12-32/x

long; wall colourless, thin, smooth except
two longitudinal lines of minute papillae.

III. Teliospores scattered in the
mesophyll, 2-4 celled, chiefly globoid, 16-25j«
in diameter; wall colourless, thin, smooth.
On Phegopteris Dryopteris (L.) Fee, Pic-
5. Urediniospores of tou, September, 1910.

Uredinopsis

Phegopteridis. The long slender beak of this species

is characteristic. It does not seem to be common. Arthur in
the "North American Flora" records it only from Wisconsin.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. FRASER. 301

CALYPTOSPORA Klihn.

Pycnia rarely seen. Aecia cylindrical, dehiscent at the
apex. Peridium colourless. Aeciospores ellipsoid ; wall
colourless; contents orange. Telia forming continuous layers
of considerable extent, indehiscent. Teliospores 4-celled by a
vertical septa, formed in the epidermal cells.

Only one species is known. The telial stage of it is com-
mon in North America and Europe.

Calyptospora columnaris (Alb. & Schw.) Kiihn.
Calyptospora Geoppertinana Kiihn.

0. Not formed.

1. Aecia hypophyllous, in two rows1, irregular rows on
yellowish areas occupying the whole or part of the leaf,
cylindrical, slender, about 1 mm. in length, dehiscent at apex;
peridium colourless, finely lacerate, cells mostly elongate.
Aeciospores broadly ellipsoid or ellipsoid, 12-18 by 18-25/*;
wall colourless, thin, closely and distinctly verrucose; contents
orange, fading to pale yellow or colourless.

II. Not formed.

III. Telia caulicolous, forming a continuous layer around
the stem, stems much thickened and often elongated, surface
smooth shining reddish-brown, becoming dull. Teliospores in
the epidermal cells, closely pressed together, usually 4-celled,
oblong or somewhat ellipsoid, 12-20 by 22-40^; wall pale
yellowish-brown, smooth, thin, somewhat thickened at the apex.

Aecia on Abies lalsamea (L.) Mill., Pictou, July 14, 1909.

Telia on Vaccinium pennsylvanicum Lam., Pictou, Truro.

The telial stage of this rust is very common about Pictou
on Vaccinium pennsylvanicum; it was not found on V.
canadense.

362

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

K

6. Section of telia of Calyptospora columnaris.
Teliospores in longitudinal and cross section.

The aecial stage has- never been collected elsewhere in North
America. It is probably common but has been overlooked.

The first collec-
tion was on July
14, 1909, and it
was found to
occur rather
sparingly over a
considerable area
during that sum-
mer. In 1910
collections were made first on June 21 and the aecia soon
became common, and in some shaded places were abundant and
rather conspicuous on young trees. It was found rather com-
mon at the Park, Truro, and also at Oakfield, and doubtless
is common throughout the province.

Using material from Pictou, Arthur (Mycologia 2 : 231.
1910) sowed the teliospores of this rust on Abies Fraseri and
the aecial stage developed. European investigators had
previously established their connection. (For cultures by the
writer see Mycol. 4: 177. 1912).

The aecial stage can be easily recognized as the spores are
orange in colour and pycnia are absent, and no other
Peridermium on Abies balsamea has these characters. No
pycnia are formed, which is rare in the case of heteroecious
rusts.

NECIUM Arth.

Cycle of development includes telia and possibly pycnia.
Telia indehiscent, forming continuous layers, more or less
distinguishable as compound sori. Teliospores oblong or
prismatic, apparently one-celled ; wall smooth, slightly coloured.

The description of the genus is based on Arthur's descrip-
tion in the "North American Flora."

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FKASER. 363

Necium Farlowii Arth.
0, I & II. Wanting.

III. Telia amphigenous, mostly hypophyllous, also com-
mon on the young twigs and cones, forming compound raised
sori on the leaves on the twigs and cones, usually a more or less
continuous layer, reddish, waxy. Teliospores in the enlarged
epidermal cells closely appressed, oblong or cylindrical, 7-16
by 35-90/*; wall pale brown, uniformly thin. Basidiospores
spherical, 8-1 1/x in diameter, reddish yellow.

On Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr., Pictou.

The life history of this species was worked out by the
writer (see Mycologia 4:182. 1912). The telia that were
present on the twigs were found germinating on June 14, and
well developed telia were collected on July 5.

The rust was locally abundant in the vicinity of Pictou
during the seasons of 1910-11 and did considerable injury
to the hemlocks. It was not found elsewhere in the province.
It is inconspicuous when occurring on the leaves, but on the
twigs it is quite conspicuous as they become swollen and much
curved and soon bare of leaves. The affected cones in the early
stages of infection are yellow in colour, later they become dark
coloured.

Family 3. CRONARTIACEAE.

Similar to Melampsoraceae but the telia in columnar, fili-
form, wart-like, lens-shaped or cushion-like masses.

MELAMPSOROPSIS (Schroet.) Arth.

Aecia with well developed peridium. Aeciospores with
colourless walls, closely verrucose with deciduous tubercules.
Uredinia with delicate, evanescent peridium, sometimes want-
ing. ITrediniospores formed in chains like aeciospores.
Telia erumpent, naked, wixy becoming velvety. Teliospores
in simple or branched cell-rows.

364 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. FRASER.

Five species are here reported from Nova Scotia. M.
Empetri Schroet on Empetrum nigrum L. has been collected
in New Hampshire and Quebec so that it may be expected to
occur here.

Melampsoropsis Pyrolae (DC) Arth.
Chrysomyxa Pirolae (DC.) Rostr.

0. Pycnia episquamous, numerous, flat, forming continu-
DUS layers, not or slightly elevating the surface, producing
yellowish areas on the scales.

1. Aecia chiefly episquamous, forming bullate swellings,
irregularly round, large, crowded and often confluent, finally
rupturing the epidermis, very pulverulent ; peridium somewhat
convex, soon falling away, cells coarsely tuberculate, resembling
the spores. Aeciospores broadly elliptical or obovoid, variable
in size, 19-30 by 24-45/*; wall colourless, thick, covered with
large, crowded, deciduous lubercules.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, small, circular, about 1 mm.
in diameter, evenly and thickly distributed, usually occupying
the whole under surface of the leaf; peridium delicate, walls
smooth, colourless, thin. Urediniospores elliptical or obovate,
often somewhat angular, 17-22 by 22-SOfi* wall colourless,
distinctly verrucose; contents reddish-orange.

III. Telia hypophyllous, evenly and closely scattered,
Truro; P. elhptica Nutt. Pictou.

The uredinial and telial stages of this rust are very com-
mon near Pictou. In 1910 the uredinia were mature by May
7 and the telia germinating by May 20.

The life history of this species was established by the
writer by cultures in the spring of 1911. (See Mycologia 4:
183. 1912). The aecial stage on the cones- of Picea was com-
inon near Pictou in the season of 1910. It was rather rare
the following year. The infected cones are quite conspicuous.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. FKASER.

Melampsoropsis abietina (Alb. & Schw.) Arth.
Chrysomyxa Ledi De Bary.

0. Pycnia amphigenous, numerous, scattered, yellow,
becoming reddish-brown, punctiform.

1. Aecia hypophyllous, on discoloured areas occupying
part or all of a leaf, somewhat in rows, flattened laterally, low,
dehiscent at apex; peridiurn colourless, lacerate, cells abutted.
Aeciospores chiefly ellipsoid, 16-22 by 19-30/*; wall colourless,
thick, densely and somewhat coarsely tuberculate, tuberculcs
deciduous ; contents orange-red.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, on yellow spots, scattered or
grouped, small, yellowish-red or brownish-yellow, roundish,
about 130fi in diameter; peridium delicate. IJrediniospores
elliptical or subglobose, 13-20 by 18-33/n; wall colourless;
closely and rather finely verrucose, tubercules deciduous; con-
tents orange fading to colourless.

III. Telia hypophyllous, scattered or chiefly grouped on
discoloured areas, small, .1-.3 mm., reddish at first. Telio-
spores oblong or cuboid, 11-19 by 16-30/*, in a series 70-90/u;
wall colourless, thin, smooth ; contents orange-red, fading to
colourless.

Pycnia and aecia on Picea rubra (DuRoi) Dietr., Pictou.

Uredinia and telia on Ledum (jroendlandicum Oeder,
Pictou.

The teliospores of this species were germinating freely in
the summer of 1910 by ihe second week of June, the first col-
lection being on June 10, Aecia were mature by the 17th
of July.

The aecial stage >f this rust, Peridetrmium abietinum
(A. & S.) Arth., has not been recognized elsewhere in North
America, though it wa^ known in Europe on Picea exceha
(Lam.) Link. Cultures were made by the writer in 1910 and
aecia were produced on Picea ruhra from a sowing of the

PBOC. & TRANS. N. S. TNST. Sn., VOL XIT. TRANS. 25.

366 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

germinating teliospores. (Mycologia 3:69. 1911), Field
collections were also made near the rusted Ledum that seemed
without doubt to be connected. These were sent to Dr. Arthur
and were determined by him as Peridermium abietinum. All
stages are very common in the neighbourhood of Pictou.

Melampsoropsis ledicola (Peck) Aith.

Ghrysomyxa ledicola Lagerh.

0. Pycnia amphigenous, numerous, arranged in rows,
prominent, punctiform, honey-yellow, becoming dark reddish-
brown.

1. Aecia hypophyllons, in two rows on yellowish areas,
occupying a part or all of the leaf, much compressed laterally,
erumpent from elongated openings, low, dehiscent at apex,
soon falling away ; peridium colourless, margin lacerate.
Aeciospores broadly ellipsoid or globoid, 20-35 by 20-50/*;
wall colourless, thick, densely and rather coarsely verrucose;
contents orange-red fading to colourless.

II. Uredinia epiphyllous, on reddish-brown spots, round-
ish or oblong-polygonal, early " dehiscing, ruptured r epidermis
evident; peridium delicate. Urediniospores chiefly elliptical
or globoid, 20-32 by 30-45/*; wall thick, colourless, verrucose
with close set, deciduous tubercules; contents orange-red.

III. Telia epiphyllous, chiefly grouped on discoloured
areas, irregular or roundish, small about .2-. 5 mm. in diameter,
ruptured epidermis evident. Teliospores oblong or cuboid,
16-22 by 18-33/x; wall colourless, thin, smooth, in a series
65-100/A long; contents orange-red when fresh.

Pycnia and aecia on Picea canadensis (Mill.) BSP., P.
rubra (DuEoi) Dietr., P. mariana (Mill.) BSP., Pictou,
Truro.

TJredinia and telia on Ledum groenlandicum Oeder, Pictou,
Truro.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FHASEK.

7. Teliospoi-es of Melatnpsoro&is
, ledicola, one germinating,

The connection of the aecial stage, Peridermium decolorans
Pock, and the telial form on Ledum, was shown by cultures

in 1910 by the writer. (See
Mycologia 3 : TO. 1911). The
germinating teliospores of the
rust on Ledum were sown on
Picea canadensis and abundant
pycnia and aecia developed.

The aecial stage is very
abundant about Pictou and
doubtless throughout the prov-
ince. The aecia begin to mature
about the first of July. The
telial stage is also common. The teliospores begin to germinate
about the first of June, and when germinating are quite con-
spicuous. The uredinia Avere rare, only one collection being
made.

The urediniospores and especially the teliospores are much
larger than the measurements given in the "North American
Flora" by Arthur.

Melampsoropsis Cassandrae (Peek & Clinton) Arth.
Chrysomyxa Cassandrae Tranz.

0. Pycnia amphigenous, numerous, scattered, conspicuous,
punctiform, honey-yellow, becoming blackish-brown.

T. Aecia chiefly hypophyllous, in two irregular rows on
yellowish spots occupying part or all of the leaf, flattened
laterally, .5-1.5 mm. long, .5-. 8 mm. high, dehiscent at the
apex; peridium colourless, rather delicate, cells slightly over-
lapping. Aeciospores broadly ellipsoid or globoid, 17-24 by
24-33/A; wall colourless, medium thick, moderately and densely
verrucose.

TT. Uredinia hypophyllous in small groups; peridium
inconspicuous, delicate. Urediniospores catenulate. elliptical,

86,8 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FUASER.

10-11) by 21-30/x; wall colourless, thin, closely and prominently
verrucose with deciduous tubercules; contents orange.

III. Telia hypophyllous, rather small, ruptured epidermis
conspicuous, 130-500/u across, pale orange, inconspicuous.
Teliospores oblong, 16-19 by 16-33/x, in a series 60-1 00/x long;
wall uniformly thin, colourless, smooth, contents orange-red.

Pycnia and aecia on Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP., Pictou.

Uredinia and telia on Chamaedaphne calyculata (L.)
Muench., Pictou.

The teliospores of this rust were germinating by June 13,
and aecia were mature by July 17. The telial stage is fairly
conspicuous when germinating, but rather inconspicuous before
germination.

Cultures by the writer (Mycologia 3:68, 69. 1911) and
field observations showed that Peridermium consimile Arth.
and Kern, is the aecial stage. Clinton (Keport Conn. Agr.
Exper. Sta., pt. 6 :386. 1907) described infection experiments
that led to the same conclusion.

Melampsoropsis Chiogenis (Dietel) Arthur.
Chrysomyxa Chiogenis Deitel.
0 & T. Pycnia and aecia unknown.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, scattered, roundish or irregu-
lar, flat, honey-yellow; peridium delicate, walls thin, smooth.
TJrediniospores catenulate, oblong to linear oblong, 14-21 by
22-40^; wall colourless, coarsely verrucose with somewhat
deciduous tubercules, medium thick ; contents orange-yellow
when fresh.

TIT. Telia hypophyllous, loosely .scattered, round, small,
orange-yellow fading to pale yellow, soon naked, ruptured
epidermis noticeable; teliospores broadly oblong or squarish.
7-10 by 13-lfi/i'ui a series 30-80/u long; wall colourless, smooth,
thin.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTTA. — FRASEK.

On Chiogenis hispidula (L.) T. & G., Pictou, Truro.

The description is based on that of Arthur in the ''N
American Flora." The collections contained only uredinia,
but probably telia developed later. The species seems to be
rather local in its distribution.

!

( 3 KO X A I IT 1 1" M Fries.

Cycle of development includes pycnia, accia and teliu,
heteroecious.

Pycnia broad and flat.

Aecia with membraneous peridium, rupturing at the sides.
Aeciospores coarsely verrucose with deciduous tubercules.

Uredinia with peridium. IJrediniospores boi*ne singly on
pedicels, pores obscure.

Telia erumpent, the catenulate teliospores adhering to
form a long cylindrical or filiform column, horny when dry.
Teliospores one-celled.

Cronartium Comptoniae Arth.

0 & I. On Pinus rigida Mill., P. virginiana Mill., P.
sylvestris L. (Not collected in Nova Scotia).

17. Uredinia hypophyllous, scattered or gregarious, small,
round, dehiscent by a central opening, pulverulent; peridium
with polygonal cells, larger at the top with very thick walls.
Urediniospores oval or obovate, 13-21 by 30-60/>t; Avail colour-
less, thick, sparsely and finely (.'chinulate.

TIT. Telia columns hypophyllous, filiform, about 55-135/*
thick and 1-H mm. long. Teliospores fusiform-oblong, 13-17
by 30-60/A; wall colourless, smooth, thin.

IJredinia and telia on Myrica Gale L., Picton, August 25,
1010.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. FRASER.

This species was found only at
Cole's Pond, near Pictou. A few of
the teliospores were germinating
when collected. It was rather
abundantly developed in a limited
area.

Clinton (Report Conn. Agric.
Exper. Sta. Pt. 6:380. 1907)
sowed the spores of Peridermium
pyriforme Peck on Myrica asplen-
ifolia and the uredinia of this rust

Tefial column of Cronartium basid- , TT , . , . , ,,

ium with basidiospore* appeared. He thinks it probable

that this species is identical with the European Cronartium
asclepiadeum Er.

Family 4. PUCCINIACKAK.

Basidia external, i. e. germinating by a typical pro-
mycelium. Telia usually erumpent, firm or pulverulent.
Teliospores fasicled or free, pedicelled ; wall firm or with outer
gelatinous layer, overlaid by the cuticle.

The great majority of rusts belong to this family. The
teliospores may be one-celled as in Uromyces or two-celled as
in Puccinia or several celled as in Phragmidium.

UHOMYCKS Link.

Nigredo Roussel.

Pycnia immersed in the tissue of the host, globose or sub-
globose with projecting neck. Aecia with evident peridium.
nrially cup-shaped. Aeciospores without distinct germ-pores.
TJrediniospores formed singly on distinct pedicels with several
germ-pores, echinulate or verrucose. Teliospores unicellular,
formed singly on distinct pedicels with a single apical gerrn-
pore. Basidiospores inequilateral, nearly reniform.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 37 1

The one-celled teliospore with a single apical germ-pore
separates this genus from. Puccinia. They are alike in other
respects. Though the teliospores and urediniospores are both
one-celled in Uromyces they may be easily distinguished, as
the urediniospores are always echinulate or verrucose with
several germ-pores, while the teliospores are usually smooth
(sometimes verrucose) with only one apical germ-pore. The
wall of the teliospore is, also, usually thicker.

Arthur divides this genus chiefly into four as follows:

Life cycle with all the spore forms ISTigredo.

Life cycle with pycriia, aecia and telia .... Uromycopsis.
Life cycle with pycnia, uredmia and telia . Klebahnia.

Life cycle with pycnia and telia Telospora.

The genus is a very large one embracing over 500 species.

Uromyces Scirpi Burr.

Nigredo Scirpi (Cast. ') Arth.

0. Pycnia amphigenous, numerous, scattered, incon-
spicuous.

1. Aecia amphigenous, gregarious, on discoloured spots,
short cylindrical ; peridium pale yellowish, the margin lacerate,
recurved. Aeciospores globoid or broadly ellipsoid, 16-21 by
18-24/A; wall colourless, thin, minutely verrucose.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, elongate, remaining covered
for some time by the epidermis. Urediniospores mostly
ellipsoid, 16-23 by 22-40/*; wall light brown, sparingly
echinulate, pores 3 or 4, equatorial.

III. Telia amphigenous, oblong or linear, long covered
by epidermis, compact, brownish-black. Teliospores fusoid or
clavate ellipsoid, 17-22 by 33-46jM, rounded at the apex, some-
times conical; wall light brown, thickened at the apex to 8/*;
pedicel firm, hyaline, or light brown, equalling or longer than
the spore.

37*2

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA.— ERASER.

Pycnia and aecia on Cicuta maculata L. Not collected in
Nova Scotia, but obtained from cultures by the writer. (See
Mycologia4:l78. 1912).

Uredinia and telia on Scirpus campestris Var. paludosus
(A. Nelson) Feriiald. S. validus Vahl., Pictou.

Arthur has shown by cultures that aecial stage is on Cicuta
culata (Arthur, Jour. Mycol. 13:199. 1907). European

investigators have
shown that this
species produces aecia
on a number of differ-
ent hosts. Arthur in
the "North American
Flora" lists eollec-

Teliospores of Uramyces Seirpi. tionS °f aeda Qn

Cicuta bulbifera L.,

Oenanthe calif ornica S. Wats., Slum cicutae folium Schrank,
and Glaux maritime L. as belonging to this species as well as
the aecia on Cicuta maculata.

The description is from the collection on Scirpus campes-
tris Var. paludosus. The uredinia and urediniospores are
similar on Scirpus validus except that the uredinia remain
covered in the. latter. The telia on Scirpus validus are placed
immediately beneath the stomata embedded in the tissues; they
.are small, numerous, and do not break through the epidermis.
The teliospores are sometimes as long as 70/* and somewhat
irregular in shape, probably due to the pressure of the strong
epidermis. The pedicel is very short or obsolete.

Uromyces perigynius Halsted.
Uromyces Solidagini-Caricis Arth.
Nigredo perigynia (Halsted) Arth.

0. Pycnia epiphyllous, sometimes amphigenous, grouped
on yellow spots, honey-yellow.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA.-— FRASER. 378

I. - Aecia hypophyllous, often circinate; peridium pale,
low, cylindrical, margin revolute, lacerate. Aeciospores
globoid, about 15-16/u; wall colourless.

IT. Uredinia hypophyllous, small, oval, up to -J mm. in
length, ruptured epidermis evident, ferruginous, pulverulent.
Urediniospores oval or obovate, 13-18 by 19-25/*; wall medium
thick, pale brown, finely echinulate, two equatorial germ pores.

III. Telia hypophyllous, oblong or linear, pulvinate,
firm, soon naked, dark chestnut-brown or black. Teliospores
obovate, rounded or obtuse above, narrowed Mow, 14-22 by
24-35ft; wall smooth, thin, light brown, much thickened at
the apex, 6-1 2/x; pedicel slender, tinted, as long as the spore or
longer.

Aecia on Solidago bicolor L. and other species of Solidago,
Pictou and vicinity.

Telia and uredinia on Car ex deflexa Hornem., C. flava L.?
C. intumescens Rudge. 0. novae-angliae Schwein., 0. tribu-
loides Wahlenb. and Var. reducta Bailey, 0. scoparia Schkuhr.,
Pictou and surrounding districts.

This species also has aecia on Aster. (See Arthur,
Mycologia 4:21. 1912).

The writer by cultures (Mycologia 4:18.1. 1912) showed
that this rust has aecia on Solidago species. Arthur had pre-
viously established this connection.

It seems probable that there is only one species of
Uromyces rust on the sedges in this vicinity, that is, all belong
to this species. It is very common on Car ex scoparia.

Uromyces Poae Hab.
Nigredo Poae (Rab.) Arth.

0. Pycnia amphigenous, mostly crowded on spots bearing
aeci a . hoi1 ey-yellow.

374 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — -PHASER.

I. Aecia mostly hypophyllous, also epiphyllous and petio-
licolous, crowded in small groups on discoloured often
depressed areas, low, small; peridium lacerate. Aeciospores
yellow, becoming colourless, subglobose or polygonal, 16-24/A;
wall colourless, finely verrucose.

II. Uredinia hypopHyllous, linear, long covered by the
upidermis, 1 mm. or less in length. Urediniospores globose or
elliptical, 16-29 by 19-24/A; wall pale brown, rather thin, finely
echinulate.

III. Telia hypophyllous, small, black or dark brown,
mostly oval or linear, long covered by the epidermis. Telio-
spores variable in form, obovate, broadly clavate or oval, 16-23
by 23-33/ti; wall brown, smooth, scarcely thickened at the apex;
pedicel brown, much shorter than the spore, persistent.

Pycnia and aecia on Ranunculus repens L., Pictou, May
25, 1910.

Uredinia and telia on Poa trivialis L., Pictou, July 17,
1910.

This is an European species of which neither aecial nor
telial stage has been previously reported from North America.
It was collected in only one place. The aecia were collected
in the spring, and in July the other stages were found to be
common on Poa that grew near.

Uromyces Peckianus Farl.
Nigredo Peckiana (Farl.) Arth.

0. Pycnia amphigenous, usually in small groups sur-
rounded by the aecia.

1. Aecia amphigenous, on rounded spots, circulating,
bright orange, long cylindrical, lacerate. Aeciospores angular
globose or ellipsoid, about 16-22/*; wall nearly colourless,
medium thick, contents orange, fading to pale yellow.

THE RUSTS OK NOVA SCOTIA.— FRASER.

376

II. Uredinia epiphyllous, scattered or in lines, oblong, or
linear, ochraeeous-brown, pulverulent, surrounded by the
ruptured epidermis. Urediniospores mostly globose, 19-24/*;
wall yellowish-brown, thick, about 2^, finely and densely
yerrucose.

III. Telia mostly epiphyllous, sometimes hypophyllou*
scattered, often confluent, abundant, rounded oblong or linear,
often 1 cm. or more in length, pulvinate, dark brown or black.
Teliospores globose, subglobose, obovate or elliptical, 13-22 by
19-40/u; wall dark brown, smooth, thickened at the apex;
pedicel hyaline, much longer than spore ; a few two-celled spores
present.

Pycnia and aecia on Atriplex patula L., A. patula Var.
hastala (L.) Gray, Pictou,' May 21, 1910. (Chenopodium
album L., shown by cultures, not collected).

Uredinia and telia on Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene.
The life history of this rust was made out by the writer by
cultures during the spring of 1910 (Mycologia 3: 72-74. 1911).

Sowings of the teliospores were
were successful on Chenopodium
album and Atriplex patula Var.
hasiata. Collections of aecia were
made on Salicornia europea L. and
Suedia maritima which probably
also belong to this rust. They were
collected beside the rusted Distichlis
and were morphological1 y similar ta
the aecia on Atriplex.

Infection experiments by Arthur
(Jour. Mycol. 1:234. 1909) showed
that Puccinm subnitens Diet, on Distichlis spicata has
aecia on Chenopodium, Atriplex and other plants. The aecia
of both rusts are similar and cannot be separated easily. These
facts suggest the possibility that the rusts were once identical

Uromyces Peckianus. Four telios-
pores, two urediniospores.

376 THE BUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA — FRASER.

and that the Puccinia hr;.s in course of time developed from
the Uromyces. The urediniospores are also alike and a few
mesospores are present in the Uromyces, which would tend to
strengthen the supposition.

Uromyces Spartinae Farl.
Uromyces acuminatus Arth.
Nigredo Polemonii (Peck.) Arth.

0. Pycnia chiefly epiphyllous, gregarious, in small groups,
not conspicuous, punctiform, honey-yellow, becoming brownish.

1. Aecia chiefly hypophyllous, gregarious, more or less
crowded in groups on slightly discoloured spots, cupulate or
cylindrical, margin lacerate, slightly recurved. Aeciospores.
subgloboid, 15-24 by 18-27/*; wall colourless, rather thin,
evenly and finely verrucose.

II. ITredinia epiphyllous, intercostal., linear, soon naked,
ruptured epidermis evident, yellowish-brown, not incon-
spicuous. Urediniospores globose or broadly elliptical, large,
22-32/A in diameter, a few 25 by 35/A; wall- thick when
immature, becoming thinner, yellowish, rather sparsely
echinulate, pores large, scattered.

III. Telia similar to the uredinia but blackish-brown and
more conspicuous; teliospores obovate or oblong-clavate, 15-22
by 22-42/i ; wall dark brown, apex darker and thickened, 6-10/s
usually rounded or acuminate above, base narrowed; pedicel
slightly coloured, firm, usually longer than the spore, often twice
its length.

Pycnia and aecia on Arenaria later flora L., SperguJarm
canadensis (Pers.) Don.. Pictou.

Uredinia and telia on Spartina patens (Ait.) Muhl., $,
ylabra Var. atternifolia . (Loisel) Merr., S.
Hitcho... Pictou.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA.— ERASER. ^77

This species is composed of distinct races. In this vicinity
the form on S. patens infects Spergularia, that on S. Michaux-
iana and S. glabra alterniflora infects Arenaria. This- has
been shown by cultures of the writer. (Mycologia 4:186.
1912). In the interior of North America the form on S.
Michauxiana infects Polemonium and another form on the
^ame host infects 8teironema. This has been shown by cultural
experiments by Arthur (Jour. Mycol. 12:24. 1906).

Uromyces Silphii (Svd.) Arth.
Uromyces Junci-tenuis Syd.
Nigredo Silphii (Desmaz.) Arth.

0. Pycnia chiefly epiphyllous, in small- groups, golden-
brown.

1. Aecia amphigenous, in groups 4-10 mm. across,
crowded about the pycnia on discoloured spots; peridium
colourless, margin recurved, lacerate. Aeciospores angularly
tfloboid, small, 13-18/u; wall colourless, thin, minutely
verrucose.

II. ITredinia amphigeiious, scattered, roundish or some-
what elongated, small, tardily naked, dark cinnamon-brown,
ruptured epidermis not conspicuous. Urediniospores broadly
ellipsoid .or sometimes obovate, 13-19 by 15-23/*; wall golden
yellow, sparsely and bluntly echinulate, pores 5 or 6, scattered.

III. Telia amphigenous, scattered, roundish or somewhat
elongated, small, tardily naked, firm, somewhat pulvinate,
blackish-brown, ruptured epidermis noticeable. Teliospores
angularly obovate, rounded, truncate or occasionally pointed
above, usually narrowed below, 12-19 by 26^35/A; wall chestnut-
brown, much thickened above, T-10/x, smooth; pedicel light-
chestnut brown, one to one and a half times the length of the
spore.

378 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOHA. FKASER.

Aecia on Silphium integre folium Mich,, 8. teribinthin-
aceum Jacq., 8. perfoliatum L., S. laciniatum L. (Not col-
lector! in N. S.)

Uredinia and telia on Juncus tennis Wild., Picton and
vicinity.

The collections of this rust were so badly parasitized that
the description is largely based on Arthur's original descrip-
tion (Jour. Mycol. 13: 202.
1907). The aecial hosts are not
found in Nova Scotia. The rust
is common.

The rust has generally passed
as Uromyces Junci (Desm.) Tul.
Arthur (1. c.) showed by cultures

Teliosporesof Uromyce* Silpkii. that tne ' aecial Stage is OH

Silphium and separated the rust. The European Uromyces
Junci has its aecia on Pulicaria dysinterica. A rust not
morphologically distinct is found in western North America
and has passed under the name of Uromyces Junci though no
cultures have been made to determine its aecial stage.

Uromyces effusus Arth.

Uromyces Junci-effusi Syd.
Nigredo Junci-effusi (Syd.) Arth.
0 & I. Pycnia and aecia unknown.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, scattered, oblong or linear,
tardily naked, dark cinnamon-brown, ruptured epidermis
evident. Urediniospores broadly ellipsoid or oval, 14-19 by
18-26/K; wall light yellow, sparingly and bluntly echinul ate,
pores 4, equatorial.

III. Telia amphigenous, numerous, scattered or collected
in groups about stem, oblong or linear, sometimes confluent,
ruptured epidermis conspicuous. Teliospores obovate or oval,

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 879

12-17 by 20-30M, rounded, obtuse or acute at apex, mostly
narrowed below; wall light chestnut-brown, thickened at apex,
5-10/A, smooth; pedicel yellowish, persistent, about the length
of the spore.

On Juncus filiformis L., Pictou.

Nothing is known of the aecial stage of this rust. It was
found in only one place, and, though careful watch was kept
for two seasons in the neighbourhood, no aecia appeared except
those that have already been connected.

This collection adds a new host, as all previous collections
were on Juncus effusus L.

This species is found throughout the eastern United States
on Juncus effusus L. It has passed under the name U. Junci
(Desm.) Tul., but Arthur (Jour. Myc. 13: 192. 1907) shows
that it is morphologically distinct, especially as the uredinio-
spores are echinulate and four-pored instead of verrucose and
two-pored, as in U. Junci. He gives the following key to
separate the three common species of Uromyces on Juncus:

Urediniospores verrucose, pores 2, equatorial — U. Junci.
(Desm.) Tul.

Urediniospores echinulate, pores 4, equatorial — U. effusus
Arth.

Urediniospores echinulate, pores 5-6, scattered — U. Silphii
(Syd.) Arth.

Uromyces Polygon! (Pers.) Fuck.
Nigredo Polygoni (Pers.) Arth.

0. Pycnia yellow to honey-colour, in small groups.

1. Aecia mostly hypophyllous, crowded in roundish
groups, peridium rather low, with broad, whitish, torn edges.
Aeciospores subglobose, 16-18/*, pale yellow to orange,
verrucose.

,SSO THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. FRASER.

IT. TJredinia amphigenous, mostly hypophyllous, rounded
or oval, pulverulent, surrounded by the ruptured epidermis.
Urediniospores ellipsoid or obovate, 10-20 by 21-27/*; wall
yellowish, very finely and densely echinulate, pores 2, lateral.

111. Telia scattered, roundish on leaves, abundant and
elongated on the stem, pulvinate, blackish. Teliospores globose
or subglobose, 19-24 by 24-38/x. rounded or pointed above, wall
chestnut-brown, apex thickened up to 7/*,' smooth; pedicels
tinted, persistent, firm, long, usually much longer than the
spore.

On I'olygonuni aviculare L., Pictou, Truro.

This is a cosmopolitan species, and is probably common.
The collections were made in the fall, so no aecia were present.
The teliospores are not formed till late summer.

Uromyces Arisaemae Oke.
Uromyces Caladii Farl.
Nigredo Caladii (Schw.) Arth.

0. Pycnia hypbphyllous, scattered.

1. Aecia hypophllous or petiolicolous, scattered, abundant,
low, margin erose. Aeciospores subglobose or ellipsoid, often
angular, 18-24 by 22-2 5/x, verrucose.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, scattered, rounded or oblong,
often covered by the epidermis, frequently confluent. Uredinio-
spores pear-shaped, base truncate, 15-21 by 25-32/x, conspicu-
ously echinulate.

III. Telia amphigenous, mostly epiphyllous. abundant,
scattered, rounded or oblong, long covered by the conspicuous
epidermis, sometimes confluent, somewhat pulverulent, brown.
Teliospores oval, subglobose or ovate, 19-27 by 27-40ju; wall
light yellowish -brown, uniform in thickness, with a small,
hyaline, apical papilla, (cometimes more than one), pedicel
hyaline, fragile, deciduous, about the length of the spore.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 381

On Arisaema triphyllum (L.) Schott., Pictou, Truro.

This species is doubtless common. Collections made
throughout the summer show no uredinia and only a few
urediniospores mixed with the teliospores.

Uromyces Limonii (DC.) Lev.
Nigredo Limonii (DC.) Arth.

0. Pycnia amphigenous mostly hypophyllous, accompany-
ing the aecia, numerous, brown.

1. Aecia amphigenous, in circular groups on brown or
reddish spots, peridium short, cylindrical, margin whitish,
lacerate. Aeciospores angular-globose or ellipsoid, 18-26 by
21-32/A, yellowish, finely verrucose.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, scattered, mostly rounded 011
the leaves, oblong on the stem, long covered by the epidermis,
at length naked, pulverulent, cinnamon-coloured. Uredinio-
.spores globose, subglobose or ovate, 20-28 by 22-32/A, yellowish-
brown, densely verrucose, 2-3 pores.

III. Telia amphigenous, scattered or in circular groups,
mostly rounded on the leaves, oblong 011 the stem, long
covered by the epidermis, at length naked, surrounded by the
ruptured epidermis, pulvinate, brownish-black or black. Telio-
spores subglobose, mostly clavate or oblong, sometimes angled
and irregular, 19-27 by 27-44/x, apex rounded or conical, base
narrowed ; wall brown, thickened at apex up to 8p, smooth ;
pedicel persistent, tinted, usually longer than spore.

On Limonium carolinianum (Walt.) Britton, Pictou, Sep-
tember, 1909.

The collections on this plant showed an abundant develop-
ment of aecia and telia, but no uredinia.. The first collection
of mature aecia was on June 10, 1910.

TROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci. VOL. XTI. TRANS 26

382 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

Uromyces Fabae (Pers.) De Bary.
Nigredo Fabae (Pers.) Arth.

0. Pycnia hypophyllous, scattered among the aecia.

1. Aecia hypophyllous, on yellow spots, solitary or in
rounded or elongated groups; peridium short, cup-shaped,
margin incised, revolute, whitish. Aeciospores angular globose
or ellipsoid, 12-14/u in diameter, yellowish, finely and densely
verrucose.

II. TJredinia amphigenous, mostly scattered, circular on
the leaves, elongated on the stem, small, pulverulent, light
brown, surrounded by the ruptured epidermis. Urediniospores
mostly ellipsoid or ovate, 18-21 by 23-30/*; wall yellowish,
becoming light brown, sparingly echinulate, usually 3 some-
times 4 pores.

III. Telia amphigenous, rounded on the leaves, elongate
and more abundant on the stem, pulvinate, dark brown to
blackish-brown. Teliospores obovate, clavate or subglobose,
17-24 by 22-43/x, rounded or conical, sometimes truncate
•al>6ve;; wall brown, thickened at apex up to 10/*, smooth;
pedicel persistent, thickened, coloured, equalling or longer than
spore.

On Vicia cracca L., Pictou.

This species, is found on several genera of the Leguminosae.
It was collected on only one species, and seemed to be common
on that host. On some host plants aecia are abundantly pro-
duced, on others they do not seem to occur. . It may be that
Vicia cracca belongs to the latter class as no aecia were found.

Uromyces Trifolii (Hedw. F.) Lev.
Nigrego fallens (Desmaz.) Arth.
0 & I. Pycnia and aecia unknown.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA.— FRASER. 3'8&

II-. Uredinia hypophyllous or petiolioolous, 'mostly
scattered, small, sometimes confluent, pulverulent, soon nakedr
surrounded by the ruptured epidermis, light brown. Uredinio-
spores globose, subglobose or ellipsoid, 22-27 by 23-30/*; wall
about 2fi thick, yellowish-brown, sparingly echinulate, pores
5-7.

. III. Telia mostly caulicolous, oblong or rounded, some-
times confluent, covered for some time by the epidermis, at
length naked, pulverulent, dark brown. Teliospores globose,
subglobose, elliptical or oblong, 19-24 by 22-32/A, rounded at
the apex, with a small apical papilla at the germ-pore; wall
bright brown, smooth (sometimes very finely verrucose) ;
pedicel hyaline, slender, deciduous, about the length of the-
spore.

On Tri folium pratense L., Pictou.

The uredinal stage of this rust is very common on clover,
and must cause a considerable amount of injury. ~No aecial
stage is known.

Uromyces Trifolii=repentis Liro.
Nigredo Trifolii (Hedw. F.) Arth.

0. Pycnia chiefly epiphyllous, in small groups or spread
over larger areas, not conspicious.

1. Aecia amphigenous, in roundish groups, or on the veins
and petioles in elongate groups, short cupulate ; peridium white
erect, or slightly recurved, finely erose, Aeciospores broadly
ellipsoid or somewhat angular, 15-17 by 16-2 I/A; wall light
yellow or nearly colourless, thin, finely verrucose.

IT. Uredinia similar to U. Trifolii, but there are 3 or 4
equatorial germ pores, instead of 4-6 scattered ones.

384 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASEH.

III. Telia similar to those of U. Trifolii.

On T. liybridum L., Pictou.

This species differs from the more common rust on rcJ
clover hy the presence of aecia on the same host as the uredinia
and telia, also hy the different number of germ pores in the
urediniospores. It is also found on Tri folium repens L.

The aecial stage was not collected. The description given
is based on that in the "North American Flora."

Uromyces Hyperici-frondosi (Schw.) Arth.
Nigredo Hyperici-frondosi (Schw.) Arth.
Uromyces Hyperici Curt.

0. Pycnia mostly hypophyllous; accompanying the aecia,
subepidermal, somewhat globose, about 140j* in diameter,
becoming blackish.

1. Aecia hypophyllous and caulicolous, on orbicular
yellow or purple spots 2-4 mm. in diameter, in small rounded
groups on leaves, larger groups on the stem and "leaf veins,
cup-shaped, margin revolute, incised. Aeciospores angularly
globose, 16-22/u in diameter, finely verrucose.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, scattered, sparingly developed,
small, rounded, yellowish-brown. Urediniospores globose, sub-
globose or ellipsoid, 15-20 by 18-27/x; wall light brown, finely
ochinulate. *

III. Telia hypophyllous or caulicolous, sometimes on pur-
plish spots, small and rounded on leaves, larger and elongated
and in groups on the stem, sometimes confluent, pulvinate,
blackish-brown or black. Teliospores subglobose ovate or
oblong, mostly ovate, 16-19 by 19-33/u, apex mostly rounded;
wall pale brown or dark brown, thickened at the apex up to 9/*r

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA, — FRASER. 385

smooth ; pedicel hyaline or coloured above, equalling or exceed-
ing spore, fragile.

On Hypericum virginicum L., Pictou; H. canadense L.,
Pictou; II. ellipticum Hook., Pictou, Folleigh Lake.

This species is very common on the genus Hypericum in
the vicinity of Pictou. The teliospores on //. ellipticum show
a much less thickened apex than on the other host plants.

*••', . . -

PHRAGMIDIUM Link.

Aecia of the caeoma type without peridium, but surrounded
by a dense crown of paraphyses. Aeciospores with numerous
germ-pores, scattered; wall colourless. Uredinia also sur-
rounded by paraphyses. Urediniospores singly not in chains,
with numerous germ-pores. Teliospores three or more celled
in a vertical row (rarely two celled), usually several germ-
pores in each cell.

This genus occurs only on the rose family. Dietel
(Hedwigia 44:344. 1905) records 46 species, of these 17 are
found in North America and four are here reported from Nova
Scotia. Arthur has added a new species from the western
United States. (Torreya 9:24. 1909).

,. V . ' J f

Phragmidium americanum Diet.

0, I & II. Pycnia, aecia and telia not collected. All are
formed.

III. Telia hypophyllous, on reddish-brown, small, irregu-
lar spots, mostly scattered, small, black, readily detachable.
Teliospores oblong, 46-86 by 24-26/x, obtuse at the apex with
colourless apiculus, mostly \ 7-10 celled;- wall dark brown or
almost black, verrucose; pedicel longer than the spore, hyaline,
swelling in water at base.

On Rosa species, Pictou, New Glasgow.

386

THE RtJSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

This species was for some time confused with Phr.
subcorticium (Schrnk) Wint. (Phr. mucronatum Lk.). Peck
first called attention to a variation in the
number of cells. He states that "American
specimens generally have the spores more
opaque and with two or more septa than
the typical form. This variant form
might be called Var. americanum/' (N.
Y. State Mus. Kep, 28: 86). ' Dietel raised
the variety to specific rank under the
name of Phr. americanum.

According to Arthur Phr. americanum
inhabits the north-eastern region of North
America along the Atlantic coast from
Maryland northward and north of the
great lakes, chiefly on Rosa blanda, R.
lucida, R. Sayi and certain cultivated

Tqliospores of Phragmid- . . , . , ,. . /rr,

ium americanum. varieties derived from these (Torreya
9:27. 1909).

It seems to be common on the roses in this vicinity. Col-
lections of another stage of the rust were made but they were
lost in drying. The collection reported in Dr. MacKay's
Fungi of K S. (Trans. K S. Inst. of Science 12:124) as
Phr. subcorticium belongs here.

Phragmidium imitans Arth.

Phragmidium gracile Arth.

0. Pycnia not observed.

1. Aecia rounded, small, scattered, epiphyllous, soon
naked, yellowish. Aeciospores rounded, oblong, elliptical or
oval, 16-24 by 12-29/*; wall unequally thickened, echinulate;
paraphyses slender, long, clavate, hyaline, incurved.

II. IJredinia hypophyllous, scattered, small, rounded.
Urediniospores elliptical or obovate, 12-16 by 20-24/x; wall
rather thick, colourless, echinulate ; paraphyses slender, clavate,
thin-walled, hyaline, about 13-22 by 55-80^, incurved.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

387

III. Telia hypophyllous, scattered, or somewhat grouped,
tsmall. Teliospores cylindrical, dark .brown, 5-10 celled,
rounded above with a hyaline apiculus 5-1 (V, 26-31 by
75-127/A, verrucose; pedicel hyaline, tinted above, equal to or
longer than the spore.

On Eubus idaeus VB.Y. aculaetissimus (C. A. Mey) Regel
& Tiling, Oakfield, August 13, 1910.

The description of the aecia is based on that given by
Saccardo.

Phragmidium imitans is a common species throughout
northern North America. However, it does not seem to be
common in Nova Scotia as only one collection was made.

Phragmidium Potentillae=canadensis Diet.
Kuehneola obtusa, (Strauss) Arth.
0. Pycnia epiphyllous in small crowded groups.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, on reddish spots, orange-red,
roundish, scattered or gregarious, pulverulent, surrounded by
clavate paraphyses. Urediniospores globose, elliptical or ovate,
13-18 by 16-22/*, echinulate.

III. Telia hypophyllous, small, orbicular, scattered,
brown, pulverulent, soon naked. Teliospores oblong, 21-24 by

46-8 5/t*, sometimes curved, mostly
3-4 septate, somewhat constricted
at the septum, usually obtuse at
the apex, (wall of lower cell often
hyaline), smooth; pedicel even,
colourless, usually about the
length of the spore.

On Potentilla canadensis L.,
Pictou, New Glasgow.

A very common rust. The
uredinia and telia are usually
parasitized by Darluca filum.

Teliospores of Phragmidium
Potentillae— canadensis.

388 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. FRASER.

Arthur in the "North American Flora" places this species
in the genus Kuehneola on account of the absence of the aecia.

Phragmidium speciosum Fr.

Jtiarlia speciosa (Fr.) Arth.

0. Pycnia mostly hypophyllous, in groups opposite aecia.

1. Aecia hypophyllous, petiolicolous or caulicolous, some-
times epiphyllous, often developing on the fruit, solitary or in
irregular groups, small or occupying considerable areas, up to
1 cm. long on the stem, orange ; paraphyses mostly oblong or
•clavate, usually 8-15 by 40-5 0/x. Aeciospores globose, sub-
globose or ellipsoid, 20-25 by 22-35/*; wall pale yellowish,
verrucose, contents orange.

II. Uredinia wanting.

III. Telia caulicolous or especially fruiticolous, produc-
ing swellings on stem and pedicels, large, sometimes 2x1 cm.
compact, black. Teliospores cylindrical, sometimes somewhat
ellipsoid, 29-33 by 60-1 15/u, usually rounded below, slightly
narrowed above, cells 3-9, apex with sub-hyaline papilla; wall
brown to black, about 4/u thick ; pedicel hyaline or tinted above,
very long, 8-10 times the length of the spore or longer, not
swelling in water.

On Rosa (species not determined), Pictou.

This rust is very common on the wild roses about Pictou.
It attacks especially the pedicels and the fruit, the affected
fruit remaining green and not changing to the normal red
colour.

It occurs upon any and all species of roses and is widely
distributed in the United States and Canada. Arthur places
this species in the genus Earlia, as it differs from the true
members of the genus PJiragmidium in the gelatinous pedicels
of the teliospores, the large compact telia on the stems and
the absence of uredinia.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 389

KUEHNEOL.V Magnus.

Like Phragmidium but teleutospores colourless, germ-pore
under cross wall, and spores germinating when mature.

Kuehneola albida Masm.

o

Kuehneola Uredinis (Link) Arthur.

0. Pycnia epiphyllous, in small crowded groups on
reddened spots.

1. Aecia wanting.

II. IJredinia mostly hypophyllous, pulverulent, orange-
yellow; paraphyses wanting. Urediniospores usually ellipsoid,
about 15-20 by 20-27/n ; wall colourless, moderately thin, closely
\ errucose-echinulate.

III. Telia hypophyllous, scattered, irregularly roundish,
early naked, pulvinate, velvety, yellowish or pure white,
ruptured epidermis inconspicuous. Teliospores cylindrical or
cylindrical clavate, 18-24 by 85-110/*, irregularly flattened or
coronate above, narrowed below, 5-13 celled, usually 5-6 celled,
each cell about 20 by 25/*, trapezodial and articulated to the
cell above by a projection containing the pore; wall colourless,
thin, the apical thicker above, the other cells thickened above
uniformly or only at the lateral projections, smooth or slightly
roughened at apex; pedicel colourless, terete, very short, often
seemingly wanting.

On Rubus Jiispidus L., Pictou.

The description is based on that of Arthur in the "North
American Mora." The rust does not seem to be common as
it was collected only in one place but occurred there quite
abundantly on its host.

TRIPHRAGMIUM Link.

Teliospores of three cells united in the form of a triangler
a basal cell supporting two others alongside of each other.-

390 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA.— FRASER.

Triphragmium clavellosum Berk.
Nyssopsora clavellosa (Berk) Arthur.
0. Pycnia unknown, possibly not formed.
I & II. Aecia and telia wanting.

III. Telia epiphyllous, rarely on stems, on circulai
yellowish spots about 4 mm. in diameter which may become
purplish, crowded, often circinate, sometimes confluent, small,

mostly circular, about .3-.4 mm. in
diameter, sometimes elongate, sur-
rounded by the ruptured epidermis,
„ . pulverulent, black. Teliospores

./ If three-celled, somewhat triangular or

truncate-obovate, about 27-33/*; wall
dark brown, with bent spines up to
HA*, tips forking and recurved;
of Triphragmium pedicel hyaline, exceeding the spore.

clavellosum.

On AralM nudicamis L., Pictou,
"New Glasgow.

The large black groups of telia, which are sometimes very
abundant on the upper surface of the leaves make this a very
conspicuous rust.

GYMXOSPOUANGIUM Hertw, F.

Aecia with well developed peridium dehiscing by longi-
tudinal slits. Teliospores two-celled (rarely 3-5-celled),
embedded in a gelatinous matrix, germ-pores usually more than
one in a cell and lateral. Uredinia unknown.

The telial stage of the species of this genus as far as is
known infest the Cupresseae, the majority of the species
occurring on Juniperus. The aecial stage occurs on the tribe
Pomeae of the family Rosaceae. The only exception to this is
Gymnosporangium externum Arth. & Kern, in which the aecial
>tage is found on GiUenia stipulaceae (Mycologia 1 :253. 1909).

THE RUbTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 391

Th'e name Roestelia has been applied to the aecial stage of
^he Gymnosporangium rusts. Usually the peridium dehisces
by longitudinal slits, and thus soon becomes fimbriate and
revolute. Some species have their aecial stage on the apple
and often cause serious damage. No uredinial stage is known.
This is remarkable as all other heteroecious rusts possess all
the spore forms.

The genus is characterized .by the teliospores having long-
hyaline pedicels which swell in moisture and form a jelly-like
matrix in which the spores are embedded. This yellowish,
jelly-like material is often very conspicuous during wet
weather in spring and early summer. The telial mycelium is
perennial, the teliospores being produced in spring and germin-
ating immediately. Thie- aecial stage develops slowly but dies
during the summer. In many species the perennial myceliuni
produces distortions on the branches which are sometimes
globular in shape. This has given the fungus the name of the
^Cedar Apple Fungus."

GYMNOSPORAXGIUM Sp.

A roestelia on the fruit of Amelanchier was collected at
Walton, Lunenburg Co., by Miss Clara A. Corkum. (I am
indebted to Prof. H. W. Smith of Tru.ro for the specimens).
It is doubtless the aecial stage of one of the species of
Gymnosporangium, probably either G. clavariae forme (Jacq.)
1). C. or G. germinale (Schw.) Kern (G. clavipes C. & P.).
Both of these species may have their aecial stage on the fruit
of Amelanchier and the telial stage on Juniperus nana Willd.

MacKay (Trans, K S. Inst Science 11:141, 1904)
records Roestelia lacerata on the authority of Dr. John Somera
and Prof. G. Lawson. This is the aecial stage of G. clavariae-
forme. It is widely distributed in North America.

MacKay also records on the authority of Prof. G. Lawson
G. juniperi Link, from Halifax Co., but gives no host. It may
t>e, as the Roestelia and Gym,nosporangium were collected at

THE BUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASEK.

the same place, that they were forms of the same species. The
connection of the different forms was not well known, nor the
nomenclature settled at the time of Prof. Lawson's collection-
It may be that both collections belong to G. clavariaeforme.

GYMNOCONIA Lagerh,

Aecidia without peridium or enveloping paraphyses,.
dehiscing irregularly. Teliospores two-celled.

Only one species is known. Tt is found in North America <
and Europe.

Gymnoconia interstitialis (Schlect.) Lagerh.

0. Pycnia epiphyllous.

L Aeeia hypophyllous, occupying the whole surface of
the leaf, large, irregular; peridium absent, epidermis ruptur-
ing irregularly, bright orange at first, appearing waxy.
Aeciospores subglobose, elliptical or oblong, 15-27 by 25-40/*;
wall thin, finely verrucose ; contents orange, fading to colourless.

II. IJredinia wanting.

III. Telia hypophyllous, scattered, on irregular or
brownish areas, very small, pulverulent, blackish-brown.
Telibspores variable, often irregular, upper cell usually
triangular, lower quadrangular or irregular; wall rather thin,
uniform with papillae at germ-pores, smooth, chestnut-brown;,
pedicel hyaline, very slender, short, deciduous.

On Eubus glandicaulis Blanchard, Pictou, Truro.

This fungus is common on the species of blackberry named'
above. It was not collected on the more common large black-
berry which has passed under the
name of Rubus villosus. One collec-
tion of the aecial sta°;e was parasi-
tized by a species of Tiiberculina.
Teliospores of Gymnoconia In the United States this rust

interstitialis, , , , . , ,

attacks the cultivated raspberries and

blackberries and is known as the "orar.ire rust." It does not
seem to be troublesome in Nova Scotia.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FKASER. 398

The mycelium is perennial and thus the fungus can be
^successfully combatted only by destroying the infected plants.

PUCCINIA Pers.

Pycnia mostly subepidermal, sub-globose or flask-shaped,
lioney-coloured. Pycniospores very minute, globose or ellip-
•soid, hyaline.

Aecia mostly with well developed peridium, at first globose
:and closed, at length open, usually cup-shaped or cylindrical.
Aeciospores arising in serial order, soon free, globose, sub-
globose or angular, hyaline, yellow or orange.

Uredina generally small, sometimes paraphysate. Uredinio-
spores formed singly, usually with two or more germ pores,
rarely one.

Telia variable in size, flattened or pulvinate, sometimes
paraphysate. Teliospores free, on pedicels, two-celled ( some-
times with one-celled spores mixed, rarely three-celled), one
.germ-pore in each cell. Basidiospores ovoid or reniform,
mostly hyaline.

The genus Puccinia is a very large large one. Species
belonging to this genus can usually be recognized by the two-
-celled teliospcres. All the rusts that have been reported from
TNova Scotia with two-relied teliospores belong to this genus
•except Gymnoconia interstitialis, the orange rust of the black-
" berry and raspberry.

Sydow in his monograph describes 1231 species. He
includes the genera Uropyxis and Diorchidium as subgenera.

Arthur breaks up the genus into several genera, largely on
the basis of the number of spore-forms present. Tranzschelia
and Polythelis are separated because the teliospores are borne
at the apex of a common stalk, and on other grounds. The
majority of the species now included under Puccinia he places
in the following four genera, which are separated by the spore-
"forms present as follows:

394 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — ERASER.

Life cycle with all the spore-forms Dicaeoma.

Life cycle with pycnia, aecia and telia. Allodus.

Life cycle with pycnia, uredinia and telia Bullaria.

Life cycle with pycnia and telia Dasyspora.

Puccinia Hieracii (Schum.) Mart.
- 0. Pycnia not observed.

I. Aecia probably not formed.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, mostly epiphyllous, scattered,
punctiform, soon naked, pulverulent. Urediniospores globose,
subglobose or ellipsoid, 16-24 by 22-27/x; wall yellowish-brown,
echinulate, pores 2.

III. Telia similar to the uredinia but elliptical to oblong
on the stem and darker brown in colour. Teliospores ellipsoid
or ovate-ellipsoid, 18-22 by 2 2-3 5 /*, rounded at both ends, not
or slightly constricted at the septum; wall brown, equally
thickened, finely verrucose; pedicel delicate, hyaline, decidu-
ous, mostly short but sometimes exceeding the spore.

On Hieracium scabrum Michx., Pictou; H. canadense
Michx., Macdonald's Barren, C. B. ('Collected by C. R
Kobinson).

Formerly a number of species on Compositae which show
little morphological differences were included under P.

Hieracii. Jacky by cultures showed
that infection from teliospores on
Hieracium was confined to plants of
this genus. This was also shown to
hold for some other genera of the
Compositae, that is teliospores from
of Puccinia one genus of host plants could not
infect a different genus. As a result

cf Jacky's work the rusts on the different genera of the Com-
positae are regarded as distinct.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER 395

The rust is not conspicuous but will doubtless be found
to be common and generally distributed.

Puccinia Cichorii (DC.) Bell.

0. Pycnia not observed.

1. Aecia not known, probably not formed.

II. Uredinia ampbigenous and caulicolous, scattered,
minute, chiefly round, pulverulent, cinnamon. Urediniospores
globose or subglobose, 22-27/* in diameter ; wall light brown,
echinulate.

III. Telia mostly caulicolous, oval, blackish-brown.
Teliospores ellipsoid or ovate-ellipsoid, slightly or not con-
stricted at the septum, 21-28 by 30-46/u, rounded at the apex
and base; wall uniform, smooth, brown; pedicel hyaline,
delicate, deciduous.

On Cichorium Intybus L., Durham, August 16, 1910.

This species does not seem to be common, as only one
collection was made.

Puccinia obtegens (L.) Tul.

Puccinia suaveolens Lk.

0. Pycnia hycophyllous, at length covering the whole
surface of the leaf

I; Aecia not formed.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, at length amphigenous,
scattered on upper, crowded on lower surface of leaf, pul-
verulent, dark brown. Urediniospores globose or subglobose,
25-30/*; wall light brown, echinulate, pores three.

III. Telia similar to the uredinia. . Teliospores ellipsoid
or ovate-ellipsoid, 18-22 by 32-35/x, rounded at both ends or
base, slightly narrowed, not or slightly constricted at the
septum ; wall uniform, brown, slightly verrucose ; pedicel
slender, hyaline, deciduous, short.

396 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. FRASER.

On Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop., Pictou, Truro.

The rust on the Canada thistle is common and widely dis-
tributed. The life history of the fungus has been worked out
by Eostrup. The mycelium hibernates in the upper part of
the rootstock and thus the spring shoots are infected, the
mycelium invading the plant. The first generation consists
mostly of pycnia and uredinia, the second comes from uredinio-
spore infection and the mycelium is localized. Ilrediniospores
are freely produced but no pycnia.

The germ pore of the upper cell is placed at the apex ; that
of the lower cell is often some distance below the septum.

Puccinia variabilis Grev.

0. Pycnia not observed.

1. Aecia amphigenous, mostly hypophyllous, usually on
sin all yellow or purple spots, solitary or in scattered small
groups ; peridium low, margin lacerate. Aeciospores sub-
globose or ovate, 18-22 by 22-27/*; contents orange, fading to
colourless, verrucose.

IT. Uredinia amphigenous, on small yellow or purple
spots, scattered, small, soon naked, brown. IJredimospores
globose, subglobose or ovoid, 18-20 by 20-27/x; wall brown,
echinulate, pores 2.

III. Telia similar to the uredinia but dark brown.
Teliospores ellipsoid or oblong-ellipsoid, 19-22 by 30-3 8/*,
rounded at both ends, slightly or not constricted at the septum ;
wall thin, uniform, finely verrucose, dark brown; pedicel
hyaline, slender, deciduous.

On Taraxacum officinale Weber, Pictou, French River.

According to Plowright two rusts are found on Taraxacum
in Europe, P. Taraxaci with only the uredinial and telial
stages and P. variabilis possessing an aecial stage as well. I
have found the present species so closely associated with aecia

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 397

that there seems to be little doubt but that they are connected.
Other collections on Taraxacum show no aecia. I have placed
there under P. Taraxaci and the former are assigned here to
P. variabilis, yet it seems probable that they belong to the
same species. The aecia may only be produced under favour-
able conditions.

The germ-pore of the basal cell of the teliospore is usually
placed low, not far from the pedicel; that of the upper cell is
in the usual position near the apex.

The aecial stage of a sedge rust also occurs 011 Taraxacum,
but has the aecia collected in large clusters, not scattered as in
P. variabilis.

Puccinia Taraxaci (Kabent.) Plowr.

0. Pycnia not observed.

1. Aecia regarded as not formed.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, scattered, small, rounded, or
oblong, pulverulent, brown. Urediniosporesi globose, sub-
globose or ovoid, 20-22 by 23-30/u, brown, echinulate.

III. Telia similar to the uredinia but blackish brown.
Teliospores ellipsoid or ovate-ellipsoid, 19-22 by 25-35/A,
rounded at both ends, little or not constricted at the septum;
wall uniform, thin, finely verrucose, brown; pedicel hyaline,
short.

On Taraxacum officinale Weber, Pictou.

This species differs from P. variabilis in the absence of the
aecial stage. The germ pores of the urediniospores are two in
number and are placed toward the apex.

Puccinia orbiculata Peck.

0. Pycnia amphigenous, few, in small groups on spots
with the aecia.

PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. vSci., VOL. XIT. TRANS. 27.

398 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

I. Aecia hypophyllous and petiolicolous in groups on pale
yellowish spots 1-3 mm. in diameter, hemispherical; peridiuin
poorly developed. Aeciospores globose or ellipsoid, 17-20 by
20-30/*; wall pale yellowish, medium thick, densely and finely
verrucose.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, on yellow or purple spots,
scat ered, small punctiform, pulverulent, cinnamon. Uredinio-
spores globose or subglobose, 22-27/A; wall yellow, finely
echinulate.

III. Telia similar to the uredinia but dark brown. Telio-
spores ellipsoid, rounded at the base and apex, slightly con-
stricted at the septum, 24-30 by 33-54/*; wall uniformly thin,
finely but distinctly verrucose; pedicel hyaline, short,
deciduous.

On Prenanihes altissima L., New Glasgow, Folleigh Lake.
This species occurs rather sparingly on its host, but is
probably generally distributed.

Puccinia Onopordi Syd.

0. Pycnia not observed.

1. Aecia unknown, probably not formed.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, mostly epiphyllous, usually on
pale yellowish spots, small, scattered, pulverulent, soon naked,
surrounded by the ruptured epidermis, light brown. Uredinio-
spores globose or subglobose or ellipsoid, about 27-39;* in
diameter, or 24-30 by 27-35/x; wall brown, distinctly but
sparsely echinulate with fine points.

III. Telia amphigenous, scattered on leaves, crowded and
abundant on the stem, small and rounded on leaves, soon naked,
mostly oblong on the stem and covered for some time by the
epidermis, at length naked, pulverulent, dark brown. Telio-
spores variable in shape, often ellipsoid or oblong, 22-27 by
38-54/x; mostly rounded above, often narrowed toward the
base, not or slightly constricted at the septum ; wall uniform

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 399

except a low papilla where the germ pore emerges, finely
punctate; pedicel hyaline, deciduous, shorter than spore.

On Onopordon Acanthium L., Pictou, New Glasgow,
French River.

Sydow in his Monograph describes two new species of rusts
on Onopordon, Puccinia Onopordi from Syria ;.nd Puccinia
Acanthi from Germany, the latter differing from the former in
having smaller teliospores. My collections have even larger
teliospores tKaii P. Onopordi and are therefore placed under

that species.

»

Puccinia Bardanae Cda.
0 & I. Pycnia and aecia unknown, possibly wanting.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, scattered, rounded, pulverulent,
cinnamon. Uredospores globose, subglobose or ellipsoid,
echinulate, light brown, 26-30 by 22-27/*.

III. Telia amphigenous mostly hypophyllous, scattered^
small, rounded pulverulent, blackish. Teliospores ellipsoid,
apex not thickened, slightly constricted at the septum; wall
dark brown, finely verrucose, 22-27 by 30-42/x ; pedicel hyaline,
short.

On leaves of Arctium Lappa L., Pictou.

This species does not seem to have been previously reported
from North America. It was collected in only one place in
the town of Pictou.

Puccinia Leontodontis Jacky.

0. Pycnia not observed.

1. Aecia probobly not formed.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, scattered, not confluent, small,
punctiform, light brown. Urediniospores globose, sub-
globose or ellipsoid, 22-27 by 27-33/*, light brown, echinulate,
germ-pores 2, in upper part of cell.

400 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

III. Telia similar to the uredinia but dark brown,
variable, slightly ellipsoid, 20-30 by 27-41;*, rounded at both
ends, slightly or not constricted at the septum; wall uniform,

rinely verrucose, chestnut-brown ;
pedicel, hyaline, short, deciduous.

On Leontodon autumnalis L.,
Pictou.

Teliospores of Puccinia This species is found in Europe.

Leontodontis. but it does not seem 'to have been

previously reported in North America. It is common in tho
vicinity of Pictou.

Puccinia Solidaginis Peck.
0. Pycnia not observed.
I & II. Aecia and uredinia probably not formed.

III. Telia amphigenous, mostly hypophyllous on yellow-
ish or purple spots, very small, mostly in groups, compact,
brownish-black. Teliospores oblong or sub-clavate, 15-22 by
33-6 5/A, rounded above or acute, narrowed at the base, con-
stricted at the septum; wall light brown, much thickened at
the apex, up to 8/t*, smooth; pedicel hyaline, persistent, about
equalling the spore.

„ On Solidago nemoralis Ait. (?), Westwille, Sylvester;
Solidago puberula Nutt., Pictou, August 24, 1910.

Puccinia bicolor E. & E.

0. Pycnia not observed.

1. Aecia probably not formed.

II. Uredinia not observed. ITrediniospores mixed with
the teliospores, mostly ovate, 16-18 by 27-3 5/*, pale yellowish,
sparingly echinulate with rather large points.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 401

III.. Telia amphigenous, but mostly hypophyllous, small,
thickly scattered over the under surface of the leaves, occupy-
ing all or part of a leaf, orbicular, rather compact, straw-
yellow, becoming ochraceous. Teliospores oblong ellipsoid^ or
clavate, rounded above or somewhat acute, usually narrowed
toward the base, distinctly constricted at the septum, 13-20 by
28-45/j; wall hyaline or pale yellowish, smooth, thickened at
the apex, 8/* or less; pedicel hyaline, firm, usually equally the
spore or longer.

On Hieracium scabrum Michx., Pictou.

This species is probably distinct from Puccinia bicolor, but
it is placed here for the present.

The telia develop early. They are evident by May I as
small yellowish dots, and by the last week of May the telio-
spores are germinating, and continue developing till the last
of June. Uredinia were present on some of the infected plants,
but they seem to belong to Puccinia Hieracii. The infected
leaves become elongated and yellowish in color, so that the rust
is quite conspicuous.

Puccinia Asteris Duby.
0. Pycnia not observed.
I & II. Aecia and uredinia not formed.

III. Telia mostly hypophyllous, on orbicular or irregular
spots coloured yellow, brown or purple, mostly crowded, com-
pact, brownish-black, surrounded by the ruptured epidermis.
Teliospores clavate, 16-22 by 30-60/*, rounded or pointed above,
narrowed toward the base, upper cell broaded, slightly con-
stricted at the septum, wall dark brown, much thickened at
apex, up to 12/A, smooth; pedicel nearly hyaline, rather broad,
usually shorter than spore, sometimes longer.

402

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

Teliospores of Pnccinia Asteris.

On Aster macrophyllus L., Westville, Truro; A. acuminatus
Michx., Folleigh Lake; A. lateriflorus (L.) Britton, Pictou.

The teliospores on Aster
acuminatus are slenderer
than on Aster macrophyll-
us. The groups of telia
are not so crowded nor so
abundant on the former.

P. Asteris occurs on a
number of asters. Mor-
phological differences exist,
but they are not constant, so separation cannot be made on
these grounds. Cultures alone can show whether more than one
species are included.

Puccinia Cicutae Lasch.

0. Pycnia not observed.

1. Aecia on the nerves of the leaves more frequently on
the petioles and stems, causing deformation, peridium poorly
developed, not cup-shaped, breaking through the epidermis and
rupturing irregularly. Aeciospores globose, sub-globose or
ellipsoid, 15-22 by 20-27>, subhyaline, finely punctate.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, mostly hypophyllous, small,
scattered, circular, pulverulent, light brown. Urediniospores
.ovoid or ellipsoid, 20-24 by 20-30/ti; wall pale brown, echinulate,
pores 3.

III. Telia similar to the uredinia but larger and darker.
Teliospores ellipsoid or oblong, 20-30 by 30-41/*, rounded at
both ends, slightly constricted at the septum; wall much
roughened, sometimes almost smooth, not thickened at the apex,
brown; pedicel hyaline, slender, deciduous, up to 30/*, some-
times placed laterally on basal cell.

On Cicuia maculata L., Pictou, Piedmont.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 403

This species is very common on its host in the districts
near Pictou.

Sydow states that the aecial stage is raraly collected, the
only collections being in Finland, Siberia and once in Germany
As this stage is conspicuous and not likely to be overlooked, he
regards the aecia as not necessary for the fungus and only
developed under favourable conditions.

A collections of the aecia was made near Pictou on July 3,
1909, in a shaded position. There was such a rich development
that in some cases the host plants were killed.

Puccinia Thalictri Chev.
Polythelis Thalictri (Chev.) Arthur.

0. Pycnia hypophyllous, few, scattered among the telia.
I & II. Aecia and uredinia not formed.
III. Telia hypophyllous, scattered, never confluent, cir-
cular, 2-5 mm. across, soon naked, pulverulent, dark chestnut-
brown, surrounded by the ruptured epidermis. Teliospores
ellipsoid or oblong ovate, sometimes very irregular, much con-
stricted at the septum, the cells separating easily, 15-30 by
22-52/x; walls dark brown, uniformly thickened, very coarsely
and evenly verrucose ; pedicel delicate, hyaline, about the length
of the spore, deciduous.

On Thalictrum polygonum Var. hebecarpum Fernald,
Truro, September 3, 1908 ; September 1, 1909 ; August 9, 1910.
Arthur places this species in the genus Polythelis on the
basis of the teliospores forming
heads by being attached by short
pedicels to a common stalk, which
is short and inconspicuous.

It seems to be rare, as it was
found on only & few plants on the
banks of the Salmon River near

Teliospores of Puccinia Thalictri.

Truro, although search was made

for it in other places. The fungus appears on the same plants
each vear and is for that reason regarded as perennial.

404 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

Puccinia Circaeae Pers.

0. Pycnia not observed.

I & II. Aecia and uredinia not formed.

III. Telia hypophyllous, on definite yellowish-brown or
purple spots, about 2-3 mm. in diameter, small and crowded,
pulvinate, at first yellowish, at length dark brown. Teliospores
fusiform or oblong, 10-14 by 25-40/*, usually conical above and
narrowed toward the base, slightly constricted at the septum;
wall yellowish or light brown, much thickened at the apex, up
to 8/x, smooth; pedicel hyaline, usually longer than the spore.

On leaves of Circaea alpina L., C. lutetiana L., Pictou.

Owing to the yellow or purple spots on the leaves, this rust
is conspicuous. It is common in the districts about Pictou.

The telia formed late in the season differ from the earlier
in being large and more elongated. The teliospores are similar
in form, but the earlier are lighter in colour and germinate at
once. The later are darker and germinate after wintering.
Telia are formed also on the stem but my collections do not
show this.

Puccinia Iridis (DC.) Wallr.

Uromyces Iridis DC.

0. Pycnia not observed.

1. Aecia not known, probably not formed.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, scattered, rounded or linear,
long covered by the epidermis, at length naked, pulverulent,
rusty-brown. Urediniospores globose, sub-globose, ellipsoid or
ovate, 20-27 by 24-35^; wall thick, yellowish-brown,
echinulate.

III. Telia hypophyllous, scattered, linear, sometimes con-
fluent, soon naked, black. Teliospores clavate or oblong, 14-22
by 30-52/A, rounded acuminate or truncate above, usually
narrowed below, slightly constricted at the septum ; wall light
fuscous, darker and much thickened at the apex, up to 14/*,
smooth ; pedicel brownish, persistent, shorter than the spore.

THE BUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 405

On Iris versicolor L., Pictou.

The telial stage was not found although careful search was
made for it in late autumn and early winter.

Sydow states that in some places only the urediniospores
have been found, in other places teliospores and urediniospores
may occur together, while in other places the teliospores are
found only very late in the season.

Puccinia mesomegala B. & C.

0. Pycnia not observed.

I & II. Pycnia and aecia probably not formed.

III. Telia amphigenous, arranged in rows on pallid,
circular or oval spots, about 5-8 mm. in diameter, spots some-
times coalescing, distinct, oval or circular, 150-320 by 150-
450/*; ruptured epidermis conspicuous, ferruginous, pulver-
ulent. Teliospores oval or oblong, rounded or pointed above,
rounded or narrowed at the base, not or little constricted at the
septum, 13-24 by 27-41/*; wall uniformly thin, light brown,
sometimes with a small hyaline papilla at the apex and the
side of the lower cell at the opening of the germ pore ; pedicel
hyaline, delicate, deciduous, equalling or shorter than the
spore.

On Clintonia borealis (Ait.) Raf., Pictou, June 15, 1910.

Puccinia mesomegala was collected only in one place near
Pictou. It is probably not common, as it is rather conspicuous.

Puccinia acuminata Peck.
Puccinia porphyrogenita Curt.
0. Pycnia not observed.
I & II. Aecia and uredinia probably not formed.

III. Telia hypophyllous, on brown or purplish ofton
depressed spots, scattered, 1-3 mm. in diameter, surrounded by
the ruptured epidermis, compact, black. Teliospores clavate.

406 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER

oblong-clavate or oblong, 16-22 by 45-60/*, constricted at the
septum, apex rounded or acuminate; wall dark brown, much
thickened at the apex, 18/* or less, smooth; pedicel tinted, per-
sistent, shorter than or equalling the spore.

On Cornus canadensis L., Pictou and Truro, (Prof. C. L.
Moore.

Puccinia Acetosae (Schum.) Koern.
Puccinia Rumicis Lasch.

0. Pjcnia not observed.

1. Aecia not known, probably not formed.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, mostly hypophyllous, scattered,
small, rounded, pulverulent ferruginous. Urediniospores
globose, ellipsoid or pyriform, 20-24 by 22-2 S/A, somewhat
spiny, brownish,

III. Telia similar to the uredinia but oblong on the stem
and dark brown. Teliospores ovoid, ellipsoid, oblong or sub-
clavate, 19-26 by 30-46/*, rounded at both ends or slightly
narrowed below, somewhat constricted at the septum; wall
uniform, finely verrucose, chestnut-brown; pedicel hyaline
slender, deciduous, up to 3 5/* long.

On Rumex Acetosella L., Pictou.

This rust was collected in one place near Pictou and this
collection showed only a scanty development of urediniospores.
Though search was made during the summer it was not found
elsewhere. The rust is not conspicuous and may have been
overlooked.

Puccinia Menthae Pers.

0. Pycnia in small groups, honey-coloured, conspicuous.

1. Aecia hypophyllous, on yellowish spots, sometimes
purple, circinate. Aeciospores sub-globose or polygonal 16-25/s
verrucose, pale yellow.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 407

IL Uredinia hypophyllous, small, 011 pale spots, roundish,
surrounded by the ruptured epidermis, pulverulent, cinnamon-
brown. Urediniospores sub-globose, ellipsoid or obovate, 18-22
by 22-2(7fi; wall thin or thick, echinulate, pores 2 or 3,
equatorial.

III. Telia hypophyllous or caulicolous, scattered or
aggregated, sometimes confluent, linear or oblong on the stem,
rounded on the leaves, purverulent, blackish-brown. Telio-
spores ellipsoid or sub-globose, 22-27 by 27-35/A, rounded at
both ends, a small hyaline papilla at apex, little or not con-
stricted at the septum; wall chestnut-brown, smooth; pedicel
slender, hyaline, usually much longer than the spore.

On Mentha arvensis Var. canadensis (L.) Briquet, Pictou,
Piedmont,

Burril separated the American rust on the mints as Var.
americana on the grounds that the teliospores are more strongly
verrucose and more globose in shape. The collections from
this vicinity agree more nearly with the European form, the
teliospores being smooth.

The aecia are much less common than the other forms. A
collection from Loch Broom, near Pictou, showed an abundant
development of this stage, but the peridium had not opened
when the collection was made. The infected plants grew in
a shaded position.

The species is worldwide in its distribution, occurring on a
large number of mints. It may be that several species are
included in this one.

Puccinia Glaucis Arthur.
0. Pycnia not seen, probably obsolete.

III. Telia amphigenous, solitary or sometimes confluent
in groups, 1.5-2 mm. across, roundish, 0.5-1 mm. in diameter,
soon naked, pulvinate, compact, dark brown, becoming grey by
germination of the spores, ruptured epidermis inconspicuous.

408 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA FRASER.

Teliospores lanceolate-oblong, 13-16 by 43-50/*, obtuse at both
ends, slightly constricted at the septum; wall smooth, golden
brown, rather thin, 1-1. 5/x, obtusely thickened at the apex,
6-9fi; pedicel light yellow, slender, one-half to once length of
spore.

On Glaux maritima L., Halifax.

I have not seen this species. The description is from the
original one in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club,
vol. 37, page 571, 1910.

Puccinia claytoniata (Schw.) Syd.
Puccinia Maria-Wilsoni Clinton.

0. Pycnia scattered among the aecia, orange.

1. Aecia hypophyllous, often petiolicolous or caulicolous,
rarely epiphyllous, regularly scattered, often in crowded groups,
occupying the whole surface of the leaf, low, rather wide,
orange, margin subrevolute, laciniate. Aeciospores angular,
sub-globose, 15-18/*, finely verrucose, orange.

II. Uredinia not observed.

III. Telia hypophyllous, often petiolicolous or caulicolous,
rarely epiphyllous, irregularly scattered, small, rounded, sur-
rounded by the ruptured epidermis, pulverulent, rufous brown.
Teliospores irregular, usually ellipsoid or ellipsoid-oblong^
rounded at both ends, 18-27 by 30-52/*; wall brown with a
small lighter papilla at the <apex, verrucose, not or little con-
stricted at the septum.

On Claytonia, Three Brooks, Scotch Hill.

Specimens of Claytonia collected bv Miss Isabella McCabe
at Three Brooks showed a rich develorunent of the aecial stage,
especially on the stems and petioles, which were much deformed
by the fungus.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 409

Puccinia Violae (Schum.) DC.

0. Pycnia mostly epiphyllous, honey-yellow.

1. Aecia amphigenous, often deforming the petioles and
leaves, in irregular clusters, low, margin recurved, lacerate.
Aeciospores mostly sub-globose, 16-21 by 21-26/*, mostly
20-2 1/* in diameter, orange-yellow, fading to colourless, finely
verrucose.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous or petiolicolous, scattered,
small, rounded or elongate on the petiole, soon naked,
pulverulent, cinnamon-brown. Urediniospores globose, sub-
globose or ellipsoid, 18-22 by 20-2 S/A, dark brown, echinulate.

III. Telia hypophyllous or petiolicolous, often on
yellowish spots, aggregated or scattered, small, rounded elongate
on the petiole, pulverulent, dark brown or black. Teliospores
ellipsoid or oblong-ellipsoid, 20-27 by 30-38^, rounded at both
ends, base sometimes narrowed, slightly or not constricted at
the septum; wall chestnut-brown, somewhat thickened at the
apex with a lighter papilla, usually smooth; pedicel deciduous.

On Viola cucullata Ait. and other Viola species, Pictou,
French River.

The violet rust is very common in this vicinity.

Arthur and Holway (Minn. Bot. Studies 11, Part 5:631-
641, 1901) in a paper on the violet rusts of North America
state that this rust is common in its three forms, aecia, telia
and uredinia, throughout North America on nearly all the
indigenous species of the genus Viola.

Puccinia Polygoni=amphibii Pers.

Puccinia Ampliibii Fuck.

P. Polygoni Alb. and Schw.

0 & I. On Geranium maculatum L.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, mostly hypophyllous, scattered
or in circular groups, rounded, soon naked, pulverulent, yellow-

410 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

ish-brown. TJrediniospores globose, ellipsoid or ovoid, 1Y-22
by 22-3 3/*; wall yellowish-brown, echinulate.

III. Telia hypophyllous, scattered or often arranged in
circular groups, abundant, at length covering the under sur-
face of the leaf, confluent, rounded on leaves, elongate on stem,
remaining covered by the epidermis, blackish-brown. Telio-
spores clavate or oblong, 17-22 by 35-65/A, rounded, truncate
or pointed above, mostly narrowed toward the base, slightly
constricted at the septum, sometimes no constriction; wall
dark brown, thickened at apex, about 7ju, smooth; pedicel
hyaline or slightly coloured, usually shorter than the spore.

On Polygonum amphibium L., Pictou.

This rust was only found in one place at Cole's Pond near
Pictou. It has a world wide distribution on Polygonum
species. On some hosts the telia remain covered by the
epidermis, in others they are soon naked.

Tranzschel was the first to show by cultures that the aecia
"on the wild geranium belonged to this rust. Arthur (Jour.
Myc. 11:59. 1905) sowed the spores of Aecidium sanguino-
lentum Lindl. from Geranium maculatum on Polygonum
emersum (Michx.) Britton and produced the uredinia and
telia of this rust In the following year he sowed the teliospores
from Polygonum emersum on Geranium maculatum and the
aecia developed. \

I have not found the >aecial stage, nor even the host plant,
in this vicinity.

Puccinia punctata Link.
Puccinia Galii Schw.
P. asperula Fuck.
0. Pycnia collected in small groups, honey-coloured.

THE KUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 411

I. Aecia hypophyllous, rarely caulicolous, on circular
yellow spots, short cylindrical, margin recurved, whitish.
Aeciospores globose or sub-globose, 17-22/*, orange-yellow,
smooth.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, small, rounded or irregularly
scattered, chestnut-brown. Unrediniospores globose, sub-globose
or ellipsoid, 19-24 by 19-30/*; wall light brown, strongly
echinulate.

III. Telia amphigenous, rounded on leaves, oblong or
linear on stem, blackish, compact. Teliospores oblong or
clavate, sometimes ellipsoid, 18-24 by 27-57;*, truncate or
rounded above, sometimes conical, narrowed at base, slightly
constricted at the septum ; wall brown, much thickened at apex,
smooth; pedicel coloured, persistent, thickened, usually shorter
than the spore.

On Galium asprellum Michx., New Glasgow.

A collection on July 22 showed the aecia past their prime
and uredinia beginning to appear; another on August 26
showed .telia developed on the leaves and stem. This rust was
only found in one place so that it does not appear to be common.

Puccinia graminis Pers.
Puccinia poculiformis (Jacq.) Wettst.

0. Pycnia in small groups, honey-yellow.

1. Aecia hypophyllous, usually in small groups on dis-
coloured spots, cylindrical, margin white, erect, more or less
incised. Aeciospores angular-globose, orange-yellow, becoming
pale yellow, 14-16/*; wall thin, smooth.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, often on culms and sheaths,
scattered or grouped, oblong or linear, soon naked, pulverulent,
ferruginous, surrounded by the ruptured epidermis. Uredinio-
spores elliptic-oblong or obovate, 14-22 by 19-38/*, brownish-
yellow, becoming yellowish, echinulate, pores usually four,
equatorial.

412

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

III. Telia amphigenous, mostly on culms, sheaths and
infloresence, oblong or linear, often confluent, black, soon
naked, surrounded by the ' ruptured epidermis, pulvinate.
Teliospores oblong-clavate, oblong-fusiform, narrowly obovate
or sometimes ellipsoid, 16-22 by 22-68/s apex rounded, obtuse
or conical, base narrowed, sometimes rounded, usually some-
what constricted at the septum; wall chestnut-brown, apex
darker, thickened 8-lOj*, smooth; pedicel coloured, firm, usually
as long as the spore, sometimes short,

Aecia on Berberis
vulgaris L. (cultivated),
Truro.

Uredinia and telia
on Agropyron vulgar e
L., A. repens Beauv.,
Avena sativa L., Agros-
tis alba L., Piotou,
Truro ; Hordeum juba-
turn L., Pictou; Secale

Teliospores of Puccinia graminis. cereale, Truro.

Puccinia graminis is found on a large number of grasses.
By infection experiments Ericksson showed that it consists of
a number of specialized forms, all having their aecia on the
barberry, but nevertheless not capable of infecting one another.
As a result of experiments so far conducted, the following
forms have been indicated:

1. Secalis, on Rye (Secale ceveale) and other hosts.

2. Avenae, on Oats (Avena sativa).

3. Airae, on Airia.

4. Agrostidis, on Agrostis.

5. Poae, on Poa.

6. Tritici, on Wheat (Triticum vulgar e).

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 413

Arthur (Mycol. 2:227. 1910) states that, though in the
uredinial stage this rust shows racial strains that inhibit the
ready transfer from one species of host to another, yet in the
aecial stage racial strains play no part, and the barberry acts
as a bridging host between each and every other gramineous
host.

•

Puccinia phlei=pratensis Erikss. and Henn.
0 & I. Pycnia and aecia unknown.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, mostly epiphyllous, on the
stem linear and breaking through the epidermis by a lateral
fissure, on the leaves scattered, small and oblong, pulverulent,
yellowish-brown. Urediniospores ellipsoid, oblong-ellipsoid or
obovate, 16-21 by 24-32ju; wall dull yellow, echinulate.

III. Telia similar to the uredinia but blackish-brown,
mostly on the stem. Teliospores mostly elongate, 16-20 by
35-48/x, rounded or somewhat acute above, narrowed toward the
base, slightly constricted at the septum; wall chestnut-brown,
thickened at the apex, usually 5-8/*, smooth; pedicel persistent,
strongly tinted, thickened, usually longer than the spore.

On PJileum pratense L., Pictou.

In 1894 Ericksson and Henning separated the timothy rust
as a distinct species, on the ground that it does not form its
aecial stage on the barberry. Previously it was considered as
identical with Puccinia graminis, from which it cannot be
separated on morphological grounds. Kern (Torreya 9:3,
1909) points out that in Eriksson and Henning's original
report, out of nine trials to infect the barberry with teliospores
of the timothy rust one was successful and eight were failures.
He thinks that more weight ought to be given to the one
positive result than to all the failures, and concludes that the
timothy rust may be considered a race or physiological species

PROC. & TRVNS N. S. INST. Sci. VOL. XII. TRANS 28

414 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FKASER.

of Puccinia graminis. Arthur (Mycologia 1:231. 1909)
reports several unsuccessful trials to infect the barberry with
this rust, nevertheless he expresses his agreement with Kern's
conclusions.

This rust has only recently attracted attention in North
America. It seems to be rapidly increasing. I have found it
rather common on timothy growing by the roadsides and in
shaded places in fields. Here both the uredinial and telial
stages are developed, the latter appearing late in the fall. The
uredinial stage was common on the after-grass in hay-fields
about Pictou. It may yet do a considerable, amount of injury
to the hay crop, but probably will not be sufficiently developed
before the hay is harvested to do serious damage.

Puccinia Lolii Neils.
Puccinia coronifera Kleb.

0 & I. Pycnia amphigenous, usually in small groups,,
sometimes abundant, on the spots bearing aecia, honey-coloured.

I. Aecia hypophyllous or peticolous, on yellowish or
yellowish-purple spots, causing distortion of the petioles, cylin-
drical, rather low, margin whitish, lacerate, revolute. Aecio-
spores irregular, globose, about 19-25/*; wall colourless, finely
verrucose; contents orange.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, oval or linear, pulverulent,,
orange. Urediniospores globose, sub-globose or ovate, 16-24 by
20-30/* ; wall orange, echinulate, pores 3 or 4, sometimes a few
colourless, capitate paraphyses present.

III. Telia hypophyllous, oblong or linear, often confluent
and crowded, long covered or remaining covered by the-
epidermis, black, Teliospores elongated clavate, 16-22 by 33-
70/*, tapering toward the base, apex truncate with irregular,
blunt, curved processes, variable in size and shape, not or

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER 415

slightly constricted at the septum; wall yellowish-brown or
brown , thickened at the apex, smooth; pedicel short, thickened,
coloured, persistent.

Pycnia and aecia on Rhamnus
cathartica L., Pictou.

Uredinia and telia on Avena sativa
L., Pictou, Truro.

This rust is very common on the
cultivated oat. It is found chiefly on
the leaves. It is much more common
in this vicinity than Puccinia graminis.

Teliospores of Puccinia Lolii. ,

Both are often found occurring on the

same plant, P. Lolii on the leaves, and P. graminis chiefly on
the stems and sheaths.

Culture experiments have shown the following form species :

1. Avenae en Avena sativa.

2. Alopecuri on Alopecurus pratensis.

3. FestucaQ on Festuca elatior.

4. Lolii on Lolium perenne. ' !' -\

5. Glyc&riae on Glyceria aquatica.

6. Hold 011 Helens lanatus and H. moths.

Puccinia coronata Cda.
Puccinia Rhamni (Pers.) Wettst.

0 & I. Pycnia and aecia on Rhamnus alnifolia. (Not
collected).

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, scattered or arranged in lines,
sometimes confluent, small, more or less oblong, pulverulent,
orange. Urediniospores globose, sub-globose or ovate, 16-24 by
20-30jn, echinulate, yellow, pores 3 or 4, paraphyses present.

III. Telia hypophyllous or caulicolous, scattered, some-
times in long lines on the stem, sometimes confluent, oblong or
linear, covered for a long time by the epidermis, at length

416 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA — FttASER.

naked, black. Teliospores oblong or clavate, 16-22 by 38-68/x,
apex with projections, erect or inclined, often crown-like, base
narrowed; wall thin, thickened somewhat at apex, brown,
darker at apex; pedicel short, thickened, sometimes absent.

On Calamagrostis canadensis (Michx.) Beauv., Pictou.

The aecia of this species is on Rhamnus alnifolia L'Her.

Puccinia coronata Corda was the name formerly given to
the species occurring on oats (Avena sativa) and other grasses,
with teliospores provided with a crown of processes and called
the crown rust. Klebahn, by culture experiments, found
that teliospores from some of these grasses produced aecia
only on Rhamnus frangula, while teliospores from others
produced aecia only on Rhamnus cathartica. This showed
that two species were included under P. coronata. Klebahn
gave the name P. coronifera to the rust producing aecia on
Rhamnus cathartica and the original name was retained for
the rust producing its aecia on Rhamnus frangula. Later, on
the basis of priority, the name P. Lolii Neils has replaced
Klebahn' s P. coronifera.

Ericksson has shown that this species, P. coronata Corda,
as limited by Klebahn, consists, of several biological forms:

1. Calamagrostidis.

2. Phalaridis.

3. Agrostidis.

4. Agropyri.

5. Hold.

6. Epigaei.

Arthur sowed teliosporic material, part of the Pictou
collections, on Rhamnus frangula with abundant infection.
(See Arthur Mycologia 4:18. 1912).

Puccinia Maydis Bereng.
Puccinia Sorghi Schw.
Puccinia Zeae Rabh.

THE RUbTS OF NOVA '"SCOTIA. — FKASEE. 4T7

0 & I. Pycnia and aecia on Oxalis corniculata L. (Not
collected in Nova Scotia).

II. Uredinia amphigenous, scattered or aggregated,
elliptical or oblong, long covered by the epidermis, ruptured
epidermis prominent, yellowish-brown. Urediniospores glo-
bose, sub-globose or elliptical, 24-28 by 27-33/x, wall yellowish-
brown, finely and sparingly echinulate, pores 4, scattered.

III. Telia amphigenous, scattered or somewhat gregari-
ous, linear or oblong, long covered by the epidermis, at length
naked, compact, black. Teliospores oblong, ellipsoid or
obovate, 16-24 by 27-41/*, rounded or obtuse, rarely somewhat
acute, base rounded or slightly narrowed, slightly constricted at
the septum; wall golden-brown, moderately thickened at apex,
about 2 J/A, smooth ; pedicel tinted, thickened, persistent, usually
about the length of the spore or somewhat longer.

On Zea mays L., Lower Mount Thorn.

In 1904 Arthur (Jour. Myc. 11:65. 1905) sowed aecio-
spores from Oxalis corniculata L. on young corn plants and
produced the uredinia and telia of this rust. In the following
year (Jour. Myc. 12:17. 1906) he sowed the teliospores from
the corn on Oxalis corniculata L. and aecia followed. Keller-
man (Jour. Myc. 12:10. 1906) confirmed the last result, pro-
ducing aecia on Oxalis corniculata by sowing the teliospores
from corn.

The specimens in my herbarium were collected by Prof.
C. L. Moore.

Puccinia triticina Erikss.

Puccinia Rubigo-vera (DC.) Winter.

Puccinia Rubigo-vera Var. Tritici,

0 & I. Pycnia and aecia unknown.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, mostly epiphyllous, scattered,
oblong, small, ferruginous. Urediniospores globose or sub-
globose, 20-27/x, sparingly echinulate, yellow.

•118 THE KUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — ERASER.

III. Telia hypophyllous (or culmicolous), scattered,
oblong, covered by the epidermis, black. Telia oblong-clavate

or clavate, 15-20 by 35-48/*,
apex rounded, truncate or
sometimes obliquely pointed,
slightly constricted at the
septum, base narrowed; wall

Teliosporcs of Puccinia triticina. thin, brown, slightly tMck-

ened at the apex; pedicel short, coloured; paraphyses brown,
numerous.

On Agropyron vulgare, Pictou.

This rust on wheat, which can be easily separated from
P. graminis by its covered telia, was found to be rather com-
mon in this vicinity. It may not be identical with the
European species, but, until culture experiments have been
tried, may be placed here provisionally.

Formerly the rusts on wheat and other grasses, which are
characterized by the presence of paraphyses among the telio-
spores, >and the telia remaining covered for a long time by the
epidermis, were regarded as one species, Puccinia Rubigo-vera
(D. C.) Winter. Eriksson and Henning in 1896 divided this
species into two on the grounds of differences in the uredinia.
P. glumarum with bright orange uredinia arranged more or
less in rows, and P. dispersa Erikss. with chocolate-brown
uredinia more or less scattered over the leaves.

Infection experiments have shown the following specialized
forms in P. glumarum:

1. Tritici.

2. Hordei.

3. Ely mi.

4. Agropyri.

5. Secalis.

From Puccinia dispersa Erikss. a number of biological
species have been separated by -infection experiments, so that

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 419

the former P. dispersa Erikss. now consists of the following
species :

P. dispersa Erikss. on rye (Secale cereale). Aecia on
AncJiusa species.

P. triticina Erikss. on wheat (Tnticum). Aecia unknown.

P. bromina Erikss. on brome grass (Bromus). Aecia on
Symphtum officinale and Pulmonaria montana.

P. agropyrina Erikss. on coach grass (Agropyron repens).
Aecia unknown.

P. holcina Erikss. on Holcus species. Aecia unknown.

P. Triseti Erikss. on Trisetum flavescens. Aecia unknown.

Puccinia agropyrina Erikss.
0 & I. Pycnia and aecia unknown.

II. Uredinia mostly epiphyllous, scattered, small or
medium sized, oval or oblong, rusty yellow. Urediniospores
globose or sub-globose, 20-27/*, finely echinulate; wall pale
yellow; contents yellow.

III. Telia mostly hypophyllous, often on the sheaths,
scattered or sometimes aggregated, oblong, covered by the
epidermis, black. Teliospores oblong or . oblong-clavate, 14-21
by 40-5 4/u, rounded or obtuse at apex, narrowed toward base,
not or slightly constricted at the septum, smooth, brownish;
pedicel short, coloured ; paraphy&es present.

On Agropyron repens L., Pictou.

This rust is very common on its host near Pictou,
especially on the after-grass in hay:fields. Both the uredinial
and telial stages were found abundantly in late fall.

This species may not be identical with the European rust
on Agropyron: repens, but it is placed here provisionally, or
until infection experiments decide its position. It may be
P. obliterates Arth., which has aecia on Thdictrum and
Aquilegia. (Arthur, Mycologia 1:250. 1909; 2:225, 1910).

420 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA.— ERASER.

Puccinia perplexans liowr.

0. Pycnia not described.

1. Aecia hypophyllous or petiolicolous, on rounded yellow
spots, in elongate or rounded groups, cup-shaped or cylindrical,
margin white, incised. Aeciospores angular-globose, finely
verrucose, orange, 18-27/* in diameter.

II, Uredinia chiefly epiphyllous, scattered, chiefly oblong
or linear, yellowish brown. Urediniospores sub-globose or
ovate, 16-20 by 19-27/u; wall rather thick, pale yellowish,
echinula/te.

III. Telia chiefly hypophyllous, scattered, small, oblong
or linear, about 1-1J mm. long, covered by the epidermis,
blackish. Teliospores mostly oblong-clavate or clavate, apex
rounded, truncate, rounded or obliquely conical, somewhat
thickened at the apex, slightly constricted at >the septum, 16-24
by 36-60/*; wall brown, darker above, smooth, thickened some-
what at the apex; pedicel very short.

Pycnia and taecia on Ranunculus acris L., Pictou, June,
1911.

Uredinia and telia on Alopecurus pratensis L., Pictou.

This species does not seem to have been previously collected
in North America. Cultures by the writer confirmed what had
already been established by European investigators, that the
aecia are produced on Ranunculus acris L. (See Mycologia
4:179. 1912).

Puccinia anthoxanthi Fuck.
0 & I. Pycnia and aecia unknown.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, mostly epiphyllous, on
indefinite yellow spots, scattered or aggregated, elliptical or
linear, soon naked, small, yellowish-ferruginous, capitate
paraphyses present. Urediniospores mostly ovate or obovate,
18-22 by 23-33/x, finely echinulate, yellowish.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA,— FRASER. 421

III. Telia amphigenous, scattered, small oblong or
linear, soon naked, blackish-brown. Teliospcwea elliptical, sub-
clavate or oblong, 18-22 by 25-40/*, apex mostly rounded, base

rounded or narrowed; wall chest-
nut-brown, thickened at apex,
smooth; pedicel persistent, col-
oured, usually shorter than spore.
On Anthoxanthum oderatum
L., Pictou

Teliaspores oi Puccinia

anthoxanthi species from North America, nor

has it been reported as far as I am aware. It was found. in
only one place near Pictou in 1909 and 1910.

Pucciriia tomipara Trel.

0. Pycnia epiphyllous, in small groups, honey-yellow,
punctiform.

1. Aecia hypophyllous, in orbicular groups, crowded;
peridium somewhat low, margin slightly revolute, erose.
Aeciospores globoid, 20-2 5/x; wall thin, colourless, verrucose.

II. Uredinia epiphyllous, scattered, rounded or oblong,
small cinnamon. Urediniospores globose or sub-globose, 22-27;*,
echinulate, yellowish-brown.

III. Telia epiphyllous, mostly oblong, remaining covered
by the epidermis, compact, black. Teliospores oblong or oblong-
clavate, 16-24 by 35-54/* ,mostly truncate at the apex, some-
times rounded or acute, narrowed below, not constricted at the
septum ; wall chestnut-brown, somewhat thickened at the apex,
smooth; pedicel very short.

Aecia on Clematis virginiana L., New Glasgow, July 6,
1909.

Telia on Bromus ciliaius L., Truro, Sept., 1908, 1909.
The collections do not show uredinia. They probably had
disappeared before the collections were made.

422 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASEH.

The connection of the aecial stage was shown by cultures
in 1904 by Arthur. (Jour. Myc. 11:62. 1905). He con-
firmed these results by later cultures.

Puccinia perminuta Arth.
0 & I. Pycnia and aecia unknown.

II. Uredinia not collected.

III. Telia mostly hypophyllous, rounded, oval or chiefly
linear, dark brown, remaining covered by the epidermis.
Teliospores variable, usually oblong, truncate or rounded at
the apex, sometimes narrowed toward the base, 10-16 by 30-
50;*; wall brown, rather thin except at the apex, there much
thickened, 10/* or less ; pedicel very short.

On Agrostis alba L., Pictou, August, 1910.

Only telia were present in the collections of this rust, and
no description of the uredinia is at hand. The determination
was made by F. D. Kern.

Puccinia obscura Schroet.
0 & I. Pycnia and aecia on Bellis p&rennis L. (Europe).

II. Uredinia amphigenous, mostly hypophyllous, on
irregular yellowish spots, scattered or irregularly distributed,
elliptical or oblong, covered for some time by the epidermis,
at length naked, pulverulent, yellowish-brown. Urediniospores
sub globose, ellipsoid or obovate, 20-25 by 27-35/*; wall rather
thick, brown, strongly but sparingly echinulate.

III. Telia similar to the uredinia but more compact.
Teliospores oblong or clavate, 16-20 by 30-48/t, rounded above,
sometimes rather acute, base narrowed, constricted at the
septum, cells separating easily; wall pale yellowish-brown,
somewhat thickened at the apex, about 3-5/u, smooth; pedicel
mostly hyaline, usually shorter than the spore.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — PHASER. 423

On Luzula campestris Var. multiflora (Ehrk.) Celak., New
Glasgow; L. saUuensis Fernald, New Glasgow, French Kiver,
Truro.

The uredospores appear in early spring, so that it is very
probable that the mycelium is perennial, as the leaves of the
host remain green during the winter.

Plowright worked out the life history of this rust showing
that the aecial stage is on Bellis perennis. No cultures have
been made to establish the identity of the American and
European rusts.

Puccinia cinerea Arth.

0 & I. Py'cnia and aecia on Ranunculus cymbalaria
Pursh.

II. Uredinia mostly caulicolous, sometimes on the. leaves,
linear, 1 mm. or less, ferruginous, pulverulent, ruptured epider-
mis evident. Urediniospores oval or obovate, 18-23 by 27-33/t*;
wall colourless, medium thick, very finely echinulate; contents
orange-yellow.

III. Telia amphigenous and caulicolous, linear, remain-
ing covered by the epidermis, blackish. Teliospores clavate,
oval, or oblong, rounded, truncate or narrowed at the apex,
chiefly narrowed at the base, slightly or not constricted at the
septum, 16-23 by 32-50/x; wall yellowish-brown or dark brown,
slightly thickened at the apex, smooth; pedicel short, tinted,
persistent.

Pycnia and aecia on Ranunculus cymbalaria Pursh.,
Pictou.

.Uredinia and telia on Puccinellia maritima (Huds.) Parl.,
Pictou, September, 1910.

Arthur (Mycologia 1:246. 1909) by infection experiments
showed that Puccinia cinerea has its aecial stage on Ranunculus

cymbalaria.

424 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. FRASEK.

Puccinia Sambuci Arth.

0. Pycnia amphigenous, mostly epiphyllous, in small
groups on the aecia bearing spots, honey-yellow.

1. Aecia hypophyllous, on rounded yellow, often bullato
spots, in circular groups of different sizes, irregular shaped
on tb-e nerves, margin recurved, incised. Aeciospores angular-
globose, about 16-19/*, finely verrucose, yellowish.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, rounded, elliptical or linear,
surrounded by the ruptured epidermis, pulverulent, cinnamon.
Urediniospores sub-globo.se or obovate, about 22/x in diameter,
echinulate, yellowish-brown.

III. Telia hypophyllous, rounded or oblong, scattered or
gregarious and confluent, surrounded by the ruptured epider-
mis, pulvinate, blackish-brown. Teliospores oblong-clavate,
18-24 by 38-52/A, rounded or obtuse above, narrowed below, con-
stricted at the septum ; wall light brown, much thickened above,
5-10/A, smooth; pedicel persistent, hyaline, usually shorter than
spore.

Pycnia and aecia on Sambucus canadensis L., Pictou.

Uredinia and telia on Carex lurida Wahlenb., Pictou.

The aecial stage was common on its host near Pictou. Only
one collection of the rust on Carex lurida was made. It differs
somewhat from Sydow's description. The teliospores are
smaller and tho pedicels shorter, but it is placed here pro-
visionally. It may be that some other common Carex rusts
belong to this species

Puccinia Opizii Bubak.

0. Pycnia numerous, on the spots with the aecia, dark
honey-yellow.

1. Aecia hypophyllous or culmicolous on purplish or
reddish circular spots surrounded by a more or less extensive
yellowish zone, spots -J to 1-J cm. in diameter, in groups occupy-

THE RUSTS OF KOVA SCOTIA. — FRASEK. 425

ing the 'whole of the spot, cup-shaped or short cylindrical, law,
margin white, revolute, lacerate. Aeciospores globose, sub-
globose or ellipsoid, about 16-18/* in diameter, verrucose,
orange.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, in small yellowish spots,
scattered, minute, ovate or oblong, at first covered by the
epidermis, at length nlaked, pulverulent, brown. Uredinio-
spores globose, sub-globose or ellipsoid, 17-22 by 18-33/x,
remotely echinulate, brown, pores two.

III. Telia hypophyllous or culmicolous, scattered or
aggregated, small, ovate or oblong, long covered by the epider-
mis, pulvinate, black. Teliospores clavate or oblong-clavate,
13-24 by 35-60/n, apex rounded, truncate or long conical, base
narrowed, slightly constricted at the septum; wall yellowish-
brown, much thickened and darker at apex, smooth; pedicd
hyaline, persistent, equalling the spore.

Pycnia and aecia on Lactuca spicata (Lam.) Hitche. and
Var. integrifolia (Grey) Britton; L. canadensis L., Pictou.

Uredinia and telia on Carex muricata L., (Europe). (Not
collected in Nova Scotia).

Arthur (Jour. Myc. 13:194. 1907) produced what he
regards as the aecia of this rust on Lactuca from the teliospores
of an undetermined Carex. Bubak had previously worked out
the connection for the European rust by cultures. The aecia
are so characteristic that there is little doubt that they belong
to this species, and that the telial form on Carex will yet be
found.

Puccinia Caricis=Asteris Arth.

0. Pycnia cpiphyllous, in small groups on the spots that
bear the aecia.

1. Aecia hypophyllous, usually grouped on yellowish spots,
cup-shaped or cylindrical, low, margin revolute, lacerate.
Aeciospores angular globose, about 13-16/*; wall colourless,
finely verrucose; contents yellow.

426 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, oblong. Urediniospores ovate,
echinulate, 14-17 by 17-22/*; wall thin, brownish.

III. Telia hypophyllous, oblong or linear, soon naked,
surrounded by the ruptured epidermis, dark brown or blackish.
Teliospores oblong or oblong-clavate, apex mostly rounded,
much thickened, 16-21 by 37-60^; pedicel tinted, shorter than
or equalling the spore.

Puccinia and aecia on Aster acuminatus Michx. and other
Aster species, Pictou.

Uredinia and telia on Carex trisperma Dewy, and probably
on other Carex species, Pictou.

The writer established by cultures that the Puccinia on
Carex trisperma has aecia on Aster acuminatus. It is prob-
able that a number of other collections on Carices belong to
this species. That on Carex canescens Var. disjuncta Fernald
is probably included here.

Puccinia Caricis=Solidaginis Arthur.

0 & I. On Solidago graminifolia (L.) Salisb. and other
species of Solidago, Pictou.

II. & III. Uredinia and telia on Carex scoparia SchL
and C. stipata Muhl., Pictou.

There does not seem to be any marked morphological
differences between the forms of this species and Puccinia
Caricis-Asteris so that a description is not given.

Cultures by the writer established the connection of the
above forms for this region. (See Mycologia 4:181. 1912).
It is probable that other collections of Puccinia on sedges in
this vicinity belong to this species.

Puccinia caricina DC.

On Carex Deiveyana Schwein., C. pauper cula Michx., C.
stellulata Good., C. stellulata Var. cephalantha (Bailey)

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA.— FRASER. 427

Fernald, C. teneUa Schkuhr., C. canescens Va,r. disjunctq,
Pictou.

These rusts are placed under this species provisionally until
their position is determined by cultures. Some of them may
belong to Puccinia Caricis-Solidaginis Arth. which has aecia
on Solidago species; probably some belong to P. Caricis-
Asteris Arth., while others may have their aecia on Ribes.
Culture work is necessary before many of the rusts so common
on the sedges can be assigned to their proper species.

Puccinia angustata Peck.

0. Pycnia epiphyllous, in small groups on the spots bear-
ing aecia.

1. Aecia hypophyllous or caulicolous, on yellow, brown
or brownish-purple orbicular spots, in small dense groups on
the spots, in irregular, larger groups on the stem and petioles,
cylindrical, cup-shaped, margin recurved, incised, white.
Aeciospores globose or angular-globose, 16-2(V, verrucose, pale
yellowish.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, often on yellowish areas,
mostly arranged in lines, oblong or linear, long covered by the
epidermis, pulverulent, light brown. Urediniospores sub-
globose, ellipsoid or obovate, 18-22 by 2 6-3 1/*, wall strongly
but sparingly echinulate, yellowish-brown.

III. Telia similar to the uredinia but black and rather
compact. Teliospores clavate or fusoid-clavate, 16-22 by
43-T3/*, apex truncate, rounded or acuminate, base narrowed,
slightly constricted at the middle; wall pale brown, much
thickened, up to 14w, and darker at apex, smooth ; pedicel light
brown, thickened, persistent, usually a little shorter than
spore.

Aecia on Lycopus americanus L., L. uniflorus Michx.,
Pictou.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA.— FRASER.

Uredinia and telia on Scirpus cyperinus (L.) Kunth., S.
rubrotinctus Fernald, Pictou.

The aecial stage on Lycopus and the
uredinial and telial on Scirpus are very
common and usually found closely
associated. The aecia appear in the
early part of July. Arthur worked out
the connection between the stages in
1899 (Bot. Gaz. 29 :273. 1900) and has
confirmed his results several times.
(Jour. Myc. 8:53. 1902; 11:58. 1905;
13:196. 1907; 14:14. 1908; Mycologia

Telio<pores of Puccinia ,904. -IQAQN
angustata. 1 .*o4. IVOV ).

It may be that the collections on Scirpus rubrotinctus
represent a distinct species.

Puccinia albiperidia Arth.

0. Pycnia amphigenous, small, pale orange.

1. Aecia hypophyllous, small, in somewhat circular
clusters, substratum scarcely thickened; peridia white, low,
margin incised, reflexed. Aeciospores pale yellow ^vhen fresh,
sub-globose,, 15-20/* in diameter; wall thin, smooth.

II. Uredinia hypophyllous, small, round or oblong, soon
naked. Urediniospores oblong, small, echinulate.

III. Telia hypophyllous, globose or oblong, pulvinate,
dark brown. Teliospores oblong-cuneate, apex rounded or
obtuse, thickened at apex, slightly or not constricted at the
septum, 17-24 by 31-45/*; pedicel slender, coloured, as long as
the spore or longer.

Aecia on Ribes oxyacanthoides L., E. prostratum L'Her.,
Pictou.

Uredinia and telia on Car ex crinita Lam., C. intumescens
Rudge, C. pallescens L., C. debilis Yr. Rudgei Bailey, C.
arctata Boott., Pictou.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. FRASER. 429

The- limits of this species are not known at present. It
may be that more than one species is represented in the col-
lections assigned here. Possibly souio of them belong to
Puccinia Grossulariae (Schnm.) Arth.

The collections on the Carex species assigned here were
shown by the cultures of the writer to have their aecial stages
on Ribes. (See Mycologia 4:180. 1912). Probably several
other collections on Carex species also belong to this rust. But
cultures are necessary before the relation of many of the rusts
on the genus Carex can be ascertained.

Puccinia Eleocharis Arth.

0. Pycnia epiphyllous.

1. Aecia hypophyllous, grouped on yellow spots 3-4 mm.
in diameter, cylindrical, cup-shaped, low, margin revohrte,
lacerate. Aeciospores mostly angular-globose or sub-globose,
about 14-18/A, hyaline, verrucose.

II. Urediniospores mixed with the teliospores, irregularly
globose or ovoid, finely and sparsely echinulate, yellowish.

III. Telia scattered or subgregarious, sometimes confluent,
small, rounded, remaining covered for a long time by the
epidermis which at length ruptures, sometimes; black. Telio-
spores oblong, rounded or obliquely subtruncate, 16-21 by
45-54/x, apex moderately thickened, not or slightly constricted
at the septum; base rounded or often somewhat narrowed,
smooth, dark brown; pedicel thickened, very short.

Pycnia and aecia on Eupatorium perfoliatum L,, Pictou.

Uredinia and telia on Eleocharis intermedia (Muhl.)
Schultes, E. palusiris (L.) B. & S. (not collected). -

The aecial stage was found in only one place near Pictou.
The telial stage on Eleocharis was not collected, but as the host
plants are common and as the rust has been collected in Maine,
it probably .occurs in !N"ova Scotia. As the rust is incon-
spicuous it may easily be overlooked.

PKOC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Scr. VOL. XII. TRANS. 29

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FKASEB.

Arthur (Jour. Myc. 12:23. 1906) by cultures showed the
connection of the aecia on Eupatorium and has confirmed this
result by recent cultures. (Jour. Myc. 13:193. 1907;
Mycologia 1:233. 1909).

Form Genera.

These are imperfect forms, which occur in only one stage
and cannot be assigned to their proper genera till the complete
life cycle is known. It is convenient to assign them to form
genera till their true position is determined. The forms included
here are Uredo, Caeoma, Aecidium, Peridermium and
Roestelia.

Uredo.

Uredo forms are uredinia that have not been connected with .
their telial form. They have the characteristics of the uredinial
stages of the Pucciniaceae. It is possible that some possess
perennial mycelium so that they can dispense with teliospores,
or that the urediniospores may carry the fungus over the
winter. I have not collected any of them in Nova Scotia.

Aecidiunr

Peridium present, usually cup-shaped, spores in chains.
Forms placed here are simply the aecial stages of unconnected
rusts. The form genus Peridermium is sometimes included.

Aecidium Compositarum Var. Solidaginis.

0. Pycnia amphigenous, in small groups on the spots that
bear the aecia, inconspicuous.

1. Aecia chiefly hypophyllous, on yellow spots or areas,
cylindrical or cup-shaped, low, margin lacerate. Aeciospores
angular-globose or ellipsoid, about 15-19/*; wall colourless,
finely verrucose; contents yellowish, becoming colourless.

On Solidago canadensis L., 8. rugosa Mill., Pictou.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — PHASER.

These collections are probably the aecial stage of Puccinia
Caricis-Solidaginis Arth.,, as field observations indicated that
they belonged to a Puccinia on Carex.

Aecia were also collected on Solidago latifolia L., which
differed from the more common aecia on Solidago being in very
small groups or solitary and pale or whitish. They probably
belong to a distinct species.

Peridermium.

All aecial forms inhabiting the Pinaceae and Gnetaceae
and possessing peridia are usually included under this form
genus. They are probably the aecial stages of rusts belonging
to the families Melampsoraceae and Gronartiaceae. All
P&ridermia that have been connected with telial forms belong
to these families except a few leaf inhabiting species on Pinus
which belong to the genus C oleosporium.

I have collected ten species in the vicinity of Pictou. They
are tablulated below and their connexions with telial genera
where known:

Peridermium decolorans Peck. — Melampsoropsis ledicola
(Peck) Arth.

Per. consimile Arth. & Kern. — Mel. Cassandrae (Peck &
Clinton) Arth.

Per. abietinum (A. & S.) Thuem. — Mel. abietina (A. & S.)
Arth.

Per. columnare (A. & S.) Kunze & Schm. — Calyptospora
columnaris (A. & S.) Kuehn.

Per. elatinum (A. & S.) Kunze & Schm. — Melampsorella
elatina (A. & S.) Arth.

Per. conorum-Piceae (Rees) Arth. & Kern. — Melamp-
soropsis Pyrolae (DC.) Arth.

Per. PecJcii Thuem. — Pucciniastrum minimum (Schw.)
Arth.

432 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

Peridermium (on Tsuga). — Puccinistrutn Myrtilli
(Schum.) Arth.

The connexion of the following form has not yet been
established :

Per. balsameum Peck.

Two other species may occur in Nova Scotia, Per. color-
adense (Diet.) Arth. & Kern, and Per. Laricis (Kleb.) Arth.
& Kern. The former has been collected in Maine. It forms
witches7 brooms on Picea and is conspicuous. The latter has
not been collected in North America, but as the telial form on
Betula [Melampsoridium Beiulae (Schum.) Arth.] is rather
common, it will doubtless be found also.

Peridermium balsameurn Peck.

0. Pycnia hypophyllous, few, scattered, honey-yellow,
small.

1. Aecia hypophyllous, in two irregular rows on yellowish
areas occupying all or part of the leaf, white, mostly cylindrical,
amall, opening at apex; peridium colourless, margin erose or
somewhat lacerate. Aeciospores ellipsoid or globoid, 15-22 by
19-27/A, wall thin, densely verrucose ; contents colourless.

On Abies lalsamea (L.) Mill., Pictou, July 15, 1909;
fccotsburn, August, IT, 1909; Folleigh Lake, August 31, 1919.

This species is characterized by its white spores, no other

Peridermium in Eastern North America shows this character.

It may be identical with the European Aecidium pseudocolum-

nare Kuhn, which also has white spores, (See note Arthur &

Kern, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 33:436. 1906).

From field study the writer is convinced that Peridermium
balsameum is the aecial stage of some species of the genus
Uredinvpsis. Probably several species are confused under this
Peridermium.

THE RUbTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER 433

Caeoma.

Aecia without peridia of which the telial forms are not
known are classed here. I have collected three of these forms
in Nova Scotia , Caeoma nitens on the raspberry, the aecidial*
stage of Gymnoconia inter stitialis, a Caeoma on Abies balsamea,
which I have shown to be the aecial stage of Melampsora arctica;
and Caeoma Abietis-canadensis Farl., which I have connected
with Melampsora Medusae.

Roestelia.

The name Roestelia has been applied to the aecial stage of
the Gymnosporangium rusts. The peridium is well developed
and dehisces by longitudinal slits, and thus soon becomes
fimbriate and revolute. The ISTova Scotia collections are dis-
cussed under tho genus Gymnosporangium.

%
LITERATURE.

Arthur J. C. Amphispores of the Grass and Sedge Rusts.
Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 32 : 35-41. 1905.

— . Uredinales. North Am. Flora 7 : 85-160. 1907 ;
161-268. 1912.

— . Cultures of the Uredineae. Bot. Gazette 29 :

268-276. 1900; 35: 10-23. 1903. Jour, oi
Mycology 8: 51-56. 1902; 10: 8-21. 1904 \
11:50-67. 1905; 12:11-27. 1906; 13:189-
205. 1907; 14: 7-28. 1908. Mycologia 1:
225-256. 1909; 2: 213-240. 1910.

— . North America Rose Rusts. Torreya 9: 21-28,
1909.

— . Terminology of Spore Structures in the
Uredinales. ]3ot. Gazette 39 : 219-222.
1905.

— . Problems in the Stucjy of Plant Rusts. Bot.
Soc. of America; Publication 22: 1-18.

4,34 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

Arthur J. C. The Uredineae occurring on Phragmites,

Spartina and Arundinaria in America. Bot.

Gazette 34: 1-20. 1902.
— . Taxonomic Importance of the Spermagonium.

Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 31: 113-123. 1904.
. Sydow's Monographia Uredinearum with notes

on American species. Jour. Mjcol. 11 :612.

1905.
. Clues to Relationship among Heteroecious Plant

Eusts. Bot. Gaz. 33: 63. 1902.
Arthur and Holway E. D. Descriptions of American

Uredineae. Bull. Lab. Nat. His. of State

TJniv. of Iowa 3; Part 3: 44-45. 1895; 4:

377-402. 1898; 5: 171-193, 1901; 5: 311-

334, 1902.

. The Violet Rusts of North America. Minn.

Bot. Studies 2, 5: 631-641, 1901.
Arthur and Korn F. D. North American species of Peri-

dermium. 'Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 33: 403-

438, 1906.
Bolly H. L. Rust Problems. Bull. No. 68, Exper. Sta. N.

Dakota Agric. College, 1906.
Carleton M. A. Cereal Rusts of the United States. Bull.

No. 16, Div. of Phy. and Path. U. S. Dept.

of Agric., 1904.
— . Investigation of Rusts. Bull. No. 63, Bureau

of Plant Industry U. S. Dept. of Agric,

1904.
Clinton, G. P. Heteroecious Rusts of Conn, having a Peri-

dermlum for their Aecial Stage. Report of

State Botanist, Conn. Exper .Sta., 1907.
Dietel P. Uber die Arlen der Gattung Phragmidium.

Hedwigia 44: 112-132 and 330-346. 1905.

THE BUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 435

Dietel 'P. Uredinales in Engler and Prantl's Die Natiir-
lichen Pflanzenfamilien 1. 1**: 24-81 and
456-553. 1900.

Farlow W. G. Notes on Fungi. Bhodora 10: 13-17. 1908.
. Bibliographical Index of . N. A. Fungi 1: 13-

100, 1905, Carnegie Inst. of Wash. (Notes

under Aecidium).
Eraser W. P. Collection of the Aecial Stage of Calyptospora

columnaris. Science 30: 814. 1909.
. Cultures of Heteroecious Busts. Mycologia 3 :

67-74. 1911.

Johnson A. G. Heteroecious Plant Eusts of Indiana. Proc.

Ind. Acad. of Science, 87-94. 1908.
Kellerman W. A. Uredineous Infection Experiments in 1904.

Jour. Mycol. 11: 26-34. 1905.
. Uredineous Culture Experiments with Puccinia

Sorghi. Jour. Mycology 12: 9-11. 1906.
Kern, F. D. Studies in the Genus Gymnosporangium. Bull.

Torr. Bot. Club 35: 499-511.
— . Bust of Timothy. Torreya 9 : 3-5. 1909.
Klebahn H. Die wirtswechselnden Bostpilze. Berlin, 1904.
McAlpine D. Busts of Australia. Melbourne, 1906.
MacKay A. H. Fungi of Nova Scotia. Trans. N. S. Institute

of Sdence 11: 141, 1905.
. Fungi of Nova Scotia, First Supp. List.

Trans. N. S. Institute of Science 12: 124-

126, 1908.
Olive. Sexual Cell Fusion and Vegetative Nuclear Divisions

of the Busts. Annals of Botany 22: 331-

360. 1908.
Pammel L. H. The Cedar Apple Fungi and Apple Bust of

Iowa. Bull. 84, Exper. Sta., Iowa State

College, 1905.

436 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

— . Some Diseases of Rocky Mountain Plants.

Trans. Iowa Academy of Science, 89-1 14."
Peck C. H. ' Synopsis of the New York Puccinia. New York

State Museum Eeport 25: 110-123. (Also

descriptions and notes in other numbers).
Plowright C. B. A Monograph of the British Uredineae.

London, 1889,
SappinTTrouffy. Recherches histologiques sur la famille des

, uredinees. Poitiers, 1896.
Sydow P. et H. Monographia Uredinearum, Vol. I. Genus.

Puccinia, 1904, Vol. II, Genus Uromyces,

1909 and 1910.
Trelease Wm. Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin. Wisconsin

Academy of Sciences 6, 1884. ,
Ward H. M. On the Relation between Host and Parasite in

the Bromes and their Brown Rust, Puccinia

dispersa Erikss. Annals of Bot. 16: 233-

315. 1902.

— . On the Histology of Uredo dispersa Erikss. and

the "Mycoplasm" Hypothesis. Phil. Trans.
Royal Society of London, Series B.," 196 :
29-46, 1903.
— , Recent Researches on the Parasitism of Fungi.

Annals of Botany 19 : 1-54. 1905.

Whetzel & Reddick. Occurrence of the Aecidial Stages of
Willow and Poplar Rust in Nature-/ "Science
32: 805. 1910.

NOTE.

Since this paper was revised the writer by culture experi-
ments during the early summer of 1912 established the life
history. of, several of, the .fern rusts of the .genus Uredinopsis+
These experiments have, shown . .that Uredinopsis Osmundae
Magn., U. Struthiopteridis Stormer, U. Fhegopteridis Arthur,

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA — FKASER. 437

U. mirabilis (Peck) Arthur, and U. AtJcinsonii Magn., have
their aecial stages on Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. The aecia
are the white spored forms that have passed as Peridermium
balsameum Peck.

The question arises whether these are distinct species with
like aecia or only one species that has heen regarded as distinct
on account of minor differences. The experiments as far as
they went tended to show that the species established are good
or at least are races of the same species.

The following European species has also been recognized
since the paper was revised. It adds a new species to the
American flora. The determination was made by Dr. J. C.
Arthur.

Puccinia karelica Tranz.

0. I. Pycnia and aecia in Trientalis americana (Pers.)
Pursh. Pictou, June 20, 1912.

II & III. Uredinia and telia in Carex paupercula Michx.,
Pictou, Folleigh Lake.

NOTE.

The following additional species were collected after the
preceding paper was in type.

Hyalopsora-

Cycle of development not understood ; telia and two other
spore forms known, called aecia and uredinia; aecia and
uredinia sub-epidermal, telia within the epidermal cells.

Hyalopsora Aspidiotus (Peck) Magn.

I. Aecia amphigenous, rounded, small, yellow, tardily
dehiscent. Aeciospores ellipsoid or polyhedral, large, 30-40 by
40-50/A; wall thick 2.5-3.5^, colorless, verrucose.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, irregularly scattered, round,
small, golden-yellow, somewhat pulverulent; peridium delicate.

438 THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

:"!

Urediniospores ellipsoid or oval, 19-24 by 29-35^; wall colour-
less, medium thick, minutely verrucose.

III. Telispores in the epidermal cells, globoid, often
irregular 25 by 21-35/*; usually four-celled; wall thin, IP,
colorless, smooth.

On Phegopteris Dryopteris (L.) Fee., Pictou, New Glas-
gow, July, 1912.

The spores appeared so early in spring that it does not seem
probable that they are preceded by aecia on another host, so
the writer is inclined to regard this species as autoecious.

The description of the genus and species is based on that of
Arthur in the North American Flora as all the spore forms
were not present on my collections.

Puccinia Osmorrhizae (Peck) Cooke and Peck.
O. & I. Not present on Nova Scotia collections.

II. Uredinia amphigenous, scattered, rather small, pul-
verulent, cinnamon. Urediniospores mostly ovate, yellowish,
about 25 by 28/*; wall echinulate, thick.

III. Telia blackish, elongate on the stem and" pedicels.
Teliospores ellipsoid, rounded at both ends, slightly constricted
at the septum, 21-27 by 28-35/>i; wall rather thin, slightly or
not at all thickened at the apex, reticulate; pedicel delicate,
hyaline, deciduous, shorter than the spore.

On Osmorrhiza Claytoni (Michx.) Clarke., New Glasgow,
July, 1912.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER. 439

OMISSION FKOM PAGE 364.

The third paragraph from the bottom of the page has only
the first and last line of the author's paragraph which should
read as follows :

III. Telia hypophyllous, evenly and closely scattered,
occupying all or part of the under surface of the leaf, small,
round, .2-.45 mm. across, waxy, at first yellowish-red, after-
ward dull-red; Teliospores ellipsoid, 12-15 by 12-19^; wall
•colorless* smooth, thin ; basidiopores '7-8/* in diameter.

Pycnia and aecia on the cones of Picea mariana (Mill.)
BSP., P. canadensis (Mill.) BSP., Pictou, July, 1910, 1911.

Uredinia and telia on Pyrola americana Sweet, Pictou,
Truro; P. elliptica Nutt., Pictou.

440

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER

HOST INDEX

Abies balsamea.

Calyptospora columnaris.

Melampsora arctica.

Melampsorella Cerastii.

Peridermium balsameum.

Pucciniastrum pustulatum.
Agrimonia gryposepala.

Pucciniastrum Agrimoniae.
Agropyron repens.

Puccinia agropyrina.

Puccinia graminis.
Agropyron vulgare.

Puccinia graminis.

Puccinia triticina.
Agrostis alba,

Puccinia graminis.

Puccinia perminuta.

Alopecurus pratensis.

Puccinia perplexans.
Anthoxanthum oderatum.

Puccinia Anthoxanthi.
Aralia nudicaulis.

Triphragmium clavellosum.
Arctium Lappa.

Puccinia Bardanae.

Arenaria lateriflora.

Uromyces Spartinae.
Arisaema triphyllum.

Uromyces Arisaemae.

Atriplex patula and Var. has-
tata.

Uromyces Peckianus.
Asplenlum Filix-femina.

Uredinopsis Atkinsonii.
Aspidium Thelypteris.

Uredinopsis Atkinsonii.
Aster Sp.

Coleosporium Solidaginie.

Puccinia Caricis-Asteris.
Aster acuminatus.

Puccinia Asteris.

Puccinia Caricis-Asteris.
Aster cordifolius.

Coleosporium Solidaginis.
Aster lateriflorus.

Coleosporium Solidaginis.

Puccinia Asteris.

Aster macrophyllus.

Puccinia Asteris.
Aster umbellatus.

Coleosporium Solidaginis.
Avena sativa.

Puccinia graminis.

Puccinia Lolii.
Berberis vulgaris.

Puccinia graminis. '. ,
Betula lutea.

Melampsoridium betulinum.
Betula populifolia.

Melampsoridium betulinum.
Bromus ciliatus.

Puccinia tomipara.
Calamagrostis canadensis.

Puccinia coronata.
Carex sp.

Puccinia Caricis-Asteris.

Puccinia . Caricis-Solidaginis.
Carex arctata.

Puccinia albiperidia.

Carex canescens Var. disjuncta

Puccinia caricina.
Carex crinita.

Puccinia albiperidia. -
Carex debilis Var. Rudgei.

Puccinia albiperidia.
Carex defiexa.

Uromyces perigynius.
Carex Deweyana.

Puccinia caricina.
Carex flava.

Uromyces perigynius.
Carex intumescens.

Puccinia albiperidia.

Uromyces perigynius.
Carex lurida.

Puccinia Sambuci.
Carex Novae-angliae.

Uromyces perigynius.
Carex pallescens.

Puccinia albiperidia.
Carex paupercula.

Puccinia karelica.

THE RUSTS OF NOvA SCOTIA. — F'KASER.

441

Carex scoparia.

Puccinia Caricis-Solidaginis

Uromyces perigynius.
Carex stellulata and Var.
cephalantha.

Puccinia caricina.
Carex stipata.

Puccinia Caricis-Solidaginis
Carex tenella.

Puccinia caricina.

Carex tribuloides and Var. re-
ducta.

Uromyces perigynius.
Carex trisperma.

Puccinia Caricis-Asteris
Chamaedaphne calyculata.

Melampsoropsis Cassandrae.
Chiogenis hispidula.

Melampsoropsis chiogenis
Cichorium Intybus.

Puccinia Cichorii.

Cicuta maculata.

Puccinia Cicutae.
Circaea alpina.

Puccinia Circaeae.
Circaea lutetiana.

Puccinia Oircaeae.
Cirsium arvense.

Puccinia obtegens.
Claytonia.

Puccinia claytoniata.
Clematis virginiana.

Puccinia tomipara.
Clintonia borealis.

Puccinia mesomegala.

Cornus canadensis.

Puccinia acuminata.
Distichlis spicata.

Uromyces Peckianus.
Epilobium adenocaulon.

Pucciniastrum pustulatum.
Lpilobium angustifolium.

Pucciniastrum pustulatum.
Epilobium Hornmanni.

Pucciniastrum pustulatum.
Eupatorium perfoliatum.

Puccinia Eleocharis.
GaMum asprellum.

Puccinia punctata.
Glaux maritima.

Puccinia Glaucis.

Hieracium canadense.

Puccinia Hieracii.
Hieracium scabrum.

Puccinia bicolor.

Puccinia Hieracii.
Hypericum canadense.

Uromyces Hyperici-frondosi.
Hypericum ellipticum.

Uromyces Hyperici-frondosi.
Hypericum virginicum.

[Jromyces Hyperici-frondosi.
Hordeum jubatum.

Puccinia graminis.
Iris versicolor.

Puccinia Iridis.
Juncus filiformis.

Uromyces effusus.
Juncus tenuis.

'Uromyces Silphii.

Lactuca canadensis.
Puccinia Opizii.

Lactuca spicata and Var. in-
tegrifolia.

Puccinia Opizii.
Larix laricina.

Melampsora Bigelowii.
Ledum groenlandicum.

Melampsoropsis abietina.

Melampsoropsis ledicola.
Leontodon autumnale.

Puccinia Leontodontis.
Limonium carolinianum.

Uromyces Limonii.

Luzula campestris Var. multi-
flora.

Puccinia obscura.
Luzula saltuensis.

Puccinia obscura.
Lycopus americanus.

Puccinia augustata.
Lycopus uniflorus.

Puccinia augustata.

Mentha arvensis Var. cana

densis.

Puccinia Menthae.
Myrica Gale.

Cronartium Comptoniae.
Onoclea sensibilis.

Uredinopsis mirabilis.
Onoclea struthiopteris.

Uredinopsis Struthiopteridis,

442

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA.— FBASER.

Onopordon Acanthium.

Puccinia Onopordi.
Osmorrhiza Claytoni.

Puccinia Osmorrhizae.
Osmunda cinnamomea.

Uredinopsis Osmundae.
Osmunda Claytoniana.

Uredinopsis Osmundae.

Osmunda regalis.

Uredinopsis Osmundae.
Phegopteris Dryopteris.

Uredinopsis Phegopteridis.
Hyalopsora Aspidiotus.

Phleum pratense.

Puccinia phlei-pratense.

Picea canadensis.

Melampsoropsis abietina.
Melampsoropsis ledicola.
Melampsoropsis Pyrolae. «

Picea mariana.

Melampsoropsis Cassandrae.
Melampsoropsis ledicola.
Melampsoropsis Pyrolae.

Picea rubra.

Melampsoropsis abietina.
Melampsoropsis ledicola.

Poa trivialis.

Uromyces Poae.
Populus grandidentata.
Melampsora Medusae.

Populus tremuloides.
Melampsora Medusae.

Polygonum amphibium.

Puccinia Polygoni-amphibii.
Polygonum aviculare.

Uromyces Polygon!.
Potentilla canadensis.

Phragmidium Potentillae-

canadensis.
Prenanthes altissima.

Puccinia orbiculata.

Puccinellia maritima.

Puccinia cinerea.
Pyrola americana.

Melampsoropsis Pyrolae.
Pyrola elliptica.

Melampsoropsis Pyrolae.

Pucciniastrum Pyrolae.
Ranunculus acris.

Puccinia perplexans.

Ranunculus cymbalaria.

Puccinia cinerea.
Ranunculus maritima.

Puccinia cinerea.
Ranunculus repens.

Uromyces Poae.
Rhamnus cathartica.

Puccinia Lolii.
Rhodora canadense.

Pucciniastrum minimum.
Ribes oxyacanthoides.

Puccinia albiperidia.

Ribes prostratum.

Puccinia albiperidia.

Rosa sp.

Phragmidium americanum.
Phragmidium speciosum.

Rubus glandicaulis.

Gymnoconia inter stitialis.

Rubus hispidus.

Kuehneola albida.
Rubus ideaus Var. aculeatissi-
mus.

Phragmidium imitans.
Pucciniastrum arcticum.

Rubus triflorus.

Pucciniastrum arcticum.

Rumex Acetosella.

Puccinia Acetosae.

Salix discolor.

Melampsora arctica.

Salix rostrata.

Melampsora arctica.

Melampsora Bigelowii.
Sambucus canadensis.

Puccinia Sambuci.
Scirpus campestris Var. palu-
dosus.

Uromyces Scirpi.
Scirpus cyperinus.

Puccinia angustata.
Scirpus rubrotinctus.

Puccinia angustata.

Scirpus validus.

Uromyces Scirpi.
Secale cereale.

Puccinia graminis.

Solidago bicplor.

Coleosporium Solidaginis.
Uromyces perigynius.

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — ERASER.

443

Solidago canadensis.

Goleosporium Solidaginis.
Aecidium compositorum var.
Solidaginis.

Solidago graminifolia.

Puccinia Caricis-solidaginis.

Solidago nemoralis.

Puccinia Solidaginis.
Solidago puberula.

Puccinia Solidaginis.
Solidago rugosa.

Aecidium compositorum var.
Solidaginis.

Coleosporium Solidaginis.
Spartina glabra Var. alterni-
flora.

Uromyces Spartinae.
Spartina Michauxiana.

Uromyces Spartinae.

Spartina patens.

Uromyces Spartinae.

Spergularia canadensis.

Uromyces Spartinae.
Taraxacum officinale.
Puccinia Taraxaci.
Puccinia variabilis.

Thalictrum polygonum Var,
hebecarpum.

Puccinia Thalictri.
Trientalis americana.

Puccinia karelica.

Trifolium hybridum.

Uromyces Trifolii-repentis.
Trifolium pratense.

Uromyces Trifolii.

Tsuga canadensis.

Necium Farlowii.
Melampsora Medusae.
Pucciniastrum minimum.
Pucciniastrum Myrtilli.

Vaccinium pennsylvanicum.

Calyptospora columnaris.
Pucciniastrum Myrtilli.

Vicia Cracca.

Uromyces Fabae.
Viola cucullata.

Puccinia Violae.
Zea Mays.

Puccinia Maydis.

444

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGfi

Aecidium : •• 430

Compositarum Var. Sohd-

agmis

430

Caeoma 433

Calyptospora 361

columnaris 361

Coleosporium 343

Solidaginis 343

Cronartium 369

Comptoniae 369

Gymnosporangium 390, 391

Gymnoconia 392

interstitialis 392

Hyalopsora 437

Aspidiotus 437

Kuehneola 389

albida 389

Melampsora 345

artica 348

Bigelowii 345

Medusae 347

Melampsorella 350

Cerastii 350

Melampsoridium 349

betulinum 349

Melampsoropsis 363

abietina 365

Cassandrae 367

Chiogenis 368

ledicola 366

Pyrolae 364

Necium 362

Farlowii 363

Peridermium 431

abietinum 431

balsameum 432

conorum-Piceae 431

oonsimile 431

columnare 431

declorans 431

elatinum 431

Peckii 431

Phragmidium 385

americanum 385

imitans 386

Potentillae-canadensis . . 387

speoiosum 388

Puccinia 393

Acetosae 406

acuminata . 405

PUCCINIA — Continued. pAGE

agropyrina 419

albiperidia 428

angustata 427

Anthoxanthi 420

Asteris 401

Bardanae 399

bicolor 400

Caricis-Asteris 425

Caricis-Solidagnis 426

caricina 426

Cichorii 395

Cicutae 402

cinerea . . . 423

Circaeae 404

Claytoniata 408

coronata 415

Eleocharis 429

Glaucis . 407

graminis 411

Hieracii 394

Iridis 404

karelica 437

Leontodontis 399

Lolii 414

Maydis 416

Menthae 406

mesomegala 405

obscura „.'... 422

obtegens 395

Onopordi 398

Opizii 424

orbiculata 397

Osmorrhizae 438

perminuta 422

perplexans 420

Phlei-pratensis 413

Polygoni-amphibii 409

punctata 410

Sambuci 424

Solidaginis 400

Taraxaci 397

Thalictri 403

tomipara 421

triticina 417

variabilis 393

Violae 409

Pucciniastrum 351

Agrimonae 356

articum 352

minimum 355

THE RUSTS OF NOVA SCOTIA. — FRASER.

445

PucciNiA STRUM - Continued.

Myrtilli 353

pustulatum 351

Pyrolae 354

Roestelia 433

Triphragmium 389

clavellosum 390

Uredinopsis 356

Atkinsonii 359

mirabilis 358

Osmundae 357

Phegopteridis 360

Struthiopteridis ..... 359

•U romyces 370

Arisaemae . . 380

UROMYCES — Continued. PAGE

effusus 378

Fabae 382

Hyperici-frondosi 384

Limonii 381

Peckianus 374

perigynius 372

Poae 373

Polygon! 379

Scirpi 371

Silphii 377

Spartinae 376

Trifolii 382

Trifolii-repentis 383

PKOC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci. VOL. XII.

TRANS. 30

THE OCCURRENCE OF OPAL IN GRANITE NEAR NEW Ross,
LUNENBURG COUNTY, N. S. — BY HARRY PIERS,
Curator of the Provincial Museum, Halifax, N. S.

Read 23rd May, 1910.

On 15th March, 1910, the Provincial Museum received
from Charles Keddy of Lake Ramsay, near New Ross, Lunen-
burg County, N. S., a prospector whose name is connected
with th© discovery in 1906 of tin ore and other minerals in
that interesting district, a small mineral specimen which he
desired to have identified (museum accession no. 3538).

He stated that he had found it in a vein of quartz, about
two or three inches wide, cutting mixed red and white granite,
on land owned by Amos Gates, between New Ross and Lake'
Ramsay, Lunenburg County, 1ST. S. The location is 1^8 mile
west of the cross-roads at New Ross, and !*/£ mile southeast of
the south end of Lake Ramsay, while it is afyout l/4 of a mile
south of the Dalhousie Road and about ^$th of a mile east of
Larder River. From the cassiterite deposit at John Reeves's,
it is \Y* mile east, and about % of a mile northeast of the
molybdenite occurrence on Larder River. (Vide map of the
district marked by Mr. Keddy).

It is presumed that this quartz-vein, is related to the
pegmatite dikes and schlierens which are met with in that
district, and in one of which occurs the Cassiterite which has
been reported on.* It is probable that the vein is the ultimate
penetration of pegmatitic matter into the granite, as granitic
dikes are frequently found to pass at length into quartz alone,
the mica and orthoclase constituents having been earlier
deposited, thus leaving the acidic remainder to intrude furthest
into the enclosing mass.

*Piers.-^Occurrence of Tin in Nova Scotia: Trans. K S. Inst. Science, xii,
Pt. 3, p. 239.

(446)

OCCURRENCE OF OPAL NEAR NEW ROSS, N. S. — PIERS. 447

The specimen is the Girasol variety of Opal, which is
defined by Dana as "bluish- white, translucent, with reddish
reflections in a bright light." More play of colours or fire-like
reflections would make it a Preciouu or a Fire-opal; and a
lack of such colour, a Common Opal. ,

The specimen furnishes the following description: Its
greatest length is .35 of an inch; and its thickness about .22
of an inch. The original weight was 40.9 centigrammes.
Hardness about 6. Specific gravity, 2.12 (Opal has a specific
gravity varying from 1.9 to 2.3; but when pure, from 2.1 to
2.2; being thus less than quartz, which is from 2.5 to 2.8),
The lustre is vitreous osr subvitreous. Colour milk-white, with
rather feeble internal reflections or glows of a delicate
vinaceous-pink (pale yellowish pink) colour, when turned
about in a strong light. Streak white. In diaphaneity it is
subtransparent.

It is soluble, when powdered, in strong, hot potassium
hydroxide; gives off water when heated in the closed tube; is
infusible before the blowpipe ; and is readily scratched by
quartz (7) and scratches apatite (5). These characteristics
and its low specific gravity plainly show that it is not any of
the varieties of ordinary quartz.

Mr. Keddy writes me (18th May, 1910) that he has a
smaller specimen which is much handsomer, having more play
of colours, red, yellow and blue ; and if this is so, it must more
nearly approach the Precious Opal.

With these handsomer specimens, he says, there were found
others, reddish-brown and yellow, and opaque; all occurring
in the same quartz vein. The Museum received from him
on 19th November, 1910, two of these latter duller specimens
(accession no. 3661). They consist of Common Opal (milky
white) in what is doubtless Jasp-opal (brownish yellow). One
of these two specimens weighs 21.1 centigrammes and is of a
cinnamon (brownish yellow) colour and opaque; with milk-

448 OCCURRENCE OF OPAL NEAR NEW ROSS, N. S. — PIERS.

white, opaque, to greyish translucent patches and minute
mottlings and spots; and it has a specific gravity in the whole
of 2.24. The other one, which weighs 24.7 centigrammes, is
mostly of a cinnamon colour, dull and opaque; with minute
circular spots of milk-white, opaque mineral ; and has a specific
gravity of 2.34. The higher specific gravity of these two
specimens as compared with the Girasol, is doubtless owing to
the impure hrownish yellow mineral in the former, whose
colour is owing to the presence of impurity in the form of
iron oxide.*

The occurrence of Opal near New Boss is a very interesting
addition to the long list of rare or otherwise noteworthy
minerals found in that locality, f The Opals here described
are not brilliant enough to make -them of commercial value as
precious stones, but it is not unlikely that others of finer fire
may yet be found there.

Regarding the finding of Opal in Nova Scotia in the past,
it may be noted that Dr. Abraham Gesner ("Geology and
Mineralogy of 1ST. S.," 1836, p. 248) speaks of the occurrence
of Opal and Semiopal in the triassic trap of Partridge Island,
Cumberland County, "N. S., and says he had obtained two
small nodules of the former, both resembling pieces of wax.
Prof. Henry How ("Mineralogy of E". S.," 1869, p. 185)
refers to Gesner' s statement just mentioned, and says that
Semiopal or Common Opal is found at a few localities in the

*Another specimen received on 18th April, 1913, from Mr. Keddy is about an
inch in diameter, and was thought by him to be Common Opal, but on examination
proves to be Chalcedony. It is cryptocrystalline, has a concoidal fracture,
scratches glass readily (hardness 7), is subtranslucent, has a dull waxy lustre,
and is white in color. It has a specific gravity of 2.56 (which is greater than that
of Opal), and is not soluble in hot potassium hydroxide. Small tongues of grey-
ish translucent mineral penetrate a short distance from, the sides, and may possi-
bly be opal-silica, which would account for the specific gravity being slightly
below the normal for Chalcedony (2.60-2.64). The lack of sharp edges to this
specimen, at first suggested that it might have been found loose in the soil, but
Mr. Keddy assures me that he got it out of the Opal-bearing vein when he was
taking off its surface.

tSee Trans. N. S. Inst. Science, xii, p. 3, p. 246. Also Faribault (E. R.), Sum-
mary Report Geol. Survey Canada, 1907, p. 80; and Young (G. A.), ib. p. 77.

OCCURRENCE OF OPAL NEAR NEW ROSS, N. S. — PIERS. 449

province, that it is generally white or nearly so in colour, and
that some of the mineral so called may be Cacholong. A
specimen which he considered to be Opal-agate was found as a
loose pebble at Beech Hill, to the southward of Kentville,
Kings County, and a portion of it was sent to Mr. Julius
Cornelius, jeweller, of Halifax, who had it cut and polished,
and so produced handsome seal or ring-stones composed of
white and bluish-white stripes about the sixteenth of an inch
thick. The only occurrences mentioned in How's list of
mineral localities are at "Partridge Island (opal, semiopal) ,"
and "Beech Hill (opal-agate, loose)." Diatomaceous Earth,
which chemically is a variety of Opal, is found in a large num-
ber of lakes of Nova Scotia ; and Cacholong is also a variety
of the same mineral. These, however, are of no interest to
the lapidary.

Precious and Common Opal usually occur as hydration
products filling cavities and fissures or .seams in igneous rocks,
such as trachyte, porphyry, etc. ; also in mineral veins and
elsewhere.

In closing, it may be mentioned that a beautiful blue, trans-
parent mineral is reported to have been found by John Beeves in
in the pegmatite debris at the tin prospect on his land about
% of a mile south-southwest of the south extremity
of Lake Bamsay, to the west of New Boss. It was shown to
me, and is undoubtedly very beautiful, but I had no oppor-
tunity of making an examination whereby its character might
be ascertained. It has been suggested that it may be a blue
Beryl, which is not improbable. Beryls have been found
there, although I presume that they were of the common green
variety.

I.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1906-07.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Bayer, Rufus, Halifax March 4, 1890

Bishop, Watson L., Supt. of Water Works, Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 6, 1898

Bowman, Maynard, B. A , Public Analyst, Halifax March 13, 1884

Brown, Richard H., Halifax Feb. 2, 1903

Budge, Daniel, General Supt. Halifax & Bermuda Cable uo., Halifax Oct. 30, 1903

*Campbell, Donald A., M. D., Halifax Jan. 31,1890

Campbell. George Murray, M. D., Halifax Nov. 10, 1884

Colpitt, Parker R., City Electrician, Halifax Feb. 2, 1903

* Da vis, Charles Henry, c. E., New York City, U. S. A Dec- 5, 1900

Dixon, Prof. Stephen Mitchell, B. A., B. A. i., University of Birmingham,

Birmingham, England April 8, 1902

Doane, Francis William Whitney, City Engineer, Halifax Nov. 3, 1886

Donkin, Hiram, c. E., Deputy Com. of Mines, Halifax ;. . Nov. 30. 1892

Egan, Thomas J., Halifax *. . Jan. 6. 1890

Fearon, James, Principal, Deaf and Dumb Institution, Halifax May 8, 1894

*Forbes, John, Moncton, N. B March 14, 1883

*Fraser, C. Frederick, LL. D., Principal, School for the Blind, Halifax. . .March 31 1890

Freeman, Philip A., engineer, Hx. Elec. Tramway Co., Hx Nov. 6, 1906

Gates, Herbert E., Architect, Halifax April 17,1899

Hattie, William Harrop, M. D., Supt. N. S. Hospital, Dartmouth Nov. 12, 1892

Hay ward, A. A., Halifax Nov. 7,1905

Irving, G. W. T., Education Dept., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Jack, Prof. Ernest Brydone, M. A., c. E.. Dalhousie College, Halifax Nov. 7, 1905

Johnston, Harry W., c. E., Asst. City Engineer, Halifax Dec 31, 1894

*Laing, Rev. Robert. Halifax Jan. 11,1885

McCarthy, Prof. J. B., B. A.. M. sc., King's College, Windsor, N. S Dec. 4, 1901

McColl, Roderick, c. E., Provl. Engineer, Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Macdonald, Simon D., F. G. s., Halifax March 14, 1881

*MacGregor Prof. James Gordon, M. A., n. sc., F. R. s., F. R. s. c., Edin-
burgh University, Edinburgh, Scotland Jan. 11, 1877

Mclnnes, Hector, LL. B., Halifax Nov. 27,1889

*McKay, Alexander, Supervisor of Schools, Halifax Feb. 5, 1872

*MacKay, Alexander Hector, B. A., B. sc., LL. D., F. R. s. c., Superintend-
ent of Education, Halifax Oct.. 11,1885

MacKay, Prof. Ebenezer, PH. D., Dalhousie College, Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

"MacKay, George M. Johnstone, Dartmouth, N. S Dec. 18, 1903

MacKenzie, Prof. Arthur Stanley, PH. D., Dalhousie College, Halifax . ..Nov. 7, 1905

McKerron William, Halifax . . . . .- Nov. 30, 1891

*Life Members.
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XII. APP. I.

II LIST OF MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Marshall, Gilford R., Principal. Compton Avenue School, Halifax .... April 4, 1891

Morton, S. A.. M. A., County Academy, Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

Murphy, Martin, c. E., D. sc., i. s. o., Saskatoon, Sask Jan. 15, 1870

Murray. Prof. Daniel Alexander, Ph. D., Dalhousie College, Halifax . . . .Dec. 18, 1903
Piers, Harry, Curator Provincial Museum and Librarian Provincial

Science Library. Halifax Nov. 2, 1888

*Poole, Henry Skeffington, A. M., ASSOC. K. s. M , F. 6. 8 , F. K. s. c , M.

CAN. soc. c. E., HON. MEM. INST. M. E , Halifax Nov. 11, 1872

Read, Herbert H., M. D., L. 11 c. 8.. Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

*Robb, D. W., Amherst, N. S March 4, 1890

Rutherford, John, M. E., Halifax Jan. 8, 1865

Sexton. Prof. Frederic H., Director of Technical Education, Halifax Dec. 18, 1903

*Smith. Prof. H. W , B.SC., Agricultural School, Truro, N. S.; Assoc.

Memb., Jan. 6, 1890 , Dec. 1900

•Stewart, John, M. B. c. M., Halifax Jan. 12, 1885

Wheaton, L. H., Chief Engineer, Coast Railway Co., Yarmouth, N. S — Nov. 29, 1894

Wilson, Robert J., Secretary, School Board, Halifax May 3, 1889

Winfleld, James H., Manager, N. S. Telephone Co., Halifax Dec. 18, 1903

Woodman, Prof J. Edmund, M. A , D. sc., School of Mining and Metal-
lurgy, Dalhousie College, Halifax Dec. 3, 1902

*Yorston, W. G., C.E., City Engineer, Sy dney, C. B Nov. 12. 1892

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

Archibald, Monro. B. A., B. sc, Truro, N. S Nov. 7,1905

*Uaie, Robert, Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 31,1890

*Dickenson, S. S., Commercial Cable Co., New York, U. S. A March 4, 1895

Edwards, Arthur M., M. D., F. L. s , Newark, N. J Dec. 12, 1898

Gates, Reginald R., University of Chicago, Chicago, 111., U. S. A Feb. 2, 1903

Haley, Prof. Frank R , Acadia College, Wolf ville, N. S Nov. 5, 1901

Harlow, L .C., B. sc., Prov. Normal School, Truro, N. S y ..March 23, 1905

Haycock, Prof. Ernest, Acadia College, Wolf ville, N. S '. . .May 17, 1899

Hunton, Prof. S. W , M. A. Mount Allison College, Sackville, N. B ...... .Jan. 6, 1890

Jaggar, Miss A Louise, Cambridge, Mass Dec. 5, 1900

James, C. C., M. A., Depy. Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario Dec 3, 1896

Jennison, W. F., Sydney, C. B May 5, 1903

^ Johns, Thomas W., Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

*Keating, E. H., c. E., Toronto Ry. Co., Toronto Ont; Ord. Memb.

April 12, 1882 April 11, 1900

Lawrence, H., D. n. s., Wolf ville, N. S March 9, 1903

Mclntosh, Kenneth, St. Peters, C. B.; Ord. Memb, Jan. 4,1892 June 1900

*MacKay, Hector H., M. D., New Glasgow, N. S Feb. 4, 1902

McKenzie, W. B., c. E., Moncton, N. B March 31, 1882

McLeod, R. R., Brookfield, N. S Dec. 3, 1897

Magee, W. H., PH. D., Annapolis, N. S Nov. 29, 1894

Mathcson. W. G., New Glasgow, N. S Jan. 31,1890

Payzant, E N., M. D., Wolf ville, N. S April 8, 1902

Pineo, Avard V., LL. B., Kentville, N. S Nov. 5, 1901

*Reid, A. P., M. D., L. R. c. 8., Middleton. Annapolis Co., N. S , . . . Jan. 31, 1890

•Robinson, C. B., B.A., New York Botanical Garden, New York, U. S. A. .Dec. 3, 1902

*Rosborough. Rev. James, Musquodoboit Harbour, N. S Nov. 29. 1894

Russell, Prof. Lee, B. s., Worcester, Mass Dec. 3, 1896

Sawyer, Prof. Everett W., Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S Feb. 6, 1901

*Life Members.

LIST OF MEMBERS. Ill

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Ami, Henry M., n. sc., F. G. s., F R. s. c., Geological Survey, Ottawa,

Ontario Jan. 2, 1892

Bailey, Prof. L. W., PH. D., LL. D,, F. R. s. c.. Fredericton, N. B Jan. 6, 1890

Ball. Rev. E. H., Tangier, N. S Nov. 29, 1871

Bethune, Rev. Charles J. S., M. A., D. c. L , F. R. s. c , Ontario Agricultural

College, Guelph, Ont -Dec. 29, 1868

Cox, Philip, B. sc., PH. D., Chatham, N. B Dec. 3, 1902

Dobie, W. Henry, M. D., Chester, England Dec. 3, 1897

Ells, R. W., LL. D., F. G. s. A., F. R. s. c., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ont Jan. 2, 1894
Faribault, E. Rodolphe, B. A., B. sc., Geological Survey of Canada,

Ottawa ; Assoc. Memb., March 6, 1888 Dec. 3, 1902

Fletcher, Hugh, B. A., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario March 3, 1891

Fletcher, James, LL. D., F. L. s , F. R. s. c., Entomologist and Botanist,

Central Exp. Farm, Ottawa, Ontario March 2, 1897

Ganong, Prof. W. F., B. A., PH. D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass.,

U. S. A Jan. 6, 1890

Hardy, Maj -General Campbell, R. A., Dover, England. (Originally ad-
mitted Jan. 26, 1863) Oct. 30, 1903

Harrington, W. Hague, F. R. s. c., Post Office Department, Ottawa May 5, 1896

Hay, George U., D. sc , F. R. s c., St. John, N. B. Dec. 3, 1902

Litton, Robert T. , F. G. s., Melbourne, Australia May 5, 1892

McSwain, John. Charlottetown, P. E. I Dec. 3,1902

Matthew, G. F.. M. A., D. sc., F. R. s. c., St. John, N. B Jan. 6, 1890

Maury, Rev. Mytton, D. D., Ithaca, N. Y., U. S. A Nov. 30, 1891

Mowbray, Louis L., Hamilton, Bermuda May 3, 1907

Peter, Rev. Brother Junian, Fall River, Mass., U. S. A Dec. 12, 1898

Pickford, Charles, Halifax March 2, 1900

Prest, Walter Henry, M. E , Webbwood, Ont ; Assoc. Memb., Nov. 29 1894, Nov. 2, 1900

Prichard, Arthur H. Cooper ....Dec. 4,1901

Prince, Prof. E. E., Commissioner and General Inspector of Fisheries,

Ottawa, Ontario Jan. 5, 1897

Life Members.

1V LIST OF PRESIDENTS.

LIST OF PRESIDENTS

OP THE NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OP NATURAL SCIENCE, AFTERWARDS

THE NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, SINCE ITS
FOUNDATION IN 1862.

Term of Office.

Hon. Philip Carteret Hill, D. c. L 31 Dec. 1862 to 26 Oct. 1863

John Matthew Jones, F. L. s., F. R. 8. c 26 Oct. 1863 " 8 Oct. 1873

John Bernard Gilpin, M. A., M. D., M. R. C. S 8 Oct. 1873 " 9 Oct. 1878

William Gossip 9 Oct. 1878 " 13 Oct. 1880

John Somers, M. D 13 Oct. 1880 " 26 Oct. 1883

Robert Morrow 26 Oct. 1883 " 21 Oct. 1885

John Somers, M. D 21 Oct. 1885 " 10 Oct. 1888

Prof. James Gordon MacGregor, M. A., D. sc., F.R.S.. F.R.S c. 10 Oct. 1888 " 9 Nov. 1891

Martin Murphy, c. E., D. sc., i. s. o 9 Nov. 1891 " 8 Nov. 1893

Prof. George Lawson, PH. D., LL. D., F. i. c., F. R. s. c 8 Nov. 1893 " 10 Nov. 1895

Edwin Gilpin, Jr., M. A., LL. D., D. sc., F. o. s., F. R. s. c., i.s.o.18 Nov. 1895 " 8 Nov. 1897

Alexander McKay 8 Nov. 1897 " 20 Nov. 1899

Alexander Howard MacKay, B. A., B. sc., LL. D., F. R. 8. c.. .20 Nov. 1899 " 24 Nov. 1902
Henry Skeffington Poole, M A., D. sc., A. R. s. M., F. G. s.,

F. R. s. c 24 Nov. 1902

Francis William Whitney Doane, c. E 18 Oct. 1905

Prof. Ebenezer MacKay, PH. D 11 Nov. 190T

NOTE— Since 1879 the presidents of the Institute have been ex-ojfteio Fellows of the
Royal Microscopical Society.

The first general meeting of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science was
held at Halifax, on 31st December, 1862. On 24th March, 1890, the name of the society
was changed to the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, and it was incorporated by an
act of the legislature in the same year.

APPENDIX II.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1907-08.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date of Admission

Bancroft, George R., Hx. Academy, Halifax Jan. 7, 1908

Bayer, Rufus, Halifax March 4, 1890

Bishop, Watson L., Supt. of Water Works, Dartmouth, N. S , Jan. 6, 1890

Bowman, Maynard, B. A., Public Analyst, Halifax. — March 13, 1884

Brown, Richard H., Halifax Feb. 2,1903

Budge, Daniel, General Supt. Halifax & Bermuda Cable <JOM Halifax Oct. 30, 1903

*Campbell, Donald A., M. D., Halifax Jan. 31, 1890

Campbejl, George Murray, M. D., Halifax Nov. 10,1884

Colpitt, Parker R., City Electrician, Halifax ..Feb. 2, 1903

Creighton, H. Jermain M., M. A., Dartmouth Jan. 7, 1908

*Davis, Charles Henry, c. E., New York City, U. S. A Dec. 5, 1900

Dixon, Prof. Stephen Mitchell, B. A., B. A. I., University of Birmingham,

Birmingham, England April 8, 1902

Doane, Francis William Whitney, City Engineer, Halifax Nov. 3, 1886

Donkin, Hiram, c. E., Deputy Com. of Mines, Halifax Nov. 30. 1892

Egan, Thomas J., Halifax Jan. 6, 1890

Fearon, James, Principal, Deaf and Diimb Institution, Halifax May 8, 1894

* Forbes, John, Halifax March 14, 1883

*Fraser, C. Frederick, LL. D., Principal, School forthe Blind, Halifax. . . .March 31. 1890

Freeman, Philip A., engineer, Hx. Elec. Tramway Co., Hx Nov. 6, 1906

Gates, Herbert E., architect, Halifax April 17, 1899

Harlow, A. C., Morris St. School, Halifax Jan. 7, 1908

Hattie, William Harrop, M. D., Supt, N. S. Hospital, Dartmouth Nov. 12, 1892

Hayward, A. A., Halifax Nov. 7,1905

Irving, G. W. T., Education Tept., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Johnston, Harry W., c. E., Asst. City Engineer, Halifax Dec. 31, 1894

*Laing, Rev. Robert, Halifax Jan. 11, 1885

McCallam, A. L., B. so., analyst, Halifax Jan. 7, 1908

McCarthy, Prof. J. B., B. A., M. sc., King's College, Windsor, N. S Dec. 4, 1901

McColl, Roderick, c. E., Provl. Engineer, Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

*MacGregor, Prof. James Gordon, M. A., n. sc., F. R. s., F. R. s. c., Edin-
burgh University, Edinburgh, Scotland Jan. 11, 1877

Mclnnes, Hector, LL. B., Halifax Nov. 27,1889

'McKay, Alexander, Supervisor of Schools, Halifax Feb. 5, 1872

*MacKay, Alexander Hector, B. A., B. sc., LL. D., F. R. s. c., Superintend-
ent of Education, Halifax Oct.. 11, 1885

MacKayr Prof. Ebenezer, PH. D., Dalhousie College, Halifax Nov. 27,1889

*MacKay, George M. Johnstonc, Dartmouth, N. S Dec. 18, 1903

MacKenzie, Prof. Arthur Stanley, PH. D., Dalhousie College, Halifax . ..Nov. 7, 1905

McKerron., William, Halifax Nov. 30, 1891

Macneill, Prof . Murray, Dalhousie College, Jan. 7, 19C8

*Life Members.
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XII. APP. II.

VI LIST OF MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Marshall, Guilford R., B. A., Halifax April 4, 1894

Moore, Clarence L., M. A., Superv. of Schools, Sydney . . . Jan. 7, 1908

Morton, S. A., M. A., County Academy, Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

Murphy, Martin, c. E.. D. sc., I. I. o., Saskatoon, Sask Jan. 15, 1870

Murray, Prof. Daniel Ale-.ander, Ph. D., Montreal Dec. 18, 1903

Pickings H. B., Mines Department. Halifax May 6, 1908

Piers, Harry, Curator Provincial Museum an 1 Librarian Provincial

Science Library, Halifax .......Nov. 2,1888

*Poole, Henry Skeffington, A. M , ASSOC. R. s. M., p. G. s., p. R. s. c., M.

cm. soc. c. E., HOX. MEM. IXST. M. E , Davonpn-t. England. Nov. 11, 1872

Read, Herbert H , M. D , L. R. c s., Halifax Nov. 27, 18S9

*Robb, D. W., Amherst, N. S March 4,1890

Robinson, Ernest, B. A., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 7, 1908

Rutherford, John, M. E., Halifax Jan. 8, 1865

Sexton, Prof. Frederic, H., Director of Technical Education, Halifax . . . .Dec 18, 1903
*3mith, Prof. H. W., B. so., Agricultural School, Truro, N S ; Assoc.

Memb. Jan. 6. 1890 Dec. 1900

"Stewart, John, M. B. c. M., Halifax Jan. 12, 1885

Stone, Prof. A. E., Dalhousie College, Halifax Jan. 7, 1908

Wheaton, L. H., Chief Engineer, Coast Railway Co.," Yarmouth, N S . . . . Nov. 29, 1894

Wilson. Robert J-, Secretary, School Board, Halifax May 3, 1889

Winflcld, James H , Manager, N. S. Telephone Co., Halifax Dec. 18, 1903

Woodman, Prof. J. Edmund, M. A. D. sc., School of Mining and Metal-
lurgy, Dalhousie College, Halifax Dec. 3, 1902 ,

*Yorston. W. G., C. E., City Engineer, Sydney, C. B Nov. 12, 1892

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

Archibald, Monro, B. A., B. sc., Truro, N. S Nov. 7, 1905

*Caie, Robert, Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

*Dickenson, S. S., Commercial Cable Co , New York, U. S. A March 4, 1895

Edwards, Arthur M., M. D., F. L. s., Newark, N. J Dec. 12, 1898

Gates, Reginald R. University of Chicago. Chicgao, 111., U. S. A Feb. 2, 1903

Haley. Prof. Frank R., Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S ,. .Nov. 5, 1901

Harlow, L. C., B. sc., Prov. Normal School, Truro, N. S March 23, 1905

Haycock. Prof. Ernest, Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S May 17, 1899

Hunton Prof. S. W., M. A., Mount Allison College, Sackville, N. B Jan. 6, 1890

Jaggar, Mi&s A. Louise, Cambridge, Mass Dec. 5, 1900

James, C. C., M. A., Deputy Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario Dec. 3, 1896

Jennison. W. F. Sydney, C. B May, 5, 1903

*Johns, Thomas W., Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27,1889

*Keating, E.^H., c. E., Toronto, Ont.; Order Memb. April, 12, 1882 April 11, 1900

Lawrence, H., D. D. s., Wolfville, N. S March 9, 1903

*MacKay, Hector, H., M. D., New Glasgow, N, S Feb. 4, 1902

MacKenzie. W. B., 0 E., Moncton, N. B March 31, 1882

Magee, W. H.. Pit. D., Annapolis, N. S Nov. 29 1894

Matheson, W. G., New Glasgow, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

Payzant, E. N., M. D., Wolfville, N, S April 8, 1902

Pineo, Avard V., LL. B., Kentville, N. S Nov. 5, 1901

*Reid, A. P., M. D., L. R. c. s., Middleton, Annapolis, NT. S Jan. 31, 1890

*Robinscn, C. B., PH.D , New York Botanical Garden, New York, U .S.A.Dec. 3, 1002

"Rosborough, Rev. James, Musquodoboit Harbour, N. S Nov. 29, 1894

Sawyer, Prof. Everett, W., Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S Feb. 6, 1C01

*Lifo Members.

LIST OF MEMBERS. VII

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Ami, Henry M., D. sc., F. G. s., F R. s. c., Geological Survey, Ottawa,

Ontario Jan. 2, 1892

Bailey, Prof. L. W., PII. D., LL. D., F. R. s. c., Fredericton, N. B. . . , Jan. 6, 1890

Ball, Rev. E. H., Tangier, N. S Nov. 29, 1871

Bethune, Rev. Charles J. S., M. A., D. c. L., F. R. s. c., Ontario Agricultural

College, Guelph, Ont Dec. 29, 1868

Cox, Philip, B. sc., PH. D., Fredericton, N. B Dec. 3, 1902

Dobie, W. Henry, M. D., Chester, England Dec. 3, 1897

Ells, R. W., LL. D., F. G. s. A., F. R. s. c., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ont .Jan. 2, 1891
Faribault, E. Rodolphe, B. A., B. sc., Geological Survey of Canada,

Ottawa; Assoc.Memb., March 6, 1888- Dec. 3, 1902

Fletcher, Hugh, B. A., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario March 3, 1891

Ganong, Prof. W. F., B. A., PH. D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass.,

U.S. A Jan. 6, 1890

Hardy, Maj. -General Campbell, R. A., Dover, England. (Originally ad-
mitted Jan. 26, 1863) .Oct. 30, 1903

Harrington, W. Hague, F. R. s. c., Post Office Department, Ottawa May 5, 1896

Hay, George U., D. sc , F. R. s c., St. John, N. B Dec. 3, 1902

Litton, Robert T. , F. G. s., Melbourne, Australia May 5, 1892

Matthew, G. F., M. A., D. sc., F. R. s. c., St. John, N. B Jan. 6, 1890

Maury, Rev. Mytton, D. D., Ithaca, N. Y., U. S. A Nov. 30, 1891

Mowbray, Louis L., Hamilton, Bermuda May 3, 1907

Peter, Rev. Brother Junian Dec. 12, 1898

Prest, Walter Henry, M. E., Webbwood, Ont ; Assoc. Memb., Nov. 29, 1894, Nov. 2, 1900

Prichard, Arthur H. Cooper Dec. 4, 1901

Prince, Prof. E. E., Commissioner and General Inspector of Fisheries,

Ottawa, Ontario Jan. 5, 1897

Whiteaves, J. F., LL. D., F. G. s., F. R. s. c., Govt. Survey of Canada,

Ottawa Nov. 4,1907

VJII

LIST OF PRESIDENTS.

LIST OF PRESIDENTS

OP THE NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF NATURAL SCIENCE, AFTERWARDS

THE NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, SINCE ITS

FOUNDATION IN 1862.

Term of Office.

Hon. Philip Carteret Hill, D. c. L 31 Dec. 1862 to 26 Oct. 1863

John Matthew Jones, F. L. s., F. R. S. c 26 Oct. 1863 " 8 Oct. 1873

John Bernard Gilpin, M. A., M. D., M. R. C. S 8 Oct. 1873 " 9 Oct. 1878

William Gossip 9 Oct. 1878 " 13 Oct. 1880

John Somers, M. D 13 Oct. 1880 " 26 Oct. 1883

Robert Morrow 26 Oct. 1883 " 21 Oct. 1885

John Somers, M. D 21 Oct. 1885 " 10 Oct. 1888

Prof. James Gordon MacGregor, M. A., T>. sc., F.R.S.. F.R.S c. 10 Oct. 1888 " 9 Nov. 1891

Martin Murphy, c. E., D. sc., I. s. o 9 Nov. 1891 " 8 Nov. 1895

Prof. George Lawson, PH. D., LL. D., F. i. c., F. R. s. c 8 Nov. 1893 " 10 Nov. 1897

Edwin Gilpin, Jr., M. A., LL. D., D. sc., F. G. s., F. R. s. c., l.s.o.18 Nov. 1895 -" 8 Nov. 1899

Alexander McKay 8 Nov. 1897 " 20 Nov. 1893

Alexander Howard MacKay, B. A., B. sc., LL. D., F. R. s. c.. .20 Nov. 1899 " 24 Nov. 1902
Henry Skeffington Poole, M A., D. sc., A. R. s. M., F. G. s.,

F. R. s. C 24 Nov. 1902 " 18 Oct. 1905

Francis William Whitney Doane, c. E 18 Oct. 1905 " 11 Nov. 1907

Prof. Ebenezer MacKay, PH. D ....11 Nov. 1907 "

NOTE— Since 1879 the presidents of the Institute have been ex-officio Fellows of the
Royal Microscopical Society.

The first general meeting of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science was
held at Halifax, on 31st December, 1862. On 24th March, 1890, the name of the society
was changed to the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, and it was incorporated by an
act of the legislature in the same year.

III.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1908-09.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date of Admission

Bancroft. George R., Academy, Halifax Ian. 7, 1908

Bishop, Watson L., Supt. Water Works, Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 6, 1890

Bowman, Maynard. B. A., Public Analyst, Halifax Mar. 13, 188.4

Brown, Richard H., Halifax ." Feb. 2, 1903

Budge, Daniel, General Supt. Halifax & Bermuda Cable Co., Halifax. .Oct. 30, 1903

•Campbell, Donald A., M. D., Halifax Jan. 31, 1890

Campbell, George Murray, M. D., Halifax Nov. 10, 1884

Colpitt. Parker R,, City Electrician, Halifax Feb. 2, 1903

Creighton H. Jermain M., M. A., D. sc., Dartmouth Jan. 7, 1908

*Davis, Charles Henry, c. B., New York City, U. S. A Dec. 5, 1900

Doane, Francis William Whitney, City Engineer, Halifax Nov. 3, 1886

Donkin, Hiram, M. B., Deputy Com. of Mines Halifax Nov. 30, 1892

Fergusson, Donald M., chemist, Acadia Sugar Ref . Co., Halifax .... Jan. 5, 1909

*Forbes, John, Halifax M.r. 14, 1S83

*Fraser, C. Frederick, LL. D., Principal, School for the Blind, Halifax. .Mar. 31.1890

Freeman, Philip A., Hx. Elect. Tramway Co., Halifax Nov. 6, 1906

Harlow. A. C., Morris Street School, Halifax Jan. 7, 1908

Hattie, William Harrop, M. D,. Supt. N. S. Hospital, Dartmouth . . . .Nov. 12, 1892

Hayward, A. A., Halifax Nov. 7. 1905

Irving, G. W. T., Education Dept., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Johnston, Harry W., c. E., Asst. City Engineer, Halifax Dec. 31, 1894

*Laing, Rev. Robert, Halifax .Jan. 11, 1885

McCallum, A. L., B. sc., analyst, Halifax .Jan. 7, 1908

McCarthy, Prof. J. B., B. A., M. sc.. King's College, Windsor, N. S. . .Dec. 4, 1901

McColl, Roderick, c. E.. Provincial Engineer, Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

*MacGregor, Prof. James Gordon, M. A., D. sc., F. B. s., F. R. s. c.

Edinburgh University, Edinburgh, Scotland Jan. 11,1877

Mclnnes, Hector, LL. B., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

*McKay, Alexander, M. AV Supervisor of Schools, Halifax Feb. 5, 1872

*MacKay, Alexander Hector. B. A., B. sc., LL. D., F. R. s. c., Superin-
tendent of Education, Halifax Oct. 11, 1885

Mackay, Prof. Ebenezer. PH. D,, Dalhousie College, Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

*MacKay, George M. Johnstone, Dartmouth. N. S -. -Dec. 18, 1903

MacKenzie, Prof. Arthur Stanley, PH. D., Dalhousie College, Halifax. . Nov. 7. 1905

McKerron, William, Halifax Nov. 30, 1891

McLearn, F. H., B. A., Halifax Oct. 14, 1908

Macneill, Prof. Murray, Dalhousie College Jan. 7, 1908

*Life Members.
PROC. & TRANS. X. S INST. Sci., VOL. XII. Apr. III.

X LIST OF MEMBERS.

Date of Admission

Marshall, Guilford R., B. A., Halifax Apr. 4, 1894

Moore, Prof. Clarence L., M. A., Dalhousie College, Halifax Jan. 7, 1908

Morton, S. A., M. A., County Academy, Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

Murray, Prof. Daniel Alexander, PH. D., Montreal Dec. 18, 1903

Pickings, H. B., Mines Department, Halifax May 6, 1908

Piers, Harry, Curator Provincial Museum and Librarian Provincial

Science Library, Halifax Nov. 2 1888

*Poole, Henry Skefflngton, A. M. ASSOC. R. s. M., r. G. s., r. R. s. c.

CAN. soc. c. E., HON MEM. INST. M. E., Guildford, Surrey,

England Nov. 11, 1872

*Robb, D. W., Amherst, N. S Mar. 4, 1890

Robinson, Ernest B. A., Canning, N. S Jan. 7, 1908

Rutherford, John, M. E., Halifax Jan. 8, 1865

Sexton, Prof. Frederic H., Director of Technical Education, Halifax.. Dec. 18,1903
*Smith, Prof. H. W. B. sc., Agricultural College, Truro, N. S. ;

Assoc. Memb.. Jan. 6, 1890 Dec. 1900

Stapleton, W. C., B. A., Supervisor of Schools, Dartmouth, N. S Oct. 14, 1908

*Stewart, John, M. B. c. M., Halifax Jan. 12, 1885

Wilson, Robert J., Secretary, School Board, Halifax May 3 1889

Winfield, James H., Manager, N. S. Telephone Co., Halifax Dec. 18, 1903

Woodman, Prof. J. Edmund, M. A., D. sc., New York University,

New York, U. S. A Dec. 3, 1902

*Yorston, W. G., c. E., City Engineer, Sydney, C. B .Nov. 12, 1892

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

Brodie, W. S.. B. A., Lunenburg, N. S May 7, 1909

*Caie, Robert. Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

*Dickenson S. S., Commercial Cable Co., New York, U. S. A Mar. 4, 1895

Edwards, Arthur M., M. D., F. L. s., Newark, N. J Dec. 12, 1898

Haley, Prof. Frank R.. Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S Nov. 5,1901

Harlow, L. C., B. sc., Prov. Normal School, Truro, N. S Mar. 23, 1905

Haycock, Prof. Ernest, Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S May 17,1899

Jaggar, Miss A. Louise Cambridge, Mass Dec. 5, 1900

James, C. C., M. A.. Deputy Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario . . .Dec.. 3, 1896

Jennison, W. F., Truro, N. S May 5, 1903

*Johns. Thomas W., Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

*Keating, E. H.. c. E., Toronto, Ont. ; Ordin. Memb., April 12, 1882.. Apr. 11. 1900

*MacKay, Hector H., M. D., New Glasgow, N. S Feb. 4, 1902

Magee, W. H.. PH. D., Annapolis, N. S •Jov. 29, 1894

Payzant, E. N., M. D., Wolfville, N. S Apr. 8, 1902

Pineo, Avard V., LL. B., Kentville, N. S Nov. o, 1901

*Reid, A. P., M. D.. L. R. c. s., Middleton. Annapolis, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

*Robinson, C. B., PH. D., New York Botanical Garden, New York.

U. S. A Dec. 3, 1902

*Rosborough, Rev. James. Musquodoboit Harbour, N. S Nov. 29, 1894

"Life Members.

LIST OF MEMBERS. XI

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Date of Admission
Ami, Henry M., D. scv F. G. s., F. R. s. c., Geological Survey, Ottawa

Ontario Jan. 2, 1892

Bailey, Prof. L. W., PH. D., LL. D., F. R. c. s., Fredericton, N. B. . . .Jan. 6, 1890

Ball, Rev. E. H., Tangier, N. S Nov. 29, 1871

Bethune, Rev. Charles J. S., M. A., D. c. i... F. R. s. c., Ontario Agri-
cultural College, Guelph, Ont Dec. 29, 1868

Cox, Philip, B. sc., PH. D., Fredericton, N. B Dec. 3, 1902

Dobie, W. Henry, M. D., Chester, England Dec. 3, 1897

Faribault. E. Rodolphe, B. A., B. SQ., Geological Survey of Canada,

Ottawa ; Assoc. Memb., March 6, 1888 Dec. 3, 1902

Ganong, Prof. W. F,, B. A., PH. D., Smith College, Northampton,

Mass., U. S. A Jan. 6, 1890

Hardy, M.aj. -General Campbell, R. A., Dover, England. (Sole sur-
viving Foundation Member ; originally elected Dec. 26, 1862,

and admitted Jan. 26, 1862.) Oct. 30, 1903

Harrington, W. Hague, F. R. s. a, Post Office Department, Ottawa . -May 5. 1896

Hay, George U., D. sc., F. R. s. c., St. John. N. B Dec. 3, 1902

Litton, Robert T., F. G. s., Melbourne, Australia May 5, 1892

Matthew, G. F., M. A., D. scv F. R. s. c.. St. John, N. B Jan. 6, 1890

Maury, Rev. Mytton, D. D., Ithaca. N. Y., U. S. A Nov. 30, 1891

Mowbray, Louis L., Hamilton, Bermuda May 3, 1907

Peter, Rev. Brother Junian Dec. 12, 1898

Prest, Walter Henry, M. E., Bedford, N. S. ; Assoc. Memb.. Nov.

29, 1894 Nov. 2, 1900

Prichard, Arthur H. Cooper Librarian, Numismatic Museum, New

York, U. S. A Dec. 4, 1901

Prince, Prof. E. E., Commissioner and General Inspector of Fisheries,

Ottawa, Ontario Jan. 5, 189"

XII

LIST OF PRESIDENTS.

LIST OF PRESIDENTS

OF THE NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF NATURAL SCIENCE, AFTERWARDS
THE NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, SINCE ITS

FOUNDATION IN 1862.

Term of Office.

Hon. Philip Carteret Hill, i). e. r 31 Dec. 1862 to 26 Oct. 1863

John Matthew Jones, F. L. s., F. it. s. c 26 Oct. 1863 " 8 Oct. 1873

John Bernard Giipin, M. A., M. D., M. R. c. s 8 Oct. 1873 " 9 Oct. 1878

William Gossip 9 Oct. 1878 " 13 Oct. 1880

John Somers, M. D 13 Oct. 1880 " 26 Oct. 18S3

Robert Morrow 26 Oct. 1883 " 21 Oct. 1885

John Somers, M. D 21 Oct. 1885 " 10 Oct. 1^8

Prof. James Gordon MacGregor, M. A., D. sc., F.R.S.. F.R.S.O. 10 Oct. 1888 " 9 Nov. 189*

Martin Murphy, c. K., n sc., I. s. o 9 Nov. 1891 " 8 Nov. 189*)

Prof. George Lawson, PH. D., LL. D.. F. i. c., F. R. s. c 8 Nov. 189 5 " 10 Nov. 1895

Edwin Giipin, Jr., M. A., LL. n., D. so., F. G. s., F. R. s. c., i.s.o.18 Nov. 18!)5 " 8 Nov. 1897

Alexander McKay M. A 8 Nov. 1897 " 20 Nov. 1899

Alexander Howard MacKay, B. A., B. sc., LL. D., F. it. s. c.. .20 Nov. 1899 " 21 Nov. 1902
Henry Skeffingtou Poole, M A., D. so., A. R. s. M., F. G. s.,

F. R. s. C 24 Nov. 1902 " 18 Oct. 190.")

Francis William Whitney Doane, c. E 18 Oct. 1905 " 1 1 Nov. 1907

Prof. Ebenezer Mackay, PH. r> 11 Nov. 1907 " 14 Nov. 1910

NOTE— Since 1879 the presidents of the Institute have been ex-officw Fellows of the
Royal Microscopical Society.

The first general meeting of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science was
held at Halifax, on 31st December, 1862. On 24th March, 1890, the name of the society
was changed to the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, and it was incorporated by an
act of the legislature in the same year.

The oundation of the Halifax Mechanics' Institute on 27th December, 1831. and of
the Nova Scotian Literary and Scientific Society about 1859 (the latter published its
Transactions from 4th January to 3rd December, 1859) had led up to the establishment
of the N. S. Institute of Natural Science in December, 1862.

IV

LIST OF MEMBERS 1909-10

ORDINARY MEMBERS

Date of Admission

Bancroft, George R., Academy, Halifax Jan. 7, 1908

Barnes, Albert Johnson, B. sc., service inspector Maritime Telephone

& Telegraph Co., Halifax, May 13, 1912

Bishop, Watson L., Supt. Waterworks, Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 6, 1890

Bowman, Maynard. B. A., Public Analyst, Halifax Mar. 13, 1884

Bronson, Prof. Howard Logan, PH. D., Dalhousie College, Halifar ..Mar. 9, 1911

Brown, Richard H., Halifax Feb. 2, 1903

Budge, Daniel, General Supt. Halifax & Bermuda Cable Co., Halifax. .Oct. 30, 1903

"Campbell, Donald A., M. D., Halifax- Jan. 31, 1890

Campbell, George Murray, M. D., Halifax Nov. 10, 1884

Colpitt. Parker R,, City Electrician, Halifax Feb. 2, 190?

Creighton, Henry Jermain Maude, M. A., M. sc., DR. sc., F. c. a.,

Dalhousie College, Halifax Jan. 7, 1908

*Davis, Charles Henry, c. E., New York City, U. S. A Dec. 5, 1900

Davis, Harold, S., B. A., Dalhousie College. Halifax Mar. 9, 1911

Doane, Francis William Whitney, City Engineer, Halifax Nov. 3,1886

Donkin, Hiram, M. E., Deputy Com. of Mines, Halifax Nov. 30, 1892

Fergusson. Donald M., chemist, Acadia Sugar Ref. Co., Halifax Jan. 5, 1909

'Forbes, John, Halifax Mar. 14, 1883

*Fraser, C. Frederick, LL. D., Principal, School for the Blind, Halifax. .Mar. 31,1890

Freeman, Philip A., Hx. Elect. Tramway Co., Halifax Nov. 6, 1906

Harlow, A. C., Montreal Jan. 7, 1908

Harris, Prof. David Fraser, M. D., D. sc., F. R. s. E., Dalhousie

College, Halifax Feb. 29, 1912

Hattie William Harrop, M. D., Supt. N. S. Hospital, Dartmouth. ...Nov. 12, 1892

Hayward. A. A., Halifax Nov. 7, 1905

Howe, Prof. Clarence D., B. sc., Dalhousie College, Halifax Mar. 9, 1911

Irving, G. W. T., Education Dept., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Johnston, Harry W., c. E., Asst. City Engineer, Halifax Dec. 31, 1894

TCelly, Rev. M. C., St. Mary's College, Halifax Jan. 4, 1910

*Laing, Rev. Robert, Halifax Jan. 11,1885

McCallum, A. L., B. sc., analyst, Halifax Jan. 7, 1908

McCarthy, Prof. J. B., B. A., M. sc., King's College, Windsor, N. S. . Dec. 4, 1901

McColl, Roderick, c. E., Provincial Engineer, Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

*MacGregor, Prof. James Gordon, M. A., D. sc., F. R. s., F. R. s. c.,

Edinburgh University, Edinburgh, Scotland Jan. 11,1877

Mclnnes, Hector, LL. B., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

Macintosh, Donald Sutherland, B. A., M. Sc., Dalhousie Col., Halifax ... Mar. 9, 1911

*McKay, Alexander, M. Av Supervisor of Schools, Halifax Feb. 5, 1872

*MacKay, Alexander Howard, B. A., B. sc., LL. v., F. R. s. c., Superin-
tendent of Education, Halifax '. : Oct 11, 1885

Mackay, Prof. Ebenezer, PH. D., Dalhousie College, Halifax Nov. 27,1889

*MacKay, George M. Johnstone, Schenectady, N. Y., U. S. A Dec. 18, 1903

MacKenzie, Prof. Arthur Stanley, PH. D.., Dalhousie College, Halifax .Nov. 7, 1905

McKerron, William, Halifax Nov. 30, 1891

McLearn, F. H,, B. A Oct. 14, 1908

McNeill, Prof. Murray, Dalhousie College Jan. 7, 1908

*Life Members.
PROC. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., VOL. XIT. APP. IV.

XIV LIST OF MEMBERS.

' j • - • JL " i

Date of Admission

Marshall, Guilford R., B. A., Halifax- ; . . . .... . .% Apr. 4, 1894

Moore, Prof. Clarence L., M. A., Dalhousie College, Halifax Jan. 7, 1908

Morton, S. A., M. A., County Academy, Halifax . . . Jan. 27, 1893

Murray, Prof. Daniel Alexander, PH. D., Montreal Dec. 18, 1903

Nickerson, Carleton Bell, M. A., Dalhousie College, Halifax Mar. 9, 1911

Pickings, H. B., Mines Department, Halifax May 6, 1908

Piers, Harry, Curator Provincial Museum and Librarian Provincial

Science Library, Halifax Nov. 2 1888

*Poole, Henry Skefflngto.n, A.-.M. ASSOC. R. s. M., F. G. s., F. R. s. c.,

CAN. soc. c. E., HON MEM. iNST. M. E., Guildford, Surrey,

England ........... Nov. 11, 1872

*Robb, D. W., Amherst* N. S Mar. 4, 1890

Robinson, Ernest, B. A.,, Canning, N. S Jan. 7, 1908-

Rutherfprd, John, M. E., Halifax Jan. 8, 1865

Sexton, Prof. Frederic H., Director of Technical Education, Halifax.. Dec. 18,1903
*Smith, Prof. H. W.;-B. sc., Agricultural College, Truro, N. S. ;

Assoc. Memb., Jan. 6, 1890 . . . Dec. 1900

Stapleton, W. C., B. A., Supervisor of Schools, Dartmouth, N. S Oct. 14, 1908-

*Stewart, John, M. B. c. M., Halifax .Jan. 12, 1 885

Wilson, Robert J., Secretary, School Board, Halifax May 3, 188&

Winfteld, James H., Manager, N. S. Telephone Co., Halifax Dec. 18,1903

Woodman, Prof. J. Edmund,. M. A., D. sc., New York University,

New York, U. .S. A. '.. . Dec. 3, 1902

•Yorston, W. G., c. «., City Engineer, Sydney, C. B Nov. 12, 1892

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS

Brodie, W. S., B. A., Lunenburg, N. S May 7, 1909

*Caie, Robert, Yarmouth, N. S. . . Jan. 31, 1890

Connolly, Prof. J. C., PH. D., St. Francis Xavier, Antigonish, N. S. .Nov. 5,1911

Edwards, Arthur M., M. D., F. L. s., Newark, N. J Dec. 12, 1898

Haley, Prof. Frank R., Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S Nov. 5,1901

Harlow, L. C., B. sc., Prov. Normal School, Truro, N. S Mar. 23, 1905

Haycock, Prof. Ernest, Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S May 17,1899-

James, C. C., M. A., Deputy Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario . . .Dec. 3, 1896

Jennison, W. F., Truro, N. S. May 5, 1903

*Johns, Thomas W., Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 183$

*MacKay, Hector H., M. D., New Glasgow, N. S Feb. 4, 1902

Magee, W. H., PH. D., Annapolis, N. S Jov. 29, 1894

Payzant, E. N., M. D., Wolfville, N. S Apr. 8, 1902

Pineo, Avard V., LL. B., Kentville, N. S Nov. 3, 1901

•Reid, A. P., M. D., L. R. c. s., Middleton, Annapolis, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

*Robinson, C. B., PH. D., New York Botanical Garden, New York,

U. S. A Dec. 3, 1902

*Rosborough, Rey. James, Musquodoboit Harbour, N. S Nov. 29, 1894

•Life Memb«rr».

LIST OF MEMBERS. XV

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS

Date of Admission
Ami, Henry M., D. sc., F. a. 8., F. R. s. c., Geological Survey, Ottawa

Ontario Jan. 2, 1892

Bailey, Prof. L. W., PH. D., LL. D., F. R. c. s., Fredericton, N. B. . . .Jan. 6, 1890

Ball, Rev. E. H., Tangier,. N. S . .- Nov. 29, 1871

Barbour, Capt. J. H., R. A. M. c., F. L, s., Nowgong, Bundelkhand,

Central India Dec. 28, 1911

Bethune, Rev. Charles J. S., M. A., D. c. L., F. R. s. c., Ontario Agri-
cultural College, Guelph, Ont Dec. 29, 1868

Cox, Philip, B. sc., PH. D., Fredericton, N. B Dec. 3, 1902

Dobie, W. Henry, M. D., Chester, England Dec. 3, 1897

Faribault. E. Rodolphe, B. A., B. so., Geological Survey of Canada,

Ottawa ; Assoc. Memb., March 6, 1888 ,Dec. 3, 1902

Ganong, Prof. W. F., B. A., PH. D., Smith College, Northampton,

Mass., U. S. A Jan. 6, 1890

Hardy, M,aj. -General Campbell, R. A., Dover, England. (Sole sur-
viving Foundation Member; originally elected Dec. 26, IS 2

and admitted Jan. 26, 1862.) Oct. 30, 1903

Harrington, W. Hague, F. R. s. c., Post Office Department, Ottawa . .May 5, 1896

Hay, George U., D. sc.. F. R. s. c., St. John, N. B Dec. 3, 1902

Litton, Robert T., F. G. s., Melbourne, Australia May 5, 1892

Matthew, G. F., M. A., D. sc., LL. D., F. R. s. c., St. John, N. B Jan. 6, 189fr

Maury, Rev. Mytton, D. D., Ithaca, N. Y., U. S. A Nov. 30, 1891

Mowbray, Louis L., Hamilton, Bermuda May 3, 1907

Peter, Rev. Brother Junian Dec. 12, 1898

Prest, Walter Henry, M. E., Bedford, N. S. ; Assoc. Memb., Nov.

29, 1894 Nov. 2, 1900

Prichard, Arthur H. Cooper, Librarian, Numismatic Museum, New

York, U. S. A Dec. 4, 1901

Prince, Prof. E. E., Commissioner and General Inspector of Fisheries,

Ottawa, Ontario Jan. 3, 1897

XVI LIST OF PRESIDENTS.

LIST OF PRESIDENTS

OF THE NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OP NATURAL SCIENCE, AFTERWARDS
THE NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, SINCE ITS

FOUNDATION ON 31ST DECEMBER, 1862.

Term of Office.

Hon. Philip Carteret Hill, D. c. L 31 Dec. 1862 to 26 Oct. 1863

John Matthew Jones, F. L. s., F. R. S. c 26 Oct. 1863 " 8 Oct. 1873

John Bernard Gilpin, M. A., M. D., M. R. C. S 8 Oct. 1873 " 9 Oct. 1878

William Gossip 9 Oct. 1878 " 13 Oct. 1880

John Somers, M. D 13 Oct. 1880 " 26 Oct. 1883

Robert Morrow 26 Oct. 1883 " 21 Oct. 1885

John Somers, M. D 21 Oct. 1885 " 10 Oct. 188g

Prof. James Gordon MacGregor, M. A., r>. so., F.H.S.. F.R.S.C. 10 Oct. 1888 " 9 Nov. 1891

Martin Murphy, c. E., D. sc , I. s. o 9 Nov. 1891 " 8 Nov. 1893

Prof. George Lawson, PH. D., LL. D.. F. i. c., F. R. s. c. 8 Nov. 1893 '.' 10 Nov. 1891

Edwin Gilpin, Jr., M. A., LL. D., D. sc., F. G. S., F. K. s. c., i.s.o.18 Nov. 1895 " 8 Nov. 1893

Alexander McKay M. A 8 Nov. 1897 " 20 Nov. 1895

Alexander Howard MacKay, B. A.. B. sc., LL. D., F. R. s. c.. .20 Nov. 1899 " 24 Nov. 1907
Henry Skefflngton Poole, M A., D. sc., A. R. s. M., F. G. s.,

F. R. s. c 24 Nov. 1902 " 18 Oct. 1905

Francis William Whitney Doane, C. E 18 Oct. 1905 " 11 Nov. 1907

Prof. Ebenezer Mackay, PH. D 11 Nov. 1907- " 12 Dec. 1910

Watson L. Bishop 12 Dec. 1910 "

NOTE— Since 1879 the presidents of the Institute have been ex-officio Fellows of the
Royal Microscopical Society.

The first general meeting of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science was
held at Halifax, on 31st December, 1862. On 24th March, 1890, the name of the society
was changed to the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, and it was incorporated by an
act of the legislature in the same year.

The foundation of the Halifax Mechanics' Institute on 27th December, 1831. and of
the Nova Scotian Literary and Scientific Society about 1859 (the latter published its
Transactions from 4th January to 3rd December, 1859) had led up to the establishment
of the N. S. Institute of Natural Science in December, 1862.

IlsTHDIEIX
VOL.

{Roman numerals refer to the Proceedings; Arabic numerals to the

Transactions,)

PAGE
Action of organo-magnesium compounds on quinone. By C. C.

Wallace .................. ........................ 301

Aluminium salts, influence of, on the estimation of sulphates. By

H. J. M. Creighton. . . ............................. 207

Amygdalin, a new method for the detection of. By H. J. M.

Creighton ...................................... . . 34

Aquatic fungi, some Nova Scotian. By C. L. Moore ............. . . 217

Brodie, W. S. — Some effects of ice action near Grand Lake, Cape

Breton ..... . ..................................... 253

Butterflies and moths, mostly collected in the neighborhood of

Halifax and Digby, Nova Scotia. By J. Perrin and

J. Russell ........................................ 258

"Canada, notes on mineral fuels of. By R. W. Ells, LL. D ........... 61

Cape Breton, N. S., note on recent earthquake in. By D. S. Mc-

Intosh, M. 8c ......................... . ............ 311

Cavanagh, H., and Stairs, D. — Geological conditions affecting the

water supply in Halifax. (Title only.) ............. Ivi

Cassiterite. See Occurrence of tin in Nova Scotia. By H. Piers .... 239

Catalogue of butterflies and moths, mostly collected in neighborhood

of Halifax and Digby, N. S. By J. Perrin and J. Russell 258
Cetacea; skeleton of a [fossil] whale [Monadcn monoceros, Linn.]

in the Provincial museum, Halifax, Nova Scotia; with

notes on the fossil Cetacea of North America. By G.

H. Perkins ....................................... 139

Coal, action of organic sulphur in, during the coking process. By

A. L. McCallum .................................. 212

Coking, action of organic sulphur in coal during the coking process.

By A. L. McCallum .......................... ..... 212

Creighton, H. Jermain Maude, M. A. -r- Behavior of solutions of

hydriodic acid in light in the presence of oxygen ...... 49

Few chemical changes influenced by radium; a new method

for the detection of amygdalin ..................... 34

Influence of aluminium salts on the estimation of sulphates. . 207
Influence of radium en the decomposition of hydriodic acid. . 1

(xvii)

xviii INDEX.

PAGE:

Crichton, G. L. H. See Mackenzie, C. J.
Dartmouth Lakes, water from. See water power of Halifax County,

Nova Scotia. By F. W. W. Doane, C. E 21

Davis, Harold S., B. A. — Concerning the effect of gravity on the con-
centration of a solute 291

On a new method of estimating iodides. (Title only.).... Ixxi
Deceased members. See Obituary notices.

Delegate to Geological Society of Glasgow, appointment of liv

Digby, N. S.; catelogue of butterflies and moths, mostly collected in
neighborhood of Halifax and Digby, Nova Scotia. By

J. Perrin and J. Russell . . 25&

Doane, Francis Wm. Whitney, C. E.— Presidential address (1906):
( 1 ) work of the Institute ; ( 2 ) research work ; ( 3 )

sanitary scientific work . . i

Presidential address (1907): (1) deceased members; (2)

technical education . . . XXXL

Water power of Halifax County, Nova Scotia: part 1, Dart-
mouth Lakes power 21

Downs, Andrew, reminiscences of a Nova Scotian naturalist. By

Major-General C. Hardy xi

Earthquake in Cape Breton, N. S., note on a recent. By D. S. Mc-

Intosh, M. Sc 311

Ells, R. W., LL. D., F. R. 8. C. — Notes on mineral fuels of Canada. . 61

Exchange of publications x

Flemming, H. W. — Cement testing in the engineering laboratories of

Dalhousie University. ( Title only. ) : Ivi

Fletcher, Hugh, B. A.— Sketch of life Iviii-

Resolution passed on occasion of his death Ixx

Fletcher, Dr. James— Sketch of life Iviii

Fraser, William Pollock, M. A.. — Rusts of Nova Scotia [Uredinece.]

(See special index,, pages 440 and 444J : 313'

Fuels, notes on mineral, of Canada. By R. W. Ells 61

Fungi, some Nova Scotian aquatic. By C, L. Moore 271

Fungi of Nova Scotia. By Dr. A. H. MacKay lift-
Fungi. See Myxomycetes of Pictou County, N. S. By C. L. Moore 165
Fungi. See Rusts of Nova Scotia. By W. P. Fraser, M. A. (Special

index, pages 440 and 444.) 313"

Gilpin, Edwin, M. A., D. Sc., LL. D,., F. R. S. G., C. I. S. 0. — Sketch

of life xxxi

Girasol. See Occurrence of opal in granite near New Ross, Lunen-

burg County, N. S. By H. Piers 446

Grand Lake, C. B., some effects of ice action near. By W. S. Brodie 253
Gravity, concerning the effect of, on the concentration of a solute.

By H. S. Davis 291

INDEX. XIX

PAGE

Halifax; catalogue of butterflies and moths, mostly collected in

neighborhood of Halifax and Digby, N. S. By J. Perrin

and J. Russell 258

Halifax County, N S., water power of: part 1, Dartmouth water

power. By F. W. W. Doane, C. E 21

Halifax water works. By H. W. Johnston 72

Hardy, Major-General Campbell, R. A. — Reminiscences of a Nova

Scotian naturalist : Andrew Downs xi

Haycock, Prof. Ernest.— History of erosion in the Cornwallis Valley,

Nova Scotia. (Title only.) Ixxii

Hydriodic acid, behavior of solutions of, in light in the presence of

oxygen. By H. J M. Creighton 49

Hydriodic acid, the influence of radium on the decomposition of.

By H. J. M. Creighton 1

Ice action, some effects of, near Grand Lake, Cape Breton. By S.

Brodie 253

•Jacquet River, New Brunswick. See Skeleton of whale. By Prof.

G. H. Perkins, Ph. D 139

Johnston, Henry W., C. E. — Halifax water works 72

Run-off from a small drainage area near Halifax. (Title

only. ) xxx

Kennedy, Prof. George Thomas, M. A., D. 8c., F. G. 8.— Sketch of life xxxv
King Edward VII., meeting adjourned on account of the demise of

His Majesty Ixxii

Lepidoptera. See Catalogue of butterflies and moths, mostly col-
lected in neighborhood of Halifax and Digby, N. S.

By J. Perrin and J. Russell 258

Librarian's report, (1905-6), ix; (1906-07), xli; (1907-8), Hi;

(1908-9), Ixix.
Light, behavior of solutions of hydriodic acid in, in the presence

of oxygen. By H. J. M. Creighton 49

-Lunenburg County, N. S., occurrence of opal in granite near New

Ross. By H. Piers 446

McCallum, A. L., B. Sc. — Action of organic sulphur in coal during

the coking process 212

Scheelite in Nova Scotia 250

Mclntosh, Donald Sutherland, M. 8c. — Note on recent earthquake in

Cape Breton, N. S 311

-Mclntosh, Kenneth — On the commonly accepted axioms in celestial

mechanics ( Title only. ) liv

McKavanagh, Thomas J. — Recent results in wireless telegraphing.

(Title only.) Ixxii

Water purification by ozone. ( Title only. ) Iv

XX INDEX.

PAGE

MacKay, Alexander Howard, LL. L\, F. R. 8. C. — Fungi of Nova

Scotia 119

New Nova Scotian insect; the birch-leaf saw-fly (Phlebo-
trophia mathesoni, Alexander MacGillivray,) (Title
only. ) , IxxJ

Mackay, Prof. Ebenezer, Ph. L\— Presidential address (1908): (1)
progress of the institute since 1890; (2) progress of
technical education; (3) technical education and

research ; ( 4 ) the institute in the public service xlvii

Presidential address (1909): (1) deceased members; (2)

work of the institute; (3) the atomic theory Ivii

McKay, Thomas C., D. 8c. — The California earthquake. (Title only.) Ixxi
Variation of the Hill effect with the temperature and previous
heat treatment in the use of magnetic metals. (Title
only. ) Ixxi

Mackenzie, C. J., and Crichton, G. L. — Weathering of structural

stone in Halifax. (Title only.) Ivi

McLeod, Robert Randall— Sketch of life Iviii

Magnesium (organo-) compounds, action on quinone. By C. C.

Wallace . 301

Mineral fuels of Canada, notes on. By; R. W. Ells, LL. D 61

Monodon monoceros, Linn. See Skeleton of a whale in the Provincial

museum, Halifax. By Prof. S. H. Perkins, Ph. D 130

Moore, Clarence L., M. A. — Some Nova Scotian aquatic fungi 217

Myxomycetes of Pictou County 165

Moose River, N. S. — Bee Scheelite in Nova Scotia. By A. L. Mc-

Callum , . . . . 250

Moths and butterflies, catalogue of, mostly collected in the neigh-
borhood of Halifax and Digby, Nova Scotia. By J.
Perrin and J. Russell 25&

Myxomycetes of Pictou County. By C. L. Moore 165

New Ross, Lunenburg County, N. S., occurrence of opal in granite

near. By H. Piers 446

Nova Scotia, fungi of. By A. H. MacKay, LL. D., F. R. 8. C 119

Obituary notices of deceased members. See Gilpin, E., xxxi; Ken-
nedy,' G. T., xxxv ; Parker, D. McN., xxxiv; Tinling,
E. B., xxxvi; McLeod, R. R., Iviii; Pickford, C., Iviii;
Fletcher, J., Iviii; Fletcher, H., Iviii.

Occurrence of opal in granite near New Ross, Lunenburg County,

N. S. By H. Piers 446

Officers for 1906-7, x; 1907-8, xlii; 1908-9, liii; 1909-10, Ixx.

Opal, occurrence of, in granite near New Ross, Lunenburg County,

N. S. By H. Piers 446

Organo-magnesium compounds, action of, on quinone. By C. C.

Wallace 301

INDEX. XXI

PAGE

Parker, Hon. Daniel McNeil, M. D. — Sketch of life xxxiv

Perkins, Prof. George H., Ph. D. — Skeleton of a whale [Monodon
monoceros, Linn., fossil] in the Provincial museum,
Halifax, Nova Scotia; with notes on the fossil Cetacea
of North America 139

Perrin, Joseph; and Russell, John. — Catalogue of butterflies arid
moths, mostly collected in the neighborhood of Halifax

and Digby, N. S 258

Pickford, Charles, death of Iviii

Piers, Harry. — Occurrence of opal in granite near New Ross, Lunen-

burg County, Nova Scotia 446

Occurrence of tin in Nova Scotia 239

Presidential address, (1906, by F. W. W. Doane), work of the
Institute, research work, sanitary scientific work, i.
(1907, by F. W. W. Doane), deceased members, tech-
nical education, xxxi. (1908, by Dr. E. Mackay), pro-
gress of the Institute since 1890, progress of technical
education, technical education and research, the Insti-
tute in the public service, xlvii. ( 1909, by Dr. E.
Mackay), deceased members, work of the Institute, the
atomic theory, Ivii.

Prince, Prof. E. E. — (1) Fish-eating habits of Medusge: (2) the

present and future of our fisheries. (Title only.).... xliv

Provincial Museum, Halifax, skeleton of a whale in. By Prof. G.

H. Perkins, Ph. D 139

Quinone, action of organo-magnesium compounds on. By C. C.

Wallace 301

Radium, a few chemical changes influenced by; a new method for the

detection of amygdalin. By H. J. M. Creighton 34

Radium, the influence of, on the decomposition of hydriodic acid.

By H. J. M. Creighton 1

Rain-guage, self-recording, at Halifax xxx

Ramsay, Lake, Lunenburg County, Nova Scotia. See Occurrence of

tin in Nova Scotia. By H. Piers 239

Russell, John. See Perrin, J.

Rusts (Uredinece) of Nova Scotia. By W. P. Fraser, M. A. (See.

special index, pages 440 and 444J 313

Scheelite in Nova Scotia. By A. L. McCallum ........ 250

Seal of Institute xi, xxx

Skeleton of a whale, Monodon monoceros, Linn., from Jacquet River,
New Brunswick, in the Provincial Museum, Halifax;
with notes on fossil Cetacea of North America. By
Prof. G. H. Perkins, Ph. D 139

Solute, effect of gravity on the concentrate of a. By H. S Davis. . . . 291

XXii INDEX.

PAGE
Sulphates, influence of aluminium salts on the estimation of. By

H. J. M. Creighton 207

Sulphur, action of organic, in coal during the coking process. By A.

L. McCallum 212

Stairs, D. See Cavenagh, H.

Technical College, Halifax, Institute meets for first time in . Ixx

Tin, occurrence of, in Nova Scotia. By H. Piers 239

Tinling, Capt. E. B. — Sketch of life xxxvi

Treasurer's report, (1905-6), ix; (1907-8), liv; (1908-9), Ixix.
Tungsten. See Scheelite in Nova Scotia. By A. L. McCallum .... 250
Uredinece. See Rusts of Nova Scotia. By W. P. Fraser, M. A.

(Special index, pages 440 and 444-) 313

Wallace, Curtis C. — Action of organo-magnesium compounds on

quinone 301

Water power of Halifax County, Nova Scotia: part 1, Dartmouth

Lakes power. By F. W.W. Doane , 21

Water works, Halifax. By H. W. Johnston 72

Whale (Monodon monoceros, Linn, fossil), skeleton of, in the Pro-
vincial Museum, Halifax, Nova Scotia; with notes on
the fossil Cetacea of North America. By G. H. Perkins 139
Woodman, Prof. J. Edmund. — Economic geology of Arisaig, N. S.

(Title only.) xlv

" Recent iron and limestone investigations in Nova Scotia.

(Title only.) liii

Q
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